The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600-1815

The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade 1600-1815

The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade 1600-1815 JOHANNES MENNE POSTMA Mankato State University

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Victoria 3166, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1990 First published 1990 Reprinted 1992 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Postma, Johannes Menne. The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600-1815 /Johannes Menne Postma. p. cm. Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN 0-521-36585-6

1. Slave-trade - Netherlands - History. 2. West-Indische Compagnie (Netherlands) - History. 3. Slave-trade - Africa, West - History. 4. Slavery - Latin America - History. I. Title. HT1203.P67 1990 382'. 44/0943- J 38, 158, 255, 297, 298f, 299, 306, 373-6 Goude Brackhond, 190

Gouree, 57, 74, 85, 117m Grand Bassam, 117m, i22t, 373-6 Great Britain, 284, 289, 302. See also English Grenada, 49, 196m, 226 Grillo, Domingo, 33, 34t, 349-52 Gross Friedrichsburg (Hollandia), 76, 64m, 95 Guadaloupe, 28m, 196m, 199, 300 Guiana region, 138, 174-6, 176m, 229, 25Ot, 253, 255, 267, 268t, 299-300 Guinea Coast, 17—18, 56, 120, 12it, 121-2, 292, 297, 298^ 306, 366 Guinea trade, 56, 119-20, 210, 260, 297 Guineese Vriendschap, i66t, 168, 307 Guide Vrijheid, 210, 267 guns. See firearms Gusman, Bernardo Marin de, 47 Guyana, region and settlements, 35t, 174, 176m, 275, 288. See also Berbice; Demerara; Essequibo Haagen, Pieter van der, 10 Haarlem, 104, i29t, 130m, 292 Haast U Langzaam, iogn Haen, Gerrit de, 137 Ham, theory of, 11 Hante, 90, 93m, 95, 207 head money (hoofdgeld), 205, 2o6f, 209. See also duties head tax, in Surinam, 1851, 185-6 heart attack (hartvangh), 2441, 247. See also diseases Heren X. See West-Indische Compagnie, Heinsius, Johannes, 178 Hertogh, Hendrik, 100-1 home ports, for slave ships, 128-34, i29t, 130m, 299^ 299 Hoolwerf, N. V., 98 Hoorn, I29t, 130m, 299 Hugla, Jean Emanuel, 352 Huys te Loirheim, 142

424

Index

illicit slave trade: to Caracas coast, 30-2, 39—40, 49—50, 270, 281; to Surinam, 212; by ship crews, 137, 281 Indian Ocean slave trade. See slave trade, Indian Ocean indentured servants, 5 indigo. See backhaul; produce, tropical industrial revolution, 2, 280 insurance, maritime, 10, 267, 277 interlopers (lorredraayers), 76, 78-83, 102-3, 109, n o t , 113, 123, 1311, 135, 137, 141, 187, 197-8, 226, 2951, 195, 305 international relations, 208-9; m asiento, 48—52; on African coast, 73—8 iron bars, 104, 260 ivory, 86, 91, 137, 160, 2651, 366-7 Ivory Coast, 57, 58m, 75, 116, 122-3, 29^ 299 Jager, 52, 82 Jakin, 64m, 97-100, 160 Jamaica, 28m, 50, 271 Jamestown, 12 Jews: in Guiana, 188, 213, 216; Sephardic Jews, 8, i o - n , 19, 177; in the slave trade, 10 Joanna Maria, 228 Johanna Cores, i66t, 2O9n, 2791 Jol, Cornelis, 12-13 Jonge Matheus & Catharina, 307 Jonge Rombout, 212 Jubert, Jacobus, 41-2 Kabes, John, 88 Kempenaar, D. I. de, 286-7 Kerkhove, Melchior van, 12 Kerkrinck, William, 44 Keta, 64m, i22t, 373-6 Klaver, J. G., 16m kleine vaart, 221, 289 Komenda, 93, i22t, i23t, i24t, 373-6; wars, 90, 92-3 Koninck Solomon, 29, i66t, 180 Koning van Portugal, 242 Kormantin, 64m, 95, 109, i22t, 1231, i24t, 124-5, 373-6 Korte Prim, 198 Laet, Joannes de, 13 Lagos, 64m, 75, 84 Latnmerenburg, 120, 157, 210 Lamont, Isaac, 197-8 languages, on the African coast, 65, 69. See also Twifo Las Casas, 29

last or lastage (tonnage), 139, 145-6, 153, 256

lastgeld, to purchase slaving passes or permits, 119, 138—9, 2O2n, 202-4, 210, 286, 369-70, 286, 372; napremie, 204 Leusden, 144-5, 164, i64n, i66t, 194, 198, 203, 242, 2541 Liebergen, Nicolaas van, 41 Lindezaay, Joannes, 404 Lira, Don Emanuel de, 40 Lisbon, 2-4 Liverpool, 142, 299 Loango coastal region (also LoangoAngola), 56-7, 58m, 60-1, 82t, 101-3, 108, 111-12, 114, ii5t, 120, 150, 158, 163, 233, 253, 255, 276, 288, 298f, 306, 356-61; commerce, 65, 75, 101-3, 136, 140-1, 158-60, 163, 267-8; slaves, 1089, 253 Lomelin, Ambrosia, 33, 34t, 349-52 Louis XIV (France), 9, 49 macrons (manquerons), 37, 53, 189, 197, 229, 237, 239, 267, 270-1 malaria, 65. See also diseases manumission, of slaves in Africa, 72—3 Margaretha Christina, 2O4n Maria Galey, 2O^a maroons (runaways), 179, 182, 184-5, l%5n-> 213-4; in Palmares, 20 Marowin, 164, 167, 176m, 242 Martin, Gaspar, 51 Martinique, 28m, 49, 196m, 199-200 Mauricius, Jan Jacob, 214 Maurits, Prinsjohan, 19 Maze, 23t, i29t, 130m, 131, 13it, i32t, 299^ 305, 356-61 medical practices: bleeding, 244, 247; medicine box, 244. See also diseases; surgeondoctor Mediterranean slave trade. See slave trade, Mediterranean merchandise, European, 103-5, 161 merchants: African, 87-9, 92, 297, 363-5; Cadix, 40; Dutch, 17, 179, 193, 202-5, 289—90; French, 49, 51; Portuguese, 21; Spanish, 49 Middelburg, 10-11, 1291, 130m, i32t, 133, 188, 201, 299, 302, 305, 366 Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), 104-5, J23> 133, Hi* J44> I5 1 * 153, 165, 170, 219, 226, 143, 248, 251, 268, 273, 275, 278-80, 284, 366, 371, 392, 407-10 Middelburgs Welvaren, i66t, 167, 241, 243,

Index middle passage, 140, 149, i52t, 155, 162-5, 240t, 241-3, 2471, 248, 253, 256, 305, 389a, 390a, 391a mixed courts, 290 mobile trade, 135, 138-40, 148, 206 Moens, Petronella, 293 Moradores, 19; revolt, 20 morality: and the slave trade, 2, 184, 276; and humaneness, 292, 302; and Nazi concentration camps, 300 Mori, 13, 17-18, 64m, i22t, i23t, i24t, 373-6 mortality, 109, 164, i66t, 204, 238, 240-3, 247^ 249-58, 25Ot, 25it, 255t, 2561, 287, 301, 306, 350, 354, 389a, 390a, 391a, 392-4, 395-401, 405; catastrophic, 249, 253, 254, 254t; coasting, 2491, 249, 250; harbor, 239; postdisembarkation, 240; true mortality, 250-2, 252t, 258 mulattoes (tapoeyers), 68-9 Muscavische Galey, 274 Napoleon, era and wars, 208, 289-90 Nassy, David, 178-8 native American, 5, 29; slaves, 191 navigation acts, 74 Neptunis, i66t, 167, 2541 New Amsterdam, 25, 175 New Holland, 18-22, 20m, 2it; See also Brazil New Netherland, 24-6 Newton, John, 155 Nieutve Hoop, 366 Nieuwe Post, 242, 254t Niger (river and delta), 58-60, 64, 93m; slaves from, 72 Noorder Kwartier (NK), 23, 129-32, 2991, 305, 356-61 Offra, 64m, 97-8 Orange family, 8, 19 Oranjestad, 222-3. See also St. Eustatius origins of slaves. See slaves, origins Oudermeulen, Cornelis van der, 287, 288n, 289 Oudorp, Julianus, 405 Ouidah, 64m, 67, 75, 79, 88, 93m, 96-101, 236, 260, 363 ounce trade. See finances and currencies Oyo, 93 m, 100 Padthuysen, Pieter, 349 Parimaribo, 169, 178, 211, 242 Pasop, Pieter, 88 Paulus, Pieter, 293 Pauw, Jan de, 67

425

Pere, Abraham van den (and family), 175,

192-3, 195, 197 Pernambuco, 11, 19, 20m Petronella Alida, 157, 2541 Petts, Daniel, 137 Phenix, 52, 140, 200 Philadelphia, i66t, 2O9n pieces of eight, 161-3, 262t, 2641, 406. See also finances and currencies Piershil, 103 pieza de India (leverbaar or pees), 37-8, 2289, 2651, 266t, 349-51, 392~4> 395"8> 4°4 Pijnenburg, 193 pirates, 78-9, 164, 263 plantation economies, 279-80 planters, absentee, 193, 263, 286 Pol, Nicolaas, 363 Pollux, i66t, i67n Pomoroon, 176m, 188 Popo, 64m, 97, i22t, 373-6 Poquefoe, 64m, i22t, i24t, 373-6 Porcio, Nicolas, 34t, 41-3, 46 Portobelo, 28m, 34, 43 Portugal: and asiento, 46, 49; in Africa, 59, 74, 78, 84-5, 135; in slave trade, 2-3, 5, 14, 26; rivals of Dutch, 26, 74, 77, 135 Postma Data Collection, 1321, i86t, 19it, I95t, I99t, 2I2t, 2l8t, 22Ot, 22It, 223t, 2241, 2251, 2541, 307, 371, 377, 389-91, 392 Pra, 64m, 93m, 117m, 157

Pranger, Jan, 100-1, ioin price guide (marktbrief), 134-5, 261, 264, 2651 prices of slaves. See slaves, prices of Prins Willem V, 147, 2O9n privateers, 12, 15, 23, 50, 78-9, 164, 190, 199 private trade, 136-8, 155, 281, 352, 367. See also illicit slave trade procurement of slaves. See slaves, procurement produce, tropical, 149, 263, 297; cocoa, 172, 182-3, 191, 213, 263, 282, 411; coffee, 2, 172, 182, 194, 213-15, 273, 282, 411; cotton, 2, 171-2, 182-3, *94> 213, 411; indigo, 171-2, 182, 191, 194, 282; oriane paint, 171, 188; sugar, 4, 9, 14, 171-2, 180, 182, 191, 194-5, 272-3, 282, 411; tobacco, 2, 76-7, 213, 411. See also wood products profits and losses, 276—80, 259, 2651, 268t, 2791, 28ot, 302, 368, 407-10; depreciation, 277; bankruptcies, 283 Propheet Daniel, 43 n Quinera, 104, 234, 262

426 Rachel, 140, i66t racism, 70, 259, 300 Raecx, Everard, 200 ransom payments, 50, 182, 190, 193 Raule, Benjamin, 76 Recife, 15, 19-20, 20m, 25 recognitie. See duties; lastgeld

Index Senegambia region, 57, 113, 116, 121, 163, 260, 299, 306 Serat, Thomas van, 242 Seven Years War (1756-63), 208, 222 Seville, 3, 30-1, 34, 38-9 sexual exploitation. See slaves Shama, Simon, 8 Shama, 64m, 67, 88, i22t, i24t, 157-8, 373-6 shared cargoes (mixed destinations), 220,

records, historical, 11, 32, 52-3, 109-10, 119, 121, 128, 133, 137, 141, 151, 160, 180, 192, 200, 210, 217, 222-3, 2 48, 278, 356-61 276 rederij and reder, 9, 133, 362; slave-trade ships, 142-8, 281, 305, 306; architecture, i42f, 143; assignments, 128-9, *34> 255, companies, 371 regulations, slave trade: of 1730, 202; of 355-61; capacity, 120, 133-5, I 45~°, 204, 250, 256, 289; captured by enemies, 1798, 287; naader reglement of 1734, 20350, 164, 284; documents carried, 150, 4; ordinance of 1754, 204 368-70; logbooks, 159-60, 233; names, return voyage, from West Indies, i52t, 171308-48; route of voyages, 150—1, i52t; 3. See also backhaul speed, 249; spies, 165; types, 142-3, 306; revolts. See slaves, revolts and resistance utilization, 145, i47t, 1561, 173, 392-4 Rietveld, David, 156 Rijckaert, Johannes, 349 shipwrecks and strandings, 164, 242, 306 Roo, Pieter de, 160 Sierra Leone, 90, i22t, 122, 290, 373-6 Rotterdam, 263 Slave Coast, 58m, 59, 64m, 75, 77, 79, Rotterdam, 9, 123, 1291, 130m, 133, 244, 9 3 ^ . 95-9. 109. 113-5, 121-3, 157-8, 260, 297, 298f, 306, 373-6 277, 280, 299 Royal African Company (RAC), 33, 74, 209 slave raids, 1-2, 91, 99, 235 Rusthof, 137, 231, 232n, 240, 2541 slavery in Africa, 3, 5-7 Ruyter, Admiral Michiel de, 36, 74 slaves: accommodations, 14, 170, 144, 2323, 402-3, (see also crowding); auctions, 170, 239, 267, 270-4, 306, 406; branding, 7, 52, 137, 235-7, 368; clothes, 236; Saba, 107, 196m, 224 destinations, 2it, 35t, 451, 48t, i86t, sailors. See crews on slave ships St. Croix, 196m, 226 1911, I95t, I99t, 2l8, 225t, 2I2t, 2l8t, St. Eustatius, 28m, 82t, 107-8, 137, 169, 22Ot, 22It, 223t, 224t, 225t, 226, 2 8 5 ^ 196m, 216, 222-4, 24°>253> 2 ^4t, 267, 3oot, 30if; escapes, 167; exercise and 269^ 271, 276, 288—9, 294> 30If> 3°°> music, 170, 233, 239; feeding, 150, 158, 306, 363, 404, 406; colonization, 195, 168, 232-5, 300, 366, 402-3; gender/ 197; "golden rock," 200, 223; population, age, 257-8, 349-50, 364, 395-401; hy197, i97n; slave-trade depot, 271-2, genics, 169-70, 229, 236-7; identity, 7, 197-200, 1991, 224; trade with French, 137—8, 227-31, 257; origins, 106-25, 271 ii3t, ii4t, ii5t, 12it, i22t, i23t, 298f, 373-6; panyaring, 70; prices of, 109, 183, St. George at Elmina, 17, 57, 64m, 403-5 209, 252, 264-9, 2 ^4t, 2651, 266t, 266St. jfago (de la Victoria), 44, 49 75, 268t, 269t, 299, 3oot, 364, 406; proSt. Jan, 107, i36n curement, 139-42, 157; revolts and resisSt. John Island, 196m, 226 tance, 165-8, i66t, 241, 243, 300, 306; St. John (river), 117m, i22t, 373-6 return to Africa, 101-3; seasoning, 258; St. Martin, 169, 196m, 224, 289 selling, 168-70, 270, 272-4, 306; sexual St. Paul, 58m, 117m, i22t, 373-6 exploitation, 137, 243, 366 (see also capSt. Thomas, 82t, 196m, 226, 271 tains of slave ships); suicide, 165, 241, St. Vincent, 196m, 226 2441, 300; treatment, 165, 168, 233, 243, Sao Thome, 3, 12, 18, 26, 58m 366. See also mortality Sassandra, 58, 117m, i22t, 373-6 slave trade: coasting, 239, 248, 2491, 249Schonenberg, Francisco van, 43-4 50, 388a, 389a, 390a, 392-4; companies, scurvy, 168, 2441, 245-6. See also diseases 371; consequences of, 1-3, 180-3; guideSecondi, i22t, i23t, i24t, 373-6 lines and instructions, 363, 366, 402; InSenegal, 58m, 75, 111, ii5t, 117m, 150, dian Ocean, i n ; Mediterranean, 2-3. See 2 9 8f

Index Slave trade (cont.) also mobile trade; profits and losses; regulations, slave trade; slaves; stationary trade; triangular slave trade, 81, 149, i52t, 297; weather smallpox, 160-2, 169, 244t, 245-7. See also diseases Smith, Captain John, 12 smuggling. See illicit slave trade Snouck, Jan, 195 Sommelsdijck, Cornelis van Aerssen, 142, 175, 180-1, 183 Sonnesteyn, i66t, 404 sorting (avance or cladden), 260-1. See also finances and currencies, ounce trade Souza, Louis, 47; Simon, 47 Spanish-America, 3, 81, 294, 299, 3oot; mainland or Main, 44, 451, 289, 301 f, 306 Spanish-Portuguese union, 7, 19, 31 Spanish silver fleet, 16, 23 Spencer, Cornelis, 292 Stad en Lande, 157 Stad en Lande (WIC), 23t, i29t, 130m, i3it, i32t, 132, 2541, 299^ 305, 356-61 Standvastigheld, 118, 150 States General, 8, 22, 39, 127, 180, 194, 202, 204, 286 stationary trade, 134-6, 141, 148, 206 Stevens, Jacob, 198 Storm van's-Gravensande, Laurens, 218-9 Stuyvesant, Peter, 27 subsidies, to the WIC, 201-2, 209 sugar. See produce, tropical suicide of slaves. See slaves, suicide supercargo, 136, 153, i54t, 366-7 superintendent {fiscaal), n n , 61, 62f, 63n, 67 supervisor of slaves at Elmina, 402 surgeon-doctor, on ships, 1541, 244, 245, 367. See also medical practices Surinaamse Vriendschap, 307 Surinaamse Welvaart, 147, 254t Surinam (river and settlement), 28m, 35t, 82t, 138, 160, 164, 169, 174-5, 176m, 203, 181, 212-3, 229, 2 ^ 3 , 273, 280-3, 288-9, 294> 299-301, 306, 366, 357-6i; attacks by French, 182-3; government, 179-183; planters and foreign settlers, 107, 109, i n , 178, 187, 275; population, 178-9, 184, 1851, 185-7, 2i4n; slave deliveries and prices, 169, 183-4, i86t, 187, 2i2t, 2641, 267, 268t, 269^ 273; Society of, 175, 179, 183, 203, 362 Sweden, 75-6, 80

427

Takoradi, 64m, i22t, i24t, 373-6 1 o-percent men, 201 Texel, 130m, 150 textiles: from Asia, 104-5, 297; to Africa, 103-5, 2 6o, 362; to Cuba, 226 Tim, Jan, 88 tobacco: for slaves, 2341, 234; see also produce, tropical Tobago, 13, 196m, 226, 229 trade routes in Africa, 90, 98, 206 triangular slave trade, 81, 149, i52t, 297 Trinidad, 12, 14, 28m, 176m, 196m trinkets, 104 tronks, 237, 364 tuberculosis (teering), 244^ 246-7. See also diseases Turkish pass, 78, 150, 164. See also pirates Twifo, 65, 93m, 95 Unger, W. S., 150, 170, 251, 268, 273, 278-9 United States of America, 289, 291 Usselinx, Willem, 16 Valkenier, Pieter, 404 Van Alstein, Pierre, 155, 281 Veere, i29t, 133, 188 Veracruz, 34, 43, 82t, 267, 358 Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), 10, 15, 65, 67, i n , 127, 260, 289, 297 Vergenoegen, 15in, 157, 160-2, 169, 233, 252, 2 7 9 t Vigilantie, i66t, 166, 241, 254t Villi, 58m, 101 VliegendeFaam> 15m, i66t Vlissingen, i29t, 130m, i32t, 133, 160, 188, 299 Voskuyl, Evert, 352 Vrede, I36n, 137 Vreede, Pieter, 291 Vrijheidy 194 Walcheren, 130m, 133, 299 warfare in Africa, 89—90, 206-7. $ee a^so Asante; Dahomey; Komenda War of Spanish Succession (1702-13), 49, 186, 197 Wassa, 93m, 95, 206-7 weather: doldrums, 163-4, 248; seasons, 158, i59t; storms, 164, 247 West-Indische Compagnie (WIC), 11, 1516, 22-4, in Africa, 61-78; bankruptcy and reorganization, 16, 24, 36-8, 178, 201, 278; and Brazil, 14-7, 76-8; chambers, 22, 23t, 23-4, 128-31, 356-61; di-

428

Index

rectors, 22, 51, 53, 61, 126-8, 135, 145, 149, 155, 179, 183, 189, 201, 242, 34952, 355; employees, 61, 63, 281, 288, 3°5> 355> 404;Heren X, 22, 44, 46, 47, 51, 61-2, 70, 126-8, 130, 149, 201, 355; Heren XIX, 22, 126; governance, 40, 6 1 5, 126, 136, 138, 218, 355 Wilberforce, William, 248 Willem I (Netherlands), 289-90 Willemstad, 49, 50, 196m Williams, Eric, 2, 280

Windward coast, 58m, 116, 117m, 121, 123, 207, 298f, 373-6 Witte Paert, 25 Wolff, Betje, 292 wood products, 175, 182, 188; letterhout, 282; stockvishout, 171, 282 Woortman, Pieter, 66, 90 Zeeland (province and WIC), 7, 23, 23t, i29t, 130m, 13it, 131-2, i32t, 178, 202, 205, 286-7, 293, 305, 356-61