The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1819-1820)

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains 1819–1820

HOWARD ENSIGN EVANS

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

The natural

History

of

THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S

1819-1820

The natural Historu of THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S f 1819-1820

HOWARD ENSIGN EVANS

New York Oxford O X F O R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

1997

Oxford Universit y Pres s Oxford Ne w Yor k Athens Aucklan d Bangko k Bogot a Bomba y Buenos Aire s Calcutt a Cap e Town Da r e s Salaa m Delhi Florenc e Hon g Kon g Istanbu l Karach i Kuala Lumpu r Madra s Madri d Melbourn e Mexico Cit y Nairob i Pari s Singapor e Taipei Toky o Toront o and associate d companies i n Berlin Ibada n

Copyright © 199 7 by Oxford Universit y Press , Inc. Published b y Oxford Universit y Press , Inc. 198 Madison Avenue , Ne w York , Ne w Yor k 10016 Oxford i s a registere d trademar k of Oxford Universit y Pres s All right s reserved . No par t o f this publicatio n ma y be reproduced, stored i n a retrieva l system, or transmitted , i n any for m o r means , electronic, mechanical , photocopying , recording , o r otherwise , without th e prio r permission of Oxford Universit y Press. Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Evans, Howar d Ensign . The natura l histor y o f the Lon g Expeditio n t o th e Rock y Mountain s (1819-1820) / by Howard Ensig n Evans, p. cm . Include s bibliographical references an d index . ISBN 0-19-511184-2—ISB N 0-19-511185-0 (pbk. } 1. Natura l history- Wes t (U.S. ) 2. West—Descriptio n an d travel . 3. Stephe n H. Lon g Expeditio n to the Rock y Mountain s (1819-1820 ) I . Title . QH104.5.W4E93 199 7 96-2665. 5 508.78—dc2 0 13 5 7 9 8 64 2

Printed i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a on acid-fre e pape r

Contents

PREFACE v i

/ SETTIN 2 CAS 3 DOW 4U

G TH E STAG E 3 T O F CHARACTER S 1 N TH E OHI O 2 P THE MISSOURI 4

5 OVERWINTERIN G AT ENGINEE R CANTONMENT 6 6 NE 7T 8 EXPLORIN 9 DOW

i

W PLAN S AN D A NEW CAS T OF CHARACTER S 8 O TH E ROCKIES 9 G TH E FRONT RANG E 12 N TH E ARKANSA S 15

7 5 3 8 3 4 2 7

VI

CONTENTS

10 TH

E SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R 18

/ / EPIILOGU

(Appendix I

E 21

4 3

ANIMAL S (OTHE R THA N INSECTS ) DESCRIBED B Y THOMAS SA Y I N TH E ACCOUNT O f TH E LON G EXPEDITION, 1819—1820 2 3

4

Appendix I I INSECT S DESCRIBE D BY THOMAS SAY FRO M SPECIMEN S COLLECTE D ON TH E LON G EXPEDITION , I8I9—I820 23

8

(Appendix II I PLANT S NEWL Y DISCOVERE D AN D DESCRIBED FRO M TH E LON G EXPEDITION, 182 0 24

4

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 5

1

INDEX 2 5

5

PREFACE

DRIVING ALON G INTERSTAT E 2 5 FROM LONGMON T t o Pueblo , Col orado, one scarcel y notices th e landscap e fo r the innumerabl e signs, advertising motels , restaurants , airlines , an d automobiles . Traffi c floods th e highway , especiall y i n Denver , Colorad o Springs , an d Pueblo: peopl e rushin g t o an d fro m work ; trucks carrying furniture, beer, foodstuffs , o r whatever ; recreationa l vehicles maneuvering t o an exi t tha t ha s a gasolin e station . Alway s the mountain s o f th e Front Rang e t o th e west , suggestin g place s les s nois y an d smog ridden, wher e dee r ru n an d trou t splash . Bu t eve n the y ar e criss crossed with roads and splotched wit h houses. The radi o tells of new industry, ne w jobs , ne w shoppin g malls , an d i n th e nex t breath , unabashedly, o f more pollution, mor e wate r problems. I t i s a world addicted t o th e growt h o f the huma n enterprise . Ye t a littl e mor e than 17 0 years ago—hardl y a moment i n th e cloc k o f history—th e land wa s empty of all but Indian s and th e plants an d game on whic h they subsisted . In 1820 , twenty-tw o men—militar y personne l an d "scientifi c gentlemen"—struggled alon g th e Fron t Range , livin g of f the land , recording river s and landforms , shooting birds , plucking plants, an d

V III

PREFACE

catching lizard s an d insect s t o preserv e fo r study . The y wer e ofte n thirsty an d hungry , sometime s ill , and alway s tired. Bu t their s was an experience awarde d to a chosen few, that of seeing and recordin g for th e firs t tim e a lan d neve r befor e visite d b y person s traine d i n European scientific traditions. This was the Lon g Expedition, a small party with a tight tim e schedule, launched wit h unrealistic goals and inadequate financial support by a government onl y reluctantl y com ing t o term s wit h th e vas t ne w land s tha t Thoma s Jefferso n ha d acquired i n 1803 . Their stor y has been tol d before , but withou t du e recognitio n of the contribution s o f the expedition' s naturalists , particularly botanist Edwi n James and zoologis t Thomas Say . They were the first to provide scientificall y acceptabl e name s an d description s o f plant s and animal s o f the Hig h Plain s an d th e Fron t Rang e o f the Rock y Mountains. I n a sens e the y ar e stil l there , wheneve r a waxflower (Jamesia) bloom s fro m a rock y crevic e o r a Say' s phoeb e (Sayomi s saya) snag s a fly from it s perch o n a fence post . To bes t appreciat e th e contribution s t o natura l histor y mad e by the expedition , i t is necessary to strip away (as I have done) man y details o f logistics , o f topograph y an d geology , an d o f experience s with th e Nativ e American s tha t make up so much o f the tex t of the original Accoun t of a n Expedition from Pittsburgh t o the Rocky Mountains, as prepared by Edwin James in 1823 . Those wishing to consul t the origina l repor t wil l fin d i t i n fou r volume s o f Reube n Gol d Thwaites's Early Western Travels, 1748—1846, and i n tw o volume s of Reade x Microprint . The y ar e availabl e i n man y libraries . Mor e recently, Maxin e Benso n edite d James' s Accoun t i n on e volume , From Pittsburg h t o th e Rocky Mountains, briefl y summarizin g some sections o f th e narrativ e an d leavin g ou t th e footnote s (man y o f which contai n natura l histor y observations) . Benson' s volum e in cludes many o f the sketche s an d paintings by Titian Peale (assistan t naturalist) and Samuel Seymour (landscap e artist); some are in color, and most wer e not include d i n the origina l report of the expedition . James's Account was "compiled fro m th e note s o f Major Long,

IX

PREFACE

Mr. T. Say , and othe r gentlemen o f the party, " as acknowledged on the titl e pag e (Jame s himself joine d th e expeditio n onl y durin g its second year) . Jame s mad e muc h us e o f his ow n unpublishe d diar y and o f Titian Peale' s diary , onl y par t o f which survived , eventually to be published b y A. O . Weese a s "Journal o f Titian Ramse y Peale, Pioneer Naturalist. " Thomas Sa y contributed i n importan t way s to the Accoun t and mad e man y reference s in hi s late r publication s t o sites where specimens had been collected. The Account also includes extracts from Stephe n H. Long' s report to Secretary o f War John C . Calhoun a s wel l a s appendixe s o f astronomica l an d meteorologi c records an d vocabularie s of Indian languages. Actually, Captai n Thoma s Biddl e wa s th e expedition' s offi cial journalis t during th e firs t year , bu t h e faile d t o kee p th e nec essary informatio n and lef t th e expeditio n afte r a fe w months. H e was replace d b y Captai n Joh n R . Bell , whos e informativ e journal was no t use d b y Jame s i n compilin g th e Account . Bel l wa s t o have submitte d hi s repor t t o Secretar y o f Wa r Calhoun , bu t i t evidently neve r reache d Calhoun' s office . Bel l die d i n upstat e New Yor k onl y fiv e year s afte r th e expedition' s return , an d hi s handwritten manuscrip t cam e int o th e possessio n o f a famil y tha t later move d t o California . Ther e i t wa s discovere d i n 193 2 b y Harlin M L Fuller, who, wit h co-edito r LeRo y R . Hafen , publishe d The Journal o f Captain John R . Bell. An excellen t revie w of this an d othe r expedition s le d by Ste phen Lon g i s presented i n Roge r L . Nichols an d Patric k L. Halley's book Stephen Long and American Frontier Exploration. Mos t recently , in Retracin g Major Stephen H . Long's 1820 Expedition, Georg e J . Goodman an d Cheryl A . Lawson retrace Long's route from th e Missouri to Fort Smith, Arkansas , during 1820. They precisely identified many of the expedition' s campsite s and visite d many of them them selves. A majo r par t o f their boo k contain s a species-by-species listing o f th e severa l hundre d plant s collecte d b y th e expedition' s botanist, Edwi n James, noting th e localit y in which eac h was probably collected. Their book does much to fill in details of an importan t

X

PREFACE

chapter i n wester n histor y an d i s a tribut e t o th e botanica l accom plishments o f Edwin James. I hav e ofte n le t th e expedition' s participant s spea k fo r them selves, eve n thoug h thei r languag e i s sometime s quain t an d thei r spelling an d gramma r are no t alway s "by the book. " (Bell' s journal was never planne d fo r publication, an d i t is less literate than James's Account.) Rathe r tha n usin g footnotes , I hav e indicate d wh o i s speaking by the us e of their initials : JB, John Bell ; EJ, Edwin James; SL, Stephe n Long ; TP , Titia n Peale ; TS , Thoma s Say . Quotation s from Jame s are from th e Account rathe r tha n fro m hi s diary, except as noted. It must be borne i n mind tha t since James did not joi n th e expedition until the secon d year , all quotes fro m hi m durin g the first year are based o n informatio n h e receive d fro m Say , Peale, Augustus Jessup, an d Willia m Baldwin . During th e first summer, traveling on a recalcitrant steamboa t through countr y already thinly settled , the expeditio n go t only as far as the vicinit y of present-day Omaha, Nebraska. Thi s part o f the tri p I shall cove r mor e briefl y tha n the muc h mor e adventurou s an d pro ductive secon d summer , whic h too k th e explorator y part y b y foo t and horsebac k t o th e Rockie s and back . By interweavin g the impression s of the expeditio n members , I have trie d t o provid e a n opportunit y fo r moderns wh o admir e th e out-of-doors t o visi t vicariousl y lands tha t hav e bee n vastl y trans formed. Lon g fel t tha t th e semiari d countr y t o th e wes t o f th e hundredth meridia n woul d prove t o be a barrier to settlement o f the West. Moder n technolog y ha s prove d hi m wrong . Lon g ha s bee n condemned fo r his misjudgment of the land' s possibilities and fo r his failure t o fulfil l severa l unrealisti c goal s that ha d bee n se t fo r him . But ther e wer e majo r accomplishments : fo r the first time th e broa d area betwee n th e norther n rout e o f Lewis an d Clar k an d th e mor e southerly rout e o f Pike wa s mapped wit h reasonabl e accuracy ; an d for th e first time, naturalists were able to report o n the rich and ofte n surprising fauna and flora of the centra l wester n plains and the Fron t Range o f th e Rockies . Mor e coul d hardl y be aske d o f a smal l ban d

xi PREFACE

Route o f the Lon g Expedition , with major landmark s indicated: (1 ) Pittsburgh , May 3 , 1819 ; (2) Cincinnati , Ma y 9-18, 1819 ; (3) St . Louis , June 9-12, 1819; (4) Enginee r Cantonment, Septembe r 17 , 1819 -June 6, 1820; (5) crossin g th e Platte, June 22 , 1820 ; (6) Long' s Peak, sighted June 30, 1820 ; (7) crossin g th e Arkansas and separation of the tw o parties, July 22-24, 1820 ; (8) arriva l at Fort Smith, Septembe r 9-13 , 1820.

of inexperience d an d ill-equippe d explorers as they plodde d acros s landscapes tha t ha d rarel y bee n visite d b y American s o f European origin. History books have consistently ignore d th e Long Expedition or denigrate d it s accomplishments . I t i s an episod e i n histor y tha t deserves to be remembered an d re-evaluated.

I a m particularl y indebted t o tw o wester n histor y enthusiast s wh o read earlie r versions of the manuscrip t and mad e man y helpful suggestions: Richard G . Beidleman , formerly o f Colorado College , Col-

XII

PREFACE

orado Springs ; and Rober t E. Heapes, of Parker, Colorado. Kennet h Haltman, o f Michigan State University, has also been mos t helpful. Mary Alic e Evan s has borne wit h m e through th e book' s long gestation, alway s a t han d whe n hel p wa s needed an d a companio n a s we visited many sites along th e rout e of the expedition . For assistanc e i n obtainin g print s o f sketche s an d painting s made b y the expedition' s artists , I am indebte d t o Richar d S . Field and Bernar d Noveloso , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery ; Larr y K . Mensching, Joslyn Art Museum , Omaha; Carol M. Spawn, Academy of Natural Sciences o f Philadelphia; Beth Carroll-Horrocks and Miriam B . Spectre, American Philosophica l Society; Thomas V. Lange, The Huntingto n Library , San Marino, California; and Karen L. Otis, Museum o f Fine Arts, Boston . Fort Collins , Colo . H September 1996

. E . E.

The natural

History

of

THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S

1819-1820

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One

SETTING TH E STAG E

THE LOUISIAN A PURCHAS E O F 180 3 APPROXIMATEL Y double d th e size of the United States , adding 800,000 square miles of ignorance— land tha t had neve r bee n wel l explored or adequately mapped. Even the norther n an d souther n boundaries , wit h Britis h Canad a an d Spanish Mexico , ha d no t bee n explored . T o th e west , Louisian a ended i n range s o f mountain s o f unknow n dimensions . Tha t suc h mountains wer e there had bee n show n b y Father Silvestr e Vele z de Escalante, wh o i n 177 6 had crosse d fro m Sant a F e t o wha t i s now northeastern Utah , seekin g i n vai n fo r a convenient rout e t o Cali fornia, an d by Alexander Mackenzie , who had crosse d the Canadian Rockies t o th e Pacifi c i n 1793 . Fu r trapper s an d traders—mos t of them Frenc h o r Spanis h an d ofte n illiterate—ha d als o penetrate d parts o f the mountains , bringin g back tale s o f white bear s and wil d Indians. By 1803 , eve n befor e the treat y wit h Franc e ha d bee n formal ized, Thomas Jefferso n ha d persuaded Congress to appropriate $2,50 0 to outfi t a n expeditio n tha t h e hope d woul d cros s th e mountain s "even t o th e Wester n Ocean," an d Meriwethe r Lewi s and William Clark wer e assemblin g supplie s an d equipmen t fo r thei r Corp s o f Discovery. Followin g thei r return , afte r tw o year s and fou r month s in th e wilderness , Americans wer e finally t o lear n o f the vastnes s of

4

The natural History

of

the

Long

Expedition

their western lands and muc h abou t its geographic features, it s soils, and it s inhabitants . The Lewi s an d Clar k Expeditio n include d a cor e o f twenty nine men , alon g wit h severa l others wh o helpe d mov e thei r boat s up the Missouri to Fort Mandan, in present-day North Dakota. There they spen t th e firs t winte r an d engage d th e service s of Touissan t Charbonneau an d his wife, Sacagawea, who soon captured the imagination o f th e nation . Fro m For t Mandan , thei r rout e too k the m across what i s now Montana an d Idaho, and then down the Colum bia t o it s mouth . There , buildin g a pos t the y calle d For t Clatsop , they spen t th e secon d winter , and the n returne d ove r roughl y th e same route . Th e stor y o f Lewi s an d Clark' s exploit s has bee n tol d many times and needs no retelling here. The expeditio n opene d th e Northwest fo r America n fu r trapper s an d traders ; already by 1807 , Manuel Lisa had buil t a trading post a t th e junctio n o f the Yellowstone an d Bighor n Rivers, deep in what i s now Montana . Quite differen t wa s the expeditio n o f Zebulon Pike , initiate d in July 1806, even before the Corp s of Discovery had returned. Pike's instructions cam e no t fro m Washington , bu t fro m Genera l o f th e Army James Wilkinson, governo r of Louisiana Territory, a man wh o had dream s o f establishing a separat e empire i n th e wester n plains and th e Southwest . Hi s order s to Pik e were t o pacif y th e Pawnee s and th e Comanches , an d the n t o explor e th e source s o f the Re d River, the supposed boundary between American an d Spanish lands. Having accomplishe d th e firs t mission , afte r a fashion , Pik e found himself o n th e uppe r Arkansas River a t th e threshol d o f the Rock ies—and i t wa s already mid-November. Despite the bitte r weather, Pike an d hi s smal l band o f sixteen penetrate d th e mountain s a s far as South Par k (nea r modern-da y Fairplay, Colorado) an d nearl y t o Leadville. H e wa s clos e t o th e source s of bot h th e Arkansa s an d South Platt e Rivers . Another, north-flowin g stream he believe d t o be th e sourc e o f the Yellowstone , a majo r branc h o f the Missouri , and his map showed his trail meeting the source of that river: "I have

5

SETTING TH E STAGE

no hesitation [h e wrote] in asserting that I can tak e a position i n th e mountains, whenc e I can visi t th e sourc e o f an y o f thos e river s i n one day." Th e river s he cite d wer e the Yellowstone , the Platte , th e Colorado, th e Arkansas , an d the Ri o Grande! (Willia m Clark, too , had mappe d th e origi n o f the Yellowston e not fa r from tha t o f th e Rio Grande an d the Colorado. ) After endurin g man y hardships , Pik e an d his men retreate d t o the easter n foothill s o f the Rockies , wher e the y buil t a blockhous e for shelter . Bu t there was little game to be found, and Pik e lef t wit h a smalle r group to cros s th e Sangr e d e Cristos. Ther e he foun d an other river , which migh t hav e bee n th e rive r he ha d been commissioned t o find: the Red . (I t was , of course, th e Ri o Grande. ) Afte r building another stockade, he was captured by the Spanish an d taken to Sant a F e and late r t o Chihuahua , wher e he wa s released severa l months later . I t i s probable tha t Wilkinso n ha d planne d fo r this t o happen, a s he wante d Pik e t o repor t o n Spanis h settlement s an d military forces . Pike' s report , published i n 1810 , ha s bee n describe d by on e biographe r a s "poorly organized , unreliable . . . scientifically and geographicall y incorrect, an d i n man y places dishonest." B y his own admission , Pik e ha d n o qualification s as a naturalist , an d h e lacked th e "tim e an d placidity of mind" required to study the plant s and animals he encountered . Nevertheles s Pike' s account o f the ric h villages of the Southwes t helpe d t o set the stage for the developmen t of th e Sant a Fe Trail . While i n South Park, Pike was impressed by the siz e of a recent encampment, an d i n Sant a F e he me t a trader , Jame s Purcel l (o r Pursley, as he calle d him), who explained tha t he had campe d ther e in 180 5 wit h a large group of Kiowa Indians. Thi s was a year and a half befor e Pik e reache d th e area , s o it seem s fai r t o credi t Purcel l with bein g th e first American o f European descen t t o discove r th e Front Range s of Colorado. Purcell told Pik e that he "had foun d gold in the hea d o f La Platte, an d had carrie d some of the virgi n mineral in his shot-pouc h fo r months; bu t that , bein g i n doubt whethe r h e

6

The natural Historys t o r yof the Long Expedition should ever again behold th e civilized world . . . he threw the sample away." Pik e spok e o f Purcell a s "a ma n o f strong natura l sens e an d dauntless intrepidity. " Purcell was a Kentuckian wh o had hunte d an d trapped i n Louisiana Territor y sinc e 1799 . I n 180 5 h e ha d bee n hire d by a trade r to make contact with th e Kiow a Indians . But the Kiowas were being driven sout h an d wes t b y th e Sioux , an d alon g wit h the m wen t Purcell an d severa l companions . Th e cam p i n Sout h Par k was said to hav e containe d a s many a s 2,000 Indian s an d mor e than 10,00 0 horses. Th e Indian s sen t Purcel l to Sant a F e to establis h trade relations wit h th e Spanish , bu t h e remaine d there , late r becomin g a Mexican citize n and settlin g i n Sonora . The suppositio n o f both Clar k an d Pik e tha t th e Yellowston e River arose in central Colorad o demonstrate s th e contemporary lac k of appreciatio n o f the vas t are a between th e watershe d o f the Mis souri and that of the Arkansas . I t was not unti l 181 1 tha t a group of traders mad e th e tre k fro m th e Missour i to th e Arkansa s (i t too k them "fort y o r fifty " days ) an d no t unti l 181 6 tha t thei r tri p was made known , an d unde r od d circumstances, i n a letter to the edito r of a newspaper, th e Missour i Gazette. The lette r wa s written by Ezekiel Williams an d wa s in response t o a n articl e concerning th e dis covery o f a grav e i n centra l Missour i believe d t o b e tha t o f Jea n Baptiste Champlain , who , alon g wit h William s an d severa l others , had bee n sent b y Manuel Lisa from hi s trading post o n th e Missouri toward Santa Fe, in the hop e o f establishing trad e with the Spanish . Several i n the party perished, but Williams and Champlain survive d to procur e a valuable loa d o f furs. But , said the report , when nearly back to Boone's Lick , Missouri, Williams "coolly and premeditatedly committed on e o f the mos t inhuma n an d outrageou s acts of cruelty that the annal s o f history can produce, by putting to death th e frien d of his bosom fo r the sak e of lucre!" Th e sourc e of this story was no t stated, excep t tha t i t was "from a gentleman o f respectability." All o f thi s William s emphaticall y denied , explainin g that h e had lef t Champlai n wit h th e Arapaho s whe n h e returne d vi a th e

7

SETTING TH E STAG E Arkansas River , an d o n a late r tri p foun d tha t th e Arapaho s ha d killed him. This story was confirmed by Robert Stuart, leader of John Jacob Astor' s America n Fu r Company, wh o learne d fro m th e Sho shones tha t Champlai n ha d bee n kille d b y the Arapaho s i n 1812 . Members o f th e Lon g Expeditio n wer e t o hea r o f th e discover y of the bod y a s they crosse d Missour i i n 1819 . I f the bod y was that of Champlain (a s seems doubtful) , i t remain s t o b e explaine d ho w i t got fro m Colorad o t o Missouri. During the lat e 1820s , Williams served as a guide on th e Sant a Fe Trail . Late r "Ol d Zeke " settle d o n a far m i n Bento n County , Missouri, wher e fo r a tim e h e serve d a s judge an d postmaster . Al though his name has nearly been forgotten, it was Williams who first pointed ou t tha t ther e wa s a vast , barel y explore d regio n betwee n the Missour i and Arkansas Rivers. Whether his letter to the Missouri Gazette describin g his experience s wa s known t o th e easter n estab lishment o f the tim e i s a moot point . Once Manuel Lis a and other s of his Missouri Fur Company ha d learned ho w to run th e gauntle t o f the Siou x an d othe r tribe s along the Missouri , that river became the scen e o f much activity . Between 1807 an d 1820 , Lisa and his companions wen t up and down the river several times. They traveled i n keelboats poled or rowed through th e turbulent water s or pulle d upstrea m fro m th e bank s b y ropes ; onl y now an d the n coul d the y us e wind power t o replac e muscl e power. Trappers an d traders were dispatched fro m posts along the river, John Colter traveling even as far as the Win d Rive r Ranges, Jackson Hole , and Yellowstone . Colter , lik e severa l other s i n Lisa' s employment, was a veteran o f the Lewi s and Clar k Expedition . In 1811 , Astor' s Pacifi c Fu r Company dispatche d Wilso n Pric e Hunt an d hi s party of "Astorians" up the Missour i in four keelboats . Later they would trek, with much difficulty , al l the wa y to the Pacific , and the followin g year Robert Stuar t woul d lead the retur n tri p east. With Hun t a s h e ascende d th e rive r wer e tw o notabl e botanists , Thomas Nuttal l an d Joh n Bradbury . Bradbur y woul d writ e o f his adventure s i n hi s boo k Travels i n th e Interior o f America i n the

8

The natural History of the Long Expedition Years 1809, 1810, an d 1811 (1817) . Wit h Lisa , tha t sam e year , was geographe r Henr y Mari e Brackenridge , wh o wrot e o f hi s travels in View s of Lousiana: The Journal of a Voyage up the Missouri River, i n 1811 (1814) . S o th e Missour i River, a t leas t a s far a s th e Dakotas, wa s reasonably well know n compare d wit h mos t part s of the West . One would have though t tha t the next government-sponsore d expedition migh t have had a s its major goa l the exploratio n o f some of th e vas t areas to th e sout h o f the Missour i that were still little, if at all , visited, but tha t i s not th e case . Followin g the Wa r o f 1812 , John C . Calhoun, Secretary of War unde r Presiden t James Monroe, was concerned wit h Britis h influence in th e norther n par t o f Louisiana Territor y and th e dange r fro m Indian s wh o ha d allie d them selves with the British. Calhoun wa s then thirty-seven, and had been in th e cabine t fo r tw o years . This wa s lon g befor e h e becam e a n advocate o f states ' rights ; h e wa s the n a n arden t nationalis t an d expansionist. "Distance an d difficulties ar e less to us than any people on earth, " h e ha d remarke d i n a speec h t o Congress . Ther e was genuine fea r o f a third wa r with England , working through th e In dians to block expansio n to the west. Calhoun propose d sending troops u p the Missour i to establish a for t a t th e mout h o f th e Yellowston e Rive r (nea r th e presen t boundary between North Dakot a an d Montana). Ther e they would impress th e Indian s wit h th e powe r o f th e American s an d a t th e same tim e serv e notice t o Canadia n trapper s and trader s that some of their favorit e beaver country wa s now par t o f the Unite d States . President Monro e supporte d the pla n fully , a s he wrot e t o hi s Sec retary o f War.

The people . . . . look upo n i t a s a measur e bette r calcu lated t o preserve the peac e of the frontier , t o secure to us the fu r trade and to break up the intercours e between th e British traders and the Indians , than any other which ha s

9

SETTING TH E STAG E

been take n b y th e government . I tak e mysel f ver y great interest i n th e succes s of the expedition , an d a m willing to tak e grea t responsibility to ensur e it .

The pres s was no less enthusiastic about the Yellowstone Expedition, as it came to be called. The Missour i Gazette reported that "the pla n has attracte d th e attentio n o f th e whol e nation , an d ther e i s n o measure which ha s been adopte d b y the presen t administration that has receive d suc h universa l commendation. " Tha t th e expeditio n was t o mak e us e o f th e recentl y invente d stea m engin e especiall y fired the imagination s of many. In a letter t o a newspaper, one cor respondent surmise d that i t would lead to "saf e and eas y communication t o China [and ] ten year s shall no t pas s away before w e shall have the ric h production s of that countr y transporte d fro m Canto n to the Columbia, up that river to the mountains, over the mountain s and dow n th e Missour i and Mississippi , all the wa y (mountains an d all) b y the poten t powe r of steam." Both steamboat s an d stea m railway s wer e nove l i n th e earl y nineteenth century, and the public was as much excited abou t the m as w e ar e abou t spac e probes . Althoug h Colone l Henr y Atkinson , who had been placed in charge of the militar y arm of the expedition , was wel l awar e that human - an d wind-powere d keelboats ha d suc cessfully plie d th e Missouri , they woul d not d o fo r so grand a n ex pedition. A contrac t wa s made with Colonel James Johnson t o build the five steamboats, to be named th e Jefferson, th e Calhoun, Joh nson, the Exchange, and th e Expedition. Th e steamboat s were hastily con structed an d proved to be more expensive than had bee n calculate d and much les s effective tha n had been hope d i n traversing the Ohio and th e Missouri . The pla n wa s to transpor t nearl y 1,00 0 soldier s and thei r equipmen t t o th e mout h o f th e Yellowstone . I t wa s assumed tha t th e Wa r Departmen t woul d save money i n the process , since th e troop s coul d liv e mainl y o n th e abundan t game . A s w e shall see , non e o f th e ship s cam e anywher e nea r reachin g thei r

I0

The natural History of the Long Expedition planned destination , an d man y o f the troop s succumbe d t o scurvy during the winte r o f 1819/1820 . From th e beginning , i t was planned t o add an explorator y arm to th e expedition , t o b e commande d b y Majo r Stephe n H . Long . That th e enterpris e eventuall y cam e t o be calle d th e Lon g Expedition rather tha n the Yellowstone Expedition reflects the relative success o f the tw o arms . Long had onl y jus t returne d fro m expedition s on the upper Mississippi River and in Arkansas. He was given a more or les s free han d t o desig n his ow n steamboa t an d t o selec t hi s personnel. Hi s steamboat , th e Western Engineer, had a shallower draf t than an y of the five ships of the militar y contingent, and ma y hav e been th e first stern-wheeler eve r built. It proved far better suite d for river trave l tha n did Colonel Johnson's boats , but it s operation was not withou t problems . As a schoo l principa l i n Germantown , Pennsylvania , befor e joining the military , Long ha d becom e acquainte d wit h member s of the America n Philosophica l Societ y i n nearb y Philadelphia , the n the intellectua l hub o f the country . The ide a of asking several members of the societ y t o accompan y hi m o n thi s ne w ventur e wa s his, but Calhoun was easily persuaded. Several were eager to do so despite the fac t tha t they wer e offered littl e salary and would have t o supply some of their ow n equipment . The expeditio n lef t Pittsburg h in Ma y 1819 . Calhoun' s orders to Lon g wer e (i n part ) a s follows:

You wil l firs t explor e th e Missour i an d it s principa l branches, an d then, in succession, Red River, Arkansa [sic] and Mississippi , above th e mout h of the Missouri. The objec t of the Expedition , is to acquir e as thorough an d accurat e knowledg e a s may b e practicable , o f a portion o f our country , whic h i s daily becoming mor e in teresting, but which i s as yet imperfectly known. With this view, you will permit nothing worthy of notice, t o escap e

11 SETTING TH E STAGE

your attention. You will ascertai n th e latitud e and longi tude o f remarkable points wit h al l possible precision. You will i f practicable, ascertai n som e poin t i n th e 49t h parallel o f latitude , whic h separate s ou r possession s fro m those o f Great Britain . A knowledg e o f the exten t o f our limits wil l ten d t o preven t collisio n betwee n ou r traders and theirs . You will enter i n your journal, everything interesting in relatio n t o soil , fac e o f the country , water course s and productions, whethe r animal , vegetable, or mineral . You will conciliate th e Indian s by kindness an d presents, an d wil l ascertain, a s far as practicable, the numbe r and characte r o f th e variou s tribes , wit h th e exten t o f country claime d b y each. Great confidenc e i s reposed in the acquirement s an d zeal o f th e citizen s who wil l accompan y th e Expeditio n for scientific purposes, and a confident hope i s entertained, that thei r dutie s will be performe d in suc h a manner , a s to add both to their ow n reputation an d that of our country.

To hi s orders , Calhou n appende d a cop y o f Jefferson's instruction s to Meriwethe r Lewis , hoping tha t the y migh t provid e "man y valuable suggestions. " That Long was asked to explore the boundary with Canada and that wit h Mexic o (th e Re d River ) i n on e expedition—alon g wit h the Mississippi , th e Missour i and it s tributaries, and the Arkansas — reveals the prevailin g ignorance o f the vastnes s of the wester n lands. Calhoun an d Lon g place d muc h emphasi s o n th e importanc e of the scientifi c personnel wh o would accompany th e expedition . I t is sometimes sai d that thi s was the first expedition t o th e Wes t tha t included traine d naturalists . Thi s statemen t require s qualification . Lewis and Clar k mad e ver y substantial observations on natura l his -

12

The natural History story of the Long Expedition tory alon g thei r rout e t o th e Pacifi c an d back . Jefferson ha d see n t o it that Lewis had a "crash course" in natural history under Benjamin Smith Barton and other Philadelphia intellectuals, and Clark proved to be a superb observer and geographer despite his limited education . Their journal s contai n a wealt h o f novel information . In hi s boo k Lewis and Clark: Pioneer Naturalists, Paul Russell Cutright include s a list o f the biologica l discoveries of the expedition . I t require s fortyseven pages! Here w e need t o distinguis h between th e ac t o f discovery and the documentatio n o f a plant or an animal in the scientifi c literature. To b e formall y established , a plan t o r a n anima l mus t b e give n a Latinized doubl e nam e (genu s an d species) , following rule s established b y Swedis h naturalis t Car l Linnaeu s i n th e mid-eighteent h century. The nam e mus t be followe d b y a detailed descriptio n an d a statemen t o f the localit y i n whic h th e plan t o r anima l wa s collected. The specime n should the n be deposited i n a reputable institution wher e it wil l be preserve d and ca n b e studie d by others . Lewis and Clar k di d collect bot h plants an d animal s an d trie d to see to i t that they reached authoritie s in the East . Lewis's descriptions were often so precise that many of the specie s he discusse d ca n now b e identified . However , these explorer s shied awa y fro m using Linnaean nomenclatur e an d lef t tha t tas k t o others . Thu s Clark' s nutcracker and Lewis's woodpecker were described and illustrate d by pioneer ornithologis t Alexande r Wilso n i n 1811 , an d tw o o f th e more spectacula r plant s the y discovere d wer e name d Lewisia an d Clarkia b y botanist Frederic k Pursh i n 1814 . Philadelphi a zoologist George Or d describe d the grizzl y bear , th e pronghorn , an d severa l other mammals sent back by Lewis and Clark . The journal s of these explorers wer e printed i n 1814 , afte r th e untimel y death o f Lewis , but onl y afte r th e editor , Philadelphi a lawye r Nicholas Biddle , had improved thei r spellin g an d greatl y condense d thei r narrative . A second volume , t o hav e covere d th e scientifi c accomplishments o f the expedition , was never published because of the illnes s of its editor, Benjamin Smith Barton. In 1893 , Elliot t Coues resurrected the

13

SETTING TH E STAG E Biddle edition , edite d i t extensively , an d adde d copiou s note s de rived from a careful readin g of the eightee n volume s of original manuscript. The firs t printing in full o f the origina l journals of Lewis and Clark, wit h muc h additiona l material , was edited b y Reuben Gol d Thwaites an d publishe d i n eigh t volume s i n 190 4 an d 190 5 (re printed i n 196 9 b y Arno Press, New York). Still mor e recently, from 1986 t o 1990 , th e Universit y of Nebraska Press published the jour nals i n seve n volumes , edited b y Gary Moulton, makin g use of still additional material and the technique s of modern historical research. So i t ha s take n nearl y tw o centuries t o appreciat e full y th e accom plishments of the Lewi s and Clar k Expedition . The naturalist s of the Lon g Expeditio n wer e bette r traine d as systematists an d di d no t hesitat e t o provid e forma l name s an d de scriptions o f man y o f th e plants , animals , an d geologi c formations they encountered . Onl y i n thi s sens e wer e thei r observation s mor e "scientific" tha n thos e o f Lewis and Clark . Sinc e th e repor t o f th e Long Expedition was published in ful l i n 1823 , th e discoverie s of its naturalists became well known long before those of Lewis and Clark . The repor t wa s an importan t contributio n t o scienc e o f th e day , particularly the accoun t o f the secon d year , when Lon g and his men left th e Missour i to explore the wester n plains and th e Fron t Rang e of th e Rockies . The firs t yea r of Long's expedition, spent o n th e Ohi o and th e Missouri, was by no means in territory virgin to naturalists. Botanists Bradbury an d Nuttall had precede d th e expeditio n u p the Missouri , and Nuttal l ha d explore d th e lowe r Arkansa s basi n i n 1819 ; bot h published accounts o f their trips. A bowdlerize d edition of Lewis and Clark's journal s had bee n publishe d i n 1814 . I n 1808 , Alexande r Wilson published th e first part of his American Ornithology, in which he formally described some of the bird s collected by Lewis and Clark, illustrating them with colored plates . In 1814 , Frederic k Pursh published his Flora Americae Septentrionalis, i n which h e name d an d de scribed man y o f th e plant s collecte d b y Lewi s an d Clark , an d (without authority) some of those collected b y Bradbury and by Nut-

14

The natural History of the Long Expedition tall. Pursh , once calle d "on e o f the mos t activ e an d apparentl y unscrupulous earl y Philadelphi a botanists, " ha d neve r bee n west , bu t his Flora proved valuable as a preliminary guide to som e of the western plants . In 1818 , Nuttall published The Genera of North American Plants an d Catalogue o f th e Species t o the Year 1817, based in par t o n his experience s on th e Missour i i n 1811 . It i s not clea r how muc h o f the availabl e literature was carried by th e Lon g Expedition . I t i s known tha t th e explorer s carried th e maps mad e b y Clar k an d b y Pike , a s well a s th e Lewi s an d Clar k journals an d Alexande r vo n Humboldt' s Persona l Narrative of Travels to th e Equinoctial Regions o f America. Whethe r the y carrie d Ord' s descriptions of some o f the mammal s collected by Lewis and Clark , Wilson's American Ornithology, Pursh' s Flora, o r Nuttall's Genera is uncertain, bu t i n an y case these wer e available to th e naturalist s as they prepare d the repor t o f the expeditio n fo r publication. To understand the contribution s of the expedition's naturalists, it i s necessary to appreciat e the rathe r primitive state o f natural history i n thei r time . Linnaeus had bee n dea d fo r only fort y years , and Darwin's On th e Origin of Species wa s forty years in the future . Knowledge of the natura l history of the easter n states was still sketchy, an d the wester n land s wer e a vast unknown. Tha t th e expedition' s nat uralists mad e mistake s and provide d descriptions of natural objects that ar e inadequat e b y moder n standard s i s understandable, particularly when we consider the difficultie s unde r which they were working. The naturalist s used the Linnaea n syste m of nomenclature, bu t in thei r tim e som e procedure s were les s wel l established tha n the y are today. Nowadays generic names are capitalized and species names uncapitalized, and both ar e placed i n italic s to se t them off from th e text; bu t i n th e 1820 s thes e rule s were no t alway s followed . Th e name o f the perso n wh o describe d the specie s i s often place d afte r the name, sometimes abbreviated. The naturalist s did this irregularly ("N" followin g a plant name , for example, refers t o Nuttall). When a genu s name i s repeated, i t ma y b e abbreviate d b y usin g only th e

15

SETTING TH E STAG E first initial (fo r example, C. latrans, when th e genu s Cards ha s been spelled ou t jus t previously) . The naturalist s sometimes described a s new species ones that had actually been described earlier by someone else. I n thi s cas e th e "la w o f priority" prevails : the earlie r nam e i s accepted. Fo r example, Thomas Say described the mule deer, naming it Cervus macrotis. He was unaware that Constantine Rafinesque had described i t just a few years earlier, calling it C. hemionus, the specie s name tha t i s now accepted . Pioneer naturalist s tended t o us e broad, all-embracin g genera. As scienc e advanced , mor e specie s becam e know n an d thei r rela tionships bette r understood. This has led biologists to divide the old , inclusive gener a int o severa l genera o f more precis e definition . I t is no discredi t t o th e expedition' s naturalist s tha t thei r specie s hav e now often bee n place d i n different gener a tha n those i n which the y placed them . Scienc e progresse s by improvin g the superstructur e as knowledge i s added . The specie s of plants and animal s newly described fro m speci mens collecte d b y th e expeditio n I hav e liste d i n th e appendixes . The lists , although no t complete , includ e slightl y over 30 0 species , a considerabl e accomplishmen t fo r a small, ill-equipped grou p that moved rapidl y through roug h and mostly unexplored country . I t was not alway s eas y for the naturalist s to collec t an d prepar e specimen s and writ e up accompanying note s whe n the y wer e traveling by foot and horsebac k twent y o r mor e mile s a day , ofte n throug h heat , storms, an d bitin g insects . O f course , th e discover y of new species was no t th e be-al l an d end-al l o f th e expedition . Th e naturalist s learned much abou t the distributio n of plants and animals and abou t their livin g conditions. The y als o recorded dat a about the rock s and landforms an d mad e an effor t t o lear n a s much a s possible about th e Native American s the y met—thoug h muc h o f tha t informatio n is omitted fro m thi s book . Lon g an d hi s lieutenant s regularl y deter mined thei r longitud e an d latitude , an d fro m thes e dat a the y pre pared map s that wer e a great improvemen t ove r an y then available. The expeditio n als o serve d notice t o th e Nativ e American s an d t o

16

The natural History of the Long Expedition the Spanis h an d Britis h that thi s lan d wa s now part o f the Unite d States, somethin g that was clearly on the minds of President Monroe and Secretar y of War Calhou n when th e tri p was authorized. The final report o f the expedition , published i n both Philadel phia an d Londo n i n 1823 , had a wide readership, but i t is safe t o say that mos t reader s were more intereste d i n th e description s o f landscapes an d Indian s tha n i n thos e o f newl y discovere d plant s an d animals. Withi n a few years, th e finding s o f Long and hi s me n ha d become incorporate d int o Easterners' perception s o f the West , provoking thought s o f escape t o virgi n lands an d th e backgroun d fo r many a novel abou t th e mythi c West. Unlike th e journals of Pike and of Lewis and Clark, the Account of the Lon g Expedition wa s illustrated. The America n editio n contained eigh t engraving s made fro m painting s don e b y th e expedi tion's artists , whil e th e Englis h editio n include d fou r additiona l plates, two of them hand-colored landscapes . For the first time, views of th e wester n plains an d o f the slope s o f the Rockies , alon g wit h their native inhabitants, were available to the public. Long's was the first of severa l expeditions t o th e Wes t tha t documente d it s travels by the work of artists. Not unti l the 1860 s was photography available and widel y used by travelers through th e West . The tw o artist s o f th e expeditio n actuall y mad e man y mor e sketches tha n appeared in the Account. According to Kenneth Haltman, who has made a special study o f the expedition' s artisti c heritage, Samue l Seymou r produce d abou t 15 0 sketche s o r paintings ; Titian Peale , a s many a s 235. Many o f Peale' s have survived , an d some hav e appeare d i n subsequen t publication s b y diverse authors . Sketches mad e i n th e fiel d ofte n wer e late r use d t o make mor e finished paintings afte r th e me n had returned t o Philadelphia. Thu s an extensiv e visua l recor d o f th e expeditio n becam e availabl e t o scholars.

Two CAST O F CHARACTER S

IN TH E SPRING O F 1819 , TWENTY-FOUR me n gathere d i n Pittsburg h with thei r persona l effects , read y t o depar t o n Majo r Stephe n H . Long's steamboat, th e Western Engineer. The militar y contingent had preceded the m i n fiv e steamboats . Long' s part y include d a smal l group o f army personnel a s well as five "scientific gentlemen " an d a crew o f six:

MILITARY Major Stephe n H. Long Commande Major Thoma s Biddle , Jr. Journalis Lieutenant James D. Graham Assistan Cadet William H . Swif t Secon Sergeant Samue l Roa n Eight privates

r t t topographe r d assistan t topographe r

SCIENTIFIC Dr. William Baldwi n Botanis Thomas Say Zoologis Titian R. Peal e Assistan

t an d surgeo n t t naturalis t

18

The

natural

History of the Long Expedition

Augustus Jessup Geologis Samuel Seymour Artis

CREW

Benjamin Edward s Steamboa Thomas Bogg s Pilo Isaac Kimball Carpente L. R. Kinney Cler Two "boys "

t t

t enginee r t r k

Major Benjami n O'Fallon, India n agent for the tribe s along the Missouri River, became attache d t o th e expeditio n informall y a t a later date, a s did his assistan t and interpreter , John Dougherty . The cre w and th e soldier s are rarely mentioned i n th e narrativ e o f the expe dition, thoug h doubtles s all were important in bringing the Western Engineer to it s destination i n th e fal l o f 1819 . A s t o th e officer s an d scientists, a bit mor e needs to b e said. Stephen Harriman Long came from a New Hampshir e farming family. A t Dartmout h College , h e wa s a leader among the student s and was elected t o Phi Beta Kappa, the nationa l honorary fraternity. After a yea r of teaching schoo l i n Ne w Hampshire , h e accepte d a position a s a school principal i n Germantown, Pennsylvania . There he became acquainted with members of the American Philosophica l Society i n nearb y Philadelphia. I n hi s spar e time, he di d som e surveying an d acquire d a reputation as an invento r o f machinery. This brought him t o th e attentio n o f officers o f the army' s Corps o f Topographical Engineers, and i n 181 4 h e wa s commissioned as a second lieutenant. Afte r a year o f teaching mathematic s a t Wes t Point , h e was sent wes t to inspect fort s an d gather information on the streams and soils of Illinois and th e uppe r Mississippi basin. He enjoyed traveling in the wilderness and was enthusiastic about the landscap e and the potentia l o f the prairie s for agriculture. In 181 7 Lon g was sent t o Arkansas , where th e Cheroke e an d