The German Problem Transformed: Institutions, Politics, and Foreign Policy, 1945-1995 (Social History, Popular Culture, and Politics in Germany)

The German Problem Transformed

Social History, Popular Culture, and Politics in Germany Geoff Eley, Series Editor A History of Foreign Labor in Germany, 1880-1980: Seasonal Workers/Forced Laborers/Guest Workers, Ulrich Herbert, translated by William Templer Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck, GeotI Eley The Stigma of Names: Antisemitism in German Dail.v Life, 1812-1933, Dietz Bering Forhidden Laughter: Popular Humor and the Limits of Repression in NineteenthCentury Prussia, Mary Lee Townsend From Bundesrepublik to Deutschland: German Politics afier Unification, Michael G. Huelshoff, Andrei S. Markovits, and Simon Reich, editors The People Speak.' Anti-Semitism and Emancipation in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria, James F. Harris The Origins 0/ the Authoritarian Welfare State in Prussia: Consen'Clfives, Bureaucracy, and the Social Question, 1815-70, Hermann Beck Technological Democracy: Bureaucracy and Citizenrv in the German Energy Dehate, Carol J. Hager Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870-1930, Geoff Eley, editor Paradoxes a/Peace: German Peace Movements since 1945, Alice Holmes Cooper Jews, Germans, Me/non: Reconstructions of Jewish Li/e in Germany, Y. Michal Bodemann, editor Exclusive Revolutionaries: Liberal Politics, Social Experience, and National Identity in the Austrian Empire, /848-1914, Pieter M. Judson Feminine Frequencies: Gender, German Radio, and the Public Sphere, 1923-1945, Kate Lacey How German 1.1 She? Postwar West German Reconstruction and the Consuming Woman, Erica Carter West Germany under Construction: Politics, Societv, and Culture in the Adenauer Era. Robert G. Moeller, editor A Greener Vision ot' Home: Cultural Politics and Environmental Reform in the German Heimatschutz Movement, 1904-1918, William H. Rollins A User's Guide to German Cultural Studies, Scott Denham, Irene Kacandes. and Jonathan Petropoulos, editors Catholicism, Political Culture, and the Countryside: A Social History of the Nazi Partv in South Germanv, Oded Heilbronner Contested Cit\,: Municipal Politics and the Rise (i/Nazism in Altona, 1917-1937, Anthony McElligott The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacv, Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, editors Framed Visions: Popular Culture, Americanization, and the Contemporary German and Austrian Imagination, Gerd Gemiinden Triumph of the Fatherland: German Unification and the Marginalization of Women, Brigitte Young Mohility and Modernitv: Migration in German}; 1820-1989, Steve Hochstadt Building the East German Myth: Historical Mythology and Youth Propaganda in the German Democratic Republic, 1945-1989, Alan L. Nothnagle The German Problem Tran.~formed: Institutions, Politics, and Foreign Policy; 1945-1995. Thomas Banchoff

The German Problem Transformed Institutions, Politics, and Foreign Policy, 1945-1995

THOMAS BANCHOFF

Ann Arbor

'THE llNIvERSITr OF MICHIGAN PREss

Copyright © by the University of Michigan 1999 All rights reserved Published in the United States of America by The University of Michigan Press Manufactured in the United States of America @ Printed on acid-free paper 2002

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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher. A elP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Banchoff, Thomas, 1964The German problem transformed: institutions, politics, and foreign policy, 1945-1995/ Thomas Banchoff. p. cm. - (Social history, popular culture, and politics in Germany) Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-472-11008-X (acid-free paper) 1. Germany-Politics and government-I 990- 2. Germany (West)-Foreign relations-Europe, Eastern. 3. Europe, Eastern-Foreign relations-Germany (West) 4. Germany-Foreign relations-1945- 5. Germany-Foreign relations-1990I. Title. II. Series. 00290.29 .B34 1998 327.43-dc21 98-58102 CIP ISBN13 978-0-472-11008-7 (cloth) ISBN13 978-0-472-02265-6 (electronic)

To Anja

Contents

Preface

ix

List of Abbreviations

xi

1. Introduction: The German Problem Transformed 2. The Cold War and Western Integration 3. Detente and the New Ostpolitik

23

61

4. The New Cold War and the INF Struggle 97 5. Post-Reunification Foreign Policy 6. History and German Foreign Policy

131 165

Appendix: The GDR and the German Problem Bibliography Index

211

191

185

Preface

This book addresses the complex relationship between history and foreign policy in Germany. No country has had to struggle with as terrible a historicallegacy. And in very few countries has the past-and efforts to grapple with it-left so great a mark on politics and policies. Does the international position of the new Germany resemble that of its unified, pre-1945 predecessor? Or does it have more in common with that of the old Federal Republic? How has reflection on the German catastrophe of national socialism shaped the direction of German foreign policy, before and after reunification? These questions raise broader analytical issues about the interaction between history, memory, politics, and policy-questions that political scientists have only begun to explore. In grappling with these issues and working on this book, I have benefited from the help of many institutions and individuals. A two-year grant from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) made possible a master's degree at the University of Bonn. As a doctoral candidate at Princeton, I conducted two years of research in Germany, where I profited greatly from the resources and generous assistance of the German Society for Foreign Policy (DGAP), the Konrad-Adenauer Foundation, the Friedrich-Ebert Foundation, and the Hanns-Seidel Foundation. A Robert Bosch Fellowship at the American Institute for Contemporary German Studies in Washington, D.C., gave me the opportunity to begin revisions of the dissertation in the spring of 1994. As an assistant professor at Georgetown, I made further revisions with the help of a 1996 Mellon Summer Grant and a two-month stay at the DGAP. I completed the manuscript as a James Bryant Conant Fellow on leave from Georgetown at Harvard's Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies in 1997-98. Over this period many teachers and colleagues provided invaluable support. Eberhard Schulz, my master's advisor at the University of Bonn, awakened an interest in links between history and foreign policy. My doctoral advisor at Princeton, Richard Ullman, provided generous guidance

x

Preface

and encouragement. And the other members of my dissertation committee-Nancy Bermeo, Robert Gilpin, and Kathleen Thelen-made helpful suggestions for revision. Since coming to Georgetown and its Center for German and European Studies, I have benefited from the comments and suggestions of many colleagues, including Samuel Barnes, Andrew Bennett, Victor Cha, Lily Gardner Feldman, Gregory Flynn, Robert Lieber, Joseph Lepgold, Eusebio Mujal-Leon, George Shambaugh, and Angela Stent. At Harvard Andrei Markovits was a particularly wonderful source of advice and encouragement. Other colleagues who have commented on parts of the manuscript include Thomas Berger, Beverly Crawford, Helmut Hubel, Peter Katzenstein, Friedrich Kratochwil, Carl Lankowski, Andrew Moravcsik, William Paterson, Simon Reich, Thomas Risse, Michael Ross, Mitchell Smith, Volker Rittberger, and William Wohlforth. I am particularly indebted to Roger Chickering, Gunther Hellmann, David Morris, and Martin Rickmann, who read and critiqued the entire text. My greatest intellectual and professional debt is to A. James McAdams, now of the University of Notre Dame. From the beginning of my doctoral research, he has proved a terrific teacher, advisor, and friend, always ready to read yet another draft of the manuscript, to offer incisive comments, and to provide moral support. My thanks, too, to series editor Geoff Eley, for his excellent critical suggestions, and to Susan Whitlock and the rest of the team at the University of Michigan Press, for shepherding the manuscript expertly to publication. Most of all, I want to thank my family for their love and support. My parents, Tom and Lynore, have provided continuous encouragement before, during, and after my many years in school. My wife, Anja, and our three daughters, Emma, Luisa, and Sophie, have made the last several, very busy, years a thorough joy. This book is dedicated to Anja, my companion in life. A tragedy overshadowed the final stage of this project. Jill Hopper, who contributed the index, died suddenly of a pulmonary embolism. Jill was a longtime research and teaching assistant, a great friend and collaborator. She was a deeply generous person, a dedicated teacher, and a creative scholar. Jill's death is a painful loss. Her life remains a powerful inspiration.

List of Abbreviations

CDU DP CFSP CSCE CSU EDC EC ECSC EMU EPC EU FDP INF MBFR MLF NATO NPD NPT OSCE PDS SALT SDI SED START SNF SPD WEU

Christian Democratic Union Germany Party Common Foreign and Security Policy Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Christian-Social Union European Defense Community European Community European Coal and Steel Community European Monetary Union European Political Cooperation European Union Free Democratic Party Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction talks Multilateral Force North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Democratic Party of Germany Non-Proliferation Treaty Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Party of Democratic Socialism Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Strategic Defense Initiative Socialist Unity Party Strategic Arms Reduction Talks Short-Range Nuclear Forces Social Democratic Party of Germany West European Union

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: The German Problem Transformed

The new German Problem, this book argues, is not akin to the old. Many observers have underscored the reemergence of Germany as Europe's central power. After four decades of division, they contend, Germany is once again fully sovereign and faced with a fluid European constellation. Without the strictures of bipolarity, its leaders are free to define and pursue national interests in East and West. From this perspective the reunified Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) faces challenges not unlike those of its unified predecessor a century earlier. German leaders may, like Otto von Bismarck, pursue national interests judiciously within the European balance of power and enhance stability on the continent. Or they might, like Bismarck's successors, embrace an aggressive course that leads to isolation and disaster. This view of the German Problem yields a third prospect: the new Germany, still traumatized by the catastrophe of national socialism, may fail to assume leadership in Europe commensurate with its power. This book rejects this formulation of the German Problem. It acknowledges post-reunification challenges, but argues that postwar changes, not prewar analogies, best illuminate them. The decades after 1945 transformed the contours of the German Problem. As the Federal Republic grew increasingly powerful, its leaders anchored it within an ever thicker web of international institutions. At the same time, its multilateral, supranational foreign policy came to rest on a solid domestic political foundation. As a result of this transformation, the Germany that emerged after the collapse of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) is neither fully sovereign nor faced with a fluid balance of power abroad. And its basic foreign policy orientation-integration within the West and engagement in the East-is the object of a broad consensus at home. The new German Problem concerns not power and national interests, but rather

2

The German Prohlem Transformed

difficult choices at the intersection of international institutions and domestic politics. The enduring transformation of German foreign policy is most evident at its critical postwar turning points. Against a historical backdrop of dictatorship, war, and genocide, successive postwar chancellors secured domestic support for deeper ties with international institutions. During the cold war of the 1950s Konrad Adenauer integrated the Federal Republic into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Community (EC). Amid the detente of the 1970s Willy Brandt negotiated the Eastern Treaties and made the FRG part of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). During the new cold war and Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) crisis of the early 1980s Helmut Kohl strengthened German ties with NATO while preserving institutional links with the East. And during the post-cold war 1990s Kohl both embedded the new Germany within established European institutions and pressed to strengthen those institutions further. Reunification and the collapse of the postwar European order did radically change the context of FRG foreign policy. But they did not alter its contours. German power remained constrained by institutions abroad, and a multilateral, supranational foreign policy remained an object of consensus at home. The postwar transformation of the German Problem persisted. The book's core argument underscores the twofold significance of history as a backdrop for post-reunification foreign policy. First, it illustrates the effects of path dependence. Over the past decade political scientists have explored the importance of critical historical junctures in shaping subsequent policy trajectories. Once in place, institutions often have the capacity to maintain political support and shape policy outcomes, outlasting the circumstances of their creation. Scholarship on the staying power of institutions ·a core theme of "historical institutionalism" in political science has focused almost exclusively on their domestic policy effects through time. The German case provides an important example of foreign policy path dependence. International institutions linking the Federal Republic with its neighbors. originally an object of political controversy, gradually secured broad domestic support. Together, interlocking institutions and political consensus sustained German foreign policy continuity across the 1990 divide.] 1. On historical institutionalism. see Sven Steinmo. Kathleen Thelen, and Frank Longstreth. eds .. Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1992). For an overview of the literature on path dependence. see Paul Pierson. "Path Dependence. Increasing Returns. and the Study of Politics." CenterjiJr European Sludies Working Paper Series, 7.7 (1997). An exceptional treat-

Introduction

3

The book's argument underscores the importance not only of history, but also of historical memory. Political scientists have explored the effects of memory almost exclusively in the context of historical analogies and decision making. 2 In the German case, reflection on the past and its implications has had broader political and policy implications. Cumulative post-1945 institutional changes constrained FRG policy as much as they did only in combination with a dominant historical narrative~one that contrasted prewar disasters and postwar achievements. Had they been determined, German leaders might have embarked on a more independent foreign policy after 1990. Instead, they construed multilateralism and supranationalism as breaks with a catastrophic prewar past and as necessary foundations for the post-cold war future. This post-reunification consensus narrative, itself contested over the postwar decades, reinforced the institutional constraints on the foreign policy of the new Germany. Whether or not Germany remains as committed to a multilateral, supranational orientation in the future will depend on unpredictable international and domestic political developments. But it will also depend on the evolution of German views of the past and its lessons. Return of the Old German Problem?

The collapse of the Soviet bloc, reunification, and the receding U.S. presence in Europe sparked a revival of traditional formulations of the German Problem after 1990. While some observers evoked the specter of a "Fourth Reich," most intellectuals and academics drew less explosive parallels with the past. 3 Peter Glotz, for example, referred to Germany's precarious central position [Mittellage] and noted that the country might once ment of critical junctures in international relations is G. John Ikenberry, "Constitutional Politics in International Relations," European Journal of International Relations 4, no. 2 (June 1998): 147-77. 2. A recent important exception is Andrei S. Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997). On analogies, see Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu, and the Vietnam Decisions of 1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992). The recent historicalliterature on the relationship between memory and politics is extensive. See, for example, Yael Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Herbert Hirsch, Genocide and the Politics of Memory: Studying Death to Preserve Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); John R. Gillis, ed., Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). 3. See, for example, Brian Reading, The Fourth Reich (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995); Martin Walker, "Overstretching Teutonia: Making the Best of the Fourth Reich," World Policy Journal 12, no. 1 (spring 1995): 1-18; Walter Russell Mead, "The Once and Future Reich," World Policy Journal 7, no. 4 (autumn 1990): 593-638.

4

The German Problem Transformed

again prove "too weak to lead Europe, and too unwieldy to be integrated within it." Hans-Peter Schwarz wrote of the persistence of old "German Dilemmas" rooted in the country's power and geography. Arnulf Baring went even further, situating German leaders "back in precisely that central European position which, to say the least, they did not handle very successfully in the decades between 1871 and the end of the Third Reich." Timothy Garton Ash, wary of such direct parallels, nevertheless considered the new Federal Republic "closer to the challenges of the nineteenthcentury Mittellage than the old Federal Republic had been."4 These and other authors evoked parallels with the dilemmas facing Germany and Europe between the founding of a unified German state in 1871 and its destruction in 1945. 5 In the years before World War I, German foreign policy lurched from judicious but assertive diplomacy under Bismarck to Wilhelm II's aggressive bluster and diplomatic isolation. In the years before World War II, Gustav Stresemann's careful efforts to rehabilitate Germany in both East and West gave way to Adolf Hitler's policy of aggressive expansionism. Against this historical backdrop Wilhelm Ropke defined the German Problem in 1945 as "the protection of Europe against Germany and of Germany against herself." A. 1. P. Taylor, writing around the same time, posed the question: "How can the peoples of Europe be secured against repeated bouts of German aggression?"6 Over the postwar decades, superpower dominance and Germany's division gradually defused concerns about German power, nationalism, and 4. Peter Glatz. Diefalsehe Normalisierung: Die unmerkliche Verwandlung der Deutschen 1989 bis 1994 (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. 1994), 12; Hans-Peter Schwarz, "Das Deutsche Dilemma." in Deutschlands neue AujJenpolitik, ed. Karl Kaiser and Hanns W. Maull (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1994), 1:81-97; Arnulf Baring, ed., Germany's Nell' Position in Europe: Problems and Perspectives (Oxford: Berg, 1994), 9: Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (New York: Random House, 1993),384. 5. See also Hans-Peter Schwarz, Die Zentralmacht Europas. Deutschlands Ruckkehr auf die Weltbuhne (Berlin: Siedler, 1994); Michael Stiirmer, Die Gren::en der Macht: Begegnung der Deutschen mit der Geschichte (Berlin: Siedler, 1992); Gregor Sch6llgen, Die Macht in der Milte Europas: Stationen deutscher AujJenpolitik von Friedrich dem GrojJen bis ;:;ur Gegenwart (Munich: Beck, 1992): Christian Hacke, Weltmacht wider Willen: Die AujJenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1993): Heinz Brill, Geopolitik Heute. Deutschlands Chance? (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1994). For an account that places less emphasis on continuity across the 1989-90 divide, see David Schoenbaum and Elizabeth Pond, The German Question and Other German Questiolls (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996). 6. Wilhelm R6pke, The Solution o/,the German Problem (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1947), xiv: A. J. P. Taylor, The Course of German History (London: Hamilton, 1945), 8. Other influential postwar assessments included Gerhard Ritter, The German Problem: Basic Questions of German Political Life. Past and Present (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1965); Ludwig Dehio, Germany and World Politics in the Twentieth Century (New York: Knopf, 1959).

Introduction

5

seesaw policy [Schaukelpolitik] between East and West.? Detente between the FRG and the GDR in the early 1980s sparked some renewed controversy about German national identity and the problem of national unity. 8 Only with the collapse of the Soviet bloc and reunification, however, did traditional anxieties about Germany's place in Europe emerge with any force. Historians and political scientists in the 1990s did not uncritically embrace old formulations of the German Problem. More often than not, they acknowledged important differences between the pre-1945 and post1990 periods: a shift in the principal dimension of German power, from military to economic; the eradication of German militarism and the establishment of a stable democracy; and the emergence of international institutions such as NATO and the Ee as a context for German foreign policy. Most observers concurred that Germany was no longer in a position to pursue military hegemony; that its stable democracy all but precluded an aggressive foreign policy; and that European institutions provided a framework for international cooperation. John Mearsheimer, an American political scientist, did suggest that the more powerful Germany might someday again pose a military threat to its neighbors. But for almost all of his colleagues on both sides of the Atlantic, reunification did not presage a return to the aggressive nationalism and pervasive instability of the past. As Schwarz put it, "The German Dilemma is of course less explosive today than during the history of the German Reich."9 Nevertheless, for many political scientists and historians, the old German Problem resembled the new in two key respects-the prominence of German power and of German national interests. Schwarz, for example, maintained that the reunified Germany, like its unified predecessor a century earlier, had become Europe's "central power." For Gregor Sch6llgen the Federal Republic's pivotal position made it "the great power in the middle of Europe." According to Michael Sturmer, the new configuration placed Germany at the "geostrategic crux" [Bruchzone] of Europe and 7. For reassessments of the German Problem within the context of bipolarity, see David Calleo, The German Problem Reconsidered: Germany and the World Order, 1870 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1978); Renata Fritsch-Bournazel, Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East- West Divide (Oxford: Berg, 1988). 8. See, for example, Andreas Hillgruber, Die Last der Nation: Fanf Beitriige aber Deutschland und die Deutschen (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1984); Arno Kl6nne, Zurack zur Nation? Kontroversen zu deutschen Fragen (Cologne: Diedrichs, 1984); Eberhard Schulz and Peter Danylow, Bewegung in der deutschen Frage? Die ausliindischen Besorgnisse aber die Entwicklung in den beiden deutschen Staaten (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1984). 9. Schwarz, "Das Deutsche Dilemma," 97; John J. Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War," International Security 15, no. I (summer 1990): 32-37.

6

The German Prohlem Transfi)rmed

confronted the country with "all the dangers that this situation always entailed, and always will entail." Baring, more explicit about the parallels between the post-1990 and pre-1945 constellations, evoked the heart of the old German Problem. The new Germany, he argued, remains "too weak and at the same time too strong; too weak to shape the continent and too strong to be easily accepted by its neighbors." And Kenneth Waltz suggested that "Germans may ultimately find that reunification and the renewed life of a great power are more invigorating than the struggles, complications, and compromises" of European integration. IO For these and other authors a focus on German power went hand in hand with an insistence on the renewed salience of "the nation" and "the national interest" for FRG foreign policy. After four decades of division Sturmer argued that Germany had again emerged as a normal, sovereign nation. For Schwarz the stream of German history had "left a very artificial system of canals" and "flowed once again into the river bed of the nation state proclaimed on January 18, 1871, in the Versailles Hall of Mirrors. "II The reality of the nation, from this perspective, necessitated an embrace of the concept of the national interest. None of these authors pressed for a revival of nationalism. But they insisted that German leaders soberly assess the new power configuration and define and pursue objective German interests. Christian Hacke advocated the national interest as "the guiding principle" of FRG foreign policy. And for Sturmer "Germany's powerful position in the middle of Europe" implied "an obligation to embrace realism. clarity of goals, and predictability ofmeans."12 The construal of the German Problem in terms of power and interests has roots in the "primacy of foreign policy" [Primat der Auj3enpolitik] tradition of German historiography and the realist tradition in the study of international relations. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, leading German historians-Leopold von Ranke, Heinrich von Tre10. Schwarz. Die Zentralmaclzt Europa.\'; Schollgen. Die MachI in der Mitte Europas, 177: Stiinner. Die Gren::en der II;facht, 247: Baring. Germany's Nell' Position in Europe, 2; Kenneth N. Waltz. "The Emerging Structure of International Politics." International Security 18, no. 2 (autumn 1993): 71. II. Michael Sturmer, "Deutsche Interessen," in Kaiser and Maull, Deutschlands Ileue AujJenpolitik, 1:39-61: Schwarz. Die Zelltralmaelir Europa,I, 12-13. See also Gregor Schollgen, "National Interest and International Responsibility: Germany's Role in World Affairs," in Baring, Germany's Nell' Position in Europe, 35 49. 12. Christian Hacke. "Nationales Interesse als Handlungsmaxime fUr die AuJ3enpolitik Deutschlands," in Kaiser and Maull, Deutschlands lIeue AufJenpolitik, 3:3-13; StUrmer, "Deutsche Interessen," 40. On German interests, see also Arnulf Baring and Rupert Scholz, cds., Eille neue deutsche Interessenlage:' Koordinaten deutscher Politik jenseils VOIl Nationalismus und MoralislI1l1s (Cologne: Bachem, 1994); Wilfried von Bredow and Thomas Jager, eds .. Neue deutselie Au/Jenpoiitik: Nationale interessell ill den internationaien Be::iehunf{ell (Opladcn: Leske and Budrich. 1993).

Introduction

7

itschke and Friedrich Meinecke-examined Prussian and later German foreign policy in terms of power politics and state interests, MachlpoUlik and Staalsriison. 13 They viewed states as legitimate political orders locked in a struggle for international power. And they considered leaders bound to pursue objective interests defined in terms of power-and to make foreign policy judgements shielded from domestic political pressures. This analytical approach survived both world wars and weathered a barrage of criticism during the 1960s and 1970s, continuing to inform much scholarship on the history of German foreign policy. 14 Over the same time, realist scholars of international relations, indebted to these scholars and to common intellectual progenitors-Thucydides, Hobbes, and Machiavelliemerged as a dominant force within political science. After 1945 a German emigre, Hans Morgenthau, helped to establish realism as the leading approach to the study of international relations in the United States. Over the postwar decades a focus on power and interests informed much of the leading analysis of FRG foreign policy.15 The "primacy of foreign policy" and realist traditions, this book argues, obscure the enduring transformation of German foreign policy. A focus on Germany's reemergence as Europe's "central power" misses the continued prominence of institutions as a framework for post-reunification foreign policy. The new Germany remains embedded within an array of important multilateral and bilateral institutions, East and West-NATO, the EC, the Eastern Treaties, and the CSCE. These institutional constraints represent the cumulative effects of choices made at key postwar junctures. Membership in NATO and the EC, the upshot of Adenauer's policy of Western integration, served as a foundation for subsequent German foreign policy. The Eastern Treaties and the CSCE, cornerstones of Brandt's New Ostpolitik, added to that foundation. Kohl's strong align-

13. Writing between the wars, Friedrich Meinecke provided a comprehensive overview of this tradition. See Friedrich Meinecke, Die Idee der Staatsriison in der neueren Geschichte (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1957). Ludwig Dehio, a student of Meinecke, was an influential representative of this general approach after 1945. See Ludwig Dehio, The Precarious Balance: Four Centuries of European Power Struggle (New York: Knopf, 1962). 14. See, for example, Klaus Hildebrand, Das vergangene Reich: Deutsche AujJenpolitik von Bismarck his Hitler 1871-1945 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1995); Andreas Hillgruber, Deutsche GrojJmacht und Weltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1977). 15. Hans 1. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: Knopf, 1948). For a "primacy offoreign policy" approach to the Federal Republic, see Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).

8

The German Problem Transformed

ment with the United States during the INF CrIS1S strengthened the Atlantic Alliance as a context for German foreign policy in the 1980s. And reunification within European institutions, East and West, shaped the trajectory of German foreign policy in the years after 1990. Post-reunification foreign policy unfolded within a dense institutional configuration forged and maintained over the previous four decades-one that continued to limit the scope of German power and frame German foreign policy alternatives. The new Germany remained, in Peter Katzenstein's words, a "tamed power."16 This institutional constellation did not emerge unscathed from the European transformation of 1989-91: the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The collapse of the postwar bipolar order triggered significant changes in the external circumstances of German foreign policy. NATO and the EC embarked on internal reforms and expansion eastward, while the CSCE and the Eastern Treaties were reworked to accommodate the end of the East-West conflict. On balance, however, these changes signified a strengthening, not a weakening of the institutional configuration. The 1992 Treaty on European Union (EU), for example, committed European leaders to a common currency by the end of the decade and the creation of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). By 1995, moreover, NATO had not only survived the collapse of the Soviet threat, but had also emerged as the core of a newall-European security architecture. Germany was not once again fully sovereign and confronted with a fluid balance of power. With the end of the GDR and reunification, Germans did gain full sovereignty over their internal affairs. But the new FRG, like the old, remained constrained by multilateral, supranational institutions in the exercise of its foreign policy. 17 The continued salience of European institutions did not negate the reality of greater German power. With reunification, the addition of East German population and economic potential increased FRG capabilities compared with those of France and Britain. More important, the collapse of one superpower and retrenchment of another left Germany the single most influential country in Europe. Nevertheless, the characterization of 16. On institutions as a continuing framework for German foreign policy, see Peter J. Katzenstein, "United Germany in an Integrating Europe," in Tamed Power: Germany in Europe, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 1-48; Jeffrey J. Anderson and John B. Goodman, "Mars or Minerva? A United Germany in a Post-Cold War Europe," in Afier the Cold War: International Institutions and State Strategies in Europe, 1989-1991, ed. Robert O. Keohane, Joseph S. Nye, and Stanley Hoffmann (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993),23-62. 17. On institutional constraints on German sovereignty, see Helga Haftendorn, "Gulliver in der Mitte Europas. Internationale Verflechtung und nation ale Handlungsmiiglichkeiten." in Kaiser and Maull. Deutschlands neue AufJenpolitik, I: 129-52.

Introduction

9

Germany as Europe's "central power," evocative of earlier historical configurations, was misleading. Germany was not, as it had been before 1945, a sovereign state within a fluid international balance of power. By binding states to one another in qualitatively new ways, channeling conflict and encouraging cooperation, European institutions did more than provide a new context for the exercise of national power. They also helped to diffuse the effects of any national preponderance, enabling Germany to cooperate peacefully and productively with its neighbors on a variety of policy issues. After reunification, continued multilateralism within NATO and shared sovereignty within the EU underscored the break with the prewar period. German power continued to evoke concerns abroad, but not on a scale comparable to the earlier era. 18 While realism's focus on power misses the prominence of international institutions for post-reunification foreign policy, its emphasis on interests obscures the centrality of domestic politics. The image evoked by the "primacy of foreign policy"-one of leaders dispassionately reflecting on and pursuing the national interest-does not capture the effects of politics, in the German case and others. The basic foreign policy orientation of the new Germany reflected a particular balance of domestic forces. The political consensus around a multilateral, supranational foreign policy, like the institutional constellation within which it developed, was the product of successive postwar critical junctures. Western integration was the object of a domestic political struggle, as was the New Ostpolitik and German policy amid the INF crisis. Each juncture pitted different leaders, parties, priorities, and historical perspectives against one another. On the eve of reunification these successive controversies had given way to a broad political consensus around the importance of a sharp break with the nationalism and militarism of the past-a consensus that persisted after 1990. 19 Like international institutions, German domestic politics underwent significant changes after the end of the cold war. The East German revolution of 1989 and the rapid absorption of the GDR into the FRG the fol18. For a detailed discussion of post-reunification German power and perceptions of it across Europe, see Markovits and Reich, German Predicament; Gunther Hellmann, "The Sirens of Power and German Foreign Policy: Who Is Listening?" German Politics 6, no. 2 (August 1997): 29-57; Helmut Hubel and Bernhard May, Ein "normales Deutschland"? Die souveriine Bundesrepublik in der ausliindischen Wahrnehmung (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1995). 19. On domestic politics as a context for German foreign policy, see Jeffrey J. Anderson, "Hard Interests, Soft Power, and Germany's Changing Role in Europe, " in Katzenstein, Tamed Power: Germany in Europe, 80-107; Simon Bulmer, The Domestic Structure of European Community Policy-Making in Germany (New York: Garland, 1986); Gebhard Schweigler, West German Foreign Policy: The Domestic Setting (New York: Praeger, 1984).

10

The German Problem Transformed

lowing year altered the societal context of German politics. Through the mid-1990s, economic and social reconstruction in the GDR absorbed the political energies of the major German parties-the Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU), Social Democrats (SPD), Liberals (FDP), and the Greens. Reunification even added a new, small party to the German political spectrum, the former East German communists (PDS). In the context of the foreign policy debate, however, these domestic changes had little impact. The less influential parties, the Greens and the PDS, expressed some reservations about Western integration. Yet the ruling CDU/CSU-FDP coalition, as well as the SPD in opposition, continued to adhere to the broad consensus that had emerged by the late I 980s-around a German foreign policy both embedded in Western institutions and actively engaged in the East. While some differences persisted, no more national orientation or divisive domestic political debate ensued. 2o The salience of domestic politics for German foreign policy does not render the concept of "interest" meaningless. The Federal Republic, like other states, pursued basic interests in security and prosperity-both before and after 1990. However, the concept "national interest," with its implication of an objective raison d'etat, distorts the dynamics of postreunification foreign policy. It obscures the fact that domestic political competition, more than dispassionate reflection, determined the direction of policy in the decades after 1945. All offoreign policy cannot be reduced to politics; the international context certainly shaped the struggle over German priorities within and across parties. But attention to politics illuminates the particular content of those priorities through time. Successive German leaders managed to secure domestic support for German participation in an increasingly intricate web of international institutions. Security and prosperity, so the emergent and enduring political consensus, were best pursued in close cooperation with Germany's neighbors. While reunification meant the reestablishment of a single German nation state, then, it did not mark the reemergence of an independent German national interest. 21

20. On post-reunification developments, see Michael G. Huelshoff, Andrei S. Markovits, and Simon Reich, eds., From Bundesrepublik to Deutschland: German Politics afier Unification (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Ralf Altenhof and Eckhard Jesse, eds., Das wiedervereinigte Deutschland: ZlI"ischenbilanz und Perspektiven (Diisseldorf: Droste, 1995). 21. On this point, see Dieter Senghaas, "Was sind deutsche Interessen?" in PoUlik ohne Projekt? Nachdenken fiber Deutschland. ed. Siegfried Unseld (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1993), 463~91; "Deutschlands verfiochtene Interessen," lnternalionale Polilik 50, no. 8 (August 1995): 31-37.

Introduction

11

Explaining the Transformation of the German Problem

For it to be persuasive, the book's overall argument about the interaction of institutions and politics in driving German foreign policy must not only trace but also explain its evolution since 1945. It must show how, at each postwar critical juncture, the existing institutional constellation actually constrained choices; how the political configuration reinforced those constraints; and how the choices made altered subsequent institutional and political constellations. Such a task, to be carried out effectively, requires attention to the broader contexts within which European institutions and German politics participated. The policy effects of institutions are only intelligible within a given international structure of states, power, and problems. And domestic contests over foreign policy are driven not only by the balance of contending forces, but also by the interplay of competing foreign policy ideas. Most foreign policy analysis focuses on some of these explanatory factors-structure, institutions, ideas, and politics-to the exclusion of others. In the German case, however, only a multidimensional explanatory strategy attentive to all four factors and their interaction can provide a persuasive account of each critical postwar juncture and establish the path-dependent effects of institutions and politics through time. In keeping with this multidimensional strategy, each of the chapters begins with a sketch of German foreign policy at a particular juncture and then addresses four questions in turn: How did changes at the level of international structure generate new foreign policy challenges? How did international institutions frame policy alternatives? How did the foreign policy ideas articulated by leading politicians structure the foreign policy debate? How did the struggle for power within and among parties shape the course of foreign policy? One could, of course, organize the analysis around other explanatory factors: interest groups and the bureaucracy, for example, or the personalities of individual leaders. The rest of this chapter provides empirical and theoretical justification for a focus on structure, institutions, ideas, and politics, and shows how, taken together, they constitute an effective explanatory strategy. Broad trends in international structure-the focus of the "primacy of foreign policy" and realist traditions-provide a starting point for the explanation of postwar German foreign policy.22 Structure refers here to the international balance of economic and military power, the interests pur22. On structural approaches to international relations in the realist tradition, see Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. 1979); John J. Mearsheimer, "The False Promise of International Institutions," International Security 19. no. 3 (winter 1994-95): 5-49; Robert O. Keohane, ed., Neorealism and Its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).

12

The German Problem Transformed

sued by other states, and the policy challenges generated by both in combination. From the outset, the Federal Republic was at the center of the East-West conflict, and U.S.-Soviet rivalry in particular. An initial structural shift-the breakup of the Anti-Hitler Coalition and the onset of the cold war-led to the division of Germany and the founding of two German states in 1949. Subsequent trends in East-West relations occasioned critical junctures in postwar German foreign policy: the intensification of the cold war in the 1950s, the emergence of detente in the 1960s and 1970s, the new cold war of the 1980s, and the post-cold war of the 1990s. In each case the international configuration confronted German leaders with new policy challenges around the three related issues: military security, national unity, and the German role between East and West. Through the end of the cold war, military security issues revolved around the perceived Soviet threat.23 From its founding, the Federal Republic was exposed to powerful Soviet military forces and dependent on the U.S. conventional and nuclear deterrent. Both the Soviet deployments in Central and Eastern Europe and the U.S. presence in the FRG placed Bonn at the center of subsequent security controversies. Only five years after World War II the intensification of the cold war moved the issue of rearmament to the top of the German and European agenda. During the late 1960s and early 1970s the trend toward East-West detente raised new questions concerning the nature of the Soviet threat and the German role in arms control. The new cold war of the early 1980s reached its climax with the INF-crisis surrounding the proposed deployment of new U.S. missiles on German soil. And during the early 1990s the end of the Soviet threat coincided with a new security challenge for the FRG: whether and how to participate in multilateral military operations outside NATO's defensive perimeter. Over the postwar period, major shifts in East-West relations also generated new problems around the issue of national unity.24 From the outset the Federal Republic upheld the goal of national unity-a commitment set down in its 1949 constitution, the Basic Law. The intensification of the cold war and the emergence of the rearmament issue during the early 1950s went hand in hand with a flurry of international diplomacy around the issue of reunification. During the 1960s and 1970s the trend toward 23. For overviews of German security policy, see Helga Haftendorn, Security and DeTente: Conflicting Priorities in German Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger, 1985); Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe, chaps, 1-4; Cathleen McArdle Kelleher, Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975). 24. On the evolution of the unity issue, see A. James McAdams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to ReUil!fication (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Hans Buchheim, Deutschlandpolitik 1949-1972: Der politisch-diplomatische Prozej3 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-AnstaIt, 1984).

Introduction

13

detente on the basis of the status quo of the German and European division confronted Bonn with a difficult dilemma: whether and how to recognize the reality of a second German state and the integrity of postwar borders without sacrificing the commitment to national unity. The INF struggle complicated FRG-GDR relations during the new cold war of the early 1980s, as each superpower demanded loyalty from its German ally. And the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the incorporation of the GDR into the Federal Republic in 1989-90 forced German leaders to define the role of a united Germany in a new Europe. Broad changes in superpower relations also compelled FRG leaders to define their role between East and West at critical junctures. 25 The circumstances of the state's creation-a fusion of the United States, French, and British zones of occupation-left German leaders without an alternative to a basic Western orientation. For economic, political, and security reasons, Bonn cultivated good relations with Washington, Paris, and London over the postwar decades. At the same time, however, successive shifts in the international environment raised difficult questions about the nature of Western ties and their implications for Ostpolitik. During the cold war of the early 1950s, controversy centered on the terms and timing of Western integration and its implications for dialogue with the Soviet Union on reunification. The emergence of superpower detente in the late 1960s and early 1970s raised the problem of how to combine close ties with the allies and a more active Ostpolitik. During the INF struggle of the early 1980s, German leaders faced different ways to combine deterrence with the United States and detente with the Soviet Union. And in the 1990s they confronted the problem of how best to maintain solid ties with the West while addressing policy challenges in the East. Attention to international structure constitutes a necessary but not sufficient step in the explanation of postwar German foreign policy. Structural analysis, applied in isolation, tends to be deterministic and inattentive to the existence of choice amid constraints. Given its position at the crux of superpower rivalry, the Federal Republic was sensitive to overall shifts in the international environment and their implications for military security, national unity, and the German role between East and West. At no point, however, did the East-West climate dictate the direction ofFRG foreign policy. There was no self-evident way to respond to the policy challenges posed by shifts from cold war to detente, to the end of the cold war, and the collapse of the whole bipolar order. In order to explain those 25. On Gennan relations with the superpowers, see Frank A. Ninkovich, Germany and the United States: The Transformation of the German Question since 1945 (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995); Michael J. Sodaro, Moscow. Germany and the West from Khrushchev to Gorbachev (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).

14

The German Problem Transformed

responses, the analysis must move beyond international structure to an assessment of the particular institutional constellations that framed German choices. 26 The importance of institutions-an enduring theme in international relations theory-is particularly evident in the case of postwar German foreign policy.27 Institutions were not a completely new context for German foreign policy after 1945. After unification, in 1871, and increasingly after 1918, German policy evolved in the context of bilateral and multilateral accords, from Bismarck's complex diplomatic arrangements, to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations. After World War II, however, international institutions proved a more extensive and effective framework for German foreign policy. Globally, German foreign policy unfolded within the context of the United Nations and U.S.-sponsored monetary and trade regimes. In Europe, the focus of this book, three sets of institutions molded German choices at successive critical junctures-the Threeand Four-Power regimes; NATO and the EC; and the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE. The Three- and Four-Power regimes had their roots in the wartime diplomacy of the Anti-Hitler Coalition. 28 After unconditional surrender in 1945 the Four Powers-the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain and France-placed German territory east of the Oder-Neisse Rivers under Polish administration and assumed legal responsibility for matters relating to Germany as a whole and the status of Berlin. During the early years of the Federal Republic this Four-Power regime existing alongside a ThreePower regime, which endowed the Western powers with ultimate responsibility for FRG foreign policy. When Bonn regained its sovereignty within NATO in 1955, the Three-Power regime dissolved. The Four-Power regime, however, persisted until reunification in 1990. During the early 26. On the inadequacy of realist analysis, particularly after reunification, see Volker Rittberger and Frank Schimmelfennig, "Deutsche AuBenpolitik nach der Vereinigung: Realistische Prognosen auf dem Priifstand," Tabinger Arbeitspapiere zur internationalen Politik und Friedensforschung. no. 28 (1997). 27. On international institutions, see Robert O. Keohane and Lisa L. Martin, "The Promise of Institutionalist Theory," International Security 20, no. 1 (summer 1995): 39-51; Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory (Boulder: Westview, 1989); John Gerard Ruggie, ed., Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). 28. On the emergence of the Three-Power regime, see Theodor Eschenburg, Jahre der Besatzung 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1983). On the evolution of the Four-Power regime, see Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraji (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap 2.

Introduction

15

1950s it framed East-West discussions on the unity issue. After the integration of both German states into opposing alliances, it lay dormantapart from efforts to manage affairs in Berlin. Over the postwar decades, the Four-Power regime precluded a unilateral FRG policy aimed at reunification or revision of the Oder-Neisse border. The German approach to the national unity and border issues, a source of disaster during the interwar period, unfolded within a restrictive institutional framework. A second set of institutions, NATO and the EC, became a central part of the context of German foreign policy from the early 1950s onward. 29 In 1951 the Federal Republic was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the core of an emergent European Community. In 1955 it joined NATO. Both Western institutions placed constraints on German foreign policy in subsequent decades. Membership in the EC committed the FRG to the creation of a common market and ruled out a return to the protectionist foreign economic policies of the past. At the same time, membership in the multilateral military alliance-as well as the German renunciation of a national general staff and a national nuclear arsenal-precluded the pursuit of a unilateral security policy. Both the EC and NATO evolved over time as the East-West climate shifted from confrontation to cooperation and back. But both institutions continued to frame German approaches to shifting policy problems-before and after reunification. A third set of institutions, the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE, became an additional framework for German foreign policy beginning in the 1970s. 3o The Moscow, Warsaw, and Basic Treaties-bilateral accords with the Soviet Union, Poland and the GDR in 1970-72-forged a new institutional foundation for Ostpolitik. The CSCE Final Act of 1975, which outlined areas for East-West economic, political and security cooperation, created a further multilateral framework for German foreign policy. With the Eastern Treaties and through participation in the CSCE, Bonn recognized the reality of the division of Europe and Germany, but held open the prospect of reunification at some point in the future. German commit29. On NATO and the EC as contexts for German foreign policy, see Stanley Hoffmann, The European Sisyphus: Essays on Europe, 1964-1994 (Boulder: Westview, 1995); Simon Bulmer and William Paterson, The Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). 30. On the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE as a framework for German foreign policy, see Garton Ash, In Europe's Name; William E. Griffith, The Ostpolitik of the Federal Republic of Germany (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1981).

16

The German Problem Transfimned

ments to recognize existing borders-and regimes-constituted a new starting point for Ostpolitik. The Eastern Treaties and the CSCE, like NATO and the EC evolved over the decades that followed. After the collapse of the Soviet bloc, they lost some of their salience. In renegotiated form, however, they continued to provide an institutional framework for relations with Russia and Central and Eastern Europe. Bringing in institutions provides a necessary supplement to structural analysis. While shifts in the overall international environment confronted German leaders with policy challenges, particular arrays of institutions framed their choices. But even attention to institutions cannot explain the content of those choices. At all four postwar junctures, ambiguity within and across institutions left German leaders with some freedom of action. The constraints posed by the different institutions linking the Federal Republic with its neighbors, East and West, often pulled German leaders in different directions. At the same time. particular institutional norms such as muItilateralism and supranationalism were open to widely varying interpretations. How should the Federal Republic respond to the alternatives posed by the institutional constellation? Exactly how multilateral and supranational should its foreign policy be? German answers to these questions are best analyzed at the national level of analysis. At each postwar turning point, contrasting foreign policy ideas structured the political struggle over German foreign policy.31 Different perceptions of international realities and the lessons of the past informed different foreign policy priorities. Here, the analytical focus is those priorities espoused by top rivals for the chancellorship, the leaders of the CDU/CSU and the SPD. The views of many other people clearly mattered as well: other Christian Democrats and Social Democrats, leaders of the FDP and other small parties. bureaucratic officials, interest group leaders, and policy intellectuals. Moreover, the priorities of leading contenders for national leadership had complex sources. They grew out of complex processes of socialization and interaction with different kinds of elites in German society and abroad. A detailed examination of the origins of foreign policy ideas would have to trace those processes. Here, however, the analytical focus is the substance of the foreign policy debate, not its origins. A focus 3\. Scholarship on foreign policy ideas includes ludith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane, eds .. Ideas and Foreign Policy: Belief.~, Institutions. and Political Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1993); Albert S.Yee. "The Causal EtTects of Ideas on Policies." International Organi::ation 50, no. I (winter 1996): 69-108; Markus lachtenfuchs, "Ideen und internationale Beziehungen," Zeitschriji fur internationale Beciehungen 2, no. 2 (1995): 417-43. Earlier work includes Richard Little and Steve Smith, eds .. Belie/Systems and International Relaliolls (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, \988).

Introduction

17

on major rivals for the chancellorship isolates the priorities that mattered that gave the domestic debate its contours and were most likely to shape the direction of foreign policy in practice. Different analyses of the international configuration underpinned the contrasting priorities espoused by CDU/CSU and SPD rivals: Adenauer and Kurt Schumacher in the early 1950s; Kurt Georg Kiesinger and Brandt in the late 1960s; Kohl and Helmut Schmidt in the early 1980s; and Kohl and Rudolf Scharping in the early 1990s. In each of these cases, perceptions of the international configuration tended to diverge along two dimensions~the power and intentions of other states, and the relative prominence of different institutions. Christian Democratic leaders, for example, usually professed greater concern about Soviet military strength and expansionist aims, while SPD leaders were more likely than their CDU/CSU counterparts to be critical of U.S. power and intentions. Social Democratic leaders tended to focus on the Eastern Treaties as a salient institutional framework for German foreign policy, while CDU/CSU leaders were more likely than their SPD counterparts to stress the absolute centrality of NATO and the EC. These priorities diverged more at some times than at others. At every postwar turning point, however, they situated the FRG in different ways within an international constellation marked by some degree of ambiguity and openness. 32 Contrasting historical narratives~interpretations of the past and its significance for the present~also shaped assessments of the German policy alternatives. 33 Historical memory often informs foreign policy controversies to one degree or another. In the case of the Federal Republic, the experience of the catastrophe of national socialism allowed historical narratives a particularly broad impact on the policy debate. Rivals for the chancellorship tended toward agreement on two broad themes~that prewar German foreign policy represented a disaster to be left behind; and that postwar German foreign policy constituted a positive legacy to be sustained into the future. On this common foundation, however, party leaders often articulated contrasting historical narratives with divergent prescriptive implications. Christian Democrats, for example, more often drew links between the legacy of Nazism and the imperative of Western integration, while Social Democrats were most likely to posit connections

most~those

32. On the range of German foreign policy ideas after reunification. see Gunther Hellmann, "Goodbye Bismarck? The Foreign Policy of Contemporary Germany," Mershon International Studies Review 40 (1996): 1-39. 33. On historical narrative, see Hayden White, The Content o/the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative. vol. I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Donald Polkinghorne, Narrative Knowing and the Human Sciences (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988).

18

The German Problem Transformed

between Hitler's war and the imperative of a "peace policy" toward the East. And, while CDUlCSU leaders highlighted Adenauer's Western integration as a positive historical legacy, SPD leaders later placed somewhat more emphasis on Brandt's New Ostpolitik. In the German context, historical narratives tended to shape national responses to the international configuration of power and institutions. 34 Successive political debates about the implications of history for German foreign policy evolved alongside several highly charged historiographical controversies. In the aftermath of World War II most leading historians in the FRG clung to a national conservative perspective. While critical of Hitler and national socialism, they still considered Bismarck's Reich-and the imperative of national unity-a point of orientation for postwar Germany. This orthodoxy, at odds with Adenauer's focus on Western integration and Brandt's drive for reconciliation with the East, came under sharp attack in the 1960s. Fritz Fischer and his allies were much more critical of Bismarck's legacy: they posited lines of continuity between the autocratic structures of the Reich, the outbreak of war in 1914, and Hitler's war of aggression three decades later. While problematic in many respects, the thesis of a negative "special path" [Sonderweg] from Bismarck to Hitler had a clear policy implication-that Germans should break with their nationalist, militarist past and embrace reconciliation, peace, and cooperation with their neighbors, East and West. During the 1980s and 1990s more nationally oriented historians, eager to resurrect Bismarck's Reich and the "national interest" as points of reference for the Federal Republic, attacked the "special path" thesis. But their calls for a more self-confident, power-conscious, and independent German foreign policy had little impact on the political debate within and across the parties. 35 Attention to foreign policy ideas provides an important supplement to analysis centered at the level of the international system. While structural shifts and institutional configurations constrained German foreign policy at successive junctures, they also allowed for a significant range of choice. Given the existence of alternatives, foreign policy priorities-the way that German leaders situated the Federal Republic with respect to policy challenges-had a significant impact. Those priorities were con34. Thomas Banchoff, "Historical Memory and German Foreign Policy: The Cases of Adenauer and Brandt," German Politics and Society 14, no. 2 (summer 1996): 36-53; "German Policy towards the European Union: The Effects of Historical Memory," German Politics 6, no. 1 (April 1997): 60-76. 35. For an overview of postwar historiographical controversies, see Stefan Berger, The Search for Normality: National Identity and Historical Consciousness in Germany since 1800 (Berghahn: Providence, 1997), chaps. 3-4.

Introduction

19

tested, to differing degrees, over the entire postwar period. Rivals for national leadership articulated contrasting potential foreign policy paths rooted in divergent perceptions of the international configuration and the lessons of the past. While ideas mattered, however, only those with adequate political support shaped the direction of German foreign policy in practice. A persuasive explanatory strategy must therefore address the political dynamics that favored some policy priorities over others. In order to explain the course of postwar FRG foreign policy, one has to trace the political struggle for control of authoritative political institutions. 36 In the German context the office of the chancellor is the crucial prize. The Basic Law of 1949 relegates the German presidency to symbolic status; invests the chancellor with the power to select a cabinet and set overall policy guidelines; and includes a "constructive vote of no confidence"-the provision that the lower house of parliament, the Bundestag, can only topple a chancellor if it can also agree on a successor. Despite these sources of strength, the "chancellor democracy" label is somewhat misleading. In order to maintain power and implement policies, chancellors face three ongoing tests at the level of party politics. First, because the office is not directly elected, chancellors must win and hold the support of their own parliamentary parties. Second, because the primarily proportional electoral system makes single party majorities difficult, chancellors must maintain the support of smaller coalition parties in the Bundestag. Third, even when a majority is securely in place, opposition parties can sometimes impede the implementation of foreign policy through recourse to two powerful institutions-the Constitutional Court and the Federal Chamber, the BundesratY 36. On domestic politics and foreign policy, see Andrew Moravcsik, "Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal Theory of International Politics," International Organization 51, no. 4 (autumn 1997): 513-53; Peter B. Evans, Harold K. Jacobson, and Robert D. Putnam, eds., Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Robert D. Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, no. 3 (summer 1988): 427-60. Earlier work in this vein includes James N. Rosenau, ed., Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy (New York: Free Press, 1967). 37. On "chancellor democracy," see Stephen Padgett, ed., Adenauer to Kohl: The Development of the German Chancellorship (London: Hurst, 1994); Karlheinz Niclau13, Kanzlerdemokratie: Bonner Regierungspraxis von Konrad Adenauer bis Helmut Kohl (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1988). On the German party system and its policy effects across a range of issue areas, see Peter J. Katzenstein, Policy and Politics in West Germany: The Growth of a Semisovereign State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987). For a political history of the Federal Republic, see Dennis C. Bark and David R. Gress, A History of West Germany, 2 vols. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988).

20

The German Problem Transformed

Given these constraints, the implementation of foreign policy at all four postwar junctures required success at three levels of party competition. First, prospective chancellors had to anchor their priorities within one of the two major parties. The CDU/CSU, founded after World War II, gathered centrist and pro-democratic conservative forces under one banner. And the SPD, which traced its existence back to the Kaiserreich, occupied the Left-Center of the political spectrum. In both parties-hierarchical, mass-based organizations-chairpersons were generally best placed to claim to the chancellor candidacy in the run-up to national elections, usually held every four years. In order to become chancellor and implement particular priorities, CDU/CSU and SPD leaders not only had to anchor their priorities within their party organizations. Before and after winning office, they also had to maintain the support of their parliamentary groups, a task that often proved difficult. In the case of the CDU the semiautonomous status of the Bavarian Christian-Social Union (CSU) complicated contests for party leadership. During the 1970s, for example, then CSU leader Franz Josef Strauss, a foreign policy hardliner, challenged Kohl for the national Christian Democratic leadership--ultimately without success. 38 A second, necessary task for the implementation of particular foreign policy priorities was success at the level of coalition politics. The failure of any party to win an outright Bundestag majority-with the exception of the CDU/CSU in 1957-obliged Christian Democrats and Social Democrats to seek coalitions with smaller parties, and the Liberals in particular. The Free Democratic Party secured the 5 percent of the vote necessary for representation in the Bundestag in every postwar election, enabling it to form a ruling coalition with one of the major parties over most of the postwar decades. For CDU/CSU and SPD leaders, who only ruled together during the Grand Coalition of 1966-69, forging and maintaining coalitions with the FDP required agreement on basic foreign policy mattersespecially as the Liberals made control of the foreign ministry a precondition for a governing alliance after 1969. While secure leadership atop one of the major parties was a first step toward the implementation of foreign 38. On the CDU/CSU and the SPD, see Geoffrey Pridham, Christian Democracy in Western Germany: The CDUICSU in Government and Opposition, 1945-1976 (London: Croom Helm, 1977); Hans-Otto Kleinmann, Geschichte der CDU 1945-1982 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1993); Gerard Braunthal, The German Social Democrats since 1969: A Party in Power and Opposition (Boulder: Westview, 1994); Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff, Kleine Geschichte der SPD: Darstellung und Dokumentation 1848-1983 (Bonn: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft, 1983). The CSU has its own party organization but has formed a single parliamentary group with the CDU since the 1950s. See Alf Mintzel, Die CSU: Anatomie einer konservativen Partei 1945-1972 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1975).

Introduction

21

policy priorities, the creation and maintenance of an alliance with the Liberals was a second. This, too, often proved extremely difficult. 39 A final political task crucial for the implementation of foreign policy priorities concerned relations between the major parties. At critical postwar turning points, foreign policy issues often figured prominently in the national election campaigns that pitted the chancellor candidates of the CDU/CSU and SPD against each other. But, even after the successful formation of a ruling coalition, chancellors sometimes had to overcome opposition resistance to their foreign policies. From the cold war 1950s through the post-cold war 1990s, the party in opposition periodically challenged the direction of foreign policy in several different ways: by wooing individual deputies from the coalition parties; questioning the conformity of foreign policy with the Basic Law; wielding majorities in the Bundesrat; or mobilizing extraparliamentary opposition. Adenauer's Western integration, Brandt's New Ostpolitik, Kohl's INF policy and his post-reunification foreign policy all met and eventually overcame at least one such form of opposition. Adenauer, Brandt, and Kohl managed to place their foreign policy priorities on a solid domestic foundation only after prolonged partisan struggles. The course of those struggles, and their attendant compromises, shaped German foreign policy in practice. In order to explain the foreign policy of the Federal Republic, then, one must trace the political conflict over its implementation. Attention to domestic politics in isolation cannot provide an adequate account. Other dimensions of the explanatory strategy employed here capture the forces that framed the political struggle: the problems generated by the international environment; the alternatives posed by the institutional constellation; and the priorities articulated by party leaders. Only in combination with structure, institutions, and foreign policy ideas can domestic politics contribute to a persuasive account of German foreign policy at key postwar turning points. 4o The structured analysis carried out in each chapter allows for a systematic comparison of the critical junctures-a task undertaken in the conclusion. That comparison establishes the book's core argument about path dependence. It shows how institutional and political configurations, once in place, influenced subsequent foreign policy choices, before and after reunification. There was nothing inevitable about the postwar path of German foreign 39. On the FDP, see Peter Losche and Franz Walter, Die FDP: Richtungsstreit und ZukunJtszweiJel (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, \996). 40. On the reciprocal effects of international structure on domestic politics, see Peter Gourevitch, "The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics," International Organization 32, no. 4 (autumn 1978): 881-912.

22

The German Problem Transformed

policy and its continuity across the 1990 divide. At no critical juncture did the international constellation dictate foreign policy choices. Political forces and foreign policy ideas pushed FRG foreign policy in some directions rather than others. Efforts to predict the German future, the book concludes, must acknowledge both the contingency of the past and the salience of historical memory in the Federal Republic. Whether or not the new Germany continues to embrace multilateralism and supranationalism will depend not only on international and domestic political developments, but also on German views of history and its policy implications.

CHAPTER 2

The Cold War and Western Integration

German foreign policy underwent a startling transformation during the decade after World War II. The Four Powers-the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France-~efeated and occupied Germany in 1945. In May 1949 the three Western powers combined their zones of occupation, encompassing most of the country's prewar territory and population, to form the Federal Republic. Only five years later, the FRG regained its sovereignty as a member of NATO and the nascent European Community. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's policy of Western integration marked a sharp break with the tradition of seesaw diplomacy between East and West. Bonn did not abandon the goal of national unity or rule out dialogue with Moscow. But integration within the Atlantic Alliance and the EC marked a new point of departure for Ostpolitik. In the mid1950s, only a decade after war's end, German foreign policy rested on a new institutional foundation. 1 The first postwar German government, formed in September 1949, quickly moved to anchor the Federal Republic in Western institutions. Upon taking office, Adenauer immediately pressed for German membership in the newly formed Council of Europe. A deliberative body without any formal powers, the Council brought together parliamentarians from across Western Europe committed to the ideal of European unity. With 1. On Gennan foreign policy during the Adenauer era, see Konrad Adenauer, Erinnerungen. 4 vols. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1965-68); Waldemar Besson, Die AufJenpolitik der Bundesrepublik: Erfahrungen und MajJstiibe (Munich: Piper, 1970). For overviews of relevant primary and secondary sources, see Klaus A. Maier and Bruno Thoss, eds., Westintegration, Sicherheit und deutsche Frage: Quellen zur AujJenpolitik in der "J.'ra Adenauer (Dannstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1994); Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, ed., Adenauerzeit: Stand, Perspektiven und merhodische AuJgaben der ZeitgeschichtsJorschung (1945-1967) (Bonn: Bouvier, 1993).

23

24

The German Problem Transformed

the support of the Western powers, who retained ultimate sovereignty over FRG foreign policy through 1955, Bonn joined the Council in July 1950. French leaders considered the matter of Council membership an extension of their policy toward the Saar, a disputed area on the Franco-German border. They calculated that separate FRG and Saar delegations to the Council would strengthen their efforts to secure the region's political independence from Bonn. U.S. and British leaders supported German membership for different reasons-in order to shore up the FRG's new democratic institutions and contribute to overall Western unity amid the emergent cold war. 2 During the course of 1950 the German government supplemented the largely symbolic step of FRG membership in the Council of Europe with support for two more far-reaching French initiatives: the ECSC and the European Defense Community (EDC). French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed the European Coal and Steel Community in May 1950. Conceived by the chief architect of postwar French economic policy, Jean Monnet, the project called for the reorganization of two key West European industrial sectors under a single supranational authority. Both Monnet and Schuman were committed to the ideal of European unity. From their perspective, however, the ECSC also promised tangible benefits: a spur to France's economic recovery and some leverage over heavy industry in the Ruhr basin, the backbone of successive German war efforts. The United States, eager to spur economic recovery in Western Europe and to assuage French security concerns, backed the project. In April 1951 the Federal Republic and France, together with Italy and the Benelux countries, became founding members of the ECSC. Britain, supportive of the process of European integration but jealous of its sovereignty, opted not to join. 3 The German government also backed a more ambitious initiative for supranational integration, the EDC. Outlined by French Defense Minister Rene Pleven in October 1950, the proposal envisioned German rearmament within the context of an integrated Western European force. From the perspective of Paris, London, and Washington, the EDC made sense for two reasons. It both promised to strengthen the Western alliance 2. The Saar finally voted in a 1956 referendum to become part of the FRG. See Jacques Freymond, The Saar Conflict, 1945-1955 (New York: Praeger, 1960). On links between the Saar and Council of Europe controversies, see Hans-Peter Schwarz, Die A'ra Adenauer: Griinderjahre der Republik 1949-57 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1981), 86--96. 3. On the ECSC, see John Gillingham, Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Klaus Schwabe, ed., Die Anftinge des SchumanPlans J950-5J (Baden-Baden: Nomos. 1988).

The Cold War and Western Integration

25

against a possible Soviet threat and to provide a framework for FRG rearmament that ruled out a revival of German militarism. In May 1952 all six ECSC governments endorsed the EDC Treaty. That same month the Federal Republic and the three Western powers signed the Bonn Conventions, which granted German sovereignty within the context of an integrated West European military force. Over the next two years, however, a drawnout ratification struggle in France delayed the implementation of EDC. Despite overt pressure from the United States-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles warned of an "agonizing reappraisal" of the U.S. commitment to Europe should the project collapse-the French ratification debate dragged through 1953 and on into 1954.4 As long as the terms of German integration within the Western alliance were unresolved, Adenauer pursued a confrontational policy toward the East. The Federal Republic refused to recognize the creation of the GDR in the Soviet zone of occupation in October 1949 and staked its international claim to represent all Germans [Alleinvertretungsanspruch]. Adenauer subsequently dismissed Soviet security concerns in connection with German rearmament. And the German government flatly rejected Soviet leader Josef Stalin's March 1952 offer of reunification in exchange for neutrality as an insincere, transparent effort to torpedo German rearmament and drive a wedge between Bonn and Western capitals. As the EDC ratification controversy wore on, Adenauer's government remained skeptical of international negotiations on the unity issue and insisted instead on the absolute priority of rearmament within the West. Only as part of a united Western front, the chancellor insisted, should Bonn support dialogue with Moscow on the issue of reunification. 5 The final terms of German integration into the alliance had to wait until the fall of 1954. After a series of divisive debates, the French National Assembly finally rejected the EDC in August 1954. The foundation of Adenauer's proposed policy of Western integration had collapsed. Over the next two months, however, U.S., British, and German leaders managed to set up an alternative framework for German rearmament. British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden proposed that the Federal Republic join both NATO and the Brussels Pact, a Western European alliance founded III 1948. Dulles and Adenauer greeted the proposal and French leaders 4. On German security policy during this period, see Roland G. Foerster et aI., An/iinge westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik: 1945-1956, 4 vols. (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1982-97). On the diplomacy of EDC, see Rolf Steininger, "John Foster Dulles, the European Defense Community, and the German Question," John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy o/the Cold War. ed. Richard H. Immerman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990),79-108. 5. For Adenauer's approach to the Stalin Note and relations with the Moscow, see Adenauer, Erinnerungen, 2:63-131.

26

The German Problem Transformed

went along-with somewhat less enthusiasm. At the Paris Conference of October 1954, Adenauer pledged to create a German army and to renounce any future production of atomic, biological and chemical weapons. In return, the Western allies granted the FRG its sovereignty as a member of NATO and the West European Union (WEU), the designation for the enlarged Brussels Pact. With the successful ratification of the Paris Treaties, the FRG became a member of the Western alliance in May 1955. 6 The mid-1950s also saw a further intensification of the Federal Republic's economic ties with its Western allies. After complex negotiations, the leaders of the ECSC member states met in Rome in March 1957 to found the European Economic Community, later known simply as the European Community, or EC. The Treaty of Rome extended economic integration beyond the coal and steel sectors, committing Community members to the goal of a common market. At the same time, it set up a complex set of supranational and intergovernmental institutions to oversee joint economic policies. The Federal Republic and its partners created the European Commission, responsible for the initiation of EC-wide legislation, and the European Parliament, a legislative body with a mainly advisory role. While member states could still pursue their particular interests through the powerful Council of Ministers, the Community's main legislative body, the EC represented more than an international organization writ large. As a founding member, the Federal Republic linked itself more closely, economically and politically, with its West European allies. 7 The integration of the Federal Republic into NATO and the emerging European Community did not preclude contacts with the Soviet Union. In September 1955, for example, Adenauer and a large German delegation made a highly publicized trip to Moscow. But his visit, the only one of his chancellorship, did not mark the start of an active Ostpolitik. During the talks Adenauer underscored the absolute priority of German ties with the West, while Nikita Khrushchev and other Soviet leaders railed against German rearmament. Both sides agreed to establish diplomatic relations and Adenauer managed to secure the release of German prisoners of war. On the central issue of German unity, however, hostility prevailed. While 6. A useful account remains Karl W. Deutsch and Lewis J. Edinger, Germany Rejoins the Powers: Mass Opinion. Interest Groups. and Elites in Contemporary German Foreign Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959). 7. On the roots of European institutions within the ECSC construct, see Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting ofEurope: Political. Social. and Economic Forces /950-1957 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), chaps 12-13. On the Treaty of Rome, see Hans-Jiirgen Kiisters, Die Grundung der europiiisc/zen Wirtschaftsgemeinschafi (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1982).

The Cold War and Western Integration

27

the German side demanded free all-German elections as the basis for reunification, the Soviet leadership insisted on the reality of two German states and on recognition of the GDR as a first step toward any settlement. In the years that followed, the FRG not only refused to recognize the status quo of Germany's division. Bonn also withheld diplomatic recognition from states that exchanged ambassadors with East Berlin, the thrust of the so-called Hallstein Doctrine. A decade after war's end the Federal Republic was firmly anchored in the West and locked in confrontation with the East. 8 Cold War Challenges: Rearmament and Reunification

What explains this postwar transformation of German foreign policy? Changes at the level of international structure-the division of Germany and the onset of the cold war-provide part of the answer. Following unconditional surrender, in May 1945, the Four Powers divided Germany into zones of occupation and placed its territory East of the Oder-Neisse Rivers under Polish administration, effectively recognizing the expulsion of millions of Germans living there. 9 At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945 the victors agreed to extract reparations from their respective zones. At the same time, they pledged to maintain the overall economic and political unity of the country-a commitment embodied in their joint occupation of Berlin, the capital of the defeated Reich. The Western powers and the Soviet Union were determined to root out Nazism and prevent any reemergence of a German military threat. From the outset, however, ideological differences among the victors undermined any joint approach to German reconstruction. Economic and political life developed differently in eastern and western Germany. 10 The division of Germany, which took concrete shape in the years 8. On the origins of the Hallstein Doctrine, named after one of Adenauer's top foreign policy advisors, Walter Hallstein, see Riidiger Marco Booz, "Hallsteinzeit": Deutsche AufJenpolitik 1955-1972 (Bonn: Bouvier, 1995), 15-49. The Soviet Union, as one of the Four Powers responsible for reunification, was exempted from its application. On German-Soviet relations during the early 1950s, see Klaus Erdmenger, Das /olgenschwere MifJverstiindnis: Bonn und die sowjetische Deutschlandpolitik 1949-1955 (Freiburg: Rombach, 1967). For Adenauer's detailed account of the visit, see Adenauer, Erinnerungen, 2:487-556. 9. On the Four-Power approach to the border issue, see Hans Georg Lehmann, Der Oder-NeifJe Konflikt (Munich: Beck, 1979), chap. 3. France officially joined the group only after the Potsdam Conference. 10. On the immediate postwar years, see Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History o/the Soviet Zone o/Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Theodor Eschenburg, Jahre der Besatzung 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1983).

28

The German Problem Transformed

after 1945, was both a catalyst and a consequence of the emergent cold war. The gradual integration of the three Western zones, in economic, administrative, and political terms, worsened U.S.-Soviet relations in 1946-47, as did the step-by-step introduction of a one-party dictatorship under the Socialist Unity Party (SED) in the Soviet zone. At the same time, the U.S. announcement of the Marshall Plan in June 1947 and the Soviet refusal to participate in the proposed economic aid package escalated East-West tensions, undercutting the sporadic efforts of newly formed German parties and regional governments to maintain national unity across all four zones of occupation. The June 1948 currency reform in the Western zones and the Western sectors of Berlin proved a critical turning point. The introduction of the Deutschmark provoked an unsuccessful, yearlong Soviet blockade of West Berlin, and accelerated momentum toward the founding of both German states in 1949. During the early years of its existence the Federal Republic's foreign policy unfolded within an international constellation characterized by both the height of the cold war and first indications of detente. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 intensified the cold war in Europe. The North Korean invasion redoubled Western concerns about a Soviet attack on Western Europe, while U.S. military intervention on the side of the South heightened Soviet fears of global encirclement. The stabilization of the front in Korea by late 1951 dampened fears of an imminent superpower confrontation. But a thaw in the cold war had to await Stalin's death in March 1953 and the emergence of a reformist leadership under Khrushchev. An armistice ended the Korean War in July 1953, and EastWest dialogue intensified over the next several years. The onset of detente was particularly evident in the European context. With the Austrian State Treaty of May 1955 the Four Powers guaranteed the unity and neutrality of the country. And the Geneva Summit of July 1955 marked the first meeting of the "Big Four" since the end of World War II. Two related policy challenges dominated the German foreign policy agenda during the early 1950s: rearmament and reunification. The outbreak of the Korean War made rearmament a salient issue. With varying degrees of urgency, U.S., British, and French leaders sought to harness German military potential for the Western alliance-and simultaneously to preclude any future German military threat. At different junctures they considered the EDC and NATO appropriate institutional means to both these ends. German rearmament not only came to dominate Bonn's relations with Western capitals. It also moved to the center of East-West relations in Europe. First Stalin and then Khrushchev adamantly opposed the creation of a U.S.-German military alliance. They condemned what they

The Cold War and Western Integration

29

perceived as a concerted effort to change the postwar status quo through force-or the threat of force. Through the mid-1950s Soviet leaders countered the rearmament project with threats and intimidation, on the one hand, and disarmament proposals, on the other. The issue of Germans in uniform, emotionally charged only years after the end of the war, confronted the Federal Republic with a first major foreign policy challenge. II Through 1955 the issue of rearmament was closely bound up with that of reunification. As part of a concerted effort to prevent German integration into Western security institutions, the Soviet leadership launched a series of reunification initiatives from November 1950 onward. Stalin's March 1952 offer of unity in exchange for neutrality was the most significant. The Stalin Note sparked an extended but ultimately futile diplomatic exchange about the domestic and international contours of a German settlement. The foreign ministers of the Four Powers met in Berlin to discuss reunification in January 1954. The Geneva Summit took up the issue the following year. And the foreign ministers met to discuss the topic again in December 1955. Throughout this diplomatic activity Soviet leaders repeatedly warned their Western-and German-counterparts that rearmament would obstruct any future progress toward reunification. For the FRG this constellation created a clear tradeoff between the pursuit of security in alliance with the West and the pursuit of unity, which was impossible without Soviet cooperation. 12 The resolution of the rearmament and reunification issues was in doubt through 1955. U.S. and British leaders, while supportive of reunification in principle, strongly backed German rearmament in order to counter a perceived Soviet military threat. French leaders, more concerned than their allies about a possible German military threat, flirted at times with the alternative of a neutral, reunified Germany through negotiations with Moscow. Soviet leaders, for their part, were strictly opposed to German participation in the Western alliance. On the unity issue, however, they appeared to vacillate between two goals: consolidation of the GDR as a first step toward the Sovietization of all of Germany; and a reunified, neutral Germany through negotiations with the West. Only the integration of the Federal Republic into NATO in May 1955-exactly a decade after II. On the onset of the rearmament controversy, see Rolf Steininger, Wiederbewajjizung: Die Entscheidungfur einen westdeutschen Verteidigungsbeitrag (Straube: Erlangen, 1989). 12. For contrasting views of this diplomacy and its prospects, see Rolf Steininger, The German Question: The Stalin Note of 1952 and the Problem of Reunification (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Hans-Peter Schwarz, ed., Die Legende von der verpajJten Gelegenheit: Die Stalin Note vom 10. Mar;: 1952 (Stuttgart: Belser, 1982).

30

The German Problem Transformed

war's end-resolved the ambiguity at the heart of the postwar configuration. Through the mid-1950s the openness of the rearmament and reunification issues confronted German leaders with difficult policy choices. 13 Institutions and Alternatives: Variations with the West Two interlocking institutions, the Three- and Four-Power regimes linking the victors of World War II, framed the German response to this international constellation. The Three-Power regime consisted of rules and norms linking the FRG with the United States, Britain, and France. Most clearly embedded in the Occupation Statute, the regime limited German external sovereignty and ruled out a purely nationally oriented German foreign policy. The Four-Power regime, by contrast, consisted of norms linking the Western powers and the Soviet Union. Grounded primarily in the Potsdam Accord of August 1945, it made the sovereignty of Berlin and matters relating to German unity the legal preserve of the Anti-Hitler Coalition. During the early 1950s both sets of institutions framed German policy toward the interrelated policy challenges of rearmament and reunification. The Three-Power regime emerged during the immediate postwar years. Under the watchful eye of the occupying powers German leaders reconstructed political institutions in the Western zones. The Parliamentary Council, a constituent assembly with representatives from all three zones, drafted the Federal Republic's Basic Law, a constitution deemed provisional pending reunification. The new constitution, subject to approval by the allies, reflected norms shared by both the victors and the vanquished. It not only set up democratic, federal institutions. It also set down norms relevant for the conduct of German foreign policy. The preamble of the Basic Law bound the new state to "achieve, by free self-determination, the unity and freedom of Germany." Other key articles related to foreign policy reflected a strong consensus between German and allied leaders. Article 26 precluded preparations for wars of aggression. And with Article 24, the proscription of German defense policy outside a system of collective security, the Basic Law laid the foundation for a multilateral security policy. A joint allied-German construct, the new constitu13. For recent historical work on the Four Powers' contrasting approaches to rearmament and reunification, see Wilfried Loth, ed., Die deutsche Frage in der Nachkriegszeit (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1994). According to Loth. "in light of the new sources, the openness of the German Question seems to have been remarkably substantial into the mid-1950s" (8).

The Cold War and Western Integration

31

tion effectively outlawed a return to the nationalist, expansionist policies of the past. 14 The core of the Three-Power regime during the early 1950s was the Occupation Statute of September 1949. In assenting to the creation of the Federal Republic, the United States, France, and Britain not only helped to place its foreign policy on a new constitutional foundation. They also continued to limit its external sovereignty. The statute, promulgated the same month that Adenauer was elected chancellor, replaced the military administration in the three Western zones with a single Allied High Commission. Direct allied interference in internal German affairs, most evident in ongoing dismantling of German heavy industry, receded in the years that followed. But the three high commissioners-not the German government-continued to exercise legal responsibility for the Federal Republic's relations with the outside world. Legal restrictions on German foreign policy eased in the years that followed. In March 1951, for example, statute revisions allowed for the creation of a German foreign ministry. But only after the FRG joined NATO did it gain full control of its own foreign policy. Through 1955 Bonn was legally bound to conduct its foreign affairs with and not against the allies. 15 The Four-Power regime also constituted the institutional context of German foreign policy during the first postwar decade. Rooted in the wartime anti-Hitler coalition, the regime found its clearest formal expression in the Potsdam Treaty of August 1945. With the treaty the Four Powers not only formalized their joint occupation of Berlin and the division of Germany west of the Oder-Neisse into zones of occupation. They also embraced shared norms to guide German reconstruction: demilitarization, denazification and democratization. In the years after 1945 Western and Soviet interpretations of these norms diverged and two sharply contrasting German states began to take shape. Western leaders condemned the SED's consolidation of power as a violation of Potsdam's democratization provisions, while Soviet leaders attacked the integration of the Western zones as a violation of Four-Power responsibility. Still, the division of Germany during the late 1940s did not destroy the Four-Power regime. The Western powers and the Soviet Union continued to assert their responsibility for questions relating to German unity and the status of Berlin. Four-Power rights removed legal competence for the unity issue from German hands. The Federal Republic could not pursue a national reunification policy. 14. Documents on Germany, 1944-1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1985), 226-27. On the origins of the Basic Law, see Eschenburg, Jahre der Besatzung, 459-514. 15. On the Statute, see Schwarz, Griinderjahre, 42-48.

32

The German Problem Transformed

The salience of the Four-Power regime as a context for German foreign policy was evident during the early 1950s. The Western powers, for example, blocked Bonn's efforts to make West Berlin a full part of the Federal Republic. And Soviet leaders sought to obstruct political and economic links between Bonn and West Berlin. The Four-Power regime not only limited the FRG presence in the former Reich capital. It also excluded German leaders from direct participation in the East-West dialogue on reunification. In keeping with the principle of Four-Power responsibility, Soviet leaders addressed their reunification initiatives to Western capitals, not Bonn. And the official allied responses bore the signature of the Western powers. The subordinate legal standing of the Federal Republic was most obvious during the 1954 Berlin Conference. While the foreign ministers of the Four Powers discussed the unity issue, representatives of both the FRG and the GDR were relegated to observer status. These interlocking Three- and Four-Power regimes narrowed but did not eliminate German freedom of action with respect to the rearmament and reunification issues. The Three-Power regime, with its sovereignty restrictions, ruled out a German foreign policy in theory but not in practice. From 1945 onward new democratic elites, first at the local and then at the regional and zonal levels, conducted foreign policies to the extent that they dealt with foreign occupiers. From the outset German leaders could and often did insist on treatment as partners, not simply subordinates. Adenauer vividly demonstrated the German claim to equality during his first meeting with the High Commission in September 1949. To the surprise of those present he slighted protocol by delivering his speech on the carpet reserved for the three allied commissioners. This "carpet diplomacy" set the tone for the months and years that followed. Adenauer exploited bilateral contacts with individual commissioners and interviews with the world press to create an independent German foreign policy profile. From the November 1949 Petersberg Treaty, which phased out the dismantling of German industry, through the ECSC and EDC negotiations, Bonn emerged as an important European player in its own right.16 The outbreak of the Korean War and the eruption of the rearmament issue revealed the full extent of German foreign policy within the confines of the Three-Power regime. The allies' concerns about a Soviet threat to Western Europe made it increasingly clear how much they needed the Federal Republic, and not just vice versa. Washington, averse to large 16. On Adenauer's "carpet diplomacy" and his interaction with the High Commission in general, see Hans-Peter Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Au/stieg 1876~1952 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1986), 671~90.

The Cold War and Western Integration

33

increases in the U.S. military presence in Europe, backed German rearmament, but could not bring it about without close consultation with Bonn. Adenauer immediately exploited German leverage derived from the new situation, that fact that-as he put it in a November 1950 Bundestag speech-the "voice of the FRG must be heard and respected."l? In the ensuing negotiations concerning the terms of rearmament the German government forcefully pressed the demand for full and equal partnership in the Western alliance. In May 1952 the allies and the FRG endorsed the Bonn Conventions, which called for German sovereignty upon EDC ratification. The crisis and eventual collapse of the EDC postponed formal sovereignty until the ratification of the Paris Treaties in 1955. But the continued existence of the Three-Power regime did not preclude an active German foreign policy throughout the rearmament controversy. Ambiguity at the heart of the Four-Power regime, too, allowed German leaders some freedom of action. The Potsdam Treaty removed the unity issue from the control of the Germans in legal terms. But the norm of Four-Power responsibility also opened up practical ways for the Federal Republic to shape East-West diplomacy concerning Germany as a whole. On the one hand, the Potsdam Treaty envisioned German ratification of any reunification settlement. In their discussions of the unity issue, the Four Powers had to be attentive to German concerns. On the other hand, Western leaders were bound to consult Bonn in the formulation of their positions. With the Basic Law, the allies had endorsed the Federal Republic's claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the German people. And with the Occupation Statute, they explicitly committed themselves to the pursuit of the unity of the German people. In practice, the Western allies, while jealous of their ultimate responsibility for the unity issue and the status of Berlin, arrived at most positions in close cooperation with the Germans. The extent of German influence within the context of the Four-Power regime was most evident in the context of the Stalin Note controversy. Formally, the diplomatic exchange it unleashed took place between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. Informally, however, Moscow's initiative was directed as much at Bonn as Washington, London, or Paris. Its key provision-unity in exchange for neutrality-aimed to deflect the Federal Republic from the path of Western integration. Provisions for a national German army, in particular, appeared designed to turn Germans against the EDC. Not only was the Soviet diplomatic offensive directed at the FRG; German leaders were able to shape the thrust of the allied 17. Address of November 8, 1950, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestages. Stenographischer Bericht, ser. 1, 3565.

34

The German Problem Transformed

response. Some Western leaders, while skeptical of Soviet intentions, were nevertheless open to testing the seriousness of the proposal. But Adenauer, anxious to press ahead with Western integration, successfully advocated an uncompromising response. After consultations with Bonn, the allies outlined tough counterdemands: all-German elections as a first step toward unity; the freedom of a united Germany to choose its alliances; and nonrecognition of the Oder-Neisse border pending the successful negotiation of a German settlement. 18 German leverage over Four-Power dialogue was again evident during the thaw that followed Stalin's death. In May 1953 Winston Churchill called for a Four-Power conference on Germany. The administration of Dwight Eisenhower, concerned that such a meeting might impede EDC ratification, remained skeptical. Only in June 1953, when Adenauer temporarily reversed his opposition, did Eisenhower and Dulles agree to the Berlin foreign ministers conference the following January. While Adenauer's reversal made the conference possible, his uncompromising stance in the negotiations helped to assure its failure. In his consultations with the Western allies, he insisted on a new demand-that free elections in the GDR take place in conjunction with the organization of all-German elections. This demand was clearly unacceptable to the Soviet Union and exasperated even allied negotiators-not to mention many of Adenauer's own political supporters. As it happened, fundamental differences between allied and Soviet positions made a breakthrough at the Berlin Conference unlikely. Nevertheless, Adenauer's tough stance, and his eagerness to break off the talks as soon as possible, certainly contributed to its failure. 19 Ambiguity at the core of the Three- and Four-Power regimes, then, allowed German leaders some leeway in their approach to the rearmament and reunification issues. At no point in the early 1950s did German leaders face a stark choice between East and West. Given their economic and material dependence on the United States, no real alternative to a basic Western orientation for the Federal Republic existed. Nor, given international tensions, did German leaders face a clear choice between Western integration and reunification. The distance between the Western and 18. On Adenauer's central role in the formulation of the Western response, see Steininger. German Question. chaps. 1-2. Wilfried Loth has even argued that "that the decision about the Soviet offer was first and foremost a German one" (Die deutsche Frage, 24). For an alternative account that stresses constraints on German choices, see Hermann-Josef Rupieper. Del' heset::te Verbiindete: Die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik, 1949-1955 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. 1991).240-300. 19. On Adenauer's stance and the concerns it raised, see "The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the United Kingdom," October 13, 1953, and "Memorandum of Conversation," February 6, 1954, in Foreign Relations of the United States. 1952-1954 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986),7:654-56,976--77.

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35

Soviet negotiating positions concerning the domestic political institutions and foreign policy orientation of a united Germany made reunification unlikely, no matter what the details of the German position. What remained open was the precise nature of ties with the West and the possibility of rapprochement between Soviet and Western positions on the unity issue. Within this context German choices revolved around how much relative emphasis to place on rearmament and how much on reunification; how much to press for Western integration and how much to prod the allies toward Four-Power dialogue. It seems paradoxical that a weak Federal Republic, still without its external sovereignty, should have faced significant foreign policy alternatives in the early 1950s. The United States, with its crushing economic and military superiority, supported rearmament within Western institutions. And through both the Three- and Four-Power regimes Washington exercised considerable institutional leverage over Bonn. Nevertheless, both the openness of rearmament and reunification issues in the early 1950s and ambiguities within the institutional configuration left German leaders with significant foreign policy alternatives. While eager to enlist Bonn's security cooperation, U.S. leaders were also careful not to impose their will on would-be allies. In his biography of High Commissioner John J. McCloy, Thomas Schwartz concludes that U.S. leaders insisted "that German leaders make a choice between pressing for negotiations for reunification and following the path of European integration and tight association with the United States."20 That choice emerged out ofa domestic political struggle. Contested Priorities amid the Cold War

During the early 1950s both the project of rearmament and the prospects for reunification were the object of fierce political controversy within the Federal Republic. Economic and social reconstruction at home remained the overriding concern; the "economic miracle" associated with Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard did not fully take hold until the mid-1950s. During the postwar decade, the absence of several million war dead robbed the country of human resources, and the integration of about ten million Germans expelled from territories east of the Oder-Neisse complicated the recovery. So too did wartime damage to industry and the postwar reparations burden. During the early years of the Federal Republic, however, the problems of economic recovery and social integration did not drive foreign policy issues off the political agenda. The persistence of the Three-Power 20. Thomas Alan Schwartz, America's Germany: John J. McCloy and the Federal Republic a/Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991),268.

36

The German Problem Transformed

regime and the strictures on German sovereignty constituted a continuing source of controversy. And the rearmament and reunification issues that erupted during the early 1950s found political resonance in a society still recovering from war and wrestling with the effects of national division. 21 The major parties that emerged during the postwar years-the Christian Democrats, the Social Democrats, and the Liberals-converged around a basic pro-Western foreign policy orientation. With the exception of a pro-Soviet communist party and certain nationalist splinter groups, the new German democratic political elite backed cooperation with the allies, and the United States in particular. 22 With the onset of the cold war, however, the rearmament and reunification issues gave rise to sharp divisions in German society and politics. A vocal peace movement protested the prospect of Germans in uniform under the slogan "count me out!" (ohne mich).23 And a radical Right dominated by unrepentant Nazis, while politically insignificant, kept nationalist and revanchist themes in the public eye. Within this shifting international and domestic context, the leaders of the established parties articulated contrasting foreign policy prioritiesdifferent ways to combine security and association with the West and the pursuit of national unity in the East. During the late 1940s and early 1950s Adenauer and Kurt Schumacher, the leading rivals for the chancellorship, structured the domestic political debate. Adenauer backed rapid integration within the Western alliance, while Schumacher supported looser Western ties and more active efforts to pursue reunification. To some degree these divergent foreign policy priorities reflected different political biographies. 24 Adenauer, mayor of Cologne and an influ21. On the interpenetration of foreign policy and domestic politics during the early years of the Federal Republic, see Wolfram F. Hanrieder, West German Foreign Policy. 1949-1963: International Pressure and Domestic Response (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967), Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland in der "Ira Adenauer: Auj3enpolitik und innere Entwicklung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1983). 22. For an overview of postwar positions, see Hans-Peter Schwarz, Vom Reich zur Bundesrepublik: Deutschland im Widerstreit der auj3enpolitischen Konzeptionen in den Jahren der Besat;;ungsherrschaji. 1945-1949 (Neuwied: Luchterhand, 1980). On the importance of the United States for postwar German leaders, see Hans-Jiirgen Grabbe. Unionsparteien. Sozialdemokratie und Vereinigte Staaten von Amerika. 1945-1966 (Diisseldorf: Droste, 1983), chaps. 1-5. 23. Alice Holmes Cooper, Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements since 1945 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), chap. 2. 24. On Adenauer, see Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Auj.~tieg; Henning Kohler, Adenauer: Eine Politische Biographie (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1994). On Schumacher, see Peter Merseburger, Der schll'ierige Deutsche: Kurt Schumacher (Stuttgart: Deutsche VerlagsAnstalt, 1995); Lewis J. Edinger, Kurt Schumacher: A Study in Personality and Political Behavior (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965).

The Cold War and Western Integration

37

ential member of the Catholic Center party during the Weimar Republic, spent the Nazi years in retirement in his native Rhineland. During the immediate postwar years, he struggled for-and achieved-leadership of the newly formed Christian Democratic movement, which had strongholds in western and southern Germany. Schumacher, who hailed from Prussia, served in the Reichstag toward the end of the Weimar Republic and spent most of the Nazi period in concentration camps. He quickly assumed leadership of the postwar SPD, which was stronger in the Protestant North and Soviet-occupied East. From these very different starting points Adenauer and Schumacher emerged as the dominant figures in postwar German politics. They helped to craft the Basic Law as members of the Parliamentary Council, contested the FRG's first national campaign, and defined its most prominent policy controversies through Schumacher's death in August 1952. The foreign policy differences between Adenauer and Schumacher rested on three broad points of agreement. First, both insisted that the Federal Republic belonged squarely within the community of Western democracies. This entailed more than a pragmatic recognition of the presence of the allies and the strictures on German sovereignty. Both Adenauer and Schumacher were ardent anti-fascists and anticommunists. Mistrustful of their compatriots' political instincts, they insisted that Germans break with their authoritarian habits and embrace parliamentary democracy once and for all. As Adenauer put it in 1946, the "German people has been afflicted with a false view of the state, power, and the role of the individual."25 Links with the Western allies, he and Schumacher contended, would safeguard German institutions and prevent a revival of the nationalist and militarist politics that followed World War 1. After 1945 both men saw the greatest threat to German democracy embodied in Soviet communism. They condemned the progressive Sovietization of the Eastern zone-particularly the subjugation of the CDU-East and the forced merger of Social Democrats into the communist-dominated SED. Association with the West, Adenauer and Schumacher both maintained, was necessary to counter the political threat posed by communism. 26 Second, Adenauer and Schumacher shared the commitment to national unity set down in the Basic Law. Both considered the GDR a nonentity, a mere Soviet puppet, and demanded free all-German elections 25. Address as CDU leader in the British Zone of Occupation, March 24,1946, in Konrad Adenauer, Reden, 1917-1967: Eine Auswahl (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975), 85. 26. See, for example, Schumacher's speech at the first postwar SPD party conference, May 9,1946, in Kurt Schumacher, Reden-SchriJten-Korrespondenzen, 1945-1952 (Berlin: Dietz, 1985), 387-418.

38

The German Problem Transformed

as a first step toward reunification. In response to the creation of the GDR, in October 1949, Adenauer and Schumacher led the major parties in reiterating the Federal Republic's claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the German people. And they both refused to recognize the permanence of the Oder-Neisse line. This commitment to unity within Germany's prewar borders, the object of broad consensus across the German political spectrum, reflected a historical identification with Bismarck's Reich. As a Rhinelander and a Catholic, Adenauer had ambivalent feelings toward the Prussian-dominated Reich. But he did not view a separate West German state as preferable to a united Germany-the charges of his critics notwithstanding. Like Schumacher, whose Prussian background made him less ambivalent on this score, Adenauer considered the Reich a national frame of reference. 27 A third broad similarity concerned support for a strong defense against a Soviet military threat. Neither Adenauer nor Schumacher was enthusiastic about the prospect of German rearmament: both feared that a revival of German militarism might undermine new democratic institutions. As the cold war intensified, however, neither voiced principled objections to a German military contribution. Both Adenauer and Schumacher calculated that the Western powers could not effectively counter the Soviet threat without German military support. And while fiercely opposed to militarism, both nevertheless rejected the German pacifist tradition with strong roots on the German left. The only way to meet the threat posed by an aggressive and expansionist Soviet Union, they reasoned, was through an adequate military counterweight. The example of Hitler's aggression, Adenauer and Schumacher both maintained, underscored the importance of strength and determination in the face of a dictatorship.28 During the late 1940s and early 1950s these broadly similar stances on Western orientation, national unity, and military security served as a common foundation for contrasting foreign policy priorities. For Adenauer Western orientation entailed more than close ties with the Western powers. As early as 1945, he made the integration of western Germany into a set of tight-knit Western economic, political, and security institutions his over27. For a discussion of the problematic thesis that Adenauer was not committed to national unity, see Josef Foschepoth, ed., Adenauer und die deutsche Frage (G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1988). For an opposing view, see Rudolf Morsey, Die Deutchlandpolitik Adenauers: AIle Thesen und neue Fakten (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1991). 28. See, for example, Schumacher before an SPD audience, September 17, 1950, in Schumacher, Reden. 850-52. Adenauer invoked the negative analogy of Western appeasement in a party conference speech of October 20, 1950, in Adenauer, Reden, 184-85.

The Cold War and Western Integration

39

riding foreign policy priority.29 Adenauer's support for European integration, rooted in the perception of cultural and historical affinities between Germany and its Western neighbors, went back to the post-World War I years. After World War II he backed integration for a number of strategic reasons as well. In Adenauer's view Western integration constituted the most effective way to win back German sovereignty from the Western powers. In addition, membership in a military alliance promised security against the Soviet threat, while participation in the EC promised an accelerated economic recovery. In pursuit of these strategic ends, Adenauer was willing to countenance some discriminatory measures against the FRGfor example, the limits on national German armed forces envisioned within the EDC framework. 3o Schumacher, by contrast, conceived of a Western orientation in terms of cooperation, not integration. He did not reject an alliance with the United States, Britain, and France or progress toward European unity. Schumacher pointed to the importance of strategic links with the Western powers and invoked his party's traditional support for a "United States of Europe."31 At the same time, however, he rejected any institutional arrangement that discriminated against the Federal Republic or-in the context of economic integration-weakened the position of organized labor. The allies, he insisted, should abandon their economic controls, grant the FRG its political sovereignty, and treat it as an equal in any security arrangement. During one of the first Bundestag debates, in September 1949, he stressed that "Europe means equal rights" and-with an eye toward France-warned that using Europe as a cover for hegemonic power would only devalue the European idea. 32 In the years that followed, Schumacher condemned the ECSC as anti-labor and the EDC as an effort to keep the Federal Republic weak and subordinate. While Adenauer backed greater sovereignty through integration, Schumacher insisted on full sovereignty as a starting point for cooperative Western ties. These different approaches to relations with the West went hand in 29. See, for example, Adenauer to Sollmann, March 16, 1946, in Hans-Peter Mensing, ed., Adenauer: Briefe 1945-47 (Berlin: Siedler, 1983), 189-91. On Adenauer's approach to European integration in particular, see Werner Weidenfeld, Konrad Adenauer und Europa. Die geistigen Grundlagen der westeuropiiischen Integrationspolitik des ersten Bonner Bundeskanzlers (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1976). 30. On continuity between Adenauer's pre- and postwar approaches to Western integration, see Arnulf Baring, 1m Arifang war Adenauer: Die Entstehung der Kanzlerdemokratie (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1971),86--109. 31. Party conference address of May 9, 1946, in Schumacher, Reden, 407. 32. Schumacher addresses of September 21, 1949, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. I, 42.

40

The German Problem Transformed

hand with contrasting views of the unity issue. After the war both Adenauer and Schumacher expressed confidence that a democratic and prosperous western Germany would exert a magnetic pull on the East, laying the groundwork for reunification. 33 And both insisted that the Western powers commit themselves to German unity-a goal only realizable through talks with Moscow. During the early 1950s, however, their attitudes toward Four-Power dialogue diverged. Adenauer opposed such dialogue until Western integration was secure. Before then, he argued, talks would only complicate integration and might even generate a Four-Power accord at German expense-Adenauer's "Potsdam Nightmare."34 Once the FRG regained its sovereignty, he reasoned, it could fully protect its interests in any future unity negotiations. And once Soviet leaders realized that the FRG was not vulnerable and the GDR was not viable, they would be open to reunification on Western terms. Adenauer adhered to this policy of strength throughout the controversies of the early 1950s. Schumacher, by contrast, insisted that Western integration would make a German settlement with Moscow less, not more likely. While suspicious of Soviet intentions, he urged that the FRG combine association with the West and dialogue with the East. Germans, he insisted, should avoid thinking about East and West in "either-or" terms. 35 The government should do everything in its power to promote a settlement with the East before fixing the terms of its association with the West. In response to the Stalin Note, for example, Schumacher pressed for a more active diplomacy. "Any German government," he wrote the chancellor at the time, "should feel obliged to press for the acceleration of Four-Power talks."36 It is by no means clear that Schumacher was ready to entertain the Soviet offer of unity in exchange for neutrality. But he certainly rejected the premise of Adenauer's approach-that Western integration would make 33. Schumacher referred to the "irresistible magnetism" of the Western zones as early as 1947. See his party conference address of June 29, 1947, in Schumacher, Reden. 493. Adenauer set out this argument before the CDU leadership during the 1950s. See Giinther Buchstab, ed., Adenauer: "Wir haben wirklich etwas geschaffen": Die Protokolle des CDU-Bundesvorstands, 1953-1957 (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1990),431-32. 34. On Adenauer's anxieties concerning Four-Power diplomacy, see, for example, his conversation with McCloy on December 16, 1950, in Foreign Relations of the United States 1950, 4:675. The "Potsdam Nightmare" reference is cited in Schwarz, Adenauer: Der AuF stieg, 833. 35. Address at an SPD party conference, June 29. 1947. in Schumacher, Reden, 488. See also his address of May 22, 1950, ibid., 750-57. 36. Radio address of July 15, 1952, ibid., 967. More than a year earlier, Schumacher had also called for a more active reunification policy in a major Bundestag debate, March 9, 1951, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 1, 4761-67.

The Cold War and Western Integration

41

both the allies and the Soviet Union more likely to engage in serious negotiations on reunification. 37 Contrasting perspectives on security accompanied these different approaches to ties with the West and national unity. Adenauer, determined to integrate any new German armed forces tightly into a Western institutional framework, was willing to accept some discriminatory controls and the possibility that rearmament might set back the prospects for reunification. Schumacher did not object to Adenauer's alarmist rhetoric concerning a Soviet threat, his depiction of the FRG as a "dam against the East" and part of the Western "defensive front"38 But he rejected any discriminatory controls and insisted that alliance strategy reflect German interests-that war, should it come, be fought in the East and not on German soip9 More important, in the context of German domestic politics, he insisted that the Federal Republic exhaust the possibilities of FourPower diplomacy before committing itself to rearmament within the Western alliance. During the early 1950s the issues of reunification and rearmament were linked not only at the level of international politics but also in the German foreign policy debate. 4o The contrasting foreign policy priorities of Adenauer and Schumacher reflected different appraisals of the international situation. Adenauer's overriding concern was the Soviet threat. As early as 1945, he saw Stalin committed to exploiting differences among the Western powers and drawing all of Germany into the Soviet orbit. Before a CDU audience in 1946 he charged Moscow with seeking to "cast all of Europe into the greatest disorder" in order to "extend its power" to Germany, France and the rest of Western Europe. 41 In the years that followed, he dismissed conciliatory Soviet gestures-whether reunification offers or arms control initiatives-as transparent efforts to undermine Western unity and subjugate the Federal Republic. Adenauer's basic anti-Soviet orientation underpinned his strong pro-Western stance and his policy of strength with 37. For Schumacher's distinction between political and military neutrality and his openness to the latter, see his address before the Parliamentary Council, April 20, 1949, in Schumacher, Reden. 642. 38. These phrases are taken from a party conference address of October 20, 1950, in Adenauer, Reden. 187; and a Bundestag speech of November 8, 1950, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 1, 3567. 39. Debate of November 8, 1950, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 1,3569. 40. On Schumacher's views of the links between the rearmament and reunification issues, see Ulrich Buczylowski, Kurt Schumacher und die deutsche Frage (Stuttgart: Seewald, 1973). 41. Quoted in Schwarz, Vom Reich zur Bundesrepublik. 464.

42

The German Problem Transformed

respect to the unity issue. It remained remarkably constant during the early 1950s and through the end of his chancellorship in 1963. 42 Schumacher's view of Soviet intentions was no more positive. He also saw Moscow determined to bring all of Germany under its control. His view of the Western powers, however, was more negative than Adenauer's. He discerned a determination to keep the FRG subordinate and a lack of enthusiasm for German unity. Schumacher was critical of France in particular, and its "hegemonic tendencies," evident in efforts to discriminate against the FRG in the ECSC and EDC contexts. And he missed more active Western efforts to address the unity issue. Soviet leaders, Schumacher acknowledged, had subjugated eastern Germany and deepened the German division. But if Moscow bore most of the responsibility for the German division, "the lack of interest on the part of the western allies" had also helped to bring it about. 43 While Adenauer's perception of the international constellation informed support for rapid integration in Western institutions, Schumacher's suggested a looser association with the West and more attention to dialogue with the East. These contrasting foreign policy priorities also rested on different views of the past and its lessons. The legacy of Hitler's rule not only overshadowed the reconstruction of German society and politics in the decade after World War II.441t also shaped the public foreign policy debate. Adenauer's self-confident but respectful approach to the allies reflected his view of the Nazi period and its implications. 45 He sought to reestablish West German sovereignty as quickly as possible, but insisted that the legacy of German aggression necessitated an incremental approach. Given the crimes committed in Germany's name, he considered the creation of trust an absolute necessity. As he put it upon assuming the chancellorship, "We Germans must not forget what happened between 1933 and 1945. We also should not forget the disaster [Ungliick] that the National Socialist Regime brought upon the entire world." From Adenauer's perspective, not just German weakness but also historical experience dictated patience in relations with the allies. Given the salience of psychological consider a42. Adenauer's memoirs, written in the mid-1960s, attest to this continuity. Their main foreign policy themes-the imperative of Western integration and an anti-Soviet stanceinform his account of the two postwar decades. See Adenauer, Erinnerungen. 43. Address before SPD party conference, August 1948, in Schumacher, Reden, 604. 44. Norbert Frei, Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfiinge del' Bundesrepublik und die NSVergangenheit (M unich: Beck, 1996); Ulrich Brochhagen, Nach Niirnberg: Vergangenheitsbewiiltigung und Westintegration in del' Ara Adenauer (Hamburg: Junius Verlag, 1994). 45. For a discussion of Adenauer's understanding of history, see Anneliese Poppinga, Konrad Adenauer. Geschichtsverstiindnis, Weltanschauung und politische Praxis (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975), 119-57.

The Cold War and Western Integration

43

tions, "Germans should not expect or demand a high level of trust from the outset. "46 Adenauer's view of the past and its implications also reinforced the substance of his foreign policy priorities, especially his support for close ties with France and European integration. In his first government declaration as chancellor in September 1949, Adenauer insisted that the "rivalry that dominated European politics for hundreds of years and has caused so many wars and so much destruction and bloodshed must be abolished once and for all."47 Adenauer also drew a link between German responsibility for World War II and the imperative of deeper European integration. "The catastrophe brought the German people to the realization that an excessive nationalism had more than once destroyed peace," he argued in December 1951. "From this," he continued, "there emerged the recognition that our existence, along with that of all other European peoples, can only be maintained within a community that transcends national borders."48 While Adenauer's backing for the alliance with the United States derived mainly from strategic considerations, his support for Franco-German reconciliation and European integration reflected a particular view of the past and its lessons. Schumacher drew different policy conclusions from the same historical experience. While Adenauer invoked the past in support of his patient, incremental approach to the allies, Schumacher enlisted it in support of his more assertive stance. Pointing to the interwar precedent, Schumacher warned that Western efforts to discriminate against the Germans on economic and security matters would prove counterproductive. He openly admonished the Western powers not to repeat post-World War I mistakes, when antipathy toward Germany-and fear of German power-culminated in the harsh provisions of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. The West's "security sickness," he suggested, had sparked draconian policies, which led in turn to a nationalist German reaction with catastrophic consequences-dictatorship and war.49 The allies, in his view, 46. Adenauer Bundestag address of November 24,1949, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 1,472. Moral and historical considerations also shaped Adenauer's support for reparations payments to Israel. On this, see Lily Gardner Feldman, The Special Relationship between West Germany and Israel (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1984), 49-86. 47. Adenauer address of September 20, 1949, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. I, 30 . He had also sounded this theme in his CDU address of March I, 1946, Adenauer, Reden, \05. 48. Adenauer address in London, December 6, 1951, in Adenauer, Reden, 235. Adenauer drew similar links between past conflicts and integration efforts in his declaration of October 20, 1953, ibid., ser. 2, 11-22. 49. Schumacher address before an SPD party conference, May 9, 1946, in Schumacher, Reden, 397.

44

The German Problem Transformed

were risking a repeat of their interwar mistake of depriving Germans of control over their own affairs. Given the interwar precedent, Schumacher considered German leaders justified in pressing assertively for sovereignty and equality. Schumacher's support for a more assertive stance did not represent a renewed German nationalism. He condemned the ideology of nationalism that had "isolated Germany in the world not once but twice."50 And he viewed close ties with the West, and Paris in particular, as crucial for the success of peace and freedom in Europe. Moreover, like Adenauer, Schumacher censured the "Rapallo-Policies" of the interwar years, when Germany pursued its national interests by playing off East against West. Nevertheless, Schumacher drew different lessons from the past for the present. 5I If recent German history had discredited nationalism, it had also, in Schumacher's view, underscored the importance ofa self-confident national stance. The failure of Weimar democrats to articulate national concerns effectively, Schumacher contended, had left those concerns to the militant nationalists, with terrible consequences for democracy and peace. Only a self-confident democratic Germany could make a positive contribution to postwar Europe. For Schumacher national and nationalism represented "irreconcilable contradictions. "52 Interestingly, Schumacher's view of the past and its lessons dovetailed with that of the dominant conservative current of German historiography during the first postwar decade. The traditional "primacy of foreign policy" school, with its focus on the national interest and the balance of power, survived the Nazi era and maintained its strongholds within German universities. Leading representatives, including Gerhard Ritter, Friedrich Meinecke, and Hans Rothfels, were sharply critical of Hitler's dictatorship and its disastrous consequences. Like Schumacher, however, they refused to conflate destructive nationalism with the responsible pursuit of national interest. In their postwar scholarship they upheld Bismarck's Reich and the pre-World War I balance of power as relevant models for foreign policy in the new Europe. Irresponsible leadership, they argued, and not the international system of sovereign states, had precipitated both world wars. In an influential work published in 1954, Ritter put it most succinctly: Hitler was the "demon" responsible for ruining Ger50. Ibid .. 409. 51. On the importance of the Franco-German relationship. see his address of June 29, 1947, ibid., 489. For his reference to Rapallo, the German-Soviet conference of April 1922 that stunned Western capitals, see the party conference address of May 22, 1950, ibid., 750. 52. On the importance of national identity as a counter to nationalism, see Schumacher's address of May 22, 1950, ibid., 778.

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45

many's "good name."53 This perspective, which contrasted sharply with Adenauer's view of history and its consequences, resonated with opponents of Western integration even more vehement than Schumacher. Paul Sethe, for example, the influential editor of the conservative Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, argued that the FRG should come to terms with its central position within the European balance of power and embrace a more independent policy between East and West. 54 The perspectives articulated by Adenauer and Schumacher, and the views of history that underpinned them, defined opposing poles in the postwar German foreign policy debate. Their broadly similar approaches to links with the West, national unity, and security were reflective of a broad foreign policy consensus across the most of the political spectrum. The experience of fascism, the Soviet threat, and the imperatives of reconstruction generated broad support for economic, political, and security cooperation with the Western powers. At the same time, the important differences separating Adenauer and Schumacher reflected deep divisions in German society concerning the relative priority of national unity and links with the West. While Adenauer made integration within Western institutions his top priority, Schumacher insisted on a tougher approach to negotiations with the allies and more active efforts to bring about a German settlement. Both men articulated contrasting priorities in the face of the alternatives posed by the international constellation. The struggle to implement those priorities was ultimately decided at the level of party politics. The Political Clash over Western Integration

Adenauer's priorities prevailed not because they better fit international realities, but because they triumphed in domestic politics. There is no doubt that the Western allies preferred Adenauer to Schumacher. In September 1949, for example, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson had a confrontational encounter with the SPD leader that left a lasting negative impression. 55 In 53. Gerhard Ritter, Staatskunst und Kriegshandwerk: Das Problem des "Militarismus" in Deutschland (Munich: R. Olden bourg, 1954), I :9. Another influential book in the same tradition was Friedrich Meinecke, The German Catastrophe: Reflections and Recollections (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950). On historians' efforts to condemn Hitler while upholding a national orientation, see Georg G. Iggers, The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1983), chap. 8. 54. Paul Sethe, Zwischen Bonn und Moskau (Frankfurt am Main: Scheffler, 1956), 40-46. 55. See Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York: Norton, 1969),341-42.

46

The German Problem Transformed

setting up the Federal Republic, however, the allies agreed to respect its new democratic institutions. Had Schumacher become chancellor in 1949, as many observers expected, German foreign policy would have taken a different path than it did. It is certainly true that, confronted with the Western powers and ongoing restrictions on German sovereignty, Schumacher would have had to adjust his priorities once in office. Amid the cold war of the early 1950s some kind of Western integration was probably inevitable. Had Schumacher become chancellor, however, that integration would certainly have taken place less smoothly, and probably only after the exhaustion of Four-Power diplomacy. Because the international constellation allowed for alternatives to rapid integration in the West, Adenauer's capacity to place his foreign policy priorities on a stable political foundation ultimately proved decisive. That foundation was far from secure through the mid-1950s. Among Christian Democrats, for example, Adenauer's priorities were sharply contested during the postwar years. During the late 1940s his bid for CDU/CSU leadership was bound up with a clash over the party's foreign policy stance. 56 Jakob Kaiser, a favorite to emerge as the national Christian Democratic leader in 1945-46, countered Adenauer's priority of Westem integration with his idea of Germany as a "bridge between East and West." The concept had related domestic and foreign policy dimensions. As postwar Christian Democratic leader in Berlin and the Soviet zone, Kaiser favored his own brand of Christian socialism, a quixotic mixture of capitalist and socialist values. In terms offoreign policy, Kaiser's "bridge" concept was not a call for a return to the seesaw diplomacy of the past. Like Adenauer and Schumacher, Kaiser supported strong ties with the Western democracies to counter Soviet military power. At the same time, however, he favored an alignment with the West even looser than Schumacher's, one designed to maximize the prospects for reunification through dialogue with Moscow. During the immediate postwar years, Kaiser argued that German leaders in all four zones should seize the unity issue and move it to the top of the European agenda. 57 The leadership struggle between Adenauer and Kaiser revolved mainly around different understandings of Christian Democracy and its implications for economic and social policy. While Kaiser's views overlapped with those of the SPD, for example on the question of the nation56. On Adenauer's rise during the late 1940s, see Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Adenauer and the CDU: The Rise oj'the Leader and the Integration of the Party (The Hague: Nijhof, 1960). 57. On Kaiser's views, see the speeches and interviews collected in Jakob Kaiser, Wir haben Briicke::u sein: Reden. Aufierungen, und Aufsiit::e ::ur Deutschlandpolitik (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1988).

The Cold War and Western Integration

47

alization of major industry, Adenauer aligned himself with the FDP's more free-market orientation. Nevertheless, the outcome of the struggle had farreaching implications for the CDu/CSU's foreign policy stance. The critical turning point was the first national conference of regional Christian Democratic leaders, held in April 1947 in K6nigstein. In the run-up to the conference Kaiser laid claim to the chair of a proposed CDU foreign policy committee, the party's first national office. Kaiser's narrow defeat on the key vote-orchestrated by Adenauer with the help ofthe Bavarian CSUweakened his position in the leadership struggle. So, too, did the progressive Sovietization of the Eastern zone. Soviet leaders removed Kaiser as chairman of the CDU-East in December 1947, though he remained head of the Christian Democrats in West Berlin. In the meantime Adenauer exploited his position as head of the CDU in the British zone to secure the CDU/CSU chancellor candidacy for the 1949 elections. 58 Adenauer's defeat of Kaiser in the postwar leadership struggle, in and of itself, did not secure party approval of his foreign policy priorities. Kaiser's notion of Germany as bridge between East and West lost relevance with the Berlin Blockade and the creation of two German states. But one of his core foreign policy differences with Adenauer, an insistence on the priority of reunification over Western integration, persisted into the 1950s. As minister for All-German Questions in early 1950, for example, Kaiser joined Minister of the Interior Gustav Heinemann in opposing German membership in the Council of Europe. Parallel membership in the Council for the FRG and the Saar, they argued, was incompatible with the imperative of German national unity. Adenauer countered that proposed Saar membership neither signaled that territory's separation from Germany nor implied any acceptance of the German division. He was able to rally the cabinet behind his stance. Several months later Adenauer's drive for a German defense contribution generated further divisions within the CDU leadership. Heinemann, concerned about rearmament and its implications for national unity, quit both the government and the party. Kaiser stayed on. 59 Differences between Kaiser and Adenauer erupted again in the con58. On this struggle, see Werner Conze, Jakob Kaiser: Politiker zwischen Ost und West 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1969), chap. 3. For a colorful account of the Konigstein conference from a CSU perspective, see Franz Josef Strauss, Die Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1989), 117-18. 59. On the controversy, see Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Au/stieg, 713-14. On ongoing differences among these three men, see Anselm Doering-Manteuffel, "Konrad AdenauerJakob Kaiser-Gustav Heinemann: Deutschlandpolitische Positionen in der CDU," in Die Republik der /iin/ziger Jahre: Adenauers Deutschlandpolitik au/ dem Prii/stand, ed. Jiirgen Weber (Munich: Olzog, 1989), 18-46. Heinemann founded his own, unsuccessful political party and later joined the SPD.

48

The German Prohlem Tram/ormed

text of the Stalin Note. Adenauer, who opposed anything short of reunification within the Western alliance, rejected the offer of unity in exchange for neutrality out of hand. In the domestic political context he played down his categorical opposition to negotiations, focusing instead on specific aspects of the Soviet proposals, particularly the procedures for free elections and the recognition of the Oder-Neisse border. Kaiser infuriated Adenauer by speaking out in favor of an allied response to test Soviet intentions. Where Adenauer perceived a Soviet ruse designed to torpedo Western integration and bring all of Germany into its orbit, Kaiser welcomed the possibility of a compromise German settlement. In putting Western integration ahead of talks with the East Kaiser claimed in a heated cabinet meeting, Adenauer was acting "more American than the Americans." As in the case of the Council of Europe, however, Adenauer proved able to win internal party support for his stance. 60 The balance of forces within the CDU/CSU was different in the context of the "binding clause" controversy of May 1952. During the negotiation of the EDC and the Bonn Conventions, Adenauer sought to bind a future united Germany to membership in the Western alliance. Kaiser and other prominent CDU/CSU politicians, such as Heinrich von Brentano, a future foreign minister, and Kurt Georg Kiesinger, a future chancellor, voiced a concern that the clause would burden any future negotiations with the Soviet Union. Faced with a party revolt, Adenauer retreated. In last-minute negotiations with the allies, the offending clause was attenuated. While Adenauer's defeat on the "binding clause" controversy did not threaten his overall policy of Western integration, it revealed ongoing differences within his party concerning the absolute priority of integration over Four-Power talks with the Soviet Union. These differences emerged later, in less dramatic fashion, over Adenauer's hard line in the run-up to the 1954 Berlin Conference. His objection to any recognition of GDR authorities as part of an eventual reunification process struck some leading Christian Democrats as too extreme. 61 Adenauer was aware of the fragility of party support for his policy of rapid integration within the West. In his keynote speeches before annual party conferences in the early 1950s he tirelessly set out and defended his conviction that Western strength and unity were the best means to the end 60. For Kaiser's response to the Stalin Note--and his criticism of Adenauer- - see Kaiser, Wir /whcn En/eke ~u sein. 551-55. 61. On the binding clause controversy, see Schwarz. Ara Aderzauer, 160-64. On dissatisfaction with Adenauer's uncompromising stance inside the CDU/CSU leadership in the context of the Berlin Conference. see "Conant to the Office of the United States High Commissioner for Germany," January 21. 1954. in Foreign Relations ()ltile United States 1952 54. 7:775-77.

The Cold War and Western Integration

49

of reunification. In meetings of the CDU executive committee he sounded the same themes, ignoring several appeals from Kaiser and his allies that he prod the Western allies to seek a German settlement with the Soviet Union. 62 His concerns about Christian Democratic resistance to his policy of Western integration were most acute in the aftermath of the French rejection of EDC in August 1954. If the edifice of Western integration should collapse, he argued, German national conservatism might revive. There might be "an inevitable drift toward a more independent policy and Germany's traditional interest in the East."63 Only with the October 1954 Paris Treaties and FRG membership in NATO did Adenauer's anxieties subside. The existence of contrasting views within the CDUlCSU through the mid-1950s underscores the importance of Adenauer's authority as party leader for the direction of German foreign policy. The implementation of Western integration also required success at the level of coalition politics. The CDUlCSU emerged from the August 1949 general election as the largest single party, but fell far short of an absolute majority. In the ensuing negotiations to form a government, Adenauer rejected Kaiser's call for a Grand Coalition with the SPD, opting instead to work with smaller parties. He managed to put together a fragile CenterRight coalition that included the liberal FDP and the smaller, nationally oriented German Party (DP). In September 1949 the Bundestag elected Adenauer chancellor by a margin of one vote-his own. The survival of the coalition for the duration of its four-year term was, however, far from assured. The implementation of Adenauer's foreign policy depended on his capacity to maintain a fractious coalition with parties ambivalent about its direction. The Liberals were the CDU/CSU's most important partner in government. Founded in 1948, the FDP was an uneasy amalgam of the national and social strands of German liberalism. It included former supporters of two Weimar parties: Gustav Stresemann's nationally oriented German Peoples' Party and the more progressive German Democratic Party. While Liberal leaders rallied behind most of Adenauer's domestic program, particularly Erhard's free-market economic policies, they were 62. See, for example, Adenauer's keynote address at the CDU's 1952 party conference, October 19, 1952, Dritter Parteitag der Christlich-Demokratischen Union Deutschlands (Bonn: CDU, 1952),24-34; and Adenauer before the CDU Executive Committee, January 26, 1953, in Gunther Buchstab, ed., Adenauer: "Es mujJte alles gemacht werden": Die Protokolle des CDU-Bundesvorstandes (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1986),318-29. 63. Adenauer made the remarks to an acquaintance, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, who brought them to the attention of the State Department. See "Memorandum of Conversation," July 8, 1954, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, 7:582. On Adenauer's concerns in the summer of 1954. see also Schwarz, /ira Adenauer, 246-47.

50

The German Problem Transformed

sharply divided on the issue of Western integration. Through the mid1950s the party's national wing, represented by Baden-Wiirttemberg governor Reinhold Maier and federal justice minister Thomas Dehler, pressed for a more assertive approach toward the Western allies and for greater efforts to prod the Four-Powers toward a German settlement. They opposed Adenauer's efforts to accommodate France on the Saar issue, for example, and backed Four-Power talks on German unity. At a party conference in June 1953 Maier publicly cast doubt on "the seriousness of Bonn's efforts to bring about the reunification of Germany."64 Whatever their reservations about the course of Western integration, FOP leaders proved unable to alter its thrust. Adenauer made full use of his constitutional prerogative to set foreign policy guidelines. He often used cabinet meetings to announce foreign policy decisions, rather than to discuss them-and when the allies agreed to create a German foreign ministry in March 1951, Adenauer claimed it for himself. While both the substance and the style of Adenauer's foreign policy irritated the Liberals, they possessed little political leverage in the political constellation of the early 1950s. The FOP had no other prospective coalition partner: its freemarket policies clashed with the economic program of the SPD, which still incorporated Marxist elements. Moreover, Adenauer skillfully exploited rifts among the Liberals, cultivating ties with FOP leaders more sympathetic to his policy of Western integration. When Dehler, elected party leader in 1954, pulled out of the coalition in 1956, the FOP split. Most Liberal ministers and some Bundestag deputies continued to back Adenauer, helping to preserve his ruling majority. Adenauer's mastery of coalition politics, like his control over the CDU/CSU, made the implementation of his foreign policy priorities possible. 65 In order for Adenauer to implement his foreign policy priorities it was not enough to secure the support of the CDU/CSU and the FOP. He also had to overcome an ongoing political and parliamentary challenge from the Social Democrats. In the immediate postwar years the SPD appeared well positioned to become the leading German party. Even when the CDU/CSU won a narrow victory in the August 1949 elections, SPD lead64. Cited in Christof Brauers, Liberale Deutschlandpolitik 1949-1969: Positionen der FD.P. zwischen nationaler und europiiischer Orientierung (Hamburg: Lit, 1992),55. Within the FDP Karl Georg Pfleiderer, an advisor to Maier, was the most articulate advocate of a more active reunification policy during the early 1950s. See Karl Georg Pfleiderer, PoUtik Jur Deutschland: Reden und AuJsiitze. 1948-1956 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1961). 65. On coalition politics and FDP development through the mid-1950s, see Jiirg Michael Gutscher, Die Entwicklung der FDP von ihren AnJiingen bis 1961 (Kiinigstein: Hain, 1984), chaps. 3-4.

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51

ers held out some hope for a Grand Coalition. Adenauer, however, was intent on excluding the Social Democrats from power, not least in order to secure a freer hand in the conduct of his foreign policy. Only by relegating the SPD to the opposition in 1949, repulsing its political and legal challenges to his foreign policy in the years that followed, and decisively defeating the Social Democrats at the polls in 1953 was he able to secure the implementation of Western integration. 66 Schumacher's opposition to Western integration was not an object of consensus among SPD leaders. Ernst Reuter, the mayor of West Berlin, and Carlo Schmid, a leading Social Democratic parliamentarian, were more open to the thrust of Adenauer's foreign policy. But Schumacher, whose claim to SPD leadership was uncontested after 1945, defined the party's confrontational stance. A dramatic clash with Adenauer in the first foreign policy debate in the Bundestag in November 1949 set the tone. On the occasion of the Petersberg Treaty, Schumacher stepped up his attacks on continued allied dismantling of German industry-and Adenauer's failure to stop it. His cry of "Federal Chancellor of the allies!" unleashed a tumult and earned him a parliamentary censure. When Adenauer and Schumacher conferred on foreign policy matters in private, their tone was not acrimonious. The public foreign policy debate between them and their parties, by contrast, was sharply polarized. 67 During the early 1950s rearmament, reunification, and the links between the two were central to the struggle between government and opposition. Social Democratic objections to the EDC project-that the proposed European force would discriminate against the Federal Republic and prejudice Four-Power talks on reunification-initially resonated with German public opinion. A series of SPD victories in state elections in 1950--51 made the ratification of the EDC and the Bonn Conventions an uncertain prospect. The government parties' majority in the Bundesrat, or Federal Chamber, necessary for ratification, evaporated. Schumacher called for new national elections, claiming that Adenauer's government, formed before the eruption of the rearmament controversy, had no mandate to address the issue. Adenauer contemptuously dismissed this argument. But he still faced the difficult task of securing parliamentary approval for his foreign policy. The final months of Schumacher's life saw an escalation of the conflict between government and opposition. In January 1952 the SPD 66. On SPD opposition to Adenauer's approach to reannament and national unity, see Gordon D. Drummond, The German Social Democrats in Opposition, 1949-1960: The Case against Rearmament (Nonnan: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982), 67. For Schumacher's remark, see the debate of November 25, 1949, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 1,525.

52

The German Problem Transformed

tried unsuccessfully to block the ratification of the ECSC in the Bundestag. In March the Stalin Note led to a bitter exchange between Adenauer and Schumacher. And two months later Schumacher stated that anyone who supported the EDC and the Bonn Conventions "would cease to be a German."68 Both before and after his death in August this strident opposition to Adenauer's Western integration continued to define Social Democratic foreign policy. The SPD first challenged the EDC Treaty in the courts, charging that its provisions for rearmament required constitutional changes. While the complex legal controversy dragged on, Adenauer secured ratification in the Bundestag in March 1953, after a final, acrimonious debate pitting government against opposition. 69 In the months that followed, the SPD shifted its efforts to the Bundesrat, where the CDU-Ied states were in a minority. Speculation centered around the votes of BadenWiirttemberg, a state where Maier and the Liberals governed in coalition with the Social Democrats. Maier had misgivings about the treaties' implications for national unity. Unwilling to risk the collapse of the ChristianLiberal coalition in Bonn, however, he did not oppose them in the decisive May 1953 vote. The ratification ofEDC did not secure Adenauer's policy of Western integration. The prospects for EDC approval in the French National Assembly continued to dwindle. In the context of this uncertainty the issues of rearmament and reunification moved to the center of the 1953 national election campaign. Adenauer attacked the SPD's opposition to rearmament as capitulation before Soviet power: a prominent CDU campaign poster charged, "All Marxist Roads Lead to Moscow." Erich Ollenhauer, Schumacher's successor atop the SPD, condemned rearmament in the West as an obstacle to reunification. Sensitive to this criticism, Adenauer temporarily reversed his opposition to a Four-Power conference in June 1953. 70 Two months earlier, during his first visit to the United States as chancellor, he had secured Eisenhower's pledge in support of reunification-a gesture that boosted his election prospects. In September the coalition, buoyed by the onset of the German "economic miracle," handily won reelection. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority. With the support of the FDP and other smaller parties, however, 68. Schumacher's open letter to Adenauer of May 15, 1952, in Schumacher, Reden, 902. On Schumacher's efforts to block Western integration, see also Merseburger, Der schwierige Deutsche, 505~30; Drummond, German Social Democrats in Opposition. l2~33. 69. Bundestag ratification debate of March 19, 1953, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestages, ser. I, 12296~361. 70. On the link between his shift in position and the campaign, see Adenauer before the CDU leadership, July 15, 1953, in Buchstab, Adenauer: "Es muj3te alles neu gemacht werden," 584,647.

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53

Adenauer managed to forge a two-thirds Bundestag majority-enough votes for any constitutional changes necessary to secure rearmament. 71 With his position more secure after the elections, Adenauer still faced adamant SPD opposition to his foreign policy. After the collapse of the EDC the move toward a NATO solution also met with attacks from Social Democratic ranks. While Schumacher's main objection to rearmament had been its negative implications for reunification, the new SPD leadership also stressed its adverse impact on European security. The party's leading security expert, Fritz Erler, articulated the Social Democrats' concept of a European Collective Security System as an alternative to two opposing military blocs. 72 Both themes-concerns about reunification and opposition to the militarization of the East-West conflict-resonated in the final Bundestag debate on the Western Treaties, in February 1955. Erler and other SPD leaders warned that rearmament within the West would both deepen the German division and heighten East-West tensions. But the government had the votes to secure ratification. A drawn-out but ultimately successful struggle with the opposition enabled the realization of Adenauer's policy of Western integration. 73 Enduring Effects of Western Integration

An adequate explanation of the postwar transformation of German foreign policy requires attention to the international constellation as well as domestic political controversies. Shifts at the level of international structure-the deepening division of Germany and the onset of the cold warmarked a first critical juncture in the foreign policy of the Federal Republic. Two institutions, the Three- and Four-Power regimes, framed German responses to two pressing issues: rearmament and reunification. The intensity of the cold war and strictures on German sovereignty left no reasonable alternative to a Western orientation, but allowed different approaches to its realization. Adenauer made integration within Western institutions an absolute priority over East-West dialogue on reunification. Schu71. For Adenauer's request to Eisenhower that he make a public commitment to the goal of reunification, see his letter of June 21, 1953, Foreign Relations 0/ the United States 1952-1954. 7:1591. On the transition from Schumacher to Ollenhauer, see Michael Longerich, Die SPD als "Friedenspartei"~mehr als nur Wahltaktik? (Lang: Frankfurt am Main, 1990),73-79. 72. Hartmut Soell, Fritz Erler: Eine Politische Biographie (Berlin: Dietz, 1976), 1:164--88. 73. On changes in SPD security policy in the mid-1950s, see Udo F. L6wke, Die SPD und die Wehr/rage: 1949 his 1955 (Bonn: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft. 1976), chap. 4. The climactic Bundestag debate took place on February 24--25, 1955, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestages. ser. 2, 3511-858.

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The German Problem Transformed

macher, while generally pro-Western and anti-Soviet in outlook, pressed for a more independent approach to the allies and a more active policy on the national issue. While these contrasting priorities constituted the main contours of foreign policy debate, the struggle within and across the parties decided its outcome. Only by anchoring his priorities within the CDU/CSU, in coalition with the FDP, and in competition with the SPD was Adenauer able to forge a new German foreign policy. The postwar transformation of German foreign policy had enduring institutional and political effects. With his embrace of NATO and the EC, Adenauer contributed to a new institutional context for subsequent German foreign policy. Membership in NATO effectively precluded a reversion to a national orientation. As a member of the alliance, the FRG both embraced multilateralism and accepted continued important restrictions on its armed forces-the absence of a national general staff and a renunciation of nuclear weapons. At the same time, membership in the EC-and the broader global trade regime within which it was embedded-ruled out a return to protectionist, nationalist foreign economic policies. The transition from the Three-Power regime to NATO and EC membership marked the end of postwar strictures on German sovereignty. At the same time, however, it represented the start of a durable multilateral, supranational framework for subsequent German foreign policy. During the late 1950s and early 1960s the importance of that framework was evident amid three prominent controversies. The first controversy concerned the deployment of nuclear missiles on German soil. By the mid-1950s Soviet progress toward nuclear parity sparked a gradual shift in U.S. military strategy. Once deprived of its nuclear monopoly, the United States could no longer credibly threaten massive retaliation in the event of a Soviet conventional attack on Western Europe. In order to strengthen extended deterrence Washington moved to deploy medium-range nuclear missiles in West Europe and to grant shared access to the allies-including the Federal Republic. Adenauer and his defense minister, Franz Josef Strauss, pressed for such access, unleashing a barrage of Soviet criticism and some concerns in Paris and London-as well as a peace movement at home. The outcome of the controversy highlighted the salience of institutional constraints. Bonn did gain some indirect access to some missiles, but a more ambitious plan to create a seabased Multilateral Force with German participation failed during the early 1960s. While France and Britain developed their own nuclear arsenals, the FRG had to make do with a seat in NATO's Nuclear Planning Group. The Federal Republic's nonnuclear status, a condition for its alliance membership in 1955, continued to circumscribe its military secu-

The Cold War and Western Integration

55

rity options. The FRG remained directly dependent on NATO-and the U.S. nuclear deterrent-for its defense. 74 The continued salience of Western institutions as a context for German foreign policy was also evident during the Berlin Crisis. In an effort to stop the flow of refugees from East to West Berlin and consolidate the SED regime, Khrushchev announced an ultimatum in November 1958: the Western allies should either agree to a peace treaty with both German states and an independent status for West Berlin, or the Soviet Union would sign a separate peace treaty with the GDR and hand over control of access to the divided city to East Berlin authorities. 75 The Soviet ultimatum, which the Western powers rejected out of hand, challenged the Federal Republic's commitment to national unity; it endangered the survival of West Berlin and threatened to secure international recognition for the GDR. At the same time, the crisis illustrated Bonn's dependence on its allies within the context of both NATO and the Four-Power regime. Adenauer rejected negotiations on anything but technical issues bearing on the situation in Berlin. He was powerless, however, to prevent some revival of East-West dialogue about Germany as a whole in 1959-60, which he feared might culminate in a Four-Power settlement at Bonn's expense. As it happened, that dialogue went nowhere. But the ultimate resolution of the Berlin Crisis also illustrated the salience of institutional constraints on German foreign policy. Khrushchev and GDR leader Walter Ulbricht stopped the refugee flow in August 1961 with the construction of the Berlin Wall, to which the Western powers acquiesced. The Federal Republic was powerless to prevent this deepening of the German division. A third foreign policy controversy, the growing rift between France and the United States, also underscored the resilience of international institutions as a framework for German foreign policy. Charles de Gaulle came to power as the first president of the Fifth Republic in 1958, determined to assert Paris's independence with respect to Washington. He built an independent French nuclear arsenal, withdrew France from NATO's military integration, and embarked on an active Ostpolitik. At the same time, de Gaulle vetoed Great Britain's entry into the EC, a step that angered both London and Washington. Adenauer expressed growing sym74. On the controversy, see Mark Cioc, Pax Atomica: The Nuclear DeJense Debate in West Germany during the Adenauer Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); Cathleen McArdle Kelleher, Germany and the Politics oj Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), chaps. 3-5. 75. The text of Khrushchev's ultimatum of November 27, 1958, in Documents on Germany, 552-59.

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The German Problem Transformed

pathy with de Gaulle's political vision of a Europe more independent from the United States, with France and the Federal Republic at its core.76 In January 1963 he and de Gaulle signed the Franco-German Treaty, the capstone of postwar reconciliation and a foundation for future political and security cooperation. To de Gaulle's chagrin, however, Bonn did not loosen its institutional links with Washington. Dependent on the U.S. troop presence and nuclear deterrent for its security, the FRG continued to make NATO a crucial multilateral framework for its foreign policy. Rivalry between Washington and Paris did not leave Bonn with a choice between an Atlantic and a West European orientation. As a member of both NATO and the EC, the Federal Republic had to find ways to combine both. The years after 1955 also revealed enduring effects of Western integration at the level of domestic politics. Sharply contested during the early 1950s, Adenauer's foreign policy priorities gradually became an object of broad consensus. Opposition to Adenauer's basic foreign policy orientation subsided in the CDU/CSU. Kaiser and other more nationally minded members of the Christian Democratic leadership did occasionally raise the national issue. But Adenauer continued to insist~successfully-on the absolute priority of Western strength and unity, particularly in the context of the Berlin Crisis. During the early 1960s Erhard, eager to succeed Adenauer as chancellor, criticized certain aspects of his Western policy. He supported EC membership for Britain and unequivocally considered Washington, not Paris, the Federal Republic's most important international partner. While it continued through the middle of the decade, the clash between "AtIanticists" and "Gaullists" within the CDUlCSU did not affect the overriding importance of Western integration as a foundation for Christian Democratic foreign policy. While differences concerning the relative importance of the United States and France persisted, Adenauer's pro-Western, anti-Soviet stance remained an object of internal party consensus. 77 The FOP, which had followed Western integration with ambivalence during the early 1950s, gradually embraced it fully. After the Liberals left the government, in 1956, they initially stepped up their attacks on Ade76. On German-American differences emerging out of this constellation during the Kennedy administration, see the memoirs of the German ambassador in Washington at the time, Wilhelm G. Grewe, Riickblenden 1976-1951 (Frankfurt am Main: Propylaen, 1979), 545-74. On the struggle over the EC's future, see Hans von der Groeben, Aufbaujahre der Europiiischen Gemeinschaji: Das Ringen um den Gemeinsamen Markt und die Politische Union (1958-1966) (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1982). 77. On development of the CDU during the mid-1960s. see Klaus Dedring, AdenauerErhard-Kiesinger: Die CD U als Regierungspartei 1961-69 (Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus. 1989). chap. 4.

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nauer's handling ofthe unity issue. In a blistering January 1958 speech, for example, Dehler accused Adenauer of having missed a historic opportunity with his negative response to the Stalin Note. 78 And party leaders, whose rhetoric still contained references to Germany's "middle position" in Europe [Mittellage], initially pressed for reunification initiatives in the context of the Berlin Crisis. Gradually, however, both the fait accompli of Western integration and a poor showing in the 1957 elections sparked a foreign policy shift. The FDP, which had voted against the Treaty of Rome in the Bundestag, gave up its objections to European integration. And, confronted with Soviet belligerence during the Berlin Crisis, Liberal leaders embraced Western integration as the necessary foundation for any active Ostpolitik. 79 The Social Democratic embrace of Western integration also took place slowly and unevenly. During the late 1950s the SPD fought the creation of the Bundeswehr, opposed German access to nuclear weapons, and showed interest in Soviet "disengagement" plans-proposals that envisioned the dissolution of the blocs in combination with possible movement toward German unity.8o Faced with the reality of NATO and the EC, however, and with two devastating electoral defeats, in 1953 and 1957, Social Democratic leaders began to reconsider their opposition to Western integration. They welcomed the 1957 Treaty of Rome and affirmed the principle of national defense [Landesverteidigung] in their March 1959 Godesberg Program. The clearest change in the SPD stance took place, unexpectedly, in a June 1960 Bundestag debate. Herbert Wehner, one of the party's parliamentary leaders, stunned his listeners with the statement that membership in the Western alliance represented a new foundation for German foreign policy.81 The gulf that separated government and opposition foreign policies during the early 1950s had begun to disappear. By the early 1960s the foreign policy of the Federal Republic was not only securely anchored within a new institutional framework. It also rested on a new domestic political foundation. Adenauer's transformation of Ger78. Dehler's address of January 23, 1958, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 3,384-99. 79. On shifts in the tone of FDP foreign policy in the context of the Berlin Crisis, see Brauers, Liberale Deutschlandpolitik, 119-23 80. On SPD opposition to nuclear armament under the motto "struggle against atomic death," see Drummond, German Social Democrats in Opposition, 212-41. 81. Wehner's address of June 30,1960, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 3, 7052-61. On the shift in SPD security policy, see Lothar Wilker, Die Sicherheitspolitik der SPD, 1956-1966: Zwischen Wiedervereinigungs- und Biindnisorientierung (Bonn: Neue Gesellschaft, 1977). On SPD European policy during this period, see William E. Paterson, The SPD and European Integration (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1974).

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The German Problem Transformed

man foreign policy, implemented against considerable opposition, became the object of a broad partisan consensus. Just as that consensus was taking shape, however, an underlying change in East-West relations-the shift from cold war to detente-began to confront German leaders with new fundamental policy challenges. Both the trend toward strategic parity and the deepening German division, most obvious after the construction of the Berlin Wall, led the Western allies to engage the Soviet Union in dialogue on the basis of the division of Europe. In this emerging constellation Adenauer's confrontational policy toward the Soviet Union and refusal to recognize the existence of the GDR threatened to isolate the FRG in Europe. Pro-Western and anti-Soviet policies no longer reinforced each other as they had a decade earlier. During the final years of his chancellorship Adenauer sought in vain to slow momentum toward detente on the basis of the postwar status quo. But his strong anti-Soviet stance on Berlin and security issues was increasingly at odds with the new East-West climate. The failure of his policy of strength, premised on the view that Western might and unity would compel the Soviet Union to accept a favorable German settlement, became increasingly evident after the resolution of the Berlin Crisis and the subsequent consolidation of the SED regime. 82 Adenauer acknowledged this himself. Confronted with the prospect of German isolation amid detente, he entertained the possibility of a new departure. He communicated several secret plans to Soviet leaders, offers to place a moratorium on consideration of reunification in exchange for democratic reforms in the GDR. But Khrushchev, committed to the further consolidation of the SED regime, refused to respond. While some observers have portrayed this and other related initiatives as a precursor to the New Ostpolitik, they had more in common with the hard-line policies of the 1950s. Adenauer still refused any recognition of East Berlin or the Oder-Neisse border. And his public rhetoric remained overwhelmingly confrontational. 83 This pattern did not change fundamentally once Erhard succeeded Adenauer as chancellor in late 1963. Erhard and his foreign minister, Gerhard Schroder, sought to breathe life into a stagnant Ostpolitik. The new government's "policy of movement" led to the establishment of German 82. On the GDR's growing stability during the 1960s, see A. James McAdams, East Germany and Detente: Building Authority afier the Wall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). 83. Two versions of Adenauer's proposals, dating from 1959 and 1960, are reprinted in Rudolf Morsey and Konrad Repgen, eds., Adenauer-Studien III (Mainz: MatthiasGriinewald-Verlag, 1974),202-9. For the problematic argument that Adenauer's approach foreshadowed the detente of the 1970s, see Peter Siebenmorgen, Gezeitenwechsel: Aujbruch ::ur Entspannungspolitik (Bonn: Bouvier. 1990).

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trade mISSIOns in several Central and East European states and an improvement of bilateral relations below the level offull diplomatic recognition. 84 It remained encumbered, however, by demonstrative nonrecognition of the GDR and the Oder-Neisse border-positions that also burdened relations with the Soviet Union. Erhard's "Peace Note" of March 1966 was illustrative. It offered bilateral renunciation of force agreements to the states of the Warsaw Pact-but excluded the GDR. Moreover, it insisted that Germany's prewar borders, "the borders of 1937," form the basis for a future German settlement. Not surprisingly, the Soviet reaction was hostile. 85 Through the mid-1960s German foreign policy remained largely isolated from the overall trend toward detente in Europe. This changed dramatically in the years that followed.

84. On the "policy of movement," see William Griffith, The Ostpolitik of the Federal Republic of Germany (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978), 107-30. On Erhard's foreign policy, see Horst Osterheld, AufJenpolitik unter Bundeskanzler Ludwig Erhard 1963-1966: Ein dokumentarischer Bericht aus dem Kanzleramt (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1992). 85. On Soviet-German relations in the mid-I 960s, see Michael 1. Sodaro, Moscow, Germany and the West from Khrushchev to Gorbachev (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), chaps. 2-3. Text of the Peace Note of March 25, 1966, in Documents on Germany, 914-18.

CHAPTER 3

Detente and the New Ostpolitik

The New Ostpolitik of the 1970s marked a second major turning point in the foreign policy of the Federal Republic. During the early 1950s, membership in NATO and the EC-and an eventual political consensus around them-provided a new Western foundation for German foreign policy. At the same time, however, Konrad Adenauer and his successor, Ludwig Erhard, remained locked in political and ideological confrontation with Moscow and East Berlin. During the Grand Coalition of 1966-69 Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU/CSU) and Foreign Minister Willy Brandt (SPD) sought to improve ties with the East. Only when Brandt succeeded Kiesinger as chancellor, however, did a significant new departure take place. Brandt broke with two decades of FRG foreign policy, embracing a dialogue with the Soviet Union and its allies based upon the reality-if not the permanence-of the division of Germany and Europe. The New Ostpolitik did not dismantle close ties with the West. The FRG continued to support European integration and the Atlantic Alliance. Nevertheless, a series of bilateral Eastern Treaties and the multilateral Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe constituted an additional institutional basis for its subsequent foreign policy. Firmly anchored in the West, the Federal Republic opened to the East. I The New Ostpolitik took shape immediately after Brandt assumed the chancellorship. In his first government declaration, in October 1969, Brandt signaled a readiness to engage Soviet leaders in a wide-ranging bilateral dialogue on the basis of the territorial status quo. The central passage of his declaration, a reference to "two states in Germany," repreI. On the New Ostpolitik in general, see Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (New York: Random House, 1993); William Griffith, The Ostpolitik o/the Federal Republic o/Germany (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978); Peter Bender, Neue Ostpolitik: Vom Mauerbau bis zum Moskauer Vertrag (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1986); Egbert Jahn and Volker Rittberger, eds. Die Ostpolitik der BRD: Triebkrii/te, Widerstiinde, Konsequenzen (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1984).

61

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sen ted a sharp break with two decades of total nonrecognition of the SED regime in East Berlin. Brandt quickly added that both German states could not consider each other foreign countries-that their relationship was of a special nature. The Federal Republic, he underlined, remained committed to the constitutional goal of unity and freedom through selfdetermination. In recognizing the reality of the GDR as a state, however, Brandt jettisoned the Federal Republic's traditional claim to be the only legitimate international representative of the German people. That claim had persisted even into Brandt's tenure as foreign minister during the Grand Coalition of the late 1960s. 2 Brandt's willingness to acknowledge-if not accept-the division of Germany eliminated the single most important obstacle to an improvement of ties with the Soviet Union. Almost immediately, the bilateral negotiations began that culminated with the Moscow Treaty of August 1970. Endorsed by Brandt and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev during a summit in the Soviet capital, the treaty marked a sharp break with two decades of hostility in bilateral relations. Its most important provisions were the mutual renunciation of force and the recognition of the inviolability of existing borders in Europe. More generally, the Moscow Treaty committed the Federal Republic and the Soviet Union to economic and cultural cooperation, as well as joint efforts to further peace and detente in Europe. During the final negotiations Brandt and his foreign minister, Walther Scheel, reminded the Soviet leadership of Bonn's unbroken commitment to reunification in a "Letter on German Unity." Yet in practice the Moscow Treaty confirmed the elimination of reunification from the Ostpolitik agenda. German-Soviet relations improved dramatically. The Federal Republic emerged as the Soviet Union's most important political and economic partner in Western Europe. 3 The breakthrough with Moscow enabled better ties with the rest of the Soviet bloc. Upon taking office, Brandt also engaged the Polish leadership in negotiations on a normalization of bilateral ties. The Warsaw Treaty of December 1970, like the Moscow Treaty, included a renunciation of force and a recognition of existing borders. The border issue proved particularly sensitive, given the legacy of Hitler's war and the sub2. Brandt's declaration of October 28, 1969, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. Stenographischer Bericht, ser. 6, 21-32. On the onset of the New Ostpolitik, see Gunther Schmid, Entscheidung in Bonn: Die Entstehung der Ost-und Deutschlandpolitik, 1969-1970 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1979). 3. On the origins of the Moscow Treaty, see the memoirs of one of its main architects, Egon Bahr, Zu meiner Zeit (Munich: Karl Blessing Verlag, 1996), chap. 6; Griffith, Ostpolitik. 181-96. Text of the Moscow Treaty and "Letter on German Unity," in Documents on Germany. 1944-1985 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985), 1103-5.

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sequent transfer of German territory to Poland. In the treaty the Federal Republic explicitly recognized the Oder-Neisse line as Poland's western border. From a legal perspective the German government insisted-in keeping with Four-Power responsibility-that the final determination of the border would have to await a German settlement. Politically, though, the Warsaw Treaty signified a German renunciation of territorial claims for the present and the future. Other issues continued to burden bilateral ties-the rights of the German minority in Poland and compensation for Polish laborers in wartime Germany. But the treaty, together with Brandt's dramatic kneeling gesture at the monument to the Warsaw Ghetto uprising during his December 1970 visit, marked a new start for German-Polish reconciliation. 4 The initial breakthrough in ties with the GDR proved more difficult. Early in his term Brandt underlined his willingness to increase economic and cultural cooperation with East Berlin. But his offer of dialogue ran up against GDR insistence on full diplomatic recognition and an exchange of ambassadors. Two meetings between Brandt and GDR prime minister, Willi Stoph, in 1970 produced no concrete accords. Only after Erich Honecker-then a moderate-assumed the leadership of the ruling SED in May 1971 did the bilateral dialogue intensify. In December 1972 the FRG and the GDR endorsed a Basic Treaty setting out institutional foundations for the bilateral relationship. The treaty outlined areas for practical economic, cultural and political cooperation, bracketing fundamental differences on the issue of German unity. And it called for the exchange of permanent representatives, not ambassadors. Both German states pledged to apply for admission to the United Nations-a step they took in June 1973. The Basic Treaty inaugurated an inter-German modus vivendi. 5 During the early 1970s the Federal Republic flanked its Ostpolitik with an active policy toward the West. The new government brought its arms control policies into line with those of its allies, dropping the longstanding German demand that any accords be linked with progress toward German unity-or at least not recognize the GDR as a signatory. Brandt also supported plans to modernize NATO's conventional forces. Just as 4. On the subsequent development of bilateral ties, see Werner Plum, ed. Ungew6hnfiche Normalisierung: Beziehungen der Bundesrepubfik Deutschland zu Polen (Bonn: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft, 1984). For the text of the Warsaw Treaty, see Documents on Germany, 1125-27. 5. On inter-German relations in the early 1970s, see A. James McAdams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993),79-95; Ernest D. Plock, The Basic Treaty and the Evolution of East- West German Relations (Boulder: Westview, 1986).

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significant from a political perspective, the chancellor coordinated his engagement in the East with the allies, and the United States in particular. Bonn informed Western capitals of the progress of its dialogue with Moscow, while the allies consulted Bonn on the negotiations that culminated in the Berlin Treaty of September 1971. The treaty delineated the rights and obligations of the Pour Powers and both German states in the former Reich capital. It permitted links between the Federal Republic and West Berlin but dictated that the latter was not to be considered a constituent part of the former. By clarifying the legal status of the city, the Berlin Treaty normalized a complex situation that had twice-in the late 1940s and late 1950s-sparked crises in East-West relations. 6 The Federal Republic also demonstrated its continued commitment to Western unity through support of ambitious efforts to strengthen the Ee. During the 1960s the integration process had stagnated. Some progress was made toward the completion of a single market, particularly with the creation of a Common Agricultural Policy. But de Gaulle's veto of British membership and refusal to endorse stronger European political institutions brought integration momentum to a standstill through the French president's retirement in April 1969. At an EC summit in The Hague that December, two months after Brandt took office, European leaders sought to relaunch the integration process. They pledged to complete the single market and move toward a single currency; to extend Community membership to Britain, Ireland, and Denmark; and to intensify and institutionalize their foreign policy cooperation. The new German government was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of this ambitious agenda. 7 While Brandt did not neglect relations with the Western allies, he focused his energies on ties with the East. The Moscow, Warsaw, and Basic Treaties served as the foundation of an active Ostpolitik through his resignation from office in May 1974. Brandt and Brezhnev signed farreaching accords on economic cooperation at a summit in Bonn in May 1973. And that December the FRG and Czechoslovakia completed a treaty normalizing their ties. There were some persistent Ostpolitik tensions. Soviet leaders continued to object to any FRG political presence in West Berlin and refused to sign bilateral cultural and technical accords 6. On the Berlin Accord, see Honore M. Catudal Jr., The Diplomacy o/the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin: A New Era in East- West Politics (Berlin: Berlin Verlag, 1977); David M. Keithly, Breakthrough in the Ostpolitik: The 1971 Quadripartite Agreement (Boulder: Westview, 1986). 7. On Germany and the EC during the 1960s and I 970s, see Werner J. Feld, West Germany and the European Community: Changing Interests and Competing Policy Objectives (New York: Praeger, 1981).

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with their German counterparts that incorporated the divided city. At the same time, the Honecker regime sought to curb the interaction between East and West Germans envisioned in the Basic Treaty-a policy of limited contacts [Abgrenzung] designed to buttress its domestic authority. Still, there was no return to the confrontation of the past, with its bitter controversies over the national issue. With the New Ostpolitik, Bonn came to terms with the status quo of Europe's division. The CSCE Final Act, signed in Helsinki in August 1975, marked the culmination of this development. The NATO and Warsaw Pact states-the FRG and GDR included-endorsed existing borders and pledged to deepen their economic, political and security cooperation. 8 Policy Challenges: Relations with the Soviet Union and theGDR

The second key juncture in postwar German foreign policy-the combination of Western integration and engagement in the East-was a response to a gradual and uneven international shift from cold war to detente. That trend, which began with Stalin's death in March 1953, reached a first high point at the July 1955 Geneva Four-Power Summit. With the "Spirit of Geneva" the Western powers and the Soviet Union began to shift their attention from the issues of German reunification and rearmament to questions of East-West dialogue and arms contro1. 9 They gradually moved to embrace detente on the basis of the status quo of the German and European division. This trend, which accelerated during the 1960s, confronted German leaders with difficult policy problems. To adhere to Adenauer's anti-Soviet stance and principled refusal to recognize East Berlin risked the FRG's growing political isolation between East and West. At the same time, to embrace an active dialogue with Moscow and its allies risked undermining ties with the West and cementing the division of Germany. The contours of the new international configuration only gradually became apparent. First signs of detente in the mid-1950s gave way to renewed confrontation after the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary, the Berlin Crisis of 1958-61, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. The outcome of each crisis, in turn, accelerated momentum toward detente 8. On the limits on Ostpolitik and the German contribution to the CSCE in the early 1970s, see Karl Dietrich Bracher, Wolfgang Jager, and Werner Link, Republik im Wandel 1969-1974: Die A'ra Brandt (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. 1986),231-33. 9. On the start of this shift in East-West ties, see John Van Oudenaren, Detente in Europe: The Soviet Union and the West since 1953 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), 25-45.

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on the basis of the European status quo. While the Western powers objected vehemently to the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian revolution, their unwillingness to intervene underscored Europe's de facto division into two opposing ideological, military, and political blocs. Two years later Khrushchev's efforts to drive the Western allies from Berlin sparked a drawn-out confrontation. The resolution of the crisis, however, created momentum for detente. The August 1961 construction of the Berlin Wall stopped the flow of refugees to the West, stabilized the GDR, and ultimately reduced East-West tensions in the divided city. In assenting to the division of the Reich capital, the Western powers effectively signaled their recognition of the reality of the German division. The resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis also furthered detente in Europe. The superpowers stepped back from the brink of a nuclear confrontation and embraced arms control. They signed a Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and began negotiations on a Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) concluded in 1968.10 Despite this overall relaxation of tensions, a breakthrough in U.S.Soviet detente did not take place until the early 1970s. The escalation of the Vietnam War in the late 1960s and the Soviet crushing of the Prague Spring in August 1968 set back superpower relations. A wide-ranging dialogue only took hold after Richard Nixon became president in January 1969. At several summits, he and Brezhnev endorsed a series of economic, political, and security accords including the May 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I). The Four Powers completed the Berlin Treaty in September 1971. And NATO and Warsaw Pact states jointly established the CSCE and began Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions talks (MBFR). The early 1970s were not free of East-West tensions. The last phase of the Vietnam War and the beginning of U.S.Chinese rapprochement placed strains on U.S.-Soviet relations, as did the October 1973 war in the Middle East. Nevertheless, the trend toward detente in the late 1960s and early 1970s constituted a sharply different environment for German foreign policy than had the cold war of the 1950s. 11 In the decade after Adenauer left office in October 1963, the trend toward detente on the basis of the status quo placed two related problems on the German foreign policy agenda: ties with Moscow and approaches 10. On the transition from cold war to detente during the early 1960s, see Richard Lowenthal. Vom Kalten Krieg ::ur Ostpolitik (Stuttgart: Seewald, 1974). II. On these developments, see Adam B. Ulam, Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics, 1970-1982 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983). On the central role of strategic arms negotiations in U.S.-Soviet detente, see John Newhouse, Cold Dawn: The Story ()f SALT(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973).

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to East Berlin.12 Each involved complex tradeoffs. Better relations with the Soviet Union promised to avert German diplomatic isolation amid detente. At the same time, however, strong German-Soviet ties threatened to strain links with the Western allies. The United States, France, and Britain backed a more flexible German policy toward Moscow but were anxious about the possible negative effects of an active Ostpolitik on the unity of the alliance. U.S. ambassador to Bonn George McGhee, for example, noted that some leading policy experts, including Henry Kissinger, were unsure what role the Germans should play in detente. 13 Later, as national security advisor to Nixon, Kissinger supported a more flexible German stance, but recalled that from "Bismarck to Rapallo it was the essence of Germany's nationalist foreign policy to maneuver freely between East and West." French Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou harbored similar concerns about a possible German turn eastward and drift into neutrality. In these international circumstances German leaders faced the challenge of improving ties with Moscow without undermining relations with their Western allies. 14 Coming to terms with the reality of the GDR involved a linked set of tradeoffs. The Soviet Union demanded recognition of the GDR-and the division of Germany and Europe-as a precondition for better bilateral ties. From Bonn's perspective, however, such recognition risked further consolidating the SED regime and undermining the constitutional commitment to national unity. Through the late 1960s the Federal Republic managed to uphold its international claim to be the sole representative of the German people. Its threat to break off diplomatic relations with any state that exchanged ambassadors with East Berlin-the "Hallstein Doctrine"--deterred non-Warsaw Pact states, with the exception of Yugoslavia and several developing countries, from establishing diplomatic rela12. For a discussion, see Karl Kaiser, German Foreign Policy in Transition: Bonn between East and West (London: Oxford University Press, 1968). 13. See George McGhee, At the Creation of a New Germany: From Adenauer to Brandt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989),241-43. The memoirs of George Ball, assistant secretary of state under the Johnson administration, also relate such concerns. See George W. Ball, Diplomacy for a Crowded World: An American Foreign Policy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976), 110-11. Once the New Ostpolitik got under way Dean Acheson and John J. McCloy, influential former architects of U.S. policy toward Germany, warned that it threatened to unravel the Western alliance. 14. Henry Kissinger, The White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979),409. On French concerns about Ostpolitik, see Haig Simonian, The Privileged Partnership: FrancoGerman Relations in the European Community, 1969-84 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 94-99; Renata Fritsch-Bournazel, "The French View," in Germany between East and West, ed. Edwina Moreton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987),64-82.

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tions with the GDR. Within this constellation any inter-German relationship, even one intended to improve living conditions for Germans in the East, necessarily implied some recognition of GDR authorities. And any such recognition would strengthen the SED regime's authority at home and abroad, undercutting Bonn's longstanding self-conception as the only legitimate representative of the German nation. Amid detente FRG leaders faced the problem of how to acknowledge the reality of the GDR without deepening the German division. The resolution of both problems~ties with Moscow and approaches to East Berlin~remained open through the early 1970s. Some scholars have cast the New Ostpolitik, in retrospect, as a necessary response to the challenge of detente. The Federal Republic, in this interpretation, had no alternative to an active dialogue with Moscow and the recognition of the GDR as a second German state. The straightforward argument from international structure presents two main problems. First, it obscures the instability of detente: its uneven development in the 1950s and 1960s and its subsequent setbacks during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The checkered emergence and subsequent decline of detente revealed it to be a fragile construct. Second, the structural argument neglects the difficult tradeoffs that confronted German leaders. A new approach to Moscow and East Berlin, necessary to avoid diplomatic isolation, had potential negative implications for ties with the West and the prospects for German unity. Given these tradeoffs, the New Ostpolitik was not "the result of a readiness to acquiesce in a political and moral necessity."15 It was a choice in the face of difficult problems, one framed by an array of European institutions. Institutions and Alternatives: What Kind of Ostpolitik? The Federal Republic of the late 1960s and early 1970s was much more powerful than that of the 1950s. Sustained economic growth and rearmament transformed it, after 1955, into a leading~ifnot the leading~power in Western Europe. The "economic miracle" that persisted into the early 1960s generated levels of production and trade greater than those in Britain and France. And the Bundeswehr created during the second half of the 1950s emerged as a formidable military force. Amid the trend toward detente, however, this greater power did not translate into greater independence. The Federal Republic continued to participate within a dense 15. Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1989), 20.

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set of international institutions. Anchored in NATO and the EC, the FRG still depended on cooperation with the allies, and the United States in particular, for its military security and economic prosperity. The Four-Power regime, too, persisted as a constraint on German foreign policy-especially in the context of Berlin. During the late 1960s and early 1970s these institutions framed potential German responses to an emergent East-West detente. From the mid-1950s onward the EC constituted an increasingly important institutional context for German foreign policy. The 1957 Treaty of Rome called for foreign policy consultation and cooperation among the six, but such activity remained sporadic over subsequent years. The Franco-German Treaty of January 1963 formalized political and security consultations between Paris and Bonn; Adenauer and de Gaulle sought to create a bilateral foundation for the articulation of European interests. Yet at the European Community level the French president's emphasis on national sovereignty-and on France's claim to speak for Europe-impeded the emergence of the EC as an international actor. The 1969 Hague Summit proved an important turning point. European leaders created the institution of European Political Cooperation (EPC), a framework for regular contacts among foreign ministers and top foreign policy officials. In the years that followed, EPC served as a forum for consultation on East-West issues. It was one of the multilateral contexts in which Bonn informed its allies about the course of its Ostpolitik. 16 During the late 1960s and early 1970s NATO represented a much more salient institutional constraint on German foreign policy. From the outset NATO was both a military and a political alliance. It not only placed restrictions on the exercise of German military power, but also constituted a multilateral framework for Bonn's overall foreign policy. In the context of detente, NATO's Harmel Report of December 1967 was an important marker. Noting that the political tasks of the alliance had taken on a new "dimension," the report set out a two-pronged strategy of defense and dialogue. It called both for the maintenance of an adequate nuclear and conventional deterrent and for efforts to engage the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact in arms control talksP The Harmel Report 16. On the development of EPC, see Elfriede Regelsberger, Phillippe de Schoutheete de Tervarent, and Wolfgang Wessels, eds., Foreign Policy of the European Union: From EPC to CFSP and Beyond (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997). 17. Report excerpted in AujJenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Dokumente von 1949 bis 1994 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1995), 311-13. On its origins, see Helga Haftendorn, "Entstehung und Bedeutung des Harmel-Berichtes der NATO von 1967," Vierteljahresheftefur Zeitgeschichte 40, no. 2 (April 1992): 169-221.

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laid the groundwork for security dialogue between the blocs: for the conventional arms control that began through MBFR and for the wider political and security dialogue inaugurated with CSCE. It reinvigorated NATO as a political as well as a military framework for German foreign policy. NATO did not completely displace the Four-Power regime as a context for FRG foreign policy in the 1960s and 1970s. Even after the integration of both German states into opposing alliances, the Four Powers continued to insist on their responsibility for the status of Berlin and Germany as a whole. The Federal Republic could not unilaterally place reunification on the East-West agenda. During the mid-1960s, for example, Erhard's proposal for an international body to address the unity issue found no echo in Moscow and Western capitals. The Four-Power regime also constrained the Federal Republic in the context of Berlin. Although not a signatory of the 1971 Berlin Treaty, Bonn was bound by its outcome~a compromise that allowed for links between the FRG and West Berlin but stressed the latter's political independence. German leaders welcomed the city's greater stability, but had to abandon any efforts to integrate it into the Federal Republic. This absence of sovereignty in the former capital also constrained the overall course of German policy during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Through its leverage in West Berlin, Kissinger realized that the United States could curtail the development of any German-Soviet bilateralism detrimental to allied interests. 18 Amid the trend toward detente Western institutions and the FourPower regime framed, but did not determine German foreign policy choices. Ambiguity within and across both sets of institutions left German leaders with significant alternatives in their approach to relations with the Soviet Union. EC efforts to forge a common foreign policy did not move beyond consultations of various kinds. And within NATO, efforts to establish multilateralism in practice ran up against assertions of national sovereignty. During the mid-1960s the collapse of the Multilateral Force and the creation of independent British and French nuclear deterrents undermined the unity of the alliance. So, too, did de Gaulle's decision to withdraw France from NATO's military integration in 1966. Even the Harmel Report, which rallied the alliance around the principle of detente with the Soviet Union the following year, allowed for contrasting national priorities. The report set out a basic foreign policy strategy, but remained vague on the proper mix of defense and dialogue at the heart of it, leaving NATO's "sovereign states" considerable leeway in the formulation of their policy toward Moscow. Within the context of the Atlantic Alliance, then, 18. Kissinger, White House Years. 823-33.

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German leaders were bound to rethink their confrontational Ostpolitik but could decide themselves how to do so. 19 Freedom of action also existed with respect to East Berlin and the question of national unity. NATO and EC membership and the emergence of a bipolar political order in Europe did rule out a return to the early 1950s, when the Federal Republic was in a position to prod the allies toward negotiations on reunification. During the early 1960s, for example, Adenauer and Erhard were unable to make progress during the Test Ban and NPT negotiations dependent on movement toward a German settlement. At the same time, however, membership in Western institutions did not compel Bonn to recognize the status quo of Germany's division. The Treaty of Rome endorsed the goal of German unity and even handled FRG-GDR trade as internal to the EC. And the Paris Treaties, which sealed German membership in NATO, legally bound the allies to "cooperate to achieve, by peaceful means, their common aim of a reunified Germany enjoying a liberal-democratic constitution, like that of the Federal Republic, and integrated within the European community."2o As late as 1967, the Harmel Report referred to the German division as a root cause of tensions in Europe and reiterated the NATO commitment to overcoming it. 21 Western support for established German positions on unity were less than solid. In 1959, for example, de Gaulle broke with the United States and Britain and recognized the Oder-Neisse line. But through the 1960s all three Western allies refused to exchange ambassadors with East Berlin and continued to recognize the FRG's claim to represent all Germans in the international arena. The Four-Power regime, too, did not necessitate FRG recognition of East Berlin and the postwar status quo. While the Western powers and the Soviet Union dropped reunification from the East-West agenda, they continued to exercise their responsibility for questions relating to German unity. The persistence of Four-Power rights kept the unity issue alive-if only in theoretical terms. Interestingly, the openness of the unity issue was acknowledged not only by the Western powers but also by the Soviet Union. During the course of the 1960s Moscow supported a number of confederation plans emanating from East Berlin. The plans, which envisioned close inter-German cooperation on the basis of parity, were a trans19. Relevant passages from the Harmel Report in Auj3enpolitik der Bundesrepublik, 312. On divisions within the alliance and their implications for German foreign policy, see Roger Morgan, The United States and West Germany, 1945-1973: A Studv in Alliance Politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), chaps. 8-9. 20. Documents on Germany, 428. 21. Ibid., 312.

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parent effort to secure greater international recognition for the GDR. At the same time, however, they acknowledged the special nature of interGerman ties and the existence of a single German nation. Even the GDR's new 1968 constitution, approved by Moscow, alluded to the existence of a "German nation." On balance, then, the combination of the Four-Power regime and detente made changes in Bonn's established approach to reunification necessary. But they did not dictate recognition of the status quo of the German division. One could argue that, even though the institutional configuration was permissive, allied pressure-particularly from Washington-created momentum for such recognition. U.S. diplomats did, in fact, show some impatience with the Federal Republic's hard-line stance on relations with East Berlin. 22 At the same time, however, successive U.S. administrations refrained from pressuring Bonn directly on the issue. In view of the growing German contribution to Western defense and ongoing transatlantic irritations over the cost of U.S. forces stationed in the FRG, Washington apparently opted not to pressure Bonn on a matter as sensitive as national unity. If German leaders could not expect reunification initiatives from the allies, Lyndon Johnson told Erhard, they were "encouraged to continue on their own. "23 Even on the Oder-Neisse issue there was no overt U.S. pressure for recognition. In 1968 Ambassador McGhee told then Foreign Minister Brandt that "Americans still held that the final delineation of the German border must await the peace treaty with Germany." The United States, he argued, "did not wish to get ahead of Germany" on the issue. McGhee added only that his government would "support any flexibility the Germans chose to exhibit in their attitude toward their borders. "24 The institutional constellation of the late 1960s and early 1970s confronted German leaders with significant foreign policy alternatives. It made a continuation of the confrontational policies of the 1950s untenable but was compatible with different approaches to Moscow and East Berlin. The FRG's anti-Soviet stance and uncompromising positions on GDR and Oder-Neisse recognition threatened to isolate it within the multilateral framework of the alliance. At the same time, however, Western institutions 22. For an example of such impatience, see the June 1966 testimony of McGeorge Bundy before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, discussed in Morgan, United States and West Germany. 154-55. 23. Memorandum of Conversation, June 10, 1964, cited in McGhee, At the Creation, 148. 24. Ibid., 214. On controversy surrounding the financing of U.S. forces in Germany, see Gregory F. Treverton, The Dollar Drain and American Forces in Germany: Managing the Political Economics (J(Alliance (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1978).

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allowed German leaders different ways to tone down those demands and engage a more active Ostpolitik-without raising allied concerns about German loyalty to the West. During the late 1960s and early 1970s the Four-Power regime precluded German leaders from placing reunification on the East-West agenda. But it obliged them only to adjust, and not necessarily to abandon, their established policy toward East Berlin. The overall institutional configuration-and the trend toward detente within which it was embedded-confronted the Federal Republic with contrasting options. Bonn could seek to improve relations with Moscow and East Berlin gradually while maintaining but playing down existing positions on nonrecognition. Or it could make the de facto recognition of the political and territorial status quo the starting point for an active Ostpolitik. Contested Priorities amid Detente The German response to the alternatives posed by the international constellation emerged out of a prolonged political struggle. The domestic context of German foreign policy shifted in the mid- I 960s. With the end of the postwar boom, attention turned from economic growth to problems of consolidation. At the same time, the emergence of the postwar generation moved new issues to the top of the agenda-the stilI largely unconfronted Nazi past, and authoritarian vestiges in German political culture. Together with the ongoing war in Vietnam and dismal conditions at universities, these trends contributed to student protests and a reform discussion that reached their peak during the Grand Coalition. 25 The 1960s also saw the onset of a societal debate about new directions for German foreign policy. The Berlin Wall sparked a search for new approaches to national unity; some intellectuals began to argue that there was no way around the reality of the GDR. At the same time, new reflection on the enormity of Nazi crimes raised questions concerning the Oder-Neisse border and reconciliation with the victims of Rider's war in the East. In October 1965, for example, Lutheran Bishops appealed to their compatriots to reconsider their stance on the border and open a new dialogue with their Eastern neighbors. 26 25. For an influential appeal for further democratic reforms, see Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany (Garden City, N.J.: Doubleday, 1967),435-50. On the Grand Coalition, see Reinhard Schmoeckel and Bruno Kaiser, Die vergessene Regierung: Die GrofJe Koalition 1966-1969 und ihre langfristigen Wirkungen (Bonn: Bouvier, 1991). 26. Calls for a new approach to the GDR included Eberhard Schulz, An Ulbricht fuhrt kein Weg mehr vorbei: Provozierende Thesen zur deutschen Frage (Hamburg: Hoffmann and Campe, 1967); Peter Bender, Zehn Grande fur eine Anerkennung der DDR (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1968). An earlier pro-recognition argument was Karl Jaspers, Freiheit und Wiedervereinigung: Ober Aufgaben deutscher Politik (Munich: Piper, 1960).

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Within this shifting societal context, the major parties-Christian Democrats, Social Democrats and Liberals-began to rethink their foreign policy priorities. They remained united around the centrality of Western integration. By 1960 first the CDU/CSU and then the SPD and the FOP embraced NATO and EC membership as a starting point for German foreign policy. The established parties also broadly concurred on the national issue. The goal of unity, set down in the Basic Law and reiterated in the major party programs, remained the object of consensus. On this common foundation, however, the CDU/CSU, SPD, and FOP gradually embraced very different approaches to the challenges posed by detente, and relations with East Berlin and Moscow in particular. During the late 1960s and early 1970s Kiesinger and Brandt, the major rivals for the chancellorship, situated the Federal Republic differently with respect to the international constellation. Kiesinger supported a cautious opening to the East, while Brandt backed a bold new departure. Their views did not exhaust the spectrum of party positions. The Far Right National Democratic Party (NPD), which almost gained a foothold in the Bundestag, endorsed an openly nationalist, pro-reunification and anti-Soviet platform. The leaders of both major parties, however, framed the main foreign policy debate during the Grand Coalition and through Kiesinger's resignation as CDU chairman in July 1971,17 As in the case of Adenauer and Kurt Schumacher, different political biographies underpinned contrasting policy stances. Kiesinger, a native of southwest Germany, joined the Nazi party as a youth and served in the foreign ministry during the war. After 1945 he rose quickly in the CDU/CSU, first as a foreign policy expert in the Bundestag under Adenauer and then as governor of Baden-Wiirttemberg, his home state. When Erhard's coalition with the Liberals collapsed, in 1966, the CDU/CSU entrusted Kiesinger, a centrist, with the formation of a Grand Coalition. Brandt, a native of northern Germany, joined the socialist youth movement during the Weimar Republic, spent the Nazi period in exile in Scandinavia, and was active in the resistance. Like Kiesinger, he rose quickly within his party after the war. The most charismatic of the SPD's younger leaders, Brandt was elected mayor of West Berlin in 1957, where he governed through the Berlin Crisis. He also ran as an unsuccessful chancellor 27. On the NPD. see John David Nagle, The National Democratic Party: Right Radicalism in the Federal Republic of Germany (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970); Schmoekel and Kaiser, Die vergessene Regierung. chap. 12. National thinking also remained strong among a CDU/CSU minority impatient with the lack of progress toward reunification. See, for example, Hans-Graf Huyn, Die Sackgasse: Deutschlands Weg in die Isolierung (Stuttgart: Seewald, 1966).

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candidate in 1961 and 1965, before becoming foreign minister in the Grand Coalition. 28 During the late 1960s and early 1970s the foreign policy priorities of Kiesinger and Brandt overlapped in three important respects. 29 First, both agreed that the Federal Republic must uphold its constitutional commitment to national unity. As a leading CDU foreign policy spokesman during the 1950s and later head of the Bundestag Foreign Affairs Committee, Kiesinger espoused the goal of reunification more forcefully than Adenauer. In May 1952, for example, he was among those who blocked Adenauer's efforts to bind a hypothetical future unified Germany to the Western alliance-partly out of concern that such a "binding clause" might impede a settlement with Moscow. 3o Brandt, too, was firmly committed to the goal of national unity. From his vantage point, as the mayor of West Berlin, he directly confronted the human costs of the deepening German division-families and friends divided, and East Germans deprived of political freedom. Both before and after the 1961 construction of the Berlin Wall, Brandt insisted that national unity remain an overriding priority for German foreign policy. For both Kiesinger and Brandt unity was not just a constitutional injunction; it was also a moral and political imperative. 3l Second, Kiesinger and Brandt both welcomed the overall trend toward detente. Like Adenauer and Erhard, Kiesinger was strongly anticommunist and suspicious of Soviet intentions. In his first government declaration as chancellor, however, he outlined stronger German support for arms control and for intensified dialogue between the blocs. Kiesinger energetically backed renunciation-of-force accords with Moscow and its allies. And, to the surprise of some of his listeners, he called for the creation of a European "Peace Order" and labeled Germany a "bridge 28. The relevant memoirs are Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Dunkle und helle Jahre: Erinnerungen, 1904-1958 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, j 989); Willy Brandt, People and Politics: The Years, 1960-1975 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978); Willy Brandt, My Life in Politics (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1992). See also Dieter Oberndorfer, ed., Begegnungen mit Kurt Georg Kiesinger: Festgabe zum 80. Geburtstag (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1984); Barbara Marshall, Willy Brandt: Eine politische Biographie (Bonn: Bouvier, 1993). 29. For Kiesinger's most important statements as chancellor, see Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Die Groj3e Koalition, 1966-1969: Reden und Erkliirungen des Bundeskanzlers (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1979). For an overview of Brandt's views during the Grand Coalition, see Willy Brandt, A Peace Policy for Europe (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969). 30. On this controversy, see Kiesinger, Dunkle und helle Jahre, 428-32. 31. The importance of national unity for both was evident during the decisive Bundestag debates on Western integration. See their addresses of February 24, 1955, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 2, 3531-38 and 3563-68.

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between Western and Eastern Europe"-rhetoric reminiscent of Jakob Kaiser's.32 Brandt was an even more articulate supporter of a German "peace policy." As foreign minister and later as chancellor, he argued that the Federal Republic should support the arms control process and actively seek to improve relations with its Eastern neighbors. Brandt, too, viewed Soviet motives with suspicion. But he argued that the FRG, situated at the center of the bipolar struggle, was in a position to contribute to a relaxation of East-West tensions. Both Kiesinger and Brandt supported detente in principle. 33 Third, both men conceived of good relations with the East as a precondition for German unity. Adenauer and Erhard had insisted that the German division was a major cause of East-West tension and that lasting detente in Europe was only possible after a German settlement. Kiesinger and Brandt both reworked the causal logic: they construed European detente as a means toward national unity, not vice versa. In a June 1967 Bundestag speech, for example, Kiesinger reminded his listeners that a united Germany would have a "critical size" potentially unsettling for both East and West. Therefore, he argued, "the growing together of both parts of Germany can only be conceived as part of the process of overcoming the East-West conflict."34 Brandt articulated a similar view. From the early 1960s onward he placed the problem of the German division within the larger context of the European division. Only in an all-European framework, Brandt argued, could Germans in East and West preserve the substance of the German nation through the pursuit of closer economic, cultural, and political ties. Both Kiesinger and Brandt reinterpreted the unity injunction of the Basic Law amid the trend toward detente. 35 On this broad foundation-support for German unity, for detente in 32. See the government declaration of December 13, 1966, in Kiesinger, Die Groj3e Koalition, 20,22. For a discussion of the lineage of the term European Peace Order, see Garton Ash, In Europe's Name, 16--19. 33. For Brandt's approach to detente, see his address before the 1966 SPD party conference in Dortmund, in Protokoll der Verhandlungen und Antriige vom Parteitag der Sozialdemokratischen Parte! Deutschlands vom 1.-5. fun! in Dortmund (Bonn: Vorstand der SPD, 1966),82-85. 34. Kiesinger address of June 17, 1967, in Kiesinger, Die Groj3e Koalition, 81. Franz Josef Strauss, the leader of the conservative CSU, also downplayed the immediate goal of reunification, while remaining strongly committed to established German legal positions on nonrecognition of the GDR and the Oder-Neisse border. See Strauss, The Grand Design: A European Solution to German Reunification (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965). 35. See, for example, Brandt's address before an SPD audience, November 30, 1967, Willy Brandt, Peace. Writings and Speeches of the Nobel Prize Peace Winner (Bonn: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft, 1971),49-63.

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Europe, and for the realization of the former in the context of the latterKiesinger and Brandt differed on three specific issues: GDR recognition, the Oder-Neisse line, and dialogue with Moscow. Kiesinger held that the FRG should de-emphasize but not rescind its nonrecognition of the SED regime. Like Adenauer and Erhard, he considered the FRG the sole legitimate representative of the German people in world affairs. Kiesinger did apply the principle more flexibly. In 1967, for example, he agreed to exchange ambassadors with Romania despite the latter's full diplomatic ties with the East Berlin-a relaxation of the Hallstein Doctrine. And he also expressed a readiness to engage the GDR in dialogue on humanitarian issues. At the same time, however, Kiesinger insisted from the beginning of his chancellorship that such contacts, like the relaxation of the Hallstein Doctrine, "would not signify recognition of a second German state." When he sent a letter to Willi Stoph in June 1967, for example, he addressed it simply to "Prime Minister," omitting any mention of the GDR.36 Brandt, by contrast, gradually embraced the view that the established policy of nonrecognition should be not just downplayed but dropped as a core component of Ostpolitik. 37 During the 1960s he articulated the idea that the best way to overcome the German division was to strengthen ties between Germans in the FRG and the GDR. Brandt rejected full diplomatic recognition for East Berlin. But de facto recognition, he came to believe, might foster a web of economic, social, and cultural ties between Germans in East and West, preserving the substance of the German nation and holding open prospects for reunification in the long term. This approach, made famous under the label "change through rapprochement," informed Brandt's policy as mayor of West Berlin in coalition with the FDP during the early 1960s. 38 With the support of the Liberals, who were also groping toward a new approach to the national issue, Brandt negotiated several accords with East Berlin facilitating contacts among Germans in the divided city. As foreign minister under Kiesinger, Brandt adhered to the latter's nonrecognition policy, although he pushed for its 36. Government declaration of December 13, 1966, in Kiesinger, Die GrofJe Koalition, 25. Kiesinger's letter to Stoph of June 13, 1967, ibid., 66--67. 37. First contours of this stance were evident in Brandt's address before the SPD's 1964 party conference in Karlsruhe, in Protokoll der Verhandlungen und Antriige vom Parteitag der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands vom 23.-27. November 1964 in Karlsruhe (Bonn: Vorstand der SPD, 1964), 148-5\. For Brandt's account, see Brandt, People and Politics, 166-97. 38. The term was coined by Brandt's advisor, Egon Bahr, in a much cited February 1963 speech. See Bahr, Zu meiner Zeit, chap. 3.

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relaxation. But as chancellor, after 1969, he made recognition of the reality of two German states the starting point for a dialogue with the GDR.39 Kiesinger and Brandt also differed on the question of Oder-Neisse recognition. More than Adenauer and Erhard, Kiesinger emphasized that the Federal Republic had no territorial claims on Poland. At the same time, however, he continued to refuse Soviet and Polish demands that renunciation-of-force accords include recognition of existing borders. Final borders, he insisted, could only be fixed in a reunification settlement. And such a settlement, in turn, represented a "precondition for a durable, peaceful and good-neighborly relationship" between Germans and Poles. 4o By contrast, Brandt gradually~and carefully~came to support de facto recognition of the Oder-Neisse line as Poland's western border. At a March 1968 SPD party conference in Nuremberg, for example, he suggested that the FRG consider "respecting or even recognizing" the border. Cooperative relations with Warsaw, he maintained, were possible even in the absence of a unity settlement. Brandt's stance on the OderNeisse sparked an angry outburst from Kiesinger, who attacked his foreign minister's readiness to recognize the postwar territorial status quo as an unacceptable break with legal and policy precedent. 41 These different stances on relations with the GDR and the OderNeisse went hand in hand with contrasting approaches to detente and relations with the Soviet Union. 42 While he supported detente in principle, Kiesinger had misgivings about its emergence in the 1960s. He perceived two risks~that the superpowers might reach agreement on key issues at German expense, a concern akin to Adenauer's "Potsdam Complex"; and that German-Soviet dialogue might make the Federal Republic less, not more secure. For Kiesinger the Non-Proliferation Treaty best illustrated the risk of a superpower condominium at German expense. He did not go 39. Brandt negotiated a first Transit Accord with East Berlin authorities in 1963. It allowed West Berliners to visit their relatives in the East over the Christmas holidays. See Brandt, People and Politics, 94-113, On the FOP's stance on Brandt's approach to inter-German relations during the late 1960s, see Christof Brauers, Liberale Deutschlandpolitik, J949~1969: Positionen der F D. P. ::lVisclzen nationaler und europaischer Orientierung (Hamburg: Lit, 1992), 148~66. 40. Declaration of December 13, 1966, in Kiesinger, Die Groj3e Koalition, 21. 41. Brandt's statement before the SPD's 1968 party conference in Nuremberg, March 18, 1968, in Protokoll der Verlzandlungen und Antrage vom Parteitag der Sozialdemokratisclzen Partei Deutschlands vom Marz 1968 in Niirnberg (Bonn: Vorstand der SPD, 1968), III. For Kiesinger's response clarifying government policy, see his address of March 27, 1968, in Kiesinger, Die Groj3e Koalition. 182~85. 42. See, for example, the addresses of Brandt and Kiesinger after the Soviet crushing of the Prague Spring, September 25 and September 26, 1968, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 5, 10049~56 and 10109~16.

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as far as Adenauer, who called the NPT "a tragedy for us Germans." Concerned, however, that the treaty might increase the internationallegitimacy of the GDR as a cosignatory and preclude FRG participation in a future European nuclear force, Kiesinger withheld his signature during the Grand Coalition. 43 Negotiations with the Soviet Union on a possible renunciation-of-force accord, which began but made little progress during the Grand Coalition, illustrated the second risk: less, not more security through an active Ostpolitik. In Kiesinger's eyes Moscow's insistence that such an accord be linked with recognition of existing borders was a transparent attempt to consolidate its hold in the East and increase its threat to the West. 44 Brandt's support for detente in general and for better German-Soviet relations in particular was unambiguous. He was far less concerned about U.S.-Soviet bilateralism at German expense. As foreign minister, and later as chancellor, he continually urged the superpowers to expand their conventional and nuclear arms control dialogue. In the context of the NPT, for example, Brandt was untroubled by possible implications for GDR legitimacy or a future European nuclear option. His government endorsed the treaty immediately after taking office. Brandt also did not share Kiesinger's concern that active German-Soviet dialogue might weaken the Western alliance or advance Soviet expansionism. Such dialogue, he argued, was bound to increase mutual trust and advance mutually beneficial cooperation. In Brandt's view revitalizing relations with Moscow by linking a renunciation offorce with a recognition of bordersthe core of the Moscow Treaty-promised to make the Federal Republic more, not less, secure. Germans, he argued, should overcome their paralyzing fear of Soviet power: "We can afford a self-confident Ostpolitik!"45 The differences between the foreign policy priorities of Kiesinger and Brandt-on the national issue and approaches to detente-reflected contrasting views of the international environment and the lessons of history. For Kiesinger, like Adenauer before him, the Soviet threat to a vulnerable Federal Republic remained a prominent feature of the international situation. In an era of detente, the threat was more political than military: 43. On Adenauer's position and CDU/CSU opposition to NPT, see Matthias Kuntzel, Bonn und die Bombe: Deutsche Atomwaffenpolitik von Adenauer his Brandt (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 1992), chap. 2. 44. See, for example, Kiesinger's address of January 15, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 6, 851-60. 45. The theme of a "self-confident Ostpolitik" can be traced at least as far back as 1960. For Kiesinger's concerns about Soviet expansionism, see his address of May 27, 1970, ibid., 2725-29. See also Brandt's address of April 26, 1972, ibid., ser. 6,10639-41.

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Soviet leaders, in Kiesinger's view, were determined to divide NATO and draw all of Germany into their orbit. Moreover, according to Kiesinger and other CDU/CSU leaders, an active Ostpolitik threatened to provoke concerns about German reliability in the West and undermine the unity of the alliance. 46 Kiesinger did perceive the overall trend toward detente and the consolidation of the GDR as grounds for a more flexible stance toward Moscow. But he also considered the injustice of the German division a salient part of European reality that should not be endorsed through recognition of a second German state. 47 Brandt, for his part, did not question the existence of a potential Soviet threat to German security. Like Kiesinger, he considered multilateral Western institutions the indispensable foundation for German policy toward the East. As chancellor, for example, he backed the modernization of NATO's conventional forces to counter Soviet forces in central Europe. But unlike Kiesinger, Brandt considered an active Ostpolitik on the basis of the status quo a way to sustain, rather than undermine Western unitya means to bring German foreign policy into line with that of its most important allies. Moreover, from Brandt's perspective, de facto recognition of the GDR did not represent an endorsement of an unjust status quo. It constituted instead acknowledgment of the postwar reality of division. As he put it in 1967: "In the other part of Germany, a political system exists and governs which we choose to reject rather than accept." However, he continued, "it does exist and it does govern."48 Only by accepting the reality of two German states, he reasoned, could the Federal Republic ease the human costs of the division. These different foreign policy priorities also rested on particular interpretations of the past and its lessons. For Kiesinger the experience of Hitler and national socialism made strong ties with the West an absolute priority. Kiesinger did not invoke this argument as frequently as had Adenauer-averse, perhaps, to drawing attention to his own past association with the Nazi party. But he clearly viewed Western integration as a historic repudiation of German nationalism. He insisted, for example, that inroads made by the NPD did not mark "the birth hour of a new nationalism in 46. On later CDU/CSU efforts to win allied support for their objections to the New Ostpolitik, see Kurt Birrenbach, Meine Sondermissionen: Riickblick auf zwei Jahrzehnte bundesdeutscher Auj3enpolitik (Dusseldorf: Econ-Verlag, 1984),324-43. 47. For these perspectives, see Kiesinger's Bundestag address of June 17, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 6, 3241-42. 48. Address of November 30. 1967, in Brandt, Peace, 60. For Brandt's insistence that his policy brought the FRO into line with the overall Western approach to the East, see his address of April 26, 1972. Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 6, 10641.

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Germany."49 And he rejected Brandt's New Ostpolitik in part because it raised the old specter of a more independent Germany adrift between East and West. At times Kiesinger did articulate the view that the German past required reconciliation with the East. In his first government declaration, for example, he referred to Germany's bridge-building function between East and West as a historic task and alluded to the history of GermanPolish suffering in particular. But in that and subsequent major addresses Kiesinger eschewed explicit links between past German aggression and a new approach to Ostpolitik. 50 In grounding his foreign policy priorities with reference to historical experience, Kiesinger placed less emphasis on prewar disasters than he did on postwar achievements. The policy of Western integration, he reiterated, had secured freedom and security for Germans in the West and held open the prospect of unity with Germans in the East. Adenauer's achievement did not rule out a more active Ostpolitik. In fact, Kiesinger noted with reference to Adenauer's secret proposals to Soviet leaders, the first chancellor had entertained some creative ideas of his own in the years before his retirement. 51 By contrast, Kiesinger argued, Brandt's policies after 1969 threatened to unravel the edifice of Western integration. The New Ostpolitik risked dividing the West, advancing Soviet expansionist designs, and closing off the prospect of reunification. For Kiesinger a more gradual approach, in which NATO and the EC remained the focal points of German policy and the goal of unity persisted as a central component of Ostpolitik, promised to build on, and not undermine, Adenauer's achievement. 52 Different views of history and its lessons informed Brandt's foreign policy priorities. Like Kiesinger and Adenauer, Brandt viewed Germany's nationalist and militarist pre-1945 foreign policies as a negative legacy-a conviction reinforced by his own wartime activities as an exile and member of the resistance. The New Ostpolitik, Brandt insisted, had nothing to do with the nationalism and seesaw policies of old. Unlike his CDU counterparts, however, Brandt drew clear links between the legacy of German 49. Declaration of December 13, 1966, in Kiesinger, Die GrojJe Koalition, 26-27. The NPD fared well in several state elections in the late 1960s and fell just short of the 5 percent hurdle in the 1969 Bundestag elections. 50. Address of December 13, 1966. in Kiesinger, Die GrojJe Koalition, 20. 5!. Address of January 15, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 6, 852. On Adenauer's success in committing the Western powers to the goal of German unity, see Kiesinger's address of February 23, 1972, ibid" 9789, 52, For Kiesinger's positive assessment of Adenauer's legacy, see his memorial address of April 24, 1967, in Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Stationen, 1949-1969 (Tiibingen: Wunderlich, 1969), 220-22.

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aggression and the imperative of an active Ostpolitik. As early as 1953, Brandt argued that Germans should seek to address "the sad legacy of national socialism" through "real reconciliation and peaceful settlement [Ausgleich)" with the East. 53 This perspective, a leitmotif of major policy addresses in the 1960s and 1970s, shaped Brandt's evolving approach to the border question in particular. The victims of Hitler's aggression, he insisted as foreign minister and later as chancellor, had a right to secure frontiers. Acceptance of the territorial status quo in Europe, and the OderNeisse border in particular, merely represented recognition of the results of Hitler's lost war. As he put it on the occasion of the Moscow Treaty, "nothing is lost with this Treaty that was not gambled away long ago."54 Like Kiesinger, Brandt also grounded his foreign policy priorities in a particular interpretation of the postwar period and its legacies. He recognized Western integration as a historic repudiation of past nationalismand was one of the first SPD leaders to do so. At the same time, however, he repeatedly criticized Adenauer's failure to move beyond integration in the West toward engagement in the East. During his 1961 election campaign against Adenauer, for example, he labeled the Berlin Wall a poignant symbol of the failure of the government's reunification policy. And in the years that followed, he reiterated the view that Adenauer had failed to exploit possibilities to press the unity issue during his chancellorship. After Adenauer's retirement and death in 1967, Brandt struck a more conciliatory tone. He construed Adenauer's Western policy as a necessary foundation for an active Ostpolitik. And during the early 1970s he even portrayed his own foreign policy departure as an extension of Adenauer's, although he continued to underline the limitations of the latter. 55 Brandt's view of the past and its lessons dovetailed with new trends in German historiography in the 1960s. Gerhard Ritter and other leading postwar historians had interpreted Hitler and national socialism as an aberration in German history and upheld Bismarck's Reich as a model for the foreign policy of the Federal Republic. They advocated foreign policies 53. SPD party conference address of March 6, 1953, in Willy Brandt, Der Wille zum Frieden: Perspektiven der Politik (Frankfurt am Main: Hoffmann and Campe, 1971),60. 54. Brandt, Peace Policy for Europe. 99-104, 107. On World War II as a backdrop for the New Ostpolitik, see also Brandt's address in the Eastern Treaties ratification debate of May 10, 1972, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 6, 10888-98. 55. Willy Brandt, "Konrad Adenauer-Ein schwieriges Erbe fiir die deutsche Politik," in Dieter Blumenwitz et aI., eds., Konrad Adenauer und Seine Zeit: Polilik und Personlichkeit des ersten Bundeskanzlers (Stuttgart: Deutsche-Verlags-Anstalt, 1976),99-107. In a major Bundestag debate, Brandt questioned whether vehement CDU/CSU opposition to the Eastern Treaties was really in the tradition of Adenauer. See his address of April 27, 1972, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 6, 10711.

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grounded in the dispassionate pursuit of the national interest, not reconciliation with the victims of German aggression. During the 1960s the "Fischer Controversy" destroyed this orthodoxy. The Hamburg historian Fritz Fischer argued that German political and military elites had deliberately unleashed World War I in order to shore up an autocratic regime at home. His two major works, informed by a "primacy of domestic politics" [Primal der Innenpolilik] perspective, suggested lines of continuity between the autocratic structures of the empire, the institutional weakness of the Weimar Republic, and elite support for Hitler's takeover. 56 The thesis of a negative "special path" [Sondenveg] from Bismarck to Hitler, rife with political and policy implications, sparked a furor. For Ritter, Fischer's work was typical of "current political-historical fashion" destructive of "German historical consciousness." The CSU's Franz Josef Strauss even attacked him as a communist fellow traveler. For Fischer's supporters, by contrast, criticism of Germany's nationalist, militarist past, went hand in hand with support for Brandt's new foreign policy departure. Many were vocal supporters of the chancellor's push for reconciliation with the victims of Hitler's war in the East. 57 The foreign policy priorities espoused by Kiesinger and Brandt in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and the views of history that informed them, both represented viable responses to the alternatives posed by the international configuration. The shift toward detente generated a divisive German debate over policy toward Moscow and East Berlin. With their divergent perceptions of the international situation and the lessons of the past, Kiesinger and Brandt articulated contrasting positions within that debate. Kiesinger's stance was cautious, respectful of established precedent and reticent with respect to bilateral German-Soviet dialogue. Brandt's approach was bold. It called for a fundamental reassessment of the unity issue and a far-reaching dialogue with Moscow, Warsaw, and East Berlin. The struggle between both sets of foreign policy priorities was decided at the level of party politics. 56. Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (New York: Norton, 1967); The War of Illusions: German Policiesjrom 1911 to 1914 (New York: Norton, 1975). Eckart Kehr, an interwar historian, was one of the first proponents of the "primacy of domestic politics" approach. See Eckart Kehr, Der Primat der Innenpolitik: Gesammelte Auj~'iitze zur preussisch-deutschen Sozialgeschichte im 19. und 20. lahrhundert (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1965). 57. Stefan Berger, The Search for Normality: National Identity and Historical Consciousness in Germany since 1800 (Providence: Berghahn, 1997),69-70,83. On the "Fischer Controversy," see John A. Moses, The Politics of fllusion: The Fischer Controversy in German Historiography (New York: George Prior Publishers, 1975); Fritz Fischer, "Twenty-Five Years Later: Looking Back at the 'Fischer Controversy' and Its Consequences," Central European History 21, no. 3 (September 1988): 207-23.

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The Political Struggle over the New Ostpolitik

Brandt's success in the political contest of the early 1970s ultimately secured the necessary domestic backing for the New Ostpolitik. That success was by no means assured when he became chancellor in October 1969. In order to pursue his priorities in practice, Brandt had to anchor them within the SPD and forge a coalition with a like-minded FDP. He also had to implement them against a powerful opposition. The newly formed social-liberal coalition controlled only a razor-thin Bundestag majority, and the Christian Democrats, out of office for the first time, were determined to undermine it. From the moment Brandt recognized the existence of "two states in Germany" in his first government declaration, the New Ostpolitik injected a high degree of polarization into German politics. Only with the ratification of the Moscow and Warsaw Treaties in May 1972 and Brandt's reelection as chancellor that November did his new foreign policy departure come to rest on a stable political foundation. Brandt's success in anchoring his foreign policy priorities in the SPD occurred less through an all-out clash than through a gradual generational shift. Erich Ollenhauer, who succeeded Schumacher in 1952, remained party chairman until his death in December 1963. Even before Brandt assumed party leadership in January 1964, however, he and a cohort of emerging SPD leaders, including Fritz Erler and Herbert Wehner, began to move the party toward the political center. In the wake of Ollenhauer's back-to-back losses to Adenauer in the 1953 and 1957 elections, they successfully moderated Social Democratic positions on a variety of domestic and foreign policy issues. The Godesberg Program of March 1959 was a milestone. It broke with the Marxist philosophy of central economic planning and endorsed the principle of national defense. In June 1960 Wehner reversed Social Democratic opposition to the Atlantic Alliance. With Brandt as chancellor candidate in 1961 a rejuvenated SPD began to close the electoral gap that separated it from the CDU/CSU.58 The old Social Democratic guard around Ollenhauer did not quarrel with Brandt's strong support for detente and arms control with the Soviet Union. Even more than Schumacher, Ollenhauer had prodded Adenauer to engage the Soviet Union in an active political and security dialogue during the 1950s. During the 1960s, however, Brandt's emerging approach to the national issue and its place within Ostpolitik did spark some controversy within the party. For Schumacher, and later for Ollenhauer, any 58. On these developments, see Klaus Hildebrand, Von Erhard zur GrojJen Koalition, 1963--69 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Veriags-Anstalt, 1984), 70-83; Abraham Ashkenasi, Reformpartei und AujJenpolitik: Die AujJenpolitik der SPD Berlin-Bonn (Cologne: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1968), chap. 6.

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recognition of the GDR was anathema. In some respects the legacy of communist persecution of the SPD in the Soviet zone, and its forced incorporation into the SED in 1946 made Social Democrats even more hostile to the GDR than their Christian Democratic counterparts. Against this backdrop Brandt's efforts as mayor of West Berlin to reach humanitarian accords with East Berlin authorities met some skepticism in the SPD leadership. He was initially careful to insist that a "change through rapprochement" strategy did not entail a shift away from traditional legal positions on the unity issue. At the 1964 party conference in Karlsruhe, for example, Brandt reiterated his party's traditional demand for international progress toward reunification. 59 Brandt's new approach to the Oder-Neisse issue, too, generated some opposition within the SPD. Schumacher had been particularly vehement in his opposition to the borders of 1945, likening calls for recognition of the Oder-Neisse to demands for German "suicide."6o And the postwar SPD, like the CDU/CSU, drew on political support from millions of expellees, those driven from the territories East of the Oder-Neisse at the end of World War II. The Godesberg Program, though reformist in its thrust, reiterated established legal positions with respect to the issue, relegating the final delineation of the border between Poland and Germany to a reunification settlement. Established positions on the border issue persisted into the 1960s. In January 1965, for example, Erler suggested that the Federal Republic might have to recognize the Oder-Neisse border as part of future negotiations on national unity. A government spokesman accused him of renouncing long-standing German claims, and the SPD executive committee reiterated the party's official position on the openness of the border issue pending reunification. 61 Only during the second half of the 1960s, once his position as party chairman was secure, was Brandt able to win broad support in the SPD for his approach to East Berlin and the German-Polish border. The June 1966 Dortmund party conference proved an important turning point. In his keynote speech, Brandt still made reference to the "so-called GDR," a practice he would later drop. At the same time, however, he set out his evolving approach to the unity issue in the clearest terms yet. Germans, he argued, should shift from a focus on reunification within a single state toward the maintenance of the substance of the German nation. And 59. Brandt. People and Politics, 110-11. 60. Bundestag address of March 9, 1951, in Kurt Schumacher, Kurt Schumacher: Reden-Schriften-Korrespondenzen, 1945-1952 (Berlin: Dietz, 1985),934. 61. Hartmut Soell, Fritz Erler: Eine Politische Biographie (Berlin: Dietz, 1976), 1:497-500. On controversy around national issues in the SPD during the 1960s, see Peter Arend, Die innerparteiliche Entwicklung der SPD, 1966-75 (Bonn: Eichholz, 1975),95-96.

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efforts to multiply inter-German contacts~a means to this end~would necessarily involve interaction with GDR authorities. With little dissent the SPD endorsed Brandt's new approach to East Berlin. Two years later, as foreign minister, he also managed to rally Social Democratic support for his new approach to the border issue. His statement that Bonn consider "respecting or even recognizing" the Oder-Neisse border~made at a March 1968 party conference~sparked criticism from Kiesinger and expellee groups. But opposition was muted within the SPD leadership.62 As chancellor, Brandt was able to maintain a high degree of support within the SPD for his Ostpolitik. Representatives of the expellees, who had begun to move from the SPD to the CDU/CSU in the 1960s, continued to do so in the 1970s. And the defection of a key expellee leader and SPD deputy to the opposition in early 1972 threatened the government's majority in the run-up to the final ratification debates on the Moscow and Warsaw Treaties. On the whole, however, Brandt's new foreign policy departure served to unite, not divide, the party. In the wake of the 1968 student protests the SPD was racked by dissension between its moderate and radical wings, mainly on economic and social issues. Brandt's New Ostpolitik, which won him the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1971, solidified his authority atop the party, and helped to paper over its internal fissures. After his reelection as chancellor in November 1972, however, those fissures emerged into the open. In the face of internal party squabbles, mounting economic problems, and an espionage scandal~one of his aides worked for the GDR~Brandt resigned in May 1974. While he ceded the chancellorship to Helmut Schmidt, Brandt remained SPD chairman. His New Ostpolitik persisted as a core element of SPD identity from the early 1970s onward. 63 In order to implement his foreign policy priorities Brandt also had to secure and maintain the support of the FDP for a social-liberal coalition. Given the traditional differences between the two parties, this was no easy task. The FDP, a governing partner of the CDUlCSU from 1949-56 and again from 1961-66, made liberal economic policies its top programmatic priority. The SPD break with its Marxist heritage with the 1959 Godesberg Program reduced the economic and social policy gulf between the parties somewhat, as did the emergence of a reform-oriented "social" wing of the FDP. More than anything else, however, the collapse of the Erhard government and the formation of the Grand Coalition generated momen62. For Brandt's Dortmund address, see Parteitag der SPD 1966, 74-82. 63. On the importance of Ostpolitik for the SPD's internal unity, see Arend, Die innerparteiliche Entll'icklung der SPD, 75-76,97-106.

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tum for social-liberal rapprochement. Brandt, who had ruled with the FDP for a time in West Berlin, envisioned such a coalition at the national level as the most promising way to capture the chancellorship. And Liberalleaders, thrown into opposition, began to consider an alliance with the SPD as a springboard back into government. During the early 1960s Liberal leader Erich Mende, minister for All-German Questions under Erhard, had supported Brandt's negotiations with East Berlin authorities. As the decade progressed younger leaders around Walter Scheel-including future Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher-pushed for further shifts in FDP foreign policy in the direction of Brandt and the SPD. At a pivotal party conference in April 1967 they won majority backing for a number of controversial proposals: de facto recognition of the GDR, normalization of ties with Moscow on the basis of the status quo, and recognition of the Oder-Neisse as Poland's western border. Mende resigned in protest, making way for Scheel to assume the FDP chairmanship the following year. The prospects for a future social-liberal coalition improved. 64 The cooperation of the SPD and FDP in electing Gustav Heinemann federal president in March 1969 represented a first concrete sign of the rapprochement between the two parties. CDU/CSU and FDP parliamentarians had elected the first two presidents of the Federal Republic, Theodor Heuss and Heinrich Lubke. Although the office was almost exclusively a symbolic one, Liberal support for Heinemann, the SPD candidate, had a double political significance. On the one hand, it signaled FDP readiness to forge a coalition with the SPD after the upcoming September 1969 elections. On the other hand, it pointed to the possibility of a new foreign policy departure. Heinemann, a former minister of the interior under Adenauer, had resigned in protest from the government and the CDU during the rearmament controversy of the early 1950s. During the 1960s he emerged as one of the most articulate spokesmen for detente and reconciliation with the East. Heinemann's election not only marked an embarrassing defeat for Kiesinger and the CDU/CSU. It also signaled a new political and policy constellation. 65 As it happened, Brandt and the SPD only barely succeeded in forging a coalition with Scheel and the FDP after the September elections. The CDUlCSU remained the largest party in the Bundestag, falling just shy of 64. On changes in FOP Ostpolitik in opposition, see Clemens Heitmann, FDP und neue Ostpolitik. Zur Bedeutung der deutschlandpolitischen Vorstellungen der FDP von 1966 bis 1972 (Sankt Augustin: COMDOK, 1989),43-77; Hildebrand, Von Erhard zur GrojJen Koalition, 339-52. 65. On the significance of Heinemann's election, see Arnulf Baring, Machtwechsel. Die Ara Brandt-Scheel (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1982), chap. I. See also Helmut Lindemann. Gustav Heinemann: Ein Leben/iir die Demokratie (Munich: KoseL 1978).

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an absolute majority. In fact, President Nixon called Kiesinger on election night to congratulate him on his victory. In the days and weeks that followed, however, the SPD and FDP managed to form a government with a parliamentary majority of just six seats. On this slim foundation Brandt and Scheel, now foreign minister, immediately set out to implement their foreign policy. As the New Ostpolitik rapidly unfolded, the coalition grew even weaker. In October 1970 three Liberal deputies, upset about the pace and scope of the rapprochement with the Soviet Union and its allies, switched their allegiance to the CDU/CSU. In February 1972, in the runup to the key Bundestag vote on the Moscow and Warsaw Treaties, former FDP chairman Mende did the same. The government lost its majority at a critical juncture in the struggle with Christian Democrats. That struggle, pitting government against opposition, had the greatest impact on the outcome of the New Ostpolitik. It began immediately once Brandt took over as chancellor. CDU/CSU leaders, furious to be excluded from power for the first time since the founding of the Federal Republic, attacked the New Ostpolitik from its inception. 66 Kiesinger in particular did not accept defeat with grace. He insisted that the CDU/CSU, as the largest party in the Bundestag, still had a claim on the chancellorship. And he argued that the social-liberal coalition, given its slim majority, had no mandate to break with two decades of German foreign policy. Kiesinger began an overt campaign to bring down the government and what he called its so-called majority. His strategy was straightforward: to punish the FDP in enough state elections so that its national leadership-or at least enough FDP deputies-would opt to switch allegiance to the CDU/CSU. To this end he branded the SPD the "party of recognition" and condemned Brandt's de facto recognition of the GDR as a "terrible sacrifice of the positions we have held until now. "67 On the eve of Brandt's trip to Moscow, in August 1970, Kiesinger insisted that a normalization of bilateral ties was unacceptable without some "sign of Soviet readiness to work with us to help to bring about a just solution of the German Question."68 Not everyone in the CDU/CSU backed Kiesinger's confrontational 66. On CDU/CSU opposition to the New Ostpolitik. see Clay Clemens, Reluctant Realists: The Christian Democrats and West German Ostpolitik (Durham: Duke University Press. 1989); Christian Hacke. Die Ost-und Deutschlandpolitik der CDUICSU- Wege und lrrwege der Opposition seit 1969 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik. 1975). 67. Kiesinger address of January 15, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 6, 859. 68. Kiesinger in the debate ofJune 17, 1970, ibid., 3242.

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course. According to Egon Bahr, Brandt's top foreign policy advisor, future President Richard von Weizsacker and some other Christian Democrats had been willing to countenance the recognition of two states in Germany during the Grand Coalition. 69 Moreover, once the New Ostpolitik began to unfold, even CDU/CSU parliamentary leader Rainer Barzel warned against its outright rejection. The opposition, Barzel argued, should criticize the Moscow Treaty but reserve final judgment pending the overall development of the New Ostpolitik. 7o By contrast, Kiesinger, together with Franz Josef Strauss and the conservative Bavarian CSU, rejected the Eastern Treaties and the opening to Moscow on principle. Kiesinger charged that the New Ostpolitik would solidify Soviet domination in Central Europe and encourage its "world revolutionary" ambitions. From Strauss's perspective Brandt's policies threatened to abet Soviet expansionism and divide the Western alliance. 71 This polarization appears to have been a central part of Social Democratic strategy. Given their slim majority, Brandt and Wehner, the SPD parliamentary leader, may have gambled that polarization would reinforce the fragile cohesion of the ruling coalition. Both the calculated surprise of Brandt's "two states in Germany" formula and Wehner's deliberately provocative January 1970 boast that the government did "not need the opposition" support such an interpretation. 72 Whether intended or not, polarization did ultimately work to the benefit of the SPD over the course of 1970. While the government parties did poorly in state elections early in the year and two FDP deputies deserted the coalition, Brandt's trip to the Soviet Union to sign the MosGow Treaty, hailed in the international press as a historic breakthrough, helped to shore up the cohesion of the socialliberal government. By late 1970 the SPD and FDP halted their string of losses in state elections. Kiesinger's efforts to topple Brandt through total rejection of the New Ostpolitik failed. Still, the ratification of the Moscow and Warsaw Treaties was not 69. Egon Bahr, interview by author, Bonn, July 31, 1992. 70. See Barzel to the CDU/CSU Parliamentary Group, August 17, 1970, Archiv fur Christlich-Demokratische Polilik, Werner Marx papers, 1-356-A311. For Barzel's account of the struggle over the CDU/CSU position, see Rainer Barzel, Auf dem Drahtseil (Munich: Droemer-Knauer, 1978), 104-8. 71. Kiesinger address of January 15, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 6, 860. See also his address at the CDU party conference in Diisseldorf, January 27,1971, in 18. CDU Bundesparteitag (Bonn: CDU, 1971),538. For an example of Strauss' rhetoric, see his speech of May 27, 1970, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 6, 2706-14. 72. Bahr acknowledged that the "two states" formulation, made without warning, polarized the domestic political debate from the start (Bahr, interview). For Wehner's statement, see his interview in Spiegel. January 26, 1970.

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assured. The government opted to bring them before the Bundestag only after the completion of the Four-Power Berlin Treaty in September 1971. By then, however, the Christian Democrats had made a political recovery. His efforts to bring down the government having failed, Kiesinger stepped down as CDU chairman in July 1971. After an intense leadership struggle Barzel defeated Helmut Kohl, the youthful governor of Rhineland-Palatinate, in a crucial October 1971 party conference vote. As he consolidated his position as party leader, Barzel set out to implement his more moderate line. He first secured the backing of Strauss and the CSU for his chancellor candidacy and then outlined several conditions for CDU/CSU support of the treaties, including Soviet endorsement of the principle of national selfdetermination and an end to Moscow's opposition to Western European integration. Barzel calculated that Christian Democratic support for the Eastern Treaties would enable a renewed coalition with the Liberals after the national elections scheduled for 1973. A polarized ratification debate, he reasoned at the time, would only consolidate the social-liberal alliance. 73 Two further defections from the government coalition in early 1972including one from the SPD-altered the domestic political configuration again. With the government's majority gone Strauss and CDU/CSU hardliners now pressed Barzel to reject the Moscow and Warsaw Treatiesdespite some Soviet efforts to meet the conditions he had set out. 74 Emboldened by a CDU victory in an important state election in April 1972, Barzel embraced a high-risk strategy: to topple Brandt with a constructive vote of no confidence and then travel to Moscow to renegotiate the treaty. In the climactic ballot, however, two Christian Democrats unexpectedly (and secretly) voted for Brandt, keeping him in office. Still without a majority for ratification, Brandt worked with Barzel to include a Joint Declaration in the treaty package that would make a CDU/CSU yesvote possible. The declaration, which reiterated traditional commitments to the Atlantic Alliance, European integration, and national unity, won the support of the Christian Democratic parliamentary group. But Strauss and CDU/CSU hard-liners still refused to support the treaties themselves. 73. Barzel considered the treaties the "linchpin" of the coalition. See Barzel, Aufdem Drahtseil. 66-67. On Barzel's December 1971 trip to Moscow to plead for Soviet concessions on some of these issues. see ibid .• 140-54. 74. In early 1972 Brezhnev softened Soviet opposition to the European Community, and Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko agreed to include the "Letter on German Unity" in the Soviet ratification process. For Strauss, however, the Eastern Treaties continued to represent a "massive impediment" to the unification of West Europe (notes for a campaign speech in Baden-Wiirttemberg. April 12. 1972. Archivjilr Chrisllich-Sa:::iale PaUlik. Franz 10sef Strauss papers. RA 72 [16]).

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In order to preserve some semblance of outward party unity most Christian Democrats abstained on the key May 1972 vote, allowing the Moscow and Warsaw treaties to pass. 75 The ratification of the third crucial Eastern Treaty, the Basic Treaty with the GDR, proved much less difficult. After the passage of the Moscow and Warsaw Treaties the domestic political constellation rebounded to the advantage of the SPD. Still without a parliamentary majority, Brandt pressed for the dissolution of the Bundestag and early elections that November. In a campaign dominated by the New Ostpolitik the SPD won more seats than the CDU/CSU-for the first time in the history of the Federal Republic.7 6 In January 1973 the Christian Democrats fought the ratification of the Basic Treaty in the Bundestag in vain, with Strauss terming it an "important component of a new phase of Soviet expansionism." The Bavarian leader then opted, against Barzel's wishes, to challenge its constitutionality. In July 1973 the Constitutional Court in Karlsruhe ruled that the treaty, understood as a modus vivendi pending reunification, was compatible with the unity injunction of the Basic Law. 77 After a drawn-out battle Brandt had managed to secure the necessary domestic political foundation for the New Ostpolitik. Enduring Effects of the New Ostpolitik The New Ostpolitik of the early 1970s emerged out of the interaction of international and domestic forces. The overall trend toward detente on the basis of postwar status quo created pressure for a more flexible German policy toward the East. On two critical issues-relations with the Soviet Union and policy toward the GDR-international institutions framed significant policy alternatives. German leaders could opt to adjust established positions on GDR recognition, the Oder-Neisse line, and dialogue with Moscow. Or they could rework their long-standing positions more extensively. Within this context Kiesinger and Brandt, partners during the 75. For an account of the struggle within the CDU/CSU in early 1972, see Clemens, Reluctant Realists, 97-106. Text of the Joint Declaration, Documents on Germany, 1188-90. 76. For Bahr's suggestion of an Ostpolitik-centered campaign, see his letter to Brandt of August 2, 1972, Archiv der sozialen Demokratie, Brandt papers, BK, folder 2. Just two weeks before the election the government focused the campaign on Ostpolitik by publishing a draft of the Basic Treaty. 77. For Strauss's account of the ratification of the Eastern Treaties and the constitutional challenge, see Franz Josef Strauss, Die Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1989),443-58. For his intervention in the ratification debate, see his address of May 9, 1973, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 7, 1452. For a contrasting account of the May 1972 ratification struggle, see Brandt, My Life in Politics, 271-77.

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Grand Coalition and rivals after 1969, set out the contrasting foreign policy perspectives that structured the domestic political debate. Kiesinger opted for cautious efforts to reinvigorate Ostpolitik, while Brandt was willing to take a step that no previous chancellor had contemplated: de facto recognition of the GDR and the Oder-Neisse border as a new basis for dialogue with the Soviet Union. In order to reorient FRG foreign policy amid detente Brandt had first to anchor his priorities within the SPD and in coalition with the FDP and then to overcome the fierce resistance of the CDU/CSU in opposition. This second critical juncture in postwar German foreign policy had far-reaching institutional and political effects. The New Ostpolitik anchored the Federal Republic within a second set of European institutions. While NATO and the EC constrained Bonn to pursue a multilateral, supranational foreign policy, the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE-less salient but nevertheless significant-bound German leaders to cooperate with the Soviet Union and its allies on the basis of the postwar political and territorial status quo. The Moscow, Warsaw, and Basic Treaties did not rule out reunification by peaceful means at some future date. But they effectively removed the unity issue from the Ostpolitik agenda. At the same time, the treaties constituted a framework for bilateral economic and political cooperation-later supplemented by the multilateral CSCEwhich precluded a return to the confrontational policies of the 1950s. Within this new, more complex institutional framework Bonn remained an ally of the West while becoming a partner to the East. The continued salience of both sets of institutions, East and West, was evident in the years after Schmidt succeeded Brandt as chancellor. During the 1970s, intractable international economic problems tested but did not destroy the effectiveness of Western institutions as a context for German foreign policy. With the collapse of the postwar monetary regime and the onset of recession global economic management grew more important. From 1975 onward the Federal Republic and six other leading industrial countries, the "Group of Seven," met annually to coordinate-or at least consult on-pressing economic and political matters. In the face of economic turmoil EC member states put off the goal of a single currency, but proved able to coordinate their monetary policies through the European Monetary System inaugurated in 1978. Over the course of the 1970s the Eastern Treaties, too, emerged as an important context for German economic diplomacy. At summits in October 1974 and May 1978 Schmidt and Brezhnev signed several accords expanding bilateral trade, including an agreement to build a natural gas pipeline between Siberia and Western Europe. Inter-German trade increased significantly over the same period. These economic links with the East paled in comparison with those with

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the West. Still, the Eastern Treaties emerged alongside the EC as an important political framework for FRG foreign economic policy. 78 The effects of this more complex institutional configuration were also evident on political and security matters. During the mid-1970s the human rights issue moved to the top of the East-West agenda. Upon taking office in January 1977, President Jimmy Carter made the issue a central component of his policy toward Moscow-and provoked a harsh Soviet reaction. Schmidt, too, admonished the Soviet Union to live up to the human rights provisions it had embraced as part of the CSCE Final Act. At the same time, however, eager to consolidate and build on the political foundation laid by the Moscow Treaty, the German government downplayed the human rights issue as a component of its Ostpolitik. Schmidt was critical of Carter's White House reception for Alexander Solzhenitsyn and did not let the fate of Soviet or East European dissidents complicate his relations with Moscow. The human rights issue illustrated the tensions inherent in the new institutional constellation-between alignment with the West and cooperation with the East.79 The international controversy surrounding the neutron bomb in 1977-78 revealed similar tensions. Without consulting the allies, Carter announced his intention to deploy the bomb, a weapon designed to kill people but spare materiel, in an October 1977 speech. The U.S. government made it clear that it expected German support within the NATO framework; most of the eventual deployments were envisioned for the Federal Republic. Over the months that followed, however, Brezhnev publicly warned Bonn that German support for deployment was incompatible with the spirit of the Moscow Treaty and would jeopardize bilateral relations. Schmidt found himself caught between the Atlantic Alliance and a new web of institutional links with the East. In February 1978 he reluctantly agreed to back eventual deployment, sparking Soviet criticism. In the end, however, Carter's unilateral decision to drop the project-only weeks after Schmidt had finally committed to it--defused the controversy.80 The New Ostpolitik not only altered the institutional context of German foreign policy. It also shifted its domestic political foundations. Hotly 78. See Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik, chap. 9; Michael Kreile, Osthandel und Ostpolitik (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1978). 79. On German-Soviet relations, see Avril Pittman, From Ostpolitik to Reunification: West German-Soviet Political Relations since 1974 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). On the German focus on the preservation of detente over the pursuit of human rights, see Garton Ash, In Europe's Name, 279-98. 80. On the neutron bomb, see Sherri L. Wassermann, The Neutron Bomb Controversy: A Study in Alliance Politics (New York: Praeger, 1983).

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contested at the start of the 1970s, Brandt's new departure became the object of growing consensus at decade's end. In the years after Brandt left office, the New Ostpolitik persisted as a core element ofSPD identity. The recessions of the 1970s sparked internal party divisions over economic and social policy-divisions later compounded by emotional intra party conflict around how to deal with terrorism and whether to support nuclear energy. Schmidt and Brandt, still SPD chairman, relied largely on foreign policy and the New Ostpolitik to integrate the party. The Social Democratic Party presented itself as the party of peace, arms control, and dialogue with the East-a profile that contributed to Schmidt's reelection in 1976. Toward the end of the decade foreign policy did gradually reemerge as a divisive issue. The neutron bomb controversy, for example, fed the nascent peace movement and generated dissatisfaction on the SPD left with Schmidt's pro-NATO stance. And some voices within the party called for full diplomatic recognition of the GDR. Despite these differences, however, the SPD remained united around the imperative of detente with the East. s1 The FDP, too, continued to rally around the New Ostpolitik in the years after Brandt left office. After Scheel replaced Heinemann as federal president in 1974, Genscher took over as FDP chairman and foreign minister. In subsequent years the Liberals highlighted their role in the formulation and implementation of the New Ostpolitik. The stress on foreign policy helped to unify the party, increasingly divided between its "social" and "free-market" wings. At the same time, a focus on points of foreign policy consensus with the SPD served to cement a ruling coalition increasingly threatened by economic and social policy divisions. Toward the end of the 1970s, when irritations in U.S.-German relations surfaced on multiple fronts, Genscher tended to stake out a more pro-Atlantic position than Schmidt. Nevertheless, his party's strong commitment to the New Ostpolitik continued to unite the coalition, and to distinguish it from the CDU/CSU in opposition. The Christian Democratic embrace of the New Ostpolitik during the 1970s was gradual and incomplete. As early as December 1972, Strauss circumscribed his approach to the Eastern Treaties with the Latin phrase "pacta sunt servanda"-treaties are to be upheld. At the same time, he and other hard-liners insisted that the May 1972 Joint Bundestag Declaration and the July 1973 Constitutional Court Basic Treaty Ruling-and not the treaties themselves-serve as foundations for Ostpolitik. Kohl, who succeeded Barzel as CDU chairman in June 1973, immediately sought to 81. Gunther Gaus, a former FRG permanent representative in East Berlin, was the most prominent advocate of recognition for GDR citizenship. See Giinther Gaus, Wo Deutschland liegt: Eine Ortsbestimmung (Hamburg: Hoffmann and Campe, 1983).

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move the CDU/CSU toward a pragmatic acceptance of the Eastern Treaties that, as he put it, had "changed the po1itica11andscape."82 The magnitude of the 1972 election loss, his own narrow defeat as chancellor candidate in 1976, and a desire to reforge a ruling coalition with the FDP all pushed Kohl toward a full acknowledgment of the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE as a new institutional foundation for German foreign policy. Embroiled in drawn-out struggle with Strauss for CDUlCSU leadership, however, he was unable to win solid Christian Democratic support for his stance. The political consensus around the New Ostpolitik remained incomplete. By the late 1970s Brandt's new foreign policy departure had transformed the institutional and political context of German foreign policy. The Federal Republic remained anchored in the West and became engaged in the East. Its new foreign policy orientation rested on a broad, if still incomplete, domestic political consensus. Schmidt, popular at home and respected abroad, managed to combine Western integration and the New Ostpolitik in practice. At precisely this juncture, however, a shift in the international environment posed new problems for the Federal Republic. The gradual downturn in U.S.-Soviet detente, evident in the controversies surrounding human rights and the neutron bomb, accelerated rapidly in the early 1980s. Three developments proved most critical: the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979, the rise of Solidarity in Poland in 1980, and the eruption of controversy concerning the deployment of new intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF) on German soil in the early 1980s. In each of these contexts Schmidt sought to slow the erosion of superpower detente and the role it afforded the Federal Republic as an ally of the West and partner of the East. These efforts were most dramatic in the case of the Afghanistan and Polish crises. Like Carter, Schmidt condemned the Soviet invasion and demanded an immediate withdrawal. He also supported Solidarity and warned against any crackdown by Polish or Soviet authorities. At the same time, however, he sought to maintain dialogue with the Soviet Union and its allies. He only reluctantly joined the U.S. sanctions campaign centered around a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics. And in June 1980, eager to preserve his positive relationship with Brezhnev, he became the first Western leader to visit the Soviet capital since the invasion of Afghanistan. As the Polish crisis escalated, Schmidt was circumspect in his support for Solidarity and only reluctantly withdrew an invitation to 82. Kohl interview in Bifd. June 13, 1973. According to Kurt Biedenkopf, then CDU general secretary, Kohl considered the outcome of the 1972 elections a reason to embrace the New Ostpolitik. Kurt Biedenkopf, interview by author, Bonn, May 11, 1992.

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Polish leader Edward Gierek for a visit to the Federal Republic. Schmidt's determination to preserve the New Ostpolitik amid difficult circumstances was most evident in the context of inter-German relations. The chancellor did postpone a visit to the GDR planned for the fall of 1980. Despite the vehement anti-Solidarity campaign launched by the SED leadership, however, he held fast to his travel plans and did make his visit in December of the following year.83 Schmidt's efforts to combine Western integration and eastern engagement were most pronounced in the INF context. Alarmed about the Soviet buildup of intermediate-range SS-20s aimed at Western Europe, Schmidt called for a Western response in a much-noted October 1977 speech. 84 In the two years that followed he helped to craft a two-pronged NATO strategy: preparations for counterdeployments combined with arms control negotiations designed to make them unnecessary. Both elements of this strategy informed NATO's Two-Track Decision of December 1979, the plan to deploy new missiles starting in late 1983~mainly in the Federal Republic~and to propose INF negotiations in the interim. Soviet leaders initially refused to negotiate unless NATO rescinded its deployment plans, but Schmidt secured Brezhnev's commitment to begin INF talks during his June 1980 Moscow visit. Preparations for negotiations ceased, however, with Carter's defeat at the hands of Ronald Reagan that November. The new administration's adamant anti-Soviet stance marked a critical juncture in the transition from detente to the new cold war in Europe~a transition that compelled German leaders to redefine their role between East and West amid difficult circumstances.

83. On Schmidt's post-Afghanistan diplomatic efforts, see Pittman, From Ostpolitik to Reunification, 118-33. 84. On Schmidt's role in the development of the INF issue, see Helmut Schmidt, Men and Powers: A Political Retrospective (New York: Random House, \989), \88-92.

CHAPTER 4

The New Cold War and the INF Struggle

The new cold war of the early 1980s marked a final turning point in the foreign policy of the old Federal Republic. The invasion of Afghanistan, the suppression of Solidarity in Poland, and the collapse of INF negotiations raised East-West tensions to their highest level in two decades. From the German perspective the INF struggle had particularly far-reaching implications. As the country earmarked for the most important U.S. missiles, the Federal Republic was both central to NATO's deployments plans and Soviet efforts to foil them. The governments of Helmut Schmidt andafter October 1982-Helmut Kohl found themselves caught between the hard line of the Reagan administration and the intransigence of the Soviet leadership. They had to strike a difficult balance between solidarity with the United States and the NATO allies, on the one hand, and the continued pursuit of detente with the Soviet Union and East Berlin, on the other. In 1982-83, at the height of the INF struggle, Kohl made solidarity with the United States his top foreign policy priority. His government's strong support for first deployments in November 1983 contributed to alliance cohesion at a critical juncture. The Federal Republic remained engaged in the East. But its focus on Atlantic solidarity strengthened NATO considerably, only years before the Warsaw Pact collapsed.' This unequivocal emphasis on unity with the Western powers emerged only after the social-liberal coalition collapsed and Kohl formed a government with Foreign Minister Genscher and the FOP. In November 1982, on his first official visit to Washington, Kohl underscored his supI. On Gennan foreign policy in the early 1980s, see Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), chaps. 4, 7, II; Christian Hacke, Weltmacht wider Willen: Die AujJenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1993), chap. 7; Jeffrey Boutwell, The German Nuclear Dilemma (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).

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port for Reagan's tough "zero-option" stance in the INF negotiations~~ the offer to cancel the proposed deployments of U.S. Cruise and Pershing II missiles only in exchange for the abolition of the Soviet SS-20 arsenal. In his public statements before, during, and after the visit, Kohl portrayed the Soviet INF buildup as an effort to intimidate and subdue Western Europe. He also echoed Reagan's criticism of Soviet expansionism worldwide, condemning the war in Afghanistan in strident terms and censuring the December 1981 imposition of martial law in Poland. Kohl's tone was more moderate than Reagan's: he did not embrace the latter's March 1983 depiction of the Soviet Union as an "evil empire." In a government declaration two months later, however, Kohl did call on Moscow to forswear its "world revolutionary" ambitions? Less visible, but also important, were the efforts of Kohl and Genscher to strengthen Franco-German ties and reinvigorate the European integration process. Schmidt and his French counterpart, Valery Giscard d'Estaing, had taken an important step forward with the European Monetary System in the late 1970s. But Schmidt's poor relationship with Fran90is Mitterrand, who succeeded Giscard in May 1981, hampered bilateral relations and undermined EC efforts to articulate a common foreign policy stance amid worsening superpower ties. Mitterrand's strong support for INF deployments, together with the 1983 abandonment of his socialist economic program, created a basis for better relations with Kohl. On the twentieth anniversary of the Franco-German Treaty both leaders pledged to intensify their security cooperation and deepen the European integration process. In the years that followed they created a joint FrancoGerman brigade and helped to relaunch the drive to complete the single European market. As they had at earlier critical junctures, German leaders intent on improving ties with the West focused their efforts on Paris as well as Washington ..1 Whenever possible, the new German government combined this solidarity with the Western allies with bids to maintain dialogue with Moscow and East Berlin. In 1982-83 Kohl and Genscher made some efforts, behind the scenes, to moderate U.S. positions--to encourage a superpower summit. dampen U.S. sanctions imposed after the imposition of 2. Government declaration of May 4, 1983. Vcr/wlldlungell des Deutschen Bundestags. SICllof{raphischcr Berichl. ser. 10,69. For Kohl's account of his Washington visit, see his Bundestag declaration of November 25, 1982, ibid., ser. 9, 8008~801O. 3. On Franco-Gennan ties in the 1970s and 1980s, sec Haig Simonian, The Pril'ileged Parlnership: Franco-Gerll1an Reialions in/he European COl1Jmunily. 1969-84 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1984): Julius W. Friend, The Linchpin' French-German Relations, 1950-1990 (New York: Praegcr, 1991), chap. 3.

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martial law, and further the stalled INF talks. 4 These efforts, a contrast with Kohl's demonstrative support of U.S. positions in his public rhetoric, achieved little. Kohl convinced Reagan to abandon sanctions intended to scuttle a Soviet-German natural gas pipeline. But no superpower summit took place, and the United States continued to adhere to its inflexible zerooption stance in the Geneva negotiations. The Federal Republic's efforts to maintain an active dialogue with the East were most obvious-and successful-in the context of inter-German relations. In July 1983 and again in July 1984 Bonn extended DM 1 billion credits to East Berlin for the support of inter-German trade. Kohl even renewed Schmidt's invitation to GDR leader Erich Honecker to visit the FRG.5 The Federal Republic's efforts to combine solidarity with the West and dialogue with the East ran up against Soviet opposition. Kohl's July 1983 trip to Moscow revealed tensions between his strong pro-U.S. orientation and his efforts to maintain good ties with the Soviet Union. During their talks Yuri Andropov, who succeeded Leonid Brezhnev in November 1982, issued a terse warning that FRG support for INF deployments would spark a crisis in bilateral relations and impede the development of inter-German ties. Relations between Bonn and East Berlin, he warned, could not flourish across a "fence ofmissiles."6 Kohl and Genscher sought to put the best face on relations by highlighting economic ties, but Soviet leaders refused to go along. In the run-up to the planned NATO deployments, the Soviet media warned that new missiles on German soil would violate the spirit of the Moscow Treaty. When the last round ofINF negotiations failed and the Bundestag approved first deployments in November 1983, Andropov launched a tirade against German militarism and revanchism. 7 Through the mid-1980s Soviet leaders made good on their pledge to 4. According to Horst Teltschik. Kohl's top foreign policy advisor, Bonn sought a resumption of the superpower dialogue in order to increase German freedom of maneuver in both East and West (interview by author, Giitersloh, July 16, 1992). 5. On inter-German relations during the early 1980s, see A. James McAdams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 152-64; Matthias Zimmer, Nationales Interesse und Staatsriison: Zur Deutschlandpolitik der Regierung Kohl, 1982-1989 (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1992), 137-82. 6. On the development of German-Soviet relations during the INF crisis, see Michael J. Sodaro, Moscow, Germany and the West/rom Khrushchev to Gorbachev (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990),265-316. 7. Soviet leaders appear to have believed that they could prevent deployment with threats and intimidation. Genscher warned Soviet foreign minister Andrei Gromyko in November 1983 that the tough Soviet stance would backfire-a point on which, according to Genscher, Gromyko concurred only much later (Hans-Dietrich Genscher, interview by author, Bonn, August 24,1992).

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punish Bonn for its solidarity with Washington. On several trips to Moscow Genscher tried but failed to enliven the bilateral dialogue. Soviet pressure forced Honecker to cancel his plans to visit Bonn in September 1984. The INF issue even cast a shadow over bilateral ties after Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. During their first meeting in Moscow, in March 1985, for example, Gorbachev berated Kohl for his strong proAtlantic orientation. "Where is the federal chancellor's policy drifting?" he pointedly asked. s Over the year that followed Gorbachev spurned an invitation to visit Bonn and continued to block Honecker's travel plans. When German-Soviet relations finally began to improve in the summer of 1986, a Kohl blunder created a new furor. In a Newsweek interview the chancellor compared Gorbachev's public relations skills with those of Goebbels. The interview-and Kohl's refusal to apologize-sparked an angry Soviet reaction and set back the improvement of bilateral ties until 1987. 9 While German-Soviet relations suffered through the mid-1980s as a result of the INF struggle, the Federal Republic's ties with its key allies improved. Kohl's public support for Reagan's tough negotiating stance, and his government's success in carrying out first deployments, reinforced ties between Bonn and both Washington and Paris. German support for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), the proposed space-based missile defense system that moved to the top of the East-West arms control agenda after 1983, also met with U.S. approval. Kohl and his advisors backed SDI in the face of strong Soviet opposition, anxiously aware that it might undercut their Ostpolitik. IO Alongside policy coordination, public symbolism also reinforced the FRG's strong Western orientation. In September 1984 Kohl and Mitterrand held hands on the fields of Verdun, commemorating the furious battle there seventy years earlier. And in May 1985, the fortieth anniversary of the end of World War II, Reagan laid a wreath at the German military cemetery in Bitburg. The Bitburg ceremony proved a public relations fiasco. The presence of Waffen-SS graves at the site, overlooked by Reagan's advance team, overshadowed the effort to dramatize U.S.-German reconciliation. But Reagan's decision to go ahead with the visit at Kohl's behest-and against the fervent pleas of his politi8. The Gorbachev statement was cited in a transcript leaked to the press (cited in Spiegel. March 25, 1985). According to Jorg Kastl, then German ambassador in Moscow, the transcript was authentic (interview by author, March 30, 1992). 9. Kohl's interview appeared in Newsweek, October 27, 1986. According to Teltschik, Kohl knew that the comparison was a foreign policy blunder but did not want to make a public apology shortly before the January 1987 national election (interview). 10. Teltschik. interview. See also Ernst Czempiel, "SOl and NATO: The Case of the Federal Republic of Germany," in Strategic Defense and the Western Alliance. ed. Sanford Lakoffand Randy Willoughby (Lexington. Mass.: O.c. Heath, 1987),147-64.

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cal advisors-underscored the robustness of the FRG's key bilateral relationship at a critical juncture. I I New Cold War Challenges: Solidarity with the West, Engagement in the East

What explains the German focus on Atlantic solidarity during the new cold war of the early 1980s? Part of the answer can be found at the level of international structure. The gradual shift from detente to confrontation, which began in the 1970s and reached its peak in 1982-83, confronted German leaders with new and difficult policy problems. During the detente of the 1970s the Federal Republic managed to enjoy positive relations with both the Western powers and the Soviet Union. Growing tensions between the superpowers made this combination increasingly difficult to sustain. Given its continued security dependence on the United States, the FRG could not directly oppose Washington's confrontational, anti-Soviet stance. But given the economic and political benefits derived from close ties with the Soviet Union and East Berlin, German leaders also had an interest in continued cooperation with the East. In the early 1980s this general dilemma found its most concrete expression in the INF context. In the run-up to the first deployments in late 1983 German leaders wrestled with how to combine deterrence and dialogue, rearmament and arms control, in their relations with East and West. These policy challenges had their roots in the gradual, global breakdown of detente that began in the mid-1970s. The October 1973 ArabIsraeli War placed strains on superpower ties, as did proxy wars in Angola and Ethiopia in subsequent years. At the end ofthe decade the Nicaraguan revolution sharpened U.S. anxiety about Soviet expansionism, while the normalization of U.S.-Chinese relations heightened Soviet concerns about strategic encirclement. Superpower detente did not evaporate altogether. At a June 1979 Vienna meeting-the first superpower summit in almost five years-Brezhnev and Jimmy Carter signed a second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II) and pledged to maintain and deepen their bilateral dialogue. Only six months later, however, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan marked a clear turn from dialogue to confrontation. Carter adopted a hard line. He suspended SALT II ratification and engineered an anti-Soviet sanctions campaign, including a boycott of the 1980 Moscow II. On the politics of Bitburg, see David B. Morris, "Bitburg Revisited: Germany's Search for Normalcy," German Politics and Society 13, no. 4 (winter 1995): 92-109; Geoffrey H. Hartman, ed., Bitburg in Moral and Political Perspective (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986),

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Summer Olympics. As president, after January 1981, Reagan adopted an even more confrontational approach to ties with the Soviet Union. 12 The global downturn in u.S.-Soviet relations was also evident in the European context. The Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions talks began in 1973, but made no substantive progress. The NATO and Warsaw Pact participants could not even reach agreement on the relative strength of their existing armed forces. The CSCE process culminated in the Helsinki Final Act in 1975 but then floundered amid clashes over its human rights provisions. From 1980 onward events in Poland generated further tensions. The emergence of Solidarity, an independent trade union, led to Soviet charges of Western interference and to Western warnings against any Soviet military intervention. The Polish government's recognition of Solidarity in August 1980 did not defuse the crisis. Under the leadership of Lech Walesa the union grew into a mass social protest movement directed against the political monopoly of the communist party. In December 1981, with Soviet support, the Polish military declared martial law and disbanded Solidarity. In response, Reagan leveled a series of political and economic sanctions against both Warsaw and Moscow-including measures designed to block the planned German-Soviet natural gas pipeline between Siberia and Western Europe. 13 Within this broader context the INF issue gradually moved to the center of the new cold war in Europe. 14 From the mid-1970s onward the Soviet deployment of SS-20s-mobile, accurate nuclear missiles targeted at Western Europe-generated growing concerns in NATO about an emerging nuclear imbalance on the continent. In October 1977 Schmidt called for a military and a diplomatic response. Not until a meeting in Guadeloupe in January 1979, however, did U.S., French, and British leaders endorse Schmidt's dual strategy-the combination of an INF modernization plan and an offer of negotiations. During the late 1970s Soviet leaders repeatedly insisted that an INF balance already existed, pointing to French and British arsenals and to U.S. bombers stationed in Western Europe. But their objections were futile. At a summit in December 1979 12. On these developments, see Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1985), chaps. 26-28. 13. On the downturn in detente and the U.S. and Soviet reactions, see Kenneth A. Oye, Robert J. Lieber, and Donald Rothchild, eds., Eagle Resurgent? The Reagan Era in American Foreign Policy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987); Harry Gelman, The Brezhnev Politburo and the Decline of Detente (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), chaps. 4-5. 14. On INF, see Thomas Risse-Kappen, The Zero Option: INF, West Germany, and Arms Control (Boulder: Westview, 1988); Lothar Riihl, Mittelstreckenwaffen in Europa: Ihre Bedeuting in Strategie, Riistungskontrolle und Biindnispolifik (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1987); and Boutwell, German Nuclear Dilemma, chaps. 2-5.

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NATO leaders officially adopted the Two-Track Decision, a proposal to deploy 472 Pershing II and Cruise missiles from 1983 onward and an immediate offer of INF negotiations. Just as a reluctant Soviet leadership agreed to such negotiations, Reagan's election in November 1980 set the process back a full year. The new president initiated a comprehensive nuclear and conventional arms buildup, and focused his energies on the deployment half of the TwoTrack Decision. In November 1981, at Schmidt's insistence, the United States did finally agree to begin INF negotiations and Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). Reagan even adopted Schmidt's idea ofa zero option. In contrast to Schmidt, however, who considered the complete elimination of Soviet and Western INF arsenals the optimal solution, but was willing to consider a compromise short of it, Reagan and his advisors made the zero option an all-or-nothing position. Soviet leaders, too, remained intransigent. They continued to insist that an INF balance already existed and offered only to freeze their SS-20 deployments or to reduce them to the level of the French and British arsenals in exchange for a cancelation of the Two-Track Decision. The positions on both sides all but ruled out any substantive progress in the talks. During a July 1982 "Walk in the Woods" the chief negotiators did outline a compromise that would have limited U.S. deployments in exchange for some Soviet reductions. But their governments in Washington and Moscow rejected it in favor of continued adherence to inflexible, incompatible positions. ls The year 1983 marked the high point of superpower tensions, internationally and in Europe. In March Reagan publicly branded the Soviet Union an "evil empire" and announced his Strategic Defense Initiative. Both actions met with stinging rebukes from Andropov and the rest of the Soviet leadership. As the INF talks stagnated during the spring and summer of 1983, a growing peace movement, opposed to the planned INF deployments under any circumstances, protested across Western Europe and in the Federal Republic in particular. In September and October, as the date envisioned for first NATO deployments approached, two further developments cast a pall over superpower relations: the U.S. invasion of Grenada and the Soviet downing of a South Korean passenger liner. When first Pershing II deployments began in the Federal Republic, in November 1983, Soviet negotiators left the INF and START talks in Geneva. The walkout marked the climax of the new cold war in Europe. The crisis in East-West relations, and the evolution of the INF controversy in particular, confronted German leaders with difficult security 15. On INF negotiations in the early I 980s, see Strobe Talbott, Deadly Gambits: The Reagan Administration and the Stalemate in Nuclear Arms Control (New York: Knopf, 1984). On the origins of the "zero-option" proposal, see Risse-Kappen, Zero Option, 78-85.

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policy challenges. The Federal Republic found itself at the center of the INF struggle from the outset. The majority of the new U.S. missiles, including the more effective 108 Pershing lIs, were earmarked for deployment in the FRG. Capable of hitting targets in the western Soviet Union with a high degree of accuracy, the Pershing lIs represented a critical link in the U.S. strategy of extended deterrence. Given this strategic configuration, both the Carter and Reagan administrations considered a united front with Bonn a top priority. The course of the INF controversy threatened to disrupt, if not unravel, the alliance. 16 At the same time, the potency of the Pershing lIs, and their centrality for NATO strategy, made the planned deployments on German soil a central concern of Soviet diplomacy. German support for deployment, Brezhnev and Andropov insisted, would lead to counterdeployments that would make the Federal Republic less, not more secure. In the face of U.S. and Soviet intransigence on the INF issue the FRG faced tradeoffs between solidarity with the West and cooperation with the East. This tradeoff, acute in the case oflNF, also characterized the Federal Republic's overall approach to both superpowers amid the new cold war. During the early 1970s Brandt managed to combine integration in the West and active engagement in the East. As chancellor during the second half of that decade, Schmidt was able to maintain the same policy constellation through the human rights and neutron bomb controversiesalthough with considerably more difficulty. With the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the crisis in Poland, and the INF controversy, however, German leaders were forced to redefine their priorities between East and West. Over the 1980-83 period first Carter and then Reagan sought German support for their confrontational anti-Soviet course. At the same time, Brezhnev and then Andropov made clear that German solidarity with the United States would undermine any constructive Ostpolitik. Attention to Western unity promised to undercut detente, while a focus on detente promised to undercut Western unity. The international configuration presented German leaders with difficult choices. Institutions and Alternatives: Between Washington and Moscow

During the early 1980s a dense web of international institutions mediated the policy challenges posed by the East-West constellation. The Federal Republic had grown more powerful during the 1970s, in both economic and military terms. Under Schmidt's leadership the German economy 16. On divisions within the alliance during the late 1970s and early 1980s, see Robert W. Tucker and Linda Wrigley, eds., The Atlantic Alliance and Its Critics (New York: Praeger, 1983).

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weathered the recessions of the 1970s more effectively than did those of its allies. The success of the German social market model generated discussion of "Modell Deutschland" and its particular advantages. 17 At the same time, the strength and reputation of the Bundeswehr translated into growing influence on security matters, as evidenced by Schmidt's role at the Guadeloupe summit. German clout in the West went hand in hand with a greater influence in the East. As the most important Soviet partner in Western Europe-and its largest worldwide trade partner-the Federal Republic assumed a more visible role in East-West relations. On balance the FRG emerged as a more powerful country over the course of the 1970s. At the same time, however, German power unfolded within the constraints posed by international institutions. During the early 1980s both NATO and the EC in the West and the Eastern Treaties and the CSCE in the East framed German approaches to the twin problems of INF policy and relations with both superpowers. NATO constituted the most prominent institutional context for German foreign policy over this period. By the early 1980s the Federal Republic had emerged as the most influential European member of the alliance. France's departure from NATO's military integration in 1966, together with the Bundeswehr's emergence as its largest conventional force, enhanced the German voice within the alliance. At the same time, however, Bonn remained completely dependent on Washington for its defense and the security of West Berlin. The relative growth of German military power did nothing to erase the Federal Republic's dependence on the U.S. nuclear deterrent. Bonn did gain a seat within NATO's Nuclear Planning Group in the mid-1960s. Without its own general staff, however, and with limited logistical resources, the Bundeswehr continued to rely heavily on U.S. military planning and intelligence. By necessity, German security policy retained its multilateral orientation. 18 In the context of the INF struggle NATO's Two-Track Decision represented the central institutional constraint on German foreign policy. The decision embodied the twin norms set down in the 1967 Harmel Report: defense and detente. The deployment track of NATO strategy aimed both to counter the Soviet SS-20 buildup and to modernize U.S. forces in Europe, while its negotiations track aimed to create an INF balance at the lowest possible level and to avert an all-out arms race. Both tracks were conceived as self-reinforcing. The determination to deploy was designed to exert pressure on the Soviet Union to negotiate, while a determination to 17. Andrei S. Markovits. ed. The Political Economy of West Germany: Modell Deutschland (New York: Praeger, 1982). 18. Helga Haftendorn, Security and Detente: Conflicting Priorities in German Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger, 1985), chap. 3.

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negotiate was designed to secure the political support necessary to deploy. Once Schmidt endorsed the Two-Track Decision, he and his successors as chancellor were bound to adhere to both its parts-or break with multilateralism and risk a major crisis in the alliance. 19 Amid the INF struggle the European Community was a much less salient institutional framework for German foreign policy. During the 1970s, efforts to transform the EC from a trading bloc into a political union were largely unsuccessful. European Political Cooperation, a multilateral forum for foreign policy consultations, did enjoy some success in coordinating EC policy toward the Middle East and the developing world. 2o Yet, in the context of security policy, and the INF controversy in particular, the EC was completely subordinate to NATO. A more significant context for German security policy was the Franco-German Treaty of 1963, with its provisions for regular consultations on security affairs. Although France was not part of NATO's integrated military command, Mitterrand made no secret of his strong support for INF deployments in the event that negotiations should fail. He even used the dramatic occasion of a Bundestag speech on the twentieth anniversary of the treaty to underscore the importance of the FRG's ties with the West. 21 Institutional links with Paris, like the NATO link with the United States, constrained German leaders to cooperate with their allies on major political and security issues. Of the institutions linking the Federal Republic with the Soviet Union and its allies, the Moscow Treaty of 1970 was the most important. The treaty not only recognized the status quo of the division of Germany and Europe, ending two decades of sharp confrontation around the issue of German unity. It also provided a framework for subsequent bilateral cooperation between Bonn and Moscow. Its first article, for example, called on both sides to make "the maintenance of international peace and the achievement of detente an important objective of their policies."22 Broader political and security affairs emerged as prominent themes at 19. On the arms control dilemmas facing German leaders in the early 1980s, see Wolfram F. Hanrieder, ed .. Arms Control. the FRG and the Future of'East- West Relations (Boulder: Westview. 1987). 20. On the German role in the EC through the 1970s, see Simon Bulmer and William Paterson, The Federal Repuhlic ()f'Germany and the European Community (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). 21. Mitterrand address of January 20, 1983. Verhandlungen des delltschen Bundestags. ser. 9. 8978--84. 22. Text in AujJenpolitik der Bundesrepllblik Deutschland: Dokumente von 1949 bis 1994 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1995),337. On German-Soviet economic ties, see Angela Stent, From Emhargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1981).

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German-Soviet summits from the early 1970s onward, as did bilateral economic relations. Some major problems persisted, particularly on the subject of Berlin. Soviet leaders, eager to place limits on the Federal Republic's political presence in the former German capital, refused to incorporate West Berlin into a series of cultural and scientific accords with Bonn. In contrast to the 1950s and 1960s, however, Berlin-and the broader question of German unity-did not sour the overall bilateral relationship. The strength of new institutional links with the East was most evident in the case of inter-German ties. The December 1972 Basic Treaty, which set out a framework for relations between the FRG and the GDR, remained an object of clashing interpretations. East Berlin stressed the GDR's claim to equality and independence, while Bonn continued to articulate the ultimate goal of national unity. FRG leaders highlighted treaty provisions calling for greater interaction among Germans, East and West, while the SED leadership stressed GDR sovereignty and sought to contain that interaction through the restriction of contacts [Abgrenzung]. Despite these differences of interpretation, the Basic Treaty and subsequent accords constituted a firm institutional basis for economic cooperation and increased inter-German contacts. Amid the crisis of detente the security provisions of the Basic Treaty became particularly significant. Both German states had pledged to "contribute to security and cooperation in Europe" and to support disarmament. Meeting in the GDR for the first time, in December 1981, Schmidt and Honecker stressed the responsibility of both German states for peace and detente in Europe. 23 The CSCE and the Four-Power regime represented less salient institutional contexts for German foreign policy in the early 1980s. The CSCE Helsinki Final Act outlined three areas for cooperation between the blocs: economics, security, and humanitarian issues. But clashes over its human rights provisions-a U.S. priority under both Carter and Reagan-prevented substantive progress at follow-up meetings in Belgrade in 1978 and Madrid in 1982.24 Over the same period the Four-Power regime faded altogether as a context for German foreign policy. During the decade after the 1971 Berlin Treaty the United States and the Soviet Union clashed sharply on many issues, but the division of Germany and its former capi23. Text in AujJenpolitik der Bundesrepublik, 370-72. On the development ofinter-German ties on the foundation of the Basic Treaty, see Lawrence L. Whetten, Germany East and West: Conflicts, Collaboration, and Confrontation (New York: New York University Press, 1980), chaps. 4-5; Wilhelm Bruns, Deutsch-deutsche Beziehungen: Priimisse, Probleme, Perspektiven (Opladen: Leske and Budrich, 1984), chap. 7. 24. See Vojtech Mastny, Helsinki, Human Rights, and European Security: Analysis and Documentation (Durham: Duke University Press, 1986).

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tal were not among them. While neither the CSCE nor the Four-Power regime figured centrally in the controversies of the early 1980s, both continued to represent constraints on German policy toward the unity issue. Within the framework of the CSCE the Federal Republic made recognition of postwar borders a starting point for Ostpolitik. And the FourPower regime precluded a unilateral reunification policy. Under these circumstances the combination of East-West tensions and positive inter-German relations did not imply a revival of the German Problem in the early 1980s, despite the concerns of some foreign observers. 25 In the context of the INF struggle, ambiguity at the heart of NATO and the Eastern Treaties-the two most prominent institutional frameworks during the new cold war of the early 1980s-confronted German leaders with significant foreign policy alternatives. With the Harmel Report of 1967, the cornerstone of NATO strategy into the 1980s, the alliance embraced both deterrence and dialogue as twin components of its policy toward the Soviet Union. The particular mix between the two, however, was left ambiguous, allowing individual member states considerable leeway in their approaches to Moscow. This basic ambiguity was incorporated into the Two-Track Decision, which endorsed both deployments and negotiations, but did not specify their relative importance. NATO policy empowered the United States to conduct the negotiations. And it specified that the missiles, once deployed, would remain under U.S. control. At the same time, however, it allowed individual member states to place more or less emphasis on the deployment and negotiation tracks of NATO policy-both in internal alliance deliberations and in their relations with the Soviet Union and its allies. As the country designated for the most important deployments, the FRG in particular was well-placed to press its own preferences within the framework of the Two-Track Decision. Specifically, Bonn could opt either to support Washington's hard line or to press for greater emphasis on the negotiations half of NATO strategy. During the INF controversy of the early 1980s the Eastern Treaties were more ambiguous in their prescriptions than the Two-Track Decision. One month before first NATO deployments the Soviet leadership warned that new U.S. missiles on German soil, "would contradict in both word and spirit the Moscow and [Basic] Treaties and seriously damage the FRG's relations with the German Democratic Republic and the Soviet Union."26 German leaders were not bound by this interpretation. On the 25. For a survey of these concerns, see Eberhard Schulz and Peter Danylow, Bewegung in der deutschen Frage? Die ausliindischen Besorgnisse iiber die Entwicklung in den beiden deutschen Staaten (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1984). 26. Text of a USSR-GDR communique reprinted in the official SED organ, Neues Deutschland. October 19, 1983.

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one hand, the passages in the Moscow and Basic Treaties on peace and detente were very general. On the other hand, FRG leaders could and did argue that the Soviet SS-20 buildup, not NATO's response, posed the greater threat to detente. The Eastern Treaties certainly did not compel Bonn to reject deployments once INF talks failed. In the years leading up to 1983, however, they did create pressure to emphasize the negotiations rather than the deployment tracks of NATO strategy. Given Soviet concerns, the deployment of new nuclear missiles on German soil threatened to undermine the cooperative ties that had flourished within the context of the Moscow, Basic and other Eastern Treaties. During the early 1980s both NATO and the Eastern Treaties framed German foreign policy alternatives in the context of the new cold war and the INF crisis. The Two-Track Decision bound the Federal Republic to carry out deployments in the absence of a negotiated settlement. NATO membership all but ruled out a political break with Washington and a German drift into neutrality-the concerns of some observers notwithstanding.27 At the same time, however, participation in the alliance allowed Bonn considerable leeway in its approach to deployment and negotiations in the years and months leading up to the fall of 1983. The Moscow and Basic Treaties, by contrast, bound the Federal Republic to eschew open confrontation with the Soviet Union and its allies. They did not, however, prevent the Federal Republic from emphasizing solidarity with the United States-and accepting the political consequences-in the context of INF and other divisive issues. Within this configuration Bonn did not face sharply contrasting alternatives between East and West but, instead, different ways to combine cooperation with Washington and dialogue with Moscow. 28 The existence of these alternatives formed the backdrop for the domestic political debate. Contrasting Priorities amid the New Cold War

The foreign policy controversies of the new cold war played out within a changing German societal context. The cumulative impact of recessions in the 1970s and 1980s-s10wer growth, higher inflation, and higher unemployment-placed strains on the German welfare state and spawned 27. For the argument the Federal Republic might have drifted into neutrality during the INF crisis but ended up resisting Soviet efforts to disrupt the alliance, see Jeffrey Herf, War by Other Means: Soviet Power, West German Resistance, and the Battle o/the EuromissiZes (New York: Free Press, 1991). 28. On tensions between alliance ties with the United States and detente with the Soviet Union, see Josef Joffe, The Limited Partnership: Europe, the United States, and the Burdens of Alliance (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1987), chap. 1.

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greater material insecurity. At the same time, the Green Party, which grew out of the student protests of the 1960s and the New Social Movements of the 1970s, placed new issues on the political agenda-the environment, women's issues, and peace. The party entered the Bundestag for the first time in the March 1983 elections, bouyed by the peace movement's principled opposition to new U.S. missiles on German soip9 There was also movement on the other end of the German political spectrum. The German Far Right, which had sunk into relative obscurity during the 1970s, reemerged somewhat during the mid-1980s. The Republican Party, founded in Bavaria in 1983, made inroads into the CSU's electorate and began to articulate its nationalist, anti-immigrant themes at the national level. While far less successful than the Greens-they never received the 5 percent of the vote necessary for representation in the Bundestag-the Republicans benefited from widespread dissatisfaction with the major parties' approach to pressing economic and social problems. 3D While the INF struggle did not divide German society as had Western integration and the New Ostpolitik, it sparked intense debate about security, peace, and the German role between the superpowers. The Greens and the peace movement rejected INF deployments under any circumstances. Among the major party leaders, however, the range of debate was much narrower. It revolved around different ways to combine the deployment and negotiations tracks of NATO strategy-and, more generally, relations with Washington and Moscow. 3l A dwindling minority within the CDU/CSU continued to reject the Eastern Treaties as central components of German foreign policy. And a growing minority within the SPD shared the peace movement's opposition to new U.S. missiles under any circumstances. In the years before 1983, however, the dominant parties at the federal level-Christian Democratic, Social Democratic, and Liberal-upheld both tracks of NATO policy and underscored the importance of both the Atlantic Alliance and the Eastern Treaties as founda29. Alice Holmes Cooper, Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements since 1945 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), chaps. 4--5. On the emergence of the peace movement across Europe, see Wilfried von Bredow and Rudolf H. Brocke, Krise und Protest: Urspriinge und Elemente der Friedensbewegung in Westeuropa (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1987). 30. On this shift in German political culture, see Kurt Sontheimer, Die verunsicherte RepubUk: Die BundesrepubUk nach 30 Jahren (Munich: Piper, 1979); Zeitemvende? Die BundesrepubUk ::.wischen alter und alternativer PoUtik (Hamburg: Hoffmann and Campe, 1983). On the emergence of the Republikaner, see Hans-Joachim Veen, Norbert Lepszy, and Peter Mnich, The Republikaner Party in Germany: Right- Wing Menace or Protest Catchall? (Westport, Conn.: Praeger. 1993). 31. On elements of consensus. see Gebhard Schweigler, West German Foreign Policy: The Domestic Setting (New York: Praeger, 1984).

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tions of German foreign policy. Differences among them concerned matters of emphasis. Schmidt and Kohl, the leading rivals for the chancellorship during the early 1980s, defined the main contours of the political debate. The political biographies of Schmidt and Kohl illuminate their broadly comparable foreign policy stances. 32 Schmidt had fought in World War II, studied economics, and began his career in the SPD in Hamburg. As a foreign policy spokesman and head of the SPD parliamentary group in the 1960s, he had established himself as a leading advocate of the party's new pro-Western orientation. Later, as defense and finance minister under Brandt, he combined strong support for the New Ostpolitik with careful attention to relations with the Western powers. Kohl, too young to fight in the war, had studied history and immediately embarked on a successful political career in his native Rhineland-Palatinate. He was elected governor in 1969, before succeeding Rainer Barzel as CDU chairman in 1973. As a centrist with little foreign policy experience, Kohl advocated a pragmatic acceptance of the New Ostpolitik. By the early 1980s both he and Schmidt had arrived by different routes at broadly comparable perspectives-an embrace of both Western integration and the New Ostpolitik as necessary foundations of German foreign policy. As detente began to unravel in the late 1970s and early 1980s, both Schmidt and Kohl emphasized the importance of strong German links with the Western powers, and the United States in particular. Under growing pressure from the peace movement-and the left wing of his party-to abandon the Two-Track Decision, Schmidt underscored his continued support for strong ties with the West. "Our basic foreign policy orientation is not negotiable," he wrote in a spring 1981 Foreign Affairs article, underscoring the importance of the Federal Republic's political and security links with the United States and Western Europe. Schmidt added that he had never "left any doubt about this point in the minds of the Soviet leaders."33 Kohl, too, left no doubt about what he considered the institutional and political foundations of German foreign policy. In a major November 1980 Bundestag address, for example, he emphasized that "the western alliance and the friendship with the United States" was a "clear priority. "34 For both Schmidt and Kohl this Western foundation represented a starting point for an active Ostpolitik. In his first government declaration 32. For political biographies, see Werner Maser, Helmut Kohl: Der Deutsche Kanzler (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1990); Jonathan Carr, Helmut Schmidt: Helmsman of Germany (New York: 8t. Martin's Press, 1985). 33. Reprinted in Wolfram F. Hanrieder, ed., Helmut Schmidt: Perspectives on Politics (Boulder: Westview, 1982),40. 34. Address of November 26, 1980. Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 9, 50.

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as chancellor, in May 1974, Schmidt underscored the importance of Western integration as a basis for "good relations with the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact."35 Four years later he used the occasion of Brezhnev's first official visit to the Federal Republic to highlight the positive tenor of bilateral relations. 36 And in December 1981 he made a successful first visit to the GDR. Kohl, too, backed dialogue with the East on a solid Western foundation. As early as January 1975, he authorized informal CDU contacts with East Berlin. In September 1975, one year before his first, unsuccessful run for the chancellorship, Kohl traveled to Moscow to assure Soviet leaders of his commitment to a constructive OstpolitikY And in his October 1982 government declaration, the first of his chancellorship, he promised to pay "particular attention" to relations with Moscow and to support deeper inter-German relations on the basis of the Eastern Treaties. 38 On this shared foundation, Kohl and Schmidt articulated different approaches to the Federal Republic's role between the superpowers, and the INF issue in particular. From early in his career Schmidt had underlined the twin imperatives of defense alongside the United States and detente with the Soviet Union. 39 With the downturn in detente he construed the Federal Republic as a mediator between East and West, firmly anchored within NATO but actively committed to preserving and deepening dialogue between the blocs. From the late 1970s onward he did not hesitate to criticize what he considered Washington's overly confrontational policies. And in the context of the INF struggle he pressed for the exhaustion of the negotiations track before deployments should begin. By contrast, Kohl stressed the absolute priority of solidarity with the alliesand the United States in particular-as a necessary condition for continued engagement in the East. On a number of difficult transatlantic issues, from human rights and the neutron bomb in the late 1970s to Afghanistan, Poland, and INF in the early 1980s, he aligned himself carefully with U.S. priorities. Schmidt set out his conception of the Federal Republic as mediator 35. Address of May 17, 1974, ibid., ser. 7, 6597-98. 36. For Schmidt's account of his dealings with Soviet leaders, see Schmidt, Men and Powers: A Political Retrospective (New York: Random House, 1989), chap. I. 37. See the internal report by CDU foreign policy spokesman Walther Leisler Kiep on his talks in East Berlin, January 31, 1975, Archiv fiir Christlich-Demokratische Politik, Mertes papers, 1-403-070/2. For Kohl's upbeat assessment of his Moscow trip, see CDU Pressemitteilung. September 12. 1975. 38. Declaration of October 13. 1982, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 9, 7222. 39. See, for example. Helmut Schmidt, The Balance of Power: Germany's Peace Policy and the Super Powers (London: William Kimber, 1971). chap. 8.

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most clearly in a December 1981 Bundestag address. His government, he asserted, was committed to preserving East-West dialogue through continual contacts with both Washington and Moscow. The Federal Republic was engaged in "making sure that the superpowers do not break off their dialogue with each other and that they pursue their interests toward one another with moderation and a sense of proportion." Schmidt did not use the term mediator to describe this role, preferring the more modest translator. But he clearly envisioned Bonn working with both Washington and Moscow to sustain detente in Europe-an approach that did not rule out public criticism of the United States. In his Foreign Affairs article, for example, he emphasized that "the United States must vigorously work toward arms limitation talks between the superpowers. "40 During the two last years of his chancellorship Schmidt put this mediating role into practice, straining U.S.-German relations in the process. In April 1980 he proposed an INF moratorium as a first step toward a negotiated settlement-to the surprise and frustration of the Carter administration. Two months later he flew to Moscow, where he persuaded Soviet leaders to begin INF talks. Schmidt's trip, only six months after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, exasperated Carter and his advisors and sparked a fiery personal confrontation at the June 1980 Venice G-7 Summit.4l Schmidt continued to playa mediating role once Reagan took office. In early 1981 he successfully pressured the new administration to set a date for the start ofINF negotiations. And at a November 1981 summit with Brezhnev in Bonn he tried, without success, to moderate the Soviet negotiating position. Through the end of his chancellorship the following September, Schmidt pressed for a compromise INF settlement, in sharp contrast to the Reagan administration's focus on deployments. 42 Schmidt's efforts to mediate between the superpowers were evident on other fronts of the new cold war as well. During early 1980 he both implored the Soviet leadership to withdraw from Afghanistan and dis40. Government declaration of December 3, 1981, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 9, 4053; Hanrieder, Helmut Schmidt, 45. For a discussion of Schmidt's conception of a mediating role, see Avril Pittman, From Ostpolitik to Reunification: West German-Soviet Political Relations since 1974 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 101-8. 41. For contrasting accounts of the Venice meeting, see Schmidt, Men and Powers, 202-20; Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam, 1982), 535-38. 42. On Schmidt's efforts to mediate in the INF context, see Wolfgang Jager and Werner Link, Republik im Wandel, 1974-1982: Die A'ra Schmidt (Stuttgart: Deutsche VerlagsAnstalt, 1987),321-41. On tensions in the U.S.-German relationship during his chancellorship, see Barbara Heep, Helmut Schmidt und Amerika: Eine schwierige Partnerschaft (Bonn: Bouvier, 1990), 193-240.

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tanced himselffrom the U.S. sanctions campaign. Only after initial hesitation did Bonn reluctantly join the boycott of the Moscow Olympics. Schmidt also tried not to let the Polish crisis impede Ostpolitik and the overall course of East-West relations in Europe. His reception of Brezhnev in November 1981 took place as the confrontation between Solidarity and the communist regime was reaching its climax. And after the declaration of martial law the following month, Schmidt refused to cut short his first visit to the GDR. In the Polish context, as in the case of Afghanistan, his stance was markedly less confrontational than Reagan's. He condemned the imposition of martial law but also criticized the United States-led sanctions campaign that followed, especially efforts to kill the joint German-Soviet pipeline project. By mid-1982 U.S.-German relations were frayed. 43 While Schmidt sought to carve out a mediating role for the Federal Republic, Kohl made solidarity with the United States his top priority from the mid-1970s onward. This emphasis was particularly evident on security matters. During the neutron bomb controversy of 1977-78 Kohl sided with Carter against Schmidt. Subsequently, like Carter and Reagan, Kohl placed more emphasis on the deployment half of NATO's emerging Two-Track Strategy than did the chancellor. In a March 1979 Bundestag debate, for example, he excoriated the Soviet SS-20 buildup and called for an increase in NATO's nuclear potential "in order to arrive at a better balance."44 While Kohl had misgivings about Reagan's uncompromising INF stance in 1982-83, he carefully followed the U.S. lead in public. In his first government declaration as chancellor, in October 1982, he pledged to "free German-American relations from their unfavorable light." While he sought to improve ties with Moscow and hoped for a breakthrough in INF negotiations, Kohl later explicitly rejected Schmidt's role as a "mediator or an interpreter" between the superpowers.45 This difference of emphasis was not only evident in the context of INF. It also marked Kohl's different approach to U.S. policy during the Afghanistan and Poland crises. Like Schmidt, Kohl had reservations about the efficacy of economic sanctions; he also feared their negative 43. For Schmidt's measured response to martial law, see his government declaration of 1anuary 14,1982, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 9, 4404-13. On the pipeline dispute, see Bruce W. 1entleson, Pipeline Politics: The Complex Political Economy of East· West Energy Trade (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), chap. 6. 44. Kohl address of March 8, 1979, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 8, 11150. In the same speech Kohl sharply criticized Schmidt's handling of the neutron bomb controversy (ibid., 11154-·55). 45. Declaration of October 13, 1982, ibid., ser. 9, 7220; May 1983 party conference address,32. Parteitag der CDU Deutschlands. Niederschrift (Bonn: CDU, 1983),47.

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implications for German industry. Still, he made the imperative of solidarity with the United States a higher priority. His criticism of Soviet policy toward Afghanistan and Poland paralleled Washington's, and he refrained from any public criticism of U.S.-orchestrated sanctions campaigns. 46 Once he became chancellor, Kohl worked behind the scenes to lift certain sanctions, particularly those affecting the German-Soviet pipeline deal. Unlike Schmidt, however, he refused to defy the United States publicly on the issue. While Kohl's Ostpolitik preferences were more conciliatory than either Carter's or Reagan's, he was careful to avoid irritations in relations with Washington. As he put it in the Bundestag in November 1980, "Ostpolitik can only go as far as western unity allows."47 The contrasting priorities of Kohl and Schmidt were rooted in divergent perceptions of the international constellation. Schmidt's perception of a Soviet INF threat had informed his support for the Two-Track Decision during the late 1970s. By the early 1980s, however, he also saw confrontational U.S. policies as detrimental to German security. Located at the fault line between the blocs, he argued, the Federal Republic had a vital interest in continued East-West detente. "Precisely in difficult times," Schmidt outlined in a November 1980 government declaration, the FRG "does not want to allow the dialogue with the Soviet Union to be interrupted."48 For Kohl, by contrast, the Soviet threat, not the threat to detente, remained the dominant feature of the international constellation. He portrayed the SS-20 buildup as an effort to divide the West and the Soviet campaign against the Two-Track Decision as an effort to drive a wedge between the Federal Republic and its Western allies. Kohl's depiction of Soviet "over-armament" and the threat of "political blackmail" made solidarity with the United States essential. 49 Different views of the past and its lessons also underpinned these contrasting foreign policy priorities. Like Brandt before him, Schmidt argued that Germans were morally bound, against the backdrop of World War II, to work for peace in Europe. In his May 1979 State of the Nation address, for example, he underlined his wish that "no war will ever originate again on German soil"-a theme he repeated on many other occasions. Schmidt's historically grounded "peace policy" informed both his emphasis on the negotiations track of the NATO strategy and his overall approach to detente. Given the legacy of Hitler's war, Schmidt suggested, 46. On Afghanistan, see Kohl address of January 17, 1980, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 8, 15585-93. On Poland, see his address of January 14, 1982, ibid., ser. 9, 4413-21. 47. Address of November 26,1980, ibid., ser. 9, 50. 48. Address of November 24,1980, in Hanrieder, Helmut Schmidt, 159. 49. Address of May 4,1983, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 10,69.

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the Federal Republic should refrain from harsh condemnations-and sanctions-in response to Soviet policy in Afghanistan and Poland. During his 1980 Moscow visit, for example, Schmidt evoked "vivid memories of the horrors of war" as a foundation for a German foreign policy "aimed at peace. "50 From Schmidt's perspective, a mediating role not only made sense given the legacy of Hitler's war, it also represented a way to build on the achievements of the New Ostpolitik. Schmidt acknowledged the historical significance of Western integration as a new foundation for postwar German foreign policy. At the same time, however, he placed emphasis on Brandt's achievement of reconciliation with the East. "The Ostpolitik of the social-liberal coalition," he maintained in his November 1980 government declaration, "has become an essential element of West-East relations in the whole of Europe." Schmidt underscored the concrete gains of the New Ostpolitik-less confrontation, greater trade, and more inter-German contacts. And he depicted his international efforts in the context of INF and other issues as attempts to secure and extend Brandt's achievement. The New Ostpolitik, in his view, had not reduced the importance of Western ties. But it had enabled a "treaty partnership" and even "security partnership" with the East ---accomplishments worth preserving. 51 While Schmidt's view of history informed his efforts to mediate between East and West, Kohl's underpinned the absolute priority he accorded Western unity. Like Adenauer. Kohl drew links between the past and both the style and substance of German foreign policy in the present. On the one hand, he called for a respectful. if not reticent, approach to the allies. Schmidt's arrogant tone in dealings with Carter, he argued in November 1980, evoked "unpleasant memories of Wilhelm 11."52 On the other hand. Kohl insisted that solidarity with the Western powers was necessary to prevent a revival of nationalist balance of power politics in Europe. Even before becoming CDU chairman, Kohl expressed anxiety that a failure to maintain and strengthen Western integration could permit a revival of German nationalism, particularly among younger generations. 53 Once he replaced Schmidt as chancellor. he underscored in May 1983 that Germans were not "wanderers between East and West." Commenting on his own pro-Atlantic stance later that month, he expressed 50. Addresses of May 17. 1979 and June 30. 1980. in Hanrieder. Helmut Schmidt. 146. 68. 51. Addresses of November 24.1980. and May 17.1979. ibid., 159. 147. 52. Address of November 26. 1980. Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestag.\'. ser. 6. 50. 53. Memorandum on Kohl's talks with British leaders, February 24. 1972. Archivilir Christlich-Demokratische Politik. Mertes papers. 1-403-03212.

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relief that "concerns about a possible German special role [Sonderrolle] in the East-West relationship have been overcome."54 Kohl not only insisted on a break with prewar patterns. He also sought to safeguard Adenauer's postwar achievements. In an address on the centennial of Adenauer's birth in 1976, he contrasted Western integration with the New Ostpolitik. While the former marked a historic break with the destructive, nationalist policies of the past, he argued, the latter represented only a painful coming to terms with postwar realities, the achievement not of peace but of "half-peace." A continued focus on close ties with the West and the cause of European unity, in Kohl's view, constituted "an obligation of Adenauer's legacy."55 Amid the downturn in detente Kohl did echo some of the historical themes associated with the New Ostpolitik. In 1980, for example, he referred to the responsibility of both German states for peace in Europe. And in a major 1983 policy address he underscored the "historically-conditioned security needs of the Soviet Union." At the same time, however, he construed his policy focus on solidarity with the West as an effort to sustain Adenauer's achievement amid difficult circumstances. 56 The historical narratives espoused by Schmidt and Kohl, while different in some respects, were broadly similar. Each construed 1945 as a sharp break in German history and described Western integration and the New Ostpolitik as historical achievements of the Federal Republic. A strong identification with the state created by Bismarck, evident during early controversies, was absent. During the cold war of the 1950s Schumacher had stressed the priority of reunification over Western integration. Twenty years later Strauss and other CDU/CSU hard-liners had insisted that the "Reich within its 1937 borders" remain a frame of reference for German foreign policy. For Schmidt and Kohl, by contrast, the Federal Republic, with its domestic institutions and international alignments, was the clear focus of identification. Schmidt exuded pride in "Modell Deutschland," the FRG's particular mix of economic, social and political institutions. And Kohl, eager to foster popular identification with the Federal Republic, sponsored the creation of a West German history museum in Bonn. 54. Address of May 3, 1983, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 11,67; May 1983 party conference address, 32. Parteitag der CDU, 44--45. 55. Address of January 4, 1976, Helmut Kohl. Der Kurs der CDU: Reden und Beitriige des Bundesvorsitzenden, 1973-1993 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Ansta1t, 1993), 144--53. 56. Speech of November 26, 1980, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 9,47; address of May 4, 1983, ibid., ser. 10,69. For a statement of Kohl's view of history and its lessons on the eve of the fortieth anniversary of the end of World War II, see his State of the Nation address of February 27, 1985, ibid., ser. 10,9009-17.

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While some historians and publicists sought to revive the question of German unity during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the major foreign policy debate revolved around the priorities of the Federal Republic, conceived as a modern, Western democracy much like any other. 57 The outcome of the "Historians' Debate" of 1986-87 underscored the shift away from a national toward a more West German orientation among both historians and politicians. From the late 1970s onward conservative historians including Thomas Nipperdey and Michael Sturmer sought to revive some of the themes of the 1950s. They portrayed the Kaiserreich as a normal nation state within the European balance of power, not an inherently aggressive forerunner of Hitler's Germany. The implication, most clearly articulated by Sturmer, was that the Federal Republic might draw on Bismarck's Reich for elements of a positive German identity. 58 Two national conservative historians, Ernst Nolte and Andreas Hillgruber, went a step further. In the mid-l 980s they questioned the uniqueness of the Holocaust. Nolte compared Hitler's genocide with Stalin's Gulag, while Hillgruber drew a parallel between the slaughter of the Jews and the German army's defensive struggle on the Eastern Front. When Jurgen Habermas attacked these arguments as transparent efforts to relativize Hitler's crimes, a lively controversy ensued. Nolte and Hillgruber found themselves under siege in the academy, their arguments dissected and dismissed by most of their colleagues. Moreover, their efforts to downplay the catastrophe of Nazism and forge a positive line of continuity between Bismarck's Reich and the Federal Republic did not resonate at all within the political elite. 59 57. Treatments of the unity theme included Josef von Becker and Andreas Hillgruber, eds., Die deutsche Frage im 19. und 20. lahrhundert (Munich: Vogel, 1983); Arno Klonne, Zuriick :;ur Nation.' Kontroversen ::u deutschell Fragen (Cologne: Diedrichs, 1984); Wolfgang Venrohr, ed .. Die deutsc!ie Einlzeit kommt bestimmt (Bergisch Gladbach: Gustav Liibbe Verlag. 1982). 58. Thomas Nipperdey, Naclzdenken iiber die deutsche Geschichte: Essays (Munich: Beck, 1986); Michael Stiirmer. Das ruhelose Reich: Deutschland, 1866-1918 (Berlin: Severin and Siedler, 1983). For criticisms, see Wolfgang J. Mommsen, "Gegenwiirtige Tendenzen in der Geschichtsschreibung der Bundesrepublik." Geschichte und Gesellschaji 7, no. 2 (1981): 149-88; Hans-Jiirgen Puhle, "Die neue Ruhelosigkeit: Michael Stiirmers nationalpolitischer Revisionismus." ibid., 13. no. 3 (1987): 382-99. 59. Ernst Nolte. "Vergangenheit. die nicht vergehen will: Eine Rede, die geschrieben. aber nicht gehalten werden konnte." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 6, 1986; Andreas Hillgruber. ZlI'eieriei Untergang: Die Zerschlagung des Deutschen Reiches und das Ende des europiiischen ludentums (Berlin: Siedler, 1986). On the controversy, see Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust, and German National Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1988); Geoff Eley, "Nazism, Politics and the Image of the Past: Thoughts on the West German Historikerstreit," Past and Present, no, 121 (November 1988): 171-208.

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While Schmidt and Kohl both rejected a national orientation in favor of a multilateral, supranational one, they advocated different responses to the new cold war of the 1980s. Their contrasting foreign policy priorities, rooted in different perceptions of the international configuration and the lessons of history, represented alternative policy paths during the INF struggle. Had he remained in power after September 1982, Schmidt certainly would have continued to prod the superpowers toward an INF settlement. Schmidt himself made this clear in the decisive November 1983 Bundestag debate on deployment. He leveled a blistering attack on Kohl for not using German leverage to promote an interim INF solution along the lines of the Walk in the Woods compromise formula. When that formula became public in the fall of 1982, Schmidt reminded Kohl, "You made no working visits, first in Washington, and then in Moscow, to discuss the topic." Kohl's diplomacy, he charged, "should have been working full steam." Schmidt, recounting how he had visited Moscow in 1980 against U.S. wishes, underscored that he would have actively sought to promote a negotiated settlement. 60 Schmidt's statements provide no proof that he would have acted differently had he remained chancellor. But his track record during the early 1980s made his claims plausible. Given the level of hostility between Washington and Moscow in 1983, a more active German diplomacy would not necessarily have facilitated a breakthrough at the INF talks. Had Schmidt remained chancellor, though, he would have been in a good position to edge the superpowers toward compromise: as the target date for first deployments neared, German influence over the Western negotiating position was bound to increase. Had such mediation efforts failed, they still would have transformed the European constellation of the mid-1980s. INF deployments would have taken place. But U.S.-German ties would not have been as positive and German-Soviet relations as negative as they turned out. Divisions within NATO might have persisted, and the Eastern Treaties might have remained a robust framework for an active Ostpolitik. Given the existence of policy alternatives during the early 1980s-and the contrasting priorities at the center of the political debate-the struggle for government power shaped the direction of German foreign policy. For a collection of sources, including Habemlas's response, see James Knowlton and Truett Cates, eds., Forever in the Shadow of Hitler: Original Documents of the Historikerstreit, the Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1993). 60. Schmidt address of November 21, 1983, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags, ser. 10,2379-80. See also Schmidt, Men and Powers, 277-79.

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The Politics of Atlantic Solidarity

Kohl's strong pro-Atlantic stance prevailed not because it better fit the constraints posed by the new cold war and the institutional configuration, but because he proved able to place it on a stable political foundation. In order to implement his foreign policy priorities Kohl had to anchor them at three levels of party politics-in the CDU/CSU, in coalition with the FDP, and in competition with the SPD. During the late 1970s and early 1980s he managed to defeat CSU leader Franz Josef Strauss's claim to Christian Democratic leadership, create and maintain a coalition with Genscher and the Liberals, and outmaneuver Schmidt and the Social Democrats. On each of these levels of party politics, competition for power interacted with conflict over foreign policy priorities in complex ways. The interaction of the different levels, in turn, drove the direction of German foreign policy at the height of the INF crisis. 61 In order to win CDU/CSU support for his foreign policy priorities Kohl first had to defeat the charismatic Strauss in a drawn-out leadership struggle. 62 The governor of Bavaria espoused a contrasting set of foreign policy views through the 1970s and into the early 1980s. He and Kohl agreed on the importance of solidarity with the United States amid the downturn in East-West relations. But Strauss, unlike Kohl, rejected the Eastern Treaties as the foundation of Ostpolitik. While he recognized the existence of the treaties, he insisted that policy rest on two other documents: the May 1972 Bundestag Declaration, which reiterated traditional positions on Western integration and German unity, and the July 1973 Constitutional Court ruling, which placed strict limits on any recognition of the GDR and referred to "the borders of 1937" as the legal framework for a future German settlement. In effect, Strauss insisted that the CDU/CSU should acknowledge the reality of the Eastern Treaties but break with social-liberal Ostpolitik. As early as 1972, Strauss's position was "pacta sunt servanda"-treaties are to be upheld. The critical question, he insisted in 1983, was: "What is the content of the Pacta, and how does one understand Servanda?"63 During the late 1970s when Strauss's position in the CDU/CSU was ascendant, his hard-line views colored the party's foreign policy stance. In May 1977, for example, CSU leaders criticized Alois Mertes, a top Kohl advisor, for having termed the Moscow Treaty a "fundamental compo61. On the politics of INF. see Risse-Kappen, Zero Option. 37-48,69-78. 62. On this clash. see Clay Clemens. Reluctant Realists: The Christian Democrats and West German Ostpolitik (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989). 63. Interview in Spiegel. March 28. 1983.

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nent" of German foreign policy, and Kohl did not come to his defense. 64 The CDU's 1978 program also reiterated traditional positions, including a commitment to Germany "in all its parts"-a reference to territories East of the Oder-Neisse. 65 With Kohl on the defensive Strauss secured the CDU/CSU chancellor candidacy for the October 1980 elections. But the extent of Strauss's defeat-the worst Christian Democratic showing since 1949-gave Kohl a chance to reassert his authority and bring the party onto his foreign policy line. In a major Bundestag address just one month after the election, Kohl recognized the Eastern Treaties not simply as "valid law to which we adhere" but also as "essential components of German foreign policy." Party hard-liners protested in vain. 66 As chancellor, after October 1982, Kohl further strengthened his position with respect to Strauss. He first deflected CSU efforts to make a break with the New Ostpolitik part of the new government's program, and then deprived Strauss of the coveted post of foreign minister, which remained secure in Genscher's hands. 67 Strauss, defeated in his efforts to take charge of foreign policy in Bonn, then abandoned his opposition to the New Ostpolitik in stunning fashion. He brokered the government's July 1983 DM 1 billion credit to the GDR, shocking CSU party stalwarts in the process. Faced with an internal party revolt, and the founding of the Far Right Republican Party, Strauss continued to articulate his commitment to national unity and the openness of the Oder-Neisse question. 68 But his sniping at Kohl's foreign policy gradually subsided. With his victory over Strauss in the leadership struggle, Kohl finally managed to 64. Address of May 10, 1977, Mertes papers, 1-403-070/3. For the CSU objection, see Zimmermann to Kohl, May 13,1977, ibid. 65. The original program draft, written under the supervision of Richard von Weizsacker, did not include this phrase. The head of the COU/CSU expellees, Herbert Hupka, pressed for its inclusion. Herbert Hupka, interview by author, Bonn, January 22, 1992. For the foreign policy passages of the program, see Peter Hintze, ed., Die CDUParteiprogramme: Eine Dokumentation der Ziele und Aufgaben (Bonn: Bouvier, 1995), 160-67. 66. Address of November 26, 1980, Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestags. ser. 9,47. 67. As a concession to the CSU, Kohl did not refer to "continuity" with social-liberal policies in his first government declaration. For a draft of the internal September 1982 COU/CSU coalition paper on foreign policy, see Mertes papers, 1-403-043/1. 68. On Strauss's role in inter-German diplomacy, see Franz Josef Strauss, Die Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1989),470-98. On the internal COU/CSU debate in the early 1980s, see Heinrich Potthoff, Die "Koalition der Vernunft": Deutschlandpolitik in den 80er Jahren (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1995), 42-47. According to COU/CSU foreign policy spokeswoman Michaela Geiger, Strauss's uncompromising rhetoric was aimed mainly at expellee groups from beyond the Oder-Neisse Rivers after the war, an important electoral potential in Bavaria (Michaela Geiger, interview by author, Bonn, July 8, 1992).

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anchor his foreign policy priorities-a focus on solidarity with the Western allies combined with an endorsement of the New Ostpolitik-within the CDU/CSU. In order to implement those priorities in government, Kohl also had to embed them at the level of coalition politics. From the mid-1970s onward he embraced a two-part strategy: waiting for the social-liberal coalition to collapse, on the one hand, and finding points of policy consensus with the FDP, on the other. Growing economic and social policy strains within the ruling coalition promoted the first part of his strategy. Through the 1970s the Liberals' free-market tradition coexisted uncomfortably with the Social Democratic commitment to a strong welfare state. During the recession of the early 1980s these domestic policy tensions gradually dissolved the bonds of the coalition. The FDP came out in favor of considerable cuts in social spending, while Schmidt, under pressure from his party's left wing, backed less extensive measures. As the coalition parties fared badly in a series of state elections in 1981-82, more and more FDP politicians pressed for the formation of a new government with the CDU/CSu. 69 In this context the second part of Kohl's strategy-movement toward policy consensus with the Liberals-proved critical. Agreement on the contours of economic and social policy was not difficult to reach: the CDU/CSU, like the FDP, came out in favor of budget austerity in the 1980s. Foreign policy rapprochement proved more difficult. From the mid-1970s onward Genscher made it clear that a CDU/CSU embrace of the New Ostpolitik was a precondition for any renewal of the governing alliance with the Christian Democrats. For that very reason, Genscher later maintained, Kohl was clearly "interested in moving closer to the Ostpolitik of the FDP. "70 Strauss was determined to prevent any such movement: he favored the pursuit of an absolute CDU/CSU majority over a coalition with the Liberals. While Kohl sought to reduce the policy distance with the social-liberal coalition, Strauss intentionally sought to polarize the foreign policy debate. In a well-known 1974 address to the CSU faithful, the Bavarian leader insisted that the opposition accuse the government of "furthering Soviet hegemony over West Europe."7l In this constellation Kohl's victory over Strauss helped not only to anchor his foreign policy priorities in the CDU/CSU but also to win sup69. On the FDP, see Peter Losche and Franz Walter, Die FDP: Richtungsstreit und Zukunjis'::lI'eijei (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1996), 104--14. 70. Genscher, interview. Kohl authorized contacts between Genscher and his foreign policy advisor Mertes as early as 1974. 71. A passage from Strauss's "Sonthofer speech." in which he also welcomed the country's economic problems as a boon for the opposition (excerpted in Spiegel. March 10, 1975).

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port for them at the level of coalition politics. Strauss's blanket attacks on the government's policies-and his personal animosity toward Genscher and the FDP-had shored up the social-liberal coalition in both the 1976 and 1980 election campaigns. In the years after 1980, however, Kohl's embrace of the thrust of the New Ostpolitik contributed to the collapse of the ruling coalition. When economic and social policy differences within the government reached the breaking point, Genscher and the FDP left the coalition with Schmidt and helped to elect Kohl chancellor in an October 1982 constructive vote of no confidence. Kohl's patient strategy of waiting for the social-liberal coalition to collapse-and forging foreign policy consensus with the FDP in the meantime-proved successful. 72 The coalition with Genscher provided the basis for German foreign policy during the critical 1982-83 period. Both Kohl and Genscher aligned the Federal Republic with the United States and its uncompromising stance at the INF negotiations. Genscher, who later gained a reputation for a critical stance toward Washington, placed almost as much emphasis as Kohl on alliance solidarity during the early 1980s--