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v avT&v. A p p a r e n t l y t h e t r a n s l a t o r s t o o k trr t o b e t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n bty, a n d to mean " o f me on 1
t h e a n a l o g y of A r a m a i c (^1 mean
^T?),
" t h e G o d w h o is m i n e " .
r
so t h a t ^ r b t f w o u l d 2
A s an attempt
at
1
Thus it is possible that Kvpios was suggested by a derivation from the root mttf which may have meant " rule " (whence Ultf, which in biblical Hebrew is a " demon ") ; and TravroKpdrwp may imply a deriva tion from the root TTO, which however connotes violence rather than strength (see B.D.B. s.v. ^Kr). The explanation of the word which seems to find most acceptance among Semitic philologists is that which connects it with the Babylonian shadu, " mountain ", applied to deities. Alternatively it is possible that "Httf was pointed as = " my 2
ruler"; but in that case we should have expected Kvpios
14
fiov.
THE
NAMES
OF GOD
scientific e t y m o l o g y i t i s i d l e , b u t i t g i v e s a g o o d sense t o rjip, w h i c h is t h u s m a d e t o express a special personal relation of G o d t o t h e individual. (2) I n Ruth i. 20, i. 2 1 (B) ; Job x x i . 1 5 , x x x i . 2 , x x x i x . 32 ; Ezek. i . 2 4 ( A ) , vrto i s r e n d e r e d ucavos. T h i s f o l l o w s from t h e a c c e p t e d r a b b i n i c e t y m o l o g y , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h -Httf = , o r ^Tbp, " H e w h o suffices It is t h e r e g u l a r r e n d e r i n g i n t h e l a t e r v e r s i o n s o f A q u i l a , Symmachus and Theodotion. I t is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s r e n d e r i n g , o r a t l e a s t t h e e t y m o l o g y o n w h i c h i t rests, w a s k n o w n t o P a u l . I n 2 Cor. i i i . 5—6 h e p l a y s u p o n t h e w o r d s IKCLVOS, IKCLVOVV, IKCLV6T7)S :— ovx on d iavrcov IKOLVOL icrpuev Xoyiaaadai r t OJS e £ iavrtZv, dXX* r) LKavorrjs rjfjLcbv e/c rov 0€ov, 09 /cat LKavtocrev qp,as Sta/edvous Kaivfjs oiadrjKr)s. T h e " n e w c o v e n a n t " is c o n trasted w i t h the old. N o w i t is true t h a t in this chapter attention is mainly directed t o t h e covenant made w i t h M o s e s , b u t w e k n o w from Gai. iii. 1 5 - 1 7 t h a t P a u l r e garded the promise made t o A b r a h a m as the fundamental SiaBrjKrj. T h e c o v e n a n t w i t h A b r a h a m i s referred t o in Exod. v i . 3 , w h e r e i t i s s a i d t h a t G o d a p p e a r e d t o h i m 'HEr^K^. A q u i l a r e n d e r s t h e p a s s a g e , cbpddrjv irpos 9
'Aftpadfi . . . iv deep IKOLVCO. A l t h o u g h P a u l c o u l d n o t h a v e been acquainted w i t h A q u i l a ' s translation, it is en t i r e l y possible t h a t h e w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e r a b b i n i c e t y m o l o g y o f *hxd / a n d r e a d Exod. v i . 3 i n t h a t sense. 1
The L X X of Job was known to Philo, and therefore existed in Paul's time, though he does not appear to use it. (In Rom. xi. 35 he appears to allude to Job xii. 11 (Heb., represented by xii. 2 , LXX). But see Job xxxiv. 31-34 (xl. 1-4 Heb.). In 32 'Ikwos occurs, and in 34, TI en eyw KptvofjLCU ; cf. Rom. iii. 7, rt €tl Kayou cos a/xapra>Aas Kpivop.ai
;
and in 1 Cor. iii. 19 to Job v. 13, but in neither case does he quote the LXX.) Neither Paul nor Philo seems to cite Ruth or Ezekiel, but it is probable that the L X X of these books was in existence by the first century. No doubt it might be possible in one or two cases to suspect that the reading Uavos crept into our text from another version, but it is not likely to have done so in all cases. We have therefore evi dence for Ikovos ~ "Httf in the first century. z
15
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
If s o , t h e n t h e " o l d c o v e n a n t " w a s for P a u l a c o v e n a n t w i t h G o d a s " t h e A l l - S u f f i c i e n t , " a n d H i s " sufficiency " is l i k e w i s e t h e g r o u n d of t h e " n e w c o v e n a n t I t i s further possible t h a t t h e apostle, w i t h his rabbinic m e t h o d s , c o n n e c t e d t h i s p a s s a g e w i t h a n o t h e r "Hip passage. T h e covenant w i t h A b r a h a m entailed upon h i m a n d h i s p o s t e r i t y a KXrjpovopbla (cf. Gal. I.e.). N o w Job x x x i . 2, L X X , reads— KOX eri ifjiepLcrev 6 Beds
/ecu KXrjpovojjiLa
V/cavou
Cf. Col. i. 1 2 , evxaplvTOwres els TTJV pueptoa TCOV dylcov
dvcoOev.
viffiarojv.
TCO 7rarpt TCO iKavcbaavTi
Vfids
iv TCO ojrl.
T h u s a false e t y m o l o g y o f a n a r c h a i c d i v i n e n a m e h a s p r o v i d e d Hellenistic Judaism, a n d through it Christianity, w i t h a w o r d w h i c h e x p r e s s e s a fine c o n c e p t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r of G o d i n H i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h m e n . 5 A frequent title of J e h o v a h in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is niXSV m m , a l s o n i x n y ' • n b s . T h e word > a x means a " warlike host " a r m y " (from t h e r o o t x n r , e x p r e s s i n g t h e idea of w a g i n g w a r ) . T h e title w o u l d seem t o have originally denoted Jehovah as a war-god, the leader of t h e armies of Israel. L a t e r it w a s t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e H i s s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r " t h e h o s t of h e a v e n " (•"JO^n *OV), i-e. o v e r a l l s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g s . N^y , i n i t s p r o p e r m e a n i n g o f " a r m y
is c o m m o n l y
r e n d e r e d i n t h e L X X e i t h e r orpaTia o r Swapis. A s part of a d i v i n e t i t l e i t is n e v e r r e n d e r e d oTpand. T h e inten tion w a s no doubt t o a v o i d a n expression which inevitably s u g g e s t e d t h e i d e a of a w a r - g o d . T h e e x p r e s s i o n s m m DiK^V , n i x n v are rendered in three w a y s . (i) T h r o u g h o u t Isaiah, a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y e l s e w h e r e , n i K l ^ m m i s g i v e n a s Kvpios Hafiacod. T h i s s e e m s t o 16
THE
NAMES
OF GOD
represent t h e Massoretic pointing, in w h i c h mm h a s t h e v o w e l s of i r r s (not t h e c o n s t r u c t '•rig), a s t h o u g h t h e t w o s u b s t a n t i v e s w e r e i n a p p o s i t i o n . I t is n o d o u b t r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e t r e a t m e n t of EafSacbB a s a p r o p e r n a m e , w h i c h w e find in G n o s t i c w r i t i n g s a n d i n m a g i c a l p a p y r i . T h e o t h e r t w o r e n d e r i n g s p r e s u p p o s e t h e f o r m n i N i y ^TTX, p a r a l l e l w i t h n i x n y inh# . (ii) I n 1 - 4 Kms., Psalms, Amos, Zech., Jerem., w e h a v e Kvpios TCOV Swdfiecov. .Awdfieis, as w e h a v e seen, m i g h t m e a n " armies " ; b u t since t h e translators seem t o h a v e p o i n t e d l y a v o i d e d t h e r e n d e r i n g arparLtov, w h i c h would h a v e been unequivocal, w e m a y suspect that t h e y w i s h e d t o s u g g e s t s o m e o t h e r of t h e possible m e a n i n g s of hvvapLis. I t is a w o r d of w i d e c o n n o t a t i o n . It m a y be a " property " function " a t t r i b u t e " ; it m a y be " f o r c e " , " p o w e r " in the a b s t r a c t ; an elementary " force " s u c h a s h e a t o r c o l d ; i t m a y b e a p p l i e d t o g o d s , a s " a g e n c i e s " i n n a t u r e in a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r sense (see L . & S . ) . T h u s hvvapus m a y b e u s e d of a n i n d i v i d u a l d i v i n e b e i n g : cf. a L y d i a n i n s c r i p t i o n c i t e d b y M . M . s.v., w h e r e t h e g o d Mrjv is d e s c r i b e d a s pueydXr] ovvapus rod ddavdrov Beov. W e r e c o g n i z e here t h e m o n o theistic t e n d e n c y t o represent t h e gods of polytheism a s a s p e c t s o r a g e n c i e s of t h e o n e s u p r e m e B e i n g . Cf. also t h e P a r i s m a g i c a l p a p y r u s c i t e d ibid. I n t h e Her metica t h e Swages a r e e x i s t e n c e s of t h e s u p e r - p h e n o m e n a l order, t o w h i c h q u a s i - p e r s o n a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e a t t r i b u t e d . 1
N o w w e c a n trace in Hellenistic Judaism a tendency t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e a n g e l s of p o p u l a r m y t h o l o g y i n t e r m s of Swdfjueis, a s d i v i n e a g e n c i e s . I n Test. x i i . Patr. w e s e e m t o m a r k a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e sense of Svvafiis a s a " h o s t " of a n g e l s t o i t s sense a s a d i v i n e " a g e n c y T h u s in T. Levi, i i i . 3 w e r e a d o f at Svvdpiecs TCOV irapepifSoXcov, ol TaxBevTes els rffiepav Kplvecos, w h e r e t h e w o r d is a m b i g u o u s . 1
In Corp. I . 7 they are constituents of the realm of light which is the Koofjios VOTJTOS. Ibid. 26, they praise God in their own proper language. See pp. 109-11, 176. 17 B
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
B u t in T. Jud. x x v . 2 a t S w a ^ t e t s rfjs Sogrjs are m e n t i o n e d in a l i s t a l o n g w i t h o dyyeXos rov TTpoadmov, h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , t h e s u n , t h e m o o n a n d t h e s t a r s (<j>ojorrjpes). It c e r t a i n l y s e e m s m o r e n a t u r a l here t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e 8 w a / x € t s a s i n d i v i d u a l d i v i n e a g e n c i e s . I t is s u r e l y a s s u c h t h a t t h e y a p p e a r in lists of t h e a n g e l i c o r d e r s , a l o n g w i t h dpxai, igovaicu, KvpioTrjres. T h u s w e recognize a t e n d e n c y in J u d a i s m parallel w i t h the monotheistic t e n d e n c y w h i c h w e h a v e n o t e d in p a g a n i s m , t o r e p r e s e n t s u b o r d i n a t e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s (the " g o d s " of p a g a n i s m , t h e " a n g e l s " of J u d a i s m ) a s ' " p o w e r s " or agencies " of t h e o n e G o d , a n d in t h i s sense Swdpeis. I n P h i l o w e find a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d d o c t r i n e of Swapus. On the one s i d e t h e y are a t t r i b u t e s o r q u a l i t i e s of G o d , o n t h e o t h e r side t h e y are e m a n a t i o n s of t h e d i v i n e , o p e r a t i v e i n t h e u n i v e r s e ( = A d y o t ) . H e identifies t h e m a l i k e w i t h t h e P l a t o n i c tSe'at a n d w i t h t h e a n g e l s of S c r i p t u r e . J u s t h o w far t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t h a d p r o c e e d e d b y t h e t i m e w h e n t h e L X X t r a n s l a t i o n w a s m a d e , it is difficult t o s a y . B u t t h e r e are c e r t a i n l y p a s s a g e s w h e r e t h e G r e e k r e a d e r w o u l d n a t u r a l l y u n d e r s t a n d ovvdfieis, e v e n t h o u g h it t r a n s l a t e s n i K j y , in t h e sense of c e l e s t i a l " p o w e r s " . 1
T h u s , in Ps. c i i . (ciii.) 2 1 , evXoyeIre rov Kvpiov, Trdaai a t Swdpueis avrov, XeiTovpyol avrov iroiovvres rd fleA^/xara avrov, t h e G r e e k r e a d e r w o u l d t h i n k of a n u m b e r of b e i n g s , e a c h of w h i c h is b o t h a S w a / u s a n d a Xeirovpyos. A g a i n , in Ps. c x l v i i i . 2 - 3 , alvelre avrov, rtdvres ot ayyeXot avrov, alvelre avrov, Traoai a t 8vvdpieis avrov. alvelre avrov, rjXtos /cat aeXr^vrj, alveire avrov, irdvra ra darpa /cat TO CJCUS, 1
h e w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y t h i n k of a S t W / x t ? a s a n i n d i v i d u a l divine " a g e n c y " , like an angel, or like the sun and the 1
See Ch. VI. pp. 109-n. 18
THE
NAMES
OF
GOD
moon. W h e t h e r this ambiguity w a s intended b y the t r a n s l a t o r s o r n o t , it i n e v i t a b l y e x i s t s t h e m o m e n t *qny is r e p l a c e d b y Swapis. W e m a y fairly suspect that the translators were willing to meet half-way a growing usage in p a g a n i s m , b y w h i c h t h e g o d s w e r e r e d u c e d t o p o w e r s or a g e n c i e s of t h e one G o d , a n d t h a t in t h e e x p r e s s i o n Kvpios rcov Swdfiecov t h e y i n t e n d e d t o s u g g e s t a n i d e a s i m i l a r t o t h a t e x p r e s s e d in t h e p h r a s e s Kvpios Kvplcov, Oeos decdv. (iii) I n v a r i o u s p l a c e s in 2 a n d 3 Kms., 1 Chron., Hosea, Amos, Micah, Nahum, Habak., Zeph., Zech., Mai., Jerem., rrtxijy is r e n d e r e d iravTOKp&Tcop, w i t h a v a r i a n t 7ravroKpaTcov in Zech. v i i i . 2, 6. T h e e q u i v a l e n c e of iravTOKpaTcbv a n d iravTOKparcop p o i n t s t o t h e t r u e m e a n i n g of t h e l a t t e r w o r d . KpareZv is " t o e x e r c i s e Kpdros, p o w e r or m i g h t a n d so " t o rule, c o n t r o l T h u s KoapLOKpdrcop m e a n s " o n e w h o h a s p o w e r of c o n t r o l o v e r t h e w o r l d I t is t h u s a p p l i e d t o " h e a v e n t o Zevs Midpas "HXios, t o t h e p l a n e t a r y g o d s (especially in a s t r o l o g y — s e e L . & S.). IJavroKpdrcop is c o i n e d on t h e s a m e m o d e l , a n d m e a n s t h e O n e w h o c o n t r o l s o r rules a l l t h i n g s , p e r h a p s w i t h KocrpLOKpdrcop in m i n d : t h e o n e G o d rules a n d c o n t r o l s all o t h e r c o s m i c p o w e r s . A s t h e s e p o w e r s are owdpLeis, Kvpios TravroKpdrcop m a y b e r e g a r d e d as a p a r a p h r a s e (rather t h a n a t r a n s l a t i o n ) of rfiN^y m m in t h e 1
2
sense r e p r e s e n t e d b y Kvpios
TCOV
Swdpecov.
6
bs,
W e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e t h e r e g u l a r r e n d e r i n g of ni^S > b y 0e6s. B u t t h e r e are p l a c e s w h e r e 1
Not " almighty which implies simply the possession of might (navrohvvafios). Kparetv implied the exercise of power, cf. inscription of Delos cited in M.M. s.v. Au rat iravrmv Kparovvri. See a note by Professor A. E. Taylor in The Faith and the War, edited by F. J. Foakes-Jackson (Macmillan, 1915), pp. xiii-xvi. 2
19
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
o t h e r r e n d e r i n g s h a v e b e e n preferred, a n d s o m e of t h e s e are s i g n i f i c a n t . (i) W e h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y r e v e r e n t i a l p e r i p h r a s e s , s o m e times designed to avoid objectionable anthropomorphisms, o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n of m a t e r i a l i t y in G o d . T h e periphrasis
" heaven "
l a t e r J u d a i s m , is f o u n d t w i c e . darepcov rov ovpavov
for G o d , so c o m m o n Is. x i v . 1 3 h a s eiravoj
for b j p J K t o ^ ?
in TCOV
, a n d Job x x i i . 26
h a s avafSXeijsas els rov ovpavov IXapcos for
Hlbfcrbtf NtgNll.
E v i d e n t l y t h i s u s a g e w a s o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o e s t a b l i s h itself in the Septuagintal period. A g a i n w e h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e a d j e c t i v e Belos : Trvevfia Belov for o v f t ^ , , bs r r n , Exod. x x x i . 3, x x x v . 3 1 (B
a b
AF);
Job
xxvii.
3,
D'tfbjriYnsi, Prov. ii. 1 7 .
xxxiii.
4;
SiaBrJKr)
Beta
for
S o m e w h a t similarly, the adjective
ayios is s u b s t i t u t e d : s p t f b j T D I p , Lev. x v i i i . 2 1 , b e c o m e s TO ovofia TO dyiov. I n Exod. x x i . 6 t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o b r i n g t h e s l a v e , D^rfrNH, is e x p l a i n e d b y t h e p a r a p h r a s e , irpds TO KpiTr]pipv rov
Beov, a n d
in Exod.
xviii.
15,
^rrp
DVfr$
becomes
€K QqTrjaaL KpLaiv 7rapd TOV Beov. I n Zech. x i i . 8 t h e s t a t e m e n t , " t h e h o u s e o f D a v i d shall be is s o f t e n e d d o w n t o a V OIKOS Beov. S i m i l a r l y , in Exod. x i x . 3, w h e r e w e are t o l d t h a t " M o s e s w e n t u p to G o d els TO opos rov and
D ^ N r r b t f nby n # D , this b e c o m e s Beov.
his companions
bfcnfcr;
T)$.
A g a i n , i n Exod. " saw the
This
could
G o d of
hardly
avifiv
x x i v . 10, Moses be
IsraelINT! expected
to
c o m m e n d itself t o t h e J u d a i s m of o u r p e r i o d . I t is r e n d e r e d etSov TOV TOTTOV ofi elcrrrJKei 6 Beos rov 'IcparjX. P h i l o c i t e s t h i s p a s s a g e in s u p p o r t of h i s d o c t r i n e of t h e Xoyos as Toms : De Somn. I. 6 2 - 3 : " T h e w o r d TOTTOS is u s e d i n t h r e e senses : first, s p a c e (xpo) filled w i t h b o d y ; s e c o n d l y , t h e d i v i n e L o g o s , w h i c h G o d H i m s e l f h a s filled 20
THE
NAMES
OF
GOD
c o m p l e t e l y w i t h i n c o r p o r e a l p o w e r s ; for h e s a y s ' t h e y s a w t h e TOTTOS w h e r e t h e G o d of I s r a e l s t o o d in w h i c h a l o n e h e p e r m i t t e d h i m t o p e r f o r m t h e p r i e s t l y office, a n d n o w h e r e else. . . . T h i r d l y , G o d H i m s e l f is c a l l e d TOKOS, b e c a u s e H e e n c o m p a s s e s a l l t h i n g s a n d is e n c o m p a s s e d b y n o t h i n g a t a l l , a n d b e c a u s e H e is t h e p l a c e of refuge o f all b e i n g s , a n d b e c a u s e H e is H i s o w n s p a c e (xcopa), c o n t a i n i n g H i m s e l f , a n d m o v i n g w i t h i n H i m s e l f a l o n e . " Cf. De Fug. 7 5 ( c o m m e n t i n g o n Exod. x x i . 1 3 , Scbaco 001 TOTTOV 0$ €v£eTaL €K€i 6 ov€vcras)" B y TOTTOS h e m e a n s n o t s p a c e (x^pct) filled w i t h b o d y , b u t , b y w a y of s u g g e s t i o n , G o d H i m s e l f , b e c a u s e H e e n c o m p a s s e s a n d is n o t e n c o m p a s s e d , a n d b e c a u s e H e is a p l a c e of refuge for a l l b e i n g s T h u s t h e L X X t r a n s l a t i o n o f Exod. x x i v . 1 0 w o u l d s e e m t o h a v e h a d influence o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e l a t e r u s e of D i p p a s a t e r m for G o d . 1
(ii) O n s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s , w h e r e t h e b e i n g d e s c r i b e d as W*rb$ , irfrfc , t>K , h a s a c t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m w h i c h the
Judaism
of our period
could
not accept
as a p
propriate t o t h e one G o d , these words are rendered
by
ayyeAos. T h e G r e e k w o r d dyyeXos m e a n s a " m e s s e n g e r whether a h u m a n messenger or a subordinate g o d deputed b y a s u p e r i o r g o d , l i k e Iris a n d H e r m e s i n Homer. T h i s u s e of a y y e A o ? f o r a d i v i n e b e i n g m i g h t b e w i t h o u t s p e c i a l significance, b u t for t w o f a c t s : {a) T h e c o g n a t e w o r d Angirah is u s e d i n t h e V e d i c l i t e r a t u r e for " h i g h e r b e i n g s i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n g o d s a n d m e n " ; (b) i n l a t e r G r e e k dyyeXos c r o p s u p s p o r a d i c a l l y a s t h e t i t l e of a s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g (where t h e i d e a of a " m e s s e n g e r " is a t anyrate not prominent). Thus according to Hesychius A r t e m i s w a s c a l l e d ayyeAos* a t S y r a c u s e . A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A s s u a n o f t h e t i m e o f M . A u r e l i u s b e g i n s MeydXrj TVXV °v Beov . . . TCOV dyyiXcov TT\S Upelas. Similarly, 2
T
1
For this, see Strack-Billerbeck, Kommentar zum N.T. aus und Midrash, Vol. II. pp. 309-10. See M.M. s.v. 2
21
Talmud
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
i n t h e H e r m e t i c t r a c t a t e I sis to Horus, ap. S t o b a e u s , EcL I. 4 9 , 4 5 ( = S c o t t , Exc. Stob. x x i v . 6 ) , dyytXoi KOI SatfjLoves b r i n g d o w n foxal fiacriXiKat from G o d , w h o s e airoppoiai t h e y are. T h e r e seems no reason t o suspect J e w i s h influence o n t h i s t r a c t a t e . Thus there would s e e m t o h a v e b e e n a H e l l e n i s t i c u s e of dyyeXos w h i c h s p e c i a l l y fitted it t o b e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H e b r e w ^N^O, w h i c h also m e a n s " messenger a n d is u s e d o f intermediaries of J e h o v a h in H i s dealings w i t h m a n a n d the world. O n c e a d o p t e d i n t o t h e r e l i g i o u s v o c a b u l a r y of H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m , dyyeXos p r o v i d e d a useful p a r a p h r a s e for , Jrfc^ i DTlbtf» w h e r e t h e r e w a s a n o b j e c t i o n t o r e n d e r i n g t h e m b y deos. this.
T h e r e w a s H e b r e w p r e c e d e n t for
I n Hosea x i i . 4 , t h e D t 6 $ w i t h
whom
Jacob
s u c c e s s f u l l y w r e s t l e d a c c o r d i n g t o Gen. x x x i i . 2 9 - 3 0 is called
, L X X ayye\o$.
" b$ s h a l l
Thus
in
Job
xx. 15,
c a s t t h e m o u t of h i s b e l l y " b e c o m e s i£
OIKICLS
avrov iXKvcrei avrov dyyeXos. In particular the term dyycXos offered t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r s a s u i t a b l e m e a n s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p o l y t h e i s t i c p l u r a l DVfctf, w h e r e t h e b e i n g s s o d e n o m i n a t e d a r e b r o u g h t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of the religion of J e h o v a h . T h u s Ps. c x x x v i i . ( c x x x v i i i . ) 1 : BVtbjS "UP = ivavrtov ayyeXcov ijmXa) aoi. Ps. x c v i . (xcvii.) rrdvres =
7
:
5
l^" !! 05l27n =
oi dyyeXoi
rjXdrrcoaas
avrov.
avrov
D'il^g i j a , meaning idiom " divine beings Dent, x x x i i . 8 ; 1
1
TjpouKVvr\aar€.
avrov
Ps. v i i i . 6 : D'tfbsO B T O innpnijll
/Spa^y
re Trap' dyyeXovs.
according
to
Similarly,
established
Hebrew
is t r a n s l a t e d dyyeXoc, Gen. v i . 2 ; m
Job i. 6, ii. 1 ; a n d ?rb$r n^n
in
M.T. reads bfcC^lfeP""^?! "lSpD^, for which the translators must
have read ^{$"^3?, which is probably right. They render Kara
dpidftov
ayyiXmv 0«ov, introducing the idea of angelic rulers of the nations, which is found in Daniel. 22
THE
NAMES
OF GOD
Dan. i i i . 92 (25) is t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e L X X ofiolcofia dyyeXov deov ( T h e o d . o/xota viw Oeov). (iii) T h e r e a r e m a n y c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e w o r d s btf, iflbft , D^ib& d e n o t e b e i n g s w h o a r e n o t o n l y i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g identified w i t h J e h o v a h , b u t c a n n o t b e b r o u g h t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f a m o n o t h e i s t i c religion a s H i s " a n g e l s " ; i.e. t h e y d e n o t e t h e false g o d s o f t h e n a t i o n s . In such c a s e s , (a) t h e t r a n s l a t o r s s o m e t i m e s a l l o w t h e w o r d 0€osr t o s t a n d i n w h a t w a s after a l l i t s o r d i n a r y G r e e k sense, " a g o d " ; t h e c o n t e x t u s u a l l y g u a r d s sufficiently a g a i n s t a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; (b) s o m e t i m e s t h e y u s e s o m e s u c h n o n - c o m m i t t a l e x p r e s s i o n a s apxv (Ezek. x x x i . 1 1 ) , Trdrpapxos {Is. x x x v i i . 38) ; (c) s o m e t i m e s t h e y c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y s u b s t i t u t e ethcuXov, yXwuros, ^hiXvypua, expressing t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e strict monotheist on p a g a n religion. T h i s m a y be compared w i t h t h e practice attested b y t h e M . T . o f s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e o p p r o b r i o u s w o r d T\Vfa 1
for t h e d i v i n e t i t l e by%, e . g . Hos. i x . 1 0 ; Jer. i i i . 2 4 , x i . 1 3 . I n t h e first t w o o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s t h e L X X g i v e s aloxvvr)y i n t h e t h i r d jSaaA. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n 3 Kms. x v i i i . 1 9 , 2 5 , t h e L X X h a s alaxvvr), w h e r e t h e M . T . h a s r e t a i n e d b%2.. T h u s t h e L X X d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t the same stage in t h e process as t h e M . T . be
observed
that
B u t it is t o
t h e L X X r e g u l a r l y t r e a t s jSaaA a s
f e m i n i n e , t h e g e n d e r o f nufa, alaxvvr).
This gives evi
d e n c e o f a Q're w h i c h h a s n o t s u r v i v e d i n t h e M . T . may
also c o m p a r e
We
Dan. x i i . 1 1 , w h e r e DOttf ppttf, TO
fiSeXvyfjLa rfjs iprjijuoacws, is c l e a r l y a n o p p r o b r i o u s p a r o d y of , Zeis Ovpdvcos. 2
In m a n y of t h e passages cited the L X X h a s the char acter of a sort of monotheistic T a r g u m on t h e Hebrew 1
A s they also occasionally use deos to translate terms specifically denoting pagan deities, b^b#, ayjT. 2
So Moore, Judaism,
I. p. 367. 23
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
t e x t , rather than a strict translation. I t l a i d before t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p u b l i c a b o d y of religious t e a c h i n g from w h i c h practically e v e r y concession to polytheism h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d , a n d p r e s e n t e d t h e J e w i s h religion a s a m o n o t h e i s t i c f a i t h in a sense w h i c h w a s n o t t r u e of a n y o t h e r religion of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d .
24
CHAPTER II THE
LAW
T H E m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t e r m in t h e v o c a b u l a r y of t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a s i t w a s r e c o n s t i t u t e d after t h e E x i l e is r n i n , w h i c h o u r v e r s i o n s r e n d e r " l a w " T h i s E n g l i s h r e n d e r i n g g o e s b a c k t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n lex t o t h e G r e e k vop,os, w h i c h is i n t h e L X X t h e n o r m a l r e n d e r i n g of r n i n . Nop*)?, h o w e v e r , is b y n o m e a n s a n e x a c t e q u i v a l e n t for r n i n , a n d i t s s u b s t i t u t i o n for t h e H e b r e w t e r m affords a n illustration of a change in the ideas associated w i t h the t e r m — a difference in m e n ' s n o t i o n of w h a t r e l i g i o n is. F o r d e v e l o p e d J u d a i s m t h e r e is n o t e r m w h i c h m o r e a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s e s t h e essence of religion t h a n r n i n . N o G r e e k w o u l d h a v e c h o s e n vofios t o e x p r e s s w h a t he m e a n t b y r e l i g i o n . Y e t a s t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f r n i n , VOJJLOS occupied
for
Hellenistic
Judaism
the
same
regulative
p o s i t i o n a m o n g r e l i g i o u s i d e a s as r n i n d i d for H e b r e w speaking Jews. NofjLos is f u n d a m e n t a l l y " c u s t o m hardening into w h a t we c a l l " l a w It does not necessarily i m p l y a n y legislative authority. I t is r a t h e r a n i m m a n e n t o r u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e of life a n d a c t i o n . No/xog irdvrayv jSaaiAetfc, said P i n d a r : C u s t o m is itself t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r , m e a n i n g s i m p l y t h e e s t a b l i s h e d u s a g e of c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y . I n a m o r e e x a l t e d s t r a i n S o p h o c l e s s p e a k s of VO/XOL vi/siiroSes oipaviav S i ' aWepa reKvcodevres, &v "OXvpmos 1
2
1
Ap.
Kdt. III. 38.
2
25
0.7\
865.
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
7raTfjp IAOVOS, " l a w s l o f t i l y m a r c h i n g , e n g e n d e r e d i n t h e c e l e s t i a l h e i g h t , w h o s e f a t h e r is h e a v e n a l o n e In spite of t h e reference t o O l y m p u s , t h e s e l a w s a r e s u r e l y for t h e p o e t r a t h e r t h e c u s t o m s of t h e u n i v e r s e , so t o s p e a k , t h a n a positive code revealed b y a deity. T h e y are the eternal p r i n c i p l e s of r i g h t a n d w r o n g a s i m m a n e n t i n t h e u n i v e r s e . Philosophic form w a s given t o this conception b y the S t o i c s ( w h o k n e w n o G o d b e y o n d t h e Aoyos i m m a n e n t i n t h e u n i v e r s e ) . C h r y s i p p u s s a i d , " T h e e n d is t o l i v e i n accordance w i t h nature, that is, according to one's o w n n a t u r e a n d t h a t of t h e u n i v e r s e , d o i n g n o t h i n g w h i c h is f o r b i d d e n b y t h e c o m m o n l a w , w h i c h is t h e r i g h t p r i n c i p l e r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a l l t h i n g s " {T4XOS yiverai TO aKoXovdcos rfj cpvcrei ^r/v, oirep iarl tiara rr)v eavrov xal Kara TTJV TCOV oXcov, ovhkv ivepyovvras cov drrayopeveiv elcodei 6 VOJJLOS 6 1
KOLVOS,
0<JTT€p laTIV 6 6p66s X6yOS Old 7TOLVTCOV ipx6pL€VOs).
A l o n g s i d e of t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w e n t a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t b y w h i c h vopuog c a m e t o m e a n " l a w in t h e proper sense, i.e. e i t h e r a single s t a t u t o r y e n a c t m e n t o r t h e l e g a l corpus of a given community, whether produced b y the c o d i f i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g c u s t o m , o r l a i d d o w n b y a l a w g i v e r , or enacted b y a constitutional authority. This w a s the o r d i n a r y m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m vofios a s c u r r e n t a m o n g Greek-speaking people throughout t h e world in t h e period w i t h w h i c h w e a r e d e a l i n g . I t is defined in t h e p s e u d o D e m o s t h e n i c Contra Aristogitonem, 7 7 4 , a s follows : IT as ion vopuos evprjfxa fiev Kal Scbpov decov, Soyfia 8' avdpcbircov cppovLfAcov, iiravopOcoGis Se TrXrjfxiJieXrjfjLdTcov TCOV els dpucpOTepa, rroXecos Se avvdrjKrj KOLVYJ, KaO* fjv iracri irpoorjKei t,rjv TOLS iv TJJ TroXet,: " E v e r y l a w is t h e i n v e n t i o n a n d gift of t h e g o d s , t h e j u d g m e n t of w i s e m e n , t h e c o r r e c t i o n of t r a n s g r e s sions, a n d t h e c o m m o n c o v e n a n t of a s t a t e , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h i c h a l l m e m b e r s of t h e s t a t e o u g h t t o l i v e F o r " l a w " i n t h i s sense H e b r e w h a d i t s o w n p r o p e r t e r m s . T h u s t h e l e g a l c o d e of Deuteronomy is d e s c r i b e d in 1
Ap. Diog. Lacrt. VII. i. 88. 26
THE
LAW
the familiar recurrent phrase " t h e commandment(s), the s t a t u t e s , a n d the j u d g m e n t s D^prpSCn •"'phn n p p S B , for w h i c h t h e L X X g i v e s at ivroXal /cat rd SLKauofiara /cat rd KptfJiara. I t w i l l b e w e l l first t o e x a m i n e t h e s e t e r m s . 1. r n x p is a n e d i c t or decree i s s u e d b y a p e r s o n possess ing a u t h o r i t y , s u c h a s a k i n g . I t s n a t u r a l a n d u s u a l e q u i v a l e n t in G r e e k is ivroXrj ( o c c a s i o n a l l y evraXfia), a n d of t h e scores of o c c u r r e n c e s of t h i s w o r d in t h e L X X n e a r l y all t r a n s l a t e r n y p , e x c e p t in t h e Psalms, w h e r e it f r e q u e n t l y renders Tips , a s y n o n y m for rTO£ , found o n l y in t h e P s a l t e r . A n o t h e r w o r d for msrD is 7rp6arayfia w h i c h o c c u r s a d o z e n t i m e s or s o , a n d t h e r e are o d d p a s s a g e s w h e r e o t h e r r e a d i n g s are g i v e n , s u c h as pfjp,a, Xoyos, Sucauofia. T h e sense w h i c h mira c o n v e y e d t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r s is therefore clear, a n d t h e i r r e n d e r i n g s are true equivalents. 2. ph o r npj} is d e r i v e d from p p n = t o c u t , b e c a u s e , it is f
s a i d , s t a t u t e s w e r e e n g r a v e d o n t a b l e t s of s t o n e o r m e t a l . T h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s as r e p r e s e n t e d b y A s e e m t o h a v e a t t e m p t e d a n e t y m o l o g i c a l r e n d e r i n g in a few p l a c e s , g i v i n g dfcptjSaoTxos o r Sta/cpt/Jeta, as t h o u g h t h e y t h o u g h t of a ph a s s o m e t h i n g " c u t fine " , " c l e a r - c u t " , " pre-cise cf. also t h e r e n d e r i n g opiov in Job x x x v i i i . 1 0 . B u t t h e i r o r d i n a r y r e n d e r i n g s are SiKalcofia a n d npoaray^a. B o t h are f r e q u e n t , b u t as irpoarayfia also renders ?TOD f a i r l y often, St/catcDjLta, w h i c h in t h e m a j o r i t y of its o c c u r r e n c e s r e p r e s e n t s ph ot n ^ n , m a y be r e g a r d e d as t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e n d e r i n g . AtKaiajfia b e l o n g s t o a l a r g e class of s u b s t a n t i v e s in -/xa, w h i c h d e n o t e t h e c o n c r e t e result of a n a c t i o n , w h i l e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s u b s t a n t i v e s in to-is d e n o t e t h e a c t i o n itself. B u t a b s t r a c t a n d c o n c r e t e are f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r c h a n g e d o r c o n f u s e d in u s a g e . T h e v e r b s in -ou> 1
2
1
Jnd. v. 15 (where pT\ is used in a non-legal sense); 3 Kms. xi. 33, 34 ; 4 Kms. xvii. 15 ; Ps. viii. 29. These words do not appear in the original text of K or B in any of these passages. See pp. 53-4 below. 2
27
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
are c a u s a t i v e , a n d s o S t / c a t o w s h o u l d m e a n " t o m a k e o r set right I t does v e r y occasionally bear this meaning, a n d h e n c e SiKalajfia i s defined b y A r i s t o t l e a s m e a n i n g iiravopdoj^a
rod d S t / a ^ i a r o ? ,
1
a n a c t w h e r e b y w r o n g is
righted. Here t h e substantive expresses n o t strictly t h e result of t h e a c t , b u t a concrete case of t h e action of t h e v e r b , n o t e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m SiKauoais. T h e more c o m m o n sense o f SIKOLLOVV, h o w e v e r , i s " t o d e e m r i g h t " (usually w i t h t h e infinitive), a n d most of t h e ordinary u s e s of StKaicDfjua a r e d e r i v e d f r o m SIKCUOVV i n t h i s sense. T h e n it m a y mean a claim, or the argument b y which a c l a i m i s s u p p o r t e d , t h e piices justificatives i n a p r o c e s s , o r t h e l i k e . I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s 8t/cato>/ia i s t h a t w h i c h i s d e e m e d o r d e c l a r e d r i g h t b y t h e p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d (or t h e a c t o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t i t is r i g h t ) . B u t t h e w o r d m i g h t equally well b e used of something deemed or declared right n o t b y this or that individual, b u t b y the community or its competent authority. T h u s Ta hiKauLybara Zafifipel (Mic. v i . 1 6 , "npy nij?|i) m a y h a v e b e e n felt a s m e a n i n g " that which Omri declared right rd S t / c a w o / x a r a rwv idvcov ( 4 Ktns. x v i i . 8, crtso n i p n ) a s " t h a t w h i c h t h e Gentiles deem right T h u s rd SiKauipbara Kvplov, rod 0eov w o u l d m e a n t h a t w h i c h G o d d e c l a r e s r i g h t . In a considerable proportion of its occurrences t h e w o r d is t h u s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e g e n i t i v e — S t / c a t d i / x a r a p,ov, CLVTOV, e t c . I n a b o u t a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f c a s e s i t is u s e d w i t h o u t a g e n i t i v e , a n d h e r e SiKauofia n o d o u b t s t a n d s f o r t h a t w h i c h i n a n o b j e c t i v e o r a b s o l u t e sense is j u d g e d r i g h t , w i t h o u t a n y c o n s c i o u s reference t o t h e p e r s o n judging. I a m n o t aware of a n y e x a c t parallel in profane w r i t e r s t o t h e L X X u s a g e , b u t t h i s u s a g e is a l o n g t h e line of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w o r d , a n d e n t i r e l y j u s t i f i e d philologically, t h o u g h w e cannot s a y , in t h e absence of parallels, w h y t h e translators should h a v e chosen this term t o render p h . 1
E.N.
V. vii. 10, p. 1135a.
28
THE
LAW
3. B^tSfa , from r o o t tOS& , t o j u d g e , is p r o p e r l y a n a c t of j u d g i n g , o r i t s result, a j u d g m e n t . Such judgments were g i v e n b y D^ttpttf a n d k i n g s , a n d also b y t h e p r i e s t s a t t h e s a n c t u a r i e s (cf. t h e L X X p h r a s e TO Kpirr]piov rov 8eov). Judgments given b y competent tribunals be came, a m o n g the Hebrews as a m o n g other peoples, the basis of s u b s e q u e n t j u d g m e n t s , a n d so f o r m e d a b o d y of c a s e - l a w . T h e o l d G r e e k t e r m for s u c h j u d g m e n t s w a s defiiGTzs, b u t t h e w o r d h a d p a s s e d o u t of use l o n g before o u r p e r i o d . T h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s , in a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of c a s e s , r e n d e r to^tpn in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h i t s e t y m o l o g y a s Kpip,a, s o m e t i m e s Kpiaig, a n d t h e s e w o r d s seldom represent a n y other H e b r e w word. Kplp,a i n ordinary Greek usage means generally the verdict or s e n t e n c e of a c o u r t in a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , n o t c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e l e m e n t i n t h e l a w of t h e c o m m u n i t y . B u t i t o c c u r s also in t h e sense of a decree or r e s o l u t i o n of a legislative body. L . & S. c i t e from D i o n y s i u s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s Kpifxa Srj/xov, a n d t w o o r t h r e e s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s . S u c h uses, t h o u g h rare, p r o v i d e a b a c k g r o u n d for t h e L X X use of Kpifxara in t h e sense of j u d g m e n t s w h i c h h a v e p a s s e d i n t o a corpus juris. W h e n tSDtpp is n o t r e n d e r e d b y Kptfia o r Kpiais (or o c c a s i o n a l l y o t h e r d e r i v a t i v e s of Kpiveiv), it is m o s t often r e n d e r e d ( n e a r l y f o r t y times) b y SiKaicofxa, w h i c h is o b v i o u s l y fitted b y e t y m o l o g y a n d u s a g e t o represent its sense. E l s e w h e r e , v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y , w e h a v e ivroArj and
TTpoGraypba.
T h u s t h e t h r e e c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s i n H e b r e w l a w are u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s t o b e (i) p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d s o r d e c r e e s ; (ii) d e c l a r a t i o n s of r i g h t ; a n d (iii) j u d g m e n t s o r decisions. T h e t e r m s u s e d a l l i m p l y m o r e o r less d i r e c t l y a l e g i s l a t o r , a n d t h i s is t r u e t o t h e H e b r e w i d e a . T h e f o u n t a i n of a l l l a w for t h e H e b r e w s w a s G o d , w h e t h e r t h e i m m e d i a t e h u m a n a u t h o r of t h e commandments, statutes, and judgments was judge, 29
THE
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AND
THE
GREEKS
k i n g , o r priest. I n o u r p e r i o d t h e t h e o r y w a s t h a t t h e y h a d all been laid d o w n b y Moses. T h e various terms are t o s o m e e x t e n t u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y in t h e L X X , a n d w e r e c l e a r l y n o t r e g a r d e d as m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e o r e v e n f u n d a m e n t a l l y different in m e a n i n g . A l l t h r e e H e b r e w t e r m s are o c c a s i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d , a d e q u a t e l y e n o u g h , b y vofios in i t s o r d i n a r y p o l i t i c a l sense. I t is indeed clear t h a t the most natural Hebrew equivalent for vofios i n t h i s sense w o u l d b e f o u n d a m o n g t h e s e t e r m s . B u t voixos for t h e m o s t p a r t , a s w e h a v e seen, r e n d e r s n o n e of t h e s e t e r m s . O u t of a b o u t 320 p l a c e s w h e r e it o c c u r s i n t h e L X X a b o u t s e v e n - e i g h t h s h a v e n n i n in t h e Hebrew,
r n i n is f r o m r o o t n*V w h i c h in t h e hiphil
rnin
m e a n " to point out, show, direct, instruct Where o r d i n a r y h u m a n r e l a t i o n s are c o n c e r n e d , as w h e r e it refers to parents teaching their children, or to Job's c o m forters s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e i r t h e o l o g i c a l v i e w s , t h e L X X often r e n d e r s r n i n b y StSdor/cetv, w h i c h is i t s n e a r e s t equivalent.
A s a d e f i n i t e l y r e l i g i o u s t e r m n n i n is u s e d
of p r i e s t s a n d p r o p h e t s g i v i n g d i r e c t i o n o r i n s t r u c t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e w i l l of G o d . I n t h i s sense, t o o , t h e L X X s o m e t i m e s r e n d e r s it b y SiSaoTceiv, o r b y s u c h s y n o n y m s a s hrjXovv, heiKvvvaiy au/xj3ij3a£€«>, avayyiXXew, w h i c h s h o w t h a t t h e y w e r e a w a r e of t h e t r u e m e a n i n g of t h e v e r b . The substantive n n i n accordingly means direction or instruction. T h u s i t is u s e d of t h e i n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n b y parents t o their children or b y wise m e n to their pupils. B u t i t is m o s t s p e c i f i c a l l y u s e d of g u i d a n c e o r i n s t r u c t i o n c o m i n g f r o m G o d H i m s e l f ; a n d chiefly in t w o w a y s , t h r o u g h t h e o r a c u l a r u t t e r a n c e s o r responses of t h e p r i e s t s at the sanctuary, and through the prophets. T h e priestly n i l i n were primarily concerned w i t h ritual and ceremonial observance, b u t t h e y appear t o h a v e been given also upon p o i n t s of i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i a l m o r a l s . T h u s t h e t e r m n n i n c o u l d b e u s e d c o l l e c t i v e l y b o t h of t h e p r i e s t l y c o d e 30
THE
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of c e r e m o n i a l o b s e r v a n c e ( p r e s e r v e d i n t h e p r i e s t l y d o c u m e n t of t h e P e n t a t e u c h k n o w n a s P ) , a n d a l s o , b y a n e x t e n s i o n of m e a n i n g , of t h e c o d e of c o m m a n d m e n t s , s t a t u t e s a n d j u d g m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in Deuteronomy, since o n e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of t h e s e w a s a c t u a l l y t h e c o l l e c t i o n of p r i e s t l y n i l i n a t J e r u s a l e m a n d p e r h a p s a t o t h e r sanctuaries. I t i s i n t h i s sense t h a t f n t a c a n f a i r l y b e r e g a r d e d a s e q u i v a l e n t t o v6p,os. I t satisfies t h e p s e u d o D e m o s t h e n i c definition of vopuos; for i t is t h e Scopov of t h e G o d o f I s r a e l , t h e Sdy/ta o f M o s e s , t h e c o v e n a n t ( n n n , for w h i c h L X X uses htaOrjKT] i n s t e a d of ovvdrjKrj) b y w h i c h all Israelites ought t o live. T h e p r o p h e t i c min h o w e v e r w a s of a different c h a r acter. T h e prophet w a s not in a position t o deliver p o s i t i v e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s h a v i n g t h e force of l a w , n o r w a s h i s t e a c h i n g confined t o c e r e m o n i a l o r m o r a l o r d i nances. I n t h e p r o p h e t s rriin i s u s e d i n p a r a l l e l i s m 1
w i t h m m ^21. T h e " word of the Lord " which the prophets uttered w a s concerned with the character of G o d , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of H i s p a s t d e a l i n g s w i t h I s r a e l a n d t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of H i s p u r p o s e s for I s r a e l i n t h e future, w i t h t h e c a l l of r e p e n t a n c e , a n d w i t h t h e b r o a d p r i n c i p l e s of m o r a l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n w i t h p o s i t i v e p r e c e p t s . T a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , Is. i. 1 0 sqq. " H e a r t h e m m 1 3 1 * ye
rulers o f S o d o m , g i v e e a r t o t h e rr^P) of o u r G o d ,
ye people of Gomorrah T h e r e follows a n e l o q u e n t d e c l a r a t i o n of J e h o v a h ' s d i s g u s t w i t h a n o n - m o r a l c u l t u s , a n d a n a p p e a l for e t h i c a l r e l i g i o n — " w a s h y o u , m a k e you clean e t c . T h i s is t h e rnifi : i t is n o t " l a w " : it is i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e l i g i o n . S u c h w a s the r n i n w h i c h Isaiah sealed u p a m o n g his disciples (viii. 1 6 ) . I n t h e c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s t h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e 1
iTjin is in fact once rendered SiadyKr);
ra. ycypawicva
iv hiaOrjKT} Mcuorj
; HI^O
31
n^inijl
Dan. ix. 13, L X X :
Kara
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
sense u s u a l l y i n t e n d e d b y n i i n ; for t h o u g h in m a n y p a s s a g e s i t is o p e n t o a n i n t e r p r e t e r t o find an a l l u s i o n , n o t t o •the t e a c h i n g of t h e p r o p h e t himself, b u t t o a c o d e of c o m m a n d m e n t s , s t a t u t e s , a n d j u d g m e n t s w h i c h he m a y h a v e p r e - s u p p o s e d , t h i s is s e l d o m t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b y the context,
suggested
r n i n is for t h e p r o p h e t s d i v i n e r e v e l a
t i o n in t h e w i d e s t sense, a p p e a l i n g t o h e a r t , m i n d , a n d w i l l . I t m a y i n c l u d e p o s i t i v e p r e c e p t s , b u t it i n c l u d e s m u c h more.
N o w among Jews who continued to speak Hebrew
t h i s w i d e r sense of rryin w a s n o t f o r g o t t e n .
In Rabbinic
Judaism
r n i n is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h r o i j n , t h e
conduct,
but
a
general
more
rule of
i n c l u d e s a l s o nnari, r e l i g i o u s t e a c h i n g sense.
The
Pentateuch
is
in
properly
d e s c r i b e d as r n i n r t , e v e n t h o u g h i t i n c l u d e s m u c h m o r e t h a n ciflSl^pn
n i s p , for i t s a c c o u n t of G o d ' s d e a l i n g s
w i t h H i s p e o p l e is a p a r t of r n i n in t h e p r o p h e t i c sense. T h e n a t u r a l G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t of r n i n in t h e m o r e g e n e r a l sense w o u l d h a v e b e e n s o m e t h i n g l i k e SiSaxq, S t S a a / c a A t a o r s o m e o t h e r d e r i v a t i v e of t h e v e r b s u s e d t o rnin.
B u t s u c h w o r d s are n e v e r u s e d .
translate
I n Prov. v i i . 2
n n i n , in t h e sense of a f a t h e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n t o h i s s o n , is rendered
Xoyoi.
In
K of Is.
i.
10 (see a b o v e )
Xoyov
a p p e a r s i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t of t h e v e r s e a s w e l l a s t h e first, b u t t h i s is p r o b a b l y a d i t t o g r a p h , a n d t h e c o r r e c t o r of x h a s g i v e n vop,ov w i t h a l l o t h e r M S S .
I n Job
xxii.
22 nnin , i n t h e sense of D i v i n e g u i d a n c e i n w a r d l y r e c e i v e d , is r e n d e r e d ifyyopia,
" utterance
These are the o n l y
p l a c e s i n t h e w h o l e L X X w h e r e a n y sense of nnin o t h e r t h a n t h e s t r i c t l y l e g a l is e x p r e s s e d in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n . W e h a v e flifiXtov, 8taypa(f>r) SiaOrjKrj, TOL^LS o n c e e a c h , ivroXrj (four t i m e s ) , irpoaTayfxa (three t i m e s ) , Oecrfios ( t w i c e , of p a r e n t a l t e a c h i n g ) , vopuoOeapios (once), vofupLa (six t i m e s ) , Sevrepovopuov (for nninn Mttfp, t w i c e ) , a n d for t h e t
32
THE
LAW
rest, b e t w e e n 250 a n d 300 t i m e s , vopuos.
This t y p e of
r e n d e r i n g is u s e d q u i t e i n d i f f e r e n t l y w h e t h e r r n i n i n t h e H e b r e w h a s i t s w i d e r a n d m o r e o r i g i n a l sense o r i t s d e v e l o p e d n a r r o w e r sense. described as
VO/JLOS
T h u s a p a r e n t ' s i n s t r u c t i o n is
i n Prov. v i . 2 3 , vofiipca i n Prov. i i i . 1 ;
a wise m a n ' s instruction t o his pupil is equally Prov. x i i i . 1 4 .
vofios,
I n Ps. l x x v i i . ( l x x v i i i . ) 1, t h e p o e t b e g i n s
" G i v e e a r , O m y p e o p l e , t o m y r n i n : incline y o u r e a r s to t h e words of m y m o u t h " .
T h e r n i n w h i c h follows i s
in f a c t a p o e t i c a l r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of t h e h i s t o r y of I s r a e l d o w n t o t h e time of D a v i d .
I t i s i n n o sense l e g i s l a t i o n ,
n o t e v e n i n t h e r e m o t e sense of m o r a l e x h o r t a t i o n . t h e L X X r e a d s irpoaex^re Xaos nov rov vofiov
JJLOV.
Yet
Through
o u t t h e p r o p h e t i c a l b o o k s t h e s a m e t r a n s l a t i o n is u s e d , a l t h o u g h i n m o s t c a s e s , a s w e h a v e seen, t h e p r o p h e t ' s r n i n is i n t h e b r o a d e s t sense t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d , H i s nature a n d character, H i s purposes a n d His m i g h t y works. S i m i l a r l y , w h e n t h e v e r b n i i n i s u s e d of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n t h e t r a n s l a t o r s s o m e t i m e s r e n d e r i t b y vocoder elv ( w h i c h never in t h e L X X represents a n y other verb), a n d t h a t e v e n i n p a s s a g e s w h e r e l e g i s l a t i o n is c l e a r l y a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a i n t h e c o n t e x t . T h u s i n Ps. x x i v . ( x x v . ) 8 : " G o o d a n d upright is t h e L o r d . Therefore will H e i n s t r u c t s i n n e r s in t h e w a y " , a n d ibid. 1 2 : " W h a t m a n is h e t h a t f e a r e t h t h e L o r d ? H i m s h a l l H e i n s t r u c t i n t h e w a y t h a t H e s h a l l c h o o s e " , r n i i is b o t h t i m e s r e n d e r e d voiioOerrjcrei: i n Ps. x x v i . ( x x v i i . ) 1 1 : " T e a c h m e T h y way, O Lord m m ^ " j i n , i s r e n d e r e d vopLoder-qoov lie
Kvpie. T h u s o v e r a w i d e r a n g e t h e r e n d e r i n g of rriin b y vopuos
is t h o r o u g h l y m i s l e a d i n g , a n d i t is t o b e r e g r e t t e d t h a t t h e E n g l i s h v e r s i o n s f o l l o w e d t h e L X X (via t h e V u l g a t e ) i n so m a n y c a s e s . B u t w h i l e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is often m i s l e a d i n g a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g , i t is m o s t instructive in its bearing upon Hellenistic Judaism.
33
c
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
I t is c l e a r t h a t for t h e J e w s of E g y p t in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d t h e d e v e l o p e d m e a n i n g of r n i n a s a c o d e of r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e , a " l a w " for a r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y , was the normal and regulative meaning, and t h e y m a d e t h i s m e a n i n g c o v e r t h e w h o l e use of t h e w o r d i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . T h u s t h e p r o p h e t i c t y p e o f religion was obscured, and the Biblical revelation w a s conceived in a hard legalistic w a y . In t h u s rendering the term the t r a n s l a t o r s a r e n o d o u b t r e f l e c t i n g t h e sense i n w h i c h t h e i r c o m m u n i t y read the Hebrew Bible, but their rendering h e l p e d t o fix a n d s t e r e o t y p e t h a t sense. W h e r e t h i n k e r s bred in Hellenistic Judaism sought to escape into a religion of g r e a t e r s p i r i t u a l f r e e d o m a n d s p o n t a n e i t y , i t w a s n o t b y a n y w a y of r e t u r n t o t h e p r o p h e t i c i d e a of n i i r t , b u t b y t a k i n g u p a fresh a t t i t u d e t o r e l i g i o n c o n ceived as L a w . Philo accepted the L a w as such and allegorized i t : P a u l declared t h a t Judaism, being a legal r e l i g i o n , w a s s u p e r s e d e d b y t h e religion of t h e S p i r i t . W e m a y now turn to the N e w Testament, to examine t h e use of vopos in t h o s e w r i t e r s w h o s e b a c k g r o u n d is Hellenistic Judaism. i . I t is c l e a r t h a t P a u l ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c use of t h e t e r m vofios is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e sense w h i c h t h e L X X s h a r e s w i t h c u r r e n t G r e e k u s a g e of t h e t e r m t o d e n o t e t h e l a w of a c o m m u n i t y . H e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h 6 vofjuos rcbv evroXojv iv Soy/xacrtv, a s h e c a r e f u l l y defines it i n Eph. i i . 1 5 . H e r e eVroA^ is t h e f a m i l i a r L X X r e a d i n g of p m ? £ , a c o m m a n d m e n t . Aoypa o c c u r s o n l y o n c e in t h e L X X , Dan. v i . 1 2 , w h e r e i t h a s n o H e b r e w e q u i v a l e n t . I t o c c u r s a s a v a r i a n t r e a d i n g in Ezek. x x . 26 (for Sofia), a n d i n t w o p a s s a g e s in Esther w h e r e i t r e p r e s e n t s J T J . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is c o m m o n in 3 - 4 Mace, a n d i n t h e T h e o d o t i o n v e r s i o n of Daniel, w h e r e it r e p r e s e n t s v a r i o u s A r a m a i c w o r d s m e a n i n g " s t a t u t e " or " decree I t is n o t u s e d in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t o r 34
THE
LAW
A p o c r y p h a o f d i v i n e d e c r e e s , t h o u g h i t is so u s e d b y J o s e p h u s , e . g . Contra Apionem, I . 8 , § 4 2 . W e m a y r e c a l l t h a t Sdy/xa avdpojTTtov povificov is p a r t of t h e p s e u d o - D e m o s t h e n i c definition o f vofMos, a n d i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d hoypua is v e r y c o m m o n i n t h e sense o f " s t a t u t e " o r " d e c r e e b e i n g u s e d , e . g . , t o r e n d e r senatus consultum. T h u s P a u l is combining a Biblical w o r d w i t h a word current in secular use t o define t h e p r e c i s e sense in w h i c h h e is u s i n g vofios. I n h i s c a r e f u l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e a n d effect o f l a w in Rom. v i i . ivroXrj a l t e r n a t e s w i t h vopos. S i m i l a r l y , h e uses t h e B i b l i c a l e x p r e s s i o n oLKaicofxa i n t h e sense o f a l e g a l e n a c t m e n t : TO SiKalcopua rod vofiov, Rom. v i i i . 4 ; rd ScAcacco/iara rov vojxov,
Rom.
i i . 2 6 ; TO St/catco/xa rov
deov,
1
Rom. i. 3 2 . S o f a r P a u l m i g h t h a v e s a i d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h e s a y s a b o u t vopos if h e w e r e w r i t i n g p u r e l y a s a G r e e k a n d had never heard the word rrjta. A t the same time it might be held t h a t he betrays b y such expressions as 6 vofios
vopov vofios
TCOV ivToXcov
iv
SoyfjLaaiv,
and
TCL SiKaccbfiaTa
TOV
a c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e r sense o f = r n i n , w i t h i n w h i c h fell t h e n a r r o w e r sense o f
" commandments, statutes, a n d judgments A further i n d i c a t i o n i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n is t h e f a c t t h a t P a u l c i t e s " 6 vofios " w h e n t h e a c t u a l p a s s a g e s q u o t e d a r e n o t of t h e n a t u r e of c o m m a n d m e n t s , a n d a r e n o t e v e n f o u n d i n the Pentateuch. T h u s i n Rom. i i i . 1 0 - 1 8 h e c i t e s a c e n t o of O l d T e s t a m e n t p a s s a g e s f r o m Isaiah a n d t h e Psalms, a n d c o m m e n t s 0 0 a 6 vop,os Xiyec TOLS iv TCO VO/JLCO XaXel, a n d in 1 Cor. x i v . 2 1 h e q u o t e s Is. x x v i i i . 1 1 (in a G r e e k translation other than the L X X , substantially identical with that of A q u i l a , according t o Origen), w i t h the f o r m u l a iv TCO vofxco yiyparrTai. T h a t this corresponded w i t h c u r r e n t r a b b i n i c u s a g e o f rrjta is p r o v e d b y a h o s t 2
1
Cf. ra OiKaiatfiara
Kvplov
= HUT
, Ps. xviii. (xix.), 9 : see p. 27
above. 2
Philocalia,
ix. 2, where the extended uses of vofios in Paul are
discussed. 35
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS 1
of c i t a t i o n s f r o m t h e T a l m u d i n S t r a c k - B i l l e r b e c k . N o w r i t e r c o u l d h a v e u s e d vop,os i n t h i s w a y if t h e L X X h a d n o t a d o p t e d i t a s t h e r e n d e r i n g of r n i n . S u c h p a s s a g e s , however, are not v e r y frequent in Paul. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s w h e r e P a u l uses vofios in senses n o t e a s i l y d e r i v a b l e f r o m i t s u s e t o t r a n s l a t e r n i n , b u t closely akin t o purely Greek usage. T h u s in Rom. i i i . 2 7 We h a v e 8id rroiov VOJJLOV ; rwv epytov ; o&x dXXd hid VOJXOV 7TLGT€ojs : i n Rom. v i i . 23 a n d 2 5 , VO/JLOS d/xaprias I i n Rom. v i h . 2, 6 vo/xos rrjs dpLaprtas /ecu rod davdrov. I t s e e m s difficult e x c e p t b y a v e r y v i o l e n t s t r a i n u p o n l a n g u a g e t o i n t e r p r e t s u c h p h r a s e s f r o m t h e u s e of vopuos — rnin , nor h a v e t h e y a n y parallel in the L X X . O n the 1
other hand, t h e y are readily explicable upon a n a l o g y w i t h c o m m o n G r e e k uses of v6p,os i n t h e sense of " p r i n c i p l e cf. t h e n o t i n f r e q u e n t o p p o s i t i o n o f iv SLKTJS vo\itp a n d iv X^p&v vopbo). A g a i n w e h a v e t h e r e m a r k a b l e p a s s a g e a b o u t t h e G e n t i l e s a n d t h e L a w i n Rom. ii. 1 4 - 1 5 . T h e w h o l e i d e a of t h e s e v e r s e s , a c c o r d i n g t o S t r a c k - B i l l e r b e c k , is s t r a n g e t o R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e t e r m s vcns a n d crvveihrjais, a n d t h e i d e a of t h e i n n e r t r i b u n a l , a r e s o s t r o n g l y S t o i c i n c o l o u r i n g , t h a t TO ipyov rov vopuov ypomrov iv rais KapSloLLs r e m i n d s u s less o f J e r e m i a h ' s T o r a h w r i t t e n o n t h e h e a r t , t h a n of s u c h S t o i c s e n t i m e n t s a s P l u t a r c h , M oralia, p . 780 [Ad. Princ. Inerud. 3 ) , 6 VO/JLOS 6 TRDVROJV fiaoiXtvs . . . OVK iv j8ij8Atois e£co yeypajxpiivos oifBe r i o x £vXois, dXX epu/jvxos cov iv afirco Xoyos. And iavrots eloL vopos s e e m s a n e c h o of A r i s t o t l e , E.N. I V . v i i i . 14, p . 1 1 2 8 a : d S e x P ls ^ iXevOepos ovrcos e£ei olov vofjios cov iavrcp. T h u s w h i l e i t is j u s t possible t o c o n c e i v e 2
9
a
i€
Ka
1
Kommentar zum N.T. aus Talmud und Midrash ad Jn. x. 34, Rom. iii. 19, 1 Cor. xiv. 21. Note especially Tanchuma, nhH > i. 19: "The transgressors of Israel say that the Prophets and the Writings are not Torah, but we do not believe them "—citing Dan. ix. 10, which speaks of Toroth given Q ^ l j n T 3 L . 2
As abundantly illustrated by Wetstein, ad loc. 36
Cf. Origen, Phil. I.e.
THE
LAW
P a u l as s a y i n g " w h e n the Gentiles w h o h a v e no T o r a h do b y n a t u r e w h a t t h e T o r a h c o n t a i n s , t h e y are a T o r a h t o themselves it is m u c h easier t o suppose t h a t he w a s influenced, e v e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y , b y t h e p u r e l y G r e e k a s s o c i a t i o n s of vopLos. S i m i l a r l y , 6 vofios rov voos / x o u , Rom. v i i . 2 3 , is m u c h n e a r e r t o t h e G r e e k c o n c e p t i o n o f vofxos a s a n i m m a n e n t p r i n c i p l e t h a n t o v6p,os = i m n . I n v i e w of t h e p a s s a g e j u s t c i t e d , t h e e x p r e s s i o n 6 vopos rov TTveviiaros (Rom. v i i i . 2) is p e r h a p s b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d o n t h e s a m e a n a l o g y . I t is n o t t h e T o r a h s p i r i t u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d (cf. 2 Cor. h i . ) , o r a T o r a h d i c t a t e d b y t h e S p i r i t or b e l o n g i n g t o t h e r e a l m o f S p i r i t (cf. Rom. v i i . 1 4 , 6 vopuos TTveviiariKos). I t is r a t h e r a n i m m a n e n t p r i n c i p l e of life, l i k e t h e S t o i c L a w of N a t u r e , b u t d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e S p i r i t of C h r i s t . If t h i s is s o , t h e n i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t 6 v6}xos rov xpwrov (Gal. v i . 2) is n o t t h e T o r a h of J e s u s , i.e. H i s t e a c h i n g c o n c e i v e d as l e g i s l a t i o n for H i s C h u r c h , b u t t h e s a m e vopuos rov 7TV€VfJLarog rrjs ^COTJ? iv Xpiarcp *Irjaov. A n d this is, I believe, the true interpretation. I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s i t i s n o t d e n i e d t h a t P a u l h a d in t h e b a c k of h i s m i n d t h e
thought
of vofios = r n i n .
But
because he w a s using a Greek and not a H e b r e w w o r d he w a s able to use expressions w h i c h w o u l d h a v e been i m p o s s i b l e b u t for t h e f a c t t h a t rrjin b y b e c o m i n g
vofios
h a d e n t e r e d i n t o a n e w field o f a s s o c i a t e d i d e a s . 2. I n t h e E p i s t l e t o t h e H e b r e w s t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o d i s c u s s . T h e u s a g e of v6fios a s of r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e in general, depends throughout upon the L X X , though the a u t h o r h a s n o o c c a s i o n t o use i t e x c e p t a s referring t o p o s i t i v e s t a t u t o r y rules of r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e , unless o n e e x c e p t s h i s c i t a t i o n (viii. 10) of Jerem. x x x v i i i . 33 ( x x x i . 32) w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c L X X l e g a l i z i n g of t h e p r o p h e t i c rrjta. y
3. T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of J e w i s h a n d G r e e k o r H e l l e n i s t i c e l e m e n t s in t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l . A s u r v e y o f i t s use of vofios m a y 37
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
t h r o w l i g h t u p o n t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e r e is n o p a s s a g e w h e r e t h e w o r d is used in a sense n o t d i r e c t l y d e r i v a b l e from t h e L X X use of vofxos = r n i n , i.e. there is n o t h i n g a t a l l p a r a l l e l t o P a u l ' s S t o i c i z i n g use of t h e t e r m . In the trial n a r r a t i v e t h e w o r d is u s e d p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l l y b y P i l a t e a n d b y t h e J e w s a l i k e (xviii. 3 1 , x i x . 7 ) , of t h e l a w g o v e r n i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e in t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . T h i s is t h e sense w h i c h is c o m m o n t o o r d i n a r y G r e e k u s a g e a n d t o vopos — r n i n in t h e sense of " c o m m a n d m e n t s , statutes, and judgments Similarly, vii. 5 1 , the law does not condemn a m a n unheard ; viii. 1 7 , the l a w prescribes t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e of t w o w i t n e s s e s is r e q u i r e d for a c o n v i c t i o n . In v i i . 1 9 , 23, vofxos is s i m i l a r l y u s e d of t h e r o b n , t h e c o d e of religious o r d i n a n c e s t r a c e d b a c k t o Moses. E l s e w h e r e , vofios s t a n d s for r n i n in t h e sense of t h e J e w i s h religion as a w h o l e : i. 1 7 , t h e T o r a h w a s g i v e n b y Moses : g r a c e a n d t r u t h c a m e b y J e s u s Christ ; v i i . 49, 6 SxXos 6 firj yivdxjKODv rov v6fiov, i.e. T o r a h in t h e w i d e sense. A g a i n , in x . 34, x i i . 34, x v . 25 w e h a v e , a s in P a u l , c i t a t i o n s from p a r t s of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t o t h e r t h a n t h e P e n t a t e u c h u n d e r t h e h e a d of vofjiog. A s w e h a v e seen, t h i s w a y of referring t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r a b b i n i c use of r n i n , b u t vopos c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n so u s e d if t h e L X X h a d n o t a d o p t e d it as t h e r e n d e r i n g of t h e H e b r e w w o r d . We m a y o b s e r v e t h a t t h i s f o r m of c i t a t i o n is n o t f o u n d in t h e S y n o p t i c G o s p e l s . Mark d o e s n o t use VOJAOS, preferring ivroXrj. In Matthew a n d Luke, v6\ios is t h e P e n t a t e u c h as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from " t h e P r o p h e t s 4 Acts. T h e r e is little t o discuss here. Nojxos is t h e P e n t a t e u c h as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e P r o p h e t s , o r t h e c i v i l a n d religious c o d e of t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , o r it is t h e J e w i s h religion in g e n e r a l , c o n c e i v e d after t h e m a n n e r of t h e L X X as a l e g a l c o d e . T h e g h o s t of n^in h a u n t s s o m e p a s s a g e s , b u t t h e r e is n o use w h i c h w o u l d 38
THE
LAW
be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e t o a G r e e k r e a d e r a c c u s t o m e d t o use vofAos for t h e l a w of a c o m m u n i t y . 5. T h e Epistle of James h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a p r o d u c t of p r i m i t i v e P a l e s t i n i a n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y . O n the other hand, attention has been called to a strong Greek or Hellenistic strain in its language a n d ideas. A n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of i t s use of vojios m a y t h r o w s o m e l i g h t o n t h i s q u e s t i o n . I n i v . 1 1 VOJAOS is u s e d of a l a w r e g u l a t i n g c o n d u c t , a use e q u a l l y c o n g r u o u s w i t h t h e c u r r e n t G r e e k use of VO/JLOS a n d w i t h i t s u s e f o r r n i n in t h e sense of n p b q . Ja. i i . 8 - 1 2 d e a l s a g a i n w i t h vopos a s a l e g i s l a t i v e c o d e for c o n d u c t , c i t i n g t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s of t h e D e c a l o g u e and " T h o u shalt love t h y neighbour as thyself and a p p l y i n g t h e f a m i l i a r r a b b i n i c principle t h a t a n infraction of o n e c o m m a n d m e n t is a n infraction of t h e w h o l e l a w . S o far w e a r e i n t h e sphere w h e r e vopos is a n e x a c t e q u i v a l e n t for t h e halachic side of T o r a h . B u t w e o b s e r v e t h a t the c o m m a n d " T h o u shalt love t h y neighbour as t h y s e l f " is d e s c r i b e d a s VOJAOS fiaaiXiKos* Such a phrase is n o d o u b t c o n c e i v a b l e a s e x p r e s s i n g t h e i d e a t h a t t h e nnin w a s g i v e n b y J e h o v a h a s k i n g of Israel. B u t i t is significant t h a t t h e p h r a s e itself w a s a l m o s t a c o m m o n p l a c e of G r e e k p o l i t i c a l w r i t e r s . I t o c c u r s in t h e P l a t o n i c o r p s e u d o - P l a t o n i c Minos, 317c, a n d Epistles, v i i i . 354c, a n d in X e n o p h o n . T h e m e a n i n g w a v e r s b e t w e e n t h a t of " a l a w g i v e n b y o r w o r t h y of a k i n g " (i.e. a t r u e k i n g a s d i s t i n c t from a t y r a n t ) , a n d " l a w w h i c h is itself t h e k i n g w i t h reference t o P i n d a r ' s o f t - q u o t e d m a x i m . T h u s a r e a d e r of G r e e k p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e w o u l d h a v e r e c o g n i z e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d t h e p h r a s e VOJAOV reXelre jSacrtAt/cdv m o r e r e a d i l y t h a n o n e w h o t h o u g h t in t e r m s of vofjuos = r n i n . A t t h e close of t h e p a s s a g e t h e readers are e x h o r t e d t o l i v e a s t h o s e w h o a r e t o b e j u d g e d b y VOJAOS iXevOepias. T h e s a m e p h r a s e o c c u r s in i. 2 5 , d napaKVi/jas els VOJJLOV reXeiov rrjs iXevdeplas. Here w e m a y h a v e a n allusion to Ps. x v i i i . (xix.) 8, nrratf mm rnin : 39
THE
BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
if s o J a m e s is n o t f o l l o w i n g t h e L X X , w h i c h h a s 6 vofios rov Kvpiov a/xo>/xo?. B u t h i s O l d T e s t a m e n t q u o t a t i o n s in g e n e r a l follow t h e L X X a n d s h o w n o a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e H e b r e w t e x t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e recall t h a t t h e S t o i c s d i v i d e d TCX KaO-qKovTa i n t o pudaa a n d r e A c t a , a n d s a i d irdvTa uoieiv TOV uoqbov /caret Trdoas rds operas* * rrdorav yap ixpa^iv r e A e t a v ai>Tov etvai. Similarly, the Stoics h e l d t h a t t h e ootids is eXevdepos. Cf. Cicero, Paradox. 3 4 , c i t e d b y M a y o r ad loc. " Quid est libertas ? Potestas vivendi ut velis : qui igitur vivit ut vult, nisi qui recta sequitur, qui gaudet officio, qui legibus quidem non propter metum paret sed eas sequitur atque colit quia id salutare maxime esse judicat ? " T h e r a b b i n i c p a s s a g e s a s s o c i a t i n g f r e e d o m w i t h t h e T o r a h are n o t n e a r l y so close t o J a m e s ' thought. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , P h i l o r e p e a t e d l y applies t o the L a w the Stoic teaching about liberty, observing ocroi / x e r a VOJJLOV L^COGLV iXevdepoi (Quod Omnis, § 4 5 ) - T h u s J a m e s s t a n d s here w i t h H e l l e n i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n w i t h R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m , a n d w i t h t h a t a s p e c t of H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m w h i c h is n o t b i b l i c a l b u t G r e e k i n origin. H i s use of vofios is e v e r y w h e r e s u c h a s w o u l d b e d i r e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e t o a G r e e k . I t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r n i n is n e v e r 1
n e c e s s a r y t o t h e sense. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e are p a s s a g e s w h e r e t h e a n t e c e d e n t s of h i s u s a g e are t o b e s o u g h t i n t h e p u r e l y G r e e k d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i d e a of vofios a n d n o t i n t h e L X X . T h e results of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y b e e x p r e s s e d a s follows, r n i n in i t s w i d e s t sense m e a n s d i v i n e t e a c h i n g o r r e v e l a t i o n : vopos i n i t s w i d e s t sense m e a n s a principle of life o r a c t i o n . W h e n d i v i n e t e a c h i n g is o f t h e n a t u r e of c o m m a n d m e n t s r e g u l a t i n g c o n d u c t , a n d w h e n t h e principle of life is c o n c e i v e d a s d i c t a t e d b y a l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r i t y , t h e n vopuos a n d r n i n h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y i d e n t i c a l m e a n i n g . N6p,os is u s e d i n t h i s sense i n M a t t h e w , 1
Stob., Eel. II. 116, ap. R.P., § 522. 40
THE
LAW
Luke, Acts, and Hebrews. J a m e s uses VOJJLOS in t h i s sense, b u t also in a sense b e l o n g i n g t o t h e w i d e r G r e e k use of vofios a n d n o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o m i n . I n t h e L X X i t is u s e d b o t h in its r e s t r i c t e d sense a n d also t o r e n d e r r n i n in i t s w i d e r sense, t h u s g i v i n g a m i s l e a d i n g legalistic tone to m u c h of the Old Testament. T h e F o u r t h G o s p e l follows t h e L X X e x a c t l y . P a u l uses t h e w o r d p r e d o m i n a n t l y in t h e sense w h i c h is p r o p e r l y c o m m o n t o voybos a n d r n i n , b u t also in t w o e x t e n d e d senses, t h e one
corresponding
to
rnin
as r e n d e r e d
in
the L X X ,
the other corresponding to the purely Greek, wider sense of vo/xo?, for w h i c h r n i n p r o v i d e s n o p a r a l l e l , a n d his l e a n i n g s t o t h e G r e e k side are m o r e significant t h a n his l e a n i n g s t o t h e H e b r e w s i d e .
James LXX
TEACHING
LAW
John
PRINCIPLE Paul
41
CHAPTER
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
III
MERCY
AND TRUTH
I F t h e r e a r e a n y t e r m s (besides nnin) w h i c h m o r e t h a n a n y others m a y b e regarded as k e y - w o r d s of J u d a i s m as a n e t h i c a l r e l i g i o n , t h e y a r e p i y , T 5 0 , a n d DOS > c o m m o n l y rendered " righteousness " , • " m e r c y and " truth T h e o r d i n a r y L X X r e n d e r i n g o f p i s is SiKaiocrvvq, of TQn , e\eos
y
renderings.
of
, aXrjOeia.
B u t these are n o t t h e o n l y
p*jj (or njj-JX) is s o m e t i m e s iXerjiioovvrj, a n d
TOO, 8i,Kai,oarvvr], w h i l e
is s o m e t i m e s m a r i s , a n d m a y
o c c a s i o n a l l y b e hacaioavvri o r iXerjfioavvrj. T h e Hebrew terms, therefore, a n d their Greek equivalents, need some investigation. i
AiKLxioavvy] is t h e standard Greek term for social r i g h t e o u s n e s s o r j u s t i c e . F u n d a m e n t a l l y i t is a c t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h 81/07, t h a t w h i c h is c u s t o m a r y , s a n c t i o n e d b y social standards, or inherently right. T h u s Aristotle s a y s t h a t i n a g e n e r a l sense : ndvra rd vofiifia iari TTCOS 8 LK a t a , a n d SO r) BiKacoavvrj
dperr)
fiev
1
ecrrt re Acta, dXX* ovx
d7rXa>£ dXXd irpds erepov. B u t he recognizes also a n a r r o w e r sense o f t h e t e r m , i n w h i c h Si/ccuocwq is a v i r t u e a l o n g w i t h o t h e r v i r t u e s . T h i s n a r r o w e r sense m a y b e compared w i t h our term " justice " as distinct from " righteousness T h u s f r o m P l a t o o n w a r d s SiKatoorvvrj 1
E.N. V. i. 3, 11296.
42
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
t a k e s i t s p l a c e in t h e s c h e m e of four c a r d i n a l v i r t u e s , a l o n g w i t h w i s d o m , c o u r a g e , a n d t e m p e r a n c e . T h e definition f r o m w h i c h t h e discussion in t h e Republic t a k e s i t s s t a r t , TO irpocrfjKov €/cd*oTa> aTTohihovai} m a y b e t a k e n a s r e p r e s e n t i n g p o p u l a r G r e e k u s a g e . A r i s t o t l e ' s t r e a t m e n t of hiKaioovv-q a s SiavefirjTiKrj
2
a n d BiopdcoTiK-rj
is s c a r c e l y m o r e t h a n
a
quasi-scientific r e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n . T h e S t o i c definition is o n t h e s a m e l i n e s — e V ^ r ? ; / - ^ hiave^TiKr] Tfjs agtas iKaorrcp. P l a t o ' s o w n p r o f o u n d t r e a t m e n t of Suctuoavvr) lifts t h e w h o l e m a t t e r t o a h i g h e r l e v e l , b u t h a d l i t t l e effect u p o n c u r r e n t u s a g e of t h e t e r m . W e m a y t a k e it t h a t t h e Greek-speaking public, on the whole, meant b y SiKtuocrvvr) d o i n g t h e r i g h t t h i n g b y y o u r n e i g h b o u r , h o w e v e r t h e r i g h t t h i n g m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d ; w h i l e if i t u s e d t h e t e r m in a n a r r o w e r a n d m o r e precise sense i t m e a n t b y it t h e virtue of acting towards y o u r neighbour w i t h a strict a n d impartial regard t o his merit. It w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e fair t o s a y t h a t t h e n a r r o w e r sense tended t o colour t h e wider sense—i.e. t h a t the Greek t e n d e d t o t h i n k o f " r i g h t e o u s n e s s " in t e r m s of " j u s t i c e A c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w t e r m s , o t h e r t h a n t h o s e f r o m t h e r o o t p T X , w h i c h a r e t r a n s l a t e d b y SLKCLLOS a n d SiKatocrvvr] w i l l s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e G r e e k t e r m s for t h e t r a n s l a t o r s . Neglecting occasional a n d insignificant c a s e s , w e m a y n o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g . AUtuos, oLKaioovvq represent s o m e e i g h t t i m e s n p t f , 3
" t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s " (see b e l o w ) .
ALKOUOS
is nine o r t e n
t i m e s "ler (1$*), " s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d " , " u p r i g h t " ( " u p rightness"),
a n d ScKaiocrvvr)
once
Dntjrp.
The words
represent s o m e d o z e n t i m e s t o p p p , " j u d g m e n t " . is four t i m e s ^ p j , " i n n o c e n t " , a n d hiKaiovvvr}
AUaios
o n c e ji^ga .
S e v e r a l t i m e s t h e w o r d s s t a n d for 190 > w h i c h lies o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f w h a t $u8rjvai.
Ps. x x x i i . ( x x x i i i . ) 5 : P3$P nx^9 m m ICP DY CWRA eXerjpioavvrjv Kal Kpiaiv rov
eXeovs Kvpiov
7rXrjpr)$ r) yfj.
W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen (pp. 4 5 - 6 ) that"njyjs , a s a h u m a n v i r t u e , is s o m e t i m e s r e n d e r e d eXerjpLoovvrj b e c a u s e t h e H e b r e w w o r d i m p l i e d " a n e x e r c i s e of b e n e v o l e n c e g o i n g beyond a man's legal o b l i g a t i o n s " . W e have now d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e d i v i n e nfTTS is a l s o r e n d e r e d eXerjfjLoavvr) o r eXeog b e c a u s e i t i m p l i e d a g r a c i o u s a c t of G o d in t h e v i n d i c a t i o n o r d e l i v e r a n c e of H i s p e o p l e . I n t h e l a t t e r case t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is n o t a d e q u a t e , b u t i t is less i n a d e q u a t e t h a n hiKaioovvq. T h u s t w o a s p e c t s of p i x are p o l a r i z e d i n t o SiKatoavvrj a n d eXerjpioavvr). In place of t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e v i r t u e of n p T C , w e h a v e j u s t i c e on the one hand, m e r c y on the other. S i m i l a r l y , in refer ence t o G o d , i n s t e a d of t h i n k i n g o f a p i x w h i c h i n c l u d e d 56
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
t h e e l e m e n t of g r a c e , t h e G r e e k r e a d e r of t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t w a s o b l i g e d t o t h i n k here of j u s t i c e , t h e r e of m e r c y . T h e i d e a is i m p o v e r i s h e d b y t h e d i v i s i o n o f i t s t w o elements. I t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s s t u d y of t h e G r e e k r e n d e r i n g s of ptST h a s a n i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g u p o n t h e uses of oiKaioovvrj, OIKCLIOS, oiKaiovv in the N e w T e s t a m e n t . In particular, t h e P a u l i n e use of t h e s e t e r m s m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d in t h e l i g h t of S e p t u a g i n t a l u s a g e a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g H e b r e w . The apostle wrote Greek, and read the L X X , b u t he w a s also f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e H e b r e w o r i g i n a l . T h u s w h i l e h i s l a n g u a g e l a r g e l y follows t h a t o f t h e L X X , t h e G r e e k w o r d s are for h i m a l w a y s c o l o u r e d b y t h e i r H e b r e w a s s o c i a t i o n . T h u s he w a s well aware t h a t nfny in G o d included b o t h SiKtuoavvrj
a n d iXerj/jLoavvrj, t h o u g h G r e e k t h e o l o g i a n s w h o
f o l l o w e d h i m w e r e t r o u b l e d b y a s u p p o s e d o p p o s i t i o n of t h e s e q u a l i t i e s . A g a i n , since t h e nfHV of G o d is t h a t p r o p e r t y w h i c h is e x h i b i t e d in t h e a c t of p ^ r p i ,
Paul
c o u l d s p e a k o f G o d a s SIKCUOS Kal SiKauov (Rom. iii. 26) w i t h o u t t h e l e a s t sense o f " p a r a d o x " , s u c h a s m a n y of his i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e f o u n d . H i s use of t h e t e r m oiKaiovv is n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t reference t o t h e linguistic phenomena studied a b o v e . A s a Greek, he no d o u b t u n d e r s t o o d t h e t e r m i n t h e sense fixed u p o n i t b y t h e L X X , w h i c h , a s w e h a v e seen, is a c o m b i n a t i o n o r c o n f u s i o n of t w o senses, b o t h d e v e l o p e d o u t o f c u r r e n t G r e e k u s a g e , b u t in n e i t h e r c a s e i d e n t i c a l w i t h it : " t o do justice to and " to deem righteous T h u s in forensic m e t a p h o r it m e a n s t o " a c q u i t B u t P a u l is w e l l a w a r e t h a t in u s i n g s u c h a n e x p r e s s i o n a s oiKaiovv rov doefir} (Rom. i v . 5) h e w a s u t t e r i n g a d a r i n g p a r a d o x , since t h e L X X uses p r e c i s e l y t h a t e x p r e s s i o n in censure of u n j u s t j u d g e s . T h e p a r a d o x w a s justified o n l y b e c a u s e for P a u l hiKaiovv w a s h a u n t e d b y t h e g h o s t of p"HSPl in i t s w i d e r sense of " t o v i n d i c a t e " , " redress 57
The Second
THE BIBLE
AND THE GREEKS
Isaiah spoke of G o d as thus vindicating a n d so delivering His people. W h a t t h e prophet has never m a d e perfectly clear is whether tliey are t h u s vindicated o n their merits, o r b y t h e sheer g r a c e o f G o d . P a u l p u t s t h e m a t t e r b e y o n d question. G o d vindicated, delivered H i s people, w h i l e t h e y w e r e y e t sinners (Rom. v . 6, i v . 5 ) . H e v i n d i c a t e d — t h e i m p i o u s !—that t h e y m i g h t b e c o m e r i g h t e o u s . I t i s t h i s a c t w h i c h i s t h e SiKaioovvr)
deov r e v e a l e d (Rom.
i. 1 8 ) , for htKacoo-vvrj carries w i t h it t h e sense of H j T j y a s w e h a v e o b s e r v e d i t i n Jud. v . 1 1 , a n d i n v a r i o u s p a s s a g e s o f 2 Isaiah. I t i s t o b e o b s e r v e d t h a t P a u l d o e s n o t m e a n b y oiKaiovv " t o m a k e r i g h t e o u s " ; f o r t h i s h e uses, a s a g o o d G r e e k w r i t e r s h o u l d , SUaiov KaOiordvai. While the a c t of vindication or deliverance (" justification ") has already taken place, t h e actual a t t a i n m e n t of " r i g h t e o u s n e s s " (BiKaioavvrj i n t h e t r u e G r e e k sense) i s s t i l l f u t u r e — 8 i K a i o i KaTaoraOrjaovrai
017T0XX01 (Rom. V . 1 9 ) .
Since, however, Paul explains with emphasis h o w this a t t a i n m e n t of " r i g h t e o u s n e s s " i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e i n i t i a l act of G o d in " justification " , it w a s excusable for h i s Greek commentators, w h o knew no Hebrew, t o understand hiKaiovv i n t h e sense " t o m a k e r i g h t e o u s " . Thus C h r y s o s t o m i n c o m m e n t i n g o n Rom. i i i . 26 p a r a p h r a s e s 1
P a u l ' s m e a n i n g i n t h e w o r d s 8iKaioavvrjs [LOVOV
avrov
elvai
KaraaaTrivras
8iKaiov,
i£aicf>vr)s
dXXd
SiKaiovg
/
Kal
evSeigis,
iripovs
iroieiv.
iv
I am
not
TO pr) dfiapria aware
•
of a n y p l a c e i n a n o n - C h r i s t i a n G r e e k w r i t e r w h e r e SiKaiovv h a s t h i s sense, w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n : Corp. Herm. x i i i . 9, iSiKaiojdrjiiev,
to
reKvov,
d&iKias
drover}?.
Reitzenstein
(Die Hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen, 1920, p p . 1 1 2 - 1 4 ) , followed b y Dibelius in his c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Pastoral E p i s t l e s , h a s a t t e m p t e d t o g i v e t o 8iKaio€o8ai a peculiar m y s t i c a l sense w h i c h h e finds also i n 1 Tim. iii. 1 6 : " d a s W o r t 8iKaia)6rjvai g i b t d i e n e g a t i v e , Oeojdrjvai d i e p o s i t i v e B e s t i m m u n g fur d a s n e u e W e s e n " . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t 1
Horn, in Rom. V I I I . (VII.), p . 485E.
58
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
d o j u s t i c e t o t h e c o n t e x t . T h e w r i t e r is i n d e e d d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e is i m p l a n t e d in m a n , w h o is t h u s " r e b o r n " o r " deified B u t at each stage of t h e p r o c e s s a n e t h i c a l c h a n g e t a k e s p l a c e , i n w h i c h o n e of t h e v i c e s n a t u r a l t o h u m a n i t y is r e p l a c e d b y a v i r t u e g i v e n b y G o d . T h u s i g n o r a n c e is e x p e l l e d b y k n o w l e d g e , aKpacrla b y eyKpareia, a n d so f o r t h . A m o n g t h e s e c h a n g e s is t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of OIKOLIOOVVT) for d8i/a'a, o n l y i n s t e a d of u s i n g t h e a b s t r a c t n o u n t h e a u t h o r , s e e k i n g v a r i e t y of e x p r e s s i o n , uses t h e v e r b . T h u s : JjXQev rjiiZv yvwocs rov Oeov * ravrr\s 8e iXdovcqs, a> TCKVOV, i^7]Xddrj rj dyvoia, a n d l a t e r , iSiKauLOrjfjLev, a! TCKVOV, a8t#a'a? d7rovor}s. K n o w l e d g e comes and ignorance goes, unrighteousness departs w h e n r i g h t e o u s n e s s c o m e s . T h u s t h e m e a n i n g is q u i t e s i m p l y : " W e h a v e been m a d e righteous, now that unrighteousness is a w a y T h e Ilepl IlaXLyyeveoias is o n e o f t h e f e w Hermetica, p e r h a p s t h e o n l y o n e in t h e C o r p u s , w h e r e it is p o s s i b l e t h a t C h r i s t i a n influence m a y be t r a c e d . I n t h a t case the author must h a v e been acquainted w i t h Pauline l a n g u a g e as interpreted b y G r e e k commentators like C h r y s o s t o m . B u t t h i s is u n c e r t a i n . In a n y case the m e a n i n g o f t h e v e r b SLKCLLOVV h a s r e a c h e d t h e p r e d e s t i n e d c o n c l u s i o n of i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . ALKCUOVV should mean, etymologically, " to m a k e righteous a s SovXovv is " t o make a slave a n d SrjXovv " t o m a k e c l e a r Commonsense r e j e c t e d t h i s m e a n i n g , b u t r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e affirmed t h a t a n u n r i g h t e o u s m a n m a y i n d e e d b e " m a d e r i g h t e o u s " — b y t h e g r a c e of G o d . 2 TOO is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y H e b r a i c t e r m for w h i c h w e h a v e no complete English equivalent. I t is u s e d of " k i n d n e s s o f m e n t o w a r d s m e n , in d o i n g f a v o u r s o r benefits " ( B . D . B . ) . I t is a n a t t r i b u t e of G o d in r e l a t i o n t o m e n , s h o w n in d e l i v e r i n g t h e m from t r o u b l e , in for g i v i n g t h e i r sin, in k e e p i n g c o v e n a n t w i t h t h e m (and so 59
THE BIBLE
AND THE GREEKS
c l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h n©8). tion
i s eXeos,
which
I n t h i s sense its n a t u r a l t r a n s l a
along
with
eXerjixoavvr),
iXerjfitov,
is its normal rendering in t h e L X X , whether
7TOAV4A€OS
it i s u s e d o f G o d o r o f m a n . T h e a d j e c t i v e T p n h a s a different s e t o f t r a n s l a t i o n s . O n c e o n l y , w h e r e i t refers t o G o d , i t i s r e n d e r e d iXerjiitov ( w i t h v.I. iXetov). W h e r e it is applied t o m e n it is n e a r l y a l w a y s oaios, o n c e evXafioviievos, once evaeprjs (v.I. €vXafSr)s). T h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s , therefore, t o o k T D n to mean " pious W h a t t h e o r i g i n a l sense of t h e a d j e c tive m a y h a v e been is a question upon which philologists are n o t a g r e e d . S o m e s u p p o s e t h e a d j e c t i v e w a s p a s s i v e , and m e a n t t h e recipient of G o d ' s kindness ; but it w o u l d t h e n b e difficult t o a c c o u n t f o r i t s o c c a s i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n to G o d . Others suppose t h a t a m a n is T p n because h e d i s p l a y s t h e d i v i n e c h a r a c t e r o f w h i c h t q o is t h e s u p r e m e attribute. It m a y b e t h a t t h e common idea is that of loyal affection. Cf. Jerem. i i . 2 . 1
ip-JUr; TOO
^rrpl
ifJbvqadrjv iXdovs
veorrjTos
aov
I n t h a t c a s e w e m i g h t c o m p a r e t h e v a r i o u s senses o f t h e L a t i n pius, pietas. These words h a v e for their funda m e n t a l i d e a t h a t o f " dutifulness " o r " l o y a l t y Pietas 2
erga deos is " d e v o u t n e s s
" p i e t y " : pietas erga parentes,
patriam, e t c . , i s " l o y a l affection 1
B u t the word came
S o C h e y n e renders " d u t e o u s l o v e " , G . A . Smith, " l e a l l o v e " . Lofthouse (Hen and Hesed in the Old Testament, Z.A.T.W., N e u e F o l g e , B d . x . 1933. PP- 29 sqq.) says " Hesed- is n o t used indiscriminately, where a n y kind of favour is desired, b u t only where there is some recognized tie. I t is indeed the v e r y opposite of hen, w h i c h is in place just where there is no t i e or claim. . . . W e m a y compare it w i t h t h e personal l o y a l t y e x p e c t e d under t h e widespread feudal regime of t h e middle ages." T h u s it would b e a function of the " covenant " between J e h o v a h and His people. See m y article The Cognomen of the Emperor Antoninus Pius in Numismatic Chronicle, F o u r t h Series, V o l . X I . 1911. 2
60
RIGHTEOUSNESS, to
b e used
more
MERCY
AND TRUTH
generally of " k i n d n e s s " ,
"mercy",
" c l e m e n c y " ( w h e n c e pietd, pitie, o u r " p i t y " ) .
Finally
it could b e used of the m e r c y of G o d , a s in t h e V u l g a t e . A Latin translator
therefore m i g h t
TQO b y pietas, T o n b y pius.
fitly
have
rendered
Greek h a d no word which
c o m b i n e d t h e i d e a s of " p i t y " a n d " p i e t y " , a n d t h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s w e r e d r i v e n t o s p l i t u p t h e i n d i v i s i b l e w h o l e of TBfl, denoting a s i t does t h e characteristic Hebrew con c e p t i o n o f t h e s u p r e m e l y r e l i g i o u s q u a l i t y , i n t o its v a r i o u s aspects, representing
each b y a separate
word.
Their
r e n d e r i n g s t h e r e f o r e c a l l for i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The
n o r m a l r e n d e r i n g s o f T Q O , eAeos, iXerjfiocrvvr], d o
partial justice t o its meaning.
T h e s e w o r d s are e l s e w h e r e
u s e d i n t h e L X X t o r e n d e r H e b r e w w o r d s from t h e r o o t s ]:n ( " t o s h o w f a v o u r " ) , a m (" t o h a v e c o m p a s s i o n " ) , a n d t h e l i k e , b u t i n t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s t h e y s t a n d for TQn }
F o r LORR^L, TOIX^H? t h e t r a n s l a t o r s h a v e h a p p i l y
c o i n e d (as i t seems) t h e a d j e c t i v e noXveXeos.
Similarly,
TOO tS^X i s dvrjp iXerjpLtov (Prov. x i . 1 7 , X X . 6).
('EXerjfitov,
however, usually
pan,
represents
" gracious".)
Other
translations of i o n bear o u t t h e same idea. Once w e h a v e oLKreipua (or o t / c r c t p ^ / x a ) , t h r i c e ^apis*. T h i s l a t t e r r e a d i n g is p e c u l i a r t o Esther a n d Sirach, i.e. t o b o o k s w h i c h w e r e t r a n s l a t e d r e l a t i v e l y l a t e . I n t h e v e r s i o n of S y m m a c h u s (so f a r a s w e m a y j u d g e f r o m e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s ) , i t w a s t h e p r e f e r r e d r e n d e r i n g o f T Q O . W e m a y infer t h a t 2
1
t h e r e n d e r i n g x&P * 1
N . T . p e r i o d x&P *
w
a
s
growing in popularity.
In the
w o u l d b e felt t o h a v e a close r e l a t i o n
w i t h IPN, a n d i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h a t w o r d h a v e h a d influence i n m o u l d i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ls
N e w T e s t a m e n t use o f x°-P > 1
w h i c h i s different from a n y
T h e i r occasional use to render
p^f, njTJX
has already been con
sidered, see p p . 4 5 - 6 , 5 5 - 7 above. 2
F o r BUaios, diKaioavvrj,
as renderings of TDn see below.
61
THE BIBLE ordinary
AND
G r e e k use, a n d
Septuagintal x«/w =
not
THE
GREEKS
quite identical with
the
ftf •
T h e a d j e c t i v e T p n is s i m i l a r l y r e n d e r e d in Jerem. iii. 1 2 , where God says
T p n , iXe^fiojv (iXewv) iyw elfii.
But
t h i s is a n i s o l a t e d c a s e , a n d n o w h e r e else in t h e w h o l e L X X is T p n r e n d e r e d b y w o r d s c o n n o t i n g k i n d n e s s or m e r c y . T h e n o r m a l r e n d e r i n g of T p n is oaios.
The Greek word
s e e m s t o m e a n s a n c t i o n e d b y d i v i n e l a w . I t is u s e d of s a c r e d r i t e s ; t h e n of p e r s o n s , " r e l i g i o u s " devout ", a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y of t h e g o d s , " h o l y It has a some w h a t f a i n t l y e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n , in so far as r e l i g i o n is e t h i c i z e d i n t h e G r e e k p o e t s . I n t h e L X X , in p l a c e s w h e r e it d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t T p n , it renders H e b r e w w o r d s f r o m t h e r o o t s into (" p u r e " ) , i B h (" u p r i g h t " ) , vhp (" h o l y " ) , D30n (the i d e a of i n t e g r i t y ) , or nhw (the i d e a of " s o u n d n e s s " completeness I t is t h u s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t o t h e translators the Greek w o r d suggested the ideas of piety, devoutness, or m o r a l correctness, w i t h no trace of the original idea of i o n . N o w w e c a n r e c o g n i z e t h a t in t h e P s a l t e r , for e x a m p l e , t h e T D n is p r e - e m i n e n t l y the " d e v o u t " m a n , w h o s e p i e t y d i s p l a y s itself i n l o v e for G o d ' s l a w , a n d t o t h a t e x t e n t oaios b r i n g s o u t t h e m e a n i n g . Y e t t h e H e b r e w w r i t e r w a s h a r d l y u n c o n s c i o u s of t h e f a c t t h a t T p n h a s a p e c u l i a r l y close c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 1
kindness and m e r c y ; but b y the time the translation w a s m a d e t h i s a s p e c t of p i e t y s e e m s t o h a v e fallen e n t i r e l y into the background. F o r Hellenistic Judaism the r e l i g i o u s m a n is s i m p l y oaios, o c c u p i e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s duties as s u c h . T h e t e r m oaios h a s f u r t h e r e n c r o a c h e d u p o n p a r t s o f t h e field w h e r e i t is n o t m e r e l y i n a d e q u a t e b u t o b v i o u s l y 2
1
Cf. Test. X I I . Patr., T. Benj. v. 4, e'Aeet yap 6 oaios rov Xoiowpov (the author wrote in Hebrew). TpH never becomes oaiorrjs (which is rare in the L X X , representing 2
Ht£T\ DPI, D^pip), b u t once in Sir.
it is
62
cvaepeia.
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
inappropriate as a translation Ps. c x l i v . ( c x l v . ) 1 7 :
AND
of t h e
TRUTH
Hebrew.
Thus
•PY^RTJJA MM p*cg •ptojTO"!???
MORN
s u r e l y m e a n s " J e h o v a h is r i g h t e o u s in all H i s w a y s , a n d m e r c i f u l in a l l H i s w o r k s B u t the L X X renders— Kvpios iv Trdaais rals 6801s avrov Kal oaios iv rrdaiv rots epyois avrov.
ALKOLLOS
AGAIN
2 Sam.
X X I I . 2 6 , IDnrui Tpn
14
DJT SURELY M E A N S
TO
the kindly m a n thou wilt show thyself kind The L X X r e n d e r s [lera oaiov oaiwdrjarj, a n o b s c u r e e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h m a y m e a n " i n t h e c a s e of a p i o u s m a n T h o u s h a l t b e hallowed T h e s a m e p a s s a g e r e c u r s in Ps. x v i i i . (xix.) 26, w h e r e B g i v e s t h e s a m e r e n d e r i n g , b u t N r e a d s fierd oaiov oaios ear], " w i t h a p i o u s m a n T h o u s h a l t b e h o l y I n a n y c a s e t h e t r u e sense of t h e o r i g i n a l is c o m p l e t e l y disguised. S i m i l a r l y , Is. Iv. 3, o^D^jn T H TOO m u s t m e a n " t h e m e r c i e s g u a r a n t e e d t o D a v i d " ; b u t i t is r e n d e r e d rd oaia Aavdh rd mard. This could only mean something l i k e " t h e t r u s t w o r t h y r e l i g i o u s o r d i n a n c e s of D a v i d i.e. p r e s u m a b l y t h e r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h h e w a s supposed to h a v e founded. This thoroughgoing substitution
of oaios
v e r y r e m a r k a b l e , a n d c a l l s for e x p l a n a t i o n .
for Tpn is
I t is p r o b a b l e
t h a t s i m i l a r i t y of s o u n d h a d s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h i t . But
a more important
religious ideas.
In
1
f a c t o r is a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e in the
best
Hebrew
thought
the
c h a r a c t e r of G o d a n d of t h e r e l i g i o u s m a n is m a r k e d b y i p n , t h e m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g i n g r e d i e n t i n w h i c h is k i n d n e s s or m e r c y .
B u t t h e " r e l i g i o u s " of t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ,
1
F o r t h e operation of this factor in t h e L X X see T h a c k e r a y , of the Old Testament in Greek, p p . 36-8.
63
Grammar
THE BIBLE
AND
calling themselves O ^ T p n ,
1
THE
GREEKS
came to practise more
and
m o r e a f o r m of p i e t y c o n s i s t i n g in strict d e v o t i o n t o t h e Law. T h e l a w i n c u l c a t e d i o n , in its t r u e sense of m e r c y o r k i n d n e s s , b u t t h e essence of p i e t y w a s t o c o n f o r m t o t h e w h o l e l a w , w h e t h e r o r n o t it h a d a n y p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n t o h u m a n k i n d n e s s . T h u s t h e D ^ T D Q w e r e a b o v e all t h i n g s SGLOL—men w h o conformed to the divine L a w . T h e L X X t r a n s l a t i o n therefore represents w h a t w a s a t t h a t p e r i o d t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s a s p e c t of J e w i s h p i e t y , a n d s t e r e o t y p e s a c o l d e r , less h u m a n e a s p e c t of religion t h a n t h a t w h i c h is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e H e b r e w t e x t . The t e r m Saws, b e i n g t h u s fixed a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of T p n , is extended to passages where the character of G o d Himself is c o n c e r n e d , t o t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of t h e p r o p h e t i c c o n c e p t i o n of t h e D e i t y . I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e t e r m oaios is n o t o n e of t h e S e p t u a g i n t a l t e r m s w h i c h b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e v o c a b u l a r y of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . I t is a b s e n t f r o m t h e G o s p e l s a n d from P a u l (apart from t h e P a s t o r a l s ) , a n d from A c t s e x c e p t in q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e Old Testament. When
TOO t h u s b e c o m e s t h e t y p i c a l q u a l i t y of
the
d e v o u t , it is v e r y n a t u r a l l y identified w i t h r i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h a t w a y of l i v i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e L a w w h i c h b e c a m e t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k of t h e D ^ T a q . H e n c e TOO is s o m e t i m e s r e n d e r e d SiKatoavvrj, chiefly in t h e P e n t a t e u c h , a l t h o u g h i n m o s t if n o t a l l c a s e s i t is c l e a r t h a t t h e sense of " k i n d n e s s " p r e d o m i n a t e s . 1
I t has been suggested to me (by Professor L . W . Grensted) t h a t the " religious " p a r t y a m o n g t h e post-exilic Jews was at first called ol ooioi, s u i t a b l y enough, and t h a t the assonance, oaios—TOf!, led to their appropriating the H e b r e w appellation D ^ T p H n .
This suggestion
seems w o r t h y of consideration, t h o u g h it m i g h t mean bringing more of the Psalter into t h e Hellenistic period t h a n some critics would allow.
6
4
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
Gen. x i x . 1 9 ,
T » 0 byv® cvpev o nals
GOV
10 1 W
eXeos tvavriov
GOV
zyizyaXvvas
KCLI
TTjV 8lKaLOLTVV7)V GOV.
Gen. x x . 1 3 , •>-TPY ^TOSTI ravrrjv
^ O N nj 9
rrjv otKiuoovvrjv
Ttolt\Gov iir
efik.
S i m i l a r l y , i n Is. l v i i . 1, i g q n j f r s i . . . P^^Vn is o OIKaios
The
. . . Kal
transition
av8p€S
rendered
81/caioi.
was no doubt
easier b e c a u s e pipf, as
w e h a v e s e e n , is n e a r e r t o k i n d n e s s t h a n is SiKatocrvvrj; b u t o n c e t u r n e d i n t o G r e e k , SiKaioovvrj c a r r i e d w i t h it i d e a s q u i t e foreign t o TDn. T h i s o v e r l a p p i n g of oiKaioovvr] a n d iXerjfjLoovvr), b o t h r e p r e s e n t i n g s o m e t i m e s p i x , s o m e t i m e s T D n , is a c u r i o u s linguistic phenomenon. I t is e x p l a i n e d p a r t l y b y t h e l a c k of a n y q u i t e e x a c t e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k and the H e b r e w words, but more significantly b y the tension w i t h i n Judaism between the older and more h u m a n e r e l i g i o n , of w h i c h t h e p r o p h e t s are t h e l e a d i n g e x p o n e n t s , a n d t h e g r o w i n g l e g a l i s m of t h e p e r i o d in w h i c h the L X X translation was made.
3 A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d , Tpq f r e q u e n t l y along with a companion term either
" t r u t h " , , or " f a i t h " ,
, after
x
appears
c o m m o n l y rendered the
LXX
aXrjdeia,
maris. E . g . Prov. iii. 3 (rendered iXerffioavvat Kal TTIOTCIS), x i v . 22 (eXcov Kal dX^decav, ZXeov Kal mariv), x x . 22 (28) (iXermoovvrj Kal aXrjdeia) ; Hos. iv. I (aXrjdeia ov&€ eXeos) ', Gen. x x i v . 49 (lAeos Kal SiKaioavvrjv), xlvii. 29 (eXcTqfioavvrjv Kal aXijdciav) ; Josh. ii. 14 (eXeos Kal dXtf&eiav) ; 2 Sam. (2 Kms.) x v . 20 («?Acos KOI dX-qOciav). 1
65
E
THE
BIBLE
AND THE GREEKS
T h e w o r d , w i t h its c o g n a t e s , , D \ n D # , rtfifctf , is a s u b s t a n t i v e from t h e r o o t ] D X . T h e b a s i c i d e a u n d e r l y i n g t h e r o o t is t h a t o f firmness o r fixity. T h e G r e e k t r a n s lators show themselves aware of this b y occasionally translating words from this root b y such expressions a s crTTjpi&iv,
orrjpiyixa.
I n t h e v o c a b u l a r y of religion a n d
e t h i c s t h e v e r b i s chiefly u s e d (i) i n t h e niphal p a r t i c i p l e , which bears t h e passive meaning " made firm " con firmed " established and so " trustworthy " faith ful " ; a n d (ii) i n t h e hiphil, w h i c h m e a n s " t o b e c o n vinced " t o trust F o r t h e sense o f t h e hiphtl the Greek translators f o u n d a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e n d e r i n g i n iriurevew (ipLmareveLv, Karamareveiv). T h i s v e r b , from t h e s a m e r o o t a s Trelda), means b o t h " t o give credence t o " t o believe a n d " t o h a v e confidence in " t o trust Ilicrrevtiv w i t h t h e d a t i v e a d e q u a t e l y represents t h e H e b r e w "2L p p ^ n w i t h a p e r s o n a l o r a n i m p e r s o n a l o b j e c t , m e a n i n g " t o h a v e confidence i n " t o believe in "to trust a n d Tnarcveiv f o l l o w e d b y a on c l a u s e a d e q u a t e l y represents t h e occasional ^ p p a & f f , " t o b e c o n v i n c e d , " 1
" t o b e l i e v e t h a t " s o - a n d - s o is t h e c a s e . T h e o n l y s h a d e of difference i s t h a t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a s s o c i a t i o n s i s more intellectual in t h e Greek. T h u s t o believe in t h e g o d s is f o r t h e G r e e k o r d i n a r i l y t o b e c o n v i n c e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y t h a t t h e y e x i s t , e . g . A r i s t o t l e , Rhet. I I . OV€ri
X V i i . , €X
^POS" TO QtLOV 7TOJS 7TL(JT€VOVT€S OLCL TOL yiyVO\±€Va
dyaOd diro rfjs rvx^js. I t c o u l d , h o w e v e r , t a k e o n a deeper meaning, w h i c h m a y b e illustrated from X e n o p h o n , Mem. I . i. 1 - 5 . S o c r a t e s w a s a c c u s e d o f n o t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e g o d s , (ovs /xev r) TTOXIS vo/u'£ei 6eov$ ov vopii^ojv). X e n o p h o n defends h i m o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t he guided his o w n conduct a n d that of his companions b y t h e i n t i m a t i o n s o f his Scu/xoViov, w h i c h , l i k e t h e o m e n s observed b y a n y pious A t h e n i a n , g a v e a sign from t h e 1
I n Prov. x x v i . 25
is /ii) 7T€ia6rjs.
66
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
gods. " Y o u will surely agree he proceeds, " t h a t he d i d n o t w i s h t o s e e m t o h i s c o m p a n i o n s a fool or a c h a r latan. H e w o u l d h a v e s e e m e d b o t h , if he h a d f o r e t o l d t h i n g s as r e v e a l e d b y G o d a n d t h e n a p p e a r e d a liar. It is c l e a r t h e r e f o r e t h a t h e w o u l d n o t h a v e f o r e t o l d t h e m u n l e s s h e b e l i e v e d t h a t he w o u l d b e s p e a k i n g t h e t r u t h (el p,r) emorevev a\r)devoeiv). B u t w h o could have such belief in a n y o n e o t h e r t h a n G o d ? (ravra oe rls av aXXw marevoeiev r) deep ;) A n d b e l i e v i n g in t h e g o d s , h o w can he be said not to h a v e acknowledged t h a t gods exist ? (morevajv he deois mos OVK elvai deovs ev6jja,£ev ;)." Thus for X e n o p h o n marevew Oeols is s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n vofii^eiv elvai deovs. I t is confidence in G o d , d i s p l a y e d in t h e a c c e p t a n c e of H i s r e v e l a t i o n as t r u e . Similarly, for t h e H e b r e w m m a p o $ p i n v o l v e s r n y j n ytm (Ps. c v . (cvi.) 1 2 ) . S o c r a t e s morevcov Oeols is n o t v e r y different from A b r a h a m , w h o iirtarevae rco #e&>, mrP3 VQtiT} (Gen. x v . 6), for A b r a h a m ' s f a i t h , t o o , w a s s h o w n in a c c e p t i n g G o d ' s promise as true. A t most we m a y say that the i n t e l l e c t u a l m o m e n t of " belief " is s o m e w h a t s t r o n g e r in t h e G r e e k , a n d t h e m o r a l e l e m e n t of " t r u s t " in t h e H e b r e w . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o m p a r e P h i l o ' s t r e a t m e n t of t h e f a i t h of A b r a h a m . " N e c e s s a r i l y therefore the* s t a t e m e n t , emorevoev
9
Af$paajA ra>
deep, is
made
irpos
erraivov
rov
Yet one m i g h t s a y , ' d o y o u j u d g e t h i s w o r t h y of p r a i s e ? W h o w o u l d n o t p a y a t t e n t i o n t o G o d w h e n H e s p e a k s a n d p r o m i s e s , e v e n if he w e r e t h e m o s t u n j u s t a n d i m p i o u s of m e n ? ' T o w h o m w e w i l l reply . . . ' I f y o u will m a k e a deeper investigation, and n o t a v e r y superficial o n e , y o u w i l l c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e t h a t it is n o t e a s y /XOVOJ 0ea> marevoai, without taking account of a n y t h i n g b e s i d e s , b e c a u s e of o u r k i n s h i p w i t h t h e m o r t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h w e are y o k e d t o g e t h e r , w h i c h p e r s u a d e s u s t o t r u s t (rremorevKevai) in p r o p e r t y , r e p u t a t i o n , office, friends, h e a l t h a n d s t r e n g t h of b o d y , a n d m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s . B u t t o e l i m i n a t e all these t h i n g s , TremorevKOTOS.
F
67
THE
BIBLE
AND THE GREEKS
a n d t o d i s t r u s t (amarrjaai) everything temporal, which is i n i t s n a t u r e e n t i r e l y u n t r u s t w o r t h y , a n d pLovto TTiorevoai Oeco, w h o is i n t r u t h a l o n e t r u s t w o r t h y , i s t h e w o r k o f a g r e a t a n d c e l e s t i a l m i n d , w h i c h is n o l o n g e r e n s n a r e d b y a n y t h i n g i n o u r w o r l d ' " (Quis Rer. 9 0 - 3 ) . Again, h e a s k s , n&s av ns Tnarevaai deep ; a n d replies " B y l e a r n ing t h a t a l l else c h a n g e s , b u t H e a l o n e is c h a n g e l e s s " (Leg. Alleg. I I . 89). T h u s w e m a y s a y t h a t i n H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m t h e e x p r e s s i o n TTLOT€V€LV Oetp h a s a sense w h i c h c a r r i e s o v e r m u c h of t h e m e a n i n g of n V P S p p S H , a n d strengthens a n d enriches o n e element in t h e m e a n i n g of the Greek phrase, w h i c h existed, b u t was n o t prominent, in o r d i n a r y G r e e k u s a g e . H e r e w e h a v e t h e b a s i s o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t u s e of t h e w o r d morcifew. F o r t h e niphal t h e L X X uses iriGTovodai, i n t h e sense of " t o b e r e n d e r e d mar6s ", a n d s o " t o b e c o n f i r m e d " guaranteed a n d for i t s p a r t i c i p l e t h e a d j e c t i v e men6s; " trustworthy n e a r l y a l w a y s o f m e n , b u t i n Deut. v i i . 9, Ps. c x l i v . ( c x l v . ) 1 4 , Is. x l i x . 7 , of G o d , a s w o r t h y o f m e n ' s t r u s t . S o c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , e . g . Lh. x i i . 42, 6 7TLcrr6s OIKOVOHOS, " t h e t r u s t w o r t h y s t e w a r d " ; 1 Cor. i. 9, mends 6 deos oV ov iKXrjdrjre, " G o d i s t r u s t w o r t h y , b y w h o m y o u w e r e c a l l e d " (so t h a t t h e " c a l l i n g " c a n n o t b e in v a i n ) ; 2 Thess. iii. 3 , maros 8c iarw 6 tcvpios os crrrjpl^ei vixas, w i t h a p l a y u p o n t h e o r i g i n a l sense o f ] D K . C f . 2 Chron. x x . 2 0 , lauppi D ^ t ^ J f HTPP3 wn$n; Is. v i i . 9, nrp^D tib D K . (In b o t h c a s e s t h e L X X misses t h e point. P a u l w a s t h e better Hebraist.) The substantives n p $ ,
n p D # , r e p r e s e n t t h e sense o f t h e
niphal, " s t e d f a s t n e s s " trustworthiness " faithful ness T h e a c t i v e sense o f t h e hiphil h a s i n b i b l i c a l H e b r e w n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g s u b s t a n t i v e (such a s i s t h e A r a m a i c NJTWlpYt, " f a i t h " ) . These words are rendered b y IT LOT is. IILOTLS is a l m o s t a l w a y s a q u a l i t y o f m e n , o r their words a n d actions. I t is never a n attribute of G o d , d i r e c t l y , e x c e p t i n Lam. i i i . 2 3 , inXijdvvev 7) TTLOTLS 68
RIGHTEOUSNESS, aov =
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
n j n ( o m i t t e d in B A ) , a n d in I Kms.
xxi. 3
(1 Sam. x x i . 2), Oeov mans, r e p r e s e n t i n g a H e b r e w different from M . T . B u t cf. also Ps. x x x i i . ( x x x i i i . ) 4, mivra rd epya avrov iv iriarei = njfDfcQ mtpgfirb^ , Sir. i. 27 (34-5) r) evooKia avrov Trlans Kal Trpaorrjs (no H e b r e w e x t a n t ) . I t is t o b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e G r e e k w o r d mans is a m b i g u o u s . I t m e a n s b o t h " faithfulness " , a n d " belief " or " t r u s t " , A s w e h a v e seen, t h e l a t t e r m e a n i n g d o e s n o t a t t a c h t o D D K , a n d t h e r e is n o p a s s a g e in t h e L X X where the context would naturally suggest such a meaning. P a u l ' s t r e a t m e n t of h i s p r o o f - t e x t , Hab. ii. 4, is a r b i t r a r y . n?JT inyiafcO j T H S c l e a r l y m e a n s " A r i g h t e o u s m a n w i l l c o n t i n u e t o l i v e b y v i r t u e of h i s s t e d f a s t n e s s " . T h e L X X , r e n d e r i n g p e r h a p s a s l i g h t l y different H e b r e w , g i v e s 6 oUaios €K marews fiov ^rjoerai, u n d e r s t a n d i n g rriaris in i t s r a r e r sense as t h e faithfulness of G o d . P a u l i g n o r e s t h e p r o n o m i n a l suffix, a n d r e n d e r s t h e p a s s a g e 6 hiKaios 4K marews tflverai (or f o l l o w s a t r a n s l a t i o n w h i c h so r e n d e r e d it), m a k i n g i t c l e a r t h a t b y m a r i s h e u n d e r s t a n d s " f a i t h " , a m e a n i n g p o s s i b l e in t h e G r e e k , b u t n o t in t h e H e b r e w o r i g i n a l (Rom. i. 1 7 , Gal. iii. n ) . 1
W h e n o n c e , h o w e v e r , t h e t e r m maris h a d e s t a b l i s h e d itself in t h e r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e of H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m it w a s natural t h a t the Greek w o r d should develop its o w n e x t e n d e d m e a n i n g , a n d t h u s w e find P h i l o u s i n g maris in t h e sense of " f a i t h " , or " belief " , a n d m e a n i n g b y i t s o m e t i m e s r a t h e r a m y s t i c a l a p p r e h e n s i o n of r e a l i t y t h a n a p e r s o n a l t r u s t in G o d . A m o n g N e w Testament writers, t h e a u t h o r to the H e b r e w s s t a n d s c l o s e s t to P h i l o . P a u l , t h o u g h h e uses mans i n i t s a c t i v e sense, y e t g i v e s i t a content directly derivable from the H e b r e w p p » n , " t r u s t " , 2
rather t h a n " b e l i e f " . In the Gospels, where Greek influence is u n l i k e l y , t h e use of mans in t h e sense of 1
F o r e x a m p l e s of this sense see M . M . s.v. T h e Greek word has also other senses which are not important for our purpose. F o r t h e Philonic use of mans see p p . 199-200. 2
69
THE " faith Aramaic
BIBLE
AND THE
GREEKS
" t r u s t " in G o d , p r o b a b l y p r e s u p p o s e s t h e a n a t u r a l d e r i v a t i v e from t h e hiphil
htnttDVi,
(aphel) of t h e v e r b , a n d it is l i k e l y t h a t t h e G o s p e l u s a g e , or r a t h e r t h e u s a g e in p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n l y i n g b e h i n d t h e G o s p e l s , h a s h e l p e d t o d e t e r m i n e P a u l ' s use of the term. T h r o u g h o u t the N e w T e s t a m e n t , therefore, t h e d o m i n a n t use of TTIOTIS is n o t d i r e c t l y d e r i v e d from i t s use in t h e L X X , t h o u g h t h e c o n t e n t of t h e i d e a is in m o s t cases s u p p l i e d r a t h e r b y t h e H e b r e w p x t h a n b y t h e G r e e k TTLOT€V€LV. W h e r e v e r t h e w o r d s TTLOTLS, TTIOT€V€LV, TTLOTLS TTLOTOVV, are u s e d in t h e L X X , t h e y a l w a y s , w i t h n e g l i g i b l e e x c e p t i o n s , r e n d e r H e b r e w w o r d s from t h e r o o t p x . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y are n o t t h e d o m i n a n t r e n d e r i n g s of s u c h words. While n o x , n:iDX , etc., are t h i r t y times trans l a t e d TTIOTIS, t h e y a r e t r a n s l a t e d 1 1 9 t i m e s a A ^ f l e i a , a n d dXrjdeia v e r y s e l d o m r e p r e s e n t s a n y o t h e r H e b r e w w o r d . S i m i l a r l y , t h e s e w o r d s a r e r e n d e r e d b y dXrjdrjs and dXrjOwos* T h e b a s i c i d e a of t h e s t e m dX-qd- (said t o b e Y
1
2
1
For the close connection of TTLOTLS in Hellenistic Greek, cf. P. Oxy. I . 70 moTLv KCLL aXrjdeiav l ^ c i : I Tim. ii. 7, s.v. TTLOTLS. I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t in aA?}0€ia, and D ^ D $ J , moral.
(" trustworthiness ") and aXydeia : ndoa Kvpia €vypaos owaXXayrf cV marei KOL dX^dela. See M . M . Ps. ex. (cxi.) 7 3 1 0 8 is rendered
I n Prov.
x i v . 22 the M S S . of the L X X
h a v e a d m i t t e d t w o different translations of the same Hebrew c o u p l e t : in the one J1DX is rendered aAiJflcia, in the other mart?. 2
'AX-qdys is also used to translate Q p n (" wise ") once, H ^ D ? (" estab
lished ", and so " c o r r e c t " ) twice in one c o n t e x t (Job xlii. 7-8), j T I X ( " r i g h t " ) once, j T t t n n
("sound w i s d o m " ) once, and tptpp and its
A r a m a i c equivalent tfllB7j? ("truth") once each; also, in variant readings, a n (
i nitfl once each, b u t these m a y be neglected.
T h e s e occasional
renderings serve to illustrate the associations which the word carried for the translators. 3
y
AXr)$Lv6s also renders HEP (" upright ") four to six times (in Job), (of " f u l l " or " t r u e " weights and measures) once or twice,
( " p u r e " , " i n n o c e n t " ) once, D£) (having the quality of " i n t e g r i t y " )
70
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
f r o m a p r i v a t i v e a n d Aa0, t h e r o o t of XavBdvew) is " r e a l " genuine " true as o p p o s e d t o t h a t w h i c h is false o r merely apparent. T h e G r e e k t e r m s , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e in t h e i r o r i g i n l i t t l e in c o m m o n w i t h t h e H e b r e w w o r d s w h i c h t h e y are e m p l o y e d t o t r a n s l a t e . The common g r o u n d w o u l d s e e m t o lie in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of b o t h sets of terms to w o r d s or t h o u g h t s . These m a y be described as ruptf if t h e y are sure, c e r t a i n , d e s e r v i n g of confidence, if t h e y w i l l s t a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e y m a y b e d e s c r i b e d as aXrjOeia if t h e y c o r r e s p o n d w i t h r e a l i t y . B u t in t h e l a s t resort, o n l y s u c h w o r d s a n d t h o u g h t s as c o r r e s p o n d w i t h r e a l i t y are d e s e r v i n g of c o n f i d e n c e . T o t h i s e x t e n t dXfjdeia = n p £ . B y a c e r t a i n e x t e n s i o n of m e a n i n g , dXrjdrjs or dX-qQwos m a y b e a p p l i e d t o p e r s o n s , if t h e y a r e (a) v e r a c i o u s , o r (b) s i n c e r e , a n d t h e s e m e a n i n g s a p p r o x i m a t e t o t h a t of 79^5, " t r u s t w o r t h y B u t in t h e passage from the H e b r e w
t o t h e G r e e k dXrjOeia t h e r e
is a c e r t a i n i n e v i t a b l e shift of m e a n i n g , w h i c h is s o m e t i m e s n e g l i g i b l e , b u t a t o t h e r t i m e s m a y affect t h e s u b s t a n c e of the
matter.
T h u s in
a d e q u a t e l y represents
3 Kms.
x . 6 , dXrjBwos
n n i n rpn np.N.
In
6
Gen.
Xoyos
xlii. 1 6
Joseph proposes a test to his brothers " t h a t y o u r w o r d s m a y b e p r o v e d , w h e t h e r t h e r e is r e n d e r s el dXrjBevere.
in y o u
The L X X
Joseph wishes to discover whether
t h e y are h o n e s t , t r u s t w o r t h y m e n ; b u t as t h e p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e i r words are t o b e b e l i e v e d , t h e v e r b dXrjOevetv, " t o s p e a k t h e t r u t h
is in p l a c e .
B u t where
in Neh. v i i . 2 (2 Esci. x v i i . 2) H a n a n i a h is d e s c r i b e d as a t r u s t w o r t h y a n d G o d - f e a r i n g m a n , DVtiwn N'T! npN E T N , t h e r e is a s h a d e of difference in t h e L X X dvrjp dXrj8r)s Kal (f>o^ovfji€vos rov Beov, for dXr)Br)s w o u l d n a t u r a l l y s u g g e s t t o once or twice, as well as the Aramaic in Daniel; in Num.
also
Ullfl
1
3' 3?^
x x i v . 3, 15.
71
tSWj? (" true ") DTIttf probably mistakenly
(" sure "), and
in a variant reading, and
THE BIBLE
AND THE
GREEKS
a G r e e k r e a d e r e i t h e r " v e r a c i o u s " o r " sincere of w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y n £ 8 B P X .
neither
Again, where the term
a\y)6iv6s is a p p l i e d t o G o d , a c h a n g e o f m e a n i n g is a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e . I n Exod. x x x i v . 6, Ps. l x x x v . ( l x x x v i . ) 1 5 G o d is d e s c r i b e d a s n©$. T0D"^1 >" a b o u n d i n g in m e r c y a n d faithfulness T h i s is r e n d e r e d , i n b o t h p l a c e s , noXveXeos Kal aXrjBivos. T h e G r e e k r e a d e r h a d a c h o i c e of t w o m e a n i n g s for dXrjdivos : " v e r a c i o u s or " real That is, h e m i g h t t h i n k of G o d e i t h e r a s g i v i n g t r u e r e v e l a t i o n s , o r h e m i g h t t h i n k of H i m a s t h e r e a l G o d , d i s t i n c t from t h e idols of t h e nations, w h i c h are unreal. B u t n e i t h e r of t h e s e i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t is m e a n t b y n p j r a i , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t G o d is e n t i r e l y w o r t h y of m e n ' s t r u s t , t o b e relied o n i n a l l t h e i r n e e d . W h e r e dXrjBivos s t a n d s alone, t h e second meaning " r e a r ' becomes almost inevit a b l e for a G r e e k reader. T h u s in Is. l x v . 1 6 t h e L X X r e a d s : evXoyrjcrovaiv yap TOV deov rov aXrjBwov, Kal ol dfivvovres c m rr)s yrjs opuovvTat TOV deov TOV aXrjdivov. T h e H e b r e w e x p r e s s i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o M . T . , is p x v r b & . T h e f o r m p $ is e l s e w h e r e f o u n d o n l y a s a n a d v e r b , g e n e r a l l y u s e d a s a c o n f i r m a t o r y response ( L X X yevoiTo). If this r e a d i n g is r i g h t , t h e n t h e i d e a p r o b a b l y is t h a t o a t h s a r e t o b e t a k e n b y t h e G o d w h o s e c h a r a c t e r confirms o r guarantees such oaths. I t is likely, however, that w e s h o u l d p u n c t u a t e p x = faithfulness (as i n Is. x x v . 1 ) , g i v i n g t h e f a m i l i a r sense " t h e faithful G o d B u t the G r e e k r e a d e r c o u l d h a r d l y fail t o u n d e r s t a n d rov deov rov aXrjdivov a s " t h e real G o d 'AXTJOWOS h a s t h i s specific sense. S e e A r i s t o t l e , Pol. I I I . 6 ( n ) , I 2 8 i £ , 1 2 , w h e r e rd dXrjdivd m e a n s r e a l o b j e c t s a s d i s t i n c t from t h e i r p i c t u r e d c o p i e s rd yeypafifieva : P l a t o , Rpb. 499c, dXrjdivfjg LXoaoia9 aXrjBivos epcos \ a n d t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l u s e of t h e t e r m for t h e r e a l (as o p p o s e d t o t h e a p p a r e n t ) risings a n d s e t t i n g s o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s (see L . & S . ) . S i m i l a r l y , i n Test. X I I . Patr., T. Ash. i v . 3, TO SOKOVV KaXov fiera 72
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND TRUTH
rov dXrjOivov KOLAOV. 'AArjOwos h a s t h e s a m e sense i n t h e N . T . , e . g . Jn. i . 9 , v i . 3 2 , x v . 1 ; Heb. v i i i . 2 , i x . 24 ; 1 Jn. i i . 8. S o P h i l o h a s dArjBivdg dvBptoTros ( t h e r e a l h e a v e n l y m a n , i n G o d ' s i m a g e = t h e L o g o s ) , dArjOcvr) L^cor], a n d f i n a l l y 6 dArjBtvos fled?, e . g . De Spec. Leg. L 332 : oi dyvoovvres rov eva Kal dArjBivdv Bedv voAAovs Kal t/fevocovvfiovs dvairAdrrovres irepl TO dvayKaidrarov rcov ovrcov rvAcorrovGiv. Leg. ad Gaium, 366, TrpoeArjAvdeiaav LK€T€V€IV rov dAiqBivdv Bedv, Iva rov ift€v8covvp,ov ras opyds iiricrxV' ^ f . also 3 Mace. v i . 1 8 , 6 pbeyaXoSo^os teal navroKparcop KOX dArjdwos Beds. T h i s is t h e sense of 6 dAyBcvds Beds i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : 1 Thess. i . 9 ; Jn. x v i i . 3 ; 1 Jn. v . 20. I t i s p u r e l y G r e e k , t h o u g h b y a n a c c i d e n t of t r a n s l a t i o n i t finds a p l a c e i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . 1
'AArjOeia e x h i b i t s a s i m i l a r shift, or e x t e n s i o n , of m e a n i n g . A s w e h a v e o b s e r v e d , w h e n n£fc is u s e d in r e l a t i o n t o w o r d s o r t h o u g h t s w h i c h a r e c e r t a i n , o r sure, i t a p p r o x i m a t e s t o t h e m e a n i n g " truthfulness " a n d where i t is used of persons, " trustworthiness " m a y approximate to " sincerity " or " veracity I n s u c h c a s e s dArjBeia m a y b e a fairly adequate translation. B u t t h e ideas of " t r u t h f u l n e s s " veracity " sincerity " are n o t so p r o m i n e n t i n t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f dAr]Beia a s t h a t o f " t r u t h " a s opposed t o falsehood. There are m a n y passages in t h e L X X where this latter idea would more n a t u r a l l y s u g g e s t itself t o G r e e k r e a d e r s . T h u s i n Ps. x x i v . 51 dhrjyrjaov /xc inl rrjv dArjBeidv GOV Kal'St&atjov fie would naturally be taken as a prayer t o be divinely t a u g h t a n d s o l e d t o a k n o w l e d g e o f " t h e t r u t h " ; Ps. c x v i i i . 1 6 0 , dpxr) rcov Aoycov GOV dArjdeta w o u l d n a t u r a l l y m e a n " T r u t h is t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e first p r i n c i p l e , o f T h y w o r d s " ; t h e e x p r e s s i o n tpvAdooew dA-qBeiav (Ps. c x l v . 6, 7 s . x x v i . 2) w o u l d s u g g e s t " t o p r e s e r v e o r d e f e n d t h e t r u t h (against error) T h e d i v i n e t i t l e n©» yfrft , " t h e faithful G o d " , b e c o m e s 6 Beds rrjs dArjBelas (Ps. x x x . 6 ) , w h i c h s u g g e s t s e i t h e r " t h e G o d i n w h o m resides t h e u l t i m a t e t r u t h
73
THE BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
or " t h e G o d of r e a l i t y T h e p r o c l a m a t i o n (Ps. c x i x . 90) *irtflft$ 1 T J "nb , " T h y faithfulness l a s t s from a g e t o a g e " , b e c o m e s els yevedv Kal yevedv r) dXr]deid GOV, a d e c l a r a t i o n of t h e e t e r n i t y of " t r u t h In m a n y s u c h p a s s a g e s it is n o t e a s y t o r e a d in t h e G r e e k t h e t r u e m e a n i n g of t h e H e b r e w , a n d t h e result is a c e r t a i n i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g of r e l i g i o n . N o t t h e " faithfulness " of G o d , b u t a b s t r a c t " t r u t h " in G o d b e c o m e s t h e s u p r e m e l y w o r s h i p f u l t h i n g , a n d t h e p u r s u i t of " t r u t h " b e c o m e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i v i t y of t h e religious m a n . This i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g t e n d e n c y in H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m r e a c h e s a n a d v a n c e d s t a g e in P h i l o , for w h o m dX-qdeua is " t h e p o w e r t h a t b r i n g s r e v e l a t i o n of t h i n g s t h a t w e r e w r a p p e d in s h a d o w " (rjra rd)v GweaKcaGfievajv irpaypidrajv dvaKaXvirTYjpia dyovaa ovvapas, De Ebr. 6 ) , a n d is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h dyvoia (ib.) a n d w i t h ^avraaia Kal SOKTJGLS (Quod Det. 1 6 2 ) . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e h o w in v a r i o u s N e w T e s t a m e n t p a s s a g e s a l l u s i o n s t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t are c o l o u r e d b y t h i s H e l l e n i s t i c t e n d e n c y . T h u s P a u l s p e a k s of rrjv dXr)deiav rod Oeov (an e x p r e s s i o n i m p l i e d in t h e e x t r e m e l y f r e q u e n t L X X p h r a s e s , r) dXrjdeia GOV, avrov), a n d c o n t r a s t s it w i t h i/jevhos," f a l s e h o o d " (Rom. i. 25). T h e m e a n i n g is " t h e r e a l i t y of G o d contrasted with t h e u n r e a l i t y of i d o l s . I n Jn. x v i . 1 3 , orav Se eXOrj iKelvos, TO Trvevfia rrjs dXrjOeias, ohrjyrjGet vpuas els TTJV dXrjdeiav irdoav, w e h a v e a n e c h o of t h e p r a y e r oSrjyrjGov fie e m TTJV dXrjdeLav GOV (Ps. xxiv. 5 : in b o t h c a s e s t h e r e is a varia lectio iv rfj dXrjdeia). T h e m e a n i n g is " H e w i l l lead y o u into truth t h o u g h the Hebrew original " ^ T j n tjnpxn m e a n t r a t h e r " c a u s e m e t o w a l k in T h y f a i t h fulness i.e. p r o b a b l y t h e faithfulness w h i c h is a p r o p e r t y of G o d , a n d w h i c h H e e x p e c t s from m e n . Jn. i v . 24, iv 7TV€vp,aTi Kal dXrjdeia Sec rrpOGKVvelv, recalls Ps. c x l i v . 1 8 , TOirnKaXovjxevoLs avrov iv dXrjOeia: t h e H e b r e w Hp&2 meant
" with
faithfulness
or 74
loyalty
but
" John "
RIGHTEOUSNESS,
MERCY
AND
TRUTH
r e a d t h e L X X as m e a n i n g " in r e a l i t y as o p p o s e d t o mere appearance or outward observance. In Jn. i. 1 7 w e h a v e c l e a r l y a n e c h o of t h e frequent H e b r e w collocation T)Q$]
1QU—^
1
X^-P ^
K
a
L
V
dXtfOeia
OLCL
'Irjaov
Xpunov
iyevero. T h e w h o l e t e n o u r of t h e G o s p e l s h o w s t h a t t h e e v a n g e l i s t u n d e r s t o o d dX-qdaa as t h e " t r u t h " r e v e a l e d b y Christ.
75
CHAPTER IV
SIN T H E m o s t g e n e r a l t e r m in H e b r e w e x p r e s s i n g t h e i d e a of " e v i l " o r " b a d n e s s whether physical or moral, is t h e r o o t y j n w i t h i t s d e r i v a t i v e s . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s i n G r e e k a r e KCLKOS (/ca/cta) a n d iroviqpos (Trovrjpla). T h e L X X p r o p e r l y uses o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e s e w o r d s t o t r a n s l a t e y ^ n , i n , n y n in a l m o s t a l l cases. F o r t h e i d e a o f " sin " H e b r e w c o m m o n l y uses w o r d s from t h e root Nttn , w h i c h h a s for i t s f u n d a m e n t a l m e a n i n g " t o miss t h e m a r k " to go wrong Here again t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e offers n a t u r a l e q u i v a l e n t s : t h e v e r b afAapTtiveiv ( c ^ - , €(/>-, hi-ap,apTav€iv), the nouns dfiaprta, dfidprr]p,a
y
dpLaprcoXos.
The
fundamental
idea
is
the
s a m e . W h a t e v e r differences t h e r e m a y b e a r e n o t differences i n t h e m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d s , b u t d e p e n d u p o n differences i n t h e g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d of t h o u g h t . A s e c o n d r o o t of a l m o s t e q u a l l y g e n e r a l significance is Dtrrx , e x p r e s s i n g t h e i d e a '' f a u l t ' V o f f e n c e ' ' . T h e L X X s o m e t i m e s renders D^rx , d / x a p r t a , m o r e u s u a l l y TrXrjfMpLeXeia (7rXr)[jLpL€Xr)ij,a), w i t h -nXiqixjxeXtlv for t h e v e r b . A s t h e s e w o r d s are r e s e r v e d for UWH ( w i t h o n l y s i x e x c e p t i o n s ) w e m a y take it that the translators regarded them as specially a p p r o p r i a t e r e n d e r i n g s o f DttTN. riXrjfxpieXeLa is p r o p e r l y a " false n o t e " i n m u s i c . I t w o u l d s u g g e s t a s o m e w h a t l i g h t e r j u d g m e n t u p o n a n a c t i o n t h a n dpbapria—a " slip p e r h a p s , r a t h e r t h a n a d e a d failure. P o s s i b l y t h i s l i g h t e r j u d g m e n t is also s u g g e s t e d in t h e o c c a s i o n a l r e n d e r i n g of
DXpS b y dyvoia
(dyvoelv).
T h e m o r e specific w o r d s used for v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of sinful b e h a v i o u r offer m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g m a t e r i a l for s t u d y , i . T h e w o r d ]7X h a s for i t s p r i m a r y m e a n i n g " w e a r i 7
6
SIN ness " trouble a n d in t h i s sense it is r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e L X X b y TTOVOS, KOTTOS, puoxdos. B u t it is v e r y fre q u e n t l y u s e d in a m o r a l sense for " w i c k e d n e s s especially w i t h reference t o i d o l a t r y . T h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s u n d e r s t o o d it t o m e a n i n f r a c t i o n of t h e d i v i n e L a w . I t is n o r m a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y dvopuia (dvofios). 2. T h e r o o t biSf w a s u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e t r a n s l a t o r s t o i m p l y s p e c i f i c a l l y injustice : t h e y r e n d e r w o r d s from t h i s r o o t u s u a l l y b y CLSLKOS ( a S i / a ' a ) . 3. T h e root MZRS e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a of rebellion. W h e n it is used in a p o l i t i c a l sense t h e v e r b is p r o p e r l y r e n d e r e d d^iordvat (e.g. 2 Chr. x x i . 8, aTrecrrr] 'JSSco/x, diro rov 'IovSa). F r e q u e n t l y i t i s u s e d of rebellion a g a i n s t G o d , wilful a n d defiant w i c k e d n e s s . T h i s i d e a t h e L X X t r a n s l a t o r s h a v e rendered
b y the
verb
daefielv,
the
noun
doefieia,
and
o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e a d j e c t i v e doe^rjs. T h e root o-e/J- e x presses t h e i d e a of " a w e " : oefieo 6 at m e a n s " t o s t a n d i n a w e " of t h e d i v i n e , a n d i t o c c u r s a l t e r n a t i v e l y w i t h <j>ofSeZodai a s a t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w p h r a s e M M N T , " t o fear t h e L o r d S o ( D ^ K ) MRR D N T is eiaepeia (Is. x i . 2 ) , evoefieia els deov (Prov. i. 7 ) . ever, irpos rov Kvpiov (Is. x x x i i i . 6 ) , o r deooefieia (Gen. x x . 1 1 ; Job x x v i i i . 28). W h e r e this " fear of t h e L o r d " is a b s e n t , there is YTTFE}, 1
doefSeLa. T h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t o r s , therefore, i g n o r i n g t h e e t y m o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d , h a v e f o u n d a felicit o u s r e n d e r i n g for t h e i d e a . W e h a v e n o g o o d E n g l i s h e q u i v a l e n t : " i m p i e t y " o r " godlessness " p e r h a p s c o m e nearest. T h u s w e h a v e t h r e e specific a s p e c t s of sin ; l a w l e s s n e s s , injustice, a n d godlessness, corresponding to the H e b r e w terms , b j y , yt2flp . W h i l e , h o w e v e r , t h e t e r m s dvopia, a S i / a a , doefieia m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s n o r m a l l y t h e e q u i v a l e n t s of t h e s e t h r e e w o r d s , i t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e y a r e used t o render several other terms. T h u s : 1
T h e L X X has e x p a n d e d the Hebrew, and M M T I N T is represented b o t h b y <j>6fios Oeov and b y evoefieia eis deov.
77
THE (i)
"AVOJJLOS
BIBLE (dvojxla)
A N D THE GREEKS
n o t infrequently represents n ) $ t , a
w o r d w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y h a d t h e n e u t r a l sense of " p l a n " o r " device b u t is u s e d of e v i l d e v i c e s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r of unchastity. T h e r e n d e r i n g dvoaia i n o n e p l a c e (Ezek. x x i i . 9) m a y b e a n a t t e m p t t o d o j u s t i c e t o i t s d i s t i n c t i v e meaning. B u t for t h e most part t h e L X X translators h a v e been content t o bring it under t h e general heading of i n f r a c t i o n of t h e d i v i n e l a w . (ii)
'Avojita
(dvojxrjjjLa, dvojxos) a n d dtreficia a r e a l s o u s e d
to translate r o y i n , which means something abhorred, a n " a b o m i n a t i o n , ' ' p r i m a r i l y a s t h e o b j e c t of r i t u a l tabu (fioeAvyfjia). T h e r e n d e r i n g dvojxia for t h i s w o r d i s a l m o s t c o n f i n e d t o Ezekiel, w h e r e i t o c c u r s t w e n t y - f i v e t i m e s . I t r e p r e s e n t s a r a t i o n a l i z i n g of a n o r i g i n a l l y n o n rational concept. F o r the primitive " numinous " horror is s u b s t i t u t e d t h e i d e a of t h e i n f r a c t i o n of l e g a l r e g u lations. (iii) "AVOJJLOS (dvojxia), dacfirjs, a n d djxaprcoXos are all f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o t r a n s l a t e w o r d s from t h e r o o t r t r h , w h i c h s e e m s t o e x p r e s s n o t h i n g m o r e specific t h a n d o w n right wickedness. T o t h e translators it suggested either sinfulness i n g e n e r a l , o r s p e c i f i c a l l y , " l a w l e s s n e s s " o r " godlessness (iv) '\oucia a n d daefieia f r e q u e n t l y r e p r e s e n t DDPl. T h e i d e a u n d e r l y i n g t h i s r o o t is t h a t of " v i o l e n c e and it c a n b e used of p h y s i c a l a c t s o f v i o l e n c e , e i t h e r t o p e r s o n s or t o things. T h e translators seem t o h a v e been unaware of t h i s specific m e a n i n g . F o r t h e m D D n is o n l y a n o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n for " injustice " o r " godlessness 1
2
3
1
'Aoepijs is nearly always ITCZH , though aoepcia is nearly always . 'AfxaprojXos is generally , though d/Ltapr^/xa, d/xaprta seldom represent words from this root. A n instructive passage is Ps. x x x v . (xxxvi.) 2, where both JTtZTB (here irapdvofxos) and IT12H (here dfiapTaveiv) are attributed to the man who has no fear of God (? deov) : F J i y 1 ^ 1 0 5 J^N. This shows 2
3
how natural it would be to understand both STEPS and JTEH in the sense of dcrc7?«a.
78
SIN (v)
"Ahucla,
avofila
(dvo/x^/xa) f r e q u e n t l y s t a n d for ] i y .
T h e d i s t i n c t i v e i d e a of t h e w o r d w o u l d s e e m t o b e t h a t of " g u i l t T o t h e translators it suggests s i m p l y " injustice or " lawlessness T h u s d S t / c t a , avofiia, a n d daeflcia d o d u t y for a v a r i e t y of H e b r e w e x p r e s s i o n s . If w e t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t n o t o n l y the normal or regular renderings, but those w h i c h t h o u g h n o t r e g u l a r are sufficiently f r e q u e n t t o be significant, w e m u s t a d d t h a t doiKos ( d S u a ' a ) r e p r e s e n t s also p e , r t f f B , and y t m , as well as , w h i c h is n o r m a l l y (and m o r e appropriately) rendered fcvSrjs (i/tevSos); that dvofios (dvofiia) r e p r e s e n t s also D a n , bvr, a n d r t f r B ; a n d t h a t daipeta s o m e t i m e s r e p r e s e n t s x t a n . T h e r e l a t i o n s of t h e s e t e r m s m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , w h e r e t h e first c o l u m n r e p r e s e n t s r e n d e r i n g s f r e q u e n t e n o u g h in p r o p o r t i o n t o o t h e r s t o b e r e g a r d e d as n o r m a l , t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n r e n d e r i n g s w h i c h are less f r e q u e n t , b u t s t i l l frequent enough to be significant, and the third renderings w h i c h o c c u r o n l y v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y (in s o m e c a s e s o n l y o n c e ) . R e n d e r i n g s w h i c h h a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m e r e caprice or eccentricity h a v e been ignored. Primary
rendering.
dvofxla {-os)
Secondary. dSiKia (-os)
-civ)dpapr (a dvooios doefieia dfiapTta (-rjfjLa, -dveiv, -wXos, cp-) dvofiia dhiKid, doefieia dvopia dSi/a'a dhiKia, dvopia (-ijjua) dpdprrjpa doefieia (-civ,-T}pa, -rjs) dSt/cta (-T)iia,-€xv), dpapria (-r)p a), dvopia dpaprcoXos, dhiKos (-ia) dvofxos (-id), doefirjs dSiKOS (-ta) t/f€v8qs (-os)
trXTjufieXrffjLa (-€ta, dvofila (-os)
roar
Don
bw P*
T#
fiheXvyp.a 1
dvopia
Occasional. doefieia (-r)s), KOTTOS, fxoxOos, TTOVOS, pdraios dyvoia doefieia (-ctv), napdvopos dvopos, dBiKos, doefirjs TTO.pdvop.os Trapdrtroipa, trapavopeiv doefieia, napavopia TrapaTTTcupa, rrapdvopos, irXavav, napafiaiveiv 1
napdvopos, novrjpos, nXrjppeXeia dvopos (-id) doefieia, aKaOapros-
nXavdv is t h e normal (and appropriate) rendering of HOT .
79
THE
BIBLE
AND THE GREEKS
T h e f a c t s w h i c h e m e r g e a r e t h e s e : (i) T h e L X X uses a notably poorer ethical vocabulary than t h e Hebrew, (ii) T h e r e i s a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y t o r e d u c e a l l m a n n e r o f e v i l b e h a v i o u r t o t h e c o n c e p t s o f d S i / a a a n d dvopuia, a n d particularly the latter. T h i s is one more s y m p t o m of t h e growing legalism which w e have noted in other connec tions. T h e L X X version tended t o stereotype this l e g a l i s t i c n o t i o n o f sin i n H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m . I n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t t h e u s e of apo/jLos dvofiia is n o t a b l y restricted. 'Avofiia is f o u n d i n Matt, (four t i m e s ) , i n t h e P a u l i n e c o r p u s (six t i m e s ) , i n Heb. (once o r t w i c e ) , a n d i n i Jn. (twice i n o n e v e r s e ) . "AVOIDS is f o u n d i n Mk. (once), i n Lk. (once), i n Acts (once), i n t h e P a u l i n e c o r p u s (five t i m e s ) , a n d i n 2 Pet. (once). O f t h e s e , t h e o c c u r r e n c e s i n Mk. a n d Lk. a r e c i t a t i o n s o f t h e L X X ( = ITOB), a s w e l l a s t h e o c c u r r e n c e s i n Rom. i v . 7 ( = I W B ) a n d Heb. i. 9 (where Heb. l i k e t h e L X X h a s v . l . d S i / a a = ytrh). Of t h e Pauline passages (not being citations), t w o are in t h e Pastorals, where a non-Pauline strain of n e o - l e g a l i s m is r e c o g n i z e d . O f t h e r e m a i n d e r , 1 Cor. i x . 2 1 uses dvofios (thrice) i n i t s s t r i c t sense, " w i t h o u t l a w " (not " s i n f u l " , cf. also avowals i n Rom. i i . 12) ; a n d i n 2 Thess.'ii. 3 , 7 , 8, o dvop,os, 6 avBpamos rijs dvojxias, a r e technical terms for A n t i c h r i s t , h a r d l y of P a u l ' s o w n coinage. I t m a y b e said t h a t P a u l himself only twice (Rom. i v . 7 , 2 Cor. v i , 14) u s e s dvop,la i n i t s g e n e r a l L X X sense ( = jrtsh , ] W , e t c . ) . I n Mt. w i t h i t s l e g a l i s t i c s t r a i n , dvopos i s m o r e freely u s e d i n t h i s g e n e r a l sense, in contrast t o t h e other three Gospels. I t is almost u n k n o w n t o t h e rest of t h e N . T . , a p a r t f r o m 1 Jn. iii. 4 : y
t
7T&S
6
7TOLCOV TTJV dfiapTiaV
Kal TTJV dvopLiaV 770161.
Kal r)
dpbapTia iarlv r) dvofiia. T h i s e x p l i c i t e q u a t i o n of s i n a n d l a w l e s s n e s s i s q u i t e i n t h e spirit o f t h e L X X , a n d i s exceptional in t h e N . T . "AOIKOS, doLKia are m o r e freely used, b u t i n a v e r y l a r g e proportion of their occurrences, t h e y h a v e their properly G r e e k sense of " i n j u s t i c e " , " u n f a i r n e s s " , o r " d i s 80
SIN honesty o r else a r e r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a n a n t i t h e s i s t o oiKaios, SiKaiocrvvrj. 'AaeficLa, dcrefirjs, daefJeZv a r e u s e d o c c a s i o n a l l y : t e n t i m e s in 2 Pet. a n d Jude, e i g h t t i m e s i n t h e r e s t of t h e N . T . (not a t a l l in t h e G o s p e l s ) . I n c o n t r a s t , dpLapria, dp,dpTr]p£L, d/xapTa>AoV> dpxLprdvtiv, a r e u s e d o v e r 250 t i m e s ; a n d P a u l , w i t h h i s TTOVTZS TfpLaprov Kal varepovvrai rrjs S o ^ s rod deov (Rotn. iii. 23), h a s s u g g e s t e d a definition of sin w h i c h , w h i l e e n t i r e l y t r u e t o t h e o r i g i n a l sense of N t t n , dpLaprdveiv, a n d to the uses of t h e s e w o r d s in t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k O . T . , l e a d s t o a p r o f o u n d a n d n o n - l e g a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i d e a .
81
F
CHAPTER
V
ATONEMENT O N E of t h e l e a d i n g t e r m s in t h e c u l t - v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is "Hps ( E . V . u s u a l l y , " t o a t o n e " make atonement " ) . T h e e t y m o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g . o f n©3 is a m a t t e r of c o n t r o v e r s y , w h i c h does not concern us here.
A s t u d y of t h e
t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e w o r d in t h e L X X w i l l t h r o w l i g h t u p o n t h e sense in w h i c h it w a s u n d e r s t o o d b y H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s in E g y p t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d in w h i c h t h e t r a n s l a t i o n w a s made. T h e s t o c k r e n d e r i n g is IXdaKeadai, o r i^cXdcTKeadai, w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s u b s t a n t i v e s IXaapos, £(jiXacr[i6s, itjlXaais, iglXaapa. I n c l a s s i c a l G r e e k a n d in t h e Koine IXdtTKeLrOtu, igiXdtTKeodcu, have regularly the meaning " placate " propitiate w i t h a personal object. A s a s e c o n d a r y m e a n i n g i&XdvKtoO ai also b e a r s t h e sense " expiate w i t h a n i m p e r s o n a l o b j e c t ; e.g. P l a t o , Laws, 862c, rd drrolvois iijiXaodtv, D i t t . Syll. 1 0 4 2 , 6V 8' dv rToXv7rpay/JLOvrjar] rd rod deov rj rrtpiepydorytat, dfiapriav 6(/>€CX€TCO Mrjvl Tvpdvvcp r)v ov per) SvvrjTCu i^iXdaaaOai. T h u s t h e w o r d s are in t h e m s e l v e s a m b i g u o u s , a n d a close s t u d y of L X X u s a g e is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h sense p r e d o m i n a t e d in H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m . z
A . I t w i l l assist o u r e n q u i r y t o e x a m i n e first t h e o t h e r t e r m s u s e d in t h e L X X t o t r a n s l a t e 150 a n d i t s d e r i v a t i v e s . 1. In Dan.
i x . 24 t h e C h i g i a n d C h e s t e r - B e a t t y M S S .
(87 a n d 968), s u p p o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e L X X of r e n d e r 7iy - 1 5 0 ^ n i x t 9 n nnrfp, 82
T«9
dSiKLas
GTvaviaai
Daniel, /cat
ATONEMENT d 7 r a A e t ^ a i rds d S t / a ' a ? .
A , r e p r e s e n t i n g here t h e (so-called)
v e r s i o n o f T h e o d o t i o n , h a s rod ofipayloai
dpaprias
[/cat
dhiKias. T h e c l a u s e
a 7 r a A e t ^ a t dStActa?] Kal rod e^iXdoaodai
w h i c h I h a v e bracketed surely represents an interpolation from t h e L X X t e x t . Here t h e L X X translators w o u l d s e e m t o h a v e b e e n influenced b y a n e t y m o l o g y of which finds f a v o u r w i t h s o m e m o d e r n s , g i v i n g t h e sense " t o w a s h away a s i n t h e B a b y l o n i a n kuppuru. 2. I n Exod. x x x . 1 0 w e h a v e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s of i g s a n d o n e of i t s d e r i v a t i v e 0*1^3.
I n t h e first c a s e ig3l
TTjinp-btf p r } 8 is r e n d e r e d , r e g u l a r l y , Kal igiXdoerat avrov
*Aapcov
e m rcov K€ par cov avrov,
c a s e vby ISQ^ i s r e n d e r e d
KaOapcel
w h i l e in t h e
air6.
rov
i n A , diro rov
i^iXaopov,
alfxarog
rov
second
T h e phrase
D^lSSn nXlSH Dip b e c o m e s i n B a7rd rov alparos piopiov,
-nepl
Kadapiopiov
rov rcov
Kada-
dpapruov
where once again w e m a y fairly suspect a
conflate r e a d i n g . The
r e n d e r i n g s KaOaplt>€iv
for
15)3 a n d
Kadapiopos
for
••n?3 o c c u r e l s e w h e r e , t h e f o r m e r i n Exod. x x i x . 3 7 , t h e l a t t e r i n Exod. x x i x . 3 6 .
S i m i l a r l y , i n Dent, x x x i i . 4 3
teST inplX "I??] i s r e n d e r e d
rov
Xaov
have ben]
is r e n d e r e d
KaOapd
yevioOai.
tfgei
iirl
Here
seem
rr)v yr)v
to
iTJW ^37n
(where t h e t r a n s l a t o r s
Kvpios
r e a d toy W W ) . A g a i n i n Is. x l v i i . n , sb njn yby Svvrjor)
avrov
eKKadapieX
ere raXanroipia
a
Kal
differently
ov prj
vocalized
t e x t s e e m s t o b e i m p l i e d , b u t t h e sense o f " p u r i f i c a tion " is established. 3. I n Exod. x x i x . 3 3 , 3 6 n p s i s r e n d e r e d
dyid&tv,
the
object being in t h e former place t h e priests, in t h e latter the altar. 4. I n Jer. x v i i i . 2 3 ,
83
THE BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
is r e n d e r e d jxr) aO(pa>ar)s ras dowlas Kal ras dpuaprlas
avra>v
t
avrtov and irpoaojirov aov pbr) i^aXelifrris.
'AOwovv p r o p e r l y m e a n s t o d e c l a r e o r p r o n o u n c e dO&os, free of g u i l t (cf. SiKatovv). E l s e w h e r e in t h e L X X i t a l w a y s r e n d e r s s o m e f o r m of t h e r o o t n p j , " t o b e c l e a n " pure " guiltless T h u s the translators of Jeremiah u n d e r s t o o d 1 9 3 , in t h e o n l y p l a c e in t h a t b o o k w h e r e i t o c c u r s , t o m e a n " t o c a n c e l sin w i t h G o d as subject— virtually = " to forgive T o sum u p : where the L X X translators do not render i p a a n d i t s d e r i v a t i v e s b y w o r d s of t h e IXdoKevB ai c l a s s , t h e y render it b y words w h i c h give the meaning " to sanctify " p u r i f y " p e r s o n ? o r o b j e c t s of r i t u a l , o r " t o cancel " purge a w a y " f o r g i v e " sins. W e s h o u l d therefore e x p e c t t o find t h a t t h e y r e g a r d t h e IXdcrKcadat class as c o n v e y i n g similar ideas. B . W e n o w t u r n t o IXdcrKeaOac a n d w o r d s of t h e s a m e c l a s s , a n d e x a m i n e first t h e H e b r e w w o r d s , o t h e r t h a n n p s a n d its derivatives, w h i c h are rendered b y these Greek words. i . 'EgtXdaKecOai in m i d d l e , w i t h h u m a n s u b j e c t = X Q n , " t o un-sin " c l e a n s e f r o m defilement " expiate " (elsewhere r e n d e r e d KadaplCeiv, dayvl^€iv, pavrl&w, dTrorLvvveiv) ; in 2 Chron. a n d Ezek. pass. S i m i l a r l y , Ezek. x l i i i . 2 3 , avvreXioai rov i£t,Xacrp,6v. S o also Ezek. x i v . 1 9 , TO af/xa rov i&Xacrfiov = n ^ ^ O E D l • Under this head should probably be placed the p a s s a g e s w h e r e e^iAdor/ceo-flcu, lXavp,6s DtfrN , Hob. i. 1 1 , Am. v i i i . 1 4 . for
= " be guilty
represent
the
two root
T h e t r a n s l a t i o n is m i s t a k e n ,
nptptf = " guilt " ; but the trans
l a t o r s s e e m t o h a v e been influenced b y t h e close k i n s h i p of
Dttfx a n d
AION.
84
ATONEMENT 2. 'IXdoKcoOai in m i d d l e , w i t h d i v i n e s u b j e c t , = rt?p ^ " t o f o r g i v e " (elsewhere r e n d e r e d afadvai, d^oupelv, KaOapi£,€W, ov pifLvrjcrKGiv, e t c . ) . 4 Kms. V . 1 8 , IXdcrerai Kvpios TCO SovXco GOV (bis). Ps. x x i v . I I , Kal IXdorj rjj d / x a p r t a /xou. 2 Chrotl. v i . 30, /cat ai> eloaKovorj Kal IXdar) ( R , Idcrrj A B ; b u t Ida8ai
€K
ovpavov
TOV
. . .
is n o w h e r e else u s e d t o
render nbp). S o i£tXaap,6s
= nrrt?p:
Ztow. (Theod.) i x . 9, Tou cVi rfj /ca/cta Is. l i v . 1 0 , Kvpios mm
TOI;
A a o u crou =
iXecos 001 ( x A : IXecos 001 Kvpia B ) =
-^no.
6. 'EgiXdoKeodai
in middle, with human
G o d a s o b j e c t = nbn, " t o a p p e a s e
subject a n d
" pacify
" pro
pitiate Zech. v i i . 2 , /cat i^arricrreiXev els Bai9r)X Eapaodp /cat 'Apfiecreep 6 fiaoiXevs Kal ol dvopes avrov i£iXdoaodai rov Kvpiov. Zech. v i i i . 2 2 , /cat rj^ovoiv Xaol 7T0XX0I Kal edvrj noXXa eK^rjrrjarai TO rrpoowTrov Kvpiov IlavroKparopos iv 'IepovaaXrjpi Kal itjiXdaavdai TO rrpovumov Kvpiov. Mai. i. 9 , /cat vvv c£tAacr/cccr0c ro 7Tpoow7Tov rov Qeov Kal Serjdrjre avrov . . . c t Xrjpiifjopiai i£ vpuov rrpooama vpuvv ; Xeyei Kvpios IlavTOKpdrwp. I n t h e s e t h r e e p a s s a g e s , t h e n , w e m e e t for t h e first t i m e w i t h unmistakable e x a m p l e s of t h e ordinary classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c sense o f igiXdoKeodai = " t o p r o p i t i a t e " . I n a l l o t h e r c a s e s w h e r e n^n o c c u r s i n t h e H e b r e w t h e 86
ATONEMENT translators h a v e avoided the rendering c^iAdWeatfcu : the u s u a l r e n d e r i n g is Seladat (ten t i m e s ) ; e l s e w h e r e w e find tflrelv, €K^7jT€Lv Xiraveveiv (once e a c h ) , also 0€pa7r€V€Lv b u t not w i t h the D e i t y as object. W e m a y therefore a s k w h e t h e r t h e r e is n o t s o m e t h i n g e x c e p t i o n a l a b o u t t h e u s a g e in t h e s e t h r e e p a s s a g e s w h i c h a c c o u n t s for t h e c h o i c e o f a rendering otherwise avoided. I n t h e first a n d t h i r d of t h e p a s s a g e s t h e r e is a d i s t i n c t t o n e o f c o n t e m p t : it is useless t o t h i n k of " p l a c a t i n g " J e h o v a h ! I n Zech. v i i . 2 - 1 4 w e h a v e a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e o l d p r o p h e t i c d e c l a r a t i o n — n o t sacrifice o r f a s t i n g , b u t j u s t i c e a n d m e r c y a r e J e h o v a h ' s d e m a n d s . T h e b u r d e n of Mai. i. 9 sqq. is " I h a v e n o p l e a s u r e in y o u , s a i t h J e h o v a h Z e b a o t h , n e i t h e r w i l l I a c c e p t a n offering a t y o u r h a n d T h u s it s e e m s c l e a r t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t o r s h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e d egiXdoKeoOai w i t h a n o t e of c o n t e m p t for i t s s t a n d a r d m e a n i n g in p a g a n u s a g e , a s u n w o r t h y of t h e G o d of Israel. I n Zech. v i i i . 22 t h e c a s e is n o t so c l e a r ; b u t i t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t h e r e , n o t I s r a e l , b u t p a g a n p e o p l e s are r e p r e s e n t e d a s c o m i n g t o " p r o p i t i a t e " J e h o v a h , a n d t h i s m a y h a v e influenced t h e t r a n s l a t o r s in a l l o w i n g t h e o r d i n a r y p a g a n sense of igiAdvKeaOai t o a p p e a r . T h e use is i n a n y c a s e c l e a r l y exceptional. f
t
7. 'Egi\d<jK€<jdai
in m i d d l e , w i t h h u m a n s u b j e c t = b ^ B ,
" to intercede " , " p r a y " . Ps. c v . 30, Kal ecrrrj &iv€€S Kal ££iXdararo, Kal iKOTraoev r) Op averts. T h e v e r b b^B,
VgWij , w h i c h is e x t r e m e l y c o m m o n in t h e
Old T e s t a m e n t , is a l w a y s r e n d e r e d e l s e w h e r e b y cvx^adat, 7rpotT€vx€(r9ai. I t is difficult t o see w h y t h e t r a n s l a t o r s , who habitually, and v e r y frequently, render b ^ B b y w o r d s 11
meaning to p r a y here a n d h e r e a l o n e s u b s t i t u t e c f i XdoKecrOaL. T h e P s a l m refers t o a n i n c i d e n t d e s c r i b e d in Num. x x v . ; see e s p e c i a l l y x x v . 1 1 , v. Exod. x x x i i . 30, Iva d£i\dcriop,ai Trepl rrjs dfAapTias VfJLtov. Ezek. x l v . 1 7 , TOV d^iXdaacrdaL vnep TOV OLKOV 'IoparjX.
Et simm. passim, chiefly in Ezek. a n d P e n t a t e u c h . T h i s d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o differ e s s e n t i a l l y f r o m t h e u s e s u n d e r C . 1, t h e v a r i a t i o n in c o n s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g ( t h o u g h n o t q u i t e r e g u l a r l y ) t h e v a r y i n g H e b r e w c o n s t r u c t i o n of n??3 w i t h a c c u s a t i v e o r w i t h b?, 1 ^ 5 . T h e m e a n i n g is identical, " to make expiation f o r " to expiate or cleanse 3. 'IXdaKeadai, d&XdoKta6ai in m i d d l e w i t h d a t i v e , a n d •with d i v i n e s u b j e c t . Ps. l x x v i i . (lxxviii.) 38 : avros 8d dcmv OLKTLppLOJV Kal IXdaerat rats dpLaprlats Kal OV 8La0€p€L. =
Ezek. x v i . 63, diroLTjo-as, Xdyet
rmfc xb] dv
rep
KV LOS P
avrtov,
fiy iss9\ D i m tfirn
d^LXdoK€oOal
= m.T> b$)
p,d
VOL
TVXDV
Kara Trdvra Sera ^ T B S *
(here t h e v e r b m i g h t also b e p a s s i v e ) . T h e m e a n i n g is n o t different from t h a t of iXdoKcadaL, w i t h d i v i n e s u b j e c t a n d a c c u s a t i v e of d i r e c t o b j e c t . The v e r b in t h e H e b r e w of Ps. l x x v i i . 38 t a k e s t h e a c c u s a t i v e . 90
ATONEMENT The
m e a n i n g is s c a r c e l y t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
from
" to
forgive 4. ' IXdoK€o9 ai, i£iXdoK€o9 ai, in p a s s i v e , IXecos yiyveo9 ai, with divine subject. Ps. I x x v i i i . (Ixxix.) 9 : Kvpie pvaai Kal lXdo9r)Ti
r)pias, rats dpuapriais r)p,tov
2 Chron. x x x . 1 8 - 1 9 , Kvpios dya96s i£iXdo9u) vrrep rrdarjs Kapoias /car€v9vvovarjs €K^r]rr]aovarjs Kvpiov rov ©€ov rcov rrarepajv avrtov. Deut. x x i . 8, iXetos yzvov rep Xato aov — Tp$3?b 1 g 3 . P e r h a p s a l s o Ezek. x v i . 63, see C . 3 supra. I h a v e c l a s s e d t h e s e a s p a s s i v e s b e c a u s e of t h e g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m , b u t t h e y d o n o t o t h e r w i s e differ from t h e m i d d l e uses u n d e r C . 1, 3. H o w c l o s e l y s i m i l a r t h e uses a r e m a y b e seen from a c o m p a r i s o n of t h r e e p a s s a g e s already cited : Ps. l x i v . ( l x v . ) 4 : XB ras daeBeias wutov ai) IXdari 1 - > o> < , < w f = D : H » n nn* ^ r c r e . X l rais aoepeiais rj/juov av lAaarj} • • P s . l x x v i i . (Ixxviii.) 38, /cat IXdoerai rals dpuapriais avrtov = ]iy • P s . I x x v i i i . ( I x x i x . ) 9, /cat lXda9rjri rals dpiapriais rjpitov — J
u
C
a
T
T
T h e difference b e t w e e n m i d d l e a n d p a s s i v e in t h e G r e e k d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a n y difference in t h e H e b r e w t r a n s l a t e d ; it is n o t a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n y difference in c o n s t r u c t i o n ; n o r d o e s it c o n v e y a n y difference of m e a n i n g . A g a i n , t h e r e is n o g r a m m a t i c a l difference b e t w e e n t h e m i d d l e w i t h a d i v i n e s u b j e c t a n d t h e m i d d l e w ith a h u m a n s u b j e c t , or b e t w e e n t h e H e b r e w e x p r e s s i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s e uses. T h u s t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e p a s s i v e w h e r e r
9*
THE
BIBLE
AND THE
GREEKS
G o d is t h e s u b j e c t c a n n o t b e h e l d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e sense of " p r o p i t i a t i o n " w a s still a l i v e in s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s . T o all a p p e a r a n c e t h e aorist IXaodrjvai w a s felt a s a m i d d l e —not " to be propitiated b u t " t o be propitious or gracious towards a n d s o " t o f o r g i v e " (cf. m y o b s e r v a t i o n s in s u m m i n g u p u n d e r B . ) . 5. Egi\dcrK€crOai in m i d d l e , w i t h a c c u s a t i v e o f direct object, a n d with human subject = " to appease " p l a c a t e " (cf. i&XdoKeodai as rendering of r & n , B . 6 y
supra). Gen. x x x i i .
20,
igiXdoopuai
TO
TrpoauMiov avrov
iv
TOZS
SiOpOLS.
Prov. x v i . 1 4 , Qvpios jSacriAcW dyyeXos avrjp be aocpos egcAaoerai
Oavdrov, avrov.
I c a n find n o o t h e r e x a m p l e . I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t n o i n s t a n c e of t h i s class o c c u r s w h e r e t h e o b j e c t is t h e D e i t y . T h i s u s e therefore d o e s n o t s t r i c t l y b e l o n g t o o u r p r e s e n t s u b j e c t , since i&XdoKeodai is n o t here a religious t e r m . 6. 'E£iXaop,a t w i c e = ^83 . €L
I Kms. x i i . 3, e/c x P°s TLVOS etXrjcfra i£tXaop,a. Ps. x l v i i i . 8, ov 8o)0€L rep deep i£iXaop,a avrov. 193 , u s u a l l y r e n d e r e d Xvrpov, avraXXaypua, dvr air ohop,a is t
n o t p r o p e r l y a religious t e r m a t all. I t m e a n s " e q u i v a l e n t " compensation ", and then especially " the equivalent of a life " ransom T h u s in 1 Kms. x i i . 3 t h e s p e a k e r is S a m u e l . T h a t G o d is t h e r e c i p i e n t of t h e 193 i n c e r t a i n cases is a c c i d e n t a l , s o far a s t h e m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d itself is c o n c e r n e d ; t h a t is t o s a y , t h e w o r d d o e s n o t , b e c a u s e G o d is t h e r e c i p i e n t , a c q u i r e t h e sense of " p r o p i t i a t i o n T h e e x a c t r e l a t i o n of 193 t o t h e v e r b 193 is s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e ; b u t i n a n y c a s e t h e n e w L i d d e l l a n d S c o t t is w r o n g in g i v i n g t h e L X X m e a n i n g of iglXaapia a s " p r o p i t i a t o r y offering 193 is n e v e r a p r o p i t i a t o r y 92
ATONEMENT offering, n o r is t h e r e a n y g r o u n d f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e L X X so understood it. T o s u m u p : t h e g e n e r a l u s a g e of w o r d s o f t h e IXdoKeudai class t o r e n d e r n £ 3 a n d i t s d e r i v a t i v e s c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s w e h a v e d r a w n from t h e i r u s e t o r e n d e r o t h e r H e b r e w w o r d s , a n d from t h e s y n o n y m s u s e d e l s e w h e r e t o render the same Hebrew words, v i z . that t h e L X X trans l a t o r s d i d n o t r e g a r d 1 ^ 3 ( w h e n u s e d a s a religious t e r m ) a s c o n v e y i n g t h e sense of p r o p i t i a t i n g t h e D e i t y , b u t t h e sense of p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t w h e r e b y g u i l t o r defilement is r e m o v e d , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y r e n d e r e d it b y IXdaKeodai in t h i s sense. T h e r e is n o e x c e p t i o n f a l l i n g u n d e r C . T h u s o u r t h r e e lines o f e n q u i r y l e a d t o a c o m m o n c o n c l u s i o n . T h e r e a r e o n l y four p a s s a g e s in t h e L X X w h i c h c o u l d b e m a d e t o s u p p o r t a different c o n c l u s i o n . T h r e e of t h e s e (see B . 6) w e h a v e seen t o b e d e f i n i t e l y e x c e p t i o n a l , and t o indicate that while the translators were aware of t h e m e a n i n g o f IXdoKtoOai = " t o p r o p i t i a t e t h e D e i t y t h e y r e g a r d e d i t a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e religion of I s r a e l . I n t h e f o u r t h p a s s a g e , Ps. c v . 30 (see B . 7 ) , I s h o u l d b e i n c l i n e d , in v i e w o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e , t o t a k e ^ i^iXdaaro in i t s u s u a l sense o f " m a d e a n a c t of e x p i a t i o n I F o r t h e rest, w e h a v e a t t h e m o s t f a i n t e c h o e s o r r e m i n ; iscenccs of a dead meaning. T h u s Hellenistic Judaism, as j represented b y t h e L X X , does not regard the cultus as a j means of pacifying t h e displeasure of t h e D e i t y , b u t as a m e a n s of delivering m a n from sin, a n d it looks in the last jresort t o G o d h i m s e l f t o p e r f o r m t h a t d e l i v e r a n c e , t h u s e v o l v i n g a m e a n i n g of lXdcrK€<j$ai s t r a n g e t o n o n - b i b l i c a l Greek. Finally, w e m a y a p p l y the results gained to the inter p r e t a t i o n of c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . c
I . Lk. x v i i i . 1 3 , O ©eds iXdcrOrjTL jxoi rep dfiaprcoXco.
T h i s f o l l o w s c l o s e l y t h e m o d e l of B . 3, 5, C . 4 , w h e r e , a s w e h a v e seen, t h e p a s s i v e m e a n i n g h a s e v a p o r a t e d . T h e
93
THE BIBLE
AND
THE
GREEKS
m e a n i n g is n o t " b e p r o p i t i a t e d but " be merciful to me or " forgive me 2. Heb. ii. 1 7 , els TO IXdoKead ai TOLS dfiaprCas TOV Xaov. T h i s is v i r t u a l l y a q u o t a t i o n o f O l d T e s t a m e n t u s a g e s f a l l i n g u n d e r C . 1. C h r i s t is r e p r e s e n t e d as p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t w h e r e b y m e n are d e l i v e r e d from t h e g u i l t of t h e i r s i n , n o t w h e r e b y G o d is p r o p i t i a t e d . Heb. v i i i . 1 2 , o n IXetos eo-o/xat r a t s ' d8u
