The Historical Jesus (Critical Concepts in Religious Studies), 4 vols

THE HISTORICAL JESUS

THE HISTORICAL JESUS Critical Concepts in Religious Studies

Edited by Craig A. Evans

Volume I

The History of the Quest: Classical Studies and Critical Questions

~~ ~~~:~:~f!~p LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2004 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 W~t 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Rout/edge isjan imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

Editorial matter *nd selection© 2004 Craig A. Evans; individual dwners,retain copyright in their own material Typeset in ;:{mes by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested.

ISBN 0-415-32750-4 (Set) ISBN 0-415-32751-2 (Volume I)

Publisher's Note References within each chapter are as they appear in the original complete work.

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

THE HISTORY OF THE QUEST: CLASSIC STUDIES AND CRITICAL QUESTIONS

Acknowledgements Chronological table

XV

xix

General introduction

1

Introduction to volume I

5

PART I Classic Studies

11

1 The real intention of the Aposdes

13

HERMANN S. REIMARUS

2 Concluding dissertation: the dogmatic import of the life of Jesus

32

DAVID F. STRAUSS

3 The essential nature of the work of Jesus

72

ERNEST RENAN

4 Against the life·of·Jesus movement

80

MARTIN KAHLER

5 Introduction

99

JAMES M. ROBINSON

V

CONTENTS

6 Introduction: view-point and method and The historical background for the ministry of Jesus

121

RUDOLF BULTMANN

7 The problem of the historical Jesus

133

ERNST KASEMANN

159

8 The quest of the historical Jesus ERNST FUCHS

9 The problem of the historical Jesus

176

JOACHIM JEREMIAS

191

10 The possibility of a new quest JAMES M. ROBINSON

11 The primitive Christian kerygma and the historical Jesus

211

RUDOLF BULTMANN

PART2

Critical Questions: Miracle and Myth

233

12 Introduction: development of the mythical point of view in relation to the Gospel histories

235

DAVID F. STRAUSS

13 Non-historical theories

306

MAURICE GOGUEL

14 New Testament and mythology: the mythological element in the message of the New Testament and the problem of its re-interpretation

323

RUDOLF BULTMANN

15 Mythology and the New Testament a review of Kerygma 359

und Mythos AMOS N. WILDER

16 Myth and Gospel: a discussion of the problem of demythologizing the New Testament message GONTHER BORNKAMM

VI

371

CONTENTS

PARTJ

Critical Questions: Presuppositions and Criteria of Authenticity

391

17 The authenticity of Jesus' sayings

393

FREDERICK C. GRANT

18 The quest for the historical Jesus: a discussion of methodology

400

WILLIAM 0. WALKER

418

19 Christology and methodology M. D. HOOKER

20 An examination of the criteria for distinguishing the authentic words of Jesus

427

D. G. A. CALVERT

439

21 On using the wrong tool M. D. HOOKER

22 Literary criteria in life of Jesus research: an evaluation and proposal

451

RICHARD N. LONGENECKER

VOLUME 11

THE TEACHING OF JESUS

Acknowledgements

vii

Introduction to volume 11

1

PART I

Parables and Kingdom of God

5

23 The nature and purpose of the Gospel parables

7

C. H. DODO

24 Parables: their meaning and nature and The Kingdom of Heaven

20

ETA LINNEMANN

25 The setting

45

JOACHIM JEREMIAS

vii

CONTENTS

26 Similitudes, parables, illustrations, allegories

61

W. 0. E. OESTERLEY

27 If we do not cut the parables out of their frames

93

BIRGER GERHARDSSON

28 Introduction and Extracts from Jesus' Proclamation of the Kingdom of God

107

JOHANNES WEISS

29 The imminent future of the Kingdom of God

120

WERNER G. K0MMEL

30 The Kingdom of God expels the Kingdom of Satan

147

RUDOLF OTTO

31 The Kingdom of God in the proclamation of Jesus

156

REGINALD H. FULLER

32 On understanding the Kingdom of God

180

ERICH GRASSER

33 Jesus and the language of the kingdom

199

NORMAN PERRIN

34 Regnum Dei Dens Est

213

BRUCE D. CHILTON

35 Jesus as inaugurator of the Kingdom of God

221

MARINUS DE JONGE

PART2

Ethics and Piety

243

36 The ethical teaching of Jesus JOSEPH KLAUSNER

37 The original teaching of Jesus and the ethics ofthe early Church

262

T. W. MANSON

38 The teacher

272

C. H. DODO

viii

CONTENTS

39 God as father in the proclamation and in the prayer of Jesus

289

DIETER ZELLER

40 Jesus and the quest for holiness: the alternative paradigm

301

MARCUS J. BORG

41 Alms, debt and divorce: Jesus' ethics in their Mediterranean context

320

JOHN S. KLOPPENBORG

339

42 Jesus and ethics PHEME PERKINS

VOLUME Ill

JESUS' MISSION, DEATH, AND RESURRECTION

Acknowledgements

ix

Introduction to volume Ill

1

PARTl

Mission and Self-Understanding

5

43 Purpose, aim and motive in Jesus

7

H. J. CADBURY

44 Die Frage nach dem messianischen Bewu8tsein Jesu

24

OTTO BETZ

45 How much did Jesus know? - A survey of the Biblical evidence

50

RAYMOND E. BROWN

46 The son of Man in contemporary debate

83

I. HOWA RD MA RSHALL

47 The sonsbip of the historical Jesus in Christology

104

RICHARD BA UCKHAM

48 Did Jesus know he was God?

118

RA YMOND E. BROWN

ix

CONTENTS

49 Why did Jesus have to die?

129

P. STUHLMACHER

50 Messianic ideas and their inftuence on the Jesus of history

144

J. D. G. DUNN

51 Jesus' ministry and self-understanding

161

BEN F. MEYER

52 Jesus' self-understanding

176

C. M. TUCKETT

PART2

The Death of Jesus

197

53 The bearing of the Rabbinical criminal code on the Jewish trial narratives in the Gospels

199

H. DANBY

54 The trial of Christ in the Synoptic Gospels

224

A. N. SHERWIN-WHITE

55 The burial of Jesus (Mark 15:42--47)

241

RA YMOND E. BROWN

56

"Where no one had yet been laid": the shame of Jesus' burial

253

BYRON R. McCANE

57

"Are you the Messiah?" Is the crux of Mark 14:61-62 resolvable?

272

JAMES D. G. DUNN

PART3

The Resurrection of Jesus

291

58 The appearances of the risen Christ: an essay in form-criticism of the Gospels

293

C. H. DODD

59 Is the resurrection an 'historical' event? GERALD O'COLLINS

X

317

CONTENTS

324

60 Was the tomb really empty? ROBERT H. STEIN

61 Resurrection: fact or illusion?

332

EDUARD SCHWEIZER

62 Luminous appearances of the risen Christ

352

GERALD O'COLLINS

63 The essential physicality of Jesus' resurrection according to the New Testament

360

ROBERT H. GUNDRY

64 The resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth

377

PHEME PERKINS

395

65 The resurrection of Jesus Christ C. E. B. CRANFIELD

VOLUME IV

LIVES OF JESUS AND JESUS OUTSIDE THE BIBLE

Acknowledgements

ix

Introduction to volume IV

1

PARTl

Lives of .Jesus

3

66 Chapters VIII-XII from The Life of Jesus

5

ERNEST RENAN

67 The public life of Christ to the time of his arrest

31

F. E. D. SCHLEIERMACHER

68 A great day in the life of Jesus

57

F. W. FARRAR

69 The healing of the woman - Christ's personal appearance the raising of Jairus' daughter ALFRED EDERSHEIM

xi

67

CONTENTS

70 Jesus and the Messiahship

85

WILHELM BOUSSET

71 The crisis in Galilee

90

MAURICE GOGUEL

72 The recognition of Jesus by men

Ul

WILLIAM BARCLA Y

130

73 Discipleship and the Kingdom E. W. SAUNDERS

149

74 The upper room EVERETT F. HARRISON

PART2

.Jesus Outside the Bible

161

Jesus in the Agrapha and Extracanonical Gospels

161

75 'Unwritten' sayings and Apocryphal Gospels

163

F. F. BRUCE

76 Extracanonical parables and the historical Jesus

186

WILLIAM D. STROKER

77 Jesus in the agrapha and apocryphal gospels

210

JAMES H. CHARLESWORTH AND CRAIG A. EVANS

Gospel of Peter

263

78 The Gospel of Peter and canonical Gospel priority

265

RA YMOND E. BROWN

Gospel of Thomas 79 The Gospel of Thomas: a secondary Gospel

289

KLYNE R. SNODGRASS

Papyrus Egerton 2

309

80 Papyrus Egerton 2 (the Unknown Gospel) - part of the Gospel of Peter?

311

DAVID F. WRIGHT

xii

CONTENTS

Secret Gospel of Mark

331

81 The relation of "The Secret Gospel of Mark" to the Fourth Gospel

333

RAYMOND E. BROWN

Jesus in non-Christian Sources

353

82 Research on the historical Jesus today: Jesus and the Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Nag Hammadi Codices, Josephus, and archaeology

355

JAMES H. CHARLESWORTH

83 Jesus in non-Christian sources

375

CRAIG A. EVANS

409

Index

xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Volume I

The publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reprint their material: SCM Press for permission to reprint Hermann S. Reimarus, "The real intention of the Apostles", in C. H. Talbert (ed.), Reimarus: Fragments, translated by Ralph S. Fraser (London: SCM Press, 1970), pp. 240-269. David F. Strauss, "Concluding dissertation: the dogmatic import of the life of Jesus", reprinted from The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, translated by George Eliot (London: Chapman, 1846), pp. 757-784. Copyright © J972 Fortress Press (www.fortresspress.com). Used by permission of Augsberg Fortress. Random House for permission to reprint Ernest Renan, "The essential nature of the work of Jesus" in The Life of Jesus (New York: Random, 1955), pp. 277-289. Martin Kahler, "Against the life-of-Jesus movement", reprinted from Car! E. Braaten (ed.), The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic, Biblical Christ, translated by Carl E. Braaten (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1964), pp. 46-71. Copyright© 1964, 1988 Fortress Press (www.fortresspress.com). Used by permission of Augsberg Fortress. Palgrave Macmillan for permission to reprint James M. Robinson, "Introduction", in Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, translated by W. Montgomery (New York: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 1-12. SCM Press for permission to reprint Ernst Kasemann, "The problem of the historical Jesus", in Essays on New Testament Themes, translated by W. J. Montague (Studies in Biblical Theology 41; London: SCM Press, 1964), pp. 15-47. SCM Press for permission to reprint Emst Fuchs, "The quest of the historical Jesus", in Studies of the Historical Jesus, translated by Andrew Scobie (Studies in Biblical Theology 42; London: SCM Press, 1964), pp. 11-31. XV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Reprinted from Joachim Jeremias, The Problem of the Historical Jesus (Facet Books: Biblical Series 13; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964), pp. 1-21. Copyright© 1964 Fortress Press (www.fortresspress.com). Used by permission of Augsburg Fortress. SCM Press for permission to reprint James M. Robinson, "The possibility of a new quest", in A New Quest of the Historical Jesus (Studies in Biblical Theology 25; London: SCM Press, 1959), pp. 48-72. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge for permission to reprint Rudolf Bultmann, "New Testament and mythology: the mythological element in the message of the New Testament and the problem of its reinterpretation", in Hans-Werner Bartsch (ed.), Kerygma and Myth: A Theological Debate, translated by Reginald H. Fuller (London: SPCK, 1953), pp. 1-44. The Society of Biblical Literature for permission to reprint Amos N. Wilder, "Mythology and the New Testament: a review of Kerygma und Mythos",Journal of Biblical Literature, 69, 1950, pp. 113-127. Waiter de Gruyter for permission to reprint Frederick C. Grant, "The authenticity of Jesus' sayings", in W. Eltester (ed.), Neutestamentliche Studien ftlr Rudolf Bultmann (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die neutestament/iche Wissenschaft, 21; Berlin: Topelmann, 1954), pp. 137-143. Seabury for permission to reprint William 0. Walker, "The quest for the historical Jesus: a discussion of methodology", Anglican Theological Review, 51, 1969, pp. 38-56. M. D. Hooker, "Christology and methodology", New Testament Studies, 17, 1970-1971, pp. 480-487. Copyright © Cambridge University Press, reprinted with permission.

D. G. A. Calvert, "An examination of the criteria for distinguishing the authentic words of Jesus", New Testament Studies, 18, 1972, pp. 209-219. Copyright© Cambridge University Press, reprinted with permission. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge for permission to reprint M. D. Hooker, "On using the wrong tool", Theology, 75, 1972, pp. 570-581. Richard N. Longenecker, "Literary criteria in life of Jesus research: an evaluation and proposal", in G. F. Hawthorne (ed.), Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation. Copyright © 1975 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, USA. Used by permission.

xvi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Disclaimer The publishers have made every effort to contact authors/copyright holders of works reprinted in The Historical Jesus: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. This has not been possible in every case, however, and we would welcome correspondence from those individuals/companies who we have been unable to trace.

xvii

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF REPRINTED CHAPTERS AND ARTICLES -Date

Author

Chapter/article

Source

1846

David F. Strauss

Concluding dissertation: the dogmatic import of the life of Jesus

1846

David F. Strauss

Introduction: development of the mythical point of view in relation to the Gospel histories

The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, translated I by George Eliot (London: Chapman, 1846), pp. 757-784. (Originally published as Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet, Ttibingen: C. F. Osiander, 1835-1836.) The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, translated I by George Eliot (London: Chapman, 1846), pp. 39-92. (Originally published as Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet, Tubingen: C. F. Osiander, 1835-1836.) IV Life of Christ (New York: Dutton, 1874), pp. 227-243. IV The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (New York: Randolph; London: Longmans, 1883), pp. 616-634.

1874

F. W. Farrar

A great day in the life of Jesus

1883

A. Edersheim

The healing of the woman -Christ's personal appearance- the raising of Jairus' daughter (St. Matt. ix. 18-26; St. Mark v. 21-43; St. Luke viii. 40--56) Jesus and the Messiahship

;>
t:l:l 29

10

r m

1960

W. Barclay

1960

T. W.Manson

1962

The recognition of Jesus by men

The original teaching of Jesus and the ethics of the early Church Gtinther Bomkamm Myth and Gospel: a discussion of the problem of demythologizing the New Testament message

~

~: 1963

0. Betz

1963

J. Jeremias

Die Frage nach dem messianischen BewuBtsein Jesu The setting

1963

A. N. SherwinWhite

The trial of Christ in the Synoptic Gospels

1964

Rudolf Bultmann

The primitive Christian kerygma and the historical Jesus

The Mind of Jesus (London: SCM Press, 1960), pp. 167-176. Ethics and the Gospel (London: SCM Press, 1960), pp. 87-103. C. E. Braaten and R. A. Harrisville (eds), Kerygma and History: A Symposium on the Theology of Rudolf Bultmann, translated by C. E. Braaten and R. A. Harrisville (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962), pp. 172-196. (Originally published as 'Mythos und Evangelium. Zur Diskussion des Problemes der Entmythologisierung der neutestamentlichen Verktindigung', in G. Bomkamm and W. Klaas (eds), Mythos and Evange/ium. Zum Programm R. Bultmanns, Theologische Existenz heute 26; Munich: Kaiser, 1951.) Novum Testamentum, 6,1963, pp. 20--48.

IV

72

11

37

I

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0

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Ill

44

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The Parables of Jesus, translated by S. H. Hooke 11 (London: SCM Press, 1963), pp. 9~114. (Originally published as Die Gleichnisse Jesu, Zurich: Zwingli, 1947.) Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Ill Testament (The Sarum Lectures 1960-1961; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 24--47. C. E. Braaten and R. A. Harrisville (eds), The I Historical Jesus and the Kerygmatic Christ, translated by C. E. Braaten and R. A. Harrisville (Nashville: Abingdon, 1964), pp. 15-42. (Originally published as Das Verhiiltnis der urchrist/ichen Christusbotschaft zum historischen Jesus, Heidelberg: Winter, 1960.)

25

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54 11

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1964

Ernst Fuchs

The quest of the historical Jesus

1964

Joachim Jeremias

The problem of the historical Jesus

1964

Martin Kahler

Against the Iife-of-Jesus movement

1964

1966

1967 1967 1967

Ernst Kasemann

E. Linnemann

The problem of the historical Jesus

Similitudes, parables, illustrations, allegories

Raymond E. Brown How much did Jesus know? -A survey of the Biblical evidence G. G. O'Collins Is the resurrection an 'historical' event? E. W. Saunders Discipleship and the Kingdom

Swdies of the Historical !ems, translated by Andrew Scobie (Studies in Biblical Theology 42; London: SCM Press, 1964), pp. 11-31. (Originally published as 'Die Frage nach dem historischen Jesus', Zeitschrift fUr Theologie und Kirche, 53, 1956, pp. 210-229.) The Problem of the Historical Jesus (Facet Books: Biblical Series 13; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964), pp. 1-21. Cad E. Braaten (ed.), The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic, Biblical Christ, translated by Carl E. Braaten (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1964), pp. 46-71. (Originally published as Der sogenannte historische Jesus und der geschichtliche, biblische Christus, Leipzig: A. Deichert, 1892.) Essays on New Testament Themes, translated by W. J. Montague (Studies in Biblical Theology 41; London: SCM Press, 1964), pp. 15-47. (Originally published as 'Das Problem des historischen Jesus', Zeitschrift fUr Theologie und Kirche, 51, 1954, pp. 125-153.) Parables of Jesus: Introduction and Exposition, translated by John Sturdy (London: SPCK, 1966), pp. 3-33. (Originally published as Gleichnisse Jesu: Einfiihrung und Auslegung, Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1961.) Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 29, 1967, pp. 315-345.

I

8

I

9

I

4

Ill

45

Heythrop Journal, 8, 1967, pp. 381-387.

Ill

59

Jesus in the Gospels (Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, 1967), pp. 184-204.

IV

73

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1968

Everett F. Harrison The upper room

1968

James M. Robinson Introduction

1969

William 0. Walker The quest for the historical Jesus: a discussion of methodology The real intention of the Apostles Herrnann S. Reimarus

1970

~

~


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(1 Tim. iii. 16). The baptismal formula (Matt. xxviii. 19), by its allocation of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, presented a sort of framework in which to arrange the materials of the new faith. On this basis was constructed in the first centuries what was called the rule of faith, regula fidei, which in divers forms, some more concise, others more diffuse, some more popular, others more subtle, is found in the different fathers. 5 The more popular form at length settled into what is called the creed of the apostles. This symbol, in that edition of it which is received in the evangelical church, has in its second and most elaborate article on the Son, the following points of belief: et (credo) in Jesum Christum, filium ejus (Dei patris) unicum, Dominum nostrum; qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancta, natus ex Maria virgine; passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucijixus, mortuus et sepultus, descendit ad inferna; tertia die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit ad ctelos, sedet ad dextram Dei patris omnipotentis; inde venturus est, judicare vivos et mortuos. Together with this popular form of the confession of faith in relation to Christ, there was also framed a more rigorous and minute theological digest, occasioned by the differences and controversies which early arose 36

THE DOGMATIC IMPORT OF THE LIFE OF JESUS

on certain points. The fundamental thesis of the Christian faith, that the Word was made flesh, 6 A6yoc, crap~ eyeveto, or, God was manifested in the flesh, 8eOC, e<jlavepm8T) ev crapKt, was endangered on all sides, one questioning the Godhead, another the manhood, and a third the veritable union of the two natures. It is true that those who, like the Ebionites, denied the Godhead, or like that sect of the Gnostics called Docetre, the manhood of Christ, separated themselves too decidedly from the Christian community, which on her part maintained that it was necessary that the mediator of God and man should unite both in friendship and harmony by means of a proper relationship to each, and that while he represented man to God, he should reveal God to man, EOEt 'tOV J.leO"t'tT)V 8eou 'te Kat av8pmm:ov Ota io\.ac, npoc, £Kat£pouc, oiKetO'tT)toc, eic, <jltA.I.av Kat OJ.16vmav touc, UJJ.<jlot£pouc, cruvayaye'lv, Kat Se(\) J.!Ev n;apacrtfjcrat 'tOV av8pronov, av8pmnotc, o£ yvropl.crat 'tOV 8e6v.6 But when it was merely the plenitude of the one nature or the other, which was contested,-as when Arius maintained that the being who became man in Christ was indeed divine, but created, and subordinate to the supreme God; when, while ascribing to Christ a human body, he held that the place of the soul was occupied by that superior being; when Apollinaris maintained that not only the body of Jesus was truly human, but his soul also, and that the divine being only served in the stead of the third principle in man, the vouc, (understanding);-these were opinions to which it was easier to give a Christian guise. Nevertheless the Church rejected the Arian idea of a subordinate God become man in Jesus, for this reason among others less essential, that on this theory the image of the Godhead would not have been manifested in Christ;7 and she condemned the idea of Arius and Apollinaris, that the human nature of Christ had not the human \lfUXTJ (soul), or the human vouc; (understanding), for this reason chiefly, that only by the union of the divine, with an entire human nature, could the human race be redeemed. 8 Not only might the one or the other aspect of the nature of Christ be defaced or put out of sight, but in relation also to the union of the two, there might be error, and again in two opposite directions. The devout enthusiasm of many led them to believe, that they could not draw too closely the newly-entwined bond between heaven and earth; hence they no longer wished to distinguish between the Godhead and manhood in Christ, and since he had appeared in one person, they acknowledged in him only one nature, that of the Son of God made flesh. Others, more scrupulous, could not reconcile themselves to such a confusion of the divine and the human: it seemed to them blasphemous to say that a human mother had given birth to God: hence they maintained that she had only borne the man whom the Son of God selected as his temple; and that in Christ there were two natures, united indeed so far as the adoration of his followers was concerned, but distinct as regarded their essence. To the 37

THE HISTORY OF THE QUEST

Church, both these views appeared to encroach on the mystery of the incarnation: if the two natures were held to be permanently distinct, then was the union of the divine and human, the vital point of Christianity, destroyed; if a mixture of the two were admitted, then neither nature in its individual quality was capable of a union with the other, and thus again no true unity would be attained. Hence both these opinions were condemned, the latter in the person of Eutyches, the former, not with equal justice, in that of Nestorius; and as the Nicene creed established the true Godhead of Christ, so that of Chalcedon established his true and perfect manhood, and the union of the two natures in one undivided personY When subsequently there arose a controversy concerning the will of Christ, analogous to that concerning his nature, the Church, in accordance with its previous decisions, pronounced that in Christ, as the God-man, there were two wills, distinct but not discordant, the human will being subordinate to the divine. 10 In comparison with the controversies on the being and essence of Christ, the other branch of the faith, the doctrine of his work, was developed in tranquillity. The most comprehensive view of it was this: the Son of God, by assuming the human nature, gave it a holy and divine character11-above all he endowed it with immortality; 12 while in a moral view, the mission of the Son of God into the world being the highest proof of the love of God, was the most efficacious means of awakening a return of love in the human breast. 13 To this one great effect of the appearance of Christ, were annexed collateral benefits: his salutary teaching, his sublime example, were held up to view, 14 but especial importance was attached to the violent death which he suffered. The idea of substitution, already given in the New Testament, was more fully developed: the death of Jesus was regarded, now as a ransom paid by him to the devil for the liberation of mankind, who had fallen into the power of the evil one through sin; now as a means devised by God for removing guilt, and enabling him to remit the punishment threatened to the sins of man, without detriment to his truthfulness, Christ having taken that punishment on himself. 15 The latter idea was worked up Anselm, in his book entitled Cur Deus homo, into the well known theory of satisfaction, by which the doctrine of Christ's work of redemption is placed in the closest connexion with that of his person. Man owes to God perfect obedience; but the sinner-and such are all menwithholds from God the service and honour which are His due. Now God, by reason of his justice, cannot suffer an offence against his honour: therefore, either man must voluntarily restore to God that which is God's, nay, must, for complete satisfaction, render to him more than he has hitherto withheld; or, God must as a punishment take from man that which is man's, namely, the happiness for which he was originally created. Man is not able to do the former; for as he owes to God all the duties that he can pedorm, in order not to fall into sin, he can have no overplus of merit, 38

THE DOGMATIC IMPORT OF THE LIFE OF JESUS

wherewith to cover past sins. On the other hand, that God should obtain satisfaction by the infliction of eternal punishment, is opposed to his unchangeable goodness, which moves him actually to lead man to that bliss for which he was originally destined. This, however, cannot happen consistently with divine justice, unless satisfaction be made for man, and according to the measure of that which has been taken from God, something be rendered to him, greater than all else except God. But this can be none other than God himself; and as, on the other hand, man alone can satisfy for man: it must therefore be a God-man who gives satisfaction. Moreover this cannot consist in active obedience, in a sinless life, because every reasonable being owes this to God on his own behalf; but to suffer death, the wages of sin, a sinless being is not bound, and thus the satisfaction for the sins of man consists in the death of the God-man, whose reward, since he himself, as one with God, cannot be rewarded, is put to the account of man. This doctrinal system of the ancient church concerning the person and work of Christ, passed also into the confessions of the Lutheran churches, and was still more elaborately developed by their theologians. 16 With regard to the person of Christ, they adhered to the union of the divine and human natures in one person: according to them, in the act of this union, unitio personalis, which was simultaneous with the conception, it was the divine nature of the Son of God which adopted the human into the unity of its personality; the state of union, the unio personalis, was neither essential, nor yet merely accidental, neither mystical nor moral, still less merely verbal, but a real and supernatural union, and eternal in its duration. From this union with the divine nature, there result to the human nature in Christ certain pre-eminent advantages: namely, what at first appears a deficiency, that of being in itself impersonal, and of having personality only by its union with the divine nature; further, impeccability, and the possibility of not dying. Besides these special advantages, the human nature of Christ obtains others also from its union with the divine. The relation of the two natures is not a dead, external one, but a reciprocal penetration, a 1t£PtXOOPlltov EK wuxfl