The European Language Teacher: Recent Trends and Future Developments in Teacher Education

The European Language Teacher: Recent Trends and Future Developments in Teacher Education

Michael Grenfell Michael Kelly Diana Jones Editors PETER LANG

The European Language Teacher

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Michael Grenfell, Michael Kelly & Diana Jones

The European Language Teacher Recent Trends and Future Developments in Teacher Education

PETER LANG

Oxford • Bern • Berlin • Bruxelles • Frankfurt am Main • New York • Wien

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at ‹http://dnb.ddb.de›. British Library and Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library, Great Britain, and from The Library of Congress, USA

Cover design: Thomas Jaberg, Peter Lang AG

ISBN 3-03910-070-X US-ISBN 0-8204-6886-X

© Peter Lang AG, European Academic Publishers, Bern 2003 Hochfeldstrasse 32, Postfach 746, CH-3000 Bern 9, Switzerland [email protected], www.peterlang.com, www.peterlang.net All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. Printed in Germany

Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the invaluable contributions of language teacher trainers and their students and colleagues throughout Europe. We would particularly like to thank the following people, with whom it has been a very great pleasure to discuss all aspects of language teacher education and training: Charles Alderson, University of Lancaster; Birna Arnbjornsdottir, University of Iceland; Ana Maria Artigas, University of Zaragoza; Cath Barnett, St Martin’s College, Lancaster; Claudia Beccheroni, Trinity College, Turin; Pat Bertaux, IUFM de Lorraine; AnneClaude Berthoud, University of Lausanne; Johanna Birkstedt, University of Helsinki; Dainuvite Bluma, University of Latvia; Frederic Bordaguibel-Labayle, PGCE/Maîtrise student, University of Pau; Nida Burneikaite, University of Vilnius; Maria Cabral, University of the Algarve; Marian Carty, St Martin’s College; Angela Chambers, University of Limerick; Do Coyle, University of Nottingham; Ursula Dambska-Prokop, Jagiellonian University; Lola Davis, St Martin’s College; Michèle Deane, Open University; Sean Devitt, Trinity College Dublin; Gerlinde Egger, P.A Innsbruck; Martin Ehala, Tallinn; Nea Elfving, graduate of Vaasa Pedagogical University; Mervi Eloranta, University of Jyväskylä; Salvador Estebanez, Instituto Cervantes; Maria Felberbauer, P.A. Erzdiözese Vienna; Werner Fink, Studienseminar Bonn; Enrica Flamini, Ministry of Education; Milada Frankova, Masaryck University Brno; Luminita Frentiu, University di Vest di Timisoara; Laurent Gajo, University of Neuchâtel; Maria Gerogiava, University of Sofia and New University of Bulgaria; Radoseveta Getova, University of Southampton (formerly University of Sofia); Maria Gordarsdottir, M. Paed, student at the University of Iceland;

Simon Green, CILT; Jone Grigaliuniene, University of Vilnius; Isabelle Guinamard, University of Lyon II; Gry Ek Gunnarsson, Languages Centre Reykavik; Audur Hauksdottir, University of Iceland; Judith Hemery, British Council Spain; Petra Högnas, Languages Centre Reykavik; Ezster Horváth, University of Southampton, recent graduate of the University of Szeged; Maria Huber, P.A. Innsbruck; Glyn Hughes, University of Jyväskylä; Carine Jaquel, PGCE/Maîtrise student, University of Nancy; Aina Kackere, University of Latvia; Paivi Kilpinen, University of Helsinki; Marlene Kogler, P.A. Innsbruck; Thomas Köll, P.A. Innsbruck; Jana Korckakova, University of Hradec Kralove; HansLudwig Kreschel, Studienseminar Bonn; Stefanie Lamfuß Schenk, University of Wuppertal; Ole Lauridson, Aarhus School of Business; Anne-Karine Lescarmontier, French Embassy London; Christine Loret, IUFM de Versailles; Cheryl Mackey, University of Newcastle upon Tyne; Anita Malmquist, Umea University; Clare Mar Molinero, University of Southampton; David Marsh, Centre for Applied Language Study, University of Jyväskylä; Cynthia Martin, University of Southampton; Charles Mifsud, University of Malta; Sharon Millar, University of Southern Denmark; Bessie Mitsikopoulou, University of Athens; Marion Murray, University of Newcastle upon Tyne; Edit Nagy, British Council Hungary; Tarja Nikula, University of Jyväskylä; Inge-Merete Nør, University of Southern Denmark; Emilie Noubadji, Ministry of Education; Edgar Otten, Studienseminar Bonn; Andreas Papapavlou, Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, University of Cyprus; Maria-Kaisa Pikou, University of Jyväskylä; Marjolaine Pierré, PGCE student, St. Martin’s College, Lancaster; Anna Poliekova, UNESCO; Sigridur Porvaldsdottir, M. Paed student, University of Iceland; Gérard Poulet, Exeter University; Guy Pousse, University of Luxembourg; Maria Teresa Prat Zagrebelsky, University of Turin; Brynhildur Anna Ragnarsdottir, Languages Centre Reykavik; Norbert Richter, Mataré Gymnasium Meerbusch, North-Rhine Westphalia; Marie Madeleine Rivenc, University of 6

Toulouse; Maria Salenius, University of Helsinki; Christian Sedlacek, P.A. Innsbruck; Germaine Simoni, Ministry of Education; Elisabeth Sorantin, Secretary General of CEEPUS; Ronald Soetart, University of Ghent; Rudi Schollaert, VXW Navorming in Het Katholiek Onderwijs; Todor Shopov, Department of Teacher Education, University of Sofia; Kari Sajavaara, Centre for Applied Language Study, University of Jyväskylä; Vera Stastná; Ronald Sultana, University of Malta; Pavel Sura, University of Bratislava; Ann Swarbrick, CILT; Peppi Taalaas, Centre for Applied Language Study, University of Jyväskylä; Christine van Baalen, University of Vienna; Piet van de Craen, University of Brussels; A. J. van Essen, University of Groningen; Leena Vaurio, University of Helsinki; Hélène Versavaud, Cheam High School, Surrey; Janet Wing, University of Bari; Bente Wissing Brøndum, Aarhus School of Business; Dieter Wolff, University of Wuppertal; Marjes Zammit, University of Malta; Amiko Zsemlye, CEEPUS Central Office.

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Contents

List of tables ..................................................................................... 11 Boxed text features .......................................................................... 11

Introduction ................................................................................. 13 Chapter 1

Contexts for addressing language teacher training ................................................ 17

The policy context ........................................................................... 17 The theoretical context ................................................................... 19 The language teaching and learning context ............................... 37 The social and professional context ............................................. 41

Chapter 2

Current provision in language teacher training ............................. 45

Languages taught ............................................................................. 46 Initial teacher training for secondary education .......................... 49 Initial teacher training for primary education .............................. 74 In-service training for primary and secondary education .......... 88

Chapter 3 1 2

Case studies of good practice ..................... 97

Initial teacher training in bilingual education: the BILD Project .................................................................... 98 Bilingual INSET ...................................................................... 108

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

CEEPUS: Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies ............................................................. Teaching practice abroad: ‘Formation Croisée’ .................. ILIAD: International Languages INSET at a Distance .... Joint qualifications / European teacher programmes ....... Primary intercultural teacher training: JULIET .................. Online consultancy, resources, networking and INSET for foreign language teachers: The Languages Centre ...... M. Paed: action research Master’s degree in foreign language teacher training ....................................................... Observation programme ........................................................ Primary languages initiative ................................................... TALLENT: Teaching and Learning Languages Enhanced by New Technologies .......................................... ‘Teacher-line’: partnerships and teamwork in Initial Teacher Training (ITT) programmes ................................... Teaching practice portfolios .................................................. Reflexivity in training: ‘Tomorrows Teachers Project’: .....

Chapter 4

113 120 126 133 141 147 154 159 166 174 181 188 197

Furthering good practice .............................. 203

Analysis of training needs .............................................................. Recommendations for action ........................................................ Professional profile of the European Language Teacher .......... Portrait of the European Language Teacher ...............................

204 209 250 255

Conclusion .................................................................................... 261 Appendix: Methodology .......................................................... 265 Bibliography ................................................................................. 275 10

List of tables 1 2 3 4 5 6

Languages for which training has been identified .............. Fees and funding ..................................................................... Initial training qualifications for secondary school teaching .................................................................................... Teachers responsible for foreign language teaching at primary level ........................................................................ Countries studied .................................................................... Stages of research ....................................................................

47 52 54 76 265 266

Boxed text features European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL) .......................... European Language Portfolio ....................................................... European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) .................................. SOCRATES: Lingua ....................................................................... SOCRATES: ERASMUS ............................................................... European Language Council ......................................................... Eurydice and Eurybase ................................................................... Lingu@net Europa ......................................................................... Associations ...................................................................................... European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) .................... The Bolgona Process ...................................................................... Common European Framework of Reference for Languages .

36 44 73 96 107 119 132 196 202 218 238 259

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Introduction

Language teachers can make a powerful contribution to the Europe that is emerging. They can help to create bonds of friendship and mutual support between European countries and with the wider world, while at the same time promoting the linguistic and cultural diversity. The European language teacher is an idea whose time has surely come. But the language teacher of tomorrow needs concerted action today by teacher trainers, by education researchers, by decision makers and by policy makers at institutional, national and European levels. This study examines the current situation of initial training and in-service training of teachers of a foreign language in Europe. It outlines the main developments that have taken place in recent years, and presents case studies of good practice. From these it draws recommendations on how good practice and innovation can be spread more widely across Europe. The first chapter provides an overview of the contexts in which language teacher training currently occurs in Europe, examining the policy environment, the theoretical background, the state of language teaching and learning, and the social and professional contexts to which it most closely relates. The second chapter identifies patterns of teacher training, including the range of languages for which teacher training is available. It examines initial teacher training provision for the secondary sector, where most language education is focused, and for the primary sector, where early language learning is expanding significantly. It concludes by examining provision for in-service training. Chapter 3 presents fifteen detailed case studies, which exemplify a broad range of good practices from which wider lessons can be learned. Many of these are collaborative schemes

involving several European countries, but there are also excellent examples of effective teacher training within a single country or institution. The fourth chapter identifies the main academic needs that have emerged from the analysis, and proposes a series of recommendations on action that needs to be taken. The twentytwo recommendations are grouped under three main headings, addressing the European-level infrastructure that is required, the kind of language teacher it should aim to produce, and particular areas on which more study is needed. The recommendations are accompanied by a sample professional profile of the ideal European language teacher of the twenty-first century, outlining the training features that would need to be offered. This book is based on a study undertaken on behalf of the EU Commission, Directorate General for Education and Culture, as part of the groundwork for a strategy document planned by the Commission for 2003. It is therefore a policy-oriented book, within the specific context of key policies of the European Union, encapsulated in three broad policy objectives: · · ·

Linguistic diversity should be promoted (including in formal education systems) and people should be encouraged to learn the less widely used and less taught languages; Every European citizen should be able to speak two European Community languages in addition to his or her mother tongue; The quality and quantity of foreign language learning and teaching should be improved.

These objectives are a well established acquis in European policy terms, and are taken as desirable objectives, without extended discussion of why they should be supported. In presenting the study, the authors are aware of widespread discussions currently being undertaken at European level to develop greater co-operation and convergence in education 14

practices, to achieve key objectives in improving education and training, and to define the shape of a European Higher Education Area. They also recognise that a number of key priorities have emerged from those discussions, especially the importance of employability, which sets teachers the task of equipping students to participate fully in the world of work; the knowledge society, which is placing new imperatives on education, especially in communication and information technology; widening participation, which sets education the objective of contributing to wide social inclusion; and lifelong learning, which includes the need to prepare students with the skills and strategies that will enable them to continue to learn actively throughout their lives. The book is specifically concerned with the teaching of languages as foreign languages, as distinct from the teaching of the same languages as second languages. Thus, for example, the teaching of Danish to Greek citizens in Greece is covered by this study, but the teaching of Danish to Greek immigrants in Denmark is not. The focus is on European languages taught as foreign languages, and where other languages are referred to, such as non-European languages or regional and minority languages, this is made clear in the text. While the whole of Europe is an important context, the study has confined its attention to the countries of the European Union, EEA Member States, and other countries participating in the SOCRATES and Leonardo programmes – a total of thirty-two countries. Throughout the discussion, the term ‘teacher training’ is understood also to mean ‘teacher education’, taking the widest view of the processes involved. The present authors were part of the team at the University of Southampton, which carried out the research on which the book is based. We wish to acknowledge the vital contribution of the three colleagues who were also members of the research team: Ms Angela Gallagher-Brett, Miss Laurence Richard, and Mrs Amanda Hilmarsson-Dunn. We also wish to thank Mr Paul Holdsworth and Mr Erik Sandvik of the EU Commission for their support and 15

advice. The provisional findings were presented and discussed at a workshop on curriculum innovation, organised for the Thematic Network in languages (Bled, Slovenia, May 2002). We should like to thank the participants at the workshop and the many specialists who commented on different parts of the original project report. Their help is acknowledged in detail at the end of this volume. As the organisation, content and structure of teacher education evolves across Europe and around the world, as new technologies, collaborative programmes and government alliances develop and grow, the field of language teacher training appears increasingly complex and diverse. We hope this book will serve as a guide to recent trends and possible future developments in the training of language teachers in Europe. We hope it will also provide a concise volume of reference for trainers, administrators, policy makers and others who are concerned with the extension of good practice and innovation in this area. In addition to providing answers to questions of how, why and where training is currently being conducted, it poses questions about the future of language teacher training and the identity of the European Language Teacher of tomorrow. What does the future hold for language teacher training in Europe? Who will teach the next generation of language students? And what training will be required to cater for their needs. In short, what steps must be taken today to ensure the success of language teaching, and of language teacher training tomorrow? Michael Grenfell Michael Kelly Diana Jones

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Chapter 1 Contexts for addressing language teacher training

This chapter sets out the context within which language teacher training is conducted throughout Europe. It examines the broader social and political context and the immediate policy context in which the study has been prepared. It then presents a theoretical background to language teacher training showing how various approaches to teaching theory and teaching practice have been incorporated into programmes of teacher training, or education. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the contexts of foreign language teaching and learning, including the patterns of language education in pre-school, in compulsory schooling, and in the post-compulsory sectors. It outlines the diversity of social and professional contexts for language teachers, and the opportunities available for career advancement or promotion within the teaching profession.

The policy context The study appears in a rapidly changing social and political world, and is part of a response to the growing strategic importance of languages in Europe and internationally. The processes of internationalisation in trade and industry are creating greatly increased language needs, with some languages, such as English and Spanish, playing a global role. These are accompanied by

growing localisation through which enterprises and other organisations seek to adapt their activity to the specific languages and cultures of their customers and stakeholders. The world’s population is increasingly mobile, with large numbers of people migrating, working abroad and travelling for work and leisure purposes. This trend is leading to greater language needs both for the mobile people and for those whom they meet in professional or personal capacities. New technologies of information and communication are providing greatly increased access to material in all languages. They accentuate the advantages of those who are able to work in several languages and the disadvantages of those who are functionally confined to only one language. This issue is becoming more pressing as knowledge and information are assuming greater importance in economic terms. In the ‘knowledge society’ language competence is becoming a key factor in social inclusion and exclusion. All of these trends are at work in Europe and are intensified by the processes of European integration, which aim to eliminate barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital and people across a growing number of countries. Cultural and linguistic barriers are emerging as key issues, while other barriers are brought down. The construction of European unity at a political level depends crucially on maintaining and respecting diversity. In this context, the value of language as a means of communication is set alongside its importance as a mark of identity. The Union has recognised this through a wide range of initiatives aimed at protecting language diversity, especially in respect of the less widely used and less taught languages. Member states have increasingly adopted measures in this direction, especially in respect of regional and community languages, and the languages of non-European partners. The recent EU Council decision to endorse the policy of citizens learning two languages in addition to their mother tongue is an important confirmation of this.

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Education is deeply rooted in the social and political context, responding to the changes taking place and also helping to shape the pattern of change. The training of teachers has therefore a strategic role in preparing Europe’s education systems to meet the challenges of change, and to equip students to respond effectively to those challenges. Language teachers have the particular task of developing their students’ knowledge and skills in the domain of languages and cultures. Their aim is to enable their students to understand the world around them, to communicate across linguistic and cultural boundaries, and to play an active role at many levels in the world. This task is both complex and challenging. It requires teachers to be trained in a wide range of methods and approaches in order to keep abreast of effective practices developed elsewhere, and to share their own ideas and practices with others. Teacher trainers, educationalists and decision makers must in their turn identify the wider needs of society, and establish institutional and organisational frameworks that will improve the way the needs of teachers and students can be met.

The theoretical context To theorise about teacher training in Europe is to evoke a whole set of conceptual terms, which have arisen in the course of our developing knowledge about the processes of becoming a language teacher. Such knowledge is the product of practice: of language teachers teaching, trainers training them and researchers investigating their provenance and destiny. The literature and research fields, at a European and worldwide level, are large and diverse. They are also relatively young, or immature and seem to be characterised by a lack of focus or consensus on how to approach the processes of teacher training, the language to use to explain 19

them and, consequently, how to set about organising it in practice. Even the word ‘training’ is contested, because of an implied association with the passing on of a fairly narrow set of skills. Many prefer to use the term ‘teacher education’ as they feel this more accurately describes the continuing growth of knowledge and understanding inherent in professional development. Teacher training and education has a long tradition in Europe, stretching back into the nineteenth century. Each country has its own history, particular traditions, and ways of doing things – even in theoretical terms. It is impossible to capture this diversity. This section, therefore takes a general overview at a theoretical and issue-driven level, against which individual national perspectives can be compared and contrasted. In many European countries, it was not until the last quarter of the twentieth century that training became a prerequisite for those wishing to teach. Our study has shown that in these countries, teacher training is now an established and advanced activity. Nevertheless, we have also found that in others it is in the early stages of development; some where practical experience and training is only just becoming a necessary for those entering the teaching profession. Teaching as an activity has often been regarded as any other professional occupation. Therefore, it has been referred to as a ‘profession’, a ‘craft’, a ‘calling’, a ‘vocation’, a ‘job’, a ‘skill’ – amongst others. We do not wish to go into all the ramifications of each of these terms, and employing any one brings with it assumptions and preconceptions of what it is to teach. Generally, teaching has been mixed up with the whole literature on professions. The common line is to enquire into what distinguishes a profession from other forms of economic activities, and to examine whether there are commonalties across areas of professional work. Some have seen the more recognised professions in terms of traits; that particular personality characteristics predispose some individuals to orientate themselves towards certain types of professions, with the lifestyle and personal 20

attitudes they imply. While this discourse is rather deterministic and has been largely discredited in a world of equal opportunities and open access, the question of professional skills and attributes continues to preoccupy writers and researchers in the field. The question of how such professional skills can be acquired is now central to literature and discussion on teacher education, as in many other vocational settings. Research on teaching has hence been caught up in the general work on the professions. One consequence of this feature is that teaching has been treated generically. A continuing difficulty in making sense of, or applying general research findings to, our own European contexts, is the continual need to ask questions about the implications any one point or finding from the research on the professions may have for the training of language teachers in particular. The generic research has been traditionally grounded in a sociology of professions. Therefore, it has been preoccupied with issues of social structure and differentiation, as well as opportunities for resistance to what the writers perceive as prevailing socio-economic forces. This critical tradition continues. It is not immediately helpful to those looking for knowledge of how best to train teachers to maximise their effectiveness in the classroom. Research into the latter only really took off in the last decades of the twentieth century. Wideen and Tischer (1990) write of the ‘quantum leap’, which took place in research on teacher education in the USA in the 1960s. As a discipline, it has been described as ‘lacking a clear epistemological base’ (Shulman 1986) and ‘preparadigmatic’ (Pope 1993). This latter term refers to Kuhn’s definition of an epistemological or knowledge field having a delineated space and language; that there exists a consensus amongst those involved on these features and the legitimate terms of reference for dealing with issues arising. Such is a paradigm. To refer to teacher education as ‘pre-paradigmatic’ is to see it as somewhat lacking a consensual view, not only concerning what it

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is and what are its processes, but indeed the very language we employ to talk about it. This lack of maturity has been answered somewhat in recent years by a positive explosion in research on teacher education. In Europe, organisations such as the European Educational Research Association and the Association for Teacher Education in Europe have provided a platform for all those involved in teachers’ professional development – both trainers and researchers – to dialogue at a European level and thus work towards a common understanding of aims, objectives, processes and organisational structures. Much has been published, often in the form of case studies of innovation and good practice. In addition, there has been a growing interest in teachers’ thinking or craft knowledge. This discipline focuses on what teachers do and why, with the ultimate aim being edification of their practice. In other words, if we can find out what experienced teachers do and think, we can plan induction into the profession based along similar lines. There is perhaps a distinction to be made between what it is to be a teacher, and what it is to become a teacher. On the one hand, there are the professional traits, skills, characteristics, etc. of the qualified teacher. And these are hardly static. Rather, they can be attributed to the various stages. Field in Lieberman and Miller (1992), for example, expresses such professional development in terms of ‘control’. It may be identifiable in four stages over the course of the teachers’ career: stage one, teachers do not have a feel for how to move their classes along and are dependent on their lesson plans; stage two, they relax somewhat, gain a certain amount of confidence with early successes and are able to let pupils work on their own more; stage three, learning becomes more continuous and less viewed as a series of assignments; stage four, teachers act with a greater sense of achievement and see classrooms more as an integrated whole. On the other hand, there is the question of how to begin this process; to induct initial

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trainees into the profession in a way which will allow them to move forward with the necessary knowledge skills. This study is concerned with both the initial, or pre-service, training of teachers, as well as their in-service training. In both cases, issues of theory and practice are paramount. This dichotomy – theory and practice – goes back as far as the times of ancient Greek philosophy and beyond. It is one, which goes to the very core of teacher education. The common sense view is that we only learn by doing. Practice is therefore all. We cannot simply play with the ingredients of practice – we also need instruction. It would take a very long time to come up with a cake given the components of flour, sugar and butter if we did not also have a recipe setting out quantities, procedures, and cooking form and times. In a sense, the recipe is theory. It is fairly useless without practice, but without it we have problems. Theory, therefore, is a way of coming to common agreement over what we should do and how. Such an agreement is of course quite broad, and there is room for individual variation, experimentation and improvisation. But, it does at least offer a guide and a starting point. Theory, in this sense, is less a prescription than a framing set of principles around which a particular activity can take place. The analogy with teaching and teacher training holds good. So, theories of language learning help us to develop our language teaching. In other words, if we can discover how languages are learned, then we can orientate our pedagogy to make the most of these processes. Similarly, if we can discover more about the processes of teachers’ professional development, we can orientate our training and education organisation to draw on and develop them. In this case, theory and practice are intimately linked – you cannot have one without the other. We can see such issues of theory and practice present in educational research throughout the ages. In the first half of the twentieth century, what European educational research there was came very much from a psychological perspective. Piaget, with his 23

discovery of the stages of a child’s development towards cognitive maturity, is a good example of this approach. We can also see it in the ways that behaviourist psychology – with its views of learning as a skill based activity – dominated language learning. The result of this domination was the language laboratory, where linguistic competence was seen as the outcome of endless drilling. Mistakes were the result of insufficient practice; the answer was therefore more drilling. By the 1960s, a new approach came about, and its provenance was philosophy. Writers such as Hirst (1966) argued that educational theory was different from other forms of theory. In the context of education, it was not simply a question of making discoveries about learning and applying them to teaching. Rather, educational theory was best understood as an amalgam of personal, social and contextual processes. The foundations to education theory – the so-called foundational disciplines – were, history, sociology, psychology and philosophy. It was by understanding history, psychology, philosophy and sociology that teachers would understand how to operate at the various levels of their professional activity, most notably with pupils Each of these disciplines has its own issues, problems, as well as responses and solutions to them. Teacher education thus became an induction into these ways of knowing or understanding, which led towards a holistic relationship to teaching and learning. Much teacher training was, and in some countries still is, organised around the study of these and associated disciplines. Nonetheless, there are plainly some problems in this approach, and these became more evident as the decades of twentieth century drew on. Firstly, these foundational disciplines seem quite academic. They do not relate directly to what to do in the classroom. Teachers have to make their own applications of individual discipline theories to classroom pedagogy. Secondly, it is not clear how they relate to each other, and the nature of the resultant educational theory. Teachers have to effect their own integration. Thirdly, the direction of knowledge is one way, based on experts 24

telling others how to view the world. Fourthly, the focus seems to be quite generic and does not relate to individual subject disciplines at all. For example, there seems to be very little room in the foundational subjects for issues concerned with second language learning and teaching. For all these reasons, this approach exacerbates the tension between theory and practice. Elliot (1991) makes the point that teachers do not like theory, faced as these are with the existential intensity of everyday school reality. Put bluntly: they do not like others telling them what to do, or abstracting from the complexities of their routines and experiences. Perhaps not surprisingly, trainee teachers too often repeatedly disavow theory in favour of practice. (Hanson and Herrington, 1976, DfE 1982, 1988). Preoccupied as they often are with coping with pupils, fitting in and achieving some degree of success, they are suspicious of any form idealism about what ought to be rather than what is. It is perhaps unsurprising to find the same issues of theory and practice centrally present in approaches to language teacher education. Michael Wallace (1991) sums up three principal models. We want to set these out and add a fourth; one, which has become more influential in recent years and against which we should read the findings of this study. These models are themselves culturally centric, in that they are the product of particular perspectives. They do, though, offer us ideal types against which we can measure individual variation in practice. The Craft Model Approach The Craft Model is the traditional apprenticeship approach. Wallace recalls that it is sometimes referred to as ‘sitting with Nellie’. Here, the would-be trainee works alongside the ‘master craftsman’. Skills are passed on by a process of osmosis, observation, mimicry, questioning, and guidance. In this approach, little is openly expressed, still less in formal terms. Rather, the 25

relationship between experienced teacher and trainee is personal and professional, as the latter models themselves on the former. It is one where practice, as a living example, features most in the training process. The Applied Science Model Approach The Applied Science Model is similar to the language laboratory example quoted above, where research in psychology is the means by which teachers are ‘told what to do’. The term science itself has a broad range of meanings these days. We are used now to referring to the social or human sciences. These are the sciences of man. The foundational disciplines mentioned above are part of these. Each has their recognised bases, concerns and preoccupations. These can be contrasted with the physical sciences – chemistry, physics, and biology. In terms of teaching and training, it is the former which concern us. Here, discoveries from the human sciences are passed on to trainees as a guide for teaching practice. We can see such a process, not only in the way that behaviourist psychology shaped second language learning and teaching in the 1960s, but also in the way this approach was later eclipsed by Chomskyan linguistics, with the implications it offered in terms of generative language and the human language acquisition device. The resultant methodological approach stressed communication as the means and end of language teaching and learning rather than explicit grammar knowledge or skill acquisition. The Applied Science Approach explains these scientific discoveries to the trainees and sets out what should be done in pedagogic practice. Here, perhaps, theory is dominant.

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The Reflective Practitioner Model Approach It is tempting to see the Reflective Practitioner Model as somewhat of a hybrid of the other two, but it is more than that. It is certainly based in practice, and scientific theory is available. Trainees are encouraged to think about, or reflect on, both. Reflection acts as a bridge between theory and practice. In this way, theoretical knowledge is brought to practice, or practice to theory. It is in the relationship between the two that professional knowledge develops. The term ‘Reflective Practitioner’ became popular following the publication of Donald Schön’s book of that title in 1983. Here, he makes the point that professional activity is more of an art than a specific knowledge base. He attempts to provide an ‘epistemology of practice’ to show how practical knowledge is unified, integrated and highly context dependent. Such reflection is a pervasive condition rather than a sequence of discrete events. It is also dependent on context: time and place. Schön distinguishes between reflection on action and reflection in action, and relates this to knowledge on action and knowledge in action. These distinctions show how reflection is a medium for noticing, observing and practical responsiveness. Both theory and practice are facets of reflection and are therefore mutually constitutive. The model became extremely influential in Europe during the 1980s and 90s. The majority of training institutions in Britain claimed to operate according to a reflective practitioner framework. The Competence Based Teacher Education Mode Approach The Competence Based Teacher Education (CBTE) Model might also be understood as somewhat of a response to the apparent shortcomings of previous approaches. So, if the Reflective Practitioner Model was an attempt to reconcile the tension of 27

theory and practice, CBTE advocates might claim that it only did so by operating at a broad, abstract level. In fact, any item of experience can be justifiably reflected up. Whilst this does indeed provide a utilitarian realm in which professional development can take its course, CBTE supporters would argue that it does not provide sufficient lead or direction. The starting point for CBTE, on the other hand, is the drawing up of a list of competencies. In other words, this is what any individual needs to do, or can be shown to be doing in order to meet the professional definition of ‘teacher’. Both trainees and trainers are therefore provided with lists of what teachers must be able to do, training organised to provide for the acquisition of skills and, eventually, assessment is set in order to guarantee that trainees are indeed performing in accordance with them. It should be evident that these four models are only mutually exclusive in the realm of theory. It is perfectly possible to see that the Craft Model included statements of practice which were in some ways theoretical and pertained to the competencies of being an effective teacher. Moreover, theories from applied science and formal lists of teacher competencies can themselves be a source of reflection, both from a theoretical and a practical point of view. It would also be debatable as to whether any of the models listed ever existed or exists in their pure form. It is more likely that any form of training is a combination of all of them. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that these four models also each represent the eras in which they arose and the concerns which preoccupied trainers at the time. The four models can be understood in terms of their chronological order. Thus, the Craft Model predominated up until the second world war, following which the Applied Science Approach entered increasingly into vogue. Then, in the 1970s and 80s, the Reflective Practitioner Model dominated, until finally, in the 1990s, Competence Based Teacher Education came to the fore.

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It is important to stress that individual national contexts will vary across Europe and the world. The subject of this book is Modern Foreign Language Teacher Training as it currently exists in Europe. We are concerned with innovation and best practice. The recommendations we finally make are based on what we have discovered about what works best and what we believe needs to be put in place to provide a European system of teacher training for the twenty-first century. We live in a new world, with fresh challenges and opportunities. Who is the would-be language teacher? What are their needs and skills? How will they seek to undertake teacher training? The features of training are increasingly complex and diverse. The issues in training of theory and practice, science and reflection, craft and profession will not, however, go away. Rather, they provide the foundations around which diversity of approach will exist. This point draws us back to questions of what it is to be a teacher and the nature of professional knowledge. The controversy running through the four models set out above is not simply one of theory and practice. Rather it involves fundamental principles concerning our understanding of how teacher knowledge develops. For example, some (see Elliott 1993) have argued that behind CBTE lies a crucial issue of whether we see professional competence as something that can be reduced to a series of discrete items, or as a holistic development of integrated skills and knowledge bases. Does professional development proceed by way of a fairly linear journey through a series of single items, or does it grow as a multifaceted understanding and practice. Critics of CBTE argue that it commits the behaviourist fallacy of only recognising what is observable. We can also see that attempts to draft lists of skills and knowledge required for sophisticated professional jobs, even simpler ones, can lead to extremely complicated descriptions. Furthermore, offering these as a basis of training and assessment simply leads to people working to the lists and not much more; seeing demonstration of each competence as 29

an end in itself rather than the activity and outcome to which it is applied. We live in an age where knowledge is all and where control of it offers power to those who hold it. Lists of competencies are therefore a means of prescribing what should be done; indeed, of insisting or requiring what will be done. Therefore, it might be thought of as an attractive form of topdown policy management. Nevertheless, if we take a less harsh line on such competence lists, we might see that they can provide a focus for personal monitoring and evaluation. It is clear that how we define professional knowledge reveals how we understand it. In the British system in recent years, a modified form of CBTE has been applied. Therefore, the Teacher Training Agency (TTA), charged with all aspects of teacher recruitment and training, has provided lists of competencies – some sixty-two of them! – against which trainees should be trained and assessed. Other European countries have adopted a similar approach. In Bulgaria for example, teacher training is regulated in accordance with the State Educational Requirements, or SER, while in Germany minimum standards have been agreed by education authorities from the sixteen Länder to regulate the various components of training. The notion of quality, or standards, is key. Indeed, the competencies in Britain have been renamed standards in order to give an added quality enhancement spin to them. In other words, we are aiming to maximise the standards of effectiveness, rather than basic acquisition of them. The standards are expressed in terms of Knowledge and Understanding, Planning, Teaching and Class Management (Monitoring, Assessment, Recording, Reporting and Accountability), and Other Professional Requirements. Sixty-two items are distributed across these. Simpler versions of competencies exist as alternatives. The McBer report expressed teacher effectiveness in terms of Professional Characteristics, Teaching Skills and Classroom Climate. For Professional Characteristics, it lists Professionalism (Challenge and Support, Confidence, Creating Trust and Respect 30

for Others), Thinking (Analytical Thinking and Conceptual Thinking), Planning and Expectations (Drive for Improvement, Information Seeking and Initiative), Leading (Flexibility, Holding People Accountable, Managing Pupils and Passion for Learning), and Relating to Others (Impact and Influence, Team Working and Understanding Others). For Teaching Skills it lists High Expectations, Planning, Methods and Strategies, Lesson Flow, Time and Resource Management, Pupil Management and Discipline, Assessment and Homework. For Classroom Climate it lists Clarity, Order, Standards, Fairness, Participation, Support, Safety, Interest, and Environment. Many of these features are the outcome or product of teacher effectiveness. Many also obviously relate not only to the initial trainee but the newly qualified teacher and the expert teacher or mentor. Therefore, questions remain concerning the processes, which must be organised as part of teacher training, both preservice and in-service, in order to bring them about. Shulman (1990) is concerned to show that different knowledge bases have to be developed in the course of teacher training. He lists these as follows: · · · · · · ·

Content Knowledge General Pedagogic Knowledge Curriculum Knowledge Pedagogical Content Knowledge Knowledge of Learners and their Characteristics Knowledge of Educational Contexts Knowledge of Educational Ends

Content Knowledge refers to the actual subject taught (in this case, languages) and the way it is organised, established and represented. This might differ from individual to individual, there may be national commonalties, or trends across and within particular languages.

31

General Pedagogic Knowledge is concerned with classroom management and strategies. These are more global than particular subject knowledge. There may be national particularities, customs and traditions. Curriculum Knowledge involves specific programmes of study and the materials suggested by them. Within Europe, there are as many curricula as there are countries, each with there individual schemes, which themselves are drafted according to specific national principles. Pedagogical Content Knowledge is the product of the interaction between the first three above. It is the way a subject knowledge is ‘re-learnt’ by the trainee within a pedagogic context and for pedagogic end. Subject knowledge is ‘re-framed’ with pedagogic ends in mind. Knowledge of Learners and their Characteristics self-evidently concerns familiarity with individual pupils and the characteristic ways in which typical pupils respond and behave. If the teacher and pupil share the same nationality, there is greater possibility of convergence. Where this is not the case, misunderstandings may occur resulting from teacher and pupil coming from different directions. Knowledge of Educational Contexts covers the various operational sites of teaching, including classrooms, departments, schools, colleges, and training institutions. Again, there are enormous national differences in these. Knowledge of Educational Ends covers knowledge of the values and purposes of teaching, as well as their historical and philosophical antecedents, including the significant features from society and the education profession. We might regard this taxonomy as an epistemological map of teacher professionalism, out of which the competencies or standards cited above might emerge. We wrote of the nature of theory and its relation to practice. We also wrote about different types of theory: physical, social scientific, educational. It would be possible to take each of these knowledge bases and develop social 32

and psychological theory or theories to explain them, as well as their operation and development. It is clear that such an undertaking would have to include a range of cognitive and sociological theories, themselves attributable to distinct theoretical traditions. In this sense, teachers’ professional knowledge can be theorised in terms of explicit theories within theories. However, theorising in this way is only helpful if it offers guidance about what to do as a result. In other words, does our knowledge of the processes of these knowledge bases allow to better organise training as a result? It is clear that across Europe there is tremendous diversity of practice, organisation and management in training. Each of the knowledge bases cited are developed in particular contexts, and particular individuals within these contexts. Such individuals have their own personalities and backgrounds, some of which are nationally derived. A French native speaker training to teach English in France, for example, is not the same as that individual training to teach French in England. Nevertheless, even though the constituting elements are distinct, we know that the internal processes of training are the same. When we talk of educational theory in language teacher training, we know that there is on-going debate about the processes of second language acquisition, and that issues are raised and interpreted differently in separate national contexts, and impact differentially on national curricula. Instruction in methodology is likely to contain distinct features, which reflect the particularity of individual country’s understanding on how second languages are taught and learnt. Teachers and trainee teachers take these as a guide. Yet, we also know that much that guides teachers and trainee teachers operates at a tacit level. This knowledge has been called ‘pre-theoretical knowledge’ or that ‘horse-sense’ which only arises as a product of doing things. It is ‘pre-theoretical’ because it does not yet bear any of the formal characteristics of theory, in terms of being articulated, coherent and open to public 33

verification. It has its own rationale, which is tested out in practice, as the way to do things. This tacit knowledge can be highly individualised and contextually particularised, but it is probably at its most personal and deep in a teacher’s professional thinking. Part of this tacit understanding arises as a result of, often a reaction against, formal educational theory with its prescribed principles of practice. Sometimes, the knowledge types – pre-theoretical and educational theory – follow distinct and separate routes. On one side, is formal prescription of practice through curricula and training schemes; on the other side, is what the teacher or trainee thinks about these in the light of experience in working with them. However, this latter thinking may not be conscious or organised in any rational order. Reflection is a powerful technique in accessing this tacit knowledge and making it explicit. That is why the reflective practitioner metaphor is a useful guide to having trainee teachers work with the experience they have and make something of it. In fact the link between formal educational principles, expressed in methodology and curricula, and personal tacit knowledge is a key aspect to developing professional knowledge. Trainees must engage in both a formal debate with methodology as it is expressed at any one point in time and in any one country, but they must also enter this debate in terms of their own personal ‘understanding’, no matter how tacit, of how languages are learned and hence should be taught. Whatever the form that teacher training takes, such dialogic processes must be preserved and key to any organisation of it (cf. Grenfell 1998). Evans (1988) writes about language people in Europe. Are they different in some way? What makes them distinct? Are there differences in their fashion of becoming, which result in them developing their nature in particular ways? Are they more tolerant, sociable and understanding? There is something about learning a language to an expert level, which is highly formative for the individual. We might speculate that, despite enormous diversity, language people across Europe share something in common. 34

Training these individuals to become teachers perhaps begins with the advantage of a common core. As set out above, we know a great a deal about the facets of professional knowledge they will have to develop and what they must do in order to be effective in the classroom. We also know the possible models for organising any scheme or system of teacher education. Any future scheme is likely to include combinations of the features of theory and practice identified. Yet, these need to be set in a twenty-first century context. There is a need for accessibility and mobility in language teacher training in Europe. We live in an age of the Internet, where much can be provided through electronic knowledge systems. We also live in an age where both the supply and demand for language teachers are extremely diverse. Traditionally, only the expert linguist could be involved in language teaching. However, this is evidently no longer the case. In some contexts, highly particularised linguistic needs might be met by the linguistic semi-specialist, or even non-specialist. Here, a different specialism complements work with the expert linguist. This diversity of needs, both in the learner and trainee, requires diversity of provision. Such diversity adds to the personal and national sophistication evident across European countries in its traditions, aspirations, expectations, wants and needs. This study reports on what we have found there. Throughout the detailed account of our findings, issues of policy and practice will predominate. This emphasis is a necessity when we have in sight the generation of greater consensus in Europe on the ways we set about training language teachers. Such consensus will grow out of a desire to set common principles and objectives, eventually leading to policy, which will in turn enable a greater degree of integration. There are real choices to be made at a European and national level concerning how to organise language teacher education. Across national contexts there will always be individual variation in organisation. Behind this diversity, however, lie issues of process, and in this we will share commonalties of theory and 35

practice wherever the balance is struck. As in all things European, what we have in common is greater than what distinguishes us. European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL) The European Computer Driving Licence is the European-wide qualification which enables people to demonstrate their competence in computer skills. The ECDL is designed specifically for those who wish to gain a basic qualification in computing to help them with their current job, develop their IT skills and enhance their career prospects. No prior knowledge of IT or computer skills is needed to study the ECDL which is made up of the seven following modules: · · · · · · ·

Basic concepts of IT Using the computer and managing files Word processing Spreadsheets Database use Presentation Information and Communication

As ICT becomes increasingly central to all forms of education, as software packages specific to the foreign language learning context are developed and pupils become more and more computer literate, it is imperative that teachers are equipped with the knowledge to benefit from this in the classroom. Currently ITT programmes in several countries (Austria, Italy and others) give prospective teachers the opportunity to incorporate the ECDL into their training. This European level qualification will not only give teachers an edge in the classroom – access to online resources in a range of languages for example – but will enable them to establish and maintain networks of contacts with teachers across the continent and in this way to contribute towards a more integrated and mobile European language teaching community. More information on the ECDL may be found at: www.ecdl.co.uk

36

The language teaching and learning context In order to understand the issues of language teacher training, it is useful to understand the contexts in which languages are taught. This section focuses on the conditions in which languages are learned across Europe, especially in state provided education. It offers an overall synthesis, based on thirty-two countries. Five teaching and learning contexts are considered as follows: Languages in pre-school education; Languages in compulsory education; Languages in post-compulsory schooling; Languages in higher education; Languages in further education and life-long learning. Languages in pre-school education Attendance at pre-primary school is not compulsory in any European country, though it is widely available in many countries. Most European pre-school curricula do not include foreign language study, although languages are sometimes taught in them according to curricular decisions taken internally. For example, in the German Community of Belgium, the Czech Republic and Spain, schools have complete autonomy in this regard, which means that languages may be taught in schools where appropriately skilled staff are available. Four countries, Austria, Italy, Slovenia and Spain, are currently running pilot projects at preschool level to introduce foreign languages to very young learners.

37

Languages in compulsory education In twenty-five of the thirty-two European countries surveyed, education is compulsory for a period of nine or ten years starting at age five or six and ending at age fifteen or sixteen. Rather than being grouped in any particular area, exceptions to this rule are scattered throughout northern and western Europe and the preaccession countries. Romania has the shortest period of compulsory education at just eight years (7–15), while Germany has the longest at thirteen years in most of the federal Länder. In Belgium, Northern Ireland and the remainder of Germany, compulsory schooling lasts for twelve years, while in Hungary, Luxembourg, the UK (Scotland, England and Wales) and the Netherlands children must attend school for eleven years from age four or five. Foreign language learning is mandatory during some stage of compulsory schooling in all countries with the exception of Ireland, officially a bilingual community, in which English and Irish are both studied. Compulsory schooling may be organised as a single structure, as in the Norwegian grunnskole and Danish folkeskole, or divided into two or more stages as in the case of the three stages of Portuguese ensino básico, or the British primary and middle/ secondary schools. Significantly, the structure of the courses offered, particularly in the case of foreign languages, does not necessarily correspond to the structure of the educational system at large. That is to say, the introduction of a first or subsequent compulsory foreign language will not always coincide with the move to a new school or level of schooling. Typically, a first foreign language is introduced at age nine or ten and continued at least until the end of compulsory schooling. Exceptions to this pattern are found in Austria, Luxembourg and Norway, where primary school students start their first language in year one. In Bulgaria, Belgium’s Dutch community (outside of the Brussels area) and the UK, with the exception of Scotland, 38

compulsory foreign language classes are not introduced until age eleven, with the compulsory period of language learning set at just three years. Other optional or compulsory languages are usually introduced between the ages of twelve and fourteen, or approximately two thirds of the way through compulsory schooling. There is a growing tendency for a foreign language to be introduced earlier in the primary school phase, either on a compulsory basis (as in France) or on a voluntary basis (as in the UK). Primary schools often employ generalist teachers to teach all subjects at lower primary level. In countries such as Norway and Austria, generalist teachers are responsible for introducing a first compulsory or optional foreign language. In others, particularly where a choice of languages is offered, specialist teachers are called in to take language classes. At upper-primary level, languages are introduced to the majority of European school children and most commonly taught by specialists, or by semi-specialist teachers who teach a range of subjects including one or more foreign languages. Languages in post-compulsory schooling Post-compulsory schooling is offered in a variety of institutional contexts throughout Europe. These institutions usually specialise in providing either academic or vocational education. In recent years, vocational courses aimed at prospective teachers have been phased out as teacher training has been transferred to higher education. Most countries insist on the study of one, two or more languages during post-compulsory academic schooling, regardless of the disciplinary stream chosen. Foreign languages are optional only in Ireland, Italy and the UK. The emphasis on languages in vocational colleges tends to be less pronounced, although many institutions are now introducing optional or compulsory language courses for students of all disciplines.

39

The training requirements for language teachers in nonacademic vocational institutions may differ from those of academically oriented schools. In Denmark, for example, where a dedicated university has been established to cater for the research and training needs of the vocational sector, a programme of initial teacher training for prospective vocational school teachers has been developed. Languages in higher education Many countries have a policy of compulsory foreign language learning at tertiary level. Such is the case in the majority of the preaccession countries and parts of Northern and Western Europe. In the remaining countries, it is usual for students in most degree programmes to have access to optional units in foreign languages, and many institutions also offer voluntary, non-accredited language courses. Languages may be taught in Language Departments, in Language Centres, or in other academic units such as Schools of Business or Economics. Language teachers at tertiary level normally have a university degree but in many cases have not received substantial training in general teaching or in language teaching. Languages in further education and life-long learning In recent years, many national governments have introduced initiatives to encourage Europeans to build up their language skills in line with established EU policies on the importance of language learning. These initiatives were emphasised collectively during the European Year of Languages in 2001. Language schools and/or language learning centres operate in all countries and provide courses for all levels of ability. Teachers in these contexts may not 40

have received formal training as teachers. They are frequently native speakers of foreign languages, possibly with qualifications in teaching their own or another language to non-native adult learners. A range of flexible delivery options is available for language students including distance learning by correspondence and email, study abroad projects, evening classes and short courses.

The social and professional context This section provides an overview of some social and professional considerations affecting language teachers in Europe. These considerations are grouped under the three headings of Teachers’ employment status, pay and conditions; Induction; and Career prospects for trained teachers. Teachers’ employment status, pay and conditions Teachers working in state-run schools are employed as civil or public servants in approximately half of the European countries examined, for example, in Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community), France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain. In some cases, contract work is available to qualified teachers who are not civil servants. In France, Spain, Luxembourg and Italy, a competitive exam, open to holders of designated tertiary qualifications, is used to regulate access to permanent teaching positions. In Romania, a competitive exam is also used as part of the selection process for teaching positions in both the state and private sectors; although the successful appointees, employed by the Ministry of National 41

Education, do not hold the status of civil servants. In the Nordic countries, teachers are usually employed by the municipalities. Teachers’ pay and conditions vary greatly between countries, as does their status in terms of how they are seen by the general public. Currently, there is a shortage, or impending shortage, of qualified foreign language teachers in many European countries. This is typically the result of an ageing teaching population and the difficulty of attracting trainees to the profession. In Estonia and Latvia, for example, the recruitment of teachers is affected by the low rates of pay and prestige that apply. Research indicates that teachers here are often women who may be expected to work long hours of overtime without compensation. Many such teachers are employed on part-time contracts, while others hold down two positions. In countries where teachers are employed as civil servants, their professional status may command a greater degree of respect than it would elsewhere; although this does not always correlate with higher levels of salary. In certain cases, specific allowances apply to particular groups of teachers. For example, French teachers employed as civil servants may receive transport allowances, child support and urban zone allowances, while newly qualified British teachers are awarded a ‘golden hello’ and may also receive a London allowance. Induction Several countries insist on a trial or probationary period of teaching at the conclusion of which newly qualified teachers are required to present a report or, in some cases, sit further examinations. This system is used in France, Germany, Italy, Romania, Sweden and the UK. A probationary period also affects the promotion of teachers to civil servant status in Austria and Germany.

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Career prospects for trained teachers Eurybase reports indicate that the opportunities for teachers to advance their careers are extremely limited in many of the countries studied, including the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland and Poland. In contrast, opportunities for advancement based on factors such as performance to date, length of service, willingness to work in difficult areas or ‘versatility’ as employees and participation in in-service training are emphasised in France, Germany, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Spain. Promotion is possible but not regulated on a national level in Iceland, Latvia, Norway, Sweden and the UK. In some cases, length of service and participation in in-service training may lead to pay increases. However, this does not occur systematically across the continent. When Europe is considered as a whole, there appears to be a degree of correlation between the national regulation of teaching appointments, teachers’ status as civil servants or otherwise, and opportunities for pay increases and promotion. Throughout this chapter we have seen how an extensive range of policy-based, theoretical, linguistic, social and professional considerations impact on the language teaching profession across Europe. While the nature of this impact is specific to each of the thirty-two countries surveyed, increased awareness of the factors affecting language teachers everywhere can only be of benefit to teachers, trainers and trainees alike. The following chapter provides a detailed analysis of the organisation, content and structure of training programmes offered to prospective language teachers. In comparing and contrasting these programmes, it is imperative to bear in mind the contexts in which they operate, and the range of variables affecting these contexts in each of the countries surveyed. As this chapter has shown, the programmes 43

offered represent not only a range of approaches to language teacher training, but a variety of educational and political systems and the gradual convergence of many rich traditions of pedagogical and linguistic advancement. European Language Portfolio The European Language Portfolio was developed and piloted by the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, from 1998 until 2000. It was launched on a pan-European level during the European Year of Languages as a tool to support the development of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism. The European Language Portfolio is a document in which those who are learning or have learned a language – whether at school or outside school – can record and reflect on their language learning and cultural experiences. The portfolio contains a language passport which its owner regularly updates. A grid is provided where his/her language competences can be described according to common criteria accepted throughout Europe and which can serve as a complement to customary certificates. The document also contains a detailed language biography describing the owner’s experiences in each language and which is designed to guide the learner in planning and assessing progress. Finally, there is a dossier where examples of personal work can be kept to illustrate one’s language competences. Some initial and in service training courses for teachers include training in the use of the European Language Portfolio in the classroom. Others, such as the University of Newcastle, in the UK, incorporate the profile into the teacher’s personal language development. Yet other programmes, in the UK, Finland, Austria and Latvia for example, have adopted the portfolio concept as a means of assessing language teaching ability. (See the case study on practice portfolios for more detail). Further information on the European Language Portfolio is available on: www.culture2.coe.int/portfolio

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Chapter 2 Current provision in language teacher training

This chapter examines in detail the provision of teacher training for secondary schools and for primary schools in thirty-two countries in Europe. Initial training for the secondary sector is taken first, because it is commonly the main location for compulsory language learning, and for specialist language teaching. Arrangements there are typically more highly developed than for primary schools. In relation to each sector, the study examines organisational issues of where and under what conditions training is provided; curriculum issues of what theoretical content is offered; and what arrangements are made for trainees to gain practical experience of teaching; and structural issues of how long training courses last and under what modes they are delivered. A common template has been used for the secondary and primary sectors, addressing each of the following in turn: Organisation of training; Theoretical content of training courses; Practical components of training; Structure of training. In-service training (or continuing teacher education) is then studied, taking both the primary and secondary sectors together. The discussion considers the diversity of institutions responsible for providing in-service training, the qualifications that may be obtained, and the forms of career recognition available. It identifies

the main areas of content that are usually addressed, and the length and flexibility of training available.

Languages taught Initial teacher training is available in nearly thirty foreign languages across the different countries. However, the degree of availability is highly varied. All countries offer training in teaching English, French and German (where they are not native languages). Italian, Spanish and Russian are the next most widely available, being offered in more than half of the countries surveyed. Several countries offer teacher training in a range of less commonly studied languages (e.g. Asian languages), though in these cases the quantity of provision or take-up is usually quite small. Table 1 indicates the range of languages in which initial teacher training programmes are organised. As the specific focus of this study is on foreign languages, regional, minority and community languages have been deliberately omitted from this list. While the list has been compiled as carefully as possible, it should not be read as exhaustive. Localised training programmes may be available in additional languages in some cases.

46

Arabic Bosnian

Serbo-Croat

Bulgarian Chinese Croatian Czech Danish Dutch English Estonian Finnish French German Greek Hebrew Hungarian Italian Japanese Norwegian Polish Portugues Romanian Russian Slovak Slovene Spanish Swedish Turkish Ukrainian

2

Ireland

Iceland

Hungary

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Estonia

Denmark

Czech Republic

Cyprus

Croatia

Bulgaria

Belgium: German

Belgium: Flemish

Belgium: French

Austria

Table 1: Languages for which training has been identified

2

2 2 2 B B

2

2

2

B B 2 B B B B B B B B B B B 2 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 2 B B B B 2 2

2 B 2 2 B B B B B B B B B B 2 B B B 2

B B

2 B B

B B 2 2

2 2

2 2

B 2 2 2

2 2

2 2

2 2

2

B 2

2 B

2 2 B B 2

B B B 2 2

2 2 B 2 B B 2 B 2 2 B B 2 B B B 2 2

2

2

2

Continued on next page

47

48

UK

2 2 B B 2 2 B B B B

1 B B 2 1 B 2

2 2

2

2

2

B B B B B B B B B B B 2 B B B B B B B B B B B B 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2

2 B B B B B B B B 1 B B 2 B 2 B

B B B 2

B B B

2

B

B

2

1

B

2 2

2

2

2

2 B 2 2

2 B

B

2

B

B 2

B

B

2

Key 1 2 B

Switzerland

Sweden

Spain

Slovenia

Slovakia

Romania

Portugal

2

Poland

2

Norway

Netherlands

Luxembourg

Lithuania

Malta

Arabic Chinese Danish English Estonian Finnish French German Hungarian Italian Japanese Latvian Norwegian Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Slovak Slovene Spanish Swedish Turkish Ukrainian Urdu

Latvia

Italy

Table 1 (continued): Languages for which training has been identified

Programmes identified for primary level training Programmes identified for secondary level training Programmes identified for both primary and secondary training

2

Initial teacher training for secondary education Organisation of training The range of organisational and institutional structures in which language teacher training operates throughout Europe comprises a systematic framework, whose very configuration determines much of what is required and what can be achieved within it. Each country has its own specific system, responding to the nation’s needs, history and traditions, and often playing a significant social and political role in the life of the country. Across the specificities, there are also common patterns, which tend to converge in response to common international pressures and the development of increased co-operation at European level, and more widely. This section outlines the observed patterns of organisation of initial language teacher training for secondary education, and analyses what each may contribute to developing an effective system of training across the continent as a whole. Secondary foreign language teachers are trained throughout Europe by universities or teacher training colleges. Within universities, training is most often the combined responsibility of two academic units: Faculties or Departments of Education and Faculties or Departments of Foreign Languages. In some cases, both entities fall within a single organisational unit, such as a Faculty of Arts, Humanities or Social Sciences. Despite this, however, the degree of active co-operation between the units is extremely variable and this is very clearly an area in which considerable improvements are needed at both national and European levels. In addition to these standard patterns, three exceptions have been observed. In France, training is carried out by the IUFM (Institut Universitaire de Formation des Maîtres) and a similar system has recently been introduced in Switzerland with the establishment of the new Hautes Ecoles Pédagogiques (HEP). 49

These are national institutions, affiliated to the Ministries of Education, which operate in collaboration with universities and specialise in training teachers. Secondly, in the UK, alongside the traditional higher education routes into teaching, it is possible for teachers to be trained by school clusters or individual schools rather than higher education institutions. Finally, in Liechtenstein foreign language teachers are trained by institutions in neighbouring countries; that is to say, no initial training courses are available for prospective language teachers in Liechtenstein itself. Each of these organisational structures has useful implications in the context of training language teachers for employment across an integrated Europe. Rather than attempting to rationalise or reduce the variety of provision it is clear that each method of training increases the potential for producing the necessary range of usefully skilled teachers, and that diversity should be actively encouraged. Initial teacher training in each country is co-ordinated by the Ministry of Education or a similar body. In some instances, Ministries act in accordance with parliamentary legislation. In others, they are advised by bodies made up of representatives from higher education institutions. Several countries have set up agencies with specific responsibility for overseeing the training of teachers and making recommendations to ministries and to the training providers. Examples of this include the Teacher Training Agency in the UK (England and Wales) and the Standing Committee of Teacher Training in Hungary. Where such agencies exist, there is evidence that they appear to be valued for their high degree of focus on the issues of teacher training and for their close contact with teacher trainers and schools. Co-ordination in Germany follows a slightly different pattern because of the country’s federal structure. The Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the sixteen Länder have responsibility for training, but the Standing Conference of Ministers (KMK) aims to provide co-ordination at a national level. 50

Teaching qualifications are accredited throughout Europe by either the training institutions themselves, the ministries of Education, or a combination of both. In some countries there are specific accreditation bodies, which are related to ministries; for example: Hungary, Portugal and the UK. In several cases, national guidelines have been established to regulate teacher training courses. Examples of this include the UK’s Teacher Training Agency Requirements and Bulgaria’s State Educational Requirements. The high level of regulation at national level is an effective guarantee of the quality and status of teachers. However, it frequently creates barriers to mobility, since teachers trained in other countries may find it difficult to secure recognition of their qualifications, especially where teachers enjoy civil servant status. There are several examples of bilateral or multilateral agreements aimed at addressing these issues, and in Liechtenstein, where all teachers train in foreign institutions, the Department of Education is responsible for ensuring the quality and appropriateness of degrees obtained abroad. This issue is vital for the improvement of European integration and mobility in general, but is of particular importance for language teaching, where there is special value for a country in employing teachers from other member states, especially native speakers of the foreign language to be taught. Funding arrangements vary in and between countries and are subject to frequent change. Most countries operate a combination of different types of financial support for students undergoing teacher training. For example, in nine countries, all tuition fees are paid by the state, while many more countries have a grant or loan system in place to cover the cost of fees and partial living expenses. Such forms of financial assistance can apply to all students; alternatively, they can be means-tested, or they can be linked to academic achievement. Scholarships can also be made available in some circumstances.

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Table 2: Fees and funding Tuition fees not paid by students Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland UK

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Grant s ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

Loans

Scholarships

ʀ ʀ

ʀ

Salary paid for all or part of training

ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ ʀ

ʀ

ʀ ʀ ʀ

In countries where teachers are in short supply, fees may be waived, or students may receive a training salary for all or part of their training. Where final year students complete their training while working in schools, it is usual for them to receive some form of payment. Across Europe as a whole, there is a considerable degree of divergence in the fees and funding applicable to trainees. While this divergence clearly results from a complex range of social and economic factors, it is equally clear that, if language teachers are to be trained and employed at a European level, more consistency is required in the matter of financial support. Existing study abroad and exchange programmes would benefit from additional provision being made in the specific domain of language teacher training. Greater mobility would enable, in turn, a greater degree of compatibility between the various courses offered, increasing student mobility and contributing directly to the integration progress. Information on funding is not always clear, but the types of financial support for students currently operating are presented in Table 2 above. Within the various organisational structures identified throughout Europe, an equally diverse range of training options are offered. The most obvious distinction is made between those courses undertaken in the first cycle of higher education (undergraduate or equivalent) and those offered in the second cycle (postgraduate or equivalent). In several countries both alternatives exist, with a common distinction being made between training for teaching at upper and lower secondary level. Uppersecondary teachers are expected to be trained subject specialists in all instances. However, a distinction at lower-secondary level (or upper primary) is made in Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania and Norway, where teachers are only required to have undertaken an element of foreign language specialisation as part of their training.

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Table 3: Initial training qualifications for secondary school teaching Austria Belgium (Du) Belgium (Fr) Belgium (Ge) Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech R. Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 X1

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P4, U2, U3 P2, U4 U1, U4 U1, U4 P1, U1, U4 U5 X1 U2 P1 U1, U2 P3, U2 P1, P4 P4, U3 X1 U1, U2 P1, U1 P1

Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland UK

P1 P1, U1 P1 P1, U4 P1 P1, U1 P1, U1 P1, P3 P1, U1, U2 P1, U1 P1, U1, U3 U2 P1, U5 P1 U1 P1, P2, U4 P1, P4, P5, U1

Initial Bachelor’s style foreign language degree and a postgraduate diploma or certificate in teaching/education Master’s style postgraduate certificate for teaching at upper secondary level Initial Master’s style foreign language degree and a postgraduate certificate or diploma in teaching/education Joint qualification in PGCE/Maîtrise, PGCE/HSQA, Lehramt/Maîtrise Qualified Teacher Status resulting from school-based training Bachelor’s style degree with foreign language and educational components, combined with a teaching certificate Master’s style degree in foreign language and education, with teaching certificate (often necessary for teaching in upper secondary schools) Teacher training diploma Lower Secondary Teaching Diploma Degree resulting in title ‘Professor’ Bachelor’s style degree in foreign languages without teacher training

It is noted that shortages of qualified specialist foreign language teachers have been found to exist in most of the pre-accession countries and in the UK. In many countries, teachers preparing for work at uppersecondary level are required to train as subject specialists. They commonly complete a first degree or equivalent in the language and culture of the country or countries whose language they will teach. Pedagogic training may be offered within this first degree in an integrated bachelor’s or master’s programme, or consecutively, in a postgraduate certificate or master’s of education. In practice, programmes integrating academic and pedagogical training within a first degree (bachelor’s or equivalent), are most commonly directed towards teachers of lower-secondary level. These may be either subject specialists, or semi-specialists of two or more languages or a combination of languages and other subjects. Where integrated programmes are offered to prospective uppersecondary teachers, this is often in the context of a longer programme, such as the five-year master’s degree taught in Finland. Table 3, above, indicates the existing range of possible training routes by level of study, level of teaching, and level of subject specialisation in the thirty-two countries surveyed. Once again, it is imperative to note that each model of training has been developed in response to an established need for specifically skilled teachers to work in the complex landscape of language teaching in the many countries and communities examined. Careful consideration of the merits and limitations of each model is essential to the development of an effective set of training routes for the European-based language teachers of the future. A secondary school leaver’s certificate is almost always necessary for access to higher education in all countries surveyed. In most cases, the explicitly requested qualification is the particular certificate issued in the country where the training is to take place, although universities and colleges are increasingly encouraging students with the equivalent foreign qualifications to apply. In the 55

case of students applying to undertake training abroad, linguistic ability in the language of tuition must be proven and a language test is common practice. Exceptionally, in countries such as Sweden, the requirement for a school leaver’s certificate may be waived in the case of an applicant with relevant work place experience applying to study as a ‘mature’ student. At the domestic level, many institutions offering under-graduate courses to prospective language teachers expect them to sit an entrance examination to test their level of linguistic capability or, in some cases, general literacy and other ‘key skills’. Such courses may be required even where the language in question has been studied and assessed satisfactorily to school-leaving standard. Such is the case, for example, in Bulgaria, where potential language teacher trainees are recruited from specialised language high-schools and reassessed on the basis of their written and oral performance in a further series of exams. Where language teachers are in short supply, selection tends not to be so rigorous, and it is possible in some cases for trainees to learn almost all of the required linguistic skills whilst, at the same time, acquiring the pedagogical know-how to apply them in the classroom. In countries with postgraduate provision, it is usual for the student to hold a first degree in the foreign language to be taught, in order to be granted access to the course. Several countries or individual institutions have additional selection on the basis of interview. While entry to academic first degree programmes is relatively unrestricted in many of the countries surveyed, postgraduate admission procedures tend to be far more selective, and competition is fierce for entry to training programmes in countries not currently experiencing a shortage of language teachers. An obvious example of this is France, where prospective trainees may apply repeatedly for places over a period of several years. The variety of training models existing across Europe is reflected in the diversity of qualifications available to prospective teachers. Once again, these tend to be country specific, although a 56

number of common patterns may be observed, as demonstrated in Table 3 above. The degree of integration or separation of academic and teacher training studies depends on the type of programme followed. Undergraduate routes into teaching are generally characterised by pedagogic and academic studies running concurrently, although this is not always true of practical components. In postgraduate programmes, training takes place after the completion of academic subject studies. It is here that links with subject studies appear least well sustained, and most in need of improved co-operation at institutional level. Theoretical content of training courses All secondary school language teachers are required to acquire a body of academic knowledge in the course of their studies in higher education. The precise profile varies from country to country and from language to language, but the general areas of expected expertise are widely shared. The following section analyses the principal aspects of the theoretical content of language teacher training across Europe. In almost all instances courses include the study of general educational psychology and sociology. Less commonly, students are also introduced to research methodology. This is the case for example in Finland, Latvia and Malta. Ideally, a greater degree of co-ordination of training at European level would enable all students to access the less widely taught components of training, regardless of their country of origin. Indeed, when programmes of flexible and distance learning are developed to their full potential, students will no longer be limited even by their physical location. Students can train to teach in a wide range of European languages as shown in Table 1 above. The range available in different countries varies enormously. Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Finland and France appear to offer the broadest choice 57

of languages for initial teacher training. Approximately half the countries surveyed enable students to train in at least one of the less widely spoken national European languages. It seems that these courses attract relatively small numbers of students, though the availability of the courses is important to promote linguistic diversity. Encouragement needs to be given in some countries to increase the range of languages offered. Courses in language proficiency are included in the study programmes of foreign language student teachers in all countries. These either take place throughout the course of study, or during the trainees’ first degree. At present, there is considerable variance between the amount of language taught and the level of proficiency attained. Equally, the role of language teaching within the various programmes contrasts considerably across the continent as a whole. For language teacher training to operate successfully on a Europe-wide scale, it is imperative that controls such as the European languages portfolio be adopted. This will allow accurate comparison of the linguistic skills provided in each case and a clearer understanding of the European skills base as a whole. In approximately one third of the countries surveyed, it is customary for foreign language students to train in two subjects. Many other countries offer the possibility of studying two subjects, on an optional basis. Thus, in the case of approximately half of Europe’s current generation of language teacher trainees, one foreign language is studied alongside another subject which could be, and inevitably often would be, a second foreign language. Trainees typically study two foreign languages together in Portugal, while in Romania the second subject chosen would be either a second foreign language or Romanian. Where two languages are studied together, additional courses in Latin, or non-languagespecific teaching methodology may also be encouraged. Such courses are typical of the integrated programmes offered, for example, in Bulgaria.

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The vast majority of countries enable first degree language students and language teacher trainees to train in or learn a second foreign language at some point in their studies. However, provision in additional foreign languages is not necessarily available in all higher education institutions and the provision in teacher training colleges tends to be less extensive than in universities. Where multiple language study is encouraged, restrictions may apply to the combinations of languages that can be followed; that is to say, students wishing to train in a less widely spoken language are normally required to combine it with the study of English, French or German for example. Despite these restrictions, the practice of training in two languages is already widespread, and needs to be further encouraged. It provides a good basis for teachers to see themselves as ‘language teachers’ rather than ‘English teachers’ or ‘French teachers’, and is a key mechanism by which less widely spoken languages may be fostered. The practice of training in a language and another discipline is also widely followed, and needs to be further encouraged at European level. In the region of North Rhine Westfalia, training in compatible subject/language combinations has been proven to equip teachers with the potential to practise ‘bilingual teaching’. (See the case study on bilingual teaching, in Chapter 3.) Ultimately, the production of a multi-lingual and multi-disciplinary teaching force would represent significant progress towards the envisaged mobile language teaching pool of the future. Such a step would unarguably reinforce the states’ shared commitment to the provision of excellence in language teaching throughout the European continent. Teacher trainees in all countries undertake courses in the history, literature and culture of the target community either as a specific component of their teacher training, or else as part of their first foreign language degree. Where it is studied only in their first degree, the relationship between this knowledge and students’

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preparation for teaching may be insufficiently developed, and more effort may be required to integrate the two aspects. Approximately two-thirds of the countries surveyed include grammar courses as part of their training. Additionally, the study of the structure of the language in the form of applied linguistics is a compulsory element of training in most cases. There is, however, evidence to suggest that some teacher trainers believe more attention should be devoted to applied linguistics courses. In the UK, for example, where the study of applied linguistics is not currently compulsory, educators have recently requested that the lack be addressed. The related fields of comparative linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics are incorporated in training in about half the countries surveyed, including all the pre-accession countries. Once again, although a diversity of provision is desirable across the continent as a whole, it is important that the key features of language teacher training be identified and assured at European level. Language teacher trainees currently receive a degree of instruction in language teaching methodology in all of the countries surveyed, with the single exception of Cyprus where teacher training per se is yet to be introduced. Across the continent, however, there are great institutional variations in the amount of training in methodology undertaken and its place within the diverse training routes. In addition to standard theoretical approaches to language teaching methodology, for example, dedicated courses in the development of teaching materials are specified in Iceland and by some Hungarian institutions. Of course, where such courses are not explicitly advertised it is understood that the skills they ensure are incorporated elsewhere in the training. Similarly, although precise information on the type and quantity of methodology taught is not always specified, those institutions that provide details do stress the importance of a communicative approach to language teaching. Learner-centred 60

approaches are also becoming increasingly popular. There is some evidence that the Common European Framework for Languages (Council of Europe 2001) is assisting in dissemination of methodological approaches, though more needs to be done to share good practice and innovation in this area. Finally, it could be argued that while current provision includes both language-specific and generic language teaching methodology, increased provision of the latter during the initial training phase would equip trainees with the ability to incorporate additional languages into their teaching portfolio in the course of their language teaching career. Such, in turn, would represent a valuable contribution to the language teaching resources of Europe as a whole. Currently, it is national policy that foreign language teacher training is conducted through the medium of the target language in Estonia, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia. The extent to which this occurs in other countries depends mainly on individual institutions; although it is clear that such courses are offered only in a minority of cases. Providing training through one or more target language is evidently beneficial, where it can be achieved. However, there are limitations to its practical feasibility; especially where students are training in more than one language. Many courses are offered in English, particularly at Master’s level, although more provision is needed in other leading European languages and particularly in French, German and Spanish. In the context of this report, it may be argued that offering modules of teacher training (for example a selection of generic second language acquisition or child psychology courses) in a foreign language would be of benefit to all language teacher trainees and ultimately, to their students. The provision of generic courses through the medium of a popular foreign language, at European level, would also be of use in promoting student mobility. These courses would be potentially be accessible to students of all countries preparing to teach in the featured languages. The implementation of a system of target language 61

modules would have the additional advantage of facilitating a greater degree of mobility amongst teacher trainers. Europe-wide, established experts wishing to teach abroad would be particularly well-placed to deliver target language lectures in their own native tongue, providing a further European dimension to the courses offered. Intervention at European level is clearly essential in researching and implementing such a structure; although the examples listed above and the initiatives analysed in Chapter 3 demonstrate clearly that target language courses can and do operate successfully at national and institutional level. Training in the use of ICT for a variety of purposes is a compulsory aspect of the vast majority of training programmes identified; although as yet it not actually mandatory in all countries. Current provision tends to consist of a mixture of foreign language specific and generic elements, which may be accredited and assessed, or simply included in the range of skills taught. Across Europe as a whole, a range of attitudes towards ICT may be identified. In the Czech Republic, Lithuania and the UK, for example, students are required to pass ICT skills tests as part of their final assessment, while in Austria and Italy some institutions have adopted the European Computer Driving Licence for teachers. In the pre-accession countries, lack of funding precludes compulsory ICT training in many cases; although some provision is usually available. Recently, several cross-border projects have taken place with the aim of disseminating good practice in ICT in particular regions of Europe, through the Nordic-Baltic alliance, for example. Overall, it may be observed that the current levels of provision are not commensurate with the specific needs of the present generation of language teacher trainees. It is anticipated, however, that considerable advances will occur across the continent as technology and technical knowledge become increasingly available and affordable. The co-ordinating function of a centralised European body would be of enormous benefit in this context. 62

Within the various courses identified, emphasis on the European dimension takes many different forms. A survey of university websites showed that awareness is promoted through: · · · · · · · ·

Explicit statements in course aims and institutional mission statements; Study of European issues as part of the subject content of courses; Recognition either nationally or institutionally of the need to meet internationally comparable academic standards and to implement recommendations of the Bologna Declaration; Development of courses offering teaching qualifications in two countries; Participation in EU programmes and student mobility schemes; Bilateral and multilateral agreements between countries and institutions; Development of regional networks to support training in neighbouring countries; Legislative promotion of the study of foreign languages as part of an attempt to realise the European dimension.

There are enormous variations in the extent to which European elements are highlighted in the different states. They feature particularly strongly in Austria and the pre-accession countries where institutions consistently emphasise European and international implications of training. Elsewhere, the European influence is less clearly felt and, within a given state, there may be significant variations in practice between different institutions. It appears that the strongest commitment to the European dimension is elicited by schemes that provide tangible benefits, such as student mobility and exchanges, or a supportive organisational framework. Clearly, the extension of such schemes would be of considerable benefit to trainees everywhere. 63

While the influence of teachers in shaping young peoples’ attitudes is widely recognised, the role of language teachers in promoting intercultural understanding is not commonly emphasised within training. Just seven of the countries surveyed appear to offer aspects of intercultural or socio-cultural pedagogy to prospective language teachers. Provision entails either specific courses or a general emphasis on themes such as intercultural relationships in Europe, education of minorities, promotion of minority or community languages and equal opportunities. Intercultural co-operation is very much a part of the course aims in the dual qualification programmes available in Austria, France, Germany and the UK. Some initial training includes preparation for teaching citizenship, moral education or similar subjects, and in Austria, for example, it includes political education. It is clearly an aspect that can, and should, be integrated more extensively into language teacher training. In contrast with traditional language-based programmes, initial teacher training courses do not normally include a compulsory period of residence or study in the target community. Where study abroad is optional, the available statistics (e.g. for Austria) suggest that a relatively small percentage of students actually take advantage of the opportunities on offer. There are also instances (for example, in pre-accession countries) in which inadequate funding makes travel abroad difficult. Rather than reflecting national training policy, regulation in this area is most commonly left to individual institutions and increased mobility would perhaps benefit from intervention or incentives offered at European level. Although rarely compulsory, a period of study abroad is strongly recommended in the vast majority of the courses and countries examined. This apparent contradiction indicates that the value of study abroad is acknowledged by trainers and training institutions, but that mechanisms for facilitating mobility could be improved. Opportunities for mobility vary, but tend to exist primarily through bilateral agreements 64

between higher education institutions or between countries. To cite a number of specific examples, Austria has established agreements with the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia enabling students from those countries to obtain specific grants for study abroad. Visits can also be organised through European programmes and actions such as SOCRATES, ERASMUS and TEMPUS. Several other public and private bodies also currently provide funding for this purpose, including the German academic exchange services (DAAD and PAD), the Soros Foundation, the Hungarian Scholarship Committee and the Icelandic Student Loan Fund. Some countries (those in which the most popular European languages are spoken) also participate in Foreign Language Assistant schemes. Evidently, study abroad is an integral part of the courses offering dual qualifications in Austria, France, Germany and the UK. In countries where teacher training is offered at postgraduate level, the UK being one example, students will normally have spent part of their first-degree studies in the target community. Finally, in Germany, students from particular areas, or those undertaking bilingual training are required to produce evidence of a stay in a country where their first foreign language is spoken. Lithuania is hoping to introduce a mandatory placement abroad soon. Training to teach other subjects through the medium of a foreign language is an optional feature of initial teacher training in Austria and Germany. In both these countries, it is possible to gain an additional qualification in bilingual teaching. Germany offers the most opportunities in bilingual training. Several hundred of its schools now have bilingual ‘wings’, in which a number of subjects are taught through the medium of English or French. Initial teacher training with additional bilingual accreditation is available at the universities of Bremen, Oldenburg, Wuppertal, Cologne, Bochum, Trier and Saarbrücken among others. The dual Lehramt/ Maîtrise qualification on offer at the Austrian teacher training colleges of Karlsruhe and Freiburg also includes a degree of 65

bilingual training. In the UK, the University of Nottingham alone offers a PGCE BILD Programme, which trains students to teach History, Geography and Science through a foreign language. These two examples are developed further in Chapter 3. Students can train in a range of different subjects for minority language education across Europe. Otherwise, bilingual schools are expected to employ native speakers, or teachers who have trained in two subjects (one of which is a language, the other the subject they wish to teach). Such is the case in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovenia. It is evident from these examples that bilingual teaching has many advantages, and is beginning to gain increasing currency worldwide. However, as the case for minority languages indicates, bilingual teacher training is not yet well established. This is clearly another area in which development needs to be actively encouraged. All countries operate a combination of different types of formative and summative assessment for the theoretical components of training. In some instances, training institutions are free to assess students as they wish, while in others, there are clear guidelines or requirements laid down by the education ministries or agencies. The following modes of assessment have been found: · · · · · ·

Coursework assignments on individual subject components; Oral or written exams on individual subject components; Submission and defence of a thesis; Series of research or reflective papers; Final oral and written exams; Final state exams.

Many countries demand successful completion of previous components before students can be admitted to final exams. There are several specific requirements, as follows:

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· · · · · · · ·

Training in Austria, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Slovak Republic and Slovenia is partially assessed by state examination; In the UK, students are measured against a series of standards laid down by the Teacher Training Agency; In the Belgian French community, students are expected to present two public lectures; In France, the first year of training ends with a competitive exam, which has to be passed before students can proceed to the next year of mainly practical training; Romanian students take an additional exam to compete for jobs at the end of training; In Austria and Hungary there are exams during training designed to test foreign language proficiency; Students in the UK have to undergo basic skills tests in Literacy and Numeracy, as well as ICT; The Irish Republic, Norway and Sweden also assess students on the basis of attendance and participation in courses.

Practical components of training Nearly all countries surveyed expect students to undertake practical training in schools. This is not the case in Greece and Cyprus; although Greece does include a pre-service practical training of between twenty and forty hours. The following section analyses the different components included in practical training. The opportunity of a school placement abroad is available in countries offering dual qualifications (Austria, France, Germany and the UK), and additional possibilities exist under the various bilateral and multilateral agreements as discussed above in ‘Period of residence abroad’. There is also a series of individual arrangements between institutions in different countries facilitating opportunities to teach abroad. Examples include the agreement 67

between Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania and the teacher training college in Heidelberg, Germany and the agreement between the Tirol teacher training college in Austria and partner schools in Rimini, Italy. The opportunity to witness teaching methods in a foreign institution is clearly highly advantageous to trainees, and it would be extremely beneficial to open the possibility to a larger number of students. A greater degree of participation could be achieved either through strengthening existing partnerships between institutions and programmes, or through co-ordination at European level. Ideally both strategies should be prioritised with attention paid to the key issues of funding and accreditation of periods of practical training abroad. Across the continent and within individual states and institutions, the length and structure of teaching practice vary considerably. Most countries stipulate a minimum amount of time to be spent on school placements, but allow for a certain amount of institutional discretion as to how this is organised. Block teaching practices of a varying number of weeks take place everywhere, and micro-teaching sessions at higher education institutions are often included among practical components. Continuous placements in schools throughout the training programme are emphasised in certain countries and contexts. These include Austrian teacher training colleges and Icelandic lower-secondary training programmes, as well as the Slovak Republic, Norway and the UK. The UK also appears to place the strongest emphasis on practical teaching, with a requirement for two-thirds of a postgraduate course to be spent in two different schools in England and Wales. Diversity is heavily emphasised in Austrian teacher training colleges where students are able to carry out teaching practice in five different schools. In Finland, a rather different system is in place. Practice is separated into two parts: an ‘orientation’ practice in which students familiarise themselves with schools, followed by an ‘advanced’ practice during which teaching, planning and analysis takes place. 68

In counties such as Slovenia, teaching practice is largely undertaken in a single block upon completion of academic studies. A one-year additional practice is offered in Austria and a two-year practice, following theoretical training, in Germany. Each of the approaches identified has its own particular strengths and drawbacks, but the most evident drawbacks are seen in those cases where a suitable balance has not been achieved between theoretical and practical aspects. It is desirable that the links between theoretical understanding and practical implementation should be more closely drawn and that guidelines be put in place to enable a degree of rationalisation at European level. Demonstration of the planning, teaching and evaluation of lessons is a requirement in all countries with compulsory teaching practice. However, there are considerable differences in the numbers of classes for which trainee teachers are expected to assume responsibility. For example, in France and Hungary the student takes charge of just one or two classes, whereas in the UK, they must take a range of classes. A period of observation of experienced teachers is stressed in fourteen of the countries surveyed. Additionally, a groundbreaking initiative recently introduced at the University of Latvia is an innovative observation programme of sixteen weeks, which aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice. The programme is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. Fourteen of the countries studied stress that students are supervised by experienced teacher mentors while on teaching practice. The exact role of mentors varies between different countries, but their responsibilities generally include acting as an adviser to the initial teacher training students and evaluating their performance in practical teaching. Particularly close levels of cooperation are apparent in the relationship between school-based mentors and higher education tutors in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Finland and the UK. In Bulgaria and the UK, for example, mentors have a key role in the planning of initial teacher 69

training programmes. The training and recognition of mentors and the part they play in teacher training are areas of growing importance in several countries including, for example, Latvia. It is clear that their role has more potential and that it would benefit from further development in all countries. It would be useful to explore further the possibility of cross-border mentoring, specifically where placements abroad are available. The function might also usefully be introduced into the training and staff development of teacher trainers, who would also benefit from a mentoring relationship with a senior, more experienced colleague, especially in the early part of their career. Partnership between schools and higher education institutions appear particularly strong in Finland, Hungary, Lithuania and the UK. In Hungary, certain schools specialise in taking students for teaching practice and in Austria and Finland there are special schools for this purpose, which are attached to and run by the teacher training colleges (Austria) or universities (Finland). The Finnish Ministry of Education is piloting several initiatives designed to strengthen the links between all agencies involved in training. Stronger partnerships are clearly beneficial in enhancing the quality of teacher training, and it is therefore desirable to encourage greater co-operation between schools and training providers in higher education. Trainees are normally evaluated on the basis of lessons observed by their school-based supervisor or mentor and their higher education tutor, or a panel of assessors, which might include the school’s head teacher. This is the case in Hungary for example. A written report is also produced about each trainee in many cases. In certain countries or institutions, prospective teachers are expected to produce a practice portfolio. The portfolio enables records of the practice to be kept and connections to be made between theoretical and practical aspects of training. Extensive portfolio use can be found in Austria, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal and the UK. Alternatively, 70

trainees may be required to carry out a research project into an aspect of their practice. This happens in Hungary, Lithuania and the Netherlands. In Poland, assessment is on the basis of the trainees’ lesson preparation and evaluation. Currently the assessment of practical training components is rather erratic across the continent as a whole. It is noted, however, that information is scarce. A greater degree of convergence in this area would be particularly useful in enabling comparative evaluation of teachers’ skills and strengths and in developing integrated training opportunities. Structure of training Inevitably, given the range of organisational contexts outlined above, the structure of teacher training programmes varies significantly across Europe. The parameters of duration, modes of delivery and balance between components offer scope for a good deal of differentiation, and this section examines the patterns which have emerged. The length of training depends largely on whether the programmes are offered at undergraduate or postgraduate level. The patterns are normally common to training for teachers of all disciplines, not just for languages. Undergraduate training lasts between four and five years, except in the cases of Austria and Belgium, where three-year training programmes are a possibility. There are instances in which undergraduate training lasts longer than scheduled. For example, in Germany training should take between seven and nine semesters, but in practice it often takes much longer to complete. Postgraduate initial teacher training courses are shorter, but will have been preceded by undergraduate language degree studies. They are either one or two years in length. The pressures to extend training from one to two years in some countries, in order to improve

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practical and theoretical training, are offset by contrary pressures to improve the rate of recruitment. Most countries and institutions stress the importance of integrating the theoretical and practical components of training. A variety of strategies are in place across Europe to facilitate this. These include the organisation of school placements in such a way as to ensure that trainees have opportunities to reflect on the application of theoretical concepts in practical situations. Efforts are continually under way to improve this area of training; for example in Finland and the pre-accession countries. However, there are still programmes in which the practical teaching is largely separated from higher education studies. This is apparent in Slovenia where, as was previously mentioned, the practical component of training is conducted upon conclusion of the theoretical portion. The issue of integration is one in which sharing the observed elements of good practice might be expected to lead to significant improvements. Nearly all higher education institutions have well-established links with institutions in different countries. These can take the form of bilateral or multilateral agreements and participation in international and European schemes. Links between institutions facilitate the development of joint curricula and exchange opportunities. Strong connections exist between the Nordic countries, which comprise the NORDPLUS organisation and the members of CEEPUS (Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies: Austria, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania, Poland, Croatia and Hungary). Mutual recognition of qualifications exists across the three Baltic states. In recent years, the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) has been introduced in many countries, making it easier for trainees to spend part of their study programme abroad. Increasingly, opportunities are being provided for students to follow a more flexible route into teaching. Courses tailored to meet the individual needs of students and which incorporate the options 72

of distance learning and part-time study can now be found in several countries, including Austria, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Iceland and the UK. This aspect is particularly important in countries that are experiencing difficulty in recruiting teachers. Ultimately, if courses could be co-ordinated and accredited adequately, increasing flexible delivery options would be a valuable means of enabling trainees to compile a qualification from units studied in different European countries. European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) To help students make the most of their study abroad, the European Commission has developed a European Credit Transfer System, which provides a way of measuring and comparing learning achievements, and transferring them from one institution to another. ECTS helps higher education institutions to enhance their co-operation with other institutions by: · Improving access to information on foreign curricula, and · Providing common procedures for academic recognition. Mobility is essential for language teachers at all stages of their training and professional careers. Thus, ECTS benefits prospective teachers primarily through increasing the possibilities for exposure to the languages they wish to teach. This is particularly the case for those who undertake a first degree in languages before under-taking teacher training. Such students typically spend up to a year studying abroad. ECTS accredited courses specifically aimed at prospective teachers are less common, but are being developed in many countries (e.g. Austria and the UK). Additionally, many postgraduate or short courses offered as in-service training offer ECTS accreditation. Increased mobility and integration of the European language teaching workforce has already been enabled by the ECTS system although more possibilities for periods of study abroad – and particularly practical training abroad – are still needed. More information on ECTS is available on: www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/ects.html. 73

Initial teacher training for primary education Organisation of training As in the case of secondary teaching, organisational configuration determines much of what is required and what can be achieved in primary language teacher training. Each country has its own specific system, responding to its national needs, history and traditions, and often playing a significant social and political role in the life of the country. This is even more strongly the case in training for primary schools, where compulsory education has generally been established for a much longer period, and public and private interests often play a greater role. Once again several common patterns may be observed. This section identifies and analyses the patterns of organisation of initial language teacher training for primary education. Throughout Europe, the initial training of primary school teachers is conducted in higher education institutions of both university and non-university type. In eight of the countries surveyed, students have a choice of training institutions. This is usually, but not always, related to the level of subject specialisation to be obtained. In Norway, for example, prospective primary teachers may train in universities to become subject specialists, or in teacher training colleges to become generalist teachers. Both types of institutions offer courses for prospective semi-specialists. Estonia provides an example of a system in which training courses for generalist and subject specialist teachers are both offered at universities and at teacher training colleges. Overall, the courses offered by teacher training colleges tend to provide a lower degree of subject specialisation and a higher degree of integration between the theoretical and practical course components. Additionally, their courses are usually shorter than those run by universities.

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As for secondary education, primary initial teacher training in each country is usually co-ordinated by the Ministry of Education. No specific bodies have been identified as having responsibility for primary language teaching at national level. This is an area in which a support network operating at European level could be of benefit. Primary teaching qualifications are accredited either by the training institution, or by the Ministries of Education, or by a combination of both in nearly all cases. These, along with the accreditation bodies listed previously, typically regulate the training of all teachers, or all language teachers, together. Funding arrangements for primary training vary in and between countries and are subject to frequent change. Funding schemes do not normally distinguish between trainees according to the level at which they will teach. Rather, the levels of training and choice of institution may affect the provision of financial support. Table 2, above, illustrates the various patterns of fees and funding observed. The majority of primary teacher training courses are offered at undergraduate level. Exceptions to this pattern are found in Finland and the Czech Republic, where training lasts five years leading directly to a Master’s-level qualification, and in France, where initial teacher training is offered exclusively to university graduates. Eight of the countries, which provide initial primary teacher training at undergraduate level, also offer postgraduate qualifications for degree holders who wish to become teachers or for practising teachers who wish to obtain formal qualifications or retrain as language specialists. As all training is offered at tertiary level, the minimum qualification for access to teacher training across Europe is a Secondary School Leaving Certificate. In most cases, students wishing to specialise in foreign languages are also required to take a language test. Where foreign languages are a compulsory unit of tertiary study, as in Hungary and Finland for example, a language test is usually required for prospective generalist teacher trainees. 75

Primary teaching qualifications differ quite considerably from secondary, notably in aiming at generalist teachers, who are expected to teach over the full primary curriculum, or semispecialists, who are particularly trained in one or two subjects, but also expected to teach over a wider range. In many cases specialist teaching qualifications designed for the secondary sector allow teachers to work in primary schools. This model of qualification is particularly common in areas where specialist foreign language teachers are in short supply. It is not normal for primary qualifications to be accepted at secondary level. Many countries offer a range of qualifications for prospective primary teachers and overall the level of training corresponds broadly to the level of teaching intended. Table 4: Teachers responsible for foreign language teaching at primary level Generalist

Semi-specialist

Specialist

Various Models Used

Austria Luxembourg Portugal * Slovenia * Sweden UK

Belgium (Fr, Du) Croatia Denmark Ireland Latvia Switzerland

Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Greece Iceland Lithuania Malta Portugal ** Romania Slovak Republic Slovenia ** Sweden

Belgium (Ge) Finland France Germany Hungary Italy Norway Spain

* Lower primary only

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** Upper primary only

Across Europe, the minimum qualification for access to primary teaching is a University Diploma or otherwise named Primary Teaching Certificate. Generalist teachers are only officially qualified to teach languages where languages are included in the core training curriculum, although in practice prior knowledge of a foreign language may enable their teaching it to their own class. In Estonia, Ireland and Sweden, prospective semi-specialist teachers undergoing generalist teacher training may obtain a supplementary qualification in foreign language teaching. Specialist teachers usually have a more advanced level of qualification, comprising either a Bachelor’s Degree in their area of specialisation possibly followed by a postgraduate teaching certificate, such as the British PGCE and French CAPE, or an initial Master’s Degree in Education, which is the minimum requirement in both Slovakia and Finland. Undergraduate training courses offered by teacher training colleges or university teacher training departments usually follow an integrated model of training. Such courses are available in twenty-nine of the thirty-two countries surveyed. There are three exceptions. In Liechtenstein, teachers train abroad. In Cyprus, all language teachers are university graduates who, typically, have not received pedagogical training. In Norway, although the core of generalist teacher training is integrated for the first three years, the trainee’s chosen specialism, e.g. a foreign language, is studied exclusively during the final year of training. However, even where integrated models of training are offered, additional routes to primary teaching may be available through ‘add-on’ courses offered at postgraduate level. Training for specialist teachers follows the pattern described in the section on Secondary Education, above. At primary level, foreign languages may be taught by generalist teachers to their own class, or by semispecialists, who teach a small group of subjects to several classes within the same school, or by language specialists who teach only foreign languages (one or more) to several classes in one or more 77

schools. As illustrated in Table 4, several countries use teachers of various levels of specialisation according to need. Theoretical content of training courses Evidence suggests that, across the continent as a whole, the emphasis on academic knowledge in the context of primary teacher training tends to be less pronounced than for secondary. However, the majority of countries and programmes surveyed do insist on trainees developing strong theoretical foundations for their work in the language classroom. Consideration will now be given to the various dimensions of academic or theoretical training identified. Primary teacher training courses are all structured around a core curriculum focusing on aspects of pedagogy and child psychology. Some programmes also include compulsory units of ICT and foreign languages, which, although often taught in the pedagogical context, are increasingly seen as essential elements of study for all tertiary students. All European countries offer trainees the opportunity to qualify as a teacher of one or more foreign languages at primary level. In some cases a foreign language is a compulsory component of primary initial teacher training. This is the case in Austria for example, where English must be studied, with additional languages also available. In Luxembourg, all teachers are required to be trilingual in Luxembourgish, French and German. Overall, English, German and French are the most widely studied foreign languages and primary teacher training is available in all three in a majority of countries. Table 1, above, lists languages in which teacher training is offered in each of the thirty-two countries surveyed. It shows that generally a more restricted range of languages is available than for secondary teaching. This restriction results from the dearth of teachers trained to teach the less widespread languages at primary level. However, it is clear that this 78

early experience of language learning, regardless of the language studied, will be of great benefit to students as they go on to extend their personal range of languages. In some countries, course requirements steer foreign language teacher trainees towards particular combinations of languages or languages and other subjects. In Romania, for example, it is usual for students to combine their first foreign language with either Romanian, or a second foreign language. In Poland, the acquisition of a second foreign language may be used as a training activity to provide an insight into language learning and teaching. Some countries do not generally allow trainees to study more than one foreign language during their initial training. A single language is the norm in the UK and Norway, although some specialised programmes may allow for training in two languages at a time. Language diversity is particularly stressed in countries where more than one native language is recognised by the state. In the Flemish community of Belgium; for example, all primary teachers are trained in both Dutch and French. Where training is conducted in a second native language, for example, Swedish in Finland, Saami in Norway or Welsh in Wales, students are usually required to demonstrate competence in the other native language as well. It appears that the contribution of primary teacher training to language diversity may best be located in providing trainees with insight into language learning and teaching. In this case, it will be important also to strengthen the ‘learning to learn’ dimension of their language training. Primary-level language teacher training courses tend to focus mainly on language structure and practical language skills rather than on the study of literature and culture. The majority of courses aim at building up prospective teachers’ own language skills, through communicative techniques, and providing an advanced level of linguistic awareness (linguistics, stylistics, grammar, pronunciation and phonetics) as well as the specific didactic skills necessary for teaching the language at primary level. The majority of countries do teach elements of 79

culture and civilisation alongside language skills although this tends to be limited in primary teacher training programmes compared to secondary. Where primary teacher training is spread over a period of four or more years, as in, Bulgaria, Finland, Estonia and Poland, more substantial periods of literary and cultural studies may be integrated into the programme. Some countries also include elements of language history, research methodology and translation studies in specialist teacher training. These elements are typical of programmes offered in Latvia, Cyprus and Greece, where the emphasis of training remains on language specialisation rather than pedagogical skill. Language specific or general language teaching methodology Language teaching methodology is a compulsory unit of training for prospective language teachers in the vast majority of countries studied. Most programmes offer language specific courses, frequently taught in the target language. Non-language-specific teaching methodology may also be taught where teachers train in more than one language or in training institutions where linguistic and pedagogical skills are taught separately by language and education departments respectively. On the other hand, while foreign language teaching methodology is frequently taught in the target language, generalist teacher training is usually conducted in the student’s native language. However, where teachers are training to be language specialists, or generalist teachers in a bilingual or immersion teaching context, large portions of the training may be conducted in the target language. In many of the pre-accession countries, specialist primary foreign language teachers will have received instruction in one or more target languages for the duration of their secondary schooling. In Bulgaria, to cite an extreme case, access to specialist foreign language teaching is limited to graduates of a foreign language secondary school. 80

All countries have the provision to offer ICT instruction to teacher trainees. Usually, the technological skills taught are specific to the context of primary teaching. (Such programmes were identified in Belgium’s Flemish and German communities, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden and the UK.) Less frequently, ICT is taught in relation to foreign language teaching. This is the case in Finland and Poland for example. It would be advantageous for the specific application of technology for language learning to be included in a greater number of training programmes. Emphasis on the European dimension of foreign language teaching is less evident in teacher training colleges, where the majority of primary teachers are trained, than in universities. Institutions in the pre-accession countries and Scandinavia as well as Belgium, Germany and Austria, actively promote awareness of European issues and this is increasingly occurring throughout Europe as a whole. As the number of language teachers trained for primary schools increases, it is desirable that more opportunities be offered to them for participation in European schemes. It is clear that increased levels of participation in such schemes will lead to increased awareness of the European dimension and vice versa. As a majority of primary teachers tend to be generalist and trained to teach all subjects, a focus on their specific role as foreign language teachers is not usually included in training. However, they do have a more explicit role in fostering the values of tolerance and understanding, at the appropriate level for primary children, and it would be desirable for language related issues to be more clearly incorporated in this aspect of their training. As in secondary education, almost a third of countries surveyed have been found to emphasise elements of intercultural or socio-cultural pedagogy in primary training. Similarly, study abroad is very rarely a compulsory component of primary teacher training. Some specialised programmes, such as the JULIET Programme offered at the 81

University of Jyväskylä, in Finland, do insist on students showing evidence of a period of residence in an English speaking country prior to graduation. As discussed previously, it would be valuable to increase the level of encouragement for primary teacher trainers to take advantage of voluntary opportunities to study abroad Although bilingual teaching, also known as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), is available in a great many primary schools throughout Europe, specifically-designed teacher training programmes are relatively few and far between. Only in countries whose population is composed of officially recognised bilingual subgroups is bilingual initial teacher training compulsory. Bilingual Primary teacher training in foreign languages is offered in English in Malta and Finland, English and French in Germany, and English and Danish in Iceland. In Austria, the ‘primary languages’ initiative means that all teachers are trained for CLIL across most subjects of the Year 1 curriculum. The results of existing bilingual schemes need to be analysed in more depth to ascertain whether more training should be provided for primary teachers, and how best it might be implemented. (It is anticipated that these issues will be addressed to a certain degree by an EU funded project currently underway in the field of bilingual teaching.) Students’ theoretical knowledge is usually assessed, at least in part, by written and oral exams co-ordinated at institutional or state level. Many of the pre-accession countries run state exams, as do Denmark, France and Germany. Individual subject studies may be assessed in additional exams, through written papers or oral presentations. Language skills are usually assessed independently under exam conditions. Where initial teacher training is conducted through a Master’s programme a thesis is usually written on an academic subject, in the case of specialist teachers, or an area of pedagogy in the case of generalist teachers. An oral defence, or viva voce interview may also be required. Given the limited scope 82

for incorporating language learning in programmes and schemes of assessment, it seems desirable that primary teacher trainees should be encouraged to develop their own language enhancement plans outside the framework of their training course. Initiatives offered at European level along the lines of the European Languages Portfolio would clearly be of enormous value in this context. Practical components of training Teaching practice is a compulsory part of primary initial teacher training in all European countries with the exception of Cyprus and Greece, where it is optional. It is usually possible for primary teacher trainees to experience teaching in a range of subjects and at one or more levels of schooling. Where language teaching requires a supplementary qualification, an additional period of teaching practice may be required, as in Ireland. The following section analyses the different components included in practical training. The possibility of undergoing a period of study or teaching practice abroad is much less widespread at primary than secondary level. It tends only to be compulsory in specifically European or CLIL-oriented courses. In the pre-accession countries, all students are very actively encouraged to travel abroad and provisions are made for various study and teaching placements. Although some EU and CEEPUS funded scholarships are available, the cost of foreign placements is usually beyond the majority of students in these countries. In Germany, Austria and the Nordic countries students are strongly encouraged to travel abroad but participation rates are still quite low. Iceland has a very high rate of participation in foreign programmes as does Liechtenstein, where students undergo all of their training abroad. The UK currently offers school placements in France in the context of a pilot programme in Primary initial teacher training in French. Overall, it seems likely that a significant improvement in the number of primary trainees 83

participating in placements abroad will only be achieved within schemes that are well funded by national or European sources. In over half of the countries surveyed, the guidelines for teaching practice are the same for prospective primary and secondary teachers. In Austria and, from a recent date, Latvia, trainees prepare for a single practice teaching block through ongoing classroom observation. A single teaching block is also the norm in Iceland, where trainees prepare for their placement through micro-teaching assignments at university. Trainees in the Czech republic and Slovenia complete at least four weeks’ training in schools while the Swedish system involves school-based activities for one day per week for the length of the course as well as one or more blocks of teaching practice. In Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Poland and Lithuania, the structure of teaching practice varies between institutions and according to the types of courses offered. Specific teaching practice requirements for primary teachers are laid out in eleven of the countries surveyed. In most such cases, primary teacher trainees have a greater degree of exposure to school life than their secondary counterparts. In the Netherlands, for example, teaching practice comprises around a quarter of the primary teacher training course and is structured rather more rigidly than for secondary level teachers. In Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg and Norway, blocks of teaching practice lasting for between three and nine weeks are completed each year. In Romania, teaching practice comprises two three week blocks, and in Spain, a single block is completed in the third year of training. The majority of courses provide exposure to the classroom environment through periods of observation (one day per week or in blocks) before students begin to deliver classes of their own. Students are also normally expected to show evidence of their ability to plan and evaluate their own teaching. Teaching practice is always supervised and the practice of mentoring is growing. In Belgium’s Flemish community, Bulgaria, the Czech 84

Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg, Spain and the UK, mentoring is actively encouraged by the education authorities. As in the case of secondary training, it seems desirable that this trend should be further encouraged. Universities typically have many well-established links with other national and international educational institutions and with professional bodies such as teachers’ associations. Teacher-training colleges tend to have closer links with schools and teachers’ organisations than the university language departments do. This is particularly true in Lithuania, where collaboration between the various organisations aims to bridge the gap between teaching theory and practice. Additionally, in Finland (where teachers are trained by universities), specifically designed schools run by university Faculties of Education ensure a maximum of exposure to the realities of a working school for the duration of teacher training. Throughout Europe, it is widely acknowledged that greater exposure to working schools, practising teachers and other educational bodies is particularly beneficial to trainees. Accordingly, the value of partnerships such as those identified is evident, and further efforts to promote them would be generally welcomed. The student’s performance in the various elements of practice teaching is usually evaluated and contributes towards the final mark. Written pieces of assessment may include an essay or diary discussing the student’s experience in the classroom as well as detailed class plans and teaching materials the student will have designed and may have used. These may also be presented in an oral or practical demonstration. In several countries, including Austria, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal and the UK, a teaching portfolio must often be submitted for assessment. The student’s practical performance may be assessed either by the supervising teacher or an instructor from the teacher training institution. In Finland, Iceland and Latvia, this usually takes the form of a written report. In Denmark, trainees are also assessed 85

periodically on their specific suitability for working with children. Throughout Europe as a whole, trainees’ practical language teaching ability does not appear to be consistently assessed. Given the range of practical training opportunities identified, some sort of comparative measure which could applied to all states would be of benefit, particularly in promoting mobility amongst trainees and teachers alike. Structure of training The structure of primary teacher training programmes varies significantly across Europe. The parameters of duration, modes of delivery and balance between components offer scope for a good deal of differentiation. Integrated training programmes of two, three or four years in length are offered by Teacher Training Colleges in ten countries, in the northern and western parts of Europe. Within universities, initial training tends to be conducted by Departments or Faculties of Education, over four years. This option exists in France, and the UK as well as several of the preaccession countries. In the Czech Republic, Finland, Latvia and Poland alone, primary foreign language teachers are trained collaboratively over five years by Education and Language or Philology Faculties. These programmes appear to offer the most comprehensive training at this level. A marked contrast is observed with provision in Cyprus and Greece where minimal practical training is available through university Education Faculties prior to appointment. Specifically designed primary teacher training courses tend to emphasise the integration of theory and practice to a much greater degree than secondary-specific or non-specific programmes, including many of the postgraduate certificates. Integration is achieved through the dispersion of teaching practice across the training period either as a series of ‘blocks’ or regular attendance at schools for one day per week during term time. An 86

area in which further improvement is very clearly needed is in the integration of practical teaching skills with linguistic ability. Rare courses in general pedagogy (e.g. classroom management) offered through the medium of a foreign or target language are clearly of enormous benefit in this context. Periods of practice teaching abroad also contribute to the integration of linguistic and pedagogical ability. University departments usually have links with foreign cultural institutions and may also have bilateral or multilateral partnerships with individual university departments or training schools abroad. Teacher training colleges tend to have fewer links overall. However, where discrete departments exist within colleges, institutional partnerships may have been established as a result of individual initiatives. In the pre-accession countries, extensive networks of links have been developed in recent years. At present, there is unarguably greater scope for extending the institutional links between countries, especially in teacher training colleges, where these are currently less developed. The willingness of individuals to implement and maintain new links should not be overlooked. Combining their energy and enthusiasm with support at European level would surely promote many new links and increased dialogue between primary language specialists. Teacher training colleges tend to be less flexible than universities in delivering their programmes. However, in countries such as Bulgaria, Estonia, Denmark, Iceland, Portugal and Romania, a portion of primary initial teacher training may be completed through distance education. It is also possible to study part time in countries such as Latvia. The Czech republic stresses that its five-year training programme may be interrupted several times, to allow for maternity leave for example. These good examples of flexibility might be extended to countries and institutions which do not currently offer flexible delivery.

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In-service training for primary and secondary education Organisation of training The provision of continuing or in-service training for language teachers is generally less systematic and more fragmented than initial training. By the same token, it is also more flexible and responsive to changing requirements. Whereas initial teacher training addresses only the new incoming cohort of language teachers, in-service training can potentially address the entire community of existing language teachers. It is consequently a key vector for change. This section analyses the patterns of organisation of in-service language teacher training for both primary and secondary education. It is noticeable that the institutions responsible for in-service training are generally the same both for primary and secondary levels. Ministries of Education co-ordinate in-service training programmes to different degrees, and the responsibility for implementing courses is commonly devolved to subordinate or subject oriented agencies. These typically include universities, training colleges, and other higher education institutions, cultural institutes, projects co-ordinated by the EU Commission (notably under the SOCRATES and LINGUA programmes), teachers associations, distance learning institutions, pedagogical institutes (especially in the Central and Eastern European countries), crossborder associations (such as NORDPLUS in Nordic countries, Aktion Osterreich-Slovakian for Austria and Slovakia and CEEPUS for Central and Eastern European countries), or private foundations (for example, the Soros Foundation and Fullbright Exchanges). A minority of countries (Poland, Norway, French Community of Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Lithuania, Switzerland and UK) have an institution specialised in in-service training. Some 88

programmes are especially designed for language teachers, others are more generic. Currently, little consistency appears between countries in offering qualifications, and in making reliable information available. While the shortage of reliable information may be considered frustrating, we may also conclude from it that obtaining formal qualifications is not necessarily the driving force behind the provision and uptake of in-service training. The following methods of accreditation have been observed: · · ·

Accreditation of in-service training by the award of certificates and/or credits at the end of courses; Postgraduate qualifications (MA, PhD) available through inservice training; Retraining of teachers from one subject specialisation to another. (E.g. from Russian to English or from Russian to German.)

Although there is no overriding pattern of recognition of the qualifications awarded at the end of in-service training courses, several trends do appear. The completion of courses leading to official teaching qualifications or postgraduate awards is usually rewarded financially and often with the possibility of career advancement. In several countries, participation in in-service training is mandatory to achieve career advancement. Elsewhere, in-service training courses may enhance promotion prospects. It tends to mean that teachers who apply for promotion are expected (unofficially) to be aware of the latest trends or methodologies, and to have participated in a certain amount of in-service courses. Overall, there is little regulation of the benefits of in-service training and it is hoped that this may be addressed at European level. Linking recognition to the use of the European language portfolio is one example of how in-service training for language teachers could and should be addressed. 89

In each of the countries surveyed, a commitment to implementing and maintaining European partnerships or networks related to in-service training was evident. Consistency was also observed in involvement with European programmes and actions (Comenius, LINGUA, SOCRATES) and dynamic cross-border programmes, such as CEEPUS or NORDPLUS. Significantly, this consistency should be recognised as resulting from the dynamism of the programmes listed rather than a particular feature of inservice training. However, it is equally important to observe that such a level of consistency and community can be achieved. Consideration must now be given to extending these qualities to other elements of in-service training. In approximately half of the countries examined, some inservice training is mandatory for all teachers. Elsewhere, it remains optional. The relationship between mandatory and optional training is complex. Mandatory programmes are likely to be of more limited scope and impact than optional courses. In some countries, only a few hours a year are mandatory (Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania), and the programme is already set (UK, Slovenia). In other countries, where in-service training is optional, courses appear more widely available and teachers appear enthusiastic about applying to take them. For instance, in-service training is optional in Sweden but the average number of hours spent per year is 120 per person. This yearly average is the same amount of time that a Hungarian teacher is required to spend in seven years in the compulsory programme. Similarly, up to half of the mandatory in-service training is directed at the generic teacher, whose aims, strengths and weaknesses differ from the teacher of foreign languages. Hence, mandatory in-service training may not be more effective than optional in-service training. The length of compulsory in-service training courses remains another highly variable point. Most of the compulsory courses last between three and five days per year (UK, Slovenia, Portugal, Romania, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Estonia and 90

Finland), with a minimum of one and a half or two days (Latvia and Hungary respectively), to a maximum of five days a year (UK). The highest average time spent in in-service training is fifteen days a year in Sweden, where the training is not mandatory. Accordingly, policy makers are urged not to overlook the seeming-ly restrictive effects of regulation in this context. Content of in-service training The objectives of in-service teacher training are less sharply defined than in initial training and fall roughly into three categories: · · ·

To refresh the existing expertise of teachers, and introduce them to new ideas and approaches, such as ICT; To remedy perceived deficiencies, or enable further career development; To act as a means of implementing new policies decided on at a ministerial level.

The objectives also include less measurable outcomes, such as increasing teachers’ motivation and encouraging the sharing of good practice. As a result, the content of courses varies widely, not only from country to country, but also from year to year. The following paragraphs describe the main areas and activities commonly included in in-service training. There is a large variety of in-service training courses directed at language teachers in all the countries surveyed. In all countries, courses including pedagogy of second language teaching and target language skills are available both for regular language teachers and for retrained teachers (e.g. in Eastern European countries). This is clearly an area where sustained effort will continue to be required.

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Most countries advertise some level of ICT training for trainee teachers, although Croatia, the German community of Belgium, Italy and Malta do not. While many such courses are directed at generic teachers, others have been developed specifically for the foreign language teaching context. Ireland, for instance, provides a course of ICT to teach languages in primary schools, and a Master’s Degree part-time, specialised in ICT for languages. Switzerland offers on-line training courses through the medium of different web programmes (e.g. Swissling). Right across the continent, ICT courses are reported to be very popular with teachers, who welcome the opportunity to improve their personal skills in this area as well as improving their ability to use ICT in classroom teaching. Eleven countries currently provide courses in CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning, sometimes called ‘bilingual’ teaching). The Czech republic has an in-service training course in ICT carried out through the medium of English, Germany offers an in-service training course aimed at primary level teachers in bilingual education (through LINGUA) and Slovenia has recently introduced a pilot project on teaching Geography through the medium of a foreign language. The most active countries, as far as CLIL is concerned, remain those in which there is a historical, political, cultural or social need for it, as in the Netherlands and in Switzerland. The latter, being a multilingual country, shows a strong need for multilingual education and offers a wide range of courses, seminars, workshops, and better materials. In the Netherlands, much of the teaching in schools is carried out in English. While the Dutch make no special provision for this in initial teacher training, it is possible as a result of the wide range of in-service training courses on offer. All countries have at least some arrangements to enable teachers to receive elements of in-service training abroad, usually in a country where their foreign language is spoken as native. A principal aim is normally the enhancement of target language skills, 92

and this is often accompanied by training in pedagogy. Some countries (for example, Estonia, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Spain and the UK) send teachers abroad for specialised ICT classes. Finland and Norway are the only two countries that provide their teachers with courses abroad on CLIL. In-service training abroad is usually much sought after by teachers, and is clearly an area where there is great scope for further development at European level. The most successful provision abroad remains teachers’ exchanges. Almost all countries offer through the European schemes previously mentioned, in addition to large bilateral programmes such as Puesto por Puesto in Spain, (sending Spanish teachers to France, Canada, the UK, Germany and the USA), or small-scale bilateral programmes, for example, between France and Ireland. Despite their popularity, however, there are limitations on these exchanges. In particular, financial constraints, and those of distance may affect the less wealthy countries. Additionally, in countries such as Poland where the teachers’ own language is very rarely taught abroad, exchange opportunities are further limited. Finally, the established cultural links between certain countries are extremely resilient, and therefore facilitate exchanges and inservice training courses abroad. For example, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg are very much outward looking and are keen to participate in many kinds of programmes. Similarly, Slovakia is keen to expand its links with Germany. It is to be hoped that modelling new partnerships on these links will enable further possibilities for mobility and exchange amongst practising teachers of all languages. Structure of in-service training The structure of in-service training is extremely varied and flexible. Many different formulae are used, reflecting organisational con93

straints within schools as well as the requirements of particular training contents or activities. The main variables may be grouped under length of training and flexibility of provision. Similarly, the length of in-service training courses is highly variable. However, a common trend, in most of the countries covered, is to have a combination of short courses and longer courses. Short courses are the most widely used, since they offer the greatest possibility of securing attendance. In some countries, this consideration is strengthened by national teacher shortages. For example, in the Netherlands, the length of in-service courses does not usually exceed three to four days as teachers are urgently needed in classrooms. On the whole, shorter courses do not last more than ten days, and most last only one or two days. Longer courses are generally postgraduate courses. Their success in many countries may be traced to fact that they offer an easily recognisable form of accreditation, often resulting in pay increases and possibilities for career advancement. Mid-length courses exist for a wide range of courses and countries. For example, in Denmark a study-trip abroad is available during the school holidays; in Iceland, after five years of teaching, teachers can apply for between two and four months paid study leave. Teachers’ exchanges within a multilingual country (Belgium, Switzerland) or community (Netherlands, Belgium, Germany) do not normally exceed one or two weeks at most. Other programmes can last for one or two months. Examples include the established exchange between France and Ireland, and the ‘guest lecturer’ formula in France. A small number of programmes also offer yearlong exchanges. These include the Fullbright Commission initiatives in Belgium and, again, Puesto por Puesto in Spain. The majority of in-service training courses abroad last between one and three weeks. They are constrained by financial implications, and by the difficulties that a longer stay would imply in finding replacement teachers. A few of these courses last longer. For example, there is a ‘study-holiday’ concept in Liechtenstein, 94

where full-time teachers may apply to the government for a period of study leave of up to six months for the purpose of attending continuing education. A remunerated ‘study-holiday’ may be granted after ten working years at the earliest, with a maximum of three months to be granted prior to the fortieth year of age. Similarly, the DAAD organises semestrial scholarships in Slovakia. Flexibility is highly valued in in-service training, as a means of overcoming the constraints of incorporating training within working schedules and of offering training to teachers dispersed over a wide area. However, there is considerable scope for improvement in all aspects of flexible delivery in the majority of countries surveyed, and particularly with regard to language teaching. Distance learning is very popular with some Eastern European countries for financial reasons and also for those teachers who need to retrain, often while working. For instance, in the Czech Republic, teachers at primary level can study on a twoyear distance programme to retrain in English or in German. At secondary level, a distance education course is offered collaboratively by the Goethe Institut in Prague and that in Munich, for practising teachers of German and others who wish to retrain in the language. Distance learning is also popular in France and in the UK, with many courses offered by the CNED (Centre National d’Education à Distance) and the Open University respectively. These two organisations, particularly the latter, provide a wide variety of courses and opportunities for countries with geographical (Malta, Cyprus) or financial problems (Eastern European countries). The possibility also exists to train part-time while working or during the school holidays. Some countries offer training in the afternoon, after school, while others schedule courses during school time, when teachers have received dayrelease. The issue of timetabling is somewhat problematic, and inservice training often takes place entirely or partly in the teacher’s own time.

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The overall picture of language teacher training across Europe represents the many changing needs of the individual states and is further coloured by the linguistic, political, financial and other considerations at work in each case. Despite the great variation in provision across the continent as a whole, each of the countries examined has demonstrated interest in learning about initiatives implemented by others, and a willingness to adapt to change. Ultimately, consideration of all of these issues at European level will lead to a greater degree of opportunity, equality and advancement for all language teachers in all manner of institutions and at all stages of their careers. Initiatives at national and local level will continue to add value to the European language teaching workforce as a whole and deserve to be recognised and documented for the benefit of all. Accordingly, we will now go on to consider a range of case studies of good practice and innovation. SOCRATES: LINGUA The SOCRATES: LINGUA initiative promotes the actions of the ERASMUS, COMENIUS and GRUNTVIG schemes by directing funds to transnational projects in two priority areas. Currently, under the second phase of the SOCRATES scheme, LINGUA 1 focuses on raising awareness of the union’s multilingual wealth, encouraging people to learn languages throughout their lifetime, and improving access to foreign-language learning resources across Europe. It also prioritises the development and dissemination of innovative techniques and good practices in language teaching. LINGUA 2 is intended to ensure that a sufficiently wide range of language-learning tools is available to language learners. Projects funded by LINGUA include the DIALANG project for the development of diagnostic language tests in fourteen European languages, and, under Lingua Action A in the first phase of the SOCRATES scheme, the TALLENT, ILIAD and BILD projects on aspects of language teacher training featured in Chapter 3. Further information on current and past LINGUA projects may be found at www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/languages. 96

Chapter 3 Case studies of good practice

The detailed survey of language teacher training provision in thirty-two countries yielded two principal outcomes. The first was an overview of the situation across Europe, which is presented in Chapter 2. The second was an extensive list of potential initiatives and examples of good practice. From this list, a series of fifteen case studies was identified for more detailed analysis. We will now present each of the case studies in full, followed by a summary analysis of the training needs they highlight. Each case study adopts a common reporting structure reflecting the template used during the initial research. Firstly a Thematic summary presents the main features of the case study, including the aspects of good practice it exemplifies. Within this section similar initiatives are identified which situate the example in a wider context. Next, a discussion of the Administrative context, lists the co-ordinating body and partner institutions, the form of funding and the timeframe. Details of activities undertaken by the organisations involved in the case follow, under Activity details and then an Analysis of innovation and good practice is presented. Finally, the Limitations of the case are noted and Recommendations for extending good practice are listed, indicating how elements of the case might be extended to other countries or to other institutions in the same country.

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Initial teacher training in bilingual education: the BILD Project

Thematic summary The BILD Project, which ran for three years under the auspices of a Lingua A research project, brought together a team of bilingual trainers and researchers from four countries to develop methods and materials for the initial and continuing training of bilingual teachers. Bilingual teaching, or CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), is the teaching of ‘content’ subjects, such as history, geography or music, through the medium of a foreign language. The project was co-ordinated by the University of Nottingham whose partner institutions were the University of Wuppertal, Germany, the IUFM in Alsace, France, and NKJO in Wroclaw, Poland. The initial research project ran from January 1998 to December 2000 and produced, as an outcome, a CDROM of training issues, methods and materials for teachers of bilingual content classes. Training activities enhanced by the project are ongoing in Nottingham and Wuppertal. The BILD Project was funded under the SOCRATES Lingua A Scheme in 1997-2000 and no fees are currently payable for participation in the bilingual training courses examined. Elements of good practice exemplified by these programmes include: · · · · · ·

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Initial training in bilingual teaching; Bilingual teaching practice; Mentoring; Integration of theoretical and practical aspects of training; Networking between training institutions; European focus.

Similar initiatives include the bilingual training programmes offered in Austria by the Pädagogische Akademie der Erzdiözese Vienna, Pädagogische Akademie des Bundes in Tirol and the Austrian Primary languages Initiative. The British Council has developed projects in collaboration with the Ministry of Education in Bulgaria, and the Ministry for Education in Bavaria, Germany, has also been active in bilingual training. Full details of the project are provided at: www.geocities.com/bildnott/bild_ettp.htm Administrative context Rather focusing than on the BILD project per se, this case study focuses on two initial teacher training courses which informed, and were informed by that research. These are the BILD PGCE course offered by the School of Education at the University of Nottingham, UK, and the Additional Qualification in Bilingual Training offered by the University of Wuppertal, Germany. Attention is also paid to the provision of bilingual training to German trainees in the second phase of training at the Studienseminar Bonn. Activity details The BILD PGCE offered at Nottingham University offers specialisms in the teaching of History, Geography and Science through the medium of either French or German. Officially students are required to have a first degree in the subject they wish to teach, and at least an A level in their chosen language. In reality, however, many students have already travelled extensively or studied as ERASMUS students in the country where the target language is spoken in the course of their first degree. Others may be native speakers of French or German. The BILD component of the PGCE comprises an induction week of intensive sessions at 99

the beginning of the course, further supplementary sessions during the Autumn and Spring terms and an element of teaching practice. The theoretical sessions focus on the preparation and delivery of bilingual materials and on raising the trainees’ awareness of key issues connected with bilingual teaching. The CLIL methodology, underlying the BILD course, is based on a formula informally tagged the ‘four Cs’. The formula comprises elements of Communication (i.e. language), Content (i.e. the academic discipline in question) Cognition (e.g. embedding thinking skills and active learning) and issues of Culture and/or Citizenship. Significantly, while the specific BILD components of the Nottingham PGCE course only amount to a few extra weeks of training, the original PGCE course itself has been remodeled in recent years to encourage a maximum of collaboration between students and trainers in the various language and discipline fields. In this way, students in the bilingual stream benefit from the linguistic strengths of the PGCE trainees in languages, while the latter gain a degree of awareness of bilingual teaching theory and methods. Bilingual teaching has occurred in German schools for over thirty years. The first bilingual courses, offered through the medium of French to secondary school pupils, were introduced circa 1967, although formally structured and accredited training is a relatively new phenomenon. In Germany, teachers typically train to teach two subjects. Those who have an appropriate combination of a ‘content’ subject such as history or geography and a foreign language, either English or French, may become involved in bilingual teaching at any stage of their training or teaching career. In North-Rhine Westphalia, bilingual training is offered at the level of initial teacher training to students of the Universities of Wuppertal, Cologne, Bochum and Dortmund. When the BILD project was launched in 1998, an established programme of bilingual teacher training had already been running successfully for two years at the University of Wuppertal. Thus, as at Nottingham, 100

the project contributed theoretical research and practical teaching materials to an existing framework of bilingual training. In addition, the BILD Project contributed an alternate perspective on bilingual teacher training and established a network of links for teacher trainers and trainees alike. Components of the additional programme include: · · · · · · · ·

History and theoretical background of bilingual teaching; Bilingual teaching methods and materials; Comparative subject, language knowledge; Language acquisition in a bilingual context; Modes of bilingualism (natural and controlled); Discourse analysis; Bilingual classroom observation and teaching practice; English for Special Purposes or ‘Discours Spécifique du français’.

As well as these elements of study, the additional programme focuses closely on learner autonomy and reflective practices. Students are required to complete learning logs to demonstrate their awareness of learning processes particular to the complex learning environment in which bilingual teaching occurs. The learning log template has been adapted from the model used in the Nottingham bilingual PGCE. Following the initial three or four year period of theoretical training, and semester long state exam, all prospective German teachers undergo two years of practical training. During this phase, trainees are employed by schools for nine teaching hours per week, and attend regular training seminars in state-run training centres known as Studienseminar. The Bonn Studienseminar offers bilingual training for students with appropriate subject combinations. Typically, just one or two incoming trainees will have received training in bilingual methods during their initial training. It is again possible for bilingual teacher

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trainees to undergo a period of classroom observation and practice teaching abroad during this phase of training. In both countries, prospects for graduates are good, as demand for foreign language teachers and those with bilingual expertise is high. As the number of UK secondary schools with the Ministry recognised status of ‘language college’ increases, so do applications for pre-service teachers to pioneer CLIL. Students may also be able to work in bilingual sections elsewhere in Europe. In Germany, over five hundred bilingual schools currently operate in North Rhine Westphalia alone, and large numbers of practising language teachers are expected to retire in the coming few years. There is currently a great demand for qualified teachers of English at both upper and lower secondary levels, while bilingual teachers qualified to teach through the medium of French will have an advantage over their peers when competing for positions. Analysis of innovation and good practice Initial training in bilingual teaching Students on both courses receive explicit training in the theory, methods and materials of bilingual teaching. The BILD Programme in Nottingham offers History, Geography and Science through the medium of German or French. The University of Wuppertal offers a range of subjects including History, Sport, Music, Religion, Philosophy, Physics and Chemistry through the medium of French or English. Training in these combinations is also available at the Bonn Studienseminar. All institutions emphasise the nature of bilingual teaching as much more than a hybrid of language and content teaching, by emphasising the intercultural element and the breaking down of traditional subject or language orientated boundaries.

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Bilingual teaching practice All three institutions co-ordinate elements of teaching practice and observation in bilingual schools. Trainees in initial training are strongly encouraged to participate in observation and teaching practice abroad. Nottingham’s BILD students each undergo two periods of block teaching practice and a practical ‘School Enquiry’ project. For each student, at least one of these three practical components must take place in a bilingual school. However, although some ten bilingual schools currently operate in England, all of them are located at some distance from Nottingham, raising issues of supervision and support. These issues have been addressed in part by the development of a ‘Teaching Observatory’, involving video conferencing and digital interactive whiteboards, to enable a variety of remote teaching and learning activities as well as classroom observation and the remote supervision of trainees. In Wuppertal, the initial training programme comprises four periods of classroom observation and practice teaching over the course of the three years of training. A four-week period of bilingual teaching practice is included in one of these periods. Teaching interns in Bonn are able to practice teaching in bilingual classrooms on a regular basis throughout the two years of their training. Mentoring Mentors are involved in all levels of teaching practice in both UK and German schools. In the UK, school-based mentors working with the BILD PGCE trainees are typically subject specialists (in the fields of history, geography or science) who have undergone training in CLIL methods either through the School of Education at Nottingham, or through various initiatives co-ordinated nationally by the Cervantes Institute, the Alliance Française, the Goethe Institute and the British Council. While the University of 103

Nottingham does offer a range of in-service training and an MA in CLIL, the bulk of CLIL training today is conducted as pre-service training in the BILD PGCE. In Germany, while school-based mentors do work closely with university staff and trainees to maximise the effectiveness of teaching practice periods, they tend to have less formal training in CLIL methods than their UK counterparts. Thus, where mentors lack theoretical training in bilingual methods, they may benefit as much as their charges from the partnership. Integration of theoretical and practical aspects of training The Nottingham BILD students’ ‘School Based Inquiry’ project links taught theory with school-based practice, providing a link between training and teaching. Similarly, the use of a learning log by students in Nottingham and Wuppertal encourages students to reflect on the relationship between theoretical and practical elements of training. In the Bonn Studienseminar, theory and practice are closely linked by the integrated structure of the course itself, and students are encouraged to apply new techniques and theories as they are learnt. Networking between training institutions The BILD project, from which the various BILD courses developed, fostered links between institutions in four countries. Schools and training institutions in Germany and the UK in particular have established ongoing relationships. The benefit of such relationships is not limited to the individual programmes discussed here. Networking strengthens the international profile of each institution and adds value to all of the courses they offer. In addition to UK based bilingual schools, the University of Nottingham’s School of Education has links with schools in three other countries in Europe. Currently, students may undertake 104

periods of teaching practice in a partner school in Liège, Belgium. The concept of the Teaching Observatory is being extended in order that students’ progress may be monitored remotely from Nottingham. During the BILD project, funding was available for students to conduct research in Germany and France. European focus The Nottingham BILD PGCE and the Wuppertal additional programme focus explicitly on the role of the bilingual teacher in the European context. Course modules are devoted to European issues ranging from the educational structures of contrasting European nations, European history, geography, culture and, above all, languages. Opportunities for study and travel abroad, including the possibility of classroom observation and, in some cases, teaching practice in foreign schools also contribute much to the European focus of BILD. Emphasis on the intercultural dimensions of bilingual teaching bring an additional awareness of the teacher’s role in the European context. Limitations of the case While the BILD project and associated courses clearly exemplify good practice in bilingual teacher training, it is useful to consider some of the limitations of the case as these may have an impact on the possibilities for extending good practice. The issue of funding is a considerable limitation of the BILD PGCE, as it is currently running in Nottingham. Although the course is offered alongside the traditional PGCE in the School of Education, additional teaching and administrative resources are required to cater for the specific needs of this group of students. While SOCRATES Lingua funding was provided for the initial BILD project, ongoing initiatives have relied largely on the good will of staff members 105

working overtime. Secondly, difficulties of a technical nature were encountered during the preparation of the CD-Rom. The task was more technically complex, and consequently more time consuming and expensive than had been foreseen. A further issue is that of the unavailability of textbooks specifically designed for bilingual teaching. (Some have been developed in Austria for use in primary schools.) Although this lack is most keenly felt in schools, it has an impact on those elements of training devoted to the identification and use of teaching materials. A greater focus is now on webbased resources as a solution to this issue. The traditional lack of co-operation between institutions in Germany was felt to be a drawback by trainers at both of the institutions studied. However, as stated above, it is anticipated that the further development of bilingual teaching will have a positive impact on this aspect of the German education system. Recommendations for extending good practice The following steps are recommended for extending the elements of good practice identified exemplified by the BILD project: · · · · · ·

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Initial training programmes for language and content teachers could all incorporate elements of bilingual education; Bilingual teacher training should be further developed at primary level; Bilingual teacher training might address a broader range of languages; Provision can be made for trainees to experience practice teaching in bilingual classrooms; Provision for practice teaching abroad is also desirable; A greater degree of co-operation between institutions operating at national and European level is called for;

· · ·

Greater co-operation would be enabled through the implementation of teleconferencing facilities and digital networks (e.g. in Eastern Europe); Support should be provided at European level for the development of resources in a technological format; A greater range of textbooks and training manuals devoted to bilingual teaching need to be developed.

SOCRATES: ERASMUS SOCRATES is Europe’s education programme, promoting language learning and encouraging mobility and innovation. SOCRATES comprises eight ‘actions’ of which ERASMUS is dedicated to Higher Education sector, and Lingua to the filed of Languages. Established in 2000, SOCRATES is now entering its second phase. Emphasis is on lifelong education through learning foreign languages, in addition to encouraging mobility, promoting co-operation at European level, opening up to methods of access to education and increasing the use of new technologies in the field of education. ERASMUS is one of eight measures operating within the SOCRATES programme. Its initiatives cater specifically to the higher, university and post-university sectors of education, and aims to encourage mobility and language learning. ERASMUS is intended either for students, to promote their mobility, or for teachers in order to enable them to take part in exchanges, develop joint courses, programme intensive courses and take part in forming thematic networks. More information on the SOCRATES: ERASMUS scheme may be found at europa.eu.int.

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2

Bilingual INSET

Thematic summary While bilingual teaching has occurred in German schools for over thirty years, little provision has been made for the formal training of practising bilingual teachers. This case study examines an inservice training initiative which took place in the Federal Land of North Rhine Westphalia in 1997 and 1998. A series of bilingual training courses were run for practising teachers with qualifications and teaching experience in a language and subject combination appropriate to bilingual teaching. Content subjects offered included Biology, Geography, History, and Political Studies. The ‘bilingual’ teaching of foreign languages was also addressed. At present, bilingual teaching in Germany is conducted principally in English (sixty schools) and French (eighteen schools) with some provision in Italian, Greek, Russian and Spanish. This report looks specifically at the course run for teachers of History and English by an experienced bilingual teacher working in the Mataré Gymnasium, Meerbusch. Elements of good practice exemplified by the course include: · · · · ·

Bilingual INSET; European Dimension; Networking; Co-operation; Reflective Practice.

The ROMEO project, co-ordinated by the University of Jyväskylä, is another example of a collaborative-style INSET training course for prospective bilingual teachers. Significantly, while that project focused solely on English, the course discussed here was offered in both English and French. Additionally, while 108

ROMEO focused on building up the English language skills of teachers not qualified to teach in or through the medium of English, formal training and experience in the foreign language is necessary for the German bilingual INSET course. Administrative context The Bilingual INSET Training Project was co-ordinated and funded by the Landesinstitut für Schule und Weiterbildung (Regional Institute for Schools and Continuing Education). The Mataré Gymnasium and the Landrat-Lucas-Schule in Leverkusen were responsible for developing and implementing materials for the course addressing the teaching of History through the medium of English. The course was run one day per week over a period of twenty-two weeks. The course was offered for the first time in 1997 and ran four times. A second series of courses aimed at bilingual teaching in the higher grades (i.e. grades 11–13) began in 2000 and ran twice. This initiative was the first INSET course in bilingual teaching methods specifically designed for teachers of History and English in North Rhine Westphalia. Activity details The course covered a range of issues relevant to the context of bilingual teaching. In the first instance, emphasis was placed on the theory of bilingual teaching and on its authenticity as a method of teaching ‘content’ subjects, such as history and geography, in the European context. The role of the mother tongue was addressed, as were the use of bilingual glossaries, the issue of bilingual curriculum development, the dearth of available research into bilingual methods and the need for formal training of practising bilingual teachers. The course laid great emphasis on bilingual 109

teaching being more than simply teaching an existing course in a foreign language. Intercultural learning was highlighted as a focus of bilingual teaching. Although a separate course was designed for each subject/language combination addressed, the majority of the discussion was conducted in German for ease of communication and to enable participants to understand fully the implications and intricacies of the training. Subsequent modules considered materials and methods to be used in the classroom. Each module was structured around a specific genre of teaching materials. Topics included the identification and use of textbooks, pictures, documents, charts and graphs, documentaries, movies and ICT (the internet and CD-Roms). Course participants were each issued a folder of theoretical and practical materials from which they would build up an individual dossier of bilingual teaching resources. Significantly, while the course facilitator had over ten years’ experience of bilingual teaching, course modules were run as interactive seminars in which participants were encouraged to discuss their own views and experiences alongside the views of more experienced ‘specialists’. In this way, the course was run as a collaborative venture with each participant contributing something to a growing bank of expertise in bilingual teaching in their subject and language discipline area. At the conclusion of the course, participants were issued with a certificate of attendance listing the subject/language combination covered by the course. No assessment or formal qualification was offered. Analysis of innovation and good practice Bilingual teacher training While many teachers and schools are active in the field of bilingual teaching, very little formal or theoretical training is available at the level of INSET. This series of courses systematically addressed this 110

lack, providing training in a range of widely taught subject/ language combinations. Networking While there are several hundred schools offering bilingual training in North Rhine Westphalia, there are few opportunities for practising bilingual teachers to meet with others and discuss their work. Courses such as this enable teachers to develop networks of links with colleagues and specialists throughout the Federal Land. European dimension This course explicitly addresses the role of the bilingual teacher in promoting intercultural learning at the intersection of language and subject studies. Modules focusing on particular genres of bilingual teaching materials address practical ways in which the European Dimension may be introduced within the confines of existing curricular requirements. Subject specific courses also develop the European Dimension thematically. Here, for example, attention is paid to the European Dimension of History. Reflexivity The theoretical modules of this course encourage participants to reflect on their own role in facilitating pupils’ intercultural learning. The emphasis on bilingual teaching as something quite removed from traditional methods of teaching either History or English also promote reflection on the techniques and aims of traditional teaching approaches.

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Co-operation Throughout the courses the role of the moderator was such as to enable an exchange of views and experience both to and from the course participants. In addition to teaching others about bilingual training, moderators were also able to build up their own expertise and add to the growing bank of data and resources on bilingual teaching. Limitations of the case Consideration of the problems and issues associated with this course will be helpful in the extension of good practice to other contexts. As with many projects of this nature, funding is a significant concern. No courses are currently running owing to the lack of financial support for Bilingual Inset. Language diversity is also a concern. While the Soest courses were offered for a variety of content subjects through the medium of English or French, courses are yet to be developed in other languages. Finally, access to the course was problematic in that participants were given a reduction in their weekly teaching load of just two hours. This reduction was not adequate to compensate for the amount of work required by the course (both in seminars and their preparation) and did not take into account the lengthy commute undertaken by many course participants. Recommendations for extending good practice Recommendations arising from this case study are as follows: ·

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Europe-wide provision of INSET for practising bilingual teachers should be prioritised;

· · · ·

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Regular courses could be offered in a wider variety of language/subject combinations; Provision for less widely taught languages might be offered at European level; Links to schools and training institutions across Europe should be established to build up a network of bilingual teaching specialists and practitioners; European guidelines for the access and accreditation of INSET courses need to be established.

CEEPUS Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies

Thematic summary The Central European Exchange Programme for University Studies, or CEEPUS, is a grant network which aims to initiate and further programmes of academic mobility in Central Europe. The stated objectives of CEEPUS are to: · · · · ·

Promote academic mobility in and with Central Europe by introducing a multilateral dimension; Promote complete programmes and networks; Provide the necessary infrastructure; Stress specific features typical of the region; Contribute to the formation of the European Higher Education area.

Through these activities, CEEPUS enables exchanges of students and university lecturers across the nine member countries. Currently, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, 113

Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia are included in the scheme. Several more countries, including Albania, BosniaHercegovina, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro have also expressed interest in joining CEEPUS. Elements of good practice exemplified by this project include: · · · ·

Mobility; Language diversity; User-friendliness of CEEPUS; The promotion of a regional identity.

Similar initiatives involving academic mobility and the provision of grants include the EU SOCRATES/ERASMUS scheme, NORDPLUS and the Nordic-Baltic alliance. For full details of CEEPUS see the official website: www.ceepus.org/ceepus Administrative context CEEPUS is co-ordinated by the Joint Committee of Ministers (in charge of higher education) and the Central CEEPUS Office in Vienna, working with national offices in each member country. The organisation was created in December 1993 upon signature of an agreement between Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia. The CEEPUS Agreement was phrased in such a way as to allow for subsequent accession of further member states. Croatia and the Czech Republic joined in 1995 and 1996, respectively and Romania in 1998. The first exchanges started in summer 1995. CEEPUS provides mobility grants for students, graduates and university teachers participating in CEEPUS networks, language courses, intensive courses and student excursions. The most important CEEPUS activities are the university networks. A CEEPUS network is a very concrete co-operation of at least three 114

universities, with at least two of them from different CEEPUS countries. The main idea behind their activities is to ‘pool the best’ and to share resources and man-power. Unlike other programmes, there is no list of priorities, all subject areas are welcome, and indeed participating. The networks are selected in a standardised two-step, computer aided procedure known as the ‘CEEPUS Scoring System’, which operates first on the national and then on the international level. Mutual recognition of the activities offered is a sine qua non condition. Lectures and courses also have to be offered either in English, French, or German. Once the network is committed, the actual mobility applicants are selected by the network itself. Networks operate through a system of ‘scholarship months’ which enables a true exchange of students and staff within each network. Each participating institution exchanges a set number of scholarship months each year. The number of scholarship months offered by the participating countries has increased steadily since the programme’s inception, reflecting the growing activity and interest of the region in co-operation and exchange. All the countries have at least doubled their offerings since the beginning of the CEEPUS programme (1994–95: 725 months; 2001– 02: 3,430 months). To obtain a CEEPUS scholarship, applicants first have to check whether they meet the basic administrative requirements. Both students and teachers need to be citizens of a CEEPUS member state. Students need to have completed two terms of a regular course of studies by the time the exchange starts, and must not be older than thirty-five. Both lecturers and student applicants need to select their destination, first by finding out whether their home university participates in a suitable network, and then by discussing details with the respective network co-ordinator/ partner. The academic selection is carried out by the networks themselves. The final task is to complete the interactive scholarship application form on the CEEPUS website.

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Activity details CEEPUS activities fall into five distinct groups as follows: · · ·

·

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The promotion of student and teacher mobility. (the main CEEPUS activity.) Scholarships are allocated to students, graduates and university lecturers; The establishment of Central European university networks. These comprise in each case a minimum of three universities of which two belong to different CEEPUS countries; Intensive courses or summer schools. These courses are designed to attract participants from as many CEEPUS countries as possible, including the host country. Courses are promoted either as summer schools dedicated to a specific topic, or as intensive training courses, over a period of at least two weeks, for young teaching staff; The provision of language courses. These courses are ‘dual’ courses, i.e. courses for groups of participants from two CEEPUS countries, with each group studying the language of the other group. Each course may be complemented by leisure activities to foster mutual understanding. These activities are not supported financially by CEEPUS; The implementation of student excursions. These excursions are intended to make use of a specific part of the infrastructure of the host country and are jointly organized by the host and guest institutions. CEEPUS funded excursions must serve a scientific or vocational-training orientated purpose, such as classroom observation.

Analysis of innovation and good practice Mobility The main thrust of the CEEPUS organisation is the promotion of exchanges for teachers and students. Many of the existing networks have been in operation since the mid-nineties and some earlier still. Hence, the links between the institutions are very strong, which helps facilitate intercultural communication and affirm a common Central European identity. Language diversity All the courses are offered in the local language and either in English, German or French. There are also a number of courses devoted to learning Dutch, Slavonic, Finnish and Hungarian. User-friendliness of CEEPUS There is an explicit aim in CEEPUS to be user-friendly. Electronic application forms are accessible on the internet and the exchange programmes offered are kept as flexible and cost-effective as possible through use of the common currency of ‘scholarship months’. The promotion of a regional identity Regional identity is promoted through the constant exchange of students and teaching staff among the participating countries. As additional countries and institutions join CEEPUS networks, the influence of the group and of its various networks will continue to grow, leading to increased opportunities for all members.

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Limitations of the case CEEPUS has yet to establish programmes specifically oriented towards teacher training. Member countries acknowledge this lack, and plan to implement such a programme in the context of the planned new CEEPUS ‘Joint Degree’. Currently, there are a number of different language courses offered by the various CEEPUS Networks which are frequently taken up by future language teachers. A further limitation is that ongoing visa regulation problems persist between some of the CEEPUS member states, which can restrict the mobility of potential student/lecturer candidates. Similarly, a minority of countries have been reluctant to accord equivalence to diplomas obtained in other CEEPUS member countries. On an administrative level, organisers have expressed concerns that some scholarships, once awarded, end up not being used, either for personal reasons, or because the applicants apply for several exchanges and then, have to choose between the different opportunities offered. As a result of increasingly restrictive visa regulations, there is not always enough time for a redistribution of these scholarship months, which results in wasted exchange opportunities. Finally, differences sometimes arise between the institutions with regard to the status or amount of grants. Some students hesitate to attend courses at universities they fear will not have the same academic status. In some cases, this may be counteracted simply by making available fuller information on the accreditation offered, or by increased efforts by networks to offer attractive options. Another mobility obstacle may arise if grants are not adjusted to the local cost of living fast enough.

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Recommendations for extending good practice Good practice might be furthered through take-up of: · · · · · ·

The user-friendliness of the CEEPUS structure; Lean administrative organisation; User-friendly interactive application forms on the internet; Scholarship months as common currency; Organisation of in-service training exchanges or courses for secondary school teachers; Initial training courses for foreign languages teachers, emphasising mobility as a key component of training. European Language Council Founded in July 1997, European Language Council ‘actively promotes European co-operation between institutions of higher education in the area of language studies’. Its activities include research projects, workshops, debates, conferences and taskforces relating to all areas of language teaching, learning and research. Past events have included a taskforce on European Language Policy, a two-part Thematic Network Project in the area of Languages and a conference on ‘Multilingualism and New Learning Environments’ held in the European Year of Languages, 2001. The ELC’s activities all feed indirectly into the field of language teacher training. Amongst the most pertinent of its resources are national reports of the TNPII sub-project on curriculum innovation which include sections on teacher training in each of the twenty-three countries featured. More information on the European Language Council may be found on: www.fu-berlin.de/elc/en/index.html

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4

Teaching practice abroad: ‘Formation Croisée’

Thematic summary The Primary Languages Teacher Training Project is a joint initiative of the Teacher Training Agency in England, and the Ministère de l’Education Nationale in France, supported by the Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research (CILT). The project has brought together five higher education institutions in England and five IUFM institutions in France, with the common purpose of providing teacher training for languages in the primary sector. Each university has been twinned with an institution in the partner country, allowing the exchange of ideas between students and trainers, as well as the opportunity to spend a period abroad in the partner country as part of the training. Elements of good practice exemplified by this project include: · · · · ·

Exchange for primary teacher trainees; Teaching abroad; Flexibility and adaptability; Networking; Mentoring.

Exchanges are regularly organised between countries or region (see case-study on Dual Qualifications: PGCE/Maitrise FLE for instance), but this exchange differs because of its institutionalised aspect, and its participants (trainees to teach foreign languages at primary level).

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Administrative context The Primary Languages Teacher Training Project is a joint initiative of the British Teacher Training Agency and the French Ministère de l’Education Nationale, supported by CILT. In its pilot year, the project brought together ten higher education institutions in England and France with each host institution financing its guests. This administrative arrangement meant, for example, that the University of Southampton paid the accommodation and travel expenses of the French cohort from Strasbourg. In future, the organisation will differ with the Teacher Training Agency in the UK allowing a £750 grant to each of the British trainees and some of the IUFMs financing part of their trainees’ expenses. Under the new system it appears that British trainees will receive rather more support than their French counterparts. The project was launched in the academic year 2001–02, as a pilot, with five institutions in each country. It was subsequently expanded to thirteen participants in each host country. It is envisaged that additional institutions from other French and English speaking countries will later join the project. Activity details Trainees must fulfil the course assessment criteria of their home institution, whether in England or in France. In England, the language of communication is English, and in France, French. Even though a variety of specific tasks are required from the trainees in each institution, the overall aim of the course and of the exchange remains the same in all partner institutions. During the practical course components, English and French trainees are partnered with each other. Most, if not all the trainees, whether French or English, had at least an element of French or English in 121

their degree or in their A-Level or Baccalauréat, meaning that they all have an appropriate level in the target language. During the period of study in France, the British trainees are encouraged to: · · · · · · · · ·

Improve their linguistic competence in French; Improve their ability to use the target language of the classroom; Acquire the ability to model accurate intonation and pronunciation; Gather a portfolio of authentic resources for key stages 1–2; Improve their cultural awareness; Gain knowledge of the French education system at primary school level; Become aware of teaching approaches through observation and reflection; Participate in small group teaching within a supported environment and in a discipline in which they feel confident; Engage in reciprocal discussion with their French peers, comparing teaching strategies and organisation within primary classrooms and schools in both England and France.

In England, towards the end of the academic year, trainees are required to produce a presentation or report demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the major issues relating to the effective implementation of a primary MFL programme. They must also demonstrate the ability to justify the inclusion of French in the primary curriculum, supporting their arguments with a display of materials and learning resources. Students are strongly advised to take all opportunities offered to enhance their subject knowledge. Suggestions for this will be made at the beginning of the course. Both fluency and accuracy of target language is required in the classroom. They are also asked to collect information about Primary French from the beginning of the 122

course. They should make a ‘Primary French File’ and add to this throughout both the school-based and university-based elements of the course. As an example, the taught programme offered at Newcastle consists of a five-day subject-based programme during term two. This intensive course includes: · · · · · · ·

Development of subject knowledge and its application; Understanding the National Curriculum; Awareness of recent research; Progression from KS1 to KS2; Use of ICT within the subject; Misconceptions, mistakes and coping with subject-related questions; Further development of your subject specialist file.

The initial school-based programme comprises a small amount of observation and teaching of French during the diagnostic placement, which will be increased and developed during the final placement. Although the organisation of the British placement of the French trainees differs in the various English schools of education, they typically attend PGCE classes with their English colleagues. In France, courses in French language are provided by the French IUFM to upgrade the level of the British trainees, so they feel more confident in their teaching The amount of teaching undertaken depends upon their own competence and confidence. Analysis of innovation and good practice Exchange for primary trainee-teachers The Formation Croisée exchange has been developed specifically for primary level teacher trainees. It offers a unique opportunity to

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learn how to teach basic skills in a multicultural environment through an integrated programme of theory and practice. Teaching abroad Trainees gain first hand experience and increased awareness of language teaching in a foreign country and culture. In addition to exposure to the target language, trainees are able to obtain and use authentic teaching materials and make contacts with practicing teachers abroad. This experience is particularly significant in the context of primary language teaching which is still in the early stages of development in the UK. Flexibility and adaptability of institutions and trainees In order to carry out an international exchange of this scale, all the participants (trainees, university tutors, school teachers, university and school administrators) need to be flexible and adaptable. Such adaptability is need as a result of the structural variations between the established teacher training programmes in Britain and France and the rigid national requirements which apply in some cases. The success of this particular exchange had much to do with the close collaboration and extremely hard work of the tutors, and with the flexibility and positive attitude of the trainees. Networking opportunity The opportunity provided for networking is one of the most important examples of good practice in this innovative programme. Setting up this exchange for the co-ordinators, and going abroad for the tutors and trainees improved the relations between colleagues at all levels. All those involved in the programme emphasise the social and professional importance of establishing good links abroad for future collaboration. 124

Mentoring and evaluation Both groups of trainees receive support by tutors from their home institution who visit them during their stay in the host country, undertaking a pastoral role where necessary, observing their teaching, and forging or strengthening links with colleagues. Limitations of the case Concerns have been voiced regarding the actual teaching time devoted to trainees on the exchange. In some cases, the amount of time dedicated to the preparation of the exchange has meant less time spent preparing trainees to teach. However, the first year of any new initiative necessarily involves additional administrative work which is expected to reduce over time. Recommendations for extending good practice Following on from this case study, good practice might be extended as follows: · · · ·

Co-operation between institutions and increased flexibility within course offerings will lead to greater possibilities for exchange; Exchange possibilities for language teachers and trainees at primary level are rare, and should be encouraged; Exchange agreements involving a wider diversity of languages should be developed for the primary sector; As primary languages develop in the UK, new networks providing information, resources and support need to be developed.

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5

ILIAD: International Languages INSET at a Distance

Thematic summary ILIAD is an interactive CD-ROM in five languages covering a range of themes related to foreign language teaching throughout Europe. The languages featured are English, French, German, Spanish and Swedish. The CD includes 110 minutes of video footage shot in 14 European language classes at primary and secondary level. Linked screens feature background information and key questions to promote discussion of the themes presented. Each theme is illustrated by several short passages of video. All text, including transcriptions of the video clips, is available in each of the five languages featured. A library of on-line and print resources is also included with several full-text articles on the CD. ILIAD is a good example of an ICT approach to the pre-service and in-service training of language teachers with emphasis on distance learning and flexible delivery. These materials are available to trainers and practicing teachers. ILIAD exemplifies: · · · · · ·

Emphasis on the European dimension; Networking; Language diversity; Innovation in primary language teaching; ICT; Distance learning.

Similar initiatives include the TALLENT programme (case study 12), which presents various ICT materials through a series of theoretical and practical seminars and workshops. The CD-ROM format has also been adopted by the BILD project (case study 1), focusing specifically on initial teacher training the bilingual context. 126

For full details of the ILIAD Project see the official website: www2.open.ac.uk/CES/projects/iliad/iliad.html Administrative context The ILIAD Project was co-ordinated by the Open University, UK. Partner institutions were CILT and the Open University in the UK, the IUFMs in Alsace and Paris, Sweden’s Karlstaad University, the IFU in Vienna, and the Cervantes Institute in Manchester. The project ran over three years in the period 1998– 2001 and the CD was released in summer 2002. Funding for the project was provided through the SOCRATES Lingua A scheme. Activity details The ILIAD CD was designed specifically to: · · · · ·

Raise awareness of what is culturally specific in languages classrooms in different countries; Compare and link primary and secondary school practice in the teaching and learning of foreign languages using practical exemplars; Complement existing training materials (pre-service and inservice) used in partner countries; Increase positive attitudes amongst learners and teachers towards ideas from other phases and countries; Raise awareness of how language teaching methodology is affected by cultural factors.

The CD-ROM is structured by theme, so the reader is able to navigate through each theme and related sub themes by country or

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by taught language. Users can explore partner countries’ perspectives on the main themes of: · · · ·

Investigating how pupils learn languages; Classroom management and planning; Pupil motivation and preference; Learning resources.

The CD-ROM includes: · ·

·

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Multi media and multi lingual training materials targeting key aspects of the languages curriculum in the late primary and early secondary phase; Classroom scenes and interviews with teachers and pupils filmed by the BBC in fourteen classrooms across the partner countries (taught languages: French, English, German and Spanish); Commentary by teachers and project co-ordinators in the partner countries with detailed analysis and discussion of four common themes using the classroom scenes, audio interviews and complementary further reading; Translation and transcripts of all texts into 5 languages.

In 2001–2002 several successful pilot schemes were run as inservice training for language teachers to test its effectiveness. The Spanish partner in the ILIAD Project was the Cervantes Institute, and particularly the Director of the Cervantes Institute in Manchester. In 2001, a prototype of the ILIAD CD was presented to a group of thirty-seven teachers of Spanish from eight European countries by the Cervantes Institute in the context of a two-week residential in-service training course in Granada. The course participants were reportedly very enthusiastic about the CD and these participants are now instrumental in disseminating it amongst their colleagues at home and in co-ordinating training 128

sessions. In addition to representatives from German, English and French, speaking nations, Finnish, Czech and Dutch participants, whose languages are not featured on the CD, planned to incorporate the CD into in-service training in their countries. In Spain, the Cervantes Institute distributes the ILIAD CD to practising teachers through in-service training courses, and to teacher training institutions via the local education authorities with which it works. Language teacher trainers at the UK’s Open University use ILIAD as an integral part of the recently redesigned PGCE through distance learning. Incorporating a range of flexible delivery options and distance learning initiatives the revamped course had its first intake of students in September 2002. Within the new course structure, ILIAD is used to supplement periods of classroom observation and to provide a practical exemplification of particular theoretical points. The CD’s extensive video footage provides trainees with a unique insight into European teaching practices not commonly used in schools in the UK and is used to initiate discussion of teaching techniques and the nature of good practice in teaching. The electronic library of resources featured on the ILIAD CD are also incorporated into the course. Analysis of innovation and good practice European dimension The scope of the materials presented on the CD extends to fourteen different language classrooms in participating schools from Austria, France, Spain, Sweden and the UK. Thus, a range of contrasting teaching and learning methods and philosophies are in evidence. Opinions expressed frankly by students and teachers of varying backgrounds are presented in such a way as to encourage

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thought and discussion relating to social and cultural differences as well as language use and teaching methods right across Europe. Networking The project has involved school pupils, teachers, trainers and researchers from a wide variety of linguistic, and professional fields in five countries. The interactive and inter-linked structure of the CD-Rom demonstrates how the experiences of language teachers and learners with a range of interests and abilities may be relevant and useful to individuals in many other related areas. The project also fostered lasting links between the various participating individuals and institutions. Distance learning The CD-Rom format adopted by ILIAD makes it accessible to learners in the most remote of areas. The combination of text and video resources as well as a number of full-text articles on the CD also means that teachers or trainees are able to ‘visit’ schools in five countries without having to travel. As the CD functions as a fully self-contained training kit, it is appropriate for use at any time and anywhere. ICT for language teachers A team of ICT professionals at the Open University, UK were responsible for structuring the CD in such a way as to make it accessible to any person familiar with computers, without requiring additional technical training. A trainer comfortable with computers can easily use the ILIAD CD to introduce teacher trainees to ICT at the same time as working through the language and teaching issues it presents. As the ILIAD CD is so easy to use it will be a particularly useful resource for those practising teachers still not 130

familiar with windows based applications. The ILIAD CD contains the two specific software applications necessary for accessing its video and text resources (Quick Time and Adobe Acrobat) as well as automated installation programmes, FAQ files, instructions for use and tips for trouble-shooting. Diversity of languages covered All of the information contained on the CD (with the exception of bibliographical resources) is presented in English, French, German, Spanish and Swedish. Issues connected with learning English, French, German and Spanish as foreign languages are discussed in the context of each of the countries represented. Thus, each language is presented both as an object of study and a medium of training. Innovation in the area of primary language teaching The 14 foreign language classrooms featured on the CD represent a range of ages and abilities at both primary and secondary level. The CD specifically addresses issues pertaining to language teaching and learning at primary level, illustrated by video taken in primary schools in each of the countries featured. Limitations of the case The use of the CD is limited to schools and training institutions with adequate computer facilities. Problems occur in cases where ICT hardware is slightly outdated. Furthermore, as was discovered during the pilot, individual ILIAD training sessions are not practical, at least in the first instance, as the main focus of the resource is to promote discussion. Trainers have observed that while participants engage quickly with the materials presented, a 131

facilitator is essential to direct their progress through the CD and to prompt discussion of particular topics. Recommendations for extending good practice The ILIAD case study indicates that good practice might be extended as follows: ·

The ICT infrastructure of training institutions and schools need to be raised to a standard appropriate to the teaching and learning needs of users; Initial training should ensure that teachers are familiar with the range of ICT hardware and applications appropriate to their ongoing training needs; Similar resources could be developed for use with less commonly studied languages (e.g. those of the pre-accession countries); Access and accreditation for INSET courses in ICT might be standardised across Europe.

· · ·

Eurydice and Eurybase Eurydice is an information network on education in Europe operating within the framework of the EU SOCRATES programme. Thirty countries currently participate in the network, which comprises National Units and a European Unit. Eurydice prepares and publishes surveys, descriptive analyses, comparative studies and indicators relating to Europe’s various education systems, educational policy issues and related topics. In recent years, several studies on language teaching and learning, and the training of teachers have been conducted and published by Eurydice. Eurybase is the Eurydice database on the educational systems in Europe. Detailed information on all levels and aspects of education, including the teaching of languages and the training of teachers is provided More information may be found at www.eurydice.org. 132

6

Joint qualifications / European teacher programmes

Thematic summary Joint qualification teacher training programmes have been developed as a result of co-operation between higher education institutions in France and the UK, Austria and the UK and France and Germany. These programmes offer foreign language students the opportunity to gain teaching qualifications in two European countries and to spend part of their training abroad. The courses are often referred to as European Teacher Programmes and the qualifications obtained are known as the PGCE/Maîtrise, PGCE/ Hauptschulqualifikation or Lehramt/Maîtrise. This type of teacher training programme emphasises the following features: · · · · · · ·

Realisation of the European dimension; The enhancement of social and cultural values while teaching and learning in an international context; Collaboration and networking between institutions in different countries; Opportunities to teach in more than one country; Thorough training in language teaching methodology; Integration of theory and practice; The importance of teamwork in teaching.

Joint teaching qualifications are offered by a number of institutions in Austria, France, Germany and the UK. This case study focuses in detail on the programmes taught at the Pädagogische Akademie des Bundes in Tirol, Innsbruck and St Martin’s College, Lancaster. Reference is also made to the University of Lyon II and the Pädagogische Akademie Erzdiözese Vienna. For full details of these programmes online, see: www.pgcefle.univ-lyon2.fr.

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Administrative context The joint programme at the P.A. in Innsbruck is offered in collaboration with St Martin’s, Lancaster and Nottingham University. It is also hoped to establish a similar programme with a training institution in Italy in the near future. St Martin’s cooperates additionally with Nottingham University, with the P.A. in Krems and partners in Aix-en-Provence, Lyon, Le Mans, Nancy, Paris, Pau and Strasbourg. The programmes received European funding between 1993 and 1998. There are no course fees. Trainees who are attached to UK institutions for part of their training qualify for the training salary granted to all UK PGCE secondary students (£6,000). This is funded by the Department for Education and Skills. They can also apply for local or regional grants if they are studying at a French institution. Students who have not previously been granted an award can apply for ERASMUS mobility grants. Students who remain in the UK for their induction year are also entitled to receive a £4,000 ‘Golden Hello’ payment. Originally, the programme developed in the early 1990s in response to the fact that there was a shortage of foreign language teachers in England. Several Local Education Authorities worked together to attract French university students onto a specially created PGCE course, which operated in South East London. French colleagues used this opportunity to initiate a new course, resulting in the dual award. Collaboration between the UK and Austria began in 1998. Activity details Course aims stress the significance of the European dimension in training. St Martin’s Lancaster describes its programme as one that will ‘prepare you for being a truly European teacher and focuses on making language learning enjoyable and relevant to all learners’ 134

(course brochure, p. 4). The joint programmes involving the UK, France and Austria are divided into three separate phases. Phase 1 is spent at one of the partner institutions in the UK. During this period, students participate in workshops or seminars, which provide an introduction to the UK education system and opportunities to develop language-teaching methodology. At St Martin’s College Lancaster, trainees receive intensive methodology training in the principles of reflective teaching and learning. They also visit local schools to observe lessons. Teaching groups are multinational and comprise the Austrian, British and French students undertaking the programme. There is a strong focus on teamwork activities, a variety of linguistic experiences and on the development of an intercultural perspective. Phase 2 (four months) is spent in Austria or France. Students from the UK whose placement is in Innsbruck have the choice of following courses on the Austrian education system, school law, history of Austria and the Tirol, foreign language pedagogy, and German language. Trainees can also elect intercultural skills courses at the P.A. in Vienna. An extended period of teaching practice is also undertaken at this time. Austrian students, who have already obtained a teaching diploma (Lehramt) are offered training to become European Educational Advisors. This initiative operates in conjunction with the Office for European Cooperation in Education in Vienna. Courses are designed to enable students to emphasise the European dimension in their own teaching and to implement European projects in their own schools. For those students attached to a French institution, Phase 2 is based at a French university. Information from the University of Lyon II states that courses are followed in French Cultural Anthropology (literature, history, politics and sociology), French linguistics (syntax, linguistic theory, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics and phonetics) and Teaching French as a Foreign Language (method analysis, oral teaching, teaching of grammar, teaching of written language, media education and development of 135

teaching materials). ICT and intercultural skills courses are also available at several French universities. Phase 3 (seven months) is spent in the UK. Students are attached to a secondary school for four days each week. They begin by observing lessons, they then progress to teaching parts of lessons and eventually take on half a standard teaching timetable. This teaching practice is supervised by a school-based mentor, a general professional mentor and a higher education tutor. On the remaining day each week, students attend workshops at the higher education institution where issues concerning the practice can be raised. Trainees at St Martin’s also observe their higher education tutor teaching a Year 9 class in a school. St Martin’s Lancaster places strong emphasis on foreign language teaching methodology. Prospective teachers are trained to teach through the medium of the target language using multi-sensory techniques and to focus on the development of spontaneous classroom language. A very critical and selective approach to the use of course books and other teaching materials is adopted, in contrast with the usual topic-based approach to foreign languages in the UK. Close collaboration and a shared philosophy between St Martin’s and a network of partnership teaching practice schools helps to ensure that trainees receive adequate support in teaching methodology from the school-based mentors. Trainees on teaching practice work closely with both experienced teachers and their fellow students. Lessons are often planned in conjunction with teacher mentors who are then observed teaching the lesson. Team-teaching, peer observation and regular feedback sessions are also elements of training. Assessment is on the basis of the outcomes of practical teaching and a series of coursework assignments at both institutions. Trainees are encouraged to work in multinational pairs on a number of assignment tasks, including presentations. Self-evaluation plays a large part throughout the teaching practice. They complete a self-evaluation sheet at the end of each lesson taught, which 136

enables them to reflect on how the lesson went and how it might have been improved. Thay also set themselves a series of targets for their teaching on which they receive feedback from mentors and peers during lesson observation. Reflective skills are developed through a journal or diary of teaching experiences and a Reflection on Practice booklet. The resulting qualifications enable teachers to teach at secondary schools in the UK and lower secondary/middle schools in Austria. Trainees have the chance to spend an additional teaching practice semester in Austria the following academic year, which permits them to teach the full secondary age range. For those whose training is in co-operation with France, they become qualified to teach French as a foreign language all over the world. Analysis of innovation and good practice Realisation of a European dimension The course results in teaching qualifications that are recognised in more than one country, enhancing the status of the teacher and increasing opportunities for professional mobility. The training received by Austrian students to become European Educational Advisers is additionally designed to enable them to promote the European dimension in their own teaching. French students interviewed for this case study actually plan to stay in the UK for their first teaching post. About a third of Austrian trainees from Innsbruck normally take up their first teaching post in UK. Enhancement of social and cultural values while teaching and learning in an international context Students work in multinational groups from the outset where the emphasis is on intercultural co-operation and teamwork. This approach is designed to improve cross-cultural awareness and to 137

provide opportunities for students to engage with different cultural perspectives on teaching and learning. Intercultural pedagogy is further developed through the intercultural skills courses on offer in Austria and France. Collaboration and networking between institutions in different countries The development of joint qualification programmes has necessitated close collaboration between partner institutions and has resulted in the establishment of combined and integrated objectives for training. Lecturers from different institutions visit one another regularly and in some instances teach on courses in the partner country. A consortium of English and French partners meets twice yearly. Co-operation between Austria and the UK is regarded as particularly successful by one of the interviewees for this case study because of the common pedagogic approach to initial teacher training in both countries, although some concern was expressed about the prescriptive nature of National Curriculum requirements in England and Wales. Joint programmes also provide trainees with the chance to develop contacts from other countries which they can then utilise to the advantage of their pupils throughout their teaching careers. Opportunity to teach in more than one country The partnership between Austria, France and the UK provides students with direct and relevant experience of teaching in two different education systems while on teaching practice (although no provision is yet available for UK students to teach in France, opportunities exist for them to undertake observation in French schools). It helps to broaden their cultural insights as language teachers as well as improve their linguistic competence. The subsequent qualification enables them to work in either country

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and increases the potential for later professional development and mobility. Integration of theory and practice Particular efforts are made to link the theoretical aspects of the course studied in France and the teaching practice in the UK. Students are strongly encouraged to think about how linguistic theory might be applied in practice. Coursework assignments carried out in France frequently focus on the development of projects which students can then try out when they return to their UK schools. The French students interviewed for this case study expressed strong support for the theoretical background obtained in France and believed it to be necessary for a successful practice in the UK. Thorough training in language teaching methodology Courses in language teaching methodology apply in all three countries. The opportunity to study methodology from a different cultural perspective enables students to reflect critically on different teaching approaches. The particularly strong focus on methodology at St Martin’s Lancaster also provides a distinct alternative to some traditional PGCE courses in the UK. Emphasis on the importance of teamwork in teaching The varied opportunities to work closely with both experienced teachers and fellow students throughout the course serve to underline the importance of teamwork in teaching and to prepare students for their future career.

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Limitations of the case For the most part, problems tend to relate to intercultural differences in the respective countries. One interviewee for this case study stated that in some instances, Austrian students experience problems coping with the demands of teaching practice in UK schools where pupils can be found ‘boisterous’. The difficulties of teaching practice in the UK are also mentioned by Lawes and Barbot (2001) in their account of the partnership between Canterbury Christ Church University College and the Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale. They suggest that some French students found it hard to accept the UK pastoral system, while others found this attractive (p. 111). French trainees interviewed for this case study expressed great enthusiasm for the pastoral system. They also stated that they felt well-supported by their higher education tutor and their school, which helped to reduce some of the difficulties of the teaching practice. As far as university-based studies are concerned, Lawes and Barbot maintain that both British and French students had a tendency to prefer the teaching styles to which they were accustomed and to criticise the unfamiliar student-centred approach in the UK or the more traditional lecturing style in France (p. 110). However, one French student interviewed for this case study, believed that the interactive style of classes in the UK had the positive effect of encouraging the French students to be more participatory. Ultimately, one of the founding principles of the joint programmes is to address these kinds of cultural imbalances which are not dealt with in traditional ITT programmes. The P.A. in Innsbruck has undergone some changes in its programme due to the fact that its original UK partner was Homerton College, Cambridge. Homerton has subsequently withdrawn from of the scheme and Innsbruck has had to develop new links as a result. Issues of funding have also been resolved, to an

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extent, since the introduction of the UK training salary, but were named as a continuing source of pressure by one teacher trainer. Recommendations for extending good practice Elements of good practice exemplified by the joint qualifications case study could be extended in several ways: · · · · ·

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Collaboration between training institutions across Europe needs to be prioritised to enhance professional mobility; Partnerships could also be more widely developed to promote intercultural understanding; Networking between institutions in Europe should be seen as an opportunity for the strengths of differing systems of teacher training to complement one another; The importance of teamwork in training needs to be emphasised at all levels; Focus on the balance between theory and practice should be prioritised at European level.

Primary intercultural teacher training: JULIET

Thematic summary The JULIET (Jyväskylä University Language and International Education for Teachers) programme is a package of specialised courses offered to selected students within the Jyväskylä University’s teacher education programme. It offers students a specialisation in teaching English language at primary level, and teaching other subjects through the medium of English in addition 141

to elements of international experience and intercultural education. The course is open to both Finnish and international students and is taught primarily in the target language of English. Trainers involved in the JULIET programme were initiated into CLIL methods through ROMEO, an in-service training course developed by the JULIET programme co-ordinator. Funded by SOCRATES – Lingua Action A, ROMEO was seen as a means of increasing the authenticity of English medium-instruction. The course ran for three years and involved participants from Finland, Austria, Portugal, Spain and Norway. This case study will focus primarily on the JULIET programme, as an initiative specifically designed to prepare teachers for their role in an integrating and mobile Europe. Elements of good practice exemplified include: · · · · · ·

Training modules on international teaching; Emphasis on the European dimension; Pedagogical training conducted in the target language; Bilingual teacher training; Bilingual teaching practice; Period of study or work abroad.

Elements of this sort of course structure are identifiable in many of the other case studies examined here. While CLIL is the focus of the two case studies on bilingual teaching, courses preparing teachers specifically for an international or European context are offered at Master’s level in several of the countries studied. Teaching in the target language is a feature of the joint qualifications offered in the UK, Austria and France. Student mobility is widespread as a result of ERASMUS initiatives, although only rarely is it compulsory. Finally, teaching practice in a foreign school is offered in a number of institutions in the north of Europe, particularly those involved in the Nordic-Baltic alliance. For full details of the JULIET Project see the official website: www.ccjyu.fi/hughes/juliet/introduction.html 142

Administrative context The JULIET Programme is co-ordinated by the Teacher Education Department of the University of Jyväskylä in Finland. The ROMEO Programme was also co-ordinated by the JULIET team in Jyväskylä. Partner institutions were the Pädagogische Academie des Bundes in Vienna, Austria; the University of Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Sør Trøndelag College, Trondheim, Norway; and the Escola Superior de Educacão de Portalegre in Portugal. Bath Spa University College, UK, also contributed to the project. Although the ROMEO project received EU funding in the period 1996–99, JULIET was developed by the Teacher Education Department at the University of Jyväskylä without external funding. The JULIET programme was first offered in 1995 with a participation rate of approximately 10–12 students each year. It is anticipated that the course will continue in its present form indefinitely. Activity details The JULIET package is made up of courses on: · · ·

English Language and Culture; English Language Pedagogy: EFL and CLIL; International Experience and Intercultural Education.

JULIET students are selected from amongst Jyväskylä University’s annual intake of primary school teacher trainees. Criteria for access include a high level of English language proficiency and a strong record of academic achievement in secondary school. In addition to the aptitude test required for entry into the Teacher Education Department, prospective JULIET students are required to sit a further language test to compete for places in the programme. 143

Around three quarters of the studies undertaken by JULIET students are common to all of the teacher trainees. A total of thirty-five ‘study weeks’ over a period of four years (full-time equivalent) is devoted to the specific programme components outlined above. Additionally, students are encouraged to spend at least one month studying or working abroad in an English speaking country. In practice, this requirement is often waived as the vast majority of students will already have travelled extensively. Indeed, it is unlikely that a student with no previous exposure to an English speaking community would have the necessary language skills to gain entry to the course. Despite a considerable degree of curricular overlap, JULIET students are somewhat segregated from the other trainees as a result of the ‘home-group’ system used within the department. Students are divided into groups of fifteen to twenty students, or ten to twelve in the case of the JULIET trainees, with each group working independently of the others throughout the year. The segregation of JULIET students is essential as portions of their course will be taught in English. If a single foreign student is present in the classroom, the use of Finnish is necessarily disallowed. Analysis of innovation and good practice International dimension The international dimension is emphasised both by modules on intercultural education and through the compulsory period of study or work abroad. In addition to specific modules of intercultural communication, active citizenship and global issues, taught courses focus on British and American history and cultural studies as well as English as an international language.

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European dimension The European dimension may be explored through a taught course on environmental issues in Europe, or through a NORDPLUS or ERASMUS exchange. Additionally, the requirement for students to complete a period of travel or study abroad encourages awareness of regional and European issues. Student mobility Mobility is a compulsory component of the JULIET programme. All graduates will have travelled extensively and accordingly have links with foreign individuals and institutions. As well as being offered to Finnish teacher trainees, the course also welcomes foreign exchange students whose contribution includes raising domestic students’ awareness of regional and European issues. Pedagogical training conducted in the target language Target language training is one of the strongest points of the programme and the element identified as the most important by the students interviewed. Students did however express the concern that not all trainers had near-native language proficiency and said no benefit was gained from target language training by non-fluent staff. Innovation at primary level JULIET represents a valuable innovation in primary teacher training by adding value to the existing EFL training offered to prospective generalist teachers. While a recent increase in English teaching in Finnish primary schools has seen large numbers of English specialists recruited by the primary sector, this course

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addresses the need for generalist teachers to incorporate foreign languages across the range of their primary teaching activities. Bilingual teacher training Although this particular course is taught wholly in English, JULIET students agree that the CLIL methods taught in the context of English may equally be applied to the teaching of other foreign languages at primary level. The ROMEO course, initially designed to upgrade the English language skills of prospective CLIL practitioners also represents a move to introduce bilingual teaching to practising subject teachers. The methods used could equally be applied to other languages. Bilingual teaching practice During the course it is usually (but not always) possible for students to undergo a period of either classroom observation or practice teaching in a bilingual school. Experienced teachers assist students in the capacity of unofficial mentors. Limitations of the case The programme is currently offered by a single teacher education department in Finland and available to only 10–12 students per year. Although other languages may be studied within the parent teacher-training course, the foreign language component of the JULIET package is limited to English. The international studies components of the course do not focus on European issues. The programme is run within the confines of an existing teacher education programme and has not been developed as a course within its own right. Accordingly the amount of time and

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coursework devoted to international, European and bilingual concerns has been somewhat limited. Recommendations for extending good practice Good practice might be extended through consideration of the following elements of the ROMEO and JULIET programmes: · · · ·

8

Bilingual teacher training programmes needs to be extended to represent a broader range of languages; Trainees need the opportunity to study in more than one foreign language; Courses focusing on language teaching issues in the European context should be developed and accredited at European level; Greater provision needs to be made for periods of classroom observation and teaching practice in the student’s home country and abroad.

Online consultancy, resources, networking and INSET for foreign language teachers: The Languages Centre

Thematic summary The Languages Centre, Reykjavik, is developing and implementing distance language teaching. It provides consultancy and resources on-line for teachers of Norwegian and Swedish, not only for teachers in schools within Reykjavik but also for instructors in these languages in remote areas of Iceland. The Centre runs 147

INSET courses for all foreign language teachers. It also has the task of providing assistance to all primary and secondary schools within Reykjavik in the teaching of Danish and English. It is responsible for allocating native speaking teachers of Danish to Icelandic primary and secondary schools. Elements of good practice exemplified by these programmes include: · · · · · · ·

European dimension; Language diversity; Distance learning; On-line networking; Networking through in service training; Training in use of portfolios; Training in methodology.

Similar initiatives include distance learning programmes offered by Open Universities in the UK and Portugal providing in-service training for language teachers. Further details of the Language centre are available (in Icelandic only) on their website, at: www.laugalaekjarskoli.ismennt.is/Tungumalaver/. Administrative context In March 2001, the Reykjavik Education Authority decided to set up a Languages Centre in Laugalaekjarskoli. It opened in April 2002. A consultancy for Norwegian and Swedish on-line had been run since 2000 by the Education Centre in Reykjavik. On-line teaching in Norwegian, under a Norwegian consultant, dates from that time; on-line teaching in Swedish is due to begin in Autumn 2002 under a Swedish consultant, and on-line teaching in English by 2003. Preparation to teach Danish as a first or second language is planned for Spring 2003 with teaching to begin in Autumn 2003. The teaching of Polish will begin in Autumn 2004. Consultancy in 148

Danish and English is mostly done through INSET courses. This project is co-ordinated by the School District of Reykjavik Head Office and Service Centre. The Languages Centres pilot-projects are funded either by the Nordic Council, The Ministry of Education, or the City of Reykjavik. Danish teachers working in Icelandic schools are funded from Denmark, while English on-line has received a start up grant from the Ministry of Education in Iceland. The Head Office will cover the cost of the experimental period, starting in 2003. When projects are under way, participating schools pay fees to the Languages Centre. Activity details It is the policy of Education Authorities in Iceland to maintain and reinforce less widely spoken Nordic languages. However, in rural areas of Iceland there is a lack of qualified teachers, which has resulted in students not having the opportunity to maintain their competence in Norwegian or Swedish. They have had to learn Danish instead, which is the compulsory Nordic language learnt in Iceland. Therefore, the Languages Centre was set up to provide a broad range of services for teachers and students of languages. Consultancy services are offered for teachers and instructors of Norwegian and Swedish. These are available both to qualified teachers of foreign languages in schools and instructors in remote areas, who are not necessarily qualified teachers. Resources are provided on-line for teaching these priority languages. In-service training courses are also offered in-house by the Languages Centre, to enable teachers from remote areas to get together. The website provides on-line networking opportunities for teachers such as a database of questions and answers and a means of communication. Finally, the languages centre co-ordinates an exchange programme matching qualified native speaking Danish teachers for four week

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assignments to schools to work alongside their Icelandic counterparts. The Languages Centre helps maintain students’ existing knowledge of Nordic and some other languages through on-line distance learning. Provision includes one-to-one distance teaching in the target language. The Centre also prioritises on-line distance learning in English and Danish for those students whose ability in these languages far exceeds the standards set by the curriculum. This provision is initially intended for students in the ninth and tenth grades. Theoretically, the Centre provides equal opportunities for all students to study the language of their choice regardless of residence. In addition, the centre facilitates students’ access to social, cultural and current affairs in the countries whose languages they are learning. Analysis of innovation and good practice European dimension Web teaching has enabled the Language Centre to establish and maintain linguistic and cultural links with a range of countries geographically removed from Iceland. Although physically isolated from its European neighbours, Iceland has participated in European integration through web-based language learning initiatives including on-line discussion forums, virtual networking and access to resources. Co-operation with Nordic House has also strengthened the status of Nordic languages in Icelandic society. Language diversity The foreign languages taught within Icelandic schools have traditionally been English and Danish. As well as these, the Languages Centre will shortly be offering Norwegian, Swedish and 150

Polish on-line. While the range of languages is currently limited, the technological tools in question might be adapted to the teaching of any European or other language. ICT The on-line distance-learning web integrates training in ICT with language learning. It enables teachers to revise and develop course materials and adapt existing materials to the teaching of other Nordic and European languages. Teachers may access resources on-line and are able to allocate material to each student according to need. Teachers in remote areas, who may have only one or two students of Norwegian or Swedish and are not necessarily qualified teachers are able to use the Languages Centre for the on-line consultancy offered. The Languages Centre provides INSET day courses to train teachers in the use of new ICT applications. One such course is ‘language teaching and the web’. Distance learning At the moment only the on-line teaching for Norwegian is up and running. It has been set up with three levels of access. All materials are in the target language. They include examples of assignments, exercises and links to sites in Norway where spoken dialects can be heard. The first level of access is open to all; the second is reserved for teachers, students and their parents; and the third is devoted to one-to-one on-line teaching. On-line networking A forum for teachers is being set up using the web conferencing system of the Reykjavik Education Centre. It is accessible to all teachers of Swedish and Norwegian. The website consists of an information web and a teaching web. The information web 151

contains a description of the study materials made available by the teaching consultancy, descriptions of supporting entities and other information concerning the two languages. The teaching web is based upon interactive web projects, guided web tours, conference web and support exercises for traditional study materials in the target languages. Access to the teaching web is limited to teachers, pupils and parents. Networking through in service training Networking is also enabled by a range of in service training courses offered by the Language Centre in Reykjavik. Such faceto-face contact enables teachers to meet in person and discuss issues relating to all aspects of teaching. In building up networks of contacts in this way teachers and trainers contribute to the establishment of a nationwide language teaching identity. In service training in learner autonomy and in the use of portfolios The INSET courses for 2002 all focused on learning strategies in language learning. They address issues such as: how teachers can enhance the students’ use of strategies; how crucial the choice of appropriate tasks is in that context; how to meet the individual requirements of each student on the basis of a communicative approach; and how to introduce the importance of self-regulation and self-monitoring in language learning through the use of portfolios. Teachers are trained in using the portfolio to enable students to reflect on their learning progress and aid them to learn to assess their own learning. This technique is based partly on the European Language Portfolio, partly on the objectives and goals in the Icelandic National Curriculum. The Centre will make use of traditional progress portfolios as well as web-based portfolios. Portfolios may be introduced as an evaluation mechanism for teachers at a later date. 152

Limitations of the case Getting funding has proved problematic, as the decision to subscribe to Language Centre’s services is made at the level of each Icelandic district. The question of language diversity must also be raised, as provision is currently limited to the Nordic languages and English, with some provision in Polish. Recommendations for extending good practice Elements of good practice exemplified by the Icelandic Language Centre could be extended as follows: · · ·

· ·

Consultancy needs to be provided for language teachers in more districts within Iceland and the issue of funding should also be addressed; On-line distance learning should be made available in countries with the same problems of remote rural areas as Iceland; Consultancy could be extended to European level, with foreign language providers from all European states encouraged to contribute to on-line networks and forums originating in Iceland and elsewhere; On-line consultancy and resources might be developed with particular emphasis on less widely taught languages; On-line resource materials, sourced from all sectors of the European language teaching community, could be made available on-line to teachers of all languages and at all levels.

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9

M. Paed: action research Master’s Degree in foreign language teacher training

Thematic summary This case study considers an action research Master’s Degree specifically designed for language teachers, and language graduates who want to go into teaching. This unique Icelandic postgraduate degree allows for reflexivity, partly through theory on second language acquisition, and partly through action research oriented towards real pedagogical issues previously identified in the trainee’s classroom. The programme is oriented towards teaching and research in the fields of English, Danish, German and Icelandic as a second language at compulsory and upper-secondary school levels. It features modules on second and first language acquisition, research methods in pedagogy, discourse analysis, foreign language literacy skills, and teaching spoken languages, and a dissertation on the candidate’s individually chosen research project. Elements of good practice exemplified by this programme include: · · · · ·

Language diversity; European dimension; Student mobility; Adaptability of the course; Networking and reflective practice.

Several comparable postgraduate courses have been identified elsewhere in Europe. These include a Master’s Degree in Education with Qualified Teacher Status offered by Durham University (UK); an MA in Applied Linguistics/Second Language Acquisition offered at institutions in the UK and France; the Maîtrise FLE/PGCE offered jointly by France and the UK and 154

the joint HSQA/PGCE in Austria and the UK. The M. Paed differs from these courses primarily through its flexibility; it is a unique opportunity for Icelandic language graduates and teachers to establish a balance between theory, practice, reflexivity and action research. Additional information is available on the web at: www.hi.is/nam/enska/Engl2002_2003.htm Administrative context The course is co-ordinated by the University of Iceland in collaboration with the Universities of Edinburgh and Copenhagen contributing expertise in English and Danish respectively. The University of Iceland also funds the course which started in 20002001 and continued the next year, with two new languages, French and Spanish, to be incorporated into the programme. On average, ten students undertake the course each year. Activity details The M. Paed programme is open to students who have completed a B.A. degree in English at the University of Iceland (60 or 90 credits) or who have a comparable degree from a foreign university. Foreign students who are not native speakers of Icelandic will be required to complete Composition I or II, an examination in Icelandic as a foreign language, in the first semester of their studies. The course is oriented towards teaching and research in the field of English as a second language at compulsory and upper-secondary school levels. The course comprises eight compulsory models as follows: 1 2

Research and Pedagogy in Foreign Language Learning; First and Second Language Acquisition; 155

3 4 5 6 7 8

English, Danish, German or Icelandic as a Second/Foreign Language; Discourse Analysis and Literacy Skills in a Foreign Language; Discourse Analysis and Literacy Skills in English, Danish, German or Icelandic; Teaching Spoken Language (general); Teaching Spoken English, Danish, German or Icelandic; M. Paed. Research Project.

Modules 1, 2, 4 and 6 are conducted in Icelandic and are open to students in Danish, English, and Icelandic. Other course work is conducted in English, Danish or German according to the language chosen. Analysis of innovation and good practice Language diversity The plan to add French and Spanish to the existing selection of courses in Danish, English, German and Icelandic as a foreign language indicates a strong commitment to the diversity of language provision. It is particularly encouraging that a range of language specific courses is being offered in conjunction with modules on reflective practice, literacy skills and discourse analysis. European dimension The European dimension is emphasised by the range of popular languages offered within the course, and by the close collaboration with the Universities of Edinburgh and Copenhagen. Additionally, the inclusion of Spanish and French will reinforce the European dimension with exchanges funded by the EU through ERASMUS, the Nordic Council and NORDPLUS. 156

Student mobility Reinforced links with other European languages, institutions, and administrative bodies will lead to an increase in student mobility both to and from Iceland. Within the M. Paed course, students are encouraged to spend up to one month studying at one of the two collaborating universities abroad. Specificity of the course Language graduates and qualified teachers are all welcome to join the course, which makes this degree both an in-service training course for qualified teachers, and an initial teacher-training course for language graduates. On its own the course is worth thirty credits, to which language graduates will add a further fifteen credits of teaching credentials from the Faculty of Education of the University of Iceland, involving teaching practice and pedagogy. In catering for practising teachers and trainees in the same course, the M. Paed provides innovative and valuable opportunities for networking and the exchange of views from a range of levels of experience. Adaptability of the course The M. Paed course is adaptable in several ways. In order to suit the qualified teachers, most of the classes take place after the school day finishes. Additionally, the course is also available parttime. For each student, the action research part of the course involves collecting data in the classroom, and analysing against the appropriate literature. Language graduates, who will have had little or no prior experience of teaching, will use a ‘teaching practice’ class (organised by the Faculty of Education of the University of Iceland), as a setting in which to carry out their research.

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Reply to a need The innovative M. Paed degree replies to a need for a postgraduate course in second language acquisition in Iceland, which is adapted to the needs of working teachers. It also gives the opportunity for the opening of the new field of Icelandic as a second language, with both teachers and language graduates actively creating new materials and joining the huge area of second language pedagogy and acquisition. Networking and reflective practice This course represents a unique possibility for teachers from the whole country to meet and exchange ideas and good practice, and also for language graduates to be able to meet and work together with more experienced teachers. The theoretical and reflective focus of the course enables self-awareness and debate, while exchanges with partner universities encourage consideration of teaching and learning contexts beyond those previously encountered by the students. Limitations of the case The principal potential limitation of this course is its ‘newness’, meaning that the co-ordinators need time to see its true strengths and weaknesses, and to establish strong links with partner universities. Recommendations for extending good practice Elements of good practice identified above could be extended as follows: 158

·

·

Similar programmes aimed at practising and prospective teachers could be introduced in other smaller countries to improve and invigorate local research, and to enable the teaching community to establish networks of contacts; Networks of partner universities need to be extended and strengthened to maximise collaboration in areas such as teaching practice and second language acquisition research.

10 Observation programme Thematic summary The University of Latvia Observation Programme is a new initiative designed to support foreign language students on initial teacher training (ITT) courses. The programme entails a sixteenweek schedule of pre-teaching practice observation in schools, which is aimed at bridging the gap between the theoretical and practical aspects of training and at developing students’ reflexivity and autonomy through the use of reflective diaries and participation in group seminars. Close co-operation between students, higher education tutors and school-based mentors is an integral part of the initiative, which is combined with in-service mentoring training. The Latvian Observation Programme emphasises the following elements of teacher training: · · · ·

Integration of theoretical and practical aspects of the course; Partnership between the University Faculty of Education and the teaching staff in schools; A critical and reflective approach to teaching and learning; The importance of the mentor’s role in teacher training.

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All countries with compulsory teaching practice expect students to carry out an initial period of observation, but this initiative focuses very firmly on the importance of observation and on the ways in which it can link different aspects of training. No similar initiatives have been found, however increased co-operation in training is the subject of case study 13, focusing on a pilot project at the University of Helsinki. Administrative context The Observation Programme is co-ordinated by the Department of Foreign Language Teaching Methodology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Latvia in Riga. No funding was made available for the launch of the scheme. It is an extra requirement for students to attend observations in addition to their normal timetable. Faculty staff carry out student feedback sessions and participate in mentoring workshops in their own time. Teacher mentors are volunteers, but the British Council agreed to fund summer mentoring courses. The programme involves foreign language teacher trainees on integrated undergraduate degree programmes. During Year 4 of their studies, the trainees normally undertake a period of teaching practice in a primary school, organised in six-week blocks. The Observation Programme ran from September to December 2001 and preceded the block of teaching practice, which began in February 2002. Further teaching practice in a secondary school is carried out in Year 5. Following recommendations of the teacher mentors, it is proposed to shorten the duration of the programme, but to make it more intensive and to enable students to observe lessons other than English.

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Activity details The initiative is designed to enable students to forge connections between different elements of their training. At the beginning of the programme, trainees are provided with a set of broad guidelines as to possible objectives for the observation during preliminary discussions with tutors and mentors. These include suggestions such as identification of the school ethos, classroom management techniques, the development of different language skills and teaching strategies. However, as observation proceeds, students are to become increasingly responsible for setting their own objectives and developing their own focus of interest. Students observe two English lessons per week taught by their mentor. These are followed up by weekly post-observation discussions with the mentor and feedback sessions with peers and tutors at the Faculty of Education. These discussions aim to encourage analysis of what has been observed and the underlying reasons for it. Trainees are required to show evidence of developing research skills. They are expected to produce a detailed report in English about the school during the sixteen-week programme. The report includes a description of its organisation, curriculum, geographical location, history and social environment. It is necessary for students to utilise available documentation and also to interview teachers and pupils to compile the report. They also keep observation diaries in English. These are intended to enhance reflective skills, which are seen as essential for future professional development. Trainees are advised not to enumerate events in the diaries, but to focus on their attitudes to what they observe. It is hoped that this encourages them to think about the appropriateness of different styles of teaching for them and to help them to become more autonomous. These diaries are then used as a basis for discussion in the feedback sessions at the Faculty.

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Initially, school boards were contacted by the Faculty of Education in order to obtain the names of English teachers who would be willing to undergo in-service training in mentoring and to supervise the observation practice. This produced eighteen mentors for thirty-one students. Mentors were invited to an introductory session about the Observation Programme at the Faculty. Monthly mentoring workshops have subsequently taken place at the Faculty throughout the rest of the academic year and have enabled the participants to design the schedule for the Observation Programme jointly. As a follow-up, a seven-day mentoring course was held in the 2002 summer vacation. It was organised in collaboration with the British Council Latvia, who funded the course. All the mentors voluntarily signed up for the course, which will also include mentors working in conjunction with other universities, such as Daugavpils Pedagogical University. The course ties in with a project launched by the British Council in Latvia to develop relationships between higher education institutions and schools. A Mentors’ Association promotes recognition of the work undertaken and also to enable further networking opportunities for colleagues in different institutions. Regular evaluation has been incorporated into the programme from the beginning. Weekly feedback sessions at the Faculty have enabled students to raise their concerns. Mentors’ attendance at Faculty workshops has also served to improve the communication between the University and its partnership schools. Students are also invited to evaluate the programme in their diaries and to comment on its usefulness and organisation. As a result of student and mentor involvement in the evaluation process, a number of changes were made to the programme.

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Analysis of innovation and good practice Integration of theoretical and practical aspects of training One of the teacher trainers interviewed for this case study suggested that the interface between theory and practice was previously considered a weakness in Latvian language teacher education. The Observation Programme addressed this weakness directly, providing a gradual and structured introduction to teaching practice. Observation enables trainees to become familiar with important aspects of classroom life, such as teacher-pupil interaction. Students have the opportunity to reflect on what they see and to begin developing ideas about their own professional identity. Additionally, the emphasis on regular discussions with mentors and higher education tutors and the reflexive and research-oriented tasks should enable students to make links between their academic pedagogical studies and their application in the classroom. Partnership between the University Faculty of Education and teaching staff in schools The partnership between the Faculty and schools was improved as a result of the mentoring workshops attended by teachers and the regular communication involved. A more collaborative approach to the overall supervision of the teaching practice is evident in the joint planning of the observation schedule and the changes being incorporated into the programme next year. Critical and reflective approach to teaching and learning Teacher education has undergone dramatic changes in the last decade since Latvia gained independence. There is currently substantial emphasis on encouraging the development of reflexive, 163

autonomous and participatory approaches to teaching (Bluma, 2001). The Observation Programme underlines this emphasis by promoting the use of reflective diaries and by focusing student attention on their own attitudes to what they observe and the development of their own priorities. Mentor’s role in teacher training Mentoring training helped to prepare teachers for the responsibility involved in supervising students on teaching practice. It has also resulted in better communication between the Faculty and the schools as to the expectations of the various parties. The fact that all the teacher mentors signed up to a further mentoring course in the summer holidays indicates a positive attitude to the programme on their part. The establishment of a Mentors’ Association will reinforce the need for recognition of the important work carried out by mentors. Limitations of the case The Observation Programme did not received additional funding and has been implemented through the good will of all parties concerned. This obviously represents a considerable achievement, but it was pointed out by interviewees that this is not an unusual situation in Latvia and that people are accustomed to working hard on a voluntary basis to bring about improvements. Absence of funds is therefore not the obstacle here that it might be in some countries, but nevertheless the funding issue needs to be resolved. Teacher mentors do not receive any benefits as a result of undergoing in-service training. The Latvian Ministry of Education and Science needs to grant recognition or accreditation for these courses and workshops.

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Initially, some trainees experienced difficulties in writing the observation diaries and were unsure as to how to focus their efforts in the observations. They appeared quite dependent for guidance on mentors and tutors. This conflicted somewhat with the purpose of writing the diaries, which aimed to lead the students towards a more independent stance. This problem did diminish as time went on and the students became more confident. This does raise questions for those countries which still train teachers under a more directive model. Recommendations for extending good practice Consideration of the Observation Programme indicates several possibilities for extending good practice: ·

·

·

The establishment of Mentors’ Associations needs to be adopted by other countries involved in mentoring. Such associations would offer good opportunities for networking and for the dissemination of ideas and materials; The use of reflective diaries should be more widely employed. The initial problems experienced by students in completing them highlights the significance of enabling students to carry out activities which promote independence and autonomy. This is particularly important for countries which do not generally encourage the teachers to develop these qualities; The integration of theoretical and practical aspects of training might be similarly prioritised across Europe. Pilot projects based on the Latvian experience could be undertaken by other higher education institutions.

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11 Primary languages initiative Thematic summary A programme of integrated foreign language learning was introduced into the curriculum of Austrian primary schools in 1998. This is a nationwide initiative, which becomes compulsory in 2003. The transition period of five years was considered essential in order for the foreign language training needs of beginning and serving teachers to be addressed. Primary teacher education (both initial and in-service) includes a greatly increased focus on foreign language competence and language teaching methodology. This case study highlights provision at the Pädagogische Akademie des Bundes in Tirol, Innsbruck, where the foreign language dimension in the education of primary teachers emphasises the following features: · · · · ·

The training of integrated studies teachers able to teach the primary curriculum through a foreign language; The maintenance and enhancement of personal language competence; Use of the European Languages Portfolio for personal evaluation; The opportunity to teach in more than one country; Additionally, in-service training (INSET) programmes in Austria underline the importance of methodological enhancement.

Training primary teachers for integrated foreign language learning from Year 1 is an Austrian national initiative. There are other examples of increased foreign language provision in the education of primary teachers across Europe. Both Luxembourg and Norway expect teachers to be able to deliver languages to Year 1 pupils. 166

However, this case study focuses specifically on training teachers for integrated language teaching with young learners. Administrative context Responsibility for the training of primary teachers for integrated language learning lies with the teacher training colleges (Pädagogische Akademien), the in-service training centres (Pädagogische Institute) and the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture-Centre for School Development (ZSE). The initiative came about as a result of a series of Council of Europe projects and workshops which took place in Austria and four other countries in the 1990s. In Austria, integrated foreign language learning was introduced in 1998 and a period of five years has been allowed, before this becomes compulsory in 2003, to enable teachers to receive the necessary training. To date, the Ministry for Education, Science and Culture has provided funding for the inservice training of current primary teachers, although no additional funds have been allocated to the initial teacher training (ITT) providers or directly to primary schools. Activity details The primary languages initiative came into being as a result of Austrian participation in a series of Council of Europe projects and workshops on primary foreign language education during the 1990s. The findings of these projects have been published in a series of reports (Doyé and Hurrell 1997). They recommend an integrated context-based approach to both teaching and learning language in primary schools, with a strong focus on the intercultural. These project outcomes significantly influenced the

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new curriculum and the subsequent developments in teacher education. The project involves thirty-two hours per year of foreign language learning, which can be spread over each week in daily slots of ten minutes across all subjects of the curriculum (apart from German and Religious Education) in Years 1 and 2. It continues in Years 3 and 4 when it is supplemented by an additional weekly language lesson, which follows the normal scheme of work in other curriculum subjects. Foreign language training (usually English) has been a compulsory component of Austrian ITT for some time. The recent changes to the curriculum have meant that training now focuses on integrated language learning. Most teacher training colleges also enable primary trainees to learn languages other than English on a voluntary or free-standing basis, for which they receive additional accreditation. Several examples are given below: P.A. des Bundes in Tirol, Innsbruck: French and Italian P.A. Kärnten: Italian and Slovene P.A. des Bundes in Vorarlberg, Feldkirche: French P.A. des Bundes in Steiermark, Graz: French, Italian, Croatian, Portuguese, Slovene, Spanish, Czech, Hungarian The course outline for primary teachers training at the P.A. in Innsbruck stresses that training should enable students to develop the ability to awaken an interest in language and linguistic interaction among their pupils. Trainees attend lectures and workshops in which they are introduced to the theoretical background to the primary languages initiative and to language acquisition research (including first language acquisition). The focus is on acquiring rather than learning language and on promoting a flexible approach to the delivery of integrated languages. Other features include:

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· · · · · · · · ·

Methodology on embedding the foreign language into different subjects; Oral communication; Topic based study skills; ICT; Teaching the language through rhymes, songs, poems, gestures, dance and role-play; Focus on the importance of intonation, pronunciation and sound; Training in the use of a variety of different materials and media (videos, audio cassettes, picture books, picture cards, stories, CDs etc.); Story-telling; Classroom management in the foreign language (e.g. giving instructions, classroom talk).

During teaching practice students must have opportunities to observe experienced teachers delivering the foreign language elements of the primary curriculum. Students entering primary ITT at Innsbruck must have English as part of their school leaver’s certificate. After one year of training they are expected to show continued improvement in their language competence. There are a number of other measures designed to improve the trainees’ language skills. Training usually takes place through the medium of the target language, this is particularly stressed in the practical aspects of the course. Trainees attend additional conversation classes and must also produce evidence throughout that they are undertaking a sufficient amount of teaching practice in integrated English, otherwise their final practice grade is adversely affected. In addition to the core of training conducted in Austria, there are a number of opportunities for students to participate in exchange and study programmes in the target country. The P.A. is involved in a wide range of European mobility schemes. Students 169

are also expected to produce a European Language Portfolio during training. It involves the compilation of a record of their own language learning and teaching experiences and a dossier of materials. A reading log in English and reflective teaching journal are also course requirements. The P.A. offers students the opportunity to carry out a week’s teaching practice at partner schools in Rimini, Italy. These visits take place twice a year and are open to all ITT students, not only those studying Italian. In the May 2002 practice, thirteen of the group of sixteen trainees came from primary education. Students teach a series of English lessons to Italian pupils. The emphasis during these visits was on teaching through the medium of the target language and on promoting intercultural understanding. Serving primary teachers have been offered a wide range of INSET opportunities at the regional Pädagogische Institute (P.I.) to enable them to deliver the new curriculum. These have focused on methodology and language competence. Courses take place during the school year and during the first week of the summer holidays. They most often consist of sessions lasting either half a day or a day in length. Teachers are given an INSET booklet in which they collect signatures showing their attendance in order to encourage their participation. Examples of the summer 2002 programme at the P.I. in Innsbruck include courses in teaching French through songs, Italian through games and drama, English through play, developing topic-based materials and intercultural competence. Language courses are also offered at the Pädagogische Akademien. English and Italian are popular options for serving teachers at the P.A. in Innsbruck. A variety of teaching materials have been developed to support teachers in the implementation of the primary languages initiative. The ‘Zoom’ series (ZSE) provides numerous examples of teaching and learning activities for integrating the foreign language in ten different languages (Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian, Burgenland-Croatian, English, French, Italian, Slovakian, Slovene, 170

Czech, Turkish and Hungarian). ‘Rechenigel: Mathematik für die 1. Schulstufe’ (Steiner, 2001) and ‘Playway to English’ (Gerngross, 1997) are among other books designed to help teachers with foreign language integration. Picture books, story books and story cards are also widely employed, as are pupils’ activity workbooks. Analysis of innovation and good practice Training of integrated studies teachers able to teach the primary curriculum through a foreign language All initial primary teacher training in Austria aims to enable nonspecialist teachers to deliver parts of the primary curriculum through a foreign language. ITT students are trained in both the theoretical background to the initiative and its practical application. Maintenance and enhancement of personal language competence The language competence of primary teachers is an important element in the implementation of the primary language initiative. Training therefore aims to provide opportunities for students to improve their language skills through emphasis on the target language, conversation classes and visits abroad and also to ensure that students meet the required foreign language standards in practice. Funding has been provided to enable serving teachers to enhance their language competence. Use of the European Language Portfolio for personal evaluation The use of the European Language Portfolio is designed to enable students to take responsibility for their own language learning and teaching experiences, as well as to record and reflect upon them.

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It is also seen as a way of encouraging future professional development in the area of language competence. Opportunity to teach in more than one country Teaching practice in Italy offers the opportunity for enhanced competence in the foreign language for the trainees studying Italian. All the participating students gain relevant experience of teaching in two different education systems while on teaching practice. This helps to develop the intercultural skills essential to foreign language teaching and also to foster international links, which could be utilised in subsequent teaching careers. Importance of methodological enhancement INSET courses in primary teaching methodology have been implemented to upgrade the skills of primary teachers. Courses in integrating and embedding the foreign language across the curriculum have also been offered and are an important component of the initiative. Limitations of the case In order to deliver a programme of integrated foreign languages, primary teachers need to be able to use the language spontaneously in a wide variety of classroom contexts. One of the teacher trainers interviewed for this case study stated that the language skills of serving teachers remain a matter of concern and that there is more work to be undertaken in this area. Ministry funding is provided for in-service training, but no additional funds have been made available for the purchase of new materials to enable teachers to deliver the curriculum. Funds for course books in primary schools have remained static, which 172

means that it is at the discretion of individual schools whether these materials are prioritised. In some primary schools, parents have been asked to contribute the additional finance needed to buy new books. Recommendations for extending good practice In the light of this case study, the following steps are recommended: ·

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The language competence of primary level teachers is an important element in extending foreign language provision to young learners. Opportunities for prospective and practising primary teachers to attend language classes need to be prioritised at a European level; The intercultural opportunities afforded by a period of teaching practice abroad should be more widely available to primary trainees; Use of the European Language Portfolio focuses the attention of primary trainees on their own language learning skills and could be more widely encouraged; The primary languages initiative is a good example of what can achieved at a national level if a committed and coordinated approach is adopted by all agencies involved with teacher education. Foreign language education across Europe might be greatly enhanced if other countries followed examples like Austria.

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12 TALLENT: Teaching and Learning Languages Enhanced by New Technologies Thematic summary TALLENT is an in-service training module specifically designed for teachers and trainers of European foreign languages. Lasting sixty hours, the course consists of a series of seminars and workshops providing a theoretical and practical grounding in language-teaching related ICT applications. Elements of good practice exemplified include: · · · · ·

Emphasis on the European dimension; Language diversity; ICT for languages; Networking; Integration of theory and practice.

Similar initiatives focussing on the use of ICT in the foreign language teaching context, and taught at the level of INSET include a series of training courses run collaboratively by regional pedagogical centres throughout the Czech Republic and the British Council in Prague; distance learning programmes run by the Nordic-Baltic Organisation throughout Scandinavia and the Baltic States; the ILIAD Project co-ordinated in the UK by the Open University and CILT (see case study 5); a Postgraduate Diploma in ‘Information Technology and Language Teaching’ offered by the University of Pompeu Fabra in Spain; the DIESeLL project coordinated by the University of Jyväskylä in Finland; and ICT4LT co-ordinated in the UK by the Thames Valley University. Similar projects operating on a smaller scale have also been identified in the French community of Belgium, Latvia, Poland and Sweden.

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For full details of TALLENT see the official website: www.solki.jyu.fi/tallent/index.htm Administrative context The project is co-ordinated by the Department of Languages and Cultural Studies at the University of Limerick in Ireland. Other partners include the Århus School of Business in Denmark; the University of Jyväskylä, Finland; the Université Charles de Gaulle, Lille III in France; the Europa-Universität Viadrina in Frankfurt, Germany; the Rijksuniversiteit, Groningen, in the Netherlands; the Centre for Foreign Language Teaching in Warsaw, Poland; the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain; and the University of Birmingham, UK. Funding for the project was provided under the SOCRATES Lingua-A scheme, and course participants were eligible for funding under SOCRATES Lingua-B. The project was developed over a period of three years from September 1998 to August 2001. A six month extension was granted at the end of the project to enable production of a book written in the course of the project and to allow for adaptation of the course in line with changes to the Lingua B funding guidelines. Formerly available only to participants in ten-day courses, Lingua B funds recently became available for participants in the more popular week-long programmes. To date, the TALLENT course has been run successfully in Limerick, Lille and Birmingham. It is anticipated that the TALLENT course will continue to be offered indefinitely, following the conclusion of the Lingua funded project. The University of Limerick plans to offer the course on a yearly basis through its Language Centre. The Centre also offers a customised version of the course to institutions, available upon demand. Project partners in Århus, Frankfurt and Warsaw have plans to run the course within the next few years.

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In addition to its being offered as a course in its own right, TALLENT has been adapted by a number of institutions to form the basis of a range of postgraduate ICT courses. At the University of Limerick an existing ICT module offered within the French MA has benefited from course materials and methods developed by the project. The Århus business school has based an entirely new course on TALLENT, and the University of Pompeu Fabra, in Spain introduced a new sixty hour course in ICT for language teaching shortly after the TALLENT course was drafted. Activity details The TALLENT course is structured as a series of modules based on the following topics: · · · · · · ·

Language learning and ICT; Reference tools: on-line dictionaries, data-bases and library resources; The internet; Concordancing: data-driven learning, using and creating corpora; The self-directed learning environment and ICT; Authoring tools: their evaluation, selection and use; Networking.

Where the course is offered over a two-week period, each of the above elements will be explored. If the course runs for a single week, course trainers will adapt the syllabus according to the needs and interests of the participants. Selected ‘specialist’ modules will be fitted around the two core modules on pedagogy which provide the necessary theoretical and practical basis of the course. Generally speaking, while modules on corpora and concordancing

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have not been overly popular, participants have responded very favourably to the experience of web page creation. The teaching language adopted by TALLENT trainers is usually that of the country in which the course is offered. However, the Polish project partners based in Warsaw may choose to run the course in English in 2003 to attract a greater number of participants from abroad. Course participants are generally specialist language teachers from secondary and tertiary institutions. Places may be offered to individuals from other backgrounds on the understanding that the course was not originally designed with them in mind. According to the project co-ordinator, the decision to cater to both secondary and tertiary teaching staff has been equally criticised and praised. No teacher trainees have yet participated in the course, although it is felt that they would benefit from the training offered. Conversely, teacher trainers have been strongly represented. Analysis of innovation and good practice ICT – specific to language teaching TALLENT addresses the full range of ICT applications relevant to European language teaching at secondary and tertiary level. Firstly, the course provides an introduction to the role of ICT in language learning. Then, according to need, modules address reference tools such as on-line dictionaries, data-bases and library resources; the internet; concordancing: data driven learning, using and creating corpora; the self-directed learning environment and ICT; authoring tools: their evaluation, selection and use; and, finally, networking.

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Integration of theoretical and practical skills Course participants are reportedly much more interested in ‘handson’ experience of ICT techniques than in theoretical training. In the context of the TALLENT project, this has been addressed through the development of two core modules on ‘pedagogy’, presented early in the course, to provide a theoretical grounding relevant to all of the topics covered. Within the individual modules, trainers have been given a free hand to dispense as much or as little theory as they consider to be useful. Ole Lauridsen, the Danish expert responsible for developing the module on website design has overcome the problem of integration by producing an innovative set of course materials in the form of a Power Point presentation which may be disseminated electronically. The use of ICT to present theoretical materials is an excellent example of innovation in the area of integration. The integration of theory and practice has been addressed further by the production of a book entitled ICT and Language Learning: Integrating Pedagogy and Practice (Birmingham U.P., c.2002), to be used in conjunction with the taught modules. European dimension The European dimension is featured by TALLENT in three ways. Firstly, the course has been designed to run in any language in any country. Partner institutions in five countries have offered or plan to offer the course, which may potentially be adapted to run in any other European location. TALLENT is unique in that it is the only existing European INSET course for language teachers offered on a regular basis. Secondly, the examples used to illustrate the topics presented in the individual modules have been drawn from a range of language teaching contexts across Europe. In addition to drawing on the resources of their own countries and the countries whose languages they teach, course writers have been at pains to 178

illustrate the various ICT techniques with examples taken from outside their own areas of expertise. Finally, language teachers and trainers from a range of European locations have already been able to participate in TALLENT courses offered in Ireland, France and the UK. Networking With TALLENT, networking occurs on two levels. The project participants, representing nine European countries have established strong links between institutions and language teaching professionals in the UK, Ireland, France, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Poland, Spain and the Netherlands. The course participants, usually between nine and fifteen in each group, may also develop useful contacts amongst themselves. Thus, TALLENT has the potential to foster bilateral and multilateral partnerships between teaching and learning institutions of all levels throughout Europe. Funding The provision of Lingua B funding has been instrumental in enabling access to the course. Limitations of the case Co-ordinators have affirmed that the integration of theoretical, or research-based components with practical sessions is something of a problem as trainees are particularly eager for ‘hands-on’ experience and inclined to dislike lectures or presentations on theory or research. The practical implications of offering the course differ between large and small institutions. Universities such as the University of Limerick, with a designated language centre have been able to delegate much of the responsibility for implementing 179

TALLENT to that body. In smaller institutions, however, the course may be run by traditional language departments, often involving the participation of senior members of staff at the level of basic training. The decision to cater for both secondary- and tertiary-level language teachers has received some criticism. Recommendations for extending good practice In the light of the TALLENT case study, the following initiatives are recommended: · · · · · · ·

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A greater range of European-orientated INSET courses need to be developed; INSET courses of this sort should be made available on line. Initial training could increasingly address ICT hardware and software specific to the language teaching context; Language Centres, or similar facilities, must be developed in smaller universities to encourage and enable a broader range of short courses in languages INSET; Additional courses must be developed to focus specifically on the needs of language teachers in the primary, secondary, tertiary and vocational sectors; Access and accreditation of INSET should be standardised at European level; Steps should be taken to facilitate a greater degree of teachers’ participation in courses abroad (e.g. relief from teaching, funding for travel and course fees).

13 ‘Teacher-line’: partnerships and teamwork in Initial Teacher Training (ITT) programmes Thematic summary The development of partnerships between different agencies involved in the training of teachers has become an important element in teacher education in several countries. Joint supervision of students on teaching practice by higher education tutors and school-based mentors is one area of increased collaboration in recent years. This case study focuses on a new initiative aimed at enhancing co-operation between university departments and practice schools and at promoting teamwork among foreign language trainees. The Faculty of Arts at the University of Helsinki and the Finnish Ministry of Education have introduced a joint pilot project called ‘direct admission teacher-line’, which differs from traditional ITT programmes in that it enables students to be admitted directly to teacher training courses and undergraduate subject studies simultaneously. The new programme is designed to improve the status of foreign language (and Finnish) teachers by strengthening their sense of vocational identity. Teacher-line offers a co-operation-oriented model of ITT with a strong focus on partnership and teamwork in all aspects of training. The teacherline programme provides clear examples of the following features of training: · · · · ·

A critical and enquiring approach to teaching; The importance of self-evaluation; The benefits of peer observation; The significance of teamwork in teaching; The importance of partnerships and networking.

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The teacher-line initiative is aimed at encouraging more students onto language teacher training programmes. There are several other pilot projects at Finnish universities which are also designed to stimulate recruitment in shortage subjects (for example, at the University of Jyväskylä and the Faculty of Science at the University of Helsinki). In the UK, partnership between the various bodies involved in teacher education is an important element of training and is overseen by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA). The TTA strongly supports co-operation between schools and higher education institutions. Schools are encouraged to engage in partnership and to play an active role in teacher training. The TTA has produced a series of leaflets and a video, ‘Partners in Training’, which outline the benefits to schools and teachers of partnership. Mentoring of students on teaching practice also involves significant levels of co-operation between schools and higher education institutions. There have been several European projects aimed at enhancing the effects of mentoring across different countries, including the Apartment Project (co-ordinated by St Martin’s College, Lancaster, UK with partners in Austria, France, Germany, Iceland and Spain) and the Mendeval Project (coordinated by the Open University, UK with partners in Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain). A high level of collaboration is also evident in the partnership between the Department of Language Teacher Education at the University of Sofia, Bulgaria and local schools and education authorities. In this instance, school-based mentors are paid in part by the University. In addition to working with trainees, mentors act in an advisory capacity to the University of Sofia on the development of teacher training programmes and materials for use in schools.

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Administrative context The ‘direct admission teacher-line’ programme is co-ordinated by the Faculty of Arts at the University of Helsinki in conjunction with the Finnish Ministry of Education. Teacher-line is funded by the Ministry of Education: The project started in September 2001 and was financed for three years. The activity details described below relate specifically to practices of the English Department at the University of Helsinki. More information on the department may be found at www.eng.helsinki.fi. Activity details The Ministry of Education, Department for Education and Research Policy outlines its vision for the future of teacher training in the publication ‘Teacher Education Development Programme’. The importance of linking different components of training is highlighted in this document: Universities will enhance co-operation between faculties, subject departments, teacher education institutes and practice schools. Important areas of co-operation include student selection; practical teaching arrangements; research; supervision of theses; pedagogical training and its links with subject studies; and continuing professional education. Universities will make it easier for class trainees to study subject modules and for subject teacher trainees to study multidisciplinary programmes. This will create a basis for unified basic education. Universities will enhance their internal co-operation in order to enable teacher trainees to study different subjects and to practise their teaching. (p. 6) Co-operation between the Foreign Language Departments, the Teacher Education Department and practice school mentors has been increased with the teacher-line programme. Although 183

collaboration had been very much emphasised previously, it had been thought to depend somewhat on personal relationships. The new initiative has included funding for the appointment of lecturers in each of the language departments concerned to coordinate the co-operation and to ensure an integrated approach to all elements of training. There is a quota of eighteen students for each of the subjects involved. Currently, there are six English and nine German ITT students embarked on Year 1 of the teacher-line programme. Students from the Department of Scandinavian Languages and Literature (Swedish) are set to join the scheme in 2002. The English Department teaches professional skills courses as part of the new initiative. There is also increased emphasis on the development of a pedagogic approach to academic language studies, in addition to the work that continues to be carried out by the Teacher Education Department. Courses are now actively taught in a manner that might help future teachers. For example, sessions on particular points of grammar might be extended to include discussion on how the items could be taught to different groups of people. Applied Linguistics courses are also becoming more prominent. Throughout the course an explicit focus on teamwork aims to engender a sense of vocational identity among trainees, and has achieved a greater focus on the importance of teamwork activities in the context of the teacher-line programme. At the time of writing, an initial cohort of first year trainees are preparing to act as peer tutors and teachers for the incoming group of students in 2002. They will have the responsibility for planning and delivering a series of small group tutorials and class seminars. This approach is also designed to foster their professional development. During the course of Year 1, students have already gained considerable experience of co-operating in small groups and preparing teaching materials for a tutorial course, in which they have been encouraged to present their own perspectives on literature pedagogy.

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Peer observation, peer coaching and team-teaching are strongly featured during teaching practice in Helsinki, as are opportunities to work with trained mentors in the practice schools. The concept of student self-evaluation is also emphasised from the outset of both academic studies and pedagogical training. Year 1 students compile a writing portfolio in which they set themselves a series of goals, both for their academic development and for their ability to work as a member of a team. These targets are continually re-examined and re-defined as students evaluate their own progress towards their goals by using the principles of constructive self evaluation. This process is reinforced by regular discussions in individual consultation sessions and group seminars. In the portfolios, trainees are also expected to show evidence of developing the reflexive skills considered necessary for teaching. They produce reflections on their own writing and also on the feedback they receive from their tutors. Trainees complete selfevaluation forms at the end of each series of tutorials or units of study. These are meant to encourage reflection on progress in academic writing skills, in-class performance and team-working skills. Analysis of innovation and good practice A critical and enquiring approach to teaching In providing an alternative to traditional teacher training programmes, teacher-line encourages students to question the validity of their own training and to reflect on the assumptions about teaching and learning upon which it is based. While autonomy is promoted by emphasis on critical thinking, teamwork is facilitated by the collaborative structure of the course as a whole.

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Focus on self evaluation Self evaluation is an element of teaching practice in standard Finnish ITT courses. Trainees are expected to focus on the strengths and weaknesses of their practical teaching and identify areas for improvement. The strong emphasis on evaluating oneself from the outset of studies adds value to the direct admission teacher-line programme by encouraging trainees to develop the additional capacity to assess their academic work and their ability to collaborate in teams. Emphasis on the importance of teamwork in teaching/training provided in peer observation Teamwork activities are an important component of ITT at the University of Helsinki. However, they are accorded far greater prominence in the teacher-line programme. There are numerous opportunities for students to co-operate and to learn from one another, both in academic and practical training. Such experience provides trainees with a keen awareness of the importance of teamwork in teaching from the outset of their careers and should also enable their teaching to develop from a broader range of perspectives. Emphasis on the importance of partnerships, networking and mentoring Partnership between the foreign language departments, the Teacher Education Department and practice school mentors has been prioritised by the specific appointment of lecturers in each language department to supervise the co-operation. This innovation creates a favourable climate for trainees by helping to improve communications between all the people involved in training and promoting a more integrated approach. Strengthening

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the links between the various parts of the course will foster a greater sense of vocational identity among the students. Limitations of the case Ministry of Education funding has been promised for three years, but Finnish ITT takes five years. The University is hoping that funding will be continued. Co-operation and partnership between bodies involved in training is a strength of teacher-line, but practical concerns continue to present some problems, for example synchronizing timetables with the practice schools for the maximum benefit of the student teachers. However, members of university staff seem committed to improving the partnerships. Teacher educators interviewed for this case study stated that ITT in Finland is very highly regarded and that students are often recruited by employers outside teaching. It remains to be seen whether the attempts to increase the vocational profile of trainees on the teacher-line programme put a stop to this trend. Recommendations for extending good practice Good practice could be extended through: · · ·

Collaboration between university departments and practice schools provides a more supportive environment for students and needs to be prioritised at national and international level; The use of portfolios to address wider aspects of training, including subject studies could be examined; There should be greater provision of courses which explicitly promote the development of reflective and self evaluative qualities among teachers;

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The emphasis on teamwork might be considered in the wider European context.

14 Teaching practice portfolios Thematic summary The assessment of the practical component of initial teacher training (ITT) takes a variety of different forms and usually includes evaluation of trainees on the outcomes of practical teaching. In a number of countries and training institutions, students are also expected to produce a teaching practice portfolio of material, which is designed to enable them to establish connections between the practical and theoretical aspects of training and to keep detailed records relating to their school placements. This case study examines the use of portfolios among foreign language trainees in Finland (universities of Helsinki and Jyväskylä) and in England (University of Exeter). Reference is also made to a recent innovation at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. The portfolios examined in this case study provide clear examples of the following features of training: · · · · · · · 188

Emphasis on a critical and enquiring approach to teaching and learning; Recognition of the importance of self-evaluation; Integration of theory and practice; Emphasis on educational and second language research and its application in the classroom; Importance of ICT for diverse uses; Enhancement of language teaching methodology; Using European Language Portfolios for personal evaluation.

Practice Portfolios are also widely employed in initial teacher education in Austria, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania and Portugal. Administrative context Teacher educators in Finland are largely autonomous, which enables them to make their own arrangements for most areas of training within a basic framework provided by the Ministry of Education. By contrast, universities in England are subject to the detailed and somewhat prescriptive statutory regulations of the Department for Education and Skills and the Teacher Training Agency. Therefore ITT students in England must demonstrate evidence of reaching the required standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Initial teacher training in both countries is funded by the state and students are also paid a training salary in the UK. Portfolios have existed for many years but they have evolved to reflect changes in teacher education. Hansen (1999) suggests that recent developments in Finnish ITT include a focus on improved integration between theory and practice. At the universities of Helsinki and Jyväskylä, this focus is mirrored in portfolio requirements. Changes in the UK relate to the establishment of national standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). These standards form a basis for portfolio contents at the University of Exeter. The University of Newcastle upon Tyne has been piloting an initiative with its portfolios since September 2001.

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Activity details There are a number of core elements common to all portfolios in the institutions examined. These relate closely to teaching practice placements in schools. They include: · · · · · ·

Lesson plans; Self-evaluation of lessons taught; Written feedback received from school mentors and higher education tutors on lessons observed; Description of the practice school (organisation, curriculum, social context); Description of classes taught; Teaching and learning materials designed by the trainee.

Additional contents vary between countries and institutions and depend to some extent on the philosophical model underpinning teacher education or foreign language teaching. The Finnish model of ITT is research-based. All teachers qualify with Master’s degrees and therefore engage with research as part of their training. Recent innovations have seen more emphasis on action research as a way of combining theory and practice. UK training is practicallyoriented and portfolios in this instance can be utilised as a way for students to demonstrate their progress in developing a range of skills. At the University of Helsinki a research- and reflectionoriented model of teacher education is adopted from the outset. Its aim is to ‘achieve a balanced development of the teacher’s personality in which the teacher’s thinking is critical’ (website of the Teacher Education Department, www.malux.edu.helsinki.fi). Foreign language ITT students are encouraged to employ portfolios as a means of connecting second language acquisition research and general educational research to classroom practice. In

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addition to the core elements highlighted above, portfolios should contain the following: · · · · · ·

A handbook of foreign language teaching and learning material showing coverage of diverse teaching contexts; A reflective summary of the teaching experience; Reflections on feedback received from mentors and higher education tutors; A study diary or training log in which students assess their progress; Summaries and commentaries of research articles read along with consideration of their potential practical uses in the classroom; A detailed reflective paper in which students are expected to demonstrate that they have selected a teaching methodology that particularly suits the strengths of their personality.

The importance of combining theory and practice is also stressed in the portfolio requirements for foreign language trainees at the University of Jyväskylä, where the portfolio consists of six parts as follows: · · ·

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Prologue: identification of the student’s goals for the teaching practice; Training Log: reflections on progress during the practice; Documents of classroom teaching materials: range of materials showing evidence of planning for different age groups, teaching different foreign language skills and introduction of cultural and intercultural issues; Teaching Philosophy: ability to apply theory to practice by presenting the principles underpinning the student’s chosen style of teaching and justifying this in the light of different pedagogical viewpoints. Major theoretical concepts and their potential as practical solutions should be evaluated. The 191

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student should also develop their opinions on the role of the teacher and criteria for good foreign language teaching; Self-Assessment: identification of the student’s strengths and weaknesses and areas for development; Epilogue: re-evaluation of the original goals for the practice and setting new goals for further professional development.

Full justification for inclusion of all materials must be provided. In the UK, portfolios are generic to all secondary ITT students and are linked to national requirements for the award of QTS. Trainees present a range of different kinds of evidence that they have reached the required standards across a range of competences in their portfolios. In addition to the core elements, use of the portfolios enables students to demonstrate their progress in the following areas: ·

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Knowledge and Understanding: this includes appropriate knowledge of their subject, of pupils’ learning, of the National Curriculum and awareness of recent inspection evidence and classroom relevant research and its potential effect on teaching; Planning, Teaching and Classroom Management: this includes well-structured lessons which aim to achieve progression in pupils’ learning; the provision of opportunities to consolidate pupils’ knowledge and to contribute to their overall personal development; teaching methods which convey enthusiasm and the ability to establish a safe and purposeful working environment; Monitoring, Assessment, Recording, Reporting and Accountability: including the systematic assessment and recording of each pupil’s progress; familiarity with statutory assessment and reporting requirements and critical evaluation of one’s own teaching as a means of improving it;

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Other Professional Requirements: these include awareness of teachers’ professional duties, relevant equal opportunities and health and safety policies and a detailed ICT audit; A series of Action Plans to be negotiated with tutors.

The University of Newcastle is currently piloting a Language Portfolio with its foreign language ITT students. This is based on the version of the European Language Portfolio produced by the Centre for Information on Language Teaching (CILT). It consists of three sections, as follows: · · ·

Personal language skills: a record of formal and informal language learning, qualifications and reflections on language use; Teaching skills: including the diverse uses of the target language in the classroom; Dossier: this includes examples of the trainees’ work in the classroom throughout the year.

Analysis of innovation and good practice Integration of theory and practice/emphasis on educational and foreign (second) language research and its application in the classroom The practical application of theoretical concepts is assisted by the use of portfolios. Trainees have ample opportunities through planning, teaching and evaluation activities to demonstrate their ability to apply academic theories to classroom practice. They should also show up to date knowledge of research developments in foreign language teaching and reflect on their possible impact in the classroom. Such awareness is instrumental in the evolution of their teaching. In the two Finnish cases, evidence of the ability to evaluate research in the foreign language field is regarded as an essential starting point for future professional development. 193

Recognition of the importance of self-evaluation Self-evaluation, particularly in relation to practical teaching, features strongly in portfolios as trainees are expected to complete self-evaluation sheets after lessons taught. This process encourages them to consider the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching and to identify areas for further improvement and also provides evidence of continuing progression and development. Selfevaluation is reinforced through the reflective summaries, training logs and action plans, and should act as a springboard for the enhancement of professional skills. Emphasis on a critical and enquiring approach to teaching and learning At the universities of Helsinki and Jyväskylä, trainees are expected to show that they have considered the potential merits of a variety of different teaching approaches and their appropriateness in relation to their personality. In this way a critical understanding of teaching methodology and the trainees’ own strengths and weaknesses is developed. Importance of ICT for diverse uses/enhancement of language teaching methodology The ICT audit in the University of Exeter’s portfolio enables the students to consider their own ICT skills and to highlight areas for further improvement. Trainees are expected to show evidence that they have used foreign language specific ICT in their planning and teaching. In this way, emphasis on ICT during training promotes the use of a more diverse language teaching methodology in the classroom.

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Use of the European Language Portfolio for self-evaluation The pilot project at the University of Newcastle provides opportunities for language learning and teaching experiences to be evaluated. Encouraging trainees to reflect on the target language in the classroom should focus their attention on maximising its use. In this way, the trainees develop a critical awareness of their language teaching methodology. Limitations of the case Although integration of theory and practice is addressed by the use of portfolios in language teacher education, the balance between these elements remains an area of difficulty. The requirement to produce so much evidence could prove too time-consuming for trainees already subject to the considerable demands of teaching practice. Portfolios offer much potential for good practice, but their contents naturally reflect very differing models of ITT as is apparent in the contrast between the Finnish and English models. Recommendations for extending good practice Numerous possibilities for extending good practice have been identified as follows: ·

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Practice portfolios are already in widespread use but could be adopted more consistently as a means of improving the integration of theory and practice, which remains a difficult issue across a number of European countries; Self-evaluation and critical reflection on one’s own teaching are crucial ways of promoting improved standards of teaching as well as a professional culture and should be emphasised; 195

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Use of the European Language Portfolio might be stressed as a way to encourage reflections on language use and promoting more of a European dimension in training; ICT audits ensure that trainees are aware of their own ICT skills and could be more widely encouraged as a means of enhancing professional development in this area; Focus on research developments, as occurs at the universities of Helsinki and Jyväskylä, supports trainees’ further professional development and needs to be prioritised more widely.

· ·

Lingu@net Europa Lingu@net Europa is a multilingual resources centre to support language teaching and training. It was developed in 1998–2001 by project partners throughout Europe. The site is maintained by a consortium of organisations providing expertise in pedagogy, technology and information management and dissemination. It contains a range of resources, gathered from around the world, relevant to the teaching of all modern languages. Resources are catalogued and classified ready for use by language teachers. Resources are available electronically, and a large selection of links is also featured. In addition to its online resources (over 1,000 in total), the site also hosts a languages forum and chat room for the exchange of ideas. A dedicated section of the site features resources of particular relevance to training. These include teaching and learning materials, reference resources, authentic materials and research, in addition to links to conferences, organisations and service providers. Further information is available at: www.linguaneteuropa.org.

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15 Reflexivity in training: ‘Tomorrow’s Teachers Project Thematic summary This case study considers a reflexivity programme to improve the teaching in the University of Malta’s Faculty of Education and in schools, the learning of pupils and students, and the training of teachers in Malta. Although the project was not specifically designed to cater for the needs of foreign language teachers, its findings include some important implications for their training. Established in 1996, the Tomorrow’s Teachers Project had as its explicitly stated goal to discover: the strengths and weaknesses of current pre-service teacher education and training programmes; to systematically compare current local practice with that obtained in other countries; to identify trends, as well as to develop insights in addressing perceived problems, and to make recommendations regarding changes in structures and practices that will help improve this contribution to the national educational enterprise. Elements of good practice exemplified by this project include: · · · ·

Reflexivity; Team Work; Socialisation of teachers; Integrated ITT Programme;

Administrative context The project was co-ordinated by the Faculty of Education of the University of Malta, which provided funding, in association with 197

the Mediterranean Education Programmes (MEP), until 1999. The project partners were the Education Division, the Maltese Union of Teachers, and the Association for School Councils. The project was evaluated and a report published in June 2002. Activity details The Tomorrow’s Teacher project identified a list of key issues (or categories) around which most discussions of teacher education were seen to revolve. Each category constituted the focus of a working group, led by a Faculty of Education co-ordinator, with members co-opted from various leading national bodies and organisations in the education field. The categories were: · · · · · · · · · · ·

Access to the University teacher-training programme; Alternative structures for teacher training; A knowledge base for teacher education; Socialisation of trainee-teachers into the profession; Modes of teaching on the teacher-training course; School-based learning: Faculty and School partnerships; Evaluation of trainee-teachers: assessment strategies; Teacher development and certification; Teacher education as a field of inquiry; The professional development of teacher educators; The external relations of the Faculty.

Each working group met regularly to identify issues that needed to be raised within their own particular areas of focus, before drawing up a series of position papers regarding those issues. Use was made of a range of available local and international research, with working groups also commissioning or conducting related research in order to illuminate areas essential to the aims of the project. The working groups met in a plenary session at regular intervals, in 198

order to report progress achieved, share insights, and ensure that research agendas were clearly set out. Common areas of concern then became the subjects of collaborative research projects with position papers presented at six monthly intervals, until 2000. As a result of the Tomorrow’s Teacher project, the initial training for secondary school foreign language teachers was dramatically revised and reorganised in 2000. Maltese initial teacher training in secondary education is typically conducted in two subjects, which can be two languages chosen from English, French, German, Italian, Maltese, and Spanish. Any combination is possible except Maltese and either English, or Italian. The course extends over a period of four years of full-time study. The Faculty Board may allow students to complete the course in not more than five years from the date of first admission to the course. Drawing on the findings of the Tomorrow’s Teachers Project, the University of Malta’s course for secondary teaching specialists was revised. It now comprises main elements as follows. Firstly, a range of study-units have been introduced. These are: · · · · · · · · ·

Subject Content Studies; Methodology in the Teaching Area/s; Foundations in Education; Personal Skills; Resources, Information and Communication Technologies in Education; Diversity in the Classroom; Research Methods; English Language Proficiency; Basic Computer Proficiency.

Secondly, four field placements are now required. These include periods of classroom observation in the first year of training, short practice teaching sessions in the next two, and a six-week block in year four. Finally, a written project or dissertation is produced. 199

Analysis of innovation and good practice Reflexivity This project actively encourages reflexivity by the community involved in education and teacher-training (Faculty of Education, Faculty of Modern Languages, schools, trainees). It explicitly aims to strengthen existing good practice, at the same time as identifying and addressing weaknesses observed within the system. Team work While the project as a whole was created and co-ordinated by the university’s Professor of Education, it also involved other academic staff from the Faculty of Education and other Faculties from the University of Malta in addition to a considerable number of practising teachers and trainees. Working together as a group, the project participants ensured that all educational sectors were represented within the data gathering process and that implications for training providers and schools were continually reconsidered. Emphasis on the socialisation of teachers The ‘socialisation’ aspect of the teaching profession has been emphasised, with a particular stress placed on the teacher’s role in enabling pupils to reach their full intellectual and social potential. This is achieved through fostering students’ understanding of their own abilities and potentialities, and of the social contexts within which they live and learn. The project has also helped emphasise the benefits of foreign languages and cultures to the personal development of students, with teacher training now directly addressing the importance of teaching social and cultural values.

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Integrated ITT programme A key outcome of the reorganisation of training was the integration of theoretical and practical modules of secondary teacher training. The course offers a balanced combination of subject content studies, teaching methodology, ICT and ‘Foundations in Education’ alongside regular and intense teaching practice periods, and training in reflexivity in the context of the final dissertation. Limitations of the case One of the main drawbacks of this project was the regular change of co-ordinator, which lead to a constant renegotiation its focus and priorities. The project, although officially still alive at the time of writing, has lost some of its energy, with the work groups not meeting as regularly as before. However, a thorough evaluation of the Tomorrow’s Teacher Project was recently implemented and measures to address problematic issues were due to be discussed at a conference in Malta in June 2002. Recommendations for extending good practice This kind of programme might easily be extended to other countries, following the Maltese example. Consideration of the following is recommended: · The Tomorrow’s Teacher Project is a good example of effective curriculum innovation and of the importance of managing change responsibly; · Similar projects would need to be properly funded, seconded and adequately resourced;

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Similar projects in other countries would certainly be beneficial. To preserve continuity a single co-ordinator should retain responsibility for the entirety of any such initiative.

Drawing on the fifteen case studies presented, training needs were analysed and a series of recommendations were drafted. These will now be presented in Chapter 4.

Associations Across Europe numerous networks and associations exist to promote collaboration between members of the education community. Two such organisations are the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE) and the European Educational Researchers Association (EERA). ATEE prioritises activities specifically for teacher educators and practising teachers. The association’s activities include annual conferences, seminars and workshops, and it also runs a range of research and development centres in priority areas of education. Two such RCDs relevant to the current study are RDC 5 ‘Teacher Education and Intercultural Education’ and RCD 8 ‘Language education and bilingual and multicultural classrooms’. ATEE’s website may be found on: www.atee.org Established in 1994, EERA aims to encourage collaboration amongst educational researchers from a range of backgrounds in Europe and between researchers and international governmental organisations such as the EC, Council of Europe, OECD and UNESCO. EERA operates twentythree thematically categorised networks, including one on Teacher Education Research. Reports are produced annual by each network, and published on the website. Additional publications are also available on-line, although as yet EERA has produced nothing of immediate relevance to the training of language teachers. EERA’s website may be found on: www.eera.ac.uk.

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Chapter 4 Furthering good practice

This study has confirmed that a great deal of effective foreign language teacher training is taking place throughout Europe. Many initiatives have been taken to improve it further at national and local levels, and assistance has often been provided through additional funding from SOCRATES and other European programmes. There is nonetheless a recognition among teachers, trainers and trainees that more needs to be done to improve the training of language teachers, and that the pooling of ideas and practices at European level provides an enormous potential resource, which has not been sufficiently exploited. Taking together the overview of the current situation and the insights afforded by the fifteen case studies, it has been possible to identify the salient issues in language teacher training and the way individual countries and/or institutions have been responding to them. While qualitative judgements assess how far an individual site context should be considered successful, quantitative judgements indicate how extensive a particular activity has been. The key issues therefore have two distinct dimensions: the academic needs that have been identified; and the changes in practice that are likely to enable the needs to be better met. The two dimensions are combined in discussing the proposed recommendations. This part of the study draws together the range of practices and issues identified, and presents an analysis of training needs, followed by a series of recommendations on action to be taken. In the first instance, the training needs identified concern member states or regional authorities, which have responsibility for teacher

training. However, there are several areas of need that can only be addressed through co-operation at European level. It is recognised that in many cases, there are significant cost implications in taking action to address the issues. The areas are further grouped under three headings, corresponding to the essential aspects of teacher training: Organisation, Content and Structure. In this section, training needs are deliberately articulated in summary form. A fuller analysis will occur in the subsequent discussion of recommendations for action. Twenty-two recommendations are then grouped under three main headings: Building a European-level infrastructure for language teacher training; The European Language Teacher of tomorrow; and Areas for further study. The recommendations are accompanied by a sample professional profile of the ideal European language teacher of the twenty-first century, outlining the training features that would need to be offered.

Analysis of training needs Organisation of training ·

· ·

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There is currently no Europe-wide agreement on the accreditation and recognition of teaching qualifications, including in-service training, although significant benefits would accrue from bringing different systems of accreditation closer together; There are no shared curricular guidelines for European language teacher training; Access to initial teacher training and in-service training are highly diverse and would benefit from a degree of convergence;

· · ·

Co-operation between training institutions, schools and education authorities is uneven, and there would be clear benefits from strengthening co-operation; Co-operation between national and European education authorities and advisory bodies is currently limited, and needs to be improved; Existing international networks need to be extended to include non-university training institutions (particularly those training primary language teachers) and teachers’ associations.

Content of training Initial training – general needs · · · · · · ·

There is a need to increase the availability of courses that focus on perfecting trainees’ language skills, especially if an objective of teaching two languages is adopted; Greater emphasis on reflective practice/critical thinking is needed in many countries; There are relatively few courses that enable trainee teachers to compare and contrast education systems and language teach-ing methods across Europe; Not all countries provide pedagogical training in one or more target language; More extensive training in ICT for language teaching and research is needed in the initial training programmes offered in most countries; All trainees need to be encouraged to develop international networks of contacts; Training which situates the role of the language teacher in the European context is needed in all countries.

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Initial training – primary · · · · · ·

There is a need for more extensive training in language skills and language specific methodology in countries where generalist teachers are used; Training programmes focusing on languages other than English need to be extended in many Nordic and other countries; Bilingual training is proving a successful approach and needs to be extended, particularly in countries where bilingual schools are already widespread; Periods of study and/or teaching practice abroad need to be made more widely available for trainees in most countries; All countries need additional funding for study and/or teaching practice abroad; Greater emphasis needs to be placed on the European dimension in all countries, especially in non-university colleges, where this dimension is often less developed;

Initial training – secondary · · · ·

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There is limited diversity in many countries in the languages available for teacher training; Access to formal training in at least two languages needs to be increased in most countries; Training in bilingual teaching methods needs to be introduced where not yet available, especially in the pre-accession countries, and needs to be made more widely available else-where; In most countries, specific training for language teaching in vocational schools/colleges should be developed.

In-service (continuing) teacher training · · ·

· · · ·

In-service training in the European dimension is lacking in most countries; Training in language specific ICT for practising teachers needs to be more widely available, especially in less wealthy countries; Formal training and teaching qualifications in additional languages are needed in the majority of countries where teaching only a single foreign language has been the main pattern for teachers; Training in bilingual teaching techniques for non-language specialists need to be introduced in most countries; Additional training in language skills for prospective bilingual subject teachers is required across Europe; A greater range of European ‘summer school’ courses is needed, especially in topics other than ICT; There is little provision for training of teacher trainers in Europe, and this should be examined in the light of the need for developing new courses for a changing Europe.

Structure of training · · · ·

Theoretical and practical components need to be more fully integrated, particularly in countries where the consecutive model of training is used; Academic and pedagogical components need to be more fully integrated in countries where language teacher training is offered as an ‘add-on’ course; Mentoring programmes need to be introduced or expanded in most countries; The formal training of mentors is still to be introduced in most countries; 207

· ·

· · · · ·

Flexible delivery and distance learning options have considerable potential, especially for in-service courses, and provision needs to be improved in all countries; Foreign teaching practice placements (or domestic placements in a different language community) are a key component of language teacher training, and need to be extended in most countries; The majority of initial teacher training courses do not make allowance for trainees to spend periods of study abroad; The majority of initial teacher training courses are not well adapted to cater for visiting teacher trainees; for example, by awarding ECTS credits in relevant subjects; The European Languages Portfolio has proved a popular and successful learning tool, and should be more widely incorporated into the assessment courses; The teaching practice portfolio is a valuable assessment practice, but there are many courses where it is not used; The duration of initial teacher training courses is highly variable across Europe, and there would be significant benefits in further convergence.

Addressing training needs For excellence in foreign language teacher training to be achieved throughout Europe, the complex assortment of training needs identified above must be addressed on a number of levels. Informal individual and institutional initiatives must be implemented alongside formal national or European-wide policy decisions. For good practice to be effectively extended, change must occur at all levels and in all dimensions of language teacher training.

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Recommendations for action The following recommendations draw on the pool of transEuropean experience, and propose ways in which language teacher training can be further strengthened by actions at European level, adding value to actions at national and local levels. In most cases, there are likely to be financial implications at the different levels, although defining the scope and cost of particular actions falls outside the remit of the present study. The recommendations are grouped under three headings, as follows: · · ·

Building a European infrastructure for training language teachers; The European language teacher of tomorrow; Future study.

Each recommendation is presented in the form of a short summary of the action proposed, an analysis of the reasons why the action is needed, a more detailed outline of what needs to be done, and a suggestion of the means and agency by which it might be achieved. Building a European infrastructure for training language teachers For good practice to be effectively disseminated across the European continent, initiatives need to be taken at European level. While a variety of networks, collaborative schemes, exchanges and standards currently operate within Europe’s various educational contexts, a common infrastructure for the language teacher training community has yet to be established. The first nine recommendations focus on how such an infrastructure could be built.

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1

A European benchmark for language teacher training

It is recommended that a European benchmark for language teacher training be developed, to provide a common understanding of the different processes and components involved, and guidelines for good practice.

Rationale An agreed shared body of terminology, concepts and analytical tools is necessary to support a shared understanding of language teacher training across Europe. The lack of such a framework is an obstacle to co-operation in training, and to mobility in both training and teaching. Its development would provide momentum for co-operation and would facilitate mobility. There are lessons to be drawn from the experience of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). On the one hand, it provides a model of good practice in establishing a basic guide for the teaching and assessing of modern foreign languages in Europe. It sets out a range of learning theories and principles in a non-judgemental manner, it identifies a number of implications for teaching in a nonprescriptive manner, provides a structure of guidance allowing for diversity, and acts as a source of reference to guide policy and practice. On the other hand, its practical implementation has suffered from limited support in terms of organisation, resources and political commitment; and its main impact has been in the dissemination of scales of attainment through the European Language Portfolio. A benchmark statement for language teacher training would need, therefore, to be supported by an organisational structure 210

capable of developing, disseminating and monitoring the implementation of the shared understanding. This is addressed in the later recommendation that an advisory group should be established. Detailed recommendation A European benchmark statement for language teacher training should be developed as the focus for an open process of coordination between member states. The benchmark needs to define an ideal professional profile for trained language teachers, summarise the agreed understanding of the objectives of language teacher training, and identify good practices in organisation, content and structure. The benchmark could be produced by an expert working group, and developed incremen-tally through successive editions to embody key themes, objectives, and examples of good practice. A sample professional profile follows, to indicate what aspects the benchmark might address, based on the issues identified in the present study. The benchmark needs to summarise the principles of training and various models of training. It should compare modes of delivery and access, the structures of training, and its content. It also needs to set out information on pedagogic matters, methodology, and theoretical perspectives in second language learning and teaching. A suggested reading list might also include key works, research and texts on training principles and methodology, and principal European texts relating to language learning and teaching. The benchmark would provide guidance on the balance of theory and practice in initial teacher training, giving consideration to the content and structure of practice and the relative lengths of time it requires; to the range and level of theoretical material to be introduced in training, and amounts of programme time required. 211

It should take account of the recommendations of the present study, which provides a starting point on matters of structure, content and organisation. It needs to draw on examples of good practice and innovation, and to be written in such a way as to provide guidance for practice at a national and European level, and to serve as a guide to individual institutions and trainers in developing teacher training for language teachers. It is recommended that the benchmark address aspects of professional competence supplementary to language. These include, for example, the teacher and the law, health and safety, classroom management, psychology of learning, gender issues, equal opportunities, European citizenship, basic skills in numeracy, literacy and ICT, and the philosophy of education. In each case, a European perspective needs to be taken and European contexts used as a basis for designing programme content. The competences described would include the personality attributes typical of the good language teacher, and how these effect classroom learning; the characteristics of a supportive classroom climate, and how this can be created and maintained; and the ways in which a teacher can create and sustain learner motivation, willingness to speak and group motivation, taking account of individual learner differences and individual contexts. The benchmark needs to consider issues specific to the career development of teachers: from newly qualified status, to acknowledged basic competence, and on to advanced and expert status. It should provide a means of identifying professional progression, including a scale of performance levels in each of the areas which have been agreed to contribute to the professional profile of the language teacher. The benchmark would not replace certification awarded in individual European counties, but should make possible a Europe-wide mapping of certificates, diplomas, degrees, masters and advanced level courses against a common point of reference. Such a mapping would facilitate mobility, dual

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qualifications and mutual recognition of training components aimed at various levels of professional training. The benchmark needs to include guidelines on good practice in incorporating peer observation and peer review into teacher training. They would address the role of peer observation and review in encouraging critical awareness of each trainee’s own approach to teaching; in accepting responsibility for maintaining the effectiveness of this approach; and in raising awareness of alternative methodologies and philosophies of teaching. The benchmark could include guidelines on fostering the knowledge and skills needed for independent language learning. They need to identify ways of equipping learners with a consistent body of knowledge, which can be applied to the learning of further languages. They could propose ways of developing personal skills, such as discovering resources, working in teams, managing one’s own learning, understanding different learning styles, and applying different learning strategies. And they should encourage the values of self-development and continued learning throughout life. The benchmark would provide guidelines on incorporating elements of pedagogical research into teacher training. They should seek to incorporate an introduction to existing models of educational research; the ability to access and assimilate the implications of new research findings; a broad introduction to educational research methods; and experience in conducting smallscale action research projects.

Agency The benchmark statement should preferably be produced by an Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, as recommended below, in consultation with a reference group of teacher trainers across Europe. 213

2

European accreditation of teaching status and qualifications

An accreditation framework should be established to provide a basis for comparability, and to recognise flexible routes to the status of qualified teacher at European level. Rationale In most European states, teachers are awarded the status of Qualified Teacher on successful completion of training. In some states, additional status recognition is given, for example, to advanced teachers who have met additional requirements. At present this is not easily comparable from country to country. An agreed framework of accreditation or system of equivalences would improve recognition and mobility. This framework could provide a means of calibrating all training certification according to a common reference, and acknowledging it as part of a system of monitoring and quality assurance. It should operate in conjunction with the benchmark for language teacher training, and would be linked to the awards of European Language Teacher and European Language Mentor, as recommended in this chapter. It is also necessary to cater for diversity in modes of access to training, diversity in the social and academic background of trainees and the requirement for continued professional development. Flexibility must be a guiding principle in establishing an accreditation framework and putting it into practice, reducing barriers to access to information, recruitment and training. Future European language teachers will be global, mobile, and able to operate in diverse contexts and according to a wide range of curricula and syllabus requirements. They will come from a range of backgrounds, including previous professional experience and 214

linguistic competence. It is important that individual training needs are matched against provision and this latter is available in various forms: full-time and part-time courses; distance learning; selfaccess; short courses and seminars. Individuals might also be able to take training modules in more than one country. Each component of training needs, therefore, to be available in flexible forms of delivery, and units should where possible be transferable between different countries, different phases of training, for example, between pre-service and in-service, and between different sectors of education (primary, secondary etc.). The current European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) may provide a stepping stone towards these aims. Detailed recommendation An accreditation framework should be established at European level. It could provide an EU-wide system of equivalences, and enable more effective credit accumulation and transfer. It would acknowledge equivalence of awards and components of training from country to country and recognise different levels of professional development, for example, the newly qualified teacher, the professional teacher, and the advanced or expert teacher, as recommended in this report. In-service and pre-service courses need to be accredited in relation to these levels, enabling individual teachers to achieve specific levels of professional development. The system would be flexible in enabling a diversity of routes to achieving the status of qualified teacher. It should recognise the combination of modules of different types, including distance learning modules and components shared between inservice and pre-service programmes. In the first instance, the framework would be a means of bringing the different systems of accreditation across Europe closer together. In the longer term, it may form the basis of a common system of accreditation. 215

Agency The framework of accreditation should be established by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training and embodied in the Benchmark, recommended in this report.

3

European programme of quality assurance

A voluntary programme of quality assurance would be established at a European level with European factors as guiding principles. Rationale There is an enormous amount of language teacher training taking place in Europe within a diverse range of systems and associated structures. If there is to be greater co-ordination in policy and practice, it will need to allow for diversity whilst moving in the direction of shared common practice. Principles, policy and practice need to be sensitive to traditions, particularities and local necessities. At the same time, comparability of quality can only be gained and acknowledged through a shared system of quality assurance. Detailed recommendation A voluntary programme of quality assurance should be established in order to monitor policy and practice in language teacher training in Europe. This programme and its component procedures would build on the benchmark for language teacher training recom216

mended in this report, with particular focus on assessment, accreditation and certification. Trainers, institutions and programmes need to be able to apply for quality assessment to acquire the status of a ‘recognised’ training centre for language teachers. This status will require a programme of quality assurance activities including validation and follow-ups. The European Quality Assurance programme should aim to co-ordinate with existing national and local quality procedures, and would establish its own infrastructure of quality assurance to which access is available on a voluntary basis. Agency It is recommended that the programme be the responsibility of the Advisory Group on European teacher training, working with the Benchmark, both recommended in this report, but in its absence, a separate advisory group could be established to oversee the development of a quality assurance programme.

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European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) The European Centre for Modern Languages is a Council of Europe institution whose aim is to promote the learning and teaching of modern languages in Europe. The Centre was established in 1994, and currently has thirty-three member states throughout Europe. The main objectives of the centre are the implementation of language policies and the promotion of innovative approaches to the learning and teaching of modern languages. These objectives are achieved through a framework of activities chosen from projects sent in by the member states. The current medium term programme of activities (2000–2003) features four ‘Major Focuses’ as follows: · · · ·

Organisation and set-up of language education; Language awareness, intercultural competence, multilingual matters; Information and communication technologies; Quality assurance in international co-operation in language education.

In addition to these four ‘Major Focuses’, the Centre lists ten ‘Specific Concerns’, with ‘Change in Teacher Education’ heading the list. Five subprojects are currently underway in this area: · · · · ·

Think-tank on change in teacher education; The status of language teachers; Facing the future: Language teachers across Europe; Reflective teacher education – case studies; Development of a pedagogical kit.

More information on the ECML and its projects is available on: www.ecml.at

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4

Support network

A support network for language teacher training should be established, based on a small team with the task of providing an infrastructure, building capacity, and offering recognition and long-term continuity for trans-European projects and networks of exchange, whether virtual or face-to-face.

Rationale There is a thriving culture of networks related to teacher training, some of them based on bilateral or multilateral agreements between member states, but many dependent on short-term project funding – for example under SOCRATES, or other EU programmes. Some consortia, brought together for a specific project, develop into dynamic networks, with spin-off benefits beyond the immediate remit of the project. However, the existence of these networks tends largely to be dependent on project funding, and when this ceases at the end of the project, the network may fall rapidly into decay. They do not contribute substantially to building Europe’s capacity to sustain and improve its performance in this area. Some projects succeed in finding exit strategies that secure longer-term funding or a mainstream position to enable the continuation of the work they have carried out, or to maintain the network of participants. But these are relatively few. A frequent result is that the products achieved by the end of the project are not well disseminated afterwards, and do not achieve the impact expected. Conversely, not every project achieves its aims, and not every consortium brought together for a specific purpose develops the momentum or cohesion to become an effective longer-term network. 219

Several countries provide support networks for particular aspects of language teacher training, and these take many different forms, including separate government agencies, voluntary organisations and extended roles for particular institutions. There are examples of good practice in co-operation between such bodies, which has been given impetus by the European Year of Languages, 2001. The European Language Council, and the Council of Europe’s European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, have also contributed to improving co-operation, through workshops, conferences, project groups and networking opportunities. There is a need for further concerted development in this area at a European level because existing actions do not provide the breadth or continuity of service and support needed. Detailed recommendation A support network infrastructure needs to be established, comprising a small team with a specific remit to: · · · · ·

Amplify existing networks of contacts in the area of language teacher training; Provide opportunities for continued exchange and contact between participants in short-term projects and networks; Disseminate and develop the outcomes of projects; Provide a networking and information service for language teachers and language teacher trainers; Encourage and facilitate innovation and co-operation.

Agency The support network infrastructure could be the task of a new knowledge-brokering service established for the purpose, or of an 220

existing national or cross-European agency, institution or association. DG Education and Culture could commission a feasibility study and consider allocating pump-priming funding.

5

A European resources service

A major European resources service should be established, including a portal web-site, to provide access to information and online materials for language teachers and teacher trainers. Rationale There are many organisations and agencies providing different types and levels of information online. It would be useful to establish a gateway to them aimed at the specific requirements of European language teachers. The same web-site would be able to host online teaching and learning materials and, if adequately funded, could convert existing CD-ROM or hard-copy material to web format. It could also play a facilitating role in making existing online materials in individual institutions more widely available. Detailed recommendation Funding could be identified to establish a resources service, including a portal, to make information and materials available to language teachers and teacher trainers across Europe. It should have the task of providing network links to libraries, information centres, on-line catalogues and national portals in different countries. 221

Agency It could be funded initially on a pump-priming basis by DG Education and Culture, and could be provided in a number of ways. It might be an additional task of the support network (recommended above), if that is established. Alternatively, it could be a task allocated to an existing national or cross-European agency or institution. In the latter event, it would need to be offered for tender.

6

Dual qualifications

The development of arrangements for dual qualifications might be further encouraged.

Rationale In the long term, it is desirable to achieve a measure of standardisation of European qualifications, mutual recognition of qualifications and acknowledgement of a European Qualified Teacher status, as recommended in this report. It is also hoped that enhanced mutual recognition of qualifications will result from the Bologna process. However, the current high level of diversity in qualification is likely to continue for a considerable time, and it is probable that EU member states will wish to retain their own local qualifications systems. In these circumstances, several examples of good practice offer evidence that dual qualifications provide significant benefits to trainee teachers and to the education systems of participating countries. This arrangement exists in European programmes and 222

some courses involving language teacher training. In these cases, there is agreement on sharing teaching and assessment across more than one institution and country. Where appropriate, a ‘twofor-the-price-of-one’ system operates, in which students receive a qualification from each respective institution or national qualification system, which has comparable validity in the relevant country. The arrangement could be extended so that potential language teachers train by accessing components in different countries, by using the web through self-access, and by undertaking teaching practice in more than one country. In these circumstances, it would be feasible for an individual trainee to receive a qualification from each participating institution, so long as these formed part of an acknowledged European network, including common policy, practice and quality assurance.

Detailed recommendation The system of dual qualification should be instituted wherever possible in initial teacher training. A similar approach might be adopted where possible for in-service training and professional development courses. Additional funding might be allocated to establishing networks and consortia of institutions with dual qualification arrangements, and in extending existing consortia. Agency In the first instance, responsibility for funding additional consortia should lie with DG Education and Culture. Responsibility might subsequently be transferred to the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended above, with the intention of coordinating the arrangements and developing a coherent system of qualifications at European level. 223

7

Cross-institutional co-operation

Closer co-operation might be encouraged between training institutions and partner schools, and between education departments and language departments. Rationale There are currently varying levels of co-operation between foreign language departments, education departments and practice schools with regard to the supervision of trainees. Such variation is particularly apparent in the school placement phase of training. A mismatch in expectations and practices between higher education tutors and staff in practice schools sometimes puts the trainee at a disadvantage and makes it difficult for the theoretical and practical components of training to be successfully integrated. If trainees are to benefit fully from the available expertise, a partnership between all the stakeholders needs to be developed. Schools need to be encouraged to see their important role in the training of future teachers in a more positive light. Similarly, while there are good examples of co-operation between language departments and education departments, there are many cases where little communication exists between them. This can produce tensions between subject expertise or linguistic competence, and professional focus. It can also inhibit curriculum innovation to meet changes in education and in the disciplines related to languages. Detailed recommendation In the first instance, a study should be commissioned into models of good practice in the area of cross-institutional collaboration. 224

Drawing on this research, a framework should then be drafted setting out the respective responsibilities of language departments, teacher education departments, schools, teacher trainers, trainees, mentors and administrators with regard to ensuring the overall coherence of training. On the basis of this, guidelines could be established detailing the desired level of co-operation between the parties involved in training. Agency Under the direction of the proposed Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, a working group of teacher trainers could be formed to examine models of good practice and draw up the recommended framework of co-operation.

8

Accreditation of in-service training

All in-service training courses need to accredited at local or national level. Rationale The provision of in-service training is currently highly diverse, and is likely to remain so. This range is a strength in offering flexibility and responsiveness. However, it is a weakness that in-service training undertaken is often not given formal recognition, and is usually not closely associated with the ability of teachers to compile additional qualifications, such as higher level degrees (particularly master’s-level). There are, however, examples of good 225

practice in developing accreditation. The advantages for teachers of formally accrediting training include career progression and motivation. For the education system, benefits follow in the areas of quality enhancement, coherence and management of change. For society more widely, this is an example of good practice in developing and recognising life-long learning. Detailed recommendation National and local authorities need to encouraged to develop mechanisms for accrediting in-service training courses. This accreditation would fall within the remit of the EU-wide system of credit accumulation and transfer recommended in this report. Agency Responsibility for implementation lies primarily with national and local authorities, but EU policy statements should be made supporting this approach. In the longer term, overall responsibility for credit accumulation and transfer might be vested in a European level agency.

9

Advisory Group on European Teacher Training

An Advisory Group on European Teacher Training should be established to work with national agencies to co-ordinate key aspects of language teacher training.

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Rationale It is clear that many aspects of language teacher training need to be more effectively co-ordinated at European level. The principal reason for this is the pressing requirement to facilitate and increase teachers’ mobility. While there is a general objective to increase mobility of all teachers across Europe, it is particularly important in the case of language teachers, who are increasingly required to train and work outside their home country, and who have a special role in facilitating mobility for those they teach. The second reason is that the variety of contexts in which teacher training is currently carried out (structural, academic and cultural) makes it difficult to develop the recognition of qualifications, as well as exchanges and sharing of good practice. A lack of clarity inhibits quality enhancement and European co-operation in the field of education. This book recommends a number of concerted actions needed at a European level. For them to be coherent, successful and sustainable, it will be necessary to establish a mechanism for co-ordination. Development of this mechanism could be achieved by a representative advisory group, with responsibility for implementing, monitoring and developing those actions. In the longer term, a European institutional infrastructure may need to be established, especially in the area of accreditation. Detailed recommendation An Advisory Group on European Teacher Training should be established with the following remit: ·

To work with national teacher training agencies and Ministries of Education to co-ordinate key aspects of language teacher training;

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· · · · · ·

To oversee the development of a European benchmark statement for language teacher training; To develop a scheme of European credit accumulation and transfer for language teacher training; To promote teacher training programmes leading to European Qualified Teacher status; To develop arrangements for the award of the status of European Mentor; To develop a programme of quality assurance; To focus EU level initiatives aimed at teacher training programmes.

The Advisory Group could be established with representation of one ministerial member and one teacher trainer from each participating country, and should act as an initiator of the open coordination process in the first instance. Individual countries should choose whether to participate in specific co-ordinating activities and to adopt specific principles, policy and practice. Agency It could be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture to propose to member states the formation of the Advisory Group, and to recommend on how the Group might be located in the EU decision-making structures.

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The European Language Teacher of tomorrow The creation of a European infrastructure for language teacher training will facilitate the sharing of good practice across the continent and a pooling of both resources and ideas. The next nine recommendations focus on the outcomes of training language teachers at a European level and considers ways to optimise the skills and abilities of language teachers training within the new collaborative infrastructure.

10 The European Language Teacher European Qualified Language Teacher status might be introduced, qualifying its holders to teach in any member state, and to use the title ‘European Language Teacher’. Rationale At present, qualified teacher status is awarded by national government ministries and their agencies, and is specific to the country concerned. Bilateral procedures exist in some cases for converting or obtaining recognition so as to teach in another country. Similarly, some initial training programmes offer qualified teacher status in more than one country as an outcome. However, these solutions are a limited response to the undoubted barriers to mobility of language teachers. The problems could be largely overcome by an over-arching Status, which was recognised throughout the Union. Such a Status would also have the advantage of establishing a standard for other programmes to aspire to. Teachers holding this Status would be likely to see it as 229

enhancing their professional standing, and they could be expected to set an example for other teachers to emulate. Detailed recommendation Arrangements need to be set in place to define the learning outcomes required, and to establish the award of European Qualified Language Teacher status, as a recognised EU-wide award, entitling its holder to teach in any member state, and to use the title ‘European Language Teacher’. These should build on the benchmark and accompanying professional profile proposed in this report. All initial teacher training programmes meeting the requirements for learning outcomes might be entitled to award the status in addition to, or instead of, their existing qualifications. Existing teachers should also have access to in-service training that would enable them to add the European award to their existing national qualifications. Pilot projects need to be funded, based on consortia of institutions, to develop the European award in initial and in-service training. Agency Development of the award should preferably be carried out by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended in this report. However, the European status could also be sought by agreement between member state agencies, and it would be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture to oversee the process of co-ordination. The requirements need to be summarised in a Professional Profile and incorporated in the benchmark for language teacher training , recommended in this report. Funding of pilot projects would also be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture. 230

11 Language competence Teacher trainees need to be required to achieve agreed levels of linguistic competence corresponding to their specialist, semispecialist or non-specialist teacher status. Rationale At present, language teachers can be viewed as falling into three broad categories. Specialist teachers concentrate professionally on language teaching only. Semi-specialists teach language in addition to another discipline. Non-specialists teach language as part of a broad portfolio of subjects, most often in the primary or lowersecondary sectors. The level of linguistic competence varies considerably, and it is in the interests of good practice and the transparency of qualifications that agreed norms should be established, defining what minimum level of language competence teachers have achieved. The European Common Framework offers a basis for comparability. Detailed recommendation It would be established as part of European Qualified Language Teacher status that teachers should have reached agreed levels of linguistic competence corresponding to their specialist, semispecialist or non-specialist teacher status. In the initial stages, the following levels would be set: specialist language teachers should achieve a minimum of European Common Framework level C1 in one foreign language, and level B2 in a second; semi-specialist teachers would need to achieve level B2 in one foreign language; and non-specialists could achieve level B1 in one foreign language. 231

Consideration could be given to how these levels might be increased in the longer term. Agency The proposed Advisory Group on European Teacher Training should have responsibility for this.

12 The European Mentor for language teacher training European Language Mentor status should be introduced to recognise key individuals involved in language teacher training. Rationale There are very many examples of good and excellent practice in modern foreign language teacher training in Europe. They usually involve outstanding contributions by individual trainers, teachers and administrators. It is important that the experience and expertise of these individuals should have as wide an impact as possible in the training of teachers at a European level and on the development of training processes. There is already a wellestablished literature base on the role of the mentor in teacher training. It is therefore desirable to have a means of formally recognising such key individuals, and facilitating their contribution to modern language teacher training within European networks.

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Detailed recommendation The status of European Language Mentor should be introduced, designed to identify key individuals in language teacher training. These Mentors may be trainers, teachers or individuals with senior administrative responsibilities. By virtue of accepting European Mentor status, these individuals will be expected to share with others their exemplary practice in designated areas. Systems of incentive and reward will need to be established in order to acknowledge this expert contribution. Such individuals will be identified within member states but will be acknowledged as having a European perspective on training gained from experience and further professional development. They will be actively involved in training at a European level and able to receive and advise others. Such contributions may be real or virtual. Within their own institutional base, Mentors will have the role of furthering training from a European perspective at a trans-national level. They will also connect with systems, programmes and networks concerned with training language teachers in Europe. In the medium term, in-service training provision will need to be developed to train potential Mentors and to enhance the expertise of established ones. Agency Potential European Mentors should be identified within existing national or European networks in the first instance. The Advisory Group on European Teacher Training needs to assume responsibility for developing criteria for the award of the title of European Language Mentor. The award should be made by institutions responsible for accrediting initial or in-service teacher training, on the basis of a curriculum vitae and personal statement.

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13 European dimension Teacher trainees should gain experience of teaching in more than one country. Rationale The experience of teacher trainees participating in existing exchange schemes has been very positive in improving their effectiveness as language teachers, and in encouraging a stronger commitment to the European values of diversity and mutual understanding. It has also provided a real basis for future professional mobility, which holds out the prospect of a stronger European dimension to teaching in member states. Detailed recommendation In the immediate future, encouragement needs to be given to trainee teachers to take advantage of opportunities already available to experience teaching in a country other than their home country. In particular, more opportunities need to be provided by increasing the number and size of schemes that offer them. Pilot projects should be funded to explore ‘virtual participation’, enabling people to gain this experience by participating in classrooms in other countries via web-based links. In the long term, it could be an aim that every qualified language teacher should have gained experience of teaching in more than one country in the course of their initial training. This is an ambitious aim. However, in the medium term, this requirement should be included as a condition for the accreditation

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of programmes wishing to offer European Qualified Teacher status, as recommended in this report. Agency The increased provision of appropriate schemes and pilot projects is clearly the responsibility of DG Education and Culture, and the Lingua programme. The incorporation of a requirement in qualifications should be examined by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended in this report. It could also be adopted by national teacher training agencies, with appropriate encouragement from DG Education and Culture.

14 Trans-European credit accumulation Teacher trainees should be able to compile their qualifications by taking different units in different countries. Rationale At present a number of bilateral or multilateral exchange schemes allow for teacher trainees to take part of their programme in another partner country. These programmes have proved very successful in encouraging mobility, but have been limited to a relatively small number of students, within a restricted range of partners. In the short term, it is possible (and desirable) to extend the number of schemes offering this opportunity, and funding will be required to facilitate this. However, there are limits to how quickly such a process could develop to embrace more trainees, 235

and limits to the range of opportunities for mobility they could offer. In the longer term, a mechanism needs to be established that would enable any trainee to receive part of their training in another country, preferably with a wide range of potential locations. Enhanced mobility could be achieved through a credit accumulation and transfer scheme, building on the existing ECTS, extending it more effectively to teacher training programmes, and offering co-ordination of recognition at the level of programme units. Detailed recommendation There should be a mechanism at European level for recognising programme units as carrying credits that can be transferred and accumulated to contribute to a teaching qualification. At the same time, there needs to be agreement on the part of a sufficient number of awarding bodies that they will recognise these units as contributing towards the teaching qualifications that they award. Additional funding should be provided for SOCRATES programmes that incorporate these elements. Agency This process should preferably be developed by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended in this report. However, the same aim could be achieved by a system of reciprocal agreements between a sufficiently large group of agencies from member states. In the latter case, it should be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture to broker the system of agreements. The DG has responsibility for funding these schemes under SOCRATES.

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15 Language diversity Specialist language teachers should be trained to teach more than one language. Rationale The stated requirement of schools across Europe is increasingly for teachers who are capable of teaching more than one language. This demand will increase with the European commitment to multilingual citizens, capable of speaking two languages in addition to their mother tongue. Language teachers will be key people in implementing this commitment, and in fulfilling the wider European aspiration to linguistic and cultural diversity. In order to do this, they should themselves be capable of diversity in teaching. It will also assist the process if they learn to think of themselves as language teachers rather than as teachers of a single specific language. There is now a body of evidence that learners of one language can more rapidly learn a second language from the same ‘family’ (e.g. Romance languages, Slavonic languages), and methods are being developed that may provide valuable support in this area. Detailed recommendation It is recommended that it be adopted as a long-term European aim that all specialist language teachers should be qualified to teach two or more languages. In the short term, further pilot projects might be funded to develop expertise in initial teacher training for two languages, and expertise in in-service training enabling qualified teachers of one language to develop competence in a 237

second language, and qualifications to teach it. In the medium term, it should be a requirement of European Teacher status that specialist language teachers be qualified to teach two languages. Agency Development of the qualification requirement should preferably be carried out by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended in this report. However, the requirement could also be sought by agreement between member state agencies, and it would be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture to oversee the process of co-ordination. They might also take responsibility for funding pilot projects.

The Bologna Process Following the Sorbonne agreement of 1998, the Bologna Agreement was signed on 29th June 1999 by the Education ministers of twenty-nine European Countries. Three more countries have since become affiliated to the Bologna Process. The Agreement sets objectives for achieving cooperation across Europe in the field of higher education, through a system of mutually recognised qualification structures and standards. The proposed system comprises two cycles: an undergraduate ‘bachelor’ degree lasting for a minimum of three years, followed by postgraduate ‘Master’s’ or Ph.D. programmes lasting for one to three years. Priorities of the Bologna Process currently include ‘simplification of the patchwork of higher education qualifications’, ‘improving mobility within Europe and attracting students from around the world’, and ‘ensuring high standards’. For more information consult the Europa website: www.europa.eu.int/comm/education/bologna_en.html

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16 European citizenship Language teachers should be trained in the skills and approaches necessary to make students aware of their role as European citizens, and more training materials should be developed to support this training. Rationale The incorporation of European citizenship is unevenly represented in teacher training around Europe. It is better represented in the secondary sector than in the primary, and is more visible in initial than in in-service training, but is often not given a high profile even there. Evidence suggests that it is more strongly emphasised in bilingual teaching approaches (CLIL). In addition to pressure on curriculum time, there is a lack of suitable teaching materials, especially for initial teacher training. Detailed recommendation In the long term it is recommended that it be a requirement that all trainee teachers study a component which equips them to make students aware of their role as European citizens, and that all teachers who have not studied this should be required to address it through in-service training. In the medium term, this might be a requirement of European Qualified Teacher status (as described in another recommendation). In the short term, project funding should be provided to develop course materials suitable for this purpose. Encouragement would also be offered to publishing and broadcasting organisations to develop suitable materials.

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Agency Development of the qualification requirement should preferably be carried out by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training recommended in this report. However, the requirement could also be sought by agreement between member state agencies, and it would be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture to oversee the process of co-ordination. Funding of projects should also be the responsibility of DG Education and Culture.

17 Teaching with ICT All teachers should be trained in using ICT approaches for interactive use with pupils in the classroom. Rationale The value of ICT approaches is well established and is increasing as more material becomes available in electronic form, especially on CD-ROM, on the Web, and in software packages. There are many examples of good practice in introducing teachers to the relevant techniques, but there is strong evidence that many teacher training programmes do not include this as a component. As a result, some teachers are poorly equipped to take advantage of the resources now available, and their pupils are likely to be disadvantaged in turn.

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Detailed recommendation In the short term, additional funding should be identified to extend the range of in-service training in ICT, through summer schools and similar initiatives. In the medium term, national teacher training agencies ought to be encouraged to insist on initial teacher training programmes including a component of training in ICT. In the longer term, it should be a condition of accreditation for European Teacher status that an ICT component has been studied. Agency In-service modules could be funded by DG Education and Culture, and by national teacher training agencies. Ensuring the requirement for initial teacher training should be the responsibility of national teacher training agencies in the medium term, in consultation with the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended elsewhere.

18 Bilingual training (CLIL) Increased training needs to be provided in bilingual teaching approaches (content and language integrated learning), and pilot projects should be implemented in each country.

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Rationale Bilingual teaching approaches, particularly aimed at Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), are demonstrating many advantages, especially in increasing language diversity, improving motivation for language learning, and introducing a more international perspective. These approaches have emerged from the great diversity of methodologies across Europe. Traditionally, second languages were taught through grammar study and translation. In recent decades, this has often been replaced by communicative language teaching, which stresses oral skills, and competence in transactions and interactions, though some teachers still use grammar study to complement the development of oral work. A key weakness of the communicative approach has been its relation to content. In it, the topic for language study often involves the learner as host or tourist, which in some cases can be very successful. In the early stages of language learning, in particular, this content may enhance learners’ motivation. However, there is evidence that in sustained teaching, such content can pall and result in demotivated learners, leading to disappointing linguistic progression. There is also evidence that by continuing to work and think through this limited content learners can lose opportunities to develop thinking and learning skills that generate more advanced language competence. Content and Language Integrated Learning addresses both these issues, and others, by providing a more content-rich environment for language learning and teaching. CLIL builds from the communicative approach and has a developed programmatic research base. It is necessary, therefore, that more teachers are trained to use it. There are various models of CLIL, which can be adapted for various age phases of education, and for contexts, which include regional languages, bilingual states, national languages and full international languages. At the same time as 242

addressing language learning needs, CLIL has a major focus on the content based disciplines, such as history, geography, with which it is used. These issues lie outside the remit of this report, but in some senses, CLIL has the potential to enable teaching in all disciplines to contribute to language learning. It also has the potential to extend language diversity, especially in situations where specialist language teaching is unavailable (see Grenfell 2000). Detailed recommendation Provision to train teachers in CLIL approaches should be increased. It may be delivered through full-time courses (as core or complementary), short courses and at a distance through webbased and other ICT based materials. Policy and practice might be further developed through pilot projects, with the aim of providing guidance for practice in training. Such practice needs to cover all age phases of education as well as training at pre-service and inservice levels. Guidelines for training in CLIL should be included in the European Benchmark document recommended above.

Agency Co-ordination should be provided by the Advisory Group on European Teacher Training, recommended in this report. It could also be provided by a separate European unit, with responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the numerous national and transnational networks and offices dealing with CLIL. Pilot projects should be funded by DG Education and Culture, and where possible by national or local agencies.

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Areas for further study As with all studies of this nature, the preceding analyses of recent trends and future developments in language teacher training in Europe have highlighted a number of areas in which further study is needed. The final set of recommendations identifies and commentates four such areas, outlining how and why each study should take place.

19 Teaching of native language as a foreign or second language A study should be commissioned on developments in the teaching of native language as a foreign or second language, and the impact of these on the teaching of foreign languages.

Rationale Strong evidence has emerged that teachers of foreign languages are finding valuable methodological innovations and examples of good practice in the teaching of native language as a foreign or second language. A growing trend is emerging of teachers trained in the teaching of their native language taking up posts as teachers in other countries where they contribute to the convergence of methods between this and the teaching of foreign languages. It is also evident that a great deal of public and private investment is being directed into developing the teaching of native language as a foreign or second language in very many countries, with results that add to existing knowledge and research into language learning. 244

This area was excluded from the remit of this report, but is clearly an important area for further investigation. Detailed recommendation A study should be commissioned on developments in the teaching of native language as a foreign or second language (English as a Foreign Language, Français Langue Etrangère etc), and the impact of these on the teaching of foreign languages. Agency DG Education and Culture should fund a study in this area.

20 Social and linguistic context training A study needs to be undertaken of how trainees might best be trained to recognise and respond to the diversity of social and linguistic contexts in which their teaching will occur.

Rationale There are very many languages in Europe and a high diversity of educational structures. Native and foreign languages can exist in contexts where they are involved as regional languages, bilingual national languages, national languages and international languages, as well as so-called minority languages and ‘non-European’ languages. In any one local context of language learning, one or 245

more of these may apply. Language teachers therefore need to understand the issues pertaining to each of these contexts and should be trained to respond and operate effectively in them. Similarly, the future modern foreign language teacher will be mobile and able to teach within a range of European education systems. It is necessary for them to be trained in these differences and prepared to be flexible and adaptable. Detailed recommendation Trainees need to be trained to recognise and respond to the diversity of social and linguistic contexts in which their teaching will occur. In order to achieve this, the content of language teacher training should include comparative studies in national education systems, linguistic diversity and language policy issues, focusing on the practical implications and strategies for addressing them in teaching. A preliminary study might be commissioned to develop proposals as a basis for wide consultation.

Agency The study should be commissioned by the Directorate General for Education and Culture.

21 ICT for language teacher training A substantial study should be commissioned to identify the current level of ICT for language teacher training and make recommendations for future development in this area. 246

Rationale The value of ICT is well established, but its implementation in language teacher training is very uneven. Much development is poorly disseminated and there is a need for systematic information to be made available, to inform decision-making. It is noted that the Directorate General for Education and Culture has commissioned a project on the impact of the use of new information technologies and the internet on the teaching of foreign languages, and on the role of teachers of a foreign language. It may be that the findings of this project will form a basis for a study of ITC for language teacher training. Detailed recommendation Information and communications technologies currently underpin a large part of our social, economic and cultural activities. This is no less true for education. Specifically, ICT can provide a range of services, information and support to the teaching and learning of modern foreign languages. We have identified four priority areas: 1

2

3

Word processing: language teachers need word processing for much of the time in producing and presenting, both teacher materials and documents in support of organisation and assessment of learning. Databases: a range of language data bases are available to training teachers as a source of teaching materials and information to support their teaching. Many of these are freely available on the Internet. Computer assisted learning: software programmes are available for computer based language laboratories, network systems and individual computer units. It is essential that

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trainee teachers learn how to operate these systems in support of their learners. Electronic communications: the future European language teacher will need to communicate quickly and efficiently with an international audience during there training. Later, they will need to establish e-mail links both with in-service training providers, support agencies and their pupils and students. Good e-mail skills are therefore essential.

It is strongly recommended that a substantial study be undertaken, which focuses on each of these aspects of ICT use for trainee language teachers. Such a study will identify examples of innovation, as well as current barriers to good practice. The study would cover technological compatibility, systems integration and access. It should also examine critically the content of software, data bases, together with optimal word-processing and e-mail applications. The outcome of such a study would be recommendations for better integration and application of ICT in all areas of language teacher education – both pre- and in-service. Agency The proposed ICT study would be commissioned by DG Education and Culture.

22 Online modules More effort needs to be made to make initial teacher training modules and in-service course content available online and in other distance learning forms. 248

Rationale There are several examples of good practice, where consortia have produced excellent materials, usually on CD-ROM. CDs and websites can be used to store and disseminate large quantities of information (textual and audio-visual), as well as complex applications. The resulting materials have two key advantages: they provide a resource base well beyond what could be offered by an individual tutor or even a single institution; and they embody multilingual, multicultural aspects of the European dimension in both form and content. They are also an excellent vehicle for improving trainees’ skills in using ICT for three main purposes: for their own personal and professional organisation; as a data source; and for interactive use with their own pupils. CDs and websites can be used within a class-room based programme, or as part of a distance-learning programme. Typically, they can be used in both initial and in-service training.

Detailed recommendation Project funding needs to be provided to enable consortia to develop further packages of materials for initial and in-service training. The terms of funding should specify the particular components of training to be addressed, and ought to ensure that the finished product and the process of producing it embody the European values of diversity and mutual understanding. Agency DG Education and Culture should build projects in this area into future Lingua actions. There may also be scope for linking to the Sixth Framework. 249

Professional profile of the European Language Teacher This professional profile summarises the key components in the training of language teachers, as identified in this study. It encapsulates examples of good practice and the aims and objectives toward which training should be directed. Taken as a whole, it represents a composite profile of the ideal twenty-first century language teacher in Europe, and of the training that might be offered to produce such a teacher. The profile is therefore a synopsis of the areas that should be addressed in the European benchmark, recommended in this study, and sets a standard against which actual teachers and training might be compared. Some of the items are already widespread practice, while others will be more difficult to achieve. The training of teachers requires an enabling context of organisational infrastructure, and the profile therefore refers to features of an infrastructure that would ideally support and accredit the teacher. The profile is expressed in two complementary versions. The first provides a list of training features that need to be addressed, while the second paints an individual portrait of the European language teacher that an appropriate training programme should aim to produce. Each version is divided into four sections emphasising issues of status, values, competences and teaching approach. Needs addressed under the heading of Status, pertain to the role of the European language teacher on the European stage. Under Values, needs relating to teachers’ awareness of this role, and of their role in the language teaching classroom are outlined. Competences addresses the knowledge and skills which must be obtained by prospective language teachers during training, while needs grouped under Teaching Approach pertain to the practical application of these competencies in the classroom.

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The European Language Teacher of the twenty-first century should have access to the following elements of initial and inservice training: Status · · · · ·

·

Accreditation at European Language Teacher level; Accreditation at European Language Mentor level; Language specialists trained to teach two languages; Non-specialist integrated studies teachers (earlier years of schooling) trained in the curriculum range required for younger students, including teaching a foreign language; Semi-specialist integrated studies teachers (later years of schooling) trained in teaching a foreign language and in a curriculum discipline other than languages, for example, history, geography, music; Integrated studies teachers trained to teach their other discipline(s) through at least one foreign language.

Organisational context · · ·

A European benchmark statement for the training of language teachers; A European-level accreditation framework for initial teacher training and in-service training programmes, enabling flexible delivery of training; Access to the proposed European support network and European Resources Service for developing networking, cooperation and access to information and resources.

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Values · · · ·

· · · · · · · ·

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Training which addresses the importance of teaching foreign languages and cultures for the development of Europe as a whole; Training which addresses the importance of teaching foreign languages and cultures for the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country or area; Training which addresses the importance of teaching foreign languages and cultures for the personal development of students; Training which addresses the importance of a diversity of languages and cultures to Europe, including the range of languages present at local, regional, national and international levels; Training which emphasises a critical and enquiring approach to teaching and learning; Training which emphasises the development of independent learning strategies, which can in turn be fostered in students; Training which is provided in reflective practice and selfevaluation; Training which is provided in action research and in incorporating the findings of pedagogical research into teaching; Training which is provided in peer observation and peer review; Training which includes experience of a multicultural environment; Training which emphasises the importance of team-work in teaching; Training which emphasises the importance of collaboration and networking outside the immediate school context;

· · · ·

Training which is provided in adapting teaching approaches according to the vocational, socio-cultural and personal needs of students; Training which is provided in incorporating European citizenship into teaching content; Training in teaching basic skills; Training which emphasises the importance of social and cultural values.

Competences ·

Language competence demonstrated at an appropriate level in the Common European Framework scales: Specialist: level C1 in one foreign language, and B2 in a second; Semi-specialist: level B2 in one foreign language; Non-specialist: level B1 in one foreign language.

· · · · · · · ·

Training which includes use of European Language Portfolio for personal evaluation; Training which is provided in maintaining and enhancing personal language competence; Evidence of a period of work or study in a country or countries where the foreign language(s) taught is/are spoken as native, either before or during teacher training; Opportunity provided to teach in more than one country; Opportunity provided of working within a bilingual context; Training which includes a clear balance of theory and practice, including a framework for teaching practice; Training which includes working with a mentor and understanding the value of mentoring; In-service training provides a programme of methodological enhancement. 253

Teaching approach ·

· · · · · · · · · ·

·

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Training in learning models presented in the Common European Framework for Foreign Languages Teaching and Learning, and the European Benchmark for Language Teacher Training (proposed). Thorough training in language teaching methodology, and in methods of fostering students’ independent learning skills. Training in applying methodology flexibly to a range of contexts and learners. Critical study of the theory and practice of language teaching and learning. Training in bilingual approaches of content and language integrated learning Training in creating supportive classroom climate, and in state-of-the-art classroom techniques and activities. Critical evaluation of teaching materials and of nationally or regionally adopted curricula in terms of aim, objectives and outcomes. Training in practical application of curricula and teaching materials. Training in information and communication technology for personal planning and organisation, for professional development and for discovery of resources and information. Training in information and communication technology for pedagogical use in the classroom with learners, especially for developing independent and lifelong learning skills. Training in the application of various assessment procedures and ways of recording learners’ progress, and understanding how they compare with the assessment scales of the Common European Framework. Training in the theory and practice of internal and external quality assurance.

· ·

Participation in links with partners abroad, including visits, exchanges or ICT links. Training in developing relationships with training institutions, colleges or schools in an appropriate country.

Portrait of the European Language Teacher Status ·

· · ·

You have achieved the status of a European Language Teacher, which is recognised academically and professionally across Europe. You attained this status either by graduating from an initial teacher-training programme that is accredited to confer this status, or by completing a suitable programme of accredited in-service training. You are working towards achieving the prestigious status of European Language Mentor. If you are a language specialist, you can teach two foreign languages. If you are an integrated studies teacher, you are have specialist expertise in a curriculum discipline other than languages, for example, history, geography or music, or alternatively, you have general expertise in the curriculum range required for younger students. In either case, you can teach a foreign language, and teach your other discipline(s) through at least one foreign language.

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Organisational context ·

·

You are familiar with the European Benchmark for Training of Language Teachers, and with the accreditation and developmental work co-ordinated at European level. You understand the flexibility they offer you for your professional development. You participate in the activities of the European Support Network and regularly consult the European Resources Service for developing networking, co-operation and access to information and resources.

Values ·

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· ·

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You understand that teaching foreign languages and cultures is important for the development of Europe as a whole, as well as for the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country or area in which you are teaching, and for the personal development of your students. You also understand the importance of non-European languages and cultures to Europe, and appreciate the added diversity they bring. You have a critical and enquiring approach to teaching and learning, which involves self-evaluation, peer observation and review, action research and applying the findings of pedagogical research to your own teaching. You are an enthusiastic and independent learner, and are able to foster the same strategies for learning in your students. You are comfortable working in a multicultural environment, see teaching as a team-work activity, and recognise the importance of collaboration and networking outside your own school context.

·

You can adapt your teaching according to the vocational, socio-cultural and personal needs of your students. You incorporate European citizenship into your teaching content, and you work to promote basic skills, as well as social and cultural values through your teaching.

Competences ·

·

·

·

If you are a language specialist, you are competent at least to level C1 in one foreign language, and level B1 in another. If you are a semi-specialist teacher, you are competent at least to level B2 in a foreign language. If you are a non-specialist you are competent at least to level B1 in a foreign language. You have a European Language Portfolio to demonstrate this. You have a personal programme of maintaining and enhancing your language competence. You have undertaken a period of work or study in countries where the foreign language(s) you teach is/are spoken as native. You have taught in more than one country, and you are comfortable working within a bilingual context where necessary. You have undertaken teacher training with a clear balance of theory and practice, including a framework for teaching practice. You have worked with a mentor and you recognise that you may in due course have the opportunity act as a mentor yourself. You have an ongoing programme of methodological enhancement, and undertake in-service training that is accredited and recognised at a European level.

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Teaching approach ·

· ·

·

·

· ·

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You are aware of the range of learning models presented in the Common European Framework for Foreign Languages Teaching and Learning, and the European Benchmark for Language Teacher Training (proposed). You have a flexible and insightful view of language teaching methodology to suit a range of contexts and learners. You have a clear rationale for the theory and practice of language teaching and learning. You are adept at creating a supportive classroom climate for learning, and you are up to date with thinking about classroom techniques and activities. You can evaluate teaching materials critically, and can also assess particular national curricula in terms of aim, objectives and outcomes. You are able to adapt your own practice accordingly. You are trained to use ICT for your own planning and organisation, for your professional development and for discovering resources and information. You use ICT regularly in the classroom with learners, and value its role in developing independent and lifelong learning skills. You have been trained in the application of various assessment procedures and ways of recording learners’ progress. You understand, broadly, how they compare with the assessment scales of the Common European Framework. You support and contribute to internal and external quality assurance. You have several contacts abroad, on which to build partnerships for activities such as visits, exchanges or ICT links. For each of the languages you teach, you have a specific relationship with a training institution, college or school in an appropriate country.

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is a document produced by the Council of Europe setting international comparable standards for language learning and evaluation. Produced in 2002 the framework describes in detail: · · ·

the competences necessary for communication the related knowledge and skills the situations and domains of communication

The framework provides clear definitions of the objectives and methods of language teaching and learning, providing a range of tools for evaluating the proficiency of language learners. The framework is a key reference document for all members of the language teaching community and a useful resource for those involved in language testing. It should be read by all prospective language teachers. A synopsis of the Framework, and links to the full text may be found on the Council of Europe website: www.coe.int.

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Conclusion

Language teacher training is a real source of strength for Europe. It could be an even greater asset in the future. The information collected and analysed here demonstrates that, across the member and candidate states, language teacher training is a successful and valuable resource for education. The quality and range of courses on offer is impressive. Good practice and good ideas are widespread. And there is a growing awareness of the benefits of cooperation between countries. However, language teacher training has hitherto not been sufficiently viewed as a resource for Europe as a whole. Trainers, administrators and policy makers in the thirty-two countries studied have only recently begun to act together to encourage innovation and good practice at European level. Resources are unevenly distributed. Access to information, even in the modern age of information technology, is far from universal. And there are significant barriers to our ability to learn from each other and share good practice and good ideas. A key strength of language teacher training in Europe lies in the diversity of provision available to prospective teachers. There exists a wide range of possibilities for training, and this study has identified, described and analysed many of them, noting the differences in the context, content, structure and organisation of courses available across the continent. We have pointed to many elements of good practice, and given detailed analysis of a small sample of specific initiatives. From these models and examples, we have identified needs and made recommendations on how good practice could and should be extended. In particular, we have shown how it might be possible to develop the profile of a future community of European language teachers.

A wealth of initiative, ideas, resources and knowledge is currently scattered across the continent. As networks of practitioners and researchers work to pool these resources, information and support needs to be provided at European level to maximise the success of their efforts. Good practice and innovation require collaboration, across all sectors of education, if the most productive models of training are to be widely taken up. Ultimately, it is only through working together, with the support of policy makers and decision makers at national and European level, that the language teacher trainers of today will be able to mobilise Europe’s existing base of knowledge and skill in forming the language teaching community of tomorrow. There is a key role for decision makers in ensuring the success of Europe’s language teaching future, through the provision of infrastructure and support. Nonetheless, the main responsibility will remain with teachers and teacher trainers, working in the field. As our case studies show, much good practice stems from the initiative, energy, common sense and enthusiasm of individual trainers and course developers. While impressive collaborative schemes operate in many of the larger or wealthier states, excellent ideas are being put into practice right across the continent. Some of the most striking successes are due to the efforts of teacher trainers implementing successful new programmes in countries where resources are severely limited. Similarly, some of the most striking innovations have emerged from contexts in which language teaching is less favourably situated in the social environment. In the final analysis, the future of language teacher training in Europe will depend on concerted action by all of those involved or interested in it. That will include individual teacher trainers and researchers working in a range of contexts and conditions, decision makers in institutional and national administrations, and policy makers at national and European levels. Language competence affects us all, and the training of our language teachers is a vital 262

contribution to the kind of Europe that will emerge. The European language teacher is an idea that needs to be carefully nurtured and developed. If this is achieved, successive generations of European language teachers could prove to be a powerful force in helping to create bonds of friendship and mutual support between European countries and with the wider world, while at the same time promoting the linguistic and cultural diversity that is so fundamental to the European identity.

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Appendix Methodology

The following outline of the methodology used during the study was written, by researcher Angela Gallagher-Brett, at the time the research was conducted. It is included here as a resource for other researchers, particularly those wishing to undertake similar largescale surveys. The documents produced by project on behalf of DG Education and Culture may be consulted in full on the Europa website. Table 5: Countries studied EU

EFTA/EEA

Pre-accession countries

Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden UK

Iceland Liechtenstein Norway Switzerland

Bulgaria Czech Republic Croatia Cyprus Estonia Latvia Lithuania Hungary Malta Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia

Table 6: Stages of research Stage Collection of data on language teacher education in thirty-two countries. Analysis of data to identify examples of good practice and innovation. Verification of data recorded in National Reports. Development of an overview of language teacher education in Europe. Identification of training needs. Identification of activities meriting case studies. Collection of data for case studies. Analysis of case study data to exemplify good practice/innovation and to recommend how good practice might be extended. Verification of case studies Collation of information for final report.

Consultation with ten independent experts about Synthesis Report, Professional Profile and Recommendations. Completion of draft final report Study of the draft final report by DGEAC, with detailed comments for revision. Reworking and revision by project directors.

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Reports Produced

National Reports

Synthesis Report Needs Analysis

Case Studies Recommendations Professional Profile of the European Language Teacher Draft Final Report

Final Report

The study adopted an iterative method of working. It proceeded by collecting and verifying data, analysing it to identify issues and good practices, further data collection and further analysis. This iterative process enabled the study to draw out and substantiate recommendations for possible future action. The structure of the research is summarised in Table 6 above.

Design of templates In the first stage, a template was constructed to include all major elements to be studied. The template was then used as a classifying framework to tabulate data collected from thirty-two European countries. Data sources included: · · · · · · · · ·

Ministries of Education; Eurydice and Eurybase (national reports); European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz; Higher Education institutions; Cultural organisations; UNESCO; Teacher Associations; Personal contacts; TNP 2 national reports.

Web-based materials, printed publications and direct personal contact were used.

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Compilation of National Reports Data collected was used to construct a national report for each of the thirty-two European countries included in the study (listed in Table 5). Following a common structure, each report gives a brief overview of national policy on teacher education, and provides detail of particular characteristics, developments, and trends with respect to foreign language teacher training. The reports represent the main evidence base to the study. Wherever possible, these reports were verified by relevant professional experts in each of the countries. This was achieved for twenty-four out of the thirtytwo countries included.

Identifying good practice The national reports, and the data from which they were compiled, were scrutinised for examples of good practice and innovation. The criteria used to define good practice and innovation were based on evidence that the practices concerned had been implemented in at least one case, and that they appeared to be leading, or to be capable of leading, to improvements in language teacher training. Particular attention was given to aspects identified in the remit provided by the European Commission: · · · · 268

Tailoring of pedagogy to the needs of particular groups of language learners; Greater emphasis on communicative aspects of language learning; Introduction of intercultural dimensions; Bilingual and multilingual education approaches;

· · · · ·

Use of new technologies, and of autonomous, open or distance learning approaches in teacher training, as well as training in their use; Use of mentoring systems in teacher training, and the training of mentors who are not themselves teacher trainers; Increased focus on school-centred initial teacher training; Europeanisation and internationalisation of teacher training programmes; Improving the competence of teachers in the foreign language and culture they teach.

Synthesising recent developments By an iterative process involving both qualitative judgement and quantitative assessment, it was possible to establish a list of recent developments and changes in the training of foreign language teachers in Europe. The outcome of this process was summarised in a synthesis report, giving an overview, together with exemplification, of the context and main phases of training–initial training for primary and secondary, and continuing or in-service education. An overview of educational contexts is presented in Chapter 1 and the synthesis of training provision forms Chapter 2 of this book.

Selecting detailed case studies A series of case studies was identified for more detailed analysis to highlight significant trends, innovations or examples of good practice. Out of an initial list of twenty-five possible cases, fifteen 269

were eventually selected to constitute the main corpus of the studies. The selection was carried out on both theoretical and practical criteria. Particular cases were required to be innovative or successful. In addition, it was necessary to ensure that the group of cases included a range of national contexts, different types of institution, different languages, and different learner groups. In the main, the size of the case was less important than the dimensions of interest it offered. A detailed analysis of each of the case studies is presented in Chapter 3. Initial data was collected from printed and web-based sources. In most cases (thirteen out of fifteen), this was followed up with a visit by one of the research team to the local site in order to interview those concerned and see the element operating at first hand. The data collected in these ways was analysed according to a common template, which mapped on to the national reports. Each case study adopts a common reporting structure: · · · · · ·

Thematic summary; Similar initiatives; Detailed description of the case; Analysis of the innovation and good practice exemplified; Problems and issues; Recommendations on how the practice can be extended to other countries.

By adopting this format, it was possible to offer exemplification and evidence, an evaluation of its potential, and sources for further study. Verification of the case studies was undertaken by returning the final reports to those involved in the local sites for checking and correcting.

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Identifying key issues It was then possible to develop a picture of the teacher training of foreign language teachers in Europe by identifying the salient issues in training and the way individual countries and/or institutions were responding to them. Again, this involved quailtative judgements (to what extent an individual site context was considered to be successful) and quantitative judgement (how extensive was a particular activity). These issues pertained to three essential aspects of training: Organisation, Content and Structure. Using the evidence from the national reports and case studies, a needs analysis was undertaken, which is presented in Chapter 4. This analysis then led to the formulation of recommendations.

Weighing the evidence Evidence in this report is of two basic types: factual and evaluative. As far as possible, all factual items have been checked. Expert consultants were employed at the end of the project to verify facts as well as comment on the interpretation of findings. In respect of evaluative evidence, in such a large-scale project involving a wide range of data collection, it is clearly not possible to offer evidence for each item of the report. In the national reports, the aim is to give a balanced account of the existing practices, identifying the potential strengths displayed in particular areas. In all cases, the particular idea or development behind the innovation was considered worthy of note, even if a full evaluation of its success was not possible within the scope of the project. In the fifteen case studies, the potential for a particular innovation or good practice example is examined in substantial detail, together with possible 271

shortcomings and problems. A judgement was made, however, that each case was at least achieving positive results for it to be included. Conversely, of the twenty-five cases initially identified for detailed study, a small number were discarded on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence of positive results.

Developing recommendations The recommendations were developed as part of an iterative process throughout the project. The elements feeding into to their formulation included: the expertise of the team, the data collected and analysed, the evidence found, the qualitative and quantitative judgements made, the comments of experts consulted, an in-depth analysis of aspects of organisation, structure and content of training arising from the case studies, and the needs analysis. It was necessary to develop a comprehensive but also coherent picture of the present situation, trends and needs. At the same time, it was necessary to acknowledge the range of individual national contexts, which necessitated flexibility. Consequently, the recommendations primarily address areas where it seems possible that action or agreement at a European level may be beneficial. Each of the recommendations includes a detailed evaluative argument as to why the action is proposed, and identifies the specific case studies which are relevant to it. An outline of the preliminary findings and likely recommendations was presented for discussion at a workshop of the Thematic Network in languages, meeting in Bled (Slovenia) in May 2002. A first draft of the recommendations was submitted for comment to a panel of 10 experts in different European countries. One of the key recommendations proposes that the status of qualified European Language Teacher should be introduced. This 272

is linked to the recommendation that a European Benchmark should be developed for language teacher training. An important element in this Benchmark would be a Professional Profile of the European Language Teacher. An exemplification (or checklist) is offered of what such a Professional Profile might include. It is printed as an annex to the recommendations, and serves to summarise most of the features that have been identified in the analysis and recommendations.

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