The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period (History of Warfare, 12)

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THE KNIGHT AND THE BLAST FURNACE A History of the Metallurgy ofArmour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period

BY

ALAN WILLIAMS

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BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON 2003

Brill Academic Publishers has done its best to establish rights for the use of the materials printed herein. Should any other party feel that ils rights have been infringed we would be glad to hear from them.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Williams, Alan (Alan R.) T h e knight and the blast furnace : a history of the metallurgy of armour in the Middle Ages & the early modern period / by Alan Williams. p. cm. - - (History of warfare , ISSN 1385-7827 ; v. 12) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 9004124985 (acid-free paper) l.Iron- Metallurgy-—History -Europe. 2. Armor, Medieval. 3. Armor, Renaissance. I. Title. II. Series. TN703 .W55

2002

623.4'41--dc2I

2002025419

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Williams, Alan: T h e knight and the blast furnace : a history of the metallurgy of armour in the Middle Ages & the early modern period / by Alan Williams. - Leiden ; Boston ; Koln : Brill, 2002 (History of warfare ; Vol. 12) ISBN 90-04-12498-5

ISSN ISBN

1385-7827 90 04 12498 5

© Copyright. 2003 by Konmklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. .No par/ of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieved system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy itemsfor internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright. Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

CONTENTS

Foreword Acknowledgements SECTION 1 1.1

1.2

1.3

2.1

2.2

3.2

4.1 4.2

29 29 31 34 35

KNIGHTS

The birth of the knight Knightly mail armour Infantry and crossbows The Crossbow

SECTION 4

3 6 9 11 13 14 15 17 19 24

MAIL

Mail Mailmaking Migration period & early Middle Ages Armour of the later Roman Empire and the early Middle Ages Helmets of the early Middle Ages

SECTION 3 3.1

IRON

The earliest ironmaking Conversion of iron to steel The Classical World Swords Appendix 1: Metallography of swords Appendix 2: Damascus steel Appendix 3: Case Carburisation Hardening of steel Metallography Sampling

SECTION 2

ix xi

39 42 46 48

ITALY

The triumph of an industry The flourishing of an industry—The Metallurgy of Italian armour

53 60

VI

4.3 4.4 4.5

CONTENTS

The metallurgy of Italian armour before 1510 The eclipse of an industry—Italian armour after 1510 The metallurgy of Italian armour after 1510

SECTION 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11

6.1 6.2. 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

7.2

up to 1450 "German" armour up to 4450 Augsburg armour from the later 15th century onwards.... Innsbruck armour Landshut armour Niirnberg armour Niirnberg tournament armours of the late 15th century...

331 334 361 371 451 463 551 558 589 604 677

THE REST OF EUROPE

Miscellaneous "German" armour Flanders The metallurgy of Flemish armour England The metallurgy of armour (presumed to have been) made in England Spain France Sweden North Germany and The Netherlands Dutch armour exports

SECTION 7 7.1

GERMANY

"German" armour The metallurgy of Augsburg armour The metallurgy of Innsbruck armour The metallurgy of Landshut armour The metallurgy of Niirnberg armour The metallurgy of The metallurgy of

SECTION 6

68 203 215

684 714 717 731 740 815 822 827 829 830

GUNS

The invention of guns Greek Fire " Gunpowder China Gunpowder in the Muslim world Gunpowder in the West The earliest guns in Europe Improvements in guns Appendix: dimensions of some handguns

842 842 843 844 846 847 850 851 854

CONTENTS

7.3

7.4

Guns in 15th century warfare The Hussites The 15th century wars of the English Appendix: price of gunpowder Handguns in the 16th century Continental Europe to 1525 Pavia—the decisive battle The 16th century in England After Pavia up to the 17th century The Ottoman Turks in Europe Appendix: English arguments about the longbow

SECTION 8 8.1

8.2

8.3

9.1 9.2 9.3

857 857 859 864 866 866 868 870 872 873 874

PRODUCTION

Furnaces and blooms Ironmaking in bloomeries The cast-iron-producing "blast" furnace The finery Filarete's description Possible methods of mass-production of armour Appendix 1: size of blooms produced Appendix 2: slag inclusion analyses Hardening armour The theory of metals in the Middle Ages Hardening of armour in Italy Hardening of armour in Germany Slack-quenching 16th century books on steel Tuscany Appendix 1: Experiments on the slack-quenching of medieval steels Appendix 2: Experiments on the tempering of medieval steels Appendix 3: Mechanical testing of samples from armour The mass-production of armour Soldiers' wages in England The cost of armour The Westphalian iron industry

SECTION 9

VII

877 877 879 882 883 886 890 891 893 893 894 895 895 895 897 898 900 901 903 903 904 908

PROTECTION

Thickness of armour Attack on armour Appendix: Krenn's firing tests using guns from the Graz Arsenal Effectiveness of armour according to contemporary evidence

913 918 923 924

VIII

9.4

9.5 Index

CONTENTS

Estimating the effectiveness of armour Defeating armour Resistance of armour Appendices: Experimental results Conclusion - Did it work?

927 933 934 935 945 951

FOREWORD

Scientific examination and analysis have for many years been accepted as basic tools for research in almost all branches of archaeology and art-history, but, until comparatively recently, an exception has been the small, and highly-specialised branch that concerns itself with the study of medieval and renaissance armour. This is probably because it is one that has never at any time attracted more than a handful of devotees, and none of these has hitherto had the necessary scientific knowledge, to say nothing of dedication to the sub ject, to enable them to initiate the necessary programme of research. Dr. Alan Williams, a metallurgist by training, is the first to person to appear on the scene with all the qual ifications required, including quite remarkable dedication to performing the essential pre liminary task of taking metal samples from a wide range of armours and analysing them During the last thirty years he has devoted his spare time to doing this in the armouries and armour-collections of Europe and North America, and it is the results of this work that arc now published in the present volume. The details of hundreds of such samples now made generally available for the first time form a data-base for all future research, which it is to be hoped that it will encourage. It gives me great pleasure to recommend it as a major, and entirely original, contribution to the study of ancient armour. Claude Blair

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A great number of curators, conservators, and physical scientists have helped me over the last thirty years, and as it would be invidious to single out any one, I will list them in chronological order of acquaintance. The late Russell Robinson, who first encouraged me to find out what armour was made of, and his conservators Ted Smith & Arthur Davis, the late Dr.Wilfrid Farrar, Dr.Richard Lorch, the late Leo Biek, the late Lionello Boccia, Domenico Collura, Prof. Volker Himmelein, Theo Gerresheim, Stuart Pyhrr, Prof. Peter Krenn, Prof. Hugo Schneider, the late Eugen Heer, Prof. William Johnson, Dr. William Ryder, Dr. Henry Rolls, Claude Blair, the late Nick Norman, David Edge, Dr.Heinrich Miiller, Dr.Gerhard Quaas, Dr. Heinz Werner Lewerken, the late Dr.Frederick van der Sloot, Tony North, Simon Metcalf, James Jackson, Ian Ashdown, Janet Lang, Dr.Paul Craddock, Dr.Rudolph Wackernagel, Dr.Mario Scalini, Tony de Reuck, Ian Eaves, Thom Richardson, Dr.Claudio Bertolotto, Dr.Carlo De Vita, Gian Rodolfo Rotasso, Prof. Radomir Pleiner, Dr.Gerhard Sperl, Dr. Christian Beaufort, Dr.Matthias Pfaffenbichlcr, Prof. James Charles, Robin Crighton, Prof. Donald Wagner, Dr.Matthew Strickland, Dr.Alfred Auer, Dr. Johannes Willers, Dr.Nils Drejholt, Dr.Giinther Diiriegl, Dr.Sylvia Mattl-Wurm, Dr. Mario Leutenegger, Dr.Frantisek Fryda, Miroslav Pertl, Lassc Mattila, Walter Karcheski, Dr.Hans Ludwig Knau, and Dr.Lorenz Seelig. Financial help from, amongst others, the Leverhulme Trust, the British Academy, the British Council, the Armourers' & Brasiers' Company of London, the Austrian Ministry of Culture and the Society of Antiquaries, has helped me to carry out this research during this time. I am indebted to the Master and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, for a Fellow-Commonership which allowed me the leisure to think about some of these problems. The publication of this book has only been made possible because many museums have very generously waived all reproduction fees. These are the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the Imperial Armoury (now the Hofjagd- und Rustkammcr), Vienna, the Stibbert Museum, Florence, the Wallace Collection, London, the Bavarian National Museum, Munich, the Museum of the City of Vienna, the Royal Armoury, Turin, the Dresden Armoury, the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, the Old Arsenal Museum, Solothurn, the State Arsenal, Graz, the German National Museum, Niirnberg, the Royal Collections, Windsor Castle, the Munich City Museum, the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome, the Swiss National Museum, Zurich, the Collections of Veste Coburg, the City Museum, Koln, the Poldi-Pezzuoli Museum, Milan, the Museum for German History, Berlin, the Wiirttemberg State Museum, Stuttgart, the Estonian National Museum, Tallinn, the Museum of St.John, Clerkenwell, the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, the National Museum of Scotland, the Museum of London, the Town Museum of Le Landeron, the Valere Museum of Sion, and the Parish Churches of Cobham with Luddesdowne and Dode.

XII

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition, the Rhincland Museum, Bonn generously supplied a transparency of the painting "Landscape with Furnaces", Marquita Volken, of the Centre for Galccology, Lausanne, supplied some of her cuir-bouilli, and Erik Schmidt supplied some modern mail for destructive testing. The Royal Armouries, Leeds, allowed me to photograph objects on display as well as in their stores. I am very grateful to Count Trapp, who allowed me to examine so much of his family's armour in Churburg, and to Ing.Arch.Mrazck (Pamatkovy Ustav Strednich Ccch) and Dr. Elianna von Troppenburg who were similarly obliging with the collections of Konopiste Castle and Veste Coburg respectively. And also to Sir Geoffrey de Bellaigue, Keeper of the Royal Collections, Windsor Castle. Many chapters were read in draft by Claude Blair, and by Professor Tony Atkins, and I am greatly indebted to them, but the responsibility for all errors remaining must, of course, lie entirely with the author.

All publications are in London, unless stated otherwise.

SECTION ONE

IRON

C H A P T E R 1.1

T H E EARLIEST IRON-MAKING

The first metal to be used for tools and weapons was copper, and its early metallurgy has been discussed by many historians of metallurgy'. It concerns us only insofar as sophisti cated techniques had been developed for working copper and its alloys by the second millcnium B.C. and could be transferred to iron-working. Copper ores are generally brightly coloured minerals which would be attractive as applied decoration, first for human bodies, and then later for ceramics. The earliest copper-smelt ing furnaces were probably modified from pottery kilns in which copper ores were heated with charcoal, with the following results. Charcoal burns to form first carbon dioxide:

co

c + o, = 2 (carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide) then at higher temperatures (perhaps 1000°C), the carbon dioxide reacts with more car bon to form carbon monoxide: C 0 2 + C = 2 CO (carbon dioxide + carbon = carbon monoxide) The carbon monoxide gas reduces the copper ore to copper: this reaction is simplified by treating the copper ore as copper oxide only. CuO + C O = Cu + C O , (copper oxide + carbon monoxide = copper + carbon dioxide) A mixture of metal and slag (from the non-metallic impurities) was formed in the furnace, and this was subsequently broken up and the copper melted in crucibles to purify it. The exploitation of other metal ores, such as those of tin, could lead to the formation of alloys (mixtures of two or more metals), such as bronze. Unlike those of copper, iron ores are very widespread, but the extraction of iron is not so simple, because its melting-point is much higher (iron 1550°C; copper 1080°C). An attempt Tylccote (1987), for example.

4

SECTION ONE

to reduce (or "smelt") iron ores in a simple copper-smelting furnace will give an unusable mixture of iron and slag. Even if the iron ore is of exceptional purity, and contains no earthy matter itself, there is generally sufficient silica (silicon dioxide, Si02) present in the stones and clay which make up the wall of the hearth to react with part of the iron ore and form a slag. The iron ore is treated as iron oxide only. F e 0 2 + S i 0 4 = Fe 2 Si0 4 (iron oxide + Silicon oxide = iron silicate) Slags are complex glass-like mixtures of oxides and silicates; the component of lowest freerunning temperature that would generally be found in an ironmaking slag would be fayalite (2FeO.SiO, ; ) with a free-running temperature of 1205°C. In consequence, even though the iron ore might have been reduced at 700-800°C, unless the furnace temperature reached at least 1200°C the slag would not have been liquefied and therefore could not have been separated from the iron. Meteoritic iron might have been forged into very good tools or weapons by a compe tent bronzesmith because its high nickel content would make them harder, but these would have remained isolated and expensive curiosities 2 . The "Iron Age" could not develop in Europe until techniques for the successful reduction of iron ores had been devised and dis seminated. Excavations in Sinai have shown that the Egyptians mined copper ores there, and used a sophisticated smelting technology. By about 1200 BC they were reducing the ores in bowlshaped hearths with charcoal, assisted by the blast of bellows. Iron oxide, manganese oxide, or limestone (from shells) were added as fluxes, and the liquid slag formed was "tapped off' to separate it from the copper. These furnaces resembled those subsequently to be used for smelting iron; indeed both types produced mostly iron silicate slags with free-running temperatures of around 1200°G3. Iron ores reduced under such conditions can produce iron free from most of the slag, which when it liquefies, runs down away from the still solid iron, the particles of which would be left adhering together as a lump (or "bloom"), porous in form and containing very little dissolved carbon but much entrapped slag. Such furnaces are therefore known as "bloomery hearths" and their products as "bloomery iron" or "wrought iron". Repeat ed heating and forging would be necessary to expel much of the slag and consolidate the bloom. If it was skilfully forged, the slag can be distributed in long "stringers" shaped like fibres, rather than globules, and the retention of some slag was considered an advantage in certain applications, because the inclusions could act as crack-stoppers under stress, so giving more warning of impending failure. Indeed slag was deliberately mingled with the

2

Wainwright (1937). He suggested that tools made of meteoritic iron were used in Egypt for magical ceremonies such as the "opening of the mouth" of the mummified dead, because the metal itself had fallen from the sky. Panseri (1965) described an Etruscan lance-head made of layers of bloomery iron (hardness 133 VPH) forge-welded with layers of meteoritic iron, of approximately double the hardness (250 VPH). 3 Tylecote & Rothenburg (1967).

T H E EARLIEST I R O N - M A K I N G

5

iron in the "mechanical puddling" process practised by the Aston-Byers Company until the mid-20th century'. These qualities, however, were not of immediate advantage to the Ancient World. Iron smelting seems to have been first developed somewhere between the Caucasus and the Fertile Crescent early in the second millcnium B C \ From about 1900 to 1400 BC the use of iron ornaments and ceremonial weapons slowly spread; for example, the boy-king of Egypt, Tutankhamun, held an iron dagger within his third, innermost, mummiform coffin of solid gold 6 . The destruction of the Hittite Empire spread knowledge of ironmaking fairly quickly around the Near East and it was exploited on a considerable scale by the Assyrians. Theirs was the first empire in the world (outside China) to make use of iron on a large scale'; after about 900 BC iron was commonplace, being used for swords and daggers, scales of armour, and fetters for captives, amongst other things. A hoard of some 150 tons has been excavated from the palace of Sargon (710 BC) at Khorsabad (near modern Mosul, Iraq). Some of this was found to be steel but there is no direct evidence that quenching was regularly practised 8 . The Greeks used iron extensively, although they continued to employ bronze armour in the form of breast- and backplates and one-piece helmets as late as the Persian wars of the 5th century BC 9 . Somewhat later, the westward movement of Celtic-speaking peoples spread the knowledge of iron weapons and tools over most of Europe north of the Alps 10 . The very low-carbon iron produced in the bloomery hearth is inferior to copper alloys in hardness as well as corrosion resistance. It is greatly increased in hardness by carburisation to steel, although even this is not necessarily harder than work-hardened bronze. The hardness of a metal or alloy can be determined by measuring the size of an inden tation made by a diamond point under a known load. The smaller the indentation, the harder the metal. The results may be quoted on the Vickers Pyramid Hardness (VPH) scale, whose units are kg/mm - . Microhardness is determined in the same way, during microscopic examination, and with a much smaller load (100 g). Pure (annealed) copper has a hardness of about 40 VPH. Cold-working (such as ham mering, or wire-drawing) can increase this to about 100 VPH after a 70% reduction in thickness, with a corresponding increase in brittleness. Alloying copper with tin (graph 1) progressively raises its hardness to about 110 VPH if 4

Ward (1972). Wrought iron remained a favoured material of civil engineers until late in the 19th century on account of its "toughness" (defined in this case as resistance to sudden shocks) and resistance to corrosion. Until 1971 the Aston-Byers Company of the USA marketed a "puddled wrought iron" made by mixing molten pure (Bessemer) iron with molten slag. This may seem to have been a retrograde step, but in some applica tions (e.g railway couplings) the earlier warning of impending failure that wrought iron gave was appreciated. ■' Wertime el al. (1980), passim; and also the earlier work of Coghlan (1956) contains some interesting analyses. (i Forbes (1964) vol. IX, l-174.and 234-268. 7 Wagner (1993). T h e complex topic of Oriental iron-smelting is dealt with most thoroughly here. (i Pleiner (1974) and also Maddin et al.(1979). Smith (1968) concluded that quenching was generally avoided by the neighbouring Luristan smiths (c800 BC) as too difficult a process to control. 9 Snodgrass (1967) 84. T h e same author also discusses bronze armour from Central Europe as well as Greece in idem.(1971). 10 Tylecote (1987) and Cleere & Scott (1987) passim.

6

SECTION ONE

Fe

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 %

Carbon

Hardness curves illustrating the principal ways of hardening metals.

the alloy (called "bronze") is annealed. This hardness can be further increased by cold working (graph 2) up to about 270 VPH. Pure (annealed) iron has a hardness of about 60 VPH. Iron is made harder by the absorption of carbon, to form the alloy called "steel". If the steel is allowed to cool in air after being worked hot, then its hardness (graph 3) which varies with carbon content, is comparable to cold-worked bronze. (Of course, steel is far cheaper than bronze! ) On the other hand, if steels arc quenched (plunged into cold water while still red-hot) their hardness increases enormously (graph 4) again varying with carbon content. Hard ness values between 300 VPH and 700 VPH are easily obtained, even with medieval al loys. CONVERSION OF IRON TO STEEL

The product of the bloomery might well be a heterogeneous lump, parts of which would be of higher carbon content than others. Early smiths would have found that some sam-

T H E EARLIEST

IRON-MAKING

7

pies of "iron" were harder than others, but whether they could be deliberately produced was another matter. The simplest way of obtaining steel is simply to make a large bloom, break it up, and then pick out the hardest fragments. These fragments would then have to be forged back together, with a consequent loss of material during the forging process, to make anything but the smallest artefact, so this method was an extremely inefficient one. A similar technique was used to select their steel for centuries by Japanese swordsmiths, for whom the cost of labour was not a major consideration". But frequently medieval artefacts (including many examples of armour) show a banded microstructure, suggesting that they have been forged from a heterogeneous bloom'-. A more efficient way of proceeding could be to make an artefact of iron, and then convert part of it to steel. This might be done by forge-welding a steel edge, or other crucial part, to an iron back, or by "case-carburising" the edge (heating the iron in contact with carbon for many hours). It is frequently possible to distinguish microscopically between these two processes' 3 . The former may leave a row of slag inclusions trapped along the line of the weld, and the latter may give a gradual, rather than an abrupt, change in carbon content. But a skilled crafts man might forge-weld without a flux (silver sand is used by many modern blacksmiths, which forms iron silicate) and thus leave no line of slag, and carbon will diffuse slowly in hot iron anyway, so the microscopic evidence can sometimes be ambiguous. Adding a steel part to an iron part, however, still does not require the smith to know how to make steel. Its production may be a matter entirely of chance, as long as its pres ence can be identified. The iron bars used to hold the Parthenon together were made of a banded steel, in which the layers of higher carbon content are quite randomly distribut ed 14 . Deliberate case-carburising depends upon the realisation that iron can be changed to steel; a much more sophisticated notion of the nature of metals. The deliberate steeling of an edge (as opposed to forge-welding a steel edge onto an iron body) argues for such an understanding. It is uncertain when this understanding developed. It may have been de veloped as early as the 10th century BC; it was certainly developed by the 4th century B C ' J . It was practised regularly throughout the Middle Ages, and was described around 1100 AD by Theophilus, as an appropriate techniques for small tools, such as files16. It was also suitable for the cutting edges of swords and knives, but less suitable for armour, and is seldom found therein. " Kapp (1987) 65. '- Many such examples of banded steels from Central Europe are illustrated by Plciner (1967, 1975), from Scandinavia by Tomtlund (1973), from Eastern Europe by Gurin (1987) and the British Isles by Tylccote & Gilmour (1984). '■' All of the authors quoted in note 1 - show examples of welded-on steel edges as well as banded microstructures. ''' Varoufakis (1992). Varoufakis suggests that strips of iron and steel were welded back together to make the clamps which bound together the stone blocks of the Parthenon. These clamps do indeed show banded microstructures, but a heterogeneous starting bloom seems an equally plausible reason for them. 1:1 Maddin (1977). Maddin is certain that blacksmiths were intentionally steeling iron by 900 BC; iron objects become very much commoner after then, although the evidence for deliberate quenching" is doubtful. 1(1 Smith (1963). Theophilus wrote in the 12th century a handbook on ecclesiastical metalwork, glassmaking and painting.

8

SECTION ONE

The absorption of carbon in the solid state was very slow, and hence a concentration gradient would be established, and in all but the smallest articles, heating for sufficient time to carburise the centre moderately would carburise the edges excessively (see chapter 1.2 - appendix 3). Alternatively, small pieces of iron could be carburised and then forge-weld ed back together ("piling"). Certainly, it would be a very long time before the production of steel could be anything other than adventitious. The abundance of iron ores, however, meant that iron tools and weapons could be made much more cheaply than those of bronze, and would therefore be available to many more people, once the techniques of smelting and forging were gener ally known. So for many users, stone tools and weapons were succeeded not by bronze but by iron ones, even though those iron tools and weapons were little better, if at all, than those of bronze 17 . Indeed bronze, although much costlier, remained in use alongside iron weapons and armour for many centuries. An analysis of some fragments of Greek bronze armour of the 6th century BC has been published by Smith 18 . The plates consisted of bronzes containing 9% to 11% tin, & very little lead; they had undergone moderate working and then anneal ing, and the average hardness of the flat parts was 155 VPH, comparable to that of a lowcarbon steel, such as that found in most German munition armours of the 16 lh century AD. The Greek hoplites employed both bronze and iron armour but the latter seems to have gradually become more common by the 3rd century. King Philip of Macedon was buried (336 BC) in an iron (or steel) armour, which when excavated was found to be completely mineralised, rendering analysis impossible 19 . Similarly, the Romans continued to use some bronze armour alongside iron armour until at least the 3rd century AD (see chapter 2.2). Iron weapons and armour did not become superior to bronze until the discovery was made that quenching (plunging the red-hot metal into cold water) after carburisation re sulted in a dramatic increase in hardness. The process is a difficult one to manipulate, however, as the hardness is due to the formation of martensite, an excess of which leads to embrittlement. Quenching is mentioned by Homer in perhaps the 10th or 9th century BC 20 and quenched edges have been detected on excavated specimens from the 10th century BC onwards 21 but the difficulty of controlling the carbon content of steel meant that quenching was to remain a hit-and-miss process, and therefore avoided by many smiths, for a long time to come.

17

to to or of

Smith (1972). '" Andronicos (1987) 72, contains an illustration of the iron cuirass now in Museum of Thessalonika. Hl see chapter 2.2. 20 Odyssey, IX, 459. 21 Carpenter & Robinson (1930). They examined a selection of iron objects, dating from around 1200 BC 200 AD. All the specimens consisted of wrought iron carburised to varying extents. The earliest specimen show quenching dated from about 900 BC. Also Williams & Maxwell-Hyslop (1976). Four out of a group of seven tools that might have been Assyrian Roman (but unfortunately can only be dated between 7th and 3rd century BC) showed definite evidence carburising and quenching.

T H E EARLIEST

IRON-MAKING

9

T H E CLASSICAL WORLD

The Roman army initially organised itself on Greek or Macedonian models, but contact with the Celts and the experience of the Punic Wars led them to replace the hoplite's panoply with the Celtic mail shirt, and the long spear suitable for use in a Greek phalanx with two javelins and a short sword (see chapter 2.2). In 225 BC a Roman army fought at the battle of Telamon an army of Celtic Gauls who slashed at the Romans with their long iron swords, which periodically bent and allegedly had to be placed on the ground and straightened by the foot22. These Celtic smiths attempted to overcome the difficulty of carburising iron uniformly by treating only very small pieces, of which several could then be "piled" together, and forged into a sword-blade of fairly heterogeneous composition 2 '. The laminated structure is still visible on the surface, especially after corrosion. Several such weapons have been found, dating back to the 6th century BC, and techniques like piling remained in use for many centuries 24 . A bundle of thin iron rods from a 4th century BC site in Greece is illus trated in Pleiner -3 and two Roman swords in the Warsaw Archaeological Museum showed piled structures but were not quenched2'5. By achieving a more uniform distribution of carbon a steel of moderate hardness was attainable without heat-treatment, which was not gener ally mastered for a long time. Indeed piling was beyond the capabilities of many Celtic smiths who simply made swords out of wrought iron 27 , but it was a feature of blacksmiths' work throughout the Migration Period and Early Middle Ages in Europe. The later technique known as "pattern-welding" or "false Damascus" grew out of piling (see chapter 1.2 on swords). The distinctive contribution of Celtic smiths to armour was the development of mail (see chapter 2.1). References Andronicos, M. "Vergina; the Royal tombs" (Thessalonica, 1987) Biborski, M. Kaczanowski,P. Kedzierski,Z. StepinskiJ. "Metallographic analysis of two Roman swords from the State Archaeological Museum, Warsaw" Wiadomosci Archeologicznc (1982) 47, 15. Carpenter, H. Robinson.J.M. "The metallography of some Ancient Egyptian implements" Journal of the Iron & Steel Institute (1930) 417. Cleere, H. & Scott, B.(eds) T h e Crafts of the Blacksmith, (Belfast, 1987) Coghlan, H.H. "Notes on Prehistoric and Early Iron in the Old World" (Oxford, 1956) Forbes, R.J. "Studies in ancient technology" (Leiden, 1964). Gurin, M. "Kuznechnoi Remeslo Polotskoy Zemly 9-13c." (Blacksmiths' crafts in the Polotsk lands) (Minsk, 1987) includes 32 pp of plates. Kapp, L. Kapp. H. & Yoshihara, Y. "The craft of the Japanese sword" (Tokyo, 1987).

'-- Polybius, "Histories" (Loeb trans.1,321); his evidence and whether he exaggerated it is discussed at length in Pleiner "The Celtic sword" (1993) 157-164. -'' Rcggieri & Garino (1955) discuss some piled Gallic swords from Lombardy. 24 Coghlan (1956) plate III, shows a spearhead from Syria 600 BC, with a piled microstructure. And Panseri (1965); see - above, and chapter 1.2 for reference. 25 Pleiner (1969) Fig.6. 26 Biborski et al.(1982). -' Pleiner (1993) passim; and chapter 1.2.

10

SECTION ONE

Macldin.R. M u h l y J . D . Wheeler,'!'.S. "How the Iron Age began" Scientific American, 237 (1977) 122-131. Maclclin, R. with Curtis, J . E . Wheeler, T.S. & Muhly, J . D . "Nco-Assyrian ironworking technology" Pro ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 123 (Philadelphia, 1979) 369-390. Panseri, C, "Dam ascus steel in legend and in reality" Gladius, 4 (Caceres, 1965) 5-66. Pleincr, R. "Die Technologic des Schmiedcs in der Grossmahrischen Kultur" Slovenska Archeologia, 15 (Bratislava, 1967) 77- 'l88. Pleincr, R."Iron Working in Ancient Greece" (Prague, National Technical Museum, 1969). Pleincr, R. BjorkmanJ.K. "The Assyrian Iron Age" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 118 (Philadelphia, 1974) 283-313. Pleiner, R. "Eisenschmiede in fruhmiltclalterlichen Zentraleuropa" Fruhmittclallerlichen Studien, 9 (Berlin, 1975) 79-92. Pleiner, R. T h e Celtic Sword (Oxford, 1993). Reggieri, A. Garino, C. "Esame tecnologico di un gruppo di spade galliche della lombardia nord-occidentalc", Sibrium, 2 (Varese, 1955) 44-55. Smith, C.S. Hawthorne, J.G, transl. & ed. Theophilus Presbyter "On divers arts" (New York, 1963). Smith, C.S. "The techniques of the Luristan smith" in R.H.Brill, ed. Science and Archaeology (Atlantic City, 1 968). Smith, C.S. "Mctallographic examination of some fragments of Cretan bronze armor from Afrali" Appendix III in "Early Cretan Armorers" ed. H.Hoffmann, Fogg Art Museum (Cambridge, Mass. 1972) 54. Snodgrass, A.M. "Arms and armour of the Greeks" (1967) 84. Snoclgrass, A.M."The first European body-armour" in The European Community in Later Prehistory, Boardman, j . Brown, M.A. & Powell, T.G.E. eds. (1971) 33-50 and pi. 1-5. Tomtlund, J.E. "Mctallographic examination of 13 knives from Helg"" Early Medieval Studies, 5 (Lund, 1973) 42 - 63. Tylecote, R.F. Lupu, A. Rothenbcrg, B. "Early copper-smelting sites in Israel" Journal of the Institute of Metals (1967) 95, 235. Tylecote, R.F & Gilmour, B J . "The metallography of early ferrous edged tools and weapons" (Oxford, 1986) British Archaeological Reports, 155. Tylecote, R.F. "The early history of metallurgy in Europe" (Lon don, 1987) Wainwright, G.A. "The coming of iron" Antiquity, 10, (1937) 5. Ward, H.D. "Best Yorkshire" Journal of the Iron & Steel Institute (1972) 396. Wertime, T. & Muhly, J. (eds) "The coming of the age of iron" (New Haven, 1980). Williams, A.R. Maxwell-Hyslop,K.R. "Ancient steel from Egypt" Journal of Archaeological Science, 3 (1976) 283. Wagner, D. "Iron and steel in Ancient China" (Leiden, 1993). Varoufakis, G. "The iron clamps and dowels from the Parthenon and Erechthion" Historical Metallurgy, 26 (1992) 1-18.

CHAPTER 1.2 SWORDS

This book is primarily about the making of armour, but since the technology of swordmaking is closely related, it may be appropriate to summarise that technology briefly. Pleiner has written the most detailed book yet about Celtic swords'. These, the first iron swords in Europe, were often made out of several pieces of iron and steel forged together, although seldom quenched. He summarises the analyses of 119 Celtic swords from sites all over Western and Cen tral Europe, of which 59 were examined in section. Of these 21 were made merely of iron or low-carbon (< 0.3%C) steels. All but 3 of these were made of several pieces of metal forged together. Another 38 contained some layers of steel of higher carbon content (< 0.8%C) out of which: 12 had one hard edge—6 of these were carburised single-piece swords; 26 had two hard edges—4 were made of single pieces. Out of these 38 that were hardenable, only one is described as having a martensitic ("fullyquenched") microstructure; at least 4 others had undergone some sort of accelerated cool ing, short of a full quench ("slack-quenched"), to increase their hardness to around 300400 VPH. Another 23 were examined in only one cutting edge and 18 of those were made merely of iron or low-carbon (-^000«303'~lMNlvl-4slM^Ô)010)OiOiUiOiUiUiUiOiOiÔ)UOOOOO(OlOCO!»-JMMffi^ OOOiOOOOC-nCjnaiOOOOOOOiCnOOOOOOOOOOOOnOOOOOOOOOUiOOOOO

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66

SECTION F O U R

The museums and collections where these armours are to be found are listed in chapters 4.3 and 4.5. where the metallography is described in detail. The dating is generally ap proximate. Out of the 45 specimens in this section 5 were made of iron 21 were made of low-carbon steel 19 were made of medium-carbon steel 33 were apparently unhardened 5 were partially hardened by an attempt at heat-treatment 7 were hardened by a successful heat-treatment (27% heat-treated and 16% hardened) The metallography of a large number of specimens of Italian armour shows that gener al conclusions can be drawn about the material that was used and the extent to which ar mourers heat-treated their products to harden them. A r m o u r (with or w i t h o u t m a r k s ) i s a l m o s t a l w a y s m a d e of s t e e l i n 15th c e n t u r y Italy, and in just over half of the marked examples studied here, it is a mediumcarbon steel. In around two-thirds of the marked examples, some attempt has been made to harden them by heat-treatment, which has been successful in around one-third of all cases. Armour bearing an armourer's mark (Group A (i) here) is of a decidedly better quality than armour without such a mark. 45 out of 72 m a r k e d a r m o u r s w e r e h a r d e n e d , c o m p a r e d w i t h only 12 out of 45 u n m a r k e d . It was suggested some years ago by Buttin that the use of multiple marks was an indi cation of the protection offered. There is no correlation between the number of marks and the quality of the metal, as perusal of the tabulated results will show. There is however a distinct correlation between its quality and the presence of a mark or marks. Evidently a mark indicated that an armour was worth paying a higher price for, as it would offer the customer better protection. The number of marks seems only to reflect workshop practice. Study of the 9 components of the "AVANT" armour from the Corio workshop suggests that heat-treatment was carried out as almost the last operation, as all the components made by different sub-contractors show the same heat-treatment. Variations in the outcome arc due to variations in the carbon content of the steel. The method of heat-treatment is gen erally slack-quenching; this is discussed in more detail in section 8. Armour without marks, but of Italian provenance (Group A section (ii)) is made of steel, but usually of lower carbon content. Indeed that proportion which was made of mediumcarbon steel is somewhat less than half. It is, however, seldom hardened by any form of heat-treatment (and those which were hardened may have had marks which are now obscured). A group of infantry armours, some of which carry marks, is included in this category.

THE FLOURISHING OF AN INDUSTRY

67

It is clear then that the mark was the sign of a higher-quality armour, which the cus tomer would have expected to have been made of a harder steel. The different metal used for that category of armour (without marks, but of Italian form) might be thought to cast doubt upon its Italian origin. But not all Italian armour was necessarily made of the best metal available. If the form, and provenance, suggest an Ital ian origin, it is quite plausible that armour made of poorer metal had been identified as such by its maker, and sold unmarked, at a lower price.

CHAPTER 4.3

T H E METALLURGY OF ITALIAN ARMOUR BEFORE

1510

The armour is divided into two sections as follows: A Metallography of Italian armour before the introduction of etching and gilding. All of these specimens are described here, in chapter 4.3. B Metallography of Italian armour after the introduction of etching; all specimens of armour with etching & gilding (even in small amounts) are described in chapter 4.5. Section A is then subdivided as follows: Group A (i) armour with a maker's mark. Group A (ii) armour without a maker's mark, but thought to be of Italian origin. A (ii) may be further subdivided into A (ha) armour in Italian collections, which may be reasonably presumed to be of Italian origin, and A (iib) armour in other museums, which is attributable to Italy only on the grounds of form. Section B is subdivided as follows: Group B (i) armour with a maker's mark, decorated by gilding. Group B (ii) armour without a maker's mark, decorated by gilding. Group B (hi) plain armours without gilded decoration (generally for field use) which might be considered as an extension of group A (ii) Since very little gilded armour carries a maker's mark, although some examples are signed, there is only a very small group B (i). The patterns of etching employed can frequently enable the identification of unsigned Italian armours. Group B Group B spread. Group B Group B

(ii) may be subdivided into; (iia) after etching was introduced, but before embossed decoration became wide (iib) embossed armour made by the Negrolis and their rivals. (iic) armour decorated by etching and gilding, but with little or no embossing.

T H E METALLURGY O F ITALIAN A R M O U R

69

Group A (i) North Italian

marked armour

The visor of a hounskull bascinet, belonging to a Vogt of Matsch. Churburg 13.

Ferrite and carbides X 50

The microstructure consists of ferrite grains with a very small quantity of carbides in a form difficult to resolve. The microhardness varies from 110 to 236; average = 180 VPH. The carbon content is less than 0.1% but the relatively high hardness suggests that an attempt might have been made to harden it by quenching, and there fore some age-hardening has perhaps taken place. (Honeycombe, 1981, p.7) letter P (?) 1360-70

70

SECTION F O U R

This was dated to 1370 by Boccia, but earlier by Scalini, who has suggested that it was a composite of two armours, belonging to Ulrich IV Matsch, and dating from 1361 and 1366. The greaves of the earlier armour bear the mark of master I O and are now in England (RA 11.168). The breastplate bears the mark of master P. There is an indistinct mark on the bascinet itself. A sample was taken from the inside of the visor (which Scalini has sug gested may not belong to the skull). This type of helmet was formerly often described by collectors as a "pig-faced bascinet". Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp

THE METALLURGY OF ITALIAN ARMOUR

71

letters IO c.1385 Greaves bearing the mark (single) of master IO. Royal Armouries, Leeds. 11.168 (part)

Section X 30

Carbide particles in a ferrite matrix, with a small slag inclusion X 320

One of several parts originally from Churburg, and formerly displayed as a composite armour in the Tower of London. See p. 122. A greave was examined in cross-section, and the microstructure resembles an overtempered martensite. The microstructure consists of carbide globules and ferrite with few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heattreatment. It is possible that it was quenched and then overtempered.

72

SECTION F O U R

A star (single mark). Late 14,h century (Scalini dates this to 1385). A hounskull bascinet.

Churburg 16

Ferrite grains outlined by areas of irresolvable carbides X 50

A sample was detached from the inside of the skull. The microstructure consists of ferrite and carbides with few slag inclusions. The carbon content appears to be around 0.1%, which coupled with its hardness, suggests that this is not a simple air-cooled ferrite-pearlite lowcarbon steel, but one which may have undergone some form of heat-treatment to harden it. The microhardness (average) = 202 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


73

letter R 1390-1400 A breastplate (from Hohenaschau) made in one piece, and covered in red velvet, with the (single) mark of a crowned R, from the late 14th century. Boccia dates this to 1400 and tentatively suggests a connection with the ducal armourer Jacomino Ravizza, active in 1425. Bavarian National Museum, Munich.inv.no.W. 195.

Very fine pearlite and marlensite X 70

The microstructure consists of very fine (almost irresolvable) pearlite and an acicular material (bainite or perhaps low-carbon martensitc) with very little ferrite and a few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 330 to 452; average = 374 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C)which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, apparently a slack-quench. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Bavarian National Museum, Munich

74

letter A c.1400

SECTION FOUR

(on skull and visor, each twice)

A hounskull bascinet, dating from around 1400, and now in the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna. A. 12.


A sample was taken from inside the bascinet skull. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions, corresponding to an air-cooled steel of around 0.1% carbon. The microhardness (average) = 154 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna


A hand blessing (once) c.1435 An armet, originally from Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries. Leeds. IV.430 (Karcheski & Richardson, 1) This mark has been attributed to Benedetto da Molteno.

Martensite, pearlite and ferrite X 80

Martensite with much less nodular pearlite and ferrite (a higher-carbon area) X 320

75

76

SECTION F O U R

The microstructure consists of martcnsite, with nodular pcarlitc and ferrite with very few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies, with carbon content, from 306 to 519; average = 395 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.5%C overall) which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, probably a slack-quench. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

T H E METALLURGY OF ITALIAN A R M O U R

77

letters B* c.1440 A pauldron, originally from Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1123. (Karcheski & Richardson, 94) The letter B with another illegible letter is stamped once near the stop-rib (similar to the mark BE ascribed to Bellino Corio).

Peaihte and ferrite X 50 Notice the conosion ciacks which have opened up down the centre of the plate.

The edge of the pauldron rim was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

78

SECTION F O U R

letters A* / orb (twice) 1440-60 The mainplate of a wrapper, originally from Rhodes and now in the Museum of St.John, Clerkenwell. 2643. (Karcheski & Richardson, 3)

There are two marks together, each of which might be an A within an orb or indeed two conjoined letters within an orb. A sample was detached from the inside; the microstructure consists of martensite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies up to 204 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been heat-treated to harden it; apparently by a fullquenching.


79

letters I , ZA, A, BE, B, dAs, G A I c.1440

An armour, formerly at Churburg (known as C H 20) and now at Glasgow City Museum & Art Gallery, 39-65e. Dated to 1440 by Boccia. Because of an engraved motto, this is sometimes known as the "AVANT" armour. It bears seven types of mark (51 marks in all) in different locations. These have been identified by Boccia as follows:

80 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

SECTION F O U R

ascribed to Giovanni (=Iohan) Corio crowned I ascribed to Giovanni (=Zoan) Corio ZA crowned A. ascribed to Ambrogio Corio crowned BE ascribed to Bellino Corio B ascribed to Bellino Corio d s below split cross ascribed to Dionisio Corio GI below cross ascribed to Giovanni da Garavalle

The group 1-2-1 is found on the breast & backplates; 3 is found twice on the fauld plates (not examined); the group 4-5 on the pauldrons and 4-5-5 on the buffe; 6 twice on the vambraces and their reinforces; 7 twice on the greaves and cuisses. An associated gauntlet was also examined (see below) Photograph © Glasgow Museums: Art Gallery & Museum, Kelvingrove


81

ZA (Giovanni Corio) breastplate

Section X 40

Martensite and ferrite Martensite and more ferrite (in a lower(in a higher-carbon carbon area) X 160 area) X 160

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of martensite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.4%C overall)which has been hardened by some form of quenching. There is a central band of lower carbon con tent. BE, B (Bellino Corio) right pauldron

Cross-section X 30

82

SECTION FOUR

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of pearlite and some car bide globules with few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel rather high in car bon (perhaps 0.7%C) which has perhaps been found too hard, and therefore annealed to some time to soften it; or it has been very slowly cooled after fabrication.


83

BE, B left pauldron


This was examined in cross-section on the rim of the inner edge. The microstructure con sists mostly of ferrite and small areas of carbides with some elongated slag inclusions. This appears to be a low-carbon steel (around 0.1 %C) which may have undergone some form of quenching in an attempt to harden it. BE reinforce for the left pauldron

Section X 40

Martcnsite with nodular pearlite and ferrite X 320

This was examined in cross-section on the lower edge at the front. The microstructure consists of martensite and ferrite especially in a central band, with some elongated slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment.

84

SECTION F O U R

dAs (Dionisio Corio) reinforce for the left elbow

Section X 40

Martensite, nodular Pear lite and ferrite in a lowercarbon area X 160

Martensite and a little fer rite in a higher-carbon area X 160

This was examined in cross-section on the lower rim. The microstructure consists of mar tensite, nodular pearlite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. dAs (Corio) left vambrace

Section X 60 martensite and feinte

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of martensite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment.


85

dAs (Corio) right vambrace

Section X 80 martensite and ferrite

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of martensite and a little ferrite with some elongated slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%G) which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment.

86

SECTION F O U R

G I left cuissc

(back plate)

Section X 25

Ferritc and martensite X 160

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of bands of martensite and ferritc with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (perhaps 0.4%) steel which has been hardened by some form of quenching.

T H E M E T A L L U R G Y O F ITALIAN A R M O U R

G A I (Garavalle) left greave

Section X 30

Martensite X 160

This was examined in cross-section on the side edge. The microstructure consists of mar tensite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.5%C) which has been hardened by some form of quenching.

88

SECTION FOUR

letter R 1440-50 A sallet from Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds.IV.5. The mark is ascribed by Boccia to Jacomino Ravizza (1982, p.289). (Karcheski & Rich ardson, 10)

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and areas of a material difficult to resolve but appar ently consisting of granular carbides, with few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (around 0.3%C) steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment.

Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

T H E METALLURGY O F ITALIAN ARMOUR

89

letters AN below a bugle (twice) This mark [ascribed to Antonio Missaglia] is marked twice, on either side of the middle of the tasset. c.1450 Churburg 19.

90

SECTION F O U R

Pearlite and ferrite X 160

Section X 40


Tasset from an armour of Ulrich IX von Matsch, now at Churburg, dated to 1450 by Scalini. The rim was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite (rather granular in places) with a few slag inclusions. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


91

letters GP in a group of three marks c.1450 An armet now in the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome, inv.no.ll.

Martensite, bainite, ferrite and slag X 50

An acicular material (perhaps bainite) and martensite X 200.

A specimen from the right lower chin plate was examined. The microstructure consists of martensite and an acicular material (bainite ?) with some ferrite and rows of slag inclu sions. The microhardness (average) = 215 VPH. This is a low-carbon (perhaps 0.2% or 0.3%C) steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. Photograph reproduced by permission of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome.

92

SECTION F O U R

letters INOSENS , & crowned y (Single marks) The marks have been identified as those of Pier Innocenzo da Facrno. c.1450 A horse armour made about 1450 (the earliest still in existence) and now in the Museum of the City of Vienna, no.127.151-3

shaffron - (top plate) ferrite and pearlite X


peytral (left of middle plate) ferrite and pearlite X 80

93

peytral (right side plate) ferrite and carbides X 320

Shaffron 127.151 A plate from the top of the head was examined in cross-section (shown here). The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. Another plate from the left side was also examined, and found to have a very similar microstructure. The microhardness ranges from 199- 236 VPH. Peytral 127.153 A plate from the middle on the left side was examined in cross-section (shown here). The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. Another sample from the right side has a similar microstructure. The microhardness ranges from 199-252 VPH. A plate from the right side of the peytral was examined on its hidden edge (shown here). The microstructure consists of ferrite and carbides (perhaps bainite ?) with a few slag in clusions. The microhardness ranges from 214 to 286 VPH. This horse armour is made of a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which in parts has un dergone some form of heat-treatment to harden it. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Museum of the City of Vienna

94

SECTION F O U R

letters INOSENS A shaffron belonging to Ulrich IX Matsch, dated by Scalini to 1450. Boccia, 1982, p.281-2, summarises our knowledge about these marks, and identifies Inosens with Pier Innocenzo da Faerno. c.1450 Churburg 67

Ferrite & martensite X 80

Ferrite, martensite, and some pearlilc (lighter areas) X 320

A sample was taken from the inside. The microstructure consists of ferrite and martensite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 279 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3%C) which has undergone some form of quenching to harden it. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


letters y and AN (twice) 1451

Bainite or martensite and ferrite X 500. (left cuisse)

95

96

SECTION F O U R

The armour of Pfalzgraf Friedrich, now in the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna (A. 2) and thought to date from 1451, which is the date at which Friedrich became Pfalzgraf or Palatine Count. This bears various marks : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

crowned m y (Tommaso Missaglia) m below a split cross (Tommaso Missaglia) crowned (coronet ?) y (Pier Innocenzo) crowned (coronet ?) AN (Antonio Missaglia) crowned SE (Antonio Seroni) AN below a split cross (Antonio Missaglia)

1 and 2 twice are to be found on the great bascinet. 1 and 2 are also to be found on the visor, bevor and gorget. The group 3 and 4 twice are to be found on the breast-, backplates and cuisses. 4 twice is to be found on the tassets, greaves, upper vambraces and elbows. 5 and 6 are to be found on the gauntlet cuffs. Thomas & Gamber (1976, p.58) suggested that this showed that the work was divided up within the workshop as follows: Tommaso (the boss) made the great helm and elongated shoes. His son, Antonio, made the arms and greaves. The cuirass and cuisses by Antonio Missaglia and Innocenzo. The gauntlets probably by Antonio Seroni, who possessed his own workshop. A sample was taken from inside the left cuisse; the microstructure consists mostly of an acicular material (which might be bainite or even low-carbon martensite) together with, in places, ferrite and globular carbides with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 226 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.2%C) which has been hardened by some form of quenching. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna


97

STA (twice, at least) c.1450 A bevor now in the Royal Armoury, Turin; catalogue 60 (inv.no.E132) and dated to 1450 by Boccia.


There are 3 marks; an illegible crowned monogram above and STA below a split cross (twice). This has been suggested as perhaps the mark of Sebastiano Missaglia. A sample was taken from the inside. The microstructure consists of ferrite and rather di vorced pearlite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 145 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

98

SECTION F O U R

letters m y and m below a split cross c.1450 A right gauntlet associated with AVANT armour in Glasgow. no.39-65e.

Section; pearlite and ferrite X 80

According to Boccia, (1982) 290, this was the mark of Tommaso Missaglia before 1450. This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (around 0.5%C) steel which has been aircooled after fabrication.


m below a split cross (Tommaso Missaglia) c.1450 A barbuta associated with the armour (Churburg 21) belonging to Galeazzo d'Arco.

99

SECTION F O U R

Martensite and spiny ferrite X 400

Martensite, nodular pearlite and ferrite X 800

Martensite, nodular pearlite and ferrite (perhaps an area lower in carbon) X 200

The microstructure consists of martensite, nodular pearlite and ferrite with a few slag in clusions. The microhardness ranges from 202 (ferrite) to 565 (martensite); average = 344 VPH. This is a medium-carbon (around 0.5%C overall) steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, probably a slack-quench. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


crowned I (twice) 1445-50 An armet, formerly in Churburg, but now m the Royal Armouries, Leeds IV 498 This was dated to 1445-50 by Scalini (1996, p. 76).

Visor section X 40

Ferrite, martensile and carbides X 240.

101

102

SECTION FOUR

The visor was examined in cross-section; the microstructurc consists of ferrite, martensite and nodular pcarlitc with few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (perhaps 0.3%C) steel which has been hardened by some form of quenching. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries


103

crowned M c.1450 A gorget originally from Churburg (formerly part of Churburg 23), and with other parts assembled as a composite armour in the Tower of London, now Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.168 (part). The mark is ascribed by Boccia to the Da Meratc workshop (1982, p.285).

Gorget Section X 30

Martensite and ferrite. Note the elongated slag inclusions. X 240

The microstructure consists of tempered martensite and fcrrite with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened, apparently by quenching and tempering. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

104

SECTION FOUR

crossed keys c.1450 This mark is ascribed to Giovanni dei Barini, detto Negroli, by Boccia (1982, p.282-291) An upper bevor (shown mounted with the gorget discussed above) was among the parts originally from Churburg, and formerly assembled as a composite armour in the Tower of London, now Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.168 (part). See p. 122 also.

Section X 30

Granular carbides, (including tempered martensite ?), and some ferrite X 160

The microstructure consists of tempered martensite, proeutectoid ferrite and a granular material which might be reheated bainite or pearlite with very few slag inclusions. This is a heterogeneous steel which seems to have been hardened by slack-quenching followed by tempering.


105

crossed-keys 1450-60 A breastplate which is part of a composite armour in the Higgins Armory Museum, inv.no.2607. dated generally 1450-60

Ferrite, a little pearlite, and slag X 50

This was examined inside the turned edge of the left arm opening. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlite with some slag inclusions. This specimen is a lowcarbon (0.1 %C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The surface hardness varies from 230 to 320 VPH, suggesting that this was a very heterogeneous steel.

Photograph reproduced by permission of the Higgins Armory Museum, Worcester, Mass.

106

SECTION F O U R

crowned M (twice) & M below a cross (twice) c.1450 A visored or "Burgundian" sallet; Churburg 23. (Scalini numbers this C H 19, 1996, p.79)

Fei'rile and Pearlite X 80

The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 251 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.6%C) which has been aircooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


107

m y crowned; m below a split cross (twice) 1450-60 A barbuta now in the Chicago Institute of Art, no.2449.

Martensite and carbides X 80

The microstructure consists of martensite, bainite (?) and ferrite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness ranges from 292 to 363; average = 331 VPH. The surface hardness overall varies between 208 and 350 VPH. This is a rnedium-carbon (the carbon content evidently varies between around 0.3% and 0.5%) steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, probably a slackquench. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Chicago Institute of Art

108

SECTION F O U R

letter P beneath a split double-cross master Pictro Vimcrcati of Brescia. 1450-60

The mark is ascribed by Scalini (1996, p.269) to the

A gorget plate, perhaps for a tournament bascinct. Churburg 56.

The microstructurc consists of martensite only with very few slag inclusions. Some cracks (quenching cracks ?) are visible on the surface. The microhardness is unusually high, averaging 690 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.6% - 0.7%C) which has been fully hardened (indeed, over-hardened) by quenching. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


109

crowned UA above, AM beneath a split cross (twice) These marks are tentatively ascribed to Antomo Missagha and Ambrogio Varcdo in the Catalogue (no 63) 1450-70 6 v • ;• A barbuta now in the Royal Armoury, Turin (inv.E9) dating from around 1450-70 and resembling m both form and metallurgy another in the Wallace Collection (A78) London.

Ferrite and slaer X 40

The microstructure consists of ferrite only with some slag inclusions. This is, unusually, Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

iron.

110

SECTION F O U R

1450-70 The master-mark I O is very doubtfully ascribed (cat.61) to o n e j o r i of Brescia. letters I O beneath a split cross (twice) A barbuta now in the Royal Armoury, Turin, inv.E.8.

Ferrite and pearlitic areas X 200

The microstructure consists of ferrite and isolated areas of pearlite with a few slag inclu sions. The microhardness varies from 161 to 242 VPH . This is a low-carbon (perhaps 0.2%C overall) steel. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin


111

letters GV below a split cross (twice) and crowned GV (once) c.1460 This sallet was formerly at Churburg (Churburg 61) and was later displayed in the Tower of London as part of a composite armour, but is now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds, II. 168 (part). The mark was ascribed by Boccia (1982, p.284) to Giano Vimercati, Brescia.

Fen ite and mailensite/bamitc X 200

Section X 40

The n m of the sallet behind the visor was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and an acicular material which might be bainite or low-carbon martensite with few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of quenching. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

112

SECTION F O U R

letters GV (?) 1450-60 A backplate now part of a composite armour (shown above on p. 101) in the Higgins Ar mory Museum, inv.no.2607

Ferrite, pearlite and slag X 100

This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite (around 0.1 %C) with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 157 VPH.


1 13

letters BA below the sign for a contraction, (twice) 1450-70 A barbuta now in the Royal Armoury, Turin. inv.no.E7.

The mark is doubtfully attributed to one of the Bandini of Carenno (polishers at Brescia) in the catalogue (cat.62) and the helmet is also said to resemble in shape Wallace A.74, which it does metallurgically. The microstructure consists of ferrite only with some slag inclusions. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

114

SECTION F O U R

cinquefoil 1450-60 It has been suggested that the cinquefoil was perhaps a Florentine mark; see Scalini - Diani Armi,(luglio,1983) p.28. A barbuta now in the German National Museum, Nurnberg. inv.no.W. 1272.

I c m U and d u o u i d ptaihtc X 80

Largely divorced pearlite X 320

The microstrueture consists of ferrite and carbide globules with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 172 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been very slow ly cooled (annealed)after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the German National Museum, Nurnberg


115

cinquefoil c.1470 A barbuta Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, inv.no.Ml/5 - 1936

Ferrite and pearlite X 60

A specimen was taken from inside the skull. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with a few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3%C) which has been aircooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 170 V P H . Photograph reproduced by permission of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cam bridge

116

SECTION F O U R

letters IdB beneath a split cross (twice) & a cow's head c.1460 A barbuta now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. IV. 17 These marks have been ascribed to a member of the de Bovis family of Brescia, or alter natively to the Milanese Jacopo da Cannobio detto Bichignola active in 1472 (Rossi & Carpegna, 1969, p.43).

Ferrite and pearlite X 60.

The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 160 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries


117

letters BE & other marks A barbuta (not illustrated) made in the middle of the 15th century, from Ferdinandeum Museum, Innsbruck, and now in store at Ambras, inv.no. 1999-33.


The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon steel (around 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 250 VPH.

118

SECTION F O U R

BG below a split cross (twice) below S Boccia tentatively ascribed these marks to master Biagio (for) Giovanni Spanzotti, although it has also been suggested that they belonged to Stefano & Biagio Vimercati (Boccia(1982) p.284, and also seeVigs.97-108). 1460-65 The backplatc from an incomplete armour, now in the Civic Museum of Le Landeron, Switzerland, inv.no. HV 837-840

(right pauldron) carbides and spiny fcrrite X 120

The microstructure consists of carbides (containing pearlite as well as other, irresolvable carbides) and ferritc with some slag inclusions. The microhardness ranges from 232 to 279; average = 251 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3% to 0.4%C) which has undergone some sort of hcattreatment after fabrication. A specimen from the top plate of the back showed a similar microstructure with a lower carbon content.


1 19

The third plate from the top of the right pauldron was also examined. The microstructure consists of areas of irresolvable carbides and fcrrite, some in a spiny form, with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 193 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has undergone some sort of heat-treatment after fabrication. Photographs reproduced by permission of the Fondation clc I'Hotel clc Ville du Landeron

120

SECTION F O U R

G below a split cross (twice) below a crown Ascribed to Cattanco Gattanci by Boccia (1982, p.291 and plates 120-1) c.1470 The left vambracc of a pair, now in the Civic Museum of Lc Landeron, Switzerland, inv.no. HV 842-3.

The microstructure consists of ferrite, some in a spiny form, very fine pearlite and some martensite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 210 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has undergone some form of heat-treat ment after fabrication.


121

Single crowned I c.1470 The mark is not necessarily the same I mark as that found on the much earlier "Avant" armour; it has been tentatively ascribed to Giovanni Antonio delle Fibbic (Boccia 1982, p.286). A backplate from Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1093 (Karcheski & Richardson, 57)

Pearlite, martensite and ferritc X 240

The microstructure consists of pearlite, martensite and a little ferrite with very few slag inclusions, (and see p. 20) The microhardness ranges from 248 to 447; average = 341 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, probably a slack-quench. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

122

SECTION F O U R

letters Z O below a split cross (twice) & Z O crowned (single) The marks Z O have been tentatively ascribed to master Giovan Antonio da Lurano of Brescia (Scalini, 1996 p.79). c.1470 A breastplate formerly in Churburg (39), and later assembled as part of a composite ar mour in the Tower of London, now in Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.168 (part).

Breastplate section; martensite and nodular pearlite X 40

Granular carbides X 800


123

This was examined on the left side edge of the upper part. The microstructurc consists of martensite, nodular pearlitc and very fine pcarlite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, apparently a slack-quench. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

124

SECTION F O U R

letter Z below a split cross (twice) & FARE crowned These marks are ascribed to Zanetto Ferrari, a Milanese armourer later active in Brescia (see Boccia, 1982, p.291). c.1470 An infantry breastplate formerly at Churburg, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1282a

Pearlite and ferrite (section) X 45

This was examined on the rim of the right side edge in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, very granular in places, with a few slag inclusions. This is on average a medium-carbon (there is a band of around 0.2%C and another of around 0.6%C) steel which has been apparently been air-cooled after fabrica tion. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries


125

letter Z below a split cross (twice) & FARE crowned c.1470. An infantry breastplate made in 2 parts (with an embossed face on lower half), Churburg, no.37.

Ferrite and pearlite X 100.

The microstructure consists of ferrite and areas of what appears to be pearlite, but is irre solvable in places, with some slag inclusions. This is a steel of variable carbon content which has b een probably been given a fast air-cool after fabrication. The microhardness varies (with carbon content) from 189 to 277; average = 242 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp

126

SECTION F O U R

letter Z below a split cross (twice) & FARE crowned c.1470 An infantry breastplate made in 2 parts, Churburg 38. see Scalini (1996) p.267

Section X 40 note the corrosion crack

Ferrite and a band of pearlite (granular in places) X 320

Granular carbides and ferrite X 960

This was examined (in section) on the right side edge of the upper breastplate. The microstructure consists of ferrite containing a band of higher carbon content. At higher magnification, this band appears to contain a granular material as well as pearlite. There


127

is also a line of slag inclusions, which has opened up into a corrosion crack. This appears to be a low-carbon steel that may have undergone some form of heat-treatment after fab rication. The microhardness ranges from 208 to 241; average = 218 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp

128

SECTION F O U R

letters IA below a split cross (single) The mark has been tentatively ascribed to lacopino Ferrari of Brescia (see Scalini (1996) 266). (a possible second mark is obscured) An infantry breastplate made in 2 parts, Churburg 34.

Ferrite, grain-boundary pearlite, and slag X 80

A sample was detached from inside. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlite with numerous slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.1 %C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 1 1 3 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp


129

IA below a split cross (twice) c.1470 Churburg 33.

(lower part) Martensite and ferrite X 160.

A 2-part breastplate. The lower part seems to have been adapted from an infantry breast plate of around 1470. The microstructure consists of ferrite and bainite or low-carbon martensite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 250 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by quenching. Whatever heat-treat ment this has received has also concealed the previous history of the upper part. Upper part: The microstructure consists of martensite within a ferrite network. The mi crohardness varies between 294 and 319; average = 302 VPH. Scalini (p.69, 265) suggested that this two-part breastplate (Churburg 33) was made up of two quite disparate halves. The upper half (which he dates to c.1385) had had a formerly attached stop-rib removed, and two (separated) earlier marks of an orb overstruck by an other, later, master IA. The lower half of the breastplate was sylistically similar to infantry breastplates made by Brescian masters c.1470, and the later marks attributed to Iacopino Ferrari. Both parts were made of steel, and both were hardened but of course this may simply reflect the procedures of the later armourer, since traces of any first heat-treatment would have been obscured by a second. Therefore this breastplate has been discussed only as a work ofcl470. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp

130

SECTION FOUR

letters BE (?) crowned (single) above & letters A above AP below a split cross (twice) 1470-80 Sallet. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1904 (04.3.230).

Acicular carbides and ferrite X 1 00

A specimen from inside the helmet was examined. The microstructure consists of a ferrite network outlining large areas of an acicular material, which is difficult to characterise, and with few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 230 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel upon which some form of heat-treatment has been attempted. Pyhrr (2000) 8. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,


131

letters GS below a split cross (twice) & crowned S Boccia (1982) 287 ascribed these marks to Giovanni Salimbcnc (d. 1487). c.1480 An armct now in the Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv.no.3880. (not illustrated)

A specimen was taken from inside the skull, near a rivet hole. The microstructure consists of tempered martensite and carbides with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 473 to 566 (average) = 519 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, apparently a full-quenching.

132

SECTION F O U R

letters BE below a split cross (twice) & BE crowned c.1485 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A.3.

The armour of Roberto da Sanseverino (d. 1487) which bears these marks, BE crowned and BE below a split cross (twice) on the right cuisse as well as numerous other marks (GA on breast and culet, S & GS on back, FARE and Z on tassets, my and m on left, pd? on right greave). BE is ascribed to Bernadino da Carnago by Boccia (1982, p.286-87), and GA to his broth er Giovan Pietro; they worked with Giovanni Salimbeni whose marks are thought to have been S and GS.


133

The top plate of the right cuissc was examined in section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and an acicular material which might be low-carbon martensite, or perhaps bainite, with some slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 232 to 355 ; average = 294 VPH. The inner plate of the left lower vambrace (within the cowter) was also examined in sec tion. The microstructure consists of ferrite and areas of carbides, which might be pearlitc, but are irresolvable, with some slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 162 to 275 VPH. This was made from a heterogeneous steel which the makers have attempted to harden by some form of accelerated cooling, probably slack-quenching. Photograph reproduced by permission of Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna

134

SECTION F O U R

letters PZA crowned, P beneath a split cross (twice) 1480-90 An infantry breastplate made in two parts in North Italy "alia tede sea Royal Armoury, Turin; cat. no. 3.

/

V

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* v.

-J

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■«' -ryA <Jg '. -■ Fcrrilc, globular cementite and slag X 50

A specimen was examined from within the breastplate. The microstructure consists of ferrite and entirely divorced pearlitc with some irregular slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has been very slowly cooled after fabrication (perhaps annealed after a repair). Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin


crossed-keys below a crown p. 291). 1490-1500

135

This mark is attributed to Domenico Negroli (Boccia, 1982,

A sallet originally from Rhodes, now in Royal Armouries, Leeds.IV.424


The edge has a brass border riveted to it. It proved possible to examine the armour in section without removing the border. The microstructure consists of coarse pearlite and a little ferrite with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (0.4%G)which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

136

SECTION F O U R

An illegible letter below a split cross cl49o'


A left elbow defence (undecorated). Royal Armoury, Turin, inv.no.C 2, cat.no.4. The mark resembles one found elsewhere associated with a second mark of a twin-tow ered castle, and therefore was identified by Boccia (1982, p.287-88) as the mark of Pietro Giacomo da Castello, active 1485-1525. The plate above the cowter was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little grain-boundary pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is an almost carbon-free steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

137


letters *IO crowned above OA(?) twice 1490-1505 Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv.no.3599. cat.no.36

Martensite, ferrite and carbides X 200

Martensile and carbides X 600

A sallet transformed into a light cavalry helmet. A specimen was taken from the skull at a rivet hole. The microstrueture consists of mar tensite mixed with globular carbides and some slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 209 to 294; average = 261 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been quenched in an attempt to harden it. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence

138

SECTION F O U R

An illegible letter below a crown, & two indistinct letters (G ... ) below split crosses (twice) The mark may be G* which Boccia suggests is that of Giovanni da Faerno (Boccia, 1982, p.291). 1490-1500 A breastplate, from Rhodes, made in 3 parts. Museum of Stjohn, Clerkenwell.inv.no.2606

Martensite X 200

The microstructure consists of slightly tempered martensite and ferrite with few slag inclu sions. The microhardness varies from 218 to 308 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Museum of Stjohn


crowned hunting horn & AN with horn (twice) Missaglia, after 1452 (Boccia, 1982, p.282).

139

This mark has been ascribed to Antonio

1490-1500 A pauldron of 5 lames, from Rhodes, now in Royal Armouries, Leeds.III. 1121

Ferrite and pearlite X 40 (note the elongated slag inclusion)

This was examined in section on the edge of a plate. The microstructure consists of ferrite and rather coarse pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrica tion. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

140

SECTION F O U R

Castle Boccia (1982, 291) attributes the mark to the workshop of the da Castello in Brescia 1490-1500. An infantry breastplate made in two pieces "in the German style". Solothurn Zeughaus. inv.no. 1.


Specimens were taken from the breastplate and the lower back defence. The microstructure (in both cases) consists of pearlite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon (around 0.4%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Old Arsenal Museum, Solothurn (Switzer land)


141

letters R O M (twice) below an orb The mark has been attributed to Romain des Ursins (Karcheski & Richardson, 2000, p. 119). c.1495 A couter for the right arm, made in one piece, from Rhodes and now in Royal Armouries, LecdsIII.1115.


This was examined in cross-section, and the microstructure consists of ferrite and rather coarse pearlite with a row of slag inclusions in irregular lumps. This is a low-carbon steel (0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication.

142

SECTION FOUR

letters m e r beneath a crown, & d m y beneath a split cross c.1495 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna B.33


An armour made for the foot-combat, and formerly belonging to Claude de Vaudrey, Chamberlain of Burgundy (d. 1515). It was perhaps won in combat by Maximilian I at a tournament of 1495, since it is mentioned in the Imperial inventory of 1555. The mark m e r is on both upper arms and has been ascribed to Giov.Marco Meraviglia, by Thomas & Gamber (1976, 184), although a similar mark is ascribed to the Merate brothers by Lensi (1918, II, 587). The mark d m y is on the helm and right gauntlet and is ascribed to Damiano Missaglia, nephew of Antonio. A plate from the right gauntlet was examined in section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and rather coarse pearlite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 254 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.4%C) which has been slowly cooled in air after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna


143

144

SECTION FOUR

letters ARBOIS & a king's crown before 1508 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna B71. An armour for the foot-combat. Not fire-gilded, but apparently gold-painted overall in the mid-16th century.

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Backplate section; martensite (probably) X 40


Martensite and slag X 320

145

Tonlet; pearlite and ferrite X 320.

The marks on the breastplate, ARBOIS and a king's crown, have been attributed to the Burgundian court armoury at Arbois in the Jura, established by Maximilian, as Duke of Burgundy, in 1495, before he became Emperor in 1508. The brothers Francesco and Gabriclc da Merate from Milan were engaged as armourers (Thomas & Gamber, 1976, p. 195) and accordingly this armour is discussed in this chapter although it was made in Burgundy. The backplate was examined on the lowest plate of the lower-back defence. The microstructure is fairly uniform and consists of an acicular martensite, which is probably lowcarbon martensite, but may contain bainite, with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 333 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. The next-lowest plate of the tonlet was examined at the rear on the left side. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. It is surprising that it has not been hardened, but suggests that the foot-combat armour was not all made at one time; the tonlet may have been a later modification. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna

146

SECTION F O U R

Indistinct letters below a crown Lensi (II, 587) ascribes this mark to the Merate brothers who were in Milan in 1492 but by 1495 had left to set up a workshop at Arbois. Lensi suggests that they kept their Milan workshop active as well. cl500 An armet skull (not illustrated) in the Stibbert Collection, Florence, inv.no.3550.

Martensite X 320

A sample from within the skull was examined. The microstructure consists of areas of martensite adjacent to areas (presumably of lower carbon content) of ferrite grains mixed with acicular carbides. The microhardness varies from 203 to 268 VPH. This is a steel of variable, if low, carbon content which has been quenched after fabrication.


147

letters B and A on either side of a crowned knot c.1500 A. pauldron of 13 lames probably made in North Italy around 1500 for export. Found in Rhodes and now in Royal Armouries, Leeds. 111.1124/ 5. see: Kareheski & Richardson (2000) 100

Ferrite and slag X 25

This was examined in section on the edge of a plate. The microstructure consists of ferrite and some cementite arranged in bands with numer ous slag inclusions. This is an almost carbon-free iron (around 0.1 %C or less) which has been air-cooled after fabrication.

148

SECTION F O U R

indistinct letter below a split cross cl500 Waffensammlung Schloss Ambras A. 184. An armour of Giovanni Francesco II Gonzaga, in cabinet I of the "Heroes' Chamber".


A specimen was examined in section from the rim of the left poleyn. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 197 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna


letters ME crowned & M O crowned (twice) to Michele da Figino.

149

Boccia (1982, p.288) ascribes the mark ME

cl510 Royal Armoury, Turin, inv.no. B19, cat.no. 1. An armour, without decoration, made for a horseman.

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Ferrite, slag, and cementite X 100

A specimen from inside the armet visor was examined. The microstructure consists of fer rite, some grain-boundary cementite, and slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel, slowly cooled after fabrication (or repair?). Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

150

SECTION F O U R

letters NERA within a rectangle & a crowned orb c.1510 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A. 11 An armour, without decoration, made for Giano II Fregoso, Doge of Genoa.

Pauldron section: lerritic and martensitic bands, with a corrosion crack X 50


Pauldron: Nodular pearlite (dark), lamellar pearlite and martensite (light) X 400

151

Skull section: ferrite and carbides X 80

A specimen was examined in section from the top plate of the left pauldron (which bears these marks). The microstructure consists of bands of martensite mixed with nodular pearlite as well as lamellar pearlite, and bands containing more ferrite, with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 287 to 493, depending on the carbon content; average — 399 VPH. This is a steel of carbon content of up to around 0.5% which has been hardened by some form of quenching. A specimen was examined in section from the skull of the armet. The microstructure consists of an acicular material which might be bainite, or perhaps low-carbon martensite. The microhardness varies from 148 to 209 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.1 %C) which has a l s o been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna

152

SECTION F O U R

unidentified marks c.1520 Royal Armouries, Leeds, IV.576.

Section of visor X 40

Bainite (?) martensite and ferrite in a spiny form X 320


153

An armet visor for the tilt which was made probably in Italy around 1520. It bears uni dentified marks, but no etching or gilding. The visor was examined on its lower edge in cross-section. The microstructure consists of martensite and an acicular material which might be bainitc with few slag inclusions. No pearlite is visible. This is a low- or medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

154

SECTION F O U R

G R O U P A (ii) Unmarked armour without etched or gilded decoration, and presumed to be Italian.

Martensite, nodular pearlite and ferrite X 960

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155

C1340 The skull of a bascinet in the Poldi-Pezzuoli Museum, Milan, inv.no. 2599. Corrosion has removed a good deal of metal from the lower edge of the skull, so it is cjuite possible that a mark was present near the lower edge, but has been lost. This was exam ined in section on the lower edge of the skull. The microstructure consists mostly of areas of martensite with some dark-etching materi al which might be nodular peariite and a network of proeutectoid ferrite with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (perhaps 0.5%C) steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment, apparently a slack-quench. Photograph by permission of the Poldi-Pezzuoli Museum, Milan

156

SECTION FOUR

1350-60 Churburg 48

Martensite X 240.

The (isolated) lower cannon of a 3-piece right vambrace. A specimen from within the low er cannon was examined. The micro structure consists of uniform slightly tempered mar tensite and a little ferrite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 868 VPH (sic !) This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.6%C) which has been fully quenched, not tem pered, and almost certainly found to be too brittle for use. See Scalini (1996) 254. Photograph by permission of Count Trapp


157

1360-80 Churburg 47


An articulated right vambrace, that was exhibited with Churburg 48, although they were not, in fact, a pair. A specimen from within the lower cannon was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. The microhardness (average) = 224 VPH. Photograph by permission of Count Trapp

158

SECTION F O U R

1360-80

Section of A 251: pearlite and ferrite X 40

A 252: ferrite, pearlite and slag X 80

One of a pair of hourglass gauntlets in the Wallace Collection, London A.251/2. A pair of very similar gauntlets is in Churburg (on C H 13) and another similar pair are in the Bargello, Florence. This was examined in cross-section upon the rim. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with some rows of slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 250 VPH. Its companion A252 was also examined and found to be very similar in microstructure. Photograph by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection


159

before 1370

Section X 40

A bascinet (not illustrated). Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, inv.no. 1905.493, now in the Museum of Scotland. Norman points out (cat.no.4) that there are bascinets of similar form on the silver altarpiece in Pistoia Cathedral, completed in 1376. The altarpiece is illustrated in Scalini (1980) 18-19. This helmet has had later alterations. The rim of the helmet was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some very elongated slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication.

160

SECTION FOUR

Late 14lh century The skull of a bascinet. Castcl Sant'Angclo, Rome.inv.no.3280.


A specimen from within the skull was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. The microhardness (average) = 1 6 4 VPH. Photograph by permission of the National Museum of Gastel Sant'Angelo, Rome


161

C1370

Martensite X 80 German National Museum, Nurnberg. W. 1466. A bascinet skull (severely corroded) whose form closely resembles Italian bascinets of c 1370 (Blair, 1958, p. 194). A specimen from the edge of the helmet was examined. The microstructure consists of martensite and bainite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness ranges from 342 to 405; average = 366 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has been hardened by some form of quenching. Photograph by permission of the German National Museum, Nurnberg

162

SECTION F O U R

late 14th c. Wallace Collection, London A.74 A barbuta without a maker's mark, (see also p. 110 and p. 113)

■n

Section: ferrite, pearlite and slag X 40

This was examined in cross-section upon the lower rim. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite arranged in bands with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.4%C) has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection


163

1390-1400 A bascinet (hounskull), formerly at Churburg, and now in Royal Armouries, Leeds.IV.470

Section: pearlite and ferrite X 40 (note the very small slag inclusions)

This was examined in cross-section on the lower rim of the skull. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (varying from 0.3% to 0.6%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

164

SECTION F O U R

C.1390

Detached visor from a bascinet (hounskull) without marks. Royal Armoury Turin inv.no.E6 cat.no.59.


The microstructure consists of ferrite and areas of carbides with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has been (possibly) cooled in air after fabrication. One might speculate that this was the result of an unsuccessful attempt at quenching. The microhardness varies from 233 to 270; average = 250 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin


165

early 15th c. Detached plate from a "coat-of-plates" from Chalcis. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 29.15.100. Bashford Dean Memorial Collection. Bequest of Bashford Dean, 1928.

ferrite and pearlite X 100

A sample was examined from the edge of the rim at the arm-hole. The microstructure consists of fine-grained ferrite and pearlite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has apparently been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 276 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

166

SECTION FOUR

el 400 Hofjagd- und Riistkammcr, Vienna A.24 A bascinct (hounskull) without maker's marks, formerly belonging to Duke Ernst of Aus tria (1377-1424). This may not necessarily be Italian (Scalini, 1996, p-47).


167

ferrite and carbides X 160

A specimen from inside the lower right side of the bascinet visor was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and irresolvable carbides with a few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (0.1 %C) which has undergone some sort of quenching after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 193 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna

168

SECTION F O U R

C1400 Wallace Collection, London A.69 A bascinet (hounskull) without a maker's mark.


Skull (seclion) ferritc pearlite and slag X 25

Vizor (section) ferrite pearlite and slag X 30; note the forging crack

The skull and the visor were both examined in cross-section on their lower rims. In both cases, the microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlite with numerous slag inclu sions. The skull shows a distinct forging line down the length of the plate, in the centre of the section. The visor shows a crack having opened up in the same position, presumably the result of corrosion having taken place at a similar welding line. They are both made of low-carbon steels (around 0.1 %C in the case of the visor, perhaps 0.2%C for the skull) which have been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection

170

SECTION FOUR

C1400

Royal Armouries, Leeds.IV.497 A bascinet skull without a maker's mark.

•SSWW Section: pearlite, ferrite and slag X 40

The lower rim of the skull was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of divorced pearlite in a ground mass of ferrite with some large (as well as smaller and elon gated) slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (around 0.6%C) steel which has been slowly cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries


171

1420-40 Parts of a great bascinet (originally from Chalcis). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no.29.158.47. Bashlbrd Dean Memorial Collection, 1929. Funds from various donors.

(front) Ferrite and grain-boundary cementite X 50

Specimens were taken from within this helmet at the front and the back. The microstruc ture (at the front) consists of ferrite and a little cementite with a few slag inclusions. The microstructure (at the rear) consists of ferrite and rather spheroidised pearlite with a few slag inclusions. These parts are made of low-carbon steels (from 0.1 %C in front to 0.3%C in rear) which have been slowly cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 174 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

172

SECTION F O U R

cl435 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 29.158.5 Collection, 1929. Funds from various donors. An armet dated by Boccia (1982, 44) to cl435.


Bashford Dean Memorial


173

A specimen was taken from the vizor of this helmet. The mierostructure consists of ferritc, spiny in places, and rather spheroidiscd pearlitc with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 184 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.3%C) which has apparently been air-cooled after fab rication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

174

SECTION F O U R

C1440 Armet. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 42.50.2 1942.

Gift of Stephen V. Grancsay

Martensite, ferrite and nodular pearlite X 320

Specimens were taken from within the lower visor and left cheek-piece of this helmet. The microstructures consists of ferrite and martensite with nodular pearlite and very few slag inclusions with rather more ferrite in the specimen from the visor. This is a medium-car bon steel (around 0.5%G) which has been hardened, apparently by some form of slackquenching. The microhardness varies from 260 (ferrite/pearlite) to 536 (martensite); average = 338 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

175


15th C A sallet with a short nasal. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 29.158.41 Collection, 1929, Funds from various donors.


Ferrite, pearlite and (other) carbides X 160

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite, lamellar pearlite and an irresolvable component (possibly nodular pearlite) with some slag inclu sions. The microhardness varies from 222 to 336; (average) = 279 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

176

SECTION F O U R

C.1450 An armet without a visor in the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome, inv.no.3289.

Ferrite and martensite X 320

A specimen was examined from inside the skull. The microstructure consists of ferrite and martensite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 233 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.2%C) which has been hardened by some form of quenching. Another specimen from the rear of the right cheekpiece was examined, and also found to be martensitic. Photograph by permission of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome


177

mid 15th century A plate from a helmet; perhaps a wrapper for an armet (not illustrated). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 49.120.7.

Pearlite with a ferrite network and very little slag X 50

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 262 VPH. This is a medium-carbon (perhaps 0.7%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrica tion.

178

SECTION F O U R

mid 15th c. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 49.120.8


A plate from a helmet; perhaps a wrapper for an armet (not illustrated). A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. This is an iron.


179

cl450 A sallet; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 04.3.230

Rogers Fund, 1904.

Ferrite and acicular carbides X 160

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and an acicular material which might be bainite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 223 VPH. This appears to be a low-carbon steel which may have been slack-quenched. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

180

SECTION F O U R

1450-1500 A sallet Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no.14.25.573

Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913.

Ferrite with a little pearlite and some slag inclusions X 50

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York


15th cent. A sallet (not illustrated) thought to be Italian. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 49.120.5

Ferrilc and slag only X 80

This is only an iron.

181

182

SECTION FOUR

cl450 A sabaton, originally a pair from the armoury of Hohenaschau, and now in the Royal Ar mouries, Leeds.III.1348

Section: ferrite with a little pearlite and some slag inclusions X 40

This was examined in cross-section upon the lower rim of the foot. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pcariite with very few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries


183

C1460 Sallet Munich City Museum, inv.no.Z.6 'j« - « . .

¥

-tiM|h Ferrite and pearlite X 50

A specimen from within the helmet was examined. The microstructure consists of areas of ferrite and pearlite with a row of slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (perhaps 0.2%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Microhardness (average) = 1 7 1 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Munich City Museum

184

SECTION F O U R

1460-75 armet Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no.29.158.22 Collection, 1929. Funds from various donors.



Specimens from the skull, brow reinforce, and right cheekpiece were taken from within this helmet. The microstructures consists of ferrite and pearlite in varying proportions with a few slag inclusions. This is a steel of variable carbon content(up to 0.6%C in the cheekpiece) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York


C1465 barbuta Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 25.188.20

185

Gift of George D. Pratt, 1925.

Ferrite, pearlite, and slag X 80

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with a few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (around 0.3%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

186

SECTION F O U R

1460-80 A barbuta (not illustrated) thought to be Italian Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no.49.163.2

Martensite, with nodular pearlite (dark areas) and ferrite X 200

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite, nodular pearlite and martensite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness of the martensitic areas = 375 VPH. This is a medium-carbon (perhaps 0.5%C) steel which has been hardened by some form of slack-quenching.


187

1460-1480 A sallet found at Magreith near Bozen; Italian in form, but without marks. German Na tional Museum, Niirnbcrg, inv.no.W. 1275.

Martensite X 60

The microstructure consists of very uniform martensite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 283 to 304 VPH. This appears to be a low-carbon steel which has been hardened by quenching. The sur face shows numerous cracks, perhaps the result of the earlier quenching having embrittled the steel. Photograph by permission of the German National Museum, Niirnberg

188

SECTION F O U R

1460-80 A barbuta Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 14.25.580


Ferrite and pearlite areas X 60

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite in varying proportions with a few rounded slag inclusions. This is overall a mediumcarbon steel (perhaps 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York


189

1460-80 A barbuta Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no.14.25.581. Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913.

Ferrite, pearlitc and slag X 60

A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with a few rounded slag inclusions. This is a steel, low in carbon content (perhaps 0.3%C), which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

190

SECTION F O U R

C1470

An infantry breastplate made in two pieces from Churburg, now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1281 (not illustrated)

Pearlite and ferrite (section) X 60

This was examined on the top edge, in cross-section. The microstructurc consists of fairly uniform pearlite and very little ferrite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (perhaps 0.6% or 0.7%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. It is closely comparable to Churburg 37, 38, and 40.


191

C1470

A one-piece infantry breastplate; Churburg 40.

Ferrite, pearlite and corrosion cracks X 50

A specimen from within the breast was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and (somewhat divorced) pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.1 %C) which has been slowly air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) — 181 VPH. Photograph by permission of Count Trapp

192

SECTION F O U R

late 15th c. A composite armour which includes the breastplate discussed here, as well as Landshut arm defences (inv.no.3570), and an Innsbruck (?) backplatc (inv.no.3902) which are discussed separately. Stibbcrt Museum, Florence, 3910.

Ferrite and pearlitc X 200

A specimen was examined from inside the breastplate. The microstructure consists of fer rite and a little pearlitc with some detached carbides, and slag inclusions. This is a lowcarbon (around 0.1 %C) steel which has been slowly cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Stibbcrt Museum, Florence


193

1450-1500 kettle-hat Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv.no. 14.25.582

Gift of William H. Riggs



A specimen was taken from within this helmet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and coarse pearlite which has divorced to spheroidised carbides, with a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.4%C) which been very slowly cooled after fabrication. Photograph by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

194

SECTION FOUR

1450-1500

A bevor, without visible marks, now in Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome.inv.no. 1744. A specimen from within the bevor was examined. The microstructure (not illustrated) consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. This is simply a wrought iron. Average microhardness = 175 VPH. Photograph by permission of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome


195

1450-1500 The cuff of a gauntlet, now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1225

Section: ferrite, pearlite and central line of slag inclusions X 40

This was examined in section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and rather divorced pearlite with some elongated slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

196

SECTION F O U R

C.1490 Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna A . I l l Part of an armour belonging to a Gonzaga. At Ambras it was catalogued as an armour of Fcderico Gonzaga, but its corpulence suggests his younger brother, Gian Francesco (Thomas & Gamber, 1976, 183). Around 1550 in Mantua, bands of etching with a black ened pattern along the edges were added.


A specimen from the second plate of the left pauldron was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and granular carbides (divorced pearlite ?) with a few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3%C) which has been slowly-cooled or reheated after fab rication. The microhardness varies from 172 to 206 VPH. Photograph by permission of the Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna


197

1500-1510

Visor Section: pearlite, ferrite and slag inclusions X 20. Note the sharp division between the band of pearlite and the band of ferrite mixed with pearlite.

A visor from an armet, from Rhodes, and now in Royal Armouries, Leeds. IV.437 This was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of pearlite and a little ferrite with few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (around 0.5%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

198

SECTION F O U R

1500-10 A breastplate without central keel, decoration, or maker's mark. National Museum of Caste! Sant'Angelo, Rome, inv.no.839.

Martensite (mostly) X 80

The microstructure consists of martensite and what may be bainite (or low-carbon mar tensite) with some slag inclusions. The microhardness ranges from 228 to 281 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has been quenched to harden it. It is exhibited with fragments of parade armours, one of scaled form (1574) and another (1586). They are discussed else where. Photograph by permission of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome


199

1500-10 A sallet with a decorative brass border, but without marks. Churburg 69 (Compare with Royal Armouries, Leeds, IV.424) p. 135


A specimen from within the helmet was examined. The microstructurc consists of pearlite and ferrite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness reaches 192 V P H . This is a medium-carbon (around 0.4%C overall) steel which has been slowly-cooled after fabrica tion. Photograph by permission of Count Trapp

200

SECTION F O U R

C15I0 A globose breastplate, without lance-rest, and (unlike 11.392) apparently never decorated with etching, from Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1085 (not illustrated)

Section: ferrite and pearlite X 20

This was examined on a cross-section of the plate. The microstructure consists of rather coarse pearlite and ferrite with a row of slag inclu sions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.6%C overall) which has been slowly cooled after fabrication.


201

C1510 A half-armour without decoration. Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.392.

(culet) ferrite and pearlite X 60

Specimens from the arm, culet, and tasset were examined. The microstructures all consist of ferrite and varying amounts of pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (up to about 0.3%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries

202

SECTION F O U R

Surface h a r d n e s s t e s t i n g of a r m o u r originally from the Sanctuary of S.Maria della Grazie, which was exhibited in the Palazzo Ducale, Mantova, and is now in the Archiepiscopal Museum, Mantova. These tests were carried out in 1975 with a Branson electronic hardness tester, and the results were the first indication to the author that an appreciable proportion of 15 th cen tury Milanese armour might have been made of hardened steel. Assembly date (Boccia)

Bl B2 B3 B4 B5 B6

(master) 1455-60 Biagio per Giovanni Spanzotti(:') 1470-75 Bernadino Cantoni (?) cl480 (Milan ?) 1485-90 (Milan ?) cl500 (Milan ?) cl510 (Milan ?)

range of hardness (of breastplate)

average hardness (Rockwell G) (VPH)

20-45 20-45 20-45 20 20-45 20-45

31 35 31 20 24 30

310 350 310 230 250 300

The results for Milanese knightly armours are quoted above. 4 of the 6 seem to have been made of hardened steels, if not always uniformly hardened. References (see also the references to Chapter 4.2). T h e dates and attributions are generally taken from Boccia (1982) and T h o m a s & Gamber (1976). T h e more recent study by Scalini (1996) does not always follow Boccia's dating. T h e most recent catalogue of European armour in the Stibbert Collection Boccia, L.G. "II museo Stibbert a Firenze" (2 vols, 1975) does not list all pieces, unlike the comprehensive catalogue of Lensi. T h e armour deposit from Rhodes has recently been published by Karcheski & Richardson (2000). Honcycombc, R.W.K. "Steels - microstructure and properties" (1981) Karcheski, W J . & Richardson, T. "The medieval armour from Rhodes" (Leeds & Worcester, 2000). Lensi, A. "II museo Stibbert; Catalogo delle sale delle Armi Europee" (1918). Norman, A.V.B. "Arms & armour in the Royal Scottish Museum" (Edinburgh, 1972). Pyhrr, S. "European Helmets, 1450-1650 - Treasures from the Reserve Collection" (New York, 2000) Scalini, M. " T h e armoury of the Castle of Churburg" (Udine, 1996) Idem, "Note sulla formazione dell'Armatura di Piastra Ilaliana 1380-1420" Waffen- und Kostumkunde, 22(1980) 15-26. Thomas, B. & G a m b e r , 0 . "Katalog der Leibrustkammer"(Vienna, 1976)

CHAPTER 4.4

T H E ECLIPSE OF AN INDUSTRY—ITALIAN ARMOUR AFTER

1510

There are t h r e e major changes in the nature of Italian armour which take place within a few years of one another around the turn of the 16th century. In the first place, and most importantly, it is almost never made of hardened steel after about 1510. This is an abrupt change, and not easy to explain convincingly (tabulated results show only two such specimens—of uncertain date but perhaps 1520-1540—out of a hun dred examined from between 1510 and 1630). This change coincides with the adoption of fire-gilding. The latter process seems to have been employed for the decoration of armour from about 1490 onwards. The breastplate ascribed (fancifully) to Bartolomeo Colleoni (Vienna A. 183) is one of the earliest examples of such decoration. It rapidly becomes very common, and increases in extent until half or more of the surface is covered by fire-gilded decoration. Examples of gold decoration upon armour are known before 1490, but it may not have been fire-gilding. Gold paint, for example, would require no heating, although it would have been far less permanent. "Fire-gilding" by applying gold amalgam (a solution of gold in mercury) and then heating to boil away the mercury was capable of fixing a permanent thin layer of gold upon other, cheaper, metals but the heating would rapidly reduce the hardness of a quenched steel (see chapter 8.2). Evidently the one operation (gilding) was found to interfere, or thought to be likely to interfere, with the other (hardening). The two operations are very seldom both carried out on an Italian armour. Other centres of armour production adopted fire-gilding during the late 15th century, but without the same consequences. As another section will relate, South German armour was being made of hardened steel by the end of the 15th century, almost as their Italian rivals were abandoning this technology, and they continued to harden it for another 100 years. Very few Italian armours are both gilded and hardened (4, in fact, from the late 15 th century). This might perhaps be explained by the Italians' less certain mastery of the techniques for hardening steel; a preference for slack-quenching being conspicuous in the 15th century, while their South German rivals preferred quenching and tempering, which is easier to combine with fire-gilding. What is very surprising, however, is that plain (ungilded) armours, presumably for field use, are not hardened either. Indeed they are fre quently made of quite poor metal. Presumably those customers of armourers were now giving a lower priority to battlefield armour. Why there should have been such a shift in their priorities is less easy to understand. The s e c o n d change is that the use of marks becomes relatively uncommon, and effec-

204

SECTION F O U R

tively disappears after 1510, although some gilded armours are signed (rather than marked) later in the century. If the use of a mark was intended to be a sign of the quality of the metal employed to make the armour, then when most customers were no longer interested in that c[uality, its disappearance would logically follow. The third change is a less frequent use of steel in the early years of the 16th century, although perhaps economic factors might be partly responsible for this. The French inva sion of 1494 introduced modern, mobile, artillery to Italy, and the subsequent 30 years of intermittent war dislocated the economic life of Italy in general and Milan in particular. The Negroli family employed steel for their fantastic embossed armours, and in general, there was a revival in the use of steel in the 1530s, which lasted until the end of the cen tury. Even the cheapest armour was generally made of a low-carbon steel, which is more than can be said for the cheapest German armour. Throughout the 16th century, armour made for the more affluent customer was now decorated with patterns of etching and gilding. The techniques of heat-treatment (in Italy usually slack-quenching) employed to harden the steel were evidently found to be incom patible with the heating needed for fire-gilding. Their South German rivals seem to have been more successful at combining the two operations, as Section 5 relates, because they followed a different order of procedure, gilding their steels after quenching, but before tempering. It is possible that some Italian armourers may have tried to combine slack-quenching with a separate heating for fire-gilding, and then been disappointed by the loss in hard ness. In fairness to them, it should be pointed out that the thin sheets of low-alloy steels they used would have lost their hardness much faster upon reheating than modern steels would have done 1 . There was of course an alternative procedure for improving the defen sive qualities of the armour which was less demanding on the armourer, and that was to make it thicker. Increasing the thickness of a 2 mm plate to 3 mm more than doubled its effectiveness (see Section 9). So the problems of heat-treatment could be avoided, provid ed that their customers were prepared to wear heavier armour. A hundred examples of armours from the 16th century have been examined by the au thor and only two of those specimens were found to be made of hardened steels (see tab ulated results). This indicates a complete shift in armourers' priorities. Protection was not to be abandoned, but it was no longer their sole priority. It had to be combined with decoration, and in the long run, that would be at the expense of wearability. Tables showing the results of metallography of Italian armour after the introduction of gilded decoration (after 1510-20 to about 1635); divided in three groups. B (i) gilded and marked B (ii) gilded but unmarked B (iii) plain field armours It is convenient to divide the largest category, B (ii) into three sub-groups of armours on the basis of their decoration, because that may have had an effect upon their manufacture: 1

Williams, (1998)

THE ECLIPSE OF AN INDUSTRY

205

ITALIAN ARMOUR AFTER 1 5 1 0

B (iia) after etching but before embossing b e c a m e w i d e s p r e a d B (iib) the h e y d a y of e m b o s s e d a r m o u r B (hie) gilded b u t not (greatly) embossed

G r o u p B (i) gilded a n d m a r k e d Mark

Date

Metal

Specimen iron

my* A, S+

ip m*

Heat-treatment

low C% medium steel C % steel

air attempted hardened cooled hardening

1490 HJR B2

M

310

1490 1495 1495 1512

M M

464 597 < 273

HJR B2/147 HJR A.5h HJR A.5p RA II 7

L L

A

Out of these 5 0 2 3

Hardness (VPH)

were made of iron were made of low-carbon steel were made of medium-carbon steel were apparently unhardened were partially hardened by an attempt at heat-treatment were fully hardened by a successful heat-treatment

SECTION FOUR

20b

G r o u p B (ii)a a r m o u r u n m a r k e d b u t etched & gilded Date

Specimen

Metal iron

1490 1505 1515 1510 1510 1510 1510 1510 1515 1520

HJR A. 183 C H 70 RA III 1086 RAIII51 ZS 3 Stib 2827 Stib 3122 Stib 3146 H A M 2640 RA III.834

low C% steel

Heat-treatment medium C % steel

air attempted hardened cooled hardening

M

A A A A A A A A A A

L I L M L L M M M

Out of these 10 specimens 1 4 5

was made of iron were made of low-carbon steel were made of medium-carbon steel

10 0 0

were apparently unhardened were partially hardened by an attempt at heat-treatment were fully hardened by a successful heat-treatment

Hardness (VPH)

260 240

203

250



207

G r o u p B (ii) b embossed & gilded Date

Specimen

Metal iron

1530 1530 1532 1535 1535 1535 1538 1535 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1540 1543 1545 1545 1545 1550 1547 1550 1550 1550 1555 1555 1555 1555 1550

HJR A498c I WC A205 HJR A498h WC A241 043 202 1425 7141 WC A207 SAngl586 MMA 1425597 MMA 1425602 WC A106 WC A108 Kon10542 WC A353 HJR A632 Kon E63 RA ell I HAM 416 17190 1720 MMA14251855 MMA2653 SAngl574 MMA491633 HJR A783 stib 11586 RA c48 MMA1425563 HJR A693 Fitz Ml9 MMA 043223 HJR A693s Fitz5/1942

Heat-treatment

low C% medium C % steel steel

M L L L M M M L M L L M M M M M M L L M L M M M M M L M M L

air attempted hardened cooled hardening A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

< = up to Out of these 32 specimens 2 were made of iron 11 were made of low-carbon steel 19 were made of medium-carbon steel 32 0 0

Hardness (VPH)

were apparently unhardencd were partially hardened by an attempt at heat-treatment were fully hardened by a successful heat-treatment

198 237 233

210 282 223

243 237 268 < 240 254 106 218 232 299 213 261

259 182

208

SECTION F O U R

G r o u p B (ii) c gilded b u t not embossed Date

Specimen

Metal iron

1540 1555 1560 1570 1570 1575 1575 1575 1580 1580 1580 1580 1580 1580 1580 1580 1580 1585 1590 1590 1590 1590 1590 1590 1595 1595 1600 1600 1600 1600 1600 1602

WC A.355 RAB4 RAB7 III 1209 MstM 628 Konopl037 RAT B8 RAT B10 NAM3133 ch2648 Lat29162 WC A52 Lat2555 RA II146 stib3958 Soll23 Fitz 12 stib3476 Sol281 HAM 425 RAT c70 BNM1001 BNM 1465 WC A60 stib3461 RAT c21 RAT B3 RAT B35 stib3964 WC A235 stib 921 RAT C98

Heat-treatment

low C% medium C % steel steel M M L M L L

I M M L M I M L I L M M L L L L M M I L L I L L L L

air attempted hardened cooled hardening A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Out of these 32 specimens 5 were made of iron 16 were made of low-carbon steel 11 were made of medium-carbon steel 32 0 0

Hardness (VPH)


228

224 259 209 249 252

279

226 120 238

192



209

G r o u p B (iii) plain field a r m o u r s Date

Specimen

Metal iron

1520 1530 1540 1555 1555 1555 1555 1555 1555 1555 1555 1560 1560 1560 1570 1580 1590 1600 1600 1630

Lat2514 RA 11.358 LatE8 HJR A406 stib2187 stib2186 HJR Al 181 HJR A l l 16 HJR A 1188 HJR A 404 HJR A1381 stib4 stib2797 MstM 633 Lat E10 Fitzl4H Lat2513 Lat2511 Lat 149 / E 2 WC A180

low C% steel

Heat-treatment medium C % steel

air attempted hardened cool ed hardening

M L L I L L I L L L M M L I L L L L L L

T T A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Out of these 20 specimens 3 were made of iron 14 were made of low-carbon steel 3 were made of medium-carbon steel 18 2 0

Hardness (VPH)


So overall out of 99 armours examined in this group 11 47 41

were made of iron were made of low-carbon steel were made of medium-carbon steel

93 3 3


332 203 160 179

210 144 184 165 206

191 207 167

SECTION F O U R

210 Group B (i) (iia) 0 1 2 4 3 5 Group B (i) (iia) 1 10 1 0 3

0

(iib) 11 19

(iic) 5 16 11

(iii) 3 14 3

(iib) 32 0

(iic) 32 0

("i) 18 2

0

0

0

2

were made of iron were made of low-carbon steel were made of medium-carbon steel


(one representative result is quoted for each multiple sampling)

T H E NEGROLI FAMILY

The final flourish of the Milanese armour industry was the production of some extraordi nary armours by the Negroli family, and their competitors, in the second quarter of the 16th century. They produced armours which allowed noblemen to pose as Hercules, Al exander, or a Roman emperor, and to dress up as sea-serpents, lions or dragons. Armour was forged into shapes which almost defy description, and appear to be wholly impracti cal, yet its metallurgy remained that of a functional defence. Filippo Negroli was regarded as the finest armourer of his day, and made Milan, at least for a little while, the centre of the industry once again. Although he was world renowned, he did not die a wealthy man, and his successors gave perhaps a little more attention to their business than their art 2 . More than forty specimens from more than twenty "embossed" (in fact they were forged hot rather than worked cold) armours made by the Negroli family and their contemporar ies were examined by the author. More than half were found to be made of steel, rather than the softer iron which might have been expected, and the hardest steel predominates in the best armours. At first sight, it may seem surprising that a material more than twice as hard as iron should be used for "parade" armours. But there are several possible reasons for this. One factor which should be considered is that the hardness of the metal enabled the armourer to demonstrate his virtuosity, just as sculptors in the hardest stones demonstrated the high est levels of mastery. An additional, and more practical, consideration is that steel would contain far fewer brittle slag inclusions than iron, so that certain techniques employed after forging, such as chasing, might well be easier. Certainly armour plate containing more slag is more prone to lamination, as examination of the internal surfaces of munition armours will show. The microstructure of the armour made from a banded steel by Modrone (Vi enna A.632) shows such a lamination starting at a row of slag inclusions. Such a row might 2

Pyrhh & Godoy, 1998, p.48



211

have been the consequence of imperfect forging together of billets to try to make a homo geneous sheet. But the most important reason for using steel is surely the motive for making these ar mours. If they had been intended to be worn purely as decoration, then it would have been logical to use the softest metal available (copper, or even silver) as that would have been the easiest to work. The Negrolis were regarded as the best armourers of Italy, and they used the best steel available for their "parade" armours, as did their leading rivals. Decorative though these "parade" armours were, they were still armour. In design, they were intended to show their wearers as classical heroes, and their ornate form might lead the modern observer to think (mistakenly) that because they were primarily for parade, they must be fit only for parade. In fact they were, in terms of their metallurgy, every bit as functional as any contemporary field armour. Surprising as it might be, it is found that parade armours in general were made of better metal than the plain field armours of the 16th century. It is particularly surprising because even if Italian armourers seem to have only able to offer a choice between hardened or decorated armours, while many 16 th century German armours could offer both together, one might still have expected plain Italian armours for battle to have been hardened—but they seldom were, and not after 1530. The difficult processes of hardening and tempering were evidently thought to be unprofitable, especially as there was a simpler method of improving the defensive qualities of armour, namely by making it somewhat thicker (see chapter 9.4). It seems clear that while princes and nobles ordered expensive armours to wear on pa rade, these armours were expected to be fit for war, even if in practice they might seldom be worn in serious combat. One Negroli helmet made for a delle Rovere was described as being made "pistol-proof so its owner expected to be shot at some day 3 . For the sordid business of sieges and campaigns, where there was no opportunity to impress, then the plainest and cheapest armour would suffice. Armours such as HJR Al 181 (belonging to Sforza Pallavicini, a professional soldier) and A406 (attributed to Cosimo dei' Medici) are poorly finished and clumsily decorated, in the former case with a few punched stars. There were still princely patrons of armourers in Mantua and Florence, but ceasing the practice of marking armour makes the products of these workshops difficult to identify. Milan and Brescia continued to make mass-produced armour of modest price until well into the 17 lh century. MANTUA AND MODRONE

Caremolo Modrone (cl489-1563) spent most of his life as court armourer to Federico II Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, making armours for him and for other aristocratic clients, in cluding Charles V, as well as for the Gonzaga troops. Attributions remain uncertain, as he did not mark (or sign) any of his works. His embossed armours are made out of steel, like those of the Negroli, but its metallography shows a more banded steel—perhaps one obPyrhh & Godoy, 1998, p. 158 and see p.241 below

212

SECTION FOUR

tained from Brescia4. The close helmet in the Higgins Museum, and the burgonet in Ravenna analysed by Garagnani 3 are somewhat different, both being made from low-carbon steels. COSIMO'S COURT ARMOURY

In Florence Cosimo dei Medici (1519-1574) tried to establish an armoury like that of the Gonzagas. In 1544, the Duke began commissioning armour for himself from a wide variety of sources, and in that year attempted to get some Milanese armourers to migrate to Florence, but the Imperial Governor in Milan refused to allow them to leave permanently, although he offered to allow Battista da Merata to work for Cosimo for a limited period 6 . At the same time he tried to establish a modern ironmaking industry in Tuscany (see chapter 8.1). It is not known for certain when Cosimo managed to establish a court armoury, as a list of businesses of 1561 records only two armourers' shops in Florence, run byjacopo di Matteo da Modena with Andrea di Lorenzo, and Batista di Simone detto Scamorina. Not until 1568 did the Duke manage to entice one of the Milanese family of Piatti to set up shop in Florence. The Prince promised a good salary and offered to supply "hydraulic polishing machines". The workshop of Matteo and his brother had executed a large order for Cosimo just before Matteo's transfer. It is possible that the suits of armour for the knights of San Stefano were his first Florentine works. Boccia suggests that the armour of Francesco de' Medici, also in the Bargello, was made in Florence about 1570. The author has not been able to examine any armour now in the Bargello, but there is another armour made probably for a Grand Duke of Tuscany (Cosimo II) by Italian crafts men about 1605 the components of which are now distributed between several museums 7 . Most of the armour is now in Detroit, but there is a shield in the Bargello, Florence, and gauntlets in the Royal Armouries, Leeds (11.146) which belong to it. There is also a gaunt let of similar decoration, but uncertain attribution in the Stibbert Collection in Florence. The author was able to examine some of these specimens; none of them showed any signs of having been hardened, indeed none were hardenable. The gauntlet then in the Tower of London was found to be a carbon free iron of low metallurgical quality. The left gaunt let in the Stibbert was a low-carbon steel of scarcely better quality. It is interesting that the quality of the metal is so low, indeed much lower than the steel then regularly used in Milan by Pompeo, and no better than the cheapest munition armour made in Italy. Despite the trouble taken over chasing bands of chevrons and gilding them, little money was evidently spent on the raw material for the armour. A mural painting in Florence shows Cosimo I wearing an Innsbruck armour, surviving fragments of which in the Bargello stores have recently been identified by Norman and published by Scalini 8 . It seems that while Cosimo wanted to establish a domestic armour industry, he did not care to entrust his own life to its protection. 4 :> 6 7 8

Pyrhh & Godoy, 1998, p.249 Garagnani (1996) specimen 10.10787. Butters (1996) Boccia, (1983) Scalini (1990)



213

MILAN AND POMPEO

Italian armour in the 16th century was still a popular, item of military equipment. In the third quarter of the 16th century, the workshop of Pompeo della Chiesa in Milan 9 pro duced a large number of armours for noble and princely patrons such as Renato Borromeo whose armour may be that preserved in the Stibbert Museum, Florence. Pompeo continued to use steel rather than iron, as metallography shows, and this metal might have been made by a different process (see chapter 8.1), but he remained unable or unwilling to harden the steel. While his armours are highly decorative, they were evidently still expected to offer rea sonable protection, for otherwise they could just as well have been made of iron, as many plain field armours were, and not steel, as his were. Towards the end of the century, how ever, the steel used by armourers like the Master of the Castle becomes distinctly poorer, being generally much lower in carbon content. One must suppose that by then the prior ity given to defence was declining yet further. T H E MASTER OF THE CASTLE

The garniture of Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, Archbishop of Salzburg, now mostly in the Bavarian National Museum, W. 1001-2, and parts in the Wallace Collection, London, A.60, bear the mark of a castle with two towers. The subject of a recent article by LaRocca (2000) its maker "signed" his work with a picture of a castle. Most of this was made of a rather low-carbon steel. Armour of moderate metallurgical quality continued to be produced in Milan and Brescia until 1610 -1620, after which a trickle still flowed, exemplified by the 1668 armour made in Brescia as a diplomatic present for Louis XIV. The last armourer that Boccia 10 mentions is one Lorenzo Saiano, active until 1680 -1690. References Boccia, L.G. "Arms & armour from the Medici court", Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts, (1983) 61. Butters, S.B. "The triumph of Vulcan; sculptors' tools, porphyry and the prince in Ducal Florence" (Florence, 1996) 2 vols. Gamber, O. "Der Italeinische Harnische in 16 Jahrhundert", Jahrbuch cler Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien (1958); 54, 73. Garagnani, G.L. et al. "Metallurgical investigations on 16th-17th century iron armours from the Museo Nazionale of Ravenna" Science & Technology for Cultural Heritage (Pisa & Rome, 1996) 5, part 2, pp.83-94. LaRocca, D. "A notable group of late 16th century etched Italian armour" Journal of the Arms & Armour Society (2000) 16, 181-197. Scalini, M."Armature da Cosimo I a Cosimo II de' Medici" (Florence, 1990) figs.8&9 show a backplate and a right knee defence(now in the Bargello). Williams, A.R. "Experiments with 'medieval steel' plates" Historical Metallurgy 32 (1998) 82-86. Williams, A.R. "Italian armour of the 16th century in the Royal Armoury of Turin" Armi Antiche (1987) 27.

9 10

Gamber (1958) Boccia (1967)

214

SECTION F O U R

POSTSCRIPT

A recent metallurgical study by Garagnani (1996) on some of the armour in Ravenna should be outlined here; broadly, his conclusions were the same as those of this author. Most significant, only 1 out of the 12 examples he studied had been hardened. That was a brigandine dating from around 1500 (cat.no.2.inv.no.l767). This may have been made of plates of much older armours cut up into smaller pieces. The sample taken consisted of tempered martensite, whose hardness ranged from 360—630 VPH. The results for the other 11 may be summarised as follows; (a) one example was made of iron, or very low-carbon steel: An etched breastplate (Brescia ?) c.1560 29.10797 (b) four examples A close helmet A war-hat A burgonet

were made of low-carbon steels: c.1510 3.1730 c.1600 9.10786 c.1575 14.10788

And a burgonet (perhaps made in Mantua ?) c.1540

10.10787

(c) six examples were made from medium-carbon steels: 3 parts of a light cavalry armour breastplate, vambracc and tasset which were all similar. c.1555 (Brescia ?) 23.1724, 23.1738 and 23.1742. A A A A A

horseman's breastplate (Brescia ?) breastplate (Brescia ?) burgonet visored close helmet Savoyard close helmet

c.1555 c.1580 c.1560 c. 1610 c.1620

27.10795 31.1723 13.1735 7.1728 8.10785

Surface decarburisation was noticed in several examples, and ascribed to forging.

CHAPTER 4.5

T H E METALLURGY OF ITALIAN ARMOUR AFTER

1510

This chapter deals with the Metallography of Italian armour after the introduction of fire-gilding; all Italian armour decorated with gilding (even in modest amounts) is in this chapter.

The armour is divided up as follows: Section B: Group (i) contains the (very small) number of armours which are decorated with etching and gilding, and also bear an armourer's mark. Section B: Group (ii) contains armours made after etching & gilding was introduced, but without an armourer's mark. Some of these are signed, however. This group is subdivided into: Group (iia) made after etching & gilding was introduced, but without embossed deco ration. Group (iib) embossed armours made by the Negrolis and their rivals. These were also etched and gilded. Group (iic) armour decorated by etching and gilding, but not with a significant amount of embossing. Group (iii) contains plain armours generally for field use; which might be considered as an extension of Section A (armour before gilding), group (ii).

216

SECTION F O U R

SECTION B: Group (i) (i) Armour with etching & gilding (even in small amounts) and bearing a maker's mark. crowned m y cl490

Martensite and ferrite X 80

A jousting armour made for Gasparo Fracasso (before 1502) and decorated with areas of etching and gilding. Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna B.2 The crowned m y within a circle is on the helm (twice) etched & gilded. It is also struck once on the right arm; this mark has been ascribed to Giovanni Angclo Missaglia (Tho mas & Gamber, 1976, p. 184). A specimen was taken from the right elbow defence. The microstructurc consists of martensite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 239 to 345; average = 310 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

THE METALLURGY OF ITALIAN ARMOUR AFTER 1 5 1 0

217

letter A & reversed S cl490 Vamplate (not illustrated here) Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna WA. 147 The armour discussed above (B2) is exhibited with a contemporary vamplate, struck with another mark (perhaps a dolphin around a cross ?) ascribed to Francesco della Croce. The rim of the vamplate was examined in section. The microstructure consists of martensite, proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 381 to 557; average = 464 VPH.

Vamplate section: martensite, pearlite, and a little ferrite X 50

218

SECTION F O U R

mark i p with an orb, within a shield 1490-1500

(skull) martensite X 100

An armour made for King Frederic V of Aragon, perhaps by an Italian master working in Spain. Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A. 5. The armet has some gilding (an applied border and patches on the visor) but the armour is not otherwise decorated. A specimen from inside the skull was examined. The microstructure consists of martensite only with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 233 to 733 VPH. This is a heterogeneous steel (the carbon content varies between about 0.1% and 0.6%) which has been fully quenched to harden it, and not tempered. How useful this procedure was is open to some doubt. A specimen from the top plate of the left pauldron was also examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite, carbides and slag inclusions only. The microhardness varies from 174 to 273; average = 249 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

219


m below a split cross, crowned MB 1510-15

■?

,' ' *«P

r

f

':N

'*-.-C:.r;i«v: ST-: Ferrite and carbides X 160

220

SECTION F O U R

Closeup of bevor rim

Great Bascinet from the tonlet armour of King Henry VIII. Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.7. The lower rim of the helmet bevor at the front was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists largely of ferrite and some spheroidised carbides with numerous slag inclusions, some of which open out into a large corrosion crack along the central plane of the plate. This is a low-carbon steel has has been slowly cooled, or perhaps reheated, after fabrica tion. It has been suggested by Blair (1995) that this Italian helmet and other components were adapted by Italian craftsmen who had been working in England since 1511, for the foottournament at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520. Such alterations might explain the re heating. Photographs © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


221

SECTION B: Group (ii) gilded armour without a maker's mark Group (iia) without embossing c.1490 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A. 183

Ferrite and pearlite X 50 (section)

A breastplate, traditionally supposed to belong to Bartolomeo Colleoni (d. 1475), although this has been doubted (1976 cat.p.85). It is decorated with bands of etching and (formerly) gilding. A specimen was examined in section from the turned rim at the neck. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with very few slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 260 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

222

SECTION F O U R

1505-10 A breastplate of globose form, decorated with the etched motto "os non chominuetis ex eo" (John, xrx,36) but without remaining gilding, and no maker's mark. Churburg 70.

Ferrite, coarse pearlite, and slag inclusions X 80

A specimen from within the top plate below the breast was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (around 0.3%C) steel which has apparently only been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 240 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Count Trapp.


223

1500-1510 From Rhodes, and now in the Royal Armouries, Leeds. III. 1086. Karcheski & Richardson (2000) 77.

Ferrite with a little pearlite and a large corrosion crack in the centre of the plate X 40

A globose breastplate for a horseman with fluted decoration and panels of etching (not illustrated). The micro structure (of a section) consists of ferrite and very little pearlite. This is an almost carbon-free iron.

224

SECTION F O U R

C.1510 Royal Armouries, Leeds,III.51.

Ferrite and pearlite (section) X 50

A breastplate and gorget, decorated with etching, but not gilding. The gorget plate was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some elongated slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2% overall) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


225

C1510 Solothurn Zeughaus 3

(breastplate) ferrite and pearlite X 75

An infantry armour, the breastplate of which is decorated with a panel of etching. A specimen from the breastplate at the side edge of the right arm hole was examined. The fauld bears a different pattern of fluting to the breastplate, and may therefore not belong with it. A specimen from inside the lower rim of the fauld was also examined. The microstructure (of both) consists of ferrite and pearlite with a few slag inclusions. The carbon content varies from around 0.2% to 0.5%. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Old Arsenal Museum, Solothurn (Switzer land).

226

SECTION F O U R

C1510 Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv.no.3122 (cat.no. 120). Boccia describes this as a work of Niccolo Silva, on the basis of a comparison with his signed works.


A left pauldron with a tall haute-piece, covered with etched and gilded decoration. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite in varying proportions with some slag inclusions. The sample from the left pauldron shows a carbon content of about 0.3% overall. It has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence.


227

cl510 Parts of an armour for a light horseman, ascribed by Boccia to Master Nicodemo and decorated with etching. ' Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv.no.3146 (a cowtcr with attached plates) and 1031 (a collar).

228

SECTION FOUR

femte and peaihte \

1-0

Samples were examined from several places: The main plate of the cowter has a microstructure of ferrite and slag only. The plate above the elbow (see micro) and the second plate below have microstructures consisting of ferrite and pearlite in varying proportions (0.1% to 0.5%C) with some slag inclusions. The sample from the back of the collar, on the other hand, shows uniform fine pearlite. This is a steel of rather variable carbon content which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photographs reproduced by permission of Stibbert Museum, Florence.


229

1510-20 A pair of pauldrons probably made in North Italy for Galiot de Genouilhac, with borders of etched decoration. The illustration shows a composite armour with these pauldrons included. Higgins Armory Museum 2640.

230

SECTION FOUR

(left pauldron) pearlite and ferrite X 40

The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite in varying proportions with some slag inclusions. The sample from the left pauldron shows a carbon content of up to 0.6%; that from the right, about 0.2%. This is a steel of variable carbon content which has been aircooled after fabrication. The average surface hardness (right) = 225 VPH; (left) = 250 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Higgins Armory Museum, Worcester, Mass.


231

C1520 The lower plate from a right knee defence. Royal Armouries, Leeds, III.834.

Section; ferrite and pearlite X 40

This was decorated with fluting, etching, and gilding. The plate was examined in section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon steel (up to around 0.5%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.

232

SECTION FOUR

cl520 A close helmet with a fluted rear skull, but no traces of gilding. Lateran Museum, Rome. inv.no.2514.

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Very fine pearlite, ferrite, and corrosion cavities X 80

There is a very similar helmet, but with etched decoration, in the Marzoli Collection (Rossi & Carpegna, pl.94 and also Scalini II p. 125) which bears the mark FA. The microstructure consists of very fine pearlite with little visible ferrite and very few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 289 to 376; average = 332 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (maybe 0.5%C) which has been hardened by some form of heat-treatment. The steel has undergone some form of accelerated cooling, short of a water (full-) quench. An isothermal transformation is a possibility.

THE METALLURGY OF ITALIAN ARMOUR AFTER

1510

233

Group (iib) the heyday of embossed armour cl530 Hofjagd- und Riistkammcr, Vienna A.498. A brigandinc of Francesco Maria della Rovcre; attributed to Filippo Negroli, (but not signed) c. 1530-35. — the helmet shown here (A 498 helmet) is discussed below. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat. 19)

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(brigandine) ferrite and carbides X 160

234

SECTION F O U R

The cross-section shows a microstructure of ferrite with some slag inclusions. Some of the ferrite grains have been distorted where sampling took place, but the majority arc equiaxed. Average microhardness = 198 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

Mail section X50

Another piece which matches this brigandine was also tested. An armlet of mail and lamellae (illustrated in Boccia (1967) plate 250) and formerly in the Museo Nazionale di Sant'Angelo, Rome (SA 945) but since transferred to the Bargello, Florence, M.1502. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a low-carbon steel of 0.2%C. Average microhardness = 234 VPH. A link of the mail was also examined. It consists of ferrite and slag only. Average microhardness = 211 VPH.


235

;1530

Visor section; mostly pearlite X 60

Visor which may have belonged to an armour of Guidobaldo della Rovere, of which parts are in the Bargello, Florence. Possibly by the Negroli workshop. Scalini (1987, p9).

236

SECTION F O U R

Wallace Collection A.205. The sample shows the lower right rim in section. Its microstructure consists mainly of pearlite (rather sphcroidised) with a little ferrite and a few slag inclusions. This is a medium-car bon steel that has undergone a good deal of hot-working. Average microhardncss = 237 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


237

1532 Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A498h Burgonet (shown on p.233) signed Filippo Negroli and dated 1532. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, no. 18)

Helmet section: ferritc and pearlite with elongated slaginclusions X 45

The cross-section shows a microstructure of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a car bon content of about 0.3%. There are rows of very elongated slag inclusions, especially near one surface. The most prominent such form a line at about one eighth of the section. Average microhardness = 233 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

There is a very similar helmet (inv.no. Dl) in the Royal Armoury of Madrid, made for Charles V. Hardness testing carried out in 2002 showed a surface hardness of 220 V P H , and so in all probability, a similar metal.

238

SECTION FOUR

1530-40 Pauldron in the form of a lion mask, bearing traces of silver, and fire damage. Probably made in Milan. Wallace Collection A.241.

The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with some pearlite partly divorced to carbide particles, corresponding to a low-carbon steel (about 0.2%C) which has undergone considerable hot-working. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


239

cl535 Burgonet attributed to Filippo Negroli, (but not signed). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1904. inv.no. 04.3.202. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat. 21.)

Made about 1535, but with some 19th century alterations. Three specimens were exam ined. 04.3.202 left cheekpiece. (and right cheekpiece). Both these samples show a microstructure consisting entirely of grains of ferrite with a little slag. 04.3.202 bowl The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little pearlite divorced to ccmentite (iron carbide), and some slag inclusions. The carbon content is perhaps 0.1%. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

240

SECTION F O U R

1530-35 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 14.25.7141 Gift of Williman H. Riggs. Pauldron for the right shoulder, belonging to an armour of Guidobaldo II della Rovere, attributed to Filippo Negroli (but not signed) ca. 1530-35. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.23)

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Ferrilc, slag and pearlite X 4-0

The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little pearl ite, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.2%. Another piece which matches this armour was examined; a small plate from the lower part of a pauldron. This was formerly exhibited at Castel Sant'Angelo (SA 2126) and is shown in the forefront of the picture of SA 945 above (p.234); but has since been transferred to the Bargello, Florence, inv.no.M. 1503bis. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a medium-carbon steel of around 0.5%C. Microhardness = 210 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.


241

1538 Wallace Collection, London A.207 The left cheekpiece belonging with other parts of a burgonet, the mask of which is in the Royal Armouries, Leeds; signed by Filippo Negroli and dated 1538. Probably made for a member of the delle Rovere family. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.29b)

Pearlite and very little ferrite (cross-section) X50

The cheekpiece was examined on the lower rim, between turns of the roped decoration. The sample shows a microstructure consisting almost entirely of very fine pearlite with a little slag and a few ferrite grains along one surface. This is a medium-carbon steel (of perhaps 0.7% C) which has been worked hot, and afterwards cooled in air. Average microhardness = 282 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.

242

SECTION F O U R

1530-40 The shoulder plate from a cuirass "alia romana", probably from Milan. Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome, inv.no. 1586.


The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon (around 0.4%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 223 VPH. Photograph by courtesy of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome.


243

1535-45 An open burgonct with the skull in the form of a dolphin. Probably made in Milan. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 14.25.597 Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913.

The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little pearlite, corresponding in places to a carbon content of less than 0.1%. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

244

SECTION F O U R

1530-50 An open burgonct with embossed decoration of tendrils, probably made in Milan. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 14.25.602 Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913.

Ferrite, pearlite (rather more than in 14.25.597) and slag X 80

The sample shows a microstructure of small grains of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a steel of about 0.4%C. There is a line of slag inclusions down the centre of the sample. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.


245

C1540 Upper part of a burgonct with grotesque face-mask. Probably made in Milan. Wallace Collection, London. A. 106

Coarse pearlite, ferrite and slag inclusions X 40

A sample was detached from the edge of a hole in the nape of the neck. The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little pearlite, corresponding to a steel of perhaps 0.2%C. Another sample was detached from the left side of the brow plate, adjacent to a hole. This sample (illustrated) shows a microstructure consisting of a mixture of grains of ferrite with varying amounts of coarse pearlite, partly divorced, corresponding to a steel of perhaps 0.4%C in the central part of the plate, and 0.2%C near the surfaces. There is a row of slag inclusions along the central line, which leads to a corrosion crack. This is presumably the result of a billet having been imperfectly forged when the original plate was made, and having opened up during subsequent working. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.

246

SECTION F O U R

C1540 A burgonet, probably made in Milan. Wallace Collection, London A. 108.

The sample shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little grainboundary cementite (from completely divorced pearlite). This is a low-carbon steel (0.1 %C or less) that has undergone a good deal of hot-working. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


247

C.1540 A complete armour for man & horse, decorated & embossed in the style of Modronc. Konopiste Castle, inv.no. 10542. Possibly belonging to the Venetian soldier Enea Pio Obizzi.

(gauntlet section) Ferrite and pearlite in bands X 30

Left gauntlet; the lower rim is shown in section and it is instructive to compare this with the metal from Vienna A.632. The microstructure consists of two bands of pearlite enclos ing a band of ferrite, and the carbon content varies from around 0.2% to 0.6%. Average Microhardness = 243 VPH A plate from the crupper of the horse armour was also examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite also with a lower carbon content. The microhardness (average) = 213 VPH. Also see the exhibition catalogue "Le Armi degli Estensi"(Fcrrara, 1986) plate 10, where its origin is ascribed to Venice, ca. 1570.

248

SECTION FOUR

C1540 Shaffron with embossed decoration, possibly made in Mantua. This was ascribed to Modrone by Mann (1962). Wallace Collection, London A.353

This was examined near the edge, in section. The sample shows a microstructure consist ing mostly of pearlite with a little fcrritc, separated by a line of slag inclusions from a border zone, consisting of less than a quarter of the thickness of the section, consisting of ferrite with a little pearlite. So the carbon content is around 0.6%, except for this band of about 0.2%. This banded steel should be compared to those found in Vienna A.632 and Konopiste 10542, which are also ascribed to Modrone. The pearlite is largely divorced, showing that this steel has undergone a good deal of hot-working, unsurprising in view of the shap ing entailed. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


249

C1540 An armour made for Carlo Gonzaga, possibly by Carcmolo Modronc in Mantua. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.50) Hofjagd- und Riistkammcr, Vienna A.632

The cross-section of an anime plate shows a niicrostructure of two bands consisting mostly of pearlite, sandwiching a band predominantly of ferrite, with a number of slag inclusions. A corrosion crack has opened up along the junction between a pcarlitic and a ferritic band. The inference must be that pieces of different material were forged together into a plate, and the forge welding was imperfect. There is some distortion of the pcarlite along one surface. Microhardness (average) = 237 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Riistkammcr, Vienna.

250

SECTION FOUR

C1540 Fragments of an embossed horse armour. Konopiste Castle E.63. These elements were ascribed by Boccia (1980, p.134) to Modrone, of Mantua. Possibly formerly belonging to Tomaso Obizzi.

Ferrite and pearlite X 40 (section)

Front saddle steel; shown in section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite coresponding to a steel of 0.4%C. Average microhardness = 268 VPH Back of saddle steel; the microstructure consists of ferrite and slag only. Average microhardness = 150 VPH.


251

cl540 The breastplate from an armour "all'antica" probably made in Brescia for a member of the Martinengo family. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.64.) Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no.8 (inv.no.Cl 1).

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The microstructure consisted of ferrite with a very little pearlite, corresponding to an iron with a carbon content of less than 0.1%. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

252

SECTION F O U R

C1540 A close helmet with embossed "palm-frond" decoration, possibly made around 1540 in Mantua by Caremolo Modronc. Higgins Armory Museum, inv.no.416

Ferrite and pearlite X 30 (an irregular section because of corrosion)

The lowest neck plate was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of fer rite and pearlite in varying proportions with some slag inclusions. The surface hardness varies from 140 to 240 VPH. This is a variable-carbon (up to around 0.5% G in places) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Higgins Armory Museum, Worcester, Mass.


253

1543 A burgonet, signed by Filippo Negroli and dated 1543. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Gat.33) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 17.190.1720. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917.

Pearlite and ferrite with some rounded slag inclusions X 90

The specimen from inside the skull shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with some large areas of pearlite. The carbon content varies between 0.2% and 0.8%. Average microhardness — 254 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

254

SECTION FOUR

1540-45 A breastplate with embossed decoration, signed Giovan Paolo Negroli. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 14.25.1855 Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.43)

Three specimens were examined. (i) (illustrated) A specimen from within the right gusset shows a microstructure consisting of small grains of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.2%. Average microhardness = 212 VPH The other two were generally similar (ii) A specimen from within the breastplate shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little slag. Average microhardness = 106 VPH (iii) A specimen from within the left gusset shows a microstructure consisting of a mixture of ferrite and pearlite, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.5%. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.


255

1540-45 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 26.53 Purchase, Rogers Fund and Gift of George D. Pratt, 1926. Close helmet attributed to Giovan Paolo Ncgroli. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.46.)

(upper visor) Ferrite and pearlite X 90

Four specimens from this helmet were examined. (i) A specimen from within the upper visor (illustrated) shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little spheroidised pearlite, in small areas, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.2%, and not very much slag. Average microhardness =215 VPH The other three were generally similar (ii) A specimen from within the lower visor shows a microstructure consisting mostly of pearlite, with some grains of ferrite, corresponding to a steel of about 0.6%C. (iii) A specimen from within the bowl. The very small sample shows a microstructure con sisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little pearlite, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.3%, and only a few slag inclusions. (iv) A specimen from within the bevor shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little slag, and pearlite corresponding to a carbon content of less than 0.1%. Average microhardness = 218 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

256

SECTION F O U R

1545-50


A lower back defence embossed with scales; part of an armour "alia romana", of which the cuirass is now in St.Petersburg (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, 297-8.) When examined this was in Gastel Sant'Angelo, Rome.inv.no. 1574. Now in the Bargello, Florence, inv.no.M1551. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a mediumcarbon (around 0.4%G) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 232 VPH. Photograph by courtesy of the National Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome.


257

1545-55 An open burgonet with embossed decoration. Perhaps made in the Negroli workshops, after 1545. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Gat.37.) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 49.163.3 Gift of Alan Rutherford Stuyvesant; 1949.

The specimen taken from inside the skull shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little spheroidised pearlite, corresponding to a low-carbon steel of around 0.2%C which has undergone a good deal of hot working. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

258

SECTION F O U R

C1547 Hofjagd- und Riistkammcr, Vienna A. 783 Helmet belonging to the "Roman armour" of the Archduke Ferdinand II. Probably made by the Ncgroli around 1547-50. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.53)

(Section) Pcarlile and ferrite X 30

The cross-section shows a microstructurc of coarse pearlite mixed with some ferrite, and a band containing more fcrrite lying along one surface. These ferrite grains show some distortion, perhaps due a final cold working. Overall this is a steel of carbon content between 0.5% and 0.7%. Average microhardness = 299 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammcr, Vienna.


259

cl540-50 Stibbert Museum, Florcncc.inv.no. 11586. Pauldron for the left shoulder in the form of a lion's mask, probably made in Milan (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.56)

Pearlite and a little ferrite X 40

A specimen was taken from inside the pauldron. The microstructure consists of pearlite and a very little ferrite, corresponding to a steel of around 0.6%C. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence

260

SECTION FOUR

1540-50 A burgonet from the fragments of an armour "all'antica". Probably made in Milan. Royal Armoury, Turin C.48.


The microstructure consists of ferrite and slightly spheroidised pearlite, corresponding to an annealed steel of perhaps 0.5%C. Average microhardness = 213 VPH. This is illustrated in the catalogue ofBertolotto (cat.no. 7) wherein it is ascribed to the Negroli brothers. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin


261

A close helmet with a animal mask in the form of a lion. Possibly Italian from the middle of the 16th century. cl550 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 14.25.563


Four specimens were examined. (i) illustrated—The upper visor shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of fer rite with a little pearlite, with some slag inclusions. The pearlite shows some spheroidisation, and the carbon content is around 0.2%. (ii) The lower visor shows a microstructure consisting mostly of fine pearlite with a very little ferrite, especially associated with slag inclusions and cavities where slag has been. The carbon content is around 0.6%—0.7%, except where presumably, iron oxide on the slag has reacted with the carbon. (iii) The bevor shows a microstructure consisting mostly of grains of ferrite with a little distortion near to one surface, presumably clue to sampling, no pearlite, and some slag. (iv) The bowl shows a microstructure consisting mostly of areas of fine pearlite, surround ed by a network of ferrite grains, corresponding to a carbon content of around 0.7% Photograph reproduced by permission of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

262

SECTION F O U R

1550-55 Burgonet, possibly made in the Negroli workshops. Filippo worked with his brothers until 1557, but signed no works after 1545. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat. 39) Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna A.693

Cross-section: Pearlitc and ferrite X 25

The cross-section shows a microstructure of pearlitc and ferrite, corresponding to a car bon content of about 0.6% overall. The ferrite grains are largely to be found in 2 or 3 narrow bands. Average microhardness = 261 VPH Photograph reproduced by permission of the Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna


263

1550-55 Burgonet. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge M. 19-1938 This was possibly made in the Negroli workshops. (Pyhrr & Godoy, 1998, Cat.40.)

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: ^ % A •if.,' Ferrite, coarse pearlite and slag inclusions X 60

A sample was taken from the cuff of the right gauntlet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some rather elongated slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon (around 0.3%G) steel that has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 224 VPH.


277

1570-80 An armour garniture made in North Italy about 1570-80 for Giovan Battista Rota da Bergamo. Decorated with bands of etched and gilded strapwork. Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no. 19 (inv.no.B8).


A specimen from the 4th plate of the right tasset was examined. The microstructure con sists of ferrite and some slag inclusions. This is a carbon-free iron and not a steel. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

278

SECTION F O U R

cl570-80 An armour garniture made in North Italy about 1570-80 perhaps for Juan de la Cerda, duke of Medinaceli. Decorated with bands of etched and gilded strapwork. Royal Armoury, Turin cat.no.20 (inv.no.BIO).


A specimen from the rear of the right tasset was examined. The microstructure consists of rather divorced pearlite, ferrite and some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (up to 0.7%C in places) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 259 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Royal Armoury, Turin


279

1580 Netherlands Army Museum, Leiden (now in Delft). inv.no.3133/A6-2.

(section) Pearlite with bands of ferrite and elongated slag inclusions X 25

A half-armour decorated with etching in the so-called "Pisan" style with medallions, signed POMPE and dated 1580 (not illustrated). A specimen was taken from a pauldron. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlitc with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (up to around 0.4%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 209 VPH.

280

SECTION FOUR

C1580 An embossed half-armour made in Italy around 1580. Apparently not decorated with gilding. Chicago Institute of Art, inv.no. 1982.2648

Ferrite, a little pearlite, and slag X 40.

A sample was taken from a gauntlet. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with a few slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.3%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Chicago Institute of Art


281

C1580 Lateran Museum, inv.no.29162

Pearlite and corrosion cavities X 90

A cabasset from the third quarter of the 16th century, Italy, engraved with IP. A flake was taken from the rim. The microstructure consists of fine pearlitc and a few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies up to 249 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (around 0.5%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrica tion.

282

SECTION FOUR

cl580 An embossed half-armour made in Italy around 1580. Apparently never decorated with gilding. Wallace Collection. A 52.


283

Fcrrilc and slae X 50

A sample was taken from a gauntlet. The microstructure consists of ferritc and slag inclu sions only. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.

284

SECTION FOUR

c1580s An infantry cuirass ascribed (fancifully) to Pope Julius II, probably made in North Italy around 1570-1600. Latcran Museum, Rome,inv.no.2555.

Backplate: pearlitc and ferrite X 80; the mierostructure of the breastplate is very similar.

It is decorated with bands of etching and gilding with medallions. Samples were taken from the breast- and backplates. The mierostructure consists of ferrite and pearlitc with some slag inclusions. Both are medium-carbon steels (around 0.5%C) which have been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) breast = 232 VPH; back = 255 VPH.


285

:1580 An armour, probably made in North Italy around 1580 and decorated with bands of etch ing and gilding. By tradition from the Ducal armoury at Lucca, and now in the Royal Ar mouries, Leeds. 11.146.

vambrace section: ferrite and pearlite X 25

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gauntlet sample: ferrite and slag X 50

A vambrace was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and rather divorced pearlite with some rows of slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.2%G) which has been air-cooled after fabrication.

286

SECTION F O U R

The associated gauntlets have bands of etched and gilded decoration in the form of chev rons. It has been suggested (Boccia, 1983) that these were part of an armour made in Florence around 1600 for Cosimo II dei Medici, and now in Detroit. The microstructure of a spec imen from the left gauntlet consisted of ferrite and slag only. (See also Stibbert 2561). p.306 Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


287

C1580 An embossed half-armour made in Italy around 1580. Stibbert Museum, Florence.inv.no.3958

Pearlite and slag (helmet) X 60

Apparently not decorated with gilding. Samples were taken from the breast- and backplates and associated burgonet. The microstructure of the breastplate consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only, while that of the burgonet contains mostly pearlite. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence.

288

SECTION F O U R

C1580 A half-armour decorated with etching and gilding, with medallions, and probably made in North Italy around 1580. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, inv.no.M12.1933.

Pearlite and fcrrite X 60

A specimen was taken from inside the breastplate. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (up to 0.6%G in plac es) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) — 279 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cam bridge.


289

1580-85 A garniture made for a member of the Borromeo family, and signed P O M P E O . Made by Pompeo della Chiesa in Milan c. 1580-85. Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv. no.3476.

290

SECTION F O U R

The microstructures of these arc shown as being representative:

Breastplate: pearlite and ferrite X 90

ShafFron: pearlite X 50

The Borromco family included numerous generals, governors and archbishops of Milan, and even a saint (San Carlo Borromeo). Pompeo della Ccsa (or della Chiesa) was the son of Vincenzo, armourer to Alessandro Farnese, and others. He lived at Castello, where he had his workshop (Boccia, 1975). Specimens were taken from both pauldrons, greaves, tassets, kneecops, lower vambraces, the breast- and backplates, and the shaffron. The microstructures consist of pearlite and ferrite in varying proportions with some slag inclusions. This is generally made of steel whose carbon content varies from 0 to 0.7% (typically 0.3%C) and which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence.


291

1580-1600 A backplate, probably made in North Italy around 1570-1600, with etched decoration and medallions. Solothurn Zeughaus, inv.no. 123

(backplate) Ferrite and pearlite X 60

The cuirass is illustrated with helmet Z.281 (see below). The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a lowcarbon steel (around 0.2%C) that has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Old Arsenal Museum, Solothurn (Switzer land).

292

SECTION FOUR

c.1590 A morion. Solothurn Z.281

(morion) Ferrite and pearlite X 60

Like the associated backplate (see above) it is also decorated with bands of etching and medallions. Both probably made in Milan around 1580-1600. The microstructure also consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. The mo rion is a higher carbon steel (between 0.2%C and 0.5%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication.


293

cl590 A half-armour decorated with etching, and probably made in North Italy around 15801600. Higgins Armory Museum inv.no.425

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294

SECTION FOUR

A specimen was taken from the rear of the right couter. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlitc with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.1 %C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Higgins Armory Museum, Worcester, Mass.


295

1580-90 Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no.36 (inv.no.C70).

Ferrite and divorced pearlite X 160.

An armour decorated with bands of etching and gilding, and signed P O M P E O . Made in Milan around 1580-90. Specimens were taken from the left tasset and the skull of the close helmet. The microstructure (of both) consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. These are lowcarbon steels (around 0.3%C) which have been slowly cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 226 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin

296

SECTION FOUR

C1590 Parts of a garniture made for Wolf Dietrich von Raitcnau, Archbishop of Salzburg since 1587, in Milan by a master who employed the device of a two-towered castle. Bavarian National Museum, Munich. inv.no.W.1001/2.

Close-helmet and breastplate for the foot-tournament.


297


It is decorated with close-set bands of etched and gilded patterns. There is a pair of legdefences, which (W. 1465) is associated, but not part of the same garniture. They arc dec orated with bands of etching & gilding on a blackened ground in a similar, but not iden tical, pattern. Specimens were taken from the left leg and the rear saddle-steel. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (around 0.1 %C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardncss (average) = 120 VPH. Specimens were also taken from W. 1465. The microstructure consists of pearlite and fer rite with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon (around 0.5%C) steel which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardncss (average) = 238 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Bavarian National Museum, Munich.

Wackernagcl (19/7) 3 2 , reports: The tournament-breastplate is around 4.5 mm thick, whereas the rest of the garniture is made of 1-1.5 mm thick plates, with reinforces of 1-2.5 mm thickness.

298

SECTION FOUR

A half-armour from this same garniture is in the Wallace Collection. Wallace Collection, A.60.

Specimens were detached from inside the skull of the close helmet, the upper and lower parts of the right vambrace, both gauntlets, both elbows, and the backplate on both sides. The microstructure consists of pearlite and ferrite in varying proportions with some slag inclusions. This is a medium-carbon steel (from 0.1% to 0.6%C in places) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


299

1580-1600 A horseman's armour covered all over with patterns of etching and gilding. Stibbert Museum, Florence, inv.no.3461. Probably made in Italy around 1580-1600, perhaps for a member of the Visconti family.

(Breastplate) Ferrite and slag, with a few isolated areas of pearlitc X 120

Specimens were taken from the breast- and backplates, the comb of the close helmet skull, both cuisses, the right vambrace and the left pauldron. The microstructure in each specimen consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Stibbert Museum, Florence

300

SECTION F O U R

1590-95 An infantry armour decorated with bands of etching. It is signed P O M P E O . Made in Milan around 1590-95. Bears a (lance ?) hole in the right breast, which is approximately square in outline. Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no.37 (inv.no.C21).


Specimens were taken from the left pauldron and the edge of the hole. The microstructure (in both cases) consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a low-car bon steel (around 0.3%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph reproduced by permission of the Royal Armoury, Turin.


301

1590-1600 An armour decorated with an overall pattern of etching and gilding, and signed POMPE. Made in Milan by Pomeo della Chiesa around 1590-1600. Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no.38 (inv.no.B3).


Specimens were taken from the right cuisse and the lower part of the visor. The microstructure (in both cases) consists of ferrite and pearlite in varying proportions with few slag inclusions. This is a steel of carbon content up to 0.5% in places, which has been air-cooled after fabrication. The microhardness (average) = 192 VPH. Photograph reproduced by permission of Royal Armoury, Turin.

302

SECTION F O U R

C1600 An armour decorated all over with an (etched ?) pattern of stars and lilies, without gilding. Signed P O M P E and made by Pompeo della Chiesa around 1600 in Milan. Royal Armoury, Turin, cat.no.41 (inv.no.B35).

'?--"\

~^9a^ms^

t *

* Ferrite and carbides X 90

A specimen from within the helmet was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and an irresolvable material (which might be fine pearlite) with very few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 220 to 272; average = 250 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel which has probably undergone some form of accelerated cool ing. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.

T H E M E T A L L U R G Y O F NURNBERG

ARMOUR

1515-1535 The backplate from a composite horseman's armour, bearing a Nurnberg mark. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. M l . 1-1936.


The microstructure consists of ferrite, very little pearlite and slag inclusions only. Microhardness (average) = 209 VPH. Photograph courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.

613

614

SECTION FIVE

cl525 An armour of fluted form made for the Pfalzgraf Philip, probably by Wilhelm von Worms. Waffensammlung Schloss Ambras

A.238

Tempered martensitc (section)

X 30

A specimen from the lower rim of the skull of the close helmet was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of tempered martensitc and an acicular material (which is probably low-carbon martensitc) with few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 317 to 542; average = 488 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel which has been hardened by quenching and tempering. Photograph courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

THE METALLURGY OF NURNBERG ARMOUR

615

C1530 A pauldron, with the mark of Kunz Lochner, which was examined in cross-section. Royal Armouries, Leeds.III.737

Ferrite and pearlite, with a forgewelding line (section) X 20

The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. This is a lowcarbon steel (perhaps 0.3%C overall) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. There is a conspicuous forge-weld down the centre where the plate has been folded (not very com petently) in manufacture. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.

616

SECTION FIVE

cl530 A tailpiece in the form of a dragon from a lost horse armour, probably by Kunz Lochner of Niirnberg. Royal Armouries, Lceds.VI.319

Fine pearlite and ferrite

X 80

A specimen from within the rear aperture was examined. The microstructure consists of fine pearlite and ferrite with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 308 to 360; average = 339 VPH. This is a medium-carbon steel (perhaps 0.7%C) which has been subjected to some form of accelerated cooling after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


617

1520-1540 Germanisches National Museum, Ntirnberg, inv.no.W. 1342.

(backplate) ferrite and cementite

X 50

A fluted infantry armour (not illustrated) with a mark ascribed to Lorenz Paumgartner. A specimen from within the helmet was examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and slag inclusions only. This is a wrought iron. Another specimen from within the breastplate was also examined. The microstructure consists of ferrite and grain-boundary cementite with some slag inclusions (the carbon content is 0.1% or less). Photograph courtesy of the Germanisches National Museum, Nurnberg

618

SECTION FIVE

1531-1536 Bavarian National Museum, Munich, inv.no.W.646

(Breastplate) note one martensitic and two ferritic bands X 30

Martensite (dark grey) pearlite (light grey) ferrite (white areas) and long slag inclusions X 480.

Central band of martensite (and some areas of pearlite) between ferrite-pearlite bands; note the elongated slag inclusions near to the junc tion between the bands X 120.


619

Parts of an armour garniture made by Hans Ringler of Niirnberg, probably for the Pfalzgraf Otto Heinrich in 1531, and decorated with bands of etching and gilding. A specimen from within the breastplate was examined. The microstructure shows a band of martensite, together with some pearlite and very elon gated slag inclusions. The outer bands are mostly fcrrite. The microhardness varies from 155 VPH (ferritic bands) to 400 VPH (martensitic band). This is a banded steel which has been hardened by quenching and tempering. Photograph courtesy of the Bavarian National Museum, Munich. A closely related armour is in the Wallace Collection. This is a composite of several ar mours made for the same prince within a few years. Parts bear the dates 1532 and 1536. Wallace Collection, London.A.29.

Tempered martensite and ferrite X 100

The skull of the visored burgonet was examined in cross-section. The microstructure shows two bands of martensite with a central band of ferrite. There are some slag inclusions along the interface. These may well be the result of some process of folding and forging a billet of heterogeneous metal to make the armour plate. The order of the bands differs completely from BNM 646, although the same materials have been used, and is almost certainly adventitious. This is also a steel which has been hardened by quenching and tempering.

620

SECTION FIVE

Norman (1986, 9) points out that the gilding has been entirely renewed. This might ex plain why the martensite appears to have been tempered much more and has a distinctly granular appearance. Photograph courtesy of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.


ARMOUR

621

1530-1540 Royal Armouries, Leeds.III. 1199. A gauntlet (from a field armour) with the mark of Hans Ringler.

Section: X 30

Ferrite and tempered martensite X 120.

A lame from the wrist was examined in cross-section. The microstructure shows two bands of mixed ferrite and tempered martensite, with a central band of uniform tempered mar tensite. There are also numerous elongated slag inclusions, one of which has opened up into a corrosion crack. This plate has been made from a banded steel; one layer is of perhaps 0.6%C, the other two layers are of perhaps 0.3%C. The forge welding of these layers, whether they were offcuts of plates, or pieces of bloom, has not been very efficient, and much slag has been included. After fabrication it has been hardened by quenching and tempering.

Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.

622

SECTION FIVE

1530-1540 A plain armour with a Niirnberg mark. Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.4

Martensite and ferrite X 160


Boy's armour. II. 262.

ARMOUR

623

Ferrite, martensite and slag X 160

The left cuisse was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of tempered martensite with ferrite and some slag inclusions. The microhardness varies (with carbon content) from 150 VPH to 417 VPH. The left upper vambrace was also examined in cross-section. The microstructure con sists of two bands of pearlite and three bands of ferrite with elongated slag inclusions. The microhardness varies from 132 VPH to 178 VPH. The left lower vambrace was also examined in cross-section. The microstructure con sists of ferrite and a band of a granular material (which might be tempered low-carbon martensite) with a few slag inclusions. This has evidently been made from a banded steel

624

SECTION FIVE

of variable carbon content. After fabrication, it has been heat-treated (by quenching and tempering) with varying degrees of success. An associated boy's armour of very similar style is 11.262. Royal Armouries, Leeds.II.262. Its left cuisse was also examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and an acicular material, which may be low-carbon martensite, with few slag inclusions. Photographs © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


625

C1535 A burgonet made for Konrad von Bemelberg by Valentin Siebenbiirger Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna A.376.

(Cross-section) bands of fine pearlite and ferrite X 40

A specimen from the lower rim of the right cheekpiece of the helmet (below the falling buffe) was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of fine pearlite and ferrite arranged in bands across the sec tion with some slag inclusions. The carbon content varies between around 0.4% and 0.7%C. The microhardness varies according to the carbon content of the band: for each band 272-210-248-311; average = 264 VPH. Photograph courtesy of the Hofjagd- und Rustkammer, Vienna.

Note that there is another (associated) armour of the same owner with this serial number (see chapter 5.8).

I

1!

626

SECTION FIVE

cl540 Royal Armouries, Leeds. 11.33.

Ferrite and partly divorced pearlite (section) X 80

An armour with the marks of Niirnberg and a master's mark, apparently H M (Hans Michel ?)• A pauldron was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite (in very small areas) with a few slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 205 VPH. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.3%C) which has been slowly cooled after fabrication. Photograph © The Board of Trustees of the Armouries.


627

c!540 or possibly later A composite armour of fluted form, bearing a Niirnberg mark and an unidentified master's mark (a Jerusalem cross ?) on the gorget. There is also a mark (a gothic n) inside th e gorget. Wallace Collection, London. A.26

Ferrite and pearlite

X 50

628

SECTION FIVE

The cuirass is very similar to WC A.27 and KZ.1896 (sec below). Norman (1986, 7) quotes a suggestion of Thomas that these armours were made in a deliberately old-fashioned style in Niirnberg for a visit of Emperor Matthias in 1612. A specimen from within the lower vambrace was examined. The microstructure consists • of ferrite and pearlite with some slag inclusions. The microhardness (average) = 244 VPH. Photograph courtesy of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection

THE METALLURGY OF NURNBERG A R M O U R

16

629

century.

A horseman's armour, made in Niirnberg in the fluted style of the early 16th century, but possibly dating from much later. Swiss Landesmuseum, Zurich. inv.KZ1896

ferrite and pearlite X 240

The backplate was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of ferrite and a little pearlite with some elongated slag inclusions. This is a low-carbon steel (perhaps 0.2%C) which has been air-cooled after fabrication. Photograph courtesy of the Swiss Landesmuseum.

630

SECTION FIVE

C1540 The crinet from a horse- armour with the mark of Valentin Sicbenbiirger of Niirnberg Bavarian National Museum, Munich. inv.no.W.644.

..USE*

^- "' '--"^■■•.V^rvre ■ v «

V. .1.,, ^

"'

' ^

■ ■, A - * ^ *

.

- .1 . > \ ^ > ? .>,-

-

- - t ^ J -v. '.'>, later 8 florins, between 1578 and 1596 (a knightly armour would cost more, of course, maybe 35 florins). An infantry armour between 1579 and 1630 would cost 7 florins. The plate for an armour might cost 1.5 florins, the rest was the cost of making it. Armour plate was sold by the Sam (of about 140 kg) for 10-12 florins6. To buy an Innsbruck armour would then cost between 150 and 300 days' wages. The Eagle garniture was to cost twenty times the armour of the knight, but did include the com ponents for four armours. Thirty years later, the Roseleaf garniture would cost twice that. The more functional Graz armours would cost around 40 days' wages for an infantry ar mour and 175 for a knightly one. The production of armour at Augsburg was on a similar timescale to that at Innsbruck. According to the Regulations, those craftsmen wishing to be masters were to make a com plete armour, plain and undecorated, for which they would be allowed six months. Of course, their first works would be more slowly completed than later ones, but 150 days' labour was to be allowed for making them; the price would of course be higher than 150 days' wages, because overheads like fuel and profits would have to be allowed for7. In 1542, a mandate to the Lord Mayor of London was issued, fixing the price of ar mour 8 . This included An "Almain rivet of the best sort" An "Almain rivet of the second sort" and for a light-horseman, A "Demi-lance" with cuirass, vambrace, poleyns and head-piece with bevor

7 s 6d (38p) 6s 8d (33p)

45s {£ 2.25),

A somewhat better grade of infantry armour was usually available. For example, in 1590 the Armourers' Company unsuccessfully petitioned the Privy Council to place regular orders for munition armours in order to sustain the industry in England while reducing reliance on imports, relieve unemployment and replenish arsenals. The Company offered to sup3 6 7 8

Thomas & C a m b e r (1954) for prices of Innsbruck armour. Roth (1971). Reitzenstein (1960). Letters & Papers of Henry VIII, vol.XVII, 712.

906

SECTION EIGHT

ply 8000 armours over five years, charging for lance armours complete £ 3 6s 8d {£ 3.33), for a cuirass of proof with pauldrons £ 2 (without proof £ 1 6s 8d or £ 1.33) and for a burgonet 4s (20p). These armours would have varied in cost between 26 and 66 days' wages, but were to be considerably undercut by foreign suppliers. Large orders for very cheap armour for the infantry were placed by English governments, who in 1539 bought (carriage paid) 1200 "complete harness" from Koln for £ 454 and 2700 armours at Antwerp for £ 630. In 1560 Sir Thomas Gresham, Queen Elizabeth's agent in Flanders, exported 8000 infantry armours from Antwerp and then bought another 6000 which were exported from Hamburg 9 . These suppliers of armour in bulk to King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth, who were based in North Germany and the Netherlands, were probably those complained about ("Kolnish and Netherlandish") in the archives of Niirnberg and Augsburg, although we do not know for certain where the armour was actually made. The cost of the armour ordered for England works out at close to the regulation price of 1542 (Koln) approximately 7s 6d (0.38p), or 10 days' wages each; (Antwerp) approximately 4s 6d (23p) each, or 6 days' wages. The very low cost of such armour made it attractive to princes with large armies to equip. But none of it can be identified, since it was not marked, at least not with its genuine place of origin. However the extensive iron-making industry in the Siegerland and Sauerland areas (midway between the Netherlands and Niirnberg) coupled with a long-established tradi tion of armour-making there suggests Westphalia as a strong candidate (see below). Of course, different considerations applied to Greenwich armour. After the English Royal Armoury was set up at Greenwich, armour was made there virtually regardless of cost. The armourers were paid £ 10 a year, and the master-craftsman £ 26. Their products were not priced as such, since the King paid all the workshop's expenses, but in 1540 Erasmus Kirkener offered to make a complete armour for £ 8 and an undecorated garniture for £ 12. In the next century, the price under William Pickering (1612) had risen to £ 200 for a garniture, together with £ 140 for its decoration 10 . So a Greenwich armour cost 160 days' wages, but a princely garniture might cost twenty times that. Leydi has collected numerous documents relating to the Negroli family of armourers in Milan. In 1543 Giovan Paolo Negroli hired a master armourer at a salary of 40 scudi a year. In the 16th century, an unskilled worker or soldier might be paid 20 scudi a year, and a skilled worker twice that. In 1567 he sold 35 "inlaid" armours at 25 scudi each. By conrast, an armour made in 1547 for Luigi de Leiva cost 220 scudi, while a garniture made for Charles V in 1539 cost 1120 scudi. The Medusa shield made for Charles V in 1541 cost 350 scudi. Another commission for the emperor, a corselet, cost 200 scudi in 1545. Much of this price would have been for the gold used in its decoration. Pompeo della Cesa was not only the Court Armourer in Milan, making costly armours 9 10

Williams & de Reuck (1995) for prices of English armour. Burgon (1839) I, 325.

907

THE MASS-PRODUCTION OF ARMOUR

for princes, but at the other end of the market, he was engaged in mass-production orders with other armourers. In 1567 he contracted to supply a captain of Marseilles with 26 etched and gilt armours for men-at-arms, with matching saddles, chanfrons, etc. at 36 scudi each, and also 42 bowmen's armours, decorated with etching but not gilding, and without lower legs, at 24 scudi each. The entire order, worth some 1944 scudi, was to be delivered in five months. In 1569 a group of 26 armourers including Pompeo, a Piatti and two Negroli, undertook to deliver 1600 corselets within 5 months at a price of 6V2 scudi each. In 1584, Pompeo contracted with others to outfit a regiment; he was to supply 100 corselets "new and etched in the current style" at 11 gold scudi e a c h " . These purchase prices vary between 48 days' wages for a plain infantry armour and 270 days' wages for a decorated horseman's armour. Beyond this, a Negroli piece might cost ten times as much. These are of course only intended to give the most general indication of the time-scale involved in making armours, but it is significant that armour of the best quality does not seem to fall in price in real terms, remaining constantly at a price which entails at least 60 - 90 days' wages, but the cheapest armour falls to a price which can only include as few as 1 or 2 days labour. The garnitures mentioned were vastly expensive, but cannot be re garded as typical since a great deal of time and expense was devoted to their decoration. Table of armour costs cost of a foot-soldier 's armour

cost of a horseman's armour

equivalent days' wages

12 solidi

[6 oxen]

Date

Place

9* c

Frankish mail

1304

Bruges mail

£ Flem 10 - 20

1388

Westphalia mail

rg 4.6 (£ 1 .06)

1437

Westphalia

rg4.3

1441

£8.33 £5-£6

")

1468

England (Milanese armour) England (Milanese)

£7

J

1527

Innsbruck

fl 50 fl 25 (light horse)

1539

England (from Westphalia ?)

60 -130

25 100-166

300 150 10 6

£ 0.38 £0.23

1540

England (Greenwich)

£8

160

1547

Innsbruck

fl 1258*

7500

1542

England

£ 2-25

45

1551

Landshut

s 200

1500

1567

Milan

s 36

270

Leydi, in Pyrhh & Godoy (1998), 29-51 for prices of Milanese armour.

908

SECTION EIGHT

1000

1568

Landshut

fl 220

1569

Milan

1571

Landshut

(1 2550**

1578

Graz

fl 35

1583

Landshut

1596

Graz

1599

Landshut

48

s 6.f

15 000 175 25

5 fl fl 8 (light horse)

50

fl 5

25

1579- 1630 Graz

11 7

40

1584

Milan

s 11

80

1590

England (ABC)

£ 3.30

£i

66 26

[ox = 15 fl]

1600 Austria 1627 Landshut

20

fl 4.

* Adlergarnitur ** Rosenblattgarnitur £F = Flemish pound rg = rhenish guilders; fl = florins s = scudi ABC = Armourers' Company of London

Armour prices in Europe compared with wages +

infantry

A

knight

O

carpenter

T H E W E S T P H A L I A N IRON INDUSTRY

The largest deposits of iron ore in Germany, and which were extensively mined until re cently, are the Siegerland siderites (containing 29-31% Fe with up to 7% Mn). The reserves in 1960 were estimated at 40 million tons. A similar, but somewhat richer siderite ore on

T H E MASS-PRODUCTION OF ARMOUR

909

the Styrian Erzberg (32-35% Fe with up to 4% Mn) has been mined since Roman times 12 . The metal extracted from this ore was supplied to the workshops making high quality armour at Innsbruck and Greenwich, among other customers. The manufacture of armour in Westphalia is frequently mentioned from the 14th cen tury onwards. For example, in 1388 the purchase of 41 mail shirts in Iserlohn for 188 guilders is mentioned in the Niirnberg archives 13 . The Royal Armouries, Leeds possesses a 14th century mail shirt (III. 1320) which is signed on brass links by its maker "Bertold vor Parte to ysern Loen", i.e. Bertolt von Parte of Iserlohn (Iserlohn is about 20km SE of Dortmund). 12

Dunning & Evans (1986) vol.3. Die Chroniken der deutschen Stadte 1.1 (1862). I am greatly indebted to Dr. H.L. K n a u for this ref erence, and for those of notes' 4 and 1 5 . li

910

SECTION EIGHT

In 1437, one Gerhard Stacke of Iserlohn a n d j o h a n n Levenicht of Soest received 1300 Rheinische Gulden for 300 armours 14 . It is very interesting to note that these were cheap er (4.3 guilders each) than the mail shirts of fifty years earlier (4.6 guilders each). They were also much cheaper than armours available in England. In 1479 King Louis XI of France had recruited 6000 Swiss pikemen at an annual salary of 54 Rhenish florins. So these armours cost about 25 days' wages. According to the German economic historian, Stahlschmidt, in the mid 16th century, armour from Koln was "frequently to be found in Niirnberg", as was mail from Westpha lia, that is to say, probably from Iserlohn; and in 1575 a contract was signed in Dortmund for the supply of 1000 plain Landsknechts harnesses 15 .

References Boynton, L. " T h e Elizabethan militia 1558-1638" (1967) Burgon, J.W. Life of Sir Thomas Gresham (2 vols, 1839). Die Chroniken der Stadt Niirnberg (Die Chroniken der deutschen Stadte 1.1), vol. 1, (Leipzig 1862, reprinted Stuttgart 1961) 260 and 271. Dasseler, E. "Sauerlandische Geschichtsquellen und Forschungen", III (Werdohl 1958). Dunning, F.W & Evans, A.M. eds. "Mineral Deposits of Europe" Vol.3. (1986) Feldhugel, P. "Geschichte der Stadt Schwerte" Beitrage zur Geschichte Dortmunds und der Grafschaft Mark, 34, (Dortmund 1927) 18. Letters & Papers of King Henry VIII, part 2, appendix 14. Mann, J.G. "A further account of the armour in the Sanctuary of the M a d o n n a delle Grazie" Archaeologia, 87 (1938) 311-352 Reitzenstein, A.von "Die Ordnung der Augsburger Plattner" Waffen- und Kostiimkunde, new series; 2 (Munich, 1960) 96-100. Reitzenstein, A.von "Die Landshuter Plattner, ihre O r d n u n g und ihre Meister" Waffen- und Kostiimkunde, new series; 11 (Munich, 1969) 20-32. Roth, P.W. "Wieviel kostet ein harnisch ?" in: Der Grazer Harnisch in der Tiirkenabwehr, ed. Krenn, P. (1971) 22-24. Sella, D. " T h e iron industry in Italy, 1500-1650" in Kellenbenz, H. Schwerpunkte der Eisengewinnung und Eisen verarbeitung in Europa 1500-1650 (Koln, 1974) 91-105. Stahlschmidt, R. "Die Geschichte des eisenverarbeitenden Gewerbes in Niirnberg von den 1 .Nachrichten im 12.-13. Jahrhundert bis 1630", Schriftenreihe des Stadtarchivs Niirnberg, vol. 4, page 137. Thorold Rogers, J.E. "A history of agriculture and prices in England 1259-1793" (7 vols, 1866-1902).

14 15

Dasseler (1958) No. 135, 55. Feldhugel (1927) 18.

SECTION NINE

PROTECTION

C H A P T E R 9.1

THICKNESS OF ARMOUR

As well as the measurements outlined on single suits, a general survey of a fairly large number of armours was undertaken to show how average values changed over the period of time when firearms were coming into general use. This survey was carried out mostly in the Hofjagd- und Riistkammer, Vienna as well as in the Landeszeughaus, Graz, the Royal Armouries, when it was in the Tower of London and the Wallace Collection, London. A dial-gauge was employed which gave readings directly. The front of the breastplate was measured in four places, and an average taken.

Date approx.

Museum inventory number

Thickness of the breastplate horseman's infantry (mm) (mm)

1470

W C L A.21

upper 1.9 lower 1.9

1490

HJR A.183

2.1

1500 1500 1510

WCL A.209 WCL A.214 WCL A.22

2.2 2.5 1.5

1515 1520 1520 1520 1520

HJR A. 342 Graz cat.2. Graz 1226 Graz 1225A Graz

2.4 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.9

1520 1520 1520 1520 1520

Graz 1229 HJR A.619 RAIII.1085 RAUL 1086 HJR A. 1061

2.2

1520 1530 1530 1530 1530

HJR A.262 RAIII.79 HJR A.350 HJR A.974 HJR A. 1196

2.1

1531 1535 1550

HJR A. 351 HJR A.528 Graz (W)

3.3 3.3

3.5 3.4 2.0 2.5

2.0 1.9 2.4

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The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period (History of Warfare, 12)

A History of the Church in the Middle Ages

A History of the Modern Middle East

Streams of History: The Middle Ages

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History of Warfare: The Second World War In The East (The History of Warfare)

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