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The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948 Will C. van den Hoonaard
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The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948 Will C. van den Hoonaard
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This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Van den Hoonaard, Will C. The origins of the Bahá'í community of Canada, 1898–1948 Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0889202729 1. Bahai Faith Canada History. I. Title. BP355.C3V3 1996 297'.093'0971 C959331786
Copyright © 1996 WILFRID LAURIER UNIVERSITY PRESS Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3C5 Cover design: Leslie Macredie Cover illustration: Decorative Landscape by Lawren S. Harris (courtesy of the National Gallery of Canada [#36813])
Printed in Canada All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrights hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical—without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any request for photocopying, recording, taping, or reproducing in information storage and retrieval systems of any part of this book shall be directed in writing to the Canadian Reprography Collective, 214 King Street West, Suite 312, Toronto, Ontario M5H 3S6.
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Dedicated to Rowland A. Estall, J. Jameson and Gale Bond, Nicholas and Jessica Echevarria, and Keith and Janet Eldridge
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments
vii
Abbreviations Used to Indicate Archival and Other Sources
xi
One Introduction
1
Part One Early Dependence on Liberal Protestantism Two Early Stirrings
16
Three Spiritual Roots and Early Conversions, 1899–1911
29
Four 'Abdu'lBahá and the Press in Canada, 1912
43
Part Two Formation of Community Identity, 1913–37
Five Changing Styles of Recruitment: The Montreal Community
72
Six Early Ethnic Involvement
85
Seven The Literary Circle of the Toronto Bahá'ís, 1913–37
101
Eight Tentative Anchorings in Atlantic Canada, 1913–37
108
Nine Retinence in the Canadian West, 1913–37
120
Illustrations
131
Part Three Organization and Community Boundaries
Ten Changing Styles of Organization and Boundary Maintenance
156
Eleven On Spreading the New Religion, 1937–47
177
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Twelve Opportunities and Constraints of Community Growth, 1937–47
206
Thirteen Religion, Gender, Class, and Ethnicity
231
Part Four Relationship to Canadian Society Fourteen Opposition, Recognition, and World War II
252
Fifteen Building a National Bahá'í Community, 1947–48
265
Sixteen Social and Cultural Adaptation in the Canadian Setting
277
Appendixes
Appendix A Summary of Items Appearing in the French and EnglishLanguage Press on the Occasion of 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit to Canada, 1912
300
Appendix B Statistical Overview of the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1898–1948 (April)
302
Appendix C Bahá'í Community Profiles, 21 April 193720 April 1947
304
Appendix D Chronology of Important Canadian Bahá'í Dates
306
Appendix E Notes on Sources
309
Bibliography
317
Index
337
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe a special debt of gratitude to those whose lives were directly the subject of this research and particularly to those who were interviewed for this book. Their names appear in the bibliography. Among the scholars to whom I am particularly indebted, I include Dr. A. David Nock, Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, and Dr. Robert H. Stockman, Director of the Office of Research, Bahá'í National Center, Evanston, Illinois. There are other scholars who have assisted me: Dr. Donald Smith, Professor of History at the University of Calgary, and Dr. P.M. Toner of the Department of History at the University of New Brunswick, Saint John. There is also a particular group of Bahá'í scholars who have also contributed to the successful completion of the book: Dr. Sandra Hutchinson, Dr. Richard Hollinger, and Dr. John Walbridge. Scholarly credit should also be extended to the anonymous reviewers who read the earlier drafts on behalf of the Aid to Scholarly Publications Programme and Wilfrid Laurier University Press. I am indebted to: Mrs. Rosanne Buzzell, Archivist of the Eliot Bahá'í Community, Maine; Dr. Roger Dahl and Mr. Lewis Walker of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; Mr. Joseph W.P. Frost of Eliot, Maine; Mr. Golgasht Mossafa'i of Montreal; Mme Margot Léonard; Mr. John Taylor, the Hamilton Bahá'í Archivist; Mrs. Michelle Cooney; Julian Lebensold of Baie d'Urfé; Mrs. Susanne Tamas of Ottawa; and Dr. Margaret Deutsch, a devoted Ottawaarea doctor. After finishing the first draft of the manuscript, I asked two circles of Bahá'í readers, old and young, to carefully read it for tone and factual accuracy: Mr. Don Dainty, Mrs. Dianna Dainty, Mrs. Helen Andrews, Mr. Andrew Andrews, Ms. Linda O'Neil, Dr. Phyllis Perrakis, Mr. Stephen Thirlwall, and Mrs. Nathalie Thirlwall. I have purposely selected these two circles of readers, using age and gender as criteria for making my choice, in the hopes of their pointing out biases in my approach to writing this social history: they did not disappoint me; and I am grateful for their assessments of my biases that had inadvertently found their way into the initial draft. I was thus able to carry out further revisions with the help of their wise and thoughtful comments and enthusiastic support of the project. I have also found Wilfrid Laurier University Press, and particularly its director, Ms. Sandra Woolfrey, very encouraging. Ms. Woolfrey has been singularly kind and helpful in
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guiding the work from the earliest stages of manuscript preparation and submission to placing the final iota of the manuscript. Ms. Carroll Klein at the Press made it possible to scale the last mountain for any published scholarly endeavour: copy editing. I am also delighted to have had an opportunity to work with Leslie Macredie, who designed the cover. Mr. James Kerr, now a reference librarian at the University of New Brunswick, and Ms. Suzanne Webster provided invaluable help as research assistants, as did Ms. Kim Naqvi at the Bahá'í National Centre in Thornhill, Ontario. Mr. Peter Waddell also served as an assistant during a few months in the summer of 1991. I am pleased that the John Robarts Memorial Fund of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada has provided the funding for publishing the photographs in this book. Ms. Marta Wojnarowska of the University of New Brunswick Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering was kind enough to prepare the map outlining 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Montreal in 1912. Mr. Daryush Naimian of Fredericton provided a generous amount of time in making the necessary productions of the photographs. I also wish to express my heartfelt appreciation to the University of New Brunswick for its offer of important resources to conduct this research. The Dean of Arts, Dr. Peter Kent, provided a grant to allow Ms. Linda O'Neil to edit the manuscript. The Association for Bahá'í Studies in Ottawa offered an office for my use during my sabbatical year, permitting me to complete the work in peace. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada offered me unrestricted access to their archives and membership records, and have been unfailing in their warm encouragement and wholehearted support. I owe a further debt of gratitude to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for providing in 1990 a generous grant in support of the research project. The Arts Publications Fund of the University of New Brunswick provided funds for the rental of the Lawren S. Harris painting gracing the cover. A grant from the John Robarts Memorial Fund contributed to the costs of reproducing the photographs. Finally, there are individuals who have, in my view, contributed significantly to the intellectual underpinning and completion of the book: Dr. Michael Rochester of Memorial University of Newfoundland, Dr. David Sudnow of the University of Arizona, Professor Jameson Bond, formerly of the University of Windsor, Mrs. Gale Bond, Mr. Hubert Schuurman, Mrs. Suzanne Schuurman, Mr. David Hofman, and Dr. Ross Woodman. Ms. Lynn EchevarriaHowe was unwavering in her encouragement.
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The place where scholarly habits and intellectual goals meet, however, is in the circle of one's family and friends. My children, LisaJo, Lynn, and Jordan were unfailing in their support by making room for this project in their tender lives. I would like to assume that the excitment of discovery and the sharing of stories (perhaps too frequently) were met without a murmur of complaint. Dr. Deborah van den Hoonard performed the critical and most helpful task of trimming, cutting, and streamlining a manuscript which contained a medley of minutiae. She lovingly urged the work to completion, while completing her own doctoral work in sociology. I benefited from her advice as well as her editorial and academic insights. On a more personal note, she sustained the hardships of research that seem, of necessity, to attend a family of scholars, marked by frequent travel and periods of monastic isolation. During the ten years of research, she was selfless in her support, knowing that Bahá'ís might derive inspiration from this first history of their religion in Canada.
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ABBREVIATIONS USED TO INDICATE ARCHIVAL AND OTHER SOURCES Unpublished Archival Materials
AL
Alfred E. Lunt Papers, NBAUS.
AMM
Archives municipales de Montréal, Montreal, QC.
AO
Provincial Archives of Ontario, letter to W.C. van den Hoonaard, 27 July 1987.
AW
Albert Windust Papers, NBAUS.
BTU
Bahai Temple Unity Records, NBAUS.
CHSR
Chicago House of Spirituality Records, NBAUS.
EBA
Eliot Bahá'í Archives, Eliot, ME.
EVH
Ernest V. Harrison Papers, NBAC.
GAR
Green Acre Records, National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL.
HBA
Hamilton Bahá'í Archives, Hamilton, ON.
HHP
Hooper Harris Papers, Washington, DC.
IAC
InterAmerica Committee Minutes and Records, NBAUS.
KR
Kenosha Records (M135), NBAUS.
LDP
Laura Davis Papers, in possession of Jean G. Smith, Toronto, ON.
LGP
Lloyd Gardner Papers, in possession of Helen Gardner, Oshawa, ON.
MP
Magee Papers, van den Hoonaard (personal) Collection.
MBSA
Montreal Bahá'í Shrine Archives, Montreal, QC.
NBAC
National Bahá'í Archives. Thornhill, ON.
NBAUS
National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL.
OBA
Ottawa Bahá'í Archives, Ottawa, ON.
RBR
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Racine, Wisconsin Records, NBAUS.
RSP
Rosemary Sala Papers, NBAC.
RTCMS
Regional Teaching Committee of Manitoba and Saskatchewan Records, NBAC.
SFP
Sarah Farmer Papers (M29), NBAUS.
TCP
Thornton Chase Paper, NBAUS.
VBA
Vancouver Bahá'í Archives, Vancouver, BC.
WBA
Winnipeg Bahá'í Archives, Winnipeg, MB.
WTAM
The Petition of Esther Annie Magee, in the matter of Jonathan Magee, 18 December 1902, Surrogate Court of the County of Middlesex, Archives of Ontario, Toronto, Ref. RG22, series 321, # 7475/1903.
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WTMM
The Last Will and Testament of Mrs. Mary A. Magee, 9 June 1899, Surrogate Court of the County of Middlesex, Archives of Ontario, Toronto, Ref. RG22, series 321, # 7678/1903.
Bahá'í Membership Lists BEL
Bahá'í Enrolment List, 1894–1900, NBAUS.
BHRC
Bahá'í Historical Records Cards, NBAUS.
BML 1
Bahá'í Membership List, 14 April 1913, AL, Box, 27, Folder 18.
BML 2
Bahá'í Membership List, 21 March 1916, AL, Box 27, Folder 67.
BML 3
Bahá'í Membership List, 10 Nov. 1921, AL, Box 27, Folder 53.
BML 4
Bahá'í Membership List, 1 October 1920, AL, Box 27, Folder 38.
BML 5
Bahá'í Membership List, March 1922, AL.
BRC
Bahá'í Registration Card(s), NBAC.
van den Hoonaard (1992a) ''Membership List of Early Canadian Bahá'ís, 1895– 1948," 145 pp.
Other Sources The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948, also relies heavily on three other sources of information, namely, correspondence, interviews, and published materials. When wishing to know the source in full, the reader is advised first to consult the Bibliography at the end of the book. Unable to locate the reference there, he or she is advised to consult the references under "Contemporary Correspondence and Communications" or "Interviews" in Appendix E.
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One — Introduction During the third week in September 1893, a woman and her two daughters, aged thirteen and ten, boarded a Canadian Pacific Railway train in London, Ontario, and undertook a journey to Chicago 1 that would eventually result in the first stirrings of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada. Esther Annie (Mrs. Jonathan) Magee and her daughters, Edith and Harriet, belonged to a prominent family in London, Canada's "City of Parks." The roundtrip fare of $9.30 was a small sacrifice to attend the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago. The Parliament had gathered together the widest possible array of religious leaders, including Hindu and Buddhist representatives. It paralleled the World's Columbian Exposition, also held in Chicago, to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the "discovery" of the New World by Columbus (London Free Press, 6 September, p. 7, and 19 September 1893, p. 3). The World Exposition had captured the hearts and minds of Ontarians, including Londoners. More than 2,000 people from Ontario attended, and, on a typical day, some twenty people from London could be found boarding the train to Chicago. Toward the closing of the Exposition, a local London agent sold sixtytwo train tickets in one day. Vast amounts of money were withdrawn from local banks to pay for these journeys, amounting to $40,000—approximately $4,000,000 in today's terms (London Free Press, 2 September, p. 7; 26 September, p. 6; 2 October, p. 3; and 11 October 1893, p. 2). In addition to attending the World's Parliament of Religions, the Magees also had a personal interest in going to Chicago, for Guy Magee, Esther Annie's brotherin law, a prominent journalist who was covering the Parliament of Religions, lived there. All the Magees, including Guy, had been raised in an "atmosphere of tolerance and universality"; Guy's interests included comparative religion ("1893: First Canadian Bahá'í," 1979: 12).2 It is not clear which member of the Magee family first heard, on a rainy Saturday in Chicago, 23 September 1893, the name of the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, from a paper read at the Art Institute of Chicago on behalf of the Rev. Henry
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Jessup, a Presbyterian missionary in Syria (Jessup, 1893: 1122–26). But it was probably Harriet Magee who first heard of the Bahá'í Faith at the Art Institute of Chicago. 3 Ninetynine years later, in 1992, the Bahá'í community of Canada marked the 100th anniversary of the passing of Bahá'ú'lláh (1817–92). Canadian Bahá'ís, however, emerged from the early history of their community with virtually no published record of its beginnings or development from 1898–1948.4 My goal in writing The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948 is to fill that gap. The first approach of the book is an empirical and historical one. My second consideration is sociological, as I try to delve into the social processes that attend the establishment of a nonWestern religious movement in a Western setting. The book is intended to be a faithful record of the struggles of the "generation of the halflight" (Shoghi Effendi, 1974a: 168). It is the story of individuals, and of an emerging national religious community, who are extricating themselves from the "womb of a travailing age" and who have set their eyes on a vision of the oneness of humanity that is appearing "on the horizon of history" (Shoghi Effendi, 1974a: 168). Like any struggle, the advances were marked by crises and the formation of an individual and collective identity that shared the characteristics of both the old and the new. Old allegiances marked by previous religious, societal, ethnic, and class identities seemed so strong as to inhibit the shaping of a new society based upon the ideals of human unity. New allegiances to the Bahá'í vision of unity seemed too fragile at times to make a permanent mark in the Canadian social landscape. Yet something new was forged, despite the setbacks, the old allegiances, and the dimly recognized vision. One might be hard pressed to justify a booklength treatment of the topic. The Bahá'í community in Canada is still relatively small (ca. 15,000 in 1993) and has been rather silent about the contributions its members make, both individually and collectively, to the larger society.5 Canadians have grown accustomed to identifying a religious community with the stately churches of the major Christian denominations, the lively sermons of fundamentalist Christian groups, or the precarious existence of urban cults. A religion that falls outside these familiar markings falls prey to both public disfavour and scholarly neglect. A study of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada is, therefore, a timely undertaking, intended to illuminate reality and dispel myth. The Bahá'í community has lodged itself in Canadian society and has derived sustenance from it. As elsewhere in the world, the Bahá'ís in
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Canada have travelled a long road to achieve legal recognition. Bahá'í marriage ceremonies are now legally recognized across Canada as a matter of course. The Canadian national Bahá'í governing body was incorporated by an act of Parliament in 1949, and legal incorporations of local governing councils have become common occurrences in Canada, as has the granting of Bahá'í Holy Days to school children. Governmental refugee agencies have cooperated with Bahá'í refugee programs that have helped settle 2,000 Iranians in Canada since Iran's Islamic revolution in 1979. In the field of education, Bahá'ís have promoted the teaching of comparative religion in schools, and have set up a secondary school on Vancouver Island, offering an international, nondenominational baccalaureate. In aboriginal affairs, a number of Bahá'ísponsored social and economic development programs on Prairie reserves have attracted attention; in the Yukon, Bahá'í programs have focussed on alcoholawareness and alcoholreduction programs. The procurement of funding from the Canadian International Development Agency by Bahá'í agencies for Third World development projects illustrates additional bridges between the Bahá'í community and the main culture. Finally, on a wider plane, there is a multicultural interest in minority religious communities, as exemplified in several court cases involving schools and the rights of children from nonmainstream religious life in Canada. Thus, there is a need for factual and sociological knowledge about the history, teachings, and development of the Bahá'í community. 6 Transplantation Studies in the Sociology of Religion My story is about the origins and early life of a nonWestern faith transplanted into a Western setting (i.e., Canada). It will be useful first to consider some of the themes and findings of other studies that have considered the social process of adaptation and development of transplanted religions. Not many scholarly treatments of the sociology of religion deal with, or have devoted much space or attention to, new, transplanted religious movements (more particularly, nonChristian religions) settling in alien environments.7 One of the earliest sociological studies of this genre was Lofland's Doomsday Cult (1966), a study of the "Moonies." There have been others since then: Larry D. Shinn's The Dark Lord (1987) about the Hare Krishnas, as well as another detailed study of the "Moonies" by David G. Bromley and Anson D. Shupe, Jr. (1979). However, other treatments seem sparse. Bryan Wilson, for example, devotes only three paragraphs in The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism (1990: 22223) to the spread of new religious movements
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from their native cultures to others. He not only speaks of the success of new Western religious movements in nonWestern societies but also of the limited appeal of nonWestern movements in Western society. Stark and Bainbridge (1985) discuss five groups, three of which are nonWestern (although they do present some valuable Canadian data on new religious movements). Roger Finke and Rodney Stark (1992: 23944) discuss nonWestern religious groups in the context of the nature of four "religious eruptions" in the twentieth century, two of which apply to transplanted religions, namely, the eruption of "religious novelty" in the 1960s and early 1970s, 8 and the sudden influx of Eastern faiths at the same time, in conjunction with the efflorescence of the counter and youth culture (e.g., Needleman and Baker, 1978; Wallis, 1984; Bryan Wilson, 1981). Such scholarly works involve a narrow band of kinds of transplanted religions selected for analysis. In particular, they explore the new religious movements over a short time frame. The diversity of transplanted religious groups that have found a home in Western society is not something than comes to mind when reading such studies. When we look at the diversity of Canada's transplanted religions, it is important to distinguish among several kinds of nonWestern religious movements. There are those based on immigrant ethnic populations, such as Sikhs in British Columbia and Buddhists in Alberta (Coward and Kawamura, 1978) and the Japanese in Canada (Mullins, 1989),9 and those, like the Bahá'ís, whose national membership is mainly derived from recruits in the host society. Stark and Bainbridge (1985) would add another kind: imported cults that do not even have branches in the countries from which their founders came. In an effort to explain the establishment (and the lack of growth) of transplanted religions, conventional studies are more likely to consider the "why," rather than the "how."10 We learn the various reasons why nonWestern religious groups can, if at all, establish themselves in such new Western settings as Canada. For Wallis, new faiths offer an alternative to the "anonymity, impersonality, achievementorientation, individualism, and segmentation of modern life," or are a response to the "pervasive features of advanced capitalist societies" (1982: 228). In a similar vein, Anthony and Robbins (1982: 243) see the emergence of contemporary new religious movements as a response to moral ambiguity, and as an attempt to rediscover clearly fixed moral meanings for daily living. On a broader scale, but still looking at answers from the same perspective, scholars query the new religions' functional relevance in a changing society.11 Scholars, moreover, are also likely to focus their discussion on whether it is more useful to look at new religions as a social product or
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as revelation. 12 They also explore new religions within the framework of the "cultchurchsect typology,"13 the socialpsychological aspects of membership,14 or the existence of new religions within the context of a "religious economy" that is multicultural and multifaith.15 Of these approaches, The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948 finds greater affinity with issues that make sociological sense of a new religion in terms of its wider relationships with the society in which it is born. Such an approach, however, does not preclude other perspectives, such as a revelatory one, because the sociological search is for empirical and contextual data and does not deal with the motivational or supernal dimensions of religious life (except insofar as we study these dimensions when they enter into the realm of social discourse). My purpose in giving a bird'seye overview of the various approaches to the study of new religions in Western society is not to expound on the high and low points of this research. Rather, my goal is to designate the relationship of my own work on the Bahá'ís in Canada to these scholarly efforts. We now need to pull together some of the ways in which The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948 makes a distinctive contribution to the sociology of religion. First, it does so by offering a historical account of how a nonWestern religious community has become established in its host setting. The study involves a time span of fifty years, a much longer time period than is the case for many other studies. This longterm approach allows us to move away from the ahistorical conception of movements that is characteristic of contemporary studies. As Skocpol (1984: 361) suggests, we also need to relate historical "changing forms of collective action" to wider social processes. When new religious movements do settle into the host society, we see a chain of interactions that involves the movement's ability to adapt its methods of propagation to new circumstances and its ability to absorb and take into account elements of the host society. There have been, as it turns out, too few studies that explore the ability of transplanted religious movements, despite Gelberg's claim (1991: 161) that a study of the process of their "indigenization" has much research value.16 Such an approach calls for a closer consideration of the ties between the new religious movement and the wider society. Colin Campbell (1982) suggests that we can generate a satisfactory understanding of the growth of religious movements when our attention is "directed away from internal features [of the new religion] … towards the wider social and cultural environment" (ibid.: 236). Bryan Wilson (cited by Wallis, 1984: 6) advises us that we must always consider the "empirical circumstances of
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given cultures, of geography, and of history" when looking at new religious groups. The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada examines the process of culturally embedding the Bahá'í community in Canadian society and explores the empirical linkages to mainstream culture, rather than researching the appeal and teachings of the transplanted religious movement. The general dissatisfaction with some of the abovementioned approaches does not diminish when we turn our gaze to scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith in North America, which has been coming to the fore only since the mid1980s. Two of the more thorough accounts of Bahá'í history in North America (Stockman, 1985 and 1995) omitted, due to lack of materials on the subject when they were written, substantive references to early Canadian Bahá'í history. In recent years, however, a number of studies on Bahá'í communities elsewhere in the world have added to the growing field of Bahá'í studies. The Bahá'í movement has been examined in India (Garlington, 1975; Garrigues, 1975), the United States (Berger, 1954; Stockman, 1985 and 1995; BramsonLerche, 1981; Peter Smith, 1982; Archer, 1977), Malaysia (Murthi, 1969), New Zealand (Margaret Ross, 1979), and Denmark (Warburg, 1992 and 1993). There are, simply speaking, no studies on the Canadian Bahá'í community. Memoris have either not yet been written by Canadian Bahá'ís, or are just now being put on paper. 17 There are only several unpublished regional and national histories, relying often on secondary sources (e.g., Paula Williams, 1985; O'Neil, 1975; PembertonPigott, 1988). Gerald Filson (1982) wrote a master's thesis on the role of media in a specific information campaign in the Canadian Bahá'í community. There are infrequent references to Canadian Bahá'í history in Canadian Bahá'í journals. One finds few articles that delve into the past, except for a onepage article, notable for its lack of detail ("1893: First Canadian Bahá'í," 1979), and one on Prince Edward Island (Rolfe, 1987). A brief article on early British Columbia Bahá'í history (McGee and McGee, 1983) also exists. Two major doctoral studies are currently underway (1996). Lynn EchevarriaHowe's study (in progress at Essex University) deals with social change and Canadian Bahá'ís; Paula Drewek's dissertation is on faith development among Bahá'ís in Canada and in India (defended in 1996 at the University of Ottawa). This lack of available documentation is reinforced by the scattered and unorganized nature of the National Bahá'í Archives in Canada. Faced with the prospect of wanting to do a study of a new religious movement on which exists very little knowledge, I decided to draw on a variety of sources and to use both qualitative and quantitative
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research approaches. Thus, from the perspective of someone doing qualitative research, I relied on some sixtythree openended interviews, conducted by myself or others, with individuals who were Bahá'ís before 1948 or who have some direct knowledge of the events described in this book. I also asked some sixty correspondents to identify sources, corroborate information, and provide fresh data. My other approach is quantitative in orientation and involves unofficial and official reports and the creation of a unique membership list (I shall spell this out in greater detail in Appendix E, which covers other matters related to my methodology). A word about research ethics. I feel that the best way for a researcher to carry out his or her ethical obligations is to promote the view that the socalled subjects of the research are partners. Qualitative research methods are ideal because they accord the subjects primacy: the researcher has an obligation to understand and portray their perspectives of the world, without the inhibitions of a rigid theory usually conceived well in advance of the research with the support of hypotheses. This research process is not simple, because both the researcher and the partner develop a heightened awareness of their mutual interaction. Subtle shifts in the relationship result in new insights and fresh theoretical orientations. The researcher's obligations do not cease with writing up his or her findings. After finishing the first draft of the book, I submitted it to two circles of readers, consisting of both older and younger Bahá'ís, women and men. I asked them to consider the tone of the work and draw my attention to factual errors of omission or commission. Each group not only formally outlined the changes it would like to see, but we all met together to consider the issues raised. This process allowed me to be more confident about the research findings, forestalling ethical problems later on. I later convened several groups of people whom I had interviewed, and shared with them sections of the manuscript that pertained to them or to their communities. Enthusiasm and further offers of assistance greeted this consultative process. Some may object that I have circulated an early draft of the book manuscript to Bahá'í readers. With the increased importance of maintaining ethics in their research, researchers are increasingly sharing their findings and questions with their research "subjects," something that the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada guidelines (and those of my University Ethics Committee) wholeheartedly endorse. In fact, such a process often yields important new data and insights, discussions of which can be taken down in either endnote form or in the main text itself. Along another dimension, I believe it is
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important to be as sensitive as possible to the question of gender in one's research. Hence, I have made sure that my first circles of readers included both women and men. I have found it most helpful to receive the views of female readers, spotting this or that particular blind spot or bias on my part. Margrit Eichler's book, Non Sexist Research Methods (1988), has, in particular, moved me to consider carefully such bias in research: circulating the manuscript was simply one way of fulfilling this particular goal. I decided to employ largely a narrative style, which seems the best way to integrate the various disciplines and methods and to best serve all the intended audiences. It means, in practical terms, that since the first few chapters deal with history, one is more likely to find the focus on the personalities of early believers. As the Bahá'í community takes clearer shape, the narrative focusses less on the personalities, and more on community processes. Similarly, the relations of the larger society to the Bahá'í Faith will require differing descriptions, depending on the particular phase of Bahá'í history. Obviously, the reactions of society to a new religion are quite different in its more developed phase than in its emergent phase. The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada corrects, I hope, several trends in Canadian Bahá'í informal historiography. The few written, but many oral, accounts of the history of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada tend to focus on Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver—Canada's principal urban centres then and now. Yet Bahá'í communities existed in about half a dozen other localities in Canada in the pre1921 period. Moreover, much of the early Canadian history revolves around the personality and activities of May Maxwell of Montreal ("In Memoriam," 1938–40: 63142), one of Canada's most influential and historically significant Bahá'ís before 1940. Little is known of Bahá'í work carried out by others. A reader may naturally raise the question as to why a work on the Bahá'í Faith in Canada would focus on the first fifty years of its development (1898–1948). First, there is a particular value in examining the earliest developments of the Bahá'í community. The pre1921 period in Bahá'í history represents an embryonic stage in the evolution of Bahá'í community administration. Under the leadership of 'Abdu'lBahá (the son of the ProphetFounder of the Bahá'í Faith) from 1892 until 1921, the Bahá'í movement expanded considerably, although little emphasis was given to administrative structure. Of necessity, the following early chapters of the book highlight the personal characteristics and social backgrounds of key individuals who have contributed to the spread of the new religion in Canada.
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However, exploring the Bahá'í community between 1921 and 1948 gives us a different basis of discussion and renders more of a detailed understanding of the administrative growth and consolidation of the Bahá'í movement, leading to the establishment, in 1948, of its own national governing council in Canada, namely, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. A study of the early Bahá'ís, as well as Bahá'í administrative development, sheds light on the social dynamics that underlie the rise, development, or decline of some communities. The Bahá'í community is emerging from obscurity and deserves, therefore, scholarly treatment. The new religion did take root in Canada, despite what may have appeared to be slow growth or even local stagnation here and there. The most recent persecutions of Bahá'ís in Iran (from 1979 to the present)—which received considerable attention in the press—accelerated the process of the Bahá'í community's emergence from relative obscurity. Sociologists and historians who have studied the phenomenon of new religious movements in Canada, which put them on the margins of their respective disciplines, have ignored the Bahá'í Faith. This has not always been the case. Several Islamicists of the late nineteenth century saw the Bahá'í Faith as a subject of great interest. The great Persian scholar Edward G. Browne devoted much of the early part of his career to the study of the Bahá'í movement (Balyuzi, 1970). Few followed Browne's example, however, perhaps because the movement had become established in the West and no longer offered the drama and colour of its earlier, Eastern days. Since 1970, however, several important theses on the Shaykhí movement (the precursor to the Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths), and on the Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths have been written (Momen, forthcoming: 8). Since these theses were written by Bahá'ís, the transformations of the Bahá'í Faith in the latter part of the twentieth century passed almost without notice in the scholarly world, despite the fact that Bahá'ís represent a social and religious movement of sufficient size and age to merit study for its own sake. The Encyclopaedia Britannica (1988: 303) considers it to be the third most global religion, and according to Ellwood (1985: 12), the Bahá'í Faith, "possessing many adherents, well established in society, and a stable, institutional structure … seems likely to endure." Despite such commendations, one of the major annotated bibliographies of new religious movements (Choquette, 1985: 19–98) lists 347 sociological and anthropological studies, but none refers to the Bahá'í Faith. Stark and Bainbridge's otherwise commendable study, The Future of Religion (1985), contains a number of factual errors about the Bahá'í Faith. 18
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Before considering the social history of the Bahá'ís in Canada, it will be useful to provide a general history of the movement before its arrival in Canada in the last decade of the nineteenth century. General History of the Bahá'í Faith before 1894 The place of origin of the Bahá'í Faith is the Middle East. In 1844 a young merchant in Persia, named the Báb (1819–50), declared himself 19 as the spiritual reformer longawaited by the Muslim world. His progressive teachings (which included the emancipation of women) and his challenge to secular and clerical authorities led to his execution in Tabriz in 1850. The Báb also proclaimed that he was the harbinger of one who would succeed him and whose teachings would establish a new world order. Bahá'u'lláh (1817–92) declared himself to be the ''Manifestation of God" anticipated by the Báb. He first received an intimation of this mission in 1853 when he was incarcerated in an underground dungeon in Tehran, and more openly proclaimed it in 1863, in Baghdad, after his forced exile there. After a succession of similar exiles that lasted thirtynine years, Bahá'u'lláh died in Akka, Palestine, in 1892. Whereas in contemporary North American society, a traditional and personal moral code is associated with rightwing and orthodox social action, Bahá'u'lláh's teachings emphasize a personal moral code based on traditional religious ethics, and embrace a liberal set of social teachings focussed on the need for universal disarmament and peace, a world tribunal, a universal auxiliary language, the equality of men and women, the harmony of science and religion, the elimination of racism, and the abolition of the extremes of poverty and wealth. His writings, which number some 5,000 letters and over 100 books, amplify these moral principles, in addition to a host of other teachings in matters of personal status such as laws of inheritance and marriage. In 1892 Bahá'u'lláh died, and according to his explicit wishes, his oldest son, 'Abdu'lBahá (1844–1921), assumed leadership of the Bahá'í community. At this time, the Bahá'í Faith had spread to five countries in the Middle East and India. Under the guidance of 'Abdu'lBahá, the Bahá'í Faith spread to other lands and continents, including South America, South Africa, Australia, Japan, and Hawaii. After some fiftyfive years of forced exile, the 1908 revolution of the Young Turks released 'Abdu'lBahá from very restricted personal circumstances, whereupon he undertook voyages to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the spiritual gospel of his father.
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During World War I (1914–18), 'Abdu'lBahá issued fourteen letters to the Bahá'ís in North America, giving them spiritual and administrative primacy to establish the Bahá'í Faith around the world. 'Abdu'lBahá was knighted by the British for saving thousands in Palestine from famine. He left some 16,000 letters, in addition to records of his talks in the western hemisphere, which form the substance of his authorative interpretations and explanations of the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. His summary of those teachings are, in fact, sometimes referred to as the "Twelve Principles" of the Bahá'í Faith, and are still used today by many Bahá'ís to sum up the main tenets of the Bahá'í Faith. Upon 'Abdu'lBahá's death in 1921, his will appointed his grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897–1957), to lead the Bahá'í Faith under the title of Guardian. Under Shoghi Effendi, the Bahá'í community spread from thirtyfive countries to 257. The nature of the Bahá'í administrative order, believed to be drawn from the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh, was clarified and interpreted by Shoghi Effendi. He assisted Bahá'í communities around the world in laying the foundation of such an order, and undertook a massive amount of correspondence (there are at least 36,000 known letters and cablegrams on file) in which he explained these teachings. Upon his death in 1957, authority was for a time assumed by a group of men and women, known as the "Hands of the Cause of God," who had been appointed by Shoghi Effendi to act as the "Chief Stewards" of the Bahá'í Faith. They prepared the worldwide Bahá'í community for the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963. This latter body, anticipated by Bahá'u'lláh, is the supreme administrative authority of the Bahá'í Faith with the authority to legislate on matters not expressly revealed in Bahá'u'lláh's writings. The Bahá'í Faith today is primarily a Third World religious movement with over 80% of its adherents found in Third World countries. Numerically, the largest Bahá'í communities are found in India, Iran, East Africa, parts of Southeast Asia, and the Andes. In some South Pacific locations, Bahá'ís constitute as much as onefourth of the whole population. Outline of the Book Part One explores the earliest beginnings of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada, 1898–1912. The focus is entirely on the involvement of individuals across Canada who, independently of each other, accepted the new religion. Part One also underscores the attraction the religion exerted on people whose religious backgrounds included liberal Protestantism and
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cultlike movements such as New Thought, Rosicrucianism, Theosophy, the occult, and spiritualism. This phase of the Bahá'í Faith came to an end in 1912 with the visit to North America of 'Abdu'lBahá, the son of the founder of the Bahá'í Faith; this visit was a keystone event in the development of the Canadian Bahá'í community. It linked the fragmented, highly individualistically oriented Bahá'ís before 1912 with the rise of community identity after 1912. Part Two centres on the formation of community identity, with its implications of changing criteria of membership, the movement from porous to more firm boundaries, and changing styles of organization, in light of the expansion and growth of the Canadian Bahá'í community from 1913 to 1947. This phase leaves behind the factors of personality and individuality, and takes on a more explicit sociological form. The involvement of members of such ethnic groups as Jews, African Canadians, and francophones in Canada, as well as the creation of Bahá'í communities in various regions in Canada, imprinted an awareness of the Bahá'í Faith as a Bahá'í community, rather than merely a collection of individual adherents. Part Three takes on the task of examining the specific ways of propagating the new religion and why some communities grew, remained stable, or declined in the years 1937–47. It also explores the social composition of Bahá'í membership, namely, religion, gender, class, and ethnicity. Part Four discusses Bahá'í relations with the larger society, the impact of such relations on the Bahá'í community itself, and the social processes that attend the building of a national Bahá'í community, culminating in the formation of the first national Bahá'í administrative body in Canada in 1948. On the one hand, through opposition, recognition, and World War II, a distinctive national Canadian Bahá'í community developed. On the other hand, the breakdown of regional Bahá'í developments and the promotion of intinerant Bahá'í teachers across Canada produced a national consciousness among Bahá'ís that was hitherto missing. The book ends with a discussion of the sociology of religion in Canada and the place of study of the Canadian Bahá'í community in such a sociology. Notes 1. The actual departure date may have been 18 September 1893. 2. Born in Philadelphia in 1842, he had lived in London, Ontario, and then moved to Chicago in 1889. There, as city editor, first of the Tribune and later of the Inter Ocean, he quickly gained prominence in his journalistic career. He had covered the American Civil War and was one of two jour
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nalists to accompany General Sherman on his march to the sea from Atlanta—not a small feat given the fact that General Sherman disliked journalists (New York Times, 6 June 1919, p. 13). 3. "Review of Manuscript," sent to author with a letter from the Association for Bahá'í Studies, Ottawa, 31 January 1989. 4. The first record of a Canadian Bahá'í goes back to 1897, but the first Bahá'í in Canada dates back to 1898. I have chosen "1898" in the title of the book as a means of highlighting the fiftyyear period of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada. 5. Paula A. Drewek (1996) and Lynn EchevarriaHowe (forthcoming) are currently exploring such contributions through faith development among Bahá'ís in Canada and India, and the contribution of Canadian Bahá'í women to social change, respectively. 6. Something should be said on the subject of myths that are often the stuff of oral history. In much contemporary research, the traditional boundaries between "fact," "myth," and "oral history'' are in a sense dissolving. This is a heartening process because interpretations of even everyday events can be varied or dissimilar. In the field of religious studies, it has long been argued that myths can be true without necessarily being factual. Taking a further step (as in lifehistory research), we can agree with Raphael Samuel and Paul Thompson in The Myths We Live By that "the manner of a [life story's] telling seems to us as important as what is told" (1993: 2). 7. Eastern Spirituality in America (Ellwood, 1987: 23536) gives a list of a dozen general works on Eastern religions in North America, of which fewer than six are case studies of specific religions. 8. Bellah (1970) speaks of civil religion and new religious movements as "survivors of the crisis of meaning that characterized the sixties." To get an overview of a number of these new faiths, the reader will find some satisfaction in E. Allen Richardson's work, East Comes West: Asian Religions and Cultures in North America (1985) with historical synopses of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Muslims. 9. Raymond Brady Williams' Religions of Immigrants from India and Pakistan: New Threads in the American Tapestry (1988) is a good example of similar research of immigrant religions in the United States. 10. See, e.g., Glock and Stark (1965) and Lofland and Stark (1965). 11. Namely, either as a consequence of rationalization or secularization (e.g., Beckford, 1982, 1989; Coser, 1987: 458; Johnson, 1977; Robbins and Anthony, 1978; Wallis, 1984: 41). 12. Robert Segal continues this debate in Religion and the Social Sciences (1989), arguing that socialscientific explanations should take precedence over religiously constructed explanations of religion; the reader can find a concise discussion of Segal's point in Ryba (1991). See also, e.g., Nelson (1987), Johnson (1977), and Wiebe (1983). 13. Sociologists are now recognizing the inherent problem of using some of the tools traditionally used to study contemporary new religious movements. For example, some (Mol, 1976: 16873) are already expressing a reluctance
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in applying Ernst Troeltsch's scheme of church and sect to the study of nonChristian religions or groups. A cult has come to refer to the early beginnings of a religious movement, while sect is seen as an offshoot of a major religious tradition (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 25). The former exists in a high state of tension with the surrounding society for it "proclaims something new" (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985; Nock, 1993: 45). In any case, many claim that the sociological use of cult or sect does not imply a pejorative meaning, but rather denotes a technical use (Finke and Stark, 1992: 295). Some sociologists, like Stark and Bainbridge (1985) and Kent (1993) have tried to adapt these traditional terms to the study of other religious groups. Kent uses the term "religiously ideological groups" (1993: 84) to denote new religious movements. The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada provides a historical and social documentation of a religious movement that is "new," both in terms of its relatively recent entry into the Canadian religious economy, and in terms of its literature, teachings, and system of governance. See also Wallis (1975). 14. Thomas Robbins and Roland Robertson (1991: 321) observe that the sociology of religion's paradigm was attained "through the hegemony of a loose functionalist perspective, which … tended to vindicate religion in secular and 'scientific' terms as a universal functional imperative for societies and individuals." 15. Where new "firms" must compete for the attention in the religious "market" (see, e.g., Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 504; Bibby, 1987, 1993). 16. Some of the most notable exceptions include research by Steven Gelberg (1991) on ISKCON (Hare Krishna movement), Gene Thursby (1991) on Siddha Yoga, and Michael L. Mickler (1991), and Bromley and Shupe (1979) on the Unification Church. 17. Such as the accounts by Doris McKay (1993) and Larry Rowdon (1994). An account by Rowland Estall, covering the years 1926–77, is, however, not published, similar to the biography of Ken and Mary McCullough (1994). 18. For example, several significant theological and historical errors are found on pp. 24445. The public is not immune from such lack of awareness. A recent survey indicates that only 5% of Canadians, without prompting, are aware of the Bahá'í Faith, and that some 37% recognize the Bahá'í Faith when asked directly. Only one quarter of this latter group, however, can state any understanding or impression of it (Public Information Office, 1986). 19. The reader should be made aware of the Bahá'í usage of capitalization when referring to the founders of religions, including the two founders of the Bahá'í Faith, namely, the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'ís see no objection to others not using capitalization, but may find it peculiar to see a Bahá'í scholar not using the capitalization. Bahá'ís permit references to the founders of their religion to be noncapitalized when the intended audiences are not members of their religion. I have adopted this practice in The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada.
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PART ONE — EARLY DEPENDENCE ON LIBERAL PROTESTANTISM
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Two — Early Stirrings Chicago was not only the source of America's first Bahá'ís during the 1890s, but it was also the place of origin of the Canadian Bahá'í community. The following account demonstrates the seemingly chaotic nature of a new religion's early life in North America. The situation is analogous to seeds carried by the wind to unknown destinations. It took five years, until September 1898, before the seeds sown in Chicago would germinate in Canada, though several expatriate Canadians in Chicago were also drawn to the Bahá'í message and felt impelled to accept the new religion. Expatriate Canadians in Chicago A number of other Canadians who attended sessions at the Parliament of Religions and were to become prominent Bahá'ís were led to the new religion by newly arrived Bahá'ís from Egypt, Anton Haddad and Ibrahim Kheiralla, a Syrian convert. Kheiralla had been a Syrian Christian who declared his Bahá'í allegiance in 1890, 1 and quickly convinced his friend and business partner, Anton Haddad, to declare as well. In search of ways to promote their inventions and business, the two left Cairo, Egypt, in 1892. Haddad went directly to the United States, arriving in the summer of 1892 as the first Bahá'í in the New World; Kheiralla joined him in December of the same year. Following unsuccessful business endeavours, they moved on, eventually arriving in Chicago, the "Windy City."2 Chicago exercised a magnetic attraction for other reformers. In the 1880s it was the fastest growing city in America (D. Smith, 1981:88). In the 1830s there were 100 people living in the middle of a "stinking wild onion swamp," but by 1880 half a million could already be found in the city, growing by some 50,000 every year. The high percentage of those with foreign parentage (80%) illustrates the farreaching magnetism of the city. Soon after their arrival, Kheiralla provided study classes, leading interested seekers to accept the Bahá'í religion. In February 1894, the first five Westerners converted.3 By May 1896 there were sixteen
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Bahá'ís in Chicago. Of middleclass background, these early converts were primarily whitecollar workers; no factory workers could be found among them. They were of liberal religious backgrounds, namely, Christian Scientists, Spiritualists, and Theosophists, and were neither wealthy nor highly educated. In their community were a number of Canadians who had moved to Chicago and had become Bahá'í adherents. Kate Cowan Ives (1863–1927) was the first woman in the Occident to accept the Bahá'í Faith and to remain steadfast in her newfound religion. Originally from Newfoundland, her parents had settled in the "Boston States." Kate Ives moved from Massachusetts to Chicago and, from the moment of her conversion in 1894 at the age of twentyone, remained steadfast (BEL). Like many other Canadians who came to the movement later, she would contribute to the development of the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Eliot, Maine (Stockman, 1985: 36–37). Among the close circle of friends of Thornton Chase, America's "first believer," 4 was Paul Kingston Dealy (d.1935), who attended the classes held by Ibrahim Kheiralla.5 It was on 26 March 1897 that Dealy decided to accept the "Greatest Name." Originally from Saint John, New Brunswick, Dealy moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba. There, at the age of thirtyone, he apprenticed as a railroad engineer. He is credited with inventing a system that ejected ashes from locomotive engines. After marrying Adelaide Stewart in 1881, their first son was born in a boxcar that also served as a home for the Dealy couple (ibid.). Native unrest on the prairies forced the family to pull out in 1883–84. The Dealy family soon moved to Chicago. Dealy joined the Chicago Bahá'í community when it had reached about thirty adherents; he graduated from Kheiralla's class on 26 March 1897 (ibid.: 86). Dealy proved to be one of the most active Bahá'í teachers. He cut a lively figure. Not only musically gifted, he was "fiercely dedicated to whatever was his current interest" (Dealy, 1984). These interests were indeed farranging: steam engines, building railroad lines, religion, politics, writing, farming, and "looking out for his family." He lived the remainder of his life as a "struggling" farmer (Stockman, 1985) in a SingleTax colony. The colony attracted socialists who were interested in its collectivist endeavours, which included such things as a telephone system, a watersupply system, and a school.6 Dealy's life, however, was marked by cashflow problems. During some of his roughest years, Phoebe Hearst, another early Bahá'í, felt compelled to send him money (Stockman, 1983).7 When "P.K.D." died in 1935, he was the "oldest living Master Mechanic" of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Dealy's attachment to the Bahá'í Faith was in line
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with his conceptions about a society and economy that centred around the community rather than the individual. Another dreamer and visionary attracted to the Bahá'í cause was Honoré Jaxon (1861–1952), a memorable figure. Born as William Henry Jackson, he established his historical reputation as secretary of the Settlers' Union of Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, when he played a key part in securing white support for the early phase of Louis Riel's movement (Flanagan, 1976: 17576). As Riel's secretary, he had "championed the rights of the poor settlers, as well as those of the Indians and Métis" (D. Smith, 1981a: 10). William Jackson's own background seems a far cry from his later involvement with Louis Riel, a Catholic Métis who stood up for the rights of the most dispossessed of Canadian society. 8 He was raised in a village in Ontario as the son of devoted Methodist parents. Jackson's mother educated her children in a spirit of independence, nurturing love for literature and history along the way. At the age of eight, William read his first history of Greece and Rome. He was always hungry for "food for the mind." Politics was not left out of his home education, either. Jackson acquired a tremendous admiration for William Lyon Mackenzie, the organizer of the Upper Canadian Rebellion in 1837, who fought the ruling oligarchy. Thus, Jackson's conception of politics included a "strong aversion to the ruling Canadian political and economic elite" (ibid.: 12). By the time Jackson was twentythree years old, he was following Louis Riel's movement with a great deal of interest and sympathy.9 The next series of events brought Jackson into contact with Louis Riel, who was summoned by the Métis to help them press for promised lands and entitlements from the Canadian government. Jackson realized that the misfortunes of the northern farmers, mostly white, could be best allayed through an alliance with Louis Riel and the other Métis. Jackson quickly became Riel's link with white farmers, and, with Riel, he wrote a political manifesto. Riel trusted Jackson, as a special prayer written by Riel reveals: "We beg You … to take care of them always, if You please: my friend William Henry Jackson, whom I have chosen as a special friend…" (quoted in ibid.: 16). This special relationship, however, was not destined to last long. Riel became ever more insistent in his claim that the Indians and the Métis were the perpetual landlords of the Northwest, while Jackson believed in joint custody of the land with the white settlers. In an effort to come closer to the Métis cause, Jackson became a Catholic in 1885; his family threw up their hands in horror. Jackson persisted. Soon Riel declared himself a prophet, the voice of aboriginals
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throughout the world (ibid.: 18). Demonstrating his attachment to the new "prophet," Jackson walked for three miles over the snow, "wearing on his feet moccasins alone, without socks," to meet Riel (ibid.: 18). Soon, Canadian troops captured Jackson. In 1885 the authorities mounted a trial against Jackson for treasonfelony, but acquitted him by reason of insanity. 10 Escaping the asylum in Selkirk, Manitoba, Jackson fled to the United States (ibid.: 10; Flanagan, 1976: 17576). The fervour of this "bookish," and "short, slight man" (D. Smith, 1981a: 10, 16) fed upon itself in the United States.11 His long "straight ravenblack hair" lent credibility to his claim that he was Métis and enabled him to speak on behalf of aboriginals. He dedicated his new life to anarchism, opposing authority and protecting freedom of expression. In 1889 he changed his name to Honoré Joseph Jaxon, thus honouring his Catholic conversion. He made his living by building sidewalks and curb walls on contract, as well as tutoring Greek, science, and Hebrew. From the early 1890s, Jaxon espoused many causes, small and large, involving: exposing a ring that thrived at the expense of taxpayers; trying to end corruption at City Hall; supporting this or that political candidate; and joining an American colonization company. But his radical politics interfered with his making a living. In 1893 he started to organize a World Conference of Anarchists. He was falsely accused of plotting to bomb the White House in Washington—an accusation that the press relished. In 1897, when he turned thirtythree, this "socialist organizer" (Flanagan, 1976: 17576) grew weary of his activities, married for the first time in his life, and discovered the Bahá'í Faith. He had followed Kheiralla's classes in Chicago for several weeks when he enrolled in June (Stockman, 1985: 92), as the 107th person to do so (BEL). As a "man of keen wit … consumed with a love of his people" (the Pittsburgh Post, quoted in D. Smith, 1981b: 91), Jaxon began once again to pursue his many interests, including the design of a tunnelling machine and a device that would decrease the effects of earthquakes on buildings. He also tried to convince the city of Chicago to build a speaker's corner, and remained active in the Chicago Federation of Labor.12 It seems quite certain that Jaxon did not discriminate among his various causes, including Bahá'í. Jaxon was familiar with the works of Marx and Prince Kropotkin, and easily blended their ideas into his own personal synthesis (ibid.: 93).13 When he undertook a trip to his native Saskatchewan accompanied by his wife, Aimée Montfort, in 1906–1907, and spoke to the annual convention of the Trades and Labour
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Congress of Canada in Winnipeg, he may well have had both socialism and the Bahá'í Faith in mind. It is fair to say that Jaxon's loyalty to the Bahá'í Faith did not likely measure up to his political loyalties, for 'Abdu'lBahá discouraged, and even prohibited, political involvement and discussions by Bahá'ís (cited in Universal House of Justice, 1976: 3). Nevertheless, he was untrammelled in his energy for the Bahá'í cause and was responsible for negotiating the title for the site of the future, first Bahá'í house of worship in the West, situated in a northern Chicago suburb (Star of the West, 17 May 1910, p. 19). In 1912, he wrote engaging pieces about the dedication of the site for the Bahá'í House of Worship (Jaxon, 1912a) and 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago (ibid., 1912b). We assume that the reference in the dedication article to the representation of "North American Indians" at the dedication refers to Jaxon's own presence there, and probably not to any actual "Indians." After the war, in 1918, Jaxon appeared in New York City where he spent the remainder of his life until his death in 1952, at the age of ninety. It was in New York that he attended meetings of the Caravan in the 1940s (D. Smith, 1981b: 96), a group of former Bahá'ís who disputed the authority of Shoghi Effendi, the head of the new religion. The story of Jaxon's death is a heartwrenching one. Some halfdozen American newspapers told the story of a janitor and furnace man who had been evicted from his apartment building on 34th Street, sitting with a huge mound of paper and cartons. The furnace man was Jaxon, and the tons of cartons contained a precious collection on native American history. Too sick to perform his janitorial and furnace duties, Jaxon fell behind in his rent and was evicted onto the sidewalk. It took three men a full six hours to remove all of Jaxon's belongings, books, papers, and manuscripts. Brokenhearted, Jaxon sat on the sidewalk guarding his papers and seeing snow fall on them. Most of the collection was taken to a local garbage dump, and Jaxon died a few weeks later, in January 1952. Among the first coterie of Bahá'ís were not only Atlantic Canadians and the defender of the Métis, Jaxon, but also his "FrenchCanadian" 14 spouse, Aimée Montfort, a young schoolteacher. A "stylish and welleducated" woman, Montfort was a descendant of Simon de Montfort (Charlebois, 1975: 130). An early Bahá'í described Aimée as a "very plain lady, but she had charm" (Loeding, 1985). She became a devoted believer on 5 October 1897, four months after her husband.15 Elected president of the "Women's Assembly of Teaching,''16 she taught the Bahá'í Faith in small groups and before large audiences.17 Both she and her husband offered liberal hospitality to Bahá'í functions in the community.18
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The Jaxons returned briefly to Canada, 1907–1909, to visit Montfort's niece, Cicely Plaxton, in Saskatchewan (D. Smith, 1992). Montfort left Jaxon after World War I, possibly with his encouragement, for like many anarchists, he saw "marriage (as far as the woman's interests were concerned) as 'a manmade scheme for the annexing of female slaves'" (D. Smith, 1981: 95). The Bahá'í Faith Comes to Canada While Paul Dealy, Honoré Jaxon, and Aimée Montfort were either taking classes or accepting the Bahá'í religion in 1897, Edith Magee (1880–1971) of London, Ontario, then seventeen years of age, was making many visits to her uncle, Guy Magee, and probably heard on those occasions more about the new religion. In January 1898 Ibrahim Kheiralla gave his last course on the Bahá'í Faith in Chicago. That same year, Guy Magee interviewed a Bahá'í (Stockman, 1985: 116) and sent word to Edith Magee (ibid.: 131). One account ("1893: First Canadian Bahá'í," 1979: 12 states that one of the Magees had become a Bahá'í and returned to Canada in September 1898. Other members of her family in London soon accepted the Faith. 19 Soon thereafter, in 1902, Edith moved to New York to continue her music lessons. A very outspoken person (M. Inglis, 1987), her general demeanour exemplified a strict and highly cultured upbringing. Edith Magee's family, of Irish Methodist stock, was welltodo, but very little was set aside for the Bahá'ís in the family (WTMM). Edith Magee's maternal side of the family took the lead in converting to the new revelation. Soon after Edith Magee's return from Chicago in September 1898, four other female members of the household accepted the new religion: Edith's mother (Esther Annie Magee), Edith's sister (Harriet, or "Hattie"), and two sisters of Esther Annie (Rose and Vail).20 Esther Annie Magee eventually followed her daughter to New York, where she continued to serve the Bahá'í community as a member of the New York City Women's Board and as secretary of the Women's Unity Meeting ("In Memoriam: Harriet Magee," 1915; "New York City," 1910). Frequently, Annie Magee spent the summer at the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Eliot, Maine.21 'Abdu'lBahá spoke highly of the Magee family,22 who received at least nine letters from him.23 Harriet (1883–1915), Edith Magee's sister, was the third Bahá'í in London, Ontario. She followed her mother to the United States, where she met 'Abdu'lBahá in 1912.24 Dedicated to the improvement of social conditions in America and Iran, she served as secretary of the Woman's Unity in New York City, a body to educate Persian girls.
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After a bout with tuberculosis (M. Inglis, 1987; Cole, 1914), Harriet Magee died at Green Acre in January 1915, which occasioned 'Abdu'lBahá to send a letter to Annie Magee, speaking of Harriet Magee's physical suffering, and referring to her as "one of the most important personages" ("Tablets from AbdulBaha," 1917: 192 93). Although dead at the age of thirtytwo, Harriet Magee made a longlasting impression on the citizens of Eliot, Maine. There were even plans for a Harriet Magee Memorial Library in Eliot. 25 There is virtually no reliable information about Annie's two sisters, Rose and Vail. We are only left with the knowledge that Annie was planning to leave for Chicago to attend the 1917 "Centennial Celebration of Baha.Allah" with her sisters.26 The Bahá'í Group in London, Ontario By 189899 Canada's first Bahá'í group consisted of eighteenyearold Edith Magee, her fifteenyearold sister Harriet, her mother Annie, who was fortytwo, and possibly Annie Magee's two sisters, Rose and Vail. The requirements for Bahá'í membership were, in the very early days of the Bahá'í Faith in North America, quite different from what they are now. Early Bahá'ís were not asked to resign church membership, nor did they think it was inconsistent for them to maintain ties with their respective churches. The Magees were Methodists, and they participated actively in the affairs of that church.27 Highly visible, the family had the best ethnic credentials for London, Ontario, namely, British and Irish. Their friends took note of their conversion after Annie Magee organized a study group in 1899, probably using notes from Kheiralla's classes in Chicago (Martin, 1983). It was not long before the United States consul, Henry Stark Culver, and his family accepted the new religion.28 Dorothy Cress, a daughter of the Culvers, conveys the atmosphere of those days when she was asked by an interviewer how she became a Bahá'í: Well, of course, through my father and mother, I guess. Yes, I guess so, that must have been it. I'll tell you how my mother became a Bahá'i. We lived in Canada, in London, Ontario, a little town … and a friend of ours—a Mrs. Magee, she had two daughters—Edith and Harriet…. One time … my mother said, "Well I think Mrs. Magee has gone crazy." And why she'd gone crazy was because she'd heard that Christ had come back—Christ had come back to earth. Of course, it was 'Abdu'lBahá [sic] and then, so from then on, Mrs. Magee, they became more and more interested and … all became Bahá'ís, then my mother did too. (Cress, 1982)
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The Culvers must have become Bahá'ís in London before 1906, when Henry Culver was assigned to go to Cork, Ireland. 29 There were thus nine Bahá'ís in London, Ontario, around the turn of the century. In 1910, after their return from Ireland, the Culvers moved to Saint John, New Brunswick, where they established a Bahá'í community (see chapter 9). In any event, a firm foundation had been laid by the Magees; in 1917, when a prominent and influential Bahá'í, May Maxwell, visited the Culvers, she described the Culver family as forming the "nucleus of the group here … a beautiful Bahá'í family, filled with the spirit of service, … a real ornament to the cause of God."30 The Bahá'í group in London, however, did not fare well, because the personal circumstances of the Magee family precluded the possibility of their permanently establishing the Bahá'í Faith in their home town. The family had already begun spending more and more time in New York City; Edith Magee's last recorded stay in Canada was in May 1902 (London Advertiser, 2 May 1902, p. 8). If Edith Magee's introduction of the Bahá'í Faith to London had remained her main and only contribution to the Bahá'í Faith, our narrative about her would end at this stage of the Faith in Canada. Several features stand out, however, in the life of the Magees in the United States. Edith Magee had a deep interest in the women's suffrage movement and participated in marches. On more than one occasion, her husband had to call upon his many contacts among New York policemen to stand by to rescue Edith from any violence during suffragist marches on Fifth Avenue (M. Inglis, 1987). The Magee family had also become mainstay summer residents of the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Eliot, Maine (Star of the West, 20 August 1910, p. 13), and had become identified with the early days of the Bahá'í Faith at that school. Green Acre was hardly a "Bahá'í" school in the 191012 period, but perhaps they were invited by Green Acre's founder, Sarah Farmer, daughter of Moses Garish Farmer, the nineteenthcentury inventor of the lightbulb and the electric car, another attendee of the World Exposition in Chicago in 1893.31 The Magee family met 'Abdu'lBahá and hosted part of his stay in Eliot in August 1912. On that occasion, 'Abdu'lBahá met Edith Magee's husband, William Otto Inglis, whom she had married in 1910. Her marriage to the noted journalist connected her to several American presidents, scientists, and other notables. Inglis had friendships with many wellknown individuals (New York Times, 1 May 1914, p. 5). He worked for the New York Herald, The World, and Harper's Weekly, and carried out special assignments for Joseph Pulitzer.32 He was often seen with the prominent leaders of his day and was frequently quoted by
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other journalists for his political insights. He knew John D. Rockefeller, whom he helped substantially in assembling the personal archival materials on the history of Standard Oil. Inglis also knew Woodrow Wilson; he was among those who persuaded Wilson to leave the presidency of Princeton University and run for governor of New Jersey (New York Times, 22 September 1949, p. 31). Inglis also advised Theodore Roosevelt on Cuba and the Panama Canal. One could explore the degree to which President Wilson became aware of the Bahá'í Faith, albeit indirectly, through his links with Inglis. 33 Inglis, an Episcopalian, never became a Bahá'í. In 1946, he wrote an article on the Bahá'í Faith, entitled "Bahá'ís Would Make a Spiritual Peace," which Horace Holley, secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada,34 described as a "fine introduction to the [Bahá'í] Faith" (Holley, 1947). Little is known of Edith Magee's later life. The couple had one child, Edward ("Timolean") who was born in 1912 (Inglis, 1987). Towards the end of her life, Edith's health began to fail; she died in 1971 in Virginia (Washington Post, 20 July 1971). The processes that brought all of these individuals into the Bahá'í Faith were chaotic and haphazard. Their commitments to the new religion were as varied as their backgrounds, although they all shared a liberal Protestantism that was to mark the wellspring of many early Canadian Bahá'ís. The honour of permanently establishing the acute;a'í community of Canada rightfully goes to the American May Bolles Maxwell, who married the Canadian architect William Sutherland Maxwell and moved to Montreal in 1902—when Edith Magee moved to the United States. A study of Edith Magee's life and, indeed, of those other early expatriate Canadians, has allowed us to connect several strands in early Bahá'í history: the first mention of the Bahá'í Faith in North America and the founding of Canada's first Bahá'í group in London, Ontario. The next chapter explores the first decade of Bahá'ís in Montreal, the anvil upon which depended so much of the later development of the Canadian Bahá'í community. Notes 1. This account has been taken from Stockman's (1985) work. 2. Contrary to popular opinion, the "Windy City" derives its name from its boasts of industrial and commercial accomplishments.
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3. The first five Bahá'ís are William James, Marion Miller, Edward Dennis, Thornton Chase, and Kate C. Ives (Stockman, 1985: 35–36). 4. 'Abdu'lBahá designated Thornton Chase as America's "first believer" (National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Japan, 1974: 257). Although there were three others who declared themselves as Bahá'ís before him, Chase remained steadfast in the Bahá'í Faith while the others did not. 5. Stockman (1985: 86–88) offers a full discussion of Dealy and his ideas for a new political order. In 1984, a diary written by Dealy was in possession of Kitty Dealy of Columbia, Tennessee; Dealy (1984) offers a synopsis of this diary. 6. While the material circumstances differed, the same sense of adventure, industry, and hard work characterized Dealy's ancestors in Saint John. Dealy's father, Michael, emigrated as a boy from Bantry, Ireland, to Canada around 1820 and later started a sailing ship export/import company between the two countries with his son (also a Michael) and his retired great uncle, Lt. William Justin Dealy. The latter owned a vessel, The Dealy, and had gained quite a reputation while sailing for the Royal Navy. He charted areas near Spitsbergen, as well as in the West Indies. One of the islands in the Parry Islands group in Canada's Arctic was named "Dealy" (113° 54' 43" latitude). The company's prospects looked promising as it dealt in lumber, fish, turpentine, salt, grain, and passengers. But in 1848—the same year that Paul Dealy was born—the company lost a ship in a storm off the Irish coast, losing the men, ship, and cargo. It was not insured. 7. Phoebe was the mother of Randolph Hearst, the newspaper magnate. 8. Riel and his cause were so effectively vilified in English Canada that it took until 1992 before any government in Canada could reinstate the "rebel" as a bona fide founder of one of Canada's provinces, Manitoba. The biographical section on Honoré Jaxon is taken from D. Smith, 1981a and 1981b. 9. The Hudson's Bay Company had been selling land to the expansionist settlers at the expense of both the natives and Métis. Riel's response was to set up a provisional government (the "Red River uprising of 186970"). Meanwhile, William entered University College at the University of Toronto, where he not only did well in the first two years, but continued his "passion for freedom," that is, his passion for the classics. His studies were interrupted by disasters in the familyrun businesses, and by 1883, the whole family had moved to Prince Albert, Saskatchewan (William had moved there in 1881). The family ventures in Saskatchewan also proved to be dismal failures due to the enforcement of harsh land regulations, early frosts, and the abandonment of the northern farmers by the government. Becoming familiar with the plight of these farmers, William advocated change through publications and political organization. Upon the formation of the Settlers' Union in 1884, William was immediately elected as its secretary. 10. Four days earlier Louis Riel himself was put on trial, accused by the Canadian government of instigating the 1885 "rebellion" (D. Smith, 1981a: 10).
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11. The biographical section of William Jackson's stay in the United States is taken from D. Smith (1981b). The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) aired a radio play, Song of the Citizen, August 1993. 12. Honoré Jaxon was quick to defend those on trial, and, in one case, was involved in a vigorous letterwriting campaign to President Theodore Roosevelt. The President replied to just one letter, that of Honoré Jaxon (D. Smith, 1981b: 92). 13. He attended the Regina Branch of Labour Party, urged the founding of Producers' Social and Economic Discussion Circles (to alleviate the inferior economic status of farmers and workers), attended an agricultural convention, ran as an independent Liberal (and suffered defeat), spoke to striking mine workers in British Columbia, was elected to a committee of the Calgary Socialist Party, and so on. 14. I refer the reader to the section, "FleursdeLys in the Mosaic," in chapter 6 for a detailed explanation on the use of such terms as "French Canadian," francophone, and the like. 15. D. Smith (1981a: 100) claims she married Honoré Jaxon in 1900, but the appearance of her married name and as a Bahá'í in 1897 suggests that she married him several years earlier. 16. Minutes, CHSR, 10 February 1906. 17. The 1898 financial ledger of the Chicago House of Spirituality contains a reference to Mrs. and Miss Montfort contributing to the Bahá'í fund (Financial ledger, CHSR, MayDecember 1898). A later ledger for MayDecember 1899 has an entry for "Miss Blanche Montfort." 18. Letter from Mrs. True to House of Spirituality, 10 March 1906, CHSR. 19. "1893: First Canadian Bahá'í," 1979: 12, states that it was Edith Magee's mother, Esther Annie, who apparently had gone to Chicago and it was she who returned to Canada as a Bahá'í. The source of this information is not indicated and the only recorded trip of the Magee household was Edith Magee's, reported in the London Advertiser, 27 September 1898, p. 6. Esther Annie Magee's name appears on a Bahá'í enrollment list in 1899 (BEL). The 27 September 1898 edition of the London Advertiser (p. 6) suggests Edith Magee returned on 26 September. 20. "1893: First Canadian Bahá'í" (1979) does not mention the names of the two sisters. They appear, however, in a letter from Mrs. E.A. Magee to Mr. Randall, 3 November 1917, AL. 21. She appears in a photograph taken there with Bahá'u'lláh's son and appointed successor, 'Abdu'lBahá. Mrs. Magee is no. 84 in the photograph in Bahá'í World (1939: plate facing p. 219). 22. Postcard from V. Haack to Miss Harriet McGee (sic), 226 West 75th Street, New York, dated 12 June 1913 (8:45 p.m.), MP. 23. One of these letters is found in "Tablets from AbdulBaha" (Star of the West, 2 March 1917: 19293). Ahmad Sohrab, in a postcard to Mr. Joseph Hannen, mentions that 'Abdu'lBahá has just dictated a letter to Mrs. Magee (Star of the West, 7[4] [17 May 1916]: 28). The Department of
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Library and Archival Services, Bahá'í World Centre, Haifa, provided the author with a list of such letters (11 May 1993). 24. Some very touching words of 'Abdu'lBahá are found in a letter to her ("Truly Blessed: Words of Baha," 1916: 38–39). She appears in the same photograph as her mother with 'Abdu'lBahá at Green Acre (Bahá'í World, 1939: plate facing p. 219). Hattie Magee is no. 16 in the photograph. The unidentified child (no. 15) on her lap may actually be her nephew, Edward Inglis, the twoyearold son of Edith and William Inglis. 25. 15 October 1917, AL, Box 29, Folder 25. 26. These letters are dated 3 and 4 November 1917 and are found in AL. 27. Between 1898 and 1907 there was no listing for the newly formed Bahá'í group in London in the City Directory, or in the local newspapers, although in 1898 the London Advertiser carried a series of articles on "Some Modern Religious Ideas," which provoked interest and comment (e.g., London Advertiser, 29 October 1898, p. 10). 28. In April 1898, James Magee had asked Henry Culver to testify in court regarding a personal loan of $5.00 he had made to a man who was later murdered at the London Music Hall (London Advertiser, 2 April 1898, p. 6). There is no reason to assume that contact between the Magees and the Culvers stayed at this formal level. 29. Considering, moreover, that by 1903 all of the Magees had already left for New York, it may be assumed that the enrollment of the Culvers must have occurred between 1898 and 1903. Later records (BHRC) indicate that Mr. and Mrs. Culver formally became Bahá'ís in 1906. 30. Letter from May Maxwell to "Beloved Sister" (presumably Corinne True), 27 June 1917, AW. 31. I am indebted to Rosanne Buzzell, archivist of the Eliot Bahá'í Community, for suggesting this possibility. 32. He would often publish under his nom de plume, William Hemingway. A box of some of Edith's papers and photographs, in possession of the author, contains some twentynine typescript articles on boxing, horseback riding, the navy, war, Japan (his articles received acclaim on this subject), golfing (he played golf with Mr. John D. Rockefeller on the latter's private golf course), fishing, business (with such titles as "Physical Fitness Made Me a Banker" and "Work While You Work"), tennis, football, crime, and rowing. He was offered to head a bureau in Paris, or London, but his father was ailing so W.O. did not accept the position and went later to Tokyo. The post in Europe would have been a feather in his cap, but there were more reasons for William not accepting it. His mother was a member of the Women's Christian Temperance Union and held no high opinion of journalists, whom she saw as "just a stripe above drunkards" (M. Inglis, 1987). 33. Little is known of Edith's own association with wellknown people, although we do have a photograph of Marconi, his sister, "and her affinity," taken on board the Merion. Edith's association with M. Marconi was tied to her own Irish roots. Marconi's mother was Irish, the daughter of an Irish whiskey distiller. Thus, Edith's acquaintance with Marconi also tied
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her to the world of brewers. Edith would visit the Guinnesses, a family of Irish brewers, in Galway, Ireland (M. Inglis, 1987). One of the photograph albums in the Magee papers shows a member of the Guinness family, probably Rupert, Viscount Elvedon. It is a striking coincidence that Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness achieved fame for the restoration of St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin (in 1867), better known to the Bahá'ís as the church where the Hand of the Cause of God, Mr. George Townshend, was Canon of Tassagard, 193245 (Hofman, 1983: 230). 34. Until 1948, the Bahá'í communities in the United States and in Canada were under the administrative jurisdiction of an elected governing council, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada.
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Three — Spiritual Roots and Early Conversions, 1899–1911 With the departure of the Magee family to New York, and the Culvers to Ireland, the Bahá'í presence in Canada, already small, ebbed. Nevertheless, there were other places in Canada where the Bahá'í Faith had also began to put down roots, however tentative and unattended. Small shoots were appearing in a few towns in Ontario, such as Brantford, Brockville, and Toronto, in Edmonton, Alberta, and in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Montreal also receive its share of the Bahá'í message. The Spiritual Roots of the Early Bahá'ís Methodism, Theosophy, and, to a much lesser extent, Rosicrucianism, constituted the main spiritual roots of the early Bahá'ís in Canada. The belief that individuals are free to accept God's grace, that truth is a matter of continuing revelation, and the belief that one should make the most of one's mortal life, constituted the marrow of the spiritual components of the early believers. Methodism was the home religion of the Magee family and of Honoré Jaxon. The Methodist spiritual theme would continue to exercise a dominating influence on other early Bahá'ís in Canada. Methodism arose from the search of John Wesley (1703–91) and his brother Charles for a deepened religious life within the ordered ways of the Church of England. 1 He sought no drastic reform in doctrines, but rather placed a greater emphasis upon a personal experience of God. Wesley encouraged personal holiness and a disciplined (hence "methodical") Christian life. This approach was distinctive in its belief that individuals are free to accept or reject God's grace, and that it is possible to attain "perfection" (the overcoming of the will to sin) in this life. In the late nineteenth century, these liberal pragmatists became enamoured with the "social gospel," a Protestant movement that stressed Christian social action. The movement had its roots in the humanitarian and antislavery activities of the Unitarians and transcenden
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talists earlier in the century. It was a reaction against exaggerated forms of North American individualism and unrestrained capitalism, a belief that increased state intervention in economic and social life was essential in establishing the Kingdom of God on Earth. The leaders of the movement advocated gradual social reform and based their proposals on a belief in the general goodness of the individual and in his or her susceptibility to the forces of moral persuasion. At the height of the movement in the late 1910s, it espoused prohibition, women's suffrage, civil service reform, bureaus of social research, expansion of cooperatives, and the decline of partybased government. To interested Methodists, the spiritual and social platform of the Bahá'í Faith was a natural extension of their principles and ideology of social reform. The early translations of Bahá'í texts were, however, sometimes quite inadequate, and it was easy for many early believers to inject their own ideas into what they perceived to be the Bahá'í teachings. Such an emphasis on individualistic interpretations would prove to have a negative influence on some members of the new religious faith. It paved the way for idiosyncratic views by individuals who were not quite ready to accept a higher spiritual authority. Such was the case for Canadian artist Percy Woodcock, a Methodist. The Woodcock family, Percy and Aloysia, and their daughter, May, traced a curious Bahá'í career. Their Bahá'í involvement included the early days of the Bahá'í Faith in Chicago (and to some extent in Montreal). Born in 1855 in Athens, Ontario, Percy Woodcock became an artist whose work achieved moderate notability during the 1920s and early 1930s. 2 He studied in Paris at l'Ecole des Beaux Arts for four years, first under Gerome (Morgan, 1898: 1102) and later under Benjamin Constant (Hamilton, ca.1932: 495). He exhibited works at the Paris Salon, and at the National Academy, New York. His involvement with the Bahá'í Faith was considerable. Before 1905 Percy Woodcock lived in Brockville, Ontario (CHSR, 16 September 1905). There, he and his family3 contributed funds for the construction of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois (Star of the West, 13 July 1915, p. 58). The family lived in Montreal and participated in the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Maine. The Woodcocks travelled with 'Abdu'lBahá on the S.S. Cedric on his way to North America in 1912, having joined lBahá'í party in Naples on 24 March (Balyuzi, 1971: 171). Early on, however, Woodcock expressed ideas that were at odds with the Bahá'í Faith. For example, already in 1907, Mrs. Brittingham, an intellectual and a Bahá'í, reported that American Bahá'í pilgrims to Akka, Palestine, were saying that some of Woodcock's teachings were
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''unauthorized and incorrect" (CHSR, 3 August 1907). By 1908 he was living in New York and, while there, started mixing personal ideas with the Bahá'í Faith (TCP, 30 November 1908). By 1909, Woodcock was teaching the symbolism of the pyramids in Egypt (CHSR, 19 July 1909). 4 Two years later, there was a struggle among the New York Bahá'ís, in which Woodcock was opposed to organizing the Bahá'í community (TCP, 14 and 19 January 1910). According to Thornton Chase (America's first steadfast believer), Woodcock had an "extreme view of things," which included astrology and asceticism, and "other dangerous and injurious practices and ideas" (TCP, 21 January 1910). Nevertheless, in the same year, he gave a presentation on the Bahá'í Faith to black intellectuals at Howard University (Morrison, 1982: 33) and in 1911, the American Bahá'ís established a publishing commission at the National Convention, with Woodcock serving as its chair. Woodcock, however, refused to help the commission financially, while investing a large amount of capital into a New York publishing venture (HGP, 6 August 1911). After Methodism, the second mainspring of beliefs of those who seemed most open to the Bahá'í message was Theosophy. The belief that truth is progressively revealed must have been a key factor that brought many Theosophists closer to the Bahá'í religion. Indeed, 'Abdu'lBahá spoke to at least twelve Theosophy gatherings on his travels to France, England, Scotland, and North America.5 Much later, in 1942, a Canadian Bahá'í, George Spendlove, would attend the 10th Theosophical Fraternization Convention, held in Toronto (Bahá'í News, August 1942, p. 8). A religious philosophy with mystical concerns that can be traced to the ancient world, Theosophy has its modern origins in the nineteenth century.6 The term is derived from the Greek theos (God) and sophia (wisdom), usually translated as "divine wisdom." Theosophical thought is based on the mystical premise that God must be experienced directly to be known at all. Theosophical writings reveal a fascination with supernatural occurrences and with the achievement of higher psychic and spiritual powers. Knowledge of "divine wisdom" gives access to the mysteries of nature and the individual's deeper being. Theosophy has been largely identified with the Theosophical Society founded in 1875 by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831–91) and Henry Steel Olcott. A woman of noble Russian descent, Blavatsky had immigrated to the United States after many years of travel and occult investigations throughout Europe and the Middle East. Olcott (1832–1907), an American lawyer, newspaperman, and student of spiritualism, soon fell under her sway. The two moved to India in 1878, eventually
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establishing their base of operations at Adyar, near Madras, which still serves as the international headquarters for the Theosophical Society. A number of Theosophist social objectives are echoed in Bahá'í beliefs: to form a universal brother and sisterhood of humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste, or colour, and to encourage the study of comparative religion, philosophy, and science. Theosophists also insist that they are not offering a new system of thought, but merely underscoring certain universal concepts of God, nature, and the individual that have been known to wise people in all ages and that may be found in the teachings of all the great religions. Despite its small following, the influence of the Theosophical Society has been rather significant. The movement has been a catalytic force in the twentiethcentury Asian revival of Buddhism and Hinduism, and a pioneering agency in the promotion of greater Western acquaintance with Eastern thought. In North America, it has influenced a whole series of religious movements, including Rosicrucianism, the liberal Catholic Church, Psychiana, Unity, and sections of the New Thought movement. Theosophy and the Bahá'í Faith, however, do not converge in some elemental points. The Theosophist's view that the individual, on his or her own power, is capable of understanding the higher mysteries proved to be a source of trouble (Chase, 1908). For Bahá'ís, the individual is powerless before God, and all knowledge proceeds from the Manifestations of God; without such knowledge to illumine understanding, individual consciousness is likened to a darkened chamber. It was perhaps this quest for spiritual enlightenment that drew Dr. James C. Oakshette, a Canadian, to the Bahá'í Faith in Chicago. A Congregationalist Minister before becoming a Rosicrucian Master and then a Theosophist, Oakshette claimed to have converted to the Bahá'í Faith on 21 May 1897, at the same time as Lua Getsinger, a very prominent early American Bahá'í (Stockman, 1985: 90), but there is no record of him in the early Bahá'í membership lists (ibid., 1988). He moved to Toronto, perhaps later in the year 1897, where a Bahá'í, Jane T. Hall, 7 was already living (Toronto Directory, 1896). In 1911, he moved to the United States permanently, where he died in 1937.8 There were two more Canadian Theosophists who became Bahá'ís, Dr. James F. Carmichael9 and Emma Carmichael, both of whom retained church membership (Gibbons, 1992). When James Carmichael heard of the Bahá'í religion in May 1899 in Chicago he immediately converted (Star of the West, 2 March 1919, p. 223) as the 696th Bahá'í in Chicago (BEL).10 He took up residence in Brantford between 1910 and 1912,11 and showed up as a guest at a reception in
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'Abdu'lBahá's honour in Montreal in 1912 (NSA of Canada, 1962: 56); he received seven letters from 'Abdu'lBahá. 12 His wife, Emma, became a Bahá'í after the autumn of 1899 (Stockman, 1988). In 1908, she informed the Chicago House of Spirituality of her displeasure with the spot selected by the House of Spirituality for the future Bahá'í House of Worship (CHSR, 19 July 1908), complaining that it would take half a day to get to the temple—many Bahá'ís lived in south Chicago. Apparently, such complaints were not unusual in the Chicago Bahá'í community. She, too, received a letter from 'Abdu'lBahá (Star of the West, 19 April 1919, p. 29).13 Emma Carmichael's brotherinlaw, Colonel David Spence, was also a Bahá'í in Brantford. Spence's involvement with the new religion remains a mystery.14 He came from a prominent family, and "had become a Bahá'í in this century, and his tombstone in a Branford [sic] cemetery made reference to this fact" (Martin, 1987).15 The most nebulous religious background of some of the early Bahá'ís was Rosicrucianism.16 A secretive society whose followers claim to possess esoteric wisdom handed down from ancient times, Rosicrucianism derives its name from the order's symbol, a combination of a rose and a cross. The teachings of Rosicrucianism combine elements of occultism taken from a wide variety of religious beliefs and practices. The earliest mention of Rosicrucianism dates from 1614 and the teachings of its founder, Rosenkreuz, reflect alchemy, Christian gnosticism, Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah), and the Paraclesian medical tradition which stated that Rosicrucians must attend to the sick without charge. Mainly a religious and an intellectual approach to life, Rosicrucianism was revived in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It preaches general reformation and a new enlightenment, promises a new paradise, and teaches a combination of religious illumination, evangelical piety, and magic. Above all, the Society's teachings stimulate the individual to make the most of opportunities afforded by every day of mortal life. Its teachings include a respect for all religions and a belief in reincarnation. Its "very vagueness has helped it to survive," as it frequently changed its colour and shape (McIntosh, 1987). With its emphasis on enlightenment, reformation, and inner quest, one can readily see how some Rosicrucians might have been attracted to the Bahá'í Faith. The Rosicrucian belief in reincarnation, which remains a central tenet, runs counter to Bahá'í beliefs, however. This may have been the prime reason why, of the three religious strands mentioned so far, there are fewer Bahá'ís of Rosicrucian background. Aside from James Oakshette, there were at least three others, but they joined the Bahá'í community from the 1920s to the 1940s.
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Small and unsteady roots of the Bahá'í Faith were sprouting in other parts of Canada during the first decade of the twentieth century, namely, in British Columbia, Edmonton, and Winnipeg. Mrs. Mariella C. Ladd Oldendorf (1861?) moved to Benson Siding in 1910 and started a Bahá'í group there, which, in April 1918, was approved as an "Assembly" by Bahai Temple Unity (Star of the West, 17 May 1918, p. 46), but returned to Spokane, Washington, in 1923, after living for a time in Erie, British Columbia. 17 Edmonton, a town of under 25,000 people at the time, had one resident Bahá'í in 1913, Mrs. Esther Rennels,18 who first appears on an early Bahá'í enrollment list as the eightyseventh to have declared (BEL) in Chicago, well before 1899 (Edmonton City Directory, 1911 to 1917). The Bahá'í Faith must also have reached Winnipeg, Manitoba, for we find a lone financial contribution from an adherent, or a sympathizer, made to the Bahai Temple Unity between May 1910 and 29 April 1911 (Star of the West, 17 May 1911, p. 10). In May 1903 Thornton Chase had visited the city on a business trip, which he very likely combined as a Bahá'í trip.19 As far as we know, no visible results seemed to have come from either Mrs. Rennels or the unknown contributor from Canada's prairies. Early Visitors The first decade of the twentieth century marks the beginning of what eventually became countless Bahá'í travelling teaching trips from the United States to Canada. As a missionizing movement, the Bahá'í Faith very early on stressed the importance of undertaking travelling teaching trips to spread the religion. In the absence of a clergy, it was left to individuals to undertake this activity. Initially, a few teachers received remuneration. As translations of the Bahá'í writings later became more widely available, however, it became clear that Bahá'u'lláh expressly prohibited anyone from receiving payment for religious instruction. Henceforth, if a travelling teacher could not afford the expenses on his or her own account, the teacher could only be reimbursed for actual costs. We already know of Thornton Chase's business visit to Winnipeg in 1903. He made at least one other trip, to Victoria, British Columbia, this time in May 1908 (CHSR, 22 May 1908). Victoria had to wait another twentyeight years before records would show the next visit of a Bahá'í. We have already met in the previous chapter the other Bahá'í travellers to the prairies and to the West: Honoré and Aimée Jaxon,
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1906–1907. Honoré Jaxon returned to Canada for another extensive tour, primarily to promote the socialist cause, in 1911; his travels took him to Montreal and Ontario. Alma Knobloch, a GermanAmerican, also visited Canada. On the instructions of 'Abdu'lBahá, Knobloch visited St. Catharines, Ontario, in 1905 (BHRC). Lua Getsinger, another Bahá'í, visited Montreal in 1907, 1908, and 1909, "captivating everyone with her charm, beauty, and eloquence," when she spoke at large public meetings. 20 There were other Bahá'í visitors to Montreal. The first Persian Bahá'í to set foot on Canadian soil was 'Alí Kuli Khán, the Persian consul in Washington, DC. Khán, his wife, Florence Breed, and son Rahím, visited Montreal as guests of May Maxwell in the spring of 1906. He taught the Bahá'í Faith to large gatherings every night of his nineday visit. May Maxwell rented a house with a large parlour for these meetings (Gail, 1987: 221, 226). Miss Agnes Alexander of Hawaii, a prominent American Bahá'í, reported to have been the first Bahá'í to visit Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, in the summer of 1905. It is unknown whether she undertook any Bahá'í teaching work there (Anderson, 1987). Early Montreal The first Bahá'í decade in Canada witnessed the emergence of Montreal as the Bahá'í centre of activity. No wonder that several of the travelling teachers made a point of touching base with that city. Although there is evidence that Bahá'ís could be found in Edmonton, Winnipeg, Brantford, and Brockville, their numbers were few indeed, and the extent of their involvement with the Bahá'í Faith was either negligible or based on a strange admixture of personal beliefs and Bahá'í teachings. It was left to Montreal to provide the main stimulus to the growth of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada during the first three decades; Shoghi Effendi would later call Montreal "the mother city" of Canada (Effendi, 1965: 38). To many Bahá'ís, Montreal stands identified with May Maxwell, whom Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith termed the "spiritual mother of Canada" (National Spiritual Assembly, 1965: 22). Some scholars ignore the pivotal role an individual can play in elevating a new religion to a higher level of acceptance by the host society. Maxwell (née Ellis,1870–1940) should be regarded as such a figure. May Maxwell's presence not only attracted 'Abdu'lBahá to Montreal, determining forever the Canadian Bahá'í landscape, but her direct teaching work bore more fruit than that of any other known Bahá'í. She left a profound legacy to the Canadian Bahá'í community in terms
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of the countless people she encouraged to go elsewhere and establish the new religion all across Canada. May Maxwell's approach to the new religion, and her efforts to influence the causes of education, of African Canadians, and of the dispossessed, were of the first order. Unlike her Bahá'í predecessors in Canada, who were either infused with the spirit of the new religion, but were unable to translate that spirit into transforming social change, or who were quite adept in advancing social causes, but were not quite able to infuse their notions with an adequate knowledge of Bahá'í teachings, May Maxwell seemed to possess a gift to touch the material world with a spiritual flair. Born in Englewood, New Jersey, May Ellis spent her early years in the home of her maternal grandfather, a distinguished New York banker. 21 She rejected the usual way of acquiring knowledge. When she turned fourteen she no longer accepted formal schooling. Her childhood included visits to Paris, and eventually she lived there while her brother, Randolph, was undertaking architectural studies at l'École des Beaux Arts. The year 1898 was to be a turning point in her life. Seventeen years earlier, at the age of eleven, she had had an unusual dream pointing to the significance of the new religion (Holley, 1942: 633). Her spiritual receptivity was greatly sharpened by long bouts of ill health that were to accompany her the rest of her life.22 In November 1898 Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, a friend of the Ellis family, brought a group of American "tourists" to May's apartment in Paris—May Ellis' mother was chaperoning Hearst's two nieces. The group was going up the Nile in Egypt, but its final mission was to visit 'Abdu'lBahá in an Akka prison. May Ellis asked to join the group, and Hearst agreed (Maxwell, 1917). On 17 February 1899 Hearst and her group met 'Abdu'lBahá. May Ellis' meeting with 'Abdu'lBahá resulted in her involvement, and brought her alive when "her inertness [was] replaced by activity, … [and] her muteness by wonderful speech" (Holley, 1942: 634). Early in 1899 May returned to Paris, whereupon she, as the sole Bahá'í in Europe, immediately began to attract others to the new revelation. 'Abdu'lBahá had instructed May Ellis to remain in Paris despite her mother's wish to "spend the summer with the family in Brittany." Her mother seemed to have resented May Ellis' devotion to the new religion (Weinberg, 1993: 2). Almost three years later, the Paris Bahá'í group—the first in Europe—numbered nearly thirty (Holley, 1942: 634). During this time, she met William Sutherland Maxwell, also a student of architecture at l'École des Beaux Arts. Maxwell was a Cana
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dian of Scottish background, and a member of an old and noted Montreal family. The couple married on 8 May 1902 in London, England. At the age of thirtytwo, May Maxwell returned to North America, settling in Montreal in August 1902 (Golden, 1988). Eventually, her husband and his cousin, Martha MacBean, became Bahá'ís. As in Paris, May Maxwell's involvement with the new faith was so extensive that it brought forth results. But so, too, were May Maxwell's other activities in Montreal. She supported a "Children's" Court for Montreal and was the prime supporter of the Colborne Street Milk Station (Holley, 1942: 63637). 23 Later, in 1914, she was responsible for bringing a Montessori teacher from New York to Montreal, starting "the first school of this type in Canada in our own home…. It was through all this that I became interested in the movement for Progressive Education, of which I was practically a charter member" (cited in Holley, 1942: 637).24 Anxious, but initially unable, to conceive a child, the words of 'Abdu'lBahá's mother, Asiyih Khanum (Navvab), must have startled May Maxwell when she returned for another pilgrimage to the Holy Land in February 1909: "First as a young girl, now with your husband; on your next visit, you will come with your child!" (ibid.). Her daughter, Mary, was born on 10 August 1910 in New York City. By 1909 May Maxwell was serving on the "Unity Band," a Bahá'í organization set up to correspond with the Women's Assemblies of the East. May Maxwell's specific responsibilities included writing to the Bahá'í Women's Assembly in Zanján, Persia (Star of the West, 21 March 1910, p.4). Let us consider some of the early believers in Montreal whose conversions were the work of May Maxwell. While the activities of such early believers as Mary Coristine, Pauline Lahill,25 and Walker F. Hetherington remain fairly unknown, there were others who made significant contributions to both the Bahá'í community in particular and Canadian life as a whole. Martha MacBean, Arthur Armstrong, and Rose Henderson (née Wills) were some of these outstanding Montrealers. The Montreal Bahá'ís became such a pivotal group that it was assumed that it also had the first Bahá'ís who declared their faith in Canada—the reader recalls that May Maxwell became a Bahá'í in France. Both Sutherland Maxwell and his cousin Martha MacBean are claimed as the first converts. With respect to Sutherland Maxwell, there is no agreement as to when he accepted the new religion. According to some (Holley, 1942: 636), he became the "first" believer in 1903,
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although it can be more fairly said that he saw the light of the new religion later, in 1909, when he and May Maxwell went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. May Maxwell herself said he became a "confirmed Bahá'í" in 1914 (Letter from May Maxwell to Annie Savage, 31 August 1914, NBAC). Martha MacBean is, however, also considered to be the first Bahá'í in Montreal (["Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History"], n.d.; Sala, 1940), and, by implication, even the first in Canada ("Canadian Bahá'í Convention," 1948: 8). She seems to have had a difficult life. Her "life was of outer strain, married to a highly intelligent, but improvident husband," but she made an effort to visit the sick and the disconsolate (Sala, 1940). 26 Although neither Sutherland Maxwell nor McBean can be regarded as the first to become Bahá'ís in Canada (as the Magee family had already done so in London, Ontario, before 1900), they remained committed Bahá'ís for the rest of their lives—unusual for many of those early Canadian believers. Another relative of the Maxwell family to become a Bahá'í in those early days of Montreal was Germanborn Mrs. Jeanne Bolles, May Maxwell's sisterinlaw (RSP). She would later travel widely in Europe, visiting Bahá'í communities there. She enrolled as a Bahá'í no later than 1916 (AL). Professor Henry Armstrong provided the notable exception to the trend of primarily female declarants in the new religion. When he became a Bahá'í on 9 May 1908 (CHSR, 19 May 1908), he was associate professor of drawing at McGill Normal School. The year he was appointed professor of applied science at McGill University, he gave a presentation in 1910 at the second national convention of the "Bahai Temple Unity" of North America (Star of the West, 17 May 1910, p. 3). He was author of a textbook, Solid Geometry and Orthographical Projection (Morgan, 1912: 38). After 1916, Bahá'í records no longer show his name. A formidable early adherent was Dr. Rose Henderson, née Wills. Born in Ireland (The Globe and Mail, 1 February 1937), Henderson was one of the first women in Canada to obtain a Ph.D. Already in 1903 she appears as a Bahá'í in Montreal (Bahá'í World, 8: 636). Dr. Henderson's contributions to society have never been systematically studied, but one finds scattered references to them. A social worker, her activities proved to have a beneficial effect on the labour movement, the position of children (Light, 1990: 348) women, and peace. As was the case with Honoré Jaxon, Henderson championed socialist causes and the labour movement. A proponent of the rights of the working class, she saw middleclass rule as a "tragedy" (Caplan,
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1973: 25). The Toronto Star (cited in Roberts and Turnell, 1936: 497) stated that she was "the best known speaker in the Labour movement." The Windsor Tribune described her as a speaker of "rare ability, marshalling her facts clearly and delivering them with a force that carries conviction" (also cited in ibid.). In an interview with the Montreal Daily Star (11 September 1912) Henderson made the following rhetorical statement: "We have established bureaux for the investigation of agriculture, forestry, mines, astronomy, bees, hogs and insects, but the human race, the most wonderful and sacred of all God's creatures has been the last thing to receive attention." Henderson was alerting her readers to the fact that the country's legislators had dealt only with the production and protection of wealth and with the adult— ''mostly with the male adult." According to her, society had imposed immense reponsibilities on mothers, without enabling them to fulfil these obligations; she spoke against "good advice, gifts, and doles," miscalled charity. More importantly, she argued against the separation of children from mothers when society used poverty as an excuse, stating that institutional care cannot replace the nurturing love received at home. Finally, she reminded her readers in the above interview that in 1912 a Member of Parliament had suggested that some $10 million of the $39 million surplus be spent on the navy; "Would we not better spend a little money in defense of mothers and children?" Early in her career she published a little book of stories and poetry about poor children, Kids What I Knows (1902). Her foreword states that, "Man through his love of power and greed for gold has created poverty (the worst of all crimes) and through the unequal distribution of wealth he has compelled unequal opportunity." After two years of voluntary service helping children who appeared in the police courts, she had gathered enough facts to assist the federal government in establishing juvenile courts. She was also an early advocate of the Big Sister and Big Brother movement (Roberts and Turnell, 1936: 497). She, as well, appeared before a Parliamentary Committee advocating the establishment of an oldage and mothers' pension. Widely travelled (to England, and across Canada) she moulded public opinion in favour of these pensions. As a maternal feminist, she not only spoke to the economic causes of war, but also to women's "maternal aversion to violence and war." Henderson's perspective "was a unique blend of socialist and feminist ideas" which she brought to bear on the establishment of peace (Sangster, 1989: 12122). She was the sole Canadian delegate of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom at The Hague Conference
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(1922), and was an active member of the Toronto Board of Education. Henderson organized a peace poster contest in Toronto's technical schools, in which Arthur Lismer (of the Group of Seven painters) exhibited. In 1936 she became a "leading figure" in the Toronto Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) 27 Women's Joint Committee, while at the same time serving on the executive of the Ontario Labour Party (Socknat, 1987: 107, 13234, 325). This reformer's activities extended further than the labour movement, children, and women. She also succeeded in getting Parliament to amend the Drug Act to prevent the sale of medications, except by doctor's prescription. Another Bahá'í in England, Dr. John Esslemont, who would later write one of the most thorough introductions to the Bahá'í Faith, was apparently also involved in promoting drug legislation. Like other early Bahá'ís, Henderson had difficulty in separating her personal opinion from the Bahá'í teachings. This led to an occasional clash with the Bahá'í point of view. Though formally still a member until the early 1930s, Henderson's involvement with the Bahá'í community may have already been declining by the mid1920s (ca. 1924, EVH). Towards the end of her life—she died in 1937—Rose completely lost contact with the Bahá'í community (Estall and Sala, 1987). By that time, however, she had become a Quaker and was participating in the work of Theosophists. By 1906 the Bahá'í community's activities were regularly noted by the American Bahá'ís. The Montreal Bahá'ís received circulars, such as those from Mason Remey, a prominent early American believer, asking people to sign a petition for 'Abdu'lBahá to come to North America (CHSR, 30 April 1906). The activities of May Maxwell were progressing so well that on 19 May 1908 Montreal's sixteen believers designated themselves as the "Montreal Branch of the Baha'i Temple Association" (CHSR, 19 May 1908).28 Four years later, the Montreal Bahá'ís were ready to receive 'Abdu'lBahá. His keystone visit would transform the loosely knit group of individuals into an awareness of themselves as a community. Notes 1. James Kerr prepared this discussion of Methodism, basing it on the works of Currie (1968), Fishburn (1981), Handy (1966), Lee (1958), Riddel (1946), and Sanderson (1910). 2. The National Art Gallery in Ottawa held two of his paintings in storage in 1993.
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3. In 1878, Percy married Aloysia, daughter of John Pratt, president of the Richelieu and Ontario Navigation Society. They had a daughter, May, of whom we later hear nothing in life. 4. There is a humorous, but confirmed, anecdote of two believers, Hooper Harris and Harlan Ober, Climbing to the top of one of the Pyramids near Cairo. Coping with sunstroke, Hooper exclaimed, "as for the mysteries of the Pyramids, I am perfectly willing to leave them to Brother Woodcock … !" (HHP, 2 June 1907). 5. Promulgation of Universal Peace ('Abdu'lBahá, 1982: 58, 87, 156, 238, 462), Paris Talks (1972: 127), and Talks in Europe and America, Arabic text ('Abdu'lBahá, n.d.: 57, 69, 209, 253, 405, 413) contain the text of his talks to the Theosophists. 6. James Kerr provided this synopsis of Theosophy, basing it on Kingsland (1985), Meade (1980), and Ryan (1975). 7. Jane may be related to William J. Hall, who served as a Toronto alderman at various times between 1891 and 1902. She had enrolled in the Bahá'í Faith, possibly late 1897, the 118th to do so in Chicago (BEL). 8. According to P. Smith (1982: 16162), Oakshette was still a priest in the (Theosophical) Liberal Catholic Church, even after having remained an active Bahá'í for almost a thrid of a century. 9. He was born in 1860 in Portage Du Fort in Québec. 10. With a bachelor's degree from Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, and a graduate of Osgoode Hall Law School at the University of Toronto, he arrived in Chicago as a lawyer. There he expanded his interests and graduated from Bennett's Medical College. 11. Star of the West, 1(5) (5 June 1910): 13, gives a report by James Carmichael on Bahá'í activities in Chicago; we therefore assume he stayed in Chicago until then. 12. He died on 6 December 1918 in Brantford, Ontario, after three years of debilitating neuritis (Collins, 1988). 13. Of the other individuals mentioned in this tablet from 'Abdu'l'Bahá, we know only that May Maxwell was a Bahá'í, and cannot ascertain about the others: Mrs. Mabel David Reley and Mrs. Emma Reasner. 14. From the Orkney Islands, David (d. 1920) emigrated to Canada, served as officer of the Dufferin Rifles, and fought in the Fenian Raids of 1866, retiring as Colonel. 15. The author visited the cemetery in Brantford, but found on the simple tombstone no reference to the fact that David Spence was a Bahá'í. The Spence family was Presbyterian. 16. Based on the works of Heindel (1950), Lewis (1971), Yates (1971), but especially McIntosh (1987), James Kerr's synopsis provides the substance of this section. 17. "Membership List," 14 April 1913, AL, Box 27, Folder 18. 18. Ibid.
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19. Chase's trip must have taken place between 19 and 23 May 1903, as indicated by his correspondence from Chicago (18 May 1903 and 24 May 1903, TCP). 20. Letter from Lua Getsinger to Elsie Pomeroy, n.d., RSP. 21. The biographical account of May Maxwell's life is taken from a variety of sources, including Holley (1942). 22. One is reminded, however, of scholarly work that has dealt with the "sexual politics of sickness" which, no doubt, touched the lives of affluent women at the turn of the century. These scholars, for example, suggest that "sickness, having become a way of life, became a way of rebellion" (Ehrenreich and English, 1989: 125). 23. Citing James Morgan (1912), Keith Bloodworth (1993: 23) confirms that May Maxwell was a councillor for the Children's Aid Society. 24. "The Contents of the Bahá'í Shrine," MBSA (July 1971): 15. A history of Montessori education (Lillard, 1972: 8) does not indicate who brought Montessori to Canada. Montessori's first account dates back to 1909, and she made an extensive tour to the United States in 1912. By 1915, a prominent educator had critized her methods, and the Montessori system of education had to wait to be resurrected in North America in 1957, five years after her death (Lillard, 1972: 16). 25. Pauline Lahill was probably a seeker in 1906 when she requested the Chicago House of Spirituality to send her a copy of Baha'u'lláh's book, The Hidden Words (CHSR, 31 August 1906). 26. She passed away in Montreal in September 1941. 27. The acronym stands for the socialist political party that was transformed into the New Democratic Party (NDP) in 1961. 28. The erection of a Bahá'í Temple near Chicago became the primary focus of North American Bahá'í activities. Montreal, as an organized Bahá'í community, took its name as an association of the Bahá'í Temple. In 1909, the national North American Bahá'í body became known as Bahai Temple Unity.
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Four — 'Abdu'lBahá and the Press in Canada, 1912 So far, the social makeup of the early Canadian Bahá'í movement could not lend itself to the formation of a Bahá'í identity. Their spiritual roots allowed them to profess their beliefs in a highly individualistic manner, mirroring an amalgam of turnofthecentury liberal thought or socialism. Moreover, there were no adequate compilations of basic Bahá'í tenets (the translations that existed were often of dubious value) that exercised enough influence to create a sense of community among the few scattered Bahá'ís in Canada. Even May Maxwell's efforts, however vigorous, were not able to bring the Bahá'ís to a level of organization or commitment that was needed to create a community, however rudimentary. It was 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Montreal in 1912 that proved to be critical. True, the number of Bahá'ís did not increase appreciably through his visit, but his visit infused the Bahá'ís with a sense of themselves as a community. The press coverage he received in Montreal—the best of his tours in Europe and North America—was more important for conveying to the Bahá'ís their direction as a community than it was for immediately propagating the new religion. May Maxwell had prepared Montreal well for a visit by 'Abdu'lBahá in 1912. To Bahá'ís, 'Abdu'lBahá was more than a son of Bahá'u'lláh, the prophetfounder of their religion. Bahá'u'lláh, in numerous writings on protecting the new revelation from internal schisms and external attacks, designated 'Abdu'lBahá as the "Centre of the Covenant" and as the "Authoritative Interpreter" of the Bahá'í teachings after the founder's death in 1892. The person of 'Abdu'lBahá was so charismatic and powerfully magnetic that many Bahá'ís, especially in the West, personally identified the new religion with him. It is often said that these Bahá'ís were better known as "'Abdu'lBahá'ís." 'Abdu'lBahá, now sixtyfour years old, was released from prison after the Young Turk revolution in 1908. Despite his imprisonment, 'Abdu'lBahá's fame had spread in the Middle East, where he was known for his charitable works, wisdom, and sagacious advice to both
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high and low alike. Outside the Middle East, he was principally known to the British government and to French scholars. After his release from prison 'Abdu'lBahá continued to correspond with a growing number of followers in Burma, India, South Africa, Europe, and North America, in addition to those in his native land, Persia. After a sojourn in Europe and a return visit to Egypt in 1911, 'Abdu'lBahá, who was now referred to as 'The Master,' undertook an extended tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The early Bahá'ís in North America eagerly awaited his coming. For some, it meant that they would see 'Abdu'lBahá once again; for others, it meant a firsttime acquaintance with a leader who led an active and saintly life. 'Abdu'lBahá travelled from Alexandria, Egypt, to Italy and boarded the S.S. Cedric in Naples on 24 March 1912, heading for America (Balyuzi, 1971: 171). He was accompanied by a Canadian family, the Woodcocks. The Bahá'ís of North America had offered 'Abdu'lBahá passage on the S.S. Titanic, which he declined, preferring, instead, the slower vessel. After his arrival in New York, and after receiving news of the sinking of the S.S. Titanic, 'Abdu'lBahá made the point that human safety should precede all technological developments ('Abdu'lBahá, 1982: 48). At least three months before his visit to North America, 'Abdu'lBahá had decided to visit Montreal (Montreal Daily Star, 10 February 1912, p. 14). His appreciation and his fondness for the Maxwell family of Montreal, now with a child, was well known. Yet some of the Bahá'ís, including Percy Woodcock, 1 advised 'Abdu'lBahá against travelling to Montreal, saying "the majority of the inhabitants are Catholics, and are in the utmost fanaticism, that they are submerged in the sea of imitations …" (cited in 'Abdu'lBahá, 1977). 'Abdu'lBahá, however, was firm in his intentions to carry out his visit. Despite successful newspaper coverage during his sojourn in Montreal, there is a surprising dearth of information about his trip.2 There are also discrepancies about the published dates of his visit.3 Finally, one finds contradictory statements of fact.4 In 1912 Montreal was undergoing the most rapid expansion in its history (Lovell, 1913). The city numbered 530,437 people. Ambitious plans to construct train tunnels under Mount Royal and the St. Lawrence River began in summer 1912 (Cooper, 1969: 129). The Canadian boom period that started about 1896 continued until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, but the poor suffered, unable to keep up with spiralling prices (ibid.: 130). "General prosperity, scientific advance, and big business" (ibid.: 122) moulded Montreal in particular.
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The position of Englishspeaking Canadians was at its peak, and they comprised one third of the total population. The francophone component remained over 60%, but did not generally participate in these developments (ibid.: 124). In 1912 the Boundaries Extension Act settled the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. It was under these conditions of rising prosperity and political maturation that the anglophone Bahá'ís of Montreal eagerly looked forward to the visit of 'Abdu'lBahá. Any Montrealers who wanted to make an appointment with 'Abdu'lBahá could telephone the Maxwell home at "Uptown 3015" (Montreal Daily Star, 31 August 1912, p. 1). His sojourn coincided with the Labour Day weekend, when many Montrealers left the city to spend the last weekend of summer at their cottages or rallied at organized Labour Day parades. Friday, 30 August 1912 5 When 'Abdu'lBahá finished his visit to the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Eliot, Maine, he returned to Boston and on Friday at 9:00 a.m., 30 August 1912, boarded a train for Montreal. On the way to Montreal, 'Abdu'lBahá met a Canadian who conversed with him.6 Scheduled to arrive at 8:40 p.m.,7 the train apparently arrived "towards midnight." 'AbdulBahá was met at the Windsor train station on Peel Street by W. Sutherland Maxwell.8 "In the full brightness of a summer moon," and accompanied by his translator, Ahmad Sohrab, and his diarist, MahmoudiZarqání,9 'Abdu'lBahá proceeded in a carriage to 716 Pine Avenue West,10 the compact fourstory Maxwell home, where reporters and Bahá'í friends greeted him.11 Many neighbours watched him through their windows to catch the "first glimpse of this white robed majestic figure."12 Numerous people had already inquired by telephone and letter about him. The Maxwell family had done everything possible to make the visit memorable, even buying new furniture for the celebrated occasion. 'Abdu'lBahá was to use the three upper stories of the house.13 The home was set in an exclusive area of the city, part way up Mount Royal and within a few minutes walking distance from the new growing centre of the city. The strain of arranging the visit must have shown on May Maxwell, for 'Abdu'lBahá said, "You are tired having undergone much trouble. You must rest for the time being," to which May replied that "this exhaustion was the greatest repose of [my] life."14
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His days in Montreal were marked by seven informal presentations and eight public presentations. 15 More than 2,500 people had an opportunity to hear him speak. During this visit, he crisscrossed the city on foot, by streetcar, and taxi, visiting cathedrals and churches, the East End of the city, Mount Royal, and the downtown area. The press, both in English and in French, covered his visit; it was the most extensive press coverage of his North American and European tours. Instead of spending two or three days in Montreal as 'Abdu'lBahá had planned,16 he lengthened his stay to a full nine days. Throughout his stay the weather was most unpleasant, and 'Abdu'lBahá caught a cold. Only three days were dry; on the other six days it either showered or poured rain. Temperatures were below average. Saturday, 31 August 1912 On this bleak, cool, and grey day, 'Abdu'lBahá started early, with his characteristic vigour, buying watches and rings which he distributed to those he met.17 The pastor of the Unitarian Church, Rev. Frederick R. Griffin, paid him a visit, whereupon 'Abdu'lBahá presented him with an "armful of gorgeous American Beauty roses," which happened to be standing in a vase nearby.18 People flocked to him at the Maxwell home.19 That morning he also visited a sick child at 715 Pine Avenue West, across the street from the Maxwells' house.20 Geraldine Birks was the child, daughter of Presbyterians John Henry (1870–1949) and Annie (née McNeill) Birks, who, in 1912, owned six jewellery stores across Canada.21 Geraldine, reflecting on that event some seventynine years later, did not remember 'Abdu'lBahá visiting her. She did, however, remember her family saying that Mrs. Maxwell "had invited a guru from India," and that, indeed, she was sick.22 A reporter from The Standard visited 'Abdu'lBahá the same morning. Greeting him warmly, 'Abdu'lBahá "spoke in clear resounding tones carrying the ring of sincerity with them." When asked whether he had a message for the Canadian people, he said: You have a very beautiful country and you must be very happy here. My message to the Canadian people is this: 'Your country is very prosperous and very delightful in every aspect; you have peace and security amidst you; happiness and composure are your friends; surely you must thank God you are so submerged in the sea of His mercy. (The Standard, 31 August 1912, p. 13)
'Abdu'lBahá, in this interview, also spoke of Montreal as a "city of wonderful progress and prosperity."
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During lunch in the afternoon, W.S. Maxwell told the assembled guests of his experience at the Customs House. The inspector had opened the first box, found a picture of 'Abdu'lBahá, and taking it in his hand, he said, "It is the likeness of the prophet of Persia?" When W.S. Maxwell replied in the affirmative, the inspector said, "There is no need of searching these goods." 23 In the afternoon visitors continued to come,24 and W.S. Maxwell then invited 'Abdu'lBahá for a ride in the city. In passing some university buildings, 'Abdu'lBahá spoke of the need to combine natural sciences and "divine philosophies" to ensure human advancement; otherwise, "these universities do not produce inventive heads endowed with sciences." His carriage also passed the Unitarian Church of the Messiah, on the corner of Sherbrooke West and Simpson Streets, where he was to give an address the next day.25 The carriage then reached the Roman Catholic Cathedral of MarieReineduMonde (Mary Queen of the World) on the corner of Dorchester26 and Mansfield, a scaleddown replica of St. Peter's in Rome with statues above the façade representing patron saints.27 There were only a few Montreal buildings like the cathedral that provided a break in the otherwise drab downtown skyline of Montreal, filled with "workmanlike" factories and buildings.28 'Abdu'lBahá spoke of the "grandeur and embellishments" of the church, built in 1829, and, standing in front of the door, told the friends who accompanied him: "Behold what eleven disciples have done. How they effaced themselves! I exhort you to walk in their footsteps. When a person is severed, he is capable of revolutionizing the whole world."29 'Abdu'lBahá took his seat in the carriage again and recounted the unimaginable hardships his family suffered during exile and imprisonment, and the impact of his father's religion in upraising believers in North America.30 In the evening, the Maxwells held a reception in 'Abdu'lBahá's honour for the believers and "intimate friends" of the new religion,31 with 'Abdu'lBahá giving his own greetings.32 Many people waited for a private interview with 'Abdu'lBahá, including Mr. H.A. Goulden, who headed a socialist organization whose members were on strike.33 'Abdu'lBahá's Bahá'í associates suggested, given the fact that he was so tired, that people should return the next day. He answered, "No, this is the time to work. We must not think of exhaustion or anything else. Let every one come to me."34
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Sunday, 1 September 1912 On Sunday, 'Abdu'lBahá gave his now wellknown address at the (Unitarian) Church of the Messiah, 35 on the topic "The Oneness of Religion." On preparing to leave for the church, he called his diarist, Mahmoud, to sit with him in the carriage. When the Persian companion showed some hesitation by replying that there was plenty of room on another seat, 'Abdu'lBahá insisted: "Come and sit here. When I see someone selfish and hankering after rank, I observe these formalities for his correction merely. Everyone may sit wherever he wishes. These things are entirely unimportant.36 Upon arrival at the church on treelined Sherbrooke Avenue, "Montreal's Fifth Avenue," he found Rev. Frederick R. Griffin37 waiting for him outside the door. The grey outside light rehabilitated itself as it passed through the beautiful stained glass windows. The pastor, after proffering his chair to 'Abdu'lBahá and following some hymns and readings from the Book of Isaiah,38 introduced him as the "temple of kindness," "the sign of love," and the "inspirer of the present thoughts and the expounder of the happiness of this great cycle.''39 Among those attending the service were Turks and Arabs who came to offer their respects to 'Abdu'lBahá.40 It was a singularly happy occasion for W.S. Maxwell to have 'Abdu'lBahá speak in a church of which he was the architect. The church was finished in 1905, replacing one built in 1844,41 the same year that 'Abdu'lBahá was born. In the afternoon, 'Abdu'lBahá spoke at 716 Pine Avenue West,42 attracting persons of "different nationalities" who had telephoned earlier; a number of Turks were in attendance.43 This was perhaps the occasion when a server spilled some hot water over her hand, seriously scalding it. 'Abdu'lBahá held her hand and assured her, "It will be all right, it will be all right. You will be laughing soon." Later, the woman reported to a Bahá'í, that, after 'Abdu'lBahá's reassuring words and touch, her hand "no longer bothered her."44 Showers during the day prevented 'Abdu'lBahá from taking his preferred afternoon walk. In the evening 'Abdu'lBahá spoke at the Maxwell home.45 He delivered his talk with such enthusiasm that his turban fell from his head and rolled on the floor. He continued, nevertheless, speaking half an hour more.46 The enthusiastic crowd prevented his going up to his room; "spellbound," they listened to what he had to say. Even then, a few wished to have a private audience with him in his room. That same evening 'Abdu'lBahá decided to move to a hotel,47 despite entreaties by the Maxwells to dissuade him.48
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It is unclear why 'Abdu'lBahá moved to a hotel. According to his diarist, 'Abdu'lBahá had stated that a "traveller must stay in a hotel." 49 Others said that 'Abdu'l Bahá felt that people would be reluctant to come to a private home. Still others50 thought that too many people were coming to the home, either leaving him with too little private time or imposing a heavy burden on the Maxwell household. 'Abdu'lBahá exercised a magnetic influence, even on those who had not yet met him. The story of Annie Savage, a "Dickens' type of spinster," illustrates such an influence, as told by her to Dorothy Ward (now Wade): [Annie Savage] had read in the paper that he ['Abdu'lBahá] was coming. She said to her sisters, "I'm going to see that man." They said, "Why on earth would you want to see a foreign man like that?" She said, "I must go.'' She got into her little cart and horse, and came. She said, "I was so shy when I saw him. He motioned for me to come to that side, but, I couldn't. I was so shy, but it was so wonderful just to stand there and see him," although I knew nothing about him, nothing about the [Bahá'í] Faith.51
Others, like Mildred ("Milli") Rina Gordon, who became a wellknown Montreal comédienne, and Rosemary Sala (née Gillies) would recall having a vision of 'Abdu'l Bahá at the time, but not encountering the Bahá'í Faith until many years later.52 Monday, 2 September 'Abdu'lBahá's visit gained fame when he received even more visitors on Monday. He breakfasted with a number of invited guests.53 In the morning, he visited a neighbour of the Maxwells who had previously reproached May Maxwell, but who now begged her on the telephone to have 'Abdu'lBahá visit her.54 Afterwards, he moved into the Windsor Hotel in the centre of the city, taking a suite of three rooms.55 No other hotel in Montreal was so identified with splendour and elegance. The architect, G.H. Worthington, conceived this Second Empire structure with Georgian and Renaissance details, in the 1870s. The hotel conferred "undisputed social dignity," and it had complete Egyptian and Turkish salons.56 Dominion Square, which had Windsor Hotel on one of its corners, gave Montreal its "Continental look."57 In the afternoon, university professors, church ministers, and the press came to the hotel.58 A reporter from the Toronto Star Weekly interviewed him and asked if 'Abdu'lBahá intended to visit Toronto or any cities in western Canada. He replied it would be impossible at that time, "But you may tell your people, that I am very pleased with your coun
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try. It is a prosperous and delightful land," whereupon he handed the reporter a "handsome gold ring," 59 a number of which he had bought on his way to the hotel.60 The samovars steaming, tea and sweets were served to all by 'Abdu'lBahá's Persian attendants.61 In the evening, 'Abdu'lBahá took a streetcar to the Maxwell home.62 Montreal had one of the most progressive street railway systems in North America, totalling some 232 track miles (Grumley, 1992) and 'Abdu'lBahá found his way around the city with relative ease. In preparing to go the Maxwells, the Bahá'í friends asked if they should call a carriage for him, whereupon he replied, "It matters little. It saves expenses. There is a difference of one dollar in the fare." After his arrival, he gave one sterling pound to each of the servants.63 He spoke in the drawing room64 on Pine Avenue,65 a meeting which was well attended.66 After the meeting, he shook hands with all and retired upstairs to his room, granting private audiences to certain individuals.67 Tuesday, 3 September 1912 Tuesday was a cloudy and dull day, interspersed with showers. 'Abdu'lBahá was once again meeting with professors and ministers. One of the first callers was the principal of McGill University, Dr. William Peterson. To him, 'Abdu'lBahá explained the Bahá'í principles, adding: these are the aims of the people of Bahá'u'lláh. Do you not wish to do the same work? You also should strive that the real oneness of the world of humanity may be realised; that mankind may be free from prejudices and relieved from wars and conflicts. It is for this that we are striving.68
A pastor from a Negro Church in Montreal came by, hoping that 'Abdu'lBahá would have time to speak to his congregation69 on St. Antoine Street. The afternoon was spent reading the mail and receiving more guests.70 The guests left, and 'Abdu'lBahá, who was quite tired, decided to go out alone for a walk.71 He used the opportunity to take a streetcar that went far out of central Montreal and then took yet another streetcar. One unconfirmed account has 'Abdu'lBahá going towards the east end of the city, the francophone area, and visiting Parc Lafontaine.72 'Abdu'lBahá then took a taxi and guided it back to the Windsor Hotel, although he could not remember the hotel's name.73 His evening address to 500 socialists at Coronation Hall at 204 St. Lawrence Street,74 (now 1074 Boulevard St. Laurent), on the topic of "The Economic Happiness of the Human Race,"75 gave 'Abdu'lBahá
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an opportunity to expound on Bahá'í economic teachings. Mr. H.A. Goulden, president of the socialist group, was speaking when 'Abdu'lBahá arrived, but the president stepped forward to welcome him. He introduced him as one who will "teach us the principle of brotherhood, prosperity, and upliftment of the poor." The audience broke into spontaneous applause, and "divided into the surging sea of joy which was stirred within them." 76 The question period was interrupted by further outbursts of applause "so intense that the walls of the building seemed to vibrate to the foundation.'' Only politeness and a concern for the health of 'Abdu'lBahá ended the meeting.77 Wednesday, 4 September 1912 This was a day of pouring rain with cool temperatures. In the morning 'Abdu'lBahá read newspaper accounts of his visit.78 He commented on the success of the meetings: "This is all through the confirmations of the Blessed Beauty [i.e., Bahá'u'lláh]. Otherwise even if the King of Persia had come here, he would not have been able to attract such meetings."79 Despite the inclement weather, 'Abdu'lBahá obviously enjoyed, moving about the city, for in the afternoon he went on another car ride and took the elevator up the mountain,80 commenting that the perpendicular ride was "like a balloon which flies in the air."81 The "Mountain Elevator," or inclinerailway, was opened during 1886. The elevator consisted of two counterbalanced cabledrawn cars, climbing from Fletcher's Field to the top.82 The thrilling ride up the mountain on the steamdriven elevator, which cost five cents, took the party to a spectacular lookout. On top, 'Abdu'lBahá walked to and fro on the EastEnd Lookout, admiring the view.83 After descending from the mountain, he headed for 716 Pine Avenue West, where letters from the East were waiting for him.84 During the evening, 'Abdu'lBahá once again spoke at the Maxwell home,85 to a large gathering of Americans, Canadians, Turks, and Arabs, who all enjoyed sweets and sherbet at the end of the evening.86 The Maxwell home seemed a most appropriate place to have such gatherings. The building87 itself reflected "exquisite workmanship" and gave a "museumlike appearance." Later, Shoghi Effendi would declare that the Maxwell Home "should be viewed in the nature of a national shrine, because of its association with ['Abdu'lBahá]"88 and that it was "destined to be regarded as the foremost Bahá'í shrine throughout that Dominion [Canada]."89 The house would be given by Rúhíyyih
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Khánum —who was the twoyearold Mary Maxwell in 1912—to the Bahá'ís of Canada in 1953. Thursday, 5 September 1912 After three days of steady rain, Thursday was dry and warm. The Archbishop of Montreal, Msgr. Louis Joseph Paul Bruchési, paid a visit to 'Abdu'lBahá, expressing his pleasure at the meeting and gratitude for "the address concerning the purpose of the Manifestation of Christ and the other holy Manifestations." 90 'Abdu'lBahá invited the Archbishop, who took great interest in Orientals,91 to come to his public address at the St. James Methodist Church later that day.92 Other visitors included a rabbi93 and the editor of an "illustrated magazine" from Toronto. 'Abdu'lBahá and his party arrived at St. James Methodist Church, on the north side of SaintCatherine and west of Bleury. Inspired by French cathedral architecture, the church was one of the most beautiful in Montreal and was praised by many visitors.94 The church, called the "Westminster Abbey of Canada,"95 and the "Cathedral Church of Methodism,"96 was the largest Methodist church in the world, seating 2,700 people. An electric sign announced that the "Prophet of the East'' would deliver an address regarding the principles of the Bahá'í Cause and the "slavation of the world of humanity." 'Abdu'lBahá expressed grave concern at people's habit of referring to him as a "Prophet"; he corrected that mistaken impression in his talk.97 A crowd of 1,200 people98 arose when 'AbdulBahá came into the auditorium.99 Rev. Herbert Symonds, the Anglican vicar of Christ Church Cathedral, introduced him.100 'Abdu'lBahá then spoke101 on "The Bahá'í Principles for the Happiness of the Human Race." Recorder Robert Weir of the church thanked him for his lecture.102 After the church visit, 'Abdu'lBahá caught a cold and he had to dealy his departure from Montreal.103 Friday, 6 September 1912 On 6 September, the anniversary of Jacques Cartier's birth, 'Abdu'lBahá spent most of the day in the Windsor Hotel, dropping into the room of his diarist, Mahmoud.104 Based on 'Abdu'lBahá's previously planned itineary, some newspapers announced that he already had left Montreal for Chicago.105 Later that day, he went to the Maxwell home.106 The weather was seasonally cooler, but fair, a continuing reprieve from the wet and cold spell.
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That evening May Maxwell expressed her profound gratitude at being "blessed with a dear baby," Mary. 107 Mary, now two years old, sat often on 'Abdu'lBahá's lap. He would stroke her curls, saying, "She is precious! She is precious!"108 Bahá'ís would later frequently refer to these words when, twentyfive years later, Mary Maxwell married Shoghi Effendi. May Maxwell also shared with 'Abdu'lBahá her thoughts to the effect that W.S. Maxwell had, at first, no interest in the Bahá'í Faith and that he had discouraged her from speaking to him about it. Now, however, her husband was extremely pleased with 'Abdu'lBahá's stay in his home.109 'Abdu'lBahá presented a rug to W.S. Maxwell.110 May Maxwell would later tell her daughter Mary that 'Abdu'lBahá had said in, effect, "this is my home."111 Saturday, 7 September 1912 Little is known about the activities of 7 September. Nevertheless, in the morning people continued to visit 'Abdu'lBahá at the hotel.112 In the afternoon, he spoke to a group of other visitors.113 Like a number of other days in Montreal, we lack certain details about 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to the city. For example, the prime minister of Canada, Sir Robert Borden, shared the same hotel during 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, but we do not know if contact was ever made between 'Abdu'lBahá and Borden, who had just arrived in Montreal from a successful trip to Great Britain. The year 1912 marked nearly a hundred years of peace between Great Britain and the United States. Following a milelong parade with fireworks and bands—the inclement weather had cleared by then—the prime minister moved into the Windsor Hotel. There is thus no evidence that 'Abdu'lBahá met Prime Minister Borden, either casually or at the lavish reception organized in the hotel on his behalf.114 Mahmoud's diary is silent on this point. Sunday, 8 September 1912 Nearing the end of his sojourn in Montreal, 'Abdu'lBahá spent a quiet Sunday at the Windsor Hotel, his last full day. In both the morning and afternoon he spoke there.115 In addressing his friends, he said, "I have sown the seed. Now water it. You must educate the souls in divine morals, make them spiritual, and lead them to the oneness of humanity and to universal peace."116
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Map 1 Montreal Sites Visited by 'Abdu'lBahá, 30 August through 9 September 1912 1. Maxwell home, 1548 Ave. des Pins Ouest. 2. Unitarian Church of the Messiah, Sherbrooke/Simpson. 3. Windsor Hotel, Peel/René Lévesque. 4. Mary Queen of the World Cathedral, Mansfield/René Lévesque. 5. St. James United Church (formerly Methodist), 463 Ste. Catherine Ouest. 6. Coronation Hall, 1074 St. Laurent (formerly 204 St. Lawrence Blvd.). 7. Parc Lafontaine. 8. Mount Royal Train Elevator (demolished), Ave. des Pins Ouest/Ave. du Parc. 9. Mount Royal Chalet Lookout, Parc Mont Royal. 10. Windsor Station (formerly Grand Trunk Railway), De La Gauchetière/Peel. (Map drawn by Marta Wojnarowska)
Monday, 9 September 1912 September 9 marked another day of showers, but 'Abdu'lBahá's departure for Toronto (en route to Buffalo) was already arranged. The group paid a bill of $700 for the stay in the Windsor Hotel. The diarist Mahmoud was asked to take personal charge of 'Abdu'lBahá's luggage. When, instead, the hotel staff took his luggage, Mahmoud was chastised, for 'Abdu'lBahá's luggage contained valuable documents and writings that he intended to present to the "libraries of London and
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Paris." At the Grand Trunk Railway station, the chief customs inspector and his assistants cleared the luggage without any inspection, stating that they had no reason to inspect the luggage of Bahá'ís. The influence of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit spread beyond the approximately 2,500 people in Montreal who heard him speak or had direct personal contact with him. Some 440,000 readers of Montreal's lively press, in English and in French, also became aware of his visit and teachings. The Press in Montreal The highly competitive atmosphere of Montreal newspapers provided a vital response of the press to 'Abdu'lBahá's visit. There were at least twelve dailies 117 and another fourteen weekly magazines and newspapers,118 serving some 200,000 households (Beaulieu and Hamelin, 1973 to 1982). The Montreal press was balkanized. The smallest (Le Devoir) and largest (La Presse) dailies were both in French. The daily newspapers served parallel audiences: Catholics, Protestants, francophones, English mercantilists, Conservatives, Liberals, Empire Loyalists, Irish Catholics, and radical liberals. The weeklies tended to serve smaller interest groups, including Italians, literary people, rural populations, evangelical Protestants, religious radicals, and political independents. Despite the distractions of Labour Day weekend activities inside and outside the city, and the interest that Prime Minister Borden's visit generated in the press, newspapers provided ample coverage of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to the city. Ten of the twelve dailies (five Englishlanguage and five Frenchlanguage papers) covered his visit in thirtyfour articles; one of the English weekly newspapers also responded. Eight photographs of 'Abdu'lBahá appeared in these papers. However, there were almost three times more (N = 25) Englishlanguage articles than Frenchlanguage ones (N = 9). The press coverage peaked on 4 and 6 September. The presentations at Coronation Hall and the Methodist Church provoked the most interest among the press. His talk at the Unitarian Church of the Messiah received far less publicity. Interest by the press waned after 6 September, because it was widely accepted119 that 'Abdu'lBahá would leave for Chicago immediately after his evening address at the Methodist Church on 5 September. Not only was the response a measure of the breadth of coverage and of the particular nature of the press in Montreal, but it also indicated the kinds of topics the newspapers thought relevant and interesting about 'Abdul'lBahá's sojourn.
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Political Attributes of, and Bahá'í Coverage by, the Montreal Press The Montreal Daily Star, The Gazette, the Daily Witness, and La Presse 120 followed 'Abdul'Bahá's visit with considerable interest, carrying the most numerous articles (see Table 1).121 Table 1 Articles on 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit Appearing in Montreal Press, 1912
Frenchlanguage Press La Patrie
Articles
Lines
Circulation
3
197 19,734
(1914)
La Devoir
2
72 12,529
(1910)
La Presse
2
37 121,085
Le Canada
1
68 18,000
Le Nationaliste
1
105 14,000
9
479 185,348
12% 43%
Subtotal Percentage Englishlanguage Press
26%
(1913)
Montreal Daily Star
10
1,771 70,000
(1916)
The Gazette
6
777 24,168
(1913)
Daily Witness
5
430 14,560
(1891)
Montreal Standard
2
327 60,000
(1917)
Montreal Daily Herald
1
60 10,000
Family Herald and Weekly Star
1
300? 69,377
Subtotal
25
3,685 247,105
88% 57.2%
4,164 433,453
100% 100%
Percentage Total Percentage
74% 34 100%
(1892)
Source: Appendix A.
The Montreal Daily Star gave the most coverage to 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, resulting in ten articles, including an editorial. The newspaper was considered to have had a "judicious blending of the sensational and the patriotic (or imperial)." The Star analyzed events abroad related to the British Empire and fostered the idea that Canada should participate in imperial wars.
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The Star also published two weekly papers, the Family Herald and Weekly Star, which was directed towards the rural population, and the Montreal Standard (Cooper, 1969: 119), carrying one and two articles, respectively, about 'Abdu'lBahá. The Standard served the anglophone elite of Montreal and was distributed across Canada. A Standard reporter took so much interest in 'Abdu'lBahá's views about Canada and Canadians that the paper reprinted the lengthy article, with very minor revisions, in its next weekly issue, and included a photograph. It was Archibald Eddington, a reporter with the Star, who was instrumental in securing the attention of the press for 'Abdu'lBahá's sojourn in Montreal. 122 With the secondlargest circulation in Montreal (70,000), the impact of the coverage of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit was considerable. Not surprisingly, the overall themes of 'Abdu'l Bahá's talks emphasized by the Star relate, on one hand, to world peace and 'Abdu'lBahá's prophecy of World War I, and on the other hand, to the inadequacies of socialism and materialism. The Gazette, a morning paper, featured six articles on 'Abdu'lBahá's presence in Montreal. As one of Canada's oldest newspapers (Cooper, 1969: 118), the paper was identified with English mercantile interests. The Gazette, on 4 September, satisfied itself with mentioning only 'Abdu'lBahá's statement that all must enjoy welfare and comfort. 'Abdu'lBahá's address at St. James Church was only covered by The Gazette and Le Devoir; the former covered about one half of the twelve principles of Bahá'í teachings. The Gazette also highlighted the abolition of racism and the need for peace as the pivotal elements of 'Abdu'lBahá's talks. The Montreal Daily Witness followed 'Abdu'lBahá's visit with a keen interest. Based on "Christian" (i.e., Protestant) principles, the paper favoured temperance and prohibition. It sought to reconcile all the Protestant denominations and regularly attacked Roman Catholicism (Beaulieu and Hamelin, 1975: 149). The Daily Witness carried, on 10 September, an article by a clergyman expounding the view that 'Abdu'lBahá's "Oriental Doctrines are not new." This articles must have caught many readers off guard, for the previous four articles were overwhelmingly sympathetic to the Bahá'í Faith. La Patrie carried, among its three articles, the longest article of the Frenchlanguage dailies. La Patrie expressed the radical tendencies of the Liberal party, advocating equal justice for all, respect for religious freedom, and the advancement of civil liberties (Beaulieu and Hamelin, 1975: 287–90). Under the title of Le Prestige de l'Exotisme ("The Prestige of Exotic Things"), the newspaper attributed 'Abdu'lBahá's success to the fact that he was an oriental, rather than to the "deep, but old
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truths" he set forth. The article underscored the fact that his teachings contained nothing that was not taught by prophets of the past and by socialists, except adding belief in God and the need of prophets to morally and intellectually educate humankind. According to La Patrie 'Abdu'lBahá couched his presentation in aphorisms. Favourable articles appeared in Le Devoir. Its "intellectual and literary excellence" (Cooper 1969: 120) made it easily one of Montreal's most influential newspapers, read by the rising francophone middle class. Covering 'Abdu'lBahá's address at St. James Church, Le Devoir mentioned the statement that refers to love as the purpose of religion, as presented to a "large gathering of English speakers." The reporter also mentioned 'Abdu'lBahá's idea that the West can learn much from the East, namely, from its more subtle philosophy and more clearly articulated religion. With the possibility of war, the article continued, it was necessary to establish an international tribunal to solve the problems among the civilized peoples of the world. Montreal's largest newspaper, La Presse, devoted two articles to 'Abdu'lBahá. 123 A paper with a liberal outlook, it welcomed him as "le Sage Turc" ("Turkish sage"), and buried its two brief articles on pages 5 and 14, respectively. The first article provided a synopsis of 'Abdu'lBahá's views on the elimination of the extremes of poverty and wealth; the second highlighted his talk at St. James Methodist Church, mentioning only his call for religious unity and universal peace. The remaining newspapers carried one article each. Le Canada represented the leftwing interests of the Liberal Party. It addressed the comfortable classes of Montreal, namely, the people "who think, have money, and who have the pleasure and means to read before heading off to work." It focussed exclusively on 'Abdu'l Bahá's teachings on the economic wellbeing of the human race. Perceived as an "aged man who has some resemblance to a Muslim priest," his teachings were summed up as an ''admixture of socialism and Christianity." The Daily Herald was considerably more sympathetic to 'Abdu'lBahá's message than was Le Canada. Originally set up as a Scottish publication defending Presbyterianism (Beaulieu and Hamelin, 1973: 25–29), it printed the evocative headline of "Church and Bench Give a Farewell Tribute to Sage," emphasizing 'Abdu'l Bahá's teachings on international peace and amity, and the independent search after truth. Le Nationaliste carried the most prominent and satirical article among the Frenchlanguage dailies. The paper advocated an autonomous Canada within the Empire, and autonomous provinces in Canada (ibid., 1979: 186). The author of the article, "Caliban," mentioned that 'Abdu'lBahá had travelled so far that he "stood a good chance of
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becoming a prophet." Whether speaking in elegant salons or braving the dangerous currents of the halls of socialists, 'Abdu'lBahá carried the message of peace. In biting tones, Caliban explained how one must have an "unusual" name like 'Abdu'lBahá, not an ordinary one, before he can call himself a "prophet." If an ordinary person propounds these ideas, said Caliban, we can take them or leave them, but if 'Abdu'lBahá speaks of them, they are worth their weight in gold. "And that's too bad for us, who do not call ourselves 'Abdu'lBahá." Caliban summed up the Bahá'í teachings as sentimental communism." There were, then, notable differences between the Frenchlanguage and Englishlanguage press coverage of 'Abdu'lBahá's stay in Montreal. First, the French language press did not carry any advance announcements of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit and carried reports of only two of his public addresses. One explanation lies in the fact that 'Abdu'lBahá's visit had been arranged by an Englishspeaking family whose wide circle of friends and contacts seems to have consisted primarily of other Englishspeaking people in the city. The first Frenchlanguage articles (in Le Canada and La Presse) appeared five days after 'Abdu'lBahá's arrival in Montreal, and climaxed in coverage on 6 September, three days before his departure. Table 2 Content Analysis of English and FrenchLanguage Press Covering 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit (percentage of paragraphs) Statements on
In English
In French
Difference
War and Peace
26.3
7.3
19.0
Religion
15.9
7.3
8.6
Bahá'í Faith
12.2
12.2
0.0
Humanity
12.2
17.1
+4.9
'Abdu'lBahá
26.7
36.6
+9.9
Economics
6.6
19.5
+12.9
Total paragraphs in %
100.0
100.0
N =
213
41
Source: Appendix A.
Second, the Frenchlanguage and Englishlanguage press were interested in different aspects of 'Abdu'lBahá's public pronouncements and formal and informal talks (see Table 2). 'Abdu'lBahá's public statements during his stay in Montreal can be broken down into six areas,
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namely, (1) war and peace, (2) religion, (3) the Bahá'í Faith, (4) humanity, (5) the life of 'Abdu'lBahá, and (6) economics. War and peace relates to 'Abdu'lBahá's reported observations about the advent of a world war and the means of bringing about international relations and peace. Religion entails 'Abdu'lBahá's references to the nature and purpose of religion in society, both past and present. The rubric Bahá'í Faith deals with the history and purposes of the Bahá'í Faith. Humanity covers what 'Abdu'lBahá said about the basis of past, and future, society, such as education, the equality of women and men, the need for each one to independently investigate reality, a universal auxiliary language, etc. 'Abdu'lBahá refers to reports about his life, his itinerary, and details of his speaking engagements. Finally, Economics refers to those paragraphs that highlight 'Abdu'lBahá's observations about the economic basis of society. If a paragraph contains several topics, the most dominant one would be used to assign it to a particular category. Third, the differences in the reporting by the English and Frenchlanguage press are striking. The Englishlanguage press was overwhelmingly more interested in war and peace and religion, while 'Abdu'lBahá's ideas on humanity received less attention. 'Abdu'lBahá's life and Bahá'í economic teachings created far less interest among the Englishlanguage press than among the Frenchlanguage newspapers. The Bahá'í Faith, as a topic to be reported, received equal coverage in English and Frenchlanguage presses. Fourth, and perhaps most important, the tone of the reports differed widely between the two presses. On the whole, the Englishlanguage press offered a more sympathetic view of 'Abdu'lBahá's statements, while the Frenchlanguage press, with the exception of Le Devoir, tended to be more critical. 'Abdu'lBahá's sojourn also did not escape the notice of Canada's celebrated humorist Stephen Leacock, who published, just two years after 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Montreal, a satirical short story. 124 David Legate's biography of Leacock (1970: 72) called the story a spoof, and surmised how the "biting tomfoolery in 'The Yahi Bahi Oriental Society,'…must have given hurt to a small coterie of his fellow citizens who represented a branch of a Middle East religious sect." Echoes of 'Abdu'lBahá's Sojourn in Ontario Amid the excitement of the many Bahá'ís and others who had gathered to see him off, a Grand Trunk Railway train,125 the "International Limited," pulled out of Bonaventure Station at 9:00 a.m. (MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 138). The Grand Trunk "Moccasin" engine (No. 1008)
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was probably assigned to this run, taking 'Abdu'lBahá to Toronto (Bedingfield, 1992a). While the Montreal Bahá'ís numbered fourteen souls 126—two fewer than when the community first organized itself in 1908—the believers were now stronger in faith and more steadfast than before. After leaving Montreal, 'Abdu'lBahá spent time on the train going over the newspaper articles that had been translated for him. He also admired the "verdure, luxuriance, and beauty" of the scenery as the train sped along its way (MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 138), at approximately sixty to sixtyfive km per hour.127 In contrast, the air in the train became stifling hot and heavy with dust. The trip made 'Abdu'lBahá very tired, and he took a stroll on the train station platform during a stop (ibid.). The train route taking 'Abdu'lBahá from Montreal to Toronto, and then to Niagara Falls and Buffalo in the United States, passed villages and towns that were home to individuals who would soon thereafter declare their belief in the new revelation: Farran's Point, Brockville, Belleville, Toronto, Burlington, Hamilton, St. Catharines, and Niagara Falls. Some twenty years after 'Abdu'lBahá's train passed through Farran's Point (now Morrisburg) in the early 1930s, a wellknown and respected osteopath and her father could be found as Bahá'ís in Farran's Point (Bahá'í World, vol. 6: 518). Of Swiss background, Dr. Anna D. Sheets (b. 1872)128 occupied a home, where she planted nine129 pines at the back of her property, alongside the Grand Trunk Railway tracks. (This property now forms part of the St. Lawrence Park Commission's Farran's Beach.)130 The stately, tall, and thin Anna Sheets was apparently not very active in the new religion, but she was most active in the local Women's Institute and retained membership in the Presbyterian church. She tried, nevertheless, to teach the new religion to her family and close friends. Her efforts were greeted with hostility and estrangement, except by her grandfather, Ezra A. Dillabough, who was also a Bahá'í. We have no information about how they became Bahá'ís. About half way between Farran's Point and Kingston, the train passed Brockville. As early as 1905 Percy Woodcock and his family lived in Brockville. Woodcock's involvement with the new religion may have crossed 'Abdu'lBahá's mind as the train passed by Brockville. It may well be that Percy Woodcock or his family left a positive influence in that town, for two other Bahá'ís lived in Brockville in 1913: Mrs. J.F. Roberts and John Pridmore.131 Seven years later, in 1920, "Mother"132 Beecher of the United States visited Brockville (Star of the West, 20 August 1920, pp. 17273), when Dr. J.L. Carroll is known to have
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lived there as well. 133 There are virtually no accounts, published or unpublished, of these early believers. The train passed through the town of Belleville at 1:47 p.m. A fouryearold Mohawk boy, Jimmy Loft, was sitting on a fence that afternoon, watching the train. At that moment, 'Abdu'lBahá stood up and, facing the window, smiled and waved at the child. Loft later reported that he "was so confused and delighted" that he toppled backwards off the fence. It was many years later, in May 1948, that James Loft would become one of the first Native Bahá'ís in Canada (Watts and Jardine, 1978: 514). When 'Abdu'lBahá's train reached Toronto at 4:30 p.m., he was exhausted. "We have not gone very far," he said, "yet, we feel tired. How will this great distance to California be spanned?" (MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 138). 'Abdu'lBahá briefly stopped at Union Station, while waiting for his connecting train to Buffalo at 6:05 p.m. He walked along the length of the southfacing platform of the elegant station; it looked out over the harbour and lake.134 The Victorian station, the largest of its kind in Canada, had a 200foot long façade. Only the name "Station Street," railway tracks, and a CN (Canadian National Railway) office building mark the site where 'Abdu'lBahá once walked. Twentysix years after 'Abdu'lBahá passed through Toronto, in 1938, the Bahá'ís in that city would form its Spiritual Assembly. When 'Abdu'lBahá was pacing Union Station, there was perhaps only one Bahá'í in Toronto, James Oakshette, spoken of in a previous chapter. One year after 'Abdu'lBahá passed through Toronto, only two more had enrolled in the new religion: Mr. and Mrs. Charles Nickel;135 four years later, Louis Benjamin136 and Harry Crone became Bahá'ís (BHRC). 'Abdu'lBahá's train left Toronto in the early evening, and stopped briefly in Hamilton, after which it passed through Niagara Falls. As 'Abdu'lBahá's train rolled past the harvested fields of Ontario, there were only three other believers in that province: the Carmichaels and David Spence in Brantford. Places like Barrie would, by 1913, have one Bahá'í.137 When 'Abdu'lBahá' finally arrived in Buffalo at 10 p.m., the Bahá'ís there had not yet been apprised of his coming. Fourteen years later, on 26 October 1926, another prominent Bahá'í, Queen Marie of Rumania, would travel in the opposite direction, from Niagara to Toronto (Morris, 1927: 79–80). With 'Abdu'lBahá's departure from Canadian soil, the randomness of attraction among these early adherents came to an end, and a new period had begun. The Bahá'ís in Canada had now met their "Perfect
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Exemplar" in the person of 'Abdu'lBahá. This was as close to the source of the new religion as they would ever come. 138 They needed no further vindication to embark on establishing the roots of a new religion in Canada, a country still steeped in, and committed to, Christianity. Notes 1. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 135. 2. The official Bahá'í organ, Star of the West, did not carry any news of the celebrated visit of 'Abdu'lBahá to Montreal in 1912 until an incidental reference to the event 41/2 years later (Star of the West, 7[17] [19 January 1917]: 17172). Yet, this visit received the most extensive publicity ever during his ninemonth tour throughout North America. The news of the publicity in Canada, incidentally, did not find its way into Star of the West until 1923, more than ten years later (Star of the West, 13[13] [February 1923]: 29193). 3. A publication commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of 'AbdulBahá's visit to Canada indicates that he gave his addresses and lectures from 30 August to 9 September 1912 (National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 1), while, in fact, dates are challenged elsewhere. A published memoir, Portals to Freedom (Ives, 1967: 133) lists 1 to 10 September. A Ph.D. dissertation (Ward, 1960), which was later published (Ward, 1979), indicates 1 to 9 September as the dates of 'Abdu'l Bahá's stay in Montreal. Messages to Canada (Shoghi Effendi, 1965: 73), published by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, states that 'Abdu'l Bahá stayed from 30 August to 12 September 1912. Balyuzi in 'Abdu'lBahá (1971: 256) indicates 8 September as 'Abdu'lBahá's last day in Canada. As recently as 1987, a Canadian Bahá'í national commemorative program contains the idea that 'Abdu'lBahá was in Canada for eleven days. According to all these accounts, 'Abdu'lBahá visited Canada for as few as eight full days to as many as twelve. The historical work by Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, God Passes By (1974: 291) makes no reference to the dates of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, and neither does Hatcher and Martin (1984). Esslemont's Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (1970: 60), a basic introduction to the Bahá'í faith, makes only a reference to the United States, not Canada or Montreal. Only one work (MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.) carries the correct dates of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Canada, namely, 30 August to 9 September 1912. The diary by MahmoudiZarqání is entitled Badáyi'u'lAthár (The Wondrous Annals) and was published in Persian in 1914. An informal English translation can be found in various Bahá'í archives. The author used the translation found in the Green Acre Bahá'í Archives, Eliot, Maine.33 4. One important contradiction concerns 'Abdu'lBahá's move to the Windsor Hotel. The primary accounts agree that he moved on Monday, 2 September, while Amine De Mille's account (published in an account of the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 57) states he moved on Wednesday, two days later. More curiously, the account by W.S. Max
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well, owner of 716 Pine Avenue West, states that 'Abdu'lBahá went straight to the hotel after his arrival in Montreal, on the night of 30 August (Maxwell, 1940). 5. For the sake of easy reading, all references in the following sections are endnoted. 6. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 128. 7. Douglas Smith, 1993. 8. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 128. 9. Maxwell, 1962: 52. 10. The buildings on Pine Avenue West have been renumbered; its current (1993) address is 1548 Pine Avenue West. 11. Montreal Daily Star, 31 August 1912; Balyuzi, 1971: 256; National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 52; MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 128. a letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940 (EVH) (copy in possession of author) indicates, however, that 'Abdu'lBahá immediately went to the Windsor Hotel after his arrival. 12. Maxwell, 1962: 52. 13. "Brief Account of 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit to This Shrine," MBSA, 2 pp. 14. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129. 15. Holley (1942: 637) states that 'Abdu'lBahá gave seven public lectures in Montreal. 16. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 134. 17. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 53; Balyuzi, 1971: 261. Such gifts acquired a special significance because they were handled by 'Abdu'lBahá and became a token of remembrance. 18. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129; De Mille, 1962: 57. 19. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 52. 20. May Maxwell (1962: 53) devotes more than onefourth of her account of 'Abdu'lBahá's stay in Canada to the invalid child. A number of the oldest Bahá'ís in Canada, such as Emeric Sala (1990) and Dorothy Wade (1990), told the author that the child was of the Birks family. One other account, by Audrey Robarts (1993), tells us that 'Abdu'lBahá suggested to the Birks family that the "little girl was to be kept in the house when the streets are wet." Although the Birks family did live across the street from the Maxwells, and their daughter, Geraldine, was indeed sick, the story is puzzling. Geraldine Birks (1991) does not remember 'Abdu'l Bahá coming over to her home, and she was not an invalid. I am indebted to Golgasht Mossafa'i of Montreal for following through on the story of the Birks child (Mossafa'i, 1991). 21. Montreal Daily Star, 24 March 1949; no women are mentioned in a published history of the Birks family (MacLeod, 1979), except for Mrs. Henry Birks, because she contributed $3,000 to her husband's business (Mossafa'i, 1991). 22. D. Wilson, 1991. There is an unconfirmed story after 'Abdu'lBahá reportedly visited the Birks family to the effect that Mount Royal would host centres of medical healing in the future and be renowned for same.
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23. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129. 24. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 57. 25. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129. 26. Dorchester is now renamed René Lévesque Boulevard. 27. Balyuzi (1971: 260) says it is the "Church" of NotreDame (i.e., basilica) at 116 NotreDame Street West. I am inclined to believe it was the cathedral, not the basilica, because Mahmoud said that 'Abdu'lBahá was "standing in the open field in front of the door …" (MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129). Only the cathedral had such a field. An unsubstantiated account states that while he was commenting on the beauty of this church, he said it was an evidence of the great love for God of the francophones (Léonard, 1988). 28. Knott, 1976. 29. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 129. 30. Ibid., p. 130. 31. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 55. 32. The text is found in ibid., pp. 13–16. 33. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 130. 34. Ibid. 35. Montreal Daily Star, 31 August 1912, p. 1. The text is found in the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 17–22. 36. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 130. 37. W.S. Maxwell, in a letter to Marion Holley (1940), misspells his name as "Griffith." 38. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 130. 39. Letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author); MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 130. 40. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 132. It is not known how many people attended. When, thirtyfive years later, on 5 February 1947, Horace Holley, Secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, gave a talk there, about 150 were in the audience, and all but one radio station refused to publicize the event (Bahá'í News, No. 194 [April 1947]: 11). 41. Cooper, 1969: 75. Only the lower remnants of the church building are left standing today (1993) after a fire, set by a church organist, destroyed the church in May 1987. The congregration is considering auctioning off the assets for a highrise condominium, towering above or atop the remnants. Facts about the church can be gleaned from The Gazette (12 November 1988, 24 February 1990, 3 March 1990, 28 July 1990) and from AMM (Archives municipales de Montréal), Folder R4178.2. 42. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 13. 43. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 133. 44. The story is told by Keith Eldridge in Canadian Bahá'í News, No. 15 (September 1950): 6. 45. National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 23. 46. Bahá'í News, No. 212 (October 1948): 3. The text is found in the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 23–25.
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47. Balyuzi, 1971: 264. 48. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 133. 49. Ibid. 50. For example, Dorothy Wade (1990), whose mother, like herself, was a housekeeper in the Maxwell home. I concur with this view. 'Abdu'lBahá's statement that travellers must stay in a hotel can be seen as a courteous way of making his wish known to the Maxwell household. 51. Ibid. 52. Gordon, 1990. 53. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 133. 54. Ibid. 55. Montreal Daily Star, 3 September 1912, p. 9; Balyuzi, 1971: 264. The translation by Ahmad Sohrab of a Tablet to Harry Crowe of Newfoundland, dated in Paris, 3 March 1913, is on the stationery of the Montreal RitzCarlton Hotel (Muttart, 1983). 56. Information was taken from d'IbervilleMoreau (1975). The old part of the Windsor Hotel, already seriously damaged by fire in 1957, was demolished around 1960, making way for a modern bank building, the tallest in the British Commonwealth in 1962, but a wing of the hotel built in 1906 remains. The hotel occupied the length of a whole block, facing Dominion Square. It is not known what room 'Abdu'lBahá stayed in, or where the hotel's guest book, presumably containing his signature, went. For background information on this historic building see The Gazette, 13 September 1985, 3 October 1987, and 31 October 1987. 57. Knott, 1976. Information can also be gleaned from AMM, Folder R5015.2. 58. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 133. 59. Ward, 1979: 137 (no source indicated, however). 60. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 133. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid., 134. According to notes found in EVH, destined for Star of the West, 19, 'Abdul'Bahá gave the "butler, the nurse, and the maid" each a "fivedollar gold piece." 64. "Brief Account of 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit to This Shrine." 65. Montreal Daily Star, 3 September 1912, p. 9; National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 26. 66. Letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author). The text is found in the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada (1962: 26–30). 67. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 134. 68. Document destined for publication in Star of the West, 19, found in EVH. 69. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 134. 70. Ibid. 71. Ibid. 72. Léonard, 1988. 73. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 134.
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74. Montreal Daily Star, 3 September 1912, p. 9; National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 31; and MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 13435. La Patrie (4 September 1912) refers to this building as "Corinthian Hall." According to Anderson (1993), it was Honoré Jaxon who apparently arranged 'Abdu'lBahá's meeting with the socialists. The ground floor of the building is currently (1995) occupied by a row of Vietnamese stores. The entrance used by 'Abdu'lBahá is boarded up. 75. Letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author). The text is found in the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 31–36. 76. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 135. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. Cooper, 1969: 126. The elevator structure became weak, and the "incline" stopped working in 1918 (The Gazette, 31 October 1981). It was demolished around 1930 (d'IbervilleMoreau, 1975: 141). 83. The lookout consisted of an elegant wooden structure erected in 1906 by the architectural firm Maxwell, Marchand, and Haskell, and was a favourite walking spot for Montrealers. The building partially collapsed, was demolished around 1930, and replaced by the present chalet (d'IbervilleMoreau, 1975: 143). 84. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 135. 85. Montreal Daily Star, 3 September 1912, p. 9. 86. Letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author). 87. De Mille, 1962: 55. 88. Shoghi Effendi, 1965: 38. 89. Ibid., 48. 90. MahmoudiZarqání inadvertently refers to Bruchési as a "Bishop" (n.d.: 136). 91. Allaire, 1908: 92. Louis Bruchési (1855–1939), after studying in Europe, was ordained in 1878. He occupied a progressive series of posts until his appointment as archbishop of Montreal in 1897. He was deeply interested in the temperance movement, forestry, hospitals, and education. He introduced several nursing orders (Delaney and Tobin, 1961: 180). 92. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 136. The text is found in the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, 1962: 37–43. 93. There were five synagogues in Montreal, but the likely visitor was Rabbi Nathan Gordon of the (Reformed) Temple Emmanuel. 94. The church's cornerstone was laid in May 1844 (from a wall plaque). The church is now hidden behind nondescript commercial buildings (d'IbervilleMoreau, 1975: 112). Its front door is found in a row of shops along SteCatherine, between StAlexandre and City Councillors. In 1926,
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land in front of the church was leased for commercial buildings, a year after the Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian denominations merged to form the United Church of Canada. The church now serves as an innercity institution, providing assistance to pensioners, welfare recipients, and the unemployed. It continues to face financial difficulties. There is currently (1995) a major $8 million renovation project underway. For descriptive accounts see The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 18 November 1989; The Gazette (Montreal), 27 December 1986; and Montreal Star, 18 March 1978. Useful information can also be found in AMM, Folder R3153.2. 95. The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 18 November 1989. 96. Montreal Star, 18 March 1978. 97. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 136. 98. One account (Holley, 1942: 637) states that 1,200 were in attendance; a letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author), gives 1,500. 99. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 136. 100. Letter from W.S. Maxwell to Marion Holley, 18 March 1940, EVH (copy in possession of author). The document mistakenly refers to him as ''Rev. De Symonds." The Montreal Directory (Lovell, 1913: 47) mentions W. Sparling as the pastor for this church; the question remains why Rev. Symonds, and not Rev. Sparling, introduced 'Abdu'lBahá. Rev. Herbert Symonds (1860–1921) came to Canada as a young man and was eventually appointed as Headmaster of Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario. In 1903, he was appointed vicar to Christ Church Cathedral in Montreal. Known as a liberal minister, he supported biblical criticism. He authored Lectures on Christian Unity in 1899 (Canadian Who's Who, 1910: 218). Dr. J. Ralph Watson, the current historian of the St. James United Church, suggests that Rev. Symonds, a liberal, might have been motivated by his beliefs "that all lovers of truth and seekers after God had a deep fundamental bond of common interest and each was in duty bound to aid and encourage one another in the great quest" (Watson, personal communication to author, 6 September 1995). 101. Montreal Daily Star, 3 September 1912, p. 9; National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, 1962: 37. 102. La Patrie, 6 September 1912, p. 12; The Montreal Directory (1912: 1996) indicates that Robert Stanley Weir, D.C.L., was Recorder of Montreal City Hall. 103. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 137. 104. Ibid. 105. E.g., Montreal Daily Herald, 6 September 1912, p. 5; La Presse, 6 September 1912, p. 14; and La Patrie, 6 September 1912, p. 12. 106. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 137. 107. Ibid. 108. De Mille, 1962: 56. One humorous anecdote relates how Mary tried to pry open 'Abdu'lBahá's eyes when he was fast asleep on his couch!
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109. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 137. The story is told that when 'Abdu'lBahá saw W.S. Maxwell leaving the house with a set of golf clubs, he asked him where he was going. When W.S. Maxwell said that he was going golfing, 'Abdu'lBahá said in English, "Very good! Very good!" 110. Canadian Bahá'í News, April 1971, p. 10. 111. "Brief Account of 'Abdu'lBahá's Visit to This Shrine." 112. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 137. 113. Ibid. 114. The author combed the Borden Papers (M.G. 26, H, Volume 353), National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, for any clues. The Memoir Notes and the Nominal Index (both Author and Subject) revealed no reference to 'Abdu'lBahá, Abbas Effendi, or other similar designations. The list of 1,000 guests at the Prime Minister's reception at the hotel also produced no evidence of any contact. 115. MahmoudiZarqání, n.d.: 138. 116. Ibid. 117. L'Action, Le Canada, Daily Witness, Le Devoir, The Gazette, The Montreal Daily Herald, The Montreal Daily Star, Montreal Tribune, La Nation, Le Nationaliste, La Patrie, and La Presse. 118. L'Araldo del Canada, l'Aurore, Le Canard, Cosmopolitan, Family Herald and Weekly Star, Financial Times of Canada, Montreal Standard, Montreal Weekly Herald, Montreal Weekly Witness and Canadian Homestead, Le Pays, Le Samedi, Saturday Mirror, Standard, and La Voix Libre. 119. On 6 September, in fact, at least four papers said that 'Abdu'lBahá had already left the city. 120. Secular observations about the press in Montreal are taken from Cooper (1969: 11722) and Beaulieu and Hamelin (1973 to 1982). 121. It was not possible to determine the length of an article in inches or centimetres, due to the fact that the research used newspaper microfilms. Hence, the use of lines was a more reliable indicator of length. 122. Estall and Sala, 1987. There are, curiously, no references to A. Eddington in the main works dealing with newspapers and journalists in Quebec (e.g., Beaulie and Hamelin, 1973 to 1982). 123. Using modern technology and journalistic approaches, La Presse became one of Canada's national newspapers (Beaulieu and Hamelin, 1977: 11218). Initially a Liberal paper, it was sold in 1904 to Mackenzie and Mann to become a Conservative paper and to bring the Canadian Northern Railway into Montreal. 124. The satire, entitled "Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich" (Leacock, 1965), is devoid of any factual information. 125. The (now) Canadian Pacific Railway train left Montreal at 9:05 a.m. Mahmoud's diary seems quite insistent on the detail of 'Abdu'lBahá's departure at 9:00 a.m. which is designated in timetables as the Grand Trunk Railway run to Toronto. 126. Henry F. Armstrong, Mary Coristine, Rose Henderson, Arthur Johnston, Martha MacBean, Mary Maxwell (two years old), May Maxwell, W.S.
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Maxwell, Elsie Pomeroy, Mary Pomeroy, Anne M. Savage, Aloysia Woodcock, May Woodcock, and Percy C. Woodcock (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 127. Some of the railway information was provided by Mr. Douglas Smith of Ottawa, a railroad archivist (D. Smith, 1993). 128. Stephen Bedingfield kindly provided the author with his research materials on Anna Sheets, comprised of transcripts of interviews by Bedingfield with Verna Bedingfield, Jenny Blair, Sally Marcellus, and Norna Healy (Beadingfield, 1992b). 129. In the design of a Bahá'í House of Worship and in the membership of local, national, and international Bahá'í governing councils, the number "nine" has a practical and symbolic importance. Some Bahá'ís occasionally extend this importance into their daily life, such as did Dr. Sheets in planting her nine trees. 130. In 1957, the couple was forced to relocate to higher ground, known as Ingleside, due to the St. Lawrence Seaway flooding. The couple was close. Three hours before Anna died in the fall of 1959, her husband suffered a severe stroke and the two died within a week of each other. 131. "Membership List," 14 April 1913, AL, Box 27, Folder 18. John Pridmore was already familiar with Bahá'í faith in 1916 through May Maxwell and attended the 1919 Bahá'í national convention in New York (letter from May Maxwell, Montreal, to Alfred E. Lunt, 1916 and 30 November 1920, respectively, AL). 132. It was not uncommon during the early days of the Bahá'í Faith to refer to the more outstanding Bahá'ís as "Father," "Mother," "Brother," and so on, a practice that has now (in 1996) long been abandoned. 133. October 1920, AL, Box 27, Folder 38. 134. Information about Union Station was taken from Dendy, 1978. 135. "Membership List," 14 April 1913, lists only a Mrs. Charles Nickel for 1913. Both Mr. and Mrs. Nickel were listed as Bahá'ís well into 1928 (Bahá'í News, January 1929, p. 2). 136. "1916 Membership List," AL, Box 27, Folder 20. 137. Mrs. M. Emilie Walker, 186 Dunlap Street ("Membership List," 14 April 1913). 138. I am indebted to Ross Woodman (1993) for some of the ideas in this section of the book.
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PART TWO — FORMATION OF COMMUNITY IDENTITY, 1913–37
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Five — Changing Styles of Recruitment: The Montreal Community The Bahá'ís of Montreal had arrived at a critical juncture in their brief history. If the Bahá'í Faith was to cultivate roots in Canadian soil, a social transformation had to occur among the Bahá'ís of Montreal from a mere collection of individuals to a sense of themselves as a community. Although the visit of 'Abdu'lBahá did not result in any immediate increase in the number of new believers, it nevertheless forced the Bahá'ís to establish the first moorings of a Bahá'í community. As Montreal represents the first organized entry of the Bahá'í Faith into Canada, the developments of the Montreal Bahá'í community would inevitably be echoed in attempts to establish the Bahá'í Faith in other parts of Canada. What was required was a change in the styles of recruitment that supplemented the personal teaching efforts of May Maxwell. Personal Recruitment by May Maxwell With the exception of the Maxwell household, the average length of Bahá'í membership of the nine Bahá'ís who joined the new religion before 'Abdu'lBahá's arrival in Montreal in 1912 was 14.2 years (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). Moreover, inactivity or withdrawal usually followed a short spurt of intense involvement. After 1912, the situation changed dramatically. Although the average Bahá'í involvement of the thirty adherents between 1912 and 1927 was 13.0 years (ibid.), a great many more rendered a more impressive service to the new religion. Whereas only a small handful of the "pre1912" Bahá'ís rendered such service, namely Martha MacBean, Rose Henderson, and Henry Armstrong, there was a proportionally higher number of believers between 1912 and 1927 who left a more enduring legacy to the Canadian Bahá'í community. 1 Moreover, 46% of the fiftytwo believers in Canada found the new religion in Montreal (ibid.).2 What were the salient characteristics of this group of new believers? How were they drawn to the new religion?
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The central role of one individual, May Maxwell, cannot be overemphasized. The Maxwell household, under May Maxwell's influence, was the primary source of Bahá'í activities in Montreal. The Maxwells attracted the attention of Bahá'ís in the United States, and were the focus of much attention by 'Abdu'lBahá. For example, it was 'Abdu'lBahá's wish that two MiddleEastern Bahá'ís be married in their home. On 30 April 1914 Dr. Zia Bagdadi, an Arab from Syria and a devoted Bahá'í companion of 'Abdu'lBahá, married Zeenat Khánum, daughter of Hasan Aqá Tabrízí, a personal attendant of 'Abdu'lBahá in Akka, 3 in the Maxwell home (BHRC).4 The minister officiating at the ceremony "astonished all by reading from the Bahá'í Writings" (Star of the West, 17 May 1914, pp. 57–58). The Bagdadi wedding was the first Bahá'í marriage in Canada.5 The central role of May Maxwell is reaffirmed by the fact that she was one of the five initial recipients in 1916 of the Tablets of the Divine Plan from the pen of 'Abdu'lBahá (ibid., 16 October 1916, p. 112). These documents gave a prospective outline of the work to be undertaken by the North American Bahá'í community to spread their religion. The designation of May Maxwell as a recipient of these letters provided the means by which she was named in 1916 to "receive and care" for contributions for Bahá'í teaching6 work, entirely apart from the contributions for the Bahá'í Temple fund (ibid., 4 November 1916, p. 120). Of the new Bahá'ís attracted by May Maxwell there were many women, drawn from a circle of people whom May Maxwell had known since her arrival in Montreal in 1902 (van den Hoonaard, 1992a).7 Virtually all of them were well travelled or had come to Canada from England. Many had a strong background in Christianity, Theosophy, and "perhaps a little occult" (Estall and Sala, 1987); very few were irreligious. The female members of the Pomeroy family, a mother and her three daughters, constitute an early contingent of Montreal Bahá'ís, whose travels and social life were closely reported in the English press of Montreal (e.g., Montreal Daily Star, 24 July 1902, p. 6). One daughter, Elizabeth (married C. Cowles), a librarian, accepted the new faith in 1913 (BHRC). It was a meeting with May Maxwell in 1905 that propelled Elizabeth to go and hear 'Abdu'lBahá speak at the City Temple in London, England, in 1911.8 Another daughter, Mary (d. 1949), had studied art in Europe for a few years (BML3; Canadian Bahá'í News, July 1949, p. 10). The lack of men who accepted the new revelation is not related to any lack of effort on the part of the many early female believers. Early believers, such as Elizabeth Cowles, would often ask 'Abdu'lBahá to pray that their husbands would accept the new revelation as well. Mary
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Pomeroy's husband, Victor P. Pomeroy, appears in records as early as 1916 (BML2). There were, nevertheless, some men who accepted the new religion on their own, through May Maxwell's influence, such as Sutherland Maxwell and Ernest Harrison. May Maxwell's husband, William Sutherland Maxwell, was initially not interested in the Bahá'í Faith, but eventually took a deep interest in it. Sutherland's attachment to the Bahá'í Faith had already been growing for a long time when May Maxwell wrote in 1914 to her friend Annie Savage in Montreal, that "S. is now a real & confirmed Baha'i!" (Letter from May Maxwell to Annie Savage, 31 Aug. 1914, NBAC). Not unlike many other couples, Sutherland and May Maxwell represented, to the outer eye, two very different personalities. He, reserved; she, extroverted. A contemporary architectural biographer of the Maxwell brothers, France Pratte (1987), described Sutherland Maxwell as introverted, introspective, fervently religious, stern, and professionally very demanding. However, in his relationships with colleagues, neighbours, or Bahá'ís, Sutherland Maxwell proved to be a man who possessed other attractive qualities, such as an unfailing consideration for others, "a swift will," a charming manner, and a kindness that made the Maxwell household known for its hospitality and friendship. The attraction of the Bahá'í Faith for Ernest Vernon Harrison (1880–1959) was not exercised through neighbourly proximity or familial connections, but through spiritualism, mysticism, and astrology. Born in Bengal, India, Harrison was sent by his parents to England to further his education, but not before he was exposed to eastern mysticism and meditation. In England, he gravitated towards Hinduism and sought out the advice of a Hindu mystic. The mystic told Harrison—now about twenty years old—that he saw Harrison standing next to "an elderly man with white headgear enrobed in white." 9 He married an Australian teacher, Amy L. Sterling, and after a brief stint of railroad work in Africa, the couple arrived in Canada with their two children in 1912. While attending a lecture on astrology, Ernest Harrison met two Bahá'ís, and, through them, May Maxwell, who discussed the Bahá'í teachings with "particular eloquence and love." At this point, Harrison "stopped looking for flaws in the [Bahá'í] Teachings, and became enthralled by their tremendous power and beauty." For the next forty years he would be a mainstay in the life of the Montreal Bahá'í community and would settle in the early 1950s as a Bahá'í pioneer10 on Prince Edward Island, where he died in 1959. Perhaps the most striking member of the early Montreal Bahá'í community was Lorol Schopflocher.11 Born in 1896 in Montreal of a Swiss father and a mother from New York, she was at first privately
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tutored. Living in an affluent home, she "suddenly became bored and antagonistic toward her life, its then interests and limitations" (Harrison, 1940: 638). Travel negated her boredom to a large extent, but her contact with the Bahá'í Faith in the early 1920s gave her the means to uplift her life in service to a cause that "preached universality and the unity of humanity." Her book, Sunburst (1937), details her experiences and travels around the world. She attempted, through her book, to make a link between "sophisticated persons and the reality of religion in this day" (Bahá'í News, April 1937, p. 8). Dorothy Wade was another early Montreal Bahá'í. Born in England in 1909, Wade married a widower with a sixmonthold baby at the age of seventeen. 12 Her mother's family was "horrified," and made her come home. However, the couple managed to stay together and emigrated to Canada in April 1910. It was her mother who was first introduced to the Bahá'í Faith by Mr. and Mrs. Goodstone, owners of a Montreal restaurant. Wade was at first reluctant to take up an invitation by the Goodstones to visit May Maxwell, but finally went. "She was interested in the people rather than the [Bahá'í] religion," and was so "fascinated with them" that in time she became a Bahá'í (Wade, 1990). Another person pulled into the community by May Maxwell was Elsa Clapham, whose stage name was Judy Russell. Clapham served as the English secretary for Alexander Kerensky13 in Moscow in 1917 (Estall and Sala, 1987). After Clapham became a Bahá'í in 1920 in Montreal, she became involved with theatre in that city.14 Future historians may also ponder the mysterious "A. de Levier," who was reported to have started the Bahá'í teaching work among the "Esquimaux" (Bahá'í News, JulyAugust 1925, p. 5). It proved impossible to locate any further information about him. The activities by May Maxwell in Montreal drew the attention of Bahá'í travelling teachers from the United States, to which the Canadian Bahá'í community had been administratively joined since its birth. Given the context of the times, it is perhaps not surprising that at least until 1927, these teachers were men. On the morning of 24 February 1917, William H. Randall spoke on the Bahá'í Faith to an audience of 1,700 at the Men's Club of Canada; in the afternoon he spoke to the Women's Club of Canada. In the evening, members of both clubs arranged a meeting, at which Randall gave another address (Star of the West, 21 March 1917, p. 10). The Montreal Bahá'í community seemed to have reached a new level of activity with the arrival of a wellknown Bahá'í scholar and travelling teacher, JinábiFádil, in the summer of 1920 (Star of the West, 20 August 1920, p. 145). He visited Montreal for a second time (15 Oc
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tober4 November 1923) and spoke to the Psychology Club and Theosophists (October 1923). He was accompanied by Dr. Zia Bagdadi. Edward (Saffa) Kinney, Mary Hanford Ford of New York, and Dr. John H. Randall visited Montreal on 24 October 1924 (Anonymous, n.d.). As the Bahá'í community of Montreal began to grow in the early 1920s, it became too large for meetings at the Maxwell home. The constant search for larger rental places reflected that fact. In October 1923, the Bahá'ís rented space in the Guy Street block, at the corner of Guy and St. Catherine. This was followed by rented space on Union Avenue, next door to the "Bible House" and opposite Morgans' department store. 15 Later, rooms in the Kings Hall Building (on St. Catherine West) and the Coronation Building (corner of St. Catherine and Bishop Streets) all reflected the interest of Bahá'ís in securing a space in the uptown shopping district. Sometimes, such as in September 1923, a "Bahai Reading Room" would be inaugurated (14 September 1923, EVH), but very few "seekers" would show up (Estall and Sala, 1987). Meetings on Tuesdays and Wednesdays were organized at the Unitarian Church, an obvious mark of respect for 'Abdu'lBahá's talk there. On Thursday, one could attend a Bahá'í meeting at the Y.M.C.A., and on Friday, one could visit the Maxwell home on Pine Avenue West to acquire more information on the new religion. Saturday afternoon was set aside for a meeting at Bahá'í Hall (Bahá'í News, MayJune 1925, p. 7). Such meetings were held with a view to attracting new believers, rather than for devotional or administrative purposes. Typically, such meetings attracted spiritualists, Theosophists, and Unitarians. With a Bahá'í membership of twentyeight in 1924, the Montreal community became a concentrated source of activity in Canada.16 It tried to maintain the involvement of other communities such as Saint John, New Brunswick, and Toronto, in particular, either through correspondence, providing travelling teachers, or enlisting their cooperation in securing funds for various activities (14 September 1923, EVH). Indeed, it was common to find the names of believers in Wakaw, Saskatchewan, and Brockville, Ontario, on the Montreal membership lists.17 The Montreal Spiritual Assembly informed individuals in these two communities of news of the Bahá'í world, such as the events surrounding the persecution of the Bahá'ís in Persia, in 1925 (9 February 1925, EVH). It also saw clearly the need to maintain contact with Bahá'í communities around the world and started its series of "global letters." On 17 May 1925, for example, one of these letters told its recipients around the world that the Montreal Bahá'í community had held a New Year's Feast which "attracted about one hundred souls of various nationalities and religions" (17 May 1925, EVH).
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Despite the heightened activity of the Montreal Bahá'ís, they did not meet another passing Bahá'í visitor to their city, Queen Marie of Rumania. The Queen had responded warmly to Martha Root's presentation of Bahá'í books (Root, 1936) and had apparently publicly announced her Bahá'í allegiance during her visit to Toronto the previous day. Arriving in Montreal on 27 October 1926, Queen Marie paid a flying visit to McGill University where she was received by the principal (president) of the university. She also visited Montreal College and a Montreal convent (Morris, 1927: 88). She made no public reference to the Bahá'í Faith (Montreal Star, 26 October, p. 1; 27 October 1926, p. 1). The Queen went on to Ottawa the following day. By the early 1930s, members of the Montreal Bahá'í community undertook travellingteaching trips to other parts of the world, notably the Far East and Australia, Poland, Russia, Germany, and England. 18 Montreal Youth Group Before the growth of the Montreal Bahá'í community, individual Bahá'ís tended to see themselves, with a few exceptions, as "occasional" Bahá'ís: their knowledge of Bahá'í teachings was limited, as was their involvement, and their connections to the wider society were too deep to allow a break. Those Bahá'ís who were firmly rooted in their newfound religion were of AngloSaxon background, were older than the general population, and were intensely devoted to 'Abdu'lBahá. These conditions were bound to exert an influence on the organization of the Canadian Bahá'í community. The older believers were, after 'Abdu'lBahá's death in 1921, ready to accept Shoghi Effendi, whom 'Abdu'lBahá had named in his Will and Testament as Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. In his attempts to develop the Bahá'í community along organizational lines, Shoghi Effendi explicated the requirements and importance of elected Bahá'í governing councils ("Spiritual Assemblies"), both local and national. It was not only these general administrative guidelines that influenced developments in Canada. The Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, within three weeks after the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly in Montreal in 1922, was quick to point out what he perceived to be the salient features of Canada and its people. On 2 January 1923, in a letter to Canadian Bahá'ís in care of the Spiritual Assembly of Montreal, he referred to Canada as "vast and flourishing" and "great," and described its people as "spirituallyminded" (Shoghi Effendi, 1965: 3). He also characterized Canadians as ''firmly entrenched in their religious sectarianism and strongly attached to their religious doctrines and traditions." Shoghi Effendi expressed the spiritual
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mandate of the Bahá'ís to Canadian society, and the means by which they could break down the "barriers of prejudice and religious exclusiveness." More particularly, he insisted that the qualities of "courage and persistence, kindliness and wisdom," would be required to "conquer this longstanding stronghold of sectarian belief." He also raised the vision of Bahá'ís through his World Order letters (ibid., 1974a). These letters, and the vision they contained, struck a responsive chord among the younger Bahá'ís, a number of whom were drawn from a Jewish background. This was the social context that led to the formation of one of the first Bahá'í youth groups in North America. 19 The formation of a Bahá'í youth group20 in Montreal would alter the way new Bahá'ís would gauge their own relationship to the Bahá'í Faith and its community, and inevitably changed the patterns of propagation. A young Bahá'í, Rowland Estall, had, through the attraction of May Maxwell and her daughter, Mary, enrolled in the Bahá'í Faith in the waning days of the 1927 National Convention in Montreal. After a summer of working as a wireless operator on ships in the St. Lawrence River, he decided to enroll in Sir George Williams College (now Concordia University). Finding the Bahá'í perspective "considerably more compelling" than the firstyear arts program at university, he teamed up with another young man, Emeric Sala, who had become a Bahá'í in December 1927, to see whether a youth group could be formed to deepen their understanding of the Bahá'í Faith and to attract other youth to the new religion. The two new Bahá'ís shared a common perception of the Montreal Bahá'í community: we felt that these old Bahá'ís, as we called them, from thirty up, did not teach the Faith as it should be done. We also felt, decided, that they belonged to Abdu'lBahá's generation. Many of them met him… and they called him always "Master," never Abdu'lBahá. They were followers of Abdu'lBahá. Bahá'u'lláh was the Prophet, but very distant, mysterious, mystical. Very little [of the Bahá'í Writings were] translated. Difficult to understand. But Abdu'lBahá, they could understand. They felt comfortable with him. He repeated Christian subjects…. And they loved him and his teachings. And they repeated it to all the "contacts."21 But then came Shoghi Effendi's "world order" letters and administration which struck us as very important. And we also realized that the old Bahá'ís did not understand it, did not see the significance. And we thought only young people would understand, so that we can teach the young people, the old can't. (Sala, 1990)
Through the help of an American Bahá'í travelling teacher, Elizabeth Greenleaf, the Spiritual Assembly of Montreal gave permission for
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the Youth Group to meet at the Bahá'í Centre on Union Street, the "World of Today Library." Estall and Sala paid for the first printed program out of their own pockets, and the Youth Group was on its way. May Maxwell took a "keen interest in this experiment and provided many of the books which were widely read" (Maxwell, 1940: 3). At first, the two Bahá'í youths—Rowland Estall and Emeric Sala—were the speakers upholding the Bahá'í view, but soon the group became a forum for other youth. Within a year, the first to have accepted the Bahá'í Faith through this novel approach was Rosemary Gillies, a young Scottish woman of Presbyterian background, in February 1929 (BRC). There was some hesitancy in asking Gillies to enroll: Neither Emeric [Sala] or I [Rowland Estall] had had any experience of enrolling anyone in the [Bahá'í] Faith, but one day, in discussing it together, we decided it was high time that Rosemary should be given the opportunity to declare herself. We were not entirely sure of her reaction and so, neither of us wishing to bell the cat, so to speak, we tossed for it. I won, and invited Rosemary to become a Bahá'í. She simply wondered why we had waited so long to ask her. (Estall, 1977: 19)
The structure of the Tuesday evening meetings took on the following shape: We had four speakers for every Tuesday, ten minutes each. Two Bahá'í speakers and two nonBahá'í speakers. And the Bahá'í chairman, that was arranged. Sometimes one speaker could not, did not arrive, but it happened seldom. They usually came. And we had the participation of the nonBahá'ís. And the subjects were, any subject that interested them. And the Bahá'ís had the function to correlate it with the Bahá'í Faith. And the chairman had to try to maintain the Bahá'í principle of consultation, harmony and brotherhood, and friendship which, on the whole, we could maintain. (Sala, 1990)
Marriages among its members were not unusual. Although it is unclear whether Dorothy Baile, a former Rosicrucian, and Glen Ward met at the Youth Group, they were, nevertheless, affiliated with it. Ruth Cunningham, a housekeeper, and Tom Lee, one of the very few Bahá'ís of Catholic background, married, as well as Emeric Sala, a businessman, and Rosemary Gillies, a teacher. The other founder of the group, Rowland Estall, married Stella Delanti, an actress. New in character, the Youth Group changed form as it developed. Emeric Sala best describes the evolution of the Youth Group in his own words:
Page 80 So we three started every Tuesday night, 8 o'clock, the first organized Bahá'í youth group in North America. We met every Tuesday, but nobody came, but we carried on studying, hoping somebody would come. And eventually after weeks or two months, two young people came. But young girls [sic], teachers, nonBahá'í, which of course encouraged us, and the second year about 10 or 12 people came, but we kept it on every Tuesday, faithfully, hoping to get more and more…. In about three years we had 65 people in our meetings…the majority were nonBahá'í. We were discussing the social aspects of the [Bahá'í] Faith, economics, and we were approaching all the political issues, which was dangerous. 22 We had to keep away from it. But these were topics of the day, it was the depression years. That is the aspect the young people were interested in. They did not want the Christian approach that they have in churches. That's all they knew and Bahá'u'lláh brought something new. We have something new in our teachings. And Shoghi Effendi brought it all in this world order [through his] World Order letters. (Ibid.)
As the group evolved, both speakers and topics became more Bahá'í oriented (Maxwell, 1940: 3). The impact of the Youth Group was both immediate and longlasting. Locally, it brought in people, most of them young, who were initially quite unknown to the Maxwell household. May Maxwell encouraged these developments herself through her own active support of the youth work, but it was clear that a new generation of Bahá'ís had arrived in Montreal and, indeed, in Canada. During the life of the group, 1927 to the late 1930s, some fiftynine new believers enrolled in the greater Montreal area, or 36% of all new Bahá'í enrollees in Canada (N= 162). A good proportion of the new declarants were both directly and indirectly a result of the Montreal Bahá'í Youth Group. The local Spiritual Assembly of Montreal was also invigorated by the Youth Group, for on 16 October 1928, the first two members of this group were elected to the Spiritual Assembly; eventually as many as five of the nine members of the Assembly came from the Youth Group.23 The Youth Group also had a longlasting impact on the development and growth of the Bahá'í community at large. Whether at the international or national level, members of this group distinguished themselves as some of the bestknown teachers, administrators, pioneers, and authors of the Bahá'í Faith. Mary Maxwell, later known as Rúhíyyíh Khánum, married Shoghi Effendi on 24 March 1937. First as his companion and secretary, and then as a Hand of the Cause of God, she rose in stature throughout the whole Bahá'í world. Since the death of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, she
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has left an indelible imprint on the growth of the Bahá'í community through her travels, whether visiting heads of state and government, or undertaking Bahá'í teaching work in every part of the world. Her special encouragement of the indigenous peoples throughout the world (Rabbani, 1969b) and her influence on Bahá'í communities through her books constitute her unique Bahá'í contributions. Her biography of Shoghi Effendi, The Priceless Pearl (ibid., 1969a), and her several other key books (ibid. 1950; 1974) are valuable contributions. Rowland Estall became one of the most effective teachers of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada. Having given up his university studies, he was hired by Sun Life Assurance Company, and became an expert in the new field of group insurance, pensions, and employee benefits. He melded his Bahá'í beliefs with his professional aims, namely the encouragement of profitsharing plans, security and full benefits for employees, and protecting employees from the financial hazards of death, disability, and old age (Estall, 1977: 22). His position allowed him to transfer to places, namely Vancouver and Winnipeg, where the Bahá'í community was just emerging or where there were no Bahá'ís at all. By applying the same teaching method as in the Youth Group, he was particularly successful in seeking out likeminded organizations and encouraging their most active leaders and members into Bahá'í membership. His approach to nonBahá'í organizations as a means of teaching the Bahá'í Faith remains a model to be emulated by Bahá'ís today. Another member of the Youth Group, David Hofman, was an unemployed actor whose first contact with the Bahá'í Faith was through Rowland Estall and Lorol Schopflocher, for whom he became a hired chauffeur. Hofman eventually returned to England in 1936 (Smith, 1992: 173), where he became a Shakespearean actor and the first announcer to appear on BBC television. He also authored an important compilation on Bahá'í Scripture (1941) and some key works on the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'lBahá (1943) and George Townshend (1983), the Irish Hand of the Cause of God. His children's book, God and His Messengers (1953) has successfully served many generations of Bahá'í children. His introductory work on the Bahá'í Faith, The Renewal of Civilization (1946), has been reprinted many times over. For Bahá'ís he played a preeminent role in 1963 as one of the first nine members of the newly elected Universal House of Justice, the international governing board of the Bahá'í international community. Another member, former German Uboat captain Gerrard SluterSchlutius, pioneered first to Toronto and then to Latin America during the earliest days of the Bahá'í Faith in that region. 24 Rosemary Gillies, also a member of the group, became an outstanding teacher and pio
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neer of the Bahá'í Faith at home and abroad. Gillies (b.1902, Scotland) was considered to be not only an "excellent story teller," but also a "faithful and gifted correspondent" (Sala, 1992). As a child, she had a vivid dream of 'Abdu'lBahá. Gillies' mother later recalled that she was offered an opportunity, never taken up, to visit 'Abdu'lBahá when he was in Montreal. Although Gillies had deeply wished to become an architect, she entered Macdonald College near Montreal to become a teacher. No Canadian universities yet allowed women to study architecture. On a chance stroll, she walked past Bahá'í Hall in Montreal, and soon found herself attracted to the group holding Bahá'í meetings. In February 1929, she enrolled in the Bahá'í community of Montreal. She married Emeric Sala in 1934, the same year she moved to St. Lambert. In Montreal, she organized children's classes in Bahá'í Hall every Saturday afternoon. In St. Lambert, she held successful children's classes, becoming one of the very earliest Bahá'í teachers of children. Mrs. Sala left St. Lambert and pioneered with her husband to Venezuela in 1939. This pioneering trip was important, for aside from Marion Jack in 1930 and Gerrard SluterSchlutius in 1936, the work of the Salas brought the Canadian Bahá'í community in contact with the wider world. 25 When the couple left the Montreal area in 1940 to settle in Venezuela, the Bahá'í Youth Group gradually disbanded.26 Summary Although it is empirically important to examine the Montreal Bahá'í community since over one third of the Bahá'ís in Canada during this time (1913–37) had enrolled in Montreal, we must attach a greater importance to understanding the social processes that moved the Bahá'ís of Montreal from an inwardlooking social group to an outwardlooking community. The vignettes of these Bahá'ís, mostly women, suggest that their attraction to the Bahá'í Faith was normally through May Maxwell's influence. Some came to the new religion as a result of their spiritual search or were attracted by the diversity of its membership. Others were initially drawn to Bahá'í gatherings by mystical impulses, while others saw their first Bahá'í involvement as a relief from boredom or as a means of associating with people quite unlike themselves—an indispensable form of attraction for a community that was gradually becoming more diverse. The propagation of the new religion rested initially in the hands of May Maxwell, but it was the younger Bahá'ís who demonstrated the community's ability to attract others. The flow of travelling teachers
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from the United States nourished the young Canadian community and fitted into the plans of the younger Bahá'ís. If active propagation of the new religion were to occur, the community had to move beyond the confines of its older members who were drawn to the new religion by mystical inclinations. It had to adopt more systematic techniques in attracting new members who premised their acceptance on the Bahá'í vision of a new society. The activities of the Montreal Youth Group represented the first systematic attempt to carry the Bahá'í work into the larger society and to present the Bahá'í teachings in such a way as to make them more appealing to an increasingly secular society. The particular contribution of Bahá'ís of Jewish, African Canadian, and francophone backgrounds will be the focus of the next chapter. Notes 1. Elsie Pomeroy, Mary Pomeroy, Arthur Johnston, "Annie" Savage, Elizabeth Cowles, Marion Jack (who lived for four years in Montreal), Jeanne Bolles, Ida and Albert Goodstone, Elsa Clapham, F. St. George Spendlove, Siegfried ("Freddie") and Lorol Schopflocher, Mary A. Pomeroy, Margaret and William Loveday, Mary Lesch, Thomas Lee, Norman MacGregor, the Wades, and Elizabeth Greenleaf. 2. Between 1913 and 1927 Vancouver, after Montreal, produced 21% of recruits, Saint John 17%, and Toronto 12% The remaining Bahá'ís (4%) found their new religion in small towns, mainly in Ontario and British Columbia. 3. A full account of Zeenat's background and family is found in Star of the West, 5(4) (17 May 1914): 57–58. 4. Kamran Ekbal (forthcoming: 5) states that Dr. Bagdadi and Zeenat Khánum married on 29 April 1914, not 30 April as the cited published account states. 5. Legal recognition in Canada of Bahá'í marriage had to wait until 1960 when the Bahá'í marriage of Ben and Louise Whitecow of the Peigan Reserve in Alberta was the first to be legally recognized (Bahá'í World, 1970: 687). 6. Bahá'ís use the term "teaching" to denote any activity with the aim of propagating the Bahá'í Faith, whether individually or collectively. 7. For example, the Maxwells lived ca. 1906 next door to Mrs. Cowles on Hope Avenue. The latter became a Bahá'í a few years later. 8. There is some confusion about when she accepted the Bahá'í revelation. According to Rosemary Sala (1940), Elizabeth had told her that she had not yet recognized the "station" of Abdu'lBahá, although a letter from 'Abdu'lBahá suggested she was a Bahá'í by the summer of 1909. 9. Ernest Harrison's biographical sketch was taken from "Ernest Vernon Harrison, 1880–1959" (Canadian Bahá'í News, 115 [August 1959]: 1–2), and a letter from Ellen Simms to Rosemary Sala, 26 June 1959, RSP.
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10. Bahá'ís ordinarily use the term "pioneer" to refer to those individuals who have left their homes to either "open up" or strengthen a Bahá'í locality. These individuals voluntarily undertake such moves, usually financed by themselves, finding work to support themselves. Sometimes, young Bahá'ís enroll as students in the locale. As can be seen, the term "settler" should be taken in the broad meaning of the word; it does not imply the tilling of land or creating a community in a wilderness. Indeed, until the 1960s, most pioneers settled in urban areas. 11. This account is based on Harrison, 1940: 63839. 12. The life of Dorothy Ward was taken from Ward (1990). 13. Kerensky had led the first phase of the Russian Revolution in 1917 as head of the Provisional Government of Russia, between Czarism and Communism. He left Russia in 1918, disguised, and in a car draped with the American flag (Vronskaya, 1989: 173). 14. Clapham served during the early 1920s as secretary to William H. Taft, then chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. 15. The address at Union Street would become home to the first Bahá'í Youth group in North America (Estall and Sala, 1987), spoken of so highly by the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. 16. "Members of Montreal Assembly," February 1924, AL, Box 27, Folder 57. 17. E.g., Montreal Membership List [October 1920], AL, Box 27, Folder 1938. 18. No names are mentioned, but these trips were probably undertaken by Lorol Schopflocher and Jeanne Bolles. 19. California had an (allfemale) youth group as far back as 1912. It was called "Mrs. Goodall's Peaches" (information supplied by an anonymous reviewer of Bahá'ís in Canada [December 1993]). 20. The account of the Montreal Bahá'í Youth Group relies heavily on Estall (1977) and Sala (1990). 21. Bahá'ís sometimes speak of contacts in referring to those who are interested in hearing more about the Bahá'í Faith. This usage is by no means univeral, since many other Bahá'ís frown on the term. 22. Partisan politics, like secret societies, are to be avoided by Bahá'ís. 23. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC, 3 pp. 24. After Marion Jack and May Maxwell, Gerrard SluterSchlutius became Canada's third pioneer to an international goal. 25. Mr. and Mrs. Sala returned to Montreal in 1941 and were elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada (1948). They went to Zululand as pioneers in the early 1950s. Mrs. Sala was one of the few Bahá'ís who persisted in collecting archival materials on the history of the Bahá'í Faith. 26. A formal report for 1937–38 on Bahá'í youth activities worldwide no longer mentioned the Bahá'í Youth Group (Bahá'í World, 1939, p. 45696).
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Six — Early Ethnic Involvement The National Convention of 1927 in Montreal, as we have seen, set a new stage in the evolution of the Montreal Bahá'í community, involving the recruitment of young Bahá'ís (called the "Youth Group"), who set the tone for a new approach to teaching the new religion. The new methods of expansion also created more extensive contact of the Bahá'í community with Jews, African Canadians, francophones, 1 resulting in several enrollments. The Bahá'í teaching work of the Montreal Bahá'í community changed from one based on elucidating Christian topics by believers whose lives centred immediately around the life of 'Abdu'lBahá, to one based on an emphasis on Bahá'í social principles of racial amity, world order, and Bahá'í administration. The emphasis on racial amity drew in some African Canadians, however few; the acknowledgment of the francophone presence in Montreal, and of Catholicism, drew in a handful of francophones; and the emphasis on world order and on social justice drew in agnostics, some of whom were Jews. The Roses of Sharon The significant Jewish contribution to the Bahá'í community of Canada is not well known, even among the Bahá'ís. Their contribution consisted of radically altering the Bahá'í teaching methods to an approach that was much more suited to a secularizing society. The approach of Jews to the Bahá'í Faith differed significantly from that taken by Bahá'ís of Christian background. A letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to a Bahá'í of Jewish background, Mrs. Rachel Fink, a dressmaker in Montreal, spoke of Rachel's "lofty aspirations to serve humanity" and linked that idea to the "fundamental aim of the Bahá'í movement."2 How could one teach the Bahá'í Faith to Jews? Shoghi Effendi's letter suggested that Mrs. Fink should adopt "wise conduct and lovingkindness" in her approach to her husband. What would attract her husband was "real love and tolerance towards the ideas and customs of [all] the people," and being "wellwishers of mankind disregarding religious and racial differences." Once enrolled in the Bahá'í cause, Jews were
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"apt to become strong" in the Bahá'í Faith, just as they were strong in their own religion. The letter concludes with a reference to Mr. Schopflocher, a Jewish industrialist who had become a Bahá'í in 1921 and had impressed Shoghi Effendi "with his love, devotion and sincerity." Although Mrs. Fink's husband did not become a Bahá'í, her son, Brahms, became a Bahá'í some fifteen years later, 3 as did his wife, Roslyn, in 1935.4 The most prominent early Jewish adherent to the Bahá'í Faith, and one who would leave significant traces on the development of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada and in the Bahá'í world at large, was Siegfried ("Freddie") Schopflocher (1877–1953). Schopflocher, a successful businessman and industrialist who owned the world rights to the manufacture of bronze powder, was vicepresident and international representative of Canadian Bronze Powderworks.5 Born in Germany of orthodox Jewish parentage, he had settled in Montreal. In 1918 he married Florence Snyder in New York. About two years after their marriage Mrs. Schopflocher became a Bahá'í, and a year later, in 1921, on a visit to the Green Acre Bahá'í School in Maine, he joined the Bahá'í community as well.6 Schopflocher quickly put his mind, heart, and finances to use in the Bahá'í community. Shoghi Effendi, we learn, was deeply touched by the "sweetness of his nature, his ardour, his humility and selflessness, his clear understanding of, and entire devotion to the interests of our beloved [Bahá'í] Cause."7 He was instrumental in "generating a fresh enthusiasm" for the construction of the exterior ornamentation of the Bahá'í House of Worship, meriting the accolade of "Chief Temple Builder" by Shoghi Effendi, probably in reference to Schopflocher's Jewish background. He also later donated numerous properties and buildings to the Bahá'í community. The first Jew to enroll in the Bahá'í community of Montreal after Schopflocher was Emeric Sala (1906–90), a member of the Montreal Youth Group. He was immediately attracted to the Bahá'í Faith8 after arriving in Canada in May 1927. Unable to speak English, he sought out gatherings where he could hear good English spoken. One day his eye fell upon an advertisement for a Bahá'í meeting: "All Welcome, No Collections." For about a month, he listened to various speakers, such as George Spendlove, Amy Harrison, May Maxwell, and Mary Maxwell. When the seventeenyearold Mary spoke on interracial marriage, with a poise and grace that "charmed" him, the topic resonated within him. As Sala was already a believer in universal brotherhood and racial equality, he assumed he was a Bahá'í from that day on. Sala soon became the most prolific writer in the Canadian Bahá'í community.9 His book, This Earth One Country, published in 1945, was one of the
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earliest Bahá'í books to deal with religious internationalism and world order. 10 Sala's enrollment in the Bahá'í community in December 1927 was followed by that of other Jews: Ilse Lohse, a salesperson (July 1930); Henry Bergholz (19 October 1931); ''Milli" Rina Gordon (19 January 1935); and Ernest Sala, Emeric's brother (1937). The story of Mrs. Gordon (b. 1905) merits particular attention, for her narrative of how she became a Bahá'í is not atypical of others who embraced the new religion in those days.11 Born in Montreal, she received only seven years of formal public schooling. But being part of a cultured and educated family, she retained a love for education. Despite her father's disapproval, she opted for a career in theatre. Through her music, Mrs. Gordon would later interest and confirm in the Bahá'í Faith Vera Guilaroff Raginsky, "Canada's Melody Girl." Eventually, Mrs. Gordon launched her career as a comedienne, appearing in vaudeville and writing amateur productions. A very vivid dream she had as a six year old in 1912 stimulated her interest in the Bahá'í Faith.12 She first heard the word "Bahá'í" twenty years later, uttered at a party by a young Jewish man who made a contemptuous reference to it. By dint of various circumstances, she went to a Bahá'í gathering and met a Bahá'í of Jewish descent: "At the gathering I [Mrs. Gordon] met Fred Schopflocher whose shabby hat misled me into thinking he was a labourer, perhaps a caretaker" (Gordon, 1990b). When Gordon learned that Mr. Schopflocher was of Jewish background, she told him of her interest in the appearance of the Messiah. It was at May Maxwell's home, however, that Gordon was confirmed in the Bahá'í Faith. We are left with this account of the moment that she expressed to May her wish to become a Bahá'í: "I'm no angel," Milli [Gordon] remarked to May Maxwell when she was contemplating making her declaration of belief. "If the Bahá'ís expect me to be an angel they've got another think coming," Milli warned. Addressing her as "Rina," the name by which she knew her, Mrs. Maxwell said, with a smile, "I don't think, Rina, you will sprout wings." (Ibid.)
When Gordon was ready to formally become a Bahá'í,13 May Maxwell suggested she put down Mr. Schopflocher's name as her Bahá'í teacher, because he "had no success in sharing the [Bahá'í] teachings with others" (interview, OH). Gordon's family respected the Bahá'í Faith, but were not inclined to accept it. The Bahá'ís of Montreal actively promoted the idea that acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith by Jews was by no means unusual. In February
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1932, an article entitled "Epidemic of the Persian Jews" was drawn to the attention of the Bahá'ís. It appeared locally in a Yiddish newspaper, Jewish Eagle, and, as it told how the Jews of Persia were rapidly accepting the Bahá'í Faith, the Montreal Spiritual Assembly had it printed in April 1934 in pamphlet form. 14 Included in the pamphlet was the public address by 'Abdu'lBahá at Palo Alto in 1912, which encouraged Jews to investigate and accept the new religion. The activities of the Montreal Youth Group extended to cover other groups in Montreal, not only Jews. Black Roses in the Mosaic15 The first contact between the Bahá'ís and a Negro Church occurred during 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Montreal in September 1912, when he was asked to speak to the congregation of Montreal's Negro Church.'Abdu'lBahá regretfully had to decline the invitation due to his very busy schedule (MahmoudiZarqáni, n.d.: 132).16 We learn, however, that a childhood friend of Mary Maxwell, Eddie Elliot, was the "only [Canadian] member of his race to become a Bahá'í during ['Abdu'lBahá's] lifetime" (De Mille, 1962: 56), and that Mrs. Dora Bray of Dawson, Yukon, should also be considered as among the very first African Canadian Bahá'ís in Canada, as she joined in 1922 (Anderson, 1993). We shall return to Dora Bray in chapter 9 and to Eddie Elliot in this chapter. In any event, Abdu'lBahá set the example by which May Maxwell felt inspired to conduct work, both philanthropic and Bahá'í, among the African Canadian community in Montreal. It was through the diligence and intense interest in racial harmony of Mrs. May Maxwell, and the spiritual thirst of some individuals, that the first few African Canadians converted. What drew these early believers to the new faith was Mrs. Maxwell's hospitality. Mrs. Maxwell was also involved in the social and philanthropic work of the city. In 1927, for example, she became the honorary president of the Negro Club of Montreal (O'Neil, 1975).17 The Club relieved hardship and aided the poor, and provided clothing to newly arrived West Indian immigrants. It operated soup kitchens for the unemployed, provided burial plots for those who could not afford any, and its members volunteered as visiting mothers and mothers' aides (Braithwaite, 1976: 59). The life of African Canadians in Montreal, numbering at least 1,200, was "dwarfed to an unhealthy extent" (Montreal Council, 1928: 179). Housing, education and other facilities were negligible, except for poolrooms and flats on St. Antoine Street,
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between Windsor and Guy. One of the early contacts made by May Maxwell was the noted reformer Charles H. Este, pastor of Montreal's only Negro Church, the Union United Church (Bertley, 1977: 165). 18 The Church was the first of all agencies to concern itself with recreational, cultural, and educational activities for African Canadians in the city. Rev. Este became a personal friend of the Maxwell household19 and a number of people from Rev. Este's church became Bahá'ís, including Mr. Eddie Elliot and the two daughters of Mrs. Blackburn (a white woman who had married an African Canadian man); they became members of the Youth Group in Montreal.20 May Maxwell's interest in providing personal attention to the plight of African Canadians is reflected in this account from someone who visited her home: the first day that Miss X. went to visit before she was a Bahá'í, she went to visit May Maxwell at her invitation. And when she arrived, the maid came bustling down the stairs and said she really didn't think Mrs. Maxwell could be disturbed today…and then Mrs. Maxwell herself came down the stairs and apologized profusely but she said that she had a woman upstairs giving birth to a baby because she was black and none of the hospitals would take her. So she was bringing in her own doctor and having this baby be born right in her house and would Miss X. mind coming back another day. (Irwin, 1982)
The following account, taken from the memoirs of Rowland Estall, whom we heard about in the previous chapter is a good illustration of her work among the African Canadians in Montreal, and May Maxwell's neighbours' response to that work: The [Maxwell] house was full of people, the Bahá'ís and many members of the Negro United Church of which Reverend Charles Este was pastor. Mrs. Maxwell had addressed Reverend Este's congregation the previous Sunday and had invited the congregation to visit her the following Thursday, or so. During the course of the evening, I was sitting beside Mrs. Maxwell in Mr. Maxwell's study and a maid came and said that Mrs. Maxwell was wanted at the front door. A policeman had arrived in response to a complaint from a nextdoor neighbour that there was some disturbance in the neighbourhood. Mrs. Maxwell said she was simply entertaining guests and invited the policeman to see for himself. Somewhat embarrassed and obviously taken aback by Mrs. Maxwell's charm and graciousness in inviting him to come in, he demurred and departed. This was one incident which demonstrates the hostility of some of the neighbours in that exclusive residential district at the time and to Mrs. Maxwell's unconcern for the prejudices of her neighbours. (Estall, 1977)21
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No doubt the visit to Montreal of Louis Gregory, the most prominent African American Bahá'í, during the summer of 1924 (Morrison, 1982: 117) had reinforced May Maxwell's own work in race relations. By 1927 the Bahá'í community of North America had reached a propitious point in improving its racial climate. When the 19th National Convention of the North American Bahá'í Community was held in Montreal in April, race "was discussed at length and with unprecedented frankness" (ibid.: 178). Days before the National Convention, the National Spiritual Assembly had organized a "World Unity Conference," 24–28 April 1927, and on 2–4 March 1930, the Montreal Bahá'ís held a Race Amity meeting. 22 In 1934, the Montreal Spiritual Assembly received a letter from the National Amity Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, encouraging it to promote racial amity by holding meetings "for the purpose of bringing together intelligent and openminded citizens," presenting scientific facts concerning race, and apprising people "who know little or nothing of Negro culture, to hear what these people are striving for, and what are their ideals."23 Speakers at these gatherings could be those who were not Bahá'ís, but who would endorse the Bahá'í principles of the unity of humanity, "otherwise there will be no result." The letter encouraged ''Bahá'ís as a body [to] respond to the needs and aims of alien [sic] people within their midst." The aims were laudable and even far ahead of their times, but were still quite unlike contemporary attitudes in Bahá'í communities. Then, the new religion was largely seen by its adherents as primarily a movement "owned" by particular groups, which had to reach "out" to various races and peoples, rather than a movement belonging to all. An African Canadian adherent best expressed the question of "ownership," and had this to say when asked about the way she enrolled in the Bahá'í community: In those days you had to write a letter of intent to the Local Assembly stating that you believed in the Central Figures24 of the Faith and that you had read the New Era,25 and the Will and Testament of Abdu'lBaha. When I met the committee, they talked with me and then asked me to step out into the hall while they discussed my acceptance. I knew that whether they accepted me or not, I was a Baha'i—the [Bahá'í] Faith belonged to everyone. Why be formal about it?, I thought. They couldn't keep me out, so why bring me in? It was my right. (Interview, KA)
The former perspective produced an ethnocentric view that defined the boundaries of the Bahá'í community by those who were already mem
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bers. This entailed a static view of community membership, whereby the boundaries were not extended outwards. Another goal, according to the letter from the Amity Committee, related to the process of Bahá'í communities educating themselves about the Bahá'í ideas of race relations. In this connection, the Amity Committee summarized some of the past obstacles to racial unity in the form of "lack of intelligent information, by too great diversity of opinion, by minor prejudices, by sentimentality and over emotionalism." The narrative of Edward ("Eddie") Elliot (1898–1953), a hydroline worker and among the first African Canadians to convert to the new religion in Canada, 26 illustrates the kind of ties members of minority group would develop with other Bahá'ís. He had come to the Bahá'í Faith through Reverend Este's church. His mother had been a maid in the Maxwell household and Eddie Elliot and Mary Maxwell were close childhood friends. Rowland Estall's account speaks further about Mr. Elliot's involvement in the Bahá'í community: as a youth, he [Elliot] was both part of the Bahá'í youth group and of a social club organized by [Mary Maxwell] called the "Fratority Club." By this word, Ruhiyyih Khanum meant to put together the words "fraternity" and ''sorority" and had invited to belong to it people, mostly young students at McGill, who would otherwise not have been able to find membership in the exclusive fraternities and sororities around the campus (Estall, 1977).
In later years, Elliot was often chair of the local Spiritual Assembly of Montreal, although he remained a member of the Negro Church—retaining membership in one's church was not an uncommon practice among Bahá'ís during those early years.27 To not arouse suspicion among May Maxwell's neighbours, Elliot would arrive at the Maxwell home after dark (Gordon, 1990): "When are you coming to the fireside." [I asked]. He said, "After dark, you know I wouldn't come when it's light." So nine o'clock he'd show up and it was time to go home. These are the sad things about those days. (Ibid.)
He participated, as a representative of the Canadian National Spiritual Assembly, in the African Intercontinental Teaching Conference held in Kampala, Uganda, in February 1953 (Canadian Bahá'í News, April 1953, p. 2), but his death in July 1953 while working on a highvoltage transformer left the Canadian Bahá'í community bereft of one of the few African Canadians to have embraced the Bahá'í Faith in Canada at that time.28 Rowland Estall describes him as a "very pure and
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distinguished soul," having "warmth and strength," serving as the "first bridge between Black and White communities in Montreal" (Estall, 1977: 53). At one time he was member of the city's InterRacial Board (Montreal Star, 11 July 1953) and the Committee of Management (Montreal Council, 1928: 178) of the Negro Community Centre. According to Amine De Mille, a Bahá'í and a freelance writer (1962:56), "he distinguished himself by his loyal services, his honourable character, and his beautiful singing voice." Another African Canadian who had become a member of Mary Maxwell's Fratority Club in those early days of the Faith in Montreal, although not a Bahá'í, was Dr. Phil Edwards (1907–71) (Estall, 1977: 34), an Olympic champion and, apparently, the first black West Indian to graduate as a medical student from McGill University, Montreal. 29 A middledistance runner, he participated in three Olympic Games (1928, 1932, 1936) and in the 1934 British Empire Games, winning increasingly greater honours (Ferguson, 1977: 78). Apparently, Dr. Edwards also attended firesides in the Maxwell home (Flournoy, 1988). It was another eight years before another African Canadian—Mrs. Violet States—was to enroll in the Bahá'í Faith in 1942. Mrs. States was the organist in Rev. Este's church, and the only other member to have joined the Bahá'í community from that congregation. The Bahá'í interest in reaching African Canadians was not confined to Montreal only. We know that Louis Gregory undertook a trip to Vancouver to speak at five meetings arranged by Marion Jack in the early 1920s (Morrison, 1982: 120). Little is as yet known about the context or the results of these meetings, however. Bahá'í attention to African Canadians on Canada's east coast, and in Toronto, achieved a number of results, either in terms of establishing general relations between the Bahá'í community and African Canadians, or in terms of an increase in African Canadian adherents, however modest. Such results occurred in the late 1960s. FleursdeLys in the Mosaic30 Although the "French Canadian" fact is an acknowledged element of Canadian society, it has taken the Canadian Bahá'í community several decades to make a slight shift from its originally AngloSaxon, Protestant basis. Given this basis, and despite the overwhelming francophone population in Montreal, it is easy to understand that the Bahá'í community of Montreal considered francophones as an ethnic group. One researcher (Léonard, 1988b) counted only eleven francophones in the Bahá'í community before 1963. There are allusions to francophones in
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Bahá'í writings. 'Abdu'lBahá first gave the goal of teaching the francophones in the Tablets of the Divine Plan (1977) in 1916–17, stating, Before my departure many … warned me not to go to Montreal, saying the majority of the inhabitants are Catholics, and are in the utmost fanaticism…. But … He ['Abdu'lBahá] … turned His face toward Montreal … [and] observed all doors open. ('Abdu'lBahá, 1977: 91–92) 31
As the reader already knows, the first francophone to become Bahá'í, Aimée Montfort, did not do so in Canada (see chapter 2). The second was JeanBaptisteLouis Bourgeois (1856–1930), an architect of Acadian background. Born in SaintCélestin de Nicolet, Québec, he was drawn to architecture. His personal life was fraught with difficulties; his young wife, Marie Gronville, a member of the wellestablished Tourville family in Trois Riviéres, met an early death, leaving him with two children. After apprenticing with his cousin, LouisPhilippe Hébert, at Napoléon Bourassa's atelier, he and Hébert enrolled in l'École des BeauxArts and left for Paris. Bourgeois would travel to Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Persia before returning to America in 1896, and moving to California where, in 1901, he married a daughter of Paul de Longpré, a Frenchman and painter of watercolours. He converted to the Bahá'í Faith in New York City in the winter of 1906–1907, following a search by the Bahá'í community there for a design for the first Bahá'í House of Worship in the West (Whitmore, 1984: 76). The national convention in 1912 stimulated Louis to think about a design for the Bahá'í House of Worship (Boyer, 1953: 23). He teamed up in California with an architect, a Mr. Pemberton, who later married Louis Bourgeois' widow, Alice. The following years, until his death in 1930, were marked by poverty, because he did not receive the usual architect's fees as New York State, under rules of the new union of architects, would not permit a foreign architect to work without approval of the union. He was forced to work for nothing, for a dream that "would very likely never be realized" (GaudetSmet, n.d.). His vivid fascination with designing the Bahá'í House of Worship32 required an outlay of money for model plaster; he sometimes came by the money by selling roses from his garden door to door (ibid.). Mrs. Bourgeois opened a shop selling candy and other goods to support him (Harrison, 1944). Mr. Bourgeois stunned his family, during a visit in 1928, when he showed them the model of the Bahá'í House of Worship. His concept of the House of Worship won praise as a monumental architectural
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achievement, using concrete and other ingenious building materials as never before. A third early francophone Bahá'í who converted outside of Canada was Mr. Urbain Ledoux, who may have been from Montreal. He gave a talk in New York City on the Bahá'í Faith in 1919, alongside May Maxwell (Star of the West, 27 November 1919, p. 1). This talk "sounded so French Canadian" that later francophone believers could still be moved to tears in reading its text (Léonard, 1988b). The Francophone Bahá'ís in Montreal Despite the emphatic need outlined by 'Abdu'lBahá to reach the francophone people, the Bahá'ís in Montreal were, for the most part, drawing in only English speaking Montrealers. One early believer, who accepted the new faith in the spring of 1927, still admits how, after he had taken a summer job on riverboats in the St. Lawrence River, the story of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada might have been quite different if he—and others—had "been more alert to and aware of the enormous spiritual potential for the [Bahá'í] Faith which existed, waiting to be tapped, in the Frenchspeaking people of that province" (Estall, 1977). The 1920s and 1930s brought in only five francophones in the Montreal area, all through the personal efforts of May Maxwell. Two of them were friends of Maxwell who lived in Verdun. The first to convert in Canada, circa 1920, was Jeanette French (Golden, 1988). Married to Reginald French, she had only one daughter. Neither of them became Bahá'ís. The record of Mrs. French's Bahá'í membership ends in 1944. 33 Mme Jeanne Tremblay, an "older woman," first appears on a Montreal membership list in 1931 ("Montreal Minutes," 19 October 1931, NBAC). The last reference to Tremblay is found in the records of the Montreal archives in 1939 (22 June 1939, EVH). There were also three francophone men who converted to the new religion. Joseph René Roy, a chocolate maker, converted in November 1931, at about the same time as his sister, Mariette Bolton, who lived in Australia (Léonard, 1987).34 Roy remained a Bahá'í for at least a quarter of a century (Canadian Bahá'í News, November 1957). P. Bernard Lagueux, nephew of Archbishop Msgr. Lagueux of Québec City, accepted the new religion towards the end of 1933, and was enrolled in March 1934 (BRC). The fourtofivemonth period between "declaring oneself" a Bahá'í and formal enrollment suggests that Lagueux's case was special, provoking concern and some opposition from at least one Bahá'í, Gerrard SluterSchlutius.35 In the 1930s professional activities in Québec were predicated upon political affiliation. Lagueux, as a specialist in highway construction, always stood to
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gain or to lose, whichever political party came to power. Having backed the party that lost the previous election, Lagueux was now required to show support for the party in power. The explicit nonpartisan position entailed in Bahá'í membership would put Lagueux in a position of having to be unemployed, an altogether impossible situation with the need to support his wife and child. 36 Lagueux opted for the Bahá'í position of nonpartisan involvement, for he retained full Bahá'í membership, accepting any consequences for his apolitical attitude. In the fall of 1934, Lagueux gave a series of three addresses on Roman Catholicism, which May Maxwell, as a member of the "French Teaching Committee" of Montreal, encouraged all Bahá'ís to attend, especially because Catholicism, in her words, was "a powerful factor in the life of this city and province," and because knowledge of Catholicism "is essential to the growth of the Bahai Cause."37 The fifth, Henri Drouin from Montreal, appears on a membership list in 1934 ("Montreal Membership List," 25 September 1934, EVH). While he probably remained a Bahá'í for about six years, it is not known why he withdrew (Estall and Sala, 1987). Francophones outside Montreal The 1940s saw only two francophones enroll, but outside of Montreal. Edward Bellefleur (1899–1973), an Acadian salesman, married Muriel Hutchings, a Bahá'í, in December 1944, a pioneer who had moved from Hamilton to Halifax. He converted five months after his marriage in April 1945 (Williams, 1985: 16). Born in St. Léonard, New Brunswick (Bellefleur, 1987a), he became the first person of full Acadian lineage to enroll in the Bahá'í Faith. In 1947, Françoise Rouleau (Mrs. Smith) (1912) became the tenth francophone Bahá'í through the efforts of Laura and Victor Davis in Toronto, where she had moved to learn English. Born in Trois Riviéres, Rouleau moved to Noranda, Québec, where she worked as a music teacher (Smith, 1991) after enrolling in the new religion. She moved to Ottawa in April 1948 to help form the first local Spiritual Assembly and stayed until the fall of 1949 (Hughes, 1991). Of the eight francophones to have converted during the 1920s and 1930s, only Rouleau was present at the first Canadian National Convention in 1948. The slow rate of growth in the number of francophone Bahá'ís is not at all surprising given the fact that the Bahá'ís themselves reflected the more prevailing ethnic makeup of the country, namely AngloSaxon and British. This situation has led a number of Bahá'ís of Catholic background to ponder the silent barriers that may have stood in the
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way of a greater acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith by francophones. Toussaint (1994), for example, states that the dominant method of teaching the Bahá'í Faith, i.e., public meetings and livingroom gatherings, would not attract Catholics, as "sitting around in a public place or a stranger's living room will do nothing for their comfort level." The usual Bahá'í approach of encouraging questions from seekers also seems, according to Toussaint, "completely contradictory to all their previous religious training." In this vein, he suggests, a lack of questions on the part of the Catholic seeker might have been misinterpreted by Bahá'ís holding the meeting as a lack of interest. Moreover, Toussaint noted, Catholics do not use living rooms as much as the kitchen "where the action is," where people meet in a more relaxed atmosphere. Moreover, the early Bahá'ís tended to speak about the "absence'' of ritual and highlighted the absence of clergy in the Bahá'í Faith, this approach may have placed Catholic seekers in a quandary. It should be noted that these and other "ethnic" differences came to the fore during the research of The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada. Bahá'ís of a Protestant background were more likely to speak about the social principles (such as the independent investigation of truth, universal education, and the like) that led them to consider becoming Bahá'ís, while the few Bahá'ís of Catholic descent tended to explain their acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith in terms of its "truth" claims. Bahá'ís of Jewish background were more likely to indicate the principles of social justice and world order, or the value of Bahá'í sacred literature, as reasons for joining the new religion. The influence of the Montreal Bahá'í community, achieved through the relentless work of May Maxwell and the Montreal Youth Group, begun to extend itself into other areas, not just in attempts to involve members of other ethnic groups in its ranks. To heighten their awareness of the need for international peace, the Bahá'í community in Montreal also started Esperanto classes in October 1925. Esperanto, an international auxiliary language conceived by Dr. Ludwik Zamenhof of Poland, has always held interest for Bahá'ís, for Dr. Zamenhof saw his language as a means of bridging gaps in international communication and of building world peace. 38 Interest in these classes stagnated until January 1932 when, through the influence of the members of the Youth Group, they started up again.39 On 13 and 14 January 1932, Martha Root, a distinguished Bahá'í travelling teacher, visited Montreal and spoke at the YMCA, where Agnes McPhail, first Canadian woman Member of Parliament, was also speaking at length under the aegis of the Bahá'ís of Montreal.40
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At no other time between 1902 and 1948 did the Montreal Bahá'í community achieve a higher level of Bahá'í activity than it did during the 1927–37 period. One Bahá'í recalls that time as one "of complete joy and happiness" (Estall, 1977: 15) and: Here were people trying to live by ideal universal standards, professed by all religions, but so poorly practised as a whole, but here I knew that profession and practice were trying with new hope and promise to come together. I … was simply content to bask in the sunshine of the love which characterized that community … I was a frequent visitor in that home [of the Maxwell family], enjoyed its hospitality and warmth, and began to relish the many new insights into the intellectual and artistic arts which were so well exemplified by the Maxwells themselves, as by many of the people who were visitors in that home. (Ibid.)
May Maxwell motivated other adherents to undertake travelling teaching on behalf of the Bahá'í Faith: Rowland Estall, Emeric Sala, Rosemary Sala, Gerrard Sluter Schlutius, Bill Suter, and Milli Rina Gordon moved to locales close to Montreal or to more distant places, especially to Toronto. Such moves, in the 1930s, were closely correlated with the Bahá'í mandate to establish communities of Bahá'ís in new civil jurisdictions. In the case of Montreal, this usually meant a move to Verdun, St. Lambert, or Outremont. With Montreal taking the lead in Bahá'ís' moving to new jurisdictions, one can easily see the social significance of Montreal in casting the mould of the Canadian Bahá'í community. How important these changes were is shown in the next few chapters, which cover other parts of Canada. At least until 1937, the Montreal Bahá'í community was preeminent in its influence over other regions. It is to these regions that we now turn. Notes 1. As the term "French Canadian" is not one that would be chosen in Canada today for a variety of political and social reasons, I use the term "francophone." During the period covered by The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, it was more common to speak of "Canadien(ne)." The term "Québecois" prevails now, but it excludes francophones elsewhere in Canada. There is no elegant solution to the dilemma of using "presentist'' terms to replace those currently unacceptable, except by way of explanations such as those offered in this endnote and by way of exercising respect to those affected by such usage. 2. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, to Mrs. M. Fink, Montreal, 1 February 1924.
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3. Letter from Shoghi Effendi, 12 February 1939. 4. "Montreal Membership List," 15 January 1935, NBAC. 5. The section on Freddie Schopflocher relies on O'Neil, 1975; Estall, 1977; Canadian Bahá'í News, 46 (November 1953); Canadian Bahá'í News, May 1966, p. 4, and June 1966, p. 4; and Bahá'í World, 1956: 66566. 6. Mr. Schopflocher once related the story that when he looked at the sorry state of buildings at the Green Acre Bahá'í School, he said to himself, "Freddie, if you become a Bahá'í, it will cost you money. I did, and it did!" 7. Letter from Shoghi Effendi, Haifa, to the "beloved of the Lord and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout Canada," 4 February 1924 (copy in possession of author). 8. This account is taken from Sala (1990). Emeric Sala died a few weeks after the interview. 9. See bibliography for details. 10. In 1950, Sala corresponded with Arnold Toynbee, one of the noted historians of the day, on the subject of the Bahá'í Faith and Western civilization (letter from Emeric Sala, Montreal, to Arnold J. Toynbee, 9 January 1950, RSP; letter from Arnold J. Toynbee, London, to Emeric Sala, 3 February 1950, RSP). 11. This section is based on two interviews with Milli Gordon (1990a, 1990b). The former was conducted by the author, the latter by Roger White. 12. In her dream an oliveskinned man wearing a robe drew to himself people of all races and backgrounds. He gazed at her, and she felt he knew her every thought, word, and deed. 13. The practice of calling oneself a Bahá'í was, at first, quite informal and there were very few distinctions that separated Bahá'ís from nonBahá'ís. With the adoption of clearer criteria for Bahá'í membership (see chap. 15), the Bahá'í community adopted the use of "declaration cards." The prospective Bahá'í would indicate a few particulars about himself or herself, such as name, address, and phone number, and who was the Bahá'í teacher. This practice, with very few modifications, still continues. 14. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC, 3 pp. 15. This section has been taken from a more detailed account appearing in van den Hoonaard and EchevarriaHowe (forthcoming). 16. Reportedly, an African Canadian couple attended the first reception at the Maxwell home, held in honour of 'Abdu'lBahá, on the evening of 30 August 1912. Mr. and Mrs. Archibald Eddington, who "played such an active part in securing the most outstanding newspaper publicity of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to America," were erroneously assumed to have been the first African Canadian believers in Canada (De Mille, 1962: 56). 17. There is some question as to what organization May Maxwell belonged to. The Coloured Women's Club, started in 1902, was limited to fifteen members and served purely recreational and artistic purposes. Between 1914–18, one also found the Coloured Women's Charitable and Benevolent Association. There were about half a dozen other organizations in Montreal (Israel,
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1928: 199–218). Braithwaite (1976: 59) contains a more detailed description of the Coloured Women's Club of Montreal, which would lead one to believe that it is this organization of which May Maxwell was the honorary president. 18. Rev. Este led the congregation from 1925 to 1968 (Bertley, 1977: 165). 19. He also visited with her at the 1963 World Congress in London, England. He thus became a close friend of the Bahá'ís, although he never officially enrolled. Rev. Este received numerous awards for his contributions to religious, social, and community affairs (Bertley, 1977: 279). 20. Mrs. Blackburn and her daughters met a gruesome fate through murder, while the son, Fred, was spared (Estall, 1977). 21. This particular event must have occurred around 1929, for the believer's account started in 1926 and the event was reported to have happened "some years later" (Estall, 1977: 32). This activity may well have been cojoined with the work of the Interracial Amity Committee which had a successful local meeting in Montreal in the Bahá'í year ending in March 1930. 22. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC. 23. Letter from the National Amity Committee, Colorado Springs, CO [to all Spiritual Assemblies in North America], 1934, EVH. 24. Bahá'ú'lláh, the Báb, and 'Abdu'lBahá. 25. Bahá'ís simply referred to Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era by J. Esslemont as the New Era, assuming that the listener could fill in the rest. 26. Amine De Mille claims that Eddie became a Bahá'í during the lifetime of 'Abdu'lBahá (De Mille, 1962: 56). If that were so, he would have been fourteen years old when he enrolled. In any event it was Dora Bray of the Yukon who enrolled in 1919 (see chap. 9). 27. Shoghi Effendi started to instruct Bahá'ís to resign from membership in nonBahá'í religious organizations in 1935, helping them to recognize the Bahá'í Faith as an autonomous, independent religion (Bahá'í News, July and October 1935). In 1933 (Bahá'í News, August 1933) he had already spoken about the need for Bahá'ís to reaffirm their Bahá'í identity with reference to nonBahá'í organizations in general (Bahá'í World, 1949: 26066). 28. Eddie Elliot was not a member of the Montreal Branch of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (Morin, 1990). Palladino (1991) devotes part of her book to the issue of racial segregration in the Union. Eddie Elliot's obituary appears in Canadian Bahá'í News, 45 (October 1953): 4, and the Montreal Star, 11 July 1953, p. 8. 29. By 1930 McGill's Faculty of Medicine had six or seven African Canadian students, and became a focal point in the medical education of many West Indian doctors (Greaves, 1930: 69). 30. The author would like to acknowledge the research assistance of Margot Léonard, Chambly, Québec, for her most valuable assistance in gathering information for this section. 31. Shoghi Effendi, through his secretary on 14 and 27 December 1956, affirmed the necessity of undertaking Bahá'í teaching among this group,
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and stated, "He feels it is time … to concentrate … on bringing Catholics into the Faith…. French Canadians … would make fine Bahá'ís…. It will add prestige to the Faith and help solidify its institutions" (Shoghi Effendi, 1965: 62), and then he specified that there should be a minorities committee with a specific sub committee for French Canadians (1965: 64). 32. The account of the design, which was selected in 1920 by the Bahá'ís from among models also submitted by W.S. Maxwell and Mason Remey, and the construction of Bourgeois' house of worship is more fully recorded in Whitmore (1984). 33. "Montreal Membership List," 22 February 1944, EVH. 34. Around the mid1920s, MarrietteGermaine Bolton (1900–68), a chiropractor, married an Australian and enrolled in the Bahá'í Faith in Sydney, Australia. The Boltons were taught the Bahá'í Faith by Mr. and Mrs. Hyde Dunn. MarrietteGermaine is believed to be the only French Canadian who met Shoghi Effendi and who received letters from him (Bahá'í World, 15 [1975]: 435). 35. Letter from Gerrard SluterSchlutius, Montreal, to the Secretary of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 7 February 1934, EVH. 36. Letter from the Secretary of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, to the [National] Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, 6 December 1933, EVH. 37. Letter from May Maxwell, Chair, French Teaching Committee, to the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 12 September 1934, EVH. 38. Dr. Zamenhof's daughter, Lidia, was a Bahá'í and was the most active proponent of this goal of Esperanto (Heller, 1985). 39. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC. 40. Ibid.
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Seven — The Literary Circle of the Toronto Bahá'ís, 1913–37 As Canada's principal commercial and manufacturing centre, rising to national fame on Eaton's catalogues and the Canadian National Exhibition (Creighton, 1970: 311), Toronto provided, initially, a weak response to the new religion. Before 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Canada in 1912, only two adherents, Jane T. Hall and James C. Oakshette, were known to live there. The circumstances of their enrollment as Bahá'ís and their impact on the development of the Bahá'í community in Toronto are unknown. It seems that the visits in 1920 of the Persian Bahá'í scholar JinábiFádil, and the widely travelled American Bahá'í, Martha Root (Garis, 1983: 121), occurred independently of these early believers. Until 1935, when the first Bahá'í pioneer arrived in Toronto from Montreal, some eleven people 1 (van den Hoonaard, 1992a) had become Bahá'ís for only very brief periods. However, another eleven individuals could be found for whom the average length of membership in the Bahá'í community over their lifetimes was ten to eleven years. Of this latter category, only four individuals (Albert D. Watson, Helen Grand, Violet Rumney, and her daughter, Laura Rumney [later Davis]) remained Bahá'ís until the end of their lives. The influence of several Toronto literary personalities, namely, Albert Durrant Watson and members of the Davis household, characterized the new religion's first phase in Toronto. Watson, a physician, astronomer, poet, author, philosopher, and occultist, converted in 1920 (BHRC). Born in 1859 of a Methodist family in Dixie, Ontario, he was a schoolteacher for a short period and practised medicine successfully for many years in Toronto (Wallace, 1963: 785). Watson came to writing later in life. He wrote Canada's Call, a national anthem that was very popular in the first decade of this century. The founder and president of the Canadian Ethological Association, he sought to create loftier national ideals (Morgan, 1912: 1147). To him, probably, goes the honour of writing the "first great English poem" on the Bahá'í religion, "Dream of God," published privately in 1922 (Star of the West,
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9 April 1922, pp. 35, 45). In 1924, Ryerson Press published a collection of his poems. The Poetical Works of Albert Durrant Watson, the same year that Lorne Pierce also privately published Albert Durrant Watson. 2 It was not only literary work that appealed to Watson; he was also interested in psychic forces, about which he wrote in his subsequent book, Mediums and Mystics. He wrote this study on spiritual laws and psychic forces in collaboration with another Bahá'í, Miss Margaret Lawrence, B.A. (BTU, 1921: 5; Robarts, 1985; Pierce, 1924: 8). Watson had quite a following, especially when his writings on psychic forces became more widely known. Louis Benjamin, who was a Bahá'í for a brief time in 1916 (AL, Box 27, Folder 20, 1916), later made a name for himself in Toronto as a "psychic whistler." Benjamin claimed to deliver trance addresses from the "twentieth plane," Albert Watson's idea of the highest level of mystic consciousness. He communicated "music to the earth plane, purporting to be the original compositions of some of the former great musicians who have passed on to the Twentieth Plane" (Toronto Star, 8 April 1922). A whistling sound, much like a violin, would escape from Benjamin's throat. Even members of the Royal Ontario Conservatory agreed that Benjamin's music was not only original, but sounded very much like the great masters! Benjamin left us with some advice about breathing, namely, that we should always breathe through the nose: ''Mouth breathing cannot have very deep spiritual experience." The twenty members of the Twentieth Plane Group were enthralled with his performances.3 Four years after the publication of his epic poem, in May 1926, Watson died (Bahá'í News, September 1926, p. 4). If the Bahá'ís were in search of a "father" in Toronto, Watson quite deserves that rank, for although his life as a Bahá'í spanned only six years, he is credited with Violet Rumney's acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith in his home, shortly after Watson's own enrollment in 1920 (BHRC).4 The activities of Mrs. Rumney and her daughter, Laura, were a noted feature of the Toronto Bahá'í community for many years; they were responsible for the enrollment of numerous new believers. Mrs. Rumney, a widow and a Christian Scientist, had been taught the Bahá'í Faith by Martha Root in 1920 (Toronto [Bahá'í] Newsletter, 20 December 1973), with whom the reader is already acquainted as an American reporter and Bahá'í who devoted her world travels exclusively to the promotion of peace and the new religion. The small Bahá'í circle extended to other Torontonians of note, such as Mr. and Mrs. Jesse O. McCarthy. Mrs. McCarthy was "a very
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thorough and sympathetic student of social questions," while Mr. McCarthy was a "practical idealist in municipal affairs" who advocated improved food, milk, water supply, lighting, and education in the city. "A clean Toronto!" was his adage (Star Weekly, 26 December 1914). Concerned with the plight of working people, he left his mark as City Controller by alleviating unsanitary conditions and allying himself with several movements, including the Bahá'í Faith (Box 27, Folder 53, March 1922 and 4 January 1924, AL). By early 1922 a group of Baha´'ís in Toronto had decided to "form themselves into an Assembly" with Margaret Lawrence as its secretary. Margaret Lawrence pointed out in a communication that, as "we are very young, that is just beginning of the golden road" (AL, 8 April 1922). Rumney's circle of Bahá'ís also included her own daughter, Laura (b. 1900), who should be viewed as the "mother" of the Toronto Bahá'í community for her extensive influence on its development, particularly after the mid1930s. 5 Like her mother, Laura Rumney was raised in the Christian Science Church. After Martha Root gave a talk at the home of Albert Watson in 1920, Laura Rumney immediately accepted the Bahá'í Faith. In 1923, she married Victor Davis,6 an optometrist by training, who became a Bahá'í during JinábiFádil's second tour of Canada in 1923. The Davises owned a jewellery shop, which limited the amount of time they could devote to Bahá'í activities. A number of early believers who date back to 1927 (such as Rowland Estall and Emeric Sala) do not recall Mrs. Davis being a Bahá'í until the 1930s.7 What may have transpired, however, is that being quite busy with their business, the Davises' Bahá'í identity and activity were not much in evidence until Bahá'ís from Montreal began to undertake a series of visits to Toronto. From that time on, Mrs. Davis' commitment to the Bahá'í Faith was unswerving8 and her husband travelled across Canada as a Bahá'í travelling teacher (The Globe and Mail, 17 September 1963). Laura Davis' friends were always from minority groups (The Globe and Mail, 11 September 1971, p. 28), and as a consequence her contacts outside the fledgling Toronto Bahá'í community were extensive. She helped start the "Friends of India" society at the University of Toronto, and served for years as secretary to the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, working with Agnes McPhail. McPhail presumably became, through Mrs. Davis, better acquainted with the Bahá'í teachings; she already knew the Bahá'ís in Montreal, having spoken at a meeting there (see previous chapter). She also belonged to a poetry group which included, in addition to Albert D. Watson, Bliss
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Carman, and Charles G.D. Roberts (Toronto [Bahá'í] Newsletter, 20 December 1973). Visiting and Settling in Toronto Through the interest generated by these few believers, Toronto was added to the Bahá'í travelling circuit. The everactive Marion Jack, a Canadian who had become a Bahá'í in Paris before being a governess in 'Abdu'lBahá's household in Haifa in 1908, had already undertaken extensive visits to Vancouver and the Yukon when she arrived in Toronto in 1923 and stayed for about a year (Canadian Bahá'í News, July 1966, p. 4). In 1924 Helen Grand, a nurse, returned to Toronto from England to continue her Bahá'í activities, and, in July, Howard MacNutt, a prominent American Bahá'í, visited the city (Bahá'í News, MayJune 1925, p. 6); in 1925, another Bahá'í, Mrs. Keith RansomKehler paid a visit (ibid.: 7). The visit to Toronto of Dowager Queen Marie of Rumania on 26 and 27 October 1926 became a notable event not only for the handful of mainly inactive Bahá'ís in that city, but also for Bahá'ís around the world. The Dowager had been approached by Martha Root many years earlier, and felt impelled to accept the new religion. During the Queen's visit to Toronto (Morris, 1927: 80–86) she stated her allegiance to Bahá'í ideas publicly in an interview published in the Toronto Daily Star (28 October 1926). 9 The Globe and Mail (27 October 1926, p. 14) also reported her speech to the Women's Canadian Club, which was very much in tune with the Bahá'í idea of the oneness of humanity: "I feel English, and I feel Rumanian, and that is why I feel that there need be no frontiers, only one large love which will rule the world." In the early 1930s, the Bahá'ís of Montreal, when their community was at its height of activities, took an interest in Toronto. The first of that Montreal contingent to arrive were Gerrard SluterSchlutius, Bill Suter, and George Spendlove. May Maxwell also undertook a twoweek sojourn in Toronto to promote the Bahá'í Cause actively.10 Gerrard SluterSchlutius' move follows closely on the heels of the Montreal Bahá'ís' rejection of his idea to establish a Bahá'í village. After having served as the captain of a UBoat in the German Navy during World War I, SluterSchlutius emigrated to Montreal and became a businessman. He converted in November 1932 and involved himself with the Montreal Bahá'í Youth Group. After moving to Toronto in March 1935 (12 March 1935, EVH), where he remained for four years, Sluter Schlutius left in August 1939, to become one of the earliest Bahá'ís to settle in Guatemala (IAC, Box 1, Folder 2, 27 August 1939).
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Of a suspicious nature, SluterSchlutius caused trouble for both the governments and the small and fragile Bahá'í communities of Guatemala, Honduras, and Colombia. Shoghi Effendi eventually declared him a CovenantBreaker 11 after he had become politically involved, despite Shoghi Effendi's urgings to the contrary. Gerrard SluterSchlutius was not the only colourful character to move to the Toronto Bahá'í community. Bill Suter, born in Switzerland (Davis, 1966; Canadian Bahá'í News, May 1967) was, in many respects, an early ecologist. Suter found the new religion in Montreal through the activities of the Montreal Youth Group in 1936. Deeply interested in natural foods and healing, he became an apiarist. After moving to Toronto in 1936 (Canadian Bahá'í News, April 1967: 5), he lived on Toronto Island where he began attracting a number of new people to the Bahá'í Faith. To make a living—his ecologic interests did not help him in that regard—Suter sold various things, such as hairdressing products (H. Gardner, 1991). Later, in July 1939, he returned to Montreal, where he stayed until August 1947. He then became a caretaker of the Bahá'í property at Beaulac Summer School12 in the Laurentian Mountains, Rawdon, Quebec, until his death in 1966.13 Montreal produced a third pioneer to Toronto in the person of F. St. George Spendlove (1897–1962), another friend of the Maxwell household.14 Born in Montreal, Spendlove was privately educated by tutors during his highschool years. Early on, he showed a deep interest in art history, which was partially fulfilled by a fine arts business he later operated in Montreal and Washington, DC. His particular love of Chinese porcelain and art was probably fuelled by the presence of Chinese servants in his parents' home. He enlisted and served in World War I, where he suffered a severe concussion that damaged his ear drums. Returning to Montreal, Spendlove found the Bahá'í Faith at the Maxwell home. Sometime between 1933 and 1936, he studied Chinese bronzes at the Courtauld Institute of the University of London, during which time he served on the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the British Isles (Spendlove, 1994; Bahá'í World, 1937: 333). After his stay abroad in England and Washington (Bahá'í World, 1970: 895), he moved to Toronto (North York) and became a curator at the Royal Ontario Museum, responsible for developing the Far Eastern Collection; later he published two books, The Face of Early Canada in 1958 and Collectors' Luck in 1960. A man possessed of a "most charming and individual mind," he was a profound thinker and a person of "great culture." Lorne Pierce,15 editor of the Ryerson Press, wrote in his foreword to Spendlove's The Face of Early Canada, that its author possessed "a restless curiosity, integrity, a dislike of all pretence, and a
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thinking warmed by deep emotional and spiritual attitudes." Another who knew him related how many were "so deeply moved by his greatness, we all seemed to stop breathing" when he spoke of the Bahá'í Faith during one of the many gatherings at his home (F. Smith, 1993). Until at least 1935, when Bahá'í pioneers began to arrive from Montreal, the Toronto Bahá'ís were either very few in number or did not gel into a community of believers. The activities generated by Laura and Victor Davis, and the influx of a few Bahá'ís from Montreal, strengthened by the work of Bahá'í travelling teachers, however, led to the formation of an eightmember Bahá'í group in early 1937 that included two inactive 16 believers (Bahá'í News, April 1937, p. 11).17 As we shall see, Toronto would eventually, in the 1940s, overtake Montreal in its impact on the Canadian Bahá'í community at large, and set the tone for Bahá'í development for several decades thereafter. Notes 1. Gray [Perkins] (1983: 170) lists only Laura Davis as "the first Bahá'í of Toronto" and the first in Ontario. 2. Watson was also coeditor, with Lorne Pierce, of Our Canadian Literature (1922) and was author of Robert Norwood (1923). 3. Ted Anderson, a prominent contemporary Bahá'í, first heard of the Bahá'í Faith from reading about the Twentieth Planers (Anderson, 1993). 4. There seems to be some confusion about when Violet declared her faith in the new religion. Her Bahá'í Registration Card (BRC) indicates "May 1919," but BHRC mentions "1920." The author tends to accept 1920, for the BHRC is of an earlier date (1935), while BRCs were filled out after the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada in April 1948. If, as it is indeed claimed, Violet and Laura were taught the Bahá'í Faith by Martha Root (Long, 1991), then 1920 is the more likely date, since Martha visited Toronto with JinábiFádil in that year (Garis, 1983: 121). Long (1991) suggests that Violet enrolled a week after her daughter, Laura. 5. This précis of Laura's life is primarily taken from Long (1991) and Toronto [Bahá'í] Newsletter, 20 December 1973. 6. Laura was such a prominent Bahá'í that early believers in Toronto would inadvertently refer to her husband, Victor, as "Mr. Laura Davis." 7. A sheet of Bahá'í activities drafted by Laura Davis herself starts on 16 August 1938 (LDP), suggesting an even later date of Laura's activation. Regarding Victor Davis, some would claim (e.g., Audrey Robarts) that he did not become a Bahá'í until 1938 (cited by Rochester, 1993). In BML 4 (March 1922) Victor's name appears along with eighteen other members with Toronto addresses. In any event, these discrepancies indicate the comparatively low profile of the Davises as Bahá'ís until 1938.
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8. Upon her death in 1990, the Universal House of Justice (the governing body of the Bahá'í international community) cabled the following message to the Canadian Bahá'í Community: "… we are grieved by the passing of dear Laura Davis whose fidelity and unswerving commitment to the promotion of the best interests of the [Bahá'í] Faith over many decades have earned her an enviable position in the annals of the Canadian Bahá'í community. Her record of dedicated services stands as an example to present and future generations of Canadian believers labouring to propagate the Cause of Bahá'u'lláh and to establish its institutions…" (Long, 1990). 9. Bahá'í World, 1928: 17475, incorrectly states the dates as 4 May and 28 September 1926. Robert Postlethwaite (1994: 86) in his study of the connection between Queen Marie and the Bahá'í Faith repeats this error. 10. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC, 3 pp. 11. Only when a Bahá'í openly, actively, and knowingly opposes the institutional authority of the Bahá'í Faith will he or she be declared a "Covenant Breaker" and expelled from the religion. 12. In 1947, the Canadian Bahá'í community acquired a permanent place to hold its summer sessions (retreats). Details of the Beaulac property are spelled out in chapter 15. 13. Many Bahá'ís remember him as a colourful figure, and a very dedicated Bahá'í. He kept goats at the Beaulac property and if "he liked you and he thought that you were worthy of the distinction, he would name a goat after you (H. Gardner, 1978). 14. The principal sources of information include Canadian Bahá'í News, July 1967, p. 4; August 1967, p. 4; September 1967, pp. 4–5; and Spendlove (1990 and 1994). 15. Pierce, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, had coauthored a work with Albert Durrant Watson, the early Toronto Bahá'í. 16. "Inactive" is a term used often to denote Bahá'ís who, through their lack of participation in the Bahá'í community, are perceived to be not active. Some Bahá'ís are not comfortable with the term, since it may imply a moral judgment. One noted Bahá'í said to the author that there are only two kinds of Bahá'ís—those who are tired and those who are not—to refer humorously to the "active" and "inactive" ones. 17. According to van den Hoonaard (1992a) the six active believers were: Laura and Victor Davis, Helen Grand, Gerrard SluterSchlutius, Bill Suter, and Violet Rumney. The "inactive" ones were probably Mrs. Irving Simpson and Muriel Rucker.
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Eight — Tentative Anchorings in Atlantic Canada, 1913–37 News of the new religion reached most provinces in Canada no later than 1913, and by 1917 every province in Canada (and Newfoundland) had had a Bahá'í visitor, a resident Bahá'í, or a public presentation of the new religion: 1898
London, Ontario: the Magee family (resident)
1902
Montreal, Québec: May Maxwell (resident)
1903
Winnipeg, Manitoba: Thornton Chase (traveller)
1905
Whitehorse, Yukon: Agnes Alexander (traveller)
1908
Victoria, British Columbia: Thornton Chase (traveller)
1910
Saint John, New Brunswick: the Culver family (pioneers)
1913
Edmonton, Alberta: Esther E. Rennels (resident)
1913
Gull Lake, Saskatchewan: Edward W. Harris (resident)
1914
St. John's, Newfoundland: Mrs. J.A. Clift (gave a public lecture on the Bahá'í Faith)
1917
Summerside, Prince Edward Island: Marion Jack and Rhoda Nichols (travellers)
1917
Nova Scotia: Marion Jack and Rhoda Nichols (travellers)
Bahá'í developments in Atlantic Canada, from 1910 to 1937, proceeded rather independently from those in Montreal. The engagement of the Atlantic region with the new religion began long before formal plans were set up to introduce the religion in 1937, when the North American Bahá'í community launched special plans to spread to every province and state. Individuals from the Canadian Atlantic region, who had converted in the "Boston States" (i.e., New England), Chicago, and in Paris, played almost no role in propagation in the region: Mrs. Kate Ives (1863–1927), whose parents were from Newfoundland, became the first steadfast North American Bahá'í woman, and the fifth believer of the Occident, in Chicago in February 1894; Paul K. Dealy (1848–1937), a railroad engineer and inventor who left Saint John in 1865, became a Bahá'í in 1897. Marion Jack 1 (1866–1954), another "Saint Johner," would later distinguish herself as a Canadian Bahá'í
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neer in Bulgaria. Jack was brought into close contact with the Bahá'ís through a circle of Englishspeaking people in Paris and converted to the Bahá'í Faith in 1908 while studying art there. The new religion, however, reached Atlantic Canada much sooner than is generally presumed by contemporary Bahá'ís. Newfoundland Newfoundland was only lightly touched by the new religion between 1913 and 1937. 2 'Abdu'lBahá addressed a "prayer to a Mr. Crowe" of Newfoundland,3 whom he had met in Paris, in March 1913 (Golden, 1983). Crowe (1868–1928), president and founder of several lumber companies in Newfoundland, was an "ardent supporter" of confederation between Newfoundland and Canada.4 More significantly, citizens in St. John's heard, and read about, a public lecture on "Bahaism" given by Mrs. J.A. Clift to the Current Events Club of the Ladies' Reading Room in January 1914.5 The first half of the paper was devoted to Tahirih, the prominent Persian woman, gifted poet, and advocate of the rights of women in the 1840s, who had become the foremost woman of the Bábí religion, forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith. The second half of the paper is an account of the Bahá'í teachings, focussing on 'Abdu'lBahá. There is no reference to 'Abdu'lBahás visit to Montreal in 1912, however. Despite some very noticeable errors, the paper is "surprisingly accurate" (Rochester, 1994b). Both Marion Jack and Kate Ives went to St. John's in 1917, where Jack visited her aunt, Elizabeth Neville, and Neville's husband, John Thomas (ibid., 1988). These Bahá'í visitors do not seem to have left any new adherents to the new religion. Curiously, a donation of $50.00 was given "in the name of Newfoundland" at the eleventh annual Bahá'í convention in 1919 (Proceedings, 1919: 148). Ugo and Angeline Giachery6 took a journey in 1927 on a cruise ship across the northern Atlantic and spent two days visiting the college in St. John's (Giachery, 1981). Five years later, in 1933, we find another Bahá'í in Newfoundland, Nova Scotian John Redden, who suffered a heart attack and died "on the Rock" (i.e., Newfoundland), in February 1934, three months after his arrival. It would be almost eleven years before another Bahá'í—this time a settler by the name of Lloyd Gardner—was to arrive in 1945. Prince Edward Island By 1917 Marion Jack and Rhoda Nichols had travelled to Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, holding meetings in different villages without visible results.7 Nichols, from Upper Troy, New York, had
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been attracted to the new religion a year earlier by May Maxwell. 8 Jack, at the invitation of an Islander, Wanda Wyatt, again visited the island, this time in Summerside in the summer 1922, to paint. Wyatt had met Marion in an art class in Chicago in 1919 (Rolfe, 1987a). It was much later, in 1932, that another Bahá'í, Charles Nealy Murray (1886–1955), arrived in Prince Edward Island. Originally from Montreal, Murray enrolled in the Bahá'í Faith in Washington, DC, in 1911 (BHRC); he worked as a farmhand in Crapaud, Prince Edward Island, from September 1932 to 1942.9 He must have cut a mysterious figure in that rural setting, for he was quite a linguist, spoke Chinese, and possessed encyclopaedic knowledge. Nova Scotia Nova Scotia, like Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island, was first referred to by 'Abdu'lBahá in 1916 and 1917 in the Tablets of the Divine Plan (1977). In 1917, Marion Jack and Rhoda Nichols undertook a travellingteaching trip through the province, but the first resident Bahá'í was John Redden (1875–1934), a Nova Scotian from Martock.10 After attending university, he worked at the Sydney steel plant in Cape Breton. His life at the plant was gruesome, for his arm was caught in machinery, cut off, and seared at once. Redden moved to the United States. He found the Bahá'í Faith between 1917 and 1922, and returned in ill health to Windsor in 1922. In late 1933, he left the province to represent Penn Oil and Steel in Newfoundland, and died there in February 1934.11 Redden was the earliest known Bahá'í visitor to Cape Breton Island and was apparently a witness to the marriage of a Sydney couple in 1918. Nothing else is known about Bahá'í activities in Nova Scotia until 1939. New Brunswick12 Credit for the earliest organized Bahá'í presence in Atlantic Canada goes to Saint John, where a community existed from 1910 to 1928, characterized by phases of inception, modest growth, and decline. The first phase, from 1910 to 1917, was marked by the establishment of an informal group. The American consul Henry S. Culver and his family were already Bahá'ís when they moved to Saint John in 1910, having become acquainted with the Bahá'í Faith in London, Ontario, some ten years earlier. The arrival of the Culvers did not immediately lead to the growth of the Saint John Bahá'í group. It was not until well after 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to this continent in 1912 that the small group of Bahá'ís in
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Saint John became more active, particularly through the efforts of Miss (Mary) Louise Culver, who had returned from Paris in 1911 (Culver, 1969). Miss Culver (d.1952) 13 operated the "Sign O' the Lantern Tea Rooms" in Saint John (Telegraph Journal, 4 July 1924, p. 3) with Miss Mary Robinson Warner (?1957), also a Bahá'í (St. John City Directory for 1916–17: 664).14 Because the Bahá'í presence in the coffee and tea business was notable, Roy Wilhelm (1875–1951) (Holley, 1956; Whitehead, 1976), an importer of coffee, may have been responsible for developing the Saint John Bahá'í group after its introduction by the Culver family in 1910. One of the most prominent early Bahá'ís in the United States, Wilhelm set much of his coffee fortune aside to promote the interests of the Bahá'í Cause. William and Sophia Humphrey, another Bahá'í couple, were quite possibly his contacts in Saint John. William15 was a coffee and tea merchant who operated a retail coffee store at the foot of King Street.16 Nothing can be gleaned about another "Saint Johner," Arthur B.M. Hatheway, except that in 1915 he undertook a pilgrimage to visit 'Abdu'lBahá in Haifa (Star of the West, 13 July 1915). It seems reasonable to assume that the early founders of the Saint John Bahá'í community included the Culvers, the Humphreys, and Arthur Hatheway. Membership in the Bahá'í group of Saint John rose quickly during the summer of 1917, and the second phase of the community, that of modest growth, set in. There were, in all, seventeen adherents in Saint John, between the summer of 1917 and 1921: never more than twelve at any one time and as few as seven. Even with this small number, Saint John had become the secondlargest organized group in Canada, second only to Montréal. Two principal ingredients were responsible for this second phase. First, the North American Bahá'ís launched a systematic campaign of sending travelling teachers to promising spots, and some of these teachers made their way through Saint John. Second, social conditions in Saint John, especially the influence of the social gospel movement, made a number of its citizens receptive to the broad ideals of the Bahá'í teachings. Bahá'í TravellingTeaching Campaign May Maxwell of Montreal was one of the remarkable travelling Bahá'í teachers in 191617 and 1917 (Holley, 1942: 639). Addressing the Rotary Club on one occasion, she said she felt privileged to have met "such an intelligent, broadminded and altruistic body of men."18 May stayed for a few more days to visit other groups, and then travelled to Fredericton and Moncton. She was not a stranger to this part of New
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Brunswick, as her husband, William Sutherland Maxwell, had a ''dark and heavy" summer home in St. Andrews (Walker, 1987). The Bahá'í group in Saint John seems to have reached its peak in 1919. In that year all twelve resident Bahá'ís, along with many other American adherents, were signatories to an appeal asking 'Abdu'lBahá to return to North America for another tour. 19 The Nixons were the third major family associated with the Bahá'í group in Saint John. George Nixon was owner of a wellknown wallpaper store on King Street (Chisholm, 1986). The most important member of the Nixon family, however, was Miss Jean Nixon, who was secretary of the Bahá'í Assembly, 1917–1923.20 Participating in a number of important Bahá'í events in North America (Star of the West, 17 May 1919, p. 63; Nixon, 1922), she singlehandedly kept the Bahá'í group in Saint John on its feet, through correspondence with Bahá'í communities elsewhere and distribution of vital Bahá'í documents and general news to other Bahá'ís in Saint John. Her efforts came to a halt when, on 14 August 1928, she was admitted to the Provincial Hospital, a psychiatric institution (Centracare, 1987), and remained there until her death fortyfour years later in November 1972 (Fernhill, 1987; Evening TimesGlobe, 6 November 1972, p. 2). Other travelling teachers promoting the work in Saint John include Ella Beecher in 1919, Martha Root, and JinábiFádil in 1920. Beecher's visit in November and December 1919 proved to be an impressive occasion. On 30 November, she spoke to the Art Club Room (Saint John Globe, 29 November 1919, p. 12). She had turned seventynine in the summer, and was told by one of "thousands" attending meetings "that you are having a perfect whirlwind campaign here" (Star of the West, 27 September 1920, pp. 17273). She visited several "little towns," in two of which she was not accepted "unless I [Beecher] was thoroughly orthodox." Neither the YWCA nor the churches allowed her to speak.21 The "church of the coloured people" also refused her request to speak to them (Nixon, 1924). Her visit was ignored by the local papers. Saint John was also visited by JinábiFádil,22 the distinguished Bahá'í scholar (1880?–1957) in October 1920, along with his interpreter Ahmad Sohrab, who had forsaken his honeymoon to be with JinábiFádil; Martha Root, the veteran Bahá'í travelling teacher stayed with them to help set up the tour (Garis, 1983: 121). He spoke at the Canadian Club (Saint John Globe, 11 October 1920, p. 10; 14 October 1920, p. 5) and the Art Club, after which local newspapers reported he would "be glad to meet friends interested in all vital movements for the brotherhood of man, unity in religion, universal peace and a universal
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language" (Saint John Globe, 12 October 1920, p. 10; The Standard, 14 October 1920, p. 12). The two travelled with Marion Jack on a riverboat up the Saint John River to Gagetown, 23 and also travelled to Woodstock, some 120 km from Saint John (Chisholm, 1986; Nixon 1923). After 1923, however, the visits of such teachers became less common. JinábiFádil was accompanied, in addition to his interpreter, by Martha Root, whom Bahá'ís regarded as one of the most indefatigable teachers of the new religion, travelling to virtually every known corner of the globe. A biographer of Martha Root indicates that the "whirlwind" teaching trip was "successful beyond all hopes," and that the lecture at the Canadian Club was never "given more thoroughly" (Garis, 1983: 123). But biographer Mabel Garis adds more about the Saint John visit: Of the entire adventure [in Canada] Martha felt that the visit to Saint John was the greatest miracle, with the power of the Holy Spirit strongly present. She felt they were like days in heaven; it was the love extended from the people at Saint John … that made it seem like paradise. (Ibid.: 124)
The Influence of the Social Gospel Movement The Bahá'í group in Saint John entirely comprised members of the merchant class and women whose ideas of social reform grew out of the changing attitudes about women, education, and prison reform. These women were deeply influenced by the social gospel movement, and saw the Bahá'í Faith as one more channel through which to direct their reformist interests; four members of the 112strong Women's Enfranchisement Association of Saint John were Bahá'ís (Clarke, 1979: 155, 158 59). They included Miss Kate Sutherland (1854–1932), one of the first stenographers in the city,24 Mary Culver, Helen Climo,25 and Mrs. (Mary) Colby Smith.26 This affiliation with the social gospel movement soon marked a decline in the affairs of the Bahá'í community. By 1921, the social reformist movements began to wane and even the Bahá'ís were experiencing difficulties organizing themselves. By January 1921 the Bahá'ís found it impossible to organize a House of Spirituality in the city. Members had become inactive or, as in the case of Mary and Dorothy Culver in 1920, had left the city. By 1921, fewer than eight adherents (Nixon, 1921) were active.27 In May 1922 Star of the West (17 May 1922, p. 94) lists Saint John, along with Montreal, as having a Spiritual Assembly, but within five months its membership had declined to four.28 The last official refer
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ence in Bahá'í publications to the Saint John group was made in 1923, 29 thirteen years after the arrival of the Culvers in that city. The group was thus not considered large enough to dispatch sufficient funds to defray the expenses of JinábiFádil when a second Canadian tour was being arranged for him in the fall of 1923.30 There was also the matter of Bahá'í administrative reorganization. New requirements in 1923, encouraging Bahá'í communities everywhere to organize their Spiritual Assemblies on stricter criteria, added to Saint John's inability to form its Assembly. The Culvers, founders of the Saint John group, had become Bahá'ís in London; this Bahá'í community, which well predated any formal Bahá'í organization, had no conception of any administrative structure. To Bahá'ís from London, the Bahá'í Faith was a loose association of likeminded people interested in the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'lBahá. Organization, it seemed, was the least of their concerns. The last known activity of the Saint John group was the placement, in a local newspaper around 1925, of one or more articles regarding the renewed persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran.31 After this date, the group virtually ceased to exist, except for the few remaining individuals. In May 1937 it was reported that New Brunswick had only two Bahá'ís living in Rothesay.32 The main factor contributing to the decline of the group was the climate of nonacceptance by the community at large, which led to difficulties in finding new converts. After 1922 the response of "Saint Johners" to the Bahá'í Faith was one of reluctance. The progress of the Bahá'í work was "very slow," generating "criticism and a great deal of opposition." Jean Nixon admitted, "[t]he people in this part of the country are conservative and adhere closely to the teachings of the different denominations…. In many cases fear keeps an individual from studying the literature that we offer,'' and explained that, "[p]eople here rather pride themselves in clinging to orthodoxy."33 However, one auspicious moment during the difficult days of the 1923–24 winter stood out. A new pastor of an African Canadian church, Rev. C. Stewart, had "gladly consented" to Bahá'ís speaking to his congregation.34 This was the second African Canadian church ever to open its doors to the Bahá'ís in Canada; the first was in Montreal in 1912, during 'Abdu'lBahá's visit.35 The religious traditionalism and conservativism of the Atlantic region has been commented upon by such observers as Stark and Bainbridge (1985) and Bibby (1987: 87). The climate of resistance, according to one Bahá'í, persisted well into the 1950s:
Page 115 For instance, Unitarians were very hesitant to assemble or admit their allegiance at that time. We knew one Theosophist there [Saint John] who was quite isolated and frustrated. Also a Technocrat and an Anglican Priest contacted me—through a P.O. Box number appearing in a Bahá'í ad or radio program—and arranged via the mails and then by phone— no name given—to meet me at our apartment on a given evening, where they enquired about the Faith. They were concerned that I would be both alone and discreet. (Bolton, 1987)
A subsidiary element accounts for the decline of the Saint John Bahá'í group, namely, the apparent lack of deep commitment to the new religious movement. The Bahá'í Faith occupied a peripheral territory in the minds and hearts of its members. Membership in the Bahá'í group was quite informal, requiring no registration, and the boundaries between the Bahá'í community and the larger community were not clearly demarcated. Certainly, the obituaries of the early adherents do not indicate any affiliation with the Bahá'í Faith; on the contrary, a deep commitment to conventional denominations is stressed. Members of the Bahá'í group were overwhelmingly Anglican, followed by Presbyterian and United Church affiliations. 36 No Catholics were found among them. Yet a third element enters into the explanation of why the early Saint John Bahá'í group declined and, for all purposes, ceased to exist. Not only was this group perceived as marginal in terms of the conservative religious tradition of the city and region, it also became geographically peripheral to the Bahá'í communities developing in Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal. We can observe this marginal interest in the treatment of early Bahá'í history in Canada. First, within the context of North America as a whole, Canada occupied a peripheral concern in Bahá'í historiography. Virtually all of the recorded Bahá'í centres or places where Bahá'ís resided refer to locales in the United States. We have already observed, for example, that the official Bahá'í organ, Star of the West (19 January 1917, pp. 17172), did not carry any news of the celebrated visit of 'Abdu'lBahá to Montreal in 1912 until an incidental reference to the visit fourandonehalf years later. Yet this visit received the most extensive publicity of his ninemonth tour of North America. The news of the publicity itself did not find its way into Star of the West (February 1923, pp. 29193) until 1923, more than ten years later. Within Canada, the rising communities of Vancouver, Toronto, and, especially, Montreal attracted much of the Bahá'í work. These cities were relatively easy to reach and, as cultural centres, had members
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who were not just marginally interested in new religious movements: they maintained an active involvement. Impact of the Saint John Group It is simple to postulate that given the facts about the early, and tentative, Saint John Bahá'í group, the Bahá'ís had little impact on the immediate area. Such observations confirm the view by both Nock (1987) and Stark and Bainbridge (1985) that new religious movements (i.e., "cults") develop with the greatest difficulty in areas where sects and churches thrive. It should be noted, however, that the Bahá'í work of Marion Jack in Saint John and in Bulgaria (where she stayed for twentyfour years before and after World War II) had a pronounced effect on the nature of Bahá'í work itself, throughout the world and in New Brunswick itself. Shoghi Effendi designated her as the best example among Bahá'ís everywhere of a model Bahá'í "pioneer," someone who had opened a new territory to the Bahá'í Faith. It would indeed be interesting research to see whether the Bahá'ís in New Brunswick have sent out proportionally more pioneers than the rest of Canada. Outside of Saint John, there were virtually no Bahá'ís until later. By 1925, when the Saint John Bahá'í group, for all practical purposes, ceased to exist, only one Bahá'í could be found, Jean "Molly" Mosher of West Quaco, Saint John County. 37 Mosher had converted to the Bahá'í Faith in St. Lambert by 1925.38 By 1938, however, in Moncton, there were enough Bahá'ís, both local and pioneers, to establish a Spiritual Assembly there. Moncton became, after Saint John, the foremost Bahá'í centre in the Atlantic Provinces. The present research has explored both the internal and external dimensions of group building. If Saint John history is indicative of what happened in other early communities across Canada, we can see how the combination of a virtually nonexistent administrative structure, and nonacceptance by the larger community, contributed substantially to the decline of these communities. Attention is now directed to Bahá'í developments in Western Canada, where a fullfledged Bahá'í community would come into existence in Vancouver during the latter part of the 1920s. Notes 1. It seems she stayed in Saint John only for short periods. Her visits to Prince Edward Island in 1917 seem to have been connected with her brief stay in Saint John. It was during this time that she was associated with the Saint John Art Club, where a chest of her drawings, sketches, and paintings
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would later be found ([Jasion], 1985). Chapter 9 presents a detailed review of her life. 2. Count de Gobineau, a French diplomat and thinker, who wrote one of the first extensive accounts of the Bábí Faith, was posted in Newfoundland ca. 1860 (Momen, 1993). Who knows, he may have mentioned the new religion while stationed in St. John's, Newfoundland. 3. Newfoundland was already cited as a province of Canada by 'Abdu'lBahá in his Tablets of the Divine Plan in 1916, although the British colony only joined Canada as such in 1949. 4. A "Harry Crowe," 56 Maple Street, Toronto, appears on a 1916 membership list in NBAUS (Muttart, 1984). There is no evidence that the two are the same person. 5. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Michael Rochester of St. John's, Newfoundland, for having very recently uncovered this historical item. St. John's Daily News, 12 and 17 January 1914, carried reports of this event. On 17 January, almost all of page 6 was given over to the text of her paper. 6. Dr. Ugo Giachery was later appointed "Hand of the Cause of God" by the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, the highest station of learning for the promotion and protection of the Bahá'í Faith. 7. Letter from May Maxwell, Saint John, New Brunswick, to "My Beloved Sister [Corinne True?], Wilmette, IL, 27 June 1917, AW. 8. Letter from May Maxwell, Montreal, to Alfred E. Lunt, 1916, AL, Box 27, Folder 20 9. According to Grace Geary, an early Bahá'í pioneer to the island, Charles Murray participated with her in the first Bahá'í Feast held in Charlottetown in 1942 (Rochester, 1993). 10. The account of John Redden is based on Williams (1985: 1–2) which relies heavily on Ferguson (1981). The author also held a conversation with Karin Ferguson, the original researcher, some time in 1989. 11. His body was returned to Windsor for burial. 12. This is a revision of a paper that was prepared for the Conference on the History of Religion in Atlantic Canada, University of New Brunswick, Department of History, Saint John, NB, 2–4 October 1992. 13. Ken and Celia Bolton (1987) state that in the early 1950s Louise was acting as chauffeur and companion to Lady Hazen who lived in an estate in the vicinity of the Catholic Hospital in central Saint John, and whose husband, Sir Douglas, was the Chief Justice of New Brunswick. Louise Culver's sister, Dorothy (1890–1983), lived for a short time in Saint John (at least 1914–17), later marrying Adelbert F. Cress in Eliot, Maine. 14. Miss Mary Robinson Warner was the daughter of General D.B. Warner, who had been United States Consul to Saint John for twentyone years, and Nancy B. Warner. 15. William was born on 11 May 1852, son of Charles and Elizabeth (née McGivern) Humphrey, and member of one of Saint John's oldest families. He learned about steamboat navigating between Saint John and Boston and later operated the Star Line Steamship Company on the Saint John River.
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He then worked at a commercial firm, a wholesale boot and shoe business on King Street. He retired in 1927 and passed away in January 1935 (Fernhill, 1987; The Evening TimesGlobe [Saint John], 31 January 1935, p. 7). 16. William H. (1852–1935) and Sophia (?1953) Humphrey's names appear on Bahá'í lists from 1917 to 1919. There seems to be some confusion about the identity of W.H. Humphrey by some of the later Bahá'ís. Humphrey died in 1935, but the Bahá'ís would still talk about having seen a Humphrey in the 1950s. For example, they say, "he would, in the 1950's, reminisce about Roy Wilhelm, the prominent United States Bahá'í (and coffee merchant himself)" (Bolton, 1987). For information on Sophia, see The Evening TimesGlobe (Saint John), 10 June 1953, and Fernhill (1987). 17. Cable from Mrs. May Maxwell, Saint John, to Miss Edna McKinney, Boston, 15 December 1916, AL. Box 11, Folder 39. 18. Letter from May Maxwell, Saint John, to "Beloved Sister" [presumably Corinne True], 27 June 1917, AL. 19. This petition carried the names of Henry S. Culver, Mary R. Warner, Louise Culver, Sophia Humphrey, Wm. H. Humphrey, A.B.M. Hatheway, Kate M. Sutherland, Mary D. Culver, Agnes B. Nixon, George H. Nixon, Murray E. Nixon, and Jean E. Nixon (Star of the West, 1 August 1919, p. 156). 20. It was a chance discovery of a letter from Jean Nixon to Corinne True, dated 23 September 1917, in the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL (AL, Box 9, Folder 25), which led the author to undertake the research in this book. See also AL, Box 30, Folder 63. 21. The YMCA, in 1920, also excluded Jews from membership (Lazar and Medjuck, n.d.: 5). 22. A biography of JinábiFádil is found in "In Memoriam—JinábiFádil," 1974. 23. Ferne Allaby and Gaby Pelletier interviewed some relatives of Marion Jack in Saint John who remembered her going to Gagetown "with two gentlemen dressed in Eastern clothes" (Allaby, 1986). 24. She was born in Rexton, New Brunswick, of a prominent family. She had a sister, Margaret C., living in Providence, Rhode Island (in 1932); there was another sister, Mrs. J.H. (Isabella) Davidson of 191 King Street, with whom she lived towards the end of her life (The Evening TimesGlobe [Saint John], 17 March 1932, p. 5). Kate Sutherland's obituary stated, "Her reports of conventions, sermons and addresses had called forth special commendation from distinguished visitors in Saint John, and her literary aptitude made her services in great demand. She was especially interested in aiding young people who desired to take up the same calling. She was keenly interested in the welfare of the community, particularly in educational endeavours." She was, furthermore, a member of numerous groups, including the Women's Canadian Club, the Ladies' Assocation of the Natural History Society, and the Saint John Art Club. She was a "lifelong" member and active worker in the (Presbyterian) Church of St. John and St. Stephen (ibid.).
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25. Her husband, Harold, was a photographer, also of a prominent New Brunswick family (Chisholm, 1986). 26. Mrs. Smith was a noted citizen in Saint John. She had one son, Albert Colby Smith, who became Member of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick. Mrs. Smith's activities extended over many areas of the city (The Evening TimesGlobe [Saint John], 24 September 1936, pp. 4, 11; 25 September 1936, p. 9; Clarke, 1979: 54; Bolton, 1987; and Evening Telegram Globe [Saint John], 9 February 1940, p. 16). 27. Henry Culver, Louise Culver, Kate Sutherland, Jean Nixon, and two new members: Mrs. (Mary) H. Colby Smith and Mrs. (Helen) Harold Climo. 28. "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of Bahá'í Temple Unity, Chicago, Ill. 24–26 April 1922," NBAUS, p. 84; the four remaining members were Henry Culver, Louise Culver, George Nixon, and Jean Nixon ("List of Bahá'ís in U.S. and Canada," March 1922, AL, Box 27 Folder 53). 29. The Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, Shoghi Effendi, made a reference to the Saint John "Assembly" in his letter of 8 January 1923 (Star of the West, May 1923, p. 48). 30. Letter from Dorothy Culver, Boston, to Ernest V. Harrison, Secretary of the Montreal Assembly, 18 March 1923, Minutes of the Montreal Assembly, 1922–40, NBAC. 31. Minutes of the Montreal Assembly, 1922–40, NBAC. 32. National Teaching Committee (1938). In 1934–35 (Bahá'í World, 1937, p. 518), Louise was apparently the sole Bahá'í in the province. 33. Letters from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, to Kenosha Bahá'í Assembly, WI, 1 August 1922, 16 March 1923, and 2 May 1923, KR, Box 5, Folder 52. 34. Rev. Cecil (or Claude) Stewart was known as an activist, setting up the first soup kitchen in Saint John. He later moved to Hamilton, Ontario, where he once again met up with the Bahá'ís. At his church in Saint John, Dr. Edna McKinney of Philadelphia spoke five times on Bahá'í themes and Marion Jack gave an exhibition of her paintings. 35. Letter from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, to Kenosha Bahá'í Assembly, WI, 7 April 1924, KR, Box 5, Folder 52; a detailed exploration of African Canadian Bahá'í history can be gleaned from van den Hoonaard and EchevarriaHowe (forthcoming). The first African Canadian church to welcome Bahá'ís was in Montreal, on the occasion of'Abdu'lBahá's visit there (see chap. 4). 36. As noted earlier, Bahá'ís in other parts of Canada came from Methodist, Rosicrucian, and Theosophical backgrounds. 37. Letter from Jean Mosher, Saint John County, to Ernest V. Harrison, Montreal, 31 July 1933, EVH. 38. Minutes of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 24 May 1925, NBAC.
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Nine — Retinence in the Canadian West, 1913–37 Between 1913 and 1937 Montreal was the pulse of the slowly growing Canadian Bahá'í community; the rest of the country had only small and isolated cells of Bahá'í activity. Towards the end of this period, however, Toronto began to emerge as a vital centre of Bahá'í activities, and the Atlantic provinces received some impulses of interest though not with any tangible results until well after 1937. The vast Canadian west, including the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and Yukon Territory, had only a few scattered Bahá'í members who were cut off from Bahá'í developments elsewhere on the continent. These "points of Bahá'í light," representing the first Bahá'í contact in these areas, were weak. The only area that saw the establishment of a permanent Bahá'í community during the 1913–37 period was Vancouver. A Bird'sEye View of the Western Bahá'í Landscape Manitoba Although it seems that Manitoba had a Bahá'í living in Winnipeg as early as 1910–11 (Star of the West, 17 May 1911, p. 10), there were no permanent Bahá'ís in the province until Rowland Estall's arrival in Winnipeg in May 1939. In the meanwhile, Winnipeg had received a Bahá'í visitor in the person of Queen Marie of Rumania; Winnipeg was the fourth and last Canadian city she visited. She arrived in the late afternoon of 30 October 1926, and left later that evening for Minneapolis (Morris, 1927: 100). There had been no public mention of her Bahá'í Faith in Montreal, Ottawa, or Winnipeg; Toronto was the exception. Saskatchewan Saskatchewan had a curious exposure to the Bahá'í Faith. Between 1913 and 1937, there were Bahá'ís in Gull Lake, Carmichael, Wakaw, and Saskatoon. One of the most isolated believers was probably
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Edward W. Harris (1871–1922), 1 a farmer who lived in Gull Lake, Saskatchewan from 1913 until 1922 (BML1). Harris came from North Dakota with his wife to homestead in Gull Lake in 1906 or 1907. Their only child, Edward D. (b. 1912), was sent to Champion College in Moose Jaw, which was quite unusual for a farm boy in those days. Edward D. Harris took over farming with his mother after his father's death and was an adherent of the new religion from 1934 to 1941 (Bahá'í World, 1937: 518; Bahá'í News, AprilMay 1945, p. 3). After his mother's death, Harris "walked out of the home with nothing but his clothing," whereupon he became a Jehovah Witness in British Columbia (Magee, 1991). Beatrice Magee, a neighbour who lived near the old Harris homestead, said: When we were married (1951) their home [the Harrises'] was still there, with linens, furniture, books, photos, Bahá'í literature, coffee pot on the stove. We often went there and speculated on why a man would walk out on a lifetime…. [W]e spirited out a large wooden apple box of early Bahá'í literature from out of the dirt and bird droppings.
She continued: I accepted the Bahá'í Faith, indirectly because of Edward D. [Harris] even tho I never met him. When I married and moved here, there was always talk of this man who was eccentric because he was Bahá'í…and though many years passed I did not forget him and resolved to investigate someday [she became a Bahá'í in 1978]. (Ibid.)
The most isolated Bahá'í in Canada, long before Edward D. Harris, was a Miss Andrew who was living in Wakaw in October 1920 (BML4). Wakaw is a remote town northeast of Saskatoon, straddling the intersecting lines of the Canadian National Railways (CNR) and Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). As with the Harrises, we have no idea how Miss Andrew found the new religion and how it had attracted her. At the end of the 1913–37 period, we also find the recorded presence of "Bahaists" in Saskatoon; they were deeply involved in the Fellowship of Reconciliation, a peace organization (Socknat, 1987: 179) with a membership of thirty. The Fellowship was one of the largest in Canada. Alberta In Alberta there were two known Bahá'ís before 1937. We have already introduced Esther E. Rennels, who had joined the Bahá'í Faith in Chicago in 1897 (BEL). She lived in Edmonton at least between 1911 and
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1917 (PembertonPigott, 1988: 3; BML1). The second adherent was Mabel Harriet Pine, an Anglican nurse of English descent. After moving from Armstrong, British Columbia, where she converted to the religion through the efforts of Austin Collin, she lived in remote areas of Alberta: Scollard (from 1926 to 1927) and Vermilion (from 1928 to May 1941) (Stecyk, 1984), at times not seeing another Bahá'í for ten years (Bahá'í News, September 1940, p. 4). British Columbia British Columbia has the longest Bahá'í history among the western provinces. Aside from developments in Vancouver, there were very few Bahá'ís in the rest of the province. Marielle C. Ladd, formerly an Anglican, was already in Benson Siding, 2 a whistlestop, by 1910 (CHSR, 1910, Box 8, Folder 2), and lived there until 1923 (BHRC). A Bahá'í "Assembly" existed in Benson Siding after 1918 (Star of the West, 7 February 1920, pp. 331, 335; 17 May 1918, p. 46).3 Towards the very end of the 1913–37 period, there were only five Bahá'ís living outside Vancouver: a former Anglican, Alice Lorraine Wooton, in Kamloops, from March 1936 ("Membership List," September 1936, VBA) to at least April 1940 (Bahá'í World, 1942: 703), and Florence Sherborne, a Vancouver secretary who lived in Ocean Falls, from September 1934 ("Minutes," 8 September 1934, VBA) to March 1937 ("Minutes," 21 March 1937, VBA), and who was taught the Bahá'í Faith by May Maxwell. The main thrust of propagating the new religion would come from Vancouver, where the three early Bahá'ís, who eventually moved to Vernon, lived ("Minutes," 1 July 1935, VBA; McGee, 1987). The Great Travels Despite its distance from all other Canadian centres, Yukon Territory4 represents some of the most outstanding accomplishments of Bahá'í travelling teachers, especially before 1920. Agnes Alexander of Hawaii, an important Bahá'í teacher, was the first Bahá'í to visit the territory, in 1905. She made a round trip on the White Pass and Yukon Railroad from Skagway, Alaska, to Whitehorse, Yukon (Anderson, 1987; Bahá'í News, October 1983). Mrs. Susan Rice was the second travelling teacher, leaving believers and interested people in Whitehorse and Dawson in the summer of 1916 (Star of the West, 27 September 1916, p. 102). Three years later, other Bahá'ís reached the Yukon: one was Mrs. Aseyeh Allen of Washington, DC, "an exceptionally bright woman and clever talker," who
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lectured in Dawson in July 1919 (Dawson Daily News, 11 July 1919, p. 4). In September 1919 Marion Jack and Miss Emogene Hoagg travelled to the Yukon after their visit to Alaska. Emogene gave a wellattended public lecture in Dawson in September. Newspaper publicity was considered outstanding, referring to Emogene Hoagg as a "pleasant speaker," who impressed her audience "with the conviction of sincerity and devotion to the cause" (Dawson Daily News, 24, 25, and 26 September 1919). Marion Jack and Emogene Hoagg also visited the southwestern Alaskan towns of Juneau and Ketchikan, in addition to Whitehorse and villages along the Yukon River (Weekly Star, 17 and 24 October 1919). We learn that they held "impromptu talks on the dockside" and that the response was "sympathetic'' (Anonymous, 1985: 3–4 Between 1922 and 1937 there were sporadic visits by other Bahá'ís, including Miss Orcella Rexford, who spoke to an audience of 550 at a public meeting in Dawson in 1922 (Bahá'í World, 9: 919). The first known Yukon resident, and the first African Canadian woman, to become a Bahá'í was Mrs. Dora Bray of Dawson, who enrolled in 1922 as a result of the visit of Marion Jack and Emogene Hoagg (Anderson, 1993). A schoolteacher, she subsequently moved to Washington State (Anderson, 1987). 5 Vancouver The most significant travelling teachers were Marion Jack and the Persian scholar, JinábiFádil, who visited Vancouver in 1920 and 1921. Close to the United States border near Seattle, and the thirdlargest city in Canada, Vancouver became a muchfrequented destination of Bahá'í teachers. The first, it appears, was Howard MacNutt, a prominent American Bahá'í, in 1913 (Gail, 1991: 119). The second and third were Laura Luther of Seattle and Marion Jack of Saint John, New Brunswick, who organized the visit by JinábiFádil in January and February 1921. As Marion is best known for her activities in Vancouver, it is more appropriate to provide a vignette of her life here. Marion Elizabeth Jack (1866–1954), called by Shoghi Effendi an "immortal heroine" and a "shining example" to all Bahá'í pioneers (Bahá'í World, 1956: 674–77), came from a prominent Saint John family.6 Her childhood was tragic, filled with the deaths of young siblings and the great 1882 city fire of Saint John (Nason, 1900: 42842). After taking painting lessons from John Hammond, she left New Brunswick in 1885 to attend art schools in London and Paris. Jack founded the Saint John Art Club and received recognition for her
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paintings in various exhibitions in Europe and Canada. 7 In the early 1900s, while studying in Paris, she met Charles Remey, an early Bahá'í, who told her about the new religion. After her conversion, she spent some months in 1908 in Akka, Palestine, at the invitation of 'Abdu'lBahá, teaching English to his grandchildren and painting scenes of Akka and Haifa. During World War I Jack stayed in Montreal and became a close friend of the Maxwells. After 'Abdu'lBahá wrote the Tablets of the Divine Plan—a mandate to North American Bahá'ís to spread the Bahá'í teachings across the planet—Jack was one of the very first to respond to his call. With Emogene Hoagg, she travelled to Alaska to teach the Bahá'í Faith. Following her rich exposure to 'Abdu'lBahá and his family, to European culture, and to the Maxwell family, and after her bold trip to Alaska and the Yukon—we find her moving to Vancouver in April 1920, the first Bahá'í to settle in that city. Ten years later, she would leave Canada to live in Bulgaria. Jack stayed in Vancouver from April 1920 to April 1921 (Anonymous, 1985: 4; Collin, 1968). Laura Luther lived there as well from September 1920 until August 1921 ("Address List," 2 September 1920, AL, Box 4, Folder 56). The two women laid the groundwork for JinábiFádil's weeklong visit, starting on 30 January 1920 (Collin, 1968). Accompanied by his interpreter, Mirza Ahmad Sohrab, and by George Orr Latimer of Portland, JinábiFádil gave lectures in various hotels and theatres and in Chinatown (Anonymous, 1951: 1). He made use of his visit to see West Vancouver and, after leaving Vancouver, went to Victoria. JinábiFádil's visit is still the most significant Bahá'í event to have occurred in British Columbia. His lectures drew "capacity audiences" and the newspapers provided a "great deal of publicity" (Collin, 1968). On the last day, 6 February 1920, four people joined the Bahá'í Faith, including three sisters: Mrs. Rhoda Harvey, Mrs. Frances Elizabeth Collin, and Mrs. Grace Ethel Joyce. Frances' son Austin also joined. These four individuals can be unequivocally regarded as the founders of the British Columbia Bahá'í community. In the same year two others enrolled, namely, Joseph H. Hougen (Star of the West, 17 May 1921, p. 90) and a Mrs. Hanen ("Annual Report," BTU, 1921: 30). Mr. Collin served as corresponding secretary and librarian of this small group of Bahá'ís. Until 1926 Mrs. Rhoda Harvey's "inspiring" firesides (informal gatherings) in her home created and maintained an interest in the Bahá'í Faith (Collin, 1968). With the help of Christina Monroe of Seattle, who took up residence in Vancouver in 1921, and of various
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travelling teachers, 8 the Bahá'í group grew slowly, in two brief spurts in 1922 and in 1926–27. In 1922, the group increased by another four individuals9 and in June 1926 and early 1927, eight10 more joined. The latter increase was wholly attributable to the presence of May Maxwell11 in Vancouver. With fourteen believers on the rolls in January 1927, Vancouver elected its first, and Canada's second, ninemember local Spiritual Assembly, assisted by May Maxwell.12 The first meeting took place on 12 January 1927 ("Minutes," 12 January 1927, VBA). A Period of Latency Between 1927 and 1937, the Vancouver Bahá'í community continued to grow at a steady pace, stimulated by activities undertaken by the Kemp family and by the arrival of itinerant Bahá'í teachers, many of whom were American.13 Because of Vancouver's location, some teachers also came from the Pacific, such as Mrs. A. Dewing of New Zealand in May 1931 ("Minutes," 1 May 1931, VBA), and Agnes Alexander, an American residing in Japan and Hawaii, in 1934–35 (Anonymous, 1951: 2). From 1927 on, Evelyn and Stanley Kemp generously provided their home as a social centre for the Bahá'ís, many of whom lived in boarding houses and needed a place for entertainment (McGee, 1993). By 1931 the Vancouver Bahá'í community had started meetings in the "Women's Building" ("Minutes," 1 May 1931, VBA). The meetings were more social than administrative in nature. The Spiritual Assembly met only a few times a year, but the Bahá'ís were always pleased to have had "a very happy and harmonious afternoon," with refreshments, usually tea, being served (''Minutes," 10 May 1931, VBA). Activities during 1931–32 remained at a low key. "Due to prevailing conditions," the Bahá'ís could no longer maintain a rented room at the "Women's Building," but interest in Bahá'í scriptural readings was high "Minutes," 5 June 1931, VBA). Visits from Portland Bahá'ís proved to be a highlight for the Vancouverites. The Bahá'í community became involved in the preparations of two cultural evenings, Chinese and "(East) Indian." Vancouver was a community of readers. For example, during 1932–33, some eleven Bahá'í books were studied in part or in whole.14 The most widely read works were The Hidden Words, Bahá'í Scripture, and Paris Talks. For the first time, the Bahá'ís also read Shoghi Effendi's analysis and description of the "Golden Age of the Cause of Bahá'ulláh." It was much later in the year that they began tackling Shoghi Effendi's Bahá'í Administration. It is, therefore, not surprising to discover that the Vancouver Bahá'ís systematically and regularly combed the local libraries to see what Bahá'í books were still available to the public.15
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In 1932–33 members of the Portland, Oregon, Bahá'í community, perhaps sensing the lack of initiative in the teaching field in Vancouver, took it upon themselves to once again visit Vancouver in June 1932 ("Minutes," 5 and 9 June 1932, VBA). The Vancouver Bahá'í community was, despite the urgings of the Bahá'ís of Portland and elsewhere, a group turned inward. At a special meeting of the Spiritual Assembly, it was decided to not have a picture taken of the Bahá'í group ("Minutes," 4 January 1934, VBA); some members were still reticent about being identified as Bahá'ís. A month later, another special meeting of the Assembly decided to hold study meetings for Bahá'ís only, and determined that "open meetings [be] discontinued for the present" ("Minutes," 26 February 1934, VBA). Rollie McGee, a Vancouver Bahá'í of the 1930s, would later report that the provincial government was keeping a close watch on unfamiliar groups, fearful that unemployment would encourage the "Wobblies,'' or Communists. For Bahá'ís, this was reason enough to keep a low profile (McGee, 1993). Under these circumstances, the Vancouver Bahá'í community would have folded, fearful of transfusions of "new blood." With the arrival of Rowland Estall from the Montreal area in January 1935, an auspicious year began. In July the Vancouver Bahá'í community began publishing its monthly newsletter, Vancouver Bahá'í News, and moved into a new Bahá'í centre at 603 Hastings Street (Anonymous, 1951: 4). For the first time, the Spiritual Assembly of Vancouver began organizing its meetings regularly and separately from the community NineteenDay Feasts. The period of latency had come to an end, making way for the maturation of the Spiritual Assembly and the community at large. Institutional Evolution Throughout the 1927–37 period, the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Vancouver showed an uneven pace of evolution. Until April 1935 the Assembly met only occasionally, two or three times a year, and much community business was decided at NineteenDay Feasts: in 1927–28 the Spiritual Assembly met twice, mainly to elect officers, send funds to the Temple Fund in Wilmette, Illinois, and to elect a delegate to the Bahá'í National Convention; in 1928–29 only one meeting of the Spiritual Assembly was held; officers were elected and the fund box, containing $11.50, was opened; the following year, 1929–30, two meetings were held. Officers were elected, a decision was made to set aside some funds for local activities instead of sending it all to the Bahá'í Temple Fund, and the Assembly decided that press material should be first submitted to the Chair of the Assembly for approval. Only two
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meetings took place in the subsequent year, 1930–31, both in April 1931: a delegate to the National Convention was elected, and it was decided to retain the same officers for the following year. After Rowland Estall's arrival from Montreal, more regular meetings of the Assembly took place, particularly after April 1935. Table 3 compares the April 1935–36 year with the last year under survey, April 1936–37. In addition to counting the number of times the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Vancouver met each year. Table 3 has categorized the items upon which the Spiritual Assembly took decisions. Internal administration deals with issues that pertain to the election of officers, appointments of committees, budgets and the Bahá'í fund, correspondence, reports, and the education of Spiritual Assembly members about the Bahá'í Faith or its administration. Deepening concerns the understanding of believers and relations with believers involves all facets of the Spiritual Assembly's relationship to the Bahá'í community and its development: the planning of study classes, children's classes, newsletters, the planning of Holy Days, and the like. Relations with the larger society involves such things as teaching the Bahá'í Faith, accepting new members, relations with authorities, and the dispatching of pioneers. Table 3 Comparison of Items Covered by the Spiritual Assembly of Vancouver, 1935–36 and 1936–37
1935–36
1936–37
Number of meetings
17
25
Internal administration Officers, committees, fund, correspondence, reports
55%
44%
Deepening of LSA members
0%
0%
Relations with believers Plan study classes, feasts, holy days, picnics, library
29%
31%
Relations to larger society Teaching of Bahá'í Faith, relations with authorities, applications and pioneers
16%
25%
Total items
100%a
100%a
N=
77
102
a Rounded. Source: VBA administration.
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The two years, 1935–36 and 1936–37, are quite consistent. Internal administration seems to require most of the attention of the Spiritual Assembly (55% and 44%). Around 30% of the items discussed focus on relations with the believers at large (29% and 31%), while 16% and 25% of the items concern relations to the larger society. The reader may wish to compare these figures with those of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Hamilton (discussed in a later chapter) to see that they are comparable with respect to internal administration, especially during the earliest days of the functioning of new Spiritual Assemblies. Noticeably lacking, however, is the deepening of members of the Spiritual Assembly. While Hamilton devotes 23% of its items to that dimension, the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Vancouver has devoted no time to this facet of Bahá'í. In summary, the light of the new religion penetrated Western Canada in an uneven fashion. Isolated pockets in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta were lit for a brief moment. Saskatchewan, despite its remoteness, seemed to offer more interest in the Bahá'í Faith than is commonly assumed—Bahá'ís lived there in at least four places between 1913 and 1937. It was perhaps also the remoteness of the Yukon that attracted several outstanding Bahá'í teachers as early as 1905. A study of the Vancouver Bahá'í community—the only permanent light in this vast region between 1913 and 1937—provides us with a history of the struggles of an early Bahá'í community, chiefly made up of people of AngloSaxon background, steeped in Christian knowledge and attachments, and unfamiliar with the workings of Bahá'í administration. Although Shoghi Effendi provided guidance on Bahá'í administration early in his ministry (which started in the early 1920s), it was not until thirteen years later, in 1935, that the Vancouver Bahá'í community emerged from its latent phase into a phase that characterizes maturing communities and their assemblies. Notes 1. I am indebted to Beatrice Magee (1991) of Gull Lake for providing much useful information on the Harris family. A photograph in possession of the author shows Edward William Harris' tombstone. He was born in London, England, 19 March 1871, and died 22 March 1922. The tombstone also shows a Bahá'í symbol, "the Greatest Name." 2. Benson Siding has been erroneously referred to in various Bahá'í publications as "Benton Siding." 3. Before 1923, it was common to refer to any group of Bahá'ís as an "Assembly." Only after 1923 did the term "Assembly" refer to the elected admin
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istrative body of nine believers in a given locale, namely, a "local Spiritual Assembly." 4. A useful, but brief, Bahá'í history can be found in Canadian Bahá'í News, October 1959, p. 1. 5. She eventually became, in 1971, at the age of 105, the oldest living Bahá'í in the world (U.S. National Bahá'í Review, 45 [September 1971]: 1). According to BHRC, however, Mrs. Bray would have been 102 years old in 1971, not 105. Born on 30 May 1869 in Lexington, Kentucky, she was apparently a dual national (English and Indian). In 1923 she married Mr. Gulliford, but became a widow in 1935, when she settled in Seattle. Mrs. Bray last resided in Pasadena, California (Anderson, 1987) where she received, at the age of 100, a painter scholarship from the Famous Schools in Westport, Connecticut (Bahá'í News, March 1968, p. 20). 6. The details of Marion Jack's life are taken from the anonymously authored Marion Jack: Immortal Heroine ([Jasion], 1985). Written in fact by Jan Jasion, the thirteenpage booklet gives a useful summary of her life. It is regrettable that the publishers did not include the sources of this information. A special folder published by Canadian Bahá'í News Committee (1955) provides additional information, especially how she was seen by others. Leroy loas has also written about Marion in Canadian Bahá'í News, April 1958, p. 3. A twopage account is found in Bahá'í Canada, 2(5) (October 1979): 2–3.Through the kindness of Keith and Janet Eldridge, I received copies of Marion's correspondence to her nephew, Fred Hubbard, and his wife, Lucy, who now (1993) live in Fredericton, N.B. The Eldridges were given to understand that there was a considerable collection of Marion's paintings with the Saint John Art Club. 7. While researching this book, I was invited by Joseph Frost in Maine to his home to search through archival records. In the course of my visit, Joseph Frost gave me a most striking autumn landscape painting by Marion Jack, which she had done in Burton, New Brunswick, in 1899. Later, I received from Mr. Frost another painting, entitled Young Stand of Birch Trees along the Alaska Highway, which she painted in 1922. Both paintings currently (1996) hang in our home. 8. They included George Latimer, Laura Luther, Louis Gregory, Elizabeth Greenleaf, Louise Caswell, and Horace Holley (Collin, 1968). 9. Madelaine Arrant, Oliver Harvey, Mrs. J. Hollace, and Mrs. S. Ramsay McKay (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 10. Florence E. Kemp, George R. Monroe, Stanley B. Kemp (a shipping registrar), Florence Sherborne (a secretary), Isobel Seifert, Marjorie E. Matchem (an office worker), Katherine Warnicker (a widow with independent means), and Thursa MurwoodClark, who was widely known as a socialist (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 11. In June 1926, she was accompanied by Elizabeth Greenleaf, an American Bahá'í who was spending much time in Canada to nurture the new Bahá'í community of Canada.
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12. The first Vancouver Spiritual Assembly consisted of George Monroe (chair), Stanley Kemp (treasurer), Evelyn Kemp (secretary), Rhoda Harvey, Thursa MurwoodClark, Christina Monroe, Isobel Seifert, Florence Sherborne, and Katherine Warnicker. See also Bahá'í News, March 1927, p. 1. 13. Helen and Charles Bishop, George Latimer, Louise Caswell, Atla Krueger, Mrs. Powell, Laura Luther, a Prof. and Mrs. Ward, Paul Noel, and Sylvia Matteson (later King) ("Historical Outline," 1951: 3–4). 14. The Hidden Words, Holy Bible, Bahá'í Scriptures, Paris Talks, The Bahá'í Revelation (by Thornton Chase), a chapter from Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (by John Esslemont), "Tribute to the Greatest Holy Leaf" (by Shoghi Effendi), The Oriental Rose (by Mary Hanford Ford), The Dawnbreakers, Bahá'í Administration, and The Wisdom of 'Abdu'lBahá. 15. The University of British Columbia Library had eighteen works and the Vancouver Public Library had eight; seventeen of these works were written by Charles Mason Remey ("Library," 24 January 1933, VBA).
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ILLUSTRATIONS For detailed captions for the following illustrations, see pp. 14953.
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Plate 1. 'Abdu'lBahá, son of Bahá'u'lláh
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Plate 2. Aimée Montfort Jaxon
Plate 3. Paul Kingston Dealy
Plate 4. Honoré Jaxon
Plate 5. Kate Ives
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Plate 6. Edith Magee
Plate 7. Marion Jack
Plate 8. May and W. Sutherland Maxwell
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Plate 9. Louis Bourgeois
Plate 10. Louise Culver and Mary Warner
Plate 11. Lorol Schopflocher
Plate 12. Siegfried Schopflocher
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Plate 13. The proposed design by Louis Bourgeois of the Bahá'i House of Worship
Plate 14. Delegates and other Bahá'ís attending the 19th Annual Convention of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, 1927
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Plate 15. Mary Maxwell
Plate 16. Eddie Elliot
Plate 17. Rowland Estall
Plate 18. F. St. George Spendlove
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Plate 19. Albert D. Watson
Plate 20. Laura Davis
Plate 21. Lloyd Gardner
Plate 22. John Robarts
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Plate 23. Montreal Bahá'í Group, ca. 1930
Plate 24. Bahá'í card
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Plate 25. Bahá'í booth, Canadian National Exhibition, 1940
Plate 26. Lulu Barr
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Plate 27. Hamilton Bahá'ís
Plate 28. Sarah Downes
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Plate 29. A group of Bahá'ís in Vancouver, 1939
Plate 30. First Bahá'í Group in Edmonton, 1942
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Plate 31. Lucille C. Giscome
Plate 32. Lillian Tomlinson
Plate 33. Noel Wuttunee
Plate 34. Mabel RiceWray Ives
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Plate 35. First Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Winnipeg, 1942
Plate 36. Bahá'ís in Halifax, 1940–41
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Plate 37. The Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 1948
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Plate 38. Delegates and other Bahá'ís attending the first National Bahá'í Convention of Canada, 1948
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Plate 39. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, 1948
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Plate 1. Abdu'lBahá, son of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, visited Canada (Montreal in particular), 30 August to 9 September 1912, achieving considerable press coverage. More than 2,400 people heard him speak. (Painting by Marion Jack, 1908, photo courtesy of Katherine Moscrop) Plate 2. Aimée Montfort Jaxon, a francophone Canadian teacher who accepted the Bahá'í Faith in Chicago in 1897, a few months after her husband, Honoré. (Photo courtesy of the Glenbow Archives, Calgary, Alberta) Plate 3. Paul Kingston Dealy, originally from Saint John, New Brunswick. A man of vision, he was also a railway inventor. Paul Dealy founded a SingleTax colony in the southern United States after becoming a Bahá'í in 1897 in Chicago. (Photo courtesy of Stockman, 1985: 95, and James P. Dealy) Plate 4. Honoré Jaxon, former secretary of Louis Riel, who espoused many social causes including the Bahá'í Faith, in which he was active from 1897 in Chicago. (Photo courtesy of the Glenbow Archives, Calgary, Alberta) Plate 5. Kate Ives, the fifth Bahá'í and the first woman in the Occident to become a Bahá'í. She declared her affiliation in 1894 in Chicago. Her parents, John H. and Catherine Cowan, were from Newfoundland and had migrated to the United States. (Photo courtesy of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL) Plate 6. Edith Magee, the first to accept the Bahá'í Faith in Canada. She is eighteen years old in this photo taken in 1898, the year she became a Bahá'í in London, Ontario. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 7. Marion Jack, a distinguished Bahá'í pioneer to Bulgaria. Born in Saint John, New Brunswick, she found the Bahá'í Faith in Paris, France. (Photo courtesy of Bahá'í Canada, 2(5) [October 1979]) Plate 8. May and W. Sutherland Maxwell, prominent and stalwart Bahá'ís in Canada. May, the first to establish a permanent Bahá'í community in Canada (Montreal) was regarded by Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, as the ''mother of the Canadian Bahá'í Community." Sutherland Maxwell assisted Shoghi Effendi in the design of the Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel, and was later appointed "Hand of the Cause of God" by Shoghi Effendi. The gentleman on the right is an American Bahá'í, Fred Ashton. (Photo courtesy of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL) Plate 9. Louis Bourgeois, the Quebecois/Acadian architect of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Chicago, Illinois, named the "Taj Mahal of the West." This photo was taken in Quebec City. (Photo courtesy of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL)
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Plate 10. Louise Culver and Mary Warner, two Saint John, New Brunswick, Bahá'ís who owned and managed a tearoom, ca. 1920. Several of the early Bahá'ís in that city were in the coffee and tea business. (Photo courtesy of the Culver Collection) Plate 11. Lorol Schopflocher, née Snyder, was one of the most effective Bahá'í teachers from Montreal, travelling extensively around the world in the 1920s and 1930s. (Photo courtesy of Harrison, 1940) Plate 12. Siegfried Schopflocher enrolled in 1921 and became, through his generosity and humility, the "Temple Builder" of the House of Worship in Wilmette. In the 1950s Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, appointed him "Hand of the Cause of God." (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 13. The proposed design by Louis Bourgeois of the Bahá'í House of Worship, submitted in competition to Bahá'í Temple Unity Convention, 1920. (Photo courtesy of Star of the West, 5 June 1920, p. 2) Plate 14. Delegates and other Bahá'ís attending the 19th Annual Convention of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, Montreal, 29 April3 May 1927. (Photo courtesy of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL) Plate 15. Mary Maxwell, at the age of twenty. As a member of the Maxwell family in Montreal, she played an important role in promoting the Bahá'í Faith among her peers. In 1937 she married Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. After his death in 1957 she became a distinguished Bahá'í through her world travels, her interest in ethnic and aboriginal communities, and her work as "Hand of the Cause of God." (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 16. Eddie Elliot, the first African Canadian to accept the Bahá'í Faith in Canada, March 1929. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 17. Rowland Estall, the first member of the Montreal Youth Group, 1927–35, and one of the most active and successful Bahá'í teachers. He also advocated company pension plans and financial protection of workers. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 18. F. St. George Spendlove, curator, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, who brought his scholarly and Bahá'í knowledge to bear on his work to spread the Bahá'í Faith. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection)
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Plate 19. Albert D. Watson, a poet, philosopher, occultist, and amateur astronomer. One of the earliest steadfast Bahá'ís of Toronto (1920–26). A prolific writer, he wrote the longest Bahá'í epic poem in the English language. He advocated contact with the "20th plane," a metaphysical place inhabited by great minds and composers. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 20. Laura Davis, née Rumney, who sustained the Toronto Bahá'í community from the late 1930s. She accepted the Bahá'í Faith through Albert D. Watson and was, likewise, involved with Toronto's literary circles. (Photo courtesy of the Toronto Bahá'í Archives) Plate 21. Lloyd Gardner, a jeweller and active promoter of Bahá'í work. In the 1940s, he set up a weekly luncheon for Bahá'ís in business, inviting their nonBahá'í colleagues to attend. He played a key role in the promotion of broadcasting Bahá'í radio programs. (Photo courtesy of Helen Gardner, Oshawa, ON) Plate 22. John Robarts, a life insurance executive in Toronto who actively promoted the Bahá'í teaching work. His later achievements across Canada and in Africa earned him the title of "Hand of the Cause of God" from Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. (Photo courtesy of the National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL) Plate 23. Montreal Bahá'í Group, ca. 1930, Union Avenue Bahá'í Centre. Front row, left to right: Winnie Page, Mrs. Sarah Cunningham, Rachel Fink, Bahiyyih Lindstrom, May Maxwell, Elizabeth Cowles, Miss Ruth Cunningham, Miss Dorothy Ward Second row, left to right: Jean (Blanche?) Mosher, Elsie Pomeroy, Ilse Lohse, Alberta Simms, Mary Maxwell, Janet French, Archie Leach, unknown female, Mrs. Dorothy Ward Third row, left to right: Fred Grenville Wade, Amy Harrison, Charles Murray, Walter Lohse, Eddie Elliot, Monty Lee, Emeric Sala, Rosemary Gillies, Norman McGregor, Annie Savage, Edward Lindstrom, Henry Bergholz, Sophie Terk, Ernest Harrison (Photo courtesy of Dorothy Wade, White Rock, BC) Plate 24. Toronto Bahá'ís used cards such as this one to advertise public meetings held at their Bahá'í Centre or hotels. Bahá'ís considered public meetings more inviting to "seekers." (Photo courtesy of Helen Gardner, Oshawa, ON) Plate 25. Bahá'í booth, Canadian National Exhibition, Toronto, 1940. The presence of such booths became one of the widely accepted ways of proclaiming the Bahá'í Faith to the Canadian public. The booth in Toronto was the first. (Photo courtesy of Bahá'í World, 1945, p. 835)
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Plate 26. Lulu Barr was the first Bahá'í in Hamilton, Ontario, 1939. Soon thereafter she travelled to Saskatoon and Regina to found Bahá'í groups there. She was one of the very few Bahá'ís vitally interested in establishing Bahá'í classes for children. (Photo courtesy of Bahá'í Canada, 7 August 1977) Plate 27. Hamilton Bahá'ís, December 1943. Many of the Bahá'ís in this community were drawn from artistic circles and included painters, dancers, and music teachers. Like the Bahá'í community of St. Lambert, Quebec, there was also a higher level of new Bahá'ís among families and relatives than was the case for other communities in Canada. Front row, left to right: Hazel Marshall, Dorothy Clarke, Muriel Barr, Nancy Campbell, Sarah Davies, Bessie MacGregor Back row, left to right: Erland Barr, Bill MacGregor, Amy Putnam, Mrs. J.L. Robinson, Amilia Clarke, John Mills, Arthur Lehman (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 28. Sarah Downes, a Bahá'í from Hamilton, Ontario, is shown here with her husband, Wray, who was a sleepingcar porter for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Sarah was the foster mother of one of Ontario's LieutenantGovernors and was active in organizing the local Bahá'í children's classes. (Photo courtesy of Inner City Films, Toronto) Plate 29. A group of Bahá'ís in Vancouver, 1939, including Mark Tobey, a renowned artist. The Bahá'ís of Vancouver, according to some accounts, attracted Lawren S. Harris, a member of Canada's "Group of Seven" painters, to their community. Front row, left to right: Cecil Elliott, Eve Cliffe, Mark Tobey, Doris Skinner, Mae McKenna, Bruce Hogg Back row, left to right: Eve Kemp Stan Kemp, Florence Sherborne, Kitty Paige, Rowland Estall, Edna Sherborne, Jack Carswell (Photo courtesy of Doris Skinner) Plate 30. First Bahá'í group in Edmonton, 1942. It was not uncommon to find women among the first believers or "pioneers." Although there was a Bahá'í in Edmonton in 1911, apparently, the Bahá'í community has been in continuous existence only since 1940. Left to right: Anne McGee, Lyda Martland, Milwyn Davies, Kay Rimell, Anita Ioas (later Chapman). (Photo courtesy of the Vancouver Bahá'í Archives) Plate 31. Lucille C. Giscome, journalist, civil servant, and one of Ottawa's first Bahá'ís, 1942, with an "unmeasurable passion for reading," who later left Canada for Czechoslovakia in search of a racismfree society. (Photo courtesy of Don Carty, Toronto)
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Plate 32. Lillian Tomlinson, Winnipeg's first Bahá'í, 1939. Like many other new Bahá'ís, Lillian was a telephone operator. This photo was taken in 1990. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 33. Noel Wuttunee of Calgary, Alberta, first Native Canadian to enroll as a Bahá'í in Canada, October 1947. (Photo courtesy of the Vancouver Bahá'í Archives) Plate 34. Mabel RiceWray Ives, 1878–1943, was the first Bahá'í to initiate a systematic teaching campaign to spread the Bahá'í Faith in Canada, starting in the fall of 1937, in Moncton, New Brunswick. (Photo courtesy of Bahá'í World, 1945, p. 617) Plate 35. First Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Winnipeg, 1942. The Assembly was the first to be formed between Vancouver and Hamilton. It was established by a move in 1939 of Rowland Estall, whose approach to teaching the Bahá'í Faith, involving association with likeminded organizations and diverse peoples, is unexcelled to this day. Left to right: Ernest Court, Stella Pollexfen, Hellen Poissant, Lillian Tomlinson, Rowland Estall, Sylvia King, Beth Brookes, Sigrun Lindal, Ernest Marsh (Photo courtesy of Lillian Tomlinson) Plate 36. Bahá'ís in Halifax, 1940–41. Meetings among Bahá'ís took place in homes, following supper. Left to right: Dorothy Ward (later Wade), Doris McKay, Grace Geary, Ralph ("Duzz") Laltoo, Ellen De Mille, Beulah Proctor, unidentified man with two children (Photo courtesy of Dorothy Wade, White Rock, BC) Plate 37. The Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 1948. Left to right: Siegfried Schopflocher, Gwen Inwood, Arthur Irwin, Milli Rina Gordon, Eddie Elliot, Adline Lohse, Bert Rakovsky, Amine De Mille, René Roy (Photo courtesy of Rowland Estall) Plate 38. Delegates and other Bahá'ís attending the first National Bahá'í Convention of Canada, taken at the Maxwell home. West Pine Avenue, Montreal, 24–25 April 1948. (Photo courtesy of the van den Hoonaard Collection) Plate 39. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, first elected 25 April 1948. Front row, left to right: Rosemary Sala, Siegfried Schopflocher, Laura Davis, Ross Woodman, John Robarts Back row, left to right: Emeric Sala, Rowland Estall, Doris Richardson, Lloyd Gardner (Photo courtesy of Garth Harvey)
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PART THREE — ORGANIZATION AND COMMUNITY BOUNDARIES
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Ten — Changing Styles of Organization and Boundary Maintenance For approximately the first thirty or so years in Canada, the Bahá'ís did not meld together into a social collectivity, nationally or locally. Many of the earliest Bahá'ís came to the Bahá'í Faith independent of each other, and remained unaware of their coreligionists across Canada. The Canadian Bahá'í community was still not a national community, whether administratively or socially. Bahá'í life was centred around specific communities: Montreal, Saint John, Toronto, and Vancouver. Historical developments in this handful of communities were only sporadically connected. At the local level, the Bahá'í identity only weakly extended to a sense of community. What sustained that identity was an individualistic orientation of religious life, fostered to a large extent by Methodism, Rosicrucianism, and Theosophy. Two processes underscore the transformation of a loosely knit group of individuals to a group with a sense of themselves as a community. The first process was initiated by 'Abdu'lBahá's visit in 1912 to Canada, and to Montreal in particular. The second process dealt with the organizational structure, while changes in the social boundaries of Bahá'í communities characterize the third process. Chapter 4 already discussed 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Canada. Organization The Bahá'ís of North America had established in 1909 the "Bahai Temple Unity" to oversee plans to build a House of Worship in a northern suburb of Chicago. 1 A constitution of the Bahai Temple Unity was adopted in April 1913 (Star of the West, 1 August 1913, pp. 14041). By 1920, Bahai Temple Unity (which had Canadian membership) began to acquire both propagation and administrative functions. Its Executive Board appointed in 1920 the first "Regional Teaching Committee" in Canada, comprised of May Maxwell, Elizabeth Cowles, and Mabel RiceWray of Detroit (Star of the West, 24 June 1920, p. 101)—a Teaching Committee structure that would remain in place
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for another sixty years in Canada. The administrative functions of Bahai Temple Unity also waxed, especially after the appointment by 'Abdu'lBahá of Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. As a national body of governance, it was succeeded in 1925 by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada. Shoghi Effendi had already felt the time was ripe to extend the same basic principles of Bahá'í administration at the local level. In a letter dated 5 March 1922, he wrote that in "in every locality where the number of adult declared believers exceeds nine" Assemblies should be established (Shoghi Effendi, 1933: 20). Thus, the Bahá'ís of Montreal elected their first local Spiritual Assembly on 10 December 1922; the Assembly met for the first time on December 17 (Canadian Bahá'í News, November 1956, p. 2). After 21 April 1923, the Spiritual Assembly of Montreal was elected annually on that date, based on further instructions from Shoghi Effendi of 12 March 1923 (Anonymous, n.d.). What was the character of these changes that affected both the elected and general participatory institutions of the religion? The elected institutions consist of the National Convention and local Spiritual Assemblies, while general participatory institutions include the NineteenDay Feast, the Bahá'í fund, attempts to set up a Bahá'í village, and summer schools and conferences. Elected Institutions The National Bahá'í Convention, which elects the National Spiritual Assembly annually, changed its character of representation in 1944. Until then, delegates were chosen by the local communities by proportional representation. In 1944, in view of the increase in the number of communities across North America, the area of representation was changed from cities to states or provinces (Bahá'í World, 1945: 45). In other words, delegates to the National Convention no longer represented local Spiritual Assemblies, but the body of Bahá'ís as a whole. While in 1937 only two Canadian delegates (Ernest Harrison and Rowland Estall) attended the National Convention, in 1944 the number had grown to eleven (Dahl, 1994). At the same time, the creation of a proportionally large number of local Spiritual Assemblies in the Canadian Bahá'i community focussed attention on the nature and functions of these local governing bodies. Electoral practices at this time were to change. At least until 1921, election to the national Bahá'í governing body, i.e., Bahai Temple Unity, and even to some local Bahá'í bodies, proceeded along the lines of nominations. 2 After the slate of nominees was known, some individ
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uals would withdraw their names from consideration if they preferred others to be voted for (Proceedings, 1921: 34). In light of Shoghi Effendi's later clarifications forbidding any form of nomination, electioneering, balloting, or platforming, the practices of the early Bahá'ís would be considered unacceptable by Bahá'ís today. 3 Voters indicate by secret ballot the nine individuals they think are most qualified to serve on this body. The nine men and women receiving the highest number of votes form the Assembly. Any tie for the ninth place is broken either by a revote or, in the case of a tie between a member of a dominant group and a member of a minority group, the minority member is acclaimed. At the first opportunity, members of the Spiritual Assembly elect from among themselves—again by secret ballot—the various officers, which include chair, vicechair, secretary, and treasurer. In the matter of the election of officers to the early local Spiritual Assemblies, an individual would indicate in advance of the election that he or she was not interested in being elected to particular posts, such as that of secretary (3 January 1934, EVH).4 Montreal was by no means an exception to this practice in Canada, for in Assemblies of other communities, like Vancouver, the same officers would be "elected" from year to year, by common agreement among the members of the Assembly ("Annual Meeting," 21 April 1927, VBA; 12 January 1925, EVH).5 Today, any new members to fill a vacant position are elected by the community at large. One prominent member of the Montreal Bahá'í community also believed that local Assemblies should be undergoing constant change in Assembly membership, with at least three new members elected each year, and three rotating off.6 At the instructions of Shoghi Effendi, this practice was also dropped since it was felt that it vitiated the process of democratically electing Spiritual Assemblies from the membership at large.7 Local committee membership included sometimes an honorary member (ca.1924, EVH). This practice will strike contemporary Bahá'ís as quite odd for two reasons. First, in a system without a clergy, according to Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'ís should not exhalt anyone over another. The very existence of an honorary member, in the Bahá'í view, would fly in the face of the principle of equality. Second, all Bahá'í committees consist of appointed individuals and all share in the responsibility of arriving at decisions through Bahá'í consultative practices.8 General Participatory Institutions One of the very important gathering nodes of the Bahá'í community is the NineteenDay Feast, usually abbreviated as "Feast." The Bahá'í cal
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endar is organized around a year comprising nineteen months with nineteen days each. It commences on 21 March, the Bahá'í New Year (Nawrúz). 9 The Bahá'í community starts the Bahá'í month with a Feast. Because, according to the Bahá'í calendar, a day starts at sunset (rather than at midnight as in the Gregorian calendar), Feasts are usually held the night before the first day of the month. The NineteenDay Feast has three consecutive elements: devotions, consultation about community affairs, and a time for socializing. It combines, in one gathering, the three elements of individual and collective life: the spiritual, business, and social elements.10 Although a Feast only has official administrative standing if it is held in a community with a local Spiritual Assembly, communities without a Spiritual Assembly are still encouraged to hold one (Hornby, 1988: 241). A NineteenDay Feast differs significantly from a typical gathering found in other religious communities. First, only members of the Bahá'í community can attend the Feast, although, as we shall see, this was not always the practice before 1940. Second, hospitality must characterize the Feast. Whether Feasts are held in a home (the most typical situation among Canadian Bahá'ís before 1948) or in a Bahá'í centre, the host of the Feast must serve his or her guests. Third, the Feast provides the channel by which the local Spiritual Assembly reports to the community at large, and by which the Bahá'ís can discuss general issues and make recommendations to the Spiritual Assembly. The NineteenDay Feast was probably not established in Canada earlier than the fall of 1913. The first published reference to a Feast occurs in Star of the West (13 July 1913), and elaborates on the general nature of the Feast. If we assume the contemporary understanding that Feasts can only occur where there is a Spiritual Assembly, we must assume that the first Feast in Canada must have taken place before the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly in Montreal on 10 December 1922.11 In this technical sense, the first Feast must have occurred on Monday evening, 11 December 1922. We should not be surprised, however, to find that the early Feasts and meetings of the Spiritual Assembly were perhaps indistinguishable from each other, such as in the case of the Vancouver Bahá'í community in the late 1920s (Minutes Book, VBA). An analysis of interviews conducted among older Canadian believers suggests that several elements dominated their thoughts about the NineteenDay Feasts held before 1948. There was both intense curiosity and unfamiliarity with this institution of the Bahá'í community:
Page 160 I went to [the first Feast]. [W]e had a wonderful Feast, … but it was very foreign to me coming right out of the church, … coming into this Feast where we just sat around. Then they talked about money and the fund…. I thought to myself, ''What did I get into here?" But it gradually dawned on my soul, and I knew it was right anyway, but, it was a little bit having to get used to. (Interview, HC)
Another remarked on its strangeness: "The early Feasts … They were very strange to me to begin with, of course. I didn't get too much out of them" (interview, DC). Despite the initial strangeness, many found the older Feasts to have been more joyous and intimate occasions, partly because of the small number of believers, and partly because there were fewer administrative affairs to be discussed (interview, DB): Well I think there's more discussion about the community affairs [now]. We really didn't have any in those days. We were so small and we didn't really have any organization [with] not much news from any place so that really it was just our own little [community]. We got together and had the spiritual part, had tea, and that was about it. (Interview, NC)
As the Feast 12 was the principal and only means for Bahá'ís getting together formally, very little was known about each other's private life, and only "Bahá'í things" were discussed: but most of them [the Bahá'ís] kept a circle of personal friends outside the Bahá'í community. You were not necessarily on a personal friendly basis with another person in the community. You knew people from meetings, from Baha'i activities. You did not necessarily know [them] as private citizens. (Interview, CA)
In some instances, as in Winnipeg, the NineteenDay Feast was the only point of contact between the Bahá'í group that entered the Bahá'í Faith through the adult education group, the Phoenix Club, and the group that existed at the university. What thus characterized the early Feasts was the smallness of numbers, the lack of administrative matters under discussion, and the fact that they, along with the firesides and public meetings, were usually the only points of contact among the Bahá'ís. Not infrequently, nonBahá'ís were in attendance, including a lot of "well known people" (interview, FC), and the Feasts continued with the three parts, unabated.
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Financial Contributions 13 The nature of making financial contributions also changed. Previously, the names of contributors to the Bahá'í fund included those who were not Bahá'ís, such as Randolph Bolles in 1916,14 and were not always kept confidential. The practice now, founded on a clearer understanding of principle and based on explicit guidance by Shoghi Effendi, is not to accept contributions from those who are not Bahá'ís, and to keep all contributions confidential. At that time, believers and those who had an empathetic affiliation with the Bahá'í Faith were allowed to pledge contributions. At least until 1919, it was not uncommon for the delegates at the national convention of Bahai Temple Unity to receive a list of donors to the Bahá'í fund of the day (the fund to build the substantial and imposing Bahá'í House of Worship in Chicago). Thus, in the eleventh annual "MashrekolAzkar"15 Convention held in New York in 1919, we find that, among the Canadian Bahá'ís, Mrs. Maxwell contributed $100 (Proceedings, 1919). At the 1921 national convention, Edith Inglis and Louis Bourgeois each contributed $100 (Proceedings, 1921). Some other communities, like Vancouver, would assess their members, even as late as 1931, "a definite sum to meet expenses" ("Minutes Book," 28 April 1931, VBA). What themes emerged when older believers were interviewed for our study? They recall the degree to which financial sacrifices were rendered, and some of the methods used to permit individuals to make contributions to the fund. Some recall the story of Ebba Sherman of Verdun, who earned her living as a washerwoman, and who, as poor as she was, would donate to the Bahá'í fund the money she would earn from cleaning the Bahá'í Centre in Montreal (Estall and Sala, 1987). Another believer in the Montreal area, Annie Savage, is fondly remembered as a "gentle lady," who "made a special jam and jellies and sold them to make a living" (interview, FC). Others "went broke" pioneering to the more isolated areas of Canada, such as Prince Edward Island. Edna Holloway, for example, was a hairdresser who sold her business in Lima, Ohio, to pioneer to the island. One other adherent, Doris McKay (1991), said that "she went broke like the rest of us did and she did housework.'' Florence Cox "had a little bit of her own money" (ibid.). She used the money to rent a house with a parlour for a Bahá'í reading room. Since all Bahá'í funds were donated voluntarily, Bahá'í communities tried to devise ways of not pressuring individual adherents to contribute to these funds. It was probably true that during this time Bahá'ís would have considered it bad taste to make public the amount of their
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contribution (Rochester, 1993). Although contributions could be made anytime to the treasurer of the Bahá'í community, it was the NineteenDay Feast that normally offered a ready opportunity for contributions. The treasurer solicited funds through a general appeal as the financial picture was being presented to the Bahá'í community as a whole. The whole process of contributions was made as discreet as possible. One believer mentioned how a little bottle was "set behind a curtain or behind a picture" and "that was where you went and put your money in" (Rayne, 1990) Often, the particular collection vessel, whether a bottle, vase, or someone's hat, remained the same from Feast to Feast, serving as a physical reminder of the Bahá'í fund. The Bahá'í community did not comprise the welloff. A Bahá'í of considerable wealth might be noticed immediately, and it might be expected that Bahá'ís would rely heavily on such a wealthy donor to contribute significantly to the Bahá'í funds. Aside from being elected treasurer of the National Spiritual Assembly, the Canadian industrialist Mr. Fred Schopflocher would also wait to see the extent of contributions from all other Bahá'ís before making his own contribution (L. Gardner, 1978). For their part, the other believers would give to the Bahá'í Fund in a private manner, although some Bahá'í communities organized "economy dinners": Each Bahá'í family would invite other Bahá'ís to come and share a meal. We'd each vie with one another to find out who could provide the cheapest, most satisfactory, most gourmet meal for the least amount of money. Everyone would come and pay the minimum for which the least meal cost. Others, of course, could pay a dollar if they wished; the wealthier members did so…. (R. Sala, n.d.)
In addition to private and individual giving inside and outside the NineteenDay Feasts, and the holding of economy dinners, some Bahá'í communities, like Ottawa, would secure voluntary pledges from the believers, so that budgets could be drafted. In this case, it was an Air Force accounting officer in Ottawa, Irwin Tredenick, who set up a detailed accounting system that was to be emulated by other Bahá'í communities over the years (Harvey and Harvey, 1990). Other approaches to raising funds were considered by Toronto, for example, when the running of a rented Bahá'í Centre at 112A Bloor Street seemed beyond the means of the community: the Bahá'ís rented the space out once a week to a ladies' undergarment company (interview, AA).
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Summer Schools and Retreats Another facet of Bahá'í institutional life that evolved and contributed to the overall development of the Canadian Bahá'í community was summer schools and conferences. For Bahá'ís, summer schools were retreats, seen as opportunities for exemplifying Bahá'í community life without the distractions of everyday concerns. Lasting from a weekend to a whole week, summer schools also offered classes of Bahá'í study. Conferences, on the other hand, were much shorter affairs, designed to inspire and call the Bahá'ís to action. Summer schools and conferences both provided opportunities for Bahá'ís to meet socially and to exchange news. They served as points of cohesion, especially important when there was still no Bahá'í national governing body in Canada. In 1941 the Bahá'ís organized their first three summer schools. 16 The first one was held in Montreal, 28 June to 2 July 1941 (Bahá'í News, December 1941, pp. 5– 6), the second at Glen Lynden Farm, Rice Lake, Ontario, 3 to 9 August, and the third in Vernon, British Columbia, 29 to 31 August: twentyfive, twentynine, and seventeen to twenty people attended, respectively. The circumstances that brought about these schools are worthy of attention. The exigencies of World War II were such that Canadian residents were allowed to export only a small amount of currency. As a consequence, Canadian Bahá'ís were no longer able to attend the established Bahá'í schools at Green Acre (Eliot, Maine) and Geyserville in California. Acting on the suggestion of Horace Holley, Secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, Rowland Estall was asked to encourage the Canadian believers to organize their own summer schools. Freddie Schopflocher, the industrialist, apparently provided the initial funding for this endeavour (Estall, 1977). The particular circumstances that promoted the summer sessions in each of the three places differed. The summer session in Montreal, 28 June to 2 July 1941, was, historically speaking, the first of its kind in Canada. Rosemary and Emeric Sala had just returned to Montreal in 1941 from pioneering to Venezuela. They became acutely aware of the sharp decline of the Montreal Bahá'í community. When former Montrealer Rowland Estall was on a visit from Winnipeg, the Salas and Estall realized the need to bring together in Montreal Bahá'ís from the Maritimes and Ontario. The sessions took place in the homes of the Schopflochers, the Salas, and the Maxwells.17 Some twenty Bahá'ís attended, but only three from Montreal. In hindsight, Emeric Sala observed that it "was the nucleus [and] the birth of the Canadian Bahá'í community" (Estall and Sala, 1987).
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In 1942 a summer school was organized in Rivière Beaudette at the farm of Paul Sala, Emeric's brother. The success of these gatherings led to the purchase, in 1947, of a permanent Bahá'í school property called Beaulac, near Rawdon, Quebec (Bahá'í News, July 1947, p. 7). The Bahá'í School at Beaulac would, until the early 1970s, shape the Bahá'í educational pattern in Canada. While the Montreal summer session grew out of dissatisfaction with the decline of the Montreal Bahá'í community, the opposite was true for the Rice Lake summer session. A number of young Toronto Bahá'ís, including Lloyd Gardner, had been visiting Camp Franklin, Georgian Bay, which was operated by a new Bahá'í, W.J. Christie. "W.J.," a retired former United Church minister and "clever and efficient" in all rural matters (Echevarria, 1991), 18 enjoyed the outdoors to such an extent that he lived in isolation from the smallbutgrowing Toronto Bahá'í community. Bahá'ís remember "W.J." as someone who "lost everything" when he withdrew as minister from the church to become a Bahá'í. He was one of the earliest Bahá'ís to insist that the new religion be taught to Canada's native peoples. Having converted in Toronto in 1935 (Rochester, 1987), he later pioneered to Charlottetown in October 1942 (Bahá'í News, March 1943, p. 4).19 When some of those who had frequented Camp Franklin were unable to persuade the Regional Teaching Committee of Ontario to organize a summer school (L. Gardner, 1984), it was members of the Spiritual Assembly of Toronto who took it upon themselves to organize one, selecting a farm, "Glen Lynden," at Rice Lake, which belonged to Mr. and Mrs. Harris. Twentynine people attended the summer session held 3 to 9 August, 1941, one month after the Montreal session. When the number of participants became too large over the years, the venue moved to Blue Mountain Lodge. The character of the third Canadian Bahá'í summer school, held in Vernon, British Columbia, 29 to 31 August 1941, was different. Held over a weekend, it attracted up to twenty Bahá'ís, including several from the United States (Estall and Sala, 1987). The school expressed a desire for Bahá'ís to emulate the American Bahá'ís in organizing such events, as a means of getting Bahá'ís together from the whole region. It also attracted some American Bahá'ís who were subject to fewer restrictions as far as currency exchanges were concerned. The venue of the school was moved to Banff, Alberta. Known for its highquality programs (Sheets, 1990), the school, however, initially experienced a series of difficulties. The organizer of this school relates the following:
Page 165 I went down to Banff to try to find a place. I approached a little church there and the man I spoke … was very open about [renting a place]. He rented us this hall. I didn't tell him what it was for, but when the congregation found out, there was a big uproar. So that didn't go over very big…. (Interview, NC)
There are also reports of the difficulties the Bahá'ís experienced in trying to have Harry Takashiba, Canada's first Bahá'í of Japanese background, rent a room at the facility where the Banff school took place (interview, NC). 20 In sum, 1941 represented the first year in which the Canadian Bahá'í community organized its summer schools. The total attendance was just over sixty people. The participants, as well as the motivational basis, differed in each school. In Montreal, some returning pioneers organized the summer school in response to inactivity, drawing participants from Toronto, Montreal, and the Maritimes. In Ontario, the school grew out of increasing levels of Bahá'í activity among the new Bahá'ís, with participants coming principally from Ontario. In the west, the Vernon, British Columbia, school drew Bahá'ís from the United States, building on a historical north south link. Thus, being a Bahá'í in the 1940s was synonomous with attending Bahá'í summer schools, which deepened one's identity as a Bahá'í and linked it to that of a Bahá'í community. But what were the criteria for being a Bahá'í? Changing Criteria for Acceptance and Membership Before 1927 membership in the Bahá'í community was assumed if one simply came to Bahá'í meetings and attended other functions. There was no formal process by which individuals enrolled in the community. One early believer describes his enrolment as follows: So, I felt, I considered myself a follower and then in September, October [1927], I was anxious to go back to the public meetings…. I made out a cheque for two dollars … as a contribution to the [Bahá'í] Faith, [The treasurer] said, "Well, I'm not supposed to take it, because you are not on our list, but I'll bring up your name, and I'll let you know."21 A week or so later, he let me know that he did bring up my name in the Spiritual Assembly [of Montreal]. They accepted me and they accepted the cheque. (Sala, 1990)
A further extract from this same interview also shows the flexible character of Bahá'í membership:
Page 166 Which illustrates, in a way, that people who came to the meetings, some thought they were Bahá'ís, some did not. Nobody asked them, nobody confirmed it, and some left. It was not like now, for instance. It was not organized. We did not have a system. There was confusion about … early [membership] lists…. Some thought they were lists of Bahá'ís; they were just mailing lists of people who did come to meetings, more or less regularly. (Sala, 1990)
The National Bahá'í Convention in Montreal in 1927 was pivotal (Shoghi Effendi, 1974: 335) in determining qualifications for Bahá'í membership. It adopted the Declaration of Trust and ByLaws of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada. Bahá'í communities were asked by the National Spiritual Assembly to verify their membership lists carefully by asking all current believers whether they complied with the prerequisites of Bahá'í membership, as set down in the Declaration of Trust and ByLaws. These prerequisites include the "acceptance of the Báb as the forerunner, of Bahá'u'lláh as the Manifestation of God, of 'Abdu'lBahá, of whatever they have revealed in their writings, and of the spirit and form of Bahá'í Administration" (ibid., 1950: 5). In the face of these new, more formal criteria, it was not uncommon for individuals who were previously loosely connected to the Bahá'í community to forsake Bahá'í membership altogether (Estall and Sala, 1987). Of the fiftyseven adherents in April 1927, some twentythree (40.4%) had formally resigned by 1940 (van den Hoonaard, 1992a), many of whom had already become inactive by the early 1930s. Aside from the acceptance of Bahá'u'lláh as the new "Manifestation of God," interested individuals had to be prepared to read the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l Bahá, which sets out the line of succession and authority in the Baháí Faith. The latter insistence could lead to odd situations: When I declared at Mae McKenna's apartment where friends [Bahá'ís] were meeting, they asked me if I read the Will and Testament. I said, "No." So they took me into the clothes closet 22 and they read to me parts of the Will and Testament and they asked me if I accepted it and I said, "Yes," although I didn't really understand it. (Interview, AA, 1990)
After an individual had prepared him or herself, with the help of a Bahá'í, he or she would meet with members of the local Spiritual Assembly, who asked if the applicant had read the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'lBahá (ibid.). For others, it meant reading more than the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'lBahá:
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Of course one of the main things was the Will and Testament. There were other books … like the Promise of All Ages.
There was Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era.24 There were a few basic sorts of books that I think they felt at that time you should read…. [A]t that time there was no sort of application card to be filled in. You sent a letter to the Assembly. Generally you informed the Assembly briefly a little bit about what you had read really. (J. Smith, 1991: 62)
The initiative to become a Bahá'í was left in the hands of the individual; there are no records of a local Spiritual Assembly inviting someone to become a Bahá'í. The burden of the first step, and of reading the required texts, fell on the individual. Application for membership in the Bahá'í community did not go without some trepidation, as the following account testifies: you can picture it, my brother Cliff [Gardner], Noreen and George KeithBeattie, and myself sitting in the living room waiting to be interviewed [by the Spiritual Assembly]. We were all busy boning up on the answers we would give if they asked us certain questions…. I [now] realize, of course, that the Assembly wasn't going to let us get away, no matter what. But they let us in. (L. Gardner, 1978)
An African Canadian adherent had this to say when asked about the way she enrolled in the Bahá'í community: In those days you had to write a letter of intent to the Local Assembly stating that you believed in the Central Figures25 of the Faith and that you had read the New Era,26 and the Will and Testament of Abdu'lBaha. When I met the committee, they talked with me and then asked me to step out into the hall while they discussed my acceptance. (Interview, KA)
A francophone Bahá'í, in a letter to the Spiritual Assembly that accepted her application in 1946, confided the following: I wept at my interview. I felt miserable, humiliated: Where was the joy of becoming a Bahá'í? … Where did my enthusiasm sink at that moment? I had been told I would be tested. So I took it as part of the test. Another test did not help when a wellmeaning friend [on the Spiritual Assembly] advised me "to be very careful in my teaching efforts as the Bahá'ís in Quebec did not want to find themselves with a revolution on their shoulders…." (Letter from "FA" to a Spiritual Assembly)
The same Bahá'í who wept at her interview would later serve on a Spiritual Assembly and interview other applicants, including one who became so nervous that she was refused:
Page 168 I also recall another "inconclusive" interview where I was one of three to question a lady…. [The interview] lasted 45 minutes. She also understood the 12 Principles. But in her high sixties, she got so nervous and puzzled by [the] insistence on Bahá'í Administration, she started to stutter, all hot, and unable to answer anything. It was crucial, and I found it even embarrassing to submit a believer to such an ordeal. It was even a greater flop [than mine]: she was refused. (Ibid.)
Hazel Cuttriss, reminiscing with a friend about her own enrolment in the Bahá'í community of Hamilton in the early 1940s, compared the process to a "grand jury:" I said, "What are they going to do to us? … Are they going to ask us a lot of questions?" We went one by one. It was like going in front of the grand jury at that time. I said to Frances [Young], "Well that wasn't so bad, was it?" "No, that wasn't so bad." Then they told me and Francis that we had to read the Will and Testament. To me that was quite a document…. "You must read the Will and Testament before you can be accepted." "What else do I have to do?'' "You must write to the National Spiritual Assembly, telling them why you want to become a Bahá'í." (Cuttriss, 1991)
For Hazel Cuttriss, the interview by the local Spiritual Assembly was not the final step, as we see, but one that also required her to write to the National Spiritual Assembly. The criteria for Bahá'í membership were deemed so strict that one instance is known of a Bahá'í holding on to a "declaration card" of a new Bahá'í for up to a year, before handing it over to the local Spiritual Assembly for admission (interview, NA). Under more usual circumstances, a Bahá'í would simply insist that the new declarant should read books before applying for membership: He told me all that I wanted to know about the Faith. So I said, "I want to become a member." He said, "No, no, no, no. You have a lot of reading to do and there's conferences and all this." So we went to firesides every week at Laura Davis' and Doris Richardson's, [with Bahá'ís coming] from Brampton and Scarborough and Toronto. We went to summer conference out at Rice Lake [Ontario]. Eventually, January 1, 1946, we signed our cards. We had to learn the Will and Testament, all these things prior to signing our cards. (Interview, OB)
A new vocabulary had entered the Bahá'í community, which consisted of such terms as "signing a card" and "declaration." The usage of abbreviated forms like Will and Testament and New Era were perfectly normal for Bahá'ís, but were incomprehensible to outsiders. All of these terms became boundary markers for the the Bahá'í community—it
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need not exist as a separate territorial or physical entity—it was acquiring other, equally effective boundary markers separating it from the larger society. 27 What awaited those who were accepted as Bahá'ís by their respective local Spiritual Assemblies? What were they expected to live up to? In this context, the term "leading a Bahá'í life" summarizes those expectations. Leading a Bahá'í Life Bahá'í life, from the perspective of a Bahá'í, involves expressing, on the individual and collective plane, Bahá'í ethics. On the collective level, it involves attempts to bring local Spiritual Assemblies to a mature awareness of their administrative practices, to use proper Bahá'í consultative techniques, and to observe the various Bahá'í gatherings and holy days. The introduction of more detailed administrative practice had, however, two effects: the more seasoned religionists resisted the change, and new adherents became somewhat overzealous in the application of Bahá'í administration. As a consequence, it was not uncommon for communities to fall into inactivity: "It is possible that, in our earliest years, the youth of [town X] were altogether too concerned with the detail of administrative practice as well as the principle and may have been overzealous in its application" (Estall, 1977: 59). A similar preoccupation with administrative matters characterized the work of the Spiritual Assembly of Hamilton, Ontario, during 1940–41, when it devoted 48% of its agenda to internal administration ("Minutes," Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Hamilton, 1940–41). The departure of active Bahá'ís to settle in goal areas across Canada and elsewhere in the late 1930s and 1940s would sometimes exacerbate the situation brought on by those who were administratively zealous and those who were not. For example, with the 1939 departure from Montreal of May Maxwell, the central person who held together the older and newer adherents, the situation became so bleak that a former Montreal Bahá'í who returned to his native city in 1941 felt pressed to make this comment: We are now back three weeks and find the situation here in Montreal likewise depressing…. Eddie [Elliot] tells me that since the election [of the Spiritual Assembly] he tried five times to get a quorum together to elect their officers. But so far in vain … Montreal … is in danger of folding up.28
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On the individual level, it began to be expected that an adherent would follow a code of conduct as outlined in the Bahá'í writings. The standards are a blueprint, rather than rules, that guide individual behaviour, involving such things as honesty and trustworthiness. Many contemporary Bahá'ís perhaps think that the personal laws prohibiting backbiting and the consumption of alcohol have always been a feature of Bahá'í community life. A closer look at early Bahá'í life suggests that many of these practices have been only gradually made known and enforced. The law prohibiting the consumption of alcohol is a case in point. In at least one Bahá'í home, an older believer recalls, the Bahá'ís were served Manhattans (Estall, 1977: 63–64). He also remembers seeing a Bahá'í deeply reading one of Bahá'u'lláh's published works propped up against a row of beer bottles, the "contents of which presumably he had consumed" (ibid.: 64). After the publication of Advent of Divine Justice in 1939, Shoghi Effendi emphasized the importance of adhering to the Bahá'í law prohibiting the consumption of alcohol. For those believers who were unwilling to accept the prohibition, we are left with this observation: "Those who were perhaps only superficially Bahá'ís, particularly those who had been attracted only to its social principles and had not deeply grasped its spiritual verities, gradually slipped away" (ibid.: 65). By 1940 the use of alcoholic beverages by Bahá'ís ceased being the norm in such communities as Vancouver, where its Youth Committee was advised by the Spiritual Assembly "to take a definite stand against alcoholic beverages at the New Year's Eve party" to be held at the Bahá'í Centre ("Minutes," 17 December 1940, VBA). Just as the matter of consuming alcohol had been, at first, a matter of personal decision, so too was the Bahá'í decisionmaking process a matter of the weight of personalities, not necessarily the weight of good ideas. In the case of the Montreal Assembly: "[the] adulation of dear and wonderful May Maxwell was total. And anything May said was gospel amongst these early, old believers. One can understand that; she was, after all, the disciple of 'Abdu'lBahá" (interview, BA). 'Abdu'l Bahá had already encouraged a Bahá'í decisionmaking process based on consultation, which, in his view, would result in "the shining spark of truth" arising "after a clash of differing opinions" (quoted in Shoghi Effendi, 1950: 42). Later, Shoghi Effendi encouraged Bahá'ís to speak untrammeled their minds, so that through a process of weighing one idea against another, the best idea could come forth. Although to a certain extent the opinions of some members are gauged to be more valuable than others, there would be strong resistance today to anyone attempting to dominate the Bahá'í consultative process. 29
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Some Bahá'ís, eager to give the Bahá'í life a concrete reality, were moved to plan either a village run on Bahá'í economic premises or set up a group home where Bahá'í household life would function as an extended family. Establishing a Bahá'í Village and Group Homes Under the enthusiastic leadership of Gerrard SluterSchlutius, the Economics Committee of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal proposed the novel idea of creating a Bahá'í village. It was a letter from the National Spiritual Assembly, 15 September 1932, that had prompted the proposal. 30 For some time, the national governing body had been considering using the property at Green Acre Bahá'í School in Maine, under Bahá'í control, as a means of exploring the implications of Bahá'í teachings on economics: to analyze the possibilities for using Green Acre and any other place as a center of economic usefulness for the believers…. This matter is clearly one of unusual opportunity for bold and striking exploration of the general possibilities of making a beginning of a Bahá'í village.31
The Economics Committee of the Montreal Spiritual Assembly produced a detailed plan for setting up a Bahá'í village, which was presented at the 1934 National Bahá'í Convention, despite the Guardian's caution that such a plan was premature (Bahá'í News, May 1933). In December 1934, however, the National Spiritual Assembly, based on the advice of Shoghi Effendi, felt compelled to reject the proposal. The Montreal proposal advocated the setting aside of land to develop a Bahá'í colony involving about ten Bahá'ís. Funds would be raised from the income of the village, and from the sale of shares. The National Spiritual Assembly took the Economics Committee to task regarding the Committee's assertion that: the struggle for existence means a fight of all against all in which the most unscrupulous and the most hardhearted emerges as victor, while the nobler type, acting in conformity with his convictions, is practically doomed to failure. A true Bahá'í, therefore, can rarely be successful in commercial life unless he is "practical," i.e., unless he acts consistently and consciously contrary to his most sacred beliefs.32
If such views, the National Spiritual Assembly averred, were sanctioned by the Bahá'í writings, it would imply that every financially successful Bahá'í is necessarily nonspiritual and that every unsuccessful Bahá'í is "presumably too noble a type to succeed."33 The rejection of the proposal was also premised on their objection to the observation,
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contained in the proposal, that spiritual attitudes often had to be abandoned to achieve economic success. The concept of a Bahá'í village also blurred the distinction that must be made between enterprises that are carried out under the jurisdiction of the Bahá'í administrative bodies and those enterprises undertaken by Bahá'ís privately. Moreover, the National Spiritual Assembly did not sanction the proposal's view that the character of local and national Bahá'í funds be completely transformed from being the objects of sacrifice and devotion to being instruments of commercial profit. Finally, the Assembly said that the Bahá'í economic teachings are part of the overall world order of Bahá'u'lláh, only a small segment of all of the Bahá'í teachings. As long as that world order is still in the making, the formation of independent Bahá'í economic units is far too premature. When, six years later, in 1939, another Bahá'í, W.J. Christie, submitted an "economic plan" to the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Toronto, it, too, was rejected ("Chronology, 1938–1950," LDP), on the same grounds. The formation of a group home would, in the minds of some Bahá'ís, be a more moderate and feasible course of action. As noted earlier, the creation of summer schools became an elemental feature in the life of a Bahá'í. Such schools and sessions were, however, annual or semiannual events, and some Bahá'ís were eager enough to make them part of everyday life. Interest grew on the part of Bahá'ís in two communities, Winnipeg and Ottawa, to rent a home where several Bahá'í couples and individuals could take residence. The credit for establishing the earlier Bahá'í house goes to the community in Winnipeg, where considerable Bahá'í activity took place, involving many students and even attracting a politician: We had huge firesides with all the [university] students and [a Bahá'í] would hold forth, and I think I would, too. But one of the big [Winnipeg] politicians came here—she was big in the NDP [CCF]…. I've forgotten now. I hadn't realized she used to come to these firesides. (Interview, GC)
It seems that as many as eight Bahá'ís were involved in this particular house, namely three couples and two unmarried persons. The house, filled with young university students, attracted others from the United Church College in Winnipeg, including Jack Laurence, who was engaged to one of the Bahá'ís. When the engagement fell apart, he married Margaret Laurence, who would become one of Canada's most eminent authors. In Ottawa, a group of Bahá'ís first rented a house, and then purchased a house on Waverley Street. This arrangement must have aroused
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some curiosity on the part of neighbours: "We used to have advertised firesides at the house on Sunday nights…. We never had any trouble with the neighbours, but I think one of them came to look us over …" (interview, OD). The house continued until its initial members either through marriage or work moved out and lived elsewhere. Summary The process of anchoring the Bahá'í Faith and its community in Canada began in the second decade of this century. There were significant attempts to implant Bahá'í administration at the national and local levels. While the writings of both Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'lBahá have clear references to Bahá'í administrative ideology and practices, it was left to Shoghi Effendi, who assumed Guardianship in 1921, to translate and interpret these references. The reformulation of the national Bahá'í administrative organ, from having an exclusive concern with the raising of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Chicago to a national body of more general governance of the Bahá'ís in North America, not only reflected a structural transformation, but also redefined the social boundaries of Bahá'í communities. Insofar as structural changes were concerned, the introduction of Bahá'í administrative practices meant that Western political practices were disallowed. Electioneering, platforming, nominating, and balloting were not permitted in the functioning of the national and local Bahá'í bodies. The Bahá'í decisionmaking process, called "Bahá'í consultation," was also elucidated, stressing the importance of the weight of ideas rather than the weight of personalities. The development of summer schools as retreats was yet another type of institutional change that characterized the Canadian Bahá'í community. Changes in the social boundaries were no less important. The criteria for Bahá'í membership were formalized in 1927, as well as the fact that only Bahá'ís could now donate to the Bahá'í Fund. The NineteenDay Feast was now only open to Bahá'ís. The idea of "Bahá'í life" became a boundary marker. Bahá'ís were not only encouraged to follow the principles of their religion, but Bahá'í Assemblies were expected to ensure that the behaviour of individuals conformed to the Bahá'í teachings. The transition from a loosely knit group of individuals to a community with administrative and social boundaries did not run smoothly. The increased emphasis on Bahá'í administration as a means of guiding the collective life of Bahá'ís led, between 1927 and 1940, to the withdrawal or resignation of some 40% of those who had converted before 1927.
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First, there was a marked concern among the earliest adherents that Bahá'í communities became too administratively minded, as the newer adherents were, in some cases, overzealous in the application of Bahá'í administrative principles. Through the departure of the key early believers who acted as a point of unity, these differences became more highlighted. Second, the proclivity towards a Bahá'í administrative system changed recruitment practices, whereby much stress was placed on the individual's knowledge of Bahá'í administration. Much was required of the one who wished to become a Bahá'í, especially knowledge of particular writings and certain facets of Bahá'í administration. Third, the NineteenDay Feast had been a small gathering, often devoid of administrative concerns and attended by those who were not Bahá'ís. As the Feast grew in administrative and social importance, it became the sole contact among the adherents; they remained quite unaware of each other's private and even occupational lives. Finally, with the rise of a more enduring administrative structure, Bahá'ís fixed their gaze on either establishing permanent institutions or on tangible expressions of community living. Attempts by the Montreal Bahá'ís to create an independent village and implement a Bahá'í economic program represented a bold move for a nascent, stillevolving Bahá'í community. Others were inclined to embark on more modest expressions of community living, namely Bahá'í homes. However premature it was for Bahá'ís to embark on plans to establish a Bahá'í village, it expanded the horizons of the Bahá'í community. The intense efforts to create a distinctive Bahá'í pattern of individual and collective life must have given the Bahá'ís a concrete indication that their faith had, indeed, "arrived" in Canada. If the Canadian Bahá'ís were called upon by Shoghi Effendi to break the "barriers of prejudice and religious exclusiveness" in Canada, the Bahá'í community would have to grow more significantly before it could carry out that mandate. This is the theme of the next chapter. Notes 1. In 1912 'Abdu'lBahá laid the cornerstone although it would be another forty years before the House of Worship was finished. 2. In that year, thirtyfive were nominated, including two Bahá'ís from Canada, May and Sutherland Maxwell. Edith Inglis, a Canadian formerly of London, Ontario, but now living in New York, was also nominated. 3. In general Bahá'í electoral practice, Shoghi Effendi felt that "reference to personalities before the election would give rise to misunderstanding and differences…. We should refrain from influencing the opinion of others,
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of canvassing for any particular individual, but should stress the necessity of getting fully acquainted with the qualifications of membership … and of learning more about one another through direct, personal experience rather than through the reports and opinions of our friends" (Shoghi Effendi, 1933: 46). 4. Recently, the Universal House of Justice has allowed a member of an assembly to explain, in advance of the voting for a certain office, the circumstances which in his or her view would prevent him or her from accepting that office (Rochester, 1993). Still, it is not enough to merely express no interest in being elected. 5. In Vancouver, this practice continued at least until 1932 (9 April 1931, VBA). 6. Letter from Horace Holley to Anne Savage, Secretary, Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 5 September 1934. 7. According to Shoghi Effendi, members of Assemblies are "by no means supposed to be perfect, nor can they be considered as being inherently superior to the rest of their fellow believers. It is precisely because they are subject to the same human limitations that characterize the other members of the community that they have to be elected every year" (Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1970: 6). 8. Shoghi Effendi encouraged everyone to take active part in the affairs of the Bahá'í community, especially the election of the Spiritual Assembly. Once elected to the Assembly, the members "must disregard utterly their own likes and dislikes, their personal interests and inclinations, and concentrate their minds upon those measures that will conduce to the welfare and happiness of the Bahá'í community and promote the commonweal" (Shoghi Effendi, 1933: 41). 9. A period of four to five days (if it falls in a leap year) at the end of February (called AyyámiHá) covers the balance of the year. This period is devoted to hospitality, charity, and giftgiving. 10. One Bahá'í characterized the three elements as "the heart, the mind, and the stomach." 11. While it is true that Bahá'í communities without a Spiritual Assembly do hold "Feasts," such Feasts do not have the formal status of those held in communities with a Spiritual Assembly. 12. Bahá'í communities also came together for Bahá'í Holy Days, but little information is available about the earlier ways of celebrating the Holy Days. Echevarria Howe (1988) described the NineteenDay Feast as a "periodic ritual" and an instrument towards "social solidarity, identity, and communion." 13. Warburg (1993) is a sociological study of the structure and meaning of donations in the Bahá'í Fund. 14. AL, Box 27, Folder 65. 15. A Persian word which refers to a Bahá'í House of Worship, meaning "Dawning place of the mention of God." 16. Author has a full list of schools and conferences in Canada, 1941–48.
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17. A full report of the Montreal summer session can be found in Bahá'í News, December 1941, pp. 5–7. 18. He ingeniously found the best place to lay a road to his lake by calmly herding cows: by following them he found the best route. He managed to get an African Canadian gardener, his neighbour, to go to Africa to teach agriculture. 19. "W.J." would wash his face and hands before he would engage in a discussion about the Bahá'í Faith (EchevarriaHowe, 1992). He may have also been the pioneer whom the Prince Edward Island Bahá'ís said had brought some cattle to the island. Finding the island unsuitable, he promptly returned to Ontario. 20. Harry Takashiba was working at a service station when he became a Bahá'í in Regina in August 1945 (Bahá'í News, January 1946, p. 5). 21. The Bahá'í community accepts donations only from Bahá'ís. 22. We assume that as the apartment was small, it was only the closet that could offer some space for the "seeker" to read privately the document in question. As Mae McKenna was widely known for her high standards of courtesy and consideration for guests (Rochester, 1993), we must assume that the clothes closet must have been a much larger space than the term suggests to us nowadays. 23. A work written by a former archdeacon of the Anglican Church, George Townshend, making specific references to Bahá'u'lláh from biblical texts. 24. A basic introductory book by J.E. Esslemont. 25. Bahá'u'lláh, the Báb, and 'Abdu'lBahá. 26. Bahá'ís simply referred to Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era by J. Esslemont as the New Era, assuming that the listener could fill in the rest. 27. Shoghi Effendi cautioned Bahá'ís of using terms that would give a "very peculiar impression" of them, and make the Bahá'ís "seem like some strange Oriental sect" (later published in Shoghi Effendi, 1963: 16). He discouraged them from setting up too many barriers for those who expressed interest in joining the new religion and refrained them from "insisting too rigidly on the minor observances and beliefs, which might prove a stumbling block in the way of any sincere applicant" (Shoghi Effendi, cited in Bahá'í World, 1942: 41). 28. Letter from Emeric Sala, Montreal, to Rowland Estall, Winnipeg, 28 April 1941, NBAC (copy in possession of the author). 29. "The principle of the undoubted right of the individual to selfexpression, his freedom to declare his conscience and set forth his views," according to Shoghi Effendi, lies at "the very root" of the Bahá'í Faith (Shoghi Effendi, 1933: 63). 30. Letter from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada to the Secretary of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, 4 December 1934, EVH. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid.
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Eleven — On Spreading the New Religion, 1937–47 The year 1937 brought about a radical change in the manner of Bahá'í life, individually and collectively, for the North American Bahá'ís launched a "SevenYear Plan" that would establish a local Spiritual Assembly in every state in the United States of America and every province in Canada (Bahá'í World, 1939: 17). The Bahá'í administrative order had reached a stage strong enough to embark formally on a plan of growth and expansion. Indeed, as the results would later show, the plan would involve some 45% of all eightyfour localities where the Bahá'í Faith was established between 1898 and 1948, whether strongly or tenuously. More than twothirds of local Spiritual Assemblies in Canada by 1948 had come into existence during this Plan. Synopsis of SevenYear Plan (1937–44) and 1944–47 To coordinate and facilitate the implemention of these goals, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada set up "Regional Teaching Committees" across North America, working under the supervision of the "National Teaching Committees" in Wilmette, Illinois. One function of the Regional Teaching Committees was to take the Bahá'í Faith into areas where there were no Spiritual Assemblies. Canada's share in the SevenYear Plan, 1937–44, was modest in comparison to the overall goal of establishing a framework of Assemblies in Mexico, Central America, South America, and a number of large Caribbean islands, as well as across the United States. Canada, as part of the North American Bahá'í community, was to establish one Spiritual Assembly in each of the provinces. In April 1937, at the commencement of the Plan, Canada had two Spiritual Assemblies: Montreal and Vancouver. A year later, in 1938, Canada formed three more Assemblies: Moncton, New Brunswick; St. Lambert, Québec; and Toronto. The sixth Spiritual Assembly, in Hamilton, Ontario, was formed in 1940. April 1942 1 saw the establishment of Assemblies in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Winnipeg, Manitoba, the seventh and eighth,
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respectively, while in 1943, Edmonton, Alberta, the ninth, formed. When, in April 1944, the first Bahá'í century came to a close, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, and Regina, Saskatchewan, barely established, respectively, the tenth and eleventh local Spiritual Assemblies in Canada. All nine provinces (Newfoundland had not yet joined the Canadian confederation) now had a Spiritual Assembly. Between 1944 and 1947, only two other localities established Spiritual Assemblies, namely, Scarborough, Ontario, and Vernon, British Columbia, both in 1947. A number of these Spiritual Assemblies experienced difficulty maintaining themselves, because pioneers had to leave their ''posts," the area was not receiving Bahá'í pioneers, new believers became inactive or withdrew after the departure of their Bahá'í teacher, or because no new believers were forthcoming. Moncton, for example, was not able to reform its Spiritual Assembly, in 1940 and 1941; St. Lambert did not reform in 1941 and 1944, nor did Hamilton in 1944. The number of Canadian localities where the Bahá'í Faith had a presence grew from eighteen in 1937, to thirtyeight in 1947, while, as we have seen, the number of local Spiritual Assemblies grew from two to thirteen—an increase of 450% It is not the percentages that are significant (for we are still speaking of a small number of localities and Spiritual Assemblies), but the fact that local Spiritual Assemblies had a proportionately higher increase than the number of localities. The spread of the Bahá'í Faith by opening up new localities was uneven. Not all Bahá'ís were fired with the same enthusiasm to spread their faith. Although, as we have seen, the net total number of localities grew from eighteen to thirtyeight during the 1937–47 period, Bahá'ís had resided in at least fortysix localities throughout the country (see Appendix B). We can infer that there must have been a good number of Bahá'ís in these localities who regarded themselves as Bahá'ís in name only, for their presence does not appear on the official list of statistics (van den Hoonaard, 1992a; Bahá'í World, 1942: 48; 1949: 77, 561). Internationally, Canadian Bahá'ís provided a sound supply of itinerant Bahá'í teachers, such as Lorol Schopflocher in Scandinavia and Lappland (Bahá'í World, 1942: 138), Mary Maxwell in Germany, 2 Jeanne Ruhanguiz Bolles,3 and her daughter Jeanne Negar Bolles in Germany, Siegfried Schopflocher in Australia, India, and Burma, and Marion Jack in Bulgaria (Bahá'í World, 1939: 19). At the outset of the SevenYear Plan, a number of Bahá'ís became itinerant teachers, including Mabel Ives,4 who was, next to May Maxwell and Rowland Estall, the most successful Bahá'í teacher during this period. Ives undertook a systematic Bahá'í teaching campaign in Moncton in the fall of 1937.
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A bird'seye view of the 1937–47 period shows a number of important highlights. The first year of the SevenYear Plan, 1937–38 5 saw many American Bahá'ís come to Canada as travelling teachers. Sylvia Matteson King paid a visit to Winnipeg in June 1938 (Winnipeg Free Press, 29 June 1938, p. 2) lecturing on "The New World Order" at a public meeting in the Marlborough Hotel. For the first time, Canadian Bahá'ís saw the formation of Spiritual Assemblies outside of Montreal and Vancouver: Moncton, St. Lambert, and Toronto. Localities such as Armstrong and Moncton were also opened that year. The second year, 1938–39, proved to be a critical one in the spread of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada. On 26 January 1939, Shoghi Effendi cabled the North American Bahá'ís to "forsake homes, cast away attachments, definitely settle these [virgin] territories, lay firm anchorage Administrative Order" (Bahá'í World, 1942: 58). Pioneers opened no fewer than seven localities in that year, the highest number during the 1937–47 period. Four of these would later form the basis of local Spiritual Assemblies in Calgary, Halifax, Winnipeg, and Regina.6 Some setbacks marked developments in the third year of the Plan, 1939–40. The Spiritual Assembly of Moncton could not be reformed. May Maxwell, who had returned to Canada from her teaching trips to Europe, had now embarked on a voyage to South America where she would die in January 1940, shortly after her arrival. There were, nevertheless, some advances. Hamilton was opened to the Bahá'í Faith in May 1939 through the visit of Mabel Ives and the enrolment of Hamilton's first Bahá'í, Lulu Mabel Barr, in May 1939. In the same year, Mabel Ives had an extended stay in Toronto, reinforcing the Bahá'í work in that city. The presence, for the first time, of a Bahá'í booth at the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto, expressed the overall broadening efforts of Bahá'ís to spread their religion. The first international Bahá'í picnic at Queenston Heights at the Canadian Niagara Falls in June 1939 provided the means for two Canadian and four New York Bahá'í communities to embark on a joint initiative (Bahá'í News, August 1939, p. 7). The Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Hamilton was formed that year. The fourth year, 1940–41, saw continuing setbacks. The Spiritual Assembly of Moncton, for the second consecutive year, could not reform, nor could St. Lambert, and only two localities, Ottawa and a small community, Delbert, were opened. The war years brought an unexpected development in the Bahá'í community in Canada. The fifth year of the Plan, 1941–42, checked the setbacks suffered in previous years. Although Charlottetown was opened to the Bahá'í Faith, and Spiritual Assemblies were formed in
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Winnipeg and Halifax, only seven localities, such as remote Elgin in New Brunswick, were opened. The Canadian government restricted the use of foreign exchange, inhibiting, among other things, Canadian Bahá'ís attendance at the usual Bahá'í summer schools 7 at Green Acre and Geyserville in the United States. After the 1941 National Bahá'í Convention, Rowland A. Estall was charged with the responsibility of organizing the start of Bahá'í summer schools and/or summer conferences, in Canada. With the financial help of Siegfried Schopflocher, the first of such gatherings took place in Montreal in 1941. The timing of the summer schools and conferences could not have been better, for, according to the Bahá'ís of that time, the Canadian Bahá'í community needed to be reborn (Estall and Sala, 1987). The sixth year, 1942–43, represents a consolidation year, with a new local Spiritual Assembly formed in Edmonton, and the opening to the Bahá'í Faith of Saskatoon, one of the last remaining chief cities in Canada. To further consolidate the Bahá'í activities, four new "Regional Teaching Committees" were formed in May 1942: one for British Columbia and Alberta; one for Manitoba and Saskatchewan; one for Ontario; and one for Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia (Bahá'í News, July 1942, p. 6). When the Bahá'í Faith marked its hundredth anniversary in 1943–44, the first substantial Bahá'í article appeared in a Canadian national publication, the Canadian Geographical Journal (King, 1944). It was entirely devoted to the symbolism and architecture of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette. A series of radio broadcasts across Canada also marked the centenary celebration (Bahá'í World, 1949: 91). In 1944, the last two provincial local Spiritual Assemblies were formed in Charlottetown and Regina, completing the goals set out for 1944, although the Assemblies in St. Lambert, Quebec, and Hamilton, Ontario, were not reformed. Another highlight of the year was the purchase of a site at Rawdon, Quebec, which would become the Beaulac Bahá'í Summer School (ibid.: 93). The individuals who made the purchase, the Salas and the Schopflochers, would later donate the site to the Bahá'í community when Canada elected its own National Spiritual Assembly in 1948 (Bahá'í News, July 1947, p. 7). Thus, although no new local Spiritual Assemblies were formed and no new localities were opened in 1944–45, it seems that, finally, through these developments, the Bahá'í Faith had completed its goal of securing a foothold across Canada. The penultimate year in our brief survey, 1945–46, saw no major developments, although increasingly Bahá'í programs were being arranged to inform the public, on a broader basis, of the community's
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aims, such as a public meeting organized in Toronto in October 1945, one of a series across North America on the topic "The Price of World Peace Is World Religion" (Bahá'í World, 1949: 87). In 1946–47 Bahá'ís had managed to form new Spiritual Assemblies in Scarborough, Ontario, and Vernon, British Columbia, and Montreal hosted a national public meeting in February 1947 in the Church of the Messiah, attended by 150 guests (Bahá'í News, April 1947, p. 11). New methods of propagating the new religion were tried out by the fledgling Canadian community, namely, "pioneering," "firesides," public meetings, the systematic teaching campaign, and publicity through newspapers and radio. Pioneering The term pioneer is a common one among Bahá'ís. Any "Bahá'í who spreads the Message of Bahá'u'lláh," according to a statement of the Universal House of Justice, 8 "is a teacher, and a Bahá'í who moves to another area to spread the Faith is a pioneer. No special training is required for a pioneer" (Hornby, 1988: 571). Although Shoghi Effendi acquainted the Bahá'ís with the concept of pioneering in November 1924 (Shoghi Effendi, 1933: 60–61), it was not until 1936 that the word pioneer gained wider usage (Bahá'í News, May 1936, p. 11). Canadian Bahá'ís responded with vigour to Shoghi Effendi's call to pioneer and settle in principal cities; 31% moved at least once during their Bahá'í life (Table 4). Bahá'ís moved, on the average, 1.8 times during these years. One Bahá'í, Doris McKay, was the most frequent pioneer, moving ten times among Moncton, Halifax, and Charlottetown. Table 4 Canadian Bahá'ís Who Moved, 1937–48 Number of moves:
0
1
2
3
4
510
Total
N
287
72
26
22
6
3
416
%
69.0
17.3
6.3
5.3
1.4
0.7
100.0
Source: van den Hoonard (1992a).
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Bahá'ís of Milwaukee, United States, originated the idea (Bahá'í News, October 1939). 9 It offered a "channel through which those unable to leave their home and responsibilities" (Baháí World, 1942, 49) could spread the Bahá'í Faith close to home, yet outside the area where a local Spiritual Assembly had already been established: Based on the position of each believer, as well as upon those factors which determine normal regions of activity in any city, the Assembly could then outline its pioneering plan. Contacts could be made, neighbourhood newspapers utilized, firesides established, teaching circuits arranged…. Such a program, comprehensive in scope, effective in method, aimed to cut down and eventually to obliterate the blank spaces of our Bahá'í maps, could well rally and direct the energies of every individual. (Ibid.)10
As Roger Dahl (1990: 17) indicates, the National Bahá'í Teaching Committee (of the United States and Canada) was fighting the problem of general apathy among the believers, who were reluctant to teach or move to unopened areas. The shortage of funds engendered by World War II had made this situation even worse. Therefore, the National Teaching Committee endorsed the idea of "homefront pioneering," which initially involved moving to a nearby locality without the need to give up one's job. In the Canadian context, three communities were settled by means of "homefront pioneering": St. Lambert, Quebec; Scarborough, Ontario; and West Vancouver, British Columbia. A suburb of Montreal, St. Lambert already had a number of adherents living there. Molly Mosher—a piano teacher and a former Baptist—was known to have lived there as early as April 1925 ("Montreal LSA Minutes," 24 April 1925, NBAC). Other early St. Lambert Bahá'ís, such as Johan Verhooven, a Dutch barber and sometime cook, and Popponu Rickman, became Bahá'ís through the Maxwell household. The first homefront pioneers were Rowland and Stella Estall of Montreal, who moved to St. Lambert in 1934 (Estall and Sala, 1987). Mr. Estall lived there until January 1935, while Stella Estall remained there until 1938. The second couple, Emeric and Rosemary Sala of Montreal, arrived in April 1934 (Sala, 1990; 1934–35 Montreal Membership List, NBAC). One year after the SevenYear Plan was announced, St. Lambert had formed its own local Spiritual Assembly in April 1938. Through the Salas, several families became Bahá'ís, such as the Moshers (English Baptists), the Lohses (Belgian/German Jews), the De Milles (English Methodists), the Reeds (a teacher and an electrical
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engineer), the Tates (English Anglicans), the Powers, and, indirectly, the Lannings—an exceptional Bahá'´í achievement for it was unusual to enroll couples, let alone entire families. An eastern Toronto suburb, Scarborough, formed its Spiritual Assembly in April 1947. From March 1936 onward Edythe Mae MacArthur, a nurse, lived there until her move to Ottawa in 1948 (BRC). Her sister, Doris Richardson, a storeproduct demonstrator who hosted the youthful and informal firesides, had taught the Bahá'í Faith to Edythe MacArthur. The sisters had been Protestant Evangelicals. While enrolments to the Bahá'í Faith were few—only four members from three households 11 —all still resided in Scarborough three to four decades after their enrolment. As a consequence, only three homefront pioneers were needed to form Scarborough's first Assembly in 1947: Muriel and Erland Edward Barr from Hamilton (in 1947) and Muriel Wells, also from Hamilton, all bookshop owners. Audrey Westheuser of Scarborough, a former member of an Evangelical denomination, would later became a prominent Bahá'í in the national Bahá'í administrative body. It should be noted, inter alia, that throughout the history of the movement of Bahá'ís, we see a pattern of using networks originating in one's home community. Some communities like Scarborough seemed to pull in pioneers from Hamilton. The establishment of the Bahá'í community in West Vancouver was probably quite similar to that of Scarborough and St. Lambert. Many of the early believers became acquainted with the Bahá'í Faith in Vancouver itself, especially through the firesides of Muriel Warnicker, a singer by profession.12 At least onefourth of the twenty West Vancouver Bahá'ís were taught by Warnicker before it formed its Spiritual Assembly in April 1948. The earliest known Bahá'í in West Vancouver, however, was Evelyn Curry in 1931 (BHRC), who lived there until September 1942 (Membership List, 11 September 1942, VBA). Curry, who had become a Bahá'í in Portland, Oregon, was one of the very few Bahá'ís of a Catholic background in Canada. It would be another five years after Curry's arrival in 1941 before Irvine Blythe, an optometrist, would join the Bahá'í Faith in July 1936 (Membership List, 3 July 1936, VBA) through the efforts of Evelyn Cliff, a schoolteacher, and Molly Moore, both of Vancouver. As far as more distant pioneering was concerned, Bahá'ís managed to secure a foothold, in varying degrees, in seven locales, namely, Victoria, Calgary, Halifax, Winnipeg, Ottawa, Edmonton, and Saskatoon. There were no native Bahá'ís in Victoria, British Columbia, until the formation of its first Spiritual Assembly in April 1948. Victoria had to be opened by Bahá'í pioneers. The first to arrive in 1937 was Frances E.
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Collin (McGee and McGee, 1983) who had become a Bahá'í in Vancouver in 1921. In 1935 and 1936 Collin lived in Vernon, opening that community to the Bahá'í Faith with her son, Austin, and her sister, Grace Ethel Joyce. A recent convert, Audrey Applegate of Vancouver, joined the two women in June 1938 (Membership List, VBA). Between 1940 and 1948, nine other Bahá'ís moved to Victoria, 13 at least six of whom moved in early 1947, hoping to establish a Spiritual Assembly in April 1947. The motives for such moves were mixed. For some, there were bona fide Bahá'í pioneering reasons; for others, it was a question of retiring to one of the most salubrious places in Canada. May Maxwell of Montreal was probably the first to present the Bahá'í Faith in Calgary. In the spring or early summer of 1934, she stayed at the Palliser Hotel and contacted the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (31 January 1944, RTCMS). In November of the same year, Rowland Estall followed through on the contacts made by Maxwell and was invited by Mrs. Guy Johnson to speak to a group of twelve women in her home (ibid.). Jean Doris Skinner, a bookkeeper by training, was the first Bahá'í to settle in Calgary, in April 1939, staying there until 1949 when she left as a Bahá'í pioneer to Newfoundland. Skinner, a former Scottish Methodist, had joined the Bahá'í Faith in Vancouver in 1936, but in 1939 her health declined and a relative suggested a change of climate. What better place than Calgary where some of her family still lived (Skinner, 1990)? She found a boarding house, where Dorothy Sheets (trained as a teacher) was working as the cook. Sheets became the first Bahá'í convert in Calgary, enrolling in June 1941 (Sheets, 1990). Another area where it was difficult to secure a Bahá'í foothold was Halifax, Nova Scotia. Beulah S. Proctor, an office worker, and her daughter, Shirley, were the first pioneers to Halifax, arriving in April 1939 from Auburndale, Massachusetts. They moved into a cottage at Purcell Cove (L. Gardner, 1978). Proctor was joined by other Bahá'í families, Molly Mosher, a piano teacher, and her son, Maxon Hugh, and daughter and soninlaw, Margaret and William Laurie. Dorothy and Fred Granville Wade moved to Halifax in May and September 1939, respectively. These families did not hesitate in trying to find new Bahá'í adherents, and they actively participated in the Women's Institute (Bahá'í News, September 1939, pp. 6–7). The Bahá'ís, in 1940, also held an open house for service men (ibid., March 1941, p. 7) and set up Bahá'í classes for the blind (ibid., February 1945, p. 10). Within a year and a half, the first Halifax resident accepted the Bahá'í Faith, although he was not a native Haligonian (ibid., March 1941, p. 7): Ralph Laltoo was a Trinidadian student in Halifax and son of a United Church minis
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ter. Athough a Spiritual Assembly was formed in April 1942, the Halifax Bahá'í community was perceived as having the problem of not taking the initiative of teaching the Bahá'í Faith. 14 It had to rely on a constant flow of pioneers to maintain the teaching initiative well into the 1950s. Winnipeg, Manitoba, received one of the most effective Canadian Bahá'í teachers, Rowland Estall. Estall had lived in Vancouver from 1935 to 1939 before offering himself as a pioneer to the National Teaching Committee (Estall, 1977: 66–67). He was working for Sun Life when he heard that he was being asked to go to Manitoba, an area economically and socially devastated by droughts and the Great Depression. In late May 1939 Estall arrived in Winnipeg. Estall thought that being the lone pioneer there was "an exciting and new experience for me in retrospect" (ibid.: 67). The first Bahá'í visits to Ottawa, Ontario took place in 1926 and 1932. Queen Marie of Rumania, who had already converted to the Bahá'í Faith, paid official visits to four of Canada's cities, Ottawa being the third, in October 1926. She met with the acting prime minister of Canada, J.A. Robb, and was lavishly received in the newly rebuilt Parliament buildings (Morris, 1927: 90–93; The Globe and Mail, 29 October 1926). She made no public announcement that she was a Bahá'í, like Ottawa's second Bahá'í visitor, Laura DreyfusBarney, in 1932 (Canadian Bahá'í News, February 1959, p. 6). DreyfusBarney from Paris, France, was the compiler of Some Answered Questions, an important account of table talks given by 'Abdu'lBahá to a group of Western pilgrims in Akka. While in Ottawa she addressed the Canadian Women's Club, but the newspaper account of the event did not mention the Bahá'í Faith. In 1935 a copy of The Promise of All Ages was presented to the Carnegie Public Library (ibid.). In May 1940 an Ottawa civil servant, Winnifred Harvey, decided to enroll as a Bahá'í. She had learned of the new religion through the efforts of Estall in Winnipeg. After her departure from Winnipeg in April 1940, she informed Estall that she would like to become a Bahá'í (Estall, 1940). Born in 1911 in rural Manitoba, Harvey taught at a Winnipeg business college for some years, before joining the Dominion Bureau of Statistics in Ottawa in 1940,15 and eventually rising to a senior position (The Gem, 4 November 1990, p. 5). In 1938, Harvey had replied to an advertisement of the New History Society.16 The Society sent her books and pamphlets and asked her to set up a group in Winnipeg. Eventually, she rejected the admixture of "truth and superstition" of the Society, but after attending a talk by Sylvia King, became interested in learning more about the writings of Bahá'u'lláh (Estall, 1940).
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Harvey set up "firesides" in Ottawa in October 1940, through which several people were introduced to the Bahá'í Faith, including Ottawa's first Bahá'´, Lucille C. Giscome, 17 an African Canadian woman, and two other women, namely, Joy"Gypsy" Gould, who enrolled in 1942, and Ann Booth in 1943 (28 January 1943, OBA). Edmonton, Alberta,18 received pioneers, including several from Vancouver, who lived in Edmonton for a very short time. Mary E. Fry arrived in January 1940 and stayed for eight months. Mabel H. Pine, a resident of various locales around Alberta, but originally from British Columbia, lived for a year in Edmonton from June 1941. Elizabeth Blanche Liddell, a landlady from Vancouver, resided for two years, until August 1943. Even Muriel Warnicker, through whose Vancouver firesides several of the early pioneers to Edmonton declared their faith, lived in Edmonton for some six months until December 1942. These Bahá'í pioneers did not, apparently, elicit any obvious results in the city, until the arrival of Marcia Atwater, an American Bahá'í, in September 1942. Then the pioneers made contact with liberal Christians, Theosophists, and other interested individuals. The first Bahá'í to enroll in the Bahá'í Faith was a widow, Ina Trimble, in September 1942 (Pemberton Piggott, 1988). Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, was only briefly touched by Bahá'í pioneers during the 1937–47 period. Lulu Mabel Barr, the first Bahá'í of Hamilton, arrived in Saskatoon in May 1941, and stayed there for two years, without any evident results. Barr "never ever talked about" her pioneering experiences in that city (Donnelly and Donnelly, 1991). The first Saskatoon resident to become a Bahá'í, Catherine Jones, did so thirteen years later, in October 1952 (Canadian Bahá'í News, November 1952). Only one other Bahá'í followed Barr's pioneering example in Saskatoon. Helen Poissant, who had learned of the Bahá'í Faith in Winnipeg from Lillian Tomlinson, arrived in 1946 and stayed for some four years. The Fireside Method19 Until Bahá'ís became aware in the early 1930s of Bahá'u'lláh's injunction that all Bahá'ís were obligated to teach their religion, Bahá'í communities used to rely on special teachers to promote the Bahá'í Faith. In 1935, the belief that only special Bahá'ís could teach the Bahá'í Faith changed. It was Leroy loas, a member of the National Teaching Committee of the United States and Canada, who felt that the "fireside" gathering should be the principal method of teaching the "Bahá'í Faith to enquirers (Dahl, 1990: 3). To hold a "fireside," a Bahá'í would
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arrange for an informal meeting with a group of friends, usually in one's home, where the main subject of discussion would be the Bahá'í Faith. Hospitality was to become an important ingredient. The National Teaching Committee, moreover, believed that through "the personal fireside method" every Bahá'í would "become an active teacher" (ibid.). 20 At work, at home, or through a chance encounter, a Bahá'í would interest someone in the Bahá'í teachings: I had a close friend who had grown up in the west end of Vancouver with me. We had just started working and she introduced me to [the Bahá'í Faith]. She had a friend come from England, her family were from England. This woman came to visit. She was not a Bahá'í, but she apparently knew Bahá'ís in England. She told the Paige family about it. My friend … Kitty Paige … went to a fireside with her English friend and she told me about it … She kept saying to me, "I know you'd like it if you'd just go." I kept putting it off. I was sharing an apartment with Mae McKenna, another school friend. Finally I said to Mae, "We must go or Kitty will be offended." We agreed we would attend this fireside. Kitty was quite right. The first time I heard about it I was certainly interested. I've never looked back. (Skinner, 1990)
This initial contact time might last from a few days to several months, but would eventually be followed up by an invitation to a fireside: I didn't go to firesides except with my [Bahá'í] teachers, Stanley and Eve Kemp…. Together we just sat and talked just casually about the [Bahá'í] Faith. For quite awhile I would say, probably three to six months…. I was getting a little more curious each time. Then they started to invite me [to the fireside]. (Interview, KD)
The fireside would offer not only an opportunity for newcomers to learn more of the Bahá'í Faith, but also meet the other Bahá'ís. Having arrived at the fireside, the newcomer might not feel quite at ease, at first. One older believer recalls "sitting in the corner hoping that no one would notice me" (interview, CA). Others dealt with unease in other ways, as one other believer recalls: I was really quite obnoxious and quite eloquent, negatively. However, [the Bahá'ís] were very, very nice. You know how Bahá'ís can be. So, I think that was very necessary. I emptied myself completely though… And I've never had that kind of response again. (Interview, AA)
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What topics of discussion could newcomers expect to find at a fireside? Many older Bahá'ís recall that ''progressive revelation," 21 the early history of the Bahá'í Faith, and the socalled twelve principles22 were the most common topics presented. When early converts, in retrospect, think about their first firesides, it was, however, not the particular topic that they remembered or that they found attractive, but the atmosphere of hospitality, kindness, and tolerance that prevailed at firesides: How kind and gracious she [Laura Davis] was … she would serve us those beautiful cakes. It became the highlight of my week. All the Baha'is were most gracious. (Interview, FA) The interesting characteristic about those firesides [was] that it really didn't matter who spoke. They all [had] the same essential quality. The quality of happiness, the happiness associated with being a Bahá'í and the Bahá'í life. (In Richardson, n.d.)
The diversity of people at firesides also exerted an attraction on those who were already progressive thinkers, as the following account illustrates: "Milli," she said, "how would you like to meet some different young people? Different backgrounds, at a party. They're so nice. I think you'll love them. But I'm thinking maybe you should ask your father because they're different. They might be Black or Chinese…. I said, "Sure I'll go." (Gordon, 1990)
Many also remember the unusual circumstances of some firesides. Some recall all sitting on a bed in someone's oneroom apartment (L. Gardner, 1978). Another remembers a group of women sitting in a circle, staring at a fixed point in the room. Many had come from a spiritualist background where such behaviour could be expected. Especially in the early phase of the development of firesides, such "hyphenated" Bahá'ís would introduce the unexpected (H. Gardner, 1991). As the firesides developed into a major element of Bahá'í expansion, they became a critical point in the education of the adherents. Not only did wellknown travelling Bahá'ís incorporate firesides as a key point into their travels (and Bahá'í homes made sure that such visits were heralded to prospective converts), but gradually new Bahá'ís were called upon to give formal presentations at them. Making presentations at firesides became part of one's Bahá'í training:
Page 189 The firesides … were considered a duty, in a sense. You were practising for when the Baha'is would become significant. It was taken quite seriously in one aspect of it, and that was getting the facts straight. Your firesides tended to be a course of study…. You took your turn preparing a presentation on this, and, of course, because [my wife] was an astronomer, her lot was always religion and science. (Interview, CA)
Some Bahá'ís went as far as to invite nonBahá'ís to give presentations on a Bahá'írelated topic (Richardson, n.d.). An informal division of labour, in terms of attracting different types of people, occurred in such larger communities as Toronto. The bestknown firesides were run in the evenings by Doris Richardson in Scarborough (Sunday), Laura Davis in Toronto (Saturday), John and Audrey Robarts in Forest Hill, Inez Hayes in Toronto, and George Spendlove in North York. Each fireside attracted a particular set of Bahá'ís and their "contacts," although such boundaries were not impermeable. The firesides at Doris Richardson's and Laura Davis' home provided the best example of such a division of labour. Davis' home at 44 Chestnut Park, Rosedale, attracted a wide variety of people: Their house was almost a museum. It had exquisite period furniture in it, heavy. Because Laura was a direct descendant of the English painter Romney…. The rooms in the house were loaded with Romney originals…. She would attract just about everybody, … all kinds of people, including some rather unconventional people, all of which was fine. (Interview, AA)
Davis' weekly firesides, which continued for approximately fifty years, were probably the longestknown continuous fireside series. In contrast, firesides at Doris Richardson's home attracted different people: I lived fairly close to where Laura [Davis] lived, but for some reason or another I was more attracted to the firesides being held down at Doris Richardson's. I guess we all have choices and you go where you feel [at home]. Doris was a very warm person. And not that Laura wasn't, but Laura had a very big home in Rosedale and I always felt as if I was going into a museum when I went there. Whereas Doris' home was one of those homes, [which] was always open. (Interview, ND)
Others recall a similar experience:
Page 190 And she [Doris] opened her home on Fallingbrook Road every Saturday night [sic—Sunday night], and her method was not only to ask any Bahá'í [to speak], not just "those who are well known as speakers," but any Bahá'í. In fact, she would invite interested contacts to give the talk that evening. And it wasn't a substandard thing. It wasn't the content of what went on. It was the spirit of it. And she had this poise, this charm and everyone was made to feel welcome and you left there wanting to come back. I think they were probably the most successful firesides I ever attended. (Interview, AA)
The existence of these two firesides strengthened the development of a Bahá'í community in the Toronto area. While differing in their formality, they shared the virtue of hospitality. Richardson's firesides tended to attract the younger Bahá'ís and their friends, many of whom were university students who also had a Bahá'í club at the University of Toronto. The formality of Davis' firesides created an ambience that allowed for people of different backgrounds to interact with each other. One early convert (D. Wilson, 1991) reported that as a young person in the early stages of learning about the Bahá'í Faith he went to Richardson's firesides on Sunday evening—some young people were not ready to sacrifice the Saturday evening for a fireside at Davis'. However, as young people became more serious in their exploration of the Bahá'í Faith, they joined Davis' fireside. Other Bahá'í communities soon began to develop their own "great" firesides (as the older adherents refer to them). In Winnipeg, one found firesides organized by Jean Johnston, an office secretary, and Stella Pollexfen, a nurse of Irish Catholic descent. The Salas had a "community fireside" in their St. Lambert home. In the Vancouver area, Muriel Warnicker's firesides attracted a great number of people, as well as those held by Milwyn Davies, an elocution teacher. Interestingly enough, bluecollar Hamilton held perhaps more firesides per Bahá'í than any other Bahá'í community, organized by Amy Putnam, Nancy Campbell, Dorothy Smith, and Lulu Barr. In Ottawa, one went to the Boudler home, while in Montreal, the Maxwell home, in the early 1930s, still had firesides on Friday evenings. Some firesides, like Nancy Campbell's in Hamilton, had a particular focus, such as attracting leaders of other faiths. The demography of the Bahá'í community worked against the systematic holding of firesides in some communities. What was ideally required were homes of couples. Most single people did not have the luxury of owning their own home. Inviting oppositesex friends to one's apartment to hold firesides was seen as a genuine dilemma for single people, especially women—and the vast majority of Canadian
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Bahá'ís in the 1930s and 1940s were women. Under those circumstances, public meetings in "neutral" territory were viewed as a viable alternative to holding firesides. Public Meetings The late 1930s saw the emergence of another distinctive feature of the Bahá'í teaching work in Canada, namely, the holding of public meetings. Such meetings bore an important relationship to the internal development of Bahá'í communities, and to the Bahá'í representation to the world at large. Inwardly, public meetings created a cadre of public speakers and served to mobilize Bahá'ís to greater exertions to teach the Bahá'í Faith. Outwardly the public meetings seemed to draw very few enquirers, but with a number of exceptions, they retained nevertheless an important symbolic value. Such value was particularly heightened when a public meeting was the first to be given by a new convert, or the first to be held in a given area. Many older Bahá'ís remembered the first time they were asked to speak at a public meeting, how they struggled in preparing for it, and the sense of accomplishment they derived from it afterwards: [I was asked … ] "do you think you could … talk at the public meeting?" I said, "Oh no, I couldn't do that, not yet." I was persuaded to do it and I said, "Alright, give me a good chairman just in case I can't answer the questions.'' … I started, I had my children then—they had gone to school and my husband was working. I sat down at the typewriter in between meals and different things happening. I typed out a talk…. I had the most wonderful time after the first day. I was very conscious of having assistance. I wasn't doing it…. I was a good English scholar, but … I was very conscious, I started Tuesday morning to do this…. This feeling of assistance was so great that I was amazed at it. Suddenly, I thought, it was 'Abdu'lBahá who was likely helping me, but this assistance or whatever it was that was assisting me, evolved itself into an image of this lady…. I didn't know who it was. It was just there for a few seconds and then it was gone. I went on typing and I finished it. It was flowing. I was so sure of the things I was putting down there…. I couldn't wait to get to the centre. Something was pushing me, I thought. I got to the center. I gave a talk and I answered all the questions. I don't know what they were now, but [the chairman] didn't have to answer them. It turned out to be a very good talk … But this older Bahá'í said to me afterwards, "Peggy, while you were speaking I thought it was Mrs. Mabel Ives 23 speaking." (Ross, 1990)
Others did not have such success:
Page 192 I said, "Well, I have to figure out what to talk about." [X] said, "You can't figure out what to talk about. You just open your mouth and it all comes, and you talk, you'll see." I went and waited for it to come and nothing came. I couldn't think of a thing. My mind was a blank. It was one of the most humiliating experiences of my life. I never forgave either Orson Welles or [X]. But after that, I realized I had to prepare. I was waiting to sound like Orson Welles, but it never happened to me. (Interview, GC)
Still others would look, with quiet desperation, for Bahá'í articles which they could use as a basis for a talk at a public meeting: We gave a public talk in the library every week. We would take turns giving this talk. I was so nervous the first time I stood on my feet to talk, I think my knees knocked together. I would take … World Order 24 magazine…. There would be articles in there written by Horace Holley [a gifted Bahá'í writer and administrator]…. I would read these and I'd say, "Well, that's good, I can use that." There I'd piece something together, when I wrote my whole talk out. But really, it was worrisome because if I lost a thread I wouldn't know where I would be. (Sheets, 1990)
One older believer recalls many Bahá'ís' memorizing fiveminute talks, in preparation for a public meeting (McGee and McGee, 1990). The net effect was the creation of a group of Bahá'ís who, despite their shyness or lack of training in public meetings, became the equivalent of Bahá'í toastmasters. Between 1937 and 1948, there were sixtyseven Bahá'ís on the travel circuit. Some Bahá'ís, like Rowland Estall, Rosemary and Emeric Sala, John Robarts, Ross Woodman, Doris McKay, George Spendlove, Laura Davis, and Lorol Schopflocher were eagerly sought after as public speakers. There were, furthermore, a surprising number of other Bahá'ís who were either actresses or teachers, especially elocutionists. Hamilton25 and Montreal26 had a large number of such professional public presentors, as did Vancouver,27 Edmonton,28 Winnipeg,29 Ottawa,30 St. Lambert,31 Toronto,32 Calgary,33 and Regina.34 The emerging Bahá'í community also used public meetings to convey a desired image of the Bahá'í Faith. In 1944, a "National Public Meetings Campaign" held eleven public meetings across North America to commemorate the 100th annniversary of the Bahá'í Faith. The meeting in Toronto in October 1945 attracted over 400 attendees (Bahá'í News, December 1945, p. 47). This was a very good response for the Toronto Bahá'í community, which only had twenty members. A local reporter, W. Hackett, writing for Saturday Night (8 December 1945, p. 31), wrote that those who attended "must have been some
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what surprised, if not amazed, to learn that this queer, mystical, fiveletter word is the name of a new faith of worldwide proportions." While Bahá'ís were not always ready to hold such large meetings in the most luxurious of circumstances, they attempted to hold them in somewhat upscale hotels, and often in libraries, restaurants, and museums: the theatre of the Royal Ontario Museum and the King Edward Hotel in Toronto; the Chateau Laurier Hotel in Ottawa, and so on. While some meetings (taking place in locations visited by 'Abdu'lBahá, such as in the Church of the Messiah in Montreal) occasionally drew an audience of 150 (Bahá'í News, April 1947, p. 11), most meetings were not well attended by prospective Bahá'ís. What apparently kept the Bahá'ís holding public meetings was the belief that the advertisement of the meetings may well have been read by a large number of people. When an outoftown Bahá'í was the speaker, the local Bahá'ís would issue a press release, and announce the event over the radio. It was not uncommon for local Bahá'ís to bring those friends who were "close to the Faith" to the public meetings and personally meet the speaker. If one "declaration" ensued, the public meeting was considered a success. Symbolically, too, the public meeting became an institutionalized way of alerting the Bahá'í world to the settling of another Bahá'í goal area. In St. John's, Newfoundland, for example, Lloyd Gardner held the first Bahá'í public meeting on 19 August 1945 (The Evening Telegram, 18 August 1945) which was advertised in St. John's two newspapers. 35 The public meeting, entitled "A Bahá'í Lecture on World Unity," was held in the Newfoundland Board of Trade Rooms on Water Street. Both newspapers carried seveninchcolumn articles the day before and after the event. The Systematic Teaching Campaign Already in the early 1920s, the Bahá'ís of North America were sending travelling teachers across the continent. In Canada, as we have seen, the Bahá'í scholar Jináb iFádil had visited various cities, including Saint John, Montreal, Brockville, Toronto, and Vancouver. Similar sojourns were made by "Mother" Beecher, May Maxwell, Marion Jack, and Martha Root. After the launching of the SevenYear Plan in 1937, some Bahá'ís developed a systematic campaign of propagation. The itinerant teacher would stay in a given place for at least several months, devoting all of her or his time to enrolling new converts to the Bahá'í Faith and deepening the understanding of these individuals. Typically, such a campaign
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involved the holding of a series of public meetings, supplemented by small, informal gatherings in the homes of new believers. Sometimes these meetings constituted the only Bahá'í teaching activity in a small group of believers; sometimes the meetings were grafted onto existing Bahá'í public gatherings. Mabel RiceWray Ives undertook the most successful systematic teaching campaign in Canadian Bahá'í history during this period (RiceWray, 1945) in Moncton, Charlottetown, Toronto, and Hamilton. According to Dahl, to be effective in such a campaign, one had to be "a good Bahá'í speaker, with excellent stamina, who could devote her full time to the work and was good at building an audience through invitations, posters, personal contacts with sympathetic organizations and newspaper and radio publicity" (Dahl, 1990: 5). There were no Bahá'ís in Moncton 36 before October 1937 when Mabel Ives toured the Atlantic Provinces. About thirty enquirers, on the average, attended her regular lecture series. Some twentyfive people emerged from the lectures, ready to attend study classes. Of the group there were eleven enrolments37 within a threemonth period.38 Ives held six consecutive meetings, which included question periods, at the Brunswick Hotel. Dahl (ibid.: 8) cites from one of her letters to her husband that: "Of course some Pentecostal people tried to nail me to the wall on the matter of the second coming of Christ, but Bahá'u'lláh guided me and I came out with a whole skin, and the rest not disturbed, apparently." She devoted fourteen hours a day to this work, resulting in the formation of the Spiritual Assembly of Moncton on 21 April 1938. However, the community was small and, according to Ives (cited in ibid.) there were only "four souls39 who I felt could be counted on to shoulder the responsibilities of the [Bahá'í] Cause." Ives left in January 1938 (Geary and Geary, 1963: 1). The Spiritual Assembly was not able to maintain itself with nine members and was lost in 1939. In the summer of that year Ives came back with her husband, Howard Ives, and with considerable effort reestablished a Spiritual Assembly in Moncton in April 1940. However, the initial impetus died again and it could only be reformed in 1942 and 1944.40 Charlottetown,41 Prince Edward Island, proved to be the most intractable of all areas for Bahá'í teaching work.42 Doris McKay (d. 1992), who was taught the Bahá'í Faith in the United States by Mabel Ives, visited Charlottetown in May and June, and again from September to November 1942 (McKay, 1991). But it was Ruth Moffett, a veteran American Bahá'i who had travelled to Central America and the Caribbean, who, in 1945, organized a series of five seminars of
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fourteen consecutive days each, entitled "Bahá'í Education Seminars" (Bahá'í News, May 1946, p. 6). At first, the seminars were well attended, but then her audience grew smaller, typical of developments elsewhere in Atlantic Canada. While this effort resulted in three new Bahá'ís (ibid., March 1946, p. 6), none of them were from the island, and all three eventually left the Bahá'í community (Geary and Geary, 1963: 2). Doris McKay remembers the character of Ruth Moffett's meetings: Quite a few people came to those lectures. They were not very strong in their religion, so that the lectures offered a great deal of intellectual material to attract people. They were called a "seminar" and they had motion pictures with them…. But she used to get a pretty good crowd of people after a while they're spending the evening looking at pictures. She'd talk about the [Bahá'í] Cause. She'd have all sorts of subjects. Sometimes she would … give a talk on astronomy or some phase of science. She'd catch people who had a diverse interest. There were some people who were church people who came to those meetings…. There was a little air of formality and mystery about these meetings. We always had some music added and then the pictures. (D. McKay, 1991)
Other Bahá'í travelling teachers, such as Harlan Ober, Dorothy Baker, and Rosemary Sala, undertook systematic teaching campaigns in Prince Edward Island, using every conceivable means to draw potential new adherents, including firesides, public meetings, newspaper publicity, and radio … all to no avail. On the difficulties of teaching the religion on Prince Edward Island, one spoke of the Island as singularly insular—conservative to the last degree…. This makes it necessary to use long range, low pressure teaching methods. Apparently, all newcomers are viewed with at least a quizzical, if not a suspicious glance. The Bahá'ís speak of many "contacts" but say that none are enthusiastic. (8 July 1948, RSP)
One believer speaks of the special hardships that accompanied efforts to spread the Bahá'í Faith in Charlottetown: I went many times to teach in Charlottetown…. Everybody went to Charlottetown, because Charlottetown was the hardest nut to crack. Anybody who could open Charlottetown had to be in very special communication with Bahá'u'lláh. When I would go to Charlottetown, they would say Dorothy Baker was here and she prayed all night long for Charlottetown. There were always stories of people praying all night, hour after hour after hour saying the Greatest Name, 43 five hundred times, a thousand. It was ceaseless. It was a hard, hard, hard insular island. You really feel that anything was an invasion and it
Page 196 seemed to be absolutely unable to absorb. Invincible. Those who lived there as Bahá'ís had a very hard time…. Charlottetown was surrounded by what appeared to be an impenetrable wall of good willed indifference. The Bahá'ís there had to live on their inner resources and strength to an unprecedented degree. It couldn't flow out into the society. It was the most mystical community in Canada. You went to Charlottetown to pray, night and day, pray, pray, pray, pray. The result was that everybody became psychic, visionary. You always saw into the life of things and Doris McKay was one of those and they lived in a world of art, in imagination, teaching art, teaching imagination. That was Charlottetown. There was no other community quite like it. (Woodman, 1991, author's emphasis)
The steel town of Hamilton was visited as early as 1923 by Marion Jack, but it was a systematic teaching campaign undertaken by Mabel Ives and Mary Barton (Bahá'í News, September 1939, p. 7) that led to the enrolment of the first Bahá'í there, Lulu Barr in May 1939 (BRC). Lulu was a schoolteacher, who had been a Baptist missionary to Japan and moved in 1941 to Saskatoon and Regina, becoming the first resident Bahá'í in Saskatoon. Three other Hamiltonians became adherents of the new religion through Mabel Ives: Sarah Davies, Amy E. Putnam (both in June 1939), and Charles Ernest Pottier in August 1939. Like many of the other new believers to follow in Hamilton, these new Bahá'ís were of English or Scottish background, and were members of the United Church, and, in some instances, the Anglican Church. In 1940 Hamilton was adopted by the local Spiritual Assembly of Toronto as an "extension goal" (Bahá'í News, June 1940, pp. 14–15). 44 A slight variation of the systematic teaching campaign took place when John Robarts, an insurance salesman in Toronto, spent one night a week in Hamilton. At first, he would rent a room at the Royal Connaught Hotel and invite anyone to come to a lecture. Soon, in 1941, he would speak at a fireside arranged in the dance studio of Nancy Campbell, who became a Bahá'í in November 1941 (BRC), and around whom formed a nucleus of other Bahá'ís, such as Amy Putnam and Gertrude Barr. Doris McKay of New York State, whom the reader may recall from the account of Charlottetown, was asked by the National Spiritual Assembly to visit Hamilton (McKay, 1991). Her work complemented what John Robarts was trying to do. McKay would spend one week a month in Hamilton, using the occasion to visit the Bahá'ís in Toronto during the weekend, and returning to New York before her night classes started on Monday. The relative enduring strength of the Hamilton Bahá'í community can be traced to the fact that a number of interlocking families joined the new faith. Here, it was rarer to find
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individuals who enrolled in the Bahá'í community, than to find families, such as the Barrs, the MacGregors, the Ortmans, the Youngs. Sylvia King of the United States had already visited Regina in 1939, making contact with the Institute of International Affairs and the Fellowship of Reconciliation (Bahá'í News, September 1939, p. 6). In 1942 she stayed for three months in that city, establishing connections with the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (ibid., November 1942, p. 3). A relatively young Bahá'í, Katherine Moscrop, following Sylvia King and Mabel Ives's example of undertaking a systematic teaching campaign, lived in Regina from September to December 1939, and from March to June 1940 (Moscrop, 1990). As a result of her two stays that comprised three months each, some twentysix people were found willing to study the Bahá'í Faith (ibid., October 1940, p. 6). Katherine had become a Bahá'í in West Vancouver in October 1938 (BRC). After her husband, Harold, a lumberpurchasing agent, enrolled on 24 August 1939, Moscrop decided to respond to an appeal by the National Teaching Committee to open Regina to the Bahá'í Faith. As the couple was not well off, it meant that her husband had to stay home and work: I went on the 2nd of September 1939, ill equipped but with the blessing of the National Teaching Committee. I went by train of course. In the morning I got up and went into the dining car for my breakfast. I noted that … the war has broken out…. I didn't know what to do and I thought, "Well I've put my hand to the plough, I'll keep going." So I stayed [in Regina] for three months and it got so cold. Harold was able to allow me fifty dollars a month to live on, because we were poor. I couldn't afford the clothes I needed for the prairie winter. So I came home for the worst of the winter. I went back again in the spring. So how did you start teaching the [Bahá'í] Faith in Regina? A woman who's never been away from home with a little money, very little money. How did you? I went to a boarding house…. I was so shy, I don't make friends easily. I belonged to the Women's Canadian Club. I noticed that there was a meeting in Regina, so I went to it…. I was just standing, not knowing anybody, and finally I thought, "This isn't good enough." So I spoke in a loud voice, I said, "I think it's wonderful that a small town like Regina has such a large club." Somebody turned around … and she said, "Are you a stranger?" I said, "Yes." She said, ''Are you visiting friends?" I said, "No, I came to introduce the Bahá'í Faith into Regina." She said, "I know the very person you should meet." She took me up to a lady who was sitting down, an
Page 198 older lady who is the exdean of women at the University. She had a niece who knew the Bahá'ís in India…. She said, "Well I know what you must do. You must go and join the arts and crafts society." I did. It just opened wide. I got 26 people who wanted a fireside, wanted to know about [the Bahá'í Faith]…. I didn't have one. I didn't know what to do. (Moscrop, 1990)
Moscrop's two stays in Regina were the first of several by other believers from the Vancouver area: D. Bruce Hogg, from March to June 1940 ("Vancouver Outline," 31 August 1941, VBA), who was taught the Bahá'í Faith by Catherine Paige, a stenographer; Viola "Ruby" China, a widow, from February to July 1943 (National Teaching Committee, 1944). Even Dorothy Sheets from Calgary, who, as we have seen, was taught the Bahá'í Faith by Doris Skinner, a Bahá'í from Vancouver, stayed in Regina from February 1943 to September 1948 (Bahá'í News, December 1948, p. 12). In the case of Regina, the systematic teaching campaign had the effect of stretching a line of Bahá'í acquaintances originating in one place, namely, from Vancouver to Regina. A number of other factors emerged in the process of forming systematic teaching campaigns in Canada. First, the Canadian Bahá'í community experienced a movement of businessmen from eastern Canada (mainly from Montreal and Toronto) who managed in their travels to find time to speak at Bahá'í gatherings. These individuals included many of the foremost Canadian Bahá'ís, namely, Siegfried Schopflocher (industrialist), John Robarts (insurance agent), Rowland Estall (financial adviser), Emeric Sala (importer), Allan Raynor (insurance salesman), Craig Weaver (insurance salesman), and George Spendlove (curator). We also see American women travelling to western Canada, such as Sylvia King, Marzieh Carpenter, Mabel Ives, and Mary Barton. Western Canada thus received considerable crossfertilization of Bahá'í ideas emanating from American women (topics on Bahá'í spirituality) and from Canadian men (generally, topics on Bahá'í administration and world order). The crossfertilization endowed Bahá'í communities with a deeper understanding of the new religion. As a consequence, new Bahá'ís in western Canada tended to be firmer and more committed to propagating the new religion than those in the Maritimes. Third, the campaigns east of Montreal were characterized by the fact that they were conducted by couples such as Howard and Mabel Ives, Doris and Willard McKay, Emeric and Rosemary Sala, John and Amine De Mille, and by Canadian women, not American, who included Rosemary Sala, Winnifred Harvey, Lorol Schopflocher, Eliza
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beth Cowles, and Grace Geary. 45 Only one man, Ernest V. Harrison, undertook alone to visit the Maritimes from Montreal (Bahá'í News, October 1941, pp. 7–8). The Bahá'í teaching projects were of longer duration than elsewhere. Indeed, it was not unusual for couples to settle down in the Atlantic provinces. New believers in eastern Canada came to depend heavily on these couples for their instruction and deepening of their understanding of the Bahá'í Faith. Publicity For the most part, publicity for the Bahá'í Faith was confined to paid advertisments in local newspapers. The publicity that surrounded 'Abdu'lBahá'ís visit to Montreal in 1912 was mainly at the initiative of editors and journalists—a rare phenomenon. Paid advertisements were inserted usually on the religious page and often with a great deal of reluctance on the part of the newspaper editors. Newspapers Bahá'í references in newspapers and journals began to appear regularly between 1937 and 1947.46 The Vancouver Province carried, in the late 1930s, a fullpage story about the Vancouver Branch of the Canadian Youth Congress, including pictures of the three delegates and mentioning Rowland Estall's name as a representative of the Bahá'í Youth Group (Estall, 1977: 58). The Suburban News a Montreal weekly, appears to have been the first newspaper in Canada, after 'Abdu'lBahá's visit in 1912, to have carried an article, on 28 September 1943, written by someone who was not a Bahá'í (H. Ross, 1943). In October 1943, Ross Woodman, a new Bahá'í, published the first Bahá'í article in a student newspaper, The Manitoban, entitled, "Religion in the Modern World" (Woodman, 1943). Reference has already been made to an article by Sylvia King in the Canadian Geographical Journal in March 1944, devoted to the symbolism of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette. On 8 December 1945, Saturday Night, a Toronto weekly, carried an article by W. Hackett (1944), entitled, "This New Faith Offers a New World Order." Radio The 1930s saw another innovation in spreading the new religion: the use of the radio. The earliest record of such use relates to the visit of the Bahá'í travelling teacher Martha Root to Montreal in 1932. Staying at the home of May and Sutherland Maxwell, the most prominent of Canadian Bahá'ís, Miss Root had, on impulse, picked tulips from a vase
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in the home and taken them to a Montreal radio station for a hopedfor broadcast. To the surprise of the Bahá'ís, the radio manager was Dutch. After gratefully accepting the tulips, he accorded Martha Root an opportunity to broadcast the Bahá'í message (Garis, 1983: 381). The earliest formal use of radio programming to inform the Canadian public about the Bahá'í Faith can be traced to the Vancouver Bahá'í community which, in 1937, integrated this approach with the fireside method. The Bahá'ís developed a series of eleven fifteenminute broadcasts under the theme: "The World at Home." Put together by Bahá'í youth, the programs were aired through paid time on the smaller radio stations, such as CJOR (Estall, 1977: 58a–58b; 1992). Each presentation involved a discussion of one of the "social" principles of the Bahá'í Faith. The Bahá'ís would invite their friends into their homes for a discussion hour based on the evening radio program to which all would listen. For others, the radio program would offer to have a Bahá'í come to a listener's home as a discussion leader on the relevant topic. One report indicated that three fireside groups were established, and another that five nonBahá'ís had requested a group discussion. At the conclusion of the series, the Bahá'ís set up study classes for forty five people (Bahá'í World, 1939: 49, 51). The centenary of the Bahá'í Faith, 1944, provided an opportunity for Bahá'ís to air information about the new faith through the radio. Under the guidance of the National Radio Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, fifteenminute broadcasts during "Centennial Week," May 1944, were featured on radio stations across Canada: Halifax, Charlottetown (CFCY), Moncton (CKCW), Montreal (CFCF), Winnipeg (CKRC), Regina (CKRM), Edmonton (CFRN), Calgary, and Vancouver. Other formats of radio announcements were also used in Halifax, Charlottetown, Moncton, and Regina (Bahá'í World, 1949: 91). These initial attempts encouraged the Bahá'ís of Toronto to take up, once again, in 1946, the matter of radio broadcasting (Radio Committee, 1947). A contract was arranged with Radio CHUM in Toronto for twentysix weekly broadcasts, at 10:15 a.m. Sunday, at $22.80 per broadcast. Victor Davis, George KeithBeattie, and Lloyd Gardner staffed the committee in charge of the broadcasts. Rather than relying on scripted text, the program took the form of roundtable discussions. If the committee was reluctant to guess the impact of the program, it felt that because most programs included one nonBahá'í at least, "the actual participation in a Baha'i project deepened the interest of the nonBaha'i guest" (ibid.: 2). A dozen letters were received from listeners in
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response to these broadcasts, although "radio officials contend that this is no index of an unfavourable presentation" (ibid.: 3). Though the programs were informal in tone, they were more likely to be fully written out, with appropriate questions and answers (LGP). This excerpt from such an interview is typical: Question: Bahá'í. That sounds like something new. Answer: Yes, Bahá'í is a new name like the Atom Bomb, only it has the opposite effect. In fact as fear for the atomic bombs spreads, interest for the Bahá'í Faith increases. The name Bahá'í awakens the curiosity of people. We seldom can satisfy this curiosity of people without awakening a genuine interest in the Bahá'í Faith. You see there is a great advantage in being associated with a movement with a strange name. It is an asset. (LGP)
They also included dramatized recordings with such titles as "Meet Mr. Justice" and "Mr. Justice Returns" (Radio Committee, 1947: 4). Typically, the program would end with the statement, "Remember that word…. BAHA'I" (ibid.: 5). In some instances, such as in Montreal, radio stations refused to accept Bahá'í publicity for a public meeting, and thus, Bahá'ís refrained from using radio, out of fear of antagonizing Quebec's Roman Catholic Church (Bahá'í News, April 1947, p. 11). Summary This chapter explored the evolution of six approaches in spreading the Bahá'í Faith. Bahá'ís used "homefront pioneering" in particular to establish the Bahá'í Faith in metropolitan suburbs. The second approach involved pioneering to more distant goal areas where, with the exception of Winnipeg, the Bahá'í expansion work proceeded rather slowly. Although the "firesides" were gatherings intended to draw in new people, they became the principal means by which all adherents became more informed about their own religion. The most thriving communities had different fireside styles, as was the case in greater Toronto. Typically, people would "graduate" from the informal ones, and move to the more serious ones. Firesides were problematic in communities with a preponderance of single female Bahá'ís or women whose husbands were not Bahá'ís. Under those circumstances, the Bahá'ís resorted to the holding of public meetings. The holding of public meetings was a fourth approach to spreading the new religion in Canada. For Bahá'ís, such meetings became the principal means for the training and education of Bahá'ís. With rela
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tively few Bahá'ís across Canada, new converts were often immediately asked to make public Bahá'í presentations. This request demanded a public commitment on the part of these new Bahá'ís. Moreover, the Bahá'ís placed a symbolic value on public meetings. They not only represented the Bahá'í Faith to wider society—hence, the emphasis on holding such meetings in dignified surroundings—but they often symbolized the first opening of a city or town to the Bahá'í Faith. The systematic teaching campaign, the fifth approach, seemed, at first, successful in establishing the Bahá'í Faith in various cities. There were variations. Some would spend three to four months in one place, while others would visit several locales. In this connection, we noted the pecularities of such campaigns across Canada. West of Montreal, it was primarily Bahá'í businessmen who did most of the travelling, typically lecturing on Bahá'í administrative and world order topics, while we could also discern a southtonorth movement of American Bahá'í women presenting in western Canada the spiritual elements of the Bahá'í Faith. East of Montreal, the situation was entirely different. Here, more commonly, couples and Canadian women undertook teaching campaigns, and eventually settled in the area. Finally, the sixth approach involved publicity through print and radio media. Spreading news of the Bahá'í Faith through newspapers consisted primarily of paid advertisements, while the use of paid programming was the principal use of radio. The former seldom involved articles, while the latter was innovatively tied into the simultaneous holding of study classes in Bahá'í homes. Notes 1. As normally Spiritual Assemblies are formed between sunset 20 April and sunset 21 April, the book simply indicates the year of formation, without reference to this date. As the Bahá'í day begins at sunset, communities usually elect or form their Assemblies on the evening of 20 April. The date corresponds to the first day of Ridván when Bahá'u'lláh publicly proclaimed his mission in 1863. 2. A report of Mary's travels to Germany appears in Bahá'í World, 1939: 21–24. 3. Ibid., pp. 27–40 contains a report of her travels. 4. Mabel paid lengthy visits to Moncton (September 1937), Charlottetown, Saint John, and Halifax. 5. The years cited follow Bahá'í usage, namely, from 21 April to 20 April. The reader is advised to consult chapters 11 and 12 for the dates and names of communities opened by Bahá'ís. 6. Jean Doris Skinner, Calgary (April); Lou Martel, Coppercliff, Ontario (April); Beulah S. Proctor and her daughter, Shirley, Halifax (April); Row
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land Estall, Winnipeg (29 May); Allan Lindsey, Point Atkinson, BC (4 June); Katherine Moscrop, Regina (2 September); and John A. Dixon, Lethbridge, Alberta. 7. "Summer Schools" are Bahá'í retreats, open to all. Shoghi Effendi regarded these schools as precursors to Bahá'í universities. 8. The Universal House of Justice is the highest authority in the Bahá'í International Community, elected every five years by members of all National Spiritual Assemblies around the world. 9. The term "homefront pioneering" now (1993) connotes a rather different meaning than it did in 1939 and refers to pioneering within a national boundary. 10. Bahá'ís use the term "extension teaching." 11. Ethel Priestly in 1939; Noreen and George KeithBeattie in September 1939; and M. Audrey Westheuser in June 1941. 12. Muriel Warnicker moved later to West Vancouver, boarding with Ruby China, an early Bahá'í in this city. 13. Gillian Ethel Hammond (May 1940), Annie Louise ("Nan") Greenwood (February 1945), Ruth Hutton (1946), Catherine Coyne (1947), Priscilla Waugh (April 1947), Beulah S. Proctor (20 April 1947), Lyda S. Martland (1948), and Dr. Mina Ramsay (1948). 14. Letter from Lloyd Gardner to Adline Lohse, Montreal, 8 July 1948, LGP (copy in possession of the author). 15. The Gem, 4 November 1990, p. 5, states she joined the Bureau of Statistics in 1938. A letter from Rowland Estall to the Secretary of the National Teaching Committee, 17 June 1940 (copy in possession of the author), states that she joined the Bureau in 1940 (Estall, 1940). 16. This society was formed in New York City by Ahmad Sohrab, a former Bahá'í. Although it claimed to be a Bahá'í group, its chief task was to discredit the general Bahá'í community. 17. Chapter 12 describes in detail her life as a Bahá'í. 18. There exist relatively more accounts about the Edmonton Bahá'í community than is the case for other communities: Rimell, 1944; Davies, 1949; Rimell and Roche, 1951; PembertonPigott, 1988; and Stecyk, 1984. 19. I am grateful to Roger Dahl (1990) for his observations about the several methods of teaching the Bahá'í Faith that came into vogue in the 1930s. 20. Firesides have remained fairly unchanged since the 1930s. 21. "Progressive revelation" refers to the progressive unfoldment of religious truth through "Manifestations of God," or divine teachers. 22. The twelve principles were first encapsulated by 'Abdu'lBahá during his visits to the West as a means to briefly present the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith to Western audiences: (1) one God, (2) one humanity, (3) unity of the Manifestations of God, (4) harmony between science and religion, (5) the independent search after truth, (6) equality of men and women, (7) elimination of racial prejudice, (8) universal education, (9) international peacekeeping force, (10) international tribunal, (11) universal auxiliary language, and (12) world government.
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23. The image that Peggy Ross saw was presumably that of Mabel Ives. 24. World Order magazine is a preWorld War II Bahá'í publication that carried thoughtful articles on the Bahá'í Faith. 25. Lulu Barr, Nancy Campell, Irene Fairclough, and Amy Putnam. 26. Elsa Clapham, Stella Delanti, Rosemary Gillies, Milli Rina Gordon, and David Hofman. 27. Evelyn Cliff and Muriel Warnicker. 28. Elizabeth and Milwyn Davies. 29. Sigrun Lindal. 30. Ken McLaren. 31. Doris Reed and Evelyn D. Tate. 32. Alberta "Bardie" Royle. 33. Dorothy Sheets. 34. Mabel and Leslie Silversides. 35. A public lecture on "Bahaism" was given by Mrs. J.A. Clift to the Current Events Club of the Ladies' Reading Room, St. John's, in January 1914; Mrs. Clift was, as far as we know, not a Bahá'í. The earlier chapter on Bahá'ís in Atlantic Canada provides more details of this event. 36. I am grateful to Dahl (1990: 7–9) for his description and analysis of Mabel Ives's visit to Moncton. 37. According to van den Hoonaard (1992a), they must include J. Hayes King, Mabel Grace Geary, Merle McEwen, Agnes King, Alma Fairweather, Berford Stevens, Ruth Wilson, William F. Byrne, Leila Mae Wells, and Irving Geary. It is not known who is the remaining one new adherent. The Bahá'í registration card for Leila Wells indicates "Nov. 1941" as the date of her declaration as a Bahá'í, but information provided by the Gearys (1963) suggests she enrolled during Mabel Ives's tour to Moncton. 38. The number of enrolments would, even today (1992), be considered quite good in the Atlantic provinces. 39. In Geary and Geary (1963: 1) we find a reference to the four who remained steadfast as Bahá'ís: Grace and Irving Geary, Leila Wells, and Agnes King. 40. As recently as 1963, there were still only three Bahá'ís in Moncton (Geary and Geary, 1963). 41. Rolfe (1987b) provides a brief sketch of the Bahá'í history of Prince Edward Island. 42. Today, some Prince Edward Island Bahá'ís believe that the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada had overlooked Prince Edward Island as a province, thus not requiring a local Spiritual Assembly in the SevenYear Plan. There is no substance to this belief, for in 1938 and 1941 the name of Prince Edward Island appears as a provincial Bahá'í goal to be filled. Curiously, though, the reference in 1941 also lists Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Yukon as Canadian "provinces" (Bahá'í News, January 1938, p. 3; July 1941, p. 5). 43. The "Greatest Name" is an invocation to God, rendered in Arabic as "YaBaha'ulAbha!" ("O Thou Glorious of the Most Glorious") which Bahá'ís believe to possess a certain spiritual power.
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44. An "extension goal" refers to a locale that a local Spiritual Assembly adopted to carry out Bahá'í expansion work. 45. Bahá'í News, February 1940, p. 6; March 1941, p. 7; October 1941, pp. 7–8; and July 1942, p. 2. 46. One of the very first "letters to the Editor" was written by Edward D. Harris, sole Bahá'í of Carmichael, Saskatchewan, which appeared in a Regina newspaper sometime between September 1939 and December 1939 or between March and June 1940 (Magee, 1991).
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Twelve — Opportunities and Constraints of Community Growth, 1937–47 The chapter explores the fate of twelve Bahá'í communities, established between 1937 and 1947, and three previously existing ones, that formed the backbone of the SevenYear Plan (1937–44). 1 Some communities experienced vigorous growth, while others were marked by constant setbacks and hindrances. Yet others underwent a moderate, stable growth. What accounted for such differences were the particular social opportunities and constraints that faced these communities. The particular methods used to reach a locality and to teach the Bahá'í Faith within the locality, the diversity of Bahá'í membership, and sex ratios, were among the factors that contributed to a given rate of growth. The wider social environment in which particular Bahá'í communities existed provided another factor influencing growth. Assessing Community Growth Appendix C conveys the indices used to assess growth in each of the fifteen Bahá'í communities. Some terms require clarification. Teaching method refers to the principal means used to spread the Bahá'í Faith in each community, namely, individualistic, neighbourly, or associational. If individualistic, Bahá'ís take individual initiative to teach their religion to friends, colleagues at work, or whomever they chanced upon meeting, without a communitybased plan of action. It is the most frequently used method of propagation. The neighbourly approach involves teaching the Bahá'í Faith to one's neighbours specifically, and making a special effort to invite them into one's home and show hospitality. The third mode, associational, the leastused one, is characterized by associating with likeminded organizations and groups in an effort to spread the Bahá'í Faith and/or its principles through those contacts. The ratio of new believers to pioneers refers to the number of new believers secured through the efforts of one pioneer. In Winnipeg, for example, on average, one pioneer was the means of finding six new converts (6:1), while in Halifax, one pioneer brought in one new
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believer (1:1). In Victoria, there were no new adherents and no pioneers brought in new Bahá'ís. The diversity index refers to the ethnic or national origin of Bahá'ís. It is clear from the foregoing chapters that the dominant ethnic composition of the Canadian Bahá'í community was AngloSaxon. The figure indicated in Appendix C refers to the percentage of believers who are not AngloSaxon. Obviously, this is a rather rough figure for it hides the subtle mix of other ethnic groups. For example, 17.9% for St. Lambert could indicate membership in one other ethnic group, or in a variety of groups. The heading new Bahá'ís provides an insight into the dynamics of Bahá'í community life. It not only indicates the number of new believers until 20 April 1947, 2 but, more importantly, it gives the percentage of these new believers who, themselves, went pioneering to either open a new locality or to strengthen one. On the basis of the information provided in full in Appendix C, it is possible to devise empirical indicators of Bahá'í growth: (1) the ratio of pioneers to new adherents indicates the results of pioneering efforts on a per capita pioneer basis; (2) the mean number of new Bahá'ís per year provides an unembellished rate of growth; (3) the percentage of the Bahá'í community that consists of new adherents on 20 April 1947—the final date of our survey; (4) the number of new believers who, themselves, went pioneering. As the vitality of a Bahá'í community is dependent on the degree to which the new believers take charge of the teaching and pioneering work, these indicators are objective evaluations of the fate of communities across Canada. Table 5 provides a total ranking, based on each of the four abovementioned indicators. HighGrowth Localities Highgrowth localities show a high ratio of new adherents with respect to pioneers in that locality. Winnipeg shows the highest ratio (6). As Hamilton was opened through a systematic teaching campaign, no pioneers are listed. In the case of Toronto, we have used the number of believers on 21 April 1937 who were part of Toronto before that date. All three localities exemplify a growth rate from 1.70 to 2.90 new believers each year. The relatively high percentage of new believers (77– 100%) in these communities suggests a vitality that is absent in the other communities. About one quarter of the new converts between 1937 and 1947 went pioneering from these communities.
Page 208 Table 5 Bahá'í Community Growth until 1947
Locality
Ratio
Mean
New Bahá'ís
new Bs:p # new Bs/yr as % of commun.
Overall
who went pioneering
locality ranking
High growth Winnipeg
6.00
2.90
91
26
1
Hamilton
n/a
2.10
100
24
1
Toronto
4.83
1.70
77
21
Mean
5.41
2.23
89
24
St.Lambert
1.50
0.70
47
58
4
Vancouver
1.38
1.20
41
29
5
Moncton
1.75
0.73
78
14
5
Edmonton
1.00
0.83
67
23
Mean
1.16
0.87
58
31
Halifax
0.85
1.00
56
0
Scarborough
1.25
0.50
56
20
8
Regina
0.69
0.79
67
0
10
Charlettetown
0.55
2.11
44
0
10
Montreal
1.40
0.40
20
21
Mean
0.95
0.96
49
8
W. Vancouver
1.13
0.00
0
22
13
Ottawa
0.22
0.15
25
0
14
Victoria
0.00
0.00
0
0
Mean
0.45
0.50
8
7
3
Medium growth
7
Slow growth 8
12
No growth
15
Source: Appendix C (based on van den Hoonard, 1992a).
Winnipeg Winnipeg constitutes the best example of Bahá'í growth. The 1939–45 period corresponds to the wartime end of the Depression. For Winnipeg, the war years meant prosperity through economic renewal. No longer a major distribution centre after the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the city had undergone a long and slow decline. The period of very slow economic growth that followed minimized the struggle among ethnic groups, resulting in fairly harmonious relationships. Without other competitive relationships, the city's civic administration acquired ''decent and honest citizens" and the mutual antipathy be
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tween politics and the public was lacking (Artibise, 1977: 146). In such a climate one would expect to find a large number of civic organizations dedicated to the general welfare of the population. It was at this stage in Winnipeg's development 3 that Rowland Estall arrived in May 1939 from Vancouver, staying in Winnipeg until October 1947. Within seven years of his arrival we find the community growing by almost three new adherents a year. Three factors accounted for Winnipeg's relative success. First, the Bahá'í community's primary mode of propagating the Bahá'í Faith was by means of kindred associations in the city, many of which were spawned during the depression years. Second, the city's diverse ethnic composition was to a large degree reflected in Bahá'í membership. Third, the vitality of the community was augmented by the presence of a universitybased Bahá'í group. It was association with the Phoenix Club,4 however, that provoked a visible positive response to Estall's efforts to spread the Bahá'í Faith. A previous American Bahá'í visitor to Winnipeg, Sylvia King, addressed the Phoenix Club in the fall of 1938 in a meeting organized by Ernest Court, its founder.5 With approximately 150 members, the club was an adult educational organization to help the unemployed. More than a few of its members began expressing an interest in forming a Bahá'í study group. After the conversion in October 1939 of Lillian Tomlinson, Winnipeg's first resident Bahá'í, a telephone operator and a Catholic, others followed quickly: Sigrun Lindal of Icelandic descent, and Helen Poissant, a francophone telephone operator. In 1941, Ernest Court, a pensioner and Theosophist, joined, followed by Stella ("Pollie") Pollexfen, an IrishCatholic nurse.6 The new believers were drawn from the intersecting circles of the Phoenix Club and Theosophists and consisted, by Canadian Bahá'í standards, of an unusually high mix of former Catholics. No other Bahá'í community in Canada had actively sought out new adherents from among similarly minded organizations as much as Winnipeg had, ensuring a broad foundation of both organizational talent and anticipatory socialization. As a consequence, the Winnipeg Bahá'ís soon established their Spiritual Assembly7 (20 April 1942)8 and were able to rent a Bahá'í centre in September 1943.9 In an organized initiative the Bahá'í community opened St. Boniface, a major suburb, through the moves of four Bahá'ís in 1947.10 By April 1947, some 91% of the twentyone believers were indigenous to the host city, the second highest in Canada. There was, however, also a diverse ethnic mix that characterized the twentyeight Winnipeg Bahá'ís between 1939 and 1947. Almost onethird of the Bahá'í community constituted a remarkable diversity
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of ethnic and national origin: Icelandic, 11 francophone,12 Irish,13 Polish,14 Native Indian,15 Croatian,16 German,17 Ukrainian,18 Japanese,19 and Russian Doukhobor.20 Finally, the Winnipeg Bahá'ís had secured a foothold among a group of university students, such as Ross Woodman, Ken McLaren, and Marion Metcalfe. Estall had already set up a youth group, comparable to the one in Montreal and Vancouver (both of which he was involved in), attracting a number of youth in the eighteento twentyyear age bracket, but it was through an article in a student newspaper by Woodman on the world economy and the Bahá'í Faith, that Bahá'ís received exposure at the university. Hamilton Hamilton was home to the secondfastest growing Bahá'í community.21 Hamilton had similarly gone through the Great Depression, but suffered much less than Winnipeg. Hamilton's industrial base was diversified, with an emphasis on steel production, heavy manufacturing, and textile and weaving mills. The city is cramped between a steep ridge of hills and a bay, between which most of its bluecollar workers could be found. Unlike so many other Canadian localities, Hamilton's cramped geography offered the Bahá'ís physical proximity to each other, which made it easier to foster social relations on a more regular basis. But what accounts for Hamilton's steady growth at about two new believers annually? The chief strength of the Hamilton Bahá'í community was its ability to enroll couples and/or family members, rather than lone individuals. Lulu Barr, a teacher who enrolled in May 1939 through the systematic teaching efforts of Mabel Ives, was the first in Hamilton and of her family to do so. Her brother, Erland, and sister, Gertrude, were also converted. There were also at least three couples, namely, the MacGregors, the Marshalls, and the Ortmans. The enrolment of a mother and her daughter was not unusual either, as was the case of both Frances and Gladys Young and Amelia and Dorothy Clarke. Other Bahá'ís, such as Muriel Wells (later Mrs. Erland Barr), married into one of these Bahá'í families. In addition to family ties, the Bahá'ís formed a "lively sort of creative community" (interview, GB) that included a bookshop owner,22 a piano teacher,23 an artist,24 a copy editor,25 a dance teacher,26 and an elocutionist.27 The remainder of the Bahá'ís represented more typical occupations, including a toolmaker,28 a hairdresser,29 a teacher, and a publichealth nurse.30 The third area of strength derived from the considerable and steady support the Hamilton Bahá'ís received from the Toronto Bahá'í com
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munity. In addition to firesides at Nancy Campbell's studio and Dorothy Boys's (née Clarke) home, weekly public meetings were held at the Royal Connaught Hotel, featuring a Bahá'í speaker from Toronto. 31 John Robarts came weekly, and rented an overnight room at the Connaught and one for public meetings. Toronto The Toronto Bahá'í community was able to support the spade work in Hamilton—seventy kilometres away—because of its own energetic growth, overtaking that of Montreal. During the tenyear period under survey, the Toronto Bahá'í community32 grew annually by 1.7 new believers; there were thirtyfive believers in all during that period. The proportion of female adherents (73%) was somewhat higher than the Canadian Bahá'í average (69%). What led to Toronto's relative strength in overtaking Montreal as the Bahá'í capital of Canada? First, as English Canada's "main urban cultural focus" (Careless, 1985), Toronto became increasingly the host of travelling American Bahá'í teachers. We recall that the first Bahá'í group of Toronto was formed as early as April 1922 with eighteen Bahá'ís (8 April 1922, AL). This seems to have disappeared and a second group was formed later with eight Bahá'ís, including two inactive ones, in 1937 (Bahá'í News, April 1937, p. 11).33 Within one year, in April 1938, the Toronto Bahá'ís were able to form their first local Spiritual Assembly.34 Soon after, a good number of prominent Bahá'ís, mostly American, visited the city.35 The Toronto Bahá'ís not only ensured that these articulate teachers spoke at the local Bahá'í Centre,36 usually on Sunday evening at 8:15, but also at several other firesides. Second, the Toronto Bahá'í community employed differing fireside styles. There were at least five weekly firesides held in the city.37 Suffice it to say that each fireside appealed to a different temperament. Davis' more formal approach drew people who on the average were older than those who went to Richardson's informal firesides (Rochester, 1993). The fireside at Spendlove's home provided an atmosphere that was in tune with the prayerful life of the individual. Audrey Robarts would later report in an interview that her and husband's firesides "were fun and attracted many people of all ages" (Robarts, 1993). It was not always possible to bring a "contact" to these firesides, but those who did were described as earning a "big brownie point" (interview, AA), incurring approval from other Bahá'ís. Third, a group of Bahá'í businessmen provided the necessary organizational and networking skills to embark on a wide variety of Bahá'í activities with considerable success. Drawn largely from a net
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work of insurance agents, 38 several of whom worked at London Life, a few businessmen organized a Bahá'í businessmen's club, which included Bahá'ís who were students,39 salesmen,40 a jeweller,41 and some professionals. One interviewee (AA) reported that the business group heard some "subdued murmurs from certain of the ladies in the community" who felt excluded from this weekly event, despite the fact that many thought the luncheon was quite innovative. The group would meet weekly in a downtown restaurant with a private room, much like a Kiwanis club. Also active in the business group were George Spendlove, an art curator formerly of Montreal, and, possibly, W. Frank Harvey, a physicist. Spendlove held an adjunct position in the Anthropology Department at the University of Toronto, but would, after 1946, be particularly instrumental in stimulating a number of Bahá'í students to follow these businessmen in the Bahá'í teaching work. With such talents, the business group was able to persuade the Bahá'í community of Toronto to set up the first Bahá'í booth at the Canadian National Exhibition in 1939, where some 15,000 pieces of Bahá'í literature were handed out. In 1940 the group convinced the Toronto Spiritual Assembly to undertake extension teaching work in Hamilton and Oshawa (Bahá'í News, June 1940, p. 15). In the same year, they organized the first Bahá'í school in Ontario at Rice Lake, attracting many Bahá'í speakers from the United States and enhancing the overall standing of the Toronto Bahá'ís. Contact with nonBahá'í groups, such as with the World Federalists (Bond and Bond, 1990) and the Theosophical Fraternization Convention in 1942, were, however, not as actively pursued as was the case in Winnipeg. Finally, the group initiated radio programs at CHUM radio station, after setting up a National Bahá'í Radio Committee.42 The Bahá'í Radio Committee was the second national body to exist in the Canadian Bahá'í community, after the National Teaching Committee. Among this group of active businessmen, one would find many, such as Allan Raynor, who would later make significant contributions to the Bahá'í community. Raynor's own specific interest and the thrust of all his Bahá'í work were related to deepening new believers' understanding about the "Covenant" of Bahá'ulláh—a promise that the new religious movement would be protected from schism by successively appointed individuals and by the Bahá'í administrative framework laid down in the Bahá'í sacred writings. This particular orientation of the Bahá'í teaching work became his passion, to which Shoghi Effendi would later allude in a letter to Allan Raynor (Shoghi Effendi, 1956). Raynor, a Baptist, had found the Bahá'í Faith in April 1946 at London Life Assurance Company in Toronto. Its manager, John Ro
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barts, had became one of the most active Bahá'í promoters. Robarts not only attracted people like Raynor, but with his spouse, Audrey, also rallied the Bahá'ís to undertake travelling teaching visits where Bahá'ís needed speakers. Robarts combined his superb organizational skills with what can be described as a striking pure hearted devotion to the new cause. MediumGrowth Communities: Pioneers and Transients A considerable distance separates the Bahá'í communities with a medium growth pattern from those with a highgrowth pattern in the 1937–47 period. The annual number of new Bahá'ís is slightly fewer than half of that for the highgrowth localities, with 41% to 78% of the moderategrowth communities consisting of new converts. The percentage of new Bahá'ís who went pioneering, however, is higher than is the case for the highgrowth communities. Localities with medium growth exhibit a pioneer ratio from 1 to 1.75 new adherents per pioneer. This last finding may lend support to the idea that the departure of new believers to pioneering posts may undercut the teaching work in the home locality, depriving the Bahá'í community of its natural points of social contacts with the wider locality. With the exception of St. Lambert, the other mediumgrowth communities (Vancouver, Moncton, and Edmonton) display a large proportion of transitional members, i.e., Bahá'ís who had arrived from another community, only to move on to yet another. While in St. Lambert's case, only 4% of the adherents were geographically transitional, Vancouver's share was 28%, and Moncton's and Edmonton's were 25% and 42%, respectively. This geographical mobility was the second factor in reducing the potential for higher growth. Aside from the fact that the four communities share a high ratio of new believers pioneering elsewhere and a high proportion of other geographically transitional adherents, there is little else that they share sociologically. For St. Lambert, it was the importance of family ties that made it stand out among other Canadian Bahá'í communities. For Vancouver, it was the bold and varied approaches to teaching the Bahá'í Faith. Moncton had to cope with the fact that its first contingent of new Bahá'ís were so loyal to, and dependent on, their first Bahá'í teachers that it made the work of successive teachers and new Bahá'ís more arduous. In Edmonton's case, more than 40% of the believers who arrived to carry forward the Bahá'í work in that city did not remain long enough to have a sizeable effect on Edmonton's growth rate.
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St. Lambert As a suburb of Montreal, St. Lambert 43 has had resident Bahá'ís since 1925 in the presence of Molly Mosher (Montreal minutes, 24 April 1925, NBAC), a piano teacher who became a Bahá'í in Montreal. What distinguishes the St. Lambert Bahá'í community from all others was its emphasis on converting complete families to the Bahá'í Faith. Only one other Bahá'í community, namely, Hamilton, managed to enroll new adherents by means of family ties, but it managed to do so with predominantly childless couples. In St. Lambert, one found households with children, and with several generations, accepting the new religion. For example, all four of Mosher's children became Bahá'ís, as did her husband, William Laurie, a radio operator, and a daughterinlaw. Several members of the family pioneered to Halifax and St. Boniface, a suburb of Winnipeg. A fiancé of one of the Mosher daughters, Fred Ascah, also became a Bahá'í. A similar pattern of enrolment and subsequent pioneering is evident for other St. Lambert Bahá'í families. Librarian Amine De Mille and her husband, John, a mining engineer, enrolled in November 1937 (BRC), and their children (one of whom became a camp proprietor in Elgin, New Brunswick) enrolled over the following five years. Members of this family, too, pioneered to Halifax. The Lannings, a close family, provided a more compelling demonstration of familial Bahá'í enrolment. Margery (Cathleen) Lanning, a World War I war bride and chemist from England, heard of the Bahá'í Faith from Ilse Lohse who lived across the street (Lanning and Pollitt, 1992), and became a Bahá'í in November 1939. All five of her daughters (who were telephone operators or bank clerks) converted in the subsequent seven years, as did a soninlaw who was a railroad supervisor. Seven members of the German Lohse family were Bahá'ís. Margaret Lohse, the grandmother, was apparently already a Bahá'í in the 1930s in Germany or Belgium, but her three children44 and three of her grandchildren became Bahá'ís in St. Lambert. Two daughtersinlaw also converted. The backbone of the St. Lambert Bahá'í community was yet another family, the Salas. We encountered them in an earlier chapter on Montreal's early Bahá'í days, but a niece also became a Bahá'í in St. Lambert. As perhaps the first homefront pioneers in Canada, the Salas moved out of Montreal in April 1934, for the purpose of forming a spiritual assembly in St. Lambert. This goal was achieved by April 1938. Other members of the Sala family, two brothers and one of their wives, converted, but elsewhere in Quebec.
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While the Moshers and the De Milles pioneered to Halifax, and the Lannings and Lohses stayed in St. Lambert, Emeric and Rosemary Sala were among the first Canadians to have pioneered abroad, namely, to Venezuela, in 1940. 45 St. Lambert, in effect, represents the Bahá'í locality with the highest number of new believers (58%) who went pioneering during the 1937–47 period, followed by Vancouver (29%) which also falls under the category of mediumgrowth communities. Vancouver In many respects, the Bahá'í community of Vancouver46 between 1937 and 1947 embodied the Bahá'í community of Canada. A community of AngloSaxons, with the exception of Catherine Coyne of Ukrainian descent, Vancouver had the same percentage of women (69%) as the Canadian Bahá'í community as a whole. With the fifthhighest rate of growth, the Vancouver Bahá'ís,47 had a unique approach in their attempts to make the name "Bahá'í" more widely known outside the community of thirtyfive to forty members. The lack of diversity, of physical proximity, and of familial ties among its members—illustrated earlier as essential elements of growth—did not prevent the Bahá'ís of Vancouver from embarking on innovative designs to spread their religion, namely, the use of radio and association with Canadawide youth organizations. Calling it a "modern method of teaching," the Bahá'ís used radio programming, the first to do so to promote their religion in Canada. Using station CJOR—not a particularly popular station then—the Bahá'ís developed, as early as 1937, eleven twelveminute radio programs on "World Order." The accompanying leaflet mentioned that the series was "presenting the World Order as envisioned by the Bahá'í Faith, based on the allinclusive principles of Bahá'u'lláh." The parallel holding of study classes ("deepenings'') for the public in a few selected homes was ingenious. During the first year of operation, the program attracted from fortyfive to sixty interested people, resulting in four adult and two Bahá'í youth enrolments. The programs were heard in Victoria, Comox, Armstrong, and Vernon. Lasting only a year (at least little evidence was found in the records suggesting it continued after April 1938), they had, nevertheless, resulted in the Vancouver Bahá'í community's making contact in 1941–42 with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, and seeking free time on local and national radio. The interest of the Vancouver Bahá'ís in making connections to some Canadawide youth organizations stemmed from Rowland Estall's efforts. Estall, it is recalled, was instrumental in creating one of the first North American Bahá'í youth groups in Montreal in 1927.
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After his move to Vancouver in January 1935 (where he stayed until May 1939), he organized the Vancouver Youth Council, one of twentyseven across Canada, and was a key influence in involving the Bahá'ís first with the Youth Congress in 1937 and, then, with the AllCanada Youth Symposium in 1938. Representing 300,000 youth across Canada (The Vancouver Province, May 1938, p. 3), the AllCanada Youth Congress sought to bridge differences among youth, especially between Englishspeaking and Frenchspeaking Canadian youth. Estall's activities in the Congress stimulated a local Bahá'í youth group. As a consequence, much of what Vancouver Bahá'ís called "external activity" consisted of youthorganized activities. The initiatives of the Vancouver Bahá'ís with regard to radio programming and youth work might have led to sustained growth. However, World War II exacted a price that no one had anticipated and that would arrest any potential for growth. Through their sustained contact primarily with the American westcoast Bahá'ís, the Vancouver Bahá'í community acquired an unclear vision of the role of Bahá'ís in World War II. For the English Vancouverite Bahá'ís, who supported Britain's and Canada's involvement in the war, the visiting American Bahá'ís' insistence on neutrality was confusing. The confusion resulted in a community divided against itself and drained time and resources to resolve the problems. Difficulties of an entirely different nature attended the third mediumgrowth community, Moncton, but had the same inhibiting impact on the growth of the community. Moncton Moncton, 48 the site of Canada's third Spiritual Assembly, formed in April 1938, has remained an enigma in many ways. Mabel Ives arrived there in October 1937, giving a series of lectures at the Brunswick Hotel. Soon, a study class of interested people was formed, apparently resulting in fifteen Bahá'ís by the time Ives left in January 1938.49 In 1940 and 1941, however, there were not enough Bahá'ís to form a Spiritual Assembly in this hub of the Maritime provinces. According to a report by Grace and Irving Geary (1963: 1)—two of the original fifteen Bahá'ís—the Bahá'ís never seemed able to attract "wellestablished citizens." Subject to high unemployment rates, Monctonians (and other Maritimers) migrated to other urban centres in search of work. There was thus a constant struggle to maintain a minimum number of nine members needed for forming a Spiritual Assembly. There were, however, other reasons why it was difficult to generate new adherents in the city. Mabel Ives explained the difficulty in this way:
Page 217 The city is a classic example of what happens when there is not adequate followup work. When I left, there were four souls who I felt could be counted on to shoulder the responsibilities of the [Bahá'í] Cause. But the others, while they had accepted the Faith and had a pretty good idea of what it was all about, they did not have that type of stability that could go forward on its own steam…. Then there were two who were caught up in a personality bywater…. There are always some who cannot see beyond the teacher. (Cited by Dahl, 1990: 8–9)
Moncton had thus to cope with its first new Bahá'ís' being so devoted to, and entirely dependent on, their Bahá'í teachers that it made the work of other teachers more arduous and, indeed, even quite impossible. A summary of developments in Moncton between 1937 and 1947 reveals this difficulty. In all, there were fourteen new Bahá'ís in Moncton during that period, but ten of these became Bahá'ís before April 1938; 50 four converted after 194451 —a gap of six years. During this time Moncton received ten Bahá'í pioneers, one of whom, Doris McKay, returned to Moncton at least five times. While spending much valuable time in deepening the new believers, the pioneers realized the trouble that the new members had in accepting the pioneers: their loyalty to Ives was the overarching factor. As a consequence, little energy and time were left to reach new populations in Moncton. Edmonton The fourth mediumgrowth Bahá'í community in Canada, Edmonton,52 also experienced a pioneerrelated problem. Edmonton had a high transient Bahá'í population: eleven of the twentysix Bahá'ís (42%) in the city were pioneers who did not remain long enough to have a sizeable effect on Edmonton's growth rate and stayed only for a given time, an average of one year and five months (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). In 1940, Mary E. Fry moved to Edmonton, followed the next year by Mabel Pine, Elizabeth Blanche Liddell, and in 1942, by Muriel Warnicker and Marcia Atwater. Except for the American Atwater and the longtime Alberta resident Mabel Pine, all the pioneers hailed from Vancouver. They made contact with "liberal Christians, Theosophists," and others (PembertonPigott, 1988: 3). The first five Edmontonians to become Bahá'ís did so in 1942.53 In April 1943 Edmonton formed Canada's ninth local Spiritual Assembly, consisting entirely of women believers. The Edmonton Bahá'í community as a whole had the second highest proportion of
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female membership (89%) in Canada and it was thus rather hard to create a totalhouseholdbased Bahá'í community. Most of the women were married, but their husbands did not share their beliefs. PembertonPigott (ibid.: 7–8) also points to the predominance of females in terms of Bahá'í visitors and pioneers. Siegfried Schopflocher of Montreal provided the only male contact with the community before June 1943. Attempts by women to establish men's study groups were undermined by the mobility of young servicemen who would be replaced every three months. In late 1943, the first male pioneer and his wife arrived in Edmonton, Don and Carell Jones, but even Don appears to have been away from Edmonton much of the time, working "up north" (ibid.: 8). The isolation of the Bahá'ís was further heightened by the fact that Edmonton was a predominantly Christian city preoccupied with the war (ibid.: 5). The "disadvantages of small numbers, gender imbalance, ethnic uniformity, the absence of family ties, and all the general difficulties of wartime" (ibid.: 8) did not, however, prevent the Edmonton Bahá'í community from maintaining contact with the larger Canadian Bahá'í community upon whom it depended for a regular influx of pioneers. LowGrowth Communities: Walls of GoodWilled Indifference What are the distinguishing characteristics of slowgrowth localities, namely, Halifax, Scarborough, Regina, Charlottetown, and Montreal? While the highgrowth communities uniformly consisted of relatively "large" Bahá'í communities (between sixteen and twentytwo believers), the slowgrowth communities resembled more the mediumgrowth ones: some communities had as few as nine adherents, while others counted more than twenty. The pioneer ratio in these communities is lower, i.e., it takes now more than one pioneer to find a new member. 54 Moreover, the percentage of new adherents in slowgrowth localities generally drops below 50%. A significantly lower percentage of new believers (8% on the average) manages to pioneer elsewhere. In fact, only two communities, Scarborough and Montreal, can be said to have sent out such pioneers; the other three, Halifax, Regina, and Charlottetown, did not send out any pioneers who had enrolled between 1937 and 1947.
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Halifax By 1947 Halifax 55 had become the fifthlargest Bahá'í community in Canada, with eighteen adherents. However, only four other communities required more pioneers than Halifax, at one pioneer for every 0.85 new Bahá'ís. We can summarize from these facts that the Haligonian Bahá'í community was very dependent on the arrival of pioneers, its own members being unable to initiate or sustain the Bahá'í teaching work. Thus, from the outset, the Halifax Bahá'í community was started and maintained primarily by pioneers, rather than local adherents. The earliest group of pioneers in Halifax in 1939 consisted of six adults and one child with Beulah S. Proctor and her daughter Shirley Phelp arriving first, in April of that year.56 By July 1942 another five pioneers57 had settled in the city, although Ralph Laltoo, a Trinidadian student whose father was a United Church minister, had converted in Halifax in the meanwhile in October 1940.58 A number of Canadian Bahá'ís59 were stationed in Halifax as servicemen during World War II, providing them an opportunity to pioneer as well, but there were also later Haligonian Bahá'ís who had to leave the city as servicemen.60 More than three years after the arrival of Proctor in 1939, the second new Bahá'í, Pat Thompson, declared in July 1942, the year that Halifax was able to form the seventh Spiritual Assembly in Canada. Although as many as fifteen Haligonians would become Bahá'ís between April 1943 and April 1947, only two would remain Bahá'ís to the end of their natural lives,61 and six others stayed Bahá'í for fewer than six months. The remaining seven believers remained Bahá'ís for an average of 4.2 years. Scarborough There are surprisingly few suburbs which were "opened" by Bahá'ís during the 1937–47 period. One would expect that with a small membership base the Bahá'ís would have concentrated on settling in suburbs, close to the larger urban areas with existing Bahá'í communities. The SevenYear Plan (1937–44), however, envisioned a broader base of national Bahá'í community development and attempted to establish the Bahá'í Faith in at least one major city in every Canadian province. As a consequence, the Bahá'ís devoted much more deliberate effort in opening the more distant places, rather than spilling over into outlying suburban areas. By 1947, only three suburbs counted a Spiritual Assembly, namely, St. Lambert, West Vancouver, and Scarborough, east of Toronto, now one of Canada's largest cities. The nature of a suburban Bahá'í community, such as Scarborough,62 would be misconstrued if it were discussed in isolation from the nearby metropolitan Bahá'í community. There was, in fact, consider
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able overlap of Bahá'í activity between Scarborough and Toronto. The Toronto Bahá'ís certainly saw the fireside of Doris Richardson in Fallingbrook, Scarborough, as an integral part of Toronto. Not infrequently, Torontonians would become Bahá'ís at Richardson's fireside, only to become formal members in Toronto proper. All AngloSaxon, the Scarborough Bahá'í community had a higher female membership (78%) than the national average of 69%. The first Scarborough Bahá'í was Edythe Mae MacArthur, a nurse, who belonged to a Protestant evangelical church before her Bahá'í conversion in March 1936. The second was Ethel Priestley, a retired milliner, in 1939. Doris Richardson, Edythe's sister and a product demonstrator for stores, also a former member of an evangelical church, became a Bahá'í in April 1939. When M. Audrey Westheuser, a homemaker, became a Bahá'í in June 1941, there were three Bahá'ís of evangelical background—an unusual phenomenon in Bahá'í circles. The Scarborough Bahá'í community formed its local Spiritual Assembly, the twelfth in Canada, in April 1947, with the required minimum of nine believers. Regina Regina, Saskatchewan, was, as we shall see below, an unusually difficult locality to teach the Bahá'í Faith. 63 It was first approached by Sylvia King, the American Bahá'í travelling teacher who contacted the Institute of International Affairs and the Fellowship of Reconciliation in 1939 (Bahá'í News, September 1939, p. 6). She returned for three months (AugustNovember 1942), collaborating with the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (Bahá'í News, November 1942, p. 3). Regina, like Charlottetown—another slowgrowth locality—was opened to the Bahá'í Faith by a resident travelling teacher. Katherine Moscrop lived in Regina twice, from September to December 1939, and from March to June 1940. There are several striking elements about Regina. First, no native of Regina enrolled until long after the ground had been worked by a good number of pioneers. Regina has since seen a succession of Bahá'í pioneers, but no Regina resident declared belief in the Bahá'í Faith until almost five years after Sylvia King's first visit in 1939.64 Second, the predominance of American Bahá'í pioneers is striking. Seven of the thirteen pioneers before April 1944 were American,65 of which at least four66 came from a Bahá'í family. It is of interest to note that Canada's second Japanese Bahá'í, Harry Takashiba, who ran a service station, enrolled in Regina in August 1945—a year when six other Regina residents joined. The new enrollees included two of German background, namely, Elsie and William Ganss (Bahá'í News, January 1946, p. 5).
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Third, Canada's 11th Spiritual Assembly, formed in Regina in April 1944 at the "eleventh hour" (Brookes, 1984), was dissolved soon after its formation, since two of the pioneers 67 left three days after its formation. Of the ten pioneers who arrived between 1939 and 1944, only five68 stayed in Regina long enough to be part of the formation of the Spiritual Assembly. Unlike St. Lambert, the Regina Bahá'í community did not experience any significant outflow of new Bahá'ís to pioneering posts. The only exceptions in Regina were Mabel and Leslie Silversides, who converted in 1945 and who moved to a nearby Indian reserve in 1950 (Canadian Bahá'í News, January 1950, p. 3); they were the first nonnative Bahá'ís to do so. The reluctant acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith in Regina continued well after 1947. A historical note should be made of pioneer Lulu Barr's opposition to fluoridation in Regina's water supply (Greenwood, 1991). A firm opponent of fluoridation and a proponent of the Koch distilledwater treatment, she was instrumental in preventing the city from using fluoride. As a result, in the opinion of one interviewee, the Bahá'í Faith became associated with opposition to fluoridation and support of the Koch treatment, and this apparently developed into a deep reluctance on the part of the public to investigate the Bahá'í Faith (interview, AD) during the 1950s. Charlottetown Charlottetown,69 Prince Edward Island, like Regina, was opened through travelling teachers on extended stays. No Bahá'ís visited Charlottetown until Doris McKay's extended visit in May and June 1942. However, it is possible that Charles Nealy Murray, an eccentric man, lived in the hamlet of Crapaud in the 1930s. Charlottetown required a large number of pioneers to maintain the semblance of a Bahá'í community—ten over a fiveyear period (1942–47). Although the first Charlottetowners accepted the Bahá'í Faith in 1944,70 it was not until 1945 and 1947 that the first steadfast adherents71 joined the new religion there. Charlottetown formed Canada's tenth Spiritual Assembly in April 1944. According to Grace and Irving Geary (1963: 2)—early pioneers to the city—the "Assembly was maintained with great difficulty … [due] to the lack of native [i.e., local] believers and the financial troubles of the pioneers." Their report continues: A tremendous amount of devoted work has been done in Charlottetown through the years. A great many teachers have been here for long or short periods, and every kind of teaching work has been tried—public meetings, public firesides, when the public was invited
Page 222 to hear a visiting teacher, private firesides, newspaper publicity, radio, … etc. (Ibid.)
What were the results? The result in every case has been a fairly good response at first, followed by dwindling interest. We used to be able to get a good number of people to come to a public meeting or fireside. Now we no longer have them because no one will come, and we have practically run out of contacts to ask to private firesides … None of the [new] Bahá'ís were natives and all have since left the Cause. None of the interested people became Bahá'ís. (Ibid.)
The Bahá'ís were indeed "surrounded by a wall of goodwilled indifference" (interview, GB). The "financial difficulties" referred to by Grace and Irving Geary (1963) were a particular problem for the pioneers. Several had professional training and occupational experience, but on the Island they were obliged to take on menial tasks, such as housekeeping, to maintain themselves. When wages were too low, pioneers would have to dip into their meagre reserves of capital (letter from L. Gardner to Adline Lohse, 8 July 1948, LGP). Montreal Montreal, with Canada's third lowest growth rate of new believers during the 1937–47 period, suffered a decline in its erstwhile preeminent position as Canada's "mother" Bahá'í community. In April 1937, there were twentyfour Bahá'ís in Montreal. Ten years later, the community had declined to twenty, the only Bahá'í community in Canada to have undergone a decline. This can be attributed to Montreal's loss of many of its Bahá'í teachers and to the rising importance of one of its suburbs, St. Lambert, as an active Bahá'í community. Many of the Montreal believers who had stimulated the teaching work had left the city. Milli Rina Gordon, the actresscomédienne, left Montreal in 1935 to pursue her career elsewhere. George Spendlove, the art curator, pioneered to Toronto in 1936, as did Gerrard SluterSchlutius before him in 1935; Rowland Estall went to Vancouver in 1935. Mary Maxwell permanently moved in 1937 to Haifa, Israel, upon her marriage to Shoghi Effendi. Her mother, May, the founder of the Montreal community, left for her pioneering post in Argentina in late 1939. Rosemary and Emeric Sala left in 1940 for Venezuela (returning to St. Lambert in 1941), and Elizabeth Cowles moved to Charlottetown in February 1944. The remaining active older believers were few indeed. 72
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When the Canadian Bahá'í community began in April 1937 to expand its range of activities and geographical spread, the Montreal Bahá'í community did not anticipate the loss of its best teachers. Nor was it ready to consider alternatives to spreading the Bahá'í message. By April 1947, as many as nine of the twenty members in Montreal could still date their acceptance of the Bahá'í Faith to long before 1937. Steeped in the Bahá'í teaching traditions of the Maxwell household, it was difficult for them to engage in teaching methods of a different nature, which newer communities were more inclined to consider. NoGrowth Communities: Outside Reliance In the nogrowth localities, the ratio of new believers to pioneers is about one twelfth that in the highgrowth localities. In other words, the nogrowth localities (West Vancouver, Ottawa, and Victoria) would probably have needed twelve times as many pioneers in order to achieve the same results as the highgrowth localities. Other indicators are also weak: two communities (West Vancouver and Victoria) saw no new members enrol in the community during this period. West Vancouver An attractive suburb of Vancouver, West Vancouver 73 was an obvious choice for attention by the Vancouver Bahá'í community. Although the community also focussed its attention in the late 1930s on New Westminster to the south, no Bahá'ís would settle there for several decades. In West Vancouver, Evelyn Curry, an Irish Catholic who found the Bahá'í Faith in Portland, Oregon, is recorded as becoming the first Bahá'í in 1931 (BHRC). Although West Vancouver lacked the vigorous firesides of Scarborough, it shared one characteristic with the Toronto suburb. It was more common for West Vancouverites to have become Bahá'ís at Vancouver firesides than in West Vancouver itself. There were other sources of Bahá'í teaching, however. Some West Vancouver Bahá'ís, such as Christina Monroe, formerly of Seattle, an elderly Swede who had been taught the Bahá'í Faith by Abdu'lBahá, came directly from the United States. Other Bahá'ís moved from Vancouver.74 For several years before West Vancouver could form Canada's 16th Spiritual Assembly in April 1948, still other Bahá'ís would move back and forth between West Vancouver and Vancouver.75 West Vancouver could rely entirely on Bahá'í activities in Vancouver (and elsewhere) to find new members. It seems that such reliance did not provide the right conditions for selfsustained growth of the West Vancouver Bahá'í community.
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Ottawa Ottawa, 76 Canada's 14th Spiritual Assembly, formed in April 1948, represents a community which, until April 1947, had only four Bahá'ís. One was Winnifred Harvey, who enrolled just before her arrival in Ottawa in June 1940 from Winnipeg. The others included an African Canadian woman, Lucille C. Giscome, who must have enrolled in early 1942 (Bahá'í News, July 1942, insert) for we find her as a delegate to the Bahá'í National Convention in April 1942 (Dahl, 1994). A journalist by training, Giscome was briefly hired in the civil service. From 1939 to 1940 she worked for the Dominion Bureau of Statistics and subsequently for the Department of Munitions and Supply until 1941 (Ottawa City Directory, 1939: 221; 1940: 231; 1941: 249). She soon thereafter left for Toronto. Via England and Germany, she reached Czechslovakia in the late 1940s (Harvey, 1987; Carty, 1992). Subjected to racism, Giscome sought a haven in a communist country. It is not known whether she remained a Bahá'í. The other early believer, Joy Gould, the second to enroll as a Bahá'í in Ottawa, stayed in Ottawa for about two years. There is, however, only one recorded date for the third, Ann Booth, namely, January 1943 ("Membership List," 28 January 1943, OBA). Although few Ottawa members were visited by Bahá'í teachers, such as Rowland Estall and Rosemary and Emeric Sala, in 1940 and 1941, it seems that much of the Bahá'í teaching work was done indirectly through "community service, social events, and personal aid" (Canadian Bahá'í News, February 1959, p. 6). The Ottawa Bahá'í group relied on the influx of others to sustain its viability. Sylvia King, the American who had travelled extensively throughout Canada's prairies, resided in the city for three months, starting in November 1942. Charles Nealy Murray, a person with encyclopedic knowledge who had become a Bahá'í in Washington, DC, and who had lived as a farmhand in Prince Edward Island, was living in Ottawa by 1943. Helen Gidden, a stenographer who had joined the new religion in Toronto, came to Ottawa in late 1942 or early 1943. Finally, Louise Boudler who owned a store in Montreal, moved to the city in November 1946, to be later joined by her husband, Lou. Victoria It seems that Vancouver took an early interest in establishing the Bahá'í Faith in Victoria, when it reported that during 1934–35 it made "good contacts" in this garden city and capital of British Columbia ("Report of Year's Activities, 1934–1935," VBA). Victoria's position as a viable Bahá'í community was constantly undermined by its inability to attract
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any citizens of Victoria to the Bahá'í Faith. All of the Bahá'ís during the period under survey (1937–47) were women, many of whom came to the city in retirement. 77 The city with a mild climate exercised an attraction for these women, some of whom had been Anglicans and were of English or Australian background. The prim, conservative aura of Victoria is captured in an account of a young Bahá'í travelling teacher from Winnipeg who gave a public talk at a hotel. During the question period a woman got up and said, ''Does your mother know you're saying this?" (Woodman, 1991). While Victoria was collecting these Bahá'ís, the Vancouver Bahá'í community continued to show interest in assisting the small Victoria group. For example, in July 1941 three Vancouver Bahá'ís undertook a Bahá'í teaching trip to Victoria (McGee and McGee, 1990). In January 1942, Bahá'í youths Bruce Hogg and Kay Liddell paid a visit to Victoria, and had a meeting with eight people ("Future Plans of the Vancouver Youth Committee," 1942, VBA). When Victoria formed Canada's 16th Spiritual Assembly in April 1948, it could only do so by attracting pioneers, who included the worldrenowned painter, Mark Tobey, and, finally, three new Bahá'ís from Victoria itself: a Mr. Ramsay (whose wife, Mina, was a Bahá'í and a chiropractor), Violet Bausfield, and Oscar Scogland, a janitor of Swedish ancestry. A Comparative Summary of Bahá'í Communities We should be cautious when comparing the four clusters of growth and viability, as the locales range from suburbs and regional centres to provincial and national capitals. Demographically, they include such homogeneous places as Victoria and ethnically diverse locales as Montreal and Winnipeg. Nevertheless, the study of each cluster provides us with a number of overall shared characteristics. Highgrowth communities shared two characteristics: diversity and linkages to the wider community. Diversity could entail the ethnic mix of the Bahá'í communty, or a diverse approach to Bahá'í teaching, such as the fostering of different fireside "styles." Linkages with the larger (nonBahá'í) community were the second component that seems to characterize the most successful communities, and entailed connections with various associations and organizations, or the cultivation of kinship or business ties. Mediumgrowth communities were internally weakened by their inability to form a sound base of community. Communities either experienced a drain of many (new) members as pioneers, or saw too many transient pioneers. Such communities as St. Lambert suffered from too
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great an outflow of pioneers, which adversely affected the natural pattern of growth, while others, such as Edmonton, experienced too great a transient Bahá'í pioneer population. Both processes contributed to the difficulty of creating a sound base of community life, which was, in some instances, also undermined by gender imbalance and exclusive attachments to particular teachers. Such attachments made it difficult to provide effective followup work by other Bahá'í teachers. Moreover, the war years imposed a particular dynamic and ideology on the life of communities. In the case of Vancouver, the Bahá'í position on the "present conflict" elicited some misunderstanding on the part of those who had wished to give direct support to Canada's war effort. In some communities like Edmonton, it was difficult to sustain the interest of young men in the Bahá'í movement, since regular enlistment of men in the armed forces made it difficult to maintain Bahá'í study classes, the aim of which was to enroll them in the Bahá'í Faith. Slowgrowth communities were affected by the lack of initiative displayed by new believers in the teaching field. In three of the five communities, namely, Halifax, Regina, and Charlottetown, it was a question of the difficulty in finding Bahá'ís native to the cities. All three required the continued presence of pioneers. On a wider level, the analysis shows that no new Bahá'ís in these cities left to pioneer, in contrast to the more successful communities, where the rate of new believers leaving their home town to pioneer elsewhere ranges from 21% to as high as 58%. The nogrowth communities relied too heavily on other Bahá'í communities for their teaching activities, such as firesides. A strong devotional life, perseverance, and hospitality were intangible factors that sustained those communities that experience little or no growth. But more was needed if communities were to undergo growth. Diversity of membership, new approaches, and reaching out to the wider community gave tangible evidence built on a foundation of devotion, perseverance, and hospitality. Notes 1. Halifax, Moncton, Charlottetown, St. Lambert, Ottawa, Scarborough, Hamilton, Winnipeg, Regina, Edmonton, West Vancouver, and Victoria. 2. For Bahá'ís, 20–21 April constitutes Ridván when each year Bahá'í communities elect their Spiritual Assemblies. Hence, the choice of 20 April when statistical information is most likely to be available. 3. Whitney (1976), Macpherson (1951, 1990), Estall (1977), and Estall and Sala (1987) provide key points in Winnipeg Bahá'í history.
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4. After Rowland's arrival, MarietteGermaine Bolton, a francophone chiropractor who had become a Bahá'í in Australia, visited Canada and spoke to the Quota Club (Bahá'í News, November 1939, p. 5). Soon, many other organizations were approached by Rowland, including the Unitarian and Federated Icelandic churches (Bahá'í News, February 1940, pp. 5–6), the Theosophical Society (Macpherson, 1951), and the SpanishAmerican Club (Bahá'í News, January 1947, p. 5). 5. Sylvia apparently developed an exerciser that women could pack in their travelling bags (Estall and Sala, 1987) and used her visits to department stores across the continent to devote considerable time as a Bahá'í travelling teacher. 6. "Pollie" was Head Nurse at the Winnipeg General Hospital and as such was responsible for halting a major outbreak of smallpox. After leaving the hospital, she set up her own nursing home, where she cared for, among others, a dying Ernest Court (Estall and Sala, 1987). 7. Members of the first Winnipeg Spiritual Assembly were: Beth Brookes, Ernest Court, Rowland Estall, Sylvia King, Sigrun Lindal, Ernest Marsh, Stella Pollexfen, Helen Poissant, and Lillian Tomlinson. 8. When seven Winnipegers became Bahá'ís, the first Spiritual Assembly of Winnipeg was formed on 20 April 1942, with the help of Rowland Estall and Sylvia King who agreed to stay in the city to make the formation of the new Assembly possible (nine members were needed). 9. The Centre was located at 43 Syndicate Building, Portage Avenue. 10. They were Shirley Nicholson, Ted Whitely, and Yvonne and Rowland Estall. 11. Sigrun I. Lindal. 12. Helen Poissant. 13. Stella Pollexfen. 14. Ola Pawlowska. 15. Noel Wuttunee. 16. Peter Stankovic. 17. Yvonne Killins. 18. Catherine Coyne, Tania Kroiter. 19. Marion Matsuo. 20. Violet Dutov. 21. The main source of Bahá'í information on Hamilton are the Hamilton Bahá'í Archives (HBA), containing minutes and photographs. 22. Erland Barr. 23. Gertrude Barr. 24. Amy E. Putnam. 25. Muriel Hutchings. 26. Nancy Campbell. 27. Nancy Fairclough. 28. Arthur Lehman. 29. Hazel Marshall. 30. Frances Young.
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31. John Robarts, Doris Richardson, Laura Davis, and George Spendlove. 32. Aside from Gray's brief article on the Bahá'í Faith in Toronto (1983), there is little else published. I relied mainly on interviews of older Toronto believers, obituaries, Bahá'í News, and on my own listing of Toronto believers (van den Hoonaard, 1992a) for much of the information. 33. The eight believers were probably: Mrs. Irving Simpson, Laura Davis, Helen Grand, Muriel Rucker, Gerrard SluterSchlutius, Bill Suter, Victor Davis, and Violet Rumney (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 34. Its members were Gwen Cayley, George Spendlove, Audrey Robarts, John Robarts, Jean Abernethy, Helen Grand, Gerrard SluterSchlutius, Laura Davis, and Bill Suter (van den Hoonaard 1992a; Rochester 1994a). 35. Doris McKay (1939), Dorothy Baker (July 1943), Leroy loas, Marzieh Gail, Mabel and Howard ("Daddy") Ives, Mamie Seto (May 1944), Edris RiceWray (November 1944), Horace Holley (29 October 1945), and Ruth Moffett (April 1946). 36. The Bahá'ís first rented a room at the BayBloor Building, and then acquired rooms at 112A Bloor in the 1940s. 37. They took place at Laura Davis' and Doris Richardson's, Helen Gidden's, Elsie Beecroft's, John and Audrey Robarts', and George Spendlove's. 38. John A. Robarts, Craig Weaver, and Allan Raynor. 39. Jameson Bond and Ross Woodman. 40. Cliff Gardner. 41. Lloyd Gardner. 42. The station program director, Monty Hall, later became a widely known television personality across North America as the M.C. of the popular game show Let's Make a Deal. When the Bahá'ís approached Hall of the Wake up and Smile program, CHUM was only a daytime station that was not making any money (Hall and Libby, 1973: 7, 59). 43. There is no written history of the St. Lambert Bahá'í community. The author's interviews with former St. Lambert believers, minutes of the Montreal Bahá'í Spiritual Assembly (NBAC), van den Hoonaard (1992a), and Bahá'í News provided most of the information in this section. 44. Walter became well known in the Bahá'í community for his paintings. 45. There were only five Canadian Bahá'ís who pioneered abroad before April 1948: Marion Jack to Bulgaria (1930–54), May Maxwell (1939–40), Emeric and Rosemary Sala (April 1940–April 1941), and Gerrard SluterSchlutius to Central America (from 1940). 46. Aside from the cursory McGee and McGee (1983), there are no published histories of the Vancouver Bahá'í community. The minutes and annual reports of the Vancouver Bahá'í community, in addition to interviews, provided the basis for this section. 47. Between 1920 and 1948, 114 Bahá'ís resided in Vancouver. During the tenyear period, 1937–47, 61.4% of them were present. 48. Dahl (1990) provides a brief analysis of the Bahá'í teaching work in Moncton, 1937–44, while Doris McKay (1991) gives a biographical account of her days in that city. The remaining information in this section is derived
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from interviews conducted by the author and from van den Hoonaard (1992a). 49. Van den Hoonaard (1992a), however, accounts for only ten people. An incomplete record of the new believers accounts for the discrepancy between the two figures. 50. J. Hayes King, Grace and Irving Geary, Merle McEwen, Agnes King, Alma Fairweather, Berford Stevens, Ruth Wilson, William F. Byrne, and Leila Mae Wells. 51. Edna and Clifford Colpitts, Anne L. McLean, and Constance Colpitts. 52. There are rather detailed but unpublished accounts of the history of the Edmonton Bahá'í community: Rimell (1944), Davies (1949), Rimell and Roche (1951), and PembertonPigott (1988). 53. Ina Trimble, Kathleen Bain, Lyda Roche, Kathleen Rimell, and Milwyn Davies. 54. Although the average annual growth rate of the slowgrowth localities is 0.96 new believers, higher than is the case for the mediumgrowth localities, the unusually high figure for Charlottetown (2.11 new believers per year) accounts for this anomaly. Charlottetown was opened quite late (namely, in May 1942), and the intensification of the Bahá'í teaching work to meet the goals of the SevenYear Plan (1937–44) is the cause of a significant increase of new believers. 55. Paula Williams' (1985) unpublished history is the only one of its kind available on the Halifax Bahá'í community. 56. The other four included Maxon Hugh Mosher and Margaret Laurie from St. Lambert and Fred and Dorothy Wade from Outremont. 57. William Laurie and Molly Mosher in 1940, Doris McKay in 1941, and Lloyd Gardner in 1942. 58. Before April 1947, Halifax would count among its members other Bahá'ís of African descent, such as Rosa Shaw, an American pioneer, Rita (Elaine) and Ernest Marshall, West Indians, and Fred Izzard. 59. E.g., Lloyd Gardner (1942–45) and William Laurie (1940–42). 60. E.g., Fred McLaughlin and William "Red" Nicholson (Merchant Navy). 61. Amo Chesley (1944–76) and Edward Bellefleur (1945–74). 62. There are no Bahá'í histories of Scarborough, except for van den Hoonaard (1992a) and several interviews conducted for the book. Some additional information can be gleaned from interviews with Toronto Bahá'ís. 63. There is no published or unpublished documentation on the Bahá'í community of Regina. Interviews and van den Hoonaard (1992a) are the essential sources on this community. 64. Mary Anna Hinton, before 20 April 1944. 65. These include Sylvia King, Zara Phanco (stayed in Regina from June 1943 to 24 April 1944), and Florence Cox (from July 1943 to 31 March 1945). The other four are listed in note 66 below. 66. Lauretta Voeltz (stayed in Regina from 15 February 1943 to July 1946), Theresa Lillywhite (from 2 June to 15 October 1943), Lotus Grace Peter
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son (from 3 June 1943 to 24 April 1944), and Lotus' mother, Grace O. Peterson (August–November 1943). 67. Zara Phanco and Lotus Peterson. 68. Dorothy Sheets (from February 1943 to 30 September 1948), Lauretta Voeltz, Lulu Mabel Barr (from May 1943) and her sister, Gertrude Barr (from 4 June 1943 to 30 September 1946), and Florence Cox. 69. Rolfe (1987b) and McKay (1991) are the only published accounts which touch upon the history of Prince Edward Island and, to some extent, Charlottetown. 70. Agnes MacKinnon and Edna Holloway. 71. Daisy Lyle in September 1945 and Margery Patterson on 20 March 1947. 72. Martha MacBean, Annie Savage, Lorol and Siegfried Schopflocher, and Mary Pomeroy. 73. Lacking a community history of West Vancouver, the information in this section comes from van den Hoonaard (1992a). 74. Notably Jean Colebrook, Harold Moscrop, Katherine Moscrop, and Allan Lindsey, who was a serviceman in World War II. 75. They included Irvine Blythe, an optometrist, and Ruby China (later France), a widow. 76. An article in Canadian Bahá'í News (February 1959, pp. 6–7) provides some history, as well as van den Hoonaard (1992a), interviews, and letters in OBA. 77. They included Frances E. Collin (from 1937 to 1950), Grace Ethel Joyce (1937 onwards), Gillian E. Hammond (May 1940 to 1976), and Beulah Proctor (from April 1947 to 1957).
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Thirteen — Religion, Gender, Class, and Ethnicity The reader may already have formed an impression of a typical Bahá'í in the early 1940s. The Canadian Bahá'í community had a high proportion of women and many single people. If Bahá'ís were married, they tended to be childless. Initially attracting people from the upper class, the Bahá'í community later settled on lower middle class members. The Bahá'í community was also an urban community. With such impressions in mind, one could characterize a typical adherent as a single woman living in a big city, of Protestant background, who lists her occupation as telephone operator. This chapter explores the social characteristics of the Bahá'ís, in terms of their background religion, gender, class, and ethnicity. Although the 1937–47 period receives primary attention, the chapter also includes some observations concerning the earlier periods. Religious Background The primary religious background of the early Bahá'ís was rooted in Theosophy, Rosicrucianism, and Methodism, rather than, for example, Anglicanism or Catholicism. In today's terms, Theosophy and Rosicrucianism were the "New Age" movements of the day, while Methodism 1 represented a liberal Protestant approach (see Table 6).2 The Protestant base of Bahá'í membership has maintained itself over the years: in 1947, at least threequarters of the Bahá'ís were formerly Protestants. The influence of Protestantism extends, however, beyond the background of Bahá'ís to such areas as organizational ability and methods of propagation. Moreover, the activities of Bahá'í communities reflect a Protestant character: the use of the NineteenDay Feast as often the sole focus of Bahá'í activities (rather than an allencompassing community life envisaged in the Bahá'í writings); the prevalence of public meetings as a means of attracting the general public to the Bahá'í Faith (which was seen as the only appropriate way to reach people); and finally, the attempt to teach individuals, rather than families, or even
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whole communities. On the other side of the coin, Protestants were willing to be taught as individuals and join the new religion, regardless of family approval. Table 6 Religious Backgrounds of Canadian Bahá'ís, 1921–47 (%)
1921
1931
1941
1947
Protestant
89
69
72
75
Catholic
4
8
12
12
Jewish
—
10
7
7
Theosophy and Rosicrucianism
—
2
6
4
Other, e.g., Christian Scientist and Doukhobor
7
10
2
2
Total
100
100
100
100
N=
28
49
94
138
Missing N=
14
11
65
116
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
Catholicism constitutes the second, although considerably smaller category, emerging no sooner than 1921. In 1947, it formed the background of 12% of Canadian Bahá'ís. Bahá'ís of Catholic background must have found the Bahá'í community a puzzling phenomenon. Bahá'í teachers tended to be of Protestant background and tended to emphasize those aspects of the Bahá'í Faith that were meaningful to them: the lack of rituals, the absence of a clergy, and the importance of private prayer (congregational prayer is only permissible in the case of funerals). The proclivity of Bahá'ís of Protestant background to encourage "seekers" to ask questions must have struck Catholics as a strange way of exploring religious truth. Not finding a community that pervaded all social and kinship ties, the Bahá'ís of Catholic background must have struggled to find a niche in the Bahá'í community. The Jewish element forms the third category, 6% in 1947. As we have noted earlier, despite their small number, Bahá'ís of Jewish background have contributed a literary and more worldly perspective on the development of the Bahá'í Faith. At the same time, it was Bahá'ís of Jewish background who first demonstrated unqualified success in teaching the Bahá'í Faith to families, rather than to individuals. It is no coin
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cidence that St. Lambert, as a community expanding through kinship ties, owes its success to the presence of an active Jewish family, the Salas, amongst others. The third and fourth categories include Theosophy and Rosicrucianism on one hand, and Christian Science on the other. In 1947, these groups represented 4% and 2% of the religious background of Canadian Bahá'ís. If we assume that the Bahá'ís of unknown previous religious background 3 were generally Protestants, the proportion of Protestant Bahá'ís increases by at least 10%. Overall, this means that between 80% and 93% of members were Protestants. One is led to the assumption that the "unknowns" were mostly Protestants because a markedly different religious background would have been more noticeable either by those who were interviewed, or in Bahá'í documents and reports. Those interviewed, incidentally, commented on the fact that so many of the Bahá'ís had either been Protestant ministers themselves, or had come from a ministerial family. The earliest example was James C. Oakshette, a minister and participant in various religious groups in Toronto. The fathers of Katherine Ferguson (Ottawa), Ralph Laltoo (Halifax), Edna Hughes (Ottawa), Allan Pringle (Calgary) and a brother of Winnifred Harvey (Ottawa) were United Church ministers or deacons. William J. Christie of Nobel, Ontario, was a clergyman when he converted. A number of the few believers of Roman Catholic background had relatives who were also people of the cloth, such as P. Bernard Lagueux whose uncle was an archbishop, and Mrs. Tremblay who had a cardinal in her family. Gender In view of the high proportion of women in the early Bahá'í community of Canada, it might be useful to explore their status in the Bahá'í community from two angles: their general position in that community and the extent to which they participated in teaching and administrative activities.4 The General Position of Women As our study generally covers the preWorld War II period, the position of women must be considered in the whole context of their social spheres, involving marital status, households, and children. Women constituted at least 66% of all Bahá'ís in Canada, with very little variation during the twentysixyear period, 1921–47 (see Table 7). With the preponderance of women in the Bahá'í community, we may well explore how women have given shape to the Canadian Bahá'í community, its methods of teaching and administration.
Page 234 Table 7 Women in the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1921–47
1921
1931
1941
1947
% women
71
70
66
68
Number of Bahá'ís
42
60
159
254
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
A high proportion of Bahá'ís were single women (see Table 8). Except for 1931, 8% to 16% more women than men were single. It seems to have been more difficult for married women to join a new religion than married men, whose place and activities in the world were more independent of family life. It was also expected that women would have the same religion as the male "head" of the household. The high proportion of single women in the Bahá'í community shaped the dynamics of expansion. It was a "teaching culture of single women" (Bond, 1993). The involvement of Bahá'í single women determined the kinds of activities they could sponsor or engage in. The popularity of public meetings in the 1930s and 1940s, rather than meetings in homes, might be explained as a response to the need for a neutral venue for single Bahá'í women to carry out Bahá'í teaching work. Table 8 NeverMarried Women and Men in the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1921–47 (%)
Women
Men
Average
Difference (W M)
1921
33
25
31
+8
1931
19
22
20
3
1941
40
24
35
+16
1947
31
20
20
+11
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
Nevermarried (i.e., single) Bahá'í women were also in a better position to pioneer and spread their new religion to localities across Canada (see Table 9). By 1941, seventyeight Bahá'ís had moved, or 49% of the total Bahá'í population. Proportionally more single women (65%) moved than single men (39%) (Table 9). Of the evermarried
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women, only 39% decided to move, while 59% of men did. The very high proportion of single women who moved is the important point. Table 9 Percentage of Bahá'ís Who Moved, 1941 (by gender and marital status)
Male
Female
Never Married
39
65
Ever married
59
39
All Bahá'ís
54
47
(29 out of 54)
(49 out of 105)
N=
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
While the total percentage of men (54%) who moved is somewhat higher than of women (47%), it is striking to see how proportionally more single women (65%) moved to elsewhere in Canada than single men (39%). However, the proportion (59%) of evermarried men (which include those who are separated, divorced, or widowed) is much higher than is the case for evermarried women (39%) It should be noted that few evermarried men or women had Bahá'í spouses. Married Bahá'í women with a nonBahá'í spouse must have had a more difficult time. The interviewees confirmed that married Bahá'í women were often limited in their full participation in Bahá'í activities, for it was not uncommon for their nonBahá'í spouses to frown on their interest and involvement in the Bahá'í Faith. At best, their nonBahá'í spouses might allow them to participate in Bahá'í activities as long as these activities did not interfere with the household. This situation meant that many Bahá'í women were not able to host the NineteenDay Feast in their homes and have an opportunity to offer hospitality, a highly prized value. At worst, the nonBahá'í husband might forbid outright his spouse's involvement with the Bahá'ís. Table 10 examines the participation of households in Bahá'í activities. Between 1931 and 1947, the percentage of households with one Bahá'í in the extended family fluctuated between 56% and 77%. This category not only included single Bahá'ís, but also married Bahá'ís who were the only members of their family to be a Bahá'í. Further down the scale, one found households with two Bahá'ís, which included couples and sometimes a brother and sister, or two sisters. They varied from 14% to 26% of all Bahá'í households. Households with more than two members who were Bahá'ís tended to typically represent a set of parents and offspring, but they did sometimes include a mother and her daugh
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ters, or a mother and son and her sisters. One might also find a grandparent (usually the grandmother) and her offspring and their children. The percentage of such multigeneration households varied from 9% to 24%, although usually closer to 10%. Table 10 Size of Bahá'í Households, 1921–47 (%) Households with:
1921
1931
1941
1947
1 Bahá'í
56
71
77
64
2 Bahá'ís
20
17
14
26
More than 2 Bahá'ís
24
12
9
10
Total
100
100
100
100
N=
25
41
120
118
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
The structure of Bahá'í households created a particular limitation on how the Bahá'í Faith could spread. Because singleBahá'í households largely comprised women, the Bahá'í Faith spread more easily among other single women. The preponderance of Bahá'í sistersister households, as opposed to Bahá'í brotherbrother households tended also to skew the Bahá'í teaching work towards the recruitment of women. Children Where did children fit into the picture? With few exceptions the Bahá'í community was adult in its orientation. About onethird of the Bahá'ís had never married, and not many of those who were married had children. Where one did find families, Bahá'í membership was extended only to adult members of the families. As a consequence, one could enumerate only very few families that included parents and their offspring as Bahá'ís, such as the Salas, Lannings, Moshers, and De Milles in St. Lambert, the Hubleys in Armdale, 5 Nova Scotia, and the Hydes of Vancouver. This demographic fact impressed itself deeply on the shape of the Canadian Bahá'í community: the orientation of the Bahá'í teaching work was directed almost exclusively to adults, and the education of children was often, if at all, regarded as a prerogative of the parents, not the Bahá'í community (Macpherson, 1990). Bahá'í summer schools and sessions were oriented towards adults, not children. Some thought it was a ''waste of time to have children's classes" (interview, NC), and that the lack of children simply meant that the Bahá'ís "were free to
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teach" the Bahá'í Faith. This resulted in one of the parents having to stay home to tend to the children, while the community held its NineteenDay Feast. As was often the case, the parents did not have money for a babysitter (Hughes, 1991). Most children were thus not integrated into the community. Because there were so few children in the Bahá'í community (see Table 11), it was consequently difficult to raise them as Bahá'ís (McGee and McGee, 1990). 6 Moreover, early members took the Bahá'í idea of the need to "investigate truth independently" so seriously that a number felt that it was only proper for their children to learn about the Bahá'í Faith after the age of fifteen, which corresponds to the age of maturity according to the Bahá'í writings.7 Table 11 Children in the Canadian Bahá'í Community
1921
1931
1941
1947
No. of children
20
44
86
145
% of which became Bahá'í
25
41
43
41
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all percentages are rounded.
Against this prevailing ethos of the early Bahá'í community, only a handful of women, and apparently no men, were interested in teaching children, and it was uncommon for a Bahá'í couple to teach the Bahá'í Faith to their offspring. Lulu Barr, a teacher in Hamilton, was lovingly hailed as zealous in her desire to hold children's classes (interview, HA). Another Hamilton Bahá'í, Sarah Downes, who was African Canadian, not only held children's classes (MacArthur, 1990) but also took in foster children, including one who eventually became a lieutenantgovernor of Ontario. More often than not, these Bahá'í children's classes also took in non Bahá'í children. Moral instruction and the teaching of progressive revelation were the usual fare. One of the most consistent teachers of children was probably Doris Richardson (Audrey Robarts in Richardson, n.d.). Another teacher of children was Rosemary Gillies in Montreal, who until her marriage to Emeric Sala in 1934 and her move to St. Lambert, held Bahá'í classes in Bahá'í Hall on Union Street. Although according to Rosemary's own account (R. Sala, n.d.) no children became Bahá'ís in this particular class, her later attempts in St. Lambert proved to be extraordinarily successful. Indeed, four out of the six complete Bahá'í families could be found in St. Lambert. It should be noted
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that the Montreal classes included a number of African Canadian children (Wade, 1990). In the West, there were reportedly only two Bahá'ís concerned deeply enough about children to organize classes for them. 8 In any case, few children became Bahá'ís. Despite the fact that Table 11 indicates that 25–43% of children became Bahá'ís, the percentage is probably lower. Since the Bahá'í community was not a social community, Bahá'ís were often quite unaware of the marital, occupational, and religious backgrounds of coreligionists. Therefore, in recalling the attributes of members, interviewees might have been able to recall only those families where all or some of the children became Bahá'ís. A conservative estimate would be that only one quarter of the children eventually became Bahá'ís. The Equality of Women and Men in Teaching and Administration The principle of the equality of men and women has been part and parcel of the Bahá'í teachings since its enunciation by Bahá'u'lláh in the nineteenth century. Bahá'u'lláh stated that both men and women "are regarded on the same plane" and that he has "lifted distinctions" from between men and women, and has "conferred upon all a station and rank of the same plane" (The Compilation of Compilations, 1991, vol. 2: 35758). When his son 'Abdu'lBahá travelled to the West after his release from prison in 1908, the equality of men and women was an integral part of the Bahá'í "platform" in many of his talks as he encouraged women to "make a mighty effort and show forth supreme courage'' (ibid.: 360). In Canada, as in the United States, the Bahá'í message attracted a number of suffragists and "maternal feminists" (Sangster, 1989: 121) such as Edith Magee, Rose Henderson, and others. The foundation of our knowledge of the role and participation of women in the Bahá'í community comes from a variety of sources, some of which are problematic. First, there are hermeneutical problems. While the Persian Bahá'ís regarded Bahá'í teachings as a fait accompli by their very enunciation, the Western Bahá'ís saw such teachings as something to be achieved, requiring a conscious effort at implementation.9 Hence, accounts from Persian sources on the development of the equality of men and women differ markedly from those rendered by Western adherents. Second, the everyday historical text generates an uneven portrait of the contributions of women and men in the Bahá'í community. For example, it is difficult to rely on obituary articles and notices as a means of finding out more about Bahá'í women. Deceased men were almost seven times more likely to be noted in a full article in issues of Canadian
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Bahá'í News than women, who tended to receive only a notice of name and place of death. 10 Moreover, there is a paucity of biographies on both women and men. The lack of information is particularly felt when one considers the high proportion of women in the Bahá'í community between 1921 and 1947, which varied from 66% to 71% (see Table 7 above). Having considered the general position of women in the Bahá'í activities, we now turn more directly to the role of women in the teaching and administrative fields. The number of times that men and women participated in informal and formal means of spreading the Bahá'í message could be used as an indicator of the equality of men and women. If equality prevailed, there would have been no differences between these two methods, i.e., women would have been as likely to be given as much an opportunity to teach the Bahá'í Faith through such formal avenues as public meetings as men. Between April 1937 and April 1948, there were 202 recorded informal and formal presentations given by sixtysix travelling teachers.11 Of these, thirtysix women (55%) gave eightysix presentations (43%). Moreover, women (63%) were as likely to give the morepublicly visible presentations as men (63%). A study of the topics given by women and men at such public functions might, however, reveal a gender difference. There does not appear to have been any intrinsic differences between the topics presented by women and men, although Bahá'í publications were more likely to report topics given by women (see Table 12). Table 12 Topics Presented by Female and Male Travelling Teachers, 1937–48: A Sample Female
Male
New World Order
Bahá'í Citizenship
Feast of Ridvan
The New Age
The Regin of Law
PostWar Objectives
Abolition of Prejudice
National Relations
Man's Approach to God
World Unity
Revelation of Christ in the Modern Age
World Order Is the Goal
Bahá'í Education
Order
Patterns of a New World
A World Commonwealth
Source: Bahá'í News, 1937–48.
The Way to True Happiness
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While there are no differences between the number and kinds of presentations given by women and men, Bahá'í women were at the forefront of settling new areas. Women were somewhat more likely to be the first converts in any given locality between 1937 and 1948 (see Table 13). Twothirds of those who pioneered to open new localities to the Bahá'í Faith were women, and clearly more than half of the first new declarants were women as well. Table 13 Pioneering and First Bahá'ís, by Gender, 1937–48 (%)
Female
Male
Total
1st to pioneer
67
33
100 (N=51)
1st to convert
53
47
100 (N=36)
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures rounded.
In the area of Bahá'í administration, the situation was different. As Stockman (1985) notes, the early North American Bahá'í community perceived women as vital to the teaching of the Bahá'í Faith, while it left administrative matters to men…although in such communities as Kenosha, Wisconsin, the women filled half of the positions of administrative authority (Stockman, 1985: 112). Let us examine the early Montreal Bahá'í community to illustrate the participation of women and men in Bahá'í administration. In 1924 the Bahá'í community comprised some twentynine members; sixteen of its members (55%) served on all six committees established by the Spiritual Assembly of (greater) Montreal (ca.1924, EVH). Mrs. "Lizzie" Cowles served on four of these, and George Spendlove, who would later become a noted art curator, on three. There were a number of striking facts about the organization of these committees: (1) they closely matched the professional or occupational interests of the chairperson with the appropriate committee, and (2) the roles were gendered. 12 The local Teaching Committee was headed by May Maxwell herself, while her cousin by marriage, Martha MacBean, chaired the Children's Committee. Ida Goodstone, a restaurant owner, headed the NineteenDay Feasts Committee, and Lizzie Cowles, a librarian, was responsible for the Bahá'í Hall Committee. Fred Schopflocher, an industrialist, accepted the position of convening the Ways and Means Committee. Margaret Loveday convened the Poor and Sick Committee.
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Although 68% of the Bahá'í community were women, the proportion of women serving on each of the six committees reflected the social context of the times: Children's Committee (100% women), Feasts Committee (100%), Teaching Committee (89%), Bahá'í Hall Committee (75%), Poor and Sick Committee (75%) and Ways and Means Committee (25%). Gender differences extended beyond service on particular committees, moreover. Although seven (31%) of the community were men, 13 only three men (10%) served on these committees. The proportion of the twenty female community members14 serving on committees was higher, namely, 55%. The percentage of women serving the community reads even higher when one considers that a number of women like Jeanne Bolles and Florence (later "Lorol") Schopflocher were regularly absent from the community, undertaking volunteer travellingteaching journeys to eastern Europe or around the world. Table 14 Participation of Women in Bahá'í Administration, 1937–47 (%)
1937–41a
1942–47b
Vancouver
56
84
Hamilton
72
74
Vancouver
45
70
Hamilton
83
67
Vancouver
20
100
Hamilton
100
33
Vancouver
100
100
Hamilton
100
100
c
Overall membership on LSA of:
Officers on LSA of:
As chair of LSA in:
As secretary of LSA in:
a For Hamilton, only 1940 and 1941. b For Hamilton, only 1942, 1946, and 1947. c Local Spiritual Assembly. Source: Minutes of the Vancouver and Hamilton Spiritual Assemblies; all percentages rounded.
Two more recent Canadian communities, Vancouver and Hamilton, indicate a growing participation of women in Bahá'í administration
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from 1937 to 1948 (Table 14). During the fiveyear period (1937–41), there are a total of fortyfive vacancies for the overall membership of the Spiritual Assembly (nine each year), and fiftyfour for the sixyear period (1942–47). In the case of Vancouver, the percentage of women members increased from 56% to 84%. For Hamilton, there was a 2% jump, from 72% to 74% In these cities, the proportion of elected women members either exceeds or roughly represents the proportion of female Bahá'ís in the whole community. If being an officer of the Spiritual Assembly indicates a position of special responsibility, the proportion of women officers in Vancouver and Hamilton is generally lower than for overall Assembly membership. Over the period, in Vancouver, the proportion of women increased from 45% to 70%, while the reverse can be observed for Hamilton, namely, from 83% to 67% Over the same period, the proportion of women chairs on the Vancouver Spiritual Assembly increased from 20% to 100%, while in Hamilton it decreased from 100% to 33% Following the overall pattern of society, the position of secretary was, however, invariably occupied by a woman. In general, these findings confirm the active and morethanequal participation of women in Bahá'í administrative affairs. 15 Class and Occupational Background By 1947 class composition of the Canadian Bahá'í community had become more diverse. In the very early years, membership was almost exclusively confined to persons of wealth and the upper class (see Table 15).16 The "upper class" had substantial control over the means of production,17 and also represented the established elites. Before 1948, the Canadian Bahá'í community included industrialists or those of independent means. Bahá'ís like the Maxwells and the Schopflochers were included in this group. Between 1921 and 1947 the Bahá'í community witnessed a sizable drop in the proportion of adherents falling into this class, namely, from 17% to 1%18 The "managerial class," sometimes referred to as the "new middle class," included people who exercised managerial or supervisory powers. In the case of the Bahá'í community, the class included managers, visible community leaders, and professionals (such as optometrists and medical doctors). The size of this class as a proportion of the Bahá'í community also underwent a decline between 1921 and 1947, namely, from 29% to 17% of all Bahá'ís. Among this group one finds owners of large restaurants, librarians, successful insurance salespeople,19 a curator, a coop manager, civil and electrical engineers, astronomers, and a soil scientist.
Page 243 Table 15 Social Stratification in the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1921–47 (%)
1921
1931
1941
Upper class
17
14
2
1
Managerial class
29
22
21
17
1947
"Creative" class
6
6
5
7
Lowermiddle class
31
43
64
62
Working class
17
16
8
13
Total
100
100
100
100
N=
42
60
159
254
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); percentages rounded.
The "creative class," admittedly a rather arbitrary term, refers to musicians, artists, and actors. Since it appears that members of this class are generally drawn from either the upper or managerial class, we have placed them as a third category, above the lowermiddle and working classes. The proportion of members of the "creative class" seems to have remained fairly constant, undergoing only a slight increase between 1921 and 1947, from 6% to 7%. Among the ''creative class" one should include Mark Tobey, a worldrenowned contemporary artist and Bahá'í who sojourned in Vancouver and Victoria. It was probably because of his influence that Lawren S. Harris, a leading figure in the Group of Seven Canadian artists, was said to have been a Bahá'í in the early 1940s (Shadbolt, 1983: 40). It seems more likely, however, that, as a Theosophist, he took a deep interest in spiritual themes and naturally gravitated towards the Bahá'ís without becoming a member. 20 As Harris and Colgrove (1969: 142) stated, "The ancient philosophy of the East has been a motivating power in the work of Lawren Harris. Landscape and abstract compositions are both permeated by the awareness of life as a spiritual energy." His connections to the Bahá'í community were part of his natural interest in "spiritual energy." The "lowermiddle class" represented whitecollar workers with few or no supervisory functions, technical workers, nurses, teachers, a caterer, an apiarist, and a beautician. Also included were office workers, mail carriers, and salespeople. It was the lowermiddle class that underwent the most marked growth in the Canadian Bahá'í community between 1921 and 1947, during which time its proportion almost doubled, from 31% to 62%. A very noticeable number of Bahá'ís were telephone operators, telegraph operators, or worked for a telephone company. There were also a fair num
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ber of Bahá'ís to be found in the transportation business, 21 with at least nine in this group.22 The Bahá'í Faith also attracted teachers of dance and piano (very popular), and at least twenty schoolteachers.23 The "working class" comprised those occupations for which little or no training is required. For our study, it includes factory workers, farmhands, poor pensioners, domestics, labourers, and the unemployed. While there was some fluctuation between 1921 and 1947, the final percentage of Bahá'í membership falling into this category settled at 13%. By 1947 the Bahá'í community seems to have found a social base in the lowermiddle class, with almost twothirds of all Bahá'ís falling into this category. This particular social profile of the Canadian Bahá'í community has lent itself to expansion of the Bahá'í community, for possessing basic skills, these Bahá'ís were able to be more mobile than those of the managerial class. Ethnicity and Nationality Ethnicity refers to membership in a group based on common ancestors, language, territory, or "skinship" (Manyoni, 1978). If one is born into such a group, initial membership is involuntary. Through one's life cycle, however, the feeling of belonging can be strengthened or weakened, depending upon the relative position of the group in society. Members of some ethnic minorities wishing to assimilate into the dominant group may downplay or hide ethnicity, while others may be encouraged by state multicultural policies or other factors to affirm ethnic identity. As a matter of Bahá'í principle, there is explicit recognition of the oneness of humanity, while acknowledging and encouraging its diversity. The phrase "unity in diversity" is commonly used by Bahá'ís to sum up the positive dimensions of diversity. The Bahá'í sacred writings stress that diversity should be welcomed, not eliminated or simply tolerated. 'Abdu'lBahá, in Foundations of World Unity (1936: 34), states that the "world of humanity is like a garden and the various races are the flowers which constitute its adornment and decoration." Expatiating on this theme, he asks how colour distinctions can be "justified among human beings, especially when we know that all have come from the same source and belong to the same household? In origin and intention of creation mankind is one." Ethnicity—whether subjective or objective (i.e., measurable)—is not a phenomenon everyone feels comfortable with. Ethnic identity may be less clear on account of intermarriage by one's parents or, let us say, a conscious decision to move away from one's ethnic heritage. As a result, Table 16, which deals with the ethnic composition of the Canadian
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Bahá'í community, may be inconsistent, its being an amalgam of nationality (e.g., German), ancestry (Jewish), language (Ukrainian), regionality (francophone), and geography (Scandinavian). The category of West Indian/African Canadian hides considerable variation and seems to treat the category as homogeneous. Nevertheless, in gathering the data between 1921 and 1947, there was consistency in the use of these categories. Table 16 Ethnicity and Nationality in the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1921–47 (%)
1921
1931
1941
1947
(1951)a
AngloSaxon
90
77
86
78
(48)
German, Swiss
8
9
4
5
(4)
Jews
—
5
3
3
(1)
Francophone
3
4
3
3
(31)
West Indian/African Canadian
—
2
1
5
n.a.
Scandinavian
—
2
3
3
(2)
S. European
—
2
—
—
(1)
E. European
—
—
—
0.5
(6)
Japanese
—
—
—
1
(0.2) (1)
Native Indians
—
—
—
0.5
Total
100
100
100
100
N=
40
57
154
197
a The last column (1951) indicates the percentage in the national population of Canada; percentages rounded. Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); Bourne et al. (1986).
Throughout the period, the Bahá'í community of Canada became somewhat more diverse, although it retained its predominant AngloSaxon character. Whereas in 1921, Bahá'í membership was composed of one dominant category (AngloSaxon, 90%) and two smaller ones (German/Swiss at 8%, and francophone at 3%), the Bahá'í membership looked quite different in 1947 where one can identify nine ethnic or national categories. While AngloSaxons still made up three quarters of the Bahá'ís, the West Indian and African Canadian component increased significantly. The courage of African Canadians leaving the social world of their own church, to enter an unfamiliar white world, spoke of their deeprooted, but newly found Bahá'í beliefs and devotion (van den Hoonaard and EchevarriaHowe, forthcoming). The
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francophone (3%) and Scandinavian categories (3%) have remained more or less consistent, while the Jewish component seemed to be on the decline. For the first time, in 1947, Japanese and Native Indian were incorporated in the Bahá'í community. Bahá'ís are overrepresented as far as AngloSaxons, Jews, Germans/Swiss, West Indians/African Canadians, Scandinavians, and Japanese are concerned, but francophone, South and East Europeans, and Native peoples are underrepresented. Teaching the Bahá'í Faith to francophones would remain an elusive goal for many decades, while Bahá'í activities among Native people would not begin to come to fruition until the early 1960s. Summary In 1921, Bahá'í membership was characterized by an AngloSaxon Protestant overlay, composed of both upper and managerial classes. By 1947, the membership saw a decline in its AngloSaxon Protestant makeup, largely based on lowermiddleclass membership. The outlook, however, remained Protestant and provided the necessary organizational and temperamental tools for expansion. It was not only Protestantism that remained a constant characteristic of Bahá'í membership. The disproportionate participation of women persisted as well. The women, many of whom were single, were responsible for propagating their new beliefs to other women. Both women and men provided equal participation in the informal and formal means of spreading the Bahá'í Faith. Women were particularly prominent between 1937 and 1947 when the Bahá'ís were encouraged to settle and open new locales to the Bahá'í Faith. Understandably, the first response in these locales to the new faith came from women. The ethnic composition of the Canadian Bahá'í community was thus predominantly AngloSaxon, Jewish, German/Swiss, West Indian/African Canadian, and Scandinavian. The ethnic profile reflected more closely a Protestant base, than a Catholic one, in which francophones, South and East Europeans, and Native peoples were underrepresented. Notes 1. Most Methodists and Congregationalists and some Presbyterians joined to form the United Church of Canada in 1925. 2. The data in Table 13 were derived from van den Hoonaard (1992a), based on over 100 sources of information, including interviews with older Bahá'ís. 3. Table 6 should be read with caution, as it incorporates only the known cases of previous religious affiliation. For 1921, we are unfamiliar with the religious background of 33% of the Bahá'ís, while in 1931 it is 18%. The
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figures are considerably higher in 1941 and 1947, with 41% and 46%, respectively. 4. "The Question of Gender in Canadian Bahá'í History" (van den Hoonaard, 1994) is a useful elaboration on the status of Bahá'í women during the 1898–1948 period. Both Deborah van den Hoonaard and Will van den Hoonaard are currently (1995) mounting a study on the implementation of the equality of women and men in the contemporary Canadian Bahá'í community. 5. This family is currently (1992) fourthgeneration Bahá'í. 6. That so many of this generation of Bahá'ís were childless only added to the difficulty of preserving Bahá'í archival records for future researchers. 7. Today (1996), Bahá'í children's classes are found in most Bahá'í communities, enrolling children as young as three. Several Bahá'í communities have encouraged the establishment of Bahá'í clubs in high schools and are fostering a Bahá'í identity of children in primary schools. These developments would have been unheard of even before 1960, let alone before 1947. 8. Lyda S. Roche in Edmonton (Stefansson, 1990) and Beulah S. Proctor in Victoria (Waugh, 1991). 9. For a fascinating discussion of the divergent perspectives between the Persian and Western Bahá'ís, the reader is referred to Margit Warburg's study of the Danish Bahá'í community (Warburg, 1990: 10). 10. There was no Canadian Bahá'í News in existence before the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís in Canada in April 1948. However, since the names of many pre1948 believers might be expected to appear in Canadian Bahá'í News later on, the author developed the following statistical evidence of the underreporting of deceased women in fullscale articles: References to Women and Men in Obituaries in Canadian Bahá'í News, May 1950April 1963 (%)
Women
Men
Articles (large or brief)
4.9
32.1
Listing only name of adherent
95.1
67.9
Total
100.0
100.0
41
28
N=
11. The most relevant sources for this information include annual reports of such communities as Vancouver and Winnipeg, Bahá'í News, newspapers, Laura Davis Papers, local Bahá'í histories of Halifax, Canadian Bahá'í News, Ottawa Bahá'í Archives, Canadian Teaching Committee Bulletins, and the "News Bulletin" of the Maritime Teaching Committee. 12. In this text, the term "sexual" refers to biological characteristics, while "gender" denotes a social differentiation based on sex. When a local Bahá'í read an early draft of The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, she commented that some Bahá'í communities still reflect these organizational aspects.
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13. W.S. Maxwell, Arthur Johnston, Archibald Eddington, Albert Goodstone, George Spendlove, Fred Schopflocher, William Loveday, Frank Page, and Ernest V. Harrison (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 14. Female community members include May Maxwell, Rose Henderson, Martha MacBean, Mary Maxwell (fourteen years old), Elsie Pomeroy, Mary Pomeroy, Annie Savage, Elizabeth Cowles, Jeanne Bolles, Ida Goodstone, Elsa Clapham, Lorol Schopflocher, Mary A. Pomeroy, Margaret Loveday, Elizabeth Greenleaf, Winnie Page, Jeanette French, Amy Livingstone, Rachel Fink, and Ebba Sherman (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). 15. Although an examination of the number of women elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada falls outside the scope of The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, I compiled, nevertheless, a statistical profile of its membership of nine members. Between 1948 and 1960 three of the nine members were women, with the exception of 1950, 1951, and 1953 when four women were elected. Between 1961 and 1963 there were only two women, and in 1964 and 1965, only one woman. In 1966 there were, once again, two women, but from 1967 to 1972 there were no women at all. Only one woman was elected in 1973, but two women between 1974 and 1981. Female membership went up again to three in 1982. Between 1983 and 1990 only two women served on this body, with the exception of 1986 when only one was elected. In 1991 it went up to three women, and in 1992 and 1993 there were four women on the National Spiritual Assembly (compiled from Canadian Bahá'í News). 16. A word of caution is necessary about the practice of assigning people to levels of social stratification. A high degree of subjectivity enters into such an evaluation, often determined by the researcher who is doing the assessment. The subjective component is determined by the evaluator's own social background and by his or her own time frame from which he or she looks at history. Moreover, since it was not uncommon for Bahá'ís to change occupations upon a move to settle a given locale, an assessment based on occupation alone is not satisfactory. A good example is a woman journalist who decides to pioneer to Prince Edward Island, but finds she can only make a living by working as a domestic in a hotel. Occupational mobility might not only be forced downward through a pioneering move, but also upward, as in the case of an office worker finding herself in a position in personnel management. 17. The discussion and some definitions of class are taken from Clement (1990) and Nakao (1992). 18. The statistical summary in the text consists of rounded percentage figures. 19. Austin F.L. Collin, John Robarts, Albert Rakovsky, Allan Raynor, and Craig Weaver. 20. A careful examination of the Vancouver Bahá'í Archives reveals no Bahá'í membership for Lawren Harris. 21. Ernest V. Harrison, Stanley Kemp, Maxon H. Mosher, Clifford Colpitts, John Hayes, and George F. Lanning.
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22. Rowland Estall, Joan Lanning, William Laurie, William Loveday, Grace O. Peterson (Nielsen's mother), Helen Poissant, Vivian Smith (née Lanning), Lillian Tomlinson (later Prosser), and Amo Chesley. 23. Gertrude Barr, Lulu Barr, Nancy Campbell, Evelyn Cliff, Milwyn Davies, Irene Fairclough, Rosemary Gillies (later Sala), Rebecca Hubley, Merle McEwen, Doris McKay, Molly Mosher, Margery Patterson, Amy Putnam, Doris Reed, Angela Rhéaume (later Szepesi), Françoise Rouleau, Alberta (Bardie) Royle, Dorothy Sheets, and Leslie and Mabel Silversides.
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PART FOUR — RELATIONSHIP TO CANADIAN SOCIETY
Page 252
Fourteen — Opposition, Recognition, and World War II The slow spread of the Bahá'í Faith across Canada from 1937 to 1947 involved the establishment of small nuclei of communities outside the larger centres of Montreal, Vancouver, and Toronto. The number of localities where Bahá'ís resided had grown during that time from eighteen to thirtyeight, and, as far as the believers themselves were concerned, their numbers grew from ninety to 254. Although such figures might be considered small by the standards of many social movements, there were a number of ways in which the Canadian Bahá'í community came to the attention of the wider society. First, the Bahá'ís had a wellformulated plan to organize a Bahá'í community in at least one of the major cities in each province, usually the capital, giving it a wide geographical spread. Second, through a concentrated time limit of seven years, the impact on society of this growth was more noticeable than if the period had been longer. For example, through the occasional recruitment to the Bahá'í Faith of stalwart church members, religious authorities were alerted to the presence of Bahá'í missionary work. Third, this stage of Bahá'í development occurred during the war years when contact with civil authorities was bound to occur. If the enlistment of two Japanese in the ranks of the Bahá'í community (in Winnipeg and Regina) raised questions among these authorities, the movement of lone Bahá'ís into remote areas bordering the Atlantic Ocean also created a sense of unease and suspicion among the police. The arrival of childless couples and especially of single women of distant origin may have been enough to cause some worry among neighbours as well, at least in certain towns. Opposition Opposition to the Bahá'í community and its beliefs was muted. The established churches and government were the two principal sources of formal opposition, while neighbours, family, and friends often provided the informal basis of opposition to the new religion.
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Churches The most consistent opposition to the Bahá'í Faith during the formative years of the Canadian Bahá'í community occurred in Québec. For example, Bahá'í consolidation work as a result of a teaching trip by Ernest V. Harrison and Bill Suter to Sherbooke, July 1939, had to progress "slowly because of the Church" (Bahá'í News, February 1940, p. 6), partly because quite a few had expressed an interest in hearing more about the Bahá'í Faith. When the Bahá'ís of Montreal attempted to secure local radio publicity for a major public meeting in February 1947 at the Church of the Messiah, the managers of the radio station "frankly stated in refusing the Bahá'ís time on the air, that they could not afford to antagonize the Catholic Church of Québec" (Bahá'í News, April 1947, p. 11). Even earlier, Montreal Bahá'ís also held this perception when, in 1932, a Bahá'í travelling teacher visited the city. She was frankly told that "it would be impossible in a French Catholic city to speak about another creed over the airwaves" (Garis, 1983: 381). But it was not only the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec that Bahá'ís perceived as opposing the Bahá'í Faith. Opposition also came from Protestant quarters, notably in the Maritimes. One pioneer on Prince Edward Island describes a more subtle form of opposition: "we had no active opposition, really. Just talking and keeping people away from coming to meetings and that sort of thing. Making the people more [afraid] and that naturally they were very conformative, [with] old habits…" (McKay, 1991). At other times the opposition was more open: We had another Haligonian come into the [Bahá'í] Faith…. She had been a member of the West End [name omitted] 1 Church…. The minister who was so upset by her leaving the fold, which from his vantage point she had done, very ceremoniously and dramatically burned her church membership at a meeting. That's indicative of the kind of climate in which we taught the Faith at that time. There was often an atmosphere of hostility. (Gardner, 1978)
In some cases, a public denouncement of the Bahá'í Faith in a church in another city led to more enquiries from the congregation: You asked if we had any opposition, there was opposition from a [denomination omitted] Church minister, a Reverend…who had the church down in the west end [Calgary] which I had gone to actually before I became a Bahá'í and he preached a sermon against the Bahá'í Faith which created a little furor amongst the Bahá'ís, but I don't think it bothered anybody else. In fact, I remember that some people then went and got books from the library because they were curious about what he'd said. (Interview, NC)
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Before this sermon, this church had also sent out a brochure to its parishioners denouncing the Bahá'í Faith (interview, ED). In Brampton, Ontario, some interviewees reported a similar experience: [The Bahá'í Faith] was known around town because the [denomination omitted] minister was quite angry about his congregation having anything to do with the Bahá'í Faith. From the pulpit he said it was a garbage can religion. So everybody in Brampton—it was a small town—everybody knew that. [He] threw the New Era [an introductory book about the Bahá'í Faith] into the garbage can, and one of our neighbours who had attended firesides, one of his wealthiest supporters, went up and asked for the book and gave him a real reprimand. (Interview, OB)
Not infrequently, those who were not Bahá'ís offered encouraging advice to Bahá'ís under attack: [I said,] 'I really can't stand one more, I think I've just about got all I can, I won't survive, you know.' I was feeling very overwhelmed by the attack I had had. This man came up to me and he saw I was kind of distressed. He said, 'Young man don't you worry at all about what just happened there.' He said, 'There's only one ''ism" in this world we have to be afraid of and that's narrowism.' I don't know who that man was. I don't know his identity, but I loved him ever since. (Gardner, 1978)
And on Prince Edward Island, the employers for whom the Bahá'ís worked as domestic help defended the Bahá'ís by becoming Bahá'ís themselves: We knew that the ministers didn't like us and they got to dig whenever they could. We knew they held a meeting once to complain about us. The pioneers who were working in the houses with people who rose and defended them…Anyway, they still got all the fire out of the opposition of ministers…by declaring for us. (McKay, 1991)
More often, however, church ministers would privately approach a newly declared Bahá'í, attempting to persuade her to realize that being a Bahá'í was an "anti Christian" thing to do (Lanning and Pollitt, 1992). 2 Government On 4 July 1940 Jehovah Witnesses were banned in Canada by Order in Council (Kealy and Whitaker, 1989: 284). What fate awaited the Bahá'ís during the war years? After all, the first period of expansion of the Canadian Bahá'í community took place during the years of World
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War II. Surely, the arrival of members of a new and unfamiliar religious community, particularly on Canada's East Coast, would have aroused the suspicion and concern of civil authorities, especially local police and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). We are left with vague accounts of enquiries by the RCMP. In Toronto, there is an unclear reference to the "matter of J.R. Taylor," which was referred by the Spiritual Assembly of Toronto to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, and to the RCMP, in May 1940 ("List of Activities," LDP). Another account came from Doris McKay, a pioneer in Charlottetown on Prince Edward Island, stating that the RCMP detachment had enquired about the pioneers and the purpose of their coming. Apparently, no further enquiries by the RCMP were deemed necessary. Perhaps the bestknown story relates to an RCMP "officer," Ethel Day, who had investigated the St. Lambert Bahá'í community and who eventually became a Bahá'í, presumably in October 1947 (interview, FD). One interviewee describes the events as follows: I think that she encountered the [Bahá'í] Faith first because she was working for the RCMP. I don't know whether you call it an undercover agent. She went to meetings that they were suspect about. She heard about it there, but then she became a Bahá'í. Apparently, they sent these sort of people around that weren't very conspicuous and mixed in with the audience to check out on things. (Interview, OD)
Years later, a Bahá'í would learn that her husband, also a Bahá'í, had been under investigation by the RCMP when he was entering the Navy during the war. When the store owned by the sailor's father was broken into and the RCMP arrived to investigate the robbery, the investigations officer recalled the family name: The officer said, "Oh [name omitted]." He rhymed off his number. Apparently at the time, when you were to become an officer, they…do a really full examination of your history. They discovered he was a Bahá'í and it was something to do with Israel or Palestine…. Because of that, he never did get a commission. (Interview, BD)
Aside from these oral accounts, there is no official evidence to suggest that the RCMP gathered information on Canadian Bahá'ís. 3 At the civil level, opposition to the Bahá'í Faith grew out of ignorance, rather than knowledge of Bahá'í activity and tenets. In Hamilton, for example, the Art Gallery Board refused Bahá'ís access to its Camera Room where they had been holding public meetings. City Hall had been informed that Bahá'ís were communists and since the Art Gallery
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received funding from City Council, it felt compelled to not allow Bahá'í meetings ("Minutes," 29 December 1941[?], HBA). The Bahá'í Faith seems to have aroused more suspicion on the part of the authorities along the Atlantic coast, as one former pioneer to Halifax recounts: Of course, the meetings were always held mostly at my home and most people didn't know [about these meetings]. The collector of customs was my neighbour downstairs [and he knew about these meetings]. We lived by the sea there and he had his assistant phone up to know of our [Bahá'í] system. I gave him the principles and I said we obeyed the government and he said, 'Alright, that's all I wanted to know.' Because a lot of the Bahá'ís were coming through at that time to teach and I guess they were asked to investigate. (Interview, FC)
Family, Friends, and Neighbours As might be expected, the reaction of family members to those who became Bahá'í was varied, although probably quite a few were ill at ease with such a decision. Fathers tended to be more accepting than mothers (even if it involved an adult daughter or son), but a husband was the least likely to accept the fact that his wife had accepted a new religion. It seems that women were given a more difficult time about their decision to join the Bahá'í Faith than were men. The following extracts from interviews reveals these conundrums: "I told my mother. She was [terribly?] hostile. She called the Bahá'ís the 'Bahoo's.' She, to put it harshly,… she scoffed at the idea" (interview, DB). And: "Mother was in England visiting at the time, and she was very upset. My father had no interest in religion and he accepted anything we did. He was a very tolerant man, a very loving father, but he left us to develop our own selves" (interview, DC). Here is an account from an experience of an early Winnipeg Bahá'í, whose family belonged to an established denomination in a city where interest in socialism and communism prevailed: One was a [name of denomination]. Well, you dare not interfere with that thought because the whole family were [name of denomination]. So, they closed the door, in no uncertain terms…. it was a disappointment. No one seemed to want to listen, because … they wanted to put a tag on you that there's something strange about this. And of course you tried at first, to invite them to meetings? Yes I did. But they didn't respond. Well one or two … would come, but they would drift away. When I heard about the Bahá'í Faith, politics were very prominent at the time. Especially the communists [were] very prevalent. (Interview, MA)
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Family opposition could be so strong that one interviewee (HC) reports that whenever her family found a Bahá'í package of books waiting for her at the post office, they would leave it there and ask her to pick it up herself. Families of other Bahá'ís would strike them out of their wills and withhold gifts (interview, MB). Nevertheless, such reactions were probably more the exception than the rule. Recognition Bahá'í attempts to win civil recognition for their Faith were based on a number of assumptions. First, noninvolvement in political affairs was a key principle of Bahá'í community life. 'Abdu'lBahá had already provided clear instructions regarding Bahá'í abstention from political matters when he stated: If any person wishes to speak of government affairs, or to interfere with the order of government, the others must not combine with him because the Cause of God is withdrawn entirely from political affairs; the political realm pertains only to the Rulers of those matters; it has nothing to do with the souls who are exerting their utmost energy to harmonizing affairs, helping character and inciting [the people] to strive for perfections. Therefore no soul is allowed to interfere with [political] matters, but only in that which is commanded. (Bahá'í World Faith, p. 407, cited in Bahá'í News, August 1945, p. 4)
Shoghi Effendi, as early as 1932, stated: Let them refrain from associating themselves, whether by word or deed, with the political pursuits of their respective nations, with the policies of their governments and the schemes and programs of parties and factions. In such controversies they should assign no blame, take no side, further no design and identify themselves with no system prejudicial to the best interests [of the Bahá'í Faith]. (Bahá'í World, 1945: 48)
As a consequence, the winning of civil recognition would place the Bahá'í community in a legal, rather than a political, position visàvis authorities. Second, the accruing of civil recognition would characterize the Bahá'í community as a corporate body, more than merely an aggregate of individual members. With such recognition, the Bahá'í community would enjoy the same legal protection and status as any other corporate body. Third, perhaps more importantly, civil recognition provided an assurance to the wider public that the Bahá'í Faith was a legitimate and
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bona fide movement. Bahá'ís could then ease public fears about their activities and intentions. Let us survey the major developments during the period. Recognition of the Bahá'í Community in Canada has taken several shapes, such as the recognition of Bahá'í Holy Days for Bahá'í children in school and legal incorporations of Bahá'í local governing bodies—the local Spiritual Assemblies. An important legal step was taken when, on 21 February 1932, first mention was made by the Montreal Youth Group of the "Exemption from Military Service for Canadian Bahá'ís." The document was finalized in 1932 and placed on record in Ottawa with the Canadian government. 4 As a consequence, Bahá'ís were exempt from combat. However, as the Bahá'í teachings did not allow for conscientious objection, Bahá'ís served either in the medical or administrative sides of the war effort. Incorporation of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, had already been suggested as early as 4 October 1928,5 but it took another six years, until 20 December 1934, before the Bahá'í community of Montreal submitted an application to the LieutenantGovernor of the Province of Quebec to incorporate the Spiritual Assembly. Some three months later, on 25 March 1935, the Spiritual Assembly was issued a letter of incorporation (Bahá'í World, 6: 32328), the first for a Bahá'í governing body in Canada. The second occurred earlier in 1935, on 4 January, when Bahá'ís registered with the Commissioner of Patents the word "Bahá'í" as a trademark. The registration was accepted by the Canadian government on 3 December 1935 (ibid.: 35157). The Vancouver Bahá'í community took the third significant step towards legal recognition of its Spiritual Assembly when it achieved incorporation in the province of British Columbia on 25 March 1939.6 Forming a "society" under the Societies Act, the Assembly's object was "to administer the affairs of the Bahá'í faith for the benefit of the Bahá'ís of the City of Vancouver in accordance with the religious teachings and the administrative principles of this faith." On 11 April 1945, the Spiritual Assembly of Toronto received a letter from the National Department of Revenue of Canada allowing donations to the Bahá'í Fund as charitable deductions for income tax purposes ("List of Activities," LDP). The Bahá'ís of Montreal were the first to achieve recognition in the schools of Bahá'í Holy Days and of the rights of their children to be absent from classes on at least some of those days. On 12 November 1946 the schools granted Bahá'í children, for the first time, a "special leave of absence." The children used the day to present small gifts as
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part of their commemoration to the Children's Memorial Hospital (Bahá'í News, March 1947, p. 11). Also in 1946, on 14 November, the Spiritual Assembly of Toronto completed its incorporation with the government of Ontario ("List of Activities," LDP). In summary, by 1948 the Canadian Bahá'í community had legally incorporated three Spiritual Assemblies, namely, Montreal, Vancouver, and Toronto. The government also issued to the Canadian Bahá'í community a letter of patents for the word "Bahá'í." The Bahá'í community of Toronto was accorded taxexempt status for donations, and another community, Montreal, was granted a special leave of absence for its children of school age for a Bahá'í Holy Day. In the course of succeeding decades, the Bahá'í community of Canada would obtain additional legal recognitions with both federal and provincial authorities, such as the legal recognition of Bahá'í marriage ceremonies performed according to Bahá'í practice. Since the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada only came into existence in 1948, and was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1949 (Parliament, 1949), the recognition of the Bahá'í Faith and its community was henceforth sought at the national level only after April 1948. Bahá'ís during World War II The unintended impact of the war years on the Canadian Bahá'í community, as we shall see below, included the development of a Bahá'í registration card, the establishment of a national Bahá'í fund, and the development of Canadian Bahá'í summer schools and conferences. The war years also clarified the position of the Bahá'ís towards military service, and elucidated the nonpartisan position of Bahá'ís in political affairs. Bahá'í Registration Card For most of the time during the period covered by our survey, there were either no or very few ways of being recognized as a Bahá'í. Until 1927 (when the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada was incorporated), Bahá'í membership was quite informal. Presumably one was a Bahá'í when he or she moved in a Bahá'í circle of activities, and continuing membership in one's original church was not questioned. After 1927, however, it became necessary to be registered as a Bahá'í. To achieve registration, a Bahá'í simply had to write to the National Spiritual Assembly and request membership, which was not likely to be ever refused. For many Bahá'ís, it became clear that previous church affiliation had to be forgone in favour
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of Bahá'í membership (although there were still exceptions to this well into the 1940s). With the coming of World War II and the insistence by Shoghi Effendi that Bahá'ís request noncombatant status in case of a draft, it become necessary to offer those who wished to join the Bahá'í Faith a "registration card." In fact, many older believers were also asked to sign such a card, indicating (sometimes erroneously) when they became Bahá'ís. 7 Over time, the registration card became better known as a "declaration card" (from the idea of "declaring one's faith"). In any event, the card was simply an administrative procedure designed to place Bahá'ís on a membership list. According to the Bahá'ís, such a procedure would not detract from the spiritual recognition of the Bahá'í Faith as a revealed religion. Establishment of Canadian National Bahá'í Fund The Canadian Bahá'í Fund came into being in October 1940, made necessary by United States and Canadian Foreign Exchange Boards restricting the posting of money out of the countries (Bahá'í News, November 1941, p. 2). Among the first items of expenditure included the upkeep of travelling teachers until May 1942, the pioneer work in Saskatchewan, and teaching work in the Maritimes—all costing about $300 a month. Oneandahalf years later, a total of $2,875.03 had been received in donations (Bahá'í News, April 1942, p. 4). Canadian Bahá'ís were no doubt surprised when Canadian Customs levied, in 1941, the War Exchange Tax on shipments of Bahá'í News from the United States. The tax was, however, soon rescinded (Bahá'í News, October 1941, p. 11). After the war, the joint United States/Canada Bahá'í Fund went into operation again. The increasing level of Bahá'í activity in the years after the War period was a remarkable accomplishment given the fact that a crisis in the National Bahá'í Fund of the joint National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada affected the propagation and pioneering work in Canada. By September 1947 the Fund had a deficit of US$40,000. In appealing to members for funds, the National Spiritual Assembly reminded them that the Bahá'ís live in "an age of dunning solicitation, raffles and benefits which bribe contribution by the promise of self enrichment" and that they are called upon to uphold "a standard of maturity" in giving to the Fund (Bahá'í News, September 1947, p. 1). The Bahá'í writings make clear that contributions are to be made freely, voluntarily, and without coercion. By April 1948, the deficit had, however, increased to US$69,226 (Bahá'í News, June 1948, p. 1).
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Development of Summer Schools The reader has already been introduced to the early beginnings of Bahá'í summer schools, whose creation was a direct consequence of currency restrictions during World War II. When it became difficult for Canadians to attend American summer schools, they took on the responsibility of organizing summer schools in Canada. In 1942 there were four schools, in Manitoba, Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick. This regional pattern continued almost unbroken over the remaining period until 1948. The impact of the summer schools was not only important to the acquisition of a foundation of Bahá'í knowledge, but it also led to the development of a Canadian Bahá'í consciousness, a theme to which we shall return in the next chapter. Attitude towards the "Present Conflict" World War II, moreover, strengthened Bahá'í attitudes towards noninvolvement in partisan politics. "Our patriotism," according to one Bahá'í statement, must be always to world citizenship, world brotherhood, and the lesser loyalties must be subordinated to this supreme loyalty…. Only a world outlook, one organized world order as set out in the Bahá'í Teachings, can establish and maintain peace in our time…. Bahá'í teaching insists on the removal of barriers of class, nation and race; political parties represent the interests of certain sections of the community and their legislation is directed primarily to foster and enhance those interests. Bahá'ís cannot logically identify themselves with or support any brand of class legislation. Therefore party politics should be viewed as an anachronism. (Bahá'í World, 1945: 46–48)
The Bahá'ís of Canada have attempted to come to terms with the Bahá'í position on war since 1927. In that year, Judith Russell, a Bahá'í in Montreal, had received a letter from Shoghi Effendi regarding exemption from military service ("Extracts from Montreal Assembly Minutes," 2 February 1928, EVH). While the Montreal Bahá'ís were waiting for further guidance from Alfred E. Lunt, secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, May Maxwell, with assistance from her daughter Mary, was requested by the Montreal Spiritual Assembly to "make a compilation from the Bahá'í teachings" on the subject. By 31 March 1928 the compilation was completed, and the Assembly next considered submitting the document to the Department of Defence in Ottawa. The fate of the document, if submitted, is not known.
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Shoghi Effendi later explained the Bahá'í position towards military duty as follows: There are many other avenues through which the believers can assist in times of war by enlisting in services of a noncombatant nature—services that do not involve the direct shedding of blood—such as ambulance work, antiair raid precaution service, office and administrative works, and it is for such types of national service that they should volunteer. It is immaterial whether such activities would still expose them to dangers, either at home or in the front, since their desire is not to protect their lives, but to desist from any acts of wilful murder. (Bahá'í World, 1945: 51)
He also stated the Bahá'í view on pacifism: With reference to the absolute pacifists, or conscientious objectors to war; their attitude, judged from the Bahá'í standpoint, is quite antisocial and due to its exaltation of the individual conscience leads inevitably to disorder and chaos in society. Extreme pacifists are thus very close to the anarchists, in the sense that both of these groups lay an undue emphasis on the rights and merits of the individual. The Bahá'í conception of social life is essentially based on the subordination of the individual will to that of society. It neither suppresses the individual nor does it exalt him to the point of making him an antisocial creature, a menace to society. (Bahá'í News, January 1938, p. 2)
At its September 1939 meeting, the National Spiritual Assembly decided to go ahead to "establish for Canadian Bahá'ís whatever rights are granted to religions during the present international conflict" (Bahá'í News, Special Issue, September 1939, p. 2). On 12 June 1940 the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Toronto forwarded a letter to the Department of National Defence regarding conscription and military service of Bahá'ís ("List of Activities," LDP). During World War II a number of Bahá'ís were hesitant to buy Canadian Victory Bonds, deeming it inconsistent with the Bahá'í "attitude towards military service and towards humanity as a whole." To their relief it was discovered that Bahá'ís could attach a statement to their bonds to the effect that proceeds from the bond should only be used to "alleviate distress or human suffering." 8 In what way did Bahá'ís, if any, participate more directly in military service? At least fourteen Bahá'ís were known to be in military service during World War II: D. Bruce Hogg in the Air Force, Jack Caldwell, John A. Dixon (soldier), Cecil Claude Elliott (Army), Allan and Eric Hyde (Army and Air Force navigators, respectively), Harold Hope (Air Force), Edna M. Sherborne (Army sergeant), Roland
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McGee (sergeant surveyor, Army), and Phyllis Glead (Navy)—all from Vancouver—William Laurie of Montreal (radio operator in the Air Force), Leo Legarde of Charlottetown (Royal Canadian Air Force), Lloyd G. Gardner of Toronto (a Navy laboratory technician), and Fred McLaughlin of Halifax. Some served in the Merchant Navy, such as William "Red" Nicholson of Halifax. Of the fourteen in military service, eight, all from Vancouver, either resigned from the Bahá'í Faith upon their discharge, or became inactive. 9 The Vancouver Bahá'í community provides a case study of the difficulty a number of Bahá'ís had towards understanding the Bahá'í position on World War II, usually referred to as "the present conflict" in Bahá'í discussions of the time. The reliance of the Bahá'í community of Vancouver on American Bahá'í teachers and visitors proved to be a boon in the general education of that community, but also created divided loyalties with regard to the Bahá'í position on war in general, and on World War II in particular. We can surmise that, on one hand, the American visitors, in deepening their Vancouver Bahá'í friends, would advocate neutrality. The American nation would not enter the war until the bombing of Pearl Harbour in 1941. On the other hand, the overwhelming AngloSaxon character of the Vancouver Bahá'í community meant that not a few Bahá'ís were naturally inclined to interest themselves in a war that affected the British Empire. Under those conditions, it was easy to misconstrue allegiances. Unable to identify with the Bahá'í position, as many as eight Bahá'ís—not the same as those mentioned earlier who had enlisted—wanted their names removed from the list of Bahá'í voting members, although in subsequent months, a number of them would return ("Minutes," VBA). By 1940 the Assembly of Vancouver had an extensive discussion on the Bahá'í attitude towards the "present conflict," and voted to convey to the community that as Bahá'ís we are opposed to war; that we sympathize with suffering and will do everything in our power to alleviate it; that we are loyal to the spirit as well as the form of our Government policy; that the foremost aim of our lives should be the establishment of the World Order of Bahá'u'lláh through the administrative channels of our faith. ("Minutes of Vancouver LSA," 19 June 1940, VBA)
The community felt impelled to hold a special meeting in the late summer of 1940 because "there was considerable dissatisfaction in the Community…concerning the Bahá'í attitude to the present conflict" (ibid., 20 August 1940, VBA). More particularly, the Bahá'ís held various interpretations of Shoghi Effendi's statement on "assigning blame,
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taking sides, however indirectly, in recurring political crises now agitating, ultimately engulfing, human society'' (ibid., 21 August 1940, VBA). It seemed that at least seven members of the community complained that two Bahá'ís were expressing "proNazi leanings." The Spiritual Assembly encouraged the community to come to it with any problems, rather than discussing such matters outside the Assembly (ibid., 11 October 1940, VBA). In the end, the Vancouver Bahá'ís decided to take practical steps in connection with the war. At one point, they decided to help place refugee children, later deemed not feasible (ibid., 14 May 1940, VBA). The Bahá'ís were able, however, to form a unit of the Red Cross branch (ibid., 5 September 1940, VBA) and held clothing drives for Europe and responded to appeals for funds for the "Rehabilitation of Europe" ("Annual Report," 21 April 1946, VBA). After the war, the Vancouver Bahá'í community collected funds for forwarding to CARE in New York to help ease the privations suffered by the Bahá'ís of Germany and Austria (ibid.). Notes 1. Specific names of denominations have been omitted from the text. 2. Readers should be aware that Bahá'ís do not regard themselves as "antiChristian." The sacred writings of Bahá'u'lláh have amply discussed this fact. 3. In 1990 and 1991 the author requested information on the Canadian Bahá'í community, 1898–1948, under the Access to Information Act, for archival records of the Canadian Security and Intelligence Service (Records Group 146). A "thorough search of…indices and logical sources" was carried out by the National Archives of Canada, but no records were located (Atherton, 1991). 4. [Notes on Montreal Bahá'í History], NBAC, 3 pp. 5. Ibid. 6. The "Certificate of Incorporation," No. 2517, 25 March 1939, bore the signatures of Rowland Estall (salesman), Stanley Kemp (executive), Jean Doris Skinner (bookkeeper), Bruce Hogg (inspector), Mae Lillian McKenna (nurse), Evelyn Kemp (housewife), Florence Sherborne (housewife), Cecil Claude (salesman), Evelyn Elizabeth Cliff (schoolteacher), and Eunice F. Sherborne (stenographer). 7. Some Bahá'ís simply gave the date when they filled out the card, rather than the date of "enrolment." 8. Letter from Emeric Sala, Montreal, 30 October 1942, to John A. Robarts, Toronto, RSP. 9. The eight include Bruce Hogg, Jack Caldwell, John Dixon, Claude Elliott, Allan Hyde, Harold Hope, Edna Sherborne, and Phyllis Glead.
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Fifteen — Building a National Bahá'í Community, 1947–48 When Shoghi Effendi announced to the "first peacetime" National Bahá'í Convention, in April 1946, that an objective of the second SevenYear Plan of the Bahá'ís of United States and Canada was the "formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in the Dominion of Canada" (Bahá'í News, December 1946, p. 4), it confirmed an already ongoing process of forging a national Bahá'í community in Canada. 1 This process was primarily set in motion by the War years, as described in the previous chapter. The NorthSouth ties of Canadian Bahá'í administrative organization with the United States Bahá'i community were now to be replaced by EastWest links among the nearly fifty Canadian locales where Bahá'ís resided. What led to the strengthening of these EastWest links in Canada? What social processes account for the emergence of a national Bahá'í consciousness leading up to the formation of Canada's own National Spiritual Assembly in April 1948? The development of a national consciousness of any community requires more than members' abstract knowledge about each other. It necessitates a familiar acquaintance with members who seem to be in the forefront of activities and capable of leading a national community. What a national community also requires is a common stock of knowledge about the movement's aims and teachings. The phenomenon of voluntary travelling teaching of Bahá'ís across Canada and the rise of Bahá'í schools were the primary vehicles by which Bahá'ís became acquainted with each other's capacities and interests, and by which the internalization of the Bahá'í Faith's tenets and ideology was able to occur. Travelling Bahá'í Teachers Travelling teaching as a regularly occurring part of the Bahá'í national landscape in Canada began with the launching of the first SevenYear Plan (1937–44) of the National Spiritual Assembly, and continued until and beyond the establishment of Canada's own National Spiritual
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Assembly in 1948. The frequency and intensity of travelling Bahá'í teachers can be marked into three periods. The overall number of teachers, the proportion of Canadians among them, the number of places visited, and the number of presentations are sufficiently distinctive for comparison by episode (see Table 17). Table 17 Recorded Travelling Teachers, Presentations, and Places Visited in Canada, 1937–48 (annual averages)
Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
1937–41
1941–45
1945–48
9
11
16
All teachers Canadian teachers
3
5
8
Presentations
12
16
39
Places visited
6
6
15
Source: Bahá'í News, 1937–48.
The first period shows an average of nine teachers a year, and each period thereafter shows a steady increase. The second period (N = 11) shows a 22% increase over the first, and the third period (N= 16) indicates an 78% increase. The proportion of Canadians who were travelling teachers also shows a steady increase. In the first period (1937–41) we find only three Canadians. The second period (N = 5) reveals an increase of 67%, while the third period (N=8) accounts for a 167% increase, as compared to the first period. The average yearly number of presentations made by the travelling teachers show a similar trend. While in any given year during the first period, nine travelling teachers would make twelve presentations, the second period (N=16) shows a 33% increase, and the third period (N = 39) a 225% increase. In sum, during each of the threeyear periods (1937–48) leading up to the formation of the Canadian National Spiritual Assembly, the average number of all travelling teachers, Canadian teachers, and presentations went up by 78%, 167%, and 225%, respectively. The number of locales visited also increased significantly. For each year in the last period (1945–48) an average of fifteen were visited each year, representing a 150% increase over the first period. Canadian Bahá'ís were thus increasingly exposed to many more Canadian travelling teachers, making a larger number of presentations in a greater number of places.
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Since it could be suggested that, in fact, travelling teachers were concentrating on just a few locales in Canada, we need to examine the geographical distribution of their travels (see Table 18). A wide distribution would lend credence to the idea that the travelling teacher played a key role in bringing about a raising of national consciousness and a consistent pattern of acquired Bahá'í knowledge among the Canadian Bahá'ís. Table 18 Geographical Distribution of Regions Visited by Travelling Teachers in Canada, 1937–48 (%)
Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Total
Region
1937–41
1941–45
1945–48
1937–48
Atlantic
13
22
27
20
Quebec and Ontario
27
33
27
29
Prairies
20
13
28
20
British Columbia
40
32
19
31
Total
100
100
100
100
N =
45
54
118
217
Note: Percentages are rounded.
The first period (1937–41) shows an uneven geographical distribution of places visited by travelling teachers, with the Atlantic Region receiving only 13% and British Columbia receiving as much as 40%—a 27% difference. The second period (1941–45) shows a slight levelling off of the two extremes; nevertheless, the Prairies dropped to only 13% on the itinerary of travelling teachers, while the highest percentage (33%) went to Quebec and Ontario—a difference of 20%. The third period indicates a more remarkable levelling off of itineraries among Canada's regions. The difference between the region receiving the least attention (British Columbia with 19%) and the highest (the Prairies with 28%) narrows the difference down to only 10% All four regions are fairly balanced in visits by travelling teachers, varying between 20% for the Prairies, and 31% for British Columbia. The geographical distribution of travelling teachers in Canada provided one of the principal mechanisms not only to widely educate the Canadian Bahá'ís about Bahá'í teachings and ideology, but also to expose the Bahá'ís to a wide range of teachers, topics, and presentations.
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Conferences and Schools A second element that provided the necessary means for the Canadian Bahá'í community to acquire a national consciousness was Bahá'í schools, which Bahá'ís today see as precursors to the establishment of Bahá'í centres for higher learning. While Bahá'í schools provide a temporary experiment in Bahá'í community living, the overarching goal was the presentation of topics that promote Bahá'í learning. They take place in rented quarters, providing both room and board for either a long weekend or a full week. 2 The first Bahá'í summer school in Canada, in fact, was atypical. Held in Montreal from 29 June to 2 July 1941, it was held in three different homes: at the Schopflochers', the Salas', and the Maxwells', with twentyfive people in attendance. A month later, the Ontario Bahá'ís organized a summer school at Glen Lynden Farm, Rice Lake, from 3 to 9 August; twentynine attended. Several weeks later still, from 29 to 31 August, a summer session was planned in Vernon, British Columbia. Fewer than twenty attended. A regional pattern of summer schools began to emerge in Canada. In eastern Canada, the sessions moved among New Brunswick (1942, 1947), Prince Edward Island (1946), and Nova Scotia. There is no record how many people attended these Maritime sessions, except that the last one in 1947 had sixteen in attendance. As far as records show, all of the teachers at the Maritime sessions were either Canadians or American pioneers who would stay in Canada until their deaths (see Table 19). Table 19 Proportion of Recorded Canadian and American Teachers at Canadian Summer Schools, 1941–47
Canadian
American
Total
Ontario
50
50
100 (N = 12)
Western Canada
62
39
100 (N = 13)
Quebec
88
13
100 (N = 8)
Maritimes
100
0
100 (N = 4)
Note: Percentages are rounded.
By 1947 the Quebec area held its sessions3 in a permanent Bahá'í school property called Beaulac near Rawdon, north of Montreal. Beaulac itself was acquired in October 1946 (Bahá'í World, 1952: 21). In 1942, however, a summer session was still held at Paul Sala's farm in
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Riviere Beaudette. Attendance in Quebec schools ranged from twentyfive to fortyfive. Of the teachers in these schools 88% were Canadians. In central Canada, the sessions initially took place at Rice Lake, Ontario (1941–43, 1946–47), Camp Franklin (1944), and Blue Mountain Lodge (1945). These schools recorded the highest attendance of all Canadian summer schools, ranging from twentynine to sixty people, but as far as records show, only 50% of the teachers were Canadians; the rest were Americans. In western Canada, the first sessions were held in British Columbia (1941), but eventually established themselves in Banff, Alberta (1946, 1947). Anywhere from twelve to thirtytwo people attended the western Canada sessions. Almost twothirds (62%) of the teachers were Canadian. The proportion of Canadians who were teachers in the regions was not homogeneous. Ontario seems to have relied most heavily on American presenters, while the Maritimes used none at all. It can be more accurately stated that the Canadian national Bahá'í community consisted of two major blocks: on one hand, the west consisted of two regional groups, British Columbia and the Prairies, and, on the other hand, the east with Ontario and Quebec, and the Maritimes. The intensity of summer schools and conferences increased between 1941 and 1948. 4 There seem to have been three phases. During the first phase, 1941 and 1942, an average of four to five schools and conferences were held across the country. The second phase, 1943 to 1945, saw a decline of such events, averaging two to four a year, while the third phase, 1946 to 1947, witnessed a remarkable increase of schools and conferences, averaging six to seven a year. No doubt the establishment of the first Canadian National Teaching Committee in December 1946 (Bahá'í News, February 1947, p. 6)5 had a role in promoting these schools. The sevenmember National Teaching Committee would serve as the precursor to Canada's own National Spiritual Assembly. First Canadian National Bahá'í Convention The Canadian National Bahá'í Convention to elect the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada took place at the Maxwell home at 1548 West Pine Avenue, Montreal, 24 and 25 April 1948 (Bahá'í News, September 1947, p. 9). Present were 112 Bahá'ís, thirteen of whom were delegates (Bahá'í News, June 1948, p. 3). Shoghi Effendi had already indicated that, according to the wishes and plans of 'Abdu'lBahá, a National Spiritual Assembly must be indirectly elected by the Bahá'ís. Each area of the country had to elect its quota of delegates, depending upon the proportional numerical strength of the area (Shoghi Effendi, 1963: 59).
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On Friday evening, 23 April, an open house was held in the Maxwell home in Montreal. Some twenty Bahá'ís arrived early for the occasion, exchanging news and welcomes, and viewing slides of the newly acquired Bahá'í school at Beaulac, Rawdon, Quebec. The Convention was formally opened on a sunny Saturday morning, 24 April, with Bahá'ís' reminiscing about the accomplishments of the Canadian Bahá'í community, but particularly the visit of 'Abdu'lBahá. A chronicler of the time put it this way: we share in the thrilling days of preparation for the Master's ['Abdu'lBahá's] visit; we sit in the very room where He spoke, perhaps the very chair He sat on; we see Him stride in flowing robes up and down the street before the white doorway, while the interested, awed, and curious drive by slowly in their carriages. Into a pellet of thought, rush memories, of the many years of struggling, patient, ecstatic effort…. (Bahá'í News, June 1948, p. 8)
Six delegates from the west were prevented by "flood and three thousand miles" from attending the historic convention. Dorothy Baker of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada, accompanied by four other members of that body, 6 opened the convention and later conducted the election of officers for the National Convention. A message from Shoghi Effendi, giving the Bahá'ís of Canada a "FiveYear Plan," was read, followed by comments by Dorothy Baker. Mary Maxwell, known as Rúhíyyih Khánum since her marriage to Shoghi Effendi, read a message on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to the delegates and others gathered at the convention. In the evening, the attendees retired to the large auditorium of the Montreal High School where a public meeting took place. The timing seemed to conspire against the Bahá'ís as it was also the night of Passover and an exhibition by Canada's worldchampion figure skater, Barbara Ann Scott (Gazette, 24 April 1948). Nevertheless, 500 guests attended. The program consisted of music and a presentation by Elsie Austin, a Bahá'í and the first African American assistant attorney general in the United States, who focussed on the theme of the birth of new forces out of the chaos and welter of the old. The other speaker was a youthful Ross Woodman, just elected a member of Canada's first National Spiritual Assembly. Mme Olga Lieber offered selections on the piano (ibid., p. 2). Sunday, 25 April, witnessed the election of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. As the same chronicler continued: The first day was one of adjustment, of feeling the knitting processes. Now we would become one point, and from the physical core of our national unity, begin to diffuse the spirit of unity that binds us
Page 271 together. Our National body would become the great lamp, we the suppliers of fuel to feed the lamp its light of faith. The election of our National Spiritual Assembly took place in an atmosphere befitting such an historic occasion, possibly the greatest event taking place at that moment on this planet. (Bahá'í News, June 1948, p. 9)
Despite the absence of the six western delegates, who voted by mail, a perfect number of ballots were cast. Held in an atmosphere of quiet prayer and reflection, in the absence of nominations, election promises, and platforms, the thirteen delegates present voted for members of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. Each delegate followed his or her conscience in deciding whom to vote for. It was during a presentation of the progress on the Bahá'í House of Worship being erected on the shores of Lake Michigan, just north of Chicago, that the tellers issued their report. Immediately following the tellers' announcement, a prayer was offered on behalf of May Maxwell, the "Mother of Canada." The highlight of the convention was attained. Following the election results, the assembled Bahá'ís received a gift from the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States for the Canadian Assembly, a cheque for US$1,500. It is worthwhile to examine the membership of the National Spiritual Assembly. The following individuals were elected in order of votes received: John Robarts (Ontario, elected chair), Emeric Sala (Quebec), Laura R. Davis (Ontario, elected secretary), Siegfried Schopflocher (Quebec, elected treasurer), Rowland Estall (Manitoba), Lloyd Gardner (Ontario), Rosemary Sala (Quebec), Doris Richardson (Ontario), and Ross Woodman (Ontario), three women and six men, five from Ontario, three from Quebec, and one from Manitoba. 7 We are reminded of the important role of travelling teachers and Bahá'í schools between 1937 and 1948 in the formation of a national community consciousness, because the members of the new National Spiritual Assembly were among the most travelled Bahá'ís in Canada—who had been extensively involved in the travelling teaching work and enjoying an unprecedented visibility in the communities. Twelve women and sixteen men volunteered as travelling teachers in the 1937–48 period (see Table 20). With three exceptions, the members of the National Spiritual Assembly made the highest number of presentations of all twentyseven travelling teachers. After the convention, those in attendance were invited to a supper in the Maxwell home as guests of the daughter and father of May Maxwell, Rúhíyyih Khánum and W. Sutherland Maxwell, respectively. Then, the St. Lambert Bahá'í community hosted the Bahá'í Holy Day,
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the "Feast of Ridván." The convening of such a large number of events by so few members suggests a hastened maturity of the Canadian Bahá'í community as it prepared for the formation of its first National Spiritual Assembly, welcomed by the "Bahá'í world" as its ninth national Bahá'í governing body. Only fortyfive years later, in 1993, there were 165 such national bodies around the world and Canadians had played an important role in the formation of a number of them. Table 20 Canadian Travelling Teachers, 1937–48 and First National Spiritual Assembly Membership, 1948 (and number of presentations) Female (N = 12)
Male (N = 15)
Rosemary Sala (10)a
Emeric Sala (20)a
Laura R. Davis (4)a
Rowland Estall (15)a
Blanche Liddell (3)
John Robarts (11)a
Doris McKay (3)
Ross Woodman (8)a
Doris Richardson (2)a
Willard McKay (7)
Lorol Schopflocher (2)
Siegfried Schopflocher (4)a
Mae McKenna (2)
George Spendlove (2)
Muriel Warnicker (1)
Lloyd Gardner (1)a
Doris Skinner (1)
Bill Suter (1)
Winnifred Harvey (1)
Paul Sala (1)
Evelyn Cliff (1)
Austin Collin (1)
Adline Lohse (1)
Ernest Sala (1)
John De Mille (1)
Craig Weaver (1)
Albert Rakovsky (1)
a Indicates National Spiritual Assembly Membership, 1948. Source: Bahá'í News, 1937–48.
Broad Thematic Contours of the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1898–1948 Five distinct periods guided the development of the Canadian Bahá'í community Initial Chaos (1897–1912) The first period (1897–1912) featured members with diffused ideologies and mixed commitments. This period seems chaotic, with new converts having little or no sustained contact with one another. It was a group of
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expatriate Canadians in Chicago who first became attracted to the new religion, one family eventually establishing a temporary base in London, Ontario. These earliest adherents were, for the most part, vitally concerned with social reform and social change. Bahá'í beliefs were not yet clearly formulated as so few of the Bahá'í writings were then available. Coming into the new religion with an admixture of liberal Protestantism, New Thought, higher biblical criticism, Theosophy, Rosicrucianism, occultism, or spiritualism, converts held onto mere strands of Bahá'í beliefs. Such a medley of beliefs was not enough to sustain a body of committed believers organized around Bahá'í principles and discourse. Moreover, without much social contact, each of these early believers went his or her own way. We are not surprised at the fate of some of these early Bahá'ís, a fate which is so tragically portrayed by our scene of Honoré Jaxon, evicted from his apartment, sitting beside his papers, on a street in a large city (Woodman, 1993). A few remained committed, but most moved on to other causes, social or political. This period has been characterized as "sheer originating chaoticness," and a "bewildering rush of seemingly unrelated events," in which "the real hero (Bahá'u'lláh) remains absent" (ibid.: 2) It was left to an American believer, May Ellis Maxwell, arriving from France in 1902, to become the driving force for this period. She articulated a clear sense of Bahá'í mission, directly inspired by 'Abdu'lBahá. May Maxwell reached across various social strata and managed to gather together a small group of believers in Montreal. Their loyalty was, through her, crystallized in the person of 'Abdu'lBahá, whose life and works assumed, in the hearts and minds of those early adherents, a Christlike character and interpretation. Moorings of Incipient Community Life (1912–27) The visit of the charismatic 'Abdu'lBahá launched the second period (1912–27) and affected community identity and changed styles of boundary maintenance and organization. In 1912, 'Abdu'lBahá's sojourn in North America, including a nineday visit to Montreal, extended the personal loyalty and private faith of these early believers to an emerging concept of Bahá'í community, however rudimentary. Propagation began also to assume a different character. A quiet change had occurred among the Bahá'ís when May Maxwell and Marion Jack, another prominent Canadian believer, who also found the Bahá'í Faith in France, undertook long travellingteaching visits across the breadth of Canada, as far north as the Yukon and as far east as Newfoundland. American and Persian Bahá'ís also responded to 'Abdu'lBahá's call to spread the Bahá'í Faith through travels in Canada. During
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World War I 'Abdu'lBahá had penned his Tablets of the Divine Plan (1977, rev. ed.), a series of fourteen letters outlining the teaching tasks that lay ahead of the North American Bahá'í community to carry their new Faith around the globe. Significantly, a number of Bahá'ís, especially those of Jewish heritage, seized upon the vision of Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith since 1921, that the fundamental aim of the religion of Bahá'u'lláh was to transform society in terms of an emerging world order. 8 With this vision, the Bahá'í teaching work gained momentum, as new topics and ideas (not based merely on a Christian, Theosophical or Rosicrucian orientation towards the Bahá'í teachings) became the vehicles for attracting new believers from a wider variety of strata. Readying the Administrative Institutions (1927–37) The Bahá'ís in Canada began to increasingly envision the development of Bahá'í institutions and collective action as an integral part of being a Bahá'í. The legal incorporation of the initially joint National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada in 1927 created new and more stringent criteria for Bahá'í membership. Whereas previously the boundaries were porous, they became firmer. With the insistence of developing a Bahá'í administrative framework among what was initially a looseknit gathering of individuals, there developed a perceptible difference between the older and newer members. The older members found the others overzealous in their application of Bahá'í administrative procedure. Expansion (1937–41) The great transformation of the Bahá'í community in Canada occurred during the fourth period (1937–41). When Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, considered the Bahá'í administrative framework sufficiently ready, he called upon the North American Bahá'í community to organize a systematic teaching campaign (through the SevenYear Plan, 1937–44) and establish new Spiritual Assemblies across the continent. Whereas previously the Bahá'í teaching work had been left in the hands of a few believers, the new directives specifically involved Bahá'í administrative councils (the Spiritual Assemblies). In Canada, a Spiritual Assembly was to be formed in at least one city in each province by 1944. The task was immense, for there were only ninety Bahá'ís in the whole country—barely the number required to establish even the minimum number of nine ninemember Spiritual Assemblies. This period saw an efflorescence of approaches in spreading the Bahá'í Faith which was well suited to the cultural milieu of the Bahá'ís,
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whose previous religion was mainly Protestant: the socalled ''fireside" gatherings in one's home, public meetings, systematic teaching campaigns, and both homefront and longdistance pioneering. Once established, a Bahá'í community would either experience growth, little growth, or even decline. The elements that contributed to growth consisted of the community's ability to maintain a diverse approach in propagating the newly established religion and to foster linkages with the wider society. The main characteristic of low or nogrowth communities was too much reliance on other (nearby) communities for their teaching work and transient pioneers. Gender imbalance was also higher in these latter communities than in the former, successful ones. Emergence of a National Bahá'í Identity (1942–48) The fifth period (1942–48) witnessed the emergence of a Bahá'í national identity in Canada. By way of external influence, World War II helped create this identity among the Bahá'ís through the forced necessity of establishing a Canadian Bahá'í fund and articulating the Bahá'í position towards noninvolvement in politics in general and in World War II in particular. Due to national currency exchange regulations, the Bahá'ís of Canada were, moreover, compelled to hold their own Bahá'í schools and conferences and establish their own fund. The travellingteaching campaigns, like Bahá'í schools and conferences, began in the third period and were maintained with considerable vigour in the fourth and final period. The teaching campaigns and the summer schools had, however, an intrinsic value beyond the fact that they propagated the Bahá'í Faith: they educated a body of new believers across Canada about the Bahá'í systems of beliefs and administration. For the first time, too, Bahá'ís were in touch on a national scale with their most active organizers and teachers. The process of developing travelling teaching and schools and conferences allowed Bahá'ís to experience, first hand, the array of personal abilities that existed in the Canadian Bahá'í national community. The period culminated in 1948 with the formation of Canada's own national governing council, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. With the birth of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, Shoghi Effendi provided the Canadian Bahá'í community with a "FiveYear Plan," which called upon it, within five years, to incorporate its national governing body, establish national land holdings ("endowments"), double the number of local Spiritual Assemblies from sixteen to thirtytwo, form a group of Bahá'ís in Newfoundland and a nucleus of believers in Greenland, and to foster the enrolment and par
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ticipation of Canada's native peoples, both Indian and Inuit, in the Bahá'í community. Another history will eventually record the trials and accomplishments of Canada's "generation of the halflight." Following our fiftyyear survey of the historical and social dimensions in the creation of the Canadian Bahá'í community, we now turn to consider the integration of these of our empirical findings with the sociological literature. In doing so, we shall address the overall theme, namely, how a nonWestern religious movement has taken root in a Western society. Notes 1. From information supplied by the Director of National Bahá'í Archives in Wilmette, Illinois, it is instructive to note that the number of Canadian delegates to the National Convention of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada increased from two in 1937 to eleven in 1947—the last year when the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada shared the National Convention (Dahl, 1994). The number of Canadian Bahá'ís who were elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada (and its predecessor, Bahai Temple Unity) ranged from none (1912–17, 1921–23, 1935–37, and 1944–47), one (1911, 1918–20, 1925–34, and 1938–43), to two (only in 1924). 2. There are now a number of permanent facilities in both Canada and the United States. Some operate all year long. 3. A full account of Canada's first Bahá'í school is found in Bahá'í News, November 1947, pp. 10–11. 4. Information was gathered from issues of Bahá'í News, 1941–48. 5. Its members consisted of Siegfried Schopflocher, John A. Robarts, A. Victor Davis, Rowland Estall, Emeric Sala, Laura R. Davis, and Doris Richardson. 6. The other Americans included Elsie Austin, Amelia Collins, Horace Holley, and George Latimer. 7. Of these, John Robarts, Emeric Sala, Laura R. Davis, and Rowland Estall served (1946–47) on both a Regional Teaching Committee and the National Teaching Committee. Siegfried Schopflocher and Doris Richardson served only on the National Teaching Committee, while Rosemary Sala served only on a Regional Teaching Committee (Bahá'í News, August 1946). 8. The Promise of World Peace, a statement issued by the Universal House of Justice (1986), reinforced this vision of world order and world peace as one of the "fundamental objectives of the Bahá'í Faith."
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Sixteen — Social and Cultural Adaptation in the Canadian Setting
1
The one defining feature that characterized the social and cultural adaptation of the emerging Bahá'í community in Canada between 1898 and 1948 is what I call religious singleness: the existence of a community of believers who, by virtue of their few members, express their faith in terms of their individual existence, while maintaining their individual ties to a wider society that does not share their beliefs. The "wider" society is even defined by such small groups as one's family (including spouse, children, and other relatives), as well as larger forms of social organization, such as place of work and social and civil institutions.2 The challenge for such a new religious movement consists of maintaining a distinctive value system while having soft and permeable boundaries. This feature is particularly relevant today as the international context of new movements becomes more important than their localized expressions of community. This concluding chapter speaks to that religious singleness in the context of Canada's 1898–1948 religious landscape, where mainstream churches dominated and religious experimentation was largely absent. Religion in Canada Religion in Canada, during the first half of the twentieth century, played a formidable role in crystallizing the cultural, social, and economic forces of the country. Religious life in Canada, with less religious diversity than the United States, was dominated by four large denominations. It was, in effect, a religious oligopoly (Westhues, 1976: 21213, 220), which involved a "significantly higher concentration [of religious affiliation] in a few denominations and therefore a greater power of old traditions" (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 461).3 Towards the end of the nineteenth century, when the Bahá'ís made their first appearance in Canada, 46.6% of the Canadian population were either Methodists, Presbyterians, or Anglicans, while Roman Catholics represented 41.6% (Walsh, 1963: 156); only slightly over 10% of the population did not
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belong to these four mainstream religious traditions. Between 1901 and 1951, the changes in the religious affiliation of Canadians were only slight (see Table 21). Table 21 Religious Affiliation of Canadians, 1901 and 1951 (%)
1901
1951
Roman Catholic
41.7
43.3
Mainstream Protestant
46.3
40.9
Other
11.9
15.4
No religion
0.1
0.4
100
100
Total
Source: Dominion Bureau of Statistics (1953: 371).
The first half of the twentieth century produced some changes among the major denominations in Canada, with a decline in the proportion of Catholics, but the trend reversed itself during the 1930s. Protestantism gave birth to the social gospel movement—a Christian reform movement that arose in response to the social ills of industrialism (Fallding, 1978: 150). Nevertheless, the proportion of Protestants began to decline, so that, by 1951, 40.9% adhered to mainstream Protestantism. After 1921 Canada also saw an increase of the population adhering to other religious groups; the "nonreligious" increased from 0.1% in 1901, to 0.4% in 1951. Nonetheless, Canada preserved its religiously homogeneous image during this period. Sociologists have characterized Canadian society in terms of its "religious conservatism, congregational ecumenism, and cooperation," which make the religious topography less suitable for sectarianism and thirdforce religious activity (Hiller, 1978: 205). According to Stark and Bainbridge (1985: 504), the "tendency for homogeneity to limit variety will be especially marked when people live in relatively stable, small communities." In contrast, areas with larger and denser concentrations of population are more able to sustain deviant subcultures because ties to the normative culture are weak and anonymity prevails in such places. The religious solidity of Canadian life was predicated on formal and informal relations between the state and its main churches, notably the Catholic and Anglican Churches. The "union churches" (Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists) also played a leading role in
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setting the religious temperament of Canada. According to Westhues (1978), Catholicism is essentially recognized as the state church of Québec, with deep historical roots. The religious authorities had developed wellorganized seigniories that allowed them to maintain a "profound harmony" with the state (de Grandpré, 1963: 8). As francophone religious leaders had considerable independence when dealing with civil authorities, the Church was an independent authority in each diocese and whenever religion and politics crossed in public issues, the government was more likely to remove itself from public discussion (ibid.: 11–12). The clerical and popular dream of spreading Catholicism was, moreover, an enduring one, so that other Canadian provinces have recognized and given support to Catholic schools. With roots in England, Anglicanism had gained a stronghold as early as the eighteenth century (Millman, 1963: 15–16). Millman (ibid.: 17) reminds us that the "Anglican mind … likes to worship in surroundings that recall the story both of church and nation." Anglicanism was also closely tied to commercial interests. Important trading companies like the Hudson's Bay Company accorded more recognition to the Anglican Church than it did to others. When the twentieth century dawned, the Anglican Church was marked by a strong belief in continuity of traditions and in "banishing and driving away all 'erroneous and strange doctrine contrary to God's Word'" (ibid.: 21). There were, nevertheless, regional variations in its traditional modes of thought and action, ranging from its tendency to be ''stiff" and vigorous in its defense and to be selfassured, with "an expansionist mentality, a willingness to accept responsibility and to give leadership" (ibid.: 24). Despite these subtle variations, the connection to the "English State Church" was unvarying. Millman (ibid.: 23) describes Anglican influence as a "sturdy Protestant conservatism." A third, major religious stream was centred on the "union churches" of Canada, which include Congregational, Presbyterian, and Methodist churches—consolidated in 1925 into the United Church of Canada. While American revivalism, the temperance movement, and other religious experimentation exercised some influence on these churches, the significance of such movements is less notable that in was in the US (N.G. Smith, 1963: 45). Such alliances made the Canadian religious experience, according to Lipset (1964: 183) "less prone to fundamentalism and experimentalism." Of these churches, however, Methodism in Canada—one of the principal background sources of Bahá'í recruitment—proved to be the most open to a pragmatic and tolerant outlook on other forms of belief (French, 1963: 81). It is within this context of Canada's religious terrain between 1898 and
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1948 that a study of the adaptation of a new religious movement becomes particularly interesting and useful. The only way, it seems, that religious minorities can exist in religious monocultures is in small pockets—as a sort of religious singleness. I will address this religious singleness when I now discuss the source of recruits, recruitment strategies, and membership and commitment. I will also consider the culture and ideology that pertain to the early facets of the Bahá'í community in Canada. Recruitment and Membership Sources of Recruitment The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948, has attempted to carefully record the contributions of women to the Bahá'í community of Canada, especially, as Janet Jacobs indicates (1991: 352), because there is a propensity of researchers to reinforce the group's perspective on women by not being concerned with or acknowledging the role of women in various facets of new religious movements. Women were a critical factor in the dynamics of propagation of the new faith between 1898 and 1948. The Bahá'í community consistently attracted a large proportion of women, which constituted 70% of its membership (it is not unusual to have as much as a 75%female membership in new religious movements). 4 This fact had several implications for the Bahá'í community. In the earlier periods the Bahá'í community was a magnet for maternal suffragists and social reformers. They saw the Bahá'í Faith as a confirmation of their own ideals about anticipated social change. Their main allegiance was to their own ideals, rather than to Bahá'í ideals. The recruitment of these women to the Bahá'í community was primarily the result of the personal magnetism and capacities of individual Bahá'ís, such as May Maxwell. While the incipient Bahá'í appeal largely involved people of wellestablished means, the Bahá'í Faith increasingly began to attract single, urban, lower middleclass women. This feature, given the social context of the time, meant that Bahá'ís were primarily reaching other single women, and that the strategy of holding public meetings in hotels, rather than having livingroom firesides,5 provided the most appropriate, and usually the only, means for propagating the new faith. Without ties of marriage, and sometimes trained in a technical occupation that gave them geographical mobility, women also became the primary means by which the Bahá'í Faith spread across Canada. What accounts for the attraction of women to new religious movements in general, and the Bahá'í Faith in particular? McGuire
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(1992: 12629) sees some new religious movements as a "vehicle for the assertion of alternative religious roles for women." She significantly suggests that in their formative years, religious movements "of nonprivileged classes have typically allotted equality to women" (ibid.: 126). Their relatively low position in the traditional religions and the opportunity to become leaders in new movements are the main reasons (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 41314) that women join these movements. Unlike the findings on the evolution of new religious movements which seem to signal a return to ''traditional, hierarchical, or bureaucratic forms of authority" (McGuire, 1992: 128), the Bahá'í community has explicitly affirmed in its own sacred literature its teachings on the equality of women and men as evidenced in the active participation of women as Bahá'í teachers and administrators. There were, sometimes, practices in the Bahá'í community that seem to undermine that participation (such as the traditional assignment of women and men to particular committees), 6 but these practices never overshadowed the overall place and recognition of women as speakers, Bahá'í teachers, pioneers, and the like. The participation of many single women in Bahá'í communities highlights another facet of religious singleness: the general absence of children. Sociologists have recorded the difficult transition from first to later generations in a social movement's membership (Ellwood, 1985: 15), underscoring the need to socialize children. The early (pre1927)7 Canadian Bahá'í community was clearly a community of adults, the "ideal" household of parents and children—who were all Bahá'ís—existed only in a few circumstances. The pattern of childlessness persisted after 1927, although children became more in evidence in the mid1930s. I estimate that only 25% to 40% of the children remained Bahá'ís after reaching the age of fifteen. This number was not sufficient to supply the next generation of adherents, especially when one considered that the range of other Bahá'ís for these children later to marry was either nonexistent or negligible.8 The Bahá'í community was thus a childless one, both in fact (with a few exceptions) and in orientation. Events were organized around adults, and married couples with children tended to isolate the children from the Bahá'í community. The presence of a disproportionate number of single women heightened the sense of childlessness. As it was also not uncommon to find couples with only one Bahá'í partner, we have a sense of religious "singleness." It was a subculture of public meetings and, in the case of a Bahá'í couple, livingroom firesides—all oriented towards adults. The geographical distribution of Canadian Bahá'ís between 1898 and 1948 also contributed to their religious singleness. Especially after
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1937, when Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, urged the small band of Canadian Bahá'ís to move to those provincial capitals which, as yet, had no Bahá'ís, many individual believers did find themselves alone and remote from their originating, home communities. True, individual Bahá'ís had already become acquainted with religious singleness even in the home, urban community—there were too few Bahá'ís to permit otherwise. But moving into a different part of the country, more usually alone than with someone else, underscored the feeling of religious singleness. Even those who did not find themselves setting off alone to distant places in Canada reinforced their religious singleness by exercising a lifestyle that seemed deviant. There was already a penchant of several people, either before they joined the Bahá'í community or after enrolling, to be activists in the field of technology, 9 or in social reform.10 A number of other Bahá'ís were actively in the forefront of racial amity work, such as those in Montreal and Halifax, while others made a deliberate decision to protect the assets of Japanese Canadians during wartime internment. Other adherents were forerunners of "health fads" and the fight against fluoridation and were thus known to take up causes that were controversial or far ahead of their time, or that at least provoked thought in the general population. Consider also, for example, the decision to join a religion with an esotericsounding name or to pull up stakes and move to a remote part of the country to advance "the Cause." Bahá'í membership thus increased or reinforced, not lessened, certain unpopular or deviant lifestyles; these lifestyles provided a modicum sense of community— something that later Bahá'ís would remember or retell with obvious affection. While initially the Bahá'í community attracted members of the upper class, it successively moved to attract people of the managerial class and, eventually, those with lower middleclass occupations. While in 1921 some 46% of the Bahá'ís were either upper or managerial class, by 1947 it dropped to 18%. In the case of the lowermiddleclass and lowerclass origins, in 1921, 48% of Bahá'ís came from this background, increasing to 75% in 1947 (van den Hoonaard, 1996). It is important to remember that throughout this shift in class membership the dominant Protestant flavour of Bahá'í communities still prevailed. There were few cultural differences in the changing class composition of Bahá'í membership, for what dominated the Bahá'í community was the Protestant temperament and tone of the orientation of the community: individualistic, organizationally focussed, and with an emphasis on teaching the socalled "twelve principles" of the Bahá'í Faith (rather than, let us say, the station of Bahá'u'lláh as the Revelator).
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The Protestant composition of Bahá'í membership was deeply intertwined with other factors of religious outlook and class. Under these circumstances, the Bahá'í community had a "Protestant accent" which not only reinforced religious singleness but also made it more difficult for members of other ethnic groups to join. In 1921, 89% of the Bahá'ís came from a Protestant background, while in 1947, it was 75%—only a slight reduction. While in 1921, only 4% of the Bahá'ís came from a Catholic background, they had increased to 12% in 1947 (van den Hoonaard, 1996). Catholic or francophone adherents, before 1948, must have found the lack of ritual and congregational prayer, the large number of single people and couples without children, and the absence of family and social ties an odd landscape. Such a social panorama lacked the familiar landmarks that could guide the behaviour and thought of Bahá'ís who did not come from a liberal Protestant background. 11 The Bahá'í community also seemed to have, in particular, attracted the "creative" class, consisting of artists and the like—another factor that fostered a religious singleness that might not have occurred if recruitment had involved a wider spectrum of people. Recruitment Strategies A new faith, in its early phase, tends to draw recruits from very narrow strata or from small, homogeneous categories of citizens. This is largely because "recruitment takes place primarily through development of new social bonds linking members with prospective recruits or through activation of existing interpersonal bonds …" (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 398). With its emphasis on individuality, personal responsibility, and its proclivity towards organized modern life, Protestantism provided the organizational basis for Bahá'í expansion. Notably, the use of fireside meetings in the living room and public meetings in hotels allowed the Bahá'í community to attract both those who favoured home life and those who preferred a neutral setting to teach and hear about the new religion. As a religion of the living room and hotels, the Bahá'í community must have also offered a new and challenging experience for members of various ethnic backgrounds. For the early Bahá'ís (pre1927) the new religion did not, as yet, wrap itself completely around the social self. The Bahá'ís had limited social knowledge of each other: along with Bahá'í membership they maintained extensive ties to other circles, often keeping them deliberately separate from the Bahá'í community. Moreover, the Bahá'í community did not as yet pervade all aspects of private and social life.
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It was only when the Bahá'í community began attracting Jewish members in Montreal in 1921 that the manner of propagation underwent change. Bahá'ís of Jewish heritage were among the first to respond with clarity and understanding to Shoghi Effendi's vision of the Bahá'í Faith as one that encompasses a world order. The Jewish contribution transformed a community that was innerdirected to one that became open to the world. The vigour and erudition of those of Jewish descent resulted in new orientation of the Bahá'í teaching work and in literary contributions to the Bahá'í community. 12 There were other important shifts in Bahá'í propagation as the work to spread the new religion shifted in the 1930s from the use of specialized individuals to do this work, to the use of local communities and of believers in general. Special mention should be made of the contribution of Bahá'ís who, as businessmen, were in a position to undertake extensive travels and lecture tours. Moreover, while previously new believers were strongly oriented towards the personality of their specialized teachers, the new conditions (i.e., when more Bahá'ís were involved with the teaching work) produced believers who were encouraged to become oriented towards the Bahá'í Writings, rather than to their teachers. Membership and Commitment One of the most intriguing questions associated with transplanting nonWestern new religious movements to Western settings revolves around the genuineness of new, Western, converts. "Can those," asks Gelberg (1991: 150), "in the new location who embrace the transplanted tradition truly embrace it?" One of the empirical indicators is commitment—a commitment expressed in length of membership in the new movement. Research on new religious movements shows that the average participant associates intensely for a while and then drops out (Bird and Reimer, 1982; Wallis, 1984: 42). Some, like Mickler, claim that the main problem of a new religious movement is not the high turnover rate, but members who opt out of active participation, while remaining nominal members (Mickler, 1991: 191). The Bahá'í community offers a different picture from other movements with a high turnover rate (Judah, 1974: 81, quoted by Wallis, 1984: 42). Between 1898 and 1948, the Bahá'í Faith, as a missionizing religion, managed to attract over 550 people—all Canadians, threequarters of whom remained Bahá'ís for the rest of their lives. Moreover, the proportion of those who stayed Bahá'ís for the rest of their lives increased between 1911 and 1948 (see Table 22). In 1911, only 31% of
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Bahá'ís would remain committed members for the rest of their lives, while in 1948, it had risen to 74% (van den Hoonaard, 1996). The stress placed on developing local governing councils and a community structure that involved more aspects of the individual may partly account for such membership commitment. Moreover, the Bahá'í community in Canada did not have a high rate of people who dropped out after being in the movement for a short period of time. Margit Warburg of the University of Copenhagen reports similar findings for the contemporary Danish Bahá'í community (personal communication, 2 June 1993). Table 22 Membership Rates, Canadian Bahá'í Community, 191148 (%) Membership
1911
1921
1931
1941
1948
To the end of one's life
31
43
58
70
74
Covering part of one's life
69
58
42
30
26
Total
100
100
100
100
100
N=
13
40
60
158
252
Missing N=
4
2
0
1
10
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a); all figures are rounded.
But how long did "nonlifers" remain in the Bahá'í community? Although the proportion of "nonlifers" decreased to just over a quarter of all Bahá'ís, so did the average length of their membership (see Table 23). In 1921, a "nonlifer'' would remain in the Bahá'í Faith for 14.2 years, while by 1948, the average number of years had decreased by almost half to 7.7 years. There is no ready explanation for this observation. Perhaps stricter membership criteria and more emphasis on maintaining a "Bahá'í life" (implying a more rigorous individual and collective code of conduct) made it less likely for less committed members to stay on as long as was previously the case. There is some evidence that the intensification of the religious element in new movements (such as is the case with Transcendental Meditation) can cause a decline in the number of new members (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 302). The lifelong membership commitments meant that the Bahá'í community did not have to devise ways to deal with problems arising out of a high membership turnover. Some sociologists (e.g., McCarthy and Zald, 1977) recognize the fact that it is very important for move
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ments to secure resources to continue their work. The Bahá'í approach to such matters, as we have demonstrated, is rather different, because the Bahá'í community retained its committed members and funds could be received only from Bahá'ís on a voluntary basis. Table 23 Average Length of Bahá'í Membership of "Nonlifers," 191148 "Nonlifers"
1911
1921
1931
1941
1948
Mean years
11.6
14.2
14.5
10.6
7.7
N=
9
23
25
48
66
Total membership (N)
17
42
60
159
262
Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a).
Given the religious singleness of the early Bahá'ís in Canada, the length of Bahá'í membership as an expression of commitment was remarkable. Such commitment was particularly unusual because the Bahá'í subculture had boundaries that were soft and not clearly defined. Culture and Ideology Cultural Adaptation While Theosophy, Methodism, and Rosicrucianism constituted the source religious outlook of many of the Bahá'ís before the 1920s, it is clear that liberal Protestantism was the principal anvil upon which the Bahá'í community was initially forged. With the rise of the social gospel movement during the first two decades of the twentieth century, a number of early Bahá'í members worked with different personal agendas within the Bahá'í movement. For early Bahá'ís, it was a matter of highlighting those Bahá'í teachings that would speak to the larger cultural frame. Since the attraction to a new faith is "greater among the unchurched and among members of the most secularized and 'liberal' denominations" (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 399), the particular emphasis of Bahá'í teachings (and methods) had to speak to the secular heart and mind. As a consequence, the early Bahá'ís mixed the attraction of liberal biblical interpretations, the principle of the equality of men and women, the emphasis on universal peace and the elimination of the extremes of poverty and wealth with their own crusading spirits, which may have been derived from the prevailing conditions of society at large.
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A particularly noteworthy facet of what the early Bahá'ís emphasized relates to the importance our culture attaches to the idea of the "individual." They selected the following Bahá'í teachings as a set of principles that emphasized individuality: the need for individuals to seek truth independently of others, to assume individual responsibility for their own spiritual development, and to spread the Bahá'í teachings on a personal basis. 13 Indeed, Wyman (1985: 103) offers a contemporary illustration of the meaning of conversion to the Bahá'í Faith. She found that conversion is about individual and personal growth—not dissimilar to the larger American discourse about religious conversion.14 Wyman's cultural analysis (1985) of the Bahá'í Faith shows how religious discourse can be appropriated for other purposes. In the American context, Bahá'í discourse is used as a tool for defining the self and is about individualized psychology, not about religious "truth" (Wyman, 1985: 103). Other researchers have noted similar processes of cultural framing of the Bahá'í message (e.g., Peter Smith, 1987: 145). In a more general context (van den Hoonaard, 1984), the orientation of Bahá'ís towards the larger society can take one of several forms, involving an "embryonic," "integrative," "oasis," or "composite'' view. Bahá'ís see the world, respectively, as a place where the Bahá'í community is an embryo of the future society, where the Bahá'í community and the world are converging, where the Bahá'í community is a refuge from a declining civilization, or where the needs of the Bahá'í community and those of the wider society are intertwined.15 Bahá'í Subculture The structure of community and organization bears directly upon a new religious group's ability to draw and retain new members. Some scholars, like Beckford (1975: 83), have found that if a movement fosters an "intensive form of community," rather than massmovement strategies, it is more likely to attract potential recruits, especially when a new faith is seen as a haven, or refuge. The dilemma of Bahá'í communities consisted of the difficulty of developing a Bahá'í subculture with permeable and relatively "soft" boundaries in the wider society. Slow growth may have been a concommitant consequence of this difficulty. Archer, in her study of a contemporary southern United States Bahá'í community (1977: 239), offers the thoughtful observation that the Bahá'í community's inability to attract many members reflects "the group's inability to create rewards that compete with the secular world's." According to her, the Bahá'í dilemma is to make its "intellectual and sacred rewards … attractive to people who want instrumental rewards" (ibid.). Such "competitive awareness" exposes a Bahá'í to the
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"attractions" of both worlds, in contrast to Christian sects that maintain their identity in relative isolation from the larger society. Their (i.e., Christian sects') moral rejection of society disallows competitive awareness, but permits the rapid emergence of a distinctive subculture. But how did the Bahá'í community in the period surveyed allow competitive awareness, and what was its impact on Bahá'í identity and culture? Ralph Turner's work on norm emergence or cultural construction in the early age of a social movement is particularly relevant here (Turner and Killian, 1987: 35–51). The Bahá'í community subculture appeared to be both fragile and variable. At last, during the 1930s and 1940s, when the Bahá'í community took a more definite form and a blueprint of Bahá'í life began to emerge, we found changes in the fragile subculture. Oriented initially towards individualism, this subculture did not emphasize knowledge of fellow Bahá'ís outside their role as participating believers—Bahá'ís knew little about each other. As well, there were few, if any, study classes held about Bahá'í community, administration, and organization, which would provide them with the necessary knowledge to develop and maintain a subculture. While the Bahá'í sacred writings prescribed a religious moral code, this prescription depended mainly on the ability of Bahá'ís to form a community with an administrative framework to set the boundaries of the community. The earliest adherents were sometimes quite unaware of what Bahá'í scriptures said about the need to maintain such a code—too few scriptures had been translated into English—and the believers generally followed the societal standards. Without a definite Bahá'í community to which they could attach themselves, the earliest Bahá'ís saw themselves as "morally normative" (Kent, 1993). It was much later, in the 1930s, after Shoghi Effendi had translated additional Bahá'í writings, that a distinct moral code came into being. As a rule, then, as the Bahá'í community grew, moral codes of behaviour became stricter. Before 1927 there were differences between the old and new Bahá'ís. Such differences were particularly apparent in the mid1920s when Bahá'ís were being transformed into an organized community, rather than a mere collection of individuals who were likely to cast the Bahá'í teachings in Christianized terms. The newer Bahá'ís tended to be more worldly and were administratively zealous. Some Christianized elements did, however, persist, even among this latter group, who continued to hold weekly Sunday meetings, rather than attaching more importance to the NineteenDay Feast, a distinct Bahá'í social invention and institution. When members began to realize though that the Bahá'í Faith also included an administrative system, differences between old and new believers became even more heightened.
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In the Bahá'í case, there were several factors that disallowed the potential source of the abovementioned difficulties. First, the relatively small size of communities made it virtually impossible not to elect new members, whether youthful or not. However small the Bahá'í communities, there was still an elected, local governing council (in the case of nine or more adherents), or a locally elected group (in the case of eight or fewer members) which during the first half of the century precluded limiting membership on these bodies to old timers: there were simply not enough adherents in any given Bahá'í community who could have not been elected. Second, the permanently vested authority of their Founder, Bahá'u'lláh, as a Prophet, precluded any consideration of a Bahá'í claiming to possess a new revelation. Even the Head of the new faith, Shoghi Effendi, did not, or could not, make such a claim. Third, numerous references in the Bahá'í sacred writings clearly specify that one cannot disassociate the Bahá'í organizational structure from the Bahá'í Faith itself (see, e.g., Shoghi Effendi, 1974: 14357). Nevertheless, the question of open boundaries, the slow development of a Bahá'í culture, and the attendant slow membership growth might well have created a "crisis of confidence," which awaits most new religious movements as members of the founding generation reached the end of their lives. Without major successes in its early days, there was the danger that the early Bahá'ís might "lose hope and turn the movement inward—adopt a new rhetoric that deemphasizes growth and conversion" (Rodney Stark, cited by Mickler, 1991: 188). The satisfaction of membership might have constituted a major problem in nogrowth groups that seemed largely to have been sustained "by participation in a small exclusivist closed circle, turned away from the world, and engaged in unpublicized meetings designated for those attached to that closed circle" (O'Toole, 1975: 170). 16 Such a crisis seemed inevitable as Bahá'ís were more likely to remain longer in their religion than is the case for other new religious movements. A number of countervailing forces prevailed in the fledgling Bahá'í community. First, Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, gave the Bahá'ís in Canada a teaching plan that included the establishment of at least one governing council (Spiritual Assembly) in each of the provinces in Canada. It was a systematic approach that pulled Bahá'ís beyond the familiar confines of their own local community, whether secular or religious. Second, Shoghi Effendi's own prolific store of letters, ca. 22,000 of them (Universal House of Justice, 1973: 28), repeatedly focussed the vision of the Bahá'ís on the needs of the wider society. Third, as the Bahá'í message unequivocally focussed on the redemption of society, rather than individual salvation, the Bahá'í
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outlook was already, from its earliest conception, directed towards the larger society (see, e.g., Heller and Mahmoudi, 1991). Fourth, the idea of service to society is a strong current in the Bahá'í message, both implicit and explicit (see, e.g., Buck, 1990). The spirit of service is seen as the source of both personal and collective development. Permeable Boundaries and Ideology In discussing the "deeprooted sources of popular sentiment" concerning new religious groups in another country, namely, Britain, Beckford found that wider cultural values and social arrangements decide where the boundary should be set between the new group and the society (Beckford 1982: 286). He also found that such decisions are about the cultural view that the individual is basically rational and free. In other words, as long as new religious groups do not involve "brainwashing," "selfharm," "external control," "infantilization,'' "drift," "fanaticism," "instability," or "family indifference," society's tolerance of those groups is high (Beckford 1982: 28898). As Archer (1977: 221) noted, contemporary Bahá'ís are committed to an approach that "involves internalized values and development of mechanisms that will maintain those values without the support of a closed social environment." There were specific organizational mechanisms, however, that supported a lifestyle appropriate to a group ideology, which Bahá'ís could follow without leaving the larger cultural environment (e.g., Archer, 1980). Other presentday observers have, in fact, commented on the "invisibility" of the Bahá'í community in that regard (Ruff, 1974). Their observations underscore a persistent theme in the maintenance of the Bahá'í subculture in Western society, namely, the existence of soft and permeable boundaries, while following a distinctive value system. How did the Bahá'í subculture reflect soft boundaries and what shape did the Bahá'í value system take? Bahá'ís saw the wider society neither as a place to turn away from nor as a place to be spiritually feared. Their community did not morally reject society, but, rather, promoted the active engagement of its followers in that society, more so than, for example, the Vedantists who demonstrated a "quietist, noninterventionist and generally accomodative" attitude towards the wider society (Whitworth and Shiels, 1982: 167). The Bahá'í community in the Western world also discouraged breaks with society (as in the illustrated example of the discouraging of plans to create, near Montreal, a separate Bahá'í village and economy). Many Bahá'ís, until the mid1930s, continued church membership, and individual Bahá'ís were inspired to implement Bahá'í teachings outside
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the Bahá'í community, rather than forging these teachings exclusively within the community. This ideological position differs considerably from what O'Toole found in his study (1975) of a nonWestern political sect, which expected its members to place themselves completely at the disposal of the group. As a consequence, the group attempted to isolate the member from familial and other personal ties outside the political cult. The use of a distinctive, esoteric, and "sacred" language reinforced their exalted, exclusive position as a moral elite (O'Toole, 1975: 16668). Moreover, lacking a clergy, there were no people assigned to mark boundaries in the Bahá'í community. Lacking a system of "elders," membership on local governing councils (i.e., Spiritual Assemblies) was fluid—voting was democratic, and in secret, and no special privileges or powers seemed to derive from such membership. Moreover, Spiritual Assembly agendas were generally outward looking, with roughly onethird devoted to each of internal administration, Bahá'í community, and concerns with the wider society. Nevertheless, the presence of administratively zealous Bahá'ís reinforced the process of marking social boundaries. Finally, as members of a young, missionizing religion, there was no inclination among the Bahá'ís to gather in one place; instead, they spread out over many places in Canada, with however few people. Even though contemporary Bahá'í communities have become more fully developed, Bahá'ís "do not separate themselves geographically nor do they reject participation within selective patterns of the surrounding culture" (Archer, 1977: 216). Still, within these soft boundaries the Bahá'í community began to develop a distinctive system of values. As we already noted, the Bahá'ís began increasingly to emphasize the strict moral code that was increasingly being perceived as the core of the Bahá'í sacred writings, and "Bahá'í life" that would mark them as different people in their daily life. The culture of the Bahá'í community increasingly began using other cultural markers derived from the greater availability of Bahá'í sacred writings. As noted by Archer (ibid.: 223), Bahá'ís depended on language and a distinct Bahá'í calendar. Donating to the Bahá'í Fund was another way of marking a boundary and creating a Bahá'í identity as only Bahá'ís were (and still are) allowed to contribute to the Bahá'í Fund (Warburg, 1993: 29). 17 Finally, the NineteenDay Feast represented another boundary between the Bahá'í community and the wider society because only Bahá'ís were (and still are) permitted to attend these monthly Bahá'í gatherings. The slow and gradual emergence of a distinctive Bahá'í subculture was the consequence of not having a closed social environment. Thus,
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we may infer that slow growth was the price of permeable boundaries between the Bahá'í community and the wider society. Societal Reaction To what extent was mainstream society prepared to reject or accept the Bahá'í movement? Any missionizing community is confronted by the problems of anonymity and of social legitimacy. New religious movements in North America are more likely to pursue ways to make them less invisible, while movements in Europe see the attainment of social legitimacy as their goal. As Mickler shows (1991: 19293), new religious movements must attain public visibility; to survive, they must escape anonymity. The Bahá'ís in Canada did not, during 1898–1948, exist in a state of high tension with the wider society. 18 Still, variables such as size of the movement and the influence of such events as war, and political and social conditions, can shape reactions to a movement beyond its control. For example, the years of World War II created a hostile environment in Canada for new ideas and unfamiliar messages and people. The existence of such a hostile environment coincided with Bahá'í plans to expand their religion to major centres across Canada. For Bahá'ís, it meant that the opportunities for expansion were constrained, and it was often difficult to keep Bahá'í communities viable. Nevertheless, there seemed to have been other aspects of the War Years that played a critical part in the development of the Canadian Bahá'í community. World War II forced the Canadian Bahá'í community, through Canadian currency laws, to assume control over its own development and education. The issue of noncombatant status also rose to the fore during this period, creating a deeper understanding of where Bahá'ís stood with reference to war and politics. In retrospect, the Bahá'í community of Canada before 1948 seems to have had no direct impact on Canada's religious, social, or political structures. Between 1898 and 1948, some 555 Bahá'ís lived in eightyfour locales across Canada. In fiftynine of these (70%), there were no immediate and visible consequences of the Bahá'í teaching activity. In another fifteen locales (18%), teaching efforts resulted in the establishment of a Bahá'í community, however weak, and in ten others (12%) Bahá'ís formed enduring and relatively strong communities. Our study replicates the findings of other transplanted religious movements in the Bahá'í community's reliance on women to spread the Bahá'í Faith, in its mainly childless orientation, and in its urban character. In contrast, a lowering class membership and the Bahá'í community's reinforcement of an unpopular lifestyle does not echo the findings about other new religions.
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What is new, however, is the degree to which the early Bahá'í subculture and propagation accentuate the Protestant mainspring of its early adherents. Along with its ethos as generally a childless community and its spreadout nature, the primarily Protestant accent of the Bahá'í community reinforced religious singleness. Lacking a clergy and formal buildings of worship, this religion of the living room and hotel embodied a community with "soft" boundaries. Such permeable boundaries did not prevent its developing a system of distinctive values consisting of a Bahá'í administrative structure and a stricter moral code. It is this openness that allowed members to maintain lifelong commitments to the new faith. No findings about the social and cultural adaptation of new religious movements in host societies are complete without recognizing the international dimensions that provide the larger context of such movements. The theme of religious singleness should not blind us from recognizing the important role that the international scope of new religious movements play in their adaptation to Western (and nonWestern) settings. The International Context of Contemporary NonWestern Religions A study of the Canadian Bahá'í community reinforces the vital importance of considering minority religions as an expression of their international scope. Such an approach implies an extensive reconsideration of the study of unconventional religions, or cults, 19 which can occur by importation from another society. As some scholars have already indicated, a religious group can be a "cult in one society while being a conventional faith in another—Hinduism is a cult in the United States and Christianity is a cult in India" (Finke and Stark, 1992: 295). While focussing only on the character of an unconventional religion in a local setting, we may fail to see that what counts are its international ramifications: we would be mistaken to believe that the relevance of the presence of a local "chapter" of such a religion in, let us say, Flin Flon, Manitoba, is determined by its small size, rather than its importance as an outpost of a vast, expanding international religious organization. How has the Bahá'í Faith implanted itself in Canada? For a new religion to "succeed" in the Western world, Gellberg suggests, it must avoid a stark rejection of the world, theological exclusivism (an "island of truth"), uncompromising asceticism, extreme social conservatism (especially with respect to the position of women), and institutional decline and destabilization (Gelberg, 1991: 16063). It seems, more
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over, that attempts to provide a rational, quasiscientific overlay of its teachings is greeted with failure (Mickler, 1991: 186). According to Mickler, the new religion must capture and offer a deep sense of mysticism to make it viable in Western society. Its ability to cast a wide net, strong attachments of internal networks, the promotion of a worldtransforming agenda, a strong demographic profile and an appeal to young people of both sexes (ibid.: 190) offer the best guarantees for a successful transplantation in the postmodern world. A new religious movement must also consider the factors that hinder a transplantation. As Mickler (ibid.: 18687) points out, latent ethnocentricity, an apocalyptic spiritualist strand, and a timetable failure of predictions, seem to abort the transplantation of new religious movements into Western society. A lack of continuity of growth or leadership, and the constant need for "emergency" operations of recruitment can further lead to the regular interruption of ordinary missionizing strategies (ibid.). Both interpretive historical sociology (cf. Skocpol, 1984: 368) and the sociology of social movements provided the conceptual framework which guided my research on the Bahá'í community of Canada. I have avoided an ahistoricist study, preferring, instead, to look at the Bahá'í movement over the long haul. This was a welcome opportunity, because, as a rule, sociologists offer glimpses of new religious movements that developed during the youth cultural efflorescence of the 1960s (see e.g., Ellwood, 1985: 14; Wallis, 1984). At least in Canada, there are no studies of new religious movements that permit a longitudinal view earlier than the 1960s. In this diachronic study we have attempted to break the generally ahistorical nature of such work through the careful collecting, collating, and interpretation of much previously unknown or unused material on the Bahá'í movement, starting before 1900. On a more abstract level, such a study of the Canadian Bahá'í community shows the difficulty of applying a single, unvarying, model to explore the social features of a new religious movement. As in the case of the Bahá'í community, religious movements change over time, and one explanatory model is not enough to encompass all these changes. The internal and external dynamics of the Bahá'í community have changed over time. As a consequence, there is a need to develop a shifting theoretical paradigm to keep up with the new religious movement. Research on the Canadian Bahá'í community provides important details of the general phenomenon of religion in Canada. What Rawlyk (1987: 3) recently said about historians also applies to sociologists:
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"Many EnglishCanadian historians find it embarrassingly difficult to take religion seriously." The problem, however, extends further. Both historians and sociologists have a profound difficulty studying new religious movements (Nock, 1987). Aside from scholarly work on indigenous religious life (e.g., Crysdale and Wheatcroft, 1976: 69–99), scholarly observations about religion in Canada usually pertain to dominant or conventional religious groups, such as Roman Catholics (e.g., Westhues, 1978), Protestants, and Jews (Kallen, 1976). We also seem to be reasonably well equipped with knowledge about specific movements, such as sects and cults in Alberta (Mann, 1955) 20 and in Montreal (Bird and Reimer, 1976), Hutterites (e.g., Bennett, 1976), Mennonites (Driedger and Peters, 1976), Mormons (White, 1978; Card et al., 1990), and Christian Scientists (Hiller, 1978), all of whom Canadian sociologists refer to as the third force (ibid.). Except for studies on Canadian Jews (e.g., Schoenfeld, 1978; Brym and Shaffir, 1993) what is lacking is detailed research on nonChristian or nonWestern styles of religious communities. A study of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada highlights another scholarly finding (Bibby, 1987), namely, that religion, in the context of contemporary trends, has become too fragmented and "specialized" to retain a niche in Canadian society. My research indicates the nature and extent to which a minority religious community relates to religious life in a society that both shies away from experimentation and has become increasingly fragmented. The lack of desire on the part of Canadians to indulge in religious experimentation may be one of the prime factors for the slow growth of new religious movements in Canada. Most importantly, however, the contemporary study of new religious movements requires us to extend our boundaries to take in nonChristian movements, and to do so in an international context. Robbins and Robertson (1991: 320), in discussing the ideological context of the "scientific study of religion," suggest that such an approach was articulated in an era of relative religious noncontroversiality, whereby nonChristian religions were "assumed to be connected with a marginal bohemian intelligentsia." In their view, such an approach continues to pervade the scientific study of religion. A further hindrance, according to Melton (1991: 5), is the fact that studies of new religious movements inadvertently created the impression that the "new religions were nothing more than a more or less interesting product of the social upheavals of the 1960s.'' The slow growth of new religions, moreover, reinforced that impression. The current spread of new religious movements into small communities across the globe, as frontiers of internationally coordinated
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plans and programs, should alert us to the importance of studying the process by which new religious movements become grafted to their host societies. The need to look at them from an international perspective makes it imperative to "delocalize" our understanding of new religious movements. It is the advent of instant travel and international communication, not the perception that the viability of movements should be measured by their local strength, that provides us with the bona fide context for the study of these new religious movements. Notes 1. Part of this chapter appeared simultaneously as "The Bahá'ís in Canada: A Study in the Transplantation of NonWestern Religious Movements to Western Societies," Arc: The Journal of the Faculty of Religious Studies, McGill (van den Hoonaard, 1996). 2. The Bahá'í Writings prohibit Bahá'ís from taking part in partisan politics, but encourage them individually to exercise their full civic rights and duties, such as voting, etc. 3. Even in the 1970s, three religious bodies included almost nine out of ten Canadian religious adherents (Westhues, 1976: 213). 4. It is not unusual to have as much as 75% female membership in new religious movements. Successful movements, however, appear not to overrecruit females (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 416). The underrecruitment of males, Stark and Bainbridge found (ibid.), leads to a situation where much conversion will be necessary just for replacement, let alone growth. As well, as long as women have less status than men, the movement will also "suffer lower status, and fail to penetrate into the social mainstream" (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 417). Stark and Bainbridge's infelicitous choice of words when they speak of women who "enjoy [emphasis mine] less status than men" (ibid.) partially underscores the difficulty of removing unconscious biases and figures of speech, despite good intentions. 5. The term "fireside" was coined in the early 1930s to refer to informal discussions usually in one's home with the purpose of acquainting "seekers" or nonBahá'ís with the Bahá'í Faith. 6. For example, local committees that dealt with children's classes had a higher proportion of women than, let us say, a finance committee which consisted primarily of men. 7. "Early" in this chapter refers to the pre1927 period in the Canadian Bahá'í community when Bahá'ímembership criteria were not yet well defined. 8. The loss of Bahá'í documents and vital papers through this process of attrition is of primary consequence for researchers. 9. Such as Paul Dealy at the turn of the century and his invention to dispose of ashes from train steam engines. 10. I cite the examples of Honoré Jaxon (the former secretary of Louis Riel) and Dr. Rose Henderson (a prominent educator and social worker in the
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first third of the twentieth century). May Maxwell should also be cited, although, unlike these other two, she remained a Bahá'í for the full length of her life and was active on the front of removing racism and the promotion of social measures in the field of education, poverty, and health. 11. Wyman offers us the view, based on her anthropological study of an American Bahá'í community, that contemporary Bahá'ís regard their religion in the same manner as the dominant mainstream culture: religion is the property of individuals; it does not exist outside them (Wyman, 1985: 167). Some religionists would disagree with Wyman's assessment (see, e.g., Quinn, 1996). 12. Deborah K. van den Hoonaard is currently (1996) collecting materials for a study on the Jewish experience in the Bahá'í community. 13. Such an emphasis on individualism, however, differs in the Bahá'í religion from Wallis' conception of "epistemological individualism" (Wallis, 1975: 41) which "leaves the determination of what constitutes acceptable doctrine in the hands of the member." Moreover, the idea of the Covenant is a pervasive one for Bahá'ís which leaves the determination of doctrinal matters vested in the hands of 'Abdu'lBahá or his designated successor, Shoghi Effendi. The idea of members determining doctrine is quite foreign to Bahá'ís. 14. Similarly, in a Swedish study of new religious movements (such as ISKCON) Nordquist (1982: 178) found that the "inner state of being" of an adherent's lifestyle was the critical touchstone, not abstract reasoning or material success. 15. It is interesting to note that Wyman's study (1985) seems to ignore the various world views of the Bahá'ís. 16. O'Toole's comments (1975: 170) are insightful: "Members would gain satisfaction from disguising failure: small, inhouse meetings which resulted in a handful of attendees (mostly members); emphasis on the 'energy and diligence' of those spreading the word (rather than the results); a stress on the 'potential' effect of a particular action. Even activities were destined to fail: the targetting of anonymous audiences in parking lots with traditionalistic, uneconomical, and unpromising leaflets, and the calculated avoidance of strategic targets. Political sects seem primarily concerned with keeping the status quo, despite their claims to strive for growth." 17. The fact that only Bahá'ís were permitted to contribute to the Bahá'í Fund is valid for the period later than the early 1920s. 18. For a discussion on this aspect of wider societal relationships, see Stark and Bainbridge (1985) and also Benton Johnson (1977). 19. Finke and Stark (1992: 295) use the term "cult" in a technical rather than pejorative sense. While a sect represents conventional faith, a cult is an "unconventional religion." See also Stark and Bainbridge (1985: 489). 20. One of Mann's research assistants, Yvonne Frank, attended Bahá'í meetings in Calgary in the late 1940s (Yeo, 1990) and enrolled in the Bahá'í Faith.
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APPENDIXES
Page 300
Appendix A— Summary of Items Appearing in the French and EnglishLanguage Press on the Occasion of 'Abdu'lbahá's Visit to Canada, 1912 Pa
Lb
Photo
Headline
MDS
14
306
Yes
Eastern Sage Coming to City with New Message
24 Aug.
MDS
31
188
Yes
Famous Teacher Coming
29 Aug.
La Patrie
7
31
Visite d'un Pacificateur Persan
29 Aug.
Gazette
2
148
Persian Teacher to Preach Peace
31 Aug.
Gazette
11
33
[Item in Church News Column]
31 Aug.
MDS
1
138
Yes
Apostle of Peace Here Predict an Appalling War in the Old World
31 Aug.
Standard
13
172
Yes
Persian Peace Prophet Gives Message to Canada
1 Sept.
FHWSd
Yes
Abdul Baha, Prophet of Peace to Visit Canada
2 Sept.
Gazette
6
203
Racialism Wrong Says Eastern Sage
2 Sept.
MDS
2
245
Persian Preacher in Flowing Robes Calls for Unity
3 Sept.
Witnesse
4
138
Abdul Baha's Doctrine
3 Sept.
Gazette
16
143
Materialists Like Animals
3 Sept.
MDS
9
140
Materialism No Philosophy Says Oriental Seer.
4 Sept.
Gazette
2
138
Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists
4 Sept.
Le Canada
8
68
Une conférence d'Abdul Baha
4 Sept.
La Presse
5
23
Une Conférence d'Abdul Baha, le Sage Turc
4 Sept.
MDS
2
156
Earth Should be Paradise, Says Seer Abdul Baha
4 Sept.
Le Devoir
3
38
Une conférence d'Abdu'l Baha
Date 10 Feb.
Newspaper c
(Continued on next page.)
Page 301 Summary of Items (continued) Date
Newspaper
Pa
Lb
Photo
Headline
4 Sept.
La Patrie
9
44
Un prophéte Persan
4 Sept.
Witness
8
41
Man's Dependence
5 Sept.
MDS
2
121
Socialism Not Cure for Evils of Present Day
5 Sept.
Witness
5
30
Abdul Baha's Views
6 Sept.
Gazette
4
112
Apostle of Peace Said Farewell
6 Sept.
Witness
11
148
Yes
Investigate the Realities
6 Sept.
Le Devoir
5
34
Le prophéte Abul Baha [sic]
6 Sept.
MDS
6
139
World Peace Urged by Abdul Baha in Closing Message
6 Sept.
MDHf
5
60
Church and Benech Give a Farewell Tribute to Sage
6 Sept.
La Patrie
12
122
Le Prestige de l'Exotisme
6 Sept.
La Presse
14
14
Départ d'AbdulBahá
7 Sept.
Standard
13
155
Yes
Persian Peace Prophet Gives Message to Canada
8 Sept.
Nat'isteg
1
105
Joseph Prudhomme prophéte
10 Sept.
Witness
2
73
Oriental Doctrines Are Not New
11 Sept.
MDS
12
56
War Must Precede Universal Peace
11 Sept.
MDS
2
282
Yes
Canada Should Prepare For Great War Coming
a P=page number b L=Number of lines in each article. c MDS=Montreal Daily Star d FHWS=Family Herald and Weekly Star e Witness=Montreal Daily Witness. f MDH=Montreal Daily Herald g Nat'iste=Le Nationaliste
Page 302
Appendix B— Statistical Overview of the Canadian Bahá'í Community, 1898–1948 (April) Year
Bahá'ís
Localities
1899
4
1
1900
10
1
1901
9
3
1902
9
3
1903
10
4
1904
10
4
1905
10
4
1906
8
5
1907
6
3
1908
10
3
1909
11
3
1910
11
4
1911
17
6
1912
17
5
1913
27
9
1914
28
9
1915
31
9
1916
31
10
1917
36
9
1918
37
10
1919
36
10
1920
30
9
1921
42
10
1922
52
11
1923
52
9
1
1924
54
10
1
1925
54
8
1
1926
53
8
1
(Continued on next page.)
Assemblies
New Localities
Page 303 Statistical Overview (continued) Year
Bahá'ís
Localities
Assemblies
1927
57
8
2
New Localities
1928
57
9
2
1929
56
10
2
1930
55
10
2
1931
61
11
2
1932
74
12
2
1933
78
12
2
1934
78
16
2
1935
89
15
2
1936
81
18
2
1937
87
18
2
3
1938
107
22
5
4
1939
122
22
5
2
1940
148
30
5
9
1941
159
28
4
2
1942
176
38
8
8
1943
40
9
5
1944
209
39
9
5
1945
221
36
10
0
1946
235
36
11
3
38
13
5
a
1947
252
1948
263
41b
16
1992
15,000
1,350
410
a Bahá'í News, March 1947, p. 8, reports that on 20 February 1947 there were 270 adult voting Bahá'ís in Canada, of which 182 are in communities, 42 in groups, and 46 are isolated. b Bahá'í News, May 1948, p. 1, reports a Convention message from Shoghi Effendi, stating that Bahá'ís could be found in "over 60 places" in Canada. Source: van den Hoonaard (1992a).
Page 304
Appendix C— Bahá'í Community Profiles, 21 April 1937–20 April 1947
Page 305
b
c
d
# Bahá'ís
# new Bahá'ís
Typea
1st cont.
Winnipeg
R, C
L
A
6.0
2.90
31.6
67
0
21
23
6 (26%)
Hamilton
I
S
I, N
n/a
2.10
8.8
81
0
16
25
6 (24%)
Toronto
R, C
—
—
4.83
1.70
14.3
73
9
22
29
9 (21%)
Locality
Teaching method
Ratio p:new Mean # new Bs Bs/yr.
Diversity index
% female April 1947
1937
1947
1937–47
who pioneered
High Growth
Medium Growth St. Lambert
S
H
N
1.50
0.70
17.9
73
7
15
12
7 (58%)
Vancouver
R
—
—
1.38
1.20
0.0
69
23
29
34
10 (29%)
Moncton
R
S
I
1.75
0.73
0.0
67
0
9
14
2 (14%)
Edmonton
R, C
L
I
1.00
0.83
10.3
89
0
9
13
3 (23%)
Slow Growth Halifax
R, C
L
I
0.85
1.00
21.1
61
0
18
17
0 (0%)
Scarborough
S
H
I
1.25
0.50
0.0
78
1
9
5
1 (20%)
Regina
C
S
I
0.69
0.79
11.5
67
0
9
9
0 (0%)
Charlottetown
C
S
I
0.55
2.11
5.3
67
0
9
6
0 (0%)
Montreal
R
—
—
1.40
0.40
45.0
50
24
20
14
3 (21%)
W. Vancouver
S
H
I
1.13
0.00
5.0
67
2
6
9
2 (22%)
Ottawa
C
L
I
0.22
0.15
10.5
75
0
4
4
0 (0%)
Victoria
C
L
I
0.50
0.00
12.5
100
2
7
10
0 (0%)
65
25
49
69
(93)
(252)
No Growth
All other
National Average (total) National increase, 1937–47: 171%
2.40 1.60
1.67
11.0
National per annum increase: 17.1%
a I = Industrial Town; S = Suburb; R = Regional Centre; C = Capital. b H = Homefront Pioneering; L = LongDistance Pioneering; S = Systematic Teaching Campaign. c The ratio of pioneers and subsequent number of new believers; "n/a" indicates that the first Bahá'í was not a pioneer. d The mean annual number of new Bahá'&aucte;is since 1937 or from the date of either the first pioneer or first Bahá'í after 1937.
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Appendix D— Chronology of Important Canadian Bahá'í Dates 1893 Magee family of London hears of Bahá'í Faith at Congress of Living Religions, Chicago, 23 September. 1894 Kate Ives, of Newfoundland parentage, accepts Bahá'í Faith in Chicago. First woman believer in Occident. Lives in Chicago, February. 1897 Other Canadians become Bahá'ís in Chicago: Paul K. Dealy (26 March) Honoré Jaxon (18 March), James Oakshette (21 May), Aimée Montfort (first French Canadian, September), Esther Rennels, and James Carmichael (7 October). 1898 Edith Magee of London, a youth, first to accept Bahá'í Faith in Canada. 1902 May Maxwell arrives in Montreal and establishes first permanent Bahá'í community in Canada, August. 1903 Thornton Chase, the first American Bahá'í, becomes first Bahá'í to visit Manitoba (Winnipeg). 1905 Agnes Alexander, living in Japan, reaches the Yukon. 1906 Alí Kuli Khán, of Washington, DC, visits Montreal in early 1906, the first Persian Bahá'í to visit Canada. 1908 Thornton Chase becomes first Bahá'í known to visit British Columbia (Victoria). 1909 Bahai Temple Unity formed, precursor to National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada. 1910 The Culvers establish Bahá'í community of Saint John, New Brunswick, July. 1912 'Abdu'lBahá visits Canada, 30 August9 September, unprecedented coverage in English and French press. 1913 Esther E. Rennels is first recorded Bahá'í in Alberta (Edmonton). Edward W. Harris, a farmer, is first recorded Bahá'í in Saskatchewan (Gull Lake). 1914 Mrs. J.A. Clift gives public lecture on ''Bahaism" to the Current Events Club of the Ladies' Reading Room, St. John's, Newfoundland, 17 January. 1914 First Bahá'í marriage ceremony conducted in Canada, between Dr. Zia Bagdadí and Miss Zeenat Khánum, Montreal, 30 April. 1917 Marion Jack and Rhoda Nichols are the first Bahá'ís to visit Prince Edward Island (Summerside) and Nova Scotia. Marion Jack and Kate Ives are the first Bahá'ís to visit Newfoundland (St. John's).
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1920 Establishment of first Canadian Regional Teaching Committee, situated in Montreal. 1920–21 Persian scholar and teacher JinábiFádil's first tour across Canada, visiting Saint John, Montreal, Brockville, and Vancouver. 1922 Shoghi Effendi establishes requirements for forming local Spiritual Assemblies, 5 March; previous designation "Assembly" referring to community of believers now only refers to yearly elected governing council of nine members. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States and Canada established, superseding Bahá'í Temple Unity, April. Montreal forms first Spiritual Assembly in Canada, 10 December. First formal NineteenDay Feast held in Canada, Montreal, 11 December (Feast of "Questions"). 1923 JinábiFádil's second tour in Canada. 1926 Queen Marie of Rumania, a confirmed Bahá'í, visits four Canadian cities, Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa, and Winnipeg, October. 1927 Vancouver forms Spiritual Assembly, second in Canada, January. 19th National Convention of the Bahá'í Community of the United States and Canada held in Montreal, 29 April3 May. Declaration of Trust and ByLaws of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'í of the United States and Canada accepted at 19th National Convention, with implications for more restricted Bahá'í membership. 1927–28 Formation of Bahá'í Youth Group in Montreal, perhaps first in Western World. 1930 First Race Amity meeting in Canada, Montreal, 2–4 March. Marion Jack, Canada's first overseas pioneer, leaves for Bulgaria. 1932 Exemption from military service for Canadian Bahá'ís, lodged in Ottawa, 21 February. First recorded Bahá'í broadcast, Montreal. 1935 Incorporation of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal, with the Province of Quebec, 25 March. Commissioner of Patents issues registration of "Bahá'í" as a trademark, 3 December. 1937 Marriage of Shoghi Effendi to Mary Maxwell (to be known as Amat'ulBahá Rúhíyyih Khánum), 24 March. Commencement of SevenYear Plan in North America, with two local Spiritual Assemblies and eighteen localities in Canada. Vancouver Bahá'í community carries out radio Bahá'í program series, the first in Canada. 1938 Spiritual Assemblies are formed in Moncton (third in Canada), St. Lambert (fourth), and Toronto (fifth). Bahá'í Community of Toronto puts up first Bahá'í booth at Canadian National Exhibition, creating significant visibility for the Bahá'í Faith; over 15,000 pieces of literature distributed.
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1939 Incorporation of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Vancouver, in the province of British Columbia, 25 March. Gerrard SluterSchlutius of Montreal and Toronto becomes Canada's second overseas pioneer, leaving for Guatemala, 27 August. He also pioneered to Colombia and Honduras. 1940 A Spiritual Assembly is formed in Hamilton (sixth in Canada). 1941 The first Bahá'í Summer Schools take place in Canada, in Montreal (28 June2 July), Rice Lake, Ontario (3–9 August), and in Vernon, British Columbia (29–31 August). 1942 Spiritual Assemblies are formed in Halifax (seventh in Canada) and Winnipeg (eighth). 1943 Edmonton Bahá'í community forms a Spiritual Assembly, ninth in Canada. 1943–44 Purchase of Beaulac site in Quebec for permanent Bahá'í summer and winter school. 1944 Completion of SevenYear Plan, with nine local Spiritual Assemblies and thirtynine localities across Canada; Charlottetown and Regina form the tenth and eleventh Spiritual Assemblies in Canada (two other Spiritual Assemblies were not able to reform). 1947 The twelth and thirteenth Spiritual Assemblies were formed in Scarborough, Ontario, and Vernon, British Columbia. First Bahá'íowned Canadian Bahá'í Summer School established in Beaulac, near Rawdon, Quebec. 1948 First Regional Bahá'í Conventions to elect delegates to first Canadian National Bahá'í Convention take place, 1 February. First National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada elected in Montreal, April. The fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth Spiritual Assemblies formed in Ottawa, West Vancouver, and Victoria.
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Appendix E— Notes on Sources Archives I consulted twentynine collections in various Bahá'í archives. In Thornhill, the archives of the national Bahá'í governing body contain primary documents, both informal accounts and formal proceedings, along with letters, photographs, and journals related to the early days of the Bahá'í community in Canada. The Papers of Rosemary Sala (RSP) and Ernest V. Harrison (EVH) have proven to be especially valuable. Both believers made a systematic attempt to collect old letters and reminiscences of other Bahá'ís with the obvious aim of preserving the record for the future. Other collections include the Papers of Laura Davis, Nancy Campbell, Winnifred Harvey, Rowland Estall, and of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Montreal. Many of the other collections are not as well organized or even identified. Since there has been a continuous Bahá'í presence in Montreal since August 1902, its archives contain biographical data, memoirs, correspondence, and minutes of the local governing body—all housed at the Thornhill archives. An equally important archive for research on Canada is situated in Wilmette, Illinois, the secondlargest Bahá'í archive in the world. With help from its staff, I have searched systematically for details on Canada's history. Dr. Robert Stockman provided me with a computer copy of the "National Historical Record Cards," containing detailed information on about onethird of all Bahá'ís in North America in the mid1930s. The Alfred E. Lunt Papers, Albert Windust Papers, Chicago House of Spirituality Records, and the Kenosha Records, contain a good amount of material on Canada. Alfred Lunt was the editor of Star of the West, one of the early Bahá'í magazines in North America, and the recipient of many (often unpublished) reports. Some early membership lists housed in the National Bahá'í Archives in Wilmette constitute a good source of information for early Bahá'ís in Canada. In particular, I note the usefulness of "Bahá'í Enrollment List, 1894–1900" (BEL), several ledgers (some financial), with lists of names from the 1890s in the Chicago House of Spirituality Records (CHSR), 1916 local community membership list in the Alfred E. Lunt Papers (AL), as well as the 1920 and 1922 national membership lists in the same collection—a total of eight important membership lists. Oral Accounts of Earlier Bahá'ís Oral accounts constitute a critical part of the research. This cohort spans the period from the late 1920s to 1940s. There is extremely little in the way of
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family papers that have found their way to contemporary times. Much in the way of personal knowledge would have been irretrievably lost if the oral accounts had not been gathered. The oral accounts have several purposes. First, they fill factual lacunae in the social history of the Bahá'í community. In this case, members' knowledge has added to a list of early believers that I had already compiled (van den Hoonaard, 1992a). Although it was not expected that every early adherent would be able to recall every name on this list of 555, the combined analytic pooling of all information engendered a rather full profile of earlymembership composition. In the course of these interviews, the subject and I together explored the circumstances of the interviewee's own enrollment and the societal context. We covered the individual, social, and occupational characteristics of other adherents, including those who have not retained membership. As an experienced fieldresearcher, I adopted conventional qualitative techniques associated with interviews, including invivo coding and the use of core categories and theoretical memos (see, e.g., Strauss 1987). Published Accounts As indicated earlier, there are few published accounts used in our research. However, a number of Bahá'í magazines and general publications have proven to be of some use: Star of the West (1910–24), Bahá'í News (1924present), [Canadian] Bahá'í News (1948–62), Canadian Bahá'í News (1962–75; 1990–93), Bahá'í Canada (1976–89, 1993present), the quadrennial publication entitled: Bahá'í World (1923present), 'Abdu'lBahá in Canada, (National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, 1962) and Marion Jack (Anonymous, 1985). Contemporary Correspondence and Communications Unless noted otherwise, all of the correspondence and other media of communication used in this book are addressed to me. Allaby, Ferne. 1986. Letter from Ferne Allaby, Quispamsis, NB, 27 July 1986. Anderson, Ted. 1987. Letter from Ted Anderson, Red Deer, AB, 4 October 1987. Anderson, Ted. 1993. Letter from Ted Anderson, Red Deer, AB, to National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'ís of Canada, 24 August 1993. Atherton, J. 1991. Letter from J. Atherton, Director General, Historical Resources Branch, National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, ON, 1 August 1991. Azizi, Sandra. 1986. Letter from Sandra Azizi, North Vancouver, BC, 17 December 1986. Bedingfield, Stephen. 1992a. Communication from Stephen Bedingfield, Cambridge Bay, NWT, 16 March 1992. Bellefleur, Muriel. 1987b. Letter from Muriel Bellefleur, Moncton, NB, 24 March 1987.
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Bolton, Ken, and Celia Bolton. 1987. Notes from Ken and Celia Bolton, Dartmouth, NS, 7 February 1987. Brookes, Beth. 1984. Letter from Beth Brookes, Edmonton, AB, to Mollie Macpherson, Winnipeg, MB, 9 September 1984 (copy in possession of the author). Carty, Don. 1992. Letter from Don Carty, Scarborough, to Lynn EchevarriaHowe, Ottawa, 17 February 1992 (original in possession of the author). Centracare. 1987. Letter from Centracare Saint John Inc., Saint John, NB, 9 July 1987. Chase, Thornton. 1908. Letter from Thornton Chase to Mrs. A.M. Bryant, Chicago, IL, 30 November 1908, TCP. Cole, Hills. 1914. Letter from Hills Cole, New York City, NY, to George M. Seiders, Portland, ME, 7 July 1914, GAR, Box 2/Folder 27. Collins, George. 1988. Letter from George Collins, Brantford, ON, 17 September 1988. Cooney, Michelle. 1991. Letter from Michelle Cooney, Paris, ON, 22 November 1991. Dahl, Roger M. 1994. Letter from Roger M. Dahl, Archivist, National Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, IL, 1 February 1994. Dealy, James P. 1984. Letter from James P. Dealy, Point Clear, AL, to Robert H. Stockman, Somerville, MA, 31 August 1984 (copy in possession of the author). Department of Library and Archival Services, Bahá'í World Centre. 11 May 1993. Estall, Rowland. 1940. Letter from Rowland Estall, Winnipeg, MB to Charlotte Linfoot, secretary of the National Teaching Committee, 17 June 1940 (copy in possession of the author). Ferguson, Karin. 1981. Letter from Karin Ferguson, Wolfville, NS, to Fran Maclean, Halifax, NS, 21 June 1981. Reported in Williams (1985). Fernhill. 1987. Information on Lot Ownership, Fernhill Cemetery, Saint John, NB, 25 March 1987. Flournoy, Raymond. 1988. Letter from Raymond Flournoy, Montreal, QC, 13 November 1988. Giachery, Ugo. 1981. Letter from Ugo Giachery, Monte Carlo, Monaco, to Michael G. Rochester, St. John's, NF, 2 February 1981 (copy in possession of the author). Gibbons, Elsie W. 1992. Letter from Elsie W. Gibbons, PortageduFort, QC, 20 July 1992. Golden, Nell. 1983. Letter from Nell Golden, Haifa, Israel, to Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of St. John's, NF, 7 February 1983 (copy in possession of the author). ———. 1988. Letter from Nell Golden, Haifa, Israel, to Margot Léonard, 8 July 1988 (original in possession of the author). Greenwood, Annie Louise. 1991. Letter from Nan Greenwood, Cook Islands, 28 August 1991.
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Harvey, Winnifred. 1987. Letter from Winnifred Harvey, Haifa, Israel, 29 January 1987. Hoffan, Frank H. 1900. Letter from Frank H. Hoffman, Racine, WI, to Andrew J. Nelson, Chicago, IL, 1 October 1900 (copy in RBR). Holley, Horace. 1947. Letter from Horace Holley, Wilmette, IL, to William O. Inglis, New York, NY, 8 January 1947, MP. Hughes, Edna L. 1991. Letter from Edna L. Hughes, Bowmanville, ON, 14 March 1991. Inglis, Edith. 1962. Letter from Edith Inglis to be read at 'Abdu'lBahá's Fiftieth Anniversary at Green Acre, ME, EBA. Inglis, Edward. 1952. Letter from Edward ("Tim") Inglis, Tehran, Iran, to Edith Inglis, 28 December 1952, MP. Inglis, William O. 1910. Wedding announcement addressed to "Mirza Enayat Allah," MP. ———. 1941. Letter from William O. Inglis to Vanderbilt, 25 April 1941, MP. ———. 1942. Letter from William O. Inglis, Washington, DC to Margaret Ford, 26 August 1942, SFP, Box 1, Folder 74. Léonard, Margot. 1988a. Letter from Margot Léonard, Chambly, QC, to 'Amatu'lBahá Rúhíyyíh Khánum, 13 March 1988. ———. 1988b. Letter from Margot Léonard, Chambly, 5 May 1988. Loeding, Sophie. 1985. Letter from Sophie Loeding, Wilmette, IL to Donald B. Smith, Calgary, AB, 17 February 1985 (copy in possession of the author). Magee, Beatrice. 1991. Letter from Beatrice Magee, Gull Lake, SK, 14 July 1991. Martin, Douglas. 1983. Letter from Douglas Martin to Linda O'Neil, 26 September 1983 (copy in possession of the author). ———. 1987. Letter from Douglas Martin, Haifa, Israel, 10 June 1987. McGee, Anne. 1987. Letter from Anne McGee, Richmond, BC, 5 August 1987. Morin, Bernard. 1990. Letter from Bernard Morin, International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Montreal, QC, 19 February 1990. Mossafa'i, Golgasht. 1991. Letter from Golgasht Mossafa'i, SaintLaurent, QC, 24 March 1991. Muttart, M.E. 1984. Letter from M.E. Muttart, assistant secretary, National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, Toronto, ON, to the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of St. John's, NF, 1 February 1984 (copy in possession of the author). Nixon, Jean E. 1921. Letter from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, NB, to Alfred E. Lunt, 14 January 1921, AL, Box 24, Folder 59. ———. 1922. Postcard from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, NB, to L.J. Voelz, Kenosha, WI, postmarked 2 April 1922, KR, Box 5, Folder 52. ———. 1923. Letter from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, NB, to Kenosha Bahá'í Assembly, WI, 16 March 1923, KR, Box 5, Folder 52. ———. 1924. Letter from Jean E. Nixon, Saint John, NB, to Kenosha Bahá'í Assembly, WI, 7 April 1924, KR, Box 5, Folder 52.
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Rochester, Michael. 1988. Letter from Michael Rochester, St. John's, NF, 15 February 1988. ———. 1993. Reviewer's queries, incl. in a letter from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, 22 November 1993. ———. 1993b. Letter from Michael Rochester, St. John's, NF, 29 November 1993. ———. 1994a. Letter from Michael Rochester, St. John's, NF, 1 January 1994. ———. 1994b. Email from Michael Rochester, St. John's, NF, 4 February 1994. Shoghi Effendi. 1956. Letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to Allan Raynor, 3 May 1956 (copy in possession of the author). Smith, Donald B. 1992. Letter from Donald B. Smith, Calgary, AB, 24 July 1992. Smith, Françoise. 1993. Letter from Françoise Smith (née Rouleau), Toronto, ON, 12 April 1993. Spendlove, David S. 1990. Letter from David S. Spendlove, Ottawa, ON, 11 November 1990. ———. 1994. Letter from David S. Spendlove, Ottawa, ON, 20 January 1994. Stockman, Robert H. 1983. Letter from Robert H. Stockman, Somerville, MA, to Mr. and Mrs. Robert J. Dealy, Fairhope, AL, 27 May 1983 (copy in possession of the author). ———. 1988. Letter from Robert H. Stockman, Somerville, MA, to George Collins, Brantford, ON, 2 December 1988. Toussaint, Paul. 1994. Letter from Paul Toussaint, 22 October 1994. Watson, J. Ralph. 1995. Letter from J. Ralph Watson, St. James United Church, Montreal, QC, 9 September 1995. Weinstein, Ilona. 1992. Letter from Ilona Weinstein, Millgrove, ON, 5 December 1992, enclosing the transcripts of two interviews, "Rosemary," and "A Conversation with Rosemary and Emeric Sala." Wilson, Geraldine B. 1991. Letter from Mrs. Geraldine B. Wilson (née Birks), Pasadena, CA, 8 April 1991. Woodman, Ross. 1993. Letter from Ross Woodman, London, ON, 10 March 1993. Interviews There is a rich store of taped interviews of Canadian Bahá'ís in addition to those enumerated below. The Assocation for Bahá'í Studies Office in Ottawa, Mrs. Joan Anderson (Red Deer, AB), Ms. Lynn EchevarriaHowe (Saskatoon, SK), and others have extensive collections of such interviews. The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada has relied on the following interviews. Unless noted otherwise, the interviews were conducted and taped by myself. Alexander, Lincoln. 1991. Interview by Lynn EchevarriaHowe and W.C. van den Hoonaard, 27 May 1991. Toronto, ON.
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Barkes, Ernie, and Joyce Barkes. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 24 July 1990. Sidney, BC. Bellefleur, Muriel. 1987a. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 6 May 1987. En route to Fredericton, NB. Bond, Jameson J. 1993. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 5 May 1993. Crofton, BC. Bond, Jameson J., and Gale Bond. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 13 July 1990. Crofton, BC. Burton, Alice. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 16 July 1990. Surrey, BC. Chisholm, Anne. 1986. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 16 September 1986. Saint John, NB. Christmas, Bob, and Vera Christmas. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 25 May 1991. Hamilton, ON. Cress, Dorothy Culver. 1982. Interview by Mrs. Rosanne M. Buzzell. 19 August 1982. Eliot, ME. Cuttriss, Hazel. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 25 May 1991. Hamilton, ON Donnelly, Bob, and Shirley Donnelly. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 2 May 1991. Charlottetown, PEI. Drymon, Elizabeth Brewster. 1986. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 27 December 1986. Eliot, ME. Echevarria, Lynn Howe. 1992. Discussion with W.C. van den Hoonaard. 16 December 1992. Ottawa, ON. Echevarria, Nick, and Jessica Echevarria. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 20 May 1991. Ottawa, ON Estall, Rowland. 1992. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 21 February 1992. Toronto, ON. Estall, Rowland, and Emeric Sala. 1987. Interview by Michael G. Rochester. 24 August 1987. Toronto, ON. Ferguson, Karin. 1989. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. Summer 1989. Fredericton, NB. Frost, Joseph. 1987. Interview by Rosanne Buzzell. 26 December 1987. Eliot, ME. Gardner, Helen. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 22 May 1991. Oshawa, ON. Gardner, Lloyd. 1978. Interview by Joanie Anderson. 18 June 1978. Oshawa, ON. ———. 1982. Interview by Dave Gardner. 28 September 1982. Oshawa, ON. ———. 1984. Interview (interviewer unknown). 7 November 1984. Oshawa, ON. Gordon, Milli Rina. 1990a. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 18 July 1990. Vancouver, BC. ———. 1990b. Interview by Roger White. 31 August 1990. Vancouver, BC. Harvey, Garth, and Gladys Harvey. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 24 July 1990. Shawnigan Lake, BC.
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Hayes, Esther. 1988a. Interview by Lynn EchevarriaHowe. December 1988. Toronto, ON. ———. 1988b. Interview by Lynn EchevarriaHowe. 1988. Toronto, ON. Hofman, David. 1989. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. Summer 1989. En route to Fredericton, NB. HoweEchevarria, Lynn. 1992. Discussion with W.C. van den Hoonaard. 16 December 1992. Ottawa, ON. Hughes, Edna L. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 21 May 1991. Bowmanville, ON. Inglis, Marjorie. 1987. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 19 November 1987. Arlington, VA. ———. 1989. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 22 June 1989. Arlington, VA. Irwin, Lily Ann. 1982. Interview by Carrie Jensen. 6 October 1982. Penticton, BC. ———. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 21 July 1990. Penticton, BC. Lanning, Margery, and Moira Pollitt. 1992. Telephone interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 3 January 1992. Windsor, ON. MacArthur, Edythe. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 21 May 1991. Bowmanville, ON. Macpherson, Mollie. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 26 July 1990. Winnipeg, MB. McGee, Anne, and Roland McGee. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 26 July 1990. Richmond, BC. McGee, Roland. 1993. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 5 May 1993. Richmond, BC. McKay, Doris. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 2 May 1991. Charlottetown, PEI. McKay, Willard. 1964. Interview (interviewer unknown). 24 August 1964. Vernon Bridge, PEI. Moscrop, Katherine. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 17 July 1990. West Vancouver, BC. Prosser, Lillian. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 17 July 1990. Vamcouver, BC. Rayne, Audrey. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 18 June 1990. Douglas, NB. Raynor, Evelyn. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 21 May 1991. Port Hope, ON. Reimer, Manny. 1987. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. Summer 1987. Eliot, ME. Richardson, Doris. N.d. Interview by John Robarts. 14 June (no year or place indicated). Robarts, John. 1985. Interview by Michael and Elizabeth Rochester. March 1985. Toronto, ON.
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Robarts, Audrey. 1993. Telephone conversation with W.C. van den Hoonaard. 26 October 1993. Rawdon, QC. Rochester, Michael G. 1987. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 10 October 1987. St. John's, NF. Rolfe, Eugene. 1987a. Interview with Wanda Wyatt, by Ritchie Rolfe. March 1987. Summerside, PEI. Ross, Peggy. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 12 July 1990. Qualicum Beach, BC. Sala, Emeric. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 14 July 1990. Victoria, BC. Sala, Rosemary. N.d. Interview by Evelyn Raynor. [no date] Toronto, ON. Sheets, Dorothy. 1990. Interview by a group of local Bahá'ís. 6 January 1990. Colwood, BC. Skinner, Doris. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 11 July 1990. Nanaimo, BC. Smith, Douglas. 1993. Telephone Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 25 June 1993. Ottawa, ON. Smith, Françoise (née Rouleau). 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 26 May 1991. Toronto, ON. Smith, Jean G. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 23 May 1991. Toronto, ON. Stefansson, Jill (née Rimell). 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 20 July 1990. Chilliwack, BC. Wade, Dorothy. 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 16 July 1990. White Rock, BC. Walker, Willow. 1987. Telephone interview by Erica Ritter on ''Day Shift," Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 30 March 1987. St. Andrews, NB. Waugh, Priscilla. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 3 May 1991. Charlottetown, PEI. Weaver, Maude, and Craig Weaver. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 23 May 1991. Richmond Hill, ON. White, Jean White (née Court). 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 19July 1990. Chilliwack, BC. Wilson, Doug. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 23 May 1991. King Township, ON. Woodman, Ross. 1991. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 25 May 1991. London, ON. Yeo, Marion (née Metcalfe). 1990. Interview by W.C. van den Hoonaard. 27 July 1990. Winnipeg, MB.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY If the reader is unable to locate a particular reference in this bibliography, he or she should consult Appendix E which provides additional references with respect to correspondence and interviews undertaken for The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada. 'Abdu'lBahá. N.d. [Talks in Europe and America] (Arabic). Addis Ababa: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of North East Africa. Originally published in 1921. ———. 1936. Foundations of World Unity. New York: Bahá'í Publishing Committee. ———. 1972. Paris Talks. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ———. 1977 [191617]. Tablets of the Divine Plan (rev. ed.). Wilmette, IL: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ———. 1982. The Promulgation of Universal Peace. Wilmette, IL: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Allaire, J.B.A. 1908. Dictionnaire biographique du clergé canadienfrançais: les contemporains. StHyacinth, QC: La Tribune. Anonymous. N.d. Threepage manuscript on brief history of the Bahá'í Faith in Montreal. NBAC. Anthony, Dick, and Thomas Robbins. 1982. "Contemporary Religious Ferment and Moral Ambiguity." In Eileen Barker, ed., New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (pp. 24363). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen. Archer, Mary E. 1977. "Global Community: A Case Study of the Houston Bahá'ís." M.A. thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Houston, Houston, TX. ———. 1980 (April). "Organizational Dynamics of Commitment in Ideological Groups: Case of the Bahá'ís." Paper presented at the 55th meeting of the Southwestern Sociological Association, Houston, TX. Artibise, Alan. 1977. Winnipeg: An Illustrated History. The History of Canadian Cities Series. Toronto: James Lorimer. Bahá'í Canada. 1976 to the present. Thornhill, ON: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. Bahá'í Community of Canada. 1970. The Local Spiritual Assembly. Toronto: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. ———. 1976. Bahá'í Meetings/NineteenDay Feasts. Toronto: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. Bahá'í News. (1924, December) to the present. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States.
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Britannica. 1988. 1988 Britannica Book of the Year. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Bromley, David G., Bruce C. Busching, and Anson D. Shupe, Jr. 1982. "The Unification Church and the American Family: Strain, Conflict, and Control." In Eileen Barker, ed., New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (pp. 30211). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen. Bromley, David G., and Anson D. Shupe, Jr. 1979. "Moonies" in America: Cult, Church, and Crusade. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Brym, Robert, and William Shaffir, eds. 1993. The Jews in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press. Buck, Christopher. 1990. "Bahá'u'lláh as 'World Reformer.'" Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3(4), 23–70. Campbell, Colin. 1982. "Some Comments on the New Religious Movements: The New Spirituality and PostIndustrial Society." In Eileen Barker, ed., New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (pp. 23242). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen. "Canadian Bahá'í Convention—1948." 1948 (June). Bahá'í News, 208, 8–9. Canadian Bahá'í News (renamed in 1976 as Bahá'í Canada). (194875). Toronto: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. Canadian Bahá'í News Committee. 1955 (April). Marion Jack: Immortal Heroine. Toronto. Canadian Who's Who. 1910. Toronto: Mussan Book Co. Caplan, Gerald L. 1973. The Dilemma of Canadian Socialism: The CCF in Ontario. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. Card, Brigham Y., Herbert C. Northcott, John E. Foster, Howard Palmer and George K. Jarvis. 1990. The Mormon Presence in Canada. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. Careless, J.M.S. 1985. "Toronto." The Canadian Encyclopedia (Vol. 3). Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers. Charlebois, Peter. 1975. The Life of Louis Riel. Toronto: N.C. Press. Choquette, Diane, comp. 1985. New Religious Movements in the United States and Canada: A Critical Assessment and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Clark, Samuel D. 1948. Church and Sect in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Clarke, Mary E. 1979. "The Saint John Women's Enfranchisement Association, 1894–1919." M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. Clement, Wallace. 1990. "Comparative Class Analysis: Locating Canada in a North American and Nordic Context." Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27(4), 46286. Collin, Austin F. 1968. "Growth of the Bahá'í Faith in Vancouver, B.C., 1920–1926" (mimeographed, 2 pp.). NBAC. Cooper, John Irwin. 1969. Montreal: A Brief History. Montreal: McGillQueen's University Press.
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INDEX Italicized page number denotes photograph A 'Abdu'lBahá, 8, 1012, 2023, 2527, 3031, 33, 3536, 4041, 43, 49, 6567, 70, 72, 73, 7778, 82, 85, 8788, 9899, 101, 104, 109, 11112, 11415, 119, 124, 153, 157, 166, 170, 17374, 176, 185, 193, 199, 223, 238, 269, 273, 274, 297, 306, 318 and the press, 5560; map of Montreal sites visited, 54; speaks of Canada, 46, 49, 50, 57, 61; speaks of francophones, 65, 94; speaks of Montreal, 46, 47; in Montreal, 4360; in Ontario, 6163; in Toronto, 62 'Abdu'lBahá, 63 'Abdu'lBahá in Canada, 310 " 'Abdu'lBahá'ís," 43 Abernethy, Jean, 228 Acadian, 93, 95, 149 Advent of Divine Justice, 170 African Canadian(s), 12, 31, 36, 83, 85, 8892, 98, 112, 114, 119, 123, 176, 186, 188, 224, 229, 23738, 24546, 270. See also Negro Albert Durrant Watson, 102 Alberta, 29, 83, 108, 12122, 128, 16465, 178, 180, 184, 186, 269, 295, 306. See also individual cities, towns Alcohol, 3, 170. See also Prohibition Alexander, Agnes, 35, 108, 122, 125, 306; Lincoln, 313; Allaby, Ferne, 118, 310 Allah, Enayat Mirza, 312 Allaire, J.B.A., 67, 318 Allen, Aseyeh, 122 'Amatu'lBahá Rúhíyyih Khánum, see Rúhíyyih Khánum and Rabbani, R. Anarchists, World Conference of, 19 Anderson, 122; Charles P., 328; Joan, 313, 314; Ted, 67, 106, 123, 129, 310 Andrew, Miss, 121 Anglican(ism), 29, 115, 122, 176, 183, 196, 225, 231, 277, 279 Anthony, Dick, 4, 13, 318, 331 Antifluoridation, 221 Applegate, Audrey, 184 Archer, Mary E., 6, 287, 290, 291, 318 Armdale, NS, 236 Armed forces, 226 Armstrong, Arthur, 37; Henry F., 38, 69, 72 Armstrong, BC, 122, 179, 215 Arrant, Madelaine, 129 Art Club, Saint John, 112, 116, 123, 129 Art(ists), 30, 73, 93, 110, 119, 210, 212, 222, 243, 283 Artibise, Alan, 209, 318 Ascah, Fred, 149, 214 Athens, ON, 30 Atherton, J., 310 Atlantic Canada; 10816, 120, 163, 165, 194225, 253, 260, 26769 Atwater, Marcia, 186, 217 Austin, Elsie, 270, 276 Authors, 101, 172; on the Bahá'í Faith, 8081 Azizi, Sandra, 310 B Báb, The, 10, 166, 176; dreams about, 98 Bábí Faith, 9 Badáyi'u'lAthár (The Wondrous Annals), 63 Bagdadi, Zia, 73, 76, 83, 306 Bahá'í becomes trademark, 258 Bahá'í, oldest living, 129 Bahá'í Administration, 114, 126, 15662, 166, 168, 169, 17273, 177, 274, 289 Bahá'í Administration, 125, 130 Bahá'í Centre, 162, 170, 209, 211 Bahá'í Club(s), in schools, 257 Bahá'í communities, ity, 31, 72, 77, 80, 8283, 114, 240, 273, 284, 288, 292; analysis of twelve, 20626; boundaries of, 12, 90, 115, 16869, 173, 273, 287, 288; decline, growth, 115, 116, 20626, 229, 252, 275, 305; cultural adaptation of, 246, 28283, 28687; demography of, 19091, 23638; of Canada, geographical distribution of, 281; of Canada, mandate, 174;
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"ownership" of, 90; profiles (193747), 305; transformation, 15658; world views in, 287 Bahá'í Faith, history of, 1011 Bahá'í identity, 12, 43, 247, 261, 265, 267, 275, 291 Bahá'í Life, the, 16971, 173, 291 Bahá'í membership, 98, 115, 126, 173, 231, 233, 259, 274, 281, 28586, 289; class background of, 246; criteria, 22, 98, 16569, 274, 282; ethnicity in, 24446; length of, 72, 101, 219, 28486; adults, children, women, 220, 23637, 239; religious background of, 231, 246; restrictions on, 307 Bahá'í Revelation, The, 130 Bahá'í scholarship, 6, 13 Bahá'i schools, see Beaulac, Geyserville, Green Acre Bahá'í School; Schools, Bahá'í Bahá'í Scripture, 125, 130 Bahai Temple Unity, 34, 38, 42, 15657, 161, 276, 306, 307 Bahá'í village, 104, 157, 17173, 174, 290 Bahá'í Writings, 34, 43, 288; references to francophones, 93; translation into English, 288 Bahá'ís, number of new members, per year, 302303, 305; differences between veterans and new, 288; differences between Persian and Western, 247; educated through firesides, 20178 Bahá'u'lláh, 1, 10, 43, 78, 114, 166, 173, 176, 181, 185, 186, 194, 202, 238, 273, 282, 289 Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era, 63, 99, 130, 167, 168, 176; used for enrollment, 90 Baile, Dorothy, 79 Bain, Kathleen, 229 Bainbridge, William S., 4, 9, 14, 114, 116, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 286, 296, 297, 333 Baker, Dorothy, 195, 228, 270; George, 4, 329 Balyuzi, Hasan M., 9, 63, 65, 319 Banff, AB, 164, 165, 269 Baptist, 182, 196, 212 Barker, Eileen, 318, 320, 321, 324 Barkes, Ernie and Joyce, 314 Barr, Erland, 152, 183, 227; Gertrude, 196, 227, 230, 249; Lulu M., 141, 152, 179, 186, 190, 196, 204, 221, 230, 237, 249; Muriel, née Wells, 152, 183; family, 197, 210 Barrie, ON, 62 Barton, Mary, 196, 198 Bausfield, Violet, 225 Beaulac Bahá'í School, 105, 107, 164, 180, 268, 270, 308 Beaulieu, André, 55, 58, 69, 320 Beckford, James A., 13, 287, 290, 320 Bedingfield, Stephen, 61, 70, 310, 320; Verna, 7 Beecher, Ella, 61, 112, 193 Beecroft, Elsie, 228 Bellah, Robert N., 13, 320 Bellefleur, Edward, 95, 229; Muriel, 95, 310, 314 Belleville, ON, 62 Benjamin, Louis, 62, 102 Bennett, John W., 295, 320 Benson Siding, BC, 34, 122, 128 Berger, Peter L., 6, 320 Bergholz, Henry, 87, 151 Bertley, Leo W., 89, 99, 320 Bibby, Reginald, 14, 114, 295, 320 Biblical criticism, higher; interpretations, 273, 286 Big Brother and Big Sister, 39 Bird, Frederick, 284, 295, 320 Birks, 64, 65; Annie (née McNeill), 46; Geraldine, 46, 64, 313; John Henry, 46. See also Wilson, G. Bishop, Helen and Charles, 130 Black(s), see African Canadian(s); Negro Blackburn, Mrs., 89, 99 Blair, Jenny, 70 Blind, the, 184, 197, 220 Bloodworth, Keith, 42, 320 Blythe, Irvine, 183, 230 Bolles, Jeanne N., 178; Jeanne R., 38, 83, 84, 178, 241, 248; Randolph, 36, 161. See Maxwell, May Bolton, Celia, 117, 311; Ken, 115, 117, 118, 311; Mariette G., 94, 227, believed only francophone to meet Guardian, 100 Bond, Gale, 212, 314; Jameson J., 212, 228, 234, 314 Booth, Ann, 186, 224 Borden, Robert, Prime Minister, 53, 55; Papers of, 69 Boudler, Lou and Louise, 190, 224
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Boundaries, 289, 29092, use of language in marking, 291. See also Bahá'í communities, ity Bourassa, Napoléon, 93 Bourgeois, Alice, 94; Louis, 93, 100, 136, 149, 161 Bourne, L.S., 245, 320 Boyer, Allen, 320 Boys, Dorothy (formerly Dorothy Clarke), 152, 211 Braithwaite, Rella, 88, 99, 320 Brampton, ON, 168; opposition in, 254 BramsonLerche, Loni J., 6, 320 Brantford, ON, 29, 32, 33, 35, 41, 62 Bray, Dora, 88, 99, 123, 129 Breed, Florence, 35 Britannica, 9, 321 British Columbia, 6, 26, 34, 83, 108, 121, 12228, 16365, 17883, 186, 203, 258, 26769, 306. See also individual cities, towns Brittingham, Elizabeth, 30 Brockville, ON, 29, 30, 35, 61, 62, 76, 193, 307 Bromley, David G., 3, 14, 321 Brookes, Beth, 153, 221, 227, 311 Browne, Edward G., 9 Bruchési, Msgr. Louis, 52, 67 Bryant, A.M. (Mrs.), 311 Brym, Robert, 295, 321 Buck, Christopher, 290, 321 Buford, Rhea, 322 Burlington, ON, 61 Burton, Alice, 314 Burton, NB, 129 Busching, Bruce C., 321 Businessmen's Club, Bahá'í, 212 Buzzell, Rosanne M., 27, 314 Byrne, William F., 204, 229 C C.A.R.E., 264 Caldwell, Jack, 262, 264 Calendar, Bahá'í, 15859, 291 Calgary, 26, 153, 179, 183, 184, 192, 198, 200, 202, 233, 253, 297 Caliban, 5859 Campbell, Colin, 5, 321; Nancy, 152, 190, 196, 204, 211, 227, 249 Canada, Bahá'í views about, 46, 49, 50, 61, 77, 78 "Canada's Call," national anthem, 101 Canada, Le (Montreal), 56, 59; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 58, 300 Canada, religion in, features of, 277280 Canadian: Army, 262; Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), 26, 215; Club, Saint John, NB, 112, 113; Ethological Association, 101; Geographical Journal, 180, 199; International Development Agency, 3; National Exhibition, 141, 151, 179, 212, 307; National Institute for the Blind, 197, 220; National Railways, 121; Pacific Railway, 17, 69, 121, 152; Security and Intelligence Service, 264 Canadian Bahá'í Community, 271; five themes in history of, 272, 30279 Canadian society, 14, 78, 25277 Canadien(ne), usage of, 97. See also francophone(s); FrenchCanadian(s) Cape Breton, NS, 110 Caplan, Gerald, 321 Caravan group, 20 Card, Brigham Y., 295, 321 Careless, J.M.S., 211, 321 Carman, Bliss, 103 Carmichael, 62; Emma, 32, 33; James F., 32, 41, 306 Carmichael, SK, 120, 205 Carpenter, Marzieh, 198 Carroll, J.L., 61 Carswell, Jack, 152 Carty, Don, 224, 311 Caswell, Louise, 129, 130 Catholic(s), ism, 1819, 32, 41, 44, 52, 55, 79, 85, 93, 9596, 99100, 115, 183, 190, 201, 209, 223, 23133, 253, 27779, 283, 295 Cayley, Gwen, 228 Centres for higher learning, precursors to Bahá'í, 268 Chambly, QC, 99 Chapman, A., see Ioas, A. Charlebois, Peter, 20, 321 Charlottetown, 117, 164, 17881, 19496, 200, 202, 208, 218, 22022, 226, 22930, 255, 263, 305, 308 Chase, Thornton, 17, 25, 31, 34, 42, 108, 130, 306, 311 Chesley, Amo, 229, 249 Chicago, 1, 16, 21, 22, 26, 30, 3234, 4142, 56, 108, 110, 156, 271, 273, 306 Chief Justice of New Brunswick, 117 Children, less(ness), 3839, 82, 127, 152, 214, 231, 23638, 247, 252, 258, 281, 283, 292, 296
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Children's: Aid Society, 42; Court, 37; Memorial Hospital, 259 China, Viola "Ruby," 198, 203, 230. See also France, V. Chinese, 110, 125, 188; C. art, 105 Chisholm, Anne, 112, 113, 119, 314 Choquette, Diane, 9, 321, 323 Christ, 22, 52, 194 Christian Science, tists, 17, 102, 103, 233, 295; percentage of Christian Science Bahá'ís, 232 Christian(s), ity, 73, 217, 274, 293; liberal, 186 Christie, William J., 164, 172, 176, 233 Christmas, Robert and Vera, 314 Chronology, Canadian Bahá'í dates, 30684 Church membership, 22, 32, 41, 61, 91, 99, 259, 290 Church of England, see Anglican(ism) Churchstate relations, 278 Churches, opposition from, 25354 Civil religion, 13 Clapham, Elsa, 75, 83, 84, 204, 248. See also Russell, J. Clark, Samuel D., 321 Clarke, Amelia, 152, 210; Dorothy, 210; Mary E., 113, 321 Class, 231, 246, 28283; background of Bahá'í membership, 24244 Clement, Wallace, 248, 321 Cliff, Evelyn E., 152, 183, 204, 249, 264, 272 Clift, J.A. (Mrs.), 108, 109, 204, 306 Climo, Harold, 119; Helen, 113, 119 Cole, Hills, 22, 311 Colebrook, Jean, 230 Colgrove, R.G.P., 243, 325 Collin, Austin F., 122, 124, 129, 184, 248, 321; Frances E., 124, 18393, 230 Collins, Amelia, 276; George, 311, 313 Coloured Women's Charitable and Benevolent Assocation, 98; Club, 9899 Colpitts, Clifford, 229, 248; Constance, 229; Edna, 229 Communism, ist, 84, 126, 224, 255, 256 Comox, BC, 215 Competitive awareness, 28788 Congregational ecumenism, 278 Congregationalist(s), 32, 68, 246, 27879 Congress of Living Religions, 306 Conscription, 262 Constant, Benjamin, 30 Converts, early, 16, 25, 240, 287 Cooney, Michelle, 311 Cooper, John I., 57, 58, 65, 67, 69, 321 Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, 40, 172 Coppercliff, ON, 202 Corinthian Hall (Montreal), 67 Coristine, Mary, 37, 69 Coronation Hall (Montreal), 54 (map), 55, 67; address by 'Abdu'lBahá in, 50 Coser, Lewis A., 13, 322 Court, Ernest, 153, 209, 227; Jean, 316. See also Johnson, J.; White, J. Courts, Children's, 37; Juvenile, 39 Cousineau, D.F., 335 CovenantBreaker, 105, 107 Coward, Harold, 4, 322 Cowles, C., 73; Elizabeth, 83, 151, 156, 19899, 222, 240, 248. See also Pomeroy, E. Cox, Florence, 161, 229, 230 Coyne, Catherine, 203, 215, 227 Crapaud, PEI, 110, 221 Creighton, Donald, 101, 322 Cress, Adelbert F., 117; Dorothy C., 22, 314 Croatian, 210 Crone, Harry, 62 Crowe, Harry, 66, 109, 117, Crysdale, Stewart, 295, 320, 322 Cult, a technical term, 297 Cultchurchsect typology, 5, 14 Cultural adaptation, 28687; analysis, 287; framing of Bahá'í message, 287 Culver, 23, 29, 108, 11014, 118, 119, 306; Dorothy, 22, 117; Henry S., 22, 23, 27; Lawrence, 322; Louise, 117, 136, 150; Mary, 113. See also Cress, D. Cunningham, Ruth, 79, 151; Sarah, 151 Currie, Robert, 40, 322 Curry, Evelyn, 183, 223 Cuttriss, Hazel, 168, 314 D Dahl, Roger, 157, 182, 186, 194, 203, 204, 217, 224, 228, 276, 311, 322 Davidson, J.H. (Isabella) (Mrs.), 118 Davies, Elizabeth, 204; Milwyn A., 152, 190, 203, 204, 229, 249, 322; Sarah, 152, 196
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Davis, 95, 103, 106107, 228, 276; A. Victor, 200; Laura R., 138, 151, 153, 168, 188, 189, 192, 211, 27172, 322. See also Rumney, L. Dawnbreakers, The, 130 Dawson, YK, 88, 122 Day, Ethel, 255 De Mille, 182, 21415, 236, Amine, 63, 68, 88, 92, 9899, 153, 198, 322; Ellen, 153; John, 198, 272 Dealy, Kitty, 25; Lt. William J., 25; Michael, 25; Paul K., 17, 21, 25, 108,134, 149, 296, 306, 311; Robert J. (Mr. and Mrs.), 313 Declaration Card, 98, 106, 140, 168; origins of, 260. See also Registration Card Declaration of Trust and ByLaws, 166, 307 Defense of Bahá'ís, 254 de Gobineau, Count, in Newfoundland, 117 de Grandpré, Marcel, 279, 322 Delaney, John J., 67, 322 Delanti, Stella, 79, 204. See also Estall, S. Delbert, ON, 179 de Levier, A., 75 de Longpré, Paul, 93 Dendy, William, 70, 322 Dennis, Edward, 25 Denominations in Canada, 27780 Devoir, Le (Montreal), 55; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 56, 60, 300301 Dewing, A., 125 d'IbervilleMoreau, Luc, 66, 67, 322 Dillabough, Ezra A., 61 Discourse, religious, 287 Diversity, 20910, 22526, 244, 275; as a factor of growth of communities, 225; index measuring ethnic/national origin, 207, 305 Dixie, ON, 101 Dixon, Jean, 264; John A., 203, 262 Donnelly, Bob and Shirley, 186, 314 Douglas, Sir, 117 Doukhobor, 210; percentage of whom Bahá'ís, 232 Downes, Sarah, 142, 152, 237; Wray, 152 Drewek, Paula, 6, 13, 322 DreyfusBarney, Laura, 185 Driedger, Leo, 295, 322 Drouin, Henry, 95 Drymon, Elizabeth B., 314 Dunn, Mr. and Mrs. Hyde, 100 Dutch, 182, 200 Dutov, Violet, 227 E East Indian, 125, 129 Ebaugh, Helen, 323 Echevarria, Nick and Jessica, 164, 314 EchevarriaHowe, Lynn, 6, 13, 98, 119, 175, 176, 245, 311, 313, 314, 315, 323 Economics, 10, 5051, 58, 60, 80, 162, 17174, 286 Eddington, Archibald, 57, 69, 98, 247; Mrs., 98 Edmonton, 29, 34, 35, 108, 121, 152, 178, 180, 183, 186, 192, 200, 203, 208, 213, 217 18, 226, 229, 247, 305306; Bahá'ís, 143 Edwards, Phil, Olympian, 92 Ehrenreich, Barbara, 42, 323 Eichler, Margrit, 8, 323 Ekbal, Kamran, 83, 323 Eldridge, Janet, 129; Keith, 66, 129 Elgin, NB, 179, 214 Eliot, ME, 17, 22, 45, 117, 163 Elliot, Eddie, 8889, 91, 99, 15053, 169 Elliott, Cecil Claude, 152, 262, 264 Ellwood, Robert S., Jr., 9, 13, 281, 294, 323 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9, 321 English, 122, 129, 182, 183, 196, 225; translation of Bahá'í writings into, 288 English, Deirdre, 42, 323 Episcopalian, 24 Epistemological individualism, 297 Erie, BC, 34 Eskimo, 75. See also Inuit Esperanto, 96 Esslemont, John E., 40, 63, 99, 130, 176, 323 Estall, Rowland A., 14, 69, 7879, 81, 89, 9192, 94, 9799, 103, 120, 12627, 138, 150, 153, 157, 161, 163, 166, 170, 176, 178, 180, 182, 18485, 189, 198 200, 202203, 20910, 215, 222, 224, 226, 248, 264, 27172, 276, 311, 314, 323 Estall, Stella, first homefront pioneer, 182. See also Delanti, S. Estall, Yvonne, 227. See also Killins, Y. Este, Charles H., 8889, 91, 92, 99
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Ethics in research, 7 Ethnic(ity), 8597, 225, 24446, 283 Evangelical (Protestant), 183, 220 Extension goals, teaching, 196, 203, 205 F Face of Early Canada, The, 105 Fairclough, Irene, 204, 249; Nancy, 227 Fairweather, Alma, 204, 229 Fallding, Harold, 278, 323 Family, lies, 214, 218, 23138, 23536, 25657 Family Herald and Weekly Star (Montreal), 56; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 57, 300 Farmer, Moses G., 23; Sarah, 23 Farran's Beach, 61; Point, 61 Feasts, see NineteenDay Feasts Federated Icelandic churches, 227 Federation of Labor, Chicago, 19 Fellowship of Reconciliation, 121, 197, 220 Feminist(s), 39; maternal, 39, 238 Ferguson, Bob, 92, 323; Karin, 117, 311, 314; Katherine, 233 Fifteen, age of, 237, 281 Filby, P. William, 323 Filson, Bruce K., 323; Gerald W., 6, 323 Finances, ial, 26, 34, 73, 109, 126, 157, 16062, 165, 17273, 17576, 25859, 291, 29697; Canadian, 260, 275 Fink, Brahms and Roslyn, 86; Rachel, 85, 97, 151, 248 Finke, Roger, 4, 14, 293, 297, 323 Firesides, 124, 173, 183, 18691, 200201, 203, 211, 220, 222, 226, 275, 280, 281, 296; different styles of, 189, 211, 225; longest, continuous, 189 First Nations, see Native peoples, Indian(s) Fishburn, Janet, 40, 323 FiveYear Plan (194853), 270, 275 Flanagan, Thomas, 19, 323 Flin Flon, MB, 293 Flournoy, Raymond, 92, 311 Fluoridation, 282 Ford, Margaret, 312; Mary H., 76, 130 Forest Hill, ON, 189 Foster, John E., 321 Foundations of World Unity, 244 France, Viola "Ruby," 230. See also China, V. Francophone(s), 12, 45, 55, 65, 83, 85, 9297, 149, 167, 20910, 227, 24546, 279, 283. See also FrenchCanadian(s) Frank, Yvonne, 297 Fratority Club, McGill University, 91, 92 Fredericton, NB, 111, 129 French, Goldwin, 279, 323; Jeanette, 94, 151, 248; Reginald, 94 FrenchCanadian(s), 216, 306; usage of term, 97. See also francophone(s) French Teaching Committee (Bahá'í), 95, 100 Friends, opposition from personal, 25657 Friends of India Society, University of Toronto, 103 Frost, Joseph, 129, 314 Fry, Mary E., 186, 217 Fuchs, Rose, 323 G Gagetown, NB, 113, 118 Gail, Marzieh, 123, 228 Gamson, William A., 324 Ganss, Elsie and William, 220 Gardner, Clifford, 228, 167; Dave, 314; Helen, 105, 314; Lloyd G., 109, 139, 151, 153, 162, 164, 167, 184, 188, 193, 200, 203, 222, 22829, 253, 263, 27172, 314 Garis, Mabel, 101, 106, 112, 113, 200, 253, 324 Garlington, William, 6, 324 Garrigues, Steven L., 6, 324 GaudetSmet, Françoise, 93, 324 Gazette, The (Montreal), 56, 65, 66, 67; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 57, 300301 Geary, Irving, 194, 195, 204, 216, 221, 222, 229, 324; M. Grace, 117, 153, 194, 195, 199, 204, 216, 221, 222, 229, 324 Gelberg, Steven J., 5, 14, 284, 293, 324 Gender, 10, 13, 60, 109, 113, 201202, 211, 21518, 220, 225, 231, 23342, 24647, 252, 256, 286, 293, 305; contributions of women, 240, 28081; in teaching the Bahá'í Faith, 198, 202, 23940, 292; imbalance of, 218, 226, 275, 296; in obituaries, 238, 247; in research, 7; membership on Bahá'í bodies, 23942, 248, 271;
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attraction to new religions, 73, 217, 296; position of women, 23336 Geographical spread of Bahá'ís, 178, 281, 291, 30279 Georgian Bay, ON, 164 Gerome, 30 Getsinger, Lua, 32, 35, 42 Geyserville Bahá'í School, 163, 180 Giachery, Angeline, 109; Ugo, 109, 117, 311 Gibbons, Elsie, 311 Gidden, Helen, 224, 228 Gillies, Rosemary, 79, 8182, 151, 204, 237, 249. See also Sala, R. Giscome, Lucille C., 144, 152, 186, 224 Glead, Phyllis, 263, 264 Glen Lynden, Rice Lake, ON, 163, 164, 268 Glock, Charles Y., 13, 324 God Passes By, 63 God and His Messengers, 81 Golden, Nell, 94, 109, 311 Goldstone, Albert and Ida, 83 Goodstone, Albert, 75, 83, 247; Ida, 75, 83, 240, 248 Gordon, Milli R., 49, 66, 87, 9798, 153, 188, 204, 222, 314; Rabbi Nathan, 67 Gould, Joy "Gypsy," 186, 224 Goulden, H.A., 47, 51 Government, of British Columbia, 259; of Canada, 180; of Great Britain, 44; of Ontario, 259; opposition from, 25456; government watches Bahá'ís, 126 Grand Trunk Railway, 54 (map), 55, 61, 69 Grand, Helen, 101, 104, 107, 228, 324 Grant, John W., 323, 324, 333 Gray (Perkins), Mary, 106, 228, 324 Great Depression, 185, 208, 210 Greaves, Ida, 99, 324 Green Acre Bahá'í Archives, 63; Bahá'í School, 17, 21, 23, 30, 45, 86, 163, 171, 180 Greenleaf, Elizabeth, 78, 83, 129, 248 Greenwood, Annie L. ("Nan"), 203, 311 Gregory, Louis, 90, 92, 129 Griffin, Frederick R., 46, 65 Gronville, Marie, 93 Group Home, Bahá'í, 171, 17273, 174 Group of Seven Painters, 40, 243 Grumley, Tom, 50, 324 Guardian(ship), 77, 84, 117, 119, 157, 171, 173, 274, 281, 289. See also Shoghi Effendi Guinness family, 27; Rupert, 28; Sir Benjamin Lee, 28 Gull Lake, SK, 108, 12021, 128, 306 Gulliford, Mr., 129 H Haack, V., 26 Hackett, W., 192, 199 Haddad, Anton, 16 Halifax, 95, 177, 17981, 18385, 200, 202, 206, 208, 21415, 21819, 226, 229, 233, 247, 253, 256, 263, 282, 305; Bahá'ís, 145 Hall, Jane T., 32. 41, 101; Monty, 228, 324; William J., 41 Hamelin, Jean, 55, 57, 58, 69, 320; Hamilton, 6162, 95, 119, 16869, 17780, 183, 186, 190, 192, 194, 19697, 207208, 21011, 22627, 237, 25556, 305; Bahá'ís, 142 Hamilton, Ross, 324 Hammond, Gillian E., 203, 230; John, 123 Hand(s) of the Cause of God, 11, 81, 117 Handy, Robert, 40, 324 Hanen, Mrs., 124 Hannen, Joseph, 26 Hardin, Bert, 324 Harris, Bess, 243, 325; Edward D., 121, 128, 205; Edward W., 108, 12021, 128, 306; Hooper, 41; Lawren S., 152, 243, 248; Mr. and Mrs., 164 Harrison, Amy, 87, 151; Ernest V., 93, 7475, 83, 119, 151, 157, 199, 248, 253, 325; H., 325 Harvey, Garth, 315; Gladys, 162, 315; Oliver, 129; Rhoda, 124, 130; W. Frank, 212; Winnifred, 185, 198, 224, 233, 272, 312. See also Young, G. Haskell, architect, 67 Hatcher, William S., 63, 325 Hatheway, Arthur B.M., 118; pilgrimage to Haifa, 111 Hayes, Esther, 315; Inez, 189; John, 248 Hazen, Lady, 117 Health, and fads, 282; promotion of, 297 Healy, Norna, 70 Hearst, Phoebe, 17, 36; Randolph, 25 Hébert, LouisPhilippe, 93
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Heelas, Paul, 325 Heindel, Max, 41, 325 Heller, Wendy, 100, 290, 325 Hemingway, William, pseud. W.O. Inglis, 27 Henderson, Rose, Dr., 37, 3840, 69, 72, 238, 248, 296, 325 Hetherington, Walker F., 37 Hewitt, W.E., 325, 326 Hibbs, R., 325 Hidden Words, The, 42, 125, 130 Hiller, Harry, 278, 295, 325 Hinton, Mary Anna, 229 Historiography, Bahá'í, 115 Hoagg, Emogene, 123, 124 Hoffman, Frank H., 312 Hofman, David, 81, 204, 315, 325 Hogg, D. Bruce, 152, 198, 225, 262, 264 Hollace, J. (Mrs.), 129 Holley, Horace, 24, 42, 6465, 68, 111, 129, 163, 175, 192, 228, 276, 312, 325; Marion, 64, 68, 325 Hollinger, Richard, 325 Holloway, Edna, 161, 230 Holton, Margaret L., 324 Holy Days, Bahá'í, 3, 23, 127, 175, 258, 259 Hope, Harold, 262, 264 Hornby, Helen, 159, 181, 325 Hotels, religion of the, 283, 293. See also Public meetings Hougen, Joseph H., 124 House of Spirituality, Saint John, 113 House of Worship, Bahá'í, 20, 30, 33, 42, 86, 9394, 137, 149, 156, 161, 173, 174, 180, 199, 271 Households, Bahá'í, composition of, 235; size of, 236 Hubbard, Fred and Lucy, 129 Hubley family, 236; Rebecca, 249 Hudson's Bay Co., 25, 279 Hughes, Edna L., 95, 233, 237, 312, 315 Humphrey family, 118; Charles, 117; Elizabeth, 117; Sophia, 111; William, 111, 117 Hutchings, Muriel, 95, 227. See also Bellefleur, M. Hutton, Ruth, 203 Hyde family, 236; Allan, 262, 264; Eric, 262 I Icelandic, 209, 210, 227 Identity, see Bahá'í identity Ideology, 29092 Inactivity of Bahá'ís; causes of, 169 Income tax, exemption from, 258 Incorporation, 25859, 27475, 307308. See also Recognition Index, diversity, 207 Indian(s), 18, 20, 210, 221, 245, 246, 276. See also Native peoples Indigenization, in the study of religion, 5 Indigenous peoples, 81. See also Indian(s); Native peoples Individual(s), ism, 30, 231, 287, 288, 297 Ingleside, ON, 70 Inglis, Edith, 24, 27, 161, 174, 312, 326; Edward, 312; Marjorie, 21, 22, 315; William O., 23, 24, 27, 312. See also Magee, E. Institute of International Affairs, 197, 220 International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 99, 312 Internment camps, 282 Inuit, 276. See also Eskimo Invention of, electric car, 23; lightbulb, 23 Inwood, Gwen, 153 Ioas, Anita, 152; Leroy, 129, 186, 228 Iran(ian), 3, 11, 114. See also Persia(n) Irwin, Arthur B., 153, 326; Lily Ann, 89, 315 Islamicists, 9 Israel, Wilfred E., 98, 326 Ives, Howard C., 194, 198, 228, 326; Kate C., 17, 25, 108, 109, 134, 149, 306; Mabel, 144, 153, 178, 179, 191, 194, 196, 197, 198, 202, 204, 210, 216, 228 Izzard, Fred, 229 J Jack, Marion, 8283, 84, 92, 104, 10810, 113, 116, 11819, 12324, 129, 135, 149, 178, 193, 196, 228, 273, 306307; receives praise from Shoghi Effendi, 116, 123 Jackson, William H., see Jaxon, Honoré Jacobs, Janet L., 280, 326 James, William, 25 Japan(ese), 4, 10, 19, 125, 165, 196, 210, 220, 245, 246, 252, 282, 306 Jardine, Charles, 62, 336 Jarvis, George K., 321 Jasion, Jan, 117, 129, 326
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Jaxon, Honoré, 18, 2021, 2526, 29, 3435, 38, 67, 134, 149, 273, 296, 306, 326 Jensen, Carrie, 315 Jessup, Henry H., 1, 326 Jews, ish, 12, 52, 78, 83, 8588, 96, 118, 182, 23233, 24546, 274, 284, 295, 297 JinábiFádil, 75, 101, 103, 106, 11214, 118, 12324, 193, 306307 Johnson, Benton, 13, 297, 326; Guy, 184 Johnston, Arthur, 69, 83, 247; Jean, 190. See also Court, J.; White, J. Jones, Catherine, 186; Don and Carell, 218 Joyce, Grace E., 124, 184, 230 K Kahn, Sandra, 326 Kallen, Evelyn, 295, 326 Kamloops, BC, 122 Kawamura, Leslie, 4, 322 Kealy, Gregory S., 254, 326; Linda, 332 Kehrer, Guenter, 324 KeithBeattie, George, 167, 200, 203; Noreen, 167, 203 Kemp, 12930, 152, 187, 264; Evelyn F., 126; Stanley H., 125, 248 Kent, Stephen A., 14, 288, 326 Kerensky, Alexander, 75, 84 Kerr, James, 40, 41 Khán, Rahím, 35 Khán, 'Alí Kuli, 35, 307 Kheiralla, Ibrahim, 16, 17, 21, 22 Kids What I Knows, 39 Killins, Yvonne, 227. See also Estall, Y. King, Agnes and J. Hayes, 204, 229; Sylvia M., 130, 153, 179, 180, 185, 197, 198, 199, 209, 220, 224, 227, 229, 326. See also Matteson, S. Kingsland, William, 41, 326 Kingston, ON, 41, 61 Kinney, Edward (Saffa), 76 Kiwanis Club, 212 Knobloch, Alma, 35 Knott, Leonard L., 65, 326 Koch water treatment, 221 Kroiter, Tania, 227 Kropotkin, Prince, 19 Krueger, Atla, 130 L Labour movement, 38; Labour Party, 26, 40 Labourers, 244 Labrador, 204 Ladd, Mariella C., see Oldendorf, Mariella Lagueux, Archbishop, 94; P. Bernard, 9495, 233 Lahill, Pauline, 37, 42 Laltoo, Ralph, 153, 184, 219, 233 Language, 60; use of as boundary marker, 291 Lanning family, 183, 214, 215, 236; George F. and Joan, 248; Margery, 254, 315; Vivian, 248. See also Smith, V. Latimer, George O., 124, 129, 130, 276 Laurence, Jack and Margaret, 172 Laurie, Margaret, 184, 229; William, 184, 214, 229, 248, 263 Lawrence, Margaret, 102, 103 Lazar, Mortimer, 118, 326 Leach, Archie, 151 Leacock, Stephen, 60, 327; satire of, 69 Ledoux, Urbain, 94 Lee, Monty, 151; Thomas, 79, 83; Umphrey, 40, 327 Legarde, Leo, 263 Legate, David M., 60, 327 Legitimacy, social problem of new religious movements is, 292 Lehman, Arthur, 152, 227 Léonard, Margot, 65, 66, 92, 94, 99, 311, 312, 327 Lesch, Mary, 83 Lethbridge, AB, 203 Let's Make a Deal, 228 Lewis, Harve S., 41, 326 Libby, Bill, 228, 324 Liberal(s), 43, 54; Party, 58 Liddell, E. Blanche, 186, 217, 272; Kay, 225 Lieber, Olga, 270 Light, Beth, 327 Lillard, Paula P., 42, 327 Lillywhite, Theresa, 229 Lindal, Sigrun I., 153, 204, 209, 227 Lindsey, Allan, 203, 230 Lindstrom, Bahiyyih and Edward, 151 Linfoot, Charlotte, 311 Linkages to wider society, 114, 127, 225, 275, 29293 Lipset, Seymour M., 279, 327 Lismer, Arthur, 40 Literary personalities, works, 101103, 284
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Living room, the, 283; religion of the, 293. See also Firesides Livingstone, Amy, 248. See also Harrison, A. Loeding, Sophie, 20, 312 Lofland, John, 3, 13, 327 Loft, James, 62 Lohse family, 182, 215; Adline, 153, 203, 222, 272; Ilse, 87, 151, 214; Walter, 151, 228 London Life Assurance Co., 212 London, ON, 1, 12, 2124, 27, 108, 110, 114, 174, 273, 306 Long, Don, 106, 327 Loveday, Margaret, 83, 240, 248; William, 83, 248 Lovell, John, 327 Luther, Laura, 123, 124, 129, 130 Lyle, Daisy, 230 M MacArthur, Edythe M., 183, 220, 315 MacBean, Martha, 37, 38, 69, 72, 230, 240, 248 MacEoin, Denis, 327 MacGregor, 197, 210; Bessie, 152; Norman, 83, 151; William, 152 Mackenzie, William L., 18 MacKinnon, Agnes, 230 Maclean, Fran, 311 MacLeod, Kenneth O., 64, 327 MacNutt, Howard, 104, 123 Macpherson, Mollie, 226, 227, 236, 311, 315, 327 Magee, 23, 29, 38, 108, 306; Beatrice, 121, 128, 205, 312; Edith, 1, 2124, 135, 149, 238, 306; Esther Annie, 1, 2122, 26; Guy, 1, 21; Harriet, 1, 2, 2122, 2627; James, 27; May, 72; Rose, 2122; Vail, 2122. See also Inglis, E. MahmoudiZarqání, 45, 48, 53, 54, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68, 88, 327 Mahmoudi, Hoda, 290, 325 Manitoba, 25, 29, 34, 108, 120, 128, 177, 180, 185, 261, 271, 293, 306. See also individual cities, towns Mann, William E., 295, 297, 327 Manyoni, Joseph R., 327 Marcellus, Sally, 70 Marchand, architect, 67 Marconi, M.G., 27 Marie of Rumania, Queen, 62, 77, 104, 107, 120, 185, 307 MarieReineduMonde, Cathédrale (Montreal), 47, 54 (map), 65 Marion Jack—Immortal Heroine, 129, 310 Maritimes, see Atlantic Canada Marriage, 10, 73, 79, 86, 259, 281, 306 Marsh, Ernest, 135, 227 Marshall, 210; Ernest, 229; Hazel, 152, 227; Rita (Elaine), 229 Martel, Lou, 202 Martin, Douglas, 22, 63, 312, 325 Martland, Lyda S., 152, 203 Martock, NS, 110 Marx, Karl, 19 Marzieh, Gail, 323 MashrekolAzkar Convention, 161 Matchem, Marjorie E., 129 Maternal feminist, see Feminist(s), maternal Matsuo, Marion, 227 Matteson, Sylvia, 130. See also King, S. Maxwell home/family, 45, 51, 54 (map), 66, 76, 83, 89, 9798, 124, 135, 149, 163, 182, 190, 199, 223, 242, 268, 270; declared ''Shrine" by Shoghi Effendi, 51 Maxwell, Mary, 37, 5253, 6869, 78, 80, 86, 91, 138, 15051, 156, 202, 248, 261, 270; marriage to Shoghi Effendi, 80, 222, 307. See also Rúhíyyih K.; Rabbani, R. Maxwell, May, 8, 2324, 3537, 4043, 45, 49, 53, 64, 69, 7375, 7980, 82, 84, 8690, 94, 99, 104, 108, 11011, 117, 122, 125, 151, 161, 16970, 174, 17879, 184, 193, 222, 228, 240, 248, 261, 271, 273, 280, 296, 306, 32728; "spiritual mother of Canada," 35 Maxwell, W. Sutherland, 24, 36, 38, 45, 4748, 53, 6465, 6970, 74, 100, 112, 174, 247, 271, 328 Mayer, Zald, 328 McCarthy, J.D., 285, 328 McCarthy, Mr. and Mrs. Jesse O., 102103 McCullough, Ken and Mary, 14, 328 McEwen, Merle, 204, 229, 249 McGee, 6, 184, 225, 228, 237, 315; Anne, 152, 192, 312; Roland, 126, 26263, 328 McGill, Normal School, 38 McGivern, Elizabeth, 117
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McGuire, Meredith B., 280, 281, 328 McIntosh, Christopher, 41, 328 McKay, Doris, 14, 153, 161, 192, 19495, 198, 217, 221, 22830, 249, 255, 272, 315, 328; most frequent pioneer, 181; S. Ramsay (Mrs.), 129; Willard, 198, 272, 315 McKenna, Mae L., 152, 166, 176, 187, 264, 272 McKinney, Edna, 118, 119 McLaren, Ken, 204, 210 McLaughlin, Fred, 229, 263 McLean, Anne L., 229 McPhail, Agnes, 96, 103 Meade, Marion, 41, 328 Media, see Newspapers, Publicity, Press, Radio Mediums and Mystics, 102 Medjuck, Sheva, 118, 326 Melton, J. Gordon, 295, 328 Men's Club of Canada, 75 Merchant Navy, 229, 263 Metcalfe, Marion, 210, 316. See also Yeo, M. Methodist(s), ism, 18, 2122, 2931, 40, 52, 5556, 68, 101, 119, 156, 182, 184, 231, 246, 27779, 286 Métis, 18, 19, 20, 25 Meyer, Mary K., 323 Mickler, Michael L., 14, 284, 289, 294, 328 Military duty, service, 258, 262; Bahá'í view about, 259; exemption from, 258, 261, 307. See also Pacifism, World War II Miller, Marion, 25; Timothy, 324, 328, 334 Millman, T.R., 279, 328 Mills, John, 152 Milwaukee, WI, 182 Moffett, Ruth, 19495, 228 Mohawk, 62 Mol, Hans, 13, 328 Momen, Moojan, 9, 117, 328, 333 Moncton, 111, 116, 153, 17778, 179, 181, 194, 200, 202, 204, 208, 213, 21617, 226, 228, 305, 307 Monroe, Christina, 124, 130, 223; George R., 129, 130 Montessori, 37, 42 Montfort, Aimée, 19, 20, 21, 3435, 93, 134, 149, 306; Mrs. and Miss B., 26; Simon de, 20 Montreal, 8, 24, 2930, 33, 3540, 4360, 54 (map), 63, 64, 70, 7283, 9496, 99, 101, 103, 105106, 108, 11011, 114, 115, 11920, 124, 127, 15659, 161, 16365, 169, 171, 174, 17677, 17982, 190, 19293, 198201, 208, 21012, 214, 218, 22223, 225, 23738, 24041, 25253, 259, 261, 263, 26869, 273, 282, 284, 290, 295, 305308 Montreal Branch, Bahai Temple Association, 40 Montreal Council of Social Agencies, 328 Montreal Daily Herald, 56, 68; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 58, 301 Montreal Daily Star, 39, 4445, 56, 6468, 73; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 57, 300, 301 Montreal Daily Witness, 56; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 57, 300, 301 Montreal Standard, 56; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 57, Montreal Youth Group, see Youth in Montreal Moore, Molly, 183 Moose Jaw, SK, 121 Moral code, 10, 53, 203, 286, 288, 291, 293; instruction, 237 Morgan, Henry J., 101, 328; James, 42 Morin, Bernard, 99, 312 Morris, Constance L., 63, 104, 185, 328 Morrisburg, ON, 61 Morrison, Gayle, 31, 90, 329 Moscrop, Harold, 197, 230; Katherine, 197, 203, 220, 230, 315 Mosher family, 215, 236; Jean ("Mollie"), 116, 119, 151, 182, 184, 214, 229, 249; Margaret (later M. Laurie), 184; Maxon H., 184, 229, 248 Mossafa'i, Golgasht, 64, 312 Mothers, 235, 256; pension plan for, 39; rights of, 39 Mullins, Mark, 4, 329 Multicultural policies, 244 Murray, Charles N., 110, 117, 151, 221, 224 Murthi, R. Ganesa, 6, 329 MurwoodClark, Thursa, 129, 130 Muttart, Kay, 329; M.E., 66, 312 Mysticism, 74, 294
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N NDP, see New Democratic Party Nakao, Keiko, 248, 329 Naqvi, Kim, 329 Nason, Arthur H., 123, 329 National Art Gallery (Ottawa), 40 National Bahá'í Conventions, 31, 38, 70, 78, 85, 90, 93, 95, 109, 119, 12627, 137, 147, 150, 157, 161, 166, 171, 180, 224, 265, 26972, 276, 303, 307 National Department of Defense, 261, 262; of Revenue, 258 National Spiritual Assembly; of Canada, 9, 84, 106, 148, 180, 247, 259, 265, 26972, 275, 310, 313, 329; of Japan, 329; of the British Isles, 105; of the United States, 24, 28, 163, 166, 168, 171, 177, 196, 200, 204, 255, 261, 270, 306; of the United States and Canada, 157, 307; women membership on Canadian, 248 National Teaching Committees, see Teaching Committees, National Nationaliste, Le (Montreal), 56; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 58, 301 Nationality, 24446 Native peoples, 3, 18, 25, 62, 83, 153, 164, 210, 245, 246, 276 Natural History Society, 118 Navvab, 37 Nawrúz, see New Year Nazi, 264 Needleman, Jacob, 4, 329 Negro Club of Montreal, 88; Community Centre (Montreal), 92; United Church (Montreal), 50, 88, 89. See also African Canadian(s) Neighbours, 173; opposition from, 25657 Nelson, Andrew J., 311 Nelson, Geoffrey K., 13, 329 Neville, Elizabeth, 109 New Brunswick, 95, 108, 11016, 119, 123, 177, 180, 193, 214, 261, 268. See also individual cities, towns New Democratic Party, 42, 172 New History Society, 185 New religions, 4, 13, 116, 294, 296 New Thought, 12, 32, 273 New Westminster, BC, 223 New Year, 76, 159, 170 Newfoundland(er), 17, 66, 10810, 117, 149, 178, 184, 193, 204, 273, 275, 306. See also individual cities, towns Newspapers, 46, 5560, 194, 199, 247; coverage of 'Abdu'lBahá's visit to Canada, 43, 5560. See also Press; Publicity Niagara Falls, 61, 62, 63, 179 Nichols, Rhoda, 10810, 306 Nicholson, Shirley, 227; William "Red," 229, 263 Nickel, Charles, and Mrs., 62, 70 Nielsen, Lotus G., 248. See also Peterson, L.G NineteenDay Feast, 126, 157, 15860, 162, 173, 174, 175, 231, 235, 240, 241, 288, 291, 307 Nixon family, 11214, 118; George, 112; Jean, 112, 113, 114, 119, 312 Nobel, ON, 233 Nock, A. David, 14, 116, 295, 329; Steven L., 322 Noel, Paul, 130 NonChristian groups, study of, 14 NonWestern religions, international context of, 29396 Noncombatant status, 260, 292. See also Military duty, service; Pacifism; World War II Noranda, QC, 95 Nordquist, Ted A., 297, 329 North York, ON, 105, 189 Northcott, Herbert C., 321 Nova Scotia(n), 10810, 177, 180, 184, 268, 306. See also individual cities, towns O O'Neil, Linda, 6, 88, 98, 312, 329 O'Toole, Roger, 289, 291, 297, 330 Oakshette, James C., 32, 33, 41, 62, 101, 233, 306 Ober, Harlan, 41, 195 Obituaries, 238, 247 Occult, ism, ist, 12, 73, 101, 273 Occupations, 24244, 248 Ocean Falls, BC, 122 Olcott, Henry S., 31 Oldendorf, Mariella C. Ladd, 34, 122 Olympic Games, 92 Ontario, 1, 18, 29, 35, 83, 101, 106, 108, 16365, 16869, 172, 174, 176, 178, 18083, 185, 237, 261, 267, 269, 271, 279. See also individual cities, towns Opposition, 57, 11415, 165, 194, 201, 235, 25257
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Oriental Rose, The, 130 Ortman family, 197, 210 Osgood Hall Law School, 41 Oshawa, extension teaching to, 212 Ottawa, 77, 95, 120, 162, 172, 179, 183, 18586, 190, 192, 208, 208, 223, 224, 226, 233, 247, 305, 307, 308 Our Canadian Literature, 106 Outremont, QC, 97, 229 P Pacifism, 261, 262. See also Military duty, service; World War II Page, Frank and Winnie, 151, 248 Paige family, 187; Catherine ("Kitty"), 152, 187, 198 Palladino, Grace, 99, 330 Palmer, Howard, 321 Paris Talks, 125, 130 Parliament, 39, 185, 330 Parry Islands group, Arctic Canada, 25 Patents, Commissioner of, 258, 259, 307 Patrie, La (Montreal), 56, 6769; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 5758, 300301 Patterson, Margery, 230, 249 Pawlowska, Ola, 227 Peigan Reserve, 83 Pelletier, Gaby, 118 Pemberton, Mr., 93 PembertonPigott, Andrew, 6, 122, 186, 203, 217, 229, 330 Penn Oil and Steel, 110 Pentecostal, 194 Perkins, Mary, see Gray (Perkins), Mary Persia(n), 21, 35, 76, 93, 238, 247, 273, 306, 307. See also Iran(ian) Peters, Jacob, 295, 322 Peterson, Grace O., 230, 248; Lotus Grace, 22930; William, President, McGill University, 50. See also Nielsen, L.G. Phanco, Zara, 22930 Phelp, Shirley, 219. See also Proctor, S. Phoenix Club (Winnipeg), 160, 209 Pierce, Lorne, 102, 105, 106, 107, 330 Pierson, Ruth R., 327 Pine, Mabel H., 122, 186, 217 Pioneers, ing, 82, 84, 116, 123, 161, 165, 169, 17879, 18186, 201, 203, 206207, 21319, 22526, 228, 235, 240, 248, 254, 256, 275, 28182, 305, 307 Plaxton, Cecile, 21 Poetical Works of Albert Durrant Watson, The, 102 Point Atkinson, BC, 203 Poissant, Helen, 153, 186, 209, 227, 248 Poland, ish, 77, 210 Police, 252; suspicious, 255 Political sects, 297; study of, 291 Politics, al, 19, 84, 95, 257, 259, 261, 275, 296 Pollexfen, Stella ("Polly"), 153, 190, 209, 227 Pollitt, Moira, 214, 254, 315 Pomeroy family, 73; Elizabeth, 73; Elsie, 42, 70, 83, 151, 248; Mary, 70, 73, 230, 248; Mary A., 83, 248. See also Cowles, C. Port Hope, ON, 68 Portage Du Fort, QC, 41 Portals to Freedom, 63 Postlethwaite, Robert, 107, 330 Pottier, Charles E., 196 Powell, Mrs., 130 Power family, 183 Prairies, 267, 269 Pratt, John, 41 Pratte, France G, 74, 330 Presbyterian(s), ism, 1, 41, 46, 58, 61, 68, 79, 115, 118, 246, 27779 "Present Conflict," the, 226. See also World War II Presentism, 97 Press, 193, 306. See also Newspapers; Publicity Presse, La (Montreal), 55, 56, 59, 68; covers 'Abdu'lBahá's visit, 58, 301 Priceless Pearl, The, 81 Pridmore, John, 61, 70 Priestly, Ethel, 203 Prime Minister of Canada, 53, 185 Prince Albert, SK, 25 Prince Edward Island, 6, 74, 10810, 116, 161, 164, 176, 17880, 195, 204, 22122, 224, 230, 248, 253, 255, 268, 306. See also individual cities, towns Pringle, Allan, 233 Proctor, Beulah S., 153, 184, 202, 203, 219, 230, 247; Shirley, 184, 202, 219. See also Phelp, S. Producers' Social and Economic Discussion Circles, 26 Prohibition, 57, 170; See Alcohol Promise of All Ages, 167, 185 Promise of Peace, The 276 Promulgation of Universal Peace, 41
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Prosser, Lillian, 249, 315. See also Tomlinson, L. Protestant(s), ism, 11, 24, 55, 57, 92, 96, 182, 220, 231, 233, 246, 25354, 273, 275, 278, 282, 293, 295; percentage of P. Bahá'ís, 232 Psychiana, 32 Psychic phenomena, 102 Psychic whistler, 102 Public meetings, 181, 19193, 202, 211, 222, 231, 239, 253, 275, 28081, 283; suited to single women, 234. See also Hotels Publicity, 199201. See also Newspapers; Press; Radio Pulitzer, Joseph, 23 Purcell Cove, NS, 184 Putnam, Amy E., 152, 190, 196, 204, 227, 249 Q Qualitative research, 7, 310 Quantitative research, 7 Queenston Heights, ON, 179 Quinn, Wendy, 297, 330 Quota Club (Winnipeg), 227 Québec, 41, 9399, 105, 161, 164, 167, 171, 177, 17980, 182, 190, 201, 214, 253, 261, 26772; LieutenantGovernor of, 258. See also individual cities, towns Québec City, 94 Quebécois, usage of, 97. See also Francophone(s); FrenchCanadian(s) R RCMP, 255 Rabbani, Rúhíyyih, 81, 330. See also Maxwell, M.; Rúhíyyih, K. Race Amity, 9091, 99, 307 Radio, 65, 180, 194, 199201, 215, 216, 228, 253, 307. See also Publicity Radio Committee, National, 200, 201, 212, 330 Raginsky, Vera G., 87 Rakovsky, Albert, 153, 248, 272 Ramsay, Mina, 203, 225; Mr., 225 Randall, John, 76; William H., 75 RansomKehler, Keith (Mrs.), 104 Rawdon, QC, 105, 180, 268, 270 Rawlyk, G.A., 294, 330 Rayne, Audrey, 162, 315 Raynor, Allan, 198, 21213, 228, 248, 313; Evelyn, 31516 Reasner, Emma, 41 Recognition (by authorities), 2, 3, 83, 252, 255, 25759. See also Incorporation Recruitment, 7283, 174, 177202, 28084. See also Bahá'í membership Red Cross, 264 Red River uprising (186970), 25 Redden, John, 10910, 117 Reed, Doris, 204, 249; family, 182 Regina, 26, 152, 176, 17880, 192, 19798, 200, 203, 205, 208, 218, 22021, 226, 229, 252, 305, 308 Regional Teaching Committees, see Teaching Committees, Regional Registration Card, Bahá'í, development of, 25960. See also Declaration Card Reimer, Manny, 315; William, 284, 295, 320 Reinharz, Shulamit, 330 Reley, Mabel David, 41 Religion, scientific study of, 295 Religious, 60; affiliation in Canada, 278; background of Bahá'ís, 23133; conservativism in Canada, 114, 278; experimentation, 279, 295; features in Canada, 27780; unity 48, 58; singleness, 277, 280, 28182 Remey, Charles M., 40, 100, 124, 130 Renewal of Civilization, The, 81 Rennels, Esther E., 34, 108, 121, 306 Research ethics, 7 Rexford, Orcella, 123 Rexton, NB, 118 Rhéaume, Angela, 249. See also Szepesi, A. Rice Lake, ON, 16364, 168, 212, 26869, 308 Rice, Susan, 122 RiceWray, Colston, 330; Edris, 228, 330; Mabel, 156. See also Ives, M. Richardson, Doris, 153, 168, 183, 18890, 211, 220, 228, 237, 27172, 276, 315; E. Allen, 12, 330 Richelieu and Ontario Navigation Society, 41 Rickman, Popponu, 182 Riddel, John H., 40, 331 Ridván, 202, 226, 272 Riel, Louis, 18, 25, 296 Rimell, Jill, 316; Kathleen N., 152, 203, 229, 331. See also Stefansson, J. Ritter, Erica, 316 Rivière Beaudette, QC, 164, 269
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Robarts, 189, 21113, 228, 315; Audrey, 64, 106, 237; John, 139, 151, 153, 192, 196, 198, 248, 264, 27172, 276 Robb, J.A., Acting Prime Minister, 185 Robbins, Thomas, 4, 12, 14, 295, 318, 331 Roberts, Charles G.D., 103, 331; J.F. (Mrs.), 61 Robertson, Roland, 14, 295, 331 Robinson, Mrs. J.L., 152. Roche, Lyda S., 203, 229, 247, 331 Rochester, Elizabeth, 315; Michael G., 106, 109, 117, 162, 175, 176, 211, 228, 311, 313, 314, 315, 316 Rochford, Edmund B., Jr., 331 Rockefeller, John D., 24, 27 Rolfe, Ritchie, 204, 230, 316, 331 Romney, Mr., 189 Roosevelt, Theodore, 24, 26 Root, Martha, 77, 96, 101104, 106, 11213, 193, 199200, 331 Rosedale, ON, 189 Rosicrucian(s), ism, 12, 29, 3233, 79, 119, 156, 231, 233, 27374, 286; percentage of whom Bahá'ís, 231 Ross, Howard, 199, 331; Margaret J., 6, 331; Peggy, 191, 204, 316, 331 Rotary Club (Saint John), 111 Rothesay, NB, 114 Rouleau, Françoise, 95, 249, 313, 316; JeanPaul, 331. See also Smith, F. Rowdon, Larry, 14, 331 Roy, Joseph René, 94, 153 Royal: Canadian Air Force, 162, 262, 263; Canadian Mounted Police. See RCMP; Navy, 25, 39, 255, 263; Ontario Conservatory of Music, 102; Ontario Museum, 105, 193 Royle, Alberta (Bardie), 204, 249 Rucker, Muriel, 107, 228 Ruff, Ivan J., 290, 331 Rúhíyyih Khánum, Amat'ulBahá, 5152, 80, 91, 270, 271, 307. See also Maxwell, M.; Rabbani, R Rumney, Laura, 101, 102, 106; "Mother" of Toronto Bahá'í community, 103; Violet, 101, 102, 103, 106, 228. See also Davis, L. Russell, Judith, 261; stagename for Elsa Clapham, 75 Ryan, Charles, 41, 331 Ryba, Thomas, 13, 331 Ryerson Press, 101, 105 S Saint John, NB, 17, 23, 25, 76, 83, 108, 11016, 119, 123, 14950, 156, 193, 202, 306, 307 Saint John River, NB, 113, 117 SaintCélestin de Nicolet, QC, 93 Sala family, 82, 163, 166, 180, 182, 190, 192, 198, 21415, 222, 224, 228, 233, 236, 268; Emeric, 6, 64, 7879, 84, 8687, 9798, 103, 151, 153, 161, 165, 176, 180, 198, 226, 237, 264, 27172, 276, 314, 316, 33132; Ernest, 87, 272; Paul, 164, 268, 272; Rosemary, 49, 83, 97, 153, 162, 195, 198, 249, 27172, 276, 316, 332. See also Gillies, R. Samuel, Raphael, 13, 332 Sanderson, Joseph E., 40, 332 Sangster, Joan, 238, 332 Saskatchewan, 1819, 21, 25, 76, 108, 12021, 128, 178, 180, 186, 205, 22021, 260, 306. See also individual cities, towns Saskatoon, SK, 12021, 152, 180, 183, 186, 196 Savage, Anne M., 49, 70, 83, 151, 161, 175, 230, 248 Scarborough, ON, 168, 178, 18183, 18990, 208, 21820, 223, 226, 229, 305, 308 Schoenfeld, Stuart, 295, 332 Scholarship, Bahá'í, 2, 5, 6, 9, 84, 247 Schools, Bahá'í, 157, 16365, 172, 173, 176, 180, 203, 212, 236, 259, 261, 26869, 275, 308. See also Beaulac, Green Acre, Geyserville, Baha'í School Schopflocher, (Florence) Lorol, 7475, 81, 8384, 136, 150, 178, 180, 192, 198, 230, 24142, 248, 272, 332; Siegfried, 83, 8586, 98, 136, 150, 153, 16263, 178, 180, 198, 218, 230, 240, 242, 248, 268, 27172, 276, 332 Scogland, Oscar, 225 Scollard, AB, 122 Scott, Barbara Ann, figure skater, 270 Sect(s), arianism, 77, 278, 288, 291, 297 Segal, Robert, 13, 332 Seiders, George M., 311 Seifert, Isobel, 129, 130 Selkirk, MB, 19 Seto, Mamie, 228 Settler's Union of Prince Albert, 18, 25
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SevenYear Plan (193744), 177202, 206, 274, 307; objectives of, 265; setbacks in, 179 Shadbolt, Jack, 243, 332 Shaffir, William, 295, 321 Shaw, Rosa, 229 Sheets, Anna D., 61, 70; Dorothy, 164, 184, 192, 198, 204, 230, 249, 316 Sherborne, Edna M., 152, 262, 264; Eunice F., 264; Florence, 122, 129, 130 Sherbrooke, QC, 253 Sherman, Ebba, 161, 248; General, 13 Shiels, Martin, 290, 336 Shinn, Larry D., 3, 332 Shoghi Effendi, 11, 20, 35, 53, 63, 7778, 8586, 9799, 100, 105, 116, 123, 125, 128, 130, 151, 15758, 161, 166, 170, 17376, 179, 181, 212, 257, 26063, 26970, 27475, 281, 284, 28889, 297, 303, 307, 313, 332; declares Maxwell home shrine, 51; marriage of, 80, 222, 307. See also Guardian(ship) Shupe, Anson D., Jr., 3, 14, 321 Silversides, Leslie and Mabel, 204, 221, 249 Simms, Alberta, 151; Ellen, 83 Simpson, Irving (Mrs.), 107, 228 Skinner, J. Doris, 152, 184, 198, 202, 264, 272, 316 "Skinship," 244 Skocpol, Theda, 5, 294, 332 Skonovd, Norman, 327 SluterSchlutius, Gerrard, 81, 82, 94, 97, 100, 104105, 171, 222, 228; Canada's third pioneer, 84, 308 Smith, Albert C., 119; Donald B., 16, 1921, 2526, 31213, 324; Dorothy, 190; Douglas, 64, 70, 316; Françoise, 95, 106, 313, 316; Jean G., 167, 316; Mary C., 113, 119; N.G., 279, 333; Peter, 6, 287, 333; Phillip R., 333; Vivian, 248. See also Lanning, V.; Rouleau, F. Snow, David A., 333 Snyder, Florence, see Schopflocher, Lorol Social, causes, 36; change, 273; gospel, 29, 111, 113, 278, 286; reform(ers), 30, 273, 280, 282; stratification, 243, 248 Socialism, ist(s), 20, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 47, 50, 57, 67, 129, 256; Party, 26 Sociology, 7; empirical vs. revelatory explanation, 5; interpretive historical, 294 Socknat, Thomas P., 215, 333 Sohrab, Ahmad, 26, 45, 65, 112, 124, 203 Solid Geometry and Orthographical Projection, 38 Some Answered Questions, 185 Song of the Citizen, 26 SpanishAmerican Club, 227 Sparling, Rev., 68 Spence, David, 33, 41, 62 Spendlove, David S., 313; F. St. George, 31, 83, 86, 104106, 138, 150, 189, 192, 198, 211, 212, 222, 228, 240, 248, 272 Spiritual Assemblies, see National Spiritual Assembly, and local Spiritual Assemblies, local, 77, 88, 114, 12728, 15758, 16768, 173, 175, 177, 204, 227, 258, 27475, 289, 291, 307; numbers of, 178, 302303; honorary members of, 158 Spiritual Assemblies (by place), Charlottetown, 221, 308; Edmonton, 217, 308; Halifax, 185, 219, 308; Hamilton, 128, 169, 24142, 308; Moncton, 116, 194, 307; Montreal, 77, 78, 91, 146, 157, 159, 165, 170, 307; Ottawa, 95, 224, 308; Regina, 221, 308; Scarborough, 183, 219, 308; St. John's, NF, 311; St. Lambert, 214, 219, 307; Toronto, 62, 164, 196, 210, 255, 262, 307; Vancouver, 125, 12628, 130, 24142, 307; Vernon, 308; Victoria, 225, 308; West Vancouver, 183, 219, 223, 308; Winnipeg, 145, 209, 227, 308 Spiritualism, ist, 12, 17, 76, 188, 273 Spread(ing) of Bahá'í Faith, 85, 90, 9596, 108, 177202, 208 St. Andrews, NB,112 St. Boniface, MB, 209, 214 St. Catharines, ON, 35, 61 St. James Methodist (now United) Church (Montreal), 52, 54 (map), 59, 68 St. John's, NF, 108109, 117, 193, 204, 306 St. Lambert, QC, 82, 97, 116, 152, 17780, 182, 190, 192, 207208, 21315, 22122, 225 26, 22829, 232, 23637, 255, 271, 305, 307
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St. Léonard, NB, 95 Standard Oil, 24 Standard, The (Montreal), 46; covers visit of 'Abdu'lBahá, 57, 300, 301 Stankovic, Peter, 227 Stanley, George F.G., 333 Stark, Rodney, 4, 9, 13, 14, 114, 116, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285, 286, 289, 293, 296, 297, 323, 324, 327, 333 Statechurch relations, 278 States, Violet, 92 Stecyk, Allison N., 122, 203, 333 Stefansson, Jill, 247, 316. See also Rimell, J. Steffan, Patricia A., 322 Sterling, Amy L., 74. See also Harrison, A.L. Stevens, Berford, 204, 229 Stewart, Adelaide, 17; Rev. C., 114, 119 Stockman, Robert H., 6, 17, 19, 21, 24, 25, 240, 309, 311, 313, 333 Strauss, Anselm L., 333 Student(s), 172, 190, 199, 210, 212, 219. See also Universities and Colleges (by institution) Subculture, Bahá'í, 28790 Suburbs, and Bahá'í growth, 219 Suffrage, ists, 23, 238; maternal, 280 Summer Schools, see Beaulac, Geyserville, Green Acre Bahá'í School; School, Bahá'í Summerside, PEI, 108, 110, 306 Sun Life Assurance Co., 81, 185 Sunburst, 75 Suter, Bill, 97, 104, 105, 107, 228, 253, 272 Sutherland, Kate, 113, 118, 119; Margaret C., 118 Swede, ish, 223, 225, 297 Swiss, 74, 245, 246 Symonds, Herbert, 68 Systematic teaching campaign, 153, 178, 19399, 202, 207, 274, 275, 305. See also Travelling teachers, ing Szepesi, Angela, 249, 333. See also Rhéaume, A. T Tablets of the Divine Plan, 93, 117, 124, 274; purpose of, 73 Tabrízí, Hasan Aqá, 73 Taft, William H., President, 84 Tahirih, subject of talk, St. John's, 109 Takashiba, Harry, 165, 176, 220 Talks in Europe and America, 41 Tassagard, Ireland, 28 Tate family, 183; Evelyn D., 204 Taylor, J.R., 255 Teachers (Bahá'í), 196, 226, 237; proportion of American, Canadian, 268 Teaching Bahá'í Faith, 83, 186; differences among men and women, 198 Teaching Campaign, see Systematic teaching campaign Teaching Committees; Canadian, 247; local, 24041; Maritime, 247; National, 177, 182, 18587, 197, 212, 269, 276, 329; Regional, 156, 177, 276, 307; Regional of Ontario, 14 Teaching methods, kitchen gatherings as, 96; livingroom gatherings as, 96; part of assessing community growth through, 206; public meetings as, 96. See also Public meetings Temperance, 57, 67, 279 Temple, see House of Worship, Bahá'í Terk, Sophie, 151 Theosophical, ism, ist(s), 12, 17, 29, 3132, 4041, 73, 76, 115, 119, 156, 186, 209, 212, 217, 227, 231, 233, 243, 27374, 286; percentage of whom Bahá'ís, 232 Third force in religion, 295 This Earth One Country, 86 Thomas, John, 109 Thompson, Pat, 219; Paul, 13, 332 Thursby, Gene R., 14, 334 Titanic, SS, 44 Tobey, Mark, 152, 225, 243 Tobin, James E., 67, 322 Tomlinson, Lillian, 144, 153, 186, 209, 227, 249. See also Prosser, L. Toronto, 8, 2932, 4041, 49, 52, 54, 6163, 70, 7677, 81, 92, 95, 97, 101106, 115, 117, 120, 156, 162, 16465, 168, 172, 177, 179, 181, 183, 18990, 192, 194, 196, 201, 207208, 21013, 220, 222, 224, 228, 233, 252, 255, 25859 263, 305, 307 Toronto Star Weekly, interview with 'Abdu'lBahá, 49 Tourville family, Trois Rivières, QC, 93 Toussaint, Paul, 96, 313 Townshend, George, 28, 81, 176 Toynbee, Arnold, 98 Trades and Labour Congress of Canada, 19
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Transcendentalists, 29 Transplantation, conditions of success, 29394; studies, 3 Travelling teachers, ing, 34, 1113, 8283, 12225, 178, 188, 193, 195, 198, 202, 213, 220, 239, 241, 260, 26567, 27173, 275. See also Systematic teaching campaign; Teachers (Bahá'í) Tredenick, Irwin, 162 Tremblay, Jeanne, 94; Mrs., 233 Trimble, Ina, 186, 229 Trinidadian, 184, 219 Troeltsch, Ernst, 14 Trois Rivières, QC, 93 True, Corinne, 117, 118 Tunnell, Arthur L., 331 Turks, 48, 61 Turner, Ralph H., 288, 334 Twentieth Planers, 102, 106, 151 U Ukrainian, 210, 215 Union Churches, 27880 Unitarian Church of the Messiah (Montreal), 4648, 54 (map), 55, 65, 76, 181, 193, 253 Unitarian(s), 29, 76, 115, 227 United Church, 68, 115, 164, 18485, 196, 219, 233, 246, 279 Unity (Church), 32 Unity Band (Montreal), 37 Universal House of Justice, 11, 81, 175, 181, 203, 276, 334 University, 49, 172, 190, 198, 210; 'Abdu'lBahá offers comments about, 47 Universities and Colleges (by institution); Bennett's Medical, 41; British Columbia, 130; Champion College (Moose Jaw), 121; Concordia (Sir George Williams), 78; Copenhagen, 285; Essex, 6; Howard, 31; London, England, 105; McGill, 38, 50, 77, 91, 92, 99, 296; Montreal, 77; New Brunswick, 117; Ottawa, 6; Princeton, 24; Queen's, 41; Toronto, 25, 41, 103, 190, 212; Trinity College (Port Hope), 68; United Church College (Winnipeg), 172 V van den Hoonaard, Deborah K., 297 van den Hoonaard, Will C., 72, 98, 119, 129, 178, 204, 217, 228, 229, 232, 235, 237, 240, 243, 245, 246, 247, 248, 282, 283, 285, 287, 296, 297, 303, 310, 334 Vancouver, 8, 81, 83, 92, 104, 11516, 12228, 130, 156, 15859, 161, 170, 175, 177, 179, 183, 190, 192, 198, 200, 20810, 213, 21517, 22226, 228, 236, 243, 247, 252, 25859, 26364, 305, 307308; Bahá'ís, 143 Vanderbilt, 312 Vaughn, Sharon L., 323, 335 Veevers, J.E., 335 Verdun, QC, 94, 97, 161 Verhooven, Johan, 182 Vermilion, AB, 122 Vernon, BC, 122, 16365, 178, 181, 184, 215, 268, 308 Victoria, 34, 108, 124, 18384, 207208, 215, 22326, 243, 247, 305306, 308 Voeltz, Lauretta, 229, 230, 312 Vronskaya, Jeanne, 84, 335 W Wade family, 184; Dorothy, 49, 64, 66, 75, 238; Dorothy (Mrs.), housekeeper, Maxwell home, 66; Dorothy, 153, 316; Fred and Dorothy (Mrs.), 83, 151, 229. See also Ward, D. Waite, Shahnaz, 335 Wakaw, SK, 76, 12021 Walker, M. Emilie, 70, 112 Walker, Willow, 316 Wallace, W. Stewart, 101, 335 Wallis, Roy, 4, 5, 13, 14, 284, 294, 297, 320, 330, 335 Walsh, H.H., 335 Warburg, Margit, 6, 175, 247, 285, 291, 335 Ward, Allan L., 63, 66, 335; Dorothy, 49, 84, 151; Glen, 79; Prof. and Mrs., 130. See also Wade, D. Warner, General D.B. and Nancy B., 117; Mary R., 111, 117, 118, 136, 150; W. Lloyd, 335 Warnicker, Katherine, 12930; Muriel, 183, 186, 190, 203204, 217, 272 Watson, Albert D., 101103, 106107, 139, 151, 33536; J. Ralph, 68, 313 Watts, Evelyn L., 62, 336 Waugh, Priscilla, 203, 247, 316 Weaver, Craig, 198, 228, 248, 272, 316; Maude, 316 Weinberg, Robert, 336
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Weinstein, Ilona, 313, 336 Weir, Robert S., 68 Wells, Leila M., 204, 229; Muriel, 183, 210 West Indian(s), Indies, 25, 88, 92, 229, 24546; at McGill Faculty of Medicine, 99 West Quaco, NB, 116 West Vancouver, 124, 18283, 197, 203, 208, 22324, 226, 230, 305, 308 Western Canada, 116, 12030, 202, 238 Westheuser, M. Audrey, 183, 203, 220 Westhues, Kenneth, 27779, 295, 296, 336 Wheatcroft, Les, 295, 320, 322 Whitaker, Reginald, 254, 326 White, Jean, 316; O. Kendall, Jr., 295, 336; Roger, 98, 314; See also Court, J., Johnson, J. White Pass, YK, 122 Whitecow, Ben and Louise, 83 Whitehead, O.Z., 111, 336 Whitehorse, YK, 35, 122, 123; first Bahá'í visitor in, 10 Whitely, Ted, 227 Whitmore, Bruce W., 93, 100, 336 Whitney, Beth, 226, 336 Whitworth, John, 279, 336 Wiebe, Don, 13, 336 Wilhelm, Roy, 111, 118 Will and Testament, 77, 81, 166, 168; used for enrollment, 90 Williams, Paula, 6, 95, 117, 229, 336; Raymond B., 13, 336 Wilmette, IL, 126, 177, 180, 309 Wilson, Bryan, 3, 4, 5, 336; Doug, 64, 190, 316; Geraldine, 313; John, 336; Ruth, 204, 229; Woodrow, 24. See also Birks Windsor, NS, 110, 117 Winnipeg, 17, 20, 29, 3435, 81, 108, 120, 160, 163, 172, 17677, 179, 183, 18586, 190, 192, 200201, 203, 20610, 212, 214, 224, 227, 247, 252, 256, 305307 Wisdom of 'Abdu'lBahá, The, 130 Wojnarowska, Marta, 54 Women's Assembly of Teaching, Chicago, 20; Assembly, Bahá'í, 37; Board, New York, 21; Christian Temperance Union, 27; Club of Canada, 75, 104, 118, 185, 197; Enfranchisement Association, 113; Institute, 61, 184; International League for Peace and Freedom, 39, 103, 184; Unity Meeting, New York, 21 Woodcock family, 44, 61, 70; Aloysia, 30, 41; May, 30, 41; Percy, 30, 31, 41 Woodman, Ross, 70, 153, 192, 196, 199, 210, 225, 228, 27073, 313, 316, 338 Woodstock, NB, 113 Wooton, Alice L., 122 World Exposition, Chicago, 23; Federalists, 212; Unity Conference (Montreal), 90; views in Bahá'í communities, 287 World War I, II, 44, 57, 104, 105, 124, 214, 274 World War II, 12, 116, 163, 179, 182, 197, 204, 208, 216, 226, 230, 233, 252, 25455, 259, 264, 275, 292. See also Military duty, service; "Present conflict"; Pacifism World's Columbian Exposition, 1; Parliament of Religions, 1, 16 Worthington, G.H., 49 Wuttunee, Noel, 114, 153, 227 Wyatt, Wanda, 110, 316 Wyman, June R., 287, 297, 337 Y YMCA, 76, 96, 118; YWCA, 112 Yates, Frances A., 41, 337 Yeo, Marion, 297, 316. See also Metcalfe, M. Young, Frances, 168, 210, 227; Gladys, 197, 210. See also Harvey, G. Youth, 169, 215, 306; in Vancouver, 170, 199, 216, 225; culture, 294; in Montreal, 7780, 8486, 8889, 96, 104105, 258, 307; in Winnipeg, 210 Yukon, 12, 35, 88, 99, 104, 108, 12224, 128, 204, 273, 306 Z Zald, Mayer, 285, 328 Zamenhof, Lidia, 100; Ludwik, 96 Zeenat Khánum, 73, 83, 306 Zylberberg, Jacques, 331