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The Empire of Things
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\ School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series
Douglas W. Schwartz General...
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The Empire of Things
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\ School of American Research Advanced Seminar Series
Douglas W. Schwartz General Editor
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Contributors
Annie E. Coombes Department of History ofArt, Birbeck College, University of London
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Webb Keane Depmtment ofAnthropology, University of Michigan Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett Department ofPerformance Studies, New York University Claudio Lomnitz Department of History, University of Chicago Daniel Miller Department ofAnthropology, University College-London
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Fred R. Myers Department ofAnthropology, New York University Christopher B. Steiner Department ofArt History and Museum Studies, Connecticut College Nicholas Thomas Department of Anthropology Goldsmith College, University of London Annette B. Weiner Department ofAnthropology, New York University
1
The Empire of Things Regimes of Value and Material Culture
To the memory ofAnnette Weiner,
Edited by Fred R. Myers
an inspiring friend and colleag;ue
School of American Research Press Santa Fe
James Currey Oxford
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FRED
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MYERS
INTRODUCTION
discussions in anthropology (see Keane 1997: chs. 1, 3, and 8). The second r the lineage into which this dead person had been born, as a way of ~aintaining that relation- . ship beyond the life of this person. And that's what gave me the sense of something bigger going on than just an individual. A lot is at stake for a lineage every time someone dies, focus can center on that lineage, and so again the fear of sorcery, since most people are thought to have died through sorcery-as an attack on the lineage to weaken it. The more powerful a lineage is, the more fear is generated by a death. Some of the genealogies I collected, you just see this line of women who died and people said, "Don't talk about that to anyone because somebody was after that lineage." So that again, this corruption, this magic that corrupts, enters into the system of exchange and creates real terror. By this other lineage carrying this dead person, they're going to get paid back a lot, again and again throughout any number of years that there are exchanges that take place. Sometimes these exchanges take ten years after a person dies. BKG: You carry this person around for a number of years, then what happens? AW: Then you're paid back a lot in the women's distribution of skirts and bundles, and then the next year, maybe if the lineage is strong, they will hold another exchange which is all taI"O. So you'll get a lot of that. And the next year when they hold an exchange, it's all yams. And the next year, they may hold an exchange that's all fish or pigs.
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A CONVERSATION WITH ANNETTE WEINER
And so you're a prominent receiver in these exchanges that are all to commemorate the loss. BKG: What happens to the stuff you're carrying around? AW: The bones? They are kept for a very long time and then they will be buried where the person is buried. BKG: What's interesting is when I think about the goods, whatever, of a person who has died- [I think of them as being] inherited or they are discarded. But this protocol, it doesn't sound either like inheritance nor is it discarded. AW: Some things are inherited that have some value. Earrings are made of these special shells, or a kula shell can be carried, something like that certainly could be inherited, but sometimes they're hung on a little fence around the grave of the dead person after the other person no longer has to carry it. That's just the visual imagery of how the systemworked. FM: It's also exchange's extension. These bones are given as an extension of a series of exchanges. AW: And in the hope that at some later time, maybe before this time period is over, there will be another marriage with the same group. Also there are exchanges of yams that are always going from an external group to an internal group, and those sometimes may be reconstituted. So there's a lot at stake in the sort of normal everyday series of exchanges. In the Trobriands, you want to spread out but not too much. That's another thing in terms of kinship. It's how far you are able to spread and how much you need to recoup. !fyou don't have too much it's more dangerous and more threatening in a sense, to spread out far, to marry far away or something like that. This may be because it's an island as opposed to Australia where people are walking in space. But I think when you've got some stuff in the system-stuff being objects-and some hierarchy in the system, then it's even more dangerous, how far you go. FM: Well, if you have a lot of things, you can create more relationships than you can with people alone. If you think of marriage as an elementary form of being related to people, then having objects circulate, you can potentially create more multiple kinds ofrelationships. Gradations of the Materiality of Exchange BKG: When we focus our conversation on exchange of material
MYERS AND KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT
objects, then I think to myself: well, what about exchanges that involve consumption-when whatever happens, the stuff disappears, it's used up? FM: But there is a model. One of the models is, it is exchange. When you're feeding people it is often conceptualized as exchange and the consequence of that is a person, or growth or something. AW: It comes back later. BKG: What's interesting is that there's something about the durability or the consistent material presence of objects as opposed to soft areas that involve renewal. Did we talk about this the first time? That food is so interesting because it is material, but its materiality is that it's perishable, it has to be consumed, hence it has to be renewed over and over again. So the over-and-over-again aspect-it's not denying that it's material, it is absolutely, but we've been talking about bones as at one end of the durable. Bones and stones and shell}; , are very durable, and then there are all these others which are more in that category ... ofperishable, soft, to be consumed, not consumed like consumption consumed but ... AW: We did talk about this, but not quite in this way. What we talked about earlier was the variation even in consumables: taro, you cut off the tops and plant [them]; there's a difference between giving a raw pig-a live pig-and pig meat, pork. A big difference in those exchanges. Also the care and feeding of a pig, the responsibility to feed it and grow it up. So all of these natural variations are played on, and they enhance and expand it. What Fred was mentioning just before, often what's consumed, what actually is consumed finally, has a big debt that's outstanding, that may only come back when somebody dies. It may be many years before that debt is actually repaid. In the Trobriands, for the father, everybody says, "Oh, that man gave me food when I was small, got firewood, caught fish." Malinowski recorded that. But what does he get back for having done that? When a person dies, [his lineage] will get the most back from the banana leaves and skirts and so forth. BKG: It reminds me, it may not be an appropriate analogy, but of futures. There's all this speculation for objects that are on the commodities market. Expected to speculate, the stuff changes hands .... What eventually happens is eventually X tons of grain arrive some-
3 06
A CONVERSATION WITH ANNETTE WEINER
where, and that grain is five years out or ten years out, whatever it is, but there's this element of very long trajectories that involve careful bookkeeping, that are monitored ... that require deferral or patience in letting them ... AW: There are things in between, of course, that have to do with yam exchanges and that sort of thing as well, but it was long term, and they're always watching what people are doing. Are they making a big enough garden, are they really sincere in this garden? So there's total accountability, strategy going on all the time. I think it's interesting; there's very little made of a marriage [in the Trobriands]. There are no formal big-time marriage exchanges, as you find elsewhere, but the bride and groom eat together and they eat publicly, which means that they are manied. That's the signal, that they've eaten half a yam, they've shared a yam between them. So somehow this food, ingested, combines the biological with what's necessary in the social framework of the exchange. You've Wlitten a lot about this, Fred, in terms of "nurturing" and "growing up" and how all that's deeply connected to kinship. FM: I used that paper you had on replacement [Weiner 1980], of separating out different kinds of exchange: one that I saw as really about producing people. Exchanges tend to be considered largely between equals, between people who are giving these objects, rather than conceiving of the whole of social life as a system built around giving and receiving. But the temporalities of that would be different. Some parts of that were focused on what Annette called "replacement," which was replacing yourself: investing your identity through activity in others. What does it mean to give somebody your identity, so that identity is a representation of a relationship produced in exchange? But the other part of what I was going to ask you-because this leads to the other end of it-is about the social density of objects in which they can in some way summarize or stand for so much. This is where a lot of people have been interested in using the "inalienable" to stand somehow for objects that are beyond commoditization in that they are not easily exchangeable because they're so dense with meanings. AW: In a paper I wrote [Weiner 1994], I tried to expand the notion of density. It waS after my book [Inalien,able Possessions] had come out, so I tried to lay it out a little more clearly, unencumbered by kinship and the South Pacific. My vision was the weightiness of objects, that they
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MYERS AND KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT
A CONVERSATION WITH ANNETTE WEINER
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gained heaviness-[exemplified in] the notion that chiefs don't walk far. There's a sense that chiefs shouldn't talk. This is in many places in the Pacific. FM: They draw things to them. Properties of Objectifications AW: They [chiefs] have somebody who talksjorthem. Objects take on this kind of density that relates to who owned it before, its history. It starts out with how well it's moved. The first level is always the aesthetics of it, the beauty of the object itself. Because I think you can't disguise that, in the sense of a fine mat. They all might look the same to us but actually there are these differentiations. So the really finest ones are always the ones you rank the highest. And then as those very fine mats continue to circulate, then they get attached to people who will keep them. So that all of those things allow certain o1;Jjects to rise, to separate themselves out from the whole category of o~ects that may not be as fine, that may not have been owned by the most important people. That's what I call "density." That density sticks to the object. I guess it separates itself, if ever, when it's in a different system. And then it does it. You don't have to ask, because then you think ofJacqueline Kennedy's auction block, and the prices that were paid for these things because she had held them and owned them, beyond what Sotheby's thought. And the same thing with the duchess of Windsor's auction of her things. BKG: There are two themes here. One has to do with the way the person attaches to the thing, which is another theme but a very important one. This is coupled with the very particular phenomenon of "celebrity." The "celebrity" is a particular category of person, different from other ways in which a person will be important and will be attached to her thing. Although I imagine chiefs have celebrityAW: Of course, we're so conscious of celebrity because it's in our time right now; they're the highest ranking people around. They're world figures. But that's why I juxtaposed Jackie Kennedy and the duchess of Windsor. I was also thinking of Andy Warhol's auction, but I thought those other two were better compared. I'm not so sure. I think the major difference is that celebrityship can't be inherited. It's not like being queen of England. You don't really pass it on.
BKG: Or you do pass it on, but it weakens with each transition ... The thing with celebrity is that historically in the US it emerges at the second half of the nineteenth century. People become famous for being famous, rather than famous for. .. AW:-occupying a particular role that's been legitimized in some way. Maybe that is an emulation of royalty. We never had royalty in this country, but there is something about royalty that is very dramatic and dynamic. Why does England still have this queen? They keep arguing over whether they need this queen or not. And the amount of money that's taken from the British to support thi1> monarchy. FM: I actually see this differently .... There's a sense in which hierarchy is always potentiated in the presence of objects. Even in a commodity market where all these are mass produced to some extent, what's at work is the possibility of differentiation. And hierarchy is predicated on the possibility of differentiation, which is there. You've written about this, Annette, and Bill Mitchell [Annette's husband] has written about this: that equality is maintained through work. Equality is not intrinsic. It is not the beginning state, but it is itself maintained through the management of, the continued work to reproduce, equivalence. And there's always the possibility in any exchange of hierarchy or differentiation. This is a perfectly good example. It is a mistake to see inalienability as the equivalent of the gift in opposition to the commodity, because commodities can easily avail themselves of this kind of possibility of hierarchicalization and exclusion. So it seems to me that the issue of the inalienable and the issue of density are linked but they're not isomorphic. They're not the same thing. In academic discourse, there's a kind of renunciation of anybody pursuing celebrity things, because it's not seen to be real value. But in fact there is an interest that people have to find some measure in the object world of something that is differentiated by whoever owned it and therefore can express yourself -can stand for the possibility of your connection to it, your distinctiveness. People and Things BKG: The parents and the jawbone ... comparing how they walk around for months carrying these personal effects with the public
MYERS AND KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT
auction of personal effects? It's precisely how totally alienable objects of incalculable value are. There's something about that, that their value calculated in money is astronomical beyond all belief and they are totally alienable for whatever reason, arcane ... That's what to me is so totally puzzling, and what distinguishes it from the other examples. AW: That's true, I have to think about that. It is a big difference. FM: "Elementary cycling" actually leads to that. The model of it was [that objects are] always increasingly alienated from the individual's life cycle. But the identity that's produced in these objects is reconsumed or reproduced in people who are like that person. And when you get to the state [where] you have these heirlooms, the property, the taonga and whatever,6 that only some people get-there's a kind of siphoning of value up to them that doesn't actually return except in a kind of reflected way. It is more alienated from it. BKG: You can't imagine the crown jewc;tls would have the same fate as Jackie Onassis's stuff, which is a measu;e of how weak she was. Her stuff couldn't be kept off the auction block. AW: Well, in terms of royalty-there are jewels that the queen has that can never be given to someone as a gift, they cannot be alienated from the monarchy. They do not really belong to the queen. She wears them as a result of her being the queen, but they go back into the treasury of the British monarchy. There are people who guard those things. In the duchess of Windsor's auction, there were certain pieces of jewelry that were part of that category, those inalienable jewels, that were sold at auction. The duke of Windsor had given them to the duchess as a gift. He didn't have the right to do that at all, but he had access to them and he gave them away. There's always the possibility for draining things away. I'm still preoccupied by the question you raised, Barbara. Because it's true, all of these things I've been using as examples are attached to some kind of identity, social identity. They are not just anybody's bones; they are the bones of certain people. The issue you raised is when part of what has created that density is removed. Another set of situations hurriedly comes in to almost patch that part up. BKG: Who gets the proceeds? Is that part of the estate? Is it really what happens with heirs to the state? AW: Oh, definitely. It is why-when somebody dies in this country
3 10
A CONVERSATION WITH ANNETTE WEINER
who owns a lot of artwork-the taxes would be so great on that person's estate. If they own really substantial artwork, or if they're just wealthy, they will have to put the art (or most of it or some of it) on the market, on the auction block, because they need the money to pay the inheritance tax. BKG: So what happens is that the auction is a way to generate revenue to pay the taxes on the estate, so that the economics of the estate actually precipitate some of these decisions that can appear to seem only in terms ofthe auction itself as bizarre. FM: But it's also because these objects are insignificant, or many of them are. Jackie's children don't care if they have her lighter. They have the critical things. The principles at work are the principles through which objects get to be identified or associated with people. But they're not part of a project of social reproduction, except they are converted to money, which is part of it. But they can't embody these identities through time in the same way. The crown jewels can, but these objects, while they're valuable, don't have that kind of identity. BKG: They belong to a category ... "collectibles." And collectibles have to do with all the things you're talking about: they have to do with density, with differentiation, etc., and I think your point is really well taken. But in this case, mass-produced objects, objects that in their initial incarnation have nothing to distinguish them from hundreds of thousands of others that look exactly like them, come through their social life to be quite differentiated, quite distinguished. And certain marks of distinction make them more or less eligible for the category of collectible, and value gets calculated accordingly. FM: You know where they end up. I think it's the nation in the end, or the state, because it's these museums ... the only place that they can go from individuals. They have to build something that will endure. They create their own wing. They collect these things and then they give it to the Met. So I think the projects we see in these smaller-scale societies-in which people's individual identities get linked to a social project-have to link now possibly to the state or some kind of organizational entity that will endure through time. Even though the Met swore it wasn't going to keep giving personal wings, that policy only lasted fifteen years. BKG: So in a way what's interesting is that the auction by the estate
A CONVERSATION WITH ANNETTE WEINER
MYERS AND KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT
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is a way in which the estate gets dispersed, becomes part of other collections. And those collections, if they don't make their way into a storehouse-a treasure house basically, a public treasure house, which starts to move it into the state idea-they actually come up on the auction block and get dispersed again .. .InJackie's case, it wasn't her collection; it was her personal effects. So it had that coherence. It got dispersed, but the moment it gets dispersed, it goes into collections because when those collections get dispersed, and items circulate through that way, unless someone has the power to take an intact collection and transmit it as such to an institution who will accept it as a collection, it goes. AW: Thinkingjust about art, you have collectors who hope to make a collection and give this collection to a museum. So there will be collectors who have that ability, and also have advisers. They are willing to learn, and it becomes a sort of life occupation. What will be interesting, and maybe this is the problem with the Jackie }(ennedy example, is that we won't really know into the future what will 'happen with those things that people bought. Where will they go? What will happen to them? Will someone in the very distant future find them in an antique store, a flea market, this cheap set of pearls that went for thousands of dollars? Because it's again the guardianship. Who takes care of it? I think maybe that has to be said about these things. Sometimes I talk about objects as if they're just moving around by themselves. Because we tend to just talk about these movements and you drop the people out because you're explaining how these things work. But I think that maybe in addition to density, there is this deep significance of guardianship-of caring for objects, of the human contact-in addition to ownership. This is beyond ownership. FM: Stewardship, in a way. AW: People who carry the body, that's their work. That's all they do. And so, without that, where do these things go? For example, I look around this apartment and I think, "Now, well where will they go?" Because there's nothing excruciatingly valuable. I didn't go into being a collector.
On 7 December 1997, Annette passed away. A few days later, her husband, Bill Mitchell, brought over her Trobriand grass skirt, which
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she left to Fred's daughter Samantha, a goddaughter. She left her kula valuables to Fred. Notes 1. Weiner wrote a paper incorporating these concerns, titled "Sticks and Stones, Thread and Bones: What Kinship Is Made Of." It was presented at a conference on "Feminism and Kinship Theory" sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation in Bellagio, Italy, in August 1982, but was never published. 2. Renne was a Ph.D. student supervised by Weiner, working on cloth in Nigeria. 3. Chwinga is a term for a sacred object in the Arrernte language of central
Australia. 4. This was "Sticks and Stones, Threads and Bones: What Kinship Is Made Of' (Weiner 1982). 5. This perspective has an obvious relationship to Daniel Miller's chapter in this volume.
6. Taonga are a class of Maori valuables that Annette considered in several articles and in Inalienable Possessions.
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34 0
Abad y Queipo, Manuel, 122 Aboriginal Arts and Crafts Propriety, 180-84 Aboriginal Arts Australia, 188, 194-95 Aboriginal Arts Board, 176, 178-80 Aborigines and Aboriginal art: acculturation and, 186; alienables and, 262; appropriation and, 25, 143, 145-50, 161; art categories, 185-87; art centers, 171; artists' expectations, 172, 174-75,198; art's success, 165-69, 184-94, 203n3; autonomy, 179, 260; critics, 191-92; fine art, 167, 194, 200-202, 260; galleries and, 186-87, 195,200-202; governmental policies, 167,172-84; inalienables and, 11; industry's beginning, 169-72; market creation, 180-84, 185, 188-89, 192; market/cultural value distinction, 19, 44,172,174,185-87,189-94,261; money and, 174-75; objectification and, 23-24, 27; payment in cars, 25, 202; Preston and, 143, 148; quality of work, 197, 201-2; recent developments, 194-203; recontextualization and, 56; self-identity, 45; tjurunga, 24-25,94; work concepts, 173-74 abstraction of money, 77-79, 101 "acceptable" and "unacceptable" looting, 242
accountability in exchange, 307 acculturation, art classifications and, 186 Adorno, TheodorW., 238,249,255n4 affection or affectivity. See love and emotions Africa: The Art of a Continent exhibition, 233-36,238-49,253-54 African Negro Art exhibition, 226-28 Mrika, Tatamkulu, 251 alienable objects: Aboriginal art as, 262; alienable/inalienable distinction, 259-61; art/artifact distinction, 260; commodities and, 18, 93, 259-61, 264, 292; money as, 97, 258; provisioning and, 113; tjurunga as, 25; Trobriand personal effects as, 310; ym·a, 81 alienation, 17, 60n7, 79-82 amputated limbs, 26, 128-29 "anthropology of art," 255n9 antisocial wealth, 80-81, 258 anxiety or discomfort, 54, 249, 254 Appadurai, AIjun, 6, 18, 55, 60n1, 60n4, 93 Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 246 appropriation: Aboriginal appropriations of European goods, 25; acknowledgmentand,45;artand,28; challenges to, 8; as continuation of history, 139, 161-62; as cultural pro-
INDEX
INDEX
duction, 42; exhibitions and, 30; inalienables and, 260; modernists and, 149, 246-47; national identity and,42-43, 139, 144, 146-50, 159-61; as neo-colonization, 160; objectification and, 43-44; recontextualization and, 18; settler artists and, 45, 139, 145-54; unstable duality of, 150 arielismo, 133-34, 136 Armory Show, 213 art: alienable/inalienable distinction, 112, 260, 293; anthropology of, 255n9; appropriation and, 28, 42-44, 139; artculture system, 10-12; autonomy of (See art's autonomy); classification and, 4,29-31,51, 60n8; contemporary/ historical distinction, 294; defensiveness of, 34, 35; dematerialization of, 266-67; fakes and replicas, 221; hierarchies of value, 34-37, 55; identity and,4, 28, 167 (See alm national art; national identities); indigenous/ modern distinction, 267; legal definitions of, 207, 219-28; looted objects, 36, 240-43; material culture study of, 27-29, 30, 263; modern doctrine of, 32-34,267; movement of pieces, 39-40; as objectification, 112; "primitivism" debate, 37-41; production of value, 263-64; purchaser's identity, 293; quantitative value, 4, 8, 12, 213, 219,265,298; redemptive value of, 7-8,37,236,238; regimes of value and, 53-58; tariffs and taxes on, 263, 294-95; totalization and, 114n6; as unstable and shifting, 8, 50, 53, 167; viewing, 49; Weiner on, 292-97. See also entries under art/artifact distinction; art/non-art distinction, etc. art advisers, 168, 171, 174-77, 182-84, 187, 188, 194-95 art/ artifact distinction: alienable objects and, 260; cultural hierarchy questions, 28; nature of problem, 10, 60n5, 261-63; performance theory and, 49; in postcolonial context, 245; shifting classifications, 11 art/commodity distinction: Aboriginal art as commodity, 11, 44, 167, 193; alienable objects and, 260; art's denial of commodity properties, 212-19;
34 2 I',I
art's noncommodity qualities, 210-11, 216, 222; at border crossings, 223; ceremonial/sold value distinction, 71; gifts and, 298; in legal definitions, 212-19; perspectives on, 263-65; phases in art's life cycle, 264; in regimes of value, 28, 31 art critics, 29, 191-92, 238-39 art galleries. See galleries and dealers artifacts, 51, 186, 187, 260. See also art/artifact distinction art/kitsch distinction, 30, 33, 34 art/non-art distinction, 222, 225 art's autonomy: art/artifact distinction, 260; asserting of, 263, 266; expropriation and, 36, 240-44; "family of man," 30, 39; institutional settings, 37; as legal argument, 216-17, 222; as mask, 249; modernism and, 217; as questionable, B, 32; "relative autonomy," 37, 253 ' art/utilitarian distinction, 7-8, 32, 227-28, 245. See also art/artifact distinction assimilation, 167, 173 auctions, 12,264, 295,298, 308,310 Australia: bureaucratic bourgeoisie, 172, 191; lack ofinterest in art, 189, 192; literary nationalists, 145-46; materialism of, 175; modernistic internationalism, 190-91; national identity and art, 56, 139, 141-50, 189-94, 193 Australian government: Aboriginal policies, 167, 169, 171, 172-74, 178-80; agencies involved in Aboriginal art, 176, 177, 180-84; cultural production and, 56; funding Aboriginal art, 57, 177-94, 181, 194; public stagings and national identity, 190 authenticity, 33, 34, 40-41, 52, 53, 195 automobiles as payment, 25, 202 autonomy: Aboriginal, 179; of art (See art's autonomy); cultural, 249, 253-54; desire for in recipients of gifts, 98 Baartman, Saargie, 252, 253 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 55 Balzac, Honore de, 107, 114n9 banana leaf bundles: equivalence and, 292; history of study, 273-77; quantitative value of, 276, 280; in Trobriand
exchange, 276, 278-79, 280-82, 304-5; yams and, 286 Bardon, Geoff, 169-71, 174-76, 183 Barra, Leon de la, 132 Barrett, Lindsay, 172, 191 Bataille, Georges, 92 Baudelaire, Charles, 33 Baxandall, Michael, 263 Beidelman, T. 0., 7, 60n2 Benin bronzes, 247-48 Benjamin, Walter, 237-38, 244, 254, 255n4 Bersani, Leo, 238 bicultural objects, 55, 186 Bil·d in Space (Brancusi), 219-28, 262 birthday gifts, 97-101 body parts, 26, 128-29. See also bones; relics bones,26,284-85,303-5,306,309-10. See also relics border crossings, 39-40, 207, 212, 213-17,219-28 border zones, 38, 209 Boshoff, Willem, 250, 251 Bourdieu, Pierre, 8, 41, 42, 54, 57, 107, 212-13 Bourke, Ace, 197-98, 201 Brancusi, Constantin, 218, 219-28, 223 brands of commodities, 109-10 Brown, Bill, 228-29 Bulnes, Francisco, 130-31 bundles of leaves. See banana leaf bundles bureaucratic bourgeoisie, 172, 191 "burned" artwork, 295 Cabrera, Luis, 124 . calculation: gift purchases, 96-97, 259, 291; social bonds and, 101; in Sumba, 72, 78 capitalism, 6, 16, 17, 84, 174-75, 260 care, in provisioning, 104 Carranza, Venus tiano, 132 carrying of Trobriand mortuary objects, 303 cars as payment, 25, 202 cash flow, in Aboriginal art business, 177,182 cash values of objects, 4, 6; Aboriginal art, 19, 169-70, 176; art/commodity distinction (See art/commodity dis-
tinction); autonomy and, 249; banana leaf bundles, 276; collectibles, 295; connoisseurs and, 296; controversy's effect on, 154, 244; cultural/economic value distinction, 6, 71, 174, 176, 184, 298; exhibitions' effect on, 265; Kant's interpretation, 66; market and, 199; materials and labor costs, 263; relationships and, 96-101; storage of in objects, 12; value as never simple, 12; wedding gifts, 96-97 categorization. See classification Catholic nationalism, 122-24, 127 celebrity, 308-9 ceremonial gifts. See gift and ceremonial exchange children's art, 148, 253 children's gifts, 97-101 Christian Sumbanese, 85-86 chul'inga, 313n3 circulation of objects. See movement of objects Cixious, Helene, 252 Clarke, Alison, 96, 114n3 class distinctions, 30, 35, 214. See also hierarchy classification: of Aboriginal art, 186-87; of art, 11, 29-31, 51, 208, 212, 229, 262; of people, 22; of relationships, 97-101; shifting categories, 9, 12, 57-58, 224; spheres of exchange and, 14; as static, 8 Clement, Elena, 293 Clifford,James: on art, 10-11,38-39; on authenticity, 53; on contact zones, 209; on contexts, 60n4; on exhibitions, 39; on predicaments of culture, 3; on rooting vs. travel, 217; on salvage paradigm, 244 cloth: African, 284, 285; bones and, 284-85, 303; Malian, 210; metaphors from, 285; minceka, 251; properties of, 283-85; Sumbanese exchange, 68, 69-70; Trobriand exchange, 275, 278-79,282,303,304-5 coins. See money "collectibles," 295, 311 collectors, 218-19, 294, 296, 312 colonial and postcolonial states: appropriation and, 42-43, 150-51, 154; art/artifact distinction, 245; displays
343
INDEX
in museums and, 8; ethnography and, 253; expropriation of art, 36, 242; forgetting, 236, 245-49; indigenous art traditions in, 139; natives and settlers as coeval, 45; postcoloniality and pIimitivism, 38; problems with categOlies of people, 56; recontextualization and, 18; redemptive value of art, 236; representations of former colonies, 233; residual colonialism, 154; settler-indigenous relations in Australia, 146 commemoration in exhibitions, 236-37 commodities: as alienables, 93, 260; art/commodity distinction (See art/ commodity distinction); brand names, 109-10; commoditization process, 59, 209, 210-11; consumption of, 95, 103, 108, 109; cultures as, 51-53; destmctive consumption, 103; emotional economy of love, 259; fads and fashions, 110; fetishism, 210; gift/commodity dichotomy (See gift/commodity distinction); as inalienables, 12, 95; objectification and, 21; range of, in North London, 109, 111-12; vs. treasures, 9; use-value and,6 commoditization: art production, 4, 181; object properties and, 210-11; as phase, 18; process of, 59, 209, 210-11; Thomas on, 17 commodity economies, 16-17. See also capitalism competition, 97, 201 connoisseurs, 191-92, 194-203,213,296 consumption of commodities, 95, 103, 108,109 contact zones, 209 contexts: art/artifact distinction, 10, 29 (See also art/artifact distinction); inalienability and, 11; recontextualization, 18; regimes of value and, 55; reorganization of context, 23 cooked food, 277, 286, 306 Coombes, Annie, 36, 37, 233, 261, 262-63 co-presence of indigenous people, 45 corporate logos, 110, 161 corruption: corrosive agents in culture, 67,75; of free market, 301-2; money
344
INDEX
and Aboriginal artists, 174-75; of primitive art, 244; sorcery as, 301; in translation, 244; Weiner on, 288 cosmopolitanism, 29-30, 134, 137 countIies. See governments; national identities Crocker, Andrew, 187 cultural autonomy, 249, 253-54 "cultural biography of tllings," 209-10, 211 "cultural capital," 8, 213 cultural/economic value distinction, 174,176,184 cultural production ("culture making"), 53,56,57,58,60,167-68,193 cultural renewal, 167, 185 cultural value. See qualitative value cultures, commodification of, 51-53 curatorship, 191-92,253 currency, 1/1, 219, 274, 280, 282 cycles in a~t's life, 264 cycles in exchange, 13
Dfaz, Porfirio, 135 difference: acceptance of, 43; circulation of objects and, 55; embodiments of, 22; exhibitions and, 39; hierarchy and, 309; inalienables as defining, 12; indicators of, 4; primitive otherness and, 34; qualitative value and, 6; suppression of, 39; threat of, 38 dirty money, 284 "disinterestedness," 244-45, 264 dispersal of collections, 218-19, 312 displacement, 212, 237, 245-49, 254 display practices in museums, 47-51 domestic arena of gifts, 93 domestic arts, 142-45 Douglas, Mary, 54, 107,284 Dreaming, 172 duchess of Windsor's auction, 298, 310 "durable" objects, 14, 22, 277-78, 306 Durkheim, Emile, 288 duties, 213-17,220 Duveen,joseph,296
Dala, 280, 283
"Earmarking" money, 89nlO economics: Aboriginal art and, 174, 176, 177-84, 184; ceremonial exchange's effect on development, 67; cultural production and, 167-68; "economic capital," 8; in Sumba, 84 Edwards, Robert, 176-77, 178-80 effortand,vork, 74, 75, 78, 102,298 "elementary cycling," 302-3, 310 embahned body of Victoria, 129 embodiment: of difference, 22; exhibitions and, 237; of indigenous, 130-33; of national sovereignty, 119-20, 265-69 emic transformations, 210 emotional contexts. See love and emotions "entangled objects," 208 enterprises, 177, 182, 184, 185 equality before law in national sovereignty,120 equivalence: banana leaf bundles and, 283; gifts and, 98; imposition of, 7; inalienable objects and, 112-13; management of, 14-15, 104, 292, 309; Weiner's perspective on, 13 ethnography: as creating autonomy for objects, 253-54; "ethnography of dis-
Davies, Arthur B., 213, 218 dealers. See galleIies and dealers deatll: banana leaf bundles and, 274; carrying mortuary objects, 303; continuance of social life after, 304; dead insurgents, 129, 138n5; dead presidents, 127-30; inheIitance taxes, 294-95,310-12; repayment of rei atives, 280-81 decision-making in shopping, 105-6 decontextualization of objects, 234, 267 decorative arts, 141 defensiveness of art, 35, 39 deficient products, treasuring of, 58 dematerialization, 86, 266-67 "dense" meanings: exchange and, 307-8; former owners and, 291; inalienability and, 309; named places and, 24; objects and, 5-6; treasures, 9; Weiner on,289-90 De Saussure, Ferdinand, 22, 73 desires, 46-47, 79, 80-81, 102, 211 destabilization. See instability and shift deterritoIialization of objects, 211-12 DeVault, Marjorie, 102 devotion, 95, 104, 112. See also love and emotions
placement," 212; personal focus in, 300; reductionism, 299-300; as "social pornography," 49-50 etic transformations, 210 exchanges. See gift and ceremonial exchange exchange theory: categoIies of value, 7-8; as cultural criticism, 16; cycles of exchange, 13; history of, 5-6; HomeIic exchange, 7; objects and, 277; ranges of exchange, 17; reevaluating, 3, 257, 291; translation and, 237-38; use-value, 6-7; Weiner on, 12-15 exhibitions: authenticity and, 40--41; autonomy and, 37; commemoration and forgetting, 236-37, 245-49; as cultural production, 41, 42; difference and, 39; "exhibitionary complex," 48; family of man theme, 41; framing and display practices, 47-51; metropolitan identity and, 233; misrepresentation of societies, 16; power of, 30, 38, 265; promoting objects to art status, 50, 262-63; recontextualization and, 18; as translation, 237-38, 254 expressionless leaders, 132 expropIiation of objects, 36 exteriorization in Sumbanese exchange, 75 Fads, 110 fakes and art replicas, 221 "family of man" theme, 30, 39, 41 family relationships. See relationships Fannin, Peter, 175, 183 fashions, 110 feminism, 104 fetishism, 130-33, 210 fields of force, 58 Findlay, Bronwen, 251, 252 fine art: as commodity, 35, 166; definitions of, 208; in gallery context, 196-97; indigenous art as, 11, 20, 43, 194, 195; judgment and, 36; knowledge and, 195; movement between contexts, 10, 12, 29; utilitaIian objects and,228 fine mats in Samoa, 279, 282, 292 flower artworks of Preston, 141-45
345
INDEX food, as exchange, 277, 286, 306 forgeries, 44 forgetting, exhibitions as, 236, 245-49 formality of exchange events, 73-74, 83, 258 former owners of objects, 291 framing, 47-51, 49, 196-97 France, modernization and, 32-33 free market, 301-2 Freud, Sigmund, 249, 252-53 Fried, Michael, 266 funding for art and exhibitions, 57, 176-84,194,239 fusion in appropriation, 149 futures market, 306-7 Galleries and dealers: Aboriginal art and, 186-87, 195-203; classification of art and, 29; collectors and, 294; competition among, 197; role in market, 192; value production and, 296 gaze, primitivizing, 42, 53 Gell, Alfred, 92-93 George, Ken, 53 gift and ceremonial exchange: burdens and, 71; calculation in, 259, 291; Christmas, 93-94; cloth in, 284; commoditization of, 259; competitive giving, 97; definitions, 114n1, 287; dense objects and, 307-8; economics and, 67; exchange theory, 5-6; formality of, 73-74, 83, 258; gift/market distinction, 6; gift/money distinction, 67, 68, 258; inalienable gifts, 93; kula, 280; meanings in, 287; money in, 68, 98, 258; power and, 113; reciprocity, 285-90; sacrifice as, 266; services and performance as, 266; shopping in, 91, 96-101; Sumbanese examples, 68-70, 71-75; temporality and, 303; "trading up," 297; value and, 24, 84-85; Western perspective on, 5-6; women and, 289. See also exchange theory; gift/ commodity distinction; gift societies gift/commodity distinction: commodities as gifts, 259; exchange theory, 17; reciprocity and, 298; recontextualization, 17-20; reevaluation of, 3, 4, 6, 257-59; switching roles, 92, 93 gift societies, 6, 16-17, 260
INDEX Ginsburg, Faye, 56 governments: and appropriation of natives, 42--43, 150-51, 154; art classifications, 40; art's redemptive value, 236; border zones, 38, 209, 219-28; cultural policies, 44; displays in museums and, 8; ethnography and, 253; expropriation of art, 36; forgetting, 236, 245--49; indigenous art traditions in, 139; looting and, 242; money and, 83; national identities, 24, 43, 139; nations as objects, 137; natives and settlers as coeval, 45; "other" and, 46; primitivism and, 38; public stagings, 136-37, 190, 266; recontextualization and, 18; representations of colonies, 233; residual colonialism, 154. See also national sovereignty in Mexico; specific governments (i.e., Australian governmenl, Indonesian government, United 'States government) Gregory, Chris, 92, 113 guardianship of objects, 312 Guyer,jane I., 76 Hadjinicolaou, Nicholas, 60n8 "hard" objects, 14 hedonism, 103, 111 Hidalgo, Miguel, 122-23 hierarchy: art and, 34-37, 55; class and, 35; cultural hierarchy, 33; as culture making, 60; differentiation and, 309; "elementary cycling," 302-3; equivalence and, 14-15; exchange and, 13, 15, 289; native incorporation into state, 45; value and, 290-92 "high art." See fine art Hirschman, Albert 0., 88n2 history in objects, 229, 238, 253-54 Hodges, Christopher, 199 Homeric exchange, 7 Hoskins,janet, 210, 230n3 hybrid traditions, 52 Identity, 4; art and identity production, 28,29-31,167; of art purchasers, 293; culture making, 56; equivalence and, 15; exchange'S role in, 15, 296-97; keeping behavior and, 296; modernization and, 33; objectification and, 21, 23, 44; primitivism and, 41, 52;
self-identity, 174. See also national identities immortality, symbols of, 298 "immovable" objects, 15 inalienables: alienable/inalienable distinction, 259-61; appropriation and, 260; art as, 11, 261; art/commodity distinction, 264; art world and, 28, 260; commodities and, 12,95,109-10; commodity consumption and, 95; cul1:11ral differences and, 12; dealers and, 296; density and, 309; effort in creation, 298; in exchange theory, 12-15, 300; gifts as, 93; hierarchy and, 290; love and, 94; museums and, 264; named places as, 24; national sovereignty and, 26, 121; need for, 15; people as, 47, 108; as process, 290, 291; regimes of value and, 31; relics as, 130; sacrifice and, 104; as theory of people, 65, 95, 268; tjul1tnga as, 24-25, 25; in United States, 65, 88n1; Weiner on, 4, 9, 297-99 Indians, Mexican sovereignty and, 130-33 indigenismo, 134 indigenous art traditions: appropriation of, 139; culture making, 56; as "fine art," 43; inalienability of, 261; modernism and, 261, 267; Preston and, 145-50; settler artists and, 160; Walters and, 153-54, 157 indigenous people: "indigenous other," 42; Mexican sovereignty and, 130-33; recontextualization and, 45; revaluing, 42; self-presentation, 52-53; settler-indigenous relations, 45, 146 Indonesian government, 67, 76-77, 83, 84,87 inequality, creating, 292 inflation and art, 8 inheritance taxes, 294-95, 310-12 instability and shift: alternate values of objects, 12; appropriation and, 150; art/artifact distinction, 11, 224; art/commodity distinction, 224; art genres, 8, 12, 50, 53; art's purpose, 167; art values, 9, 12, 53; consumer choices in, 57-58; markets' role in, 19; money's shift in classification, 9; regimes of value, 57-58; ritual and,
9-10 insults, 69-70, 74 insurance values, 264 intercultural objects, 55, 186, 187 investment, art as, 213, 218 Isherwood, Baron, 107 Jewelry, 76, 78, 298, 305, 310 juarez, Benito, 42, 130-33, 138n6, 138n7 Kant, Immanuel, 35, 60n9, 66, 244--45 Karp, Ivan, 37, 57 Keane, ""ebb, 65; on art's movement, 30-31; on borders, 39--40; on markets, 20; on materiality, 258; on money, 9, 19; on object properties, 277; on regimes of value, 7; on relationship between people and things, 4; on semiotic deployment of objects, 22; on storage of value, 12 keeping behavior: exchange tlleory, 5; hierarchy and, 15; identity and, 296; resisting exchange or markets, 9; tjwunga, 25; Weiner on, 13; women and objects of devotion, 95 Kennedy,jacqueline, 295, 308 Kimber, Dick, 177, 179 kinship. See relationships Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara, 44, 48-51, 257, 269 kitsch, 30, 33, 34 Kngwerreye, Emily, 200-201 knowledge of dealers, 195-96 Kodi. See Sumbanese culture Kopytoff, Igor, 93, 209-10, 211, 230n2 koru design, 153-54, 155-56, 163 kuw, 276,280, 283,288,296-97, 299,303 Laizah, Mrs., 250 land, 23-25, 143, 146,287-88,292-93, 301 language: corruption in translation, 244; decontextualization of objects, 234, 267; gift and giver attachment, 74; reading, translation and, 254-55; textualization of art, 251; universal language ofform, 262 law, 120, 130-33 Lears, jackson, 43 legal definitions of objects, 208, 211, 213-17,219-28,262
347
INDEX
INDEX
legitimacy of Mexican governments, 121 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 22, 58, 289 lineages, 8, 280, 281, 304 litigation. See legal definitions of objects live pigs, 306 logos, 110, 161 Lomnitz, Claudio, 26, 43, 47, 265-69, 284-85 London,96-105,241 looted objects, 36, 240-43 love and emotions: aspects of, in gifts, 99; emotional economy of love, 259; housework and, 102; inalienables and, 94; movement of objects and, 94; provisioning and, 104; shopping as expression, 104, 105-12; women's role and, 94 "low" art genres, 12, 36, 162 Lynes, Russell, 226 Mabunda, Daina, 251, 252 Madero, Francisco, 132 magic or sorcery, 299, 301 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 275, 286, 288 Malkki, Liisa H., 212 Maori art, 153-54, 155, 157, 160 Marcus, George E., 8 marketing studies, 185, 186 markets: Aboriginal art markets, 168-69, 180-84,188-89,192,194-95;artdefinitions and, 208; art's commodity stage, 264; auction markets, 295; casualness of transactions, 83; as challenge to exchange values, 19; connoisseurs and, 199; deficient products in, 58; destabilization and, 19; "disinterestedness" and, 264; fine art structure, 198; framing, 31; free markets, 301-2; futures market, 306-7; gift/market distinction, 6, 16, 67; governments and, 182; hierarchy and, 55; international markets, 31; "market" art classification, 186; market/cultural value distinction, 19, 44, 174, 189-94; movement of art, 28-29; regimes of value and, 20, 58-59, 66; shopping and, 110; Sumbanese development, 72, 76 marriage, 68-69, 85-86, 96-97, 307 martyrdom, 26, 127-30, 137, 266 Marx, Karl, 75 mass culture, 33, 34, 36
material culture: art-culture system, 10-12; categories of value, 7-8; commodity/treasure distinction, 8-10; exhibitions, 27-29, 47-51; history of, 5-6; intercultural field, 41-44; new wave studies, 4; objectification, 20-27; object-oriented studies, 13; "primitivism," 16; problems for study, 58; reevaluating exchange theory, 3, 257, 291; use-value, 6-7 "material ideologies," 48 materialism, 67, 85, 134, 136, 175 materiality: of art, 263, 266--67; of exchange, 305-8; of presidents, 265-69; of signs, 22-25; types of, 14 Mauss, Marcel: on classifications of people, 22; on equivalence, 112-13; on exchange theory, 5; on giving activities, 13, 101; Maussian revisionism, 92, 94; on m\lhers of objects, 291; on sacrifice, 10~; on subject and object, 74; Weiner on, 286, 287 McMaster, Gerald R., 209 McQueen, Humphrey, 146, 150 meanings of objects: as constructed for objects, 210; depth of meaning, 291; elusiveness of, 254; externalizing, 20; of gifts, 287; instability and flux, 234, 254; legal interpretations of, 211-12; museum display and, 48; "natural" and "non-natural," 70; oversupply of, 58; physical condition of objects, 70; stories for paintings, 195, 196; Sumbanese exchanges and, 68-70; transnationalism's impact on, 3. See also "dense" meanings
memory as translated in exhibitions, 238 messianism in Mexico, 126, 132 metonymic properties of objects, 255 Mexican government: arielismo, 133-34, 136; Catholic nationalism, 122-24; Christian utopianism, 124; fetishism of the law, 130-33; indigenismo, 134; martyrdom and relics, 127-30; materialism and, 136; modernization and, 133-36; national sovereignty and, 119-21, 136-37; paternalistic role, 123; political parties, 126; president's central power, 124-27; president's materiality, 265-69; self-obsession, 137; self-presentation, 136-37, 266;
state's material apparanls, 121 Miller, Daniel, 91; on calculation, 258-59, 291; on inalienables, 65; on objectification, 20-22; on recontextualization, 45; on sacrifice, 46 Mitchell, W. J. T., 211 modern art. See Modernism; modernism modern formalism, 266, 267 Modernism, 33-34, 37, 38, 40 modernism: cosmopolitanism and, 29-30; disavowal of art, 246-47; indigenous themes and, 149,261; modern formalism, 266, 267; universality of art, 217, 222; Walters's interest in, 154-55 modernity and modernization: art and, 32-34; culnlral modernity, 133; cultural production, 42; desire and, 89n6; distinctiveness and, 44; exchange systems and, 75; inalienables and, 112; Mexican presidency and, 43, 120, 133-36, 137; money and, 75; objectification and, 26; regimes of value and, 53-58; Sumbanese culnlre and, 66-67 monarchies. See royalty money: abstraction of, 77-79; alienability of, 97; alienation and, 79-82; art and, 7-8, 213; coins as objects, 76, 78, 89n7; as cormptive influence, 174-75; desires and, 79, 86, 89n6; dirty money, 284; "earmarking," 89nl0; vs. exchange, 6, 19, 67, 68, 87; as gifts, 98; governments and, 76-77, 83, 84; origins of, 82-83; renunciation and, 77-79, 87; in Samoa, 279, 282; shifting classification, 9, 69; Sumbanese views of, 66--68, 75-77, 89n9, 89nl0, 258; threats of, 85; thrift and, 102-3, 111; in Trobriand exchange, 282; trust and, 83 Moore, Sally Falk, 229 Mora, Jose Marfa Luis, 120-21 Morelos,Jose Marfa, 123-24 mornJary exchanges, 280-81, 301, 304-5 movement of objects: art objects, 28-29, 30-31,39-40,168; border crossings and, 219-28; care and effort in, 297; de territorialization and, 211-12; implications of, 73; love and, 94; recontextualization, 17-20; in Sumbanese exchange, 75; Weiner's focus on, 13, 19
Munn, Nancy, 21, 23-24, 299 Museum of Modern Art, 37-38, 39, 225-28 museums: Aboriginal art sales, 180, 188; artists' museums, 295; challenges to displays, 8; classification of art and, 29, 208; deaccessioning artworks, 293; framing and display practices, 47-51; as home for inalienable objects, 293; increasing value of art, 265; misrepresentation of societies, 16; personal wings, 311; as phase for art, 264; recontextualization and, 18; splitting of senses in, 51 Myers, Fred R., 73, 260, 269 Naivete of ancestors in Sumba, 78 named places, 24, 158 national art: Australia, 161; modernism and, 150, 154; objectification and, 23; Preston and, 140, 141, 145-50, 147, 152; study of, 30; Walters and, 154, 159 national identities: art and, 27, 44, 139, 189-94; indigenous people and, 27, 42-43, 44, 189-94; modernity and, 43; objectification of countries, 24; "other" and, 46; public stagings, 190 national imaginaries, 56, 189-94, 261 nationalism: art and, 55; Australian, 24, 145-46; Mexican, 122-24, 133-36, 137; as objectification, 26-27; seeking distinctive and, 44; tariffs as cultural liability, 215-16; Walters and, 159 national sovereignty in Mexico: Catholic nationalism, 122-24; cenu'al power in presidency, 124-27; emulation of, 309; expressionless leaders, 132; fetishism of the law, 130-33; history of, 120-21, 136--37; inalienables and, 26, 121; indigenous embodiment in president, 130-33; as lying in the people, 121; martyrdom and relics, 127-30; messianism, 126; modernization and, 133-36; objectification and, 26; personifications of, 119-20, 121, 137, 265-69 nations. See governments; names of specific governments (i.e., Australian government, Indonesian government, United States government) natives. See indigenous people
349
INDEX
INDEX "natural meaning," 70 negotiation in gift exchange, 97-98 New Zealand, 153-54, 159, 161 Nietzsche, Fredrich Wilhelm, 60n9 Nigerian terracotta vessels, 240-41 noncommodity status of art, 210-11, 216,222 "non-natural meaning," 70 nonutilitarian nature of art, 33, 54 North London: gift shopping, 96-101; provisioning, 101-5
nununiga, 275 Objectification, 4; appropriations and, 43-44; art and, 30, 112; of bones, 303-5; brand name commodities and, 109-10; coordination of, 27; exhibitions as, 38; nationalism and, 26-27; processes of, 20-21; provisioning and, 104,111,112; signs and, 22-25; in Sumbanese exchange, 75; ,""einer's view of, 14 objects: border zones and, 209; "cultural biography," 209-10, 211; deterritorialization of, 211-12; dynamics surrounding, 8; "entangled objects," 208; in fields of force, 58; guardianship of, 312; history in vs. history of, 229; intercultural objects, 3, 55; legal identity of, 211; material culture and, 13, 107; meaning of, 70, 210, 254; movement of, 73; "national order of things," 212; "objecthood," 266; physical condition of, 70; power or powerlessness, 210, 211; properties of, 13-14,22,47,73,255,306;separation from transactions, 70; "speaking for themselves," 228; translation in exhibitions, 238; as unsettled, 11, 53-58; vulnerability of, 70 obligations in Sumbanese exchange, 72 Obregon, Alvaro, 129, 135 O'Doherty, Brian, 266 O'Gorman, Edmundo, 133 Onassis, Jacqueline Kennedy, 295, 308 tlle "other," 30, 34, 42, 46, 224 Pannell, Sandra, 25 Panoho, Rangihiroa, 153-54 Papunya TulaArtists, 166, 169-72, 179, 202 paternalism of Mexican government, 123, 134
payments for paintings, 25, 171, 182, 202 people: celebrity, 308-9; classification of, 22, 56; as inalienables, 47; inalienabies as llieory of people, 65, 268; personal identity, 174; relationship to things, 4 performance, 52-53, 136-37, 190,266 "perishable" goods, 14, 47, 277-78, 306 Perls, Klaus, 213 "permanent" goods, 14,22,277-78,306 personal sacrifice. See sacrifice physical condition of objects, 70 pigs, 306 Pizzi, Gabrielle, 198 place names, 24, 158 "politicized custom" in exchange, 71 politics, 13, 29-31, 126, 132 popular art, 36 popular culture, 33 "positive priJnitive," 34 postcoloniai states. See colonial and postcolonial states postrnodernist llieories on art, 34-35, 254 Pound, Francis, 154, 158, 161-62 Powell, Harry, 275 power: exchange and, 113; of exhibitions, 38, 39; of images, 211; of objects, 210; primitive classifications and, 39; of viewing art, 49 powerlessness of objects, 211 Pratt, Mary Louise, 209 "precedence" in national identity, 121 presidents of Mexico. See national sovereignty in Mexico Preston, Margaret: Aboriginal art and, 145-50,260; compared to Walters, 162; failure of appropriations, 27, 150-53; monumental flower works, 141-45; national art for Australia, 140, 141, 145-50; objectification and, 23 prices of objects. See cash values of objects "primitive art" and primitivism: Aboriginal art and, 190; authenticity and, 40-41; challenging label, 8; childlike nature of, 148, 151; displaying without context, 40; "high-tech primitive," 56; history of debates, 37-41; identity and, 38; modernism and, 38; nature of individuals and,
287-88; primitive otherness, 34; primitivizing gaze, 42, 53; reciprocity and, 288; reclassification of, 51; recontextualization and, 41-42; "settler primitivism," 44-45; stable bounded societies, 16; universality of, 244 primitivizing gaze, 42, 53 production of art, 4, 37, 264 production of value: art, 10, 28, 263-64; exchange and, 24; regimes of value and, 6; self-value and, 296; systems of value production, 59; VlTeiner on, 9 properties of objects: cloth, 283-85; extending past transactions, 73; metonymic properties, 255; perishables, 47, 306; potential for diversion and, 22, 73; in provisioning, 47; Weiner on, 13-14, 306 provenance, 12, 202 provisioning: alienables in, 113; compared to gift shopping, 91; goals of, 47; inalienables in, 112; love in, 104, 259; morality and, 111; relationships and, 108; sacrifice in, 46, 103; subjectification in, 108; systems of, 101-6; thrift and, 102-3; transient goods, 110; treats and, 103, 110 Qualitative value, 6; Aboriginal art, 19; categories of value, 7-8; as core problem, 4; cultural/economic value distinction, 174, 176, 184, 298; "dense" meanings, 289-90; hierarchy and, 34-37,290-92;marketand,199; nonutilitarian objects, 54; objectification of, 20; reorganization of, 45; revaluing indigenous people, 42; selfvalue, 85-86; value as never simple, 12 quality of work, 58, 172, 185 quantitative value, 6. See also cash values of objects Quinn,John, 32, 213-19, 221, 231n5 Racialization of presidency, 26, 131-33, 137 "rationalization," 194 raw food, 277 reading, translation and, 254-55 "real custom" in exchange, 71 reciprocity, 5-6, 13, 14-15, 94, 285-90
recontextualization: appropriation and, 18; art and, 56, 267; colonial states and, 18; exhibitions and, 18; gift/ commodity distinction, 17-20; movement of objects and, 17-20; native incorporation into state, 45; nonevaluative stance of, 54; primitivism and, 41-42; regimes of value and, 18; as reorganizing value, 45; social agents in, 52 redemptive value of art, 37, 60n3, 236, 238 reductionism in anthropology, 299-300 regimes of value: alternative regimes, 66, 69; art's value and, 28, 31, 185-87; banana leaf bundles and, 283; categories, 7-8; context and, 55; defined, 6; market reordering of, 20, 58-59, 66; modernity and, 37; provisioning and, 46; recontextualization and, 18; Sumbanese exchange, 7; transcendence and, 12; unsettled objects and, 53-58 Reina, Ben, 271, 273 relationships: classification of, in gifts, 99; concern for, in shopping, 46-47, 105,106,108,111; contradictions in, 106; discouraging, by gifts, 97; family members, 47; kinship studies, 300, 302; repayment of relatives, 280-81; unmodern, in Mexico, 134 "relative autonomy," 37, 253 relics, 26, 120, 127-30, 137, 265 Renne, Elisha, 285 renunciation, money and, 77-79 replacement in exchange, 13, 307-8 representation of artists, 200-202 return of stolen objects, 242 risks in exchange, 13 ritual, 9-10, 78, 258 Rodo, Jose Enrique, 133-34 Romantic Movement, 16, 34, 104 Roosevelt, Theodore, 217 Rovine, Victoria, 210 Royal Academy of Arts, 233 royalty: crown jewels, 298, 310; emulation of, 309; Mexican struggle willi monarchies, 125 Sacrifice, 46, 103, 120, 127-30, 259, 266 sales of Aboriginal art, 165, 188, 203n3
35 1
INDEX
INDEX
"salvage" paradigm, 244 Samoan fine mats, 279, 282, 292 Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, 127-28 Saussurean model of signs, 22, 73 saving money, 102-3, III "scarce" objects, 14, 22 Schneider,]ane, 284 self, extensions of, 74-75 self-determination, 167, 171, 173, 178 self-management, 178 semiotic deployment of objects, 22 separation in exchange, 70, 74, 75, 79, 84 services as gifts, 266 settler artists, 45, 139, 145-50, 153-54, 160 settler nations. See colonial and postcolonial states "settler primitivism," 44-45 "settling out," 197, 201-2 shifting. See instability and shift shopping: decision-making, 105-6; gift shopping, 91, 96-101; morality and, 111; provisioning, 91, 101-5; sacrifice in, 103 siblings, women as, 94 signs, 22-25, 70, 73, 78 Simmel, Georg, 10, 74-75, 78 Siopis, Penny, 252, 253 Si)'aweia: Love, Loss and Liberation in Art fivm South Afiica exhibition, 234, 235, 236-37,249-51,254 shlrts,278-79,282,303,304-5 slavery in Sumba, 84, 85 "slumming," 49 Smith, Adam, 301-2 social action, 52-53, 70 social life, continuing after death, 304 social welfare, Aboriginal art as, 185 "soft" objects, 14 sorcery, 299, 301 sovereignty. See national sovereignty in Mexico "spheres of exchange," 14 spirituality in Mexican arielismo, 133-34, 136 states. See governments Steichen, Edward, 219, 220, 224, 230 Steiner, Christopher B., 11, 207, 262, 294 Stephen, Ann, 150 sterile wealth, 80-81, 258
35 2
stewardship of objects, 312 stolen objects, 240-43 stories behind paintings, 195, 196 "story paintings," 171 strategy, social bonds and, 101 Strathern, Marilyn, 95 subjectification, 21, 108, 112 Sullivan, Nancy, 8 Sumbanese culture: alienation and, 79-82; ambiguity in exchanges, 71-75; calculations, 78-79; desire, 46-47; formality in, 73-74; "free era," 84; healing rituals, 210, 230n3; loss of autonomy and, 81-82; market development, 76; marriage, 85-86; meaning in exchanges, 68-70; modernity and materialism, 66--67; money and, 46-47,66,75-77,79-82,89n8,89nl0, 258; naivete of ancestors, 78; origins of gold, .82-83; "real" vs. "politicized" custom,' 71; regimes of value, 7; unmarried women, 85-86; ),om, 80-81. See also Indonesian government symbols, materiality of, 265
thrift, 46, 102-3, 114n7, 259 time factors in exchange, 303 titles of artwork, 158 Tjakamarra, Michael Nelson, 189-90 Tjakamarra, Old Mick, 186 Tjapal\iarri, Clifford Possum, 186--87 tjul'unga, 24-25, 94 totalization, 101, 104, 114116 tourism, art sales and, 180, 188, 195 traditional art, 186 transactional analysis, 289 transactions. See gift and ceremonial exchange transcendence. See instability and shift transitional art, 186 translation, 153, 237-38, 244, 251, 253, 254-55 transnationalism, 3, 18, 28-29, 208 "transportable" objects, 14 treasures, 9, 58 "treats," in provisioning, 103, 110 Trobriand Islands, 273-77, 282, 303 trust, money and, 83 Turner, Terence, 46 Turner, Victor, 54, 137
Taonga, 94, 310, 313n6 tariffs, 213-17, 220 taro, 277, 306 taste, personal, 30, 35, 54, 105, 106, 192 taxes, 84,213-17, 220,263, 294-95, 310-12 taxonomy. See classification Te Awekotuku, Ngahuia, 153, 158 technology, 102, 120, 133-36 temporality, in exchange, 303 terracotta works, stolen, 240-41 textiles. See doth textualization of art, 251 theft (looted objects), 36, 240-43 things. See objects Thomas, Nicholas, 139; on alienation, 60n7; on art's autonomy, 36, 260, 261; on contexts, 18; on crossing traditions, 52; on "disinterestedness," 264; on "entangled objects," 208; on gift vs. commodity, 17; on indigenous themes, 261; on objectification, 27; on primitivism, 16, 44-45; on "recontextualization," 18; on self-identity, 23; on types of societies, 16-17
"Unacceptable" looting, 242 "uncomfortably loosened" objects, 36, 240-43 United States: contemporary inalienability in, 65, 88nl; dynastic families, 8; materialism of, 134 United States government: art taliffs, 213-17; Customs Service, 207, 213-17,219-28; inheritance taxes, 310-12 universality of art. See art's autonomy unsettled objects, 53-58 U.S. Customs Service, 207, 213-17, 219-28 use value, 6-7, 77, 78, 79, 84-85, 87 utilitarian objects, 7-8, 32, 227-28, 245 utopias, Christian, 123 Value. See cash values of objects; production of value; qualitative value; regimes of value; use value
Victoria, Guadalupe, 129 viewing art, 42, 49, 53 Villa, Francisco (Pancho), 129-30, 132 Vogel, Susan, 228 Volosinov, V. 1., 55 Wallis, Anthony, 188, 195 Walters, Gordon, 153-58, 162, 260 Warhol, Andy, 12, 295, 308 Webb, Virginia-Lee, 228 Weber, Max, 32 Weiner, Annette B., 269; archaeological work, 271-72; on art and markets, 28, 29, 65, 292-97; on celebrity, 308-9; on doth, 283-85; Cloth and Human Experience, 284; critique of exchange theory, 12-15; death of, 312-13; on "density," 289-90; on "elementary cycling," 302-3, 310; graduate work, 270-71; on hierarchy, 65, 290-92, 302-3; on inalienability, 4, 95, 268, 297-99; Inalienable Possessions, 287, 300; on keeping behaviors, 9; on hlnship, 300; on materiality of exchange, 305-8; on Maussian revisionism, 94; on movement of objects, 19; on object properties, 277; painting's influence on, 270; on reciprocity, 285-90; on reductionism, 299-300; on replacement, 307-8; on role of women, 94-95; on theories of devotion, 108; Trobriand field work, 273-75; undergraduate work, 270, 271; on value creation, 9; on Western view of gifts, 5-6; Women of Value, Men of Renown, 275, 283 Whitlam, Gough, 178, 190-91 ,~tchcraft,299,301
Wolfe, Tom, 225 women, 85-86, 94-95, 101-5, 275, 289. See also banana leaf bundles work, concepts of, 173-74 Yams, 276, 277, 278, 286, 305, 307 ),om, 80-81, 258 Zapata, Emiliano, 132
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UNDER STATE SOCIALISM
POLITIES, AND IDENTITIES
Rubie S. Watson, ed. OTHER INTENTIONS: CULTURAL CONTEXTS AND THE ATTRIBUTION OF INNER STATES
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Paul V. Krosklit); ed. BIOLOGY, BRAINS, AND BEHAVIOR: THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
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