The Development of the Idea of History in Antiquity (McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Ideas)

~

e

of . the Idea of HistoIY •

ID

••

tIqUlty V Gerald A. Press

The idea of history. and especially the Klea that history is goal-directed, has figured prominently in Western thought since the Renaissance. providing the conceplUal foundation for philosophies ami theologies of histor)' as well as of a varlety of social theories. Therefore an extensive schola rly literature has come into existence in the past century which discusses the origin and early history of the idea. It is widely held that in ancient Creek and Roman thought history is understood as circular and repctiti\'e (a consequence of their anti-temporal metaphysics) in contrdSt with Judaco-Christian thought, which sees history as linear and unique (a consequence of their messianic and h~nce radically tcmpond theology).

This account of the idea of history in anttquity exemplifies a more general vlew: that the Craeco-Roman and Judaeo-Christian ('uhures were fundamentally alien and opposed cultural forces and that. therefore. Christianity's victory over paganism included the replacement or supersession of onc intellectual world by another. In this study Dr. Press shows thal COntrary 10 this belief there was substantial rontinuity between "pagan" and Christian ideas or history in antiquity, rather than a striking opposition between cydic and linear patterns. He finds that the foundation of the Christian view of history as goal-direcled lies in the rhetorical rdlhcr thall the theologiCdl motives of early Christian writcr!.. Cerald A. Press is a member of the Western Cuhure Program at Stanford University .

MCG Il.L·QUU:N'S STUD I E.S If\; T H E H ISTO RY OF I DEAS

Richard 11. I'upkill . Editor

-t'1di.x: Bibliography of Wor.b fliskJry

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Antiquity

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Indn of Namts aM Subj«u

175

Ackrwwledgments

J wish to express my gr.uilude to all those who. in various ways, have helped to make this book possible. In particular I would like to thank Jason L. Saunders and Paul Henry, SJ., whose leaching most directly led to and

guided this work, and Richard H. Papkin, Herbert Marcuse. and Stephen CrilCS. who have been inspirations both as teachers and as creative Ihinkers. I would also like to thank Sleven L. Goldman. Thomas St!'Cbohm. and W. Kendrick Pritcheu for reading earlier versions and providing much·needed encouragement, Paul P.soinos for invaluable help with the noles and indexes, Vida Pavesich for aid, counsel. and solace from lirSllO last (bUl nOI for typing the manuscript). and David Fate Nonon. over many years teacher,

editor, adviser. friend.

Abbreviations

:. .

I2nd

T ilE ~()T.:S,

classica l Creek a nd Latin au thors arc cited accord·

the standard abbreviations of the O'!!ord Classim{ J)icliona~,., cd . (Oxford : C larendo n Press, 1970) . O ccasionally I have adopted the abbrc\"iat ions of the Liddcll-Sl'Olt·: Jmu:s Gmt-English Lr:ricon (Oxford: C larcndon Press, 1966). or Le..... is and Sho rt 's Lalin Di(tiona~v (Oxford : Clarendon Press. 1966 ). Early C hri stian aut hors not ind uded in any of the fo regoing arc ci u:d according 10 Ihe a htm:viations in Du Cange's Glossarium ,\ltdiat (/ hifimat Lnlinilalis ( Paris, 1840- 50) . In some cases I have had IQ const ruct ahbrc\-iations o r I have chosen 10 c:oma ru cl onc more consistent wi th the others than are Du Ca nge's. for a tabulation and ex planation ofa!lthe ahbreviations, see the Index Lncnrulll (pp. 13 1--&1). Whe re\'er possible. lhurs are cited according tn standard !lulI1berinK S},SII: lI1 S, atrhuugh I havc u nifo rm l}" used Ara bic numerals rather than thc mixtures (If Arabic and Roman o((cn fou nd. C it a tions by pa~e (" p.") rt:fer to th e pagin ation of a pa rticu lar edition, us uall y sta ndard , listed in lhe index I.ocorum . A citatio n of th e form "1.345 , 1- 8" refers to Volum e I, page 345, li nes I~ . I n addition , t he fo llowing abb reviations arc used for seri es, journals, and collect ions: .4c rr Andtnt Chri.Jtiafl II'ritm: Tlu Horb ofthr Fathrr.J in TrnllStation. AiVF Thl .4ntl-Nianr Fathtr.J. Transla tions of the writings of the fathers down to ,\ . Il . 325. Et! . Alexander Robcn s a nd Jamcs Donald son. in~ 10

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Oi, ,e, riuhiJf"htn rhTiJIIi(hrn SrhrijiJltlln (/" m/In } ah rhund"II . Bf'rlin : Akadl'mi(' dc'r \\,iss(' llsc halic'n . 1897- 1%9.

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•fl/n " r i,""il; rhn PI«i" rl SI. Auplttrw (Paris: KQvin, 1933). p. 357 1 cites LaberthOf1R~~ in i.ll~ ~'rra ll f'nlf'rpri~ oflO'hit'h they a re a pari has, as a 'ellll!, had lilllt illnlltn('e on the fashions i ll scholarly work on la te ant iq uit y, For a comprthrnsh'f' ni lin l s lud~' of' OiiI,ICer and tht current Ilill., of Ihe enterprise, sce Eelwin A. J ud,R;f', M'Antikf' und Chris tt nl llm-: T owards i1 l>dini'ion of th.. Field. A 8 ilJlillgmphk..1 SI1 I'\"'~',w ;11 .iuJ.vl"f, I/Iul XII'f/l'lI(f" "R tI~, " j m,,,h,H 11', 1/. H. Temporini and W. f-laaJC {Berlin : Dt- (;nll'tc'" I!';\' ). Pt. :? \ ',,1. :?:I: I. (If'. t - :.i\. " That Cu llmann, at leaM , mtans Jomf't hinll dilff'ff'nt h~' ~ hi s lUry" -n a md r . th~ put- than does Augustinf' is rt
History

aJ'

Inquiry

31

mainder of the passage shows, is the ways of understanding the world of those who are today called pre-Socratic philosophers, but whom Aristotle called q,UOll(.Ol, evidently following Plato in considering that their concern was solely or largely to understand q,ilOl wrrr It's.~I' r ,'rlltrI'S Ill' \'ig-UTOUS l' ultural lirr . .-\11 of these cities produced Utlt only wHrks Ilr scholaf'llhip and philosophy, hut a lso poetry. drama, and hili tory, as wdl as s tucl i('.~ of riwlOri C, grammar, mathematil's, astrunomy , nwdicillt', g-mgr:lph y, and techno logy . f'rcguenlly a \'ari(,IY uf tI\I'Sl' '\I'Tt' prudtll't'd hy a s ingll' pt'rsull .! Yet of all "f Ihis l'ultuml ,u·ti,·iI Y \'(TY litlk Tt'ma ins nesidt"s the Icstimon;t's Iha I il t.K:l'urrt'tI . I TIlt' philostl l>lw rs an' knu\\ 11 h~' a lew rragmellts and hy nulil:('s ill dllxo,l{filphit's. Iht'llIsl'l\TS sUT\';"ing onl )' in fragments in man y I'asr s, whkh allrihuu' llUm('rous wurks 10 the philosophrl'S. Of tht, man y histnri,lIls whnst' namt'S \\'t' know , , li rre Th.. li brarians "I' AI"x;lndril' :lrc; tmoQ(av);' Plato 100 concerned himself "about history ofna· ture."B And at least within the circle of Peripatetic philosophers in the Hellenistic Age, factual inquiry about natural things seems to have been practiced and to have been called [atoQCa,9 meaning the racts or a ractual account about natural phenomena . • D. H . Pomp. 3. 14. ) Plb. 2. t4. 1- 2. ' f: 'lh Plb. 2.14.7; 4.40.3; and Thphr., fr. 12, in Dids, D O 4%, 17- 21 . I Thphr. Fr. I (D O 47~ , 10- 13). I Ibid . f'r . 9 (DO 484, 19-465, 4). ' To Theophrastul an:: attributed iJol4lficGi His/llri,s, Astrf)io,il:Gi Histllry, NllmtriClI1 H istoriu vf Gr/IfD1II, o-lri'GI HuIDri,S, Hislll'J IIf 1111 DiuiM (D. I.. ~ .46-.50) , and the dOllographical 0,. PJ,picGI Op;,till1U, whi ch may have been called 0.. Nllhtraf HiJID'J (Oiels, DC, Pro!., p . 102). Menon is said to ha ve written a history of medicine and Eootmus of Rhodes a NMmffll;Q/ H iJtoq, (;,o",,'ri( 1I1 HislQrUs, and AslrrHlI,iull His/Driu.

38

Idta

if Hi.s/o~)'

The re is a related and ver)' importalll occurrence in the first surviving trt'!3tise on grammar. that of (1)(' s('cond-u'ntury scholar Dionysius Thrax, a student of Aris tarchus. who succeeded Aristophanes of Byzantium as chief librarian at Alexa ndria . According to Dionys ius, the third of the s ix parts (If grammar (YQoYt(~ {(J'(OQ10>; and Plb. 2.62.6; .... 33.2-3; and 8.9.2. ,I D. H. 71. 1.9, 16. a nd 41 : see al$(l.b/. Rom. 5. 11.3. He also has a rormulaic wa y of appealing for confirmation of his evidence to 01 )tOtvoi IcnOOiUl . Ih(' commonly known (published?) hi51orie5; Alll m. 1.:1 a nd 11. Para . 3 refers to Iht co mpilc rs of biog raphin (oi. tou>; JHov>; ilv6Qcirv U\1Yta~J.lEVOl ) .. nd 11 10 A I/his of PhilochoTUs.

His/ory

aJ

a Lilerary Gtnre

41

assessment of alternative courses of action. In this connection Polybius moralizes about the foolishness of mcn who, taking no precautions, allow their enemies to trade in their very marketplace, although they might acquire "such experience from history (b ti'j ~ (moQia~ ... 'tT)v to~autTIv qu,:ElQ(av)."" But perhaps the IOCILJ ciaJsiau for this view of the value of his tory is a passage from the Art of Rirttorn of Dionysius of Halicarn assus: "And Plato says this too, that the poe tic, by beautifying the many deeds of the ancients, educates those who are born later. For educa tion ( nalC~£la ) is the conjoining of oneself ( lvt Eu1;l~) with character. And Thu cydides seems 10 sa y this, speaking about history (1CEQi. [otoQia~): that hislory is phi/oroph.J from examples (on xat {OtoQ(a cPtAooO$(a tm:lV tx naQO.bElYIl6.tWV) ."20

If history as a sp«ies of literature has its specifK cultural or practiC',d values, it also has its specific standards. In Polybius' words, "if truth (lv.:r18ua ) is ta ken away from history (t; totoQ(a~) what is left of it is a useless tale."ll In addition to this standard for the relationship between the account and its subject matter, there a re also precepts of art that concern choice of subject, arra ngement, style, and so fonh,'1'l matters that need not be discussed here. For the present purposes it is sufficient to observe that {atOQ(a has come to bc the name for a species of literature and a cultural phenomenon . Indeed the Epistle of Dionysius of Halicarnassus to Pompey, already mentioned , is largely a discussion of the art of history writing. And treatises "On History " (J'tEQl {m:oQ(a~), apparently a bout history writing, are attributed to Theophrastus and to Praxiphanes." The modal distinction between history as the fa cts and history as literature is also found in the occurrences of lmoQELv in Hellenistic writings. It is still used occasionall y in its original sense of inquiring for the facts about persons, things, or events. Polybius, concluding a n account of the " tragic" accounts of Hannibal's crossing of the Alps, says that he can report confidently about these Ihings " because of having inquired (ImoQTIxEvm) about the events from those who were " Plb. 5.15.5-6; see " Iso 1.1.1- 2,35.9- 10, ;,and 2.35.5-6. • D . H. RA. 11.2; sec also Plb. 2.6 1.3-6. 7. Plb. 1.14.5-6: see " Iso 3.20.5. n C hoice subjec:l: D. H . PWI/I . 3, 4, 6. Arr"ngemenl: Plb. 3.57.4- 5, 58. 1, 118.12. Conclusions: D . H . Pomp. 3. ., For Theophr,utus. sec D. l. 5.47. The claim of G. A ~arius (L ...."" ScJrri{t wr GrWtiI:htudtrilnm,d IhiIl Thc:oplu,lS!us' work cannot h,,~ ~n "bout hiMOf)' writin g is rejelyt.J : CII" " II NOtlllm. (London, 1977), pp.118- 14 i] . n Philo SfH'. Lt,. 2.146.

54

/dID DJ Historv

s tall ed " in a way wry new aucl wOrlh being re'co rd ~d (o.SlOV lato-

QT)6l'1vm)."1I Hr uses Ih(" same phrase in anolhrT plac~ , s aying ' . ·' Th~ mann~r of his [i.t'.. Noah'sJ prcs('n'alioll . as the sacred books contain iI, is " 'orlh heing rt'c()rdf'd hoth :.t ~ a mar\'cl and for Ih(' improvement of charaClcr, " 71 The \'nh is thus lI s t,cI only ill tht' passh'c. whkh . as alrtady nOled . is typically Hrllrnislic ilnd thl' ml'alling suggested . also typically 'i ('lI('nistic. is " ht'in~ n'nmlcd " ra lhrT than lil(" u ldfl' sense of " iuquin· ... TIll' U Sil,I (t' is .~ landard . hut the ohjects in\'()iwd art' cenainly 1I0t ; Ilx 1111' inl(lrmaliufI n '('o rdrd has to d o with ,he o rigin of I h(' Passo\'('r FCllst. tlu- installa lion tlf , he .J l'wis h prit's ts. and tht t scap{' fir ~I)ah from till' Iwlly flI" Ihr wha\r , Thr firsl IWO, conc.:erned wi ll! Ihe rilt,s IwrlclI'lTlrd hy :l errt"iu proplt' , easily ('o m· pare with history undt>I'Stoud as t' lhno,' traphil'al informatio n ; and the acco unt of Noah '~ ('s('a l)(' is nIT likr histnTY IIndl'r~IfHKt as an ('mo· tionally chargt""d "\'t' nl in 0\ p,' rson's lifr , This same ness and dim'n'lH'\' "Iso ;tppt'ars in Philo's uses of lOlopla a s fat'ls ur informaliotl. Tht'rt' is 11 fir s I Kroup tlf liSt'S c:onct' TIl ing nalural phenome na , In a ,'tt' lwrai ~t' II St' Ill' ~ay.s Iha l nflhusf" ....·hn !i!;0 abroad for 101l!i!; p('rind s Ill' liml' "smn(' acquiT(' lmoQCav or what they did not know pr('viously,"- ' Mort, s pel'ifil'ally, ht, points out that his in q uiry into Ih(' rcaSlJII why l\ l os('s sp"ak!! uf Ih(' "li ps" of a ri\'('r " is nol about Ihe hi~l(Jr y or rin'rs (1lEpi Jlt)tu~,uov iOToQ(a~ )": ;'; and he memio ns Ih(' {(JlOQia ahuut tht, Ski li an slrails and tht' imoQlav about the ~('OKraphy (If I)t'los and Rlul{lt's , ,. Thr last two passagrs an' liHlIld in Philu's statrm('nt and c.:ritidsm of four argume nts 'ilT tlu- cl't'alio l1 and futurf' ti{'Slruction of the world , Th(' fi-lUTlh argumt'111 ru11S as ,i./tows;

till' .mintOlls iu it wnuld h(' rH:rlas tin~ also. and most t'sprdally till' human ral'!, iml.~lIIurh a s il i! 5u p~ rior to tht' resl. Hut man ai!IC) i.~ 5,"' 11 to hr IIr latr tlri,l(in hy IIltIs!" who wish to Sl"areh into Iht' liu'u of nalurt', For it i ~ pruhablr or rathrr nrc"sa ~· that thl' ~xis t r n ('t' ..r tI)(' ans should t'(lim:icl,' with that of man , that they are in ract CtI!'\,al, Itut onh IIt't'a llsl' sySh'rn a nd nlr thod art' naw-

If tht' world was

TJ

t' \"\~ r l:t s liu~ ,

Philo I'. J/OJ. :.!.I .B.

" I bid, 1,59, " Philo AI" , (,.~ .

'" Philo So",~ , 2 3112 , " Philo :1/1 , ,1111f1d, t1f1 and

t :I ~I.

History as a Littrary Genre

55

ral to a rational animaJ , but also because it is impossible to live witkout them , disregarding the myths palmed ofT on the gods by tlu: playwrights .... But if man is not from everlasting, so ndther is any other living creature, therefore neither the regions which have given them a habitat, ea rth a nd water and air. This clearly shows that the world is destructible.

But Philo objects that the arts:

It

is fo lly to measure man by the standard of

And if indeed people must say that the a ru are coeval with the race of men, then they muu speak with natural histo,), (11£0' [atOQ'o.s: UOIXils:) , not unquestioningly and carelessly. And what is the history? (~6 ' {UlOQ{o.l'~ ; ). 18

What foll ows ( 146-49), that is, the "na tural history," is a very genera l account of the cyclic destruction of things on earth by fire and water, which seems to be largely derived from Plato's LaW! and TimatltS.79 In a ll of these cases, {moQla is concerned with natural phenomena and indicates the facts or information o r a fac tua l account about them , that is, a piece of knowledge of a certain kind , rather than the account in itself. a piece of literature of a certain kind . There is a second g roup of uses of {otOQ{a as lacts or information, which reminds us of Dionysi us Thrax because of the repeated mention of " history" as a part of grammar and hence of education . " Knowledge of the encycylical studies," he says, "adorns (he whole spiritual house; grammar on the one hand, searching into the poetic and investigating the [oroQ(av of ancient happenings."1O I have t.ranslated the genitive plurJi tyxUXMWlI, in the lil'st line of l his passage. "of the encyclical studies," as an ellipsis for i ·'Yx:ux).,ws -nO-WE(o. . This phrase. recurrent in ancient writings,' ! sugges ls the same sort of " I btd. 1 ~6. trans. Colson (Loeb). "Iu ColMXl notes in his A.ppendi,; to thi, pauage (LMb 9 : 530). Philo is simila.rly dependent upon these passages in the U W I ilnd Ti"'lIt11J ror his accou nts of terres trial disaJten at Ab,. I and Y. MOl. 2.53. and 2.263 . • Philo CMT. 105 . •• For a r"Ih=r di scussion of the ty,tintl.t~ l1uI6du a nd citation of lhe sources , see Hem-i Marrou, A H ug? of EJllUltio" i" A"tif""i!], tnlns. Gcorge Lilmb (London: She-ed and War·d . J956). pp. t76-7i . and 1-1. Fucks. ··[nkykl ius paifokia:· Rm llr.ci* PII [ fi r An,i*, and CllriJr,ntum 5::565-98. Philo (D, C:onKTI'llU qunf'TI'ndar Enuli/imlis KIn/in) u!'Cs the rather more complicated phrases Tl\v lWv ~owv XOt tyxux).1.wv tn:1tm"J1JWv .."tOT)V nUI6cicrv ( 14) and '" t"'(x\nU.lO/i JWOOUt1t (23) .

56 thing wc mean by "general education" as distinguished from specialized or professional education. It refers to a regular set of s ubjects, a "cycle o(studies," acquaintance with which was thought to constitu te the necessary foundation fOf any socially significant career.1I1 The cnC)'clica l sTudies mentioned in the present passagf' are, besides grammar (which seems

includt· put·try and " hislUry"), gt'omct ry, music, a nd rhetoric. However, ill his trealise on preliminary education. Philo has Wisdom ad\'js(' us to hold intefmurse with this cnc\'di cal edu cation because "I' the \'arious orrs pring that our association with each of these st udies will ocget. " Fur ( the study nf) Grammar will produce latOQiav. the thought brought lorth hy the poets and prose wrilers, a nd wealth of in formati 0 11 (noAu!-'a8drtv )." And h ~ also mentions the clfeets produc('d hy music. gcometry, rhetoric and d iall'ctic. I.ater in the same work he says Ihal his uwn assuc.:ia lion wilh gramm ar taug ht him " writing. reading and lotoQiav of tht, works of Iht" poets. " MI In all of th ese passages, history is considerrd a part or product orthe st ud y of grammar, as it was hy Dionysiu.'I Thrax, Wherr the gramma· rian's usagr len oprn thl' ra ngt" of subjects of history. Philo tends to limi t it to even ts. SI) also tht' (Om01el1l:Ho rs of thr work of Dionvsi us. But in ei ther case. hislOry indicatt's the: fa cts ur information rathcr than the account of them . it kind or knuwl('d,l1;t' rather than a kind of literature. Onc investigates ( ~ETabu1Jxou oa ) it .~ 1 or f{'c(,j"cs learning (aVaAi)wlv) ofjt . ~:' ra ther than writing or com posi ng it. Likcwist' , insofa r as it is trealrd in conj unct ion with pu(· try, as th(' IWO pa n s of grammar, it is a kind of knuwledgc rather tha n it species of literature, tu

.. Wernu Ja~Rer' s infl utn tial illlnpretati ol! ot'anfient ~ducational thought . Pllidt ;lI, should perhaps be supplemrnled hy MarTOu ( £dll(lIlioll jll Antiqll i~'I, especially P. 2. Cha.p. 11 :.Ind COIlc:t1,l~ ion , This f lll1"'dica.1 Mucation .... as takt o o"tr by tht Romans, who ga"t 10 tht s1,lhjf'cU Iht collrt!i\'c namt lilwr,,{u (II /, J, Tht " Ii brral arlS.- at first oinf' a nd later Sf'\'cn, alld di" id rd ;111 0 lh~ T rh';um and tht Quadri\';um. werr Ihe $ulmance of m«lit"al td ucation, St~ M , I.. W, ]'aiSIIlf'r. " Pagan Sc:hools and C hri stian Tcac ht~." in Lib,r F lon'tk.... lIilltll"lti~ iJrll' SIIIlJjt~. p, IAlm"~n ~ ..'" 65, G,6..,lsIIII 1'/L'ia,",I, «I, B, 8 i$chon' a nd S , 8n·l;httr. pp, -1 ' -61. Tht "b"lI/~ ,,,Its mar hll"~ fallen into some disrepute .1monR thr SdHlllUtin, hut 5IiJllo rm M Iht bas is for th ~ r~m:.lki rlg oI' the curri ~rnl':a l~ic:.a l: of the gcncalOl'!;ical, om: pari is abou t thr punishmrnts "r thr impious, the olhcr is about the honors of Ihr jUM. Now WI' mu.~ t lita!r why hr [i , ~ .. M osrsJ ~an his law books with that I>arl and pU I Ihr pari about commands and punishOll"nt!t. s(,CClnd . For h t, did lIot . likf' a pros(' ~' ri tf' r (OUYYQ . •• Quill l. /tu l. 12.2.22, 11.1 7.

Pal.

History as Story

65

In imperial limes, however, the persons whose " histories" are mentioned have ~gun to lose that stature. The younger Pliny , for example, encouraged to write history by his friend Capito, says that he wants to do 50, "Not that I have any confidence of success . . . but ~cau se I hold it a noble task to rescue from oblivion those who deserve to be eternally remembered , and ex tend the fame of others, at the same time as our own ." 19 Pliny wants to rescue the deeds of certain individuals, not necessarily of heroic proportions, Similarly, Suctonius tells us that L. VohaciJius Platus "set forth the cxploits (m gtSlas) of Pompey's father, as well as those of the son, in several books. He was the first of all freed men to write history (scribtrt hiJtoriam ), in the opinion of Cornelius Nepos, which had been written on ly by men of the highest position before that time."20 FronlO, too, was encouraged by Marcus Aurelius to write a " history" of his brother's deeds ,21 and history about an ordinary mortal is a common use by Aulus Gellius .l1 Gellius seems almost aware of the lesser intrinsic importance attaching to a Jlistoria as he uses the term . He tells us " the en tertaining history (ioamda JriJtoria )" of how Papirius Praetextatu s got his surname." Although the tex t of Book 8 of his NIXtes Auicat has disappeared, the titles of the various chapters survive; that of Chapter 16 is "A pleasant and remarkable history (JriJtoria ... iocunda tt miranda ) from the books of Heracleides Ponticus." And Chapter 5 of Book 6 contai ns "A noteworthy history (Jristoria , .. mnnoralu digna ) about the actor Polus ." Earlier, to call something a " history" at leas t impli ed that it was an accurate account , and that thcre was some importance attaching to it . For Gellius , however, what seems 10 be important is not so much that the account be true or important but that it be entertaining or that it point a moral. 24 Aristotle had already distinguished poetry or fables from history on the grounds that poetry aims at pleasure, while history aims at truth or " PHny Ep. 5.S. I, trans, Mtlmoth (l...(M:b). ilDS uet. Rful. 3; cr. Pliny Ep. 6. 16.71f. The account 10 TacilUs of h is uncle's deuh in tht eruption or Vcsuvius is leiJlltrilf, though he is aware that " there is a great difference belwC'Cn a lelter and a IeUll/rill." 71 Fronto, p. 191,4-5. !t E.g .• Gell. NA \.8. 1, 23. 1; 3.7.cap.; ...5.cap.; " .5.6 ; 14.u .p.; 6 .19.ca p.; 7.9.ca p.; 13.2. t . ft Cell. NA 1.73.cap. :k Gell. NA 4.20. 10; and cr. Apul. Md. 2.17, 6.29, 7, 16, 8.1. ThaI Gclti UI had leu than scholarly intentions in writing hil wort is indicated by his sayinR that it was hi5 el1deavOII' (ne"f0tiNIII) only "10 It"'W Ihese NiI,ltt$ or mine ligh tly here and Ihere wilh ;It few of theK nowers of history (ltiJtorilU j1o.fClliis)" [ t 7.21.1, \rans. Rolre (Loch» ).

66

Idta

of Hisfo~"

accuracy. Th is ancien! dis tin ction between pot"try and hi story is now beginning to fade . Scnt'ca advises Ih e hot-te mpe red man 10 train his mind . " Let the reading of pocms soothe it and let history hold it by its fables ifabulis); let it be led solil y and ddi ca lt'l y:' ~" Suetonius info rms us abou t Tiberius that " his spt'cial a im was a knowl edge of fabulou s history (noliliam his/{)riatjabularis). which he ca rrird to a silly and laughable rxtcnt. ":/I, And j lls t as G('lIius fqui vocalffl in Iht" d istinction between hisloria ami nnnaltJ. so IUO h(' ('quivoca les about hisloria and Jab ula . Tilt" title of Book 16. C h apler 11 is: "His/oria taken from Iht' books of Hrrodotus a ho u! tht' destruc tion or,h(' " s)'Hi": but then he says l ha l it was in Ih(" lo urth huok uf Hf' rodotw; that he found " this fablc (Mncjaouiam) ahout tht· Psylli ."!; This firs t e xpansion ur tilt' idra uf history suggests a relaxation of the earlier standard s. The Ilt'rsons itn'oh-m a re sti ll. for t he most part , fa mo us. hut thry a r(' simpl y not of th(' sut:ial and cultural stat· ure of the ea rlier usagr. Ami as t he di sti nction bcl\.\·t'f'1l history and ~ try is blurred . truth or a C (' ur ac ~' as th(' dis tinni\'l' ('haract('ristic of t he kind of a C'count called histaria ~i\'('s way s()mt'what to e n(rrtai n· mt:nI o r pleasu rf' . Hf'rf' hisloTio s('t"ms \ 0 han' murr Iwad y the mean· ing of o ur wurd "story" th an nf o ur word " his tory"': indted . this would seem to be Ih(" brginning of tht· dt"\'rlopmc llt of .. S lOry ... •.. If a his to ry is an ar.co unl of Ih(' 1i1(' I!'i ahoul Tt' al thi nKS tht Ilt)in! of which is to inform , and a titbit· is an a Cl'uun l of unTral thin~ s the point of whi ch is 10 enlcrlain or In plt·asf'. 111(' 11 a s tory is all a ccount of the fac ts about real Ihin~s thr puint of whidl is to ('nterta in. please. or point a mo ral. The second ex panded USt' of hisloria is history a s the past. l\lost uses of historia about (,\'en ts ha\"(' to du wit h Ih(' li te,MY genre . When il means thr- fac!s or informa tiun . hO\\'r\,('r. the limits nf il an' \"agu('. History about pe rsons is usua ll y limited tll ;t particu lar episode in Ihe person 's life ; prrh aps this is h('uusl' of t ht· rx igt'ncit's of dramatic lite rature in w hich this USt' is most often found. a nd prrha ps ht"cause Srn. Dilll. 5.Y, 1. ... Sur!. r i". 10.3; "mt t·r. ju\'. SfJl.

1\

1U. 1 7.~.

': Cdl..\'A 16. 11.3. S imilarl ~' M JIG / illt ill U ~'/I: ...Im. rt.lI:ul;uly r~lt rs to a ("(OUIIII or tht gods artt r ...·horn Ihl:' cunut ll alioll~ an' n;!;mffi: fO .l!: .. pp. :11 . 18: 111. 7: ti6. 6: 71. 25; 73.21-22. :\ l:\o Grll. SA 3.3.11. U ~'~inus him:w-Ir: Surwn ill~ I~ II , U$. •• ... a~ calltd Pol~" hislOr on ac(ou III or hi , koo ...·lrdF\t of amiquil y. :, son fir hI1/0r;1I ~ ( (j/llI1lWl. 2(1) . , - Th is 1:11(' 11 ...· " I' /,j"/"",,, '" ",a/"" I"" h.'('1I III I It, [)"I1l I ~ II ' 1" '1 i~t " .. i:o." . 1" /"" f '" l.I" ~""_'f fI,. 1.,..,in'.( '''IJ.i,. 11",1 '( ;wlH f/l lllilr {lot'jp/,il( : ., \ 'ulo' 1('I". 11'11'11'1 . :~ : :!:IU.. :1-1 . C l . H OT. 5..,,11. 1.3: Prop. 3.2tJ.2.i- 2H.

"t..

67

History as Story

PlO;. or what we should call " biography," was a literary genre distinct from history.'19 The limi ts of a history about natural things are those of the kind of thing that is the subj ect-genus. The limits of a history about events as literature are tho!>e of a particular written history. HiSloria as facts about events should derive its limits, li ke history of natural things. from the limits of the subject-genus . But whereas the limits of a genus of material things is, a t least broadly speaking, clear, the limits ofa genus of immaterial things-for ex",m· pie, the events of a nation or people-arc not clear without furthcr specification. Thus history as facts about events of a nation could be taken , ana logously with history of natural things, to indicate all the facts, the aggregate of information, the past as it were--though it is not in general clear whether it is the whole past or some portion of the past. When Cicero complains that through the preservation of laudatory speeches " the history of our affairs (Jrisloria rerum nostrorum ) has been made more faulty," )O it is not clear what "affairs" he means, though by "our" he presumably means " of Rome." He says this explicitly in another place, observing tha t "Roman history is obscure {obscura ut Iristoria Romana)," since we do not know the name of the father of King Ancus Martius.'1 Elsewhere, however, Itiston'a seems 10 indicate a more extended past . He criticizes the Epicureans because "in your discourses history is silent (ltistoria muta tst ). In the school of Epicurus I have never heard ment ion of Lycurgus, Solon , Mihiades. ThemiSlOdes, Epaminondas. "32 And he sometimes even seems to be thinking of the past altogether; for it is objected tha t, although the oracle at Delphi has declined , still "you must admit what cannot be denied , unless we pervert all history (nisi omntm historiam Jurvtrttnmus ), that for many centuries the oracle was true. "" History as the past is a somewhat more frequent use in imperial times. Propertius says, " Fame, Rome, is not ashamed of your history (Fama, Roma, tuat non pUdd hislonOt)."J' Aulus Gellius relates a discourse of the philosopher Taurus about the courtesi es that fathers "On incient biognphy, KC A. Momigliino. "Problem, or Ancient

8ioRraph )",~

QuCllrJe CMJrib-M/(! GitCII Sum'/I drgli Sflltli CI/I.U>ci (Rome, \969), pp. 77- 94, and 171, IJfmtmJ o/Grnl. BiogrttfJ"} (Cambridge: H uvard University Prol, 1971 ). :. Ci r;. BOl. 16.62 . 11 Ci r;. R'P. 2.18.33; er. Di~. 1.18.37. 12 Cic. Fi". 2.21.67; Di~. 1.24.50.

er.

"Cic. Di~. 1.19.38 . .. Prop. 3.22.20; abo 3.4.10, and cf.Juv. Selt. 2.103.

Dn~l­

GB

-

Uta of . Ilis/or.,

and sons ought (0 show ~ach other a long with L; an example from Roman history (IX hu/oria Romana )." And he tells us " what errors Julius Hyginus observed in th~ Sixth Book orVergil, errors in Roman history (in Romalto his/oria trralos):'I:, Thc cider Plin y insists thal horns, prop«=rly so called , art' found only on quadrupeds, and h e m:~ reckons as fabu lous both AC{('()n "and also Cipus in thr. Latin history (in. Latia his/orio ):' who arc allr:gcd to lIa\'(' grown horns." In these passages hisloria sct'ms 10 indicatc the aggregate of inlormation about evenls. that is, the past. From a modern point of vic\'o the two expanded meaningsj usI dis· cussed , history as .story and histo ry as the past. might seem 10 mUH in opposite directions from Iht' older c('nter of meaning , For wt' te:nd to associate: the notion of "s ton'" with liction and falst'hood but "t he: past" with tht' "scicncr" of histo ry, which , w(' s upposr, tells us the facts and tht' truth . From the ancient pHint of view, however, the two expansions were congruent , al> is illus trated by an epigram on the too li ttle appreciated fact that Vt'rgirs .-tf'IIf';d sur\'i\'ed the author's death only in viola tion of the j ~xplicil provisions of his will . I quote the ent ire passage from Probus ' I.ift of Vir,eil (:12-'18 ); The Af1If'id ..... as Sct vro by AU/ot;U5tus , althou!(h I \'r'q~ i ll himsdf had prO\'ided in his will that th(' parIS !If it that hr had nUl publishc:d shou ld not survi ve: which Ser\·ius \ 'arus atte~ t s in th(' followin.': cpignm : Virgil had ordcr('d dt'5truyed in devlluring £1amu Th('se w ngs .....hich s in~ the Pbrygia n leilder. run';1 and " ;lrlUS IOj.{t·lht'1' "pp(l~': ~ 1It1 , ).(Tt'a l t' ~ 1 C:a ~ lr,

])u

11111

allow it

;ltIcI

art'

luul;.ill g'

" h t'!' L.uian

hi sl ur~' ,

To preserve the: written poems is to prest'n't' thf' hisloria, the: aggregale of information about the pas t. There are some other occurrenct's, however, in which it is less clear wlu':ther what is meant is tht' infiJrmatinll fX"r se or a wrille n account. Vergillaments t he loss of Octa\"ius' Roman " history:'" Gr-llius me n'\ Gt!I. ,v. , 2.2.n p.;

rr.

Epi.f. . H , I!.!!. ... Plin~· H,' · 11.1 23. Thf' Slory of Cipus is .t! .. lro oolh in Q v. ,\lrl. IS.S65 and in \ ·al . :.tax, 5.6.3. Gdli u! un f" ·f'n riiSlinKui1h IX1"·f'f'JI kuowill!it aboul PraXilf'lf's tJ/

IO. 16.np.:

liI"iJ I1 tJ/ himmll Cl3. 17.4) . " V f'r!( , CIIIIII. 11 (1 4). h.

~larl .

Hislory as Story

69

tions Asellio "and several other writers of Roman history," and tells us things that are "written in Greek history."" Similarly, Pompeius Festus tells us how Rome got her name according to .. Antigonus, the writer of Italian history" and mentions a "writer of Cuman history."" " History" in these passages may refer to an unspecified written account-that is, the proper reading may be "writer of an Italian history" or "written in a Greek history"~r it may refer to the subject of the writing, the Greek, Roman , or Italian past. Perhaps there is some of each involved . The unity of a history as the facts about events was previOusly episodic, similarly a history about persons. In a larger or smaller compass, it was the facts about some past events. In this second expansion , history as the past, these racts are being drawn together into a conceived whole. There are not very many such uses in early imperial time5 , and they are often equivocal. However, ror the first time lu'ston"a is being used to indicate Ihe whole past of a nation or a people; for thc= first time " history" resembles what we mean when we say that something "has a history." Arter the Battle or Actium the political dependence or the Greek world on the Roman was complete. Mainland Gr~ce, along with Macedonia and Thessaly, had already been united as thc= province or Achac=a. And now Egypt was being exploited ror Rome. A hot~ of anti-Roman sentiment and hence kept 5ccurely under Roman domination, Alexandria ceased to be the greatest eenter of literature and science; the Greek cities of Asia Minor, to whom Rome granted a measure of municipal freedom , came to have a vigorous cultural lire in the first centuries of the Roman Empire. This is reflected in the unfamiliar names of the towns rrom which many writers or this period came. The remains of Greek intellectual life under the early empire are far more extensive than those of the Hellenistic Age; but they show little creativity, little originality. If this later age: sees the: first flowering of the: prose romance, it also sees the increased production of catalogues, compendia, anthologies, and compilations. There is a marked decline in poetry; the living movements or the age were in prose, but a prose which, like the Latin prose or the same time, is ·~II . NA 1.13.10; 6.1.1. ,. $.". Roman, p. 328, 2- 7.

70

/dtD OJ Hislo~"

strongly marked by the influence of rhetoric-and for the sa me feason: in the Greek·s~akjng world as in the Latin-speak ing, roucalion was it predominantly rhetorical enterpri se a nd , consequently , rhetoric influenced ever)' branch of intellcclUal culture. Nor was this influ ence, on tht' whole, bt=neficial. Thr uratorical sty le of the Hcl1t'nistic Age tended 10 he flowery and bombastic. Toward Ihe ('nd of the period a Traction SN in. an attempt to Trlurn In an idealbO:l..-d purity of the ancie nt Alti c . ~' This " Allicism ," h OW('\'t'T , nl) [('ss than the wAsian ism " it oPJXlst"d , wa s rarrif'd tu ('x tr(:n1(' s. in this case' to an excessive and lud icrous archaism which, i ll tUrI! . prU\'okL-d a enu nlerreaction . U ndC'T the empire, from our point of\'j(,w at !i'as!. Ihe worst

characteristics of both st\·les wl"re ('ombined in a rent'\\'('d burst of rhetorical activity called th,' Sel'Ond Sophistic. The shirts of meaning and relaxation s of s('mantiC' boundaries observed in the uses of his/ono during tht· t"ariy (·mpif(· may also be found in th e uses of lmoQEtv·{mOQlo. though there is litt le c han~(' by and large. The verb is st ill used occasio nally in its old est st"ns(" of " inquiring , " tI and a few times it indicates learning by inquiry or discovering:'? Usua ll y, as in the Hellenistic A!l:c . it mcans " report ," " relate," or " record ." What is " reportro " may st ill he facts about natural things and customs. H and in the empirical m('dica l tradition "reported" case histories a r(" \' t"~. important ." Episod('s in tht" livcs of semilegendary persons are also " report('d ."11 but mosl often social and pol itical events. I/o These us('s of thC' \'('rh are familiar: hut the usage is relaxed in se\'era l ways. First, the pt"rsons arc of decreased '" Ho...·ever, A. 1::. Dougla:s l ~ l ntrodu(:tion~ tu .11. 1;'1/; (;j(t1(111 is n""~J, ed. l>O ugl,u (Oxford, 1966). pp. xii-xi"1 arguc5 that the Alli(:ill COlllro\,rfS>' 'us fral but Ihat ~ill significance has bren greatly cuggeralM b)' modern !cholan" (p. xiii). Sce .. Iso E. S. Gru~n, "Cicero and Calvus," Han.'fJrd SI. i~ Cl. Pfti/III. 71 ( 19661 : 2:12-:1:1. I' ArT. £pUI. 2 .14.28, Ludan SJ'. D. 11. Piu. C~,iIlJ . 5 16C, S.I:: . .\fa/ft . 11.191. "Arr. £pit /. 3.7.1. S.E. Ma/It 11.1 91. " Act. PIN. 5.7 (L>ie\s, IX; 419. 12- UII. Uel';«'l. Q. " "11' 12B, 20. But latOQia is dcfined as ~ thc narnllioll (6u'lyflOt;) of whal has oftell br~n experienced in thc same wa y" ( 121.9- 10; and cp. [Gal.] t/ooyWyTj '" latQC'll; 100. 11- 20),50 Ihat n ch or the arguablc citations abo,·C' ('I n bt read as r('laling In thosc ... ho ha,·c handed do ... n, i.c. " rel ated" or " rc£onied" ("as(' hi5loriu. " E.g. Luda n Alu. I , B. S.l::. Malll . 11.1 91. .1::.11'. D .C . 7.25.6 (Zonaras ), 7.2.5.1. Hdn . HiJI. 3.7.3. 7.6. Lucian HiJl. { //fIIf'. 1. Piu. Gill. AI1I. 3470-1::, Athen. 6.23.5C-D. 1.217 f·, 8.211." . 13.60.50-1::,14.6 158,6481::.

.se",,,.

History Q$ Story

71

stature. Sextus Empil"icus sets down things tha t arc "recorded" about Pyrrho:' the founder of Skep ticism, and about Pythagoras ..a Then again, what "is related" may have to do with people famous in political affairs. Dio Cassius spea ks of a certain Quadratus whose mistress, Marcia, became the mistress of the emperor Commodus, elder son of Marcus Aurelius: " It is related ({moQ£lTUt) that she greatly favored the Chrisfians and did them many good turns, in sofar as she could do anything with Commodus.".9 The ~rsons are also sometimes just ordinary people, though notable for some particular. Sextus Empiricus, for example, cites Aristotle's Mtleor%gica (3.4 ): "Aristotle tells (lmoQEi) of a Thasian who fancied that the image of a man was always going in front of him . " )0 There is a second relaxed sense of lO'tOQElV in which the stature of the persons involved is greatly enhanced; for it is also used to "relate" episodes in the lives of the gods outside the dramatic context . Dio Cassius remarks that Commodus strangled two Cilician brothers, "j ust as Heracies, when an infant, is reporled (LOT6{»tTat) to have strangled the serpents sent against him by Juno."SI Similarly, in his Homtric QutStiotu, the literary critic Heracii tus says, " It is record ed ({moQOuOl, lit ., they say) that Mnemosyne is the mother of the Muses" and several times observes what is, or ought to be, recorded about the gods . n Plutarch, too, frequently teUs us what is " reported" about the gods. s3 These relaxed uses also suggest that the earlier pres umption, that what was being related was facts of some imparlance, no longer holds so strongly. Among those whose " reports" are ci ted in these texts are not only historians, in the broad sense of anyone who writes a prose account of past events, but also philosophers, antiquarians a nd scholars, poets and rhetoricia ns. For Pluta rch, at least, the factuality of what is reported seems to have little to do with the instances in which he uses the verb; he even tells us5-t what " the mythographers relate (Ol ~u8oAoyoiivT£~ [0tOQOuol) . " ./ .llalh. 1.272 . .. MalA . 9 ,366; cf. Piu. QCOIII>. 7. 715£, 733C, 8. 728E, etc. .. 72.4.7; cr. Piu. A/"". Ftnt. 330A, 33 1F, QRD"'. 2720, elC. ,co Pp . 1.84; cf. Piu. Mill . I 136C, QRDIft. 267B-C, 272F. " 72.7.2; cr. Hdn. Hut. 1.1 1.5. " pp. 39, 15--40, 9; 63, 5- 13; 77, 9---19; 80, 20-81, 9; 84, 11- 16; ilnd 89, 2- 15. 'It E.g., Piu. FD1t. R_. 3208 ; 11368; QCfllI•. 9.738f , 74 IA; QGr. 2938 ; QRfIf/I. 759A, 27810'. 285E . ... Piu. Qjltml. 2680.

"'tU.

72

/dta of Hislory Similarly with lO'tOQlQ in tht: Grt=c:k of the early e mpire. h still

means, as in the Hellenistic period. a factual account in terms of the account-giving, that is, a literary genre, ei ther as a ge nr~' or as a work of that gen re, a history;\Ii And I.ucian wrOle an entire work on How to Write History:~l He distinguishes history from ~lry (as well as from panegyric) and insists that it be kepI separate."" In voking th(' ancient distinction , he says Ihat poelTr aims at pleasure but history must aim at usefulness and at "setting fo rth lht" truth (tit" ti} ~ 0.)..T}6dar;; bllkwOlV ) ...... " For this o nc thing [i .I',. to rclatt' the rHo t as it happened, wr;; btQ6:x9'l h 1tElVJ . as I havt' said . is lhe peculiarity of history (t610V [atoQlac;). Onc must sac rificl' only 10 truth (Tfi clAT]8dQ), if onc is goi nR to write history; and one must subordinate all other aims to this one.""" Herod ian agrees with this.hl So dot's Plutarch ,62 though h(' is so keen ly aware of the pleas ure tha t history gives as to suggest that th e pleasu re of fi ction and poetry deri\'(' from their simi larity to history in point of trulh .ft ' And Iht' 5ubjt'ct matter of history must have a ce rta in dignit y, al leas t ac('ording 10 Dio Cassius, who ortt=n eharaclerizt=s incidt=nts as worthy c)r un worthy of the digni ty of hiSTOry (6 tils lcnoQlas 6yx~ ), ur wOfl hy of a plac(' in hi story. b4 The noun is also used in its other mode, as a n account the fac tua lity of which is t=mphasized rather than Ihf" account-giving; and this, as in the earlier period. about social a nd political even t s~ \ and also about huma n customs or natural things.'''; Thus in Galen and the empirica l tradi tion the use of a fact ua l account (lcnOQlO) of previo us cases, rt=mt=dies used , and their rt=su its is til(' repository of the JtEiQo or £lUttlQlO· ' that is their slarli nR poi nt .... and their difTerenc(' from E.g., D.e . 72.23.2, Mu. T yr. Diu. p. 28, 5; S.t: ..\flflh. 1.063. '" E.g., D.e. 37 .17.4; 4O.6H: Did. III D. 12. 47; Hdn . Hil l . 1.11.1 : 2. 1.1 : 15. 11 - 13;

!II

Lucia n H UI. (1I1lSf'. 55; PIu. Cni6J. 5 17F. " Th~ exp~ssion

ImOQiov O\l"fYQO!p€iv occurs frtqul'llI l ~': Hid. r~IIJ(,. 2, 4. 5. 6. 16,

17 .

... Lucian Hid. tlllUCT. 1.8, and 10; er. Hdn . J/isl. 1. 15.7 fin . \4 Ibid. 9; d . 42 and 63. ie Ibid. 39; Max . T yr. also appreciatts th(' td ul'a tional \';llu(' of .IIislQ~1 [DiSI . p. 28, CH;) .

•• Hd n. Hut. 1.1.1 , 1.4. 11 Piu. M lfUglI . 855B-F.

() Piu. HQ" PQJs. 1092!-'- 1095A: cr. Max. Tyr. Diss. p. 18, 5. .. D.e . 54.23.]; 57.24.6; 59.22.-S; 66.9.4: 67.8. 1; 72.18.3. ~ D.e. 56. HI.!; VllI. (;, ... ~ 75 1!...C

"E.g., App. H L>l. 12.103; (;.. 1. '1'11'11. 'F.ml>., p. :.!~i . m... IK: l'lu. Q!.:,,,,;o. 8.i2.jIJ. ~' QQiat . (127,9- 10 D.); a lf;nio. 3.2. 12 (95, 15-2OD.); dooy. (91. ~33 D.).

to

dooy. (100. 17- 20 D.);

1..-(. 11/1.

ril. (9 1, 29-33D ).

History 4$ Story

73

th~

competing dogmatic and m~thod ol og ical medical schools,69 as well as an important ~ducational tool. 1II Two further points ar~ worth noting about this use of the case history: first, because other schools also employ such cas~ histories" and because not all such accounts are necessarily true, "some criterion of the history «((J'toQla) must be found , by which we shall distinguish the true one from the false ones. " 72 And second, the criterion turns out to be 1t£LQ-7J those who lake' part in thl' d i\·il1l' words mu st Ilr 0 11 their guard , lest they engagt." in this as they would in tht." building of cities, inqui ring (l cnoQ~oavu:~ ) only rur the sakr o r curios ity."IOII Similarl y, he d escribes the lipiritual improvement or education: .. And by astronomy, again , raised rro m Ihe ea rth in his mind . he is t'1t'valed a long with heaven. and will ft'volvc wit h its rt-volution . 8t ud ),i ng (lotOQWv) always d ivine things and their harmony wi th t'itch olher.""!!! Most onen , however, the \'('rh means " relatt''' or " record :' Onc or the ways in which C lemen l pursues his attack on Iht' pagan gods is by holding up to rid icule Iht' religious customs of a particular place or people: "And among you tht' Thessa lia ns pay di \'ine hom age to slorks according to the ancient custom : Ihe Thehans 10 weasels 011 account of (their assistanct' at) Ihe birth of Heracles. And again, what about the Th ~sa lian ~? They are reported (tcnOQOUVlUl ) 10 worship ants since they learned that Zeus, putting on the likeness of an anI, had inte rcourse with Eurymcdusa , tht' daughter of ClelOr, IO' Clem . AI. SltO",. 2.4.12-13. (rans . Wilson (A N" ). .. Ibid. 1. 1.6. oM Ibid. 6.10.80.

Histt:ny as Story

83

and begot Myrmidon. And Polemo relates (lO"[OQEt) that the people who inhabit the Troad worship lield-mice."lIo Also indicative of this use are similar accoun ts given about Sparta, Sici ly, Thuria, Phocaea, and Persia. III Clement tells us what is " related " a bout fam ous persons in his argument that G reek philosophy is derived from non-Greeks. "Pythagoras is reported (imOQEl"tQl) to have been a disciple of Soches, the Egyptian archprophet, a nd Plato of Sechnuphi s of Hdiopolis." 112 What is related a bout the gods is used in the First Apology of Justin Martyr to rebut the cl aim that the C hristia n accoun ts a bout J esus are sill y. The immacula te conception, fo r example, is no sillier than wha t is believed a bout Ze us, Mercury, Asclepius, a nd Bacchus. He says : "And wha t kind of deeds are recorded (lmopoil"v(m) of each of the sons of Zeus, it is not necessa ry to tell those who already know." And , he proceeds, even in death J esus was like the sons of Zeus: " For their sufferings at dea th a re recorded (latOQEitm) to have been not alike, but diverse; so that the peculiarity of (His) suffering does not seem to make Him inferior to them ."1!] Th us wha t is believed a bout J esus is no worse tha n wha t is bel ieved about the gods; and, indeed , Justin argues that it is much better. For whereas the accounts of the pagan gods are the products of mythmaking (llu90110U"19d ol) and have no proof, wha t is said a bout J esus is proved by the fulfillm cnt of prophecy. Li t In the Dialogue with T rypho, a literary product of theJewish controversies of the second centu ry, he goes further and claims that the accounts about the sons of Zeus are originall y borrowed from the O ld Testa ment prophecies, saying," . . . and wh en they relate (lmoQWol) that being torn in pieces , and having died, he rose again and ascended to heaven ... do I not perceive th at (se., the Devil ) has imita ted the prophecy a nnounced by the patria rch Jacob and written down by Moses?" II) Clement 100 tells us wh at Panyasis relates (l(J(OQEi) a bout the gods. "' The Christian atlack on polytheism naturall y ex tended to idol worship, since one of the recurrent causes of persecution was that the Christia ns refu sed to pay their respects to the images of the gods or to u' Clcm. AI. i'nIfr. 2.39.6-7, lrans. Wilron (ANF) . '" Ibid. 2.30.H , 38.2; 3.42.4, 6. 8; ~ .65. 1. , 11 C lcm. AI. St rolft . 1.1 5.69; also 1.1 5. 70, 72. ,,, J. M arl. ApoI. 1.2 1 (P G 6, 3608 ); also 1.22 (36 t B). ,I< Ibid. U 3 (405sqq.). 11' J. Mart . mill . 69 (PG 6, 637A), Ira ns. (ANF). l it C lcm. AI. Prolr. 2.35.3, 36.2.

84

Uta

of Histo,y

the Roman emperor's statue. The fourth cha pter of C lement's Exhor. tation to the Grub to Ixocome C hristians exposes the absurdity and shamefuln ess of idol worship by repeatedl y tracing the origins of idols OT cults to particular limes and places ; and ImoQElv is used to indieau: what is "related " abou t these matters. H e 1("lIs us what is " related " by Polt mon about the sta tues a t Athens and by Dionysius abou t the Palladion. m He iIIustrau:s the detrimental innuence of suc h statues by (hI" story of Pygmaiion, as " related " hy Philostepha-

nus a nd Posidippus. m There is a final group of uses of the verb by these early Christ ians which concerns their own religion rather tha n that of their op-

ponents. Properly to undcr5tand Cod sayi ng, " Let us makt' . .. ," says Juslin, ., ) shall aga in relate (L<J'toQliaw) the .....ords spoken by Moses himself.""9 Similarly, C lement , discussing the mrslic meanings of lhe tabernacle and its furniture, contends that then- is ct'rtainl y a hidden meaning in the reference III " the seven circuits arou nd the T emple recorded among th e Hebrews {1tap' 'E!lQa(olt; i<J'toQOU~£vr) ."I.'1 H e also mentions, as an example of tht' henefi ts of t'lIduranct' a nd patience, " Ihe things recorded (t<J'toQOuIlEVa) a hou t Ananias" lll and devotes the second book of tll(' Slromoto to showing that the Greeks fil ched their philosophy from the .Je. . . s. pa ri nf the argument for w~ ich consists in showing tha l " tht'Y ha\'4;' imitated and copied the marvels recorded (l(JtOQOUIlEVWV ) among US."IU Finally, Justin tells us that "Sodom and Gomorra h are recorded hy Most's ,lmopoUvtal U1I0 MwaEw~ ) to have been citi es of impious mr.n ,"I'H There are only a few oc(Urrcnccs of tll(' adjecli\'(' [moQu(6~ in these materials. Cle mcllI refers to tht" " historia ns" s('nra l times.11 1 Tatia n begins his argument that "our phi losophy" is older than that of the C rceks by saying, " Most's and Homer shall be nur limilS since they are very ancient; Ih e one is the oldes t uf' lhr poets and historians (l(JtOPlXWV), and the other tht' founder of a ll barbarian wisdom. "12.~ Moses, the writt=r of tht= O ld Testament. is Ihus both poet and his'" Ibid. 4.36.H. 47.6; d . 4.. 7.2.

48,2, 54.3; III Ibid. 4.57.3, I~ns . Wilson (A.' ·f) . lit J. Man . Dial. 62 (PG 6. 6 178). 171 Clcm . AI. SI,I7I'II. 5.6.32.

and

:H 5.3.

Ihid. 2.20.103. Ibid. 2.1.1 . 171 J . Man. Ap.i. 1.53 ( Pe 6, 4088 ). I,. Clcm. AI. SI1O"'. 1.21.142; 6.2.24. and 26 (latOQloyQ6:4K>; ). 111

In

" ~

Tatian Ai GT. 3 1 (PC; 6. 869A).

History as Story

85

torian, and is set up as having the same cultural stature in the Jewish and Ch ristian world as Homer has in the Greek and Roman world . Furthermore, according to Clement, his philosophy is in part "historical" or "historylike." For he writes: "The Mosaic philosophy is accordingly divided into four paris-into the historic (,to latOQlxCrv) and that which is specially called the legislative , which two properly belong 10 an ethical treatise; and the third, that which re lates to sacrifice, which belongs to the physical science; and fourth , above all , theology ." 126 The earliest Christian use of Latin parallels the use of the Greek terms both in meanings and in contexts of use. Sometimes "history" indicates a written work, as when Tertullian recounts the visit of Pompey to the Jerusalem temple, on the authority of Tacitus "in the fifth book of his Historiu {in quinla Hisloriarum suar1lm )." 111 More often, however, at least for Tertullian, "history" refers to an informational account as such rather than as a literary product. The subjects of such an account vary. In the old se nse of natural history, he menlions a history of dreams (Izistoria somnium ) in five volumes by Hermippus of Berytus, 1211 and , rejecting someone's evidence of a transmigration of souls, he suggests that the account may have been found "in some very obscure histories (in hiJton·j5 aliquibus occullioribu.5 )."'2'J Tertullian uses "history" in reference to social events when he replies to the charge that the Christians arc the cause of certain public disasters by pointing out that there were plenty of such disasters before Christianity bt=gan . " Where were the Christians, then, when the Roman state furnished so many histories of its disasters (tot kistorias (aho rum 5uofllm) ?"11O And he seems to use " history" as the past in his demonstration that Moses is of greater antiquity than Homer: " we must look into the history and literatu re of the world (in his/ona5 tI litterQJ orbis) ."UI We also find Tertullian using "history" as story . Against the attacks on Christianity, he argues that what is said about the gods by those who accept them vilifies them : " Is not their majesty violated , C lem. AI. Strtnrt. 1.28. J 76. t11Ttrt. Apel. 16.3 ( PI 1, 364); also AJIoI. 19.2 (383); Ad MIl . 1.1 J (CSEL 20.80, 25-26); and Min. rei. Ocl. 21. tIlTc:n . D,A". 46 (CSEL 20.377, 13-16). tK

I" Ibid . 28 (348, 4-5) . I-TeTl . Ad Ngl. 1.9 (CSEf. 20. 73, 15-16). no Ten . AfNJI. 19.7 (PL 1,388).

86

Idea of Hulory

their deity defiled by your plaudilS? But you really are still more religious in the amphitheatrr , where over human blood , over the dirt of pollution or capital punishment, your gods dance, supplyi ng themes and stories (argummta tl his/orias) for the guih)'- unless it is that often the guilty play the parts oflhe gods."1'I1 Again, in attacking the Roman spectacles, he:: contends Ihal the ans and art works arc products of the daemons: .. ..'or oonr but themselves would have made provision and preparation for Ihe objects they had in view; nor would they have given tht" a rts to the world by any but those in whose names and images and stories (hi.Jloriis ) they S(' t up for their own e nds the artifice of consf'cralion ."HI Similarly, the heres)' or Valenlinus is said 10 be concerned wilh " the stories (his/orills ) and Mil esia n rabies or their own A("ons." I:1I finall y, both Tenullian and Minucius Felix use historicru substantively as " his torian ."I !; These Greek and Latin uses or " history" by Iht' C hristian writers or the first two centuries art", aside rrom the predominance or religious subjects. not extraordinary. In some instances they invoke the dis tinctions among literary ~enres that Wf'rt" c urrent in the Greek and Roman thought or t h(" lim('. While th('y usr the distinction, they do nOI make it, Ihal is, they do nOI state nor do they ev;nct' any interest in the grounds C)r delails of Ihe distinction . This leatuT(' or their uses '-9). it ~Isa~t t itM in Iht ItXl . .'\h hou~h Iht' pair,

atlllosl l'f,blll;", idefllit al with (ht

tJrAII"""hlml hiJIO';II. ha\·t:l prior his(ory ofUH' ,u t I ) a d islinl'lion he\wrt'n 11-\'0 s ptcits nflht Rt'lI uS 1111"11/;1'11 or "Imlllzo and a~ (1) dislin('1 parll in tht' n:lI1SlrIL{,lion ofa It'!l:al ('ase, Ihole mol"(' lor-mal aud rigorous USM art htrt lran_~ltrrtd 10 lht domain of pot'. Iry . Thus Uo lmu (,1.\'1-) Iranlialt's " p,onr "nd plot ." " ' Tw . Jp«. 10 (('SE I. 'lO. I:t. 14- 111. AI ..10' Sa l. 'L I (95. 5-HI ht' ash. h a ,htIOfic alllu~lion . wht' lher wt oURht t" 1M'lit'H in .. gud whom " hislory has Ihrown IltiJ/11"11 ,lIr/IIZ'II ) OIl liS." In Ihe pre('l'dinR p;"lr .... graph ht' ha.. 11; 41. 12; 68. 13: 99. 7; 105. 12; 106. 11 ; 136. 13: Ilorph. 1". Pyllr . 6 1 Ip. 52, 7- !1\. 55 Ip. 47, 20- 22 1. I. Porph. V. P"~I~ . 2 ( UI. 10- 12) . 1- E.g .• Alu. Aph. 11I Mdllplr .. pp. 51. 11: 52. 10; 11U, I. 6. 15- 17; Ol ynlp. III tI(t ., pp. 43. 12; SO. 8: Porph. r. p..rllt. 44 140. 20- 23); Simp. lit Cad. 51On41 ; /" PII.,. r. 2Y 16 l Dirb. 0(; 483. H- IO) . ... E.!I., Porph . !h l' . 1 tp. -"S. 14- tlH: r . P'1~1r . .') Ip. t!l. t.'- l il . .., III &"J .. p. 12.6- 10.

Satrtd and Pro/mu H istmy

93

source.~l

'laTOpCa may also indiC' . , even within Ihe Peripatetic School, is dearly iIIuslrated by this passage. Aristotle refe rred 10 his inquiry as rile; ,¥uxilc;: l(J'[oQ£a, that is, the fa cts or a factual account about the soul (Dt An. 1.1) ; and he began it by a review of the opinions of his predecessors (taS tooV 1tQOTEQWV b6l;ae;). As Themistius understands it, however- and he is writing a para phrase, not a commentary or an exposi tion- what is sought is knowledge or und erstanding (9EOlQElV) about the soul , and one is to begin by examining the "history" of previous opinions. Fo r Aristotle, the history was a first-order sort of knowledge, the facts about the subject matter; for Themistius, the history is a second-order sort of know ledge, the facts about previous opinions about the subject matter. Similarly Aetius tells us the opinions of the Pythagoreans and of Philip of Opus about the earth and th e counter-earth "according to the Aristotelian histo ry (' AQIO"tOTi.A.ElOV latoQLav) .$ And Alexander of Aphrodisias repeatedly uses lcnoQ(a to indi cate Aristotle's accounts of the opinions of his pred ecessors .1 1 The third century of Christianity within the Roma n Empire was one of intermittent persecution except for (he offici al suppress io n U liP, p. 30, 1S- 16. U E.g., Alcll. Aph. 11. -'ltlt., pp. 32, 11 - 18; 57, 2-3, 25--28; I" &"1., p. 4, 13- 17; lamb. fP, p. 66, 9-12; Simp. io Dicls, DC, pp. 480, 7; 483, 9. ti E.g., lamb. liP, p. 169,5; Porph. AltJ'. 1.25 (p. t02, 7- 10). » 1. hA • . , p . 14, 4--6. " Diets, DC 360b l -5. rI I::.g., 1ft Mttylt ., pp. 9, 6; 16, 18; 23, 12; 41 , 17; 42, 25; 50, 1:1.

94

Uta

of H istory

under Dccius (250-5 1). The empire was ha\'ing its difficult ies , a nd it was easy enough to blame both natural and social di sasters on the growing movement , which n eith ~r bel ieved in nor paid homage t Q the ancient gods. In 303. under Dioclet ian . though rvidently a t the insistence of Galerius, the Grea t Persecution began . It continued after Dioclctian 's abdication until 31 J when Galerius, from his dea th bed, grant ed tolera tion . The power struggles Ihat dom inated the beginning of the fourth century ended with Consta ntinc 's victory o\'l~r fI..fa xcnt ius at the Mih'ian Hridge ill 3 12. Tht" \'ictory was won under the sign of the cross, which Conslanlinr adoptl!d . according to Eus('bius, aller th e appearance ora naming cross in the noonda y sky with the legend tv TOlh.:p Vt'KQ, in this you s hall conq uer. It is a contra· \,crtoo quest ion whether Consla nt ine himselr act ua ll y converted. to C hristianity,tH but in 313 he issued an edi ct at Milan decreeing tol· eration for C hristianity throughout the empire, and he later es tab· lished C hristianit ), as the ofli cial religion or the empire and moved the imperial capi ta l rrom Rome to Byzanlium , now christened Con· stan tinople. Although pagan sym bols continued to apJX=ar on imperial monu ments and coins, C hristianity was hencerort h the dominant cultural and religiOUS rorce . The pagan reviva l undef the a postate Julian did not survive him. ~'" The problems confronting the tcdtSia in late antiquity were both old and new. Responding to attempts to blame the Ch risti ans for social problems, the apologetical literature of the third , rourth , a nd firth centuries is extensive, and makes substantially the sa me attacks on the popular cults as had lhe earlier apologies . I n the con tinuing di scussion about the proper way to interpret the Sacred Scriptures, the aliegorical method of the Alexandrian School was opposed by the li teral (or historical ) exegesis or the Antiochene School in the works or its greates t representatives, Diodorus of Ta rs us. Theodore of Mop· suestia, J ohn Chrysoslom , and Thcodoretus of C}' r us . ·~1 And finally ,

• In TIlt u nt'l'"ioll ojCOIII/Gllfill' , ed. J onn W. t:die (New Yo rk : Iloh, Rinehan aoo Win"on, 1971) thrff distinct possible imerprelattoOl arc offered-( I) tha t he W.1.$ merely a political pragmatist, (2) tha t he was a pagan syncrctisl, aoo (l l Ihat he WaJ a ge nuine C hristian convert-as well as a synthnis of all three. " O n Julian 's use of educatton 10 promote Ihis re\'i\'al, see Glan\'j]Je I)owne~·. "The Emperor J ulian and the Schools," Cl 53 ( 1957): 97- 103. III On An t;och itself and its role in the cultura l hisIOf)· of the ancien t world, 1« Glanvilk Downey, TM lIiJ/tlr.J of .-h/iN" ( Princelon: Princrlon Uni\'enil)· Pr65, 196 1) and An/iMA- ill IA-t A6t of 17ttodosilU (Norman, O kl a.: Universi ty of O klahoma Preu,

Sacral and Pro/ant History

95

with the es tablishment of Christianity as the official religion or the empire. doctrinal and liturgical regularity, always ecclesiastically dt"'sirahle. became politically imperative. Constamine him self presid ed over the first ecumenical convention of the Christian church, the Council of Nicaea, in 325. And the antiheretical literature of the fourth and fifth centurics cspecially is immense. It has already been observed that the language of C hrist ianity in the first and second centuries was Greek , even in the \Vest, and that Latin ca me into its own in the third century. The C hristian domain then began to mirror what was happen ing politically and culturally in the wider domain of the Roman Empire, namel y, the growing estrangement of EaSl and Wes t. The Christian linguist ic area divided into Wes tern (Latin -spea king) and Eas tern (Greek-speaking ) blocs, which developed rather differentl y." Since the Greek tradition is beginning to be separated from the Latin , and since it is this Latin 1962). On the School of Antioch. be$idel the general remar ks in th r discussi()J1$ Qf pankular fi gures in the PatrolQgies Qf Ahaner and QUa5I("n , $t(" the hi$lorieal, dt· scriplive, and doctrinal profile (and basic bibliography) in Ihe Dit"fillllnlli,t d, TlrifJlllfi, Cllfllf1iiqllt (Parh: Lc:tou1:ey. I 699- t9!)()) , I: 1435- 39. art icle " Amioche (Eeolt TheoJogique d ') .'· It is generall)· conceded Ihal there wu a substan lial Opposilion belwttn Aleundrian and Anliochenc exegesis; e.g., A. Palmicri. " Alexandrian MyS licism and the M yst iC! of Christian VirginiI Y." Am. Clltll . QI,ry. R,t. 41 ( 19 16): 390-405. 81.11, 10 Ihe conlrar)", j acques Guillel. ~ Les hcp;esC"1 d ' Ab;andrie el d ' Antioche. ConOit 01.1 m alentendu r' R«ltmlltJ de Jri~ltC( rtiix ituJ( 34 ( 194 7): 257-302. and Hen ri de Lu Uac, .. 'Typologic' ct ·Allegorisme·... ibid. 34 ( 1947): 180- 226. On the later fortunes of the Antiochcnc method, sec M. L. W. Laislner, " Antioc hene Exegesis in Wel tern Europe during the M iddle Ages," H am Thlt/f. RlV. 40 (1947) : 19- 31 , and Beryl Small!:)', nt 51114.1 ~ fill BiIJI( ill lilt .\ridd{, Agu , 2nd w . (O xford, 1952). "See CUllaloe Ba rd y, lA f UtJ/i,," dts 11l"IWtl dtJu I'iglist tJltC,tll1V (Paris, 1946). It has been shown, a t IelJ t aooul Lal in, tha t Ihe language of th e C I.rislians differed sufficiently from Ihe rontempora nrous non-Chri5lian language to juslify speaking of a "Christia n Latin la nguage." The early comention was Schrijnen's. Einar 1.0f51ed t {S)III4CliclI (Lund, 1933) , pp. 458If.J noted the gradualness of the tr,uuition 10 a Chris_ tia n La tin and argued that it WIJ a matter mo re often of transformations than of neologisms. The thesis was most thoro ugh ly txplored and dOCumtnled in the numerous nudies of Christille Mohrman n. The stale of the discussion as ..·ell as in prior hislol")· was well.summari:r.ed by j . de Ghellinck , " Latin ehn!tien 01.1 langue laL ine del chrttW!IlS," Lts tluMJ Ctamqun 8 {1939):449-78J, ",·ho n!mai~ u ncOIwinoed. By 1946 Mohm lallll '-Quelque5 Irail5 c.aract~risliques d u utin des C hr~liell 1.·· M il( l/{Utll (,"lIfilf1lll; M'fflfti (Vatican Cil),. 19#1), p. 437J considered that Ihe exi51ence of the special language was alread)· eSlablished, and proceeded 10 oUlline and documrnl some of lhe !ra ilS of tha l speeial language. Numerou ~ shon s tudiu ...·iII tx: found in her thldn fu r It latin del chrhinu. 2nd ed. (Rome, 19( 1). Abo:soee Ihe bibliognphy in jean ~si~. ~~io~it.u la fonKUt latiN, 18110-19-48 ( P".. ris: Bel~ uures. 1951). - uuinc: ch rttlCn. pp. S J-~2.

96

Idta

of Hislo~"

t radition that constitutes the substam:t: of the C hristian intell ectua l inherita nce orthe Midd le A,l{cs, the Creek C hristian writers might be the firs t to consider. The use of lOlOQElV hy the C hristian writers of late antiq uity is nOI extensi ve . While it is distri hu tf'd. hroadl y speaking. into the same maj or groups as pr('viously ( i.f" .. to inquire and to record ) C hristian usage follows non· C hristian in making the former "irtually ubsoiet(' , Not surprisingly, nearly a ll of ,he uses of the \"(Tb either directly o r

ind irectly relat e 10 things C hristia n. ' lotOQElV sometimes means 10 inquire into natural th ings. Theodoretus of Cyrus, t he las\ rrprese ntat iv(" of t he Antiochene School during it s mos l t readw' pt'riod . demo nstratcs the cxistence of Divine Providence from, among other things, lhe cons truction of the human body; a nd in particul a r th(' pro(,('!lS of rt'spiration, "as t hose who have inquired ( {O'toQi)oavtE~ ) irll n s uch things clusely say," lt'ads us to sce this.!1 ' IO"tOQElV as It' arnill ~ hy inquiry into niltural things is fou nd in Basil the Great , the fi rst of th (' threl' cmi nellt Ca ppadoda n Fathers. He s hows us various ways in which . as God saw, \\'atcr is good, among which is that "olicn it springs ('"\"t'n from mines tltat it h as crossed, deriving wa rmth fmm th ~ rn. and ris('s ho iling, and hursts forth of a hu rning hea l. as may he It'arne-d by inquiry (f;EO'tlV lOlOQi)OUl) abou t islands and cU1: Gt:'I:n. H.£', '1.. 17.18: So·w ln . II.£.. 8.18.8 ,(>" lllr 0 .1'.): 1 .1.5 (on Inr S : 1'. I. •\ Mt l h . Rm m , 3.18..1-5 (p. 4l.i 13-18): d : ).5.11: Thc-lxlorl"l US Q. H,X, 3 IP(.' 80. 140), "s.nom. I/.£.. 1.7 ( Pt;:1O, 91B- 9:H \ 011 GC- IIC-S;S: Ltl n05(; ). 1. 1(1 ( 1I 2AI. 1.11 ( t I60>\) 00 J OstphllS: :U (2'1U'\) ('n I. lI k~ ; 3.4 ,UtA) un I)to ll ~ li us, . " Sozom. nE. 7.'J. UI: d . 7.11A. \\'hH~ [OlOQtl~tvwV is lht:' rl'$uh ur $ 1~11' OOVUtlV, a nd EllS. H .t::. 3.6 (PG \1(1, l:ZO:JC ) .

n

Sacwl. and Profane History

99

Then'! is another use of the verb by Method ius, which has the ad ded feature that " what is recorded " refers to something other than the literal meaning of the words; fOI" example, on a passage in Judges (9:8-15) in whkh the trees choose a leader, Methodius commenLS: "Now it is dear that this was Ilot sa id about trees that have grown from the earth . For unensouled trees would hardly assemble themselves to elect a ruler, since they are fixed in the ground by roots. Rather this is recorded (lO'tOQEi:tat) wholly about souls, which , before the Incarnation of Christ , had all grown to wood through their s ins ." ~ This sort of use becomes increasingly important in C hristi an writings . The uses of lOlOQla by the Christian writers of la te an tiquity still reflect the modal distinction betw~n a kind of account and a kind of literary work ; but the lauer sense is now very rare. There are some few cases: Sozomen uses lO'tOQ(o quite generally as " narrative" in his Prefatory Address to the emperor Theodusius;4' and he elsewhere notes the accuracy that is n!quired of history!>!) and sta tes that what is fitting in a history (I.(J'Tnp£1;l Tl'piTl'Oll), it.. tas k, "is only I() relate what happened ."·\) Theophilus of Alllioch refers to what is contained in hi s own book, no longer extant, On Hisloriu and to the Histories of Herodotus and Thucydides. 52 Theodoretus refers to the History of J osephus and to the "first History of tht Maccabm . '~J Nearly always, however, the noun is used in the old er of the two modes of its usage, emphasizing the content rather than the form , as information or an informational account. Among old er su bjects, it is still used , at least by Basil , about natural things.}' Sozomen uses {o'toQCa for first hand acquaintance with buildings and places famous for sacred or secular reaso ns .~l " History" referring to cvents is used by John C hrysostom in introducing his account of the provenance of the Septuaginti he says, "But in order that you might learn that the • M~lh . SJ"IP. 10.2 (p. 123, 4-9). " Ibid . Pra~r. 4. " Ibid. 1.1.16. ~l lbid . 1. 15. 10. n Th~phil us A.l/kll. 2.30; 1.2; and cr. 1.72. n TheQd ar~lus hi DGlI. 11.28; 11.27; cr. EU5. H.E. 1.5 ( PG 20, 85A); 1.8 ( 1018, 1\'('nt there. so long as they han' li n t mainlainl'd t ht' t ruth or history (historial vtrilalr) ."tn And hc latt'r goes further , in s is lin~ " thal wt'should agree neither with those who will lakr Ihr hi story onl y (Jo/am his/oriamj aboul thr ark and th c ll<xKl withuut allt-gorical signilicam;e. nor with thost' who deli'od flnl~' ligun's. havi ng rcjt'c tt>d historica l truth (his/orico ,·"i/olt) . "I M. J.ik('wis(', \\'(' an' I .. u~h l hy th(' s('n'nty tran sla tors " to set' a !e\·t'1 a hm'(' hiJ'l orin and In sl'('k nUl IhoSI' Ihi ll!(S which the h.iJloria it se lf \\"a..~ wrill t'1l It ) I'OI1 \'('Y (si!:nifiamda ),"II; A third subgrou p of ltiSI()ria ahout Ill(" Sniptures cxprt'sses and instanccs Augusti nc's \" i ~ ws lIl1 I'x('g('sis. Ht' ,,'ritl's : All that Scri pturt. thr. rdorf' . which i5 calkcl tht Old Tr5larm:nl , I~

et:

IS

Aug. CD 18,40; 18.jfl. l i ra Hr! . .".0,99, IJ«I. Ch, . i .i8 .H , On Augustine- 's ~-iew the- authorit~· 0{ Scriptur!' a nd the- ITlatio" I)(' t"'e-"n ltiJluria a nd 'Tophl/ia as disclosure-s or G od's purposn. Sff R. :\. ~Iarklls. SirtfMl''''I: HjJI(I~ r ItRt! s.ti,{r ill /h, 17ultlfJ!{~ G/ SI. AWRltSlj", (Camb ridF!'" 19701, p. Ifl7-96. 11> Aug. CD 17.3. A ug. CD 15.21.inir 10; Aug , CD 18,44 ,

I"

or

So.cwi. and Profane History

11 5

handed down four· fold to them who desire to know it; aecording to history (StClfl,Jwm hislorilJlfI ), according to aetiology, according to anal· ogy, and according to alkgory; according to history when there is taught what hath been d one; what not done, but only wrinen as though it had been done. AccOf'ding to aetiology, when it i ~ shown for what reason anything hath been done or said. Acc;ording to analogy, when it ·is shown that the two Testaments, the Old and the New, are not contrary to onc another. According to allegory, whcn it is laught that certain things which have been written are not 10 be taken in Ihe letter (aJ litltram ), but are to be understood in a figure (filurall)Y·

The same four ways of setting forth the Scripture generally are else· where noted . I" ".Jerusalem," he tells us, refers to both the terrestrial Jerusalem according to hisroria and to the celestia l J erusalem in a figure .I .o But he says that the whole book of Genesis should be exa· mined first as hisloria then as prophecy, and where the li teral sense is not worthy of God we should take things figuratively .141 The latter half of the City of God is an extended account of the origin, career, and end of the two cities . In this di scussion is found the largest concentration of uses of historia anywhere in the early Christian writings. And there is here a fifth group of uses of hisloria as informational account about the past or past events i n which the Scriptures, as embodying or containing the hisloria of the Chosen People, is distinguished from and opposed to the hisloria of the nonJudaeo-Christian peoples. On the one hand , there is the sacred (sacTa ) or divine (divina ) hisloria. In spite of lack of physical evidence for the longevity of people in the Old Teslament, he says (15.9) thal ". Aug. VIii. Cud. 3.5; cr. 3.6, "' Aug. (Jell . Imp . 2.5; eKample! 3.6.init. for prel c-m pUI"J>OlSC'S il is sufficient 10 show Augustine's U,JC of the idu of history in conn«lion .... ilh the literal level of biblical excgesis. For an anal)'sis of his I':K~lic.a1 Ih«Iry and ils development during his Caretr, Set R. A. Markus. SD«IIilUll. A simila r fuurfold system or exeguis-AiJlorit'1IJ or liInrllis, tr/1fNllolinu, afJtllfTUIIJ, and 1Il1l1l!lIfNIIJ-is vc-ry .... idel)· aettplcd Ihroughout the Middle Ages. S« Harry Caplan, ~ The four Stnses of Scriptural Interpretation and the Medieval Theory of Preaching-," SfHn'/"," 4 ( 1929) : 282- 90. Henri d e Lubac IExi,tist Mtdiirxllt (Paris: Aubier, 1959-64) J ofTers an cxtensh'e and detailed analysis of Ihe fourfold I)'stem with voluminoU$ documentation of patristic Ih rough lale medieval sources. t·ur Augustine'S \·ie....5 of the ut ility of " history" in biblical eKegnis, w: Doet. Ch,. 2.28.42fT. ,.., AUK. CD 17.3. ,.. Aug. Gm. c. .tt/limit. 2.2.3. The same general principle abou t literal alld figurative panagel is laid down in the Dt d«triM clrristialls (3. 10. 14 and 3. 16.24), but only Ihe gelleral di5linctlon btlween lileral and figurati ve is opt"ralive there.

11 6

Idea of

Histo~.,

" faith in this sacra hiItoria is not to be wi thdrawn ." The sorra Jristor;a shows that Nahor, the brother of Abraham , left C hald aca and se tll ed in Mesopota mia ( \6. 13). Elsewhcr(' we examine wha t this soaa histon"o says abou t the son of Selh .'u And to lhos(' who worry a bout how ma ny peop le there were when Cain lo undf'd his ci ty, he replies ( IS.8) that "the writer of this samrlristor;a d id n OI haw' to nc("essa ri ]\' na me a ll the people who wert'! the n, bu t on ly . hus(' whom the plan of the work requ ired . For the ai m of that write r. th roug h w hom the holy Spirit was working, was 10 com(' down to Ahra ham ... and t hen 10 proceed from Ab raham to God ' s people. w hich \~' a:o; S(' I a pa rt from the other nat ions (0 cd rr;J grn(i6us) and wou ld Sl' f\ T tu prd igur(' and foretell all things t hat rr la t(' to thr city .... " Su this sarr(l histl)ria has to do with God's peoplt'. who are st"pa ra te fro m Ihr ntht'r gtnttJ or peoples. O n the ot her hand , ther(' is th(' hiJIl)rin of these JX'op\t's , the hislorin gentium. The h.i.Jtoria gmlium praises the marw lous construction of Babylon ( 16.4), b ut " the historio gmtium tlt'i t ht' r G reek nor Latin knew" about the Flood ( 18.8). It tells, t{)(I. abou ttht' wondrous works or miracles by which the gods pt'rsuadt'd proplt· to worship , hem (10. 16, 18). And the hiJlol"iu gnltiuIII also ("( lIlIaius IlUlIlemtlS punents. 11< When the Sc.:riptun!s art' n~ ft' ITt"d tu a.' hi.\(mill it is with a view more to th('ir con tent- wh at kind of ,,("("OUll t t h('y a rt'. faclOa l or fi gura tive-tha n to their J(lrm. In tht, OPPOS iliull be tween sacr('d his· loria and the historin I)f thl' pcoplrs. hiJ10rin 5t'('ms tu indica lt' a mi xture of the meanings informa tional account "I)( ,ut pa ~ t e\'rlHs a nd tht, informa tion itself or " tlu' past:' though l eat1 ill .~ morr [oh'ard Iht' fo rmer. T here is a fin al group of uses of histaria in which th(' mixture of these two strains lea ns mor(' toward " th('" past" per se. The fir st half of the Cii.J of Gad raised thr s tandard apolog(,l ic def(' nse against the charge that the fall of Rome was due to Ihr wors hip of th(" l1("h' God and forge tfulness of th(" old gods who gave RoOlt' peace and victory. Augustine replies " tha t for Ih('" most pa rt they (0 01 (" about against their will. not only fa bl("s. lying abou t ma n r II Iill~s a nd ba rel y ind icating or showing any thing true. bUI also Ro ma n history itself (ipso Ramona h.istaria) test ifies ."14I Agai n, "both ancien! his tory (vrtus Ms-

cr.

,./ A... g. CD 15. 17; 17.8, 18.40. 17.24.ini l. ,. , A... g. CD 2 1.8; cr. 4.6. 12.11. 16.8, Dlld. C,o\ ,. 2.2H...I2-43. OH Aug. CD 3.10; cr. 2.3, 18.38.

Sacud tJnd Profant HiJlory

117

tona ) testifies and the unhappy experience of our own times teaches us" that people are sometimes reduced to cannibalism .,n And , a rgu ing that the 89th Psalm is a prophecy ofJ r::sus, he says ( 17. 10) tha t the dire descriptio n of the state of the world in lines 39-45 applies to the earthly city, " but of the way in which these things came upon that kingd om . hisloria is the indicator of event s (index rerum gtstarum l, if it is read ." Finally , an even clearer example is found in his t reatise about the discovery and expression of the meaning of Scripture, On Christian Doctrine. The twO chief sources of obscurity in Scripture are unknown and ambiguous signs. In the second book he claims t hat ignorance of signs is to be remedied in part by knowlcclge of the origina l languages and con texts and in part by knowledge of things. In the quest for greater knowledge of things he permits the use of some profane sources; bu t profa ne knowledge may be of ei ther human or d ivine institution. Some of the former , for exampl e. astrology a nd divination. are superstitious; bu t some are no t. Among those kinds of knowledge useful for und erstanding the Scriptures that a re not of merely human institution Augustine includ es histo ry. H e says: Whatever, then, informs (us) about the order of past times- Ihat which is called history (Quitiquiti i&ilu, tit o,dint tnnporlim /'lllUae/orom intiiea/ ta quae IlPfHlla/uT his/ofia)-assists us vc:ry much in understanding the sacred Scriptures, even ir it is spoken outside the Ecclesia as a matter of childish instruction. From it wc may learn . for example , the consulsh ip in which J es us was born so that we are nOl confused about his age when he was crucified; fo r "this may be collected more dearly and more certai nl y from a comparison of the history of the peoples (h istoria gentium) with the Gospel." The usefulness of history (utilitas his/oriae) is also shown by thc fact that Ambrose. " having investigated the history of the pro· pies (hiStlJria gentium )," proved that Plato lea rned his phi losophy from the prophet J eremiah (sic) . H e conclud es: Even when in an historical narratiun (lIorrafiont /tiJ/oriea ) funner institutions of men arc narrated, the history itself (ipsa kisloria ) is not 10 be numbert'd among human institutions; for those things which "re past 1o, AUK. CD 22.20; cf. I BA I.

118

/dta

of Hj.s/o~y

and cannOl be- undont . bd(lllg III Ihe- ordtr of timts. of which God aloll(' is tht' author and admi nistrator. For il is our thing 10 narralr' what has ixl'!n donr, anulhrr 10 tta e h what ou.~ h l to br dOIlC', Hi s to~' narratC'S what has rn-cn dUlle faithfully and IIsrfuJly: but tin: I.xxlks of tht haruspicrs. and Iht' lik(' writinJ(~ . lIim 10 I('aeh what ought 10 br dOllt (If obsrrw:d . with Ih(' holdnrss ofall ad\';srr. no t tht fidd ity (lfa r('portrr (non i"dids Jidl) . I M.

or the

passages I!:xtrac tro alxwe. thi' run text of the first d~s nOI permit a clear judgmcnI whc{hcr hislO~I' means an account of pas t events or " the past." In thr second passage. howeve r. "the past" is cil'!arly meant: for in Ihe lint st'n lr J1CI;' thl' " history itstW' is rii~ti n· guishcd from lilt' " his torical narralion:' and Ihe passage follo wi ng the semicolon virtuall y defines the "hislOry ilSelr' as "t hose things " 'hich are past and cannot oc und o ne (quat transjt,unl , nr( info(ta jirrj /JOmm/ j:' And Augustine's point hert" is that hi s lor~' so dt"fincd ("an he ust·rul in uud crstandin ,~ Seriplu rt· pn·cisdy IX'cause it is 1101 a human production nUl . ratiH'r. a didne prudunion: it helongs "to the order of times, of whit-h lhe- a uthur and administratllf is God ," This is the first and only ins taller- in antiquity in wh ich hi story is said 10 be an existing ('fuity and / m uudl"r til('" cOll trol of (Incl . Augus tine's USt'S of hiJlorirlls, like ,II(' l"(mtemporaneous ust's by h" O

C hris lian wril t"rs, It'an IUward the attribUli w lIsa~('. ilnd I('nd tu brar OUI th(' sorts of s hili s that Ihe uses of hi,(/orin sugJ~('"S I. It is use" suhslanlin,:ly to indicau' hiswrians of uawn', ll; historians uf (' vt'II I S.II~ and those who h,I\'!' handt'd down an'ur;lIe ;t(TOUnlS uf Ih C" gods . IO ·'

The a tt ributin' u sa.~(' t'X('('I'ci s th e suhslal1tiw: ,md \\"hilt, it ()(:casiollally occurs in Ihr- ('(mll' XI Ilf il\\'estigalioll of 1I'lI urt". n , it mort" often ha s to dn wilh rrli~itJus ma1t('rs. TIll' 1C"lldC"l\cy among tht" Lalin Christi an apologists, alrt'ady lIo\t'd , 10 dislill!>:uis h IWlw('('1I lru(' and false accounts ahout tilt" ~IK l s, is rq)('tllt'ci ht'IT . :\U,II;IISlil1l' cuntends Ihat tht" gods \\"t' r(' 0 11(1' 111("11 , "as 1I0t olll y pot'lit' lil t" rawrc , hu t al so historica l (ltisioriuu l hands dU\\II : T " Similarly, Ill' tiistillgui slws the ,~,

..\u/t . 0 0£/. f .llI . :.1 .:.1I1.4:.1- H . t hI 1110' IN t/",'lmfU Ihml i",,,,. " ... 11, \ .... tidn . " "1"10("

.'\ll.l(m , illl·'~ I), """I' i~" dt,,,li,m,,:' . l u!!It"i~ i(llt tl\lt«)I : !~1-1:l4 .me! ~Th" (:" ,11 "11\ ;ml l .\o')(II IU'·1I1 III "\II)(Il~ lhlC"·' ,I"rlm",

Su bj ',("1 alKI Slnll"IUrl' "," A"Kt~lIillit",,,,

:11 (1!11I1 1: 11;:>41:.1.

,,; AII.I(. CD IIl.H.

,,_ ....... IIIl; . (,(),. . ,3, 0 •'. ".. . ., .. ,•, ..1. '0' . . ,•. . •,• ,. ,""

, .. :\ tlll: . (.f) 0.1, 111.11. , . , :\IIIt. f'-lid, . :I.!l. Cl) 1:1.\1, 1t;.!I.

,., "'''.1(. (."1) 1.:l7: d

:1.:11 , 0.",. Chi . 1 .111.-1-1 .

n.·

S'U ";'.

11 .hl'i,'im'l/:

Sacrui and ProJant Hiswry

119

fabulous (fabulosa) from the histori ca l expla na tion (his/orica ralio) of the name of At hens, a nd nOles that while the account of M inas is accepted as historical IrUlh (historicat vtritati ), th at of J upi ter belongs to the emptiness of fables ( t+an ita ti J(J bu l(J rum ) . ' ~2 As regards the Sacred Scri ptures of his own rel ig ion, he says tha t "some spi ritua l significalion may well be found in the account of paradise. in which ,he first human s dwelt, agreea ble with the historica l truth (ucrtilult' hisloricd,) of its bod il y existence. ", n And, whi le pleading ignora nce of the reason why certain ancient books a re not included in the canon of Scriplure, he confesses: I think even those men to whom the Holy Spirit cNtain l)' rc ... ea l~ mallt:rs tha t prope rl)' rdl within tht: aut horit), or rdigion may have wriuen sometimes as men , by historica l investigatio n (Ms/oricd difigmtill), and sometimes as p rophets, by divi ne inspi ra tion; a nd the two kinds wen so difrerent that o ne kind , such was the vt'rdict , must be crw iu:d , as it were, 10 Ihemsd ves, the olher to God speaking throu~ h them . T h us onc kind contri bu ted to the increase or knowlc-dgc (ad II/m laltm cognilionis), the other to the au thority of relig ion ; a nd in this authority the canon is guarded . ' 5'

Thus the view that the Scriptures are at least ill one aspect " history" or " his loryli ke" is echoed in these statemenlS about thei r histori cal truth and the historical investigation tha t seemingly went into them.

Aug. CD 18. 10, 18.12; er. 18. 16. A ug . CD 13.21.ini l. •.,. Aug. CD 18.38, Irans. Gr~ m: (I...oeb). I~ '~I

VI Conclusion: The Development of the Idea of History and the Cultural Ferment of Late Antiquity

H E ANC IENT W O M-!)

to"tooQ either m eant someo ne who was known

for a capacity "see" clearly which of two conflicting accounts T of an emotionally charged matter was eOTree l, or, used as an adjec· (0

live, attributed that capacity to someone. The verb lO'tOQElV s(':ems (0 have been derived fro m lO"twQ; and in the H e llenic Age it indicated the activity characteristic of the ~C1tWQ , tha t is, findin g o ut o r inquiring the correct a ccount in a case where the ma tter is both disputed and emotionally charged . The noun l(J'[~ia seems coeva l with the verb; of far less frequent occurrence in the Hell eni c Age, it meant an instance of the activity indicated by the verb, an inquiring ur an inquiry of that sort. After Herodotus published his account of the Persian Wars under the title [moQlul, HisloritJ, however, the noun came to ind icate the resu lts of such inquiring, and these either writtl::n or not. What underlies thl::se uses, however, is an activity idea : inquiring for accurate information or the facts about persons, thillgs, or events. Perhaps because of the authority that the wo rk of HerodOlus had already attained, [O'toQ{o in the Hellenistic Age eaml:: in creasingly 10 indicate the results of inquiring and these especially as a written ac· count concerned with events; tmoQ£a as a literary genre. At the same time, lO'tOQElV acquired the meaning " to record , report , or rdate"

122

Id/Q of H iJ to~r

some informatio n, a meani ng 1" 'idC'n1ly d('rin~d from L01oo(o
Ibid,

COlldwilJ1I

12 7

history (as world process) in G r~ k thoug ht vs. the rectilinear patterns of them for Judaeo-C hristian thoug ht; (2) the repetition and eternal recurrence predicated by the Graeco- Roma n view vs . the innovation and renovation predi cated by the J udaeo-Christ ia n view; and (3) the hopelessness, meaninglessness, and enslave ment of the soul entail ed by the Graeco-Roman view vs. the hopefu lness , meaningful ness, a nd liberation possible on th e Judaeo-Christi an view. Someth ing resembling all of these themes is already fo und in Aug ustine's City of God. The second half of the work is an ex tended comparison of the IWO cities, devoted to showing that we should dwell in the celestia l city and avoid the earthly city. It is divided into three parts of four books each, which treat, respectively, ofl he o rigin s, ca reers, and ends of the two cities. Book II shows how the cities origin ated in the separation of the good and bad angels, and discusses, incidental to th al , Ihe scriptural account of the crea tion of the world . Book 12 begins with a discussion of the goodness of the good angels, the badness of the bad , and the reasons for both. Then , since the twO ci ties are popu lated by both a ngels and humans, the argument proceeds to the creation of man . This d iscussion, which occupies the remainder of the book, is a sustained a rgumen t against the view, attributed to cenai n "philosophers of this world," that the ques tion of the etern ity of the world is to be solved by the introduction of "cycles of times (circuitus ltmporum) in which, according to them, the sa me things have always been renewed and repeated in the na ture of things (in "rum natura) ; there will likewise be hereafter an uninterrupted series of revolvi ng ages coming and going; either these cycles took place in a permanent world or else the world , arising and dying at ce rtain intervals, always displayed the sa me things as if new which were completed and co mc 10 pass."· This doctrine of "false cycles " of temporal things is repeah:dly contrasted with " the straight path of sound doctrine, " and Psalm 12 ; 4 is dubiously quoted : "The wicked shall walk a round in ci rcles. " Among the vario us grounds on which the theory of cosmic cycles is rejec ted are ( 1) that it entails tha t nothing new (.'ver happens-wrong because it denies the omnipotence of God-and (2) that according to it th(.' soul is enslaved without hope of li beration . By cont rast. the "sua ight way" of C hristian doctrine offers the assurance that somet hing n(.'w 'Aug. CD t2. 14. 1-2.

128

/dta

of HiJto~J'

ca n happen and th e refo r~ ,hC' possibility that tlw soul might be lib· era ted. The creation of man is thence affirmed against the obj ections of the ··phi losophers." Augus tine d~s nOI claim that t his ;s a " pag311 " ,'it'w, that it is common to Graceo· Huma n ('u hurC', hut that it is a ,'iew ('xprcssed hy some " philosophrr.i ," Still . in tilt' c:o nl t'XI of the rlwtori. al alternation he'lwct'n C hristianit y alld IIIe' cuhun- uf IIIl' Gracco-Ruman world, which is Ih(" mainspri n,l( .,1' tilt" C'arly Christian a polngirs. a nd he r(" h('tween Ihe ci ty ufGud al\(\ t hl' l"ity "fma ll. tilt' "philosophers of this world " belong 10 tht' dty of thi s ,,'orl d. tilt, city of man. :\.ugus lint' does not alt ribult' to ,hl's(' philosophers Ihe vie ..·; that history g()('s in cycles, hUI Ihal tirnts (Itm/JrJr(zl. If' rn poral Ihings (m Itm/JrJTalinl. or f'\'ems (rts ~tsl{u l do, But if 1111(' undl'rs tood hy his tory- as it has m-f'n argued tha l Augusli nr himsdf did not- the whole It'mporal procrss of Ihc .....orld . lhr ll this discussiulI a nd othrr s imilar discussions r ise· where in the work would s("r m 10 installliatc tht· widcly acccpted account of the opposilion ht·twl'l'll Chrislian ami pilRan idf'as of his· tory , And they a rr Sf! intt·rpn·t,'d hy s('h,lla rs, But thf' rf' is no sing-lr or simple C rcrk 0 1" Grar('Il·Rnman " it'w of timc Of Ill" hislury in tilt" sense of the whol,' tl'mporal pro('rss of tilt' world -indc'cd history is not uSf'd in that st'IlS{' in antiquity- to which such a unin )cilI Judaf'o, C hristian ,"iew Ilf (iml' or hislory might he opp()se·d . It sCt'ms, ratht'r, Iha •• h(' attra('ti\'('I1('ss of th(' us ual accou nt is 10 be attrihu ted to pr ('ci~t>l y Ihat ~amt· s pirit nf Chris tian apology Ihat firs. formulaled it in thl' (;j~I' f!/(;od. :\'m ()nl~' was it Ihc rhetorical or apologetical moliH which n·t.'tlmmt>ndrd thl' dilftl't"ntialioll of sacred and profanr hislOry in .h(' tirs! pi act', hut it is tht.' sa m,' mol i\'c and the same apology th.u has rt'('tmunt'nd cd ,hl' sdwlarlr analysis of the sources and m eanin~ or that distinniun . TIll' Chl'istian rC\'ision of the idea of history is rht·tori
",'i""

\ I'p, K1 0-101' . ;iI)f )W, f c'n li!!;!!,,1 I / ~I /i" till NlUlHI.. ,m/I'I'''' ", 1,/ 11,/ /#111\"" ,ig.. I\rlt'). " , 1:l1'l 1 ''' »t' I'W S Ihal h,'I",,· :I;,CI, Clll i~l~cn In iWr< \\" ' ft ' ~ lil~1 ,md lQrr lll051 a polOjl r lit"'II wr'l r rs li,l( llIin )l, '\)I, ,\in ~ 1 p'I.II::lni slll" HUrl Ih" • •h('~ \\"('rt all IrainM in rhl'I ori r (p. Hij l. Oil 1111' Ilun tiOlI1 " r r rrn~(''' ~' kC M" , lril c::(' nrph ir..s"phy. \\" jlli a m R, St'hOf"d1'1 r " l)hil"!i' ~ l h ~ lmrl Nh .. t,,,-i,' ill 1111' .Idl t"tf' IW"" " I ..r ' rl'llarus," I i,rdia' Cltril /I/IIIIII 13 I I!15~ L ) : :!2 _:I:! 1 ,', .uduil rs 110;" . 1 - ",;os ...." 1111(" I I.cn:d ~ " , rl",~tI­ ,~ ," ph ic 3 1 nlII I(' ri:11 1,,.111I . , !i 'r Ihl' must ,loin \\"". (,In,,I''~ rd ill :1 ""I' I ir ~ 1 f.1 ~ h i... n li'T Ih t solt pu~ of rd'u l ill~ Ih,' (;"' ~ Ii ..,., l p, :1:.1 1. C l: K. :'ol. (' r:tl lI , " Ifrml(,u~ :tI1I1 H.. lk o i ~li r Cuhurt," Ilnn-tlld T hml , Rn , ,n lI ' I-4!ll : -4 1_,i l .. 0" Ras iI: 8f I {)SI'~ " Ip. 121). " In 1924 Harn.' Huhhrll ("' (: h r\"~ . wm "l ", , "!C' lir,II link Wa$ kl1 nw/l .)1" .hl' I'arl}"

Conclusion

133

history writing was also a largely rhetorical or polemical enterprise. Beginning with Euse bius, the founder of Christian historiography, the historical writings of the C hristians are attempts to establish the truth of their religion. Des pite divergences of emphasis , " the C hurch historians' task had a basic unity, for all the historians and their readers would agree that church history was properly and essent ially a record of the power of God a nd of the action of God in hu man affairs. Thus church history was a test of the truth of the faith ," .6 This task, as distinct from that of the G reek or Roma n writer of history- which was to (investigate and) relate the facts , to inform- is biJlory ofChriuian rh eloric, but Ihat by the fourth century rhetoric was in complele conl.rot of p~a ching . In 1928 a nd 1929 Aime Pucch pu blished a ninf'-parl ~ tudy of " L' Eloquence chretienne au IV' siede" in the R'VUf dtS COlI'S t/ Co>ifirnfus [29 : 1 (1928), 421 - 31, ;81 - 93, 673-68; 29:2 ( 1928), 177- 87, 633-4.5; 30 ; I (1928- 29), 7!l-a6, 223-3.5. 443-54, 56.5- 76 ]. More rccc:ntl y, in addition 10 the art icles cited car· lier in this chapter, Jacger [Ear{1 e/tris/ill"i!! aM Gruk Paidtill (Cambridge: Harvard University Prns. (961 ), C haps. I and 2] has discuu cd the early fathen ' adoption of clau ical rhetoric as part of their transforma tion of G reek filii/till . On the rhetoric of the New Te5lament itselr. $CC AmO!l N. Wilder, EII,/.1 Christill" RAt/one. TIt, LAfI8l1l1l t gf IN G.J/M/ ( London: SC M Pre$!, 1%4) . There arc also several \'l~ry detail-oriented piecn by Antoaio Quacquarclli: LA IftoriCII 41Clirll IIlbirio ( Rome: Edi~ioni Scientifiche Romane, 1956); Rtlfriat t lilllflill IIIIlnri(nrll (Rome, 1960); $(IUi PII/ril li,i (Hari, 197 1"" {burdtmi fl " Vtlm Cll riJlill'lflnrm - 5), C hap. 1 " I prcsuppositi filosorlCi della retoriea patriSlica," and " ln ~n t io cd eloc:ulio nella ulorica crisliana anlica," VrI . CII,. 9 (1972) : 191- 218. Michad McGcc ]"Thematic Reduplication ill C hristian Rhetoric," Q!llIrltr/.1 jfH4mll / of SfJt«II 56 ( 1970) : 196- 204 ] arg ues that "The C hristian WOf'ld ,ie... . . . changed the INfJJli1lg . . . rathe r tha n the /11"" or rhetorical thcor)·M(p. 201). And tbere have brtn a couple or imere5ting SlUdics of Lact
concerned , this consti tut es a return to the ancicnt Grt'ek and Roman idea of his tory as an account of even ts in t he hum a n world, d istinct from myth and fable in that il ('xclude's accou nts of gods . miracles. a nd lhe like. But while lhl' biblical beginn ing and ("nd or the historical cOnlinuum and tht" miraculous ('\"enlS of Iht' sacred history dropped OUI of the later dew. t ht" pro\'id ellt ia l mf'a ning attribuU'd to eve nts has proved more persis lt'nl. Ew n t ho ugh lht Juriaco-C hris tian beginning and end of histury Wf'rt' n'lrgalt'd 10 Iht' sta tus of "mythology ," the notion that history is movi ng toward somt' goal or cnd has sun'j\'ed. Bayle. Vohairr, and othtTS "f,he rn~ I'(lopidiJ ltJ may not have believed that history was going anywhrTr. hut the G erman Roma ntics did , If the p n)\'idt:ntia l ml';U1in ,~ of hi"tory was ft'movcd by seve nu~enth - and eightet'nlh-ct'nt u ry Frt'nc h thinkers, it \\'as put bac k by eighteenth- and nin r tt'enlh-('rn tury German philosophers of history- with the differr nce that for thr ill th (' dt'\'('lopme nl is immanen t ra the r than tra nscrnden 1. Thus history has ht"l'nmt" a ma tte r of sustained phi losophica l and thcologica l inu'rt'''1 ill Iht' modrrn world , All of these deve lopments- and this is, (If courst', only a "kru:h of the later fortunes of the idea of history- an' hased on Augustin(,' s distinction between the twO histori es and thl' attribution to t ill' sanf'd history of a provide ntial or salvational mea ninJi!: ' In urder for lh('r(' to be philosophies or theologies of history, hO\\,l'\'('r, hi "tory mu st fi rst be und erstood LO !)(' the sort of thint{ about which Iherl" (1111 bl' a philosoph y or a theology, That is to say, history must bt- un d('rSlood to indicate the whole temporal proc('ss or ca n 'eT Cif a thin!!; takt'n collec tively , History in Ihi s sense is some lhin~ ra (hrr dilte rrlll from the various senses oflh e term that ha\'{' bc{'n ('xa min ed in th{' prt'ccding c hapters. In Greek a nd Roman a nd Christian writ ings alik{', history meant an informational aCCOUnl or accurat{' inform,u ion about various sorts of things. Thrrt' was a grnl'ral distinc tion brtwet'1l uses in which the form was emphasized and IhOst' in which the content was e mph asized ; that is. he twcen his tory as a l itera r~· grnre and history as informational accoullt. Tht' lallt'T ~e nu s ca ll1(' to ha\'t' samt' modified senses in t.tler a ntiquity: an informational aC(,(IlIlH ill which accurdC)' was less important than ellleTlilinment Ill' imlrut'tKIIl, history as stor y, <md Ihe infurmation abuut some thing 0 1' somcune taken as a collecti\'e whu\e, histury
Hd ..

/Ii ,/llfi" , I. 1.1 : 1.1 1.1 : 1.1 1.1 :; : 2. 1.1 : 2. I:; .Ii; 2. I iU , -Ill . : ,'\ .1-...~ : .'1. -1. ('I . H('I'O( lnIIlS 1. 1.1 : 1.2·1.7: \.;;IU-2 : l.Iil.2 : 1.122. 1: 2. 1!I.:\: t .2!1 . 1: '2 .:H . 1: 2.9!1.I : 2. 11 ~.I: 2. 11 H. \: 2. 11 !I.:\; :\.;') I. I: 3. 7i .2 : " . 1~12 ,:\.

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lIiw/ IN .·j!19- 50 1: 2:\ AH:)-,IH/ . 111'1,,11; /lflllln;,; :\2,2. J:r nIIJlichlls. /11' \ ';/1/ J' YlllIIgIJf;('fl Ic t! ...\. 1': ;tuck (Ldpzig . I HtH)J 11 . :\: 22 , 4 : 23 , !1 : 2t" 11 : :'1), I:I- lli : ·\1 . 12 ; li6. !1- [2 : liN, I :' : !~I , I : iU:; , 12: IOH. I J: I :\h. 1:' : I@, :i . \uaHIlt'S CIH'YSUS10ITlUS Uol1l1 Chrysnslum) . ..\ dl 'I' r ill.' /1I/(a ('fI., 1.6 [/'(; 4 K. 1'15 I I. JI/JIllilim' iI,' Om'itl" 1'1 ..... 111111' 7 (1'(; :",,1. I :IH, 7:)!IJ.

155

f10miliae in Matth eum 1.4 {PG 57, 16]; 1.7 [PG 57. 17). Expositio ;'1 Psalmos 3.1 {PC 55. 35]; 46.1 [PC 55, In Psalm. 188). hoc. lsocrates. Pan . Panallienaieus 246. J. Mart. Juslin Martyr. Apel. ApoloKJ 1.21.4; 1.22.4 ; 1.53. 1; 1.53.8 . Dial. Dialogue with Trypho 62 .2; 69 .2. John ChrysoSlom Ste 10. Chrys. Lucian Al,.x. Auxandtr I. Hipp. H ippiru 2.67. Hist. corner. Quomodo historia eorncribenda sil2 , 4, 5.6, 7,8. 9, 10. 16. 17.39.42. 55.63. Im . Imagillts 4 . Pro LapSll jut" Salll/nudum 7. lA/M. Scylh. Scyllw 8. Syr. D. Dt Syria Dea 11 . Max. T yr. Maximus of Tyre . Dit!. DissntatiOlltJ [cited by e numeration of F. Duhner (P";,, D;dol. 1840))28. S; 28 . S-6. Methodius of Olympus (ed. Bonwetsch). Melh . ReJurr. Dt Rtsurrtctiont 1.52. 1: 2.25. 1; 3. 17.3; 3.5.8; 3. 18.4- 5; 3. 18.8. Symp. Symposium 3. 1; 3.9: 10.2. Nausiph. Nausiphanes {D-K. Vors.'] Fr. (7') 82. Olymp. Olympiodorus. In Ale. In Pla/onis Alcibiadem eommenlarium [cd . L C. Westerink (Amste rdam: North Holland , 1956)] 43. 12; SO. 8; IS4. 9- 10 ; 155. 16-- 17 ; 167.2324; 218. 14-I S. Origcn C. Gtls. Contra Ctl.mm 1.40: 1.42; 1.43 : 1.41 . Luc. In Lucam Frr. 17e. 125.2 17, 223. Princ. De Prinripiis 4. 1. 13: 4. 1.1 6. Phld . Philodemus. Rh. Volurnina Rhtloriea fed . Sudhaus. 2 vuls. (Leipzig: Teuhner, 1892. 1896)] 1.28.34-29.1 1; 44 , 1621 ; 200 . 11>-30; 299. 1- 7; 34S. 1- 8; 2. 19. I; !OS (Fe. XII). 5ff. In MaUh .

156

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Ph ile ) J udaeus Alexilndrinus. 01' Alnl/lulI/lII ''' , 6:1 . J)r Il",,,,,,,;'a',. MIlI,,/i 120. 1:\9. J)r (,'h'I'IIII;/II IOr" /J,. /"IIIIKl'r,,-,,, '/llm,,.,,,,dflf' f.'n/(I;liul/i.~ gm/in 14 . 15. 2:\. +I . 7·1. / 11 F/fl Cl'llIn ., ;\*. J),. /'ulI'IlI;is 1'1 PIII'IIii.' 1- 2. I)" S(/rri/i";u Abm/wllli 7K 0 ,. .\·"'I",ii.( 1.52: 1.205: 2. :\02 . I h' S/wr;,dif,w J.,·gillll.{ ' .:\-12: 2. 146. 1)1' r i/a ,\I f1.\;.~ 2.4fl....4M : 2.5:\* : 2.59 : 2 . 143. 2 .26:\*. Phil(l.~ lralll s Ice l. K:'IYSCI' (I.cipzig. 18i9)J. . \ ., _ .. . 1 . I /lII/KUII'. 1'10110. (;1"1111'11/",\' 4UHB, 407 I q( 'I • lIIIi LI' l 'l llvll yri cl. ( ;lIlI/lIIl' u(,/rii il/ Cl. Il umli; I:III/'ri

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Sempr. Sen. Con . Ex. Conlr. Suauch tU dm G,dUiolm Ms Q. f10raliw FIaccus. Hannover, 1879. Hyginus. Hygini AstrollOmica. Rec. Bernhard Rume. Leipzig: Weigel, 1875. Juvenal. IUlJenol. Edited by L. FriedHinder. Leipzig, 1895; Luci Ue KeUing. Index lJuborum /ulJtntJlis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Prcss, 195 1. Livy. August Wilhelm Ernesti. Gll1ssarium Livianum silJt Index Latinilatis exquisiloTtJ. Leipzig, 1804. Reprint. Hildesheim: Olms, 1966. Lucilius. Lucille Berkowitz and Theoclore F. Brunner . Index Lucilianus. Hildesheim: O lms, 1968. Lucrelius. Johannes Paulsen . Index Lucretianw. Darmstadt: Wissenschafiliche Buchgesellschaft , 1961 .

172

-26. -2 7. 28.

I mll'X /mlirulll

Manilius. M . Manifi Astronomiton. Rec . F. Jacob. Bt'rl in : Reimcr, ISin. Marcellus. Marcelli Dt Medicamentis. Edited by George Helmreich. Leipzig : Teubner, 1889. Martial. Martio/is. Edited b~' L. Friedland("r. Leipzig: T eubner,

1886. 29. Ovid . R. J . Oeferrari , M . I. Darry, and R. P. f\.Ic G uir(" . .4 Coneordanu of Ouid. Washington, D .C. : Ca tholi c U ni\'crsily Press, 1939. 30. Palrcs Lalini. J.-P. Mingt'. Patrologiat (U fJllJ {omp/tllts. Stri,s Latina. - 31. Pmius. Domi nicus BD. Auli Pmii H ard LU;{on. Hildeshci m: Olms, 1967 . 32. Petronius . J ohann Segebad r and Ernest Lommatzsch. Ltx;ton Pttronionum . ~ipzig : Teubner, 1898. 33. Phaedrus. AdolfCinquini . Index Phoedrionus. Milan. 1905. R("print. Hildesheim : Olm s. 1964-. 34. Plautu s. C . Lodge. ux;ton Ploutinflm. Leip7.ig : Tcubner. 1924 . 3~ . Pliny. O . Schn eider. /n C. Pli"i Sttundi .~'aluralis Hisloriat Li· brO$ l"dietS. C o tha, 1857 . Reprint . Hild ('Shcim : Olms. 1967 . 36. Pomponius Porphyrio. Pompo"i Porp~)'r;o"i$ Commmlum in /Jora tillm Flotcum. Editrd hy Alfred Holder. Innsbru ck: Wagnrr 1889. Reprin l. Hildeshdm : Dims, 1967 . 37. Propenius . .J. S. l)hillil1lor~ . / I/(/I'X r,.,."m'UllI P mlH'l1iflllll.,l'. Oxfi)rd : Clarendun Prcss, I HO:i. 38. Quimilian. [ell/ard llullcil. i.l'Xiflm Qllillli/irml'llll/. l...t·ipzi)o(: T ellhner. 1H3li, -I!I ikmocritus, :1ti. HI Ikn,uslhl'n('s. 12, ,12 Oialwic. 5n Oia l ri'~ , 5:i 5\ftlT)O'L~. 3!'. ,Ill" l)ihh{,l. W.. 7n Diu ( :;m iu Ilomer, 29, 80, K5. 132 Homily. 13 1 tl or..ce, \11 Uume. 0 .. 137 lamblichus. 92- 91 lriomeneus, 23 Ion, 2K Isiunre of &-" iUe, 136n hocntn. J2 .Iacob. 5i J aC'ger, \\'., Hi, 3211, 56n Jeremiah. I 17 Jemme, 10'-12, l !j l .Ieru~lem temple. 52, 77 .Ieul'. 76. 77, H3. 9tJ. 100-10-1 /l'mi"" Ill. 11 7. 137 Jew~ , !l1- H . 7Mf. 8" , 911. 108, 122. 126,

12.

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177

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Judgn. BooA of, 11 0 Julian. 94 Ju liul Africanu$. 100, 116n JU5tin Martyr, 79, 8J-8." 87 JUI·erutl. 6 J Keuck . K.. 18

L.. :) lactanliu5. 10'- 11 , U O Laetius. C., 43 Liixlniu$, 130 Liberal arts. St>u library. Alexandrian, 36 L..~rl honnii!orro.

Liv)", 20 Logographoi , 25 Love, idea of. 134 Lo,·ejoy. A. 0 .. 6 lOwilh, K.• 7n. 9n. IO n Lucian , 72-701 Luciliu5. 43 Lunctius, 43

Marrailus: SmlHd Boo. of. 52; Four/la BooIt of. 53 :\fc Keon , R. P.. "4 n :'ofa"':lho, 97 Mart;U5 Aurelius, 65. 89 Marroll , H .· I., 55n, 56u 1lLi:9l)~a , h I :'o1;n:eutiu5. 94 Medicine. 36. iO. i 2 Mroflandc r. 45 ~I elhodiu$,

9{j- 104

Mille nuianism. 13i ~1inllciu$ Felht. 87 Mne moSyllc, 71 M omigli;ano, A .. 1211, 3211 , 350 , 67 .. . U .. n

MMo('hus. KO Moses. 54 , 57- 58. 00. 77. 83-85 pam·", . 11 1. 132 MOIion, id~a of, 7 ~lOlIer, F.. If! Mu~s, 2.. , !l 1 Mu ~ um . Ah:'xandrian , 36 Musit.. 56 j.l~ , 60, 73 /'Oae,'i..s, .. j N.. rrali~t' generd, 'IH Nature. idea 01". u ... 135 Nausiph;aIl
178

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Slo.,· "ti' ~ l l C,i~is.

r lu( iulIs. I; PIUla fl'h. iJ - i -l. !12

Skl'\,'ir~. I:? I Skilfl't" ,. Q .. /-1 :1 SlIdl. IL III S,,, 1';11,',. :1Il-:I I . :'1:1. ;011 . :",:1, IN S"t"' lIn t .'lI 1,,\;:,,';, "I hhw ri:U1 >. ~ I. 1:J.j fTucbw., ....' ~"I,hi,ti, . MU: s,.·nmci S" J> h i ~l;t" ill

1';1\(1;11 . ~I l P;~isullllu . 21'1 Plag iarism . i!l . Ill. 11:1 Pla Ln. ' ;. 27. 311. H j. :\1;. ,,:\.

:,:"' . I ~I .

Ill.

93. \17. 117 . 12-\ Pb ulII~. 4:\. ·H-IS . -11; P1ra~Iff't". i2

I>cIT' • " • •" • •' "1. ;1 .. 1. :'" 'I •• ,., "~ . f't 1•• -' 'I _. " ' • :"",'

"

i:i. '!I. II" . IIIH. III!I. 124

l'ull'lIIon. Iq Pulilin. ,-I PuJ ~'''im . )';-12. -1:1

'ill. 1111 . 122.

S" pl.; >", ·11'1

1:\ 7

Index

of Nanzn 611d SubjtclS

Sozomcn . 9. 97- 101, 134 Spcnsier. 0 .. 411 SloicJ. 7. 55, 81. 124 Suclu niul, 61-66 Iniw.(n~. 18 SYl'"iallu5. 124

Tacilus, 85. 90 Tahhybiul.27 Talian . 80-84 . 87 Tclm. 8 TCTCntC. 4~

Tcrlullian, 16, 81-86, 87 Thale~, ~7

Thcmistius, 91 Theodo rc of Mopsucstia. 94 , 1.30 Thcodol'"Ctus of CYfUS, 94. 98- 104 ThcodolUs. 52 . 80 TheophiluJ. 97- /02 Thcophl'"ulul. J 7, 4 1. 106 Thcopompus. 49 Thucydkln, 20, 40, 46, 80. 99 Tibcrius. 66

179

TimaeuI, 50, 51, 60 Time. idea of , 6 , 7, 8 . 2 1, 124-25 Tnj an, 89 Truth, a5 critedo n o fhi510 ry, 41 , 48. 49, 59, 6.3, 66, 72, 10.3, 114 Valen., 90 Valenlinian, 90 Valc n,inu5, 86 ValeriUI M'lXimus. /4 1 Varro, 46. 9 1 VerBi!. 4!, 68, 142 Vincent of Bcauvail. "6n Vittu v,iuI. 61 Voltairc. j.. 138 Windelband . W., 5 WiKlom. idea or, 134

Xcnophanes, 25n, I! I Xen:n:, " uno of Cilium, !6