The Cosmology Of The Rigveda: An Essay (1887)

UC-NRLF

B L

1115 W3 1887

MAIN

LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. "7*1

THE

COSMOLOGY OF THE EIGVEDA,

THE

COSMOLOGY OF THE RIGVEDA,

AN ESSAY

H, W,

WALLIS,

M.A.,

GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

fig

tfa f^ib&ert

OF THE

\

UN1VERS or

WILLIAMS- AND N011GATE, 14,

HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. 1887.

HERTFORD

:

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS

BL

N

PREFACE.

THE

of

object

present a

this

is

essay

not

the

of

complete picture

much

so

to

Cosmology

of the Eigveda, as to supply the material from

which such

add references appeared

they

which

an

to

the

indicate

may be

explanation

superfluous

easily

matter,

accessible

Grassmann's references

statements

strictly

to illustrative passages

order to avoid any encumbrance

by

no

leave

to

The

drawn.

without a reference, and

cosmological passage to

may be

picture

endeavoured

has

writer

a

in

Lexicon,

in

sought.

In

of the notes

which

are

not

such

books,

omitted,

which are intended

which are

direction

references

other

to

likely

where

are as

and those substantiate to

be

the

subject

of doubt,

are

reduced to the smallest

number

possible.

The

isolation of the

156447

Eigveda

vi

is

Preface.

on

justified

other hand, the argument which

the Atharvaveda in the

on the of that

collection

Atharvaveda

lies

and

by

Brahmanic development

based

is

internal character

that

tradition,

from

apart

the

drawn from

is

Introduction

by the

attested

fact,

On

grounds.

linguistic

stream

the

the of

on the testimony of

:

residents in India to the superstitious character

modern

of

similarity to

those

Hindoos

of the of

and

charms

the

the

Atharvaveda

the

If,

striking

seems

as

cosmological passages

and

of the Eigveda are to be classified with

the latest

compositions

conceptions

the

in

collection,

the

with which the essay deals must

be regarded as belonging represented in

hymns were

to

still

on the

the latest period

when

the Eigveda,

language did not tion

of

on

European nations.

most probable,

hymns

:

lips

the

earlier

of priests

differ materially

whose

in construc-

from that contained in the hymns which

they recited.

The writer gratitude

him

to

desires here to express his sincere

those teachers

who have

assisted

in his general Sanskrit studies, Professors

vii

Preface.

E.

B.

Cowell,

R.

v.

Both,

G.

Kielhorn, and K. Geldner, some of also kindly suggested

was

while

it

Above

all,

his

which, in the

him

for

now

has

to

MAY,

1887.

whom

through

the

F.

have

corrections in this

passing

essay press.

thanks are due to that Trust first

devote

place,

rendered

it

possible

himself to the study,

undertaken

book.

Biihler,

the

publication

of

and this

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

INTRODUCTION. 1'AGE

The

subject of the essay

1

Limits of the study

The absence

The

.

3

of chronological data

character of the collection determined

by

internal

4

indications

By

2

contrast with the Atharvaveda

The impersonality

of the

7 8

Vedic gods

9

Deification of abstractions

The transference of divine functions and

The general tendency

of the

attributes

.

.

13

Rigveda

CHAPTER

11

I.

THE BUILDING OF THE WORLD. The

significance of metaphors in the

Rigveda

.

The introduction

of the fire

.

.

.

16-

...

17

.........

20

The measuring and building of heaven and earth The firmness of the structure

21

.

Tvashtar, the divine carpenter

23

The Ribhus, the workmen The general character of the

24 description

26-

Contents.

CHAPTER

II.

GENERATION. The

28

application of analogy

Fire and water

29

The metaphor of parentage, temporal, generic, and Heaven and earth, the universal parents The sun

29 31

as the type of generation

32

Elements of confusion in the hymns to Agni

Agni

local.

....

in the waters of heaven

32 33

Gandharva, X. 123

34

.37

'The union of Gandharva with Apsaras

The marriage of Surya The births of the gods and Aditi and Daksha

of the worlds,

The

birth of Agni,

7-10

The

rise of

X.

31.

39

X.

72.

.

.

41

44

the sun, X. 5

46

48

Hiranyagarbha, X. 121 The sun as supreme divinity

50

The Unborn

53

as a cosmogonic factor

Agni The waters

thing,

54 56

Parjanya, VII. 101

The one

52

X.

58 129.

The non-existent and the Allegory and analogy

57 existent

61

62

xi

Contents.

CHAPTER

IIT.

THE SACRIFICE. PAGE

The

64

source of this explanation

The meaning of the sacrifice The popular conception of death

64

The

sacrificial

66

The

fathers identified with the rays of

65

theory

The Angirases The creative functions

Agni

.

.

.

.

68

69 of the fathers

71

Generation through the fathers, X. 56

71

Anticipation of divine blessedness

75

The

fathers in the sun, III. 38

76

The

sacrificial

78

!

prayer

The heavenly

sacrifice

Vigvakarman,

sacrificer

79

and

creator,

X.

81, 82.

Summary

Sarasvati and

.

.

80

....

84

Vayu ......

85

Relation of Vigvakarman to Hiranyagarbha

Vac compared with Purusha, X. 90

.

86 89

of results

CHAPTER

IV.

THE ORDER OF THE WORLD. The

interpretation of abstract words

The general meaning

of the

Special applications of the

word

91

word

The

principle precedes the phenomena, X. 190

The

sons and parents of the ritd

Varuna, the king

91

ritd

93

...

95

96 97

xii

Content?.

PAGE

The vratdni The

of

Yaiuna

relation of

Yaruna

Yaruna

99

The maya

of

100

to ritd

as creator, Y. 85.

.

101

.

102

Asura

104

Monotheism Yaruna's decline

105

The popularity

of Indra

105

Speculation fostered by the Kshatriyas

106

APPENDIX. THE COSMOGRAPHY OF THE RIGYEDA. The form

Ill

of the earth

Heaven and earth

112

a pair

The intermediate space Twofold, threefold,

113

sixfold, ninefold divisions of the

114

world Professor Zimmer's view of a rajas under the earth.

The

.

115

117

course of the sun

Index

of Passages

.

119

Index

of Sanskrit

Words

128

129

General Index.

COEEIGENDA. Page

25, line 23.

Page 40/line 23.

For three read

four.

For XI. 81.

read IX. 81.

4.

Page

57, note 5.

For sun read

Page

67, note 4.

For X. 196.

Page

92, note 1.

For world read word.

4.

son. 4.

read

X.

169. 4.

/""*' "or THE !

UNIVERSITY r

'

THE

COSMOLOGY OP THE EIGYEDA,

INTRODUCTION. RELIGION

the behaviour of

is

man

with respect to the

natural forces and influences of the world which he

regards as manifestations external form of religion

ceremonies which are

of

is

for

superhuman

characterized

will.

by

rites

The and

most part traditions

the

from a forgotten past the inner life is twofold, on the one hand emotional, enthusiastic, and passionate, ;

on the other

The

reflective, speculative,

and philosophical.

character of each of these phases

is

determined by

the culture and civilization of the people professing the

The

religion.

from three

historian

may approach

sides, according as

his

he wishes to

subject

illustrate

the aesthetic, moral, or mental character of the people.

In the following pages the religious hymns of the

Rigveda

will be treated solely as expressions of in-

tellectual

thought.

attempts

at

and

there

The

philosophy,

through

the

stray

which

hymns

guesses are of

and vague

scattered

that

here

collection, 1

The Cosmology of be

will

in

classified

and,

as

the Rigveda.

as

far

arranged

possible,

sequence with a view to discovering the

logical

manner of reasoning

vogue among the composers of the hymns, the nature of the inferences and proofs which they admitted. A critical investigation of the in

recorded results of Indian thought

earliest

expected to throw considerable light on the

may

be

difficult

problem of the growth of Indian philosophy, if a subject can be found which is common to the later and the earlier thinkers.

Fortunately, one great problem

presents itself immediately as pressing for solution in all

ages,

will here be

The passages

most

obvious will

ceptions

be adduced

of

the

relating to this subject

brought together and arranged according

the similarity

to

the

and formation

namely, the origin

existing world.

of

the ideas contained

links

connecting

be suggested only

so

far

;

as

them

in

;

analogous con-

and other passages will they serve

to

explain

allusions in the cosmological passages.

an essential condition of such a study that the limits of the subject should be drawn as closely as It

is

possible

;

that, as far as possible, every

avenue should

be closed upon conjecture and hypothesis

whenever

and

this is practicable, the authors of the

should be allowed to speak their quently, no attempt will be made

of

;

the conceptions found in

own

words.

that,

hymns Conse-

to discover the origin

our book.

Mythology and etymology, the investigation of the stereotyped and formal results of preceding ages of thought, find

Limits of the study. Parallels from the religious

no place in such a plan.

and philosophic thought of other nations, and illustrations from later books, which would have obscured the interdependence of the Yedic ideas on one another,

and

so rendered it

more

the reader to

for

difficult

place himself in the position of the authors, are also

excluded.

The almost

entire

the

of

neglect

chronological

sequence of the hymns in this essay, which

is

a

more

serious omission, is the unavoidable consequence of the failure that

a

by which

criterion

It

is

has as yet attended every attempt to find

generally

to determine their relative dates.

that

supposed

in the tenth book

hymn

occurrence of a

the

affords

a suspicion of the

Forms and meanings

lateness of its composition.

of

words and grammatical constructions, which are of rare

occurrence in the

frequent

later,

date

the

for

has not

yet

would

hymns

also

in

been found

seem

we

indicate

to

which they occur possible

rules of general applicability

we were

on

this

still

guesses

collections,

but

of the

it

any

Even

score.

if

hymns,

be very far from deciding the relative

ages of the ideas contained in them. logical

;

a late

establish

to

able to determine the dates

should

become more

and

Kigveda,

The cosmo-

strung together in the other Yedic

and even in the Brahmanas, occasionally

bear a more primitive character than those in the

Eigveda, though the task of separating them from later accretions is

encumbered with greater

difficulty.

Introduction.

The

illustrations

from geology which are frequently fail to apply in one

introduced in this connection

The opinions held by a

important particular.

man

or a body

of

men

not

are

nor arranged in strata according to age

growing or

continually

relative positions

and

dying,

single

as a fossil

lifeless

they are

;

their

shifting

through interaction one on another; and force of meaning from

they derive their vitality association

with the whole

which they the

ideas

general

A

live.

could

chronological

have

no

as

may

principles

other

be

in

of thought

complex

arrangement of basis than such

from

abstracted

a

comprehensive study of the mythology and ideology of

all nations.

One

question,

which has given

pute, requires preliminary consideration

hymns may be regarded as common thought of the people. the

of

statements

Eishis,

may compare Veda

sufficiently

a

If

Atharvaveda. veda alone,

we

may

A

of

the

consider the of

composers

their

work;

distinctive

1

the

and we

we examine

find there

the

character,

the

of the

Ifcig-

hymns

two clear indications of the

bias of the authors in their exclusiveness

1

far our

productions with the only other

their

of

how

dis-

The question admits

the

hymns, about themselves and

:

representative

We

treatment in two ways.

of

much

to

rise

and their

rich collection of passages on this subject will be found in Dr.

Muir's Original

Sanskrit

Texts,

vol.

iii.,

and in his

article

on the

in the J.R.A.S. for 1866, p. 257. position of the priests in the Vedic age

The

glorification

lias of

tJie

of the sacrifice.

fish is.

They

represent them-

man and

selves as the only mediators between

They pride themselves on the pure orthodoxy

gods.

of their

and

religion

on the correctness of

the true priests

and

1

offerings.

cursed

They

as

and their gods demons and worshippers of demons. 2 Other worshippers

Indra's

men who know

existence,

who

down

the Rishis call gods, selves

no

offer

sacrifice.

3

not Indra,

no

serve

enemies of the gods, haters of the ways, who

by

true faith, with true prayers

of a

the ungodly,

are

who deny evil

their

Theirs are the true or real gods, served

rites.

are

the

Upon

Agni,

men

sacrifice,

of

such people

the terrible wrath of

all

their

and solemnly aver that they have never thembeen guilty of any improper worship of other

gods or demons.

Owing

to

the vagueness of the

references, it is impossible to determine against

whom

the denunciations are levelled, whether at dissenters

belonging to the same nation or tribe as the orthodox or at foreigners

;

they present

picture of a violent

religious

us,

however, with the

and serve

contest,

to

remind us that the Eishis were not the only bidders for authority among the people, even in matters of If the Eishis had any differences

theology.

1

II. 26. 1.

Bergaigne,

2

Y. 42.

V,

10.,

12.,

La

Religion vedique, vol.

VII. 104. 14-16., V. 42.

iii.

10.,

among

p. 184.

VIII. 18.

13., II.

23. 16. 3

ddeva

;

anindrd

cf.

II. 12. 5.

;

dnagnitra

cf. I.

147. 2.

bralimadv'ishah ; anydvrata, avratd, dpavrata ; ayajnd.

;

devanidah

;

6

Introduction.

themselves, their

in the

common

interest at any rate centred The most extravagant and offensive

sacrifice.

verses in the collection are the

unrestrained praises

of the liberality of kings and other rich patrons of

the

sacrifice,

shown It

was the endeavour of the Eishis

make themselves

as indispensable as possible to the

to the priests. to

especially in donations of cattle

great ones of the earth, and for that end to magnify

the sacrifice and

its

accompaniment, the hymn, as

the only means of attaining prosperity favour.

1

There are no curses

they denounce the

and divine

so bitter as those in

which

This glorification of the

illiberal.

the main burden of the whole Eigveda,

sacrifice is

showing itself in the assimilation of all things in heaven and earth to the sacrifice, and in the elevation of the instruments and personifications of the sacrifice to

the rank of great deities.

interest

gress

of

the

of

Eishis

speculative

to

help

thought

was not in the

It

forward

the

pro-

in its advance towards

hedge about their own religious conceptions with a wall of sanctity, and to

philosophy

;

but

rather

to

bring within this compass the wandering fancies of the people, and the enquiring guesses of the thinkers.

Extraneous

thought

source of danger

;

and

criticism

was

to

them a

they sought, therefore, to obscure

the doctrines of their theology by a multiplication of complicated allusions

1

Compare H. Zimmer,

and dark

riddles,

with which

Altindisches Leben, pp. 168-171, 194-5.

The Rigveda contrasted

the Atharvaveda.

ivith

7

they might occupy the minds of their hearers, at the

same time gratifying the native

taste for puzzle

and

The material upon which they worked paradox. consisted in part of the myths and legends which 1

were rooted in the traditions of the people, and partly also of the

rude physics and metaphysics of the more

thoughtful.

These they endeavour to adapt to their

own

sacrificial theory.

The

contents and form of the great majority of the in the

hymns

Rigveda bear

distinctly the

marks of a 2

It complex of doctrine in process of elaboration. would be quite conceivable that this doctrine, the work

was submissively accepted as by the mass of the people, were the

a class of priests,

of

alone efficacious

The Atharvaveda, us with another picture. In it we

Rigveda the only Yeda extant. however, presents find a

collection of

practical uses of

charms and incantations

common

life,

for the

exhibiting a spiritism

and a demonolatry which the Rishis of the Rigveda scorned.

1

We

find

a

of

state

morality contrasting

parokshapriya iva hi devah pratyakshadvishfth,

what

is

recondite,

and hate that which

is

evident.'

'

For the gods love

Brihadar. Up. 4.

2. 2.

" Neither in the language nor in the thought of the Rig-Veda have I been able to discover that quality of primitive natural simplicity which 2

so

many

are fain to see in

the contrary, to be of

it.

The poetry

it

contains appears to me, on

a singularly refined

character

and

artificially

elaborated, full of allusions and reticences, of pretensions to mysticism

and theosophic insight

;

and the manner of

its

expression

is

such as

reminds one more frequently of the phraseology in use among certain small groups of initiated than the poetic language of a large community." Earth,

The

Religions of India, p.

xiii.

8

Introduction.

strongly with the noble moral teaching of the Rigveda,

"We

and a more popular treatment of the Vedic gods.

number of

find, further, a

speculative pieces of rank

mysticism running out in wild luxuriance far beyond the sober limits of the

hymns

are

in

therefore justified

of the Rigveda

as

of the nation, and

point

characterizing the

how

hymns

the main the products of a

in

system independent of

special

We

of the Rigveda.

the

thought

general

in carefully considering at every

far the adjustment of

thought to

have influenced the form of expression.

In

it

may

this essay

the word Rishi will, for convenience, be used particularly

to

denote the

adherents and

promoters of

this system.

On

the other hand,

represent in the

if it

be granted that the

hymns

main a system of theology which was

the work of a particular class of men, rather than the

natural growth of a national consciousness, still

find

the

in determining

manner

greatest

how

of thought.

difficulty

we may

in individual

cases

system has influenced their

far the

The following

description of the

peculiar treatment of the gods in our collection

The

serve as an illustration of this difficulty.

of the Rigveda differ essentially from the gods of

or Scandinavian

may

deities

Greek

mythology and of the Mahabharata

in the abstract and almost impersonal nature of their characters.

They

are

little

physical and moral order

more than

factors in the

of the world,

which none, except perhaps Indra, has a

apart from

self-interested

The nature of

9

Vcdic gods.

the

To the Rishis they are pre-eminently the

existence.

receivers of sacrifice

;

the apotheosis of the Ribhus

is

described as the attainment of the right to receive

They have no

sacrifice.

The mention

definite forms.

of their clothes, or of different parts of their bodies,

serves only to express the nature of their actions or characters.

The strength

of Indra

is

the shaking of his blonde mustachios thirst for

soma causes the poet

capacity of his belly.

his

life to

his

by

insatiable

enormous

to glorify the

Savitar raises

beams of the sun, to give

;

illustrated

arms, the

Rudra

the world.

and the Maruts are clad in bright armour and carry spears, and crack their shining whips of light over their horses to

represent the lightning.

lets fall

her clothes to display her beauty.

Varuna

are throned in heaven

they are not

as

;

The Dawn Mitra and

the other gods, so far

with individual

identified

objects,

wander through the world at will. We hear nothing of temples of the gods, and it is almost certain that the

hymns

recognize no idols

selves present in the different

The

peculiarly

;

the

gods were them-

phenomena of the world.

impersonal nature of the gods

is

seen in the deification of purely abstract notions and agencies.

are those tar

;

The most

striking examples of such gods whose names are formed with the suffix

the divine agents of the processes designated

by

the verbal roots from which their names are derived.

The

most

prominent

of

quickener/ and Tvashtar,

'

these

are

'

Savitar,

the carpenter/

the

That both

r

10

Introduction.

gods were considered as such agents appears from the frequent play on the connection between their names

and the related verbal forms

and from the constant

;

names of the substantive

addition to their

passages where we may with equal '

the carpenter god/ '

Savitar/

'

devd,

'

the quickening god/ or

Tvashtar

god Tvashtar.'

in

plausibility translate

god

who

the god

is

produces the various objects in nature which show the

of an

skill

artificer;

Savitar

always

identified

1

few

exceptions,

quickener of the world, the sun character of his conception

is

is,

however, with

with

the

great

and thus the abstract

;

somewhat obscured.

frequent ascription of the action

The

of ordaining (dha)

the things in the world to different gods led to

the-

conception of a separate god, the Ordainer or Establisher,

"We

poser.

one hymn, of life

Vidhatar

Dhatar.

;

find a devd

2

is

in like

manner the Dis-

Netar three times invoked in

apparently as the Guide of the course

and a devd Tratar,

to

whom

dressed for protection against foes. of deities invoked

by the

Bishis,

prayers are ad-

3

Other examples

whose names bear a

similarly abstract character, are Brahmanaspati or Bri'

haspati, *

the lord of the sacrificial prayer/ Prajapati

the lord of

Aramati

Vac

'

Anumati

things born/

'

'

prayer/ Ija

'

graciousness/

adoration/ Qraddha

voice/ 1

e.g.

IV. 54., III. 33.

2

V. 50.

3

IV. 55.

5, 7., I.

106.

6.

7.,

VIII.

18. 20.

'

faith/ and

II

Transferenee of divine attributes.

The

abstract nature of the Yedic gods in general

shows

in

itself

the indefiniteness of the

sphere of

activity of each one, in the poverty of their individual attributes,

and

This

of

from one god

to

these

another.

the explanation of the principle familiar from

is

Max

Professor '

with which

the readiness

in

attributes are transferred

Miiller's '

name

the

by which the god invoked on

henotheism,

particular

under

writings

occasion

is

as

represented

a

exercising the

functions of other gods, and assuming their attributes.

The more impersonal and the god, the easier

This

to another.

is

abstract the conception of

to attribute his entire activity

it is

particularly striking in the case

who has become

of one ancient god, Bhaga,

Rigveda

little

more than a source from which

in the descrip-

tions of the functions of other gods are obtained, or a

standard of comparison by which their greatness

enhanced.

His name has survived in the Slavonic

name

languages as a general has in the Avesta.

it also

Bhaga would seem sun-worship,

to

be a survival from an ancient shall

His name

is

find

express

the

in

an

epithet

gift of sunshine to

to

men.

invoked along with Pushan and the Adityas,

is

Mitra, sister.

bountiful

traces

frequently mentioned

with that of Savitar, apparently as Savitar's

which

for god, a sense

To judge from the Rigveda,

which we

of

course of the essay.

He

is

1

Yaruna, and

The eye 1

Aryaman.

of heaven I.

123. 5.;

cf.

is

The

dawn

is

his

adorned with Bhaga's

VII. 41.

2.

12

Introduction*

light.

road.

1

The hymns mount up to Yishnu as on Bhaga's Most frequently, however, comparison with intended to express a vague glorification

is

Bhaga

of the bounty of Indra and

points of comparison

Agni

that Indra carries the two

are

worlds, heaven and earth, as is

the only special

;

Bhaga

and that Agni

;

the leader of the tribes of heaven, as Bhaga. 2

This apparent

gods shows

may

itself in

common

there are

the functions of the

confusion of

In the

three ways.

first

place,

divine actions or attributes which

with equal propriety be ascribed to two or more

gods invoked separately or together,

to all the

members

of different classes of gods, such as the sacrificial gods,

and the warrior- gods, or such cases there is no

to all the

gods as gods.

confusion.

real

In

Secondly,

there are attributes and actions expressed in similar phrases,

which,

through

the

different

original

cover

development

common

approximation

however,

was

tendency in

the

mind

their

Of

name

assisted

a

of

by

poet

the

a

of

to

applied

originally

-expressing

more or

less exactly

1

I.

I. 62. 7.

136. 2. ;

;

gods

characters

from

nature Savitar,

are

the

and

the

'father' to different gods.

expression

2

different

such a way as to

this

and

Tvashtar

of

application of the

of

conceptions in

ground.

to

belong

III. 54. 14.

III. 20. 4.

;

This

occasional

existence

traditional

verse or

another

god,

but

the thought the poet

cf.

X.

151. 1.

Confusion of the divine functions.

The confusion

wished to utter. it is

is

in this case real, but

not the result of a direct transference of functions.

Lastly, there

the conscious application to one god

is

of the attributes of another, racteristic

the other god,

of

attributes

the addition of the

often of the most cha-

name

some appellative or expression familiar

cases

with

to the Rishis

The god invoked, who

in association with him.

such

either

of the other god, or with

in

usually Agni, Soma, or Indra, unites

is

with his own functions those of another god or gods.

Agni, Soma, and Brihaspati are expressly identified with other gods

including their entire activity,

as

even without the insertion of any adverb of comparison, as also

it is

said of Savitar that

becomes Piishan." sional

The

1

he "becomes Mitra,

transference here

and of a rhetorical character, and from

distinct

the

of

syncretism

is

the

is

occa-

thus entirely later

divine

Triad.

This fusion

is,

however, but one phase of a move-

ment of thought collection,

a

to

be

through the whole

traced

harmonizing movement by which

endeavoured

to

recognized by

concentrate

the Rishis.

the It

is

theological

it

is

ideas

the result of two

tendencies, both of which would seem to mark our

end of an epoch in the thought of the nation than to a period of

hymns

i

as belonging rather

II. 1.,

V.

pushff, bhavasi

3. 1, 2., 1.

V. 81.

4, 5.

163. 3.

;

to the

IX. passim; X, 98.

1.;

mitro bhavasi

14

Introduction.

active production.

1

The one tendency which

is

pecu-

liarly characteristic of India is the economical desire

and preserve the entire theological stock of

to collect

the nation that nothing be out

a

new path

in

rather than to strike

lost,

of

disregard

results.

previous

Legends and mythical conceptions, as well as deities, derived originally from different orders of thought, are placed side by side, approximated to one another

and confused

The other tendency

together.

is

the

endeavour to define the unity of nature, which to the layman was apparently typified in the light, but

which the Eishi endeavoured

The

sacrifice.

associate with

to

the

various products of this latter tendency

are particularly characteristic

the

of

difference

be-

tween the cosmologies and cosmological formulae of the Rigveda and those of the Atharvaveda. In the Rigveda,

we have

as

seen,

the

divine actions

transferable from one god to another

hymns the

Skambha Kala

1

my

'

are '

in the mystical

Atharvaveda the several elements of

of the

world

;

are

identified

Prana

the support/

time/ Ucchishta

with

'

a '

few abstractions,

the breath

of life/

the remains of the sacrifice/

" For the great majority of the hymns of the Rigveda it becomes, in opinion, more and more evident, that they mark not the rise, nor the

zenith, but rather the decline of the oldest

Indian lyrical

and monotony appears from the unvaried uniformity metaphor, the absence of originality in most of the hymns and these rather negative

of

art.

This

thought and

of the

Rigveda

;

qualities are not indeed limited to particular

books, they extend, so far as I can see, in greater or less degree, over the

whole collection."

Bradke's Dyaus

A sura,

p. 2.

15

Tendency of the Rigveda.

and

others, each of

which

is

for the time tentatively

regarded as the substratum of the universe,

and end. described

its

cause

Neither of these phases can be accurately as

In the

pantheistic.

earlier

book the

gods are not categorically (with one or two exceptions, e.g. Aditi I. 89. 10.) identified

in the later the abstractions

with the universe;

and strange

which the elements of nature are be described as gods.

The

logical

figures with

identified cannot

development of

the one phase of thought ends in monotheism, of the other in atheism.

CHAPTER

I.

THE BUILDING OF THE WORLD. THE

philosophy of nature

classification

of natural

classifications of

be described as the

may

forces

and

The

agencies.

based upon identity or

science are

uniformity of principle discovered by analysis and inductive reasoning

unscientific classifications or

;

mental

associations are the results of superficial comparison.

The former we commonly resemblances, of

destitute

analogies,

science

call explanations,

or

this

metaphors. distinction

the latter

In an age vanishes

;

the

metaphor partakes of the nature of an explanation.

The importance veda

is

of the metaphors employed in the Rig-

seen in the constancy of their application as

compared with the ornamental or descriptive metaphors fixed comparisons are consecrated of modern poetry ;

to particular uses

and endued with a sanction which

can only be explained as the result of a very special sense

of

formation

their

of

propriety.

the

world

recurring perpetually to all

its

we

find

in

describing

the Yedic

the poets

the metaphor of building in

showing that they accepted this comthe form of expression most applicable to

details,

parison as

Thus

The

made in

we remember

If

creation.

of wood,

it is

difficult to picture to ourselves its

the felling of the trees for wood, and

first,

:

not

that the Vedic house was

the different stages in the process of

outline

erection

17

significance of the metaphor.

the measuring of the

site

the

next, the fixing of

;

main-posts in the four corners supported by leaning

and of the two door-posts in the front and lastly, the covering-in of the whole with cross-

buttresses,

beams, to

fill

;

rafters, laths,

up the

and some kind of

We

crevices.

mud

or thatch

shall see all these stages

recur in the allusions to the formation of the world.

That the world should nothing

have

an idea which

is

the

Rigveda;

Rishis

been

finds

no

however,

are,

from

created place

a

at

the

in

to

loss

explain whence the divine builders obtained the im" What indeed perishable material for their work.

was the wood

What

?

too

was that tree from which

they fashioned the heaven and the earth

?

They two

stand fast and grow not old for ever, while

days and mornings wax old." 1

X.

31. 7.

;

cf.

X.

ever to be translated

would seem

to

as contained in

wood. trees.

The The

'

Whether

81. 4.

forest

'

is

word vdna

The

in the

use of the

of

Rigveda

word

is

for cloud

be due to the following associations. The rain is pictured wooden vats. The lightning burns in the clouds as fire in

clouds are

blown by the wind as the branches and foliage of X. 28. 8. appears to refer to the clearing up

difficult verse

of the sky through the thunderstorm

good wood in

" The gods came carrying axes,

;

'

Lex.) they burnt

X. 135.

:

they came with their attendants; they set ' heaven, where there was refuse (perhaps underwood Pet.

splitting the clouds (vdna]

to in

the

doubtful.

many

The measuring

l

it

1., I.

up." 24.

The myth 7.,

and

I.

of the world-tree is apparently alluded

164. 20

;

cf.

A. V. X.

7. 38.

2

The Building of

18 '

the

World.

the two ancient dwelling-places/

in the different senses of the word,

heaven and earth, a frequent topic

is

Thus we read of Indra,

in the hymns.

" he presentative of the gods, six broad

spaces,

excluded;

he

it

it is

as the re-

who measured

the

from which no existing thing is is who made the wide expanse of

earth and the lofty

dome

of the sky, even

"

he

and

l

;

and the thing

again, with confusion of the measure

Indra, broad

measured, "two measures are thine,

and well-measured, the heaven by thy greatness and the earth by thy skill." is

2

The measuring instrument

the sun

represented by

traversing

the earth

in

his course, and shooting his straight beams from East

"Yaruna, standing in the region of the

"West.

to air,

measureth out the earth with the sun as with a 3

Hence the measurers of the world

measuring-rod."

sun- gods, as Yishnu, who excellence are the " measured the regions of the earth, and made fast the

par

dwelling-place on strider,

high,

in three steps."

the surveying

is

stepping forth, the mighty

The natural

place to begin

in the front of the house

;

and so

the gods began their measurement of the earth from

"Indra measured out (vimimaya)

the East.

a house with measures from the front."

1

VI. 47.

3,

4.

For the explanation

of the

'

as it

were

The

idea

4

six spaces

'

and other

cosmographical references, see Appendix. 2

X.

3

V. 85.

*

29. 6. 5.

pracah II. 15.

3., cf.

VII. 99.

2.

pr&cim kaMbham prithivy&h.

I he Measuring of measuring

is

out the earth,

allied

closely

revealing

it

to

19

World.

oj the

to that

the

of spreading

eyes of man,

a

function also ascribed to the gods connected with the

sun and the lightning, in particular to Indra, Agni, and the Maruts. The site seems to have been consecrated

1 by being anointed with ghee, which in our

hymns represents the The fathers (Manes;

rain or light given

and earth

them

see Ch. III.)

"anointed heaven

they measured them with they made them fast and broad they

to rule over

measuring- rods

by the gods.

;

;

;

set the great worlds apart, firmly fixed for security."

Connected with the action of measuring the corner-posts,

setting in

of

the cosmic house

through which world.

"

are

the

portals

the morning light

The Dawn shone with

for us the doors." 3

of

by The doors

frequently expressed

of the same root.

a different form (mi)

that

is

2

of

enters

East

the into

the

and opened The doors "open high and wide brilliance,

with their frames." 4 They are broad as the earth, " extending wide and above all, many in number,

yea very

many

of ghee." 5

;

through the doors flow the streams

They

are

particularly

glorified

in

the

Apri-hymns, as the gates through which the gods approach,

the

arrangement of

1

A. V. III. 12.

2

III. 38.

3

4 5

I.

IX.

I. 188. 5.

5. 5.

place

1.

3., cf. I.

113.4., IV. 51.

Staili

the

190. 2. 2.,

V. 45.

1.

of

sacri-

20

The Building of

fice

assimilated

being

world.

the

to

World.

the

measurement

the covering-in

Lastly,

beamless or the rafterless.

who produced

in the world

"

He

this

the

the house with

of

cross-beams and a thatching of bamboo-canes to negatively in the designation

of

is

alluded

sky as the

of the

was a clever workman heaven and earth, and

fixed the two regions of air in the beamless space."

The

be woven in the trees or clouds.

air is said to

Indra, didst fasten firmly the region of air

"Thou,

in the frame of heaven

The

1

human house

the

excellence in

of

criterion

2

and earth."

was the firmness and compactness of its structure. So we are continually told of one god and another how he holds the heaven and the earth fast and the ;

security of the never-falling sky

of wonder to

human

the

out the broad earth,

the sky,

"Indra spread a great marvel, and supported

heaven and the earth apart." makest secure

secure." 3

is

a perpetual source

builders.

and mighty."

erect

is

"

He supported the " That which thou

The heaven

is itself

called

mdharman, or simply dhdrman, 'the support' or 'the firmament.' 4

was 1

Up.

But the compactness

useless unless the foundations

warned IV.

56. 3., II. 15. 2.;

were

of the sure.

askambhand X. 149.

building " Savitar

1.; cf.

Chand.

3. 1. 1.

3

V. 85. 2.;

3

VI. 17.

7.

I. 56. 5.

V. 29.

;

4.

;

VIII. 45.

6.

This sense seems necessary for dhdrman in VIII. 6. 20. The fuller expression dhdrman divo dharune (X. 170. 2., V. 15. 2.), 'the sure firma4

ment

of the sky

'

or

'

the support supporting the sky,'

is

abbreviated into

The Introduction of

made on

" Vishnu fixed

the earth fast with bands."

all sides

with pegs."

light, rain,

Such house as

it

A

poets.

and

air.

all

gifts of

2

a brief outline

is

When

1

world was furnished with

finished, the

it

"Brihaspati supports firmly

in their places the ends of the earth."

was

21

the Fire.

of

the

metaphor of the

pictured itself to the lively fancy of the

more

mode

special characteristic of the

thought in the Rigveda

is

of

the invariable introduction

into all cosmological conceptions of the fires of heaven

and

earth, the sun, the lightning or the thunderbolt,

and the

fire

of

sacrifice.

logical explanations of ject of so

much

to call the

The

and meteoro-

solar

mythology have been the sub-

controversy of late that

it is

necessary

reader's attention once for all to the fact

that the frequent references in this essay to the sun

and the lightning, as the natural phenomena uppermost in the minds of the Rishis, are in no sense solar

or

explanations of mythology,

fulgural

or of

the origins of the gods; they merely draw attention the

to

conceptions

with

associated

different

The

(perhaps conventionally) in the Rigveda. of the

Indian on entering his

introduction of the sacred

dhdrmani vidharman

2

see

Agni,

"

act

the

who was ever

and perhaps in I. 159. 3., cf. IX. 97. 22. For Grassmann's Lexicon; Bergaigne contests this meaning

La

yantraih X. 149. I.

first

new house was

in III. 38. 2.,

for vidharman also, 1

fire,

gods

Religion vedique, III. 218. n. 2.

1.

;

mayiikhaih VII. 99.

56. 5., III. 30. 11., II. 15. 2. etc.

3.

;

IV. 60.

1

;

cf.

X. 89.

1.

22

The Building

of the

to be worshipped in the house,"

The

house." 1

World.

"the master of the

act of the gods after the forma-

first

tion of the world was to produce the celestial Agni,

From

the sun or the lightning.

the hearth in the

middle of the house the flames and smoke streamed

up towards the the

supporting

presenting the picture of a pillar " the head of is

roof,

Agni

ceiling.

heaven and the navel of the earth liquid counterpart, Soma,

is

"

2

he,

;

as

his

'the bearer of heaven*

" He was set down and the support of the world. among men as a wise priest, welcome in the sacrifice for

he shot up his straight light knowledge Savitar, and supported his smoke toward heaven

his

like like

;

a builder."

3

The sun

is

the gold or bronzen

pillar of Mitra and Varuna's throne

the sky itself

;

4

This function compared to a firmly set pillar. of Agni was symbolized by the erection of a post

is

in the place of sacrifice, the t'dnaspdti of the Apri-

hymns, which was anointed with ghee

to

represent

his light.

The

action

of building

the cosmic house,

corre-

sponding to the rough work of the Indian peasant, attributed for the most part to the gods in is general, to Indra as the representative of the gods,

1

grihdpati, v'dstosh pdtih.

2

I. 59. 2.

IV. 1

6. 2. cf.

V. 62.

7, 8.;

IV. 13.

V. 45.

5.,

2.

VII.

VI. 47.

1. 2. cf.

5.,

III.

X. 88.

1.,

1.

17.

III. 5. 10.

23

Tvashtar, the joiner.

that

and Varuna,

Mitra

or to

in the

is

But there

world.

whose special character the finer works of the be

These

Tvashtar in

the

by

delegated

workman.

the

is

*

forms,"

the

as

who,

hatchet

the

things with

all

In

pair.'

the

he

sacrifice

created

of praise, which is technically described " Tvashtar piece of joinery. produced thee

hymn a

(Brihaspati) after

hymn,

of the his

Ribhus.

whence heaven and earth are called

artificer's

the

professional

the

his

heaven and earth, the parents, and their

in

" adorned also, in general,

thunderbolt of Indra, but

1

gods,

skill

carpenter- god,

with

all

such as would

and

Tvashtar

clever-handed

their

the

to

peasant

are

manufactured

particular,

art,

joiner's

other

are

on

based

is

of

ordainers

the

as

gods

from

all

who generated

Tvashtar's mead. 4

He

2

the

sacred

the sacrifice

to

fire.

is

hymn

also

is

3

he

is

But

His special function in the natural

as

the

5

This

regarded

and of increase in

one

the soma,

the formation of the embryo in the

is

whence

from

things,

the skilled artificer.

chief contribution

world

existing

cattle.

giver

of

function

womb,

children

and

its

connection with the soma will call for further treat-

ment

the next

in

1

X. 110.

2

II. 23. 17.

3

X.

2. 7.,

4

I.

117. 22.,

5

I. 188. 9.

9.,

chapter.

IV. 42,

3.,

III. 55. 19.

46. 9., I. 95. 2. cf.

X.

The menial character

53. 9.

;

cf.

V. 42.

13.

24

The Building of

World.

the

of Tvashtar's activity, and his

harem

the

of

him with a

covered

gods,

with the

association

ridicule in the eyes of the Rishis.

There

certain

no

is

hymn

devoted to his praise in the whole collection.

Indra

own

special

is

him

represented as surpassing

department, the "I the clouds :

making

in his

soma or the rain in

of the

placed the bright milk in these cows,

which even god Tvashtar could not place in them." a baby Indra stole the soma out of the bowls

While

Tvashtar's

in

hide

it.

The same view

workmen a

had

where Tvashtar

house,

tried

to

1

human

of the menial office of the divine

seen in the ascription to the Ribhus of

is

birth,

and in

.

the

that

conception

they

obtained their immortality by their service of the gods.

The

of the

praises

Eibhus

consist

of a certain

number

of actions,

mythological

figures,

the

and soma

like

Tvashtar

chariot of the Acvins, horses.

They

fashioned

;

streams,

1

2

to

X. 49.

lies

They make hymns

and Indra's thunderbolt and

even said in one place to have

are

they

shape

It is said of a strong

the people by the Maruts, as also of

he was formed by Yibhvan, one

that

IV. 34.

which

they produce the wonderful

the cow of plenty in the sky.

the

of

the Acvins themselves, 2 and

king given

enumerations

expressed in fixed

discussion

outside the scope of this essay.

in

10.

;

III. 48.

9., cf.

VI.

4.,

3. 8.

IV. 18.

3., I. 84. 15.

25

The Ribhus.

number. 1

of their

In

particular, their renovating of

aged and decrepid parents, and of the old cow, which they reunited to her calf, would seem to refer

their

new

to the

birth of the world through, the recurrence

and they are once said to have made heaven and earth. 2 We have the names of three

of the seasons

Itibhus

;

but the varied character of their workings

;

in the different departments of nature

is

emphasized

by the mystic number, thrice seven, of their gifts, and we find the expression all the Ribhus employed '

'

as

an

of

if

Their names

number.

indefinite

are

and one passage has the remarkable expression, 'Ribhu with the Ribhus, Yibhva with the Yibhus, the powers with power/ 3 used in the plural

severally

which can these

'

leave

men

legends as

of

vague

doubt

little

the air

;

'

that

was

in

Two

man and

beast.

of

one form of their

works of

chief, or, in the phrase

of the Rigveda, they are his

bestows gifts on

number

as that of the wonderful

Indra figures as their

nature.

the

sons

;

he as a Ribhu

4

legends concerning the Ribhus deserve special

mention

:

their contest with Tvashtar,

when they made

soma

from his one, and their

production of grass on the

meadows by refreshing the

three cups

1

for the

vibhvatashtd V. 58. 4., 42. 12.

2

IV. 34.

3

ribhur ribhiibhih

9.

....

48. 2. *

IV. 37.

4., I.

121. 2.

vibhvo

vibhubhih fdvasa

fdvamsi.

VII.

26

The Building of

World.

the

earth with streams after twelve days' rest, as guests, in the house of

the

discover

the superior

In the

Agohya.

number

Tvashtar's

of

explanation

we may

case

first

in

defeat

the Bibhus, representing the

of

conquest of a combination of inferior beings over a

The legend

single-handed mighty power. explained as referring refer

possibly

to

a

to

merely

is

the three worlds;

usually

may

it

The

ritual. 1

change of

Ribhus, as we shall see was the case with Tvashtar, are brought into special connection with the sun, the

main agent of productiveness *

as

bright

the

sun

in

nature.

'

They

the

(siiracakshasali) >

sons

are of

Sudhanvan, the 'good archer'; "with their father's energy (taranitva) they obtained his wealth and mounted up into the region of heaven " it is, in ;

Savitar who befriends them and procures them immortality and we read of " the dispositions of the Eibhus according to the succession of the particular,

;

dawns."

2

"We are thus brought

to the

end of the

planation of the formation of the world.

cannot

fail to

objective

creation

not

man

the description

;

;

the

end

1

F. Neve, Essai sur I.

110.

6.,

cf.

le

mythe des Eibhavas,

IV. 33.

vidhana ribhunam IV. 51.

6.

of

the Eishis do not question the

Divine

motive of the gods in forming the world.

2

ex-

have been struck with the disinterested,

character of is

first

The reader

1.

;

I.

110.

2,

Paris, 1847.

3., cf.

Ait. Br.

3.

3,

30.

;

The

similarity of divine

and human

actions are

magnified copies of

therefore, a

man must

actions

The

occupations, with this difference

illustrated

;

similarity,

almost say the identity, of the divine and

the object for which also

human

as,

build his house, so the gods

have built the universal house.

may

27

actions.

men pursue

that the

we

human

gods lack

their work, will be

by the next chapter on generation

as a cosmological principle.

CHAPTER

II.

GENEEATION. IN the preceding chapter familiar

logical

is

how

It

to the

and

between induction

distinction

analogy or metaphor. tration

was drawn

attention

was shown by an

illus-

the metaphor, which in modern literature*

employed as a figure of language, was in the

The present chapter

will

analogical

reasoning.

of

or

effects

of

unable to analyse, to lead to the similar

causes.

of reasoning ticularly class in

an

afford

Analogy of

classes

mode

as a

Rigveda of great importance

the

is

of thought.

illustration

effects,

of

comparison

which

we

are

but which appear so similar as

presumption that they are due to In formal expression this method

usually makes use of a type, or par-

well-known

and

which cause and

example of the are found to coexist

obvious

effect

;

one striking instance is singled out as representative of the process which seems to relate the cause to the

effect.

In

the

argument

subject of this chapter the process is

that

of

generation

light and water

at

;

the

dawn and

type

which

which is

forms is

the

the

described

union of

in the thunderstorm;

29

Analogy. the effect which, requires explanation

the origin

is

of the world.

"We

have

Agni

seen

further

the

as

pillar

the importance of

visible

of

the

nature, fire

description

supports

the

of

heavens

presentment in

pictorial

most

two

the

It is the visible periodical

cosmological speculation.

union

in

which

antagonistic

elements

of

and water, seen in the glistening dew

dawn, the brightness of the morning mist,

of the

and the

of

flash

lightning piercing the rain-cloud,

which explains the complicated sensuous symbolism of those hymns in which the generation of the world

is

tion

in

We

described.

warmth and the

shall

find

that

light

or

the chief factors of genera-

moisture,

cosmology

of

the

Rigveda

as

in the

systems of the Ionic philosophers, are not here,

as

they are there, the primary elements out of which the

world formed

itself,

but are always bound up with

the phenomena of the sky, the sun in the clouds,

and the lightning in the

In

rain.

illustration

of

this the chapter before us will treat first of the birth

of the sun as the type of all subsequent births, next of

the action of agencies,

fire

and

and water as productive

or light

lastly

of

the

general

principle

of

generation as applied to explain the origin of the world.

There are three principal applications of the metaphor of parentage in the Eigveda, temporal, generic, and local.

In

the

temporal

sense

it

expresses

the

30

Generation.

appearance of one phenomenon before another

dawn

the

;

the mother of the sun and of the morning

is

sacrifice,

the night

and the

like.

the mother of the morning, 1

is

The parent may correspond when the Maruts, the gods

as

efficient cause,

storm-cloud, are

said

give birth to

to

to

an

of the

darkness, or

again to the material cause, expressing the transformation of one object into another, as when the rain

the cloud. 2

said to be born of

is

head and representative of the sons of the family, as the mother of the daughters Again, the father

is

;

his

personality

metaphor obtains a generic

the

sense, expressing the

most

prominent member of a group

Yayu

;

the winds, or of the storm-gods, of the Maruts and Rudras, of the prayers

The

sons

may

;

Sarasvati

separated from

son

4

or

;

again,

when

quality,

1

VII.

2

VII. 94.

78. 3.

3

II. 33. 1.

yad

etaj

the father

Tvashtar's epithet vi^vdrupa

in

as

the

the Semitic

name

of his

languages,

the

may

be occupied by an abstract

when Agni,

the Maruts and others are

;

I.

123. 9.

1.

4

Veda

the father of is

soma of the plants and the mother of the rivers.

him and becomes

place of the father as

is

Rudra

be considered as inheriting the qualities

of the father, as is

is

them. 3

Thus

continued in

is

jay ate 'patyam sa evayam

the offspring which

bharata, ^antip. 10862;

iti

man

is

born to a

cf.

Brihadar. Up.

is

frutih,

the

2. 1. 7.

"

according to the

man himself."

Maha-

31

Parentage.

'the

called

men

*

sons

large

*

called

is

place

and Indra the

setting free/

Pushan who

strength/ or '

a

in

of

child

the

sets

child

of

of cow-getting. 1

The quiver carrying them as

Lastly, the metaphor has a local sense. called the father of the arrows,

is

a father

carries

his

child in

2

his

arms.

The earth

the mother of the trees and of all things that she

is

bears on her broad bosom, and the heaven the father of

all

that

things

move

the sky,

in

the

sun,

the

3 Maruts, morning and evening. But heaven and earth do not merely contain all things, they also supply the nourishment by which

the harvest-time,

can be

for

instance,

called the child of the earth. 4

The

transition

from the

the metaphor to the

they grow;

local

of

application

Heaven and earth

temporal. in which

all

is

easy

are the dwelling-places

births take place, they are also the first-

born in the beginning, of equal age and common or, what amounts to the same thing, the origin ;

question

is

the older 1

may

mooted, which of the two could have been 5

;

vimuco napat

or again, I.

42.

1.,

by a

VI. 55.

1.

;

characteristic

confusion

goshano napat IV. 32. 22.

perhaps trace the incipient misconception of this idiom,

"We

which does

not belong to the later language, in the explanation of the phrase sdhasas

putrdh sticks

as applied to

(V.

11. 6.).

Agni from the force exercised in rubbing the fireWe must not, however, interpret the etymological

fancies of the Rishis too seriously. 2 3

* 6

VI.

75. 5.

I.

185.

I.

173. 3.

I.

186. 1.

2.

32

Generation.

of thought, they are represented as the two fruitful

who produced

parents,

The

once

at

difficulty

the world for their offspring. 1 arose

of fixing

the relation

of heaven and earth as the universal parents to the

who, from another point of view, have

gods,

also

a claim to be considered the fathers of the world.

The

paradox begat

body."

The

themselves with a

contented

E/ishis

favourite

" Indra

the children begat their parents.

:

and

father

his

his

from

mother

his

own

2

This birth

is

heaven and earth

of

first-born

is

the sun.

one of the most frequent topics of the the most part

Rigveda, hinted at for

rather

than

described in a series of complicated riddles playing

perpetually on the identification

of

of Agni, in the sun, the lightning,

soma of the and earth the

to

meaning

fire

or

on the comparison of heaven

;

two stones between which the

the

soma was pressed enriching

and the

the two rubbing- sticks that produced

to

or

fire,

sacrifice

the three kinds

and other recondite parallelisms more than the expression

;

formal

the

of the

hymns.

in the interpretation

is

A

great source of perplexity

the confusion

of

the dawns

or night and morning, which give birth to the sun, 3

with the waters, the mists of the sky or the rainclouds which

carry the 1

2 3

embryo

of

1. 159. 2. I.

159. 3.,X. 54. 3.

V.

1. 4.

the

lightning.

The Light and

They

are

Agni,

his

The

light

both

alike

mothers,

as

represented

his

33

Waters.

the

nurses,

the

cows of

or

wenches.

sisters,

considered as a liquid, as in the

itself is

familiar English expressions a 'stream* or 'flood of

"

'

pouring light/

light/

liquid flood."

The

as

the

of

centre-point

generation,

The sun mounts upon a

l

of

theory

has been said,

cosmological

the combination of

is

the light with the waters, which presented itself to

the eyes of the poets in the birth

of

the lightning

from the rain-cloud, and in the exhalations which surround the light of the sun. in the waters;

he

ficiently

2

The

home

his

'the child of the waters/

is

who grows by

one eye of heaven, streams/

Agni has

reference

to

'the

the action of the

the lightning

suf-

is

obvious; the part played by the sun in the

paradox, apart from such general expressions as 'the

sun

waters about the

below

on

earth,

'

contrasted with

described

is

as

the

the waters

shooting

or

3 weaving of his rays through the waters of heaven.

The

allusion

dew

to the

is

established

dawn with

connection of the

by the

close

the waters, in which 4

The marriage

she

is

the

sky with the earth, the father and mother of

as

represented

the sun, presented

itself in

1

VII. 60. 4.=V. 45.

2

IX.

3

*

bathing.

two ways.

First, the

10.

where Soma represents the sun I. 23. 17. III. 22. 3., X. 27. 21.; VII. 47, 4., IV. 38. 10., X. 178. 9. 4.,

VI. 64.

4., I.

;

124.

5.,

48. 3;

V. 80.

5.

3.

of

sky

34

Generation.

embraces the earth on

and both are united

all sides,

in the twilight of the East before the dawn.

the fall of the the form of

sunshine or lightning

the

causes of

Secondly,

and the shedding of light in

rain

fertilization

the

of

are the

visible

The sun

soil.

draws the dew as milk from his mother earth, and obtains his

a

as

regarded

which

light,

we have

as

from

liquid,

seen

the

father

his

also

is

1

sky.

These two, the light and the dew or

rain, are inter-

changeably represented as milk or

semen,

celestial

in the

morning

ambrosia, ghee,

2

or soma- juice.

The conception of the rising sun dew is personified in the figure a

of

discussion

illustration

addressed to

Gandharva,

whose character

will

be

the

sun

as

the

of

of generation.

of

birth

of

the

best

the

type

In the only entire hymn which is him, he receives the name of Yena,

which occurs again in I. 83. 5. as an epithet of the In other passages it is translated by rising sun. the St. Petersburg Lexicon longing, desire (or It is used as an epithet of the desirous), wish. '

'

dawns, of Soma, and

of

be applied also to the songs

hymn

describes

his rise

in

a

or the singers.

succession

of

from the morning mist up

his light

is

merged

in

and seems

Brihaspati,

the

poetical

to the sky,

all-embracing

of the heavens. 1

I. 160. 3.,

2

IV. 58.

IV.

3. 10.,

X.

11. 1.

to

The

images

where

brilliance

35

Vena.

X. 123.

"Vena, born

1.

in

1

of the

air;

waters,

the singers caress

the meeting of

at

(lit.

hath driven

light,

hither the calves of the speckled

cow

in the chariot

the

sun with the

'lick')

him here

as

(aerial) sea

;

a child with hymns.

Vena

2.

stirreth a ripple

from out the

2

the child of the clouds hath appeared along the ridge of the bright sky; 3 on high, on the course, he shone their

common

nome,

4

of nature's

to the

bosom of

father (the sky).

The many mothers of the

3.

calf,

who have one

were there, exulting in their common child

summit of nature's course the songs

rising to the (lit.

;

summit

and the hosts sang

;

sip

lick) the sweet ambrosia.

The

singers knowing his form yearned for him ; have found the roar of the wild buffalo (Soma) ; they 4.

performing the

sacrifice

they are come to the stream.

Gandharva hath found the forms of ambrosia. 5.

Apsaras, the maiden, smiling on her paramour,

beareth

him

one to the

in high heaven

bosom

of

;

he

loved

his

is

come

one

5 ;

as a loved

he settleth

there upon his golden wing, even Vena. 6.

As with longing

in their hearts (venantah] they

gaze on thee, as a bird flying up to heaven, the gold1

2

cf. II.

40. 3.

cf.

IV. 58.

3

cf.

VIII. 100.

4

The dawns

two 5

1,

cf.

The

force of

aydm

is

Behold

here.'

11. 5.

VII.

2. 5., or, as

Ludwig

suggests, the waters.

has heen said, practically indistinguishable. his father, the sky; cf. V. 47. 3., III. 1. 9., VIII. 69.

are, as i.e.

7.

The

36

Generation.

winged messenger of Yaruna, soaring eagle

Yama's

to

home, a

;

Upright hath Gandharva mounted into the sky

7.

his

pointing

glancing weapons

in

clad

;

a

sweet-

smelling mantle, beautiful to look upon, he produceth fair

forms as the light. 1

"When

8.

as a drop

with

gazing

2

he cometh

eye in heaven, his light

vulture's

a

to the aerial ocean,

worketh bright-

rejoicing in its gleaming brilliance 3

ness in the highest region." references

Similar

sun occur in

I.

163.

Gandharva

to

and in X. 177.

;

2.,

sings the morning song of the sun-bird

beareth a

song

yet in the

while to

in

his

"

womb;'*

where he " the bird

;

Gandharva

heart,

he beholds

the sky,

rising

where he holds the bridle

2.,

of the horse of the sun

the

as

sang

it

Gandharva mounts up

the forms of Soma, his

all

light shines abroad with gleaming brilliance, he illu1

surabhi appears to be a play on the word gandhd, occurring in the

The

name Gandharva.

third pada

is

applied to Indra in VI. 29. 3.,

That this comparison is no hindrance to the identification of Gandharva with the sun is proved by

including the comparison

I. 50. 5., 2

where

it is

with

applied to sdrya.

Ludwig and Grassmann

are sparks." 3

Literally,

svdr.

Pet. Lex. s.v.

translate

spark

Cf. Cat. Br. IV. 1.

" worketh fairness in

itself

" ;

"

'

'

drapsd

1.

cf.

:

drops of

fire

25.

amntini krinvan of

The

interpretation given above is the one which appears to me to agree best with the different images occurring in the hymn, and with the other references to Gandharva, and is confirmed by A. V. II. 1.,

Vata X. 168.

IV.

1.

;

1.

Grassmann in

his translation, vol.

Gandharva with the rainbow. tions scarcely affects the

The

ii.

difference

p.

400, inclines to connect

between the two interpreta-

argument of the following pages.

The Gandharvas and Apsarases.

37

minates heaven and earth, the parents, brilliantly."

The Gandharvas

'

receive the epithet vayukega,

l

whose '

hair is as the wind/ or borne upon the wind and in X. 139. 4-6. (III. 38. 6., see next chapter) Gandharva Vicviivasu is addressed as " the heavenly '

is

;

Gandharva, measuring the realm of the air." Our hymn illustrates the two senses in which the sun

is

brought into connection with the waters

as penetrating with his

and

the sky, to

light

the

in

assimilation

of

is

his

soma or ambrosia, whence

as

the depths of light become the aerial ocean. association

first,

beams the watery masses of

secondly,

the waters,

;

in

stereotyped

union

the

This

of

the

Gandharvas and the Apsarases, a type of marriage, and in the later mythology of sexual enjoyment.

An

Apsaras,

dpya

mentioned in X.

Gandharva

to

yosha,

10.

4.

2

as

'

the

water-nymph/

having given birth

Yama, the progenitor

race, in the waters

of

and Vasishtha, in a

;

VII. 33. verse 12,

is

represented as

is

with

the

human

late

hymn,

born from an

Through his connection with the light and the waters Gandharva finds his parallel in the

Apsaras.

soma,

which

symbolizes

the

at

same

time

fructifying waters of heaven and liquid light. identification

85.

9-12,

a

of

two

the

hymn

is

addressed

1

IX. 85. 12.

2

X.

11. 2.

is

the

The

most striking in IX. to Soma, where the

obscure.

38

Generation.

Yena

expressions used of Gandharva

small modifications

with,

IX. 86. 36. Soma

in X.

transferred

over

is

men

In

Soma.

to

Gandharva

called "the heavenly

is

of the waters, whose eye

123. are

(nricdkshasam,

but see note 6 on page 68), born to rule over all " " created things the daughter of the sun brought :

the soma, Gandharva received is

who

" Gandharva

it."

protecteth the place of Soma,

who guardeth

the birthplaces of the gods, where he

"The

wise

(singers)

it

invisible."

is

with their songs the rich

sip

milk of heaven and earth on the sure place of the Gandharva." 1 On the other hand, in VIII. 1. 11.

and

66.

and

is

the

sun

he figures

5.

smitten

like

as

In IX.

free.

Gandharva sun

is

now

can

78.

by Indra,

soma,

who

sets

the Apsarases appear

3.

Soma

in the same relation to

We

gaoler of the

the

Tvashtar

Gandharva. 2

as to

understand

the

significance

in the marriage ceremony.

The

of

light of the

considered as a main fructifying influence, not

only in the trees and plants, but also in the

womb,

as

when

the parents protects

it

is

together

the

;

for in

embryo

female breast

said of Vishnu, that

rich

human

he brings

fruitfulness, that

he

womb, and forms the

the

of Pushan, that he grants brides to

and has given birth to all things and of the A9vins, that they have placed the embryo in

his worshippers

1 IX. 113. XII. 98.

3 cf.

X.

3.;

30. 5.

IX. 83.

;

4.

;

I. 22. 14.

;

cf.

X.

80. 6.

;

IV. 58.

4.,

V. S.

39

Surya.

all things.

The waters

1

alone, especially as personified

god of the rain-cloud, will be shown Gfandharva reprebear the same character.

in Parjanya, the *

later to

We

the union of these two influences.

sents

on to the other forms in which

sun with the waters or

the

light or

expressed.

or

hymn,

marriage

40 and 41

In verses

rather

pass

union of the

this

of

the

dawn

the

classical

of

collection

is

marriage

formulae, X. 85, Surya, the typical bride, the daughter

the

of the sun,

the Acvins, to

dawn who

given in marriage

is

in

rides

first to

Gandharva, next to Agni, and

In VI.

of man.

58.

3,

4,

it

the chariot of

Soma,

2

then

lastly to the child

is

another sun-god,

whom

the gods gave Surya as a bride. 3

Soma and Pushan

are associated together in II. 40 as

Pushan, to

two cosmogonic powers giving birth to the world. Again, as we have seen Gandharva called the father of

Yama,

lightning, 1

I.

2

155.

3.

Vivasvat, a

so

of the sun or of the

frequently mentioned as his father

is

;

name

thus

;

VII. 36. 9., X. 184. 1., IX. 67. 10-12; I. 157. 5. " Soma was the 9. bridegroom, the A9vins the two

Compare verse

when

interceders,

Soma

is

of the moon.

The

be considered as

Soma with same

Savitar gave the willing bride Surya to

usually explained in this

hymn

different formulae here collected into one

all

her lord."

in its later application as a

dating from the same period.

The

hymn

name

cannot

association of

the sun-gods points to the conclusion that he has here the

significance as in other

hymns of the Rigveda, though many verses and their compilation may be of later date. There is a hymn doubt in verses 21 and 22 whether we should explain Gandharva Vi9vavasu of this

as the protector of virgins, or, as in the later literature, the violator of virgins. s

cf.

X.

85. 26, 27.,

VI. 55.

4.

40

Generation.

the union of Surya with Gandharva finds in the union of Tvashtar's to Sonne, the

storm-cloud

;

dawn) with Yivasvat, the

The nature

its parallel

daughter Saranyu ace.

of which

fruit

(ace.

to Prof. Miiller, the

Yama. 1

is

of Tvashtar's character was, as

we have

he might have been introduced as an agent in any natural phenomena, which were His special regarded as products of artistic skill.

seen, so indefinite that

was the formation of the embryo in the womb, and it is in this connection that we observe function

his

the

approximation to

We

to the sun.

have

workman who made

He

soma.

is

that he

and

the

frequently associated with

the

among whom we

find

goddesses of heaven, the Gnas,

mention

in verse

VII. 34.

to

make

tion

Rudra and Yaruna, and

the marriage union

to

sun

the

name with

He is

Yicvarupa,

is

where the

1

X.

Compare V.

3

III. 4.

invoked

to

grant

His approxima-

are invoked together

name Tvashtar

triple

epithet

emphasize the reference to the

2

is

the combination of his

The two

Under the

and

fruitful

the father. 3

seen in

Savitar's.

in XI. 81. 4.

4

He

2 Aramati, the goddess of prayer.

increase of cattle.

and Varunani

22., of Rodasi

the female counterparts of also of

more

still

the handi-

is

thunderbolt

Indra's

very

and

lightning

seen

vigvdrupa 4

he

light,

Savitar

serves is

said to

17. 1, 2.

9.,

43. 6. with VII. 34. 21.

VII.

34. 20.,

See Grassmann's Lex.

X. 184.

s.v.

;

cf.

1.

;

I. 188. 9.

Chand. Up.

;

X.

5. 13. 1.

to

64. 10.

41

The Type of Generation.

have nourished and given birth to

all

existing things.

name appears

to

be used inter-

Further,

the same

changeably with that of Gandharva for the father of

Yama and

and Tvashtar receives the epithet 1 We have thus arrived at the agriyd, the first-born. Yarn!

;

following complication in the of the sun-gods

Gandharva, Agni, Soma, Pushan,

:

and Yivasvat are

Tvashtar,

bridegrooms

matrimonial relations

all

represented

of Saranyu, the daughter of Tvashtar.

were this

however, content with

not,

as

the

the daughter of the sun, or

of Surya,

The Eishis

the attainment of

bizarre result of their symbolisms

;

they delight

in describing the complication in its most paradoxical

form, that the father married his

own

with her gave birth to the universe.

2

daughter, and

We

are thus

brought back to the point from which we started, the union of the light with the waters confused with the marriage of the sun, the

dawn, and regarded

as

first-born,

the type of

with the

generation in

the world.

We

now proceed

to the discussion of the principal

hymns, among the most difficult in the Rigveda, which the figurative generation of the world is

in

The

described.

first

hymn X.

72.

contains

the

barest outlines of a cosmogony, the details of which

remain in obscurity.

1

X.

2

V. 42.

There are two interpolations

10. 5.; I. 13. 10. 13.,

and especially X.

61., I. 164. 33.

42

Generation.

the

in

hymn

and

2,

(verses

6,

7)

the

;

original

verses, which are especially closely connected together, admit more readily than in most hymns of separation

from the interpolations.

"Let

1.

births of the

man may

gods,

first

age of the gods the

regions

Daksha

Aditi

existent

was

were born from the begetter (the sky). 2

the

(of

a

1

that the regions

after

;

the

that

praise,

see) in a later age.

(lit.

The earth was born

4.

admiration

utterances of

in

born from the non-existent (of the sky)

with

proclaim

hear them

In the

3.

now

us

from

earth)

was

from

the

and

born,

the

begetter, earth.

the

From

from Daksha

again

Aditi. 5.

Even Aditi had

Daksha

;

after

her

a birth, for she

the

is

blessed gods

thy daughter, were born, of

immortal parentage.

Eight in number are the sons which were born she went forth to meet of Aditi, from her body 8.

;

the gods

1

and

cast the

With

For

seven sons Aditi went forth to meet the

pa