The ••
anton
Garry Chinn and John Sainsbury
The Carpente~ Companion A bad workman always blames his tools. Tbac sayi...
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The ••
anton
Garry Chinn and John Sainsbury
The Carpente~ Companion A bad workman always blames his tools. Tbac saying ~y be trw:, but anyone will work &iter u5fnBtbHisht tGDl fur-tt.-right Job~ ad this book will help every crafUman to achieve just rhis.
Carpentry is a skjll which has been .,.sse
liniflss.
TbiC~'C~ IS an essditial book for both~ inaperienc:ed and experienced
wu:llt...... 'f.tuQup~~ and lane drawmss. ir shows the home woodworker how ro choose and use the 6nest rools~y and effectiv~ so that the~ result is both practical and aesthetically pleasing. The subjects covered an the chapters are both fundamental and specialized: the history of tools; rheir maintenance; how to plan a workshop; :wbi,h.plane ro buy; points to watch tOe w!M.n bctyio5uaw; uaiq veneeriag, carving, turning and boring tools. There are step-by-srtp projects showing how tb make a
otawing jig, a wOrkbench and a carving vice, and charts showing the diffcttnr varieties of equipnaeat. including jig saw blade5-, naili, screws and abrasive papers, in addition to a comprehensive glossary. ThtWirpmw.-s Cam/)IIIIPIII is lavishly tllustrated with colour and black and white photographs and dear, informauve line drawmgs, covering everything the woodworker needs to know.
:£6.9S
The
Carpenter~
Companion
The
~ar enter's ~om
•
an1on
Garry Chinn and John Sainsbury
Marshall Cavendish London & Sydney
A QUARTO BOOK
Copyright© 1980 Quarto Publishing limited This book was designed and produced by
Quarto Publishing Limited 32 Kingly Coun, London WI
Designer: Roger Daniels Editor: Jane Struthers Captions: Richard Crossman, Jim Roberb Line Illustrations: Helen Down ton Published by Marshall Cavendish Books Limited 58 Old Compton Street London WIV SPA First printing 1980 Phototypeset in England by Parker Typesertiog Service Printed in Hong Kong by Leefung-Asco Printers Limited ISBN 0 85685 730 0 All righu reserved
6
CHAPTER ON£
Tools, whether of stone, bronze, iron or steel, are a result of man's versatility, his increasing skills through the centuries, and his mastery of many skills.
7
A HISTOR}' Of TOOlS
\\'HETtlER
01'
STO'IE,
bron7e, iron or steel, tell the ~tory of man. His need for domestic "-'orking and '' ar tools describes his ver~atilin , h1' increasing skill~ throu~h the tcnturie,, .md hi., ma which h.nc been ~craped, can·ed, sawn, planed, molded and fashioned to meet hi~ manv .md varied needs. · looking at many of the toob of LOd.n., vou could easily sav that the\ ha' e not ch:tnged very much in sever~) thom.tnd vears. "-.e,enheJe,s, the\ h,l\ e changed, particular!} as rna~ became better at processing ra\\ material~ and he began tO study the need' of mankind itself. A~ far a'> woodworking tool~ art• concerned, tht>re wen: three marked arc,1, of development. The Ronuns m.1dc we.H progrc.,., using iron md steel in sa\\ bl.1des and produced jack, smoothing, plou~h and molding planes, but it "as not until after the Dark and Middle A~c., th.n further ad\ances were made. TIH.' mo'>t '>ignificant time '':1' trom 1600 1800, when the tenon ~aw, '>pokc'havc and marking out rools .1ppe.ued. The screwdriver, all-metal plane, brace, brea~t drill and auger bits appeared later. r.Lm\' tool' of the past were made bv a aah \man to ~;uit his own ne~:d~ .tnd. a\ fauories \\ere builr w meet the ~rowm~ tkmand for crafting tools, the} copied the local man-made product~. A:. a resulr, many of them were quite ornarc, \Ct still functional. Thcv often bore ~ame\ linking them to their place of origin, ant! later craftsmen grew :~~.:cu~ tomed to tho~c particular wol' .md would .tcc.:ept no other. In the early parr of the Industrial Re,·olution in Europe, craftsmen and apprentices alike found little time for the leisurely making and cmbdli~hmcnt oi tool,. A. ~lam people believe that toda} 'c; metal pbne i-. ,1modcrn design. HO\\ ever, thi' IS "rong ,1!> it wa~ Leonard Baile} .1nd his contemporaries who bridged the gap from wood tO metal "·ith designs which ha\C surYived a centurv in common use and may well see another ctill U'>ed in many European and other countries todav, ..umcwhac modified perhaps, while i:he metal plane ha~ only been generally accepted in Korth America, the United Kingdom and the F ngli .. h-~peaking countries of the Briti'h Commonwealth. The first iron plane was dc~igned b) :tn American in 1827, who patented a plane "'ith a cast iron stock but no cutter adju~cmcnt . TD \X'orrall of the Lo" ell Plane and Tool Company followed this de,·elopmem by designing plane~ with metal superstructure~ and wooden sole , and a device l'.·hich ughtencJ the iron in place. The first really marketable plane, howe,·er, came from Bailey in 1858. He introduced a lever cap for the quick withdrawal of the cutting unit and a cutting iron adjustment through a Yshaped lever (which first worked in the vertical but was later changed to the horizontal), both of which are still u'led toda} . Bailey abo devised the bent cap iron for perfect functioning of the cutter and introduced the rhin cuttin~ iron. Lucr, he joined with Stanley Rule and I cvcl Company and became .superintendent of their plane manufacturing divi ... ion. Another Stanley man, Justus Traut, designed the lateral adjusting lever which has also survi,·ed to the present dar. Various frog adju~tments were made b} other clever and kno".ledReable men so the metal plane, ,·cry lih the one thev knew has sun·ivcd a century. St;nley sr{Jl recognize the work of these men by placing the name Bailey on the front of their bench plane bodies. The metal combination plane was 12
1
2
5
3
6
Above lett, five planes which were tllustrated tn
D1derot's Encyclopedia of 1760. 1 a smoothtng plane; 2 a jointer plane: 3-4 rebate planes; 5 a jack plane. Above right, part of a late eighteenth-century wall painting in the Hotel de Vtlle, Paris, showing a trying plane in use. A fifteenth-century illustration. left, of a carpenter ustng an ax. Right, a moldtng plane made about 1725 by the earttest authenticated professiOnal English planemaker, Robert Woodtng Th1s end sect• on shows how the plane cut the WOOd
A HISTOR>' OF TOOL held in place either ·with a 'lcrcw-adjusted lever cap or a '' cd~e, and the body was infilled with timber - usuall} rosewood. The} also made planes using the more com·entional grey cast iron or gun metal. The handles were rather differently shaped, and the front handle was usually square with rounded cornera~urin~ long timber. Good natural lighting should be provided, and 't\ indows should nor be placed ncar adjacent buildings, as they \\ill obscure the light. If money will allow, then double glazing should be considered. Opening windows are
0
THE \TORA.SIIOP
planer can be equipped with ,.. heel~ to permit easy storage and conserve space. Should you choose to set up a workshop in your home, the basement, garage, attic or other spare room will ha.,.·e orne of the aforementioned facili ties. Tt wiJI not be difficult to prov1de more of these, though the elimination of moisture from the garage may prove a problem. The garage is often pressed mto use for many craft activities, but it can be restricti\'e \\'hen the layout of tools and equipment is being considered. Nevertheless. it has its advantages when machining large timbers, and often has ideal roof space for timber storage. The design and construction of a folding workbench, complete with storage space, is vital, if it is considered unsuitable to sere" on a simple vice to the kitchen table or work top.
essential and, in mam areas, the addi tion of fly screens· is necessary. A \\ indow which can be fully opened will be useful w pass long timbers through when planing or sa,.. ing. Generous anificiallighcing, using fluorescent tubes of rhe nonstroboscopic type, should be in .. mches/380mm Irom the first Both centers should be 200 located at 3'amches/90mm from the F•g 9 front of the bench. Cut tool panel (h). trim and f1x 1n A 2 1 2·10ch/68-mm long lightweight hook screwed to the position. II.is finally held w1th 1' • lnch/32mm x No 8 screws, having bottom edge of the tool panel and an been drilled and countersunk as eye screwed to the outside of the shown in d1agram 10. back edge stnp (s) provides a means Hav1ng cleaned up the leg frames, of secunng the mov1ng parts of the
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Fig10
the too rails must have small areas Ftg11 110 removed 1n order to clear the h1nge ~ knuckles wh1ch are face-fixed on the r underside of the top , diagram 11. 340 Leg frames may be h1nged to the dlfectoon of core stnpS back edge of the ma10 frame us1ng l• Fra~l Frame 2 lnch/19mm" No 5 countersunk (inauM) (inside) steel screws..Use flush butt hinges 194 q so they are flat mounted. as shown "-" 1n d1agram 12. 1 ' - -hinged edges - - - Both legs which are to take h1nges F1g6 should be shortened by •1,. 1nch/ 914 13mm to prevent shav1ngs etc being cutting the blockboard as diagram 6 Assembling the Bench trapped when the legs are moved to It should be noted at th1s stage Before screw1ng the top to the maiO the closed position When screw1ng that 1f the bench is Intended for left- framework. dnll screw clearance up the h1nges. turn the bench ups1de hand use. the mort1ce for the bench holes of' ,.,nchl4mm diameter 10 down stop should be cut on the nght-hand p1ece (c) The holes are positioned Ra1se the h1nged top into 1ts open end of p1ece (Q). All other relevant so that they do not Interfere with pos111on and move the legs also into measurements and locations must either the VICe or the holdfast collar their open position. Bore ala-inch/ a so be reversed. fixings (diagram 8) These holes 9-mm d1ameter hole through the top L1pp1ng may be added to both should be countersunk on the and 1nto the top of the leg. Repeat for Fig13 ends of the top 1f wanted to conceal underside. 1\• lnch/32mmx No 8 the other locating dowel. the end gra1n of the core stnps. The countersunk steel screws should be Close up the legs and glue 10to measurements in d1agram 7 exclude used to screw the top in place. holes 1n the bench top a p1ece of any stnp that may be applied. V1ce mountmg block (i) ax 43,• x l• :Y.-Inch/9-mm dowel, 1'• inches/ Mark ou t and cut a through inches/200x 120x 19mm 32mm long to finish flush with the mort1ce to receive the bench stop as blackboard can be screwed to the surlace of the top. shown in d1agram 7. Most of the underside of p1ece (c) having been Th1n pads of rubber glued to the waste wood can first be bored out bench together when carrying. drilled to take 1\·• inch/32mm x No 8 bottom of the legs will prevent any and finally cut w1th a surtable ch1sel. screws (diagram 9). In order to protect both tools and tendency for the bench to slide if vice from unnecessary damage, SUitable wooden cheeks 7'.•:.. 2l• x 3-e or •,,. inches/ 180x70x9or 13mm should be screwed to the v1ce jaws before c screwing the vioe to piece (i). The top edges of the cheeks may be planed flush with the bench top after attaching the vice . 914 No suggestions have been given - 1 24 for tool panel or tool shelf layouts as 178 178 178 F1g 8 178 Fiv 1 Individual requirements may vary. ~
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25
THt. 'J'ORKSHOP
A small European worlecure it. Most individual need~ can be met with these traditional tools, but the woodworker will find himself improvising from time to time tO solve a particular problem. G damps (C clamps) u~cd with the bench top or vice, often ~olve the problem.
Where space pennits, a side benlh IS usefuL Bo:>.ed oilsrones need a home and, since they are constantly in use. a location on a purpose-designed side bench will avoid frustration and sa' e time. Small electric tools such a5 the grinder and drill can be hou~ed in the same way. These benches need not have 29
THE WORKSHOP
30
THE WORKSHOP
heavy tops, and any available timber can be used. The sawing of planks and sheets can only be carried out satisfactOrily using sawing trestles. These, if made in the traditional way, have splayed legs and need storage space. There are, however, a number of patented devices, made of metal, requiring 3X2 inch/ 75X50mm or
4X2 inch/100X50mm timber legs which are easily removable and will require less storage space. Trestles made with hinged tops also take up less space. A bench which doubles as a trestle is the ever-popular Black & Decker \X'orkmate. This is J\ailablc in se,eral heights, and it~ top serves also as a \·ice. It can be folded flat and hung on a wall-
the ideal solution for the woodworker with a space problem. Select your bench with care, and think ahead if possible, to forecast the problems it may need to solve. Comider tt too as a partial solution to \our storage problem, and remember that you may regret for all-time a poorquality or inferior selection.
Apart from the traditiOnal clamp, there are clamps lor lighter work. some of whiCh are Illustrated on these pages. Left: 1 A wooden hand screw with jaws that close at a vanety of angles. 2 A light clamp used lor veneering or light glUing but which can also exert great pressure. 3 Beech bench v1ce surtable lor light work. 4 A bench holdlast wh•ch can be clamped to any workbench and •s especially useful in low-rehel carving. This page : Above, the speed clamp IS a new design in bar clamps, with both head and tail sliding along the bar; above right, two fixtures lit onto any ~4-ineh/18-mm standard threaded pipe to make a firm clamp which works hke a C clamp but 1s much faster to open and close. far right, small, general-purpose spring clamps near right, hghtwe!Qht shding head clamps
31
TilE \t'ORKSHOP
C hoosing Your Tools Ob\'iously, the choice of tools will depend upon the panicular craft, but the selection of the right tools of the right quality is fundamental. The quality of the tool, 'vith regard to destgn and material, must over-ride all other consider.nion!>. A certain number ot hand tools, such as saws, planes and chisels, are essential tO the basic kit. Look for those carrying well-known brand names, which invariably carry a maker'~ guarantee. One or two portable po'' er tools, together with stationary machines, mav be useful additions, bur should be sel~cted with their likeh use in mind. Where weighty or bulky timbers are to be used, it may be necessary to give priority to po;table power. n1c exploration of timber through hand tools must be the path that the true craft~ m an will follow. It is only in this wav that he can trulv discover timber; probably the most b~autiful of the raw materiab man can fashion. It i!> onh possible to appreciate the problem!> o(a machine in cutting and shaping wood if one ha:. carried out the !lame work fir\t using hand tools. This is the an!>wer to those people who tend ro say, often quite strongly, that the use of hand rools will gradually decrease unti l power tools t:lke over completely. Thi~ may well apply tO large area:. of industry but can never apply to rhe serious home craftsman, the craftsman earning his living ill a true craft or the student in college or uni,·ersity. Qual!ty work will almost invariubly and can be fixed in any position with knurled sere'' s. A fence which again slides along the rod~ converts rhc tool inro a panel gauge. This is a superb tool, particularly useful for marking our large panels of plywood and other manmade boards.
Oft~n the center punch is regarded ,\\ a tool lor the metah"orker, but it can be used for marking out in wood and other materials. It is particularly useful for positioning screws when hingeing, and when positioning other cabinetmaker's h.1rdware. The am·il is struck by a mallet to drive the tip of the punch into the wood. A bcner version of chi~ tool, caJled a catapunch, avoids th teeth completely along it, anti is curved to cut into the tOngue of the floorboard without rhe need for a starring hole. Another version of rhi!> tool is the plywood saw, approximately 11 inchcs/275mm long. The end of the top edge is curYed and toothed, thus permitting cutting into a panel without pre-boring. A fairly ne" addition to the a\\ family i~ one which is fitted with a IO\\ friction blade, capable of cutting wood, steel, plastics, rubber and many other materials. The blade is set in an enclosed hand lt:, and can be moved into mm: different positions. 55
SAWS
Back or Tenon Saws There are various r:ypes of saws in rhis group. Generally, the blades can be described as thin, short and rectangular in shape, with fine teeth finely set. A heavy strip of either brass or steel is folded over the back of the saw to strengthen it. Brass, being a heavier metal, is better than steel. The design of the saw means that it cannot penetrate the timber completely, making it suitable for cutting joints. The handle, similar to that on a hand saw, is often set higher, and is either closed or open. A smaller back saw, with an open handle, is known as a dovetail saw. It is 8 inches/ 200mm long, with as many as 26 points per inch/25mm. The bhde is extremely thin, with finely-set teeth to give complete accuracy in the cutting of dovetail joints and other fine work. Tenon saws arc usually between 1014 inches/250-350mm in length, with up to 20 points per inch/25mm, and arc used to cut tenon joints. Another variation of the back saw is the gent's back saw, so-caJied after the small tools once used by gendemcn who rook up woodworking as a hobby. This has a turned chisel-like handle, with blades up to 10 inches/250mm long. The blade is thin, with small teeth, set to cut a narrow kerf. It is used best for cutting fine joints and dovetails. This saw has also been called the daney gent's ~aw, the gent's dovetail saw and the beading
56
saw. Many users find this saw difficult tO hold after using a saw with a normal handle. A continental manufacturer offers the gent's-sr:yle saw w ith an offset handle, and one with a reversible offset handle. A variation of the gent's back saw is the blitz saw. This has interchangeable blades for use on metal, wood or plastics. A small hook as an appendage at the end of the back strip serves as an extra handle. It was not originally designed specifically for the woodworker, but was an all-purpose saw. Ancillary Sawing Equipment Many sawing jobs can be carried out with the timber held in a vice, bur the sawing of tenon shoulders, and many other small er, shallower cuts in thinner timber, will be done best using a bench hook. This is a traditional piece of equipment in the United Kingdom, consisting of one large block of wood with an end block fixed on either side. Generally, it is made of beech with the end blocks doweled to prevent any possibility of the saw striking screws or nails. The bench hook is usually held in The classic brass-backed gent"s saw, 1-2, is shown on the facing page. Derivations of this. with fixed offset handle, top, reversible offset handle, middle, and straight handle, bottom, are shown below. 3-4, facing page, are the blitz saw and slotting saw, useful for fine work. The back or tenon saw, 5, cuts smaller pieces to length. 6,the dovetail saw.
SA\t:S
57
5A IJ S
Making a Sawing Sizing Board The stzing board Illustrated here IS a s1mple but reliable and efficient way of ensuring that a length of wood IS cut in completely equal s1zes. The base 1s made from 1 2mch/12mm blackboard, w1th a renewable hardwood 1nsert to protect the base The upnght section ts made from beech or any other hardwood % x 1~ lnches/ 16 x 45mm. It has a sliding hardwood stop which can be fastened with a coach bolt and wing nut.
Dimensions 10 tnches/mm A
B
c 0
E
F G
18/ 450 8/200 %116 71'2/ 187 3.•110 1/ 25 3.•1 19
H J
V2112 ••t,./ 21
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~./ 18
L M N
21 •/58 ,.,,.124 n.t 45
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Scale- V• Full Size
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\'A\t''S
Sawing Jigs The use of two bench hooks hke 1 will prevent a long piece of wood from bendmg too tar downwards. A mrtre block, 2, wrll help you to cut angles of 90° and 45 qurckly, and a mitre box 3, wrll also help you to keep your saw true, but rt hmrts th,a wrdth of wood for whrch 11 can be used. The metal version, 4, incorporates clamps and ensures high precrsron. The mrtre cutter, 5, wi th the burlt-rn saw is made to keep friction from slip bearings to a minimum. It is a worthwhile investment rl a large amount of this type of work is envrsaged The 10mtmaster. 6, allows novrce and expert alike to make cuts of many types and angles.
I
I
L
the vice, but it can be used freely hooked over the edge of the bench. Either side of the bench hook can be used. Normally, mitres are cut with a tenon sa" . The mitre can be marked out using the mitre square or the combination square. A quicker way is ro use a mitre block. This is usually made in beech, and comprises two pieces jointed at 90°, with 90° and 45° slots cut in the upstand. It can be held in the vice or screwed to the bench. The saw passes through the slot and is held in the vertical with rhe timber held firmly against the upstand. A more efficient tool is the mitre box - the timber is housed berween two slotted slides. The ~lot!> are sometimes reinforced with brass guides. A deluxe
metal version has saw guides which can be adjusted to the exact thickness of the blade. The largest ~iz.c will take timbers up to 4X2 inches/ 100X50mm. Another metal model, which nor only incorporates guide\ for the saw but also crew clamps for the timber, ensure!. great accuracy in cutting. This tool is particularly valuable where careful cutting of picture frames is needed. An extended model has sawing positions for both 45° and 90°. Made in grey iron '' ith accurately machined faces, this tool can also be used for joint work. A greatly superior mitre cutter is one which has irs own built-in saw assembled on easy-mo,·ing bearings. It can be quickly adjusted to cut at 90°, 60° and 45°, and incorporates an adjustable
stop for measured cutting. Unfortunately, it does not have a timberclamping device. An increasingly popular tool is the joinrmaster. This tool was dcsi!-\ncd to cut lap joints, mitre joints, tenon joints and many other cuts at degrees \'ar) ing between 10° and 170° using an 12- inch 300-mm back saw. Tt accommodates quite large timber and can be used with success by even the most inexperienced woodworker. The timber is hciJ in place by wedges and pins. The dedicated woodworker ''ill devise many different ways of holding for sawing. A device used by the author for many years for repetitive sawing is the sizing board. This is made in blockboard or multi-ply wood. 59
CHAPTER FIVF
Planes Planes are used to prepare the surface of timber, for cutting joints and cleaning up finished work .
61
PLANES
E NES
AR< U>ED TO PREPARE pecific cuts and to shape timber for joints. The latter group are s ub-divided further into four categories : (a) block planes, (b) rebate, plough and multi-purpose planes, (c) shoulder and bull nose planes, and (d) planes for special trades. Any discussit1n on planes must begin with~ description of the cutting action. The essential part of any plane is a currer or blade made of a material which keeps a sharp edge. The cutter must be held squarely in the body and be adjustable, so that its edge alway protrudes a hairline' thickness below the sole of the plane. The angle at which the cutter "is ~round and sharpened, and at which it is held in the plane body, is extremely important, if the best results are to be obtained. At the san1e tin1c, care must be taken to control the quality of cut, so that the surface of the wood is left smooth and flat, and rhe shavings leave the plane withour clogging ir. Bench planes are fitted with a cutting iron, which has a cap, or back, iron attached on the flat side. This breaks and rolls the shaving, which is then ejected
62
from the plane escapement. The closer cutter on top , to give what is almost a the cap iron is to the cutting edge, the slicing action, and the bevel itself rolls sooner the breaking of the sha\·ing O\·er the sha,'ing. These planes haYe begins. narrow mouths or mouth adjustments The shaving is prevented from 1earing to ensure the quality of the cut. ahead of the cutter by the closeness of The adjustment of cutters was a the forward edge of the mourh. matter of trial and error in the old The metal plane offers mouth adjust- wooden planes, bur in most metal ment through the re-positioning of the planes and the contemporary wooden fro~, so that very fine cutting can be planes, fu ll and accurate adjusonent ach1eved even on the most cross-grained fore, aft and laterally is possible. of timbers. Some of the present-day wooden An extremely wide mouth will give a planes are still ,,·ithout adjusting screws, result stmilar to that of a plane working the ~utter being held in place with a Rithout a cap iron. simple wedge, and adjustment made by However, if the cutter is adjusted roo tapping the curter with a hammer. far, a thicker shaving will only choke the Most manufacturers supply metal mouth and srop the plane work ing. bench planes with corrugated soles, Plane:; designed to cut end grain fall which reduce suction between the face into two of the special categories- block of the board and the sole of the plane. planes and shoulder phme!>. In these The corrugations allow just enough air planes, the cutters are ~et at a much to break the vacuum when the plane ill in lower angle with the ground bevel of the use.
Adjusting a Metal Bench Plane To adjust the frog. slacken screws A, make adjustment by turnmg screw B. retighten screws A. The mouth •s set wide for coarse work, narrow for fmish1ng and fine work.
To set the cutting edge parallel with the sole, adjust the lateral lever.
To set the cutter projection, turn the adjusting nut: the final movement must be m the opposite the plane nps forward. There arc three cutters - a v-..haped smoothmg cuner which has ,1 spearpoint to give "a perfect ~l1cing ,1ction, and two chisel cutters, 1!4 inch16mm and 1, 2 inch/ 12mm wide. Tt i-; not generally reco~nizcd that this is the only tool which cut\ both curved and stopped grooves. A much smaller H'r,ion of tlw router has a 1~-inch /6 - rnrn wide blade which can be rurncd in its hou'>ing to gi,·e normal or close-up work positions. It is ideal for small, scn~itivc '' ork. An 'old woman's tooth''' as the name by which the original wooden routas were knO\\ n. The,· were often rather crude block.. of " .ood with ccntrallvplaced cutters. There was never any attention paid to either hand comfort or good looks. The modern wooden version, howcH~r. i~ a beautifulh -made tOol of white bccl.':h. lllw; th rcc ~utter~. like the metal router, but has no fence or ~crew adjmtrnent tO the cutter. Nevertheless, it is most useful for dado and low-relief carving work, particularly since its cutter can be turned 10 ,1ny direction as the job pr(lcccds.
Above, cutt1ng a housing with a router. Houssngs wider than the blade f1tted can be cut by mak1ng more than one pass. Left, a m1niature router tS used 101" line, delicate work The two cutter hous1ngs of th1s model allow lor stopped and through hous1ngs to be cut. Below, an old, hand-made router made from mahogany and brass.
77
PLANES
Planes for Special Trades In any major discussion on planes, those used by craftsmen making musical instruments must be included. This is usuaJiy excremel; delicate work, and the removal of the thinnest shaving in a very small area is often all chat is needed. In the past, violin-makers made small planes to suit their particular needs, and had the blades fashioned by the local blacksmith. Many of the recognized manufacturers began to make these small planes in beech and boxwood. The modern solution to this problem is the finger plane. Usually, this is made of brass, to a \'Cry high specification. The curter is set manually and held in place by either a rosewood or ebony wedge and a steel cros~pin. The soles are either flat or convex, and the body ~hape
711
varies according to the manufacturer. One range is cast in the shape of whales. However, the bodies are always 1-3 inches/25-7Smm long, and the blades are up to 'l's inch/2lmm wide. One brand has a toothing blade for veneer work. These planes are designed to be held in one hand, with the forefinger resting on the front of the tool and the other fingers wrapped around it. Not only are these beautifully-made planes essential for the violin-maker, but they are also useful for the skilled craftsman. A small number of miniature planes arc available, made of exotic timbers. They do not conform to the strict specifications demanded by the present-day ,·iolin-makcr, but they arc well-made
and certainly will meet the needs of the model-maker. Another one"-handed tool is the palm [>lane. This plane has a wooden handle fitted at the end of a steel rod, and looks particularly difficult to hold. However, tf the body is grasped between the thumb and fingers, the handle fits perfectly into the palm of the hand. Thts tool is easily controlled and the sensitive work it produces will be appreciated by wood craftsmen of all kinds, but particularly the model- and instrument maker. An earlier -.ersion of the palm plane looked like a miniature block plane, \vith an extended rear handle. [r had curved and flat soles. A flat-soled plane imilar to this is available now, with or without a handle.
PLANES
Opposite, finger planes, orig~nally made for violin-makers. Will produce ultra-fine work 1n small areas: the bodies of these are solid brass. Above, these mimature trimming planes are made from Goncalo alves, an exotic tropical hardwood, and are used by cabinet- and modelmakers. Left, a jointer-type plane, above , and a combination spokeshave and small smoothing plane made from Goncalo alves.
Palm planes are particularly useful for making models and instruments. The top one, similar to a small block plane, is available with or without a small handle, while the lower plane has a steel rod and wooden handle which fits into the palm of the hand.
79
PLANES
Spokesh aves There are many jobs which cannot be tackled with a plane because of size, accessibility or peculiarity of design, but they can be done. with a spokeshave. This is really a small plane, with handles set on both sides for control. The cutter is set in the same way as with the plane, but it has no cap iron. There are flat-faced spokeshaves for convex surfaces and round-faced ones for curves. Usually, the metal spokeshave body is constructed of malle:tble iron to reduce the chance of breakage. Combination spokeshaves have one flat and one round sole and do not cost much more than a single spokeshave, but they are not as easy to-handle. A useful addition to the spokeshave range is one with an adjustable mouth. Before buying, it is advisable ro hold the spokeshave in order to judge its possible performance - the handles should fit comfortably into the palms with the forefinger at the front, alongside the mouth. Good spokeshaving is largely a matter of correct wristwork, with the front of the tool pres$ed down with the fingers. Draw knives The drawknife was the fo'rerunner of the spokeshave but, unlike this tool, it is drawn towards the worker, has no sole and therefore requires greater skill in use. This was and still is the tool of the wheelwright, bur it is suitable for a variety of other uses. Drawknives can be used by the wood-can·er and sculptor for roughing down, and the cabinetmaker and the
The drawknife, above, 1soneof the Simplest shaping tools and can be used on large pieces of timber. A variation is the inshave, left, designed for hollowing out. A metal spokeshave, top lett, with blade adjustment screws. Always work with the gratn and keep edges square.
llO
chairmaker in shaping seats. Fine work is best carried out with the bevel facing downwards, and roughing down is best with the bevel uppermost. English, Continental and American drawknives arc all slightly varied in design, but the best examples have blades which taper from the back to the edge, with tangs passing through the handles anc! riveted over. H andles should be offset outwards for better control, and to allow the hands to clear the work safely. A var:ation of the dra\\ knife is the inshave, which has a tightly-curved blade and is designed for hollowing out.
It is particularly useful for making chair seats and other in-curving work.
Many woodworkers like to make their own shooting boards, and detaiJs for 90° and 45° boards are illustrated on the next page. The measurements can be adjusted to suit individual requirements. A useful mitre board for planing a mitre along the edge of a board rather than across the end is known as a donkey's ear shooting board. The timber rests on a table set at 45°, the board itself being held in a vice.
Shooting Boards A usefu l addition to the plane kit is the shooting board, consisting of two boards, usually beech, fixed together to form a rebate. Two types are available - one for cutting at 90°, and the other for angles of 45°. The wood which is to be planed is laid across the top board and rests against the stop. The end grain is When an end has to be planed square. use the momhed with either a jack or jointing 90" shooting board A waste block may be plane, which is held on its side against placed between the wood and the stop to the board . prevent the back edge sphtting.
Sl
PLA NES
Making a Shooting Board
A shooting board is easily constructed from two lengths of hardwood. A chamfer is cut along the bottom edge of the upper board to clear shavings. A wedge-shaped stop Is fatted an a housing in the upper board, but ensure that the edge against which the work rests rs square w1th the board. Candlewax rubbed onto the lower board wrlllet the plane slide smoothly.
Mrtres can be planed by erther mod1ly1ng the standard board by placang a 45• wedge against the stop or, better, by making a purpose-built mitre shooting board. The stop rs placed in the middle of the upper board with its edges cut at 45•; this enables both sides of the stop to be used.
If the mitre to be cut is across the thickness of the work, as with the sides of a box, a shooting board known as a donkey's ear can be made. The upper board slopes at an angle of 45• and a rectangular stop IS placed an the middle. The board IS held In a vice.
82
PLAl\'ES
Scrapers "'·ill not plane to a smooth, flat finish, Ad zes The cabinet scraper is used to produce a because of its interlocking grain. A It is difficult to establish whether or not very smooth finish to wood. It is either a variety of straight-bladed scrapers will the adz was the earliest wood-preparing straight-edged sheet of steel, or one that answer most needs, but the craftsman tool. However, it has been in use for has been shaped to fit a particular can always re-shape an existing one to centuries, and is stiiJ used today, molding. This tool is held in both hands suit a job, if necessary. The present-day adz has a head of and flexed with the thumbs at the A refinement of the cabinet scraper is steel and a tapered rectangular poll in center. The edge has a minute raised a double-handed scraper. This tool \\ hich the hickorv handle rests. The burr which shaves the wood when the looks rather like a large spokeshave, and handle is curved ' so the adz edge is scraper is angled forward and pushed has a wide, flat sole, with a double- presented to the wood with complete away from the worker. This can be ended scraper blade held in place by a control. Although the adz can remove achieved only with a perfectly shar- plate. The curvature of the blade is large pieces of wood at a time, it can also finely shave timber when used pened tool, correctly angled to allow the adjusted with a centrally-placed ~ere". The blade is sharpened in the same correctly. hook tO enagage the wood. To sharpen it, the scraper is laid flat way as the ordinary scraper. The roo! is Traditionally, adzes have been u~ed on a bench and the back of a gouge is pushed away from the woodworker tO reduce timber to size, and to trim and drawn across its edge ro produce a burr. when it is being used, and should pro- finish it. The results of their work can be The scraper is turned so it stands upright duce very fine shavings. seen on beams in houses and churches in Double-handed scrapers arc ideal for many parts of the world. on the bench, and the gouge is worked over rhe edge to turn the burr outwards cleaning up veneered timbers or furniThe modern two-handed adz weighs to the correct angle. ture which has been damaged through about 5lb/2kg. The sculpror's adz has a This is the craftsman's answer to that usc. As the veneers are so thin, they shorter handle, and is lighter in weight almost impossible piece of wood which would not withstand the usc of a plane. with a blade about 2 inches/ SOmm wide. The carpenter's adz has a tapered poll to enable easy removal of the head for sharpening; the cutttng edge is ground on the back surface only. Despite its size and Weight, with preCISIOn the adz can produce extremely ftne shavtngs.
The double-handed scraper above is used in the same way as the cabinet scraper but is more comfortable to hold, rehev111g the stratn on the thumbs. As the blade tS held at an angle, altering its curvature controls the shaving depth. Left, curved scrapers are used for shaped work. The cutting edge extends all the way round, so any section can be used.
83
CHAPTERS/X
Boring Tools Hales are usually bored either to house scre'l.{)s, bolts, nails or dowels, or to serve as a decoration feature in a piece of furniture.
85
BORING TOOLS
H
om
AR£
usuALLY
aoREO
either to house screws, bolts, nails or dowels, or to serve as a decorati,·e feature in a piece of furniture. Boring tools can also be used to remove wa~tc " 'ood in joints, low-relief carvings and sculptures. The rvpc of boring tool to be used for these jobs is determined by the ~ize and purpose of the hole which is being bored. Boring tools are held in a hand brace, a hand drill or an electric hand drill, the shank end being styled to fit the chuckc; of the~e tools. Brace tang bits are manufactured tn se\'eral styles, all ha,·ing a particular purpose. Each bit has ro have a screv. no e so that it can be drawn into the wood. a spur tO cut the periphery of the hole (at the same time cutting the cop fibers cleanly) and a cutter, with a rwist
Hand-Boring Bits Solid center auger - a general-purpose btl
Jennings auger- bores easily and cuts a very smooth hole.
Scotch auger - for hardwoods and rough limbers.
Expansive bit with the cutter secured by a screw and plate.
Expansi ve bi t w1th neck and p1n1on adjustment.
!!6
or spiral, through which the chips can be passed out of the hole while it is being cut. The most popular of this type is the solid center bit. This has a single twist fom1ed around a solid center, with a c;rout screv. nose and spurs. It i~ avaiiJble in many sizes and curs accurately, leaving a smooth finish, and is excellent for generalpurpose boring. The Jennings pattern bit is the best designed bit, giving a very good hole. It has a double twist to provide greater support in the hole and to help keep the bit square. This i~ the craftsman's bit, being fast and dean-cutting in the majority of timbers. The Scotch nose bit was designed specially to cut holes in hardwoods. Like the Jenning bit, it has a double twist, but ha~ a coarser-pitched screw
Producing the mach1ne auger twist.
BORING TOOLS
nose and, instead of spurs which might break off, it has side wings which combine with the cutter to scribe the hole and cut the waste. To go to the expense of buying a set of bits might seem an extravagance to the woodworker who will usc them only very occasionally. The problem can be solved by buying an expansive bit, which comes in a number of styles. The English pattern is available in two sizes, each having two separate cutters, with additional optional si1es up to 6 inches lSOmm in capacit) . It comprise (often called a running center), eliminating the need for lubricating grca.,c or oil. One or two face plates are provided, usually with a larger one for the ourboard po.,ition. There is, ho~·eyer, little need for large face plates, .md 3-inch 75 mrn and 4-inch/ 100-mm wide plate~ will be ample. Blocks for bowls, boxes and disht!~ can be held using the screw chuck. This is also particularly useful for di!!k work and in the making of picture frame~.
Tlw collar chuck, of which there are !le,·cr.ll variations, is used m.unh for holding longer timber, and is ideall~ suited to the turning of egg cups, napkin ring~, slim vases and boxes. There is no possibility of the wood separating from the chuck, and holding holes arc eliminated.
One of the most significant ad,·ances in lathe design in recent years is the expanding collet chuck, designed and made by an English compam - Craft Supplies. Thi~ chuck eliminates the need for face plates or orher chuck!.. The e"panding collet means the turning is held in a dovetailed rece~s cut in the base. The chuck can be used as a collar chuck , when a split w,,~hcr i~ fitted into a ~roove cut in the timber which h.ls been previou.,J)' turned between centers. Long timber of any diameter within the capacity of the lathe can be accommodated. The back plate can ~erw as a face plate or a ~pigot chuck. A platl.' is also supplied to convert the chuck into a !!Cre\\ chuck. A recenr addition to the\\ oodturner':. equipment are ground carbon steel mandrels. All have No 1 morse taper arbors and are centered at rhc other end to receive a revoh·ing center. Each mandrel is part-threaded and fitted with ~·asher and nut. 11le'>e arc ideal for turnm~ batches of tO\' " heel.,, ring~ and pepper mills and have a great number of other uses. One of the great problems of the woodtu rncr arises when he has ro repeat an exact shape. Thi., occur~ most frequently in spindle work ''hen making
table .md chair legs. The latest device created ro simplify this is the rraft copying attachment, made by Craft ' upplie,. It consist~ oi a long rube whith 1!> !lcrewcd to the lathe base. Adjusr.1blc finger~ arc pla~:ed along the tube, each one marking a particular measured part of the work. Each i~ set up to an e\act diameter, the: mo,·ing part of the linger dropping when the ~tz.c is reached. A complete!~ ne~ concept in th~ holding and dm ing of work bern em center~ i., the cone cemcr, made b' Coronet. Here, the dri,·ing fork in th.e head'ltock ha~ been substituted b\ a cone which i'> fitted with a mor~~ taper or, in th~ . ~.an be .,c;rewc:d on the lathe mandrel. The square: section timber is inserted into, and driven b), the cone. Cones ~ ith 1 ~-2 1h incht6-62mm capacitic~ are aY,lilable. A similar Je.,ign which runs on a ball r.Ke i., av,,il,lble (or the tailstock . The '>quared umber can b~ .H:commodarcd without end ..a~·ing or center popping. Round srock can al.,o bl' accommodated and if at anv rime the rounded job is taken out of ~he lathe, it can be rcplact:'d easily withou t having to be centered . tD
TL:RNING TOOLS
The Turning Tools There are rwo distinct types of curring tools available for use on the lathe those which cur on the skew, giving a slicing cut, and those which cut square on, givi ng a scraping cut. The !.mer group arc often referred £O as scrapers. and many people imagine, erroneously, that the scrapings should be dust, nor shavings. If we are to cut wood in the way it likes to be cut, with the wood having a polished finish from the cool, then these pure cutting tools must be used. There arc three srylcs of turning tools which indicate size rather than shapelong and strong, standard and small. Turning tools need stout handles in either beech or ash, and should ha\"e sufficient length and girth tO provide strength. At the same time, they must be StYled to take the hand comforrablv. Atrer gaining experience, many woodturners turn their own handles to suit their particular needs. The reputable manufacturer forges his blades from high-quality carbon steel, which is skillfulh- and accuratch hardened and remper~d tO give long edge-holding qualines. There i~ an increasing tendency amongst some European manufacturers to use highspeed steel, ahhough there seems lirde advanta):;e in ·this. Chisels for turning have bevels on both sides, and with the cutting edge sq uarc or skew, in sizes ranging from 1N-2 inchcs/6-SOmm. A chisel for parting off, marking out and beading is the parting tool, but a 1/4-inch/6-mm square-ground chisel can be used for this work.
Skew Chisel
Square Chisel
Parting Chtset
The turning chisels illustrated, right, are. from left to right, the diamond. the 112·tnch/12·mm
skew. three gouges. a parting chisel. a round nose and a 1-inch/ 25-mrn skew.
IJ.I
TUR.\'J,\'G TOOL~
The deep long and strong gouges above, are useo espec1ally •n the ma-d lor CO\ in~ ,md odll'r 'pindlo.: '' ork, .1nd .tf,o lor ... m.tll bm' f, .1nJ ,jmilar lace pl.ue \\ ork. t\n l:''cnri.tl gouge for bo'' I '' ork, i, the deep long .md strong gouge. Thi' '' ~round ~qu.tre
bctng 111
'11
across, rhe ideal "idrh
F•nger NaJI Gouge
Deep Long and Strong Gouge
inch/ 9m m. It can abo lw mc.•d
'pindlc work . II'-
TURNING TOOLS
Use of Spindle T urning Tools The shallow gouge is used for roughing the wood down to near size, but to obtain perfect sizing and finishing, the skew chisel is used. The basic rule of turning is that the bevel rubs the wood, and the cut is obtained by gradually raising the handle to bring the edge of the tool into the cutting position. The tool slopes into the direction of movement, the center of the chisel or gouge is used and the tool is safely positioned resting on a two-point support (the tool rest and the wood itself). This will. always result in completely safe cutung. All these tools must be sharpened on the ground bevel, which, if it has a high degree of polish, will act as a burnisher and wiU polish the wood. The chisel1s also used to cut beads, tapers, vees and shoulders. It can also be used for rounding over. The long corner is used to square the ends of spindle work as well as shoulders. The ideal siz.e of a beading gouge is 1/ 4 inch/6mm ground square across. The round-nosed gouge is ideal for caving and beading. The illustrations, ri ght, show turning tools in use. 1 A shallow gouge IS used for preliminary shaping. 2 After the rough sizing smooth work is earned out using a skew chisel. Using a stra1ght chisel, the work is squared off, 3; rounded ott, 4 . and beads cut, 5. 6 A part1ng tool is used to make a groove. 7 A gouge is used for coving.
Face Plate Tools Spindle gouges can be used on .bowl work, but the ends must be rounded to the shape of the little fin~er. The ideal bowl gouge ts the deep long and strong gouge, which is ground square across. This is sufficiently deep to be used in the tightest of curves without there being any chance of the corners of the tool touching and damaging the turned work. The tight inside curve of the gouge ensures that the shavings are rapidly removed. In face plate work, as shown in 8-10, the inside and outside of a bowl is shaped with round· nosed gouges. 116
1
4
,-----...,.....,..--
TURN!l\'G 700LS
117
TURNING TOOLS
Scraper Type Chisels These ch isels are laid flat on the tool rest with the handle raised to trail the tool. This allows the hooked edge on the chisel to cut the revoking wood . The bevel can not rub and the resulting finish is inferio r tO that produced with a correcdy-used skew chisel. Many turners re-grind these tools to obtain shapes more suited to their own needs . Many chisels are, in fact, f