The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

The Ancient Near East An Encyclopedia for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief JackM. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 1 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS An Imprint of The Gale Group NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT

Copyright © 2000 Charles Scribner's Sons All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons. Developed for Charles Scribner's Sons by Visual Education Corporation, Princeton, N.J. ForScribners PUBLISHER: Karen Day SENIOR EDITOR: Timothy J. DeWerff COVER DESIGN: Lisa Chovnick, Tracey Rowens For Visual Education Corporation EDITORIAL DIRECTOR: Darryl Kestler PROJECT DIRECTOR: Meera Vaidyanathan WRITERS: Jean Brainard, John Haley, Mac Austin, Charles Roebuck, Rebecca Stefoff EDITORS: Dale Anderson, Carol Ciaston, Linda Perrin, Caryn Radick ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Lauren Weber COPYEDITING MANAGER: Helen Castro COPY EDITOR: Marie Enders PHOTO RESEARCH: Sara Matthews PRODUCTION SUPERVISOR: Marcel Chouteau PRODUCTION ASSISTANT: Brian Suskin INTERIOR DESIGN: Maxson Crandall, Rob Ehlers ELECTRONIC PREPARATION: Cynthia C. Feldner, Christine Osborne, Fiona Torphy ELECTRONIC PRODUCTION: Rob Ehlers, Lisa Evans-Skopas, Laura Millan, Isabelle Ulsh

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Ancient Near East: an encyclopedia for students / Ronald Wallenfels, editor in chief; Jack M. Sasson, consulting editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-684-80597-9 (set: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-80589-8 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-684-80594-4 (vol. 2) — ISBN 0-684-80595-2 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-684-80596-0 (vol. 4) 1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Dictionaries, Juvenile. [1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Encyclopedias.] I. Wallenfels, Ronald. II. Sasson, Jack M. DS57.A6772000 939'.4—dc21

00-056335

TABLE OF CONTENTS MAPS sc CHARTS Volume 1 The Akkadian Empire, ca. 2200 B.C The Empire of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C Ancient Near Eastern Scripts Anatolia, ca. 1500-700 B.C Arabia and Its Neighbors, ca. 1000 B.C The Neo-Assyrian Empire, 744-612 B.C The Neo-Babylonian Empire Under Nabonidus, 555-539 B.C Central Asia, ca. 1000 B.C Time Line of Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations

19 24 29 37 50 88 103 153 167

Volume 2 Development of the Cuneiform Script Principal Road Connections of the Uruk Period, ca. 3500-3000 B.C Ancient Egypt Gems of the Ancient Near East Physical Map of the Ancient Near East, ca. 1500 B.C

20 48 58 115 119

The Hittite Empire, ca. 1300-1200 B.C Principal Symbols of Mesopotamian Deities

169 184-185

Volume 3 The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the mid-800s B.C Language Families of the Ancient Near East Price of Goods During the Old Babylonian Empire Mesopotamia Staff of the Temple at Nippur The Persian Empire Trading Empire of the Phoenicians, First Millennium B.C

14 48 73 94 159 172 185

Volume 4 Sites of Pyramids in Ancient Egypt Ancient Sumer, ca. 3500-2800 B.C Ancient Syria, ca. 2000-1200 B.C Development of Writing

21 101 110 170

COLOR PLATES Volume 1

Volume 3

Color plates for Religion

Color plates for Architecture and Tombs

Volume 2

Volume 4

Color plates for Daily Life

Color plates for Arts and Culture

VOLUME I Preface The Near East in Prehistoric Times A Time Line of the Ancient Near East

A Abu Simbel Abydos

Adad Aegean Sea Afterlife Agriculture Ahab Ahmose Ahriman

Ahura Mazda Akhenaten Akhetaten Akkad and the Akkadians Alalakh Alexander the Great Alphabets V

Table of Contents

Amarna Amorites Amulets and Charms Amun Anat Anatolia Animals Animals, Domestication of Animals in Art Anu Arabia and the Arabs Aramaeans Archaeology and Archaeologists Architecture Ark of the Covenant Armies Art, Artisans, and Artists Artaxerxes I, II, and III Aryans Ashur (city) Ashur (deity) Ashurbanipal Ashurnasirpal II Assyria and the Assyrians Astrology and Astrologers Astronomy and Astronomers

Aten Athaliah

B Baal Baal Cycle Babylon Babylonia and the Babylonians Bactria Bahrain Bas-Reliefs Behistun Inscription Bible, Hebrew Birds in Art Book of the Dead Books and Manuscripts Bricks Building Materials Burial Sites and Tombs Byblos

c

Camels Canaan Canals Capital Punishment Caravans Caria and the Carians Carthage gatal Huyuk Cats Cattle Caucasus Cavalry Central Asia Cereal Grains Chaldea and the Chaldeans Chariots Childbirth Children Chronicles Chronology Cities and City-States Index

Calendars Cambyses II

VOLUME 2 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East C (Continued)

Clay Tablets Cleopatra Climate Clothing Communication Cosmetics Creation Myths Crete Cults Cuneiform Cyprus Cyrus the Great

D Damascus Dance

vi

Darius I and Darius III Date Palms and Dates David Death and Burial Decipherment Demons Disasters, Natural Divorce Djoser Dreams Drought Dynasties

E Ea Earthquakes Ebla Economy and Trade Edicts

Education Egypt and the Egyptians El Elam and the Elamites Enlil Entertainment Environmental Change Epic Literature Eridu Esarhaddon Eshnunna Ethnic and Language Groups Eunuchs Euphrates River

F Faience Family and Social Life Famine

Table of Contents

Feasts and Festivals Fertile Crescent Fishing Flax Flood Legends Floods Food and Drink Fortifications Furnishings and Furniture

G Games Gardens Gates Gems Gender and Sex Geography Gilgamesh Giza Glass and Glassmaking

Goats Gods and Goddesses Government Greece and the Greeks Gudea

H Hair Hamitic Languages Hammurabi Hammurabi, Code of Hanging Gardens of Babylon Harbors Hathor Hatshepsut Health Hebrews and Israelites Hellenistic World Herodotus Hieroglyphics

History and Historiography Hittites Horses Horus Houses Human Form in Art Humor Hunting Hurrians Hyksos Hymns

I Iconography Incense Indo-European Languages Index

VOLUME 3 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East

I (Continued) Inscriptions Iran Irrigation Isaiah Ishtar Isis Israel and Judah Ivory

j

Jeremiah Jericho Jerusalem Jewelry Judaism and Jews

K Kalkhu Karkamish

Karnak Kassites Khatti Khattusha Khattushili I Khattushili III Khepat Khufu King Lists Kings Kish Knossos Kumarbi Kush and Meroe

L Labor and Laborers Lagash Land Use and Ownership Languages Lapis Lazuli Law Libraries and Archives Libyans

Lions Lisht Literature Love Lunar Theory Luwians Luxor Lycia and the Lycians Lydia and the Lydians

M Macedonia Magic Maps Marduk Mari Markets Marriage Mathematics Measurement Medes Medicine Mediterranean Sea, Trade on Megiddo

vii

Table of Contents Melukkha Memphis Merchants Mesopotamia Messengers Metals and Metalworking Migration and Deportation Mining Minoan Civilization Money Monotheism Mosaic Law Moses Mummies Music and Musical Instruments Mycenae and the Mycenaeans Mythology

Names, Personal Naram-Sin Naval Power Nebuchadnezzar II Necho II Nefertiti Neo-Hittites Nile River Nineveh Nippur Nitokris Nomads and Nomadism Nubia and the Nubians Numbers and Numerals Nuzi

N

Obsidian Offerings Olives Oman Peninsula

Nabonidus Nabopolassar

o

Omens Oracles and Prophecy Osiris

p Palaces and Temples Papyrus Parthia Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel Peasants Perfumes Persepolis Persian Empire Persian Wars Pharaohs Philistines Phoenicia and the Phoenicians Index

VOLUME 4 A Time Line of the Ancient Near East P (Continued) Phrygia and the Phrygians Pigs Planets Poetry Polygamy Pottery Prayer Pregnancy Priests and Priestesses Property and Property Rights Proverbs Psalms Ptolemy I Pyramids

Q Queens viii

R

Ramses II Ramses III Record Keeping Red Sea Religion Rhodes Rituals and Sacrifice Rivers Roads Rosetta Stone

s Sahara Desert Samaria Samaritans Samsu-iluna Sardinia Sardis Sargon I Sargon II

Satraps Schools Science and Technology Scribes Sculpture Scythia and the Scythians Seals Sea Peoples Seleucid Empire Semiramis Semites Semitic Languages Sennacherib Servants Seth Setyl Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser V Shamshi-Adad I Sheep Shipping Routes Ships and Boats Shulgi

Table of Contents Shuppiluliuma I Sidon Sinai, Mount Sinai Peninsula Slaves and Slavery Social Institutions Soldiers Solomon Sphinx Stars Stone Sudan Sumer and the Sumerians Sumerian Language Sun Susa and Susiana Syria

T Taharqa Taxation Ten Commandments Teshub Textiles Thebes Theology Thera Thutmose III Tiglath-pileser III

Tigris River Tools Torah Trade Routes Transportation and Travel Troy Tutankhamen Tyre

u Ugarit Umma Ur Urartu Urbanization Ur-Nammu Uruk

V Valley of the Kings Valley of the Queens Volcanoes

w Walled Cities Wall Paintings

Wars and Warfare Water Weapons and Armor Wine Witchcraft Women, Role of Wood and Woodworking Work Writing

x Xerxes

Y Yahweh

z Ziggurats Zimri-Lim Zodiac Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Suggested Readings Photo Credits Index

ix

PREFACE The American public seems to have a keen interest in worlds of long ago and far away. Television and radio programs, newspaper articles, magazines, and now a burgeoning number of Internet sites present the latest dramatic findings, such as newly discovered tombs, shipwrecks, and inscriptions. Also available are the latest interpretations of evidence as well as a constant stream of material on the ancient world, especially ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Bible. The public's interest stems from a fascination with ancient treasures and mysteries, and at a more personal and emotional level, from a desire to search for cultural and religious roots. Despite, or perhaps because of, the scope of the readily available material, the public seems to hold a rather parochial view of the ancient world, especially of the ancient Near East. Stereotyped ideas persist, including the notion that the roots of western culture lie almost exclusively in ancient Greece and Rome, that Greek culture was largely indigenous, that pharaonic Egypt is the oldest civilization, and that the Bible is largely limited to its connections to these cultures. As a result, nearly everyone has heard of Julius Caesar, King Tut (Tutankhamen), Queen Cleopatra, and King Solomon, but beyond name recognition, few have any real knowledge of who they were, when they lived, or their real significance in history. Fewer yet, beyond those who attend Sunday school, will have much awareness of such peoples as the Amorites, Aramaeans, Assyrians, Canaanites, Hittites, Medes, Phoenicians, or Phrygians, let alone individual figures. And virtually none, beyond those with advanced education or deep abiding interests in ancient history, will have even heard of the Carians, Edomites, Elamites, Hurrians, Luwians, Lycians, Lydians, Moabites, Scythians, or Urartians. The publication by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1995 of Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (CANE), edited by Jack M. Sasson, presented for the first time to college and secondary school teachers, their students, and the educated layman a rich and balanced view of the history and cultures of the ancient Near East. The X

work is a diverse collection of nearly 200 essays written by scholars of international repute, including anthropologists, archaeologists, art historians,biblicists, historiographers, and philologists. CANE contains a thorough treatment of the history and culture of the core of the ancient Near East, including Syria, the Levant, Iraq, and western Iran, and links those regions with the Eastern Mediterranean world of Greece and Egypt to the west and Anatolia and Central Asia to the north and east. The essays span the period from the time of the invention of writing toward the end of the fourth millennium B.C. through the invasion of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great near the end of the fourth century B.C. The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students (ANE) is largely an alphabetized abstract of CANE, tailored especially for young readers. It is a companion volume to Ancient Greece and Rome (1998), which likewise was drawn in part from a more academic Scribner work, Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome (1988). ANE is a tribute to the efforts of Scribners' Karen Day and Timothy J. DeWerff for producing a student encyclopedia that is readable and visually appealing, and at the same time, a reasonable reflection of the current state of scholarly understanding. It fell to Visual Education Corporation of Princeton, N.J., to take what began as a shopping list of subjects assembled by Jack Sasson and me and develop an entry list addressing the significant aspects of ancient Near Eastern history and culture. The criteria for selection for the final entry list included coverage in CANE; significance and interest to young readers; tie-ins to the middle school and high school curricula; and importance to, and representation of, the region. The text itself had to be reshaped for a younger audience and updated to include new discoveries and interpretations, while preserving the academic integrity of the parent work. The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students has several important features. The major column contains the text, while the minor column is filled with items that explain and enhance the text: definitions of unfamiliar

Preface terms; time lines that place lengthy articles in historical perspective; and sidebars that expand the main text. Many of the sidebars fall underone of two special categories—AncientTexts, featuring extracts from ancient literary works, and Diggersand Decipherers, describing archaeologicalefforts in the region. Each categoryis marked by a special icon:

No project of such scope is ever possible without the help of many people. I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help and support ofstaff theat Visual Education Corporation, including Darryl Kestler, Meera Vaidyanathan, Dale Anderson, Caryn Radick, and Marcel Chouteau. I also wishto expressmy deepest appreciation to Jack Sasson, who, throughout this project, lent his expertise at so many levels, from his profound knowledge of the ancient Near East to his experience as editorin chief CANE. of I would also like to express my gratitude to those scholars who so willingly obliged me with particulars on topics that, in afield this large, were beyond my Cross-references to related articles appear both own ability to evaluate. They include Prof.Tzvi Abush, within the text and at the end of most entries. The set Prof. Gary Beckman, Prof. Linda Bregstein, Dr. L. Timcontains more than 150 black-and-white photographs othy Doty,Prof.Erica Ehrenberg, Prof. StephenA. and 60full-color plates, providing students with images Geller, Prof. Ogden Goelet,Dr. Peter James,Dr. Oscar of the people, places,artifacts, and events in the ancient White Muscarella,Dr.KarenR. Nemet-Nejat, Rabbi Near East. The work also contains 27 maps and charts Sally Preisand,and Dr.KarenS. Rubinson. to illustrate important topics, a comprehensive time Lastly, although always first in my heart, many line to highlight important events in the history of the thanks to mywife, CatherineM. Herriges, and our ancient NearEast, and a listof suggested readingsand two wonderful sons, Joshua Seanand Jesse Walter,for Internet sites. Finally, the design at the top of the page permitting me to pursue my life's work through their in each volumefeatures an ancient script: cuneiform love and support. I hope these volumes will finally (Volume 1), hieroglyphics (Volume2), Phoenician (Volenable the boys to answer for themselves the quesume 3), and Hebrew (Volume4). tion, "What does Daddy do for a living?" Ronald Wallenfels Fair Haven, NJ.

xi

THE NEAR EAST IN PREHISTORIC TIMES by Ronald Wallenfels

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* domestication adaptation for human use * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

xii

Historians—people who study events of the past—try to put events in chronological order, from the past to the present, and try to explain the causes of those events. Historians learn about the ancient world by reading and studying inscriptions that have survived from those times and by examining other physical remains, such as palaces, temples, houses, burial sites, and tombs, along with the pottery, tools, jewelry, sculpture, and other artifacts* that these sites might contain. A historian's ability to understand the past is limited by the quality and quantity of objects available to study. Few ancient artifacts have survived the wear and tear of thousands of years, and fewer still have been found. This encyclopedia will help you learn about the history of the ancient Near East, a time and place where most of the inventions needed for a civilized life were first developed. As you use this encyclopedia, you might read about the development of agriculture, irrigation, and metalworking, and the domestication* of animals. You might turn to articles about the inventions of pottery, the wheel, and writing. You then might read how these developments and inventions helped create new social institutions that led to the growth of cities and city-states*, which in turn led to developments in government and law, the outbreak of wars, and the need for RECORD KEEPING. These events brought growth in mathematics, science, and technology. You might also read about the people who made this history, from kings, queens, priests, and priestesses to soldiers, peasants, and slaves. Of all the occurrences in the ancient Near East, historians often consider the practice of agriculture the most important development. Beginning about 10,000 years ago, agriculture led our hunter-gatherer ancestors to settle so that they could care for their crops as they grew, protect what they harvested and stored, and prepare the land for the next season of planting. However, the beginning of agriculture was not the beginning of human history. Our history goes much further back than that. Anthropologists—scientists who study human origins—believe that fossils found in east Africa show that there were small bands of hominids—humanlike creatures—walking erect on their hind legs more than 2.5 million years ago. Although the brains of these hominids were less than half the size of the brains of modern humans, they were able to make simple recognizable stone tools. During the next 2 million years, the fossil record shows that as the brain size of the hominids increased, so did their ability to make complex stone tools. The fossil record also indicates

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * gruel thin porridge

that these creatures began to explore new environments, with some leaving Africa by way of the Near East and moving into Asia and Europe. During this long period when the hominids were developing, the earth's climate became unstable. Beginning about 1 million years ago, the earth began to experience the first of several Ice Ages. The reasons for the climate changes are not well understood, but many astronomers believe that they resulted from slight variations in the earth's orbit around the sun that made the earth warmer during some periods and cooler at others. During an Ice Age, which usually lasted about 100,000 years, the earth became much colder, drier, and dustier, causing dramatic environmental changes across the planet. These Ice Ages ended as suddenly as they began, allowing the earth to warm again. The interglacial periods—years between Ice Ages—appear to have lasted between 10,000 and 20,000 years. The first fully modern humans, identical to us in every way, appeared in east Africa between about 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. The arrival of the last Ice Age, about 120,000 years ago, did not stop these humans from expanding out of Africa. They eventually replaced their older Asian and European hominid cousins. They became the first people to enter the Americas by way of a land bridge that connected Siberia and Alaska. From the beginning, these modern humans possessed spoken language. They developed and constantly improved new toolmaking technologies that included instruments made of bone, antler, and probably wood as well as stone. These people became expert hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. They developed art and music and adorned themselves with beads and shells. They buried their dead with grave goods, which suggests that they took part in rituals and believed in an AFTERLIFE. Differences in grave goods may indicate distinctions in social status, with more numerous and elaborate objects being buried with members of society who were considered more important. By about 14,000 years ago, the ice was melting at a steady yet rapid pace, again causing widespread environmental changes. Still living by hunting and gathering, the scattered bands of humans found it necessary either to move and follow the herds they hunted or to adapt themselves, where possible, to the new environments. The number of archaeological* sites for this period are rare and are often quite difficult to date. One group of people from this period stands out. Living in the Levant* and SYRIA between about 10,000 and 8,000 B.C., these people— now known as the Natufians—gathered wild cereal grasses such as the barley and wheat that grew in the region. They cut these grasses with tools that used tiny flint blades called microliths. These peoples took the edible seeds of these grasses and ground them into meal, which they probably mixed with water to make gruel*. The Natufians also gathered nuts, berries, and snails for food. They fished, fowled, and occasionally hunted and ate goat, gazelle, deer, and bear. They also had dogs, which they possibly used for maintaining their herds of wild goats. Living in small circular huts made of plant materials, the Natufians established and maintained permanent villages. Trade routes existed throughout the region where the Natufians lived. One type of goods they exchanged, seashells, was traded across great distances from their sources along the shores of the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Other luxury trade items included carved stone and bone objects and engraved ostrich eggshells. As successful as these Natufian hunter-gatherers

xiii

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

* Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

* vermin small harmful animals that are difficult to control * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C.

* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

xiv

appear to have been, however, they seem to have moved away or died out after about 2,000 years in the region, perhaps as a result of changes in the still-shifting climate. Shortly before about 8000 B.C., the earliest Neolithic period* farmers appeared. Living in places across Syria and the Levant, they planted seeds for cereal grasses that they would harvest later. Most of the harvested seed was stored for consumption throughout the year and for planting the following year's crop. One such group of farmers settled around a spring at JERICHO near the Jordan River in the present-day West Bank. These people built rectangular houses out of mud brick*. They also erected a thick circular stone tower, more than 30 feet tall, behind a massive stone wall. Their success in all these undertakings required new heights of imagination and long-term planning. To accomplish tasks no individual could possibly manage alone, it was necessary for the 2,000 or so members of this town to work together, some giving and others taking direction. Many further developments occurred during the centuries that followed. Around 7600 B.C. the people who lived at the site of Mureybet, Syria, were making baked-clay objects—vases and female figures. By about 7000 B.C. the animal herders at Jericho had begun to mate their goats to bring out desirable traits—long hair and greater milk production. The breeding of cattle and other animals soon followed. Around the same time at £ayonii in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the earliest copper artifacts found to date were being produced. At Bouqras in Syria, archaeologists have uncovered ceramic pottery dating as far back as about 6500 B.C. Used for cooking and serving food, this pottery, the oldest yet found, could also be closed with a clay plug to store and ship grain or other products. Earlier, food products had been stored in stone- and plaster-lined pits and had been transported in leather bags or woven baskets that were susceptible to attack by vermin*. By the end of the seventh millennium B.C.*, craftspeople from northern Mesopotamia were decorating their handmade pottery by attaching small clay pellets or by scratching designs onto the pot's surface. Shortly thereafter, they began to paint the surface of the pottery with simple geometric designs. Over time, the designs became more complex and began to include animal and human figures. The need to prevent others from tampering with the contents of storage containers brought about a new use for stamp SEALS—small pieces of bone, stone, wood, or clay with a flat surface on which a design was engraved— which had until then been used for imprinting designs on plaster, cloth, and bread. By about 6000 B.C. seals were being pressed into the soft clay plugs used to close the mouths of jars. The seal impression on the plugs signified that the contents of the jar were untouched; a broken or missing seal impression meant that the contents had been tampered with. Clay seals and seal impressions found at the Syrian site of Sabi Abyad show that they were applied to baskets, stone bowls, and leather bags as well as to ceramic vessels. Early in the sixth millennium B.C.*, farming communities began to appear farther and farther south on the plains along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although the region had extremely fertile soil, its rainfall was not sufficient to grow cereal crops. As a result, the farmers turned to the rivers

The Near East in Prehistoric Times

famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar material deposited by running water

for water. By digging channels and canals away from the rivers' banks, fanners could divert water to their fields and irrigate them throughout the year. Although irrigation had been used much earlier, these farmers in southern Mesopotamia faced special problems. In the autumn, which was when the newly planted crops required the most water, the rivers were at their lowest levels. In the spring, when the crops needed to be dry while forming their seeds, the rivers flooded, often violently. To better control the flow of water, farmers dug longer, wider canals. The construction of these canals and their constant maintenance—artificial river channels tended to become clogged with silt very quickly—required new levels of decision-making and cooperation within the community. Among other consequences, the lack or excess of water could lead to a famine*, which could destroy a community. As societies grew, new social and religious institutions began to develop, enabling people to lead closer and more interdependent lives. The roles that people played within society changed as responsibilities for different tasks were divided among the people who were now becoming increasingly specialized. Religion became more organized and centralized as is evident at the site of ERIDU, which is situated at the edge of the marshes near the Persian Gulf. Archaeologists have excavated buildings at the site dating to about 5400 B.C. and have identified them as shrines or temples. These are the oldest temple-like structures found to date. Priests probably performed rituals in these locations and directed the members of the community to bring offerings and make sacrifices. During the fifth millennium B.C.*, the people of southern Mesopotamia belonged to what is called the Ubaid culture, named for Tell alUbaid, the site where their pottery was first found. The Ubaid culture spread as no other culture before it had. Ubaid pottery from about 4000 B.C.—made on a slow wheel—has been found throughout ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), as well as in neighboring Syria, IRAN, and the Arabian peninsula. Some scholars believe that the Ubaid people were trying to control the trade routes leading to such raw materials as stone and wood. This was especially necessary for them because the flat alluvial* plains of Mesopotamia lacked natural sources of these materials. Around 4000 B.C. further social and economic developments began to transform the landscape. The once numerous and evenly spread Ubaid villages of southern Mesopotamia were replaced by a few large settlements that would, in less than 1,000 years, become the world's first true cities. This marked the beginning of the Uruk period which was named after the ancient city of URUK, where the changes were first apparent. New developments there include the mass production of simple wheel-made pottery, the use of the wheel for transport, the creation of carved stone vessels and cylinder seals, the use of the ox-drawn plow, and increased production of copper for tools. The need for complex record keeping to coordinate production and consumption of food, clothing, and the wealth of new luxury goods brought about the development of writing, which replaced the clay-token counting system that had been in use since about 8000 B.C. At the center of Uruk, an enormous temple complex developed and its chief priest appears to have governed the city. By the end of the period, around 3200 B.C., history had truly begun for the residents of southern Mesopotamia, whom we can now truly identify as Sumerians after their own name for their land, Sumer. xv

A TIME LINE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Neolithic period ca. 9000-4000b.c

Mesopotamia

Anatolia

Wii!lii^^:l

fllllP

"t^^&s

'^j^i

||p^^ji^j||j|Bi "j^j^^^^tj^ pii|||^^^^^

xvi

X:Kalcolithic Period ca, 4000-3000 B.C.

Neofrthic culture in northern Mesopotamia Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 B.C. Earliest evidence of pottery, ca, 6500 B.C. Ubaid settlements in southern Mesopotamia

m^uNWjperimi/:

Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 &c £atal HCyuk irtiabited Eartiest evidence of pottery ca. 63W) B.C.

P^vefopmeilt ofagricultural and tmrflng ccttniuftfbes

Agricy fture first piadiced, ca;8500B,c* Setttementofjertoho > Domestication of animals, ca, 7300 ex. Eartiest evidence of pottery, ca. 5600 B,C.

De^JopmerStoif ^pricMltiiral #nd trying corrtfpuntties

Earliest permanent farming settlements in northern Egypt, ca,52wB,c Ealflest Science
Inscriptions

the gods andfuture kings. Such inscriptions were usuallynotillustrated and were placedin the foundationorsome other out-of-the-waypart of a palace or temple. They describehowwelltheking servedthegodsand contain instructionsfor futurekings. Becausetemples were frequently rebuilt, a king could expect thatasuccessor would findthese inscriptions and be suitably impressedby hispredecessor'saccomplishments. The most commonly preserved formofinscribed material from Mesopotamia TABLET. CLAY is theSome 500,000clay tablets have been recovered to date. They spantheperiod from B.C.about through 3300 at least thefirst century A.D. Mostof the tablets arerecords ofvarious kinds from palaces, temples,andprivate households. They include sales receipts, leases, accounts, letters, marriage contracts, wills, and court decisions.Another important groupoftablets includetheschoolwork of studentsand teachers, ranging fromsimple lists ofsigns and 3

Inscriptions * epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

I Destroyed, I Felled, I Conquered The following is an inscription describing a victory of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II: / besieged [and] conquered the city. I felled 3,000 of their fighting men with the sword. I carried off prisoners, possessions, oxen... from them. I burnt many captives from them. I captured many troops alive: I cut off some of their arms [and] hands; I cut off of others their noses, ears, [and] extremities. I gouged out the eyes of many troops. I made one pile of the living [and] one of the heads. I hung their heads on trees around the city. I burnt their adolescent boys [and] girls. I... destroyed, burnt, consumed the city.

4

Sumerian and Akkadian words to mathematics problems, epics*, myths, and legends. Egypt. Egypt is known for large inscriptions in tombs, monuments, and temples. The earliest inscriptions are displays of laws and decrees. Not until the establishment of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.) did pharaohs* inscribe their military exploits in detail. King Kamose commissioned three inscribed stelae to celebrate his military victories over the HYKSOS. King THUTMOSE III described 21 years of military campaigns, including a list of the spoils of war, which he offered to the god Amun-Ra. These inscriptions are found variously on stelae and on the walls of the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Those found at the temple were in recognition of Amun-Ra, who is believed to have granted the king his victory. This was also Thutmose's way of claiming his legitimacy as heir to the throne. Inscriptions in tombs were very important to the ancient Egyptians because they helped guide the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. At first, inscriptions were carved into the walls of tombs; later, inscribed linen shrouds or papyrus scrolls buried with the body helped the soul reach its destination. Tomb inscriptions contained prayers, such as the one the deceased recited on his day of judgment, as well as a ''road map" through the underworld—if he got lost, he could be stuck there for eternity. One especially helpful map was carved into the bottom of the coffin. It showed a safe route through the underworld, including tips on etiquette and advice on repelling snakes and crocodiles. During the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), only members of royalty had these guides along with autobiographical inscriptions, but by the New Kingdom period, many Egyptians were buried with inscribed spells for guidance. Egyptians also left smaller and shorter graffiti inscriptions carved into rock throughout the kingdom. These served as markers to identify the person who visited or passed by or to record significant accomplishments, such as a military victory or a mining expedition that occurred there. The markers were situated on well-traveled routes, so many visitors would see them. Iran. The most important inscription in Iran was the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, carved into the cliffs in the Zagros Mountains. The carvings show Darius Fs triumph over rebels and his ascent to the throne of the Persian empire in 521 B.C. The accompanying text was written in cuneiform in three languages: Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite. Darius arranged for smaller copies of the inscription to be circulated throughout his kingdom. Various inscriptions in the Elamite language have also been found in Iran. One of the earliest is the Treaty of Naram-Sin, from around 2250 B.C., which was found at Susa. This treaty, a series of about 24 tablets, records an agreement between the Elamite king Khita and the Akkadian conqueror, King Naram-Sin. In the treaty, Khita states that Naram-Sin is his ally and promises to provide the Akkadians with troops. Several thousand cuneiform tablets, many containing Elamite inscriptions, have also been

Inscriptions recovered at Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenid empire from the 500s to the 300s B.C. These tablets record the distribution of food, clothing, and silver to various officials throughout the empire.

* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Anatolia. Inscribed royal pronouncements in Hittite Anatolia from around 1600 B.C. were meant to impress. Some detailed a king's military victories, or his "manly deeds/' year by year. These were an early form of autobiography. Some texts looked back and explained a king's actions, justifying his unorthodox or failed activities. An inscribed apology of King KHATTUSHILI III contains his justification for usurping* the throne from a nephew and his thanks to the goddess Ishtar for being his guide and protector. This indicated to the people that it was the gods who wanted him to serve as king. These royal inscriptions, as well as several thousand clay tablets found in the palace archives, were written in a cuneiform script. However, the Hittites also developed their own form of hieroglyphics, which they used on seal inscriptions and monumental reliefs* that were carved on rock faces. The Luwians and the Lycians, who lived in southern and southwestern Anatolia, also left inscriptions. They cut their inscriptions into the faces of rocks. Some are primarily artistic, showing a king engaged in some activity, with an inscription that is merely an identification. Others include long texts giving a context for the art. Luwian inscriptions use a form of Hittite hieroglyphics. Lycian inscriptions—written with a Greeklike alphabet—were carved into rock tombs and consist mainly of burial instructions and prayers. The most important Lycian inscription is the pillar of Xanthus, dating to 400 B.C., which details the military adventures of the Xanthian dynasty. The Levant. In the ancient Near East, the Levant was a crossroads. Everyone traveling by land between Mesopotamia or Iran and Egypt passed through this region, which lies on the eastern border of the Mediterranean Sea. Some of these travelers liked what they saw and stayed. Consequently, inscriptions in every imaginable script appear in virtually every language spoken by these settlers: Luwian, Aramaic, Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, Egyptian, Akkadian, Canaanite, Greek, and Latin. Very early inscriptions in Syria were used to dedicate statues, temples, and palaces. They contained the name of the king and his ancestors, assurances of his approval by the gods, and lists of his civic and military achievements. They also included colorful curses on anyone foolish enough to harm the monument. One such statue is that of Idrimi, king of the city of ALALAKH, in Syria. It is 41 inches tall and dates from the second millennium B.C. In this statue, Idrimi sits on a throne with his left hand in his lap and his right hand over his heart. His expression is serious. The inscription is written in Akkadian cuneiform, but the language reflects Hurrian and West Semitic influences. The 104 lines of inscription are carved into the figure itself. They are written in the first person: 'Thirty years I was king. My achievements I have inscribed on my statue." Idrimi asks people to read this record of his life's work and "let them continually bless me." It includes the requisite curse: "Whoever alters . . . [this statue], 5

Iran may the storm god, lord of heaven and earth, and the great gods annihilate his name and his seed from his land." (See also Papyrus; Scribes; Semitic Languages; Writing.)

IRAN

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

The Treasure ofZiwiye In A,D. 1947, antiquities dealers reported that a treasure of artifacts had been recovered from an iron Age site in Ziwiye, in northwestern Iran, Hundreds of these objects were sold, and scholars published papers based on their conclusions about the artifacts. However, these conclusions were invalid because no one knew the actual place from which the objects had come. Archaeologists eventually investigated a site in Ziwiye and found nothing resembling the treasure that was said to have come from there. The artifacts themselves may be extraordinary, but much of their value to scholars has been lost.

6

L

ocated in southern Asia, south of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea, present-day Iran corresponds roughly to the same region as ancient Iran. It is bordered on the west by Iraq (ancient MESOPOTAMIA) and Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, and on the south by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Iran is known for the diversity of its cultures, both in ancient and in modern times. Geography. The majority of Iran is made up of the huge central Iranian Plateau and its surrounding mountain ranges, the Elburz Mountains to the north and the Zagros Mountains to the west. The central plateau contains two large deserts, the Dasht-i-Lut and the Dasht-i-KavIr. Iran is divided into three main climatic regions. In the south, the coast is hot; the plateau is dry and has milder temperatures; the mountains, particularly the high regions of the northern Elburz, are much colder. Most of Iran receives little rainfall. Human History. The availability of water and access to it have greatly determined the patterns of human habitation in Iran. Populations historically congregated at the edges of the region, in the mountains, and along the coasts, though later the oases* became populated as well. Humans have lived in present-day Iran for many millennia*. The earliest evidence of human habitation, dating from around 10,000 B.C., has been found on the Iranian Plateau. From excavations at old farm sites in the Zagros Mountains, archaeologists* have determined that people were domesticating animals at least as early as 7000 B.C. Archaeologists know far more about human development in southwestern Iran, or present-day Khuzestan, a region that receives more rainfall than much of the rest of the country. Located next to ancient Mesopotamia, the region's development was linked to that of Mesopotamia. Beginning in about 4000 B.C., cultural influences from southern Mesopotamia began to strongly influence local development in southwestern Iran, creating the Proto-Elamite culture. The descendants of the Proto-Elamite people, the Elamites, later dominated the region until 640 B.C. By the end of the third millennium B.C.*, Elam stretched from the borders of Mesopotamia in the south to the Caspian Sea in the north and included the great Iranian deserts. For much of its history, Elamite civilization was centered on the city of Susa (present-day Sush). However, evidence suggests that during the third and into the second millenia B.C., if not earlier, Susa was its own kingdom. Throughout their history, the Elamites were conquered at various times and controlled by the Babylonians and Sumerians, among others. Much less is known about the cultures that thrived in northern Iran. What is known is that a tribe called the Manneans was among several

Iran

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture r

steppe large semiaridgrassy plain few trees

with

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to agreater power

See map on inside covers.

different groups who had built cities andestablished distinct cultures there. The Manneans also controlled trade routes leading to thenorth and eastof Iran. Starting around B.C., 1000 a newARYANS group entered called the Iran. The Aryan tribes wereanomadic* peoplewhomigrated fromthesteppes* ofCENTRAL ASIA intoIranand India. Between B.C., the two 800s and im-600s portant Aryan tribes cameto settle MEDES inIran, andthe thePersians. The Medes settled in the northwest, aregion that became Media.ThePersians settled on the southern plateau, which they named Parsamash (presentday Pars). By theB.C., 600s the Medeshad becomethedominant tribe and controlled an empire stretching from IndiatoAnatolia.ThePersians were their vassals*. All that changed when the GREAT Persian CYRUS THE (ruledking 559-529 B.C.) cameto power.Herebelled against hisgrandfather, the Median kingAstyages, and established Persiaas anindependent state. He successfully conquered most of the surrounding kingdoms, including Babylonia,and created PERSIAN the EMPIRE.With help from hissons, Cyrus expanded the empire to include Egyptandeastern landsinCentral Asia. Cyrus's dynasty later became knownas theAchaemenid dynasty. In 331 B.C.,the Persian empire GREAT was ALEXANDER THE conquered by (ruled 336-323 B.C.). When Alexander died, control of thecore of thePersian empire passed to his general SeleucusI, whofoundedtheSeleucid dynasty, which ruled IranB.C., to the when 260s theParthians took over. Religion. The Elamitesand the Persiansdifferent had religious beliefs. The Elamites, like other ancient Near Eastern peoples, worshiped many

7

Iraq * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * deity god or goddess

* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

Trade. For much of its history, Iran served as the crossroads for the ancient Near East and central and south Asia. Various ancient Iranian kingdoms were involved in international trade throughout the region by the end of the fourth millennium B.C. (the years between 4000 and 3001 B.C.). Lapis lazuli* was very popular all over the ancient Near East and could be found only in what is now northeastern Afghanistan. Sumerian traders traveled through the Zagros Mountains of Iran to obtain lapis lazuli. In the third millennium B.C., the Proto-Elamites and Elamite kingdoms controlled areas with large supplies of tin, an essential product to the peoples of the Bronze Age. Later the Manneans to the north controlled the routes into the Ural Mountains, where copper and precious gems were mined and animal fur was obtained. (See also Darius I and Darius III; Elam and the Elamites; Parthia; Persepolis; Persian Wars; Satraps; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

Iraq

See Mesopotamia.

Iron

See Metals and Metalworking.

Iron Age

IRRIGATION

8

gods and goddesses. Elamite religious cults* played an important role in society, and religious rituals included regular public feasts and OFFERINGS of animal blood to the gods. The Persians practiced a religion called Zoroastrianism. This religion was named for Zoroaster, a prophet* who lived during the 600s B.C. and taught that there was only one god, AHURA MAZDA. At first, Ahura Mazda was the only deity* and was worshiped as a sun god, the creator of all things, and called Wise Lord. Later he was seen as the chief god among others.

See Chronology.

rrigation is the process of supplying WATER to land for AGRICULTURE. NatI ural irrigation depends on normal rainfall and flooding to irrigate land.

Artificial irrigation uses human-made systems to irrigate land that would not otherwise get water. Irrigation by means of ditches, channels, CANALS, basins, and other methods was critical to successful agriculture and thus to the growth of cities. In the ancient Near East, civilizations grew because natural and artificial irrigation allowed people to establish settled communities and live off the land. Developing and managing irrigation

Irrigation contributed to social organization as societies defined their rights and responsibilities for water and land use.

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall

* alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar material deposited by running water * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* dike embankment used to confine or control the flow of water * sluice human-made channel or passage to direct water flow * regulator gate or valve to control amount of water passing through a channel

Early Irrigation. Although cities were established along RIVERS, the earliest attempts at irrigation occurred away from the great rivers. Farming itself began in hill country or on plains where rainfall sustained crops—a method known as dry farming*. At first, the land near the NILE RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESOPOTAMIA was difficult to irrigate. The rivers, especially during flooding, were too large or too destructive for early societies to control. Consequently, the first attempts at irrigation took place where smaller streams spread out during flooding. These regions of streams, called alluvial* plains, or floodplains, were natural places to extend farming beyond a reliance on rainfall. Archaeological* site surveys reveal ancient systems of irrigation and field patterns, even in areas that are now barren. Artificial watering methods were developed in the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Valleys before 5000 B.C., long before the great settlement of southern Mesopotamia. Large-Scale Irrigation. There are two basic ways to extend the reach of a river. The first is to draw water away from the banks of the river by means of channels. Each channel waters a specific area. Such channels run roughly perpendicular from the stream out to the intended area. The other way to extend the fertile area is to cut a channel parallel to the river, widening the river's floodplain. Although details of the earliest irrigation plans are unknown, site surveys suggest that networks of channels and small canals were the early means of large-scale irrigation. As the population grew in Mesopotamia, so did the need for irrigation. In the north, the people were able to rely on rainfall, but in the south, the lands were dry and the people there depended on large-scale irrigation. Most of this effort was directed at the Euphrates River because it was easier to control than the Tigris. The Euphrates also tended to split into branches in the floodplain, which was helpful for irrigation. By about 2500 B.C., larger and more permanent canals and channels began to replace smaller or temporary irrigation systems in Mesopotamia. Building and maintaining canal systems became important political concerns to developing societies. Some scholars believe that the need to construct, control, and administer waterworks directly led to the growth of larger kingdoms. Others disagree, noting that the actual control of the irrigation devices usually remained in the hands of local authorities. Mesopotamians used irrigation to carry out four important tasks necessary for growing crops and avoiding harmful FLOODS. These four tasks were supply, storage, drainage, and protection from unwanted water. Canals, channels, basins, dikes*, and other water management systems performed these roles. Whether waterways ran out in small branches from the river or in larger courses parallel to the main stream, control devices were necessary. A sluice* diverted water to the intended area and could be as simple as a hole in the side of a channel blocked with a board when not in use. Regulators* held water back until it reached a great enough level to flow freely through sluices. Early regulators were as simple

9

Irrigation

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

as piles of brush or reeds, but large, permanent structures of baked brick were constructed as well. Water supply was critical in the late autumn when planting occurred, but the Tigris and the Euphrates were at their lowest then. It was essential for the ancient Mesopotamians to distribute water efficiently and fairly to ensure that everyone got the water necessary for newly planted crops to grow. Rotating the irrigation of fields was the solution. Good timing and division of water were necessary for effective irrigation. Location of crops depended on the irrigation system. Such plants as date palms do best with moist roots, and vegetables need daily watering. Cereal crops, such as wheat, require less frequent watering. Therefore, orchards and vegetable gardens were close to the waterways, while the cereal fields were farther away. The channels served to get water to the more distant cereal crops whenever necessary. Maintenance of the irrigation channels was important to supply. Slow-flowing water left much of its silt in the channel. Silt, reeds, brush, and other debris clogged waterways further, slowing water flow and leading to evaporation. Other problems included salt buildup in the water and leaks. These problems necessitated constant maintenance of irrigation systems, which was the responsibility of officials and workers at the local or village level. In the case of large-scale projects, such as those constructed during the reign of SARGON I (ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), the upkeep depended on cooperation between city-states*. Storing the water from annual floods was difficult. Around each field was a low bank to hold water in the fields. These earthen dikes not only prolonged floods, but also held water to be used during the ten-day to two-week interval between irrigations later in the year. Ancient Near Eastern people also built narrow basins alongside canals, but their purpose is not clear. The basins varied in size, but none was large enough to retain water through the Mesopotamian dry season. Perhaps these small reservoirs were for other crops growing nearby that needed to be watered more frequently than the cereal fields. Draining excess water from the relatively flat land was another important task. If water remained on the land for too long, it would pull up salt from the ground below. This process, called salinization, ruined the fields. One way Mesopotamian farmers tried to avoid salinity was to let fields lie fallow* for a season, but they were often forced to abandon land. Other drainage strategies remain unknown. Protection against floods was a feature of Mesopotamian irrigation as well. In times of high water, the same sluices and regulators that diverted water to the fields were opened to allow as much water as possible to run off the land. Natural Irrigation. In contrast to the hard work of large-scale artificial irrigation in Mesopotamia, Egypt depended mostly on natural irrigation, which consisted largely of working with the natural flow and drainage patterns of the Nile flood. The timing of the annual flood in Egypt was better suited to farming than it was in Mesopotamia. The flood ended in September, just before planting season. The floodplain itself was not flat but slightly rounded outward, allowing water to drain to its edges, carrying away harmful salts. Although marshy areas at the edges of the floodplain

10

Irrigation

* oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases * delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

became salty, elsewhere the fields remained free of salt. Egyptians built channels to extend the reach of the floodwater, allowing it to flow into natural depressions or basins. Irrigation efforts in Egypt consisted primarily of maintaining the Nile banks, the channels through which the water flowed, and dikes that surrounded natural basins. The favorable timing of the flood made the constant labor of irrigation less necessary in Egypt than in Mesopotamia. In Upper Egypt, canals crossed the west side of the Nile Valley. They may have had a role in irrigation, probably directing the natural flood into basins. They could also have helped conserve water for irrigation in years when the Nile did not have a large flood. During the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), a large royal project took place in the Faiyum Depression, a lake and oasis* west of the Nile near the delta*, which is fed by a branch of the Nile called the Bahr Yusuf. Its purpose was to drain the marshes, resulting in the development of more farmland, which would mean more food and wealth. In the Ptolemaic period (305-30 B.C.), the Bahr Yusuf was redirected to fill a valley, creating a reservoir called Lake Moeris. The waters from the lake were used to water a second summer crop. Intensive Artificial Irrigation. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and elsewhere around the Mediterranean, some plants required water daily. Hand-drawn water was the only answer for them. Private GARDENS such as those in Egypt and pleasure gardens such as the HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON used wells or ponds as sources. For large-scale agriculture, however, only high-value crops justified the cost and effort of carrying water by hand. Orchards, vineyards, and vegetable gardens were placed as close to water as possible. Combining certain crops also eased the task of irrigation. For example, fruit trees were grown beneath date palms, and vines were trained on trellises to form leafy shelters. This shading reduced water loss through evaporation. Ancient Syria subsisted on dry farming. Most agriculture in the rest of the Levant*, however, depended on intensive artificial irrigation from springs and wells. JERICHO, one of the earliest urban sites, was near a perennial spring. JERUSALEM, Gibeon, and MEGIDDO used natural springs for their water supplies and developed wells and cisterns, or underground tanks, to conserve them. Protecting the water supply against attackers was crucial to a city. Defenders built increasingly complex systems of camouflage, tunnels, and shafts to protect the water supply. At Megiddo, a shaft went straight down, then joined a tunnel that came from a spring. The tunnel was pitched slightly downward to allow water from the spring to form an underground pool. A similar tunnel discovered in A.D. 1838 near Jerusalem was 1,750 feet long. Another ancient Near Eastern irrigation technique that used tunnels was the qanat system. This system involved using underground mountain water sources—the water was channeled through a series of tunnels. The qanat system originated in Oman in the late second millennium B.C.* It was used in Iran in the early first millennium B.C., and its use spread to the rest of the ancient Near East shortly thereafter. The qanat system is still used in regions with an arid climate. (See also Climate; Floods.) 11

Isaiah

ISAIAH lived ca. 700s B.C. Jewish prophet * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * prophecy message from a deity; also, the prediction of future events

exile person forced to live away from his or her homeland for a long period of time

ISHTAR

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

12

saiah (eye»ZAY»uh) was a priest and prophet* in the kingdom of JuIIdah. Around 742 B.C., he was called to prophecy* when he had a vision

in which he saw the god YAWEH and angels in a heavenly temple. Isaiah then began to urge the people of Judah to observe the worship of Yahweh. Isaiah also criticized social injustice. Isaiah made his prophecies at a time when Judah was at risk of attack by foreign powers, especially Assyria. Believing that the threat was a warning from Yahweh, Isaiah advised the rulers of Judah to show their faith in Yahweh because that, and not their attempts to thwart Assyria by entering into foreign alliances, would deliver their people. Between about 740 and 700 B.C., Isaiah, or one of his followers, wrote the first 39 chapters of the Book of Isaiah, which is included in the Hebrew BIBLE. During the captivity of the Jews in Babylon between 587 and 539 B.C., later writers added several chapters, which they also attributed to Isaiah. Modern scholars attribute chapters 40 through 55 to a "second Isaiah/' and chapters 56 through 66 to a "third Isaiah/' The authors of the later chapters wrote to inspire hope in the Jewish exiles*, who had been removed to Babylon when the Babylonians conquered Judah. The authors claimed that Yahweh would help the Jews and looked to the rise of the Persians as a sign of Yahweh's favor. This proved correct when the Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return home to Judah. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Oracles and Prophecy.)

I

shtar was the most important goddess in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. She was known as Ishtar by the Akkadians; as Inanna, which means "lady of heaven," by the Sumerians; and as Astarte in Syria. Although best known as a goddess of LOVE and fertility, Ishtar was also revered as a fierce goddess of war, especially by the Assyrians. Near Eastern myths reveal different aspects of Ishtar's personality, ancestry, and life. In some, she is the daughter of the sky god ANU or the moon god Nanna; in others, she is the daughter of either ENLIL or EA. In Babylonian mythology, Ishtar is the wife and sister of Tammuz, known as Dumuzi by the Sumerians. In other myths, she has no spouse, and Tammuz is her lover. One popular myth about Ishtar tells of her yearly descent into the netherworld, a realm ruled by her sister Ereshkigal. Ishtar went there in search of Tammuz, who had been forced into the netherworld. His return from the netherworld and reunion with Ishtar became associated with fertility and were linked to the seasons and to the agricultural cycles. Another well-known myth, embedded in the Epic of Gilgamesh, tells how Ishtar offers herself in marriage to the mortal hero GILGAMESH. However, he refuses, insulting her. She then unleashes the fierce Bull of Heaven against him, but Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu manage to kill the bull. Ishtar's most important center of worship was at the city-state* of URUK, which contained a shrine dedicated to her known as E-anna (House of Heaven). Her equivalents were the Greek goddess Aphrodite and the Roman goddess Venus. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses.)

Israel and Judah

iSIS * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

See '(color plate 10, vol. 1.

ISRAEL AND JUDAH

Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

I

sis (EYE^suhs), widely worshiped throughout the Near East, was one of the most important goddesses of ancient Egypt. Isis was viewed as a protector, especially of pregnant women, infants, and children, and as a great magician. Egyptians also believed that she had the power to control their fates and fortunes. Symbolically, Isis was considered the mother of the Egyptian king. To reflect this role, her name was always written with a hieroglyphic* sign that represented a throne. In art and architecture, Isis usually was portrayed wearing the throne symbol on her head or wearing a crown of cow horns with a sun disk between them. Isis was believed to be the sister and wife of OSIRIS, the king of the Egyptian gods. According to Egyptian mythology, Osiris's brother SETH murdered Osiris to take over his position as king of the gods. Seth scattered pieces of Osiris's body throughout Egypt, but Isis found them and put him back together again. Then Isis became pregnant by Osiris and gave birth to a son named HORUS. She raised Horus in secret in the marshes of the Nile Delta, so that he might grow up to avenge the death of Osiris and take the throne from Seth. Isis guarded Horus closely and used her magic to protect him from such dangers as scorpions, spiders, and crocodiles. When Horus became an adult, Isis helped him fight for his rightful inheritance. She convinced the other gods to support him, and Horus became the new king of the gods. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

of Israel and Judah were founded by the Israelite peoTheplekingdoms in the highlands of CANAAN. The kingdoms, which had once been parts of a larger unified kingdom of Israel, were both later overcome by more powerful Near Eastern empires. Because many events in Jewish history occurred in Israel and Judah, modern Jews consider these regions their Holy Land. Christians and Muslims, whose religions are derived in various ways from Judaism and who have their own connections with the regions, also consider several sites there sacred.

Origins of the Kingdoms. There are few sources for the early history of the Israelites outside the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism. However, historians debate the reliability of the Bible as a source of history because much of it was composed many centuries after the events it describes and because of the lack of other supporting sources. Moreover, the editors who compiled the Bible may have been attempting to strengthen national and religious unity by emphasizing the shared past of the Israelite people. The Israelites were a Semitic* people who settled in the highlands of Canaan sometime during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500-1200 B.C.). According to the Bible, they called themselves the children of Israel, or Israelites, after their ancestor Jacob, whom their god YAHWEH had renamed Israel. The Bible also notes that on occasion, outsiders referred to the Israelites as "Hebrews/' which remains a common synonym for them. The Israelites were divided into 12 tribes, each named for one of Jacob's sons

13

Israel and Judah

* famine severelack of food due to failed crops * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god,Yahweh

14

or grandsons (other tribes not attached to Jacob's descendants arealso mentioned in theBible). These tribes livedin Canaanforseveral generations until a famine* forced them to leave. They went toEgypt,where they eventually became slaves untilaMOSES leader freed them named and led them back to Canaan—the Promised Land*. After returning to Canaan,the Israelites gradually expanded their territory. They established the kingdomIsrael of and amassed great wealth under their kings DAVID SOLOMON. and After Solomon's death, however, tensions grew between the northern and southern tribes in the kingdom. Ultimately, around B.C.925 Israelwas split intotwo smallerkingdoms— Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Although thepeople remained united in the worship of Yahweh and in their shared religiousand historical traditions, the kingdoms fought over territoryforabout 50years. No other source recovered to date from the time in which David and Solomon were said to have lived mentions either of the twokings or the

Israel and Judah * stela stoneslab or pillar that has been carved or engraved andservesas a monument; pi.stelae * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

ca. 925B.C.

^^^m

Independent kingdoms of Israel and judah are established.

722 B.C.

BBBB

Assyria conquers Israel

Bfg?BBH

Nebuchadnezzar II occupies Jerusalem.

597 B.C.

500 b>C.

539 B.C. judah becomes a Persian province.

^^^^5|

330 B.C. Judah falls under Macedonian control

^^^^^B 160B.C.

50 b.c

^^^^Bl

^^^^?1

Maccabean revolt erupts in Judah.

63 B.C. Judah falls to Romans

A.D.135 Romans destroy Jerusalem and force Judeans into exile.

empire they created. The earliest knownreference to David occurs on a recently excavated fragment of a victory stela* written by an Aramaean king in the B.C. 800sThe near lack of historical evidence about David and Solomon suggests to some scholars that their achievements may ha been more modest than described in the Bible. A few other scholars even question whether the united monarchy existed. Relying on archaeological* evidence, they suggest that the kingdoms may have emerged separately—Israel around B.C. and 900 Judah B.C. around800

History of Israel. Israel was the larger and the more populated of th two kingdoms. It consisted of 10 of the 12 tribes: Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun. Centered in the region around Mount Ephraim and the Sea of Galilee, Israel possessed good agricultural land, and its people produced grain, wine, and olive oil for export and local use. Israel also controlled major northsouth and east-west trade routes and had many contacts with ancient Near Eastern powers. These economic advantages led to rapid population growth. In 886 B.C., Omri became king of Israel.The first Israelite kingto be mentioned in sources outside the Bible, Omri established a new capital called Samaria, a city that eventually gave its name to the whole kingdom During his reign, Omri engaged in several conflicts with the Moabites, neighbors and enemies of the Israelites. He reconquered lands that had previously been lost whenIsrael split into two kingdoms. Omri was succeeded by ARAB (ruledca. 875-854 B.C.),whoDAMASCUS, foughtan against increasingly powerful city-state* B.C., inSyria. however, In 853 Ahab joinedforces with the king of Damascus and with other nearby kingdoms to fight an invading armyofAssyriansled SHALMANESER by their king, III. They won that battle, but the small states of the Levant* could not ho back the Assyrian empire for long. The Assyrians continued to seize more of Syria and Israel until B.C., when 722 they captured Samariaand brought the kingdom ofIsrael to an end. Assyrian policy called for the relocation of captured populations to minimize the possibility of revolts. TheAssyrians shifted large numbers of Israelites into other parts of theAssyrian empire, where they gradually merged with other peoples and disappeared from history. As a result, the Israelites came to be called the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. The Assyrians settled people from Mesopotamia in Samaria.Later a cult of Yahweh arose there among a groupSAMARITANS. knownas History of Judah. The kingdom of Judah consisted of the tribesof Judah and Benjamin and their land. It was smaller andless fertile than its northern neighbor, but JERUSALEM, it includedthe city that had been the capital of the united Israel. Founded by King David, Jerusalem was the site of the Temple of Solomon, the Israelites' religious center. From the late 900s toB.C., the Judah 700s achieved periods of stability under the kings Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah(Azariah). The kingdom was later forced to acknowledgethe dominance B.C., Assyria ofbe- in the 700s coming itsvassal*. After theAssyrian empire's collapse B.C., in the late 600s the Babylonian empire expanded westward. B.C., Babylonian In 597

15

Israelites

* sack to loot a captured

Israelites

See Hebrews and Israelites.

I

vory, a rare and expensive material recovered from the tusks of elephants and hippopotamuses, was used for decorative arts throughout the ancient NearEast. Most elephant ivory was imported from India, although there were elephants SYRIAfrominabout B.C.to3000 about 800 B.C., when they became extinct due to hunting. Hippopotamuses lived in and near the NileRiver inEgypt and also in the Levant*. Ivory was used to make luxury items, such as finely carved cosmetics Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea containers, perfumejars, and combs. The carvings contained the images (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), of gods, animals, or plants. Other objects made from ivory included small the West Bank, and Jordan statues of people and animals, ivory dolls, ornamental panels for chair backs, and headboards for beds. Carved ivory also appeared on chair legs and as the decorative tops of bedposts. A large number of ivory objects were excavated from tombs and See colorplate1, palaces in the Levant, especially UGARIT, MEGIDDO, SAMARIA. at and The obvol.4. jects include boxes with hinged or pivoting lids and several plaques depicting hunting and conquest scenes. The carvings on these objects

IVORY

*

city

armies underNEBUCHADNEZZAR King II occupied Jerusalemandforcedthe Judeans to submit to their rule. Ten yearslater, Judah rebelled, and Babylonia responded by destroying Jerusalem and the temple. The Babylonians dissolved the kingdom of Judah, made the region a Babylonian province, and forced many Jews (as the Judeans became known) into exile in Babylonia. In 539B.C., the Babylonians were conquered by the Persians, whose leaderCYRUS THE GREAT allowedthe Jewsto return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Theformer territory of Judah became a Persian province calledYehud, which theGreeks called Judaea. Judah remained a part of the Persian empire for several hundred years. Generally, this was a peaceful time. In 330B.C., Judah became part of the Macedonian empire, when ALEXANDERGREAT THE overthrew the Persian empire. After Alexander's death, Judah was ruled by hissuccessors—first by the Ptolemies and later by the Seleucids. When the Seleucids prohibited the practice of Judaism, the Judeans, led by Judas Maccabeus, revolted After B.C. in the 160s Maccabean Revolt, Judah enjoyed abrief period of independence. In 63B.C., the region came under the control of Rome. The Jews revolted against Roman A.D. rule 66, in and the Romans sacked* Jerusalem and destroyed the second temple shortly thereafter. Another Jewish uprising occurred between 132 and 135, ending with the destruction of Jerusalem. The Romans forced the Jews of Judah into exile in gions of the Roman Empire and gave Judah the name Syria-Palestina. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

16

Jericho

* artisan skilled craftsperson

JEREMIAH lived ca. 650-570 B.C. Jewish prophet * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insight

JERICHO * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

reflect styles and images prevalent in Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Hittite art. In Egypt during the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a technique known as cloisonne was popular among ivory carvers. In this technique, carvers made small hollows in the ivory and filled them with stones. This technique was also used in the Levant by the Phoenicians and Syrians after 1000 B.C. This is evident from the large numbers of Syrian and Phoenician ivory carvings found at Assyrian palaces. In Assyria, artisans* also connected flat pieces of wax-coated ivory with hinges to make writing boards.

B

orn to a family of priests, Jeremiah (jer»uh«MY»uh) was a prophet* and social critic in Judah during the turbulent period when the Babylonians captured JERUSALEM and took many Jews to BABYLON. His deeds and words are preserved in the Book of Jeremiah in the Hebrew BIBLE. Around 627 B.C., Jeremiah emerged as a prophet. His messages were chiefly criticisms of the Jews' religious and social faults. Sometime after 609 B.C., Jeremiah delivered a sermon in which he attacked the Jews for emphasizing worship in the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. This temple was the religious center of the Jews, and Jeremiah felt that Jews relied on worshiping there rather than truly observing their god Yahweh's religious laws. This made him unpopular, and his popularity did not improve when Babylonia seized Jerusalem in 597 B.C. Jeremiah wrote that Babylonia's domination of Judah was Yahweh's will, and he counseled the people to surrender and to submit quietly. He believed that the Jews would earn the chance to regain their homeland by obeying Yahweh's will. Jeremiah was eventually imprisoned for attempting to desert Jerusalem. However, he was freed by the Babylonians who appointed Gedaliah, their governor in Judah, to look after him. When Gedaliah was assassinated, a group of Jews who feared that the Babylonians would come to avenge his death took Jeremiah to Egypt. According to legend, Jeremiah annoyed his fellow Jews so much with his unpopular views that they stoned him to death in about 570 B.C. (See also Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Oracles and Prophecy.)

J

ericho (JER»i*koh) is an ancient town located in the Palestinian West Bank. Settled as early as 9000 B.C., it is perhaps the oldest permanent settlement in the world. Artifacts* found at the site have enabled archaeologists* to learn more about the development of the first settlements and civilizations in the Near East. Beginnings of Urban Civilization. Jericho may have first served as a camp to nomadic* hunters who stopped there because it was located near the Jordan River and a spring, both of which provided water in an otherwise arid region near the Dead Sea. Between 9000 and 8000 B.C., people began to establish permanent settlements in Jericho. They built 17

Jerusalem * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * cult formal religious worship

^Didthe Walls Come Tumbling Down? According to the Book of Joshua in the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites captured Jericho with trumpet blasts and a loud war cry that made the city's defensive walls collapse. Modern scholars debate whether the Israelites conquered Jericho militarily or took over the city gradually and peacefully. During the A.D. 1950s, Kathleen Kenyon of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem excavated the site and found no evidence of a city wall from what is believed to be Joshua's time, about 1200 B,C However, erosion has left almost no trace of Jericho from that ^period. Is the Joshua story an exag: gerated account of a real battle? t Archaeology cannot yet answer ^that question.

JERUSALEM archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

18

round, one-room houses with mud bricks*. For protection, they surrounded the town with a 5-foot-thick stone wall that included a watchtower about 30 feet high. By around 7500 B.C., about 2,000 people were living in Jericho and practicing AGRICULTURE. Researchers have found cultivated grain in Jericho, evidence that the people there might have been among the earliest farmers. They grew wheat and barley and may have been the first to build IRRIGATION channels to water their crops. Moreover, tools made from obsidian* found in the ruins show that Jericho had established trade with places as far away as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the source of the obsidian. Around 7000 B.C., the people of Jericho began building rectangular houses centered on courtyards that contained fireplaces. Bodies buried beneath these houses suggest that the people practiced ancestor worship. Archaeologists have also found collections of human skulls, suggesting the presence of an ancestor cult*. The facial features of the skulls were reconstructed in plaster with seashells for eyes. Between 6000 and 3000 B.C., Jericho was abandoned periodically for reasons not yet known. Thereafter, it once again became a permanent settlement. Its people traded salt, which they collected from the nearby Dead Sea, for goods from Anatolia, SYRIA, and Egypt. Using this wealth, the town rebuilt its walls. Then, sometime after 2300 B.C., the AMORITES— nomadic peoples from Syria—settled in the region. New Inhabitants. By around 1900 B.C., Jericho had again become fortified city, this time occupied by the Canaanites. Furnishings and tools found in tombs from this period have provided archaeologists with information about Canaanite life. Around 1550 B.C., Jericho was destroyed by a fire that may have been caused by an earthquake or an attack. Jericho's history after that time is not as well known as its earlier history because erosion wore away the ruins before archaeologists could study them. Historians do know, however, that the Israelites probably gained control of Jericho and other parts of Canaan around 1200 B.C. Jericho was the site of later settlements, notably during the 600s B.C., when it was part of the kingdom of Judah. Later powers that occupied the region during the ancient period included Persia and Rome. (See also Israel and Judah; Hebrews and Israelites.)

T

he city of Jerusalem is located amid rocky hills about 25 miles from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Its most important role in the ancient world was as the capital of the united Israelite monarchy, later of the Judean state, and as the center of the religion known as Judaism. Today it is the capital of the modern nation of Israel. The name Jerusalem appears to have come from Canaanite words possibly meaning "[the god] Shalem is its founder/' or "the foundation of Shalem." Texts from the city of UGARIT in Syria mention Shalem as a god of night. The Canaanite City. Much of what is known about Jerusalem's early history comes from the work of teams led by archaeologists* Kathleen

Jerusalem

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3).

Focus of Three Faiths Jerusalem is a holy city for three of the modern religions that originated in the Near East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. To jews, Jerusalem symbolizes their continued identity over thousands of years. It was the capital of their ancient state and the site of their most sacred temple. Christians honor Jerusalem as the site of Christ's teachings and miracles and of his death, burial, and resurrection. Muslims believe that the prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, began a journey to heaven from a rock on the Temple Mount. The mosque, or Muslim house of worship, built there in the A.D. 680s, is one of the oldest surviving Islamic buildings.

Kenyon and Yigal Shiloh in the middle to late A.D. 1900s. Shiloh uncovered the oldest known traces of human occupation at Jerusalem at sites on a hill called Ophel. Those traces consist of pits dug in the late fourth millennium B.C.* and pottery from the third millennium B.C.* During the 1700s B.C., Jerusalem became a fortified city ringed by a stone wall up to ten feet thick. By the 1300s B.C., the Canaanites, whose culture extended across much of the Levant*, occupied Jerusalem. Evidence of this has been found in several Egyptian texts that mention Jerusalem. During the 1000s B.C., people called the Jebusites, members of a Canaanite culture group, occupied Jerusalem. However, little is known about them, and few artifacts* of their residence in Jerusalem have survived. Biblical Jerusalem. The Hebrew BIBLE describes Jerusalem during the reigns of DAVID and his son SOLOMON, kings of the unified kingdom of Israel. However, no other surviving text from the period mentions the two kings or their kingdom, although a later inscription found at Tel Dan mentions the "House" (dynasty) of David. According to the Bible, in the late 1000s B.C., the Israelites were united under David. One of David's greatest successes as king was the capture of Jerusalem from the Jebusites around 1000 B.C. David wisely incorporated Jerusalem into his kingdom and made it his capital. The city had a spring to provide water, its hilltop location gave it some protection against attack, and it lay along the main north-south trade route between Phoenicia and Egypt. David captured Jerusalem for the Israelites, but his son Solomon gave the city its most impressive and important features. Solomon expanded the administrative functions of the Israelite state and created new royal institutions in Jerusalem, including a court and the Temple of Solomon, constructed in the Phoenician style. The Temple of Solomon, also known as the First Temple, stood on the Temple Mount. The structure is known from descriptions in the biblical Books of Kings, Chronicles, and Ezekiel. No direct archaeological evidence of it exists, but researchers have found buildings at other Phoenician-Canaanite sites that resemble the biblical descriptions. Solomon borrowed the basic design of his temple from his Phoenician neighbors and adapted it to the worship of the Hebrew god YAHWEH. For example, Phoenician temples featured thrones on which stood statues of the deities. Reflecting the invisible spirit of Yahweh, the throne in Solomon's temple was empty, except for an ark—a box of acacia wood, which contained the tablets of the Covenant. The Israelites not only accepted the new structure, they willingly paid for it with increased taxes. As a highly visible, impressive monument in the capital, the temple became the focus of religious life, which was closely linked to national identity. This royal state religion was a departure from the traditions of worship outside Jerusalem. Over the years, tension would occasionally develop between those who wanted the temple to be at the center of religious life and those who resisted the authority of the temple priests. During the rule of Solomon's son Rehoboam, the kingdom of Israel broke up into two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah, including 19

Jewelry

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

JEWELRY * deity god or goddess * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

Jerusalem, in the south. In the centuries that followed, the Temple of Solomon was the center of Jewish religious movements and reforms. In the late 700s B.C., the Assyrians attacked Israel and Judah, but Jerusalem's thick city wall enabled it to survive an Assyrian siege*. By 597 B.C., however, the Babylonians had occupied Judah, including Jerusalem. When the Judeans (people of Judah) rebelled ten years later, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its temple. Exile, Return, and Exile Again. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the Babylonians carried many Judeans off to exile in Babylonia. Around 538 B.C., CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia conquered the Babylonians and permitted the Jews, as the Judeans later became known, to return to Jerusalem. There the governor Nehemiah and the scribe* and prophet* Ezra tried to rebuild civic and religious institutions. They also rebuilt the temple at a somewhat smaller scale. During this time of resettlement and rebuilding, Jerusalem took on additional importance to the Jews. It became the symbol of a people who had suffered but whom Yahweh was now lifting to a new level of glory. Yet, Jerusalem was smaller than it had been before the Babylonian exile. The city did not regain its importance until the 100s B.C., when King Herod rebuilt the temple and built a lavish palace and other structures there. The Jews who resettled Jerusalem may have dreamed of creating a new and greater kingdom of Israel, but in the centuries that followed, Jerusalem passed into the hands of a series of outside powers: first the PERSIAN EMPIRE, then the SELEUCID EMPIRE, and finally the Roman Empire. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the second temple in A.D. 70 and took many Jewish captives to Rome. The Jews who remained in Jerusalem revolted against Rome in 132 but were defeated by the Roman emperor Hadrian in 135. After this defeat, Hadrian ordered that the Jews could no longer live in Jerusalem, so they were forced into a second, much longer, exile. Hadrian renamed the city Aelia Capitolina. (See also Canaan; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

I

n the ancient Near East, jewelry was—as it is now—a sign of status. Be cause jewelry was expensive, it was generally worn only by royalty and the elite. However, jewelry was used for more than personal beautification. Ancient Near Eastern peoples adorned the statues of gods and goddesses with bracelets, rings, necklaces, and other items. People wore jewelry bearing images of their deities* to show their devotion. They also wore amulets* to protect themselves from evil spirits or to enlist the aid and support of favorable ones. The rareness of the material, the beauty of the design, and the artisan's skill also made jewelry a valuable gift for weddings or royal exchanges. Finally, jewelry was an investment as well as a currency. Materials for Jewelry. Many materials were used to make jewelry in ancient times. The base of much jewelry was gold and, less commonly,

20

Jewelry

* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone * obsidian black glass, formed from hardened lava, useful for making sharp blades and tools * faience decorated object made of quartz and other materials that includes a glaze * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * seventh millennium B.C. years from 7000 to 6001 B.C. * artisan skilled craftsperson * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Buried Treasure Archaeologist Leonard Woolley led the excavation at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, which dates from about 2900 B.C. Among his finds was the magnificent tomb of Queen Pu-abi, whose body was adorned with jewelry that required great skill to create. Covering her upper body was a garment of gold, silver, and beads made from blue, red, white, and multicolored stones. Near her head were three diadems, two of which were decorated with delicate leaves made of faience attached to a gold band. Necklaces of semiprecious stones circled her neck. She wore amulets made of gold and lapis lazuli. Even the horses buried with her were decorated with jewelry.

silver or copper. Gold is an easy metal to work with—when heated; it can be molded into any shape or thickness. It also lasts and does not tarnish as do silver and copper. The Egyptians favored gold for symbolic reasons; its yellow color and long-lasting quality reminded Egyptians of the sun and the sun god Amun-Ra. Jewelry was decorated with many semiprecious stones. Among the most popular GEMS were lapis lazuli*, carnelian, turquoise, agate, and obsidian*, but many others were used as well. Valuable natural materials, such as ivory and bone, seashells, ostrich eggshells, and amber were also set in jewelry. Manufactured products such as faience* were used, too, because they were less expensive and could be sold to common people. Around 1400 B.C., craft workers in the Levant* developed great skill in making faience and, later, glass. This skill supported a lively export trade in many goods. The Development of Jewelry. The earliest jewelry was simple. Finds from the seventh millennium B.C.* in MESOPOTAMIA have yielded jewelry made of bones or shells strung together. Over the years, artisans* perfected their craft and produced magnificent jewelry for rulers and people of wealth. Records from as early as 2100 B.C. in Mesopotamia reveal the practices of jewelers' workshops. One text describes a workshop divided into eight different specialists: metalworkers, goldsmiths, stonecutters, blacksmiths, leather workers, felt workers, carpenters, and reed workers. Some of the jewelry produced by artisans in the ancient world was placed in tombs as part of burial practices. This is evident from the excavations of the Sumerian royal tombs at UR, dating from about 2600 B.C. There archaeologists* found a queen's jewelry, including gold earrings and necklaces. They also found chokers strung with beads in a variety of shapes made of gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The jewels found in the tomb of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN further reveal the skill and talent of ancient crafts workers—and the great wealth of the rulers. Such excavations are still under way at many sites. The royal tombs of the Assyrian queens in the city of KOLKHU were discovered only in the A.D. 1980s. Archaeologists uncovered large quantities of jewelry there. The intricate designs of the pieces—which include delicate gold flowers and tiny grapes made of lapis lazuli—show that Assyrian goldsmiths were highly skilled workers. Types of Jewelry. Common items in ancient Near Eastern jewelry included diadems (ornamental crowns or headdresses), necklaces, pectoral (chest) ornaments, bracelets, armlets, and rings. Ancient peoples wore diadems around the head, across the forehead. In Mesopotamia, archaeologists found one royal diadem made of lapis beads with carved gold animals, fruit, and flowers and another with large interlocking rings that extended down and over the forehead. In Egypt, they have excavated a diadem in gold and copper with a carving of a papyrus nest for two ibises, a bird linked to Thoth, the god of learning, and another with 15 flowers inlaid with carnelian and faience. In King Tutankhamen's tomb, archaeologists found a gold diadem with a snake in the front and back and details in carnelian, obsidian, and colored glass. A Sumerian queen's 21

Jewelry

gold, lapis, and carnelian headdress hadtall stemmed flowers on thetop, with leaves, hoops, and other shapes covering theforehead anddangling all around.In Egypt,one ofTHUTMOSE the queens IIIof wore aheaddress of flower-shaped gold disks that coveredthehair likea wig and extended down past the shoulders. Men and women wore earrings, usually madeforpierced ears. Most were large and long. The earrings contained gold filigree,carvings with stone inlays, or dangling beads.In the Levant, earrings were shaped like birds, beans, pomegranate buds, andlotus flowers. Beaded necklacesof precious stones were also worn throughoutthe region. They ranged from simple chokerstomultistrand necklaces of stones and beads in many shapes andcolors, interrupted bycarved gold. Egyptian jewelry included thewesekh, acollar thatcovered theentire breastbone and waswornby men andwomen.Itconsistedofmany rows of stone orfaience beadsin geometric floral or patterns. 22

Judaism and Jews

* ankh cross with a loop at the top; Egyptian symbol of life * scarab representation of the dung beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians

See [ color plate 8, vol. 4.

lews

Egyptian and Mesopotamian men and women also wore pectorals on the upper chest (the location of the pectoral muscles). One Egyptian example shows two large birds, two snakes, two ankhs*, and a scarab*, all inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, feldspar, lapis, garnet, and carnelian. Another contains papyrus plants, two lionlike animals, defeated enemies, and the god HORUS. A third, of gold, silver, and stones, has flowers, fish, snakes, and a scarab with large wings. Men and women wore bracelets at the wrists and armlets on the upper arms. They were decorated with lion heads, trees, and winged creatures. A frequent and useful feature was the metal hinge, which served a decorative purpose as well as a practical one. An armlet with hinges fit snugly around the upper arm, whereas a bangle-type bracelet was large and could get past the elbow. An Egyptian statue shows a woman wearing 11 bracelets on one arm and 12 on the other. Rings, worn on many fingers, were common. They might be of carved gold, silver, bronze, or iron; plain or engraved or with stone settings. Sometimes attached to the band was a gold wire, at the end of which a precious stone dangled. Many Egyptian rings contained a stone scarab, some of which swiveled, and the other side was carved. This allowed the ring also to be used as a SEAL. (See also Faience; Metals and Metalworking.)

See Judaism and Jews.

Jezebel

See Ahab.

Judah

See Israel and Judah.

JUDAISM AND JEWS * monotheistic referring to the belief in only one god * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * prophecy message from a deity; also, the prediction of future events

J

udaism—the religion of the Jews—is a monotheistic* faith that developed over hundreds of years among the ancient Israelites. The religion is centered on the worship of YAHWEH, the god also known as EL, a Semitic* term that means god. Many ancient texts deal with the legends, history, laws, prophecies*, and teachings of Judaism, but the sacred book of the religion is the Hebrew BIBLE. The name Jew comes from the Old French word Jiu, which referred to the people of Judah, the ancient name of their homeland. The ancient Jews were united by their religious beliefs and by their strong tradition of religious education and customs. For a time, they had lived together in Israel—a land with which they identified deeply. However, conquest and deportation* caused the Jewish population to spread out across the Near Eastern landscape. Separated from old institutions such as the Temple of Solomon, the place of worship in their holy city of 23

Judaism and Jews * deportation forced movement of individuals or groups of people from one place to another

JERUSALEM, they interacted with other people and absorbed new influences. Their religion developed further as a result of political and social changes.

* patriarch male leader of a family or tribe

Origins of Judaism. Jews trace their history to the patriarch* Abraham (also called Abram), who lived in Ur of the Chaldees (a city and district in ancient Sumer). According to the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh made a covenant, or solemn agreement, with Abraham. Yahweh promised him the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) and many descendants. (These descendants called themselves the children of Israel after Abraham's grandson Jacob, whom Yahweh had renamed Israel.) The Israelites then lived in Canaan for several generations, until a famine* forced them to leave. Thereafter, they went to Egypt, where they eventually became enslaved. Another important figure in Judaism was MOSES, a leader who brought the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and back into Canaan. This journey, known as the Exodus, lasted 40 years. During the Exodus, Moses gave the Israelites a new understanding of Yahweh. A key element of this new understanding was the renewal of the Covenant. The Israelites vowed to follow Yahweh's laws so that the promises he made to them, the ones he promised Abraham, might be fulfilled. The covenant meant that they were a "chosen people" who had a special relationship with Yahweh. It also made them responsible for living in accordance with Yahweh's will as interpreted in laws and rules, such as the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which Yahweh had revealed to Moses during the Exodus.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

24

Conflict, Reform, and Change. When the Israelites arrived in Canaan, Moses was not allowed to enter the Promised Land because he had not followed one of Yahweh's orders exactly. Nevertheless, his followers entered Canaan, and there they eventually founded the kingdom of Israel, which endured in various forms for more than 400 years. King DAVID established Israel's capital at Jerusalem. SOLOMON, his son and successor, built a magnificent temple, which was the center of the Israelite religion, in Jerusalem. Solomon placed the ARK OF THE COVENANT—a sacred chest made of acacia wood and gold—in the temple. The ark contained tablets of the covenant between Yahweh and the Israelites from the time of the Exodus. Religion and the government were closely linked in Israel. The state cult*, which centered on institutions such as the Temple of Solomon, was headed by the king. He had supreme authority over the cult and performed duties such as offering animal sacrifices and ordering the people to religious meetings. Kings, administrators, and the urban priesthood worked to make temple rituals the focus of the religion. The state cult helped fuse the Israelites' religious and national identity. Some Israelites resisted the trend toward centralized authority. They criticized royal laws and policies and emphasized the importance of moral purity, justice, and individual worship that was not based on participating in functions of the state cult. Another trend influenced Israelite religious life during the period of the monarchy: the attraction to other gods and cults, such as the fertility

Judaism and Jews * prophet one who claims to have received divinemessages or insights

cults of the Canaanites. Soon Israelites began toworship deities other than Yahweh,and prophets* begantocriticize them falling for from away the sole worship of Yahweh. They claimed thatYahweh would punish those who continued to worship foreign gods. The prophets'words became part of theBibleand sometimes inspired such reformsas the destruction of shrinesto other gods. The Exile. In about B.C., 925 Israel separated intotwo kingdoms—Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Although thekingdoms achieved some stability at first, they were botheventually overcomebyother Near Eastern empires.The peopleof the kingdomofIsrael disappeared fromhistoryafter they were conqueredand deported by B.C. theAssyrians in 722 Nevertheless, Judaism continued todevelop with theJudeans (the people of Judah, who later became knownJews), as after even theBabylonians conquered Judah, destroyed Jerusalemand thetemple,forced and many Jews into exilein Babyloniain the B.C.early 500s The period of Babylonian exileisknownas the Diaspora, aswere all subsequent periods when Jews lived scattered outside ofIsrael, even to this day. The exiled Jews considered their plightatestoftheir faithin Yahweh. They developedabeliefinfuture a when Yahweh would restore Israel to itsformer glory. While they were in exile, theJews hadalso developed areliance on rituals and rules about prayeranddietary lawstokeep themselves purein Yahweh's eyes. This bodyofpractices became associated with their identity as Jews. Thus, the Babylonian exile changed Judaism fromalocal

25

Judaism and Jews faith, tied to its place of origin, into a universal or world religion based on following a code of laws.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

The Issue of Intermarriage Judaism is not just a religion but also an ethnic and national heritage or identity. After their return from the exile, Jewish leaders in Judah took steps to preserve that identity. They discouraged marriages between descendants of returned exiles and descendants of people who had not been exiled. The scribe Ezra, to whom the Persians had given considerable power in Judah, set up a court that examined marriages and dissolved those that did not meet his standards. Not all Jews appreciated Ezra's high standards* The marriage court made him unpopular. As a result, the Persians took away Ezra's authority.

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

26

After the Exile. In 538 B.C., after the Persian empire had conquered Babylonia, the Persian emperor CYRUS THE GREAT allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and Judah, which had become part of Persian territory. The Persians called this province Yehud, which was known in Greek as Judaea. The Jews who returned to Jerusalem focused on building the second temple and on organizing and publishing the traditional texts dealing with Jewish law, which became established as the constitution within their province. Two important figures in Judaism during the 400s B.C. were Nehemiah, a leader and Persian official who helped rebuild Jerusalem, and Ezra, a scribe* and priest. Both men felt that Jews in Judah had fallen away from traditional worship and set about to reform and reorganize the people. Nehemiah issued many reforms and worked to strengthen the Jews' observance of religious laws. Ezra brought together the most important traditional writings in the TORAH, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. In doing this, Ezra made the law a central fixture of Judaism and linked observance of the laws with preserving Jewish identity. As a result of his efforts, Ezra is considered responsible for reestablishing Judaism after the exile. Another important development after the exile was in the role of the scribe. Scribes had always been important as transmitters of the Israelite religion, but with the new emphasis on the law brought by Ezra, they became the recognized experts on religious and other issues. The issue of who was a Jew also became important after the exile. Jews who had returned from Babylonia to Jerusalem considered themselves more faithful to Yahweh and more observant than those who had not been forced to leave Judah. This feeling caused a rift between Jews who had returned and those who had not been exiled. As a result, Jewish leaders, scribes, and priests, such as Ezra and Nehemiah, tried to prevent these ''pure" Jews from mixing with other cultures, including Jews who had remained in Judah. By this time, Jews' experiences had led them to believe that Yahweh directed the destinies of all nations and peoples, which meant that Judaism was now completely monotheistic. They also believed in the immortality of the human soul, punishment after death for those who chose sin, and a heavenly reward for those who chose righteousness. Judaism During the Hellenistic Period. Around 330 B.C., the Macedonian army of ALEXANDER THE GREAT overthrew the Persian empire and Judah passed into Alexander's control. After Alexander's death, his successors, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria and Mesopotamia, fought over Judah and the other territories that Alexander had conquered. During the Hellenistic* period, as many as a million Jews may have lived in each of the four major sites of the Diaspora: Babylonia, Egypt, SYRIA, and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Alexandria, a Greek city in Egypt, became a center of Jewish learning, and the Jews there adopted the Greek language. During the Diaspora, the emphasis on education and

Judaism and Jews

* sect group of people with a common leadership who share a distinctive set of religious views and opinions

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* exile person forced to live away from his or her homeland for a long period of time

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

the transmission of knowledge helped preserve and spread the Jewish traditions and beliefs. Jewish culture itself developed in new directions, producing rival schools of thought and sects*. The Jews also absorbed aspects of the local cultures into their religion. For example, a common Mesopotamian belief in healing through magic was adopted by the Jews of Babylon. The Persian religion known as Zoroastrianism and Egyptian beliefs shared some common features with Judaism, especially the idea that the immortal human soul receives punishment or reward based on a person's actions in life. The Israelites originally spoke Hebrew, a Semitic language. In the second half of the first millennium B.C.*, Hebrew, like some other Near Eastern languages, was replaced in daily life by another Semitic language, Aramaic, the language of the ARAMAEANS. The exiles* who returned from Babylonia brought Aramaic with them. The Jews continued to use Hebrew as a literary and scholarly language, but by the Hellenistic period, they were speaking Aramaic and Greek. Jerusalem and the Jews enjoyed a brief period of independence in the 100s B.C., but in 63 B.C., they came under the control of yet another foreign power—Rome. When the Jews revolted against Roman rule, the Romans destroyed the second temple and Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Jerusalem had been partially rebuilt and repopulated when the Jews revolted again in 132. After this revolt, the Romans dispersed the Jewish inhabitants of Judah to other regions of the Roman Empire and renamed Judah SyriaPalestina. Jewish religion and culture remained alive, however, in this second exilic period. Further Developments. After the destruction of the second temple, synagogues—places of assembly and worship—became important centers of Jewish life. Synagogues date back to the 200s B.C. and possibly as far as the 580s B.C., when the Temple of Solomon was destroyed. The earliest synagogues may have been homes that were used for religious instruction. In the first century A.D., synagogues existed in the Levant*, Rome, Greece, Egypt, Babylon, and Asia Minor. Synagogues remain as places of worship by Jews today. After the destruction of the second temple, Judaism was further changed with the emergence of rabbis as religious leaders. Rabbis were spiritual guides and teachers who organized around separate houses of worship or synagogues. They devoted themselves to studying the scripture, or sacred writings, and teaching it to their communities. They were considered interpreters of Jewish law. Rabbis took on even greater importance after A.D. 135, when the Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem. This began what is referred to as Rabbinic Judaism, when the rabbis and their centers of learning were looked to for religious leadership. The rabbis emphasized the study of the sacred writings of Judaism, prayer, and faithfulness over centralized worship in a temple. This reemphasized the idea that had emerged during the Babylonian exile that Judaism could be practiced anywhere. The rabbis arranged and set an order for Jewish laws during the first centuries A.D. in a compilation of ancient sacred teachings known as the Talmud. The Talmud contains explanations of and commentaries on the 27

Kalkhu laws that Yahweh told to Moses. Talmudic schools were established where scholars could study the Talmud. Between the A.D. 500s and 900, scholars at these schools devoted themselves to retrieving and arranging the Hebrew scriptures and recording them in Hebrew. This version of the Bible, known as the Masoretic text, was carefully transcribed when it was compiled, and was first printed in the late 1400s. Today rabbis and scholars around the world consider the Masoretic text to be the authentic Hebrew Bible. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Monotheism; Mosaic Law; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

KALKHU archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

KARKAMISH * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.

28

k

alkhu (KAL»hoo), present-day Nimrud, was a city located on the anks of the TIGRIS RIVER in northern MESOPOTAMIA. Kalkhu was established in the 1200s B.C. and during the reign of ASHURNASIRPAL II (ca. 883-859 B.C.), became the capital of the Assyrian empire. Archaeologists* have found temples dedicated to the city god Ninurta and another to Nabu, the god of writing. They have also found the Northwest Palace built by Ashurnasirpal, which contained stone sculptures describing important events in the king's reign. The palace was guarded by stone statues of lions and bulls. In addition, archaeologists have discovered the "tombs of the queens/' where important women in the Assyrian empire were buried. Among the many objects found in the tombs are golden jewelry and pottery and alabaster containers. One of the most important buildings found at Kalkhu was built in the mid 800s B.C., during the reign of SHALMANESER III. The building was an arsenal (military structure) and contained items of tribute* that the Assyrians received from their vanquished enemies and vassal* states. Objects found there include ivory carvings, figurines, tools, jars, and furniture panels. In 721 B.C., King SARGON II moved Assyria's capital to Khorsabad. Thereafter, Kalkhu became a provincial* capital. In the late 600s B.C., the city was destroyed by the invading armies of the MEDES. A small village remained until the 100s B.C., when the site was finally abandoned. (See also Cities and City-States.)

K

arkamish (KAHR»kuh»mish), also known as Carchemish, was a Hittite city-state* on the west bank of the upper EUPHRATES RIVER, near the border of present-day Turkey and Syria. It was inhabited from the Neolithic period* but flourished during the Neo-Hittite period. Karkamish first appears in written records dating from the 2500s B.C. Its location made it an important part of the trading network of the ancient Near East. Caravans from ancient SYRIA, MESOPOTAMIA, and ANATOLIA all crossed the Euphrates near Karkamish. The city was known as a trading center for wood, which was shipped down the river to be sold to desert peoples who had little access to this rare and useful material. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the city was ruled by the Hittite king's governor.

Kassites

* hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphics, to represent words or ideas

See map in Syria (vol. 4).

KARNAK

See map on inside covers.

KASSITES dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

Karkamish contained buildings that attested to its prosperity, including a temple dedicated to the storm god TESHUB, a gatehouse, and the King's Gate. Much of the architecture and sculpture is inscribed in Luwian hieroglyphics* with details of rulers' successes and blessings from the gods. These blessings could not protect the region from the mighty Assyrians, however. TIGLATH-PILESER III and SARGON II conquered several Neo-Hittite cities including Karkamish in 717 B.C. Karkamish remained a province of the Assyrian empire until Assyria fell in 612 B.C. In 605 B.C., Karkamish was the site of the final battle between the Babylonians and the Egyptians. The Babylonians, under NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, prevailed and drove the Egyptians out of Syria. Thereafter, Karkamish disappeared from history. (See also Hittites; Neo-Hittites.)

L

ocated near the ancient city of THEBES in Lower Egypt, Karnak was among the most important religious sites in ancient Egypt. The site began as a small shrine but developed into a massive temple complex over a period of 2,000 years. Karnak was home to AMUN, the chief god of Thebes. Begun by Sesostris I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, the temple was enlarged by many later kings, each eager to show his devotion to the god. It evolved into a huge T-shaped structure surrounded by four walls enclosing more than seven acres. Within the walls, six monumental pylons, or gateways, lead from the west to the main temple, which was set near the center. Four more pylons lead to the temple from the south. One of the temple's most striking features is a hall with 134 columns carved to look like huge papyrus plants. The columns are laid out in 16 rows with up to 9 columns in each row. The complex also contains many smaller temples, chapels, and a sacred lake. In ancient times, the high priest washed and purified himself in the waters of the sacred lake each morning before entering Amun's temple and worshiping the god. It was here that pharaohs prayed to Amun for victory. Two other brick-walled enclosures comprise the rest of the ruins at Karnak. To the north of the enclosure of Amun is the enclosure of Montu, the original local god of the Theban area. To the south is the enclosure of Mut, another god of Thebes. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Palaces and Temples.)

T

he Kassites, a tribal people of unknown origin, began arriving in MESOPOTAMIA by way of the Zagros Mountains around 1800 B.C. They lived in the countryside surrounding the cities of Babylonia and worked as farm laborers, construction workers, and soldiers. Shortly after 1595 B.C., when Hittite king Murshili I raided Babylon and weakened the ruling dynasty* there, the Kassites seized power. They ruled Babylonia for about 400 years—the longest-ruling dynasty in the ancient Near East. During Kassite rule, there were political stability, economic prosperity, and achievements in culture and literature. The Kassites also undertook 29

Khabiru

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Khabiru

KHATTI * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

30

public building projects, encouraged trade, and improved international relations. The Kassites brought about a lasting period of political unification in Babylonia. The ruling classes also adopted traditional philosophy, according to which the ruler was responsible for the land and was to ensure the basics of life for all. The Kassites assimilated* Babylonian culture and integrated themselves into mainstream society. They worshiped the Babylonian gods as well as two of their own—Shuqamuna and Shumaliya—who were sometimes called the gods of the king. The Kassites also favored the Sumerian god Enlil, and they adopted the language of Babylonia. Consequently, little is known about the native Kassite language and customs. During the Kassite period, Babylonia engaged in trade with Egypt, Afghanistan, and the peoples of the Aegean. Babylonian textiles, horses, and chariots and imported lapis lazuli* were traded for gold, precious stones, and varieties of wood. The Kassites invented a type of boundary stone called the kudumi, which recorded areas of land given by the king to people he favored. These stones were inscribed with writing about the land and its recipient and were elaborately carved with images of the gods who witnessed its being given by the king. The Kassites also brought horse breeding, horse riding, and new technology in chariot making to Babylonia, and they invented molded bricks to form figures in relief*. In addition to the ruling dynasty in Babylon, Kassite tribal groups inhabited regions east of the Tigris River. These tribes remained there long after the Kassite dynasty lost power around 1158 B.C., when they were attacked by Elamites.

See Hebrews and Israelites.

T

hroughout the history of the ancient Near East, the term Khatti (HAT»ti) was used to refer to different groups or states in different periods. Before the 1600s B.C., the term referred to the indigenous* peoples who inhabited ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) before the arrival of the HITTITES. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the term referred to the Hittite kingdom with its capital at KHATTUSHA (present-day Bogzkoy). During the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 B.C.), Khatti referred to north Syria probably because that region contained several NEO-HITTITE settlements, such as KARKAMISH. The indigenous people of Khatti, sometimes called the Proto-Khattians, spoke Hattic, a language that has not been deciphered*. Consequently, the land and people of Khatti will remain a mystery until scholars are able to read the Hattic tablets. However, historians know that they were skilled metalworkers from evidence (sophisticated metal objects) excavated at tombs in northeastern Anatolia. After the arrival of the Hittites, the people of Khatti were absorbed into the Hittite state, and their history became intertwined with that of the Hittites.

KHATTUSHA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory See map in Hittites (vol. 2).

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

KHATTUSHILI I ruled ca. 1650-1620 B.C. Hittite king

T

Khattushili I

he ancient city of Khattusha (HAT»tu»sa) was located in northcentral ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). It was the capital of the empire of the HITTITES. Known today as Bogazkoy, the site was first settled shortly before 2000 B.C. and became the empire's capital around 1650 B.C. Khattusha was located at a great distance from a group of city-states* near the Euphrates River and seemed an unlikely place for a capital. However, the site had practical and strategic advantages because it was situated on a hill at the junction of two smaller rivers. This gave the city's inhabitants access to water and a means of transportation. Moreover, the city fulfilled the Hittites' need for a strategic location from which they could safely wage war. Khattusha reached the peak of its power around the 1300s B.C. At that time, it covered an area of more than 400 acres. The city had a population of about 20,000 and was protected by a wall and a moat. Seven gateways, including the famous King's Gate, Lion Gate, and Sphinx Gate, led into Khattusha. The city also contained 30 temples, administrative and royal buildings, and an audience hall. Around 1200 B.C., there was unrest on all sides of the Hittite empire and dissent within. Enemies from the north captured and burned Khattusha. Not all was lost, however. Archaeologists* have found more than 10,000 cuneiform* tablets in the ruins at Khattusha. They offer valuable and detailed information about Hittite history and culture.

K

hattushili I (hat«too«SEE*li) was the founder of the Hittite Old Kingdom. He made the city of KHATTUSHA—atop a hill and at considerable distance from other major Hittite cities—the kingdom's capital. Surrounded by a tall, thick wall, Khattusha was well defended from invaders and an excellent location for launching military campaigns. Khattushili concentrated on extending the Hittite kingdom. He decided to take over powerful cities on the trade routes because they would ensure a steady supply of metals, such as tin, to his empire. His aim was to conquer all the regions south of Khattusha so that he would have access to the Mediterranean Sea. From there, he planned to sail to northern SYRIA, a region that could bring the HITTITES great wealth because most trade routes met there. Khattushili decided to attack the powerful Syrian cities of ALALAKH and Halab (present-day Aleppo). He carried out this plan and conquered Alalakh, robbing Halab of an outlet to the sea. Then instead of moving on to Halab, he turned west toward Arzawa, a powerful state in western Anatolia bordering on the Aegean Sea. After the success of this campaign, he turned his attention back to Halab. However, the Halab campaign was again postponed when HURRIANS attacked the Hittites from the east. It took Khattushili more than a year to push them back across the Euphrates River. He attempted one more attack on Halab but was unable to conquer the city. Some historians believe that Khattushili may have been killed during this attempt, but no one is certain how he died. During most of his reign, Khattushili was away from his kingdom. In his absence, the kingdom experienced civil strife, and his three rebellious

31

Khattushili III sons competed for power. In retaliation, Khattushili disowned them and named his grandson Murshili I his successor. Murshili successfully conquered Halab, realizing Khattushili's plans.

KHATTUSHILI III ruled ca. 1275-1250 B.C. Hittite king

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

32

K

hattushili III (hat»too»SEE»li), ruler of the HITTITES for 25 years, was an accomplished soldier and an expert in diplomacy and peacemaking. He was a younger son of Murshili II. When his father died in about 1306 B.C., Khattushili's older brother, Muwattalli II, became king, and Khattushili was appointed governor of a region in northeastern ANATOLIA. There he repelled the Gasga people who invaded from the region of the Pontic Mountains. He also recovered Hittite territory that had been previously lost, including the capital, KHATTUSHA. When King Muwattalli II died around 1282 B.C., his son Urkhi-Teshub became king, taking the name Murshili III. Khattushili continued his military campaigns in the north, but he resented his nephew, who began to undermine Khattushili's power. Finally, after seven years, Khattushili assembled an army and marched against Murshili. He overthrew the king and exiled him. Knowledge of the events of Khattushili's reign comes from his autobiography, entitled Apology, a document written largely to justify the new king's actions and his right to rule. His rule was generally one of peace and prosperity. However, the growing power of Assyria and of the Kassites in Babylonia had become a problem. Khattushili used his powers of persuasion to work out agreements with both empires. With Babylonia, he signed a treaty by which each party would help the other in times of war or crisis. Khattushili had in mind a Hittite-Babylonia force in case Assyria did not remain friendly. In light of Assyria's growing power, Khattushili forged good relations with the Egyptian king RAMSES II, with whom his father had previously waged war. A peace treaty with Egypt was signed around 1258 B.C.— a significant diplomatic feat. The treaty was originally inscribed on two silver tablets (one tablet for each party). Although these tablets are lost, archaeologists* have unearthed an Akkadian language cuneiform* copy on clay from Khattusha. They have also recovered hieroglyphic* Egyptian copies that were carved on stelae* at the KARNAK temple and at Ramses' mortuary temple. The treaty marked the beginning of a national and personal friendship. For example, the Egyptians sent medicine for Khattushili's eye disease and offered the king other medical advice as well. Around 1245 B.C., Khattushili arranged a dynastic marriage between one of his daughters and Ramses II. Khattushili spent the last years of his reign securing the throne for his son Tudkhaliya IV against threats from other family members, including descendants of his nephew Murshili III. In his autobiography, Khattushili credited the goddess ISHTAR with all his success. Years earlier, she had said: "Hand him over to me and let him be my priest, then he will live." Khattushili was thus ordained a priest of Ishtar and remained devoted to her: "In times of fear the goddess, My Lady, never abandoned me [She] shielded me in every way, favored me." Khattushili was more than 70 years old when he died.

Kliufu

KHEPAT * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

KHUFU ruled ca. 2585-2560 B.C. Egyptian king

sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi sarcophagi

K

hepat (HE«pat), the Queen of Heaven, was the chief goddess of the HURRIANS and companion of the storm god TESHUB. In art, Khepat is usually represented as standing on a lion or on a leopard as well as seated on a throne. A member of the Human pantheon*, Khepat was also the city goddess of Halab (present-day Aleppo). Along with Teshub and ISHTAR, she formed the triad of gods worshiped at the city of ALALAKH. In the 1300s B.C., when the Human pantheon was incorporated into the Hittite state religion, Khepat became identified with the Hittite sun goddess of Arinna, the traditional protector of the king and queen. In mythology, Khepat appears in the Kumarbi Cycle, which tells the story of KUMARBI'S attempt to destroy his son Teshub and keep him from power. In the end, the stronger and wiser gods prevail, and Teshub and Khepat keep their thrones in heaven.

K

hufu (KOOfoo), also known as Cheops, ruled ancient Egypt during the peaceful and prosperous Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). He is remembered mainly as the builder of the Great Pyramid at GIZA. Khufu succeeded his father, Sneferu, who founded the Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2625-2500 B.C.). He reigned for about 25 years and was succeeded by his sons, Redjedef and Khafre. After Khufu ascended the throne around the age of 25, he ordered his overseer of royal works to begin building the Great Pyramid as his tomb. He chose Giza as the site for the pyramid, and construction continued throughout his reign. When finished, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the largest of all of Egypt's pyramids. It is still the largest stone structure in the world, covering more than 570,500 square feet and rising to a height of about 1,500 feet. Located nearby are three smaller pyramids, one each for Khufu's mother and his two principal queens, the mothers of Khufu's sons and successors. In addition, Khufu ordered the Great Sphinx to be carved out of a large stone outcropping nearby. In this massive statue, the king's head is carved atop the body of a lion. Khufu also ordered the building of a ship that is known today as the Royal Ship of Khufu. The ship imitates the papyrus craft that Egyptians believed transported the sun god Amun-Ra across the heavens. When Khufu died, his mummified body may have been transported on the Royal Ship from his palace at MEMPHIS to the burial site in a funeral procession. His attendants carried his coffin through a temple at the base of the pyramid and then climbed through a cavernous gallery to the king's burial chamber high inside the pyramid. The location of the chamber reflects the belief that after death, the king would rise to the sky and become one with Ra. The attendants placed the king's mummy in a stone sarcophagus* and closed off the chamber with huge boulders. Notwithstanding these precautions, robbers later found their way into the burial chamber and stole its contents. In order for Khufu to have built his Great Pyramid, he must have had the state's resources completely under his control. This indicates the power of Egyptian kings during the Old Kingdom period. Building the 33

King Lists * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

I

KINGLISTS * second millennium B.C. years 2000 to 1001 B.C.

from

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from the

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

34

Great Pyramid alsois evidenceof acomplexand efficient government bureaucracy* at that(See time. also Egyptand the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

n the ancient Near East, king lists were texts thatcontained thenames of kings and detailsof eachruler'saccomplishmentsandexploits as well as important events in the history of anempire. Fewking lists have survived to modern times, and those thathave provide only afragmentary picture of ancient history. Nonetheless, king lists have greatly aided modern historiansin establishing CHRONOLOGY a forancient Near Eastern history and determining the originsofkingshipinthat region. theMesopotamia!!

King Lists. Several king lists from MESOPO-ancient TAMIA have helped historians piece togetherthehistory ofkingdoms in that region. Among the oldest is the Sumerian king list. Composed in the early second millennium B.C.*,the listispreservedinseveral versions on cuneiform* tablets.It servedas the basisforlater king lists developed by the Babylonians,and at leastone version BABYof thelist wasused in LON as lateas the B.C. 300s In its oldestform, the Sumerian king list describeshowkingshipwas established in theKISH. cityof It also liststhe dynasties* thatruled citystates* in Mesopotamiaand tracesthe transferofpower fromonecityto another.Later versionsof the Sumerian king list extend back toeven earlier times, attempting to reach backto the originsofhuman life.These versions name semidivine kings whoreigned forvery long periods at the beginning of Sumerian civilization. Much of the early history presentedin theSumerian king listismore myth thanfact, portraying an idealized viewof theestablishmentof Sumerian civilization. It isalso highly biased, ignoring some citiesand dynastiesand focusingon others,URUK such and asfirst the the dy-city of nasty of LAGASH. Thisispossibly becausethe scribes* whocreated theking list were trying to justify the dominanceof aparticular cityand itskingship over other cities. The Babylonian king lists tracethe chronologyofBabylon fromthe time ofKing HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.)through theperiod of the KASSITES to the time when Assyrians dominated theregion B.C.). (ca. 1200s These lists were based on year lists, which identified each year by a unique name based on important events, suchas theaccessionof a new king to the throne. Although there aregaps in thesurviving king lists, historians have been able to piece together achronology bycomparing the lists with other Babylonian texts andchronicles and toAssyrian king lists that cover the same periods. The most important Assyrian king list dates B.C. from Prothe 700s duced by royal scribes,it wasINSCRIPTIONS, basedon texts, and the socalled Synchronistic History. This chronicle listedthekings Assyria of and Babylonia in a comparable sequence over hundredsofyears. TheAssyrian list tracesthe kingsof Assyria from about B.C.until B.C. 1700 The the 700s

Kings * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* demigod partly divine being

list suggests that Assyria had been an independent state from the beginning, but that is historically untrue. Egyptian King Lists. The earliest surviving Egyptian king list is a text known as the Palermo Stone. Compiled from earlier sources in about 2400 B.C., it originally contained the names of all the kings from the earliest periods of Egyptian history and summarized the significant events in each year of their reigns. The Palermo Stone became an important source for later Egyptian king lists and texts and was used as a type of calendar to date events in Egyptian history. Among the most important of these later Egyptian king lists is the Turin Canon of Kings, a fragmentary papyrus, which lists the names of kings from earliest times to the reign of RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.). Considered the most detailed and reliable Egyptian king list, the Turin Canon not only lists the kings but also the years, months, and days of each of their reigns. It further divides Egyptian history into three major periods, a system that later historians adopted and labeled the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom periods. Another important feature of the Turin Canon was that it listed gods and demigods* as the earliest rulers of Egypt, thus supporting the idea that the kingship was a divine institution. The Turin Canon and other king lists served as sources for Manetho, a Greco-Egyptian writer of the 200s B.C., who compiled a complete chronology of Egyptian history up to his time. Other King Lists. The HITTITES do not appear to have had an interest in long-range chronologies or king lists. However, the rulers of Persia and CANAAN did create such lists to record their history and to provide a basis for their kingship. An important source for late Mesopotamian history is a king list produced in Egypt during the time of the Roman Empire. Called Ptolemy's Canon, it was written in Greek by the astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It lists kings from 747 B.C. through the period of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and the empires of ALEXANDER THE GREAT and his successors. (See also History and Historiography; Kings; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

KINGS secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

T

hroughout ancient times, kingship was the predominant institution of government in the Near East. Kings filled both sacred and secular* roles. Although their power and prestige changed from time to time and place to place, they remained at the center of government and society.

The Rise of Kingship. Kingship emerged in the ancient Near East when strong leaders began to gain power and authority over cities and states. Their authority came from the military power they held and from the belief that they were chosen by the gods to rule. According to the traditions of most Near Eastern societies, the roots of kingship stretched back to the beginning of time, when gods ruled the earth. Kings were the chosen successors of the gods, and in some cases, 35

Kings

particularly in ancient Egypt, they were considered divine themselves. The link between kingsand godswasoften reflectedinofficial kings'titles and their roles and responsibilities.

Egyptian Royal Titularies

Egyptian kings hadseveral royal titRoles and Responsibilities. Some scholars suggest that kings were ularies, or titles. Amongthese were originally chosen as temporary leaders, especially during times of war or names of gods, which symbolized emergency.Aswarfare became more common during theearly third millenthe king as the earthly embodiment nium B.C.*, however, kingships became permanent. As kingships developed of a particular god. The first titulary in the ancient Near East, kings gained increasing power. They becameabof Egyptian king Amenemhet HI, for solute monarchs who reigned with seemingly unlimited power. Nevertheexample, was The Horus:Great of Might. Sometimes, the titles might less, most citizens stillhad certain basic rights,and it was theresponsibility include a throne name,such as the of kings to guard these rightsand toserveandprotect their people. King of Upper and Lower Egypt, N Ancient Near Eastern kingshad many rolesandresponsibilities fulto maatre, and a birth name,such as fill. Amonga king's most important roleswas to act as thechief priest of the Son ofRa: Amenemhet. The the state religion or national deity*.Aspriest,theking stoodat the point throne name and birth nameusually appeared inside a cartouche— of contact between the realmof the godsandthatofhumans.Heserved a hieroglyphic symbol that indicates as both a symbol of divine poweron earthand amediator betweenhuthat the person named is an Egyptmans and the gods. ian ruler and symbolizes the king's In fulfilling his roleas the chief priest,akinghadseveral practical reauthority over the entire world.

* third millennium B.C. years to 2001 B.C. * deity god or goddess

See

colorplate4,

vol.1.

36

from

sponsibilities, including building andmaintaining temples, performing religious rites and ceremonies, attending religious festivals,andsupporting the worshipof the gods.Theperformance ofthese duties directly affected the society, bringing either prosperity orhardship, depending on favor of orcaused displeasureto the 3000whether the king had gained the gods. A king might also serveas the chief justice for hissociety. Considered the source of all laws (throughthe divine inspirationof thegods),aking made and enforced laws and servedas the foundationofmorality. Although a king rarely dispensed justice himself,heservedas theultimate legal authority of the state, bound onlyby thehigher authorityof thegods.

Kings Legitimacy from the Gods Kings often expressed their relationship to the gods in prayers and official texts. The Hittite king Muwattalli II addressed his patron: 0 storm-god of lightning, my lord!.,. [You] took me from [my] mother and raised me. You made me a priest for the sun goddess ofArinna and for all the gods and installed me in kingship for the Land ofKhatti. In this prayer, Muwattalli not only expresses gratitude toward the god but also justifies the legitimacy of his rule by saying that the storm god installed him as king.

* scepter ceremonial baton or staff carried by a ruler to show his authority * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

Hierarchy of Rulers All kings of the ancient Near East were not equal in status or power. The rulers of large kingdoms and empires had much more power and prestige than the kings of smaller states. These differences created a hierarchy of kingship. The Great Kings of Egypt, Babylonia, As-j syria, and Khatti were considered the most superior. Next came the rulers of smaller kingdoms and states, many of whom were subordinate to the Great Kings. The lowest levels of the kingship hierarchy consisted of the rulers of local citystates. These relationships were reflected in the administration of empires as well as in the titles and powers of different rulers.

The king was head of the government. As the most superior of officials, kings had overall responsibility for running the government. In practice, however, kings generally wielded their authority through a host of appointed officials. This was especially true in large empires, where the king could not possibly personally oversee all aspects of government. The foremost role of a Near Eastern king was that of military leader and protector of the kingdom. As commander of the armies, the king was responsible for the organization, maintenance, and direction of the troops. Although these tasks were delegated generally to subordinates, the king was ultimately responsible for military decisions. Some kings, such as NARAM-SIN, ASHURNASIRPAL II, and SHALMANESER III, actually led troops into battle and distinguished themselves as warriors. SARGON II was killed defending his kingdom against an invasion of nomadic Cimmerians. Symbols of Power and Kingship. The power and authority of kings was represented by various titles and visual symbols. Among the most obvious symbols of kingship was a king's titulary, or titles. While these differed from society to society, they often included references to the king's relationship to the gods, the territory he controlled, and terms of honor and respect. The title Great King applied only to the rulers of the greatest states, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and the Hittite kingdom of KHATTI. Other symbols of kingship included crowns, scepters*, thrones, and palaces. In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh* wore several crowns, each representing the regions of Egypt. Scepters, such as a mace, generally served as symbols of authority. Thrones represented the social differences between the king and his subjects. Royal palaces, designed and decorated to awe visitors, also served as powerful symbols of kingship. Such symbols of kingship were bestowed on kings during important and elaborate ceremonies, such as the king's accession to the throne and his coronation. It was also during these ceremonies that the power and authority of the gods were transferred to the king. Succession to the Throne. In most cases, kingship was a hereditary institution in the ancient Near East, usually passed from the king to a male relative. This was often a son, but kings sometimes chose other male relatives to succeed them, including brothers, nephews, brothersin-law, and sons-in-law. When there was no male heir, a woman might rise to the throne, as in the case of Nefrusobek of the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt. She took the royal titles and reigned as king. Sometimes, to avoid disputes over succession, kings established a co-regency, in which they ruled alongside a chosen successor to help establish that individual's legitimacy and gain support for him. Women rulers were rare in the ancient Near East. Although women from royal families usually played only a minor role in governing, some gained a great deal of power or became the head of a religious cult*. Others ruled as regents*, wielding authority on behalf of heirs too young to rule themselves. For instance HATSHEPSUT was regent for her stepson, but she soon seized power, declaring herself to be pharaoh by an oracle* for AMUN. (See also Ahab; Ahmose; Akhenaten; Artaxerxes I, II, and III; 37

Kish regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch \s too young or unable to rule oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

KlSH * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

See map in Sumer (vol. 4).

KNOSSOS * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * Neolithic period final phase of the Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. * colonnade row of regularly spaced columns or pillars

38

Ashurbanipal; Cambyses II; Cyrus the Great; Darius I and Darius III; Djoser; Dynasties; Esarhaddon; Government; Hammurabi; Khattushili I; Khattushili III; Nabonidus; Nabopolassar; Nebuchadnezzar II; Necho II; Pharaohs; Ptolemy I; Ramses II; Ramses III; Sargon I; Sennacherib; Sety I; Shalmaneser V; Shamshi-Adad I; Shulgi; Shuppiluliuma I; Taharqa; Thutmose III; Tiglath-pileser III; Tutankhamen; Ur-Nammu; Wars and Warfare; Xerxes; Zimri-Lim.)

K

ish, located in present-day Iraq, just east of BABYLON, was an ancient Mesopotamian city-state*, inhabited as early as the fourth millennium B.C.* The city declined in importance later but remained occupied until the A.D. 600s. Kish was important throughout Mesopotamian history. According to Sumerian texts, it was the seat of the first Sumerian kings. The title King of Kish was a high-ranking one, and some Mesopotamian kings took this title to make others acknowledge their supremacy. The excavations at Kish have yielded the remains of many structures, including two of the earliest-known Mesopotamian palaces. The two palaces, which testify to the importance of the king of Kish, were separated from the rest of the city by solid defensive walls. In one of the palaces, the main wing contained long corridors that formed a double enclosure around the royal rooms and courts. The city also contained two ziggurats* and two temples, probably dedicated to the god Zababa and the goddess ISHTAR, patron gods of the city. King HAMMURABI and his son SAMSU-ILUNA both ordered reconstruction of the Zababa temple in the 1700s B.C., making it stronger and more elaborate. An inscription on the temple announced that Samsu-iluna was the god ENLIL'S "favorite king/' and that the god ordered him to rebuild a temple worthy of Zababa and Ishtar. The cemeteries at Kish have yielded POTTERY, SEALS, and sophisticated metal objects, such as chariots and carts. The number of tombs and the valuable objects buried in them indicate that Kish had a large, wealthy population.

K

nossos (NAHS^suhs) was the chief city of CRETE during the second millennium B.C.* Its ruins lie about five miles inland from the present-day city of Heraklion, located on Crete's north coast. The site of Knossos was first occupied by a Neolithic period* culture from Anatolia (present-day Turkey) before the year 6000 B.C. New immigrants arrived at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, in about 3000 B.C. Around 2000 B.C., an early palace with a large, rectangular central court was built at Knossos, but it was destroyed by an EARTHQUAKE around 1700 B.C. A second, more magnificent palace was constructed on the ruins of the first, with staircases, colonnades*, and walls decorated with colorful frescoes*. The palace also had an elaborate drainage system, built with clay pipes, and rooms with large urns that may have been used to store oil, grains, and other foods.

Rush and Meroe * fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

KUMARBI * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

KUSH AND MERGE

The palace is considered the most magnificent artifact of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION. Evidence suggests that power over Knossos may have shifted from the Minoans to the Mycenaeans from mainland Greece during the 1400s B.C. Palaces in Crete were destroyed by fires of unknown origin around 1400 B.C. After the destruction of its palace, Knossos was no longer a major city, but it remained in existence as a small town under Mycenaean control. Excavation of the site of Knossos was begun in the late A.D. 1800s by the English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans. Evans worked at excavating Knossos for more than 30 years. The main building he unearthed was huge, and its features are astounding. The palace appears to have been three stories high and to have contained several dozen rooms arranged around a courtyard. Evans reconstructed many parts, some in ways that modern archaeologists believe are incorrect. (See also Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

K

umarbi was known as the father of the gods in the pantheon* of the HURRIANS, peoples who dominated northern SYRIA and MESOPOTAMIA in the 1400s B.C. He was the central figure in a series of mythological narratives known as the Kumarbi Cycle. In the late 1400s B.C., the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) translated the Kumarbi Cycle from Human into their own language, inscribing it on clay tablets. These tablets were later found at KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittite empire. The Kumarbi Cycle was apparently recited aloud for the entertainment and education of the Hittite people. The stories served to help the Hittites understand the personalities of their gods so that they could behave in a manner that would please the deities and ensure their continued blessing. The narratives in this work, including such stories as Heavenly Kingship and the Song of Ullikummi, describe the battles for power among the gods, including Kumarbi's struggles to achieve and then retain his control over other deities. In these stories, Kumarbi dethrones ANU from his position as king of the heavens by biting off his genitals, just as Kronos did to Uranos in Greek mythology. In revenge, Anu causes Kumarbi to give birth to the storm god TESHUB and two other gods. Teshub quickly overpowers Kumarbi and banishes him. Kumarbi seeks revenge by fathering a monster, named Ullikummi, who temporarily dethrones Teshub. This monster grows out of the ocean until his head reaches the heavens, threatening all the gods. At first, Teshub is unsuccessful in his battle against Ullikummi. Eventually, however, he descends into the ocean in his chariot and defeats Kumarbi and his monstrous son in a great battle.

T

he kingdom of Kush was located in Upper Nubia (present-day northern central Sudan). Around 2000 B.C., Egyptian armies began to move south into Nubia, conquering the land. The Egyptians valued Kush because it was located along trade routes that ran to the Red Sea. Along these routes, merchant caravans carried ivory, gold, emeralds, and slaves.

39

Kush and Meroe

*

Meroe(MER»uh«wee), located RIVER, on the became NILE east bank of the the kingdom's most prosperous city. During the early yearsof Egyptian control, Kushwasgovernedby an Egyptian viceroy*and other officials, including Nubians.TheEgyptians viceroy one who governs a country or province as a monarch's representative; wanted to spread their culture, while KushitesattemptedtopreserveNuroyally appointed official bian culture. Both succeeded. Kushites used Egyptian hieroglyphics*but hieroglyphics system of writing that had their own spoken language. They worshiped Egyptian gods, suchas uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, AMUN, but continued to worship theirowngodsaswell. They built pyrato represent words orideas mids as tombs, but not in the Egyptian style. By the 900s B.C., Egyptian control over Kushhad greatly weakened. An independent kingdomof Kush developed B.C., with around its 850 capital at Napata.Byaround B.C.,the 725 Kushites had regained control of the land, conquered Egypt,and reigned over Egypt duringitsTwentyFifth Dynasty. However,the Kushitesdid not rule Egypt for long. By around 657 B.C., they were drivenout byinvading Assyrians (conquerors from northern Mesopotamia). Nevertheless, Kushremained independent. Soonafterfleeing Egypt,the Kushites moved their capital from Napata to Meroe,farther south. Meroe had many natural advantages.Thesmall amountofrainit received annuallywas enoughto grow grassforraising animals such as Nubian horses, which were famous throughouttheancient East Near for their strength. The region alsohad sandstone forbuilding materialand clay, from which the Kushites made distinctive whiteandblack pottery. The city also had iron ore for arobust smelting* industryandtimberto smelt to heat ore for the purpose of extracting pure material fuel it. Allthis enabled Meroetoprosper. The citizens who prospered in Meroe built temples, palaces, homes, and tombs. The areaof Meroe wherethe rulers lived containedtwolarge palaces, audience halls, living quartersfor the staff, palace and aRoman-

40

Labor and Laborers

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

LABOR AND LABORERS nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See (color plate 12,' vol. 2.

indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

style bath connected by channels to a nearby well. A temple dedicated to Amun was typical of the combination of Egyptian and Nubian influences that dominated the culture. The walls of the temple were covered with Egyptian-style reliefs* of such Egyptian gods as Amun, OSIRIS, Isis, and HORUS. However, the faces of the sculptures look Nubian rather than Egyptian. Meroe continued to prosper for many years. Yet, its location along important trade routes and its rich iron ore deposits and gold and emerald mines attracted conquerors. In the A.D. 200s, Axum, a city in the highlands of northern Ethiopia, began to dominate the region. The final collapse of Meroe came when Axum invaded and conquered the city in the A.D. 300s. (See also Nubia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

I

n ancient times, the advancement from hunting and gathering to farming and herding allowed formerly nomadic* people to stay in one place over long periods of time. This shift to living in villages and later, in towns and cities concentrated the population and allowed for the development of new kinds of labor. People needed to perform different tasks in order for society to function. In the ancient Near East, the great advances in ART, ARCHITECTURE, and AGRICULTURE could not have occurred without the work of thousands of organized laborers. Whether laborers were involved in building monuments or in growing food on the ruler's land, they were probably employed, for at least part of the year, by a temple or a palace. Types of Laborers. The types of laborers in the ancient Near East can be divided into free, forced, semifree, and slave. The number of people in each category depended on the society and time period in which they worked. Free laborers probably existed in all societies to some degree, but they were the rarest type of workers in each society. These workers were paid wages, in either grain or silver, for their work. They probably were at the highest skill levels and had some freedom to choose for whom they worked and when they worked. Forced laborers were free people who were required to give the palace or the temple a certain amount of their time each year. This was the earliest form of TAXATION; instead of taking money, the government demanded the people's time. Forced laborers were given rations of food and wool in exchange for their work. Almost all working members of a society were required to participate in forced labor. In the most general sense, semifree labor included people who went into debt and had to work for the palace or temple to pay off their debt. They were also paid in rations, not wages. Slaves were people who could be bought and sold. They were usually foreign-born captives, although they could also be indigenous*. Slaves generally worked inside households, which allowed their owners to keep an eye on them. Whatever their status, most workers were paid in the same "currency": wool and grain. There was also often little difference in the 41

Labor and Laborers

* thresh to crush grain plants so that the seeds or grains are separated from the stalks and husks * artisan skilled craftsperson * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

Payment for Work Done The Hittite laws from the second millennium B.C (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.) were among the most detailed in the Near East Law 158 describes the wages paid an unskilled laborer; If a man hires himself out for the harvest (on the understanding) that he will bind the sheaves, (that) the bound (sheaves) will get on the wagon, (that) he will bring it into the barn, and (that) they will dear the threshing floorf his wages for three months shall be 30 parisu [390 gallons] of barley. 11 a woman hires herself out for the harvest, her wages for two months shall be 12 parisu [156 gallons] of barley. This law reflects the fact that women in the ancient Near East were not paid the s#me wages as men.

amount laborers were paid, although wages, which were paid by the day, were worth more than monthly rations. Most of the laborers in the ancient Near East were PEASANTS who worked in agriculture. They also performed most of the manual labor and might find themselves working as carpenters, miners, tanners, bricklayers, or millers. If the crops did not need to be sowed, weeded, harvested, or threshed*, then a laborer might repair the irrigation system or help build a new one. Generally, labor was highly specialized only among the most advanced artists and artisans*, such as metalworkers and stone carvers and those in the "intellectual" sphere, such as scribes*, physicians, and diviners*. Mesopotamia. Most of the labor records from ancient Mesopotamia come from the palaces and the temples. The state was the largest employer, and the system of forced labor enabled the state to construct enormous public works projects such as the IRRIGATION system. This system was probably built by thousands of workers, both forced and semifree. After it was built, the state continued to employ manual laborers to maintain and repair the canals. Large numbers of workers were also involved in the construction of buildings, including palaces, temples, and ziggurats*. When building a new capital city or rebuilding an old one, the state employed thousands of workers to construct city walls, gates, administrative buildings, and living quarters. Generally, in early Mesopotamian society, if women and children were recorded as workers, it meant that they were semifree labor and among the poorest members of society. They were commonly put to work preparing and weaving cloth. For instance, during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), there is evidence of a textile factory that employed 6,000 workers, mostly women and children. Women were also employed to grind grain. In addition to these tasks, records of the time reveal that women also had to clear canals, tow boats, and gather and carry reeds. Egypt. In ancient Egypt, the majority of organized labor was controlled by the state, although there were private landowners who hired or bought laborers. The greatest task for which labor was employed apart from farming was to build tombs for the kings and members of their households. Most of the laborers who helped build the great Egyptian monuments such as the PYRAMIDS at GIZA were peasants. They were used as forced labor by the government during the seasons between planting and harvesting, when there was less farmwork to be done. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women seem to have had some flexibility when it came to work. In addition to farming and the traditional household tasks, they worked as millers, bakers, spinners, weavers, musicians, and dancers. Some even held high offices. Anatolia. The HITTITE empire of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was made up of large cities dominated by government, where specialized labor thrived, and small villages, where labor was more a communal activity. As in the rest of the Near East, people were required to provide the

42

Labor and Laborers

government with their labor fora portionof the year. Verylittle evidence of independent enterprise exists. The Hittites had veryspecific laws governing laborand payment,and unlike many other Near Eastern societies, someofthose laws favoredthe worker. For example,if a worker was injured, the responsible party was required to take care of the worker while he recoveredand to pay the physician'sfees and an additionalfee oncethe worker recovered. Wages were paid to workers either in silveror in grain. Wages were fixedforcertain forms of labor. Most occupations were male dominated, but there isevidence that women servedas weavers, farmworkers, cooks, innkeepers, millers, musicians, singers, dancers,and medical workers. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan

The Levant. As was true elsewherein the Near East,the rulersof the Levant* usedforced labor.InUGARIT, the city men of were forcedto spend a portion of each year in service to both Ugarit's king and hisHittite overlord. According to the BIBLE, Hebrew King Solomon employed 30,000 Israelitesforfour months each year for forcedAfter labor. around B.C., 1100 the majority of laborers were free, although they still paid taxesin the form of work.The Israelites, particularlythe religious leaders, disliked forced labor. This has caused historiansto speculate that forced laborwas 43

Lagash imposed only on non-Israelites such as Canaanites. However, this was probably not true because during the reigns of Solomon and DAVID, at least, forced labor probably included Israelites as well. (See also Land Use and Ownership; Markets; Mining; Nomads and Nomadism; Palaces and Temples; Servants; Slaves and Slavery; Work.)

LAGASH city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. reservoir place where water is collected and stored for future use cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

Lamps

LAND USE

AND OWNERSHIP * domestication adaptation for human use

44

L

agash (LA»gash) was a city-state* of ancient Sumer, a region located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in southern MESOPOTAMIA. Archaeological* discoveries indicate that Lagash was inhabited as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, but it did not flourish until around 2400 B.C. Lagash was known for its building projects. The city's inhabitants built irrigation works to bring water from the surrounding rivers and even built reservoirs* to preserve the valuable water supply. These works were sophisticated for the time and included devices that controlled the water's direction and flow. The people of Lagash believed that water was provided by deities, such as their patron god, Ningirsu. They built a temple complex called the Bagara to honor him. Another oval temple complex was dedicated to the goddess ISHTAR (Inanna). There also was a temple dedicated to the high god ENLIL. Lagash was also well known for its warfare. Royal INSCRIPTIONS and cuneiform* tablets provide accounts of wars between Lagash and other city-states in Sumer, especially UR and UMMA. One of the most famous monuments found at Lagash is a stela* known as the Stela of the Vultures, which celebrates the military victory of Lagash over Umma. Around 2300 B.C., Lagash fell to SARGON I, the king of Akkad, a citystate in central Mesopotamia. However, around 2100 B.C., Lagash revived and prospered under the leadership of its governor, GUDEA, who restored peace and prosperity during his rule. Sculptors in Lagash created many statues of Gudea with cuneiform inscriptions proclaiming his achievements. (See also Sumer and the Sumerians.)

See Furnishings and Furniture.

I

n the ancient Near East, humans began taming wild land when they began farming. They chose areas where there was enough water and where they could easily turn the soil. AGRICULTURE was closely followed by the domestication* of animals and herding. Therefore, early humans settled near lands that also served as good pastures for their animals. The earliest societies were probably organized as simple, communal villages, where the people grew food to feed themselves. As society became more complex, the purpose and organization of farming and herding changed. People began to gather around the regions

Land Use and Ownership where farming was most successful. The settlements became large, leading to the growth of towns and cities. Soon not all people grew their own food. Grain, the most basic food, became a source of wealth, and ownership of land became important. For these reasons, ancient Near Eastern peoples began to draw boundaries around their property, and land was bought, sold, and held, with some people acquiring more than others.

The Life of an Egyptian Farmer Many school texts in ancient Egypt described the everyday We of a farmer. The descriptions were often; satirical and poked fun at the farmer. They were written to encourage students to stay in school. In one of these texts, a farmer goes through a series of unfortunate experiences. First, his oxen are eaten by jackals, and he has to sell his clothes to buy a new team. Then as\ he plants his crop, all the seeds are eaten by a snake He replants the crop, using borrowed seeds. Still, it seems that at the harvest, he has no grain* He and his wife are beaten up, and their children are taken away in chains.

Land Use. Water and the control of it have been key to the use of land. Humans began to control the water supply to their crops before 5000 B.C. This first occurred along the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESOPOTAMIA and along the NILE RIVER in Egypt. As agriculture developed and advanced, cities came into being. The existence and stability of cities, in turn, provided farmers with the protection to move into uncharted territory and therefore to increase their lands. Cities also provided large, centrally controlled workforces that could carry out huge public improvement projects such as irrigation and canal systems. Still, most land in the ancient Near East was left wild because it was either unsuited for farming or was too far away from where people lived. This wild land was used by herders to graze their animals. The largest amount of farmland was used for growing grain. People used small plots of land for private gardens and vegetable plots. Land was also used for planting a relatively small number of orchards. Landownership. Most of the information about landownership in the ancient Near East comes from excavations of tax records at the great temples and palaces. However, scholars have found that it is difficult to tell the difference between a palace's tax records (which would mean someone else owned the land) and its rental records (which would mean the palace owned the land). In addition, these excavations have yielded almost no information on the lands owned by small farmers. Notwithstanding, scholars believe that most ancient Near Eastern societies had private land ownership. This was probably even true in Egypt, where historians once believed that the rulers owned everything. In most societies, there were many types of landowners—peasant farmers, large landowners, and rulers and priests. The rulers and priests generally owned more land than most others. Therefore, they required more people to work the land. They used two main methods to gather labor. One was forced labor, in which PEASANTS were required to work for the palace or temple as a form of TAXATION. Another was semifree labor, in which individuals gave themselves and their labor to the palace or temple for a period of time (perhaps their entire lives) to repay a debt or because they could not support themselves. Slave labor was less common than previously thought. Occasionally, the palaces and temples might even hire free laborers. As with the temples and palaces, large landowners employed semifree and slave laborers to work their fields. (Forced laborers were generally only used on state lands.) Peasant farmers worked on land that they owned or on land owned by someone else. The latter form of farming is called sharecropping. In this system, the peasant retained a portion of the crop, and a portion went to the landowner. If the farmer provided all the 45

Land Use and Ownership tools, animals, and seed, he received two-thirds of the crop, and the landowner received one-third.

* levee embankment or earthen wall alongside a river that helps prevent flooding

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

* dry farming farming that relies on natural moisture retained in the ground after rainfall * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Mesopotamia. The Sumerians and Babylonians of southern Mesopotamia used the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to cultivate their crops. However, they had to devise a system to control the floodwaters because they came in when the crops were planted. The Mesopotamians built an elaborate system of levees* and canals to control and save the floodwaters and to divert water from the rivers in the dry months. Soon Mesopotamian farmers became expert in preventing flood damage to their crops and were often the most productive in the region. From 5000 to 1595 B.C., more northern Mesopotamians owned land than did southern Mesopotamians. Moreover, land management practices differed between Akkad in the north and Sumer in the south. Mesopotamians bought and sold land until the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), when land sales seem to have ended abruptly. Many scholars believe that this was simply because land sales were not reported during that period. After the Third Dynasty of Ur, however, the sale of land began again (or began to be reported again). When the Kassites controlled the region, between about 1595 and 1158 B.C., the king began to award grants of land as gifts. The boundaries of such land grants were marked by stone monuments called kudurrus. In Egypt. The Nile River was the source of agriculture in Egypt. Unlike the flooding in Mesopotamia, the Nile floods were predictable. Each year, the waters spread over the plains, depositing a thick layer of rich silt* on the land. After the waters subsided, the Egyptians could plant their crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet until the harvest, about three months later. They planted their grains at the edge of the floodplain and used other lands for gardens and orchards. Lands that did not drain properly were used as pasture. Modern scholars agree that private individuals owned some land and that land was consistently cheap. However, public institutions (the state and the temples) owned the majority of land. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women could own land and rent it out to tenants. Syria and the Levant. Using dry farming*, the people of ancient SYRIA and the Levant* cultivated such crops as barley and planted orchards. By the second millennium B.C.*, Levantine farmers began to manipulate the region's hilly land by building terraces. In ancient EBLA, the palace owned most of the land and could give gifts of land to loyal subjects. The Canaanites and Israelites believed that all land belonged to god, who then allocated it among various families or clans. By the late 700s B.C., however, landowners began to buy enormous amounts of land, leaving many peasants poor and landless. Canaanite and Israelite kings also owned large amounts of land, which they often gave as a reward to high officials. Anatolia. Most land in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was owned as small farms or was used for herding. Palaces and temples also owned a

46

Languages good deal of land, but they were not nearly as powerful as those in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Anatolian farmers and herders were organized into villages. In free villages, farmers owned the land, the village owned it communally, or the villagers sharecropped palace lands. In another type of village, people worked the land belonging to the king or a landowner. In a third type of village, the people worked for and belonged to state institutions, including palaces, temples, or royal tombs. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Canals; Cereal Grains; Environmental Change; Irrigation; Slaves and Slavery.)

LANGUAGES dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * third millennium B.C. years between 3000 and 2001 B.C.

T

he people of the ancient Near East spoke hundreds of languages and dialects* over a period of several thousand years. Even during a short period of time, a region's population could include speakers of many languages, and people were generally aware of the multitude of tongues used by other peoples. For example, an inscription of the Babylonian king HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.) mentions the people of lands to the east "whose land is far and whose tongue is confused/' Sometimes, however, one particular language became commonly spoken in large regions, perhaps because it was brought by a conquering kingdom. A language that is widely used for communication among speakers of different languages is called a lingua franca. In the modern world, English is a lingua franca. Several languages served the same function in the ancient Near East. These languages—used for trade, diplomacy*, or literature—spread across large areas, replacing other tongues or becoming a region's second language. Language experts called linguists have divided the world's ancient and modern languages into several large categories called families. A few languages, however, bear no relation to the recognized families, and their origins remain a mystery. Major Language Families. Most of the ancient Near Eastern languages belong to one of two major language groups. The first is the Afro-Asiatic family, which is also called the Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic family. The other is the Indo-European family. Many important languages of the ancient and modern Near East belong to the Afro-Asiatic family. This large family can be divided into Semitic* languages and Hamitic languages. The Semitic subfamily includes the dominant languages spoken in MESOPOTAMIA, the Levant*, and Arabia since at least the middle of the third millennium B.C.* At various times, a Semitic language served as a lingua franca for the whole region; Akkadian was the lingua franca during the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), Aramaic from around 700 B.C. to around A.D. 600, and Arabic since then. The Semitic subfamily of languages can be further divided into East Semitic and West Semitic languages. The Old Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian dialects for the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia, and perhaps the Eblaite language of Syria belong to the East Semitic group. The 47

Languages

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

48

West Semitic group includesthe languagesofEthiopia,Arabia,and the Levant. The Phoenician and Hebrew tonguesareWest Semitic, as isAramaic, whichwas an official language PERSIANofEMPIRE. the Some of the Hebrew BIBLEwas writtenin Aramaic. Archaeologists* have found Aramaic textsfrom EgypttoAfghanistan. The Hamitic subfamilies include ancient Egyptian, Berber,Cushitic, and Chadic. The ancient Egyptian language, which existed different in forms over at least 4,000 years,can besubdivided intoLate Egyptian,demotic Egyptian, and Coptic. Thelanguages of the Berber,Cushitic, and Chadic subfamilies include many modern languages anddialects spoken by millions of people. TheINDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGESare thoughtto have originated in the region north of theBlack Sea. Most modern European languages,and some of western and central Asia,belong tothis family. Peopleinvarious parts of the ancient Near East spoke languages belongingtothree IndoEuropean branches, or subfamilies: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian,andGreek. The Anatolian subfamilyis one of the oldest Indo-European language groups in the NearEast. Theselanguages—nowextinct—werespoken in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) SYRIA and at least northern asearly as the second millennium B.C. Hittite—thelanguage ofHITTITES—is the ancient a well-known exampleofthis subfamily. Other Anatolian languages include Luwian, Palaic, Lydian, Lycian, Pisidian, Sidetic,andCarian. The Indo-Iranian subfamilyoflanguages includes Avestan, thesacred language of Zoroastrianism,and OldPersian. These languagesareknown to have been spoken IRAN during in and afterfirst the millennium B.C. (years from 1000 B.C.) to 1They arerelated tosome of theancient and

Languages

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Aramaic: Then and Now The Aramaic language, once the lingua franca of the ancient world, has been in use for thousands of years. The first textual evidence of the Aramaic language, known as Old Aramaic, dates from the 800s B.C. Today modern Aramaic can be subdivided into four branches: Western Aramaic, spoken in three Syrian villages; Central Aramaic, spoken in southeastern Turkey; Eastern Aramaic, spoken in various dialects in and near Kurdistan; and NeoMandaic, which is spoken by a small group of people in western Iran.

modern tongues of India and Pakistan, many of which also belong to the Indo-Iranian subfamily. Greek, which survives today in modern form, has existed in written form since the 1400s B.C. Greek dialects were spoken in western Anatolia and on the islands of the AEGEAN SEA as well as in Greece. The far-ranging conquests of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the 300s B.C. spread the Greek language throughout the Mediterranean region and western Asia and made Greek the lingua franca of the Hellenistic* era. Languages Outside Major Families. Some ancient Near Eastern languages, including several important ones, do not fall into either the Indo-European or the Afro-Asiatic language family. Linguists are still working to interpret these languages fully and to determine to which family they belong. Many of these languages survive in a large body of texts, whereas there is only fragmentary evidence for others, increasing the difficulty for the linguists who wish to study them. The SUMERIAN LANGUAGE is the oldest language in the world for which written texts survive. The earliest documents in this language date from before 3000 B.C. Sumerian, the language of the rulers of southern Mesopotamia, was spoken along with Akkadian and other languages during the third millennium B.C. Akkadian became the official tongue after the conquests of SARGON I of Akkad (2334-2278 B.C.). However, rulers decided to continue to use Sumerian as a written language for scholarly, literary, and religious texts in the same way that Europeans during the Middle Ages used Latin long after they had stopped speaking it. The language of the Elamites is another tongue with no known ties to other ancient or modern languages. Although Elam was located in southwestern Iran near Mesopotamia, its language—which existed in various forms from around 3500 B.C. to the 300s B.C.—developed independently. Some ancient Near Eastern languages are known only from names or references in other languages. The language of the KASSITES falls into this category. The Kassites occupied Babylonia from the mid-1500s B.C. until the mid-1100s B.C., but they adopted the Sumerian and Babylonian languages. Their original tongue appears to bear no relation to any other language. The HURRIANS came to northern and eastern Mesopotamia in the late third millennium B.C. Although speakers of the Assyrian and Hittite languages borrowed many words from Human, the Human language itself has only one known relative, the language of URARTU, a kingdom north of Assyria. The Human and Urartian languages appear to belong to a small language group unrelated to all others. In fact, they may have been closely linked dialects of the same parent language. Although Hittite belongs to the Anatolian subfamily of Indo-European languages, modern linguists have realized that Hittite texts also contain words or passages in a different language—Hattic. Hattic was spoken by the people who lived in the city of KHATTUSHA before the Hittites made it their capital. The Hittites preserved some traces of Hattic in their religious rituals. Deciphering Lost Languages. Modern Western scholars have learned the languages of the ancient Near East in three ways. Some languages, 49

Lapis Lazuli

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning

hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

LAPIS LAZULI * inlay fine layer of a substance set into wood, metal, or other material as a form of decoration

* entrepot intermediary center of trade, usually on a caravan or sea route

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

50

including Hebrew and Greek, have been used and studied in Europe since ancient times. Such languages as Arabic and Persian survived and are spoken today. Some languages became extinct, but scholars are sometimes able to decipher* these languages if they were preserved in texts on materials durable enough to survive the passing of centuries. Many decipherers of ancient languages owe their success to bilingual inscriptions, a term referring to documents that contain the same text in two languages. If one of the languages is known, it can be used as a starting point for a researcher to identify words in the unknown text. Often the first words to be identified are names or terms repeated throughout the text. Deciphering from bilinguals is not simply a matter of substituting new words for known words one by one. Sentence structure and other elements of grammar may differ greatly between the two languages, making the text difficult to interpret. One of the most famous of all bilingual archaeological texts is the ROSETTA STONE, which provided the key to the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian language in the early A.D. 1800s. The stone contains inscriptions in the Greek language and script, everyday Egyptian from the Hellenistic period in the demotic script, and ancient Egyptian, written in hieroglyphics*. Another famous text used by modern scholars to understand ancient languages is the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, a trilingual inscription written in the Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite languages. (See also Decipherment; Hamitic Languages; Semitic Languages.)

L

apis lazuli is a rare, semiprecious stone of deep blue color, sometimes speckled with gold-colored minerals. Greatly prized in the ancient Near East, lapis lazuli was used in making beads, cylinder SEALS, inlays*, JEWELRY, and other decorative objects. The main sources of the stone lay in CENTRAL ASIA, just outside the Near East, and the demand for lapis lazuli helped stimulate interregional trade. Ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians believed that lapis lazuli had the power to protect against evil. The stone became popular for jewelry, and trade in lapis lazuli became well established by about 4000 B.C. The main sources of lapis lazuli were in Badakhshan, a mountainous region of Afghanistan far to the northeast of Mesopotamia. A number of sites in eastern IRAN served as entrepots* where the stone was processed and prepared for distribution to areas throughout the Near East. By about 3500 B.C., an interregional trading network based on lapis lazuli extended from India in the east to Egypt in the west and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south. Lapis lazuli was especially prized by Mesopotamian rulers, including the Sumerians, and artifacts* from royal cemeteries at UR demonstrate its use in elite Mesopotamian life. It was often used in combination with gold and carnelian, especially in Sumerian jewelry. Even some Mesopotamian myths mention the importance of lapis lazuli. Wealthy Egyptians also greatly valued the stone for its rarity and beauty, and the finest Egyptian jewelry often contained lapis lazuli. Much of the lapis lazuli that reached Egypt before 3000 B.C. came through the city of UGARIT

Law See color plate 5, vol. 1.

LAW

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

in northern SYKIA. Although lapis lazuli never became very popular among the HITTITES, a number of Hittite texts contain references to the beautiful blue stone.

T

he people of the ancient Near East believed that laws were established by their gods. The king was chosen by the gods as their representative, and he was responsible for communicating the gods' laws to the people and ensuring that they were obeyed. In turn, the people put their faith in the king to protect the weak from the strong and to ensure that they were pleasing the gods. In this capacity, the king served as the supreme legal authority of the land. Although the king had the most authority, he was not the only source of laws and legal decision making in the ancient Near East. In many societies, the male head of household—usually the father—had a number of legal rights and did not have to defer to the state or the temple for approval of his judgments. After the family, the next legal authority was the village council or town assembly. At this level, legal decisions were based on custom or tradition, not laws. The final level of the law was the state and its law codes. These codes, however, were not strict rules to be followed. Rather, they were suggestions to the judges on how to decide different types of cases. Even as law codes became more complex, many legal matters, such as that of inheritance, were left up to local customs, because a large segment of the population was illiterate and therefore unable to consult the codes. Throughout the ancient Near East, many legal transactions took place between people using contracts as a means to document events such as land sales or marriage or divorce agreements. In the Levant* and Mesopotamia, the contract was witnessed and often impressed with seals or fingernail marks. The contract could then be referred to in case of a dispute.

Judicial System. The court systems throughout the ancient Near East shared several characteristics. Trials were usually led by a group of judges. For minor crimes and disputes, such as those over property rights or inheritance, the judges were village or city elders. More serious crimes, such as murder or treason, were referred to a higher court, where decisions were made by state judges appointed by the king. Usually, the final judge was the king himself. Evidence presented at trials often consisted of the testimony of the witnesses and participants, who testified under oath. If the defendant was convicted at the end of the trial, punishment was usually immediate. Depending on the nature of the crime, the types of punishment included fines, beatings, mutilation, banishment, terms of forced labor, or death. Certain societies punished not only the criminals but also their families or communities, especially in cases of treason. Mesopotamia. Evidence of laws from the ancient Near East survives in the form of law codes, contracts, and court decisions. Historians know more about the law in ancient Mesopotamia than in other Near Eastern lands

51

Law

Jh\s copy of the Code of Hammurabi from the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal was excavated at the site of the ancient city of Nineveh. The original code, dating from the 1750s B.C., contained 282 laws and was written by Hammurabi, king of Babylon. The Code of Hammurabi is one of the best-known artifacts of Mesopotamia and perhaps the most famous legal code of antiquity.

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* vizier minister of state

52

because the clay tablets on which Mesopotamians wrote have survived very well. Not only are there records of the numerous law codes from Mesopotamia, but reports of court cases and texts for training judges also exist. In Mesopotamia, the earliest codes of law were the Sumerian codes of kings SHULGI (ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C.) and Lipit-Ishtar (ruled ca. 1930 B.C.) and the laws of ESHNUNNA (ca. 1800 B.C.). One of the most famous legal codes of the ancient world was the Code of Hammurabi. This code, set by Babylonian king HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.), was by faj^the most extensive of the preserved Mesopotamian codes. It was also more severe in its punishments than earlier codes, stating that for some crimes, the perpetrators should be punished by having the same crimes inflicted on themselves. Other Mesopotamian law documents include records of court cases that summarized the events during the case, the final decision, and sometimes a statement quoting an important participant in the trial. In Babylonia during the first millennium B.C.*, trial records also included quotes of dialogues between the parties agreeing to the terms of the deal. Initially, only one copy of a case was written. In a lawsuit, it was given to the winning party for safekeeping. A contract or sale document was given to the party who was paying the money. In Neo-Babylonian times (612-539 B.C.), a copy was often made for each party. In the most serious court cases in Mesopotamia, the oaths of those on trial were often combined with a test called an ordeal. One form of ordeal involved swearing an oath to the river god and then jumping into a river. If oath takers were telling the truth, they would survive; if they were not, they would die, because of the river god's knowledge of the truth. Matters of inheritance in Mesopotamia were based on custom rather than a code. Usually, the majority of an estate went to the oldest son, and the rest of it was divided among younger sons. In Sumer, women were also able to inherit from their fathers if there were no sons. Egypt. With the exception of some contracts and legal documents, very little evidence of the legal system in ancient Egypt exists. Historians believe that the law was based on local traditions and oral history, not on set legal codes. However, by the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), there were certain national laws, particularly in areas where the state had a concern, such as in the runaway of a forced laborer. Egyptian judicial cases were judged by members of the community, including members of the royal administration and ordinary people. Until the Late Period (664-332 B.C.), Egyptian courts were not permanent institutions, and unlike the situation in the rest of the Near East, the king almost never presided over a case himself. For state trials, there were two high courts, one for northern Egypt and one for southern Egypt, each led by a vizier*. The viziers presided over a tribunal (court of justice) made up of royal officials and possibly priests. National inheritance laws in Egypt probably developed because the elite members of society owned land in different areas and did not want to be subject to many laws that depended on different local traditions. The general law of the New Kingdom was that people could leave their goods and property to whomever they pleased. When a person died

Law without a will, the child who took responsibility for the deceased's burial would inherit the deceased's property. * scribal referring to people of a learned class who served as writers, editors, or teachers

To Catch a Thief A sort of police force called the Medjay operated during the New Kingdom period in Egypt ^fter an offense was reported, the Medjay began pursuing suspects. Once a suspected criminal was in custody, the Medfay sometimes used such methods as torture to obtain a con-} fession. One document from Egypt tells the story of a tomb robber who\ was being questioned under torture: *He was then examined again with the stick, the birch, and the screw. He would not confess anything beyond what he had said/'

* magistrate person empowered by the state to administer and enforce the law

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Hittites. Knowledge of the law the HITTITES comes mostly from their law codes, although there are a few scribal* records and some stories involving legal issues in Hittite literature. Even though no contracts from Hittite culture survive, scholars know that these documents were used because they are referred to in other texts. The Hittite law codes were unusual in that when a new law was recorded, that law contained the old law it replaced. Moreover, unlike other ancient Near Eastern laws, Hittite laws tended to include statements of what is, as well as what is not, permitted. As a result, historians know that the Old Hittite Laws (ca. 1650 B.C.) had different penalties, depending on whether the victims and criminals were slaves or freemen. The most important difference between the Old Hittite Laws and the New Hittite Laws (ca. 1350-1200 B.C.) was that the later laws took into account a larger variety of legal situations. The court system of the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1650-1500 B.C.) consisted of the royal court, where the king was judge, and local courts run by magistrates*, who were the elite of the kingdom. These magistrates were chosen by the king and sent to the various districts of the realm. By around 1500 B.C., local elders also served as judges, along with representatives of the king and the district governor. Hittite punishments were quite lenient compared with those of other societies of the time. Most punishments were in the form of fines. The amount of a fine was only intended to repay the victim, not punish the criminal. In fact, in many cases, the Old Hittite Laws replaced CAPITAL PUNISHMENT with fines or animal sacrifice. However, when the criminal was a slave, capital punishment or mutilation was still used. Scholars do not know much about inheritance laws among the Hittites, but it appears that sons inherited the family property. Women could not inherit property directly from their fathers. The Levant. Archaeologists* have found some letters and scribal records from the Levant, but the greatest source of knowledge of the law in the Levant is the Hebrew BIBLE. Most of the Israelite codes are recorded as divine revelations that were given to the people during the period the Israelites spent in the desert after leaving Egypt. Among these are the most famous laws in the Western world—the TEN COMMANDMENTS—which set basic boundaries for how people should behave. The oldest code in the Bible is the Covenant Code, from the Book of Exodus. It covers issues of slavery, theft, and crimes punishable by death. According to the Bible, among the ancient Israelites, a father's land was divided among his sons, but the oldest son received a double portion. If a man had no male heirs, a daughter could receive an inheritance. However, she had to marry within her tribe so that property belonging to that tribe would not pass to others. Apart from biblical law, no actual law codes from this region have been found. Nevertheless, letters, contracts, court declarations, and inscriptions have been discovered in both Phoenician and Canaanite ruins. 53

Lebanon Persia. Most of the information about ancient Persia comes from Greek writers and historians. There is almost no direct knowledge of Persian law codes and court procedures. However, it is known that Persian law was based on faithfulness to the Persian god AHURA MAZDA and to the king. In the court system of Persia, judges were appointed for life by the king. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, they judged all types of disputes. Another report says that judges traveled through the countryside judging cases. As in other societies, the king had the final word. According to Persian law, women did not have the right to inherit. Persian men married more than one wife and also married relatives to ensure that they would have several descendants and that wealth remained within the family. (See also Divorce; Mosaic Law; Property and Property Rights; Slaves and Slavery.)

Lebanon

See Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.

Leprosy

See Medicine.

Levant, The

LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

See Canaan; Israel andjudah; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Syria.

A

fter writing was invented in about 3300 B.C., the people of the ancient Near East were able to keep records and accounts of business transactions. Over time, as the frequency and uses of writing increased, people needed to store their documents. This resulted in the creation of libraries where texts and documents were kept for reference and archives where records and historical documents were preserved. In Mesopotamia and other places where the cuneiform* script was used, texts were written on clay tablets as well as on wooden boards covered with wax. Unfortunately, very few of these boards have survived. Consequently, our knowledge of Mesopotamian archives and libraries depends almost exclusively on the recovery of clay tablets. In Egypt, there are even fewer surviving records from both libraries and archives because papyrus*, the writing material the Egyptians used, was destroyed more easily than cuneiform tablets. Most of the surviving papyri were recovered from tombs. Libraries. Libraries in the ancient Near East could be found in temples, palaces, and schools and at the homes of priests. Libraries began as places for storing texts, such as lists of words, samples of different scripts,

54

Libraries and Archives

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

One of the most impressive libraries of the ancient Near East was located in the palace of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. Ashurbanipal's goal was to collect the most important scholarly and religious texts. Dating from the 600s B.C., this dictionary of synonyms, inscribed on a tablet made of baked clay, was part of Ashurbanipal's collection.

and practice documents for students to copy. When ancient Near Eastern peoples began to write down and copy LITERATURE around 2500 B.C., libraries became places to store such texts as OMENS, medical knowledge, ASTROLOGY, MYTHOLOGY, magical spells, and wisdom literature, such as the teachings of a father to his son. In Mesopotamia, temple libraries existed in the Assyrian capitals of Nineveh, Nimrud, and Dur-Sharrukin. All these temples housed important literature and were dedicated to Nabu, the god of scribes*. Palaces in Mesopotamia often did not have libraries at all. One major exception to this was King ASHURBANIPAL'S library at Nineveh dating from the 600s B.C. The king personally oversaw the collection and sent scribes to Babylonia to confiscate or copy religious and scholarly texts. By the time Assurbanipal's library was complete, it had at least 1,500 tablets containing the most important literature of the day. Although there is little archaeological* information available about libraries in ancient Egypt, literary evidence suggests that Egyptians had libraries dating back to the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.) Later texts indicate that members of Egyptian royalty were interested in libraries, suggesting that palace libraries were perhaps more common in Egypt than in Mesopotamia. The most information about Egyptian libraries in Egypt comes from the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Roman era. The most famous library of the ancient world, that in Alexandria, was established in the 200s B.C. Although no trace of this library remains, it was reputed to hold a copy of every known scroll of ancient times in its collection. The library's holdings are believed to have exceeded 400,000 scrolls. Archives. In ancient times, administrative and business records such as contracts, reports, letters, and ledgers were stored in archives. Today archives also contain old documents that are no longer used but are historically important. In the ancient Near East, archives contained documents that were still in use or that were needed for reference. Administrative and institutional documents were stored at official archives. Temple archives in Mesopotamia were considered official even though a temple only stored those records that were directly related to its own business. Palaces, on the other hand, not only had archives relating to the business of the palace, such as lists of personnel and what they were paid, but also those relating to the business of the country, such as international treaties. In Mesopotamia, even people of modest means had private archives that contained contracts, land use or sale documents, and records of lawsuits. The archives of merchants or traders probably contained business ledgers as well as lists of goods and their sale prices. In ancient Egypt, more temple archives have survived than any other kind. However, historians believe that the state also kept extensive records, particularly with regard to military matters. Private household archives from ancient Egypt have been found as well. It is known that archival material was used in court cases throughout ancient Egyptian history. Documents could be binding over many generations, and the courts would refer back to documents created hundreds of years before. 55

Libyans

Library Rivalry According to legend, parchmentwriting material made from the skin of sheep or goats—became widely used because of a rivalry between libraries. In the 100s B.C, the librar at the city of Pergamum in Anatolia was said to be almost as magnificent as the one in Alexandria in Egypt The Egyptians wanted their library to be the best and refused toj supply papyrus—the chief writing material of the time—to Pergamum, Because the scribes of Pergamum could no longer write on papyrus, they turned to using parchment instead. Parchment eventually replaced papyrus as a writing material.

LIBYANS * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

56

Storage and Retrieval of Texts. Large libraries and archives had to organize all their documents for easy access. Labels were used to identify collections of tablets that were kept in baskets, boxes, or trays. Throughout the ancient Near East, both papyri and cuneiform tablets were stored in three main ways: in containers such as clay jars, wooden or reed boxes, or leather bags; on open shelves; and in niches built into walls. Cuneiform tablets were organized by shape, size, and the layout of their text. Initially, library texts were not very long, and there was no great need to catalog the documents. Later when scribes began to write reference works as long as 100 tablets, the catalogs recorded their incipits—the first words or lines of each tablet. This system enabled people to find the tablet they needed. After 600 B.C., scribes used ink to write identifying information on the edge of a tablet in Aramaic, the common language of the time. In ancient Egypt, different types of documents were written on papyrus rolls of various heights. This made it easy to catalog and identify them. In addition, papyri commonly began with a date, which could immediately be seen when one opened a scroll. Such papyri were organized by date. Libraries in Egypt from the Greco-Roman period (332 B.C.-A.D. 642) contained lists of texts on the walls. Some scholars believe that these were an inventory of the library's contents and that such lists were used in many Egyptian libraries from long before the Greco-Roman period. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Clay Tablets; Cuneiform; Hieroglyphics; Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)

I

n ancient times, the Libyans (LI»bee»uhnz) were a partially nomadic* people who lived in the desert lands west of Egypt. Although Egypt had seized control of other neighboring lands, such as NUBIA and KUSH to the south, it was not interested in controlling the Libyans' land. This was because Libya did not contain valuable raw materials or lie on any important trade routes. However, the Egyptians wanted to prevent the Libyans from entering Egypt. Over the centuries, Libyans had migrated to Egypt in search of a better life. As the Libyan population increased in Egypt, especially as a result of several mass migrations, their power increased as well. Many of them lived like Egyptians and worshiped Egyptian gods, but they continued to honor their Libyan chiefs. The Egyptians employed captured Libyans as professional soldiers, or mercenaries. As payment for their service, the Egyptians gave the Libyan soldiers land. This increased the Libyans' power and wealth. The Libyans also married into the Egyptian royal family, thus extending and cementing their influence. Meanwhile, Libyans outside of Egypt had strong kings and armies. RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.) recognized this potential threat and built forts along Egypt's western borders. However, this was not sufficient protection. The Libyan armies made repeated attacks. Egypt managed to repel these incursions, but the attacks left the Egyptian government in

Lions

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Life Expectancy

LIONS * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head griffin imaginary creature with a lion's body and an eagle's head and wings

disarray. After a series of weakened kings and high priests, Egypt was ripe for infiltration and takeover. The Libyan rule of Egypt began at the time of the Twenty-second Dynasty (ca. 945-712 B.C.), when Shoshenq I took the throne. Until that time, Thebes had been the royal residence, but Shoshenq ruled from Tanis, in the Nile Delta, which had long been a Libyan stronghold. Shoshenq gave the military considerable power to maintain order. Under his rule, the Egyptian economy prospered. Both Libyans and Egyptians received positions in government, which kept the kingdom unified. His son even married the daughter of his Egyptian predecessor. Shoshenq is best known for his invasion of the Levant*, which increased his kingdom's prestige and wealth. Many scholars identify Shoshenq with an Egyptian king in the Hebrew Bible named Shishaq, who plundered Jerusalem around 925 B.C. However, this cohesiveness and prosperity did not last. Over the next 200 years, the kingdom was divided by civil wars fought among several rival dynasties. No single ruler was strong enough to unite the various parties into a cooperative group working toward a common goal. By this time, the Libyan dynasties were ripe for takeover. Around 750 B.C., Nubians from the area of present-day Sudan and southern Egypt seized control of Egypt, initiating the kingdom's Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

See Health.

I

n ancient times, lions roamed wild throughout the Near East. These great beasts were eventually exterminated in most areas, but in parts of the Levant* and MESOPOTAMIA, they continued to live in remote areas until as late as the early A.D. 1900s. As civilization developed in the ancient Near East, lions increasingly became a danger and nuisance to the people. In many regions, lion hunting became a necessity to prevent attacks on humans and their flocks and herds. Lion hunting was a popular activity of royalty, and the walls of Assyrian palaces contain many reliefs* of kings hunting the beasts from CHARIOTS or on foot. Although the earliest royal lion hunts took place in the wild, the Assyrians later kept lions in enclosures, where they were bred to be hunted by the king within a royal park. The strength, power, and majestic appearance of lions made them a popular subject in Near Eastern art and literature. Images of lions appeared in many paintings, and lion sculptures were often placed in or near palaces and temples. Lions were also portrayed as protective guardian animals on city gates. In art, lions were often combined with parts of humans or other animals to produce a variety of demons and monsters, including sphinxes*, griffins*, and dragons. In literature, lions often symbolized strength and aggression. In Egypt, the lion was symbolic of the king. 57

Lisht

See color plate 2, vol. 3.

LISHT

See map in Pyramids (vol. 4).

* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structure with long rectangular sides and a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber

Literacy

LITERATURE * illiterate unable to read or write

58

Lions also served as powerful symbols in religion and mythology. A number of gods and goddesses who served as protectors—such as the Sumerian god Ningirsu, the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, the Syrian goddess Atargatis, and the Phrygian goddess Cybele—were associated with lions. The Egyptian goddess Hathor could take the form of Sekhmet, a lioness, when she was angry. (See also Animals in Art; Cats; Hunting.)

L

isht, also called al-Lisht, is the modern name of a site in northern Egypt where a field of PYRAMIDS is located. These pyramids were built around 1900 B.C., during the reigns of King Amenemhet I and his son and successor, King Senwosret I. During his reign, Amenemhet moved Egypt's capital and royal residence from THEBES to a newly built city called Itjtawy, which was located between MEMPHIS and the Faiyum Depression, near the west bank of the Nile. The royal residence at Itjtawy became a model for later royal residences, and the city retained its importance as capital throughout the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.). Although Itjtawy has never been found, it is certain that its main cemetery was located at Lisht. The tomb complexes of Amenemhet and Senwosret at Lisht each included a pyramid, a temple, and a number of monuments. Many smaller pyramids and mastabas* were also built at Lisht for high-ranking government officials and members of the royal family. In addition, there were numerous cemeteries containing the graves of common people. Lisht was first explored in A.D. 1884 by an expedition of the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology. From 1906 through 1934, the site was explored by expeditions sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

See Education; Writing.

B

efore WRITING was invented, people learned the history, MYTHOLOGY, religious rituals, and songs of their cultures through oral tradition; that is, they memorized what they heard from their elders. The invention of writing meant that information could be transcribed for future generations to read as literature. However, most of the population in the ancient Near East was illiterate*, so the oral tradition remained the most common way for stories and rituals to pass from one generation to the next. Consequently, most ancient literature was written with the understanding that it would be read aloud. The literature of the ancient Near East can be divided into two main styles of writing: poetry and prose. Poetry includes HYMNS, songs, myths,

Literature * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * annals record of events arranged chronologically by year

* deity god or goddess

Title and Author Works of poetry and prose Jn the ancient Near East did not generally have titles, Instead, they were known by their inciplts—the first few words of tharflrst line. What modem historians call the fpfc of G%om£s& was known in the second millennium B.C. as "Surpassing Other Kings" and in thefirstmilien nium as "He Who Saw Everything." Moreover, the authors of these ancient literary works remain unknown, The fpfc of Gilgamesh may be an exception, however, A tablet found in the library of Assyrian Wng Ashurbanipal attributes its composl tion to Sin-teqe-unninni, an exorcis

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * exorcism removal of evil spirits through specific rituals, incantations, and ceremonies

PSALMS, love poems, and magical incantations*. Prose writing includes stories, law codes, royal INSCRIPTIONS, histories, and annals*. Some types of literature were written in both poetry and prose. Occasionally, an elevated or lyrical prose bridged the two styles. Poetry. Most literature in Mesopotamia until the end of the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) was written in Sumerian, although the language was no longer spoken. Much of this literature was in the form of poetry, although its principles still largely escape modern researchers. Among the earliest pieces of poetry recorded were incantations and short hymns. Hymns were written to deities*, composed for kings to celebrate special occasions in their reigns, or written for specific rituals and ceremonies. In Sumerian literature, there are also narrative poems—poems that tell stories—that contain myths about various gods. For example, Enki and the World Order tells the story of the creation of the universe and how it is divided between the gods. During the time of the Old Babylonian empire, new types of poems became popular. Poetic petitions were prayers addressed and written as letters to the gods. There were also debate poems, which presented arguments between characters representing opposites, such as summer and winter. In these poems, the characters praise themselves and insult each other. Poetry written in the Sumerian language does not rhyme nor does it have a set rhythm. Various sections of poems are repeated, as are words or phrases. For example: King am I, warrior from the womb am I, Shulgi am I, mighty male from birth am I, Lion fierce of eye, born to be a dragon am I, King of the four comers of the universe am I. Beginning around 2300 B.C., poems were written in Akkadian, a Semitic* language, but it was not until the 1700s B.C. that Akkadian poetry truly began to flower. Among the greatest poems written in Akkadian is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was based on a series of earlier Sumerian poems. The Akkadians also wrote love songs and a great number of exorcism* rituals. As with the Mesopotamians, hymns and poetry were by far the most common forms of Egyptian literature. Around the end of the Old Kingdom period, a type of protest literature developed. These texts, which criticized mainstream government, took several forms in poetry and could also be written in prose. Egyptians also excelled at love poetry: Of graceful step when she treads the earth, She has seized my heart in her embrace! She causes the neck of every male To turn about at the site of her; Happy the one whom she embraces! The best-known literature from the ancient Near East is the Hebrew BIBLE, which contains a great deal of poetry and prose. The most famous 59

Literature * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* secular nonreligious; connected everyday life * edict pronouncement of the government that has the force of law

Israelite poems are in theBible, among them the "Song of Solomon" and the Psalms.From elsewherein theLevant*,atUgarit, comesa great dealof narrative poetry. The most famous CYCLE, Ugaritic BAAL poetryis the which is a seriesof stories about BAAL.the Despite god the differencesbetween Hebrew and Ugaritic poetry, they used many of the same phrases, and both used repetition within and between phrases. In Anatolia, the Hittites wrote songs with a straightforward, strong rhythmic structure and refrain, a a line that is repeated throughout. Most Hittite mythology texts were used for rituals and probably werenot told as stories. Prose. Among the earliest prose pieces in Mesopotamia were the Sumerian KING LISTS. These were part historical and part fictional lists of the leaders in Sumer's history. Other types of early Sumerian prose included stories and riddles, law codes, and royal inscriptions. The Akkadians contributed to prose by composing works on religious issues written as essays, or as discussions. These could sometimes be written in the form of dialoguesor monologues, of such aDialogue Man as with His God. Comic stories, such as Poor Nippur from Man The were als preserved in prose. The Assyrians developed royal inscriptions, which detailed a king's accomplishments, into annals CHRONICLES—accounts and of past events. Like Egyptian poetry, Egyptian prose paid attention to the secular* world. Tomb inscriptions, especially biographies, influenced all types of Egyptian literature. Ultimately, these texts developed into fictional narrative stories. One of the most popularwasStory The ofSinuhe, whichis about a man's escapefrom Egypt and his struggle to come to terms with his past and learn the advantages of returning home. Other types of Egyptian prose included myths and rules of conduct, or "teaching" texts in which a superiorfigure, such as a king, shares his views. Egyptians also excelled in writing short stories. Hittite prose concentrated more on historical writing, which included edicts*, narratives, and annals. Among the earliest Hittite edicts is the EdictofKhattushili [I],from around B.C.In it, King 1620 Khattushili I presents his chosen heir to the dignitaries of his realm.Edict The of Telipinu, written around B.C.,is a1500 more general discussion of how an effective state should be organized.A remarkable text Apology is theof Khattushili III, from aroundB.C., in1250 whicha king justifieshis moveto take over the throne. Perhaps the most interesting Hittite prose pieces are the historical narratives that tell the stories of a king's reign. These stories can be very descriptive and dramatic. For example, early Hittite prose frequently used similes such as 'Then his mother bellowed like an ox." The Hittites also exaggerated the activities of their kings. In one story, the king describes his role in the universe: Who rulesall the lands(withhishand)? Is it not I whofixed hold (in theirplaces)therivers,the mountains and sea? theI set the mountaininsucha way thatitdoes not move; I set the sea such in a way thatit doesnotoverflow!

60

Love The Canaanites and other peoples of the Levant also produced prose, including royal inscriptions and letters, but because they wrote on easily perishable materials, much less has survived there than in the rest of the Near East. (See also Book of the Dead; Books and Manuscripts; Gilgamesh; Proverbs; Ten Commandments; Torah.)

LOVE * deity god or goddess * erotic related to sexual excitement or pleasure

I

n the ancient Near East, people saw love as a force underlying the divine and social orders. Love linked not only men and women but also worshipers and deities*, parents and children, and rulers and subjects. People did not distinguish between the emotion of love and the sexual or physical expressions of love. Rather, both were seen as part of the same force, and even relationships that were not sexual, such as the union between gods and their worshipers, could be described in terms that in other contexts referred to physical or erotic* love. In the Sumerian language, the verb for love could be used for a person, a thing, or an idea. The Akkadians also used their word for love, rdmu, in various contexts. Gods could love other gods, people, animals, heaven, kingship, life, prayer, and sacrifice. People could love gods, other people, places, and ideas. Even animals were thought to be able to love their offspring and their owners. The ancient Israelites used the same word to describe love for their god Yahweh, other people, objects, and ideas. Parents, however, were "honored" rather than "loved." The Egyptian word for love, mry, was usually directed from the higher being to the lower. A god or a king might love people, but people held their gods and rulers in awe. The Egyptians used the same word for both the emotional and physical aspects of love. They also used it to mean wishing, wanting, or preferring. Aspects of love appear in the poetry of the ancient Near East. Many Mesopotamian love poems are addressed not to human lovers but to gods and kings, although the language of attraction, sexual union, and marriage appears in them. Some poems, however, speak of passionate love between people. Topics include a woman advising her suitor how to win her parents' consent to their marriage and a description of the marriage ceremony. Egyptian love poetry focuses on courtship and the world of happy young lovers. The poems praise romantic and erotic love, but historians do not know how such feelings ranked with social and financial considerations when people planned MARRIAGES. Romantic love was also a prominent feature in Egyptian tomb paintings. They often portrayed couples in tender poses—holding hands, in an embrace, or with one's arm resting on the other's neck or shoulder. The best-known Hebrew love poetry appears in the Bible in "The Song of Songs," also called "The Song of Solomon." The poem is filled with themes such as the praise of love, the courting of the beloved, and the separation of lovers. Some scholars have interpreted the song as a symbolic account of the soul's relationship with Yahweh. (See also Family and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Marriage.)

61

Lunar Theory

LUNAR THEORY

LUWIANS second millennium B.C. years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * hieroglyphic referring to a system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

62

P

eople of the ancient Near East looked to the moon as a way to measure time. Astronomers watched the cycle of the moon's phases, the changes in its position in the sky, and how long it was visible on any given day. From their observations, ancient astronomers were able to develop lunar theory, a mathematical description of the moon's movements that attempted to predict its appearance, position, and phases. One of the earliest known studies of the moon used to develop lunar theory is in a series of Babylonian tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil. The earliest surviving examples were written in the 1200s B.C. The fourteenth tablet in this series contains mathematical formulas that calculate the length of time the moon can be seen on any day of any month. Although very basic, these formulas are thought to be the first use of mathematics to understand and predict astronomical patterns. The evolution of lunar theory was reflected by changes made to the Babylonian CALENDAR. The Babylonians' months, which were either 29 or 30 days long, were based on the phases of the moon. However, their year was based on the behavior of the sun. Since the 12 lunar months did not agree with the 365 solar days, the Babylonians added an extra month to the year periodically. By the 300s B.C., the addition of lunar months became standardized. This marked the high point of the development and use of lunar theory as a mathematical model of the behavior of the moon. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers.)

T

he Luwians (LOOee«uhnz) were a group of peoples who settled throughout ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the early second millennium B.C.* Their place of origin is unknown, but historians believe it may have been the area of southern Russia just north of the Black Sea. The Luwians probably moved into the Anatolian region sometime before 2000 B.C. Thereafter, they moved into northern SYRIA as well. Throughout the second millennium B.C.*, part of southern and western Anatolia was referred to as Luwiya. However, this name probably did not refer to a specific state or kingdom. Instead, it referred to the common language spoken by the peoples of the region. The Luwian language, which has been preserved in cuneiform* and hieroglyphic* INSCRIPTIONS in Anatolia and Syria, later became the language of the Neo-Hittite states. The Luwians assimilated* many aspects of Hittite culture, which they preserved for centuries after the Hittite empire collapsed around 1200 B.C. The Luwians formed Neo-Hittite states in southern Anatolia and northern Syria that survived until the Assyrians conquered them around 700 B.C. Traces of the Luwians remained after the Assyrian conquest. For instance, the languages of the Lycians, another Anatolian people, may have descended from the Luwian language, and Luwian personal names survived to the time of the Roman Empire. (See also Languages; Lycia and the Lycians; Neo-Hittites.)

Lycia and the Lyciaiis

LUXOR See map on inside covers.

sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's body and a human head

* obelisk four-sided pillar that tapers as it rises and ends in a pyramid

LYCIA AND THE LYCIANS * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

L

uxor (LUHK»sawr) is the name of the modern town nearest the ancient Egyptian city of THEBES. Located on the east bank of the Nile River in central Egypt, Luxor is best known for the ruins of the Great Temple of Amun. Thebes was the capital of Egypt first during the Eleventh Dynasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.) and again during the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). In about 1375 B.C., King Amenhotep III built the magnificent temple for AMUN, the king of the gods, on the city's southern edge. After the temple was built, the city developed around it and became famous. After Egypt's capital moved from Thebes to northern Egypt, Luxor remained an important religious center. Luxor was the site of a long religious festival called Opet, which was celebrated when the Nile River flooded. Statues of Amun and his family were carried on sacred golden boats from their shrines at the Great Temple of Amun at KARNAK, a little more than one mile to the north of Luxor, to the Great Temple of Amun at Luxor. The statues were accompanied by a procession of Theban people. The route lay along an avenue lined with sphinxes*. The festival lasted about three weeks, at the end of which the statues were carried back to Karnak along the same route. Amenhotep's original temple consisted of a large open court surrounded by columns. Beyond the court were many halls and chambers. One of the most striking features of the temple is a majestic row of 14 pillars, 52 feet high, and carved to look like the buds of papyrus plants. Around 1250 B.C., King RAMSES II added an outer court surrounding the original temple. It was decorated with colossal statues of Ramses and 74 columns carved in the shape of papyrus buds. The court also had a pylon (gateway building) covered with scenes portraying a famous battle Ramses fought against the Hittites in Syria. In front of the pylon were huge images of Ramses and a pair of red granite obelisks*, each approximately 82 feet tall. One of the obelisks still stands in front of the ruins of the temple. The other was moved to Paris, France, in A.D. 1836. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and Temples.)

L

ycia (LI»shee»uh) was an ancient region located in southwestern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Because of its location, Lycia was greatly influenced by the peoples across the sea and to the east and west. Nevertheless, it was able to maintain its independence for many centuries. History of Lycia. The Lycians, an Indo-European people, were descendants of the Lukka people, who were related to the HITTITES. Their origins are difficult to trace because the Lukka people were nomads* who left little evidence of their culture. Although Lycia is depicted at the time of the Trojan War (ca. 1100 B.C.) in Homer's Iliad, the earliest traces of Lycian culture are remains of buildings that date to the late 700s B.C. These remains were found in the Lycian city of Xanthus.

63

Lycia and the Lycians

* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor * dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

from

the

See map in Anatolia (vol.

diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with kingdoms, states, or nations

* deity god or goddess

64

fgn

Lycia remained independent until B.C., around whenit540 was conqueredby the Persian GREAT. CYRUS THE king Around B.C., Lycia 516 was made a partof a satrapy* PERSIAN of theEMPIRE. During this time, a ruling dynasty*, supported byPersia, arosein Xanthusand controlled Lyciafor about 100 years. In the mid-400s B.C.,Lycia becamea memberof the Delian League, a group of cities allied to the Greek city of Athens. Athenian influence in Lycia grew quite strong, but ended when the Peloponnesian Wars between the cities of Athensand Sparta began. B.C., Lycia By was the 420s again a satrapyof Persia.By the B.C.,early there 300s was general unrestin Lycia, and a new Lycian leader, Perikles, emerged. Perikles' ambitions were in conflict with thoseof the Persian B.C., rulers, the Lyand in 367 cians took part in failed a rebellionof the satrapies against Persia. In 334B.C., ALEXANDER GREAT MACEDONIA THE of invaded Lycia. Macedonia controlledLycia PTOLEMY until I ofEgyptB.C. Lycia invaded it in 309 was conquered by the Seleucid emperor B.C., Antiochus but III in 197 seven years later,the Romans defeatedhim and took Lycia. During the lateB.C., 100sseveralLycian cities came together form to the Lycian League. This body made decisions about war, sent diplomats* to other lands, and elected judges to establish and oversee the laws of the land.After many diplomatic missions fromthe league, Rome granted Lycia independenceB.C. in 168 However, B.C., Lycia shortly after was100 invaded by Mithridates VI, the king of Pontus, in northern Anatolia. Rome retook Lycia in B.C.42 A.D. and,43, in combinedit withthe neighboring territory of Pamphylia toform a Roman province. Rome controlled Lycia for the next 300 years. Language and Culture. The Lycian language was derived from the Luwian language,but muchof it remainsa mysteryto scholars. Lycian religion also camefrom LUWIANS the and other earlier civilizations in Anatolia. However,by the B.C.,300s a strong Greek influence led to many local deities* beingidentified with Greek godsand goddesses.The main Lycian goddess, calledEnimahanahi (motherof the gods) became linkedto the

Lydia and the Lydians * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

LYDIA AND THE LYDIANS * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

Greek goddess Leto, and she and her children Apollo and Artemis became Lycia's national gods. Lycia was known for its many oracles*. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, Lycia was noted for its fine wine, perfumes, and timber from its famous groves of Cyprus and cedar trees. The Lycians themselves had a reputation as people who appreciated order and respected the law. Despite the strong influence of the Greeks and Romans, the Lycians preserved many of their traditional customs. This was particularly true in areas farther from the main cities and harbor towns that had the most contact with foreigners and foreign cultures. (See also Religion; Satraps; Seleucid Empire.)

L

ydia (LI«dee»uh) was a small kingdom in western ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) that flourished between the early 600s and the mid-500s B.C. Although Lydia survived for only a brief time, it achieved fame throughout the ancient world for its legendary wealth. In fact, the name of its last ruler, King Croesus, came to symbolize fabulous riches. History. During the third millennium B.C.*, Lydia was greatly influenced by TROY and other states bordering the AEGEAN SEA. In the second millennium B.C.* (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), the HITTITES of Anatolia and the Mycenaeans of Greece had a major impact on the region. With the collapse of the Hittite empire in the 1200s B.C., however, the Phrygians became the dominant influence over Lydia. According to tradition, two ruling dynasties* controlled Lydia before the 600s B.C. The second of these, the Herakleid dynasty, lasted about 500 years. Lydia's rise to power began in about 680 B.C., when a ruler named Gyges came to the throne. Gyges allied with Egypt and Assyria and expanded his kingdom by warring with Greek cities on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. During his reign, Lydia faced attacks by the Cimmerians, warriors from eastern Anatolia. The Cimmerians captured the Lydian capital of SARDIS in 652 B.C., and for the next few decades, Lydia faced threats from these invaders. By 626 B.C., Gyges' successor Ardys, with the help of Assyria, defeated the Cimmerians and regained Sardis. Lydia reached the height of its power under King Alyattes, who ruled from about 607 to 560 B.C. Alyattes brought many regions in western Anatolia—including a number of Greek city-states* in Ionia—under Lydian rule. He also countered threats from the MEDES, who had begun to push into the region from the east. The last and most famous Lydian king was Croesus, who succeeded Alyattes around 560 B.C. Croesus was known to the Greeks because of his wealth and the rich OFFERINGS he made at Greek temples. Despite his respect for Greek gods and religion, Croesus launched attacks on Greek cities in Ionia. By 547 B.C., he had brought much of coastal western Anatolia under his control. Croesus planned to expand Lydian power to the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. However, he had to abandon this goal because of growing threats from the Persians, who had replaced the Medes as the major 65

Lydia and the Lydians

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surroundinga fortressor city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

66

threat in the east. Croesus formed alliances with Egypt,Babylonia,and the Greek city-stateof Sparta,and setPERSIAN out toEMPIRE. attack the In 547 B.C., Croesus and his army foughtan indecisive battle withthe Persian leader CYRUS GREAT. THE He then returned to Sardis to raise alarger army and wait for reinforcements fromhis allies. However, Cyrus surprised Croesusby pursuinghim and attacking Sardis, after fell which a short siege*. This defeat marked the end of the Lydian kingdom. Lydia and the rest of Anatolia became part of the Persian empire. ThePersians eventually madeSardisthe western capitaloftheir empire. Economy and Culture.Lydia wasfamous in the ancient world for developing thefirst gold and silver coins for use as currency. It wasalso famed for establishing the earliest retail MERCHANTS tradein which sold small quantities of goods directlyto consumers. Lydia's wealth came fromits fertile landand depositsof gold, silver, and other metals. Its supply of precious metals contributed to the development of coins as a medium of exchange. The widespreaduse of such currency inLydia influenced the Persians and the Greeks. With the use of coins as currency, retail tradewas easily established. Thiswas a change from the traditional systemin which goods reachedaconsumer onlyafter they had passed through many middlemen. Amongthe products for which the Lydians were famed were carpets, golden cloth, reddye, and COSMETICS. Lydian healing ointments were sold in Anatolia, Greece, Italy, and NorthAfrica in distinctively shaped vases called lydions. Lydian culturewas essentially Anatolian, withastrong blendofeastern Greek culture. Thereis little evidenceof influence from other regions of the Near East. Lydian architecture, known primarily fromthe ruinsofSardis, included massive fortsand large impressive burial mounds, many ofwhich contained stone chambersand entrance halls. Littleisknownof the Lydian languageor religion, except thatthe INDO-EUROPEAN people spoke an LANGUAGE relatedto such languages suchas Hittite, Luwian, and Lycian. Few texts have survived, and there is no evidence that the Lydians had sophisticated literature suchas epics*or drama.

Macedonia * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

MACEDONIA * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

See map in Alexander the Great (vol.1).

* republic government in which citizens elect officials to represent them and govern according to law

Cybele was a major Lydian goddess, but little is known about other Lydian gods and cults*. Lydian religion borrowed heavily from the Greeks. This is evident from many carved images and INSCRIPTIONS that bear the names of Greek deities. At the same time, a number of Greek and Roman myths and legends may have a basis in Lydian MYTHOLOGY. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Economy and Trade; Greece and the Greeks; Money; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Phrygia and the Phrygians.)

M

acedonia (ma*suh«DOH>nee«uh) was an ancient kingdom in northeastern Greece. The region contains fertile plains, swift rivers, and rugged mountains, which isolated Macedonia from its neighbors. Macedonia played an important role in the later history of the ancient Near East as the home of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who created an empire that included much of the Near East as well as parts of India and CENTRAL ASIA. The Macedonians spoke a dialect* of the Greek language and adopted Greek religious beliefs. According to ancient Greek MYTHOLOGY, the Macedonians were descended from one of the sons of the god Zeus. Around 650 B.C., King Perdikkas I began to expand Macedonia's territories. For the next 300 years, his descendants continued to strengthen and expand the kingdom, bringing Macedonia into periodic conflict with Athens, Sparta, Illyria, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, and other neighboring kingdoms and city-states*. In 338 B.C., King Philip II of Macedonia defeated an alliance of Greek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea. This victory left Macedonia in control of Greece. Philip's son Alexander the Great built on Philip's successes when he defeated the Persians and created the largest empire in the ancient world. By the time of Alexander's death in 323 B.C., the Macedonian empire stretched from Greece in the west to India in the east. Included in the empire were ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq), IRAN, Egypt, SYRIA, and the Levant*. After Alexander's death, the empire was divided into provinces, each controlled by one of his generals. During the next 20 years, when the generals fought for control of the entire empire, Macedonia and Greece were ruled by General Antipater and his son Cassander. After Cassander's death in 297 B.C., Macedonia endured 20 years of civil war and attacks by the Galatians, invaders from the north. This period of strife ended in 276 B.C., when military leader Antigonus Gonatas drove back the Galatians and was proclaimed king by the Macedonian army. The Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia for about 100 years. Between 215 and 148 B.C., Macedonia fought a series of conflicts known as the Macedonian Wars with the Roman Empire. Roman victories in the first two wars greatly reduced Macedonian territory and power. In 168 B.C., during the third war, the Romans defeated King Perseus and divided Macedonia into four separate republics*. Twenty years later, the Romans reunited these republics and made Macedonia a province of their empire. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Seleucid Empire.) 67

Magic

MAGIC

A Purification Spell A Mesopotamian text called Shurpu, which means buming, describes rituals to cleanse people of misdeeds and i harmful influences* One spell re" quires the person to burn a clump of| wool while reciting this text: Just as this feelf of wo/ is plucked

apart and thrown into the tire, [and just as] the firegod consumes it a&ogether, just as it w§ not return to its sheep, will not be i&acf for f fce cbthing of god or king: May ... the sickness that is in my body, flesh, and veins, bepbdted apart like this flock of wool, andrmy the Rregadon this very day consume it dtog&het May the ban go away, and may I [again] see the lightl

* incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead

68

T

he people of the ancient Near East believed that the world was filled with supernatural beings and unseen powers that caused things to happen. Magic was the people's attempt to control or influence those beings and powers. Magical practices included ritual ceremonies, spells or incantations*, and everyday acts such as the wearing of protective charms called amulets*. All cultures, however, drew a clear distinction between white magic, the helpful or protective practices that were accepted in society, and black magic, which was considered destructive and was not tolerated. Both magic and religion were expressions of humanity's relationship to the supernatural world of GODS, DEMONS, and spirits. Magic also had a practical aspect. The people who used it hoped to acquire some benefit— anything from quieting a crying baby to winning another's love to curing an illness. Types and Uses of Magic. Magic is based on the idea that everything in the universe is somehow connected to everything else. A magician is a person who understands and can manipulate those connections. This concept of interconnection is clear in analogic magic, one of the most popular forms of magic. It drew on the analogies, or likenesses, among things and was used to drive evils, such as sickness or impurity, out of people. Among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), for example, an object, such as a piece of wax, was shaped in a form representational of evil. A spoken incantation then established the magical connection between the evil and the object representing it. Destroying the object—for example, by melting the wax—then removed the evil. The Hittites also used contact magic, in which touching certain objects removed evil from a person and transferred it to an object. For example, people might pass between nets or thornbushes to rid themselves of evil. Many magical practices in the ancient Near East were protective. People used spells and charms to keep themselves and their homes from harm. For example, in the Babylonian city-state* of NIPPUR, people buried bowls inscribed with incantations under the corners of their houses to drive away the demons that might harm the household. A stela* found in Egypt from the 300s B.C. contains magical spells seeking the protection of the god HORUS against dangerous demons and wild animals. Some magic was directed at a specific demon, spirit, or ghost that was believed to be troubling the living. For instance, texts from ancient Mesopotamia give many examples of rituals against Lamashtu, a female demon who attacked pregnant women and babies. Other Mesopotamian magic rituals dealt with such problems as angry ghosts and the harmful WITCHCRAFT performed by human sorcerers. Magic was closely associated with medicine. A healing treatment could include incantations, spells, rituals, and herbal potions. In Egypt, for example, the oldest known texts dealing with health care contain both medical and magical remedies. According to these texts, magic was the only treatment for the bites of snakes and scorpions. Many surviving descriptions of Egyptian magic deal with funerary* rituals. Spells performed during the burial ceremony transformed a dead

Maps person into a spirit. Egyptians also relied on spells astheir defense against demons and the roaming dead. The Canaanites in the Levant* practiced therapeutic, or healing, magic. They recited incantations to the gods to prevent and heal snakebites. A textfromthe SyrianUGARIT city-state contains of a spell thatcalls on the god BAALto drivethe illnessout ofsick a person. Officially, the Israelites disapproved of magical practices,but in everydaylife, people wore amulets and buried protective charms in tombs. Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, and Aramaic texts show t people throughout the Levant used magic to try to connect with the supernatural world. For instance, some Canaaniteand Israelite refer texts to the practice of necromancy,form a of magicin whichthe spiritsof the dead were evoked. The dead were thought to possess knowledgedenied to the living, including knowledge of the future. Among the Israelites, necromancy was practiced only when other methods of divination*failed because their official religion disapprovedof the practice of calling on the dead.If caught,the offender could receive harsh punishment.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, andJordan * divination art or practice of foretelling the future

MAPS Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and westernAsia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in B.C. 323

Roles of Magicians. In all ancient Near Eastern cultures, the magician who worked within the public realmof religionand socially acceptable behavior wasdifferent fromthe wizard, sorcerer, orwitch whoperformed magic forharmful purposes. Magicians often interacted with priests and healers. In Mesopotamia, magical experts ashipu called sharedthe responsibility for providing health care with physicians. Aphysician might use a magical spell to increasethe effect of his medications, while ashipu an might own a library of handbooks on medicine and medical treatment. Ashipu also performed other actsof magic, such ascasting spells orexorcising—driving away—demons, for private clients. In addition, some ashipu advised kingsand servedin temples. The profession ashipu was of generally handed down from generationto generation within family. a The most important magician in the Hittite kingdom wasoften a "Wise Woman/' She was an incantation priestessand performed rituals and spells. The Wise Woman worked alone or with other incantationspecialists such as physiciansand fortune-tellers. (See also Amulets and Charms; Omens; Oracles and Prophecy.)

H

aps are used to show locationsin all or partof an area.Thepeople of the ancient Near East producedthe oldest known maps, most of which coveredfairly small areasand had practical uses. By the Hellenistic* period, however, mapmakers (cartographers) in the Near East were trying to envision the entire world and were laying the foundations of modern cartography,or mapmaking. The First Maps. The first knownMESOPOTAMIA. maps come from One of the oldest, datingfrom CLAYabout TABLET B.C.,isfrom a2300 the ruins of the city ofNuzi.The map shows several settlements aswell aswaterways 69

Maps

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

and hills.The writingon the MEASUREMENTS map—theof plots of land— offers a clue that the Nuzimap and others likeit may have been records of land ownership. These records may have been usedby tax collectors or other officials. The Babylonians drew maps,or plans,of houses, temples, towns,and cities. One example,a clay tablet from about B.C., features 1500 a plan of the cityNIPPUR. of The map shows GATES the city in the wall, wall, theand the moat protecting the wall, as well as a park, several canals, temples, and the nearby Euphrates River. Such plans mayhave had military or engineering uses. The Babylonians also drew mapsofmore distant regions, such as larger areas, districts,and towns. Very few maps have survived from ancient Egypt. One example is a drawing on papyrus* from aboutB.C., 1300 which showsthe central area of inner the Wadi Hammamat. It contains a sketch ofsome stonequarriesand gold mines east of the Nile River and shows a road leading to the mines, atemple, and a small number of houses. Some fragmentsof the map also contain topographical details. The Egyptians also created maps to mark the locations and boundariesof the fields alongtheafter Nilethe yearlyfloods. Ancient mapmakers were mostly concerned with fairly small areas— properties and cities. A district map might cover no more thanhalf a dozen or so small towns, with roadsand canals.One exceptionis asmall Babylonian clay tablet, from around B.C., 500 which presents an image of the world. However, this map probably reflects the cartographer'svision of the universe more than geographical knowledge.

The Dawn of Scientific Cartography. Beginning around B.C., 6 the Greeks speculated about the shapeof the world. first, At Greek philosophers, like the Babylonians, picturedthe earthas a floatingdisk. Later, during the 500s B.C.,the philosophers Anaximanderand Hecataeus from the Greek city of Miletusin Anatolia (present-day Turkey) produced geographic writings and world maps based on this image. However, HERODOTUS, a well-traveled Greek historian who knew something ofgeography, claimed that their ideas were wrong.Byaround B.C., the350 correct view of the earth as a sphere had been established, B.C., and by 300 geography and mapmaking had become more scientific. During the 200s B.C.,the mathematician and philosopher Eratosthenes of Gyrene (present-day Libya), workingin the Egyptian cityof Alexandria, calculated the size of the earth and drewaworld map.In the A.D. 100s, another mapmaker who workedin Alexandriawas Claudius Ptolemaius, better known as Ptolemy. Ptolemy was the most important figure in the laterera of ancient mapmaking. Hiseight-volume Guide to Geography was the most complete and learned workof its sortin the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean worlds. However, Ptolemywas wrong about many details. For example, he thought that t Ocean was enclosed by land like a vast lake. Notwithstanding hismistakes, he set down someof the basic principlesof scientific mapmaking, such as methods for portraying the curved surfaceof the earthon flat maps. Later mapmakersin Europeand the Near East based their workon Ptolemy's.(Seealso Astronomy and Astronomers; Geography; Scienc and Technology.) 70

Mari

MARDUK * deity god or goddess * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* cult formal religious worship

MARI * entrepot Intermediary center of trade, usually on a caravan or sea route * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * diplomatic relating to the practice of conducting peaceful negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

K

nown as the lord of the gods and father of mankind, Marduk became the national deity* of Babylonia after the 1200s B.C. As the chief god of the Babylonian pantheon*, his power and prestige were unrivaled. His main temples in BABYLON—the Esagila, meaning "House with Lifted Head/' and a ziggurat* called the Etemenanki, meaning "House of Foundation of Heaven and Earth"—were considered the center of the universe. Their splendor was known throughout the ancient Near East. According to Babylonian MYTHOLOGY, Marduk was the son of the god EA (or Enki) and brother of the goddess ISHTAR. Considered a god of wisdom, healing, and magic, Marduk also was associated with fertility. Over time, Marduk took over the traits and functions of other gods, making his nature and character increasingly complex. In art, he was depicted carrying a triangular spade or hoe, suggesting that he may have originally been an agricultural deity. In the 2100s B.C., Marduk became the patron* god of Babylon. Thereafter, his rise to prominence was linked to the rising political power of Babylon, especially under King HAMMURABI, and to its transformation from a city-state* into the capital of an empire. The main story of Marduk and his rise is found in the Babylonian CREATION MYTH, Enuma Elish. The myth describes how Marduk saves the gods from a monster named Tiamat, creates the heavens and earth, brings order to the universe, and proposes the creation of humans. As a reward for his efforts, the gods give Marduk many of their powers and promote him to supreme deity, displacing the god ENLIL. The myth also lists Marduk's many names, essentially investing in him the power of other gods. The cult* of Marduk gradually spread beyond Babylonia, especially during the Kassite period (ca. 1595-1158 B.C.). Marduk was adopted by the Assyrians, who honored him as a great god. However, during the reign of the Assyrian king SENNACHERIB (ruled 704-681 B.C.), some of Marduk's functions, traits, and rituals were transferred to the Assyrian national god, ASHUR. During the time of the Chaldean empire (626-539 B.C.) of NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, Marduk was referred to as Bel, meaning "lord." Following the Macedonian conquest, Marduk (Bel) became equated with the Greek deity Zeus. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

A

t the height of its power, Mari was one of the wealthiest cities in MESOPOTAMIA. Located on the banks of the EUPHRATES RIVER near important caravan routes, the city gained its wealth and importance as an entrepot*. The ruins of the city, a site known as Tell Hariri, have yielded remarkable artifacts*, including a magnificent palace and thousands of CLAY TABLETS, which contain records of the economic, administrative, and diplomatic* affairs of the city. Founded in the beginning of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari quickly rose to prominence as a trading center. The city gained immense wealth from taxes on the trade goods that passed through it. One of its most important trading partners was the city-state* of EBLA in northern SYRIA. In the latter part of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari was ruled by Akkadian governors, who launched enormous building projects, including the 71

Markets * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MARKETS

construction of a magnificent new royal palace and an expansion of the city's sacred temple area. Around 1800 B.C., Mari and its surrounding territory came under the control of a succession of dynasties* of AMORITES. Around 1760 B.C., King HAMMURABI of BABYLON conquered and destroyed the city. By this time, Mari was no longer a great trading center, so the city was left deserted and used only as a cemetery. The archaeological* discoveries at the site of ancient Mari are some of the most significant in the Near East. The Great Palace is one of the bestpreserved and richest palaces of the period before 1000 B.C. The thousands of tablets found there have provided invaluable information about Mari and revealed much about culture and society in Mesopotamia during the third and second millennia B.C. (See also Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Palaces and Temples; Trade Routes.)

T

he term market has two distinct meanings. In one sense, a market is the physical location where goods are bought and sold and commercial transactions take place. This is more commonly known as a marketplace. The second meaning of the term is the mechanism by which goods or services are made available and by which the values of those goods or services are determined. For example, the term labor market refers to the overall demand for labor and the price at which that labor will be hired. Historians have debated whether marketplaces in the modern sense of the word existed in the ancient Near East. However, there is little doubt that market forces of demand and supply did operate, especially to determine the value of goods and, in many instances, services.

Marketplaces. There is almost no evidence that ancient Near Eastern civilizations earmarked specific physical locations to serve as marketplaces. The physical remains of ancient cities offer little help, because marketplaces would probably have been open spaces with no special features to distinguish them from ordinary squares or courtyards. Although the Sumerian and Akkadian languages contained words for "open space" or "square," there is no indication that such places were centers of commercial activity. The Greek historian HERODOTUS tells a story in which a Persian king says that towns in Persia did not set aside special places where people could cheat each other as did the Greeks in their agoras, or marketplaces. Some economists and historians believe that this remark implied that the Persians did not have markets. However, others believe that it implied that they did not cheat as much as did the Greeks. In Egypt, some tomb paintings depict market scenes. For instance in the Deir el-Medineh tomb of Ipuy, women on the banks of the Nile River are shown selling goods to a man in a boat in exchange for grain. These traders, however, were not independent MERCHANTS, but were employed by other citizens or temples to sell surplus goods. Egypt never developed a prominent merchant class, and the existence of marketplaces is no more strongly attested in Egyptian sources than it is in Mesopotamian sources. 72

Markets

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* commodity article of trade

cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, whichtakes its name from the distinctive wedge-shapedsignspressed into clay tablets

Market Forces. The lack of evidence of marketplaces does not mean that marketforces did not operate in the ancient Near East. Perhaps the most obvious indication that markets existed isfact the that prices for different goods varied over time. Documents from the Sumerian citystate* of UMMA list the prices of various goods, mostof whichdid change. This suggests that some market forces, such as supply and demand, did operate to alter the values of goods and that these values changed according to changing market conditions. The forces existed and operated especially because households needed markets to obtain what they could not themselves produce. Virtually no household is totally self-sufficient, so it must go outside itself to obtain those things it lacks. When it does so, it must have some idea of the availability and cost of those things it needs. The market is the mechanism by which it obtains this information. Unfortunately, it isdifficult to trace the market valuefor many commodities* in the ancientNear East because the written records are incomplete. For example, no information about labor markets in the Near East before about 2100 B.C. has survived. The market value for land presents similar difficulties. There is no mention of landsalesor pricesin Mesopotamia before 2000 B.C. Beginning around B.C., 1800 wealthy households began to acquire large tracts of land, but there is no evidence that the pe ple were motivated by economic concerns. Kings occasionally listed the prices of certain staple goods, such as barley, dates, oil, wine, wool, and copper, in their royal inscriptions as a way of boasting about their prosperous reigns. Sometimes pricesfor such staples were set in Babylonian and Hittite law codes. A most unusual source of information about market prices, the Babylonian astronomical diaries, were written monthly in cuneiform* on clay tablets between the sixth andfirst centuries B.C. The tablets list not only the daily positions of the moon, planets, andstars, but they also contain information about the weather, the water level of the Euphrates River, historical events of the period, and the market prices of the same six staple commodities— barley, dates, wool, and three spices. Consequently, scholars studying these diaries are able to see how historical events such as the death of a king or a foreign conquestaffected thealso (See market. Economy and Trade; Money.) 73

Marriage

MARRIAGE

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

74

T

he basic unit of most ancient Near Eastern societieswas thefamily. The foundation of thefamilywasmarriage,theformally recognized union of a man and awoman CHILDREN. forproducing Although theinstitution of marriagewas sharedbymost Near Eastern societies,thelaws and customs surrounding marriage took various forms.

Making Marriages. Many modern societies view marriage as achoice made by two individuals and based onlove and companionship. In the ancient NearEast, marriages werenot alwaysamatterofpersonal choice, nor were they always basedon love. Royalandnoble families,forexample, often arranged marriages asmatters ofstate, toseal alliances or maintain the balanceof power.Forexample, Nabopolassar Assyria of gave his son in marriageto the granddaughter ofMedian king Cyaxares to seal an alliance between the twokingdoms. Marriagewas the businessof two MESOPOTAMIA, families. In fathers arranged the marriagesoftheir children. Girls were marriedasteenagers to men about ten years older. After selectingabridefor hisson,afather paid the girl'sfamily abrideprice—acertain amountofmoney, goods, or property. She was then considered thechosen bride of the groom'sfamily. From herfather, the bride receivedanequal amountofmoneyorgoods as a dowry, which she tookas her contributionto themarriage. Marriage contracts between families described these arrangements indetail.A man whosewife did not bear children could takeasecond wife. Among the Canaanitesand Israelitesof theLevant*,fathers arranged some marriages. Others were arranged byindividuals in the community who acted as matchmakers. Some men, however, chose wives without

Marriage

Remember:Words in small capital letters have separate entries, and the index at the end of this volume will guide you to more information on many topics.

the consent of their parents or even in defiance of their wishes. Just as in Mesopotamia, marriage agreements included a bride price from the family of the groom and a dowry from the bride's family. Such payments could consist of money, livestock, slaves, land, or goods. Marriage was generally monogamous, or limited to one spouse, although royal and noble men often had more than one wife. Polygamy, or the practice of taking multiple wives, was common among the Persians. Men took multiple wives to have many children, and the Persian king encouraged a high birthrate by giving prizes to the heads of the largest families. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) also practiced polygamy, although it was less common there than in Persia and may have occurred mostly within the royal family. Hittite marriage contracts were usually arranged by the parents of the couple to be wed and required a bride price and a dowry. Historians know little about the marriage practices of the ancient Egyptians. Men might have married in their 20s or 30s, while women were usually somewhat younger. Although parents might have arranged many marriages, Egyptian women had considerable freedom, and historians doubt they were forced to marry against their wishes. Poems and artworks show that ancient Egyptians hoped for marriages that included affection, harmony, and physical attraction. The Egyptians did not require marriage contracts, but parents negotiated settlements to ensure the financial well-being of married daughters, who usually brought various goods to their new households. Sometimes the husband or his family paid the bride a "sum for becoming a wife." Wedding Ceremonies. The Egyptians may not have had any requirement for registering a marriage or conducting a standard ceremony. Families may have held a feast when a couple set up house together. Records from Mesopotamia suggest that wedding ceremonies often lasted five to seven days. During the ceremony, the groom removed the bride's veil. According to some ancient texts, the bride had "best men" responsible for protecting and guarding her until the wedding night. In Israel, marriages began with an engagement that could last several months. The second stage of marriage was marked by seven days of celebration, with singing, dancing, and wine drinking. The couple, adorned in special clothing and jewelry, stood under a canopy and declared, "You shall be my wife" and "You shall be my husband." Several ancient texts hint that the Persians celebrated marriages in group ceremonies. One account says, "Seats were placed in several rows for a number of bridegrooms. After they toasted each other's health, the brides came in and seated themselves, each one near her future husband. The bridegrooms took them by the hand and kissed them." Hittite weddings could be elaborate and costly. Sometimes men who had promised to pay for religious festivals had to ask priests or other temple authorities to delay the festivals until they had recovered from the expense of a wedding. As in Mesopotamia, Hittite bride's wore veils until the moment the wedding was complete. This act is repeated at many weddings today, thousands of years later. (See also Divorce; Family and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Love; Women, Role of.) 75

Mathematics

MATHEMATICS

' papyrus writing material madeby pressing together thin strips of the stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

^LA athematics is the science ofnumbers and therelationships among / ^ Ithem. The people of the ancient Near East were familiar with arithmetic, which includes counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. The operations of arithmetic later developed intoalgebra and geometry—morespecifically,formulas. Ancient mathematicians also studied and practiced metrology, the science ofmeasurement, to determine the relationships between the various units oflength, area, volume, and weight. Modern scholars know about Mesopotamian and Egyptian mathematicsfrom TABLETS CLAY surviving and papyri* as well from as aninnercient Hebrew documents that were written by rabbis. Mesopotamia. More than 1,000 mathematical tablets dating from the Old Babylonian and the Seleucid periods have been recoveredinMesopotamia. According to these tablets, Babylonian mathematicians used the sexagesimal system (counting by sixties) more often than they did the decimal system (counting by tens). Thiswasprobably becausethe basesixty system included a large numberfactors—1, of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,10,12,15, 20, and 30. Remnantsof the base-sixty systemarepreserved today, especially in the way we telltime—60 seconds to aminute, 60minutes to an hour—and in measuringacircle—360°is 6times60.

76

Mathematics

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

Mathematical Text A Babylonian text contained the following problem; / found a stone but did not weigh it; I added one-seventh and added one»efeventh. I weighed it: 1 mina. What was the original (weight) of the stone? The answer; The original (weight) of the stone was 2fy mina, 8 sheqelsf 221/2 barleycorns. The student places the stone on a scale against one mina. Then he balances the scale by adding two known weights to the side of the stone, He then determines the : weight of the stone by adding the ± two known weights and subtracting \ *- that amount from one mina.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Babylonian mathematics also used a place-value system, that is, a limited number of symbols whose value is determined by its position within the number. The higher values were placed on the left and the lower values on the right. For each place a number moved to the left, its value was multiplied by 60, and for each place it moved to the right, the value was divided by 60. Addition, subtraction, and multiplication were performed in the sexagesimal system. However, there was no division. Instead, numbers were multiplied by their reciprocal. A reciprocal of a number, n, is 1 divided by n or I/H, except when n equals zero. There was no special sign for the number zero until the first millennium B.C.* Before then, some mathematicians left blank spaces or used signs that indicated spaces between words to represent zero. Mathematical texts written in the cuneiform* script can be divided into three main categories—table texts, coefficient lists, and problem texts. The table texts dealt mostly with multiplication and reciprocals (for division). They also contained information on squares and cubes, square roots and cube roots, exponential tables, logarithms, and meteorological lists and tables. The coefficient lists contained fixed values for categories of items, such as geometric shapes, to help solve mathematical problems. Problem texts contained anywhere between one and several hundred problems, some of which were accompanied by drawings. The algebraic and geometric problem texts generally contained problems relating to areas, not volumes. These problems were solved using linear and quadratic equations. The solution to most problems in geometry was algebraic because the purpose was to find length, width, and volume. For instance, a problem might contain references to brick works, the excavations of canals, and the construction of walls, dams, and ramps. Babylonian mathematicians also possessed considerable knowledge of geometric shapes and formulas. For instance, to solve problems on rightangled triangles, they used a concept similar to the Pythagorean theorem (a2 + b2 = c2) more than 1,000 years before the Greek mathematician Pythagoras was born. They used n = 3 in measurements dealing with circles, although a coefficient list from Susa in southwestern Iran suggested a more precise value of n = 3 Vs. Mathematicians now know that n is approximately 3.14159. Babylonian texts did not include proofs or detail the steps in the formulation of theorems. Consequently, scribes* performed the steps leading to the solution without explaining them. Egypt. Because Egyptian mathematicians recorded their work on papyrus, fewer documents have survived there than in Mesopotamia. These texts, unlike their Mesopotamian counterparts, show the method of instruction and even prove that the correct answer was reached. One of the most important Egyptian texts is the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which contains calculations with fractions and applies this knowledge to practical problems. This document provided a value of n = 3.16, which was calculated by drawing a circle within a square. Another wellknown text is the Papyrus Anastasi I, a document that contains the calculations required for digging a lake, building a ramp, and transporting an obelisk—information that a scribe was required to know. 77

Measurement Using the decimal system, Egyptian mathematicians manipulated whole numbers and fractions. They performed operations in multiplication by repeatedly doubling a number and adding the results and they performed division using reciprocals. As in Mesopotamia, geometry consisted of formulas—but no proofs—that were calculated using arithmetic operations. Egyptian trigonometry (study of the properties of triangles) was not very developed—the measurement of slope was assumed to be 45°, and right angles, 90°. The Egyptians also used fractions, usually written with a numerator of one, to solve problems.

* Talmud collection of recorded interpretations and teachings of hundreds of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500

MEASUREMENT

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Ancient Israel. Knowledge about mathematics of ancient Israel is confined to one biblical reference describing the diameter of King SOLOMON'S pool as 10 cubits wide and the circumference, 30 cubits, yielding n = 3. In A.D. 150, Rabbi Nehemiah gave the value n = 3l/7, but the Talmud* later restored the value of n to 3. Around the 200s, the Jews began to apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the length of the diagonal of a square or rectangle. This is apparent from the Mishnah (a code of oral law, religious laments, and teachings), which describes a variety of geometric patterns that a gardener or farmer might or might not use when planting different types of seeds. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Education; Measurement; Numbers and Numerals; Record Keeping; Science and Technology.)

A

s governments and temple administrations became more centralized and domestic and international trade relations became more complex, the peoples of the ancient Near East began to develop standardized measures and notation systems. These developments enabled them to maintain a record of goods produced, distributed, and traded. Early Development of Numbers and Units of Measurement. Beginning around 8000 B.C., clay tokens came into use in the ancient Near East as a form of RECORD KEEPING. The tokens were geometrically shaped objects that represented items and their quantities. This method of record keeping remained in use for more than 5,000 years and became the main accounting system in palaces, temples, and markets. Tokens gave rise to the earliest known system of WRITING and the invention of MATHEMATICS. Once the ancient Near Eastern people became familiar with arithmetic, they began to practice metrology, which is the science of measurement. This enabled them to determine and evaluate the relationships between the various units of length, area, volume, and weight. In Mesopotamia, scribes* learned metrology from lists or tables. During their training, scribes were often required to memorize these tables, which contained the ratios between the different units of measurement. Sometimes, they consulted the tables to perform simple calculations involving ratios. Length. In Mesopotamia, the basic unit of length was the cubit, which means forearm, or the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle

78

Measurement finger. Other units of length included reeds, rods, ropes, stages, the distance marched between two rest stops that were two hours apart, and the fingerbreadth, or the width of the thumb. In Egypt, length was measured in palms (of a hand), royal cubits, fingerbreadths, and the skd, which was the measure of the slope of a pyramid. The few wooden, stone, and metal measuring devices that have survived in Mesopotamia and Egypt measure cubits or parts of cubits. From these devices, it is apparent that the length of a cubit varied greatly. In ancient Israel, there were two basic measures—the "sad measure/' which was a little less than a full measure, and the ''smiling measure/' which was larger than a full measure. The basic unit of length was the fingerbreadth, which ranged from about 3/4 to 1 inch. Other units of measure were the handbreadth—the width of a clenched fist—and the reed, which is mentioned in the Hebrew BIBLE. Area. In Mesopotamia, area was most often measured by the sar, or garden plot. Other measures included dikes (of land), holes, and barleycorns, which referred to seeds of barley and were the smallest measure of area. In both Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, land areas were measured as irregular quadrilaterals, their area being the product of the average of opposite sides. In Israel, area measures were based on two systems. One was based on squaring standard units of length, such as square fingerbreadth, square handbreadth, and square cubit. The other was used for larger measures, such as large surface units or to measure a space needed to plant certain quantities of produce. The two systems were compatible, and scribes could easily convert the measures from one to the other.

* Talmud collection of recorded interpretations and teachings of hundreds of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

See color plate 3, vol. 2.

Volume. In Mesopotamia, the units that measured volume were the same as those that measured area, including sar, dike, hole, and barleycorn. Bricks were counted in units of sar, where 1 sar was equal to 720 bricks. The Jewish Talmud* refers to several systems of volume that used different terms for the same measure. Weight. The basic units of weight in ancient Mesopotamia were the mina (1.1 Ibs.) and the sheqel (0.3 oz.). The smallest unit was the barleycorn. The Egyptian system of weights was based on a unit called the kite, which ranged from 4.5 to 29.9 grams. During Hellenistic* and Roman times, the common units of weight throughout the Near East were the sheqel, mina, and talent. They came to be used as units of currency because they sometimes described the weights of gold and silver. Measures of Capacity. Mesopotamians measured the volume of barley and oil in units called sila, which was the basic small capacity unit equal to about 1 liter. Other units of measurement included ninda, the amount of grain (or flour) used to make 1 flatcake; gur (78 gallons); granary, which was sometimes called king's measure, normal, or correct measure; and greater measures. Throughout ancient times, the Mesopotamians devised measures relevant to their needs, such as sacks, standard pots, and ass-loads. 79

Meat

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

In both Mesopotamia and Egypt, wooden and metal baskets were used for capacity measures. No wooden measures have survived, however. By the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, bevel-rimmed bowls and conical cups were used as measures in Mesopotamia. The bevel-rimmed bowls, which constitute up to 80 percent of the pottery excavated in that region, all measured the same approximate volume. They were probably used to measure corn or flour for daily rations. In ancient Israel, the Bible and the Talmud list units to measure large amounts of liquids or dry goods. Rabbis devised many smaller measures based on the bulk of an egg. Most units were based on the capacity of utensils, human measurements, and objects in nature. Problems with Ancient Measurements. Historians face many challenges in analyzing the values and systems of ancient measures. One of the main problems is the lack of evidence. Archaeologists have excavated many ancient weights, but few measures of length have survived. Reliable measures of volume are scarcer still. Another difficulty is that most ancient weights and measures do not contain inscriptions or markings to indicate what unit of measure they represent. Determining the measures of volume in the ancient Near East is particularly difficult because the only vessels that have survived are jars or pots marked with their intended capacities. However, these were simple storage jars and not the original vessels used to set standards of volume. They contain no markings to indicate how full the vessel should be when it contained the amount of liquid marked on the jar. Documents that discuss various units of measurement have provided historians with some clues that have helped them better understand ancient measures. However, even knowing how ancient measures related to each other has been of little help in determining their modern equivalents. Some ancient documents relate Near Eastern measures with units from Greek and Roman cultures, but these too are of limited value since the values of many Greek and Roman measures are themselves not well known. In addition, the accuracy of the measurements found in these ancient documents are often quite doubtful. (See also Money; Pyramids; Calendars.)

Meat

MEDES * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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See Food and Drink.

T

he Medes were a people of northwestern IRAN who spoke an INDOEUROPEAN LANGUAGE and inhabited a plateau region that became known as Media. Together with the Persians, their neighbors and rivals, they left a lasting heritage that greatly influenced the culture of Iran. Because no written documents of the Medes have been excavated, knowledge of these people is based on other archaeological* evidence and the writings of people who came in contact with them. Several Median sites in Iran have been excavated by archaeologists, including the religious center of Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, which contained a large

Medes

fortified palace.TheMedesfirstappearinwrittenB.C. sources in the mid-800s in the records of the Assyrian SHALMANESER king III.TheGreek historian HERODOTUS also wrote abouttheMedes B.C. in the400s

See map in Babylonia and the Babylonians (vol. 1).

* first millennium B.C. years from

1000

tO 1 B.C.

* indigenous referring to the inhabitants of a region

original

* vassal individual orstate thatswears loyalty and obedience to agreater power

Migration into Iran. TheMedes migrated intonorthwestern Iran as early as the 1600s B.C. They probably came fromthearea north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, crossing the CAUCASUS mountains re- of the gion and settling in the Zagros Mountainsofnorthwestern Iran. Most of these early Median settlers were farmerswholivedinsmall villagesand sheepherders who tended their flocksonmountain slopes.A related group of Indo-European speakers,thePersians, entered Iran aroundthe same time as the Medesandsettledinsouthern Iran. By the first millennium B.C.*,the Medeshadgained control ofmost of the eastern Zagros Mountain regionand hadbeguntopush westward through the mountains andtowardthebordersofMesopotamia.As they moved west, they mixed with indigenous* groupsbutalsometwith resistance from some local populations, URARTU, wholooked Assyria, to and ELAMAND THE ELAMITES for help in holding back the invaders. Until the 700s B.C., the Medes consistedofmany independent tribes, each led by achieftainandcharacterizedbygreat diversity inculture and social and political organization. By thetimefirst they appearinwritten records in theB.C., 700s the Medeshadbecome Assyrian vassals*. At the time, the Assyrians werethedominant forceinIranand one ofmajor the powers in the ancient Near East.Soon, however,theMedes begantogrow more powerful and started tobuild towns andfortresses.In the mid700sB.C. Assyrian TIGLATH-PILESER king IIIreported hisconquest Zakruti, of the "city of the mighty Medes/'which mayindicate growing Median power in the region. Kingdom of the Medes. Sometime B.C., the invarious the700sindependent tribes ofMedes unitedform to asingle Median kingdom, which

81

Medes

See colorplate7, vol. 2.

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture satrapy portionof aPersian-controlled territory under the rule of asatrap, or provincial governor

ca. 725B.C. Kingdom of Medes founded by Deioces.

775 »,cj ca. 675B.C. Phraortes succeeds Deioces.

675 »,c

653-625 B.C. Scythians dominate Medes.

575 B.C 625 B.C. Scythians forced out of Media; Cyaxares becomes king.

475 n,cJ

612B.C. i Cyaxaresand Babylonians capture Nineveh.

375 e,c,i 550 B.C. | Media becomes satrapy of Persian empire.

275 «x! 330 B.C. Alexander the Great occupies Media.

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became thefirst Iranian state.The early historyofthis kingdomis reported by the Greek historian Herodotus. Some scholars think that Herodotus's version of the foundingof the Median kingdommay be based more on myth than fact, andthey argue thatthereis nowrittenor archaeological evidenceofsuchastateatthat time. According to Herodotus,the kingdomof theMedeswasfoundedas early as 725 B.C. by a king named Deioces,whoestablishedtheMedian capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan)andruledtheMedes forseveral decades until about B.C. Deioces 675 wassucceeded by his sonPhraortes, who ruled for 22years. Phraortes conqueredthePersiansand led the Medes in an unsuccessful revolt against their Assyrian overlords. He was killed while fightingthe Assyrians B.C. in 653 After Phraortes died, the kingdomwasoverrunby theScythians,nomadic* warriorswho had entered western from IrantheCaucasus region. The Scythians dominated the Medes B.C., when until Phraortes' 625 son Cyaxares took the throne and forced themout ofMedia. Cyaxares greatly expanded Median power and strengthened hisarmybycreating separate units of spearmen, CAVALRY. archers, and Faced with a continued threat from Assyria,Cyaxares formed an alliance with the Babyloniansbymarryinghisgranddaughter to the son of KingNABOPOLASSAR,who later ruled NEBUCHADNEZZAR Babylonia asII. In 612B.C., Cyaxaresand his Babylonian allies attackedandcaptured the Assyrian capital NINEVEH. of This victory ended Assyrianleft rule the and Medes and Babyloniansas the twodominant powersinMesopotamia. Thereafter, the Medesand Babylonians dividedtheAssyrian empirebetween them. TheMedes tookthe northern andeastern partsof theempire, including mostof Iran, northern Mesopotamia, ANATOLIA.and parts of They extended their power westward inAnatolia until they encountered the Lydians.Abattle betweentheMedes B.C. andLydians endedinina585 draw, after which the two groups formedanalliance. Aroundthesame time, Cyaxares' son Astyages took overtheMedian throne.Heruledfor 35 years, but little isknown abouthisreign. The Medes and Persians. After theAssyrian conquest, relations between the Medesand Babylonians remained friendlyforawhile. Soon, however, hostilities arose as both groups claimedthesame lands.As their relations with the Medes soured, theBabylonians encouraged and supported uprisingsby the Persians,whowere vassalsof theMedes. In 550B.C., the Persian GREAT CYRUS THE led king successful a revolt against Astyages, who wastaken prisoner. Cyrus marched toEcbatana, which he took with no resistance when theMedian nobility accepted him as their king. Cyrus quickly took controlof therestof theMedian kingdom,and Media became asatrapy* PERSIAN of the growing EMPIRE. On several occasions, the Medes tried unsuccessfullytorevolt against their Persian overlords.Still, relations betweenthe twogroups were good, and the Medes enjoyedaprivileged position undertheAfter Persians. the Persians, the Medes were the most important people in thePersian empire, and they exerted a strong cultural influence.Forexample,thePersians adopted Median court ceremonies andmoved thePersian royal court to Ecbatana each summer. Other elements ofMedian culture,

Medicine including religious practices, were blended with Persian traditions and became the foundation of the later culture of Iran.

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

MEDICINE

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Later History. In 330 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA conquered the Persian empire and occupied Media. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., northern Media was ruled by a Persian general named Atropates, who founded an independent kingdom called Atropatene. Southern Media became a province of the SELEUCID EMPIRE. This area remained a Seleucid province for about 150 years, during which time it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic* culture. In the centuries that followed, the Medes gradually lost their distinctive character, though various Median traditions blended with those of other groups to form a single Iranian culture. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Lydia and the Lydians; Migration and Deportation; Scythia and the Scythians.)

M

edicine in the ancient Near East was a blend of religious rituals, folk remedies, and customs, all based on observation and results. Basic ideas of health and medical practice were different from those of modern medicine because Near Eastern cultures did not differentiate between medicine and RELIGION. Illness, disease, accidents, and other misfortunes were considered the work of the gods. Near Eastern peoples believed that such ailments were usually a punishment from the gods, who had been offended. Consequently, medical treatment consisted of pleading with gods to restore the patient's health and attempting to expel the evil from the body. Physicians mixed their treatments with religion and MAGIC and made determined efforts to cure their patients. Life in the ancient Near East was challenging for physicians. Limited knowledge, uncertain food supplies, lack of food preservation, unsafe water supplies, and poor sanitation contributed greatly to human suffering. Common infectious diseases included tuberculosis (which attacks the lungs and is spread by coughing), pneumonic and bubonic plague (which are spread by fleas and rodents), typhus (a disease carried by parasites, such as lice), and smallpox. Leprosy, which affects the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes, was another disease that afflicted Near Eastern peoples. Mesopotamia. In the 400s B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS erroneously claimed that Mesopotamians had "no regular doctors." In fact, medical workers were known in the region as early as the third millennium B.C.*, and they recorded their treatments. The most important Mesopotamian sources are medical texts describing treatments and remedies for different problems. The earliest of these from the city-state* of UR date from about 2000 B.C. and are written in Sumerian. Other texts date from later periods, such as those from the Neo-Assyrian library of ASHURBANIPAL (ruled 668-627 B.C.). These and other texts show that although their practices included magic and OMENS, Mesopotamian doctors recognized natural causes of such ills as overexposure to heat or cold, eating too much, drinking alcohol, and eating spoiled food. 83

Medicine * incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect

In this Egyptian relief, female druggists squeeze an animal skin filled with herbs to make herbal medicine. Because the Egyptians believed that supernatural forces caused illnesses, treatments such as these were administered to repel the evil force that was believed to have entered the body and caused the illness. Sometimes a magical incantation was spoken while treatment was administered.

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Two kinds of physicians, asu and ashipu, treated the sick. Although both used incantations* to heal their patients, it is generally believed that the asu worked more with medicines and may have been the more practical in his methods, and the ashipu with spirits. However, both relied on magic. Little is known about their training or whether they worked in organized groups. An asu treated such ailments as broken bones, wounds, boils, and infections. He might use herbs for both internal and external illnesses. Women were allowed to train to become an asu. An ashipu, a type of exorcist, diagnosed supernatural causes of problems and prescribed ritual treatments. He had other religious roles, such as cleansing temples, but his chief role was to interpret symptoms. Sometimes an ashipu might work with an asu on a problematic case. Women were not permitted to become an ashipu, and the profession passed from father to son. Because Mesopotamians believed that sins caused illnesses, they first tried to find out what a patient might have done to offend the gods. Physicians examined a patient and asked for a description of the symptoms. They took the person's temperature and pulse, noted skin conditions, swellings, and even the colors of bodily fluids. All these findings were recorded, and over time, the records became the basis of treatments and prescriptions. Many of the medical texts excavated in the Near East are descriptions of symptoms and catalogs of remedies, most of which begin with omens. For instance, what a physician saw on the way to a patient's house was considered an omen—a white pig meant the patient would live; a black pig meant death.

Medicine Mesopotamian healers also experimented with medicinal treatments. For instance, prescriptions included herbal treatments with instructions for the best time to collect the herbs and the method of preparation. Other medicines included salt, potassium nitrate, milk, snake skins, thyme, fir, figs, dates, and turtle shells. These materials were used as ointments for external use or as powders for dissolving in drinks. One Assyrian document lists more than 400 plants, fruits, and other substances, about half of which have medicinal value. Mesopotamian physicians treated a variety of ills. Eye problems were common, perhaps because of vitamin deficiencies, but no treatments for blindness existed. Ear problems are also recorded in medical texts, but they contain no word for deafness. There is little evidence for dentistry, but texts show that toothaches were common, and various medicines were prescribed for the pain. Skin problems were treated with ointments and lotions. Midwives took care of women's health and CHILDBIRTH, but physicians treated children. Some surgery may have existed, but there is little mention of it. Diseases of the stomach and intestines were serious and common. Contaminated water, spoiled food, and parasites led to many digestive ailments. However, because Mesopotamians did not dissect human bodies, they knew little of the workings of internal organs. Some scientists regard early attempts to deal with digestive illnesses as the basis of human medical efforts. Medical knowledge did not advance much because illnesses were mainly thought to be caused by supernatural elements. Moreover, medical texts gradually became sacred documents, and physicians tended to follow old treatments and not experiment with new methods and procedures.

papyrus writing material made by pressing together thin strips of the inner stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* apprentice individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field * embalming treating a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

Egypt. Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians also believed in the supernatural cause of illness. Nonetheless, their approach to medicine was systematic. More than a dozen important documents have been found describing Egyptian medical practices. These medical papyri* date from the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 2100-1600 B.C.) but may have been copied from earlier sources. They include descriptions of illnesses, treatments, case studies, and magical chants. Although magical treatments were part of medicine, Egyptian physicians developed orderly approaches to treating injuries. Most Egyptian healers came from highly educated groups of scribes* and priests and were palace or temple officials. Some were affiliated with the army, civil service, or local villages. From the earliest times, physicians seem to have divided into specialties, but it is not clear how well these titles relate to modern ideas of specialization. Physicians trained as apprentices*. Women may have been healers, though rarely. Egyptians learned about the body from studying slaughtered animals and from treatment of wounds at battlefields and work sites. The practice of embalming* seems not to have added much knowledge. Egyptians knew about pulse, for example, but not that blood circulates. Arteries, veins, tendons, and nerves were considered to be tubes connecting the heart, limbs, and lower digestive system. Most ancient Egyptian medical texts focus on the treatments offered to members of the elite classes, and there is little evidence of any health 85

Medicine parasitic referring to a disease caused by a parasite, an organism that lives inside another organism and is often harmful to the host organism epidemic spread of a particular disease within a population

A Life Saved Although many ancient medical practices and rituals seem simplistic by modern standards, the ancients often accurately diagnosed and treated medical problems, In the biblical Book of 2 Kings^ a child collapsed in the field, perhaps of sunstroke, apparently ;dead The prophet Etisha arrived and he went up, and lay upon the cMtf, put hi$ mouth upon his mouth, and his eyes upon his eyes, and his hands upon his hands; and as he stretched himself upon him, the flesh of the child became warn. Then he got up again, gnd walked once to and to in the house, and went up, and stretched himself upon him; the child sneezed seven times, and the child opened his eyes, jpWs vivid account of artificial resusci- -\ ftation was recorded in the 800$ B.C

care of peasants. Conditions were probably miserable, with many forms of parasitic* disease, pest-borne illness, and epidemics* caused by poor nutrition and sanitation. Even the homes of the elite had open garbage dumps nearby. Bread was the main food, and the sand in it wore down teeth, causing frequent dental problems. Egyptian medicine contributed significantly to the treatment of physical injuries. Doctors closely followed an established procedure. First, they examined the patient and described the wounds. Next, they decided whether to treat the patient. The recognition that some problems were beyond their knowledge demonstrates a rational approach to medical problems. If a physician decided to treat the patient, he recorded his proposed treatment in logical steps. Medical records also show other comments, including definitions of words and explanations of unusual procedures. One of the most noted papyri describes 69 cases, including treatments for wounds to the skull, broken jaws, injuries to the throat and neck, and broken shoulders, vertebrae, breastbone, and ribs. Egyptians made many compounds for medicinal purposes. One written source records 600 such compounds made from substances native to the Nile River valley. Most medicines came from plants, but animals, including insects, and mineral substances were used as well. These drugs helped expel illness from the body. Some medicines had no use other than their magical or religious association—yellow drugs for jaundice, or turquoise, the color of the god HATHOR, for charms for protection. Although simple by modern standards, Egyptian medical practice was the best in the ancient Near East. Such treatments as applying honey as a salve, using stitches and tapes to close wounds, and cauterizing (burning or searing the skin with a hot needle to seal and prevent infection) probably originated in Egypt. Egypt's greatest medical gift to the ages was the procedure followed by physicians. Examining carefully before deciding whether to treat, using simple treatments first before moving to complex ones, proceeding with care and caution, and recording results carefully were great achievements. These careful procedures indicate a thoughtful and systematic approach to medicine. Iran. Few ancient medical texts have survived in Iran; therefore, the Iranians' health care practices are difficult to determine. However, evidence unearthed at excavations suggests that the same conditions prevailed in Iran as elsewhere in the ancient Near East. A Zoroastrian sacred text mentions three types of healing specialists: herbalists, surgeons, and incantation priests. Historians believe that Persian rulers favored early Greek and Egyptian methods. For instance, his interest in public health may have caused DARIUS I to support medical efforts in Egypt and elsewhere. Anatolia. Just as in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the people of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) believed that illnesses were a punishment from the gods. The best-known residents of Anatolia, the HITTITES, borrowed ideas and texts from Mesopotamia. Many Hittite physicians were likely trained by Assyrians, while unorganized folk healers probably treated most common people. Anatolian physicians treated disorders of the eyes, throat, mouth, and digestive system with medicines made from

86

Mediterranean Islands plants and minerals. Accounts of plagues and illnesses affecting kings are recorded in Hittite texts. For instance, the Plague Prayers ofMurshili II mention an epidemic that lasted 20 years, causing great damage to the kingdom and its economy. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The Levant. Many gods in Syria and the Levant* were divinities of disease and healing. Early texts from UGARIT identify EL, the supreme god, with healing. The Phoenician god Eshmun was also a god of healing (and perhaps the same as the Greek healing god Asclepius). Temples may have provided health care. Texts from the 1300s B.C. mention epidemics and physicians in the ancient Canaanite royal court. Israelites also viewed disease as divine punishment for sins. Poor sanitation, ineffectual waste removal, and contaminated water caused most diseases. Insect-borne diseases were probably a significant problem as well, although incense and other aromatic substances may have helped repel insects. Other ailments included intestinal diseases caused by tapeworms and whipworms. Although most treatment was left to the gods, physicians frequently isolated their patients. In the Hebrew BIBLE, the Book of Numbers directs physicians to "put out both male and female, putting them outside the camp, that they may not defile the camp." The Book of Leviticus discusses snakebites. Summary. In most of the ancient Near East, illness was a part of divine will and beyond human control. Omens and rituals played an important role in medicine. Despite poor sanitation and a lack of thorough medical knowledge, ancient Near Eastern physicians made medicines of local materials and recognized that some diseases were contagious and infectious. (See also Amulets and Charms; Famine; Health; Priests and Priestesses.)

Mediterranean Islands

MEDITERRANEAN SEA, TRADE ON * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

See Crete; Cyprus; Rhodes; Sardinia; Them.

I

n ancient times, the Mediterranean Sea became a natural marine high way for the expanding civilizations of the Near East. Trade encouraged growth, advanced technology, spread and shared cultures, developed economic systems, and furthered relations between empires. Equipment and Techniques. Because most Near Eastern civilizations developed along rivers, SHIPS AND BOATS were early features of life. Excavations on the island of CRETE show that seacraft were built there as early as 5000 B.C. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, both the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians were sailing large river boats. By 2600 B.C., sea trade was well established in the region, and early sailors navigated lengthy routes. 87

Mediterranean Sea, Trade on In the earliest times, navigation probably consisted of hugging the shore and memorizing landmarks along the way. Nevertheless, voyages well out of sight of land took place as well, sometimes without navigational instruments. Sailors then depended on the sun and stars and on journals from earlier voyages. Although the oldest preserved journal dates only from the 400s B.C., such journals were probably in use long before that time. The Mediterranean Sea offered some advantages to shipping. Its wind patterns were consistent, making it easy for sailors to tell the difference between a cold north wind and a warmer southerly one. Sailors identified eight distinct winds and plotted them on a device called a wind rose, which was in common use in the region in the 600s B.C. Ancient sailors also detected ocean currents in the sea, which they learned to use to their advantage. These currents generally run from the Nile Delta northward to Crete, making possible much Egyptian shipping on the Mediterranean.

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

88

Trade. The region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea and its islands was well settled by the fourth millennium B.C. As cultures expanded, they came in contact with each other, leading to trade and the exchange of cultural ideas. For instance, artworks found in Crete and Egypt show ships from both countries, and Cretan textile patterns appear in Egyptian cloth. Trade on the Mediterranean developed rapidly because of the desire for materials not available locally. To this end, Egyptian ships pushed northward to Crete and eastward to SYRIA and CYPRUS to obtain such goods as timber, aromatic spices, wine, olive oil, tin, and copper. This type of exchange was typical of trade on the Mediterranean, with states exchanging what they had much of for things they wanted or needed. Syria was a center of trade because it was midway between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although much of the trade there was controlled by the state, private enterprise developed as well. Small-scale trade in textiles, foodstuffs, and personal goods such as sandals occurred. Many of the merchants acted on behalf of their governments as well, and these contacts furthered political communication. Cyprus was another center of Mediterranean trade. Archaeological* records show that Cyprus had more contact with the ancient Near East than any other island. Moreover, because Cyprus remained neutral in international power struggles, the island was able to preserve its trading fortune. Many nations sought copper from Cyprus, and the island augmented its wealth from that trade. The HARBORS at SIDON and TYRE were established by the Phoenicians, who also built the greatest trading empire in the region during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). In fact, their empire was almost entirely built on commerce. Phoenician sailors and their "round boats" carried metal, glass, textiles, and dyes to customers throughout the region. In order to expand their trading activities and find sources for raw materials, the Phoenicians established many colonies throughout the Mediterranean region from the Red Sea to Spain. The most famous of these was Carthage, which was founded in 814 B.C. in North Africa. Carthage itself became the center of a great commercial empire until its defeat by Rome in the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.).

Megiddo The Greeksfollowed the exampleset by the Phoeniciansand also established trading colonies on the Mediterranean.B.C., Between750 and 550 Greek settlers established coloniesin Italy, Sicily, southern France,and Libya. These colonies brought great wealth (See also to the Greeks. Aegean Sea; Clothing; Economy and Trade; Maps; Naval Power; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Textiles.)

A

n important town in theLevant*, Megiddo (mi»GI»doh) occupied a strategic location where two main military and trade routes crossed. One of these was a widely used transportation route between Egyptand Mesopotamia. The other connected Phoenician cities on the Mediterranean coast to Jerusalem and other towns in the Jordan River valley. Because of its location, Megiddowas a targetof numerous conflicts between * Levant lands bordering the eastern kingdoms and groups strugglingfor controlof the Levant. shores of the MediterraneanSea Megiddo wasfirst settled around B.C., and7000 the first town ap(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), peared about 3,000 years later. B.C., By Megiddo 2000 had becomea the West Bank, and Jordan walled city containing a palace and several temples. The original inhabitants of this city were Canaanites. B.C., Inthe about Egyptian 1479 king THUTMOSE III captured Megiddoand made itmajor a trading center. The See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3). Canaanites later recaptured the city, but the Israelites gained control of it sometime around925 SOLOMON B.C.King ofIsrael began building Megiddo into amajor politicaland military AHAB comcenter,and King pleted the work begunby Solomon. B.C.,the By the Israelite 800s cityhad massive walls and an impressive water supply with underground wells * siege long and persistent effort to force that could withstand a lengthy siege*. a surrender by surrounding a fortressor The Assyrians conquered Megiddo B.C. and inbuilt 732 a new city city with armed troops, cutting it offthere. When the Persians captured Megiddo, the citywas in decline. It was from supplies and aid finally abandoned ALEXANDER GREAT after THEconquered the region in 332 B.C. Becausethe Hebrew BIBLE mentions that several significant battles were fought near Megiddo, many people believe that the final battle of

MEGIDDO

89

Melukkha earth's history (as described in the Christian New Testament Book of Revelation), known as Armageddon (meaning "hill of Megiddo"), would be fought there too. (See also Hebrews and Israelites.)

MELUKKHA * maritime related to the sea or shipping * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * decipher to decode and interpret the meaning of

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

MEMPHIS * deity god or goddess

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M

elukkha (me»LUK«ka) was a maritime* state that engaged in trade with Mesopotamian kingdoms and city-states*, including Akkad, Sumer, Ur, and Babylon, from about 2300 to 2000 B.C. Although it is clear from ancient texts that Melukkha was a coastal state and that trade between it and the Near East was by sea, its exact location is unknown. Most scholars believe that it was located in the Indus River valley region of India and Pakistan and that it was probably part of the Harappan civilization. The Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus River valley between about 2500 and 1600 B.C. It is noted mainly for its town planning, building technology, and writing system, which remains to be deciphered*. The Harappan economy was based on agriculture and trade, and it is likely that the Harappans were the first to grow rice. The civilization collapsed after 1600 B.C., perhaps due to environmental change and invasions by tribes of ARYANS. Melukkha was known in the Near East as the source of exotic items, including gold, tin, ivory, and a black wood thought to be ebony. It was also a source of lapis lazuli and carnelian—semi-precious stones used in JEWELRY—and peacocks. Though ancient sources list these products as trade items from Melukkha, it is not known whether they were native to that region or obtained by Melukkhan traders from other places. Melukkha never came under the rule of any of the ancient Near Eastern kingdoms. However, it appears that some people from Melukkha, most likely traders, settled in Sumer and were assimilated* into that society. (See also Economy and Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Shipping Routes; Trade Routes.)

O

ne of the most important and longest-occupied cities in ancient Egypt, Memphis was located on the west bank of the NILE RIVER near the head of the Nile Delta. The city was first settled around 3000 B.C., when King Menes united the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt and chose Memphis as his capital, probably because of its strategic location. Known originally as White Fortress—because of its whitewashed walls—Memphis became an important religious and ceremonial site. Its principal god, Ptah, was a major creator deity*, and the great temple of Ptah became a focal point of the city. Memphis was also the center of court ceremonies, including the crowning of the king. The city had many palaces, temples, markets, and manufacturing zones, as well as large private estates and other residential areas. Memphis was the capital of Egypt until about 2100 B.C., when the capital moved to THEBES in Upper Egypt. Nevertheless, Memphis remained an

Merchants

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

MERCHANTS

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* third millennium B.C. years between 3000 and 2001 B.C.

important political, economic, and religious center. It served as the administrative center of Lower Egypt until about 1075 B.C. In the 700s B.C., Memphis was taken during a siege* by the Assyrians. In about 690 B.C., Egyptian king TAHARQA regained control of Memphis but was ousted around 667 B.C. Shortly thereafter, the Persians gained control of Memphis. In the late 300s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Egypt, and Memphis remained a major city with a large Greek population. When Memphis came under Roman rule in 30 B.C., it was still considered a strategic and important city. Today all that remains of ancient Memphis is a vast complex of cemeteries, tombs, and monuments stretching for miles along the west bank of the Nile River. These include the famous PYRAMIDS at Saqqara and GIZA. (See also Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

O

ne of the most important consequences of the establishment of cities in the ancient Near East was the development of large-scale trade and commerce. Although the royal courts and temples organized most economic activities in ancient times, merchants were still needed to handle business transactions. As time passed, the role of the merchant expanded as private individuals and families gradually assumed more responsibility for long-distance trade.

The Earliest Merchants. It is clear that regular long-distance trade existed between MESOPOTAMIA and other parts of the Near East as early as 2700 B.C. Texts from Mesopotamia mention individuals called tamkaru, an Akkadian word meaning "merchant." Historians are unsure whether early tamkaru worked exclusively for the state or whether they engaged in private business as well. They also do not know whether the tamkaru traveled themselves or if they traded with travelers. Business records from the Sumerian city-state* of UMMA detail the nature of transactions made on behalf of the state and temple. The state produced surplus goods, particularly wool and grain, and traded these with other city-states for goods not available locally. Merchants were given a certain amount of these surplus goods as well as silver to trade. After acquiring goods either in other lands or in Mesopotamian markets, the merchants returned to Umma. There they distributed the goods as directed by the state officials for whom they undertook the trade missions. How merchants were paid is not entirely clear. They may have earned a fixed amount of income in foodstuffs such as barley. During and after the third millennium B.C.*, merchants in the ancient Near East traveled to foreign lands. Dilmun, present-day Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, was one of the most important Mesopotamian trading partners, even though it was not a source of goods. Rather, merchants in Dilmun acted as brokers for goods that were sent there on their way to other places as far away as India. Egyptian merchants traveled to the land of Punt, which may have been in the present-day Sudan or Ethiopia or in Southern Arabia. Punt was a source of exotic animals, spices, gold, and slaves. 91

Merchants

Assyrian Merchant Communities. ByB.C., theAssyrlate the 1900s ians, who ruledfrom the northern Mesopotamian ASHUR, rosecity to of prominence and assumed a central role in Near Eastern trade. Scholars have gained their most detailed knowledge of merchant activities in the ancient NearEastfrom the extensive economic recordsof the Assyrians. Beginning in the earlyB.C., 1800s theAssyrians established merchant communities called karuin southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The most importantkarumwas locatedat the cityof Kanesh,and records suggest that smaller karu were attached to settlements throughout Anatolia. Thekaru answered to theAssyrian rulersAshur, in who determined what goods they could bring into Anatolia and what they would receive in return. Sincethe karu were many hundredsof miles away from Ashur, the merchants handled many of their affairs. own In this sense, they were independent settlements, headed by the most important Assyrian merchants operating in the region and dealing with matters of local politics and law.Eachkarum negotiated its own trade treaties with local Anatolian city-states. These treaties spelled out the types of goods they were allowed to deal in, the amount of taxes to be paid to officials, local and the rights of the merchants who lived in the communities. The trading houses located inkaru the wererun by membersof prominent Assyrian merchantfamilies. The heads of the families remained in Ashur, where they organized the trading missions between Assyria and Anatolia. The goods involved were primarily tin, obtained from regions in present-day northwestern Iran andAfghanistan, and fine woolen textiles from southern Mesopotamia. Merchants collected these goods Ashur in and, two times a year, loaded CARAVANS them on for donkey the six-to eight-week trip north to Anatolia. They hired agents to manage the caravans and to ensure that they arrived safely at their destination. The tin and textiles were traded for goldand silveror for local products suchas copper that were then traded elsewherefor precious metals. 92

Mesopotamia

Your Money for My Ufej Merchants who traveled abroad faced so many dangers that local kings felt compelled to sign treaties guaranteeing their protection. In the 1200s B.C, the Hittite city-state of Karkamish and the Syrian city of Ugarit signed such an agreement According to the treaty, if a merchant from one city was killed in the other, the latter city would pay three times the value of the merchant and three times the value of any goods that were taken from htm. However, this only applied if the killers were caught. If they were j not caught, the city had to pay three times the value of the merchant and the normal value of the stolen goods.

* domestication adaptation for human use

Meroe

MESOPOTAMIA

To finance their trading missions, merchants often organized groups of investors who contributed sums of silver. In return, investors were guaranteed a 100 percent return on their investment. They also received one-third of the profits earned from the trip. The merchant kept onethird for himself, and the remaining one-third may have been set aside to finance future trips. The merchants assumed all the risks involved with the trip, including payment of taxes to states through which their caravans passed and the loss of goods or human life due to accidents, bandits, or wild animals. The men who were hired to lead the caravans bore the brunt of these hazards, but such a position could be the stepping-stone to greater wealth. A caravan leader with a solid record and a good relationship with a trading firm might be entrusted with more responsibilities. These added responsibilities would enable him to earn the capital needed to become an independent merchant. Later Merchant Activities. Internal political problems in Anatolia led to the collapse of the karu system by about 1750 B.C. However, Assyrian and Babylonian merchants continued to trade with city-states throughout the Near East. Beginning in about 1000 B.C., Phoenician merchants, who specialized in dyes and other goods, conducted much of the sea trade between Egypt and other civilizations along the Mediterranean coast. References from Hebrew sources also suggest that foreign merchants were common in CANAAN after about 1000 B.C. The domestication* of CAMELS around this same time led to an increase in the number of Arab merchants, who established trade routes through the desert between Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the rise of the PERSIAN EMPIRE in the 500s B.C., more of the Near East was united under one rule than ever before, widening the scope of trading and merchant activity. By this time, Near Eastern merchants were making more contacts with cultures in the West such as Greece. These contacts increased after ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Persia in the 320s B.C. Near Eastern merchants maintained a busy trade with the West until the fall of Rome shortly before A.D. 500. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Money; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Taxation; Trade Routes.)

See Rush and Meroe.

T

he term Mesopotamia was derived from a Greek word meaning "between the rivers/' an apt description for a land that lay mainly between the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in present-day Iraq. Mesopotamia was a cradle of early civilizations in the Near East—the home of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and others. Because these groups spread beyond the land "between the rivers," the term often includes 93

Mesopotamia * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

areas surroundingtheANATOLIA rivers SYRIA, in nearby (present-day Turkey), and IRAN.The influence of Mesopotamian civilizations spread throughout the ancientNear East, reachingas far as Egypt in the westand the IndusRiver valleyof present-day Indiain the east.

LANDAND PEOPLE The landscape of what was once Mesopotamia ranges from high mountains to rolling countryside to broad level plains. Much of the region receives relatively little rainfall or only seasonal rains, with the more mountainous regions in the northeast receiving more rain than the areas in the south. However, the region is watered by a number of rivers and streams, and many areasareAGRICULTURE, well suitedtoespeciallythe floodplains of the Tigrisand Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamialay at the eastern end of a broadarc of fertile FERTILE land known CRESCENT, as the which curves to the west through the Levant* into Egypt. An important geographicfeatureof Mesopotamiawas its openness. There were few natural boundariesor defensesto isolateand protectit from surroundingareas and peoples. Throughout history, Mesopotamia experienced periodic wavesof invasionsand migrationsof people, most of whom settled in the region and became assimilated* to the populations already living there.

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Mesopotamia

The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same Despite the conquests, invasions, and political changes that Mesopo- \ tamia experienced during its thousands of years of history, Mesopotamian civilization remained remarkably uniform. It also had a great capacity to restore itself ] after major disasters. One of the reasons for this stability in the face of change may have been the unchanging nature of the small agricultural communities that remain the basic unit of Mesopotamian society. These communities provided a framework within which most people worked and lived. They remained stable and unchanged over! generations and centuries despite disruption by flood, war, and famine.

* urbanization formation and growth of cities * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions * hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * domestication adaptation for human use * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

The first civilizations in Mesopotamia arose in the fertile areas of the region when people developed IRRIGATION to harness the waters of the rivers and to increase the productivity of the land. An abundance of food led to increased populations and urbanization*, and the need to manage farmlands and urban populations led to the formation of GOVERNMENTS and bureaucracies*. These included organized states with boundaries and political institutions, religious and political leaders to direct society, a hierarchy* of social classes, a specialization of labor, and the development of arts and intellectual ideas. Ancient Mesopotamia contained many ETHNIC AND LANGUAGE GROUPS. Besides the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, there were Akkadians, AMORITES, ARAMAEANS, KASSITES, and HURRIANS. The Sumerians—among the earliest of these groups—spoke a unique language and developed a distinct and highly influential culture. Many of the other peoples of Mesopotamia spoke Semitic* languages, but some also spoke INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. Mesopotamians ranged from nomads* to settled farmers and city dwellers. The various groups in Mesopotamia often intermingled and adopted certain aspects of other cultures, including religious beliefs.

OVERVIEW OF MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY The history of ancient Mesopotamia included remarkable achievements, from the development of agriculture and the domestication* of animals by about 9000 B.C. to the rise of empires that began around 2300 B.C. Mesopotamia's history was marked by conflicts between states, invasions, conquests, and the rise and fall of governments and societies. Origins of Mesopotamia!! Cities. By the early fourth millennium B.C.*, large agricultural settlements in Mesopotamia had begun to act as religious, administrative, and economic centers for the people of surrounding areas. Among the earliest of these emerging centers was URUK in southern Mesopotamia, an area known first as Sumer, and later as southern Babylonia. The main institution at Uruk and similar centers was the temple, which regulated all aspects of society and economy. It was through the temples that writing, government, judicial and economic systems, official art, and other elements of civilization first developed. The economy of these centers was based primarily on agriculture, herding, and trade. Through trade and the contacts it created with other areas, the urban culture of southern Mesopotamia gradually spread to other parts of the region. By about 2800 B.C., disputes began to occur among urban centers, especially over water rights and territorial boundaries. The resulting unrest transformed these centers into fully developed cities, as people in rural areas migrated to them. Many rivalries existed between the cities of southern Mesopotamia as each sought to gain an advantage over its neighbors or to expand its territory. Before long, many of these cities had gained control of large areas of surrounding territory, forming city-states*, such as KISH, LAGASH, UMMA, and UR, that were ruled by kings. Despite political differences, these Sumerian city-states shared the same language, religious beliefs, and customs. 95

Mesopotamia

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

ca. 3000s B.C. Large, urban settlements have emerged.

Rise of Early Empires. Around B.C., 2350 the king of Umma seized several city-statesand became rulerof all of Sumer. Soon after,he was defeated and replaced SARGON byI, a ruler from Akkad (a region north of Sumer in northern Babylonia),who established firstthe centralized state in Mesopotamia. Sargon and his successors, including his grandson NARAM-SIN, launched programsof territorial expansion, spreading their control as far as partsof Syria, Iran,and Anatolia. Their conquests transformed the "land of SumerandAkkad;; intoatrue empire. The Akkadian empire lasted nearly200 years.The periodwasdominated by rivalry between southern Babylonia, which waspeopled with non-Semitic Sumerians, and northern Babylonia, which wasinhabited by Semitic-speaking Akkadians.At the same time, however, the cultureof the two groups began to merge. After a period of declineand invasionby the Gutians,apeople from the northeast, Babyloniawas reunitedB.C. by about under UR2112 NAMMU, who foundeda new dynasty* knownas the Third Dynasty of Ur. SHULGI, perhaps the most important rulerof this dynasty, expanded the territory of the kingdom and launched a series ofpolitical, administrative, and economicreforms that transformed it into ahighly centralized state with a governing bureaucracy.The periodof the Third Dynasty of Ur is known as the Neo-Sumerian period.

3000B.CJ

2750B cj

250OB.C,

225OB.C,

ca. 2800s B.C. City-states are formed.

ca. 2350-2193 B.C. Akkadian empire is formed.

ca. 2112-2004 B.C. Babyloniais reunited under the Third Dynasty of Ur.

2000 BXL-

1750BC

1SOOBC

1250BC

ca. 2000 B.C. Amorite leaders begin to come to power.

ca. 1595 B.C. Kassites take control of Babylonia.

ca. 1500 B.C. Kingdom of Mitanni is formed.

100OBC ca. 1200s B.C. Northern Mesopotamia falls to theAssyrians.

96

The Age of the Amorites. Weakened byinternal rebellions, raids by the Elamites, and migrations of nomadic peoples called Amorites,the Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed around B.C. This2004 resultedin the reemergence of independent states, manyof which gradually fell under the control of two rival powers: the city-states of Isin and Larsa.For nearly 250 years, Larsaand Isin viedfor supremacy ofBabylonia. In the 1760s B.C.,an AmoriteBABYLON ruler ofHAMthenamed city of MURABI united southern Mesopotamiaand established a powerful new empire that dominated the region. One of Hammurabi's best-known achievements was his system of laws known as the Codeof Hammurabi. Meanwhile, in northern Mesopotamia, a newkingdom had arisen. It was centered on the ASHUR city ofand ruled by an Amorite leader named SHAMSHI-ADADI. This kingdom became the foundation of the state of Assyria, which playedmajor a rolein later Mesopotamian history. The Dark Age and the Kingdom of Mitanni. Following raids by the Hittite king MurshiliI B.C., in about Babylonia 1595wasoverrun by theKassites, who established various small independent kingdoms there. Little is known about the Kassites and their cultureand first of the 200 years of their rule in Babylonia,a period referredto as the Dark Age. More is known about theKassites from their contacts, shortly after 1400 B.C., with the later kingsofEgypt's Eighteenth Dynasty. Kassite The period was relativelypeaceful, exceptfor periodic conflicts with Ashur. Kassite rule came to an end around B.C., when 1158 the Elamites raidedand looted Babylon, taking many of its monuments to their capital Susa of in southwestern Iran. In the years that followed, Babylon and other cities in the region regained much of their independence under local rulers.

aser

Mesopotamia

The Many Facesof Mesopotamian Religion Different regions in ancient Mesopotamia shared thesame religious beliefs. However, because ofvariations in their history, they developed independent religious practices and ideasas wellas different ways to represent divine powers. Thiswas most evident in the names of deities, or gods and goddesses. A complete list of Mesopotamian deities would include more than 3,000 different names. They were not all different deities, however. Many of the gods and goddesses were actually the same, but they were known by different names.Even in neighboring cities, for example, the same deity might be worshiped under different names. Although there were many faces to Mesopotamian religion,re- j ligious belief was much more similar than it would seem.

* diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations among or between kingdoms, states, or nations * cult formal religious worship

As centralized rulein Mesopotamia declined B.C., after a group 1500 of people known as the Hurrians from northwestern Iran establisheda number of small states in northern Mesopotamia aswellas in Syriaand Anatolia. Around this time, a powerful Human state called Mitanni arose in the north. Mitanni extended its authority over many neighboring kingdoms, eventually controlling a region that extended from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to Iran in the east. The Rise of Assyria. While the Kassites controlled Babylonia, the region ofAssyria in northern Mesopotamia emergedon the international scene. In the 1300s B.C.,the city-stateof Ashur expandeditsborders and became a territorial state.The Assyrians conquered parts ofMitanniand divided up other areas in the north between themselves and the Hittites in Anatolia, with whom conflicts frequently arose. During B.C.,the 1200s northern Mesopotamia fell entirely under Assyrian rule. Beginning in the early 1100s B.C., Aramaean nomads began migrating into Mesopotamiafrom north Syria. They raided many cities Assyria in and Babylonia but were unable to gain a foothold in the cities and thus settled primarilyin rural areas.One of the main contributions Ara- of the maeans was their language, Aramaic, which eventually offibecamethe cial language of diplomacy*and trade throughout Mesopotamia. Assyria entered a period of decline in theB.C.1000s that lasted until the 900sB.C., when Assyrian power was again on the rise. Over the next 300 years, the Neo-Assyrian empire reached itsgreatest extent under such rulersas SARGON ESARHADDON, II, ASHURBANIPAL. and The Assyrians created a large, centralized state, and their aggressive military might made them the undisputed mastersof the ancient Near East.

The Fall of Assyria and Babylonia. Formany years, theAssyria let Babylonia keep its independence. The regionhad many cult* centers dedicated to gods also worshipedAssyria. in Babyloniawasalso revered 97

Mesopotamia

Hellenistic referring to theGreekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death ofAlexander the Greatin B.C. 323 autonomous self-governing

ca. 1100s B.C. Aramaeans enter Mesopotamia.

for its ancient culture. However, beginning B.C., Assyria faced in the 700s periodic problems with Babyloniaand had to putdown several rebellions there. Assyrian power began to decline B.C.,inwhile the 600s thepowerof Babylonia began to increase under theleadershipof theChaldeans,apeople from the coastal areas nearthe Persian Gulf.TheBabylonians rebelled in 626 B.C. andforcedtheAssyriansout ofBabylonia. Later theBabylonians joinedforces withthe MedesofIranandbegan attacking Assyrian provinces.In the late B.C.,the 600s Assyrianempire collapsed as aresult of repeated attacks by these invaders. Although some army units continued to fight, the Assyrian empirehad effectively ended,and itslands weredivided among the victors. Babylonia then experiencedabrief periodofpeaceandprosperity. Babylonian rulers, especially NEBUCHADNEZZAR II,launched spectacular building programsand restored culturalandreligious for- institutions long gotten. Trade and commerce flourished, andBabylon becamethelargest and most magnificent city in the ancient world. This period wasshortlived, however.B.C., In 539 Babyloniawasconquered by thePersians, who madethe regiona province PERSIAN of theEMPIRE.

1500B.C]

900sB.C. 11O D B C

900 Bc

Assyrians defeat Aramaeans and establish Neo-Assyrian empire.

626 B.C. Chaldeans take control of Babylonia.

700 B c

late 600s B.C. Medes and Babylonians conquer Assyria.

500 Bc

539 B.C. 300 cB

100BC

AD

100

Persians conquer Babylonia.

331 B.C. Alexander the Great seizes Mesopotamia.

mid-1OOs B.C. Parthians control Mesopotamia.

AD

300

A.D. 100S Romans conquer Mesopotamia.

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Mesopotamia Under the Persians, Greeks, and the height of their power,the Persians ruledall ofMesopotamiaaswell as other partsof theNearEast. Babylonia, known as thebreadbasket of the Persian empire, remainedaprosperous land, Assyria but sank into poverty and obscurity. Although controlled Persia by through satraps, or provincial governors, Babyloniaand other partsofMesopotamiaremained relatively unchanged intheir culture, society, andreligion. The Persians controlled Mesopotamia ALEXANDER B.C., whenuntil 330 THEGREAT conquered the Persian empire. Under SELEU-Alexander and the CIDEMPIRE thatwas created after his death, Mesopotamia experienced great changes. Although Mesopotamian cities generally kept theirold systems of local government,the Hellenistic* culture introducedby the Seleucids brought Greek ideas, language, customs,andreligious beliefs to the region. Mesopotamia also prospered greatly under theSeleucids. In the mid-lOOs B.C., Mesopotamiawasconqueredby theParthians, an originally nomadic people who hadconquered neighboring Iran in the mid-200s B.C. Little changedin the region undertheParthians,who generally allowed local governmentstoremain autonomous*. Hellenistic culture continuedtoflourish, blending GreekandIranian ideas. After the 30s B.C., Parthiahad to compete withtheRomansfordominance in Mesopotamia. Soon the Romans gained increasing advantage in the region, and in A.D. the100s, Mesopotamiawasconqueredby the Romans and madea provinceof thealso Roman (SeeAkkad Empire. and the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of; Archaeology and Archaeologists; Architecture;Art, Artisans, andArtists; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea a Chaldeans; Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Elam the Elamites; Geography; Hellenistic World; Parthia;Sumer and Sumerians.)

Messengers

MESSENGERS

* diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with foreign kingdoms, states, or nations

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

M

essengers provided an important means of COMMUNICATION in the ancient Near East, particularly over long distances. By carrying written or oral messages from one place to another, they served a basic function within every society. They became the principal means by which states conducted international business. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, "neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night" could stop royal messengers as they carried messages between places. There were three classes of messengers in the ancient Near East. The first was simply an individual—a servant, slave, or even a child—who traveled within a city carrying messages between households or businesses. The second class of messengers was composed of individuals who traveled long distances but only delivered a message and received the reply. The third, and most important class of messengers, was made up of individuals who delivered messages and had the authority to negotiate with the recipient, usually the ruler of another kingdom or state. Such messengers could negotiate treaties, trade relations, and other political, economic, or social matters. This last group of messengers served as ambassadors and diplomats* between states. Only trustworthy, loyal, and fast individuals were chosen as messengers. They came from all classes in society, from slaves to royalty. Women served as messengers, too, most often carrying messages for other women. A royal messenger serving as an ambassador might be a trusted servant, a soldier or military officer, a member of the royal family, or a vassal* king traveling on behalf of another ruler. When communications involved personal matters or sensitive negotiations, a ruler might choose a member of the royal family to carry the message. Royal messengers were skilled and intelligent individuals. They needed to know their own rulers and to understand the nature and terms of the negotiations taking place. They also had to know the culture and customs of the country where a message was to be delivered, as well as the personality of the ruler receiving the message. In learning the customs, politics, and news of the places they visited, messengers became the state's main link to its neighbors and the world. Royal messengers and their staff generally stayed at the palaces of the recipient rulers or in the homes of local individuals responsible for foreign relations. The messengers received normal rations of food and drink. In special instances, they might dine with the king or receive special gifts. Long-distance messengers might travel by boat, by horse-drawn wagon, or on horseback. However, most traveled by foot, either walking or running, depending on distance and the urgency involved. As kingdoms expanded, systems of roads were constructed to make travel and communication easier. Many roads had rest stops for messengers set up at certain intervals. During the 2000s B.C., King SHULGI of UR described how he "enlarged the footpaths, straightened the highways [and] established rest houses/' Later, the Persians and Romans both became famous for their extensive and well-organized systems of roads and messengers. Although being a messenger was an important job, it was also difficult and dangerous work. Messengers generally had to travel on bad roads in all kinds of weather and faced threats from robbers as well as enemies in hostile states. (See also Transportation and Travel.)

99

Metals and Metalworkiiig

METALS AND METALWORKING * artisan skilled craftsperson * ore mineral or rock containing a high concentration of one or more metals

A^ etals have fascinated humans for thousands of years. Early arti/ ^ Isans* fashioned the first objects out of metal more than 9,000 years ago. However, it was not until some 7,500 years ago, with the invention of metallurgy—the science of extracting metal from ore* and creating useful objects from it—that metal came to be widely used for TOOLS, weapons, decorations, and currency. The art and science of metalworking probably began in the ancient Near East, and the civilizations there were at the forefront of metallurgy for thousands of years.

METALLURGY To produce useful metal objects, one must learn how to separate metals from ore, melt metal, work with it in a liquid form, and change its properties through heating and other processes. These skills are known as metallurgy, and their discovery was a turning point for humanity. Native Metals and Ores. Most metals are embedded in rocky minerals called ores, from which they must be extracted before they can be used. However, small quantities of some metals occur naturally as pure nuggets already separated from ore. These so-called "native" metals— such as gold, silver, and copper—result from the action of water passing over and through the ore-bearing rock formations. Such metals can be easily collected with a minimum of effort. The oldest metal objects found in the Near East—a pin and a needle of native copper dating from between 7500 and 7000 B.C.—were found in ANATOLIA. Native metals can be worked in their natural state by hammering them into the desired shape. Because such metals make up only a small fraction of the metals contained in the earth, however, only a limited number of objects can be made from them. Moreover, hammering makes metals brittle and the shapes and uses of objects produced in this manner are limited. To produce a larger variety of metal items, it is necessary to apply the basic techniques of metallurgy. Melting and Smelting. The most basic metallurgical technique is heating metal until it becomes soft or melts into a liquid. By pouring the liquid into a mold and letting the molten metal cool, early peoples discovered that they could create metal objects of any desired shape. Working copper in this way also made it less brittle. Evidence suggests that by about 7000 B.C. early metalworkers in the Near East learned how to change the nature of metals by heating them. The first metal to be worked in this way was copper. Another basic metallurgical technique is smelting, a process by which an ore is heated together with another substance that combines chemically with the nonmetal in the ore and separates it from the metal. The earliest evidence of copper smelting in the ancient Near East—a lump of slag, a waste product of the smelting process, dating from about 5500 B.C.— comes from Anatolia. However, lumps of copper ore have been found at various sites in MESOPOTAMIA dating from about the same period, suggesting that the smelting process may have been known there as well. By 3000 B.C., copper smelting technology had become widely known

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Metals and Metalworking throughout the Near East. The process was essential to the growth and further development of metalworking in the region. Alloying. As early artisans in the Near East worked with various types of metals, they eventually discovered that some metals could be combined by melting them together, a process known as alloying. Alloying enabled metalworkers to change the properties of metals and produce metals that were stronger and more durable. One of the first alloys used in the Near East, and the most important, was bronze, a mixture of copper and tin. The production of bronze and its use in making weapons, tools, and other objects was so important that historians call the period from about 3000 to 1200 B.C. the Bronze Age.

METALS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

The Copper-Silver Dispute An ancient Sumerian text called The Dispute Between Copper and Silver contains an interesting "dialogue" between copper and silver. Copper \ mocks silver for its uselessness, say-I ing that it has a place only in the palace: "If there were no palace, you would have no station; gone would be your dwelling place," Even in the home silver is "buried away in its darkest spots/' while copper is widely used every day. The "dispute" goes on to mention the use of capper tools for planting.] crops, harvesting grain, and cuttin wood. Because of copper's great usefulness, the text concludes of sit- j ver: "That's why nobody pays any attention to you!"

The people of the ancient Near East used precious metals—gold and silver—as well as common metals—copper, tin, and iron. In addition, they produced alloys, such as bronze, that were used extensively. A later invention was steel, an alloy of iron and carbon. Copper. The first metal to be used throughout the ancient world was copper. This was largely because native copper and copper ores are abundant throughout the Near East. Large copper deposits existed in Anatolia, in northern IRAN and Mesopotamia, on the island of CYPRUS, in parts of the Levant* and SYRIA, in the deserts of eastern Egypt, and on the OMAN PENINSULA of Arabia. Archaeologists* have discovered evidence of copper metallurgy in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant dating from between 5500 and 3500 B.C. This technology appeared later in Mesopotamia. The earliest copper objects there were made from metal mined in Iran and brought to Mesopotamia by traders. After about 3000 B.C., the Sumerians began to import copper from the land of Magan (present-day Oman) because it was cheaper to import copper from Magan by ship through the Persian Gulf than through overland trade from Iran. Bronze and Tin. The earliest bronze objects appeared around 3000 B.C. By about 1900 B.C., tin bronze (copper and tin) had replaced arsenical bronze (copper and arsenic) in much of the Near East. The Egyptians, however, continued the use of arsenical bronze because arsenic forms a silvery surface on copper that can be polished to a mirrorlike finish. Bronze was used to make domestic utensils, furniture, lamps, sculpture, arms, armor, coins, tools, and implements. Scholars are uncertain about the origins of the tin that was used to make the earliest tin-bronze alloys. Native tin may have been used for some early bronze work, but deposits of the metal were much too small to have supported a widespread bronze industry. Anatolia contains some tin ores, but there is little evidence to suggest that ancient peoples either knew about or mined them. The best current evidence of ancient sources of tin points to eastern Iran and areas in present-day Afghanistan, which contain large quantities of native tin and tin ores. 101

Metals and Metalworking

See colorplate3, vol.4.

Gold and Silver. The major sources ofgold in the region were eastern Anatolia, eastern Iran,Afghanistan,and Egypt. Becausegold couldbeeasily bent or drawn out,it was impracticalfortoolsorweapons.It wasalmost exclusively used JEWELRY for and luxury items, as well as for decorations in temples, palaces, and other official buildings. Although gold wasbeing worked in Egypt, Anatolia,and Mesopotamia before B.C.,its use 3000 did not become widespread until later. Silver was used widely throughoutthe ancient B.C. Near Eastprior to 3000 Among the most important sources of silver were Iran, Afghanistan, and Anatolia. This precious metal, like gold, wasused mainlyforjewelryand luxury items. Silverwas also accepted in Mesopotamiaas amediumof exchange, or type of currency,and some societiesin the Near Eastusedanatural alloy of silverand gold, knownaselectrum,formaking coins. Iron. Although iron was found everywhere in the ancient world, it was the last metal to be widely used in the ancient Near East. Theoldest piece of ironwork foundin the Near East comes from Mesopotamiaand dates from about 5000 B.C.Fewer than25 iron objects have been discovered that datefrom between 3000B.C. andAlmost 2000 all of these came from the gravesof wealthy individuals, temples,or collectionsoftreasure, suggesting that they were rare and valuable items. Increasing numbers of iron objects were produced in the Near Eastbetween about 2000 andB.C., 1200 but these were probably by-products of copper smelting. It was not until after B.C. that 1500iron wasproduced in any quantity, and it was not usedfortools and weapons B.C. until the 1200s TheHITTITES are considered the earliest ironworkersof the ancientNear East, and some historians credit their rise as amilitary power to the early use of iron weapons.

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Metals and Metalworking By about 1100 B.C., metalworkers in the Near East had mastered the techniques for producing steel from iron, and by 900 B.C., ironworking had spread throughout the region. Although bronze continued to be used widely for hundreds of years after that time, the period after about 1200 B.C. and until 500 B.C. is known as the Iron Age.

METALWORKING The Lame Smith One of the common characters in myths and folktales around the world is the blacksmith. In stories from the Near East and the Mediterranean world, the smith is typically tame. For example, the Creek smith god Hephaestus and his Roman counterpart Vulcan were always depicted as lame. This may reflect a reality of life for early metalsmiths, who often worked with bronze ores that contained arsenic. \ While working with arsenic over a period of time, ancient smiths absorbed the dangerous substance into their skin. This could easily have led to chronic arsenic poisoning, which causes decay of the muscles, loss of reflexes, and eventually lameness.

* cult formal religious worship

The term metalworking refers to the ability to make useful objects out of metal. This ability dramatically transformed ancient society, and because of the advantages of metal items, ancient metalworkers became important members of ancient Near Eastern societies. Metalworkers. Those who mastered the arts of melting, smelting, and casting metals such as copper or tin were called smiths. Although highly valued for their skills, they had the lowest social status among metalworkers. For example, an ancient Egyptian text described coppersmiths in unflattering terms, saying that their ''fingers are like crocodile scales'' and their flesh "stinks more than fish eggs." Those who worked metal and created metal objects, considered metalworkers, were more highly respected. The most highly esteemed members of the metalworking profession were jewelers and goldsmiths. These artisans typically worked in royal workshops making personal items for the wealthy and powerful. They also created cult* objects and official items such as metal SEALS. Metalworking Techniques. Near Eastern metalworkers used two basic techniques: casting and hammering. Casting involved pouring molten metal into molds of various shapes and allowing the metal to cool and harden. Ancient Near Eastern artisans used a complex type of casting called the lost-wax method. Here an artisan made a wax model of the desired object and covered it with clay. When the clay hardened into a mold, it was heated until the wax ran out through a hole on the bottom. Molten metal was then poured into the mold through the same hole. When the metal cooled the mold was broken, leaving a metal reproduction of the original wax model. This method was used for making small objects as well as larger works such as statues. Hammering, which involved pounding metal into a desired shape, produced one-of-a-kind objects. Artisans used one of five methods of hammering: raising, sinking, repousse, chasing, and punching. In raising, the metal was hammered into shape from the outside, while in sinking it was hammered into a depression cut into wood or another material. In repousse, the design was hammered into sheet metal from the back to form a raised pattern. In chasing, a reverse of repousse, the metal was hammered from the front to produce a sunken design. Punching involved hammering holes into a piece of metal. It was often used for artistic decoration and to cut INSCRIPTIONS into metal objects. Another more specialized type of metalworking skill was gilding, in which an artisan applied a thin layer of gold to the surface of an object. Gilding was used for only the most valuable or sacred objects. 103

Midas Local Metalworking Traditions. Archaeologists have uncovered metal artifacts that demonstrate the great skill of ancient metalworkers and the differences in metalworking traditions. For example, copper axes and weapons from Iran feature elaborate decorations, often including animal forms. The wide distribution of such objects indicates that they were traded throughout the region. Some of the most interesting and impressive metalwork of the ancient Near East was produced in the kingdom of URARTU from about 650 to 600 B.C. Urartu had especially gifted bronze workers who created highly decorated bronze objects such as belts, plates, bells, plaques, and statues. Other Urartian treasures include bronze statuettes covered in gold leaf and inlaid with precious stones. While the Urartian culture was particularly gifted in the arts of metalworking, they were not unique. Metalworking played a key role in the advancement of Near Eastern civilization, and metalworking skills were essential to every society that made its mark on the region. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Jewelry; Mining; Money; Science and Technology; Weapons and Armor.)

Midas

MIGRATION AND DEPORTATION famine severe lack of food due to failed crops drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

See Phrygia and the Phrygians.

I

n the ancient Near East, people often migrated for economic reasons: to search for better agricultural or grazing land or to escape famine* or drought*. They also migrated for political reasons: to escape oppression or to flee from invaders. Sometimes they were forcibly removed from their homelands and taken elsewhere. This occurred when one state conquered another. Such involuntary movement from one place to another, known as deportation, was much less common than other types of migration.

MIGRATION Most migration in the ancient Near East occurred as people wandered in search of better land for farming or grazing livestock. Some of this migration was seasonal and generally involved small numbers of people and had only a minor impact on settled communities or societies. More permanent migrations involving thousands of people also occurred. These great migratory movements caused profound political, economic, and social changes throughout the ancient Near East. Pastoral Nomadism. From as early as 8000 B.C., ancient Near Eastern societies contained both farmers and herders. Over time, the herders developed a lifestyle known as pastoral nomadism, which was quite different

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Opposing Lifestyles In ancient times, many nomads j mistrusted farmers and the city life, white farmers and city dwellers distrusted the nomads. A let- \ ter written in Syria by one Yaminite leader to another around 1770 B.C. expresses perhaps a common view about the opposing viewpoints of city j life and the nomadic existence: You foofc forward to eating, drinking and sleeping, but not to accompanying me? Sitting or sleeping will not redden you [from the sun]. As for me, if I keep myself Inside just one day, until I leave the city walls behind to renew my vigor, my vitality ebbs away.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* assimilate to adopt the customs of a society

from that of farmers. They had no fixed residence and wandered from place to place. They were also pastoralists, which means that their lifestyle was based on the breeding and herding of animals. Some scholars believe that pastoral nomadism arose in the Near East as human populations increased and fertile lands became increasingly scarce. To conserve land for crops, herders had to move away from communities to graze their herds, leading to the nomadic lifestyle. Drought, famine, and other problems sometimes forced even farmers to take up a nomadic pastoral lifestyle because they could no longer support themselves by raising crops. They often returned to farming when agricultural conditions improved. Similarly, pastoral nomads often settled in communities, perhaps to farm or because they needed a home from which to manage their herds over a large area. Such changes back and forth between nomadism and farming occurred in ancient times, contributing to the migrations of people throughout the Near East. Large-Scale Migrations. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, political instability, war, and other factors also caused large-scale migrations. However, these were very different from pastoral nomadism because they involved larger numbers of people. Often these people were from different ethnic backgrounds, worshiped different gods, and spoke different languages than those of the inhabitants of the lands to which they migrated. The people in these types of migrations were usually seen as invaders, even if their purpose was not to conquer but to escape some problem or disaster in their homelands. The movement of such groups often caused great upheaval, leading to changes in government, the rise of new states, the disappearance of old traditions, and the emergence of new cultural and religious ideas. One of the earliest large-scale migrations known from ancient sources involved the Gutians. This pastoral nomadic group from the Zagros Mountains region of western IRAN migrated to MESOPOTAMIA sometime before the 2100s B.C. and possibly contributed to the collapse of the Akkadian empire. The best-documented series of migrations in the ancient Near East were probably those of the AMORITES, a nomadic people who migrated from northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA to central and southern Mesopotamia beginning in about 2000 B.C. Although the Amorites attacked some areas, their migration was largely peaceful. Records from the city-state* of MARI indicate that it tried unsuccessfully to control the Amorites and their migration. Other city-states probably attempted to do the same. Eventually, however, the Amorites took over many areas and established small, independent kingdoms. They were absorbed into the local populations and assimilated* many local customs, beliefs, and institutions. Among the most famous Amorite rulers were HAMMURABI and SHAMSHI-ADAD I. By about 1600 B.C., the Amorites were being forced westward by migrations of KASSITES, a pastoral nomadic group that probably originated in the Zagros Mountains. Around 1595 B.C., the Kassites seized power in Babylonia and established various small kingdoms. Another group of people known as the HURRIANS, who had moved from northwestern Iran, settled in northern Mesopotamia and founded a number of states there, including the powerful Mitanni. 105

Migration and Deportation

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

In about 1200 B.C., Egypt was invaded both by land and by sea by groups historians call the SEA PEOPLES. These peoples were not one group but various tribes, including the PHILISTINES. After Egyptian king RAMSES III drove the Sea Peoples out of Egypt, they appear to have settled in the Levant* and in Syria. During the following century, many cities including KARKAMISH and UGARIT in Syria, and KHATTUSHA, the capital of the HmrrES in Anatolia were violently destroyed. Many scholars believe that these widespread destructions resulted from the migrations of Sea Peoples into these regions. Around 1100 B.C., another nomadic group known as the ARAMAEANS began migrating into the settled areas of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia. Scholars believe that the Aramaeans came from the desert fringes of Syria, although there is no evidence of them before about 1300 B.C. The Aramaeans captured various city-states in Syria, and their growing power eventually brought them into conflict with the Assyrians. Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I spoke of crossing the EUPHRATES RIVER many times to chase them away. Around 926 B.C., the Aramaeans had established a large state called Bit-Adini. Aramaean culture gradually spread throughout Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Aramaic language became the common language of government and business in many parts of the Near East. Another series of migrations had a great impact on the later history of the Near East. Around 1500 B.C., a nomadic people called the ARYANS began migrating from CENTRAL ASIA to Iran. The two most important Aryan tribes were the MEDES and the Persians. The Medes settled in northwestern Iran, established a kingdom in the 700s B.C., and played an important role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire in the following century. The Persians settled in southern Iran, and by the late 500s B.C., the PERSIAN EMPIRE had become the mightiest empire in the Near East.

DEPORTATION * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

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At various times in the ancient Near East, rulers forcibly moved groups of people from one place to another. Such forced migration, or deportation, generally was done for political purposes. Rulers deported people from a conquered territory to limit the possibility of rebellion, to improve their ability to control the area, and to punish rebellion or refusal to pay tribute*. Deportation not only broke up any unified opposition but also created forced labor that could be used to build monuments or work in farm colonies. Most deportations in the Near East were carried out by the Assyrians. Around 1235 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I deported several Babylonians into Assyria as retaliation for an attack by the Kassites. In the 800s B.C., King ASHURNASIRPAL II began a military conquest in the Levant to gain control of various trade routes. He ordered the deportation of Phoenicians and Aramaeans from their homelands. In the 700s B.C., after conquering Syria, King TIGLATH-PILESER III launched mass deportations that removed at least 80,000 people from the area. He then brought people from other parts of his empire to replace them. SARGON II forced an even larger number of people to move in 707 B.C. After conquering Babylon, he deported more than 100,000 Aramaeans

Mining and Chaldeans to SAMARIA, the former capital of Israel, and other distant regions and moved in others to replace those deported. Earlier, in 722 B.C., the Assyrians had moved large numbers of people from Israel to northern Mesopotamia. The Assyrians were not the only ones to use deportation, however. The Babylonians used the tactic against the Jews around 587 B.C., when the kingdom of Judah rebelled against Babylonian control. After destroying the city of JERUSALEM, the Babylonians deported a large part of the Jewish population to Babylonia, where they were enslaved. When the Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylonia in 538 B.C., he freed the Jews and permitted them to return to their homeland. However, many chose to stay in their new home. The Hittites also deported people from conquered territory and resettled them in Hittite lands. These people became slaves and provided labor for the state. (See also Drought; Famine; Labor and Laborers; Nomads and Nomadism; Slaves and Slavery; Wars and Warfare.)

MINING * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

M

ining is the recovery of metal or metal-bearing minerals called ores from deposits in the earth. Archaeologists* have uncovered evidence of metal use in the ancient Near East from at least 7000 B.C. However, the earliest metal artifacts* were probably made from metals found above ground, such as gold, silver, or copper taken from streambeds. The actual mining of metals and metallic ores probably did not develop until around 5000 B.C. Because of the usefulness of metal for making tools, weapons, and other objects, mining became an important economic activity in the ancient Near East.

THE MINING PROCESS Most metals are embedded in ores that contain varying amounts of metal. Ore deposits are typically located in mountains or beneath the earth's surface, and recovery of the ores often requires a great deal of effort. To reach ore deposits, workers usually must cut shafts or tunnels into the rock and then dig out the ore. The earliest miners did this with picks and hammers made of stone. The ore is then transported to workshops where the metal is removed through various techniques. Mining and the recovery of metal from ore involve complex processes. They require the technical expertise to locate and recognize ore deposits, the organizational ability to assemble a large workforce to extract ores from the earth, and the technology to separate metal from ore so that it can be worked to produce useful items.

MINING IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Very little is known about early mining in the ancient Near East. Many regions, including MESOPOTAMIA, SYRIA, and Egypt, have few mineral deposits. Extensive mineral deposits were found in ANATOLIA (present-day 107

Mining Turkey), and studies in that region have produced significant information about ancient mining activities. That information, combined with knowledge about trade and metalworking in the Near East, has provided an overview of mining and the metals recovered.

* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.

* artisan skilled craftsperson

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Copper. The first metal mined extensively in the ancient Near East was copper. Large deposits of copper were found in a belt that extended across Anatolia into northern Assyria and IRAN. The earliest evidence of copper mining in these regions dates to the early fifth millennium B.C.* At a site called Tepe Ghabristan in northern Iran, archaeologists discovered the remains of a copper workshop from about 4500 B.C. Equipment found at the site included a deep bowl containing pieces of copper ore and a furnace for smelting, a process by which an ore is heated together with another substance that combines chemically with the nonmetal in the ore and separates it from the metal. The fact that artisans* were smelting copper at this site suggests that copper probably was mined in the area at the time. Archaeologists have also discovered evidence of copper metalworking in the Levant*, dating from as early as 3500 B.C. The copper ore for this industry probably came from deposits in present-day Jordan, although some may have also come from sites in southern Israel. The Egyptians were mining copper in the SINAI PENINSULA as early as 3000 B.C. In Mesopotamia, there is little evidence of copper metalworking before about 2000 B.C., probably because the area had few deposits of ore. The copper used in the region in early times probably came from mines in Iran. CYPRUS and parts of the OMAN PENINSULA contained significant deposits of copper. After 3000 B.C., the Mesopotamians began to import copper from the mines of Oman instead of from Iran. Tin. The metal tin is often contained in a mineral ore called cassiterite, which can be found in streambeds or on plains where it has been deposited by running water. When tin is combined with copper by melting the two metals together—a process known as alloying—the result is bronze, a much harder and more useful metal than either copper or tin. The appearance of bronze items in Anatolia indicates that people in that region were using tin by the early third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.) Bronze items dating from about 2500 B.C. have been found in cities as far apart as TROY and UR. Although tin is currently mined in southeastern Turkey, there is little evidence that tin mining occurred there in ancient times. The most likely source of ancient tin was presentday Afghanistan. Tin from mines there was traded over much of the Near East. MERCHANTS brought much of this tin to such cities as ASHUR and MARI, where it was shipped to various places in Anatolia and the Levant. Iron. Bronze was the most important metal in the ancient Near East from about 3500 B.C. to 1200 B.C., when it was replaced by iron. Although remains of iron objects dating from as early as about 5000 B.C. have been found in the Near East, these were probably by-products of copper smelting, because some copper ores contain small amounts of iron. Iron was not produced in significant quantities until after 1500 B.C., and it was not used for tools or weapons for another 300 years.

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Life in the Mines Ancient texts and other evidence provide a glimpse of the difficult conditions that ancient miners often had to endure. Remains of mining sites in eastern Egypt reveal tha miners not only had to travel across the harsh desert to the mines, but they also had to carry their own food with them from home. Egyptian records show that mining for turquoise in the desert of the Sinai peninsula took place in winter at al titudes where the cold was intense and water was scarce. Copper and gold mining took place in the same region during the blistering heat of the summer. According to Greek sources, water was rationed, and many Egyptian miners died under such harsh conditions.

MINOAN CIVILIZATION * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

* domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

The most abundant metal on earth, iron makes up nearly 6 percent of the earth's crust. Deposits of iron ore as well as meteoric iron existed in almost every part of the ancient world. Yet iron mining and metalworking were slow to develop. The primary reason is that ironworking requires more advanced techniques than were available in the earlier periods of ancient Near Eastern history. Once these techniques were developed, however, iron became very important because it provided a stronger, cheaper, and more practical alternative to bronze. Because of the importance and abundance of iron, evidence of iron mining and metalworking have been found in many areas of the ancient Near East. Other Metals. The people of the ancient Near East also mined lead, silver, and gold. Evidence indicates that lead ores were being smelted to produce metallic lead as early 3500 B.C. and perhaps earlier. This suggests that lead mining existed at that time as well. The Egyptians were mining gold by about 2700 B.C., with most mining activity taking place in the desert east of the NILE RIVER and in the region of Nubia south of Egypt. Silver mines were located in many places in the ancient Near East. Most of the silver in ancient Egyptian jewelry came from mines in Anatolia, Cyprus, and CRETE. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Science and Technology; Tools; Weapons and Armor.)

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n A.D. 1900, English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans made an amazing discovery on the island of CRETE in the Mediterranean Sea. He uncovered the ruins of a unique and distinctive culture dating from about 3000 to 1000 B.C. He called this culture the Minoan civilization, named after King Minos, a legendary king of Crete in Greek MYTHOLOGY. Despite many discoveries since Evans, the Minoan civilization remains a mystery and a matter of disagreement among modern historians. Experts generally agree, however, that the Minoans were a mostly peaceful and sophisticated people who developed extensive trading networks and created beautiful POTTERY, JEWELRY, WALL PAINTINGS, and SCULPTURE. Geography and Early Settlements. Crete is located south of Greece at the edge of the AEGEAN SEA. Apart from CYPRUS, it is the largest island in the eastern Mediterranean. With a mild climate, abundant resources, and an excellent location for sea trade, it is not surprising that a great civilization arose on the island in ancient times. The earliest inhabitants of Crete probably arrived on the island around 6000 B.C., but their exact origins are unknown. Continuous migration over the next 3,000 years led to the introduction of domesticated* plants and animals from the ancient Near East, and this contributed to the development of a flourishing agricultural economy. By about 3000 B.C., the people of Crete had become successful farmers, herders, and traders, and their settlements were scattered throughout the island. They exported wine, wool, textiles, timber, and olive oil and 109

Minoan Civilization * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-daySyria, Lebanon,and Israel), the WestBank,andJordan

fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also,a painting done in this manner * city-state independentstate consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

hieroglyphic referring to a systemof writing thatuses pictorial characters,or hieroglyphs, to represent wordsideas or

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imported metals andjewels. Long-distance trade ANATOwas strong with LIA (present-dayTurkey)and the Levant*. Cretan society at this time consisted of various socialclasses, and political power beganto centralizein several of the largest settlements. The Rise of Minoan Power. ByB.C., aboutthe2000 Minoans began to construct palaces at a number of major towns. Among the most important of these were KNOSSOS, at Phaistos,and Mallia. Built aroundan open central courtyard, Minoan palaces were multistory buildings witha maze of rooms andbeautiful frescoes*, baths,and running water. Each palace was centrally located in a town. Thepalaces became important focal points of Minoan societyand servedas the seatsofgovernment, administration, and centers of trade and as sites where food products, raw materials, and manufactured goods were collected and redistributed. It is possible that the palaces became the centers ofsmall citystates*, which competed with each otherfortrade. Because of extensive trade and an abundance of resources, Minoans of all social classes were well off. Many scholars believe thatwealthwas spread more evenly throughout Minoan society than in anyother culture of the NearEast. Peace and prosperity allowed the Minoansto devote more time to enjoying life, which explains their remarkable achievements in the arts. During this period, the Cretans used a hieroglyphic* writing system that has not been decoded and interpreted. In the early EARTHQUAKES 1700s B.C., damaged some Minoan palaces, but they were rebuilt. Byabout B.C., the 1600 Minoan civilization had reached its peak, and its influence extended beyond Crete.TheMinoans

Miiioan Civilization King Minos and the Minotaur In Greek mythology, King Minos of Crete was the son of Zeus. Minos once angered Poseidon by not sacrificing a white bull to the god. To punish Minos, Poseidon made his wife, Pasiphae, fall in love with the bull, and she bore a creature with a bull's head and a man's body called the Minotaur. Minos kept the Minotaur in an enormous labyrinth, or maze, beneath his palace. To avenge the death of his son at the hand of the king of Athens, Minos made the Athenians give him seven young men and seven young women each year. He locked these youths in the labyrinth, where they died of starvation or were killed and eaten by the Minotaur: One of these: youths, the Greek hero Theseus, later killed the Minotaur. Although the story of the Minotaur is only a myth, there may once have been a real king of Crete named Minos.

* decipher to decode and interpret the meaning * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

possibly colonized—and certainly influenced—many islands in the Aegean Sea, including THERA. It is also likely that, through trade, the Minoans and other Near Eastern peoples influenced each other. Minoan goods have been found as far away as Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA, and there are wall paintings in Egypt depicting Minoan traders. The Minoans of this period used a simple script that modern scholars call Linear A, which has not been deciphered*. The Collapse of Minoan Power. Around 1500 B.C., many Minoan palaces on Crete were again destroyed, probably because of a volcanic explosion on Thera. Although they were rebuilt and were as beautiful and elaborate as before, the size and number of settlements outside the palaces declined. Within the next 100 years, all the palaces—with the exception of the one at Knossos—ceased to be important political or trading centers. At the same time, Crete was being increasingly dominated by MYCENAE AND THE MYCENAEANS, who brought a warrior-based culture from mainland Greece. Certain Cretan burial practices and artistic themes from this period reflect Mycenaean influence, as does the adoption of a new writing system—Linear B—used to write the Mycenaean Greek dialect*. Around 1400 B.C., the palace of Knossos was destroyed by fire, perhaps a result of a Mycenaean invasion or natural catastrophe. The destruction of Knossos marked the collapse of Minoan power, although regional Minoan cultures continued to flourish for some time on various parts of Crete. When Minoan power collapsed, the center of culture in the Aegean region passed to the mainland of Greece and the Mycenaeans. Religion, Politics, and the Arts. A unique feature of Minoan civilization was the absence of great temples such as those found elsewhere throughout the ancient Near East. Minoan religious rites took place in the palaces, in sacred caves, and on mountaintops. Minoan religious beliefs focused on nature worship, female goddesses, and fertility cults*, and sacred symbols included doves, trees, bulls, and snakes. Strangely, no individual leader is named on any artifact* created by the Minoans, and archeologists have found no evidence of any type of warrior class before Mycenaean influence took hold. This has led many scholars to believe that the Minoans were ruled by their religious leaders. Scholars cannot agree whether these rulers were priest-kings, priestessqueens, or both. It is certain from studying Minoan art, however, that women played prominent roles in religious ceremonies. Minoan civilization is probably most famous for its artwork. Delicately shaped pottery pieces were decorated with scenes of animals and plants and used a beautiful style of light on dark. Frescoes were brightly painted and depicted both religious and secular* scenes. Some showed magical gardens full of animals. In later periods, art became increasingly realistic, and by the 1400s B.C., artists were creating a sense of depth in wall murals through the use of relief*. One of the most interesting features of Minoan art is the pictures of "bull leaping/' Painted on vases and frescoes, these pictures show young men and women leaping over the horns of bulls. Scholars are uncertain 111

Money whether "bull leaping" was a sport or a religious ceremony, although most believe it was connectedalso to (See fertility Animals rituals. in Art; Architecture; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on.)

MONEY * mint to make coins; place where coins are made

* commodity

article of trade

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

C

oins and paper currency have been used for so long that most people today consider them the only acceptable forms of money However, thefirst coins werenot minted* B.C.,and after until700 paper money has only been in existence for a few hundred years. This does not mean, however, that money did not exist in ancient times. Different items served Near Eastern societies as money, including precious metals, such as silver and gold, and grain. Defining Money. To understand how grain and other items served as money, it is important to consider the technical definition of money. Most economists consider money to be anything that can be used as a means of exchange, aform of payment,and a standardfor accounting. The first definition is probably the broadest. Money is anything used to obtain an item one desires. Even items traded in barter can function as a form of money, because each party gives the other some item in exchange for another item. Althoughthe second definition seems first at glance the same as thefirst, thereis difference. a Asform a of payment, money is anything used to settle a debt or obligation that does not necessarily involve receiving something in return, such as taxes. Farmers in ancient Egypt gave the state a portion of their harvest as tax. The third definition considers money to be any commodity* usedas a measure of value against other commodities.The valueof items MESOPOin ancient TAMIA was expressedas fixed a amountof silver or grain. Thus, a particular piece of cloth might be valued at so many shekels of silver or a certain number of bushels of grain. Goods could be and were purchased with things other than silver or grain. However, the value of the goods acquired and the value of the goods given were both calculated in termsof either silver or grain. This ensured that both parties received itemsof equal worth regardlessof the items they exchanged. Early Money.Before the rise of cities andcity-states*, barter was the basis for economic activity. People acquired goods fromone anotherby trading items that they judgedto be of roughly similar value. However, barter was too cumbersome, especiallyin complex urban economies.To regulate economic activity, ancient peoples fixed standardsof value,and the commodities used to set such standards functioned as money Records from the ancient NearEast indicate that silver and grain were used as money in nearly every society. Both shared qualities that made them ideal for this use. They had value, could be storedfor long periods without losing their value, and were interchangeablefor similar items. Thatis, one shekel of silver was the sameas any other,as was one bushelof grain. The choice of silverand grainas money stemmed from their abundance. Because ancient Near Eastern societies AGRICULTURE, were based on

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Monotheism

They Were Coins, but Were They Money? By about 400 B.C., many Near East ern societies were minting coins, but not all of them were used as currency in the states that produced them. For example, King Nectanebo I minted the first Egyptian coins shortly after 400 B.C., but these were used to pay Greek mercenary soldiers, not circulated as local currency. The relative lack of small coins in ancient Greece suggests that they were not used in everyday transactions. Most coins found in hoards, even as late as the Roman era, are also of high denominations, indicating that coins were not widely used forj simple transactions.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MONOTHEISM * doctrine principle, theory, or belief presented for acceptance * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

grain was not only essential for life but also easily available. Silver was also quite abundant, which explains why it was used as money more often than gold. Around 1600 B.C., an increase in Egyptian gold production led to a temporary increase in its use as money. When gold production decreased after about 1200 B.C., so did its popularity as a form of money. Other metals occasionally served as money as well. Copper, for example, was the most common form of money in Mesopotamia in the 700s B.C.. Silver money often took the form of rings or coils. To pay for an item, one broke off a piece of silver whose value was equal to that of the item acquired. Archaeologists* have found hoards of silver, including ingots (bars) in Near Eastern sites, but these are too large to have been used in everyday transactions. The absence of smaller pieces of silver suggests that ingots were used as a store of value or a standard against which smaller pieces of silver were measured. Coinage. The earliest coins were minted around 650 B.C. in the kingdom of Lydia in present-day Turkey. The Lydians invented coins to guarantee that a certain amount of precious metal had a fixed value. Pieces broken from a ring or coil had to be weighed to determine their value, but coins of the same type supposedly contained the same amount of silver, making weighing unnecessary. However, because people often shaved off bits of coins, they reduced the coins' true worth, making the promise of standard value worthless; when such coins were used for payment, they were always weighed. Despite their convenience, coins only slowly replaced other forms of money. This was partly because many people believed that the system used for thousands of years was still quite useful and that coins offered little advantage over traditional forms of money. Moreover, they believed that a shortage of precious metals could be disastrous for a society that relied solely on coinage. However, in flexible monetary systems, grains or other forms of money could be used when silver or gold ran short. The use of coins only became widespread after the PERSIAN EMPIRE conquered much of the Near East in the 500s B.C. (See also Economy and Trade; Merchants; Taxation.)

M

onotheism is the belief in only one god. This doctrine* is most closely associated with the three great modern religions that originally developed in the Near East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Most of the cultures in the ancient Near East practiced polytheism, the belief in many gods. However, a number of Near Eastern religious traditions in ancient times also developed monotheistic tendencies. Early Monotheism. One of the earliest examples of monotheistic beliefs appeared in Egypt during the reign of Amenhotep IV in the mid1300s B.C. The Egyptian pantheon* at that time contained many gods, including the sun god ATEN. Amenhotep singled out Aten for worship and proclaimed that he was the only true god. Amenhotep renamed himself AKHENATEN, which means "he who is effective for Aten," and forbade the

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Moon * cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

worship of other gods. This displeased the priests of other cults* and many Egyptians, and after his death, the cult of Aten disappeared. Other tendencies toward monotheism occurred in MESOPOTAMIA during the first millennium B.C.* In Babylonia, the ancient god MARDUK rose to great prominence and became head of that region's pantheon. He also took over the characteristics and functions of many other gods, making him far superior to them. A similar tendency toward unifying many gods into one deity occurred in Assyria with the god ASHUR. Though not truly monotheistic, these religious beliefs were moving in that direction. A more authentic type of monotheism developed in Persia in the 600s B.C. with the rise of a new religion called Zoroastrianism. This religion was founded by Zoroaster, a prophet* who taught that there was only one true god—AHURA MAZDA, the Wise Lord, who represents all that is good. Opposing him are the evil spirits led by AHRIMAN, the spirit of darkness and lies. Zoroastrianism shares many aspects with Judaism and Christianity, including the belief that at the end of time, all souls will be judged and those only found worthy will enter paradise. Israelite Monotheism. The ancient Israelites did not originally practice a pure form of monotheism. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, they worshiped their god YAHWEH in various manifestations of the Canaanite god EL. After MOSES led the Israelites out of Egypt, they entered into a special covenant, or agreement, with the god Yahweh. Even then, however, Yahweh was not seen as the only god but rather as the supreme god. When the Israelites settled in CANAAN, some of them began to worship other local gods, such as BAAL. Eventually, however, they came to see Yahweh as not only their supreme god but as the only true god and the creator of the universe. The Israelites saw themselves as the "chosen people" who were given the land of Canaan because they believed in and obeyed Yahweh. Later they hoped that this unique god would recall his covenant and bring them back from their exile in Babylon. Their belief in the "oneness" of Yahweh marked a dramatic break with the polytheism of other ancient Near Eastern religions. Israelite monotheism, Judaism, formed the basis of the monotheistic beliefs of both Christianity and Islam, which arose centuries later. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses; Judaism and Jews; Religion; Theology.)

Moon

MOSAIC LAW 114

See Lunar Theory.

T

he Mosaic Law is a set of legal provisions contained in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—four of the five books of the TORAH, one of the three parts of the Hebrew BIBLE. At the core of the Mosaic Law are the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which according to tradition, were given to MOSES by YAHWEH during a meeting on Mount Sinai. Like earlier law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, the Mosaic Law includes

Mosaic Law

* tabernacle portable place of worship that the Israelites carried with them during their journey through the wilderness and into the Promised Land * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god, Yahweh

* pagan one who believes in more than one god

legislation for criminal and civil punishments. The Mosaic Law also deals with personal matters (health, grooming, marriage, and sexual relations) as well as religious matters (construction of the ark and tabernacle*), which were rarely included in other Semitic* laws. The Mosaic Law became the basis of Jewish practices and remains so today. Origin and Nature of Mosaic Law. According to the Bible, Moses freed the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and led them through the desert to the Promised Land*—CANAAN. During the journey, Moses received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh. The commandments were basic prohibitions on actions such as murder, theft, worship of other gods, and adultery. As the Israelites continued their journey to Canaan, it became clear that the Ten Commandments did not address many issues. Through Moses, Yahweh then began to issue additional laws to cover the gaps in the commandments. Ultimately, the body of laws grew quite large and was set down in the Torah, or the Pentateuch. In ancient times, the Mosaic Law served as a way to distinguish the Israelites from the pagans* who lived among them. After the exilic period, the laws were interpreted differently. They forbade Israelites from marrying or interacting with non-Israelites, emphasizing that the Israelites are a special people chosen by Yahweh. At its heart, the Mosaic Law is the formal expression of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and their god Yahweh. An important subset of the Mosaic Law concerns the Israelites' diet. These laws prescribe what types of animals Israelites can and cannot eat. For instance, they may not eat animals that do not ruminate (chew their cud) and do not have split hooves (such as pigs and horses) or consume the products of such animals. The laws also forbid Israelites to eat fish without fins and scales (such as shrimp, crabs, and lobster), animals that creep, carnivorous birds, or the blood of any animal. Certain portions of acceptable animals are also prohibited. During the Passover festival, Israelites may not eat bread containing yeast. The laws warn Israelites to avoid wearing garments woven from different fibers (for example wool and linen), urge men and women not to dress in each other's clothing, tell them to have tassels on the four corners of their garments, and instruct them on grooming their hair. Some laws instruct the Israelites on building their homes and holy constructions. When building homes, Israelites are required to build a wall around the roof to prevent people from falling to the ground and polluting the house with blood. The laws provide exact specifications for the construction of the tabernacle and the ark—two major components in the worship service. The tabernacle was to be constructed with offerings given by Israelites, such as gold, oil to feed lamps, and fine linen. The ark—a cabinet that, according to some passages, held the original Ten Commandments, which symbolized the covenant (agreement) between Yahweh and the Israelites—was to be constructed of acacia wood according to the specifications provided by the Mosaic Law. When Was the Mosaic Law Written? Scholars disagree on whether the Mosaic Law was handed down during the time of Moses or written 115

Moses later. Many of the individual laws mentioned in the Torah were not relevant to the Israelites' situation at the time of their journey from Egypt to the Promised Land. For example, laws about ownership of land or different types of crops are clearly meant for a settled agricultural society, and laws about kingship and temple rituals presume an urban society. Many scholars feel that such laws were added much later, perhaps hundreds of years after the settlement of Canaan. A few even argue that none of the laws originated during the time of Moses. Historians have isolated what they believe are discrete compilations or codes within the Torah in addition to the Ten Commandments—which appear in Exodus, Chapter 20, and Deuteronomy, Chapter 5—such as the Holiness Code (Leviticus, Chapters 17-26), the Book of Covenants (Exodus, Chapters 20-23), and the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy, Chapters 12-26). They believe that these codes may have come from separate periods of Israel's history. Regardless of its origin, the Mosaic Law remains the most important part of the Hebrew Bible for followers of Judaism. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law.)

MOSES ca. 1200s B.C. Israelite leader * Promised Land land promised to the Israelites by their god, Yahweh * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

nomad referring to one who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

116

f\^ ccording to Jewish tradition, Moses freed the ancient Israelites from /iLslavery in Egypt and led them to the Promised Land* of CANAAN. The Hebrew BIBLE says that it was Moses who received the TEN COMMANDMENTS from the god YAHWEH on Mount Sinai and brought them to the Israelites. Moses was also believed to be the author of the TORAH, or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The Book of Exodus claims that Moses was the child of Israelite slaves in Egypt (the Egyptians referred to the Israelites as Hebrews). When the pharaoh* ordered all newborn Israelite males to be killed to control the Israelite population, Moses' mother set her child adrift in a basket on the NILE RIVER. He was found by the pharaoh's daughter and raised in the royal court. One day when Moses was touring a region where the Israelites were working, he saw an overseer beat an Israelite slave. Moses killed the overseer, but his deed was discovered and he had to flee to the land of Midian (in the Sinai and northwestern Arabia). There he met and married Zipporah, the daughter of a nomad* chieftain. Later when he was tending his sheep, he came to a burning bush, from which the voice of Yahweh told him to return to Egypt and free his people. Moses returned to Egypt and demanded that the pharaoh release the Israelites, but the pharaoh refused. Under Yahweh's instruction, Moses brought down a series of ten plagues (disastrous events) on Egypt, the last one resulting in the death of every firstborn Egyptian male. The pharaoh let the Israelites leave, but he soon tried to bring them back. His army followed the Israelites across the RED SEA, where Yahweh had miraculously parted the waters. After the Israelites had passed, the waters flooded the Egyptian army and destroyed it. For the next 40 years, Moses guided the Israelites on their journey from Egypt to Canaan. During this period, Moses received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh and assumed the role of lawgiver and judge for the Israelites. Once near the Promised Land,

Mummies

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

MUMMIES * embalm to treat a corpse with oils or chemicals to preserve it or slow down the process of decay, usually after body fluids have been removed

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

See color plate 9, vol.3.

Yahweh refused Moses entry because he had failed to follow precisely one of his directives. Moses died on Mount Nebo in Moab (in present-day Jordan), just outside Canaan, but his burial place has not been found. Modern historians disagree about which parts of the story are based in fact and which are fictional. Some believe the story is historically accurate but combines the deeds of several people and presents them as the work of one man. Others accept it as a historical event, often setting Moses and the journey to Canaan (the Exodus) during the reign of Ramses II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.). Some claim that the story is entirely fictional because there is no certain evidence of the Exodus or Moses in the historical and archaeological* record. Nevertheless, Moses is considered a symbol of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and their god, Yahweh. (See also Ark of the Covenant; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

A

mummy is a dead body that has been dried both inside and out, embalmed*, and wrapped in cloth for preservation. Preserving dead bodies in this way before burial was common in ancient Egypt because the ancient Egyptians believed in the AFTERLIFE, or life after death, including the continued existence of the physical body. Men, women, and children were mummified, as were certain animals that were considered sacred, such as CATS, bulls, and crocodiles. Thousands of mummies from ancient Egypt have been recovered from PYRAMIDS, tombs, and graves, and many are on display at museums throughout the world. Development of Mummification. The first Egyptian mummies may have come about accidentally, when Egyptians buried the dead in the desert sands, which naturally dried out and preserved the bodies. In fact, some Egyptologists* believe that the natural preservation of dead bodies in this way spurred the Egyptian belief in the afterlife. In turn, this belief led to a search for ways to preserve the bodies of the dead. As early as 3000 B.C., the Egyptians had developed many techniques to preserve dead bodies. The techniques reached their peak toward the end of the New Kingdom period, around 1080 B.C. By that time, they were so successful that today we can look at a mummy, such as the wellpreserved mummy of TUTANKHAMEN, and get a good idea of what the person looked like several thousand years ago. The process of mummification took several months to complete. The process was very expensive, and only royalty and other wealthy individuals could afford it. Bodies of the poor, in contrast, were simply wrapped in cloth and buried in the desert a few days or weeks after they died. The Mummification Process. The mummification process began with the removal of the dead person's lungs, stomach, and intestines through an incision on the left side of the body. The organs were then covered with a natural drying agent—a salt called natron—until they dried out. Then the organs were wrapped in linen and stored in jars that 117

Mummies

* amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers * scarab representation of the dung beetle, heldassacredby Egyptians

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Egyptologistscall canopic jars.The lidsonjars thewere shaped likethe heads of gods, which was believedto help protectthe organs contained within.Later the jars were buried withthe dead person. Next, the heart was removed from the body, dried out, wrapped in linen, and replaced in the body. Sometimes the heart wassewn intoplace in the chest cavity. The Egyptians returned the heart to thebody because they believed it was the seatof intelligence.Thebrain,on the other hand, was considered insignificantto the body.It wascrudely removed witha long hooked rod inserted into the skull through the nostrils and discarded. Then resin wasinjected intothe skull with funnel a toprevent the head from collapsing. Once the internal organs and brain were removed, the blood and other fluids were drained from the body. Thenthe bodyfilled was and

Music and Musical Instruments

Learning from Mummies Archaeologists, historians, and anthropologists have learned a great deal about ancient Egyptians by studying mummies. For example, by examining the body wrapped within the strips of cloth, these scientists have learned about the diseases that afflicted ancient Egyptians j and how those diseases were treated. From X rays of mummy bones, they have been able to estimate the average height and life span of ancient Egyptians. They have even inferred ties of kinship in royal families from examining the similarities and dissimilarities in the appearance of kings who were mummified.

MUSIC AND

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life * deity god or goddess

covered with natron until it dried out completely. After a few weeks, the natron was removed and the body was carefully cleaned and rubbed with scented oils. It was also packed with resin-soaked linen and bags of fragrant materials, such as myrrh and cinnamon. At this time, the eyes were replaced with artificial eyes made of glass. The last step in the process was wrapping the body in about 400 yards of linen strips. First, the head was wrapped, followed by each individual finger and toe. This was followed by the hands, feet, legs, and arms. The arms were then crossed over the chest. Finally, the entire body was wrapped. A mask was placed over the head and shoulders before the last layer of wrappings. The linen was soaked in fragrant resins before it was wrapped around the body. This helped mask the odor of decay. In addition, when the resin dried, it made the wrappings stiff so that the cloth held the body's shape even after the body started to decompose. Sometimes the body was padded with sawdust, sand, or clay to help preserve its shape. The Egyptians often painted facial features on the outer layer of wrappings to make the mummy look more lifelike. In addition, up to 100 amulets* were placed among the wrappings, including a scarab* over the heart, to protect the mummy after burial. Sacred writings were also wrapped with the body to guide the deceased in the afterlife. (See also Book of the Dead; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

M

usic was important to the cultures of the ancient Near East, particularly during temple rituals, funeral rites, and religious and royal festivals and ceremonies. Little is known about the role of music in the daily life of the people. However, ancient texts and artifacts* indicate that music provided a form of entertainment at important family events and gatherings, particularly among the upper classes of society. In both religious and secular* events, music was performed for its own sake as well as an accompaniment to DANCE. Occasions for Music. Temple rituals throughout the ancient Near East often included music. The music served to honor and please the gods, some of whom were linked to music and specific musical instruments. In ancient Egypt, for example, several deities*, including HATHOR and OSIRIS, were closely associated with music. When HYMNS were sung in praise of the gods at temple rituals, the singers were usually accompanied by musical instruments. Music also accompanied daily rituals and other religious activities. Each culture, of course, had its own forms of religious music as well as instruments used to perform it. Although little is known about secular music, it is certain that most Near Eastern peoples enjoyed music. Mothers no doubt sang lullabies to their young children, and men and women probably sang work songs while laboring in the fields. Musical entertainment was a part of royal feasts, processions, and other celebrations, while ordinary families enjoyed music at family gatherings and on special occasions. Sometimes music was performed on serious or dangerous occasions, such as during

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Instruments eclipses or childbirth. Music even played apart in military activities, with musicians accompanying armies while they marched. Ancient Hittite texts mention a number of military battle songs. Musical Performers. Both men and women sang and played musical instruments in the ancient Near East. Temples employed professional musicians to performin orchestras, choral groups,and assolo performers. These musicians sometimes functioned aspriests. In ancientEgypt andMESOPOTAMIA,female musicians in religious cults* often were of high rank. Sometimes the wives of priests might serveasmusicians in the same cults as their husbands. Temple musicians occupied a high social rank.In ancient Egypt, individuals who held the title "great one of the musical troupe" were responsible for training performers, overseeing musical practice,and ensuring that performances in temple activities went well. Some temples inMesopotamia established their own schools to train musicians. Musical troupes, or groups, were sometimes attached to secular institutions, such as the palacesof kings.On special royal occasions, hundreds of musicians might singand play instruments.As in temples, palacemusicians and singers were organizedby rank, with such titlesas"master of singers" or "superintendentofperformers." Secular troupes also consisted of both men and women. Some of the musicians who performed insecular events were professionals. Others, however, were amateurswhoperformed music only occasionally. Among the Hittites, singers were distinguished by the language in which they specialized.

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* first millennium B.C. years tO 1 B.C.

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from

1000

Musical Instruments. Musicians playedavarietyofinstruments.Although the specific design of these instruments might vary from one region to another, they fell under four basic categories: stringed instruments (chordophones), wind instruments (aerophones), drums (membranophones), and other percussion instruments (idiophones). The two most common types of stringed instruments werethe lyre and the harp.Lyres varied in size, shape, and number ofstrings. Some lyres were small, handheld instruments that could beplayed while sitting, standing, or walking. Larger lyres couldbeplayed onlyby twostanding musicians. Harps were smaller than lyres,but they also variedinsize and shape. They could be played by sitting or standing musicians holding the instruments in either a vertical or a horizontal position.Another stringed instrument, the lute, developed much later thaneither the harp or lyre. Lutes alsodiffered in size, shape,and numberof strings.Allthree stringed instruments were madeof wood, sometimes covered with precious materials such as silverand gold. Wind instruments—flutes, trumpets,andhorns—were madeofreed, wood, bone, and metal. Like stringed instruments, they varied size inand shape. The earliestflutes contained one or two pipes, but by the firstmillenniumB.C.*, a typeofflute with several pipes, knownas the panpipe, was introducedfrom the West. Some flutes had reeds like present-day clarinets and oboes. Flutists generally accompanied singersand dancers. Trumpets and animal horns, because of their loud sounds, were used more often in military contexts and grand processionals and tosignal

Mycenae and the Mycenaeans Lost Sound of Music Very little is known about the "sounds'' of ancient Near Eastern music. Some surviving texts include; information on musical notation, scales, and musical theory. However, it is difficult to know what this means in terms of present-day musical ideas. Even less understood is the tempo and rhythm of ancient musical works. It is obvious that some music was fast and other music slow and that some music was considered sad while other music was joyful or associated with some other emotion. However, without more information, the true sounds and rhythms of ancient Near Eastern music are lost to the ears of present-day humans.

MYCENAE AND THE MYCENAEANS

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style See map on inside covers.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

public announcements. The ram's horn, or shofar, is mentioned often in the Hebrew BIBLE in connection with wars and religious rituals. Drums ranged from small hand drums to giant kettle drums. Smaller drums were an indispensable accompaniment to dancing at banquets and festivals. Small to medium-sized drums also were played in military contexts, such as while troops were marching. Larger drums often played an important role in temple rituals. In Mesopotamia, for example, large kettledrums were often beaten at temples during eclipses of the moon. Drums are a type of percussion instrument, an instrument that produces sound when a stick, hand, or other object strikes another surface. Other percussion instruments used in the ancient Near East included bells, rattles, cymbals, and "clappers/' Made from wood, metal, clay, shell, or bone, these instruments provided background accompaniment to other instruments during religious and secular events. One of the most characteristic percussion instruments of ancient Egypt was the sistrum, a type of rattle whose soft sound resembled that of a breeze blowing through papyrus reeds. Egyptians believed that the sistrum attracted the attention of the gods and helped ward off evil. (See also Entertainment; Family and Social Life; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and Temples; Rituals and Sacrifice; Women, Role of.)

M

ycenae (my»SEE»nee), the most important city-state* in Late Bronze Age Greece (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), was located in the Peloponnese, the peninsula that forms the southern part of mainland Greece. According to legend, the city of Mycenae was founded by Perseus, a hero in Greek MYTHOLOGY. Legends about the Mycenaeans (my»suh»NEE«uhnz) have been preserved in Homer's great epics*, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Whether Homer's stories were based on historical fact or were fictional, is still disputed, but many scholars believe that elements of the stories are true. History. Greece, including the Peloponnese, was settled as early as 6000 B.C., and by 3000 B.C., the people there began to build multistory houses and to use SEALS to identify ownership of goods. Some scholars believe that beginning around 2000 B.C., the Mycenaeans invaded the region and settled there. The Mycenaeans came from the north of Greece and spoke an INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE. They were more advanced at pottery making, building, and metalworking than the people they displaced. However, this theory is disputed by other scholars, who believe that the Mycenaeans were the original inhabitants of the area. Notwithstanding their origin, the Mycenaeans were a warlike tribe and set up competing city-states. The city of Mycenae quickly became the most powerful of these. Other major Mycenaean cities included Pylos, Tiryns, Thebes, and Orchomenus. The Mycenaeans fortified the cities with enormous walls to protect them during an attack. Many of the cities also contained magnificent palaces, which were organized around large halls. The entire society, like that of the Minoans, was "palace based/' The Mycenaean economy was based on the export of such items as wine, grain, POTTERY, and olive oil. Historians and archaeologists* believe that 121

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Searchingfor Agamemnon

Mycenaeans

the Mycenaean trade network stretched throughout theMediterranean because remnants of Mycenaean pottery have been found throughout the region. From around B.C. 1400 untilB.C., 1100 the Mycenaeans colonizedthe islands of AEGEAN the SEA. This period marked the height ofMycenaean power in the region. In fact, it wasduring this period thatthefamous battle of Troy is believed to have taken place. Sometime between 1250and 1180B.C., the Mycenaean king, Agamemnonled acoalitionofGreek armies against the kingdomof Troy ANATOLIA in western (present-day Turkey) and ultimately destroyed thatcity.B.C., Around Mycenae 1100 was destroyed. It is not known whetherthedestructionwascausedby fire or an enemy attack.

Hehirfch Schfiemann was a German merchant who became wealthy in the Indigo trade in the mid-l 800s. When he was In his 40s, he gave it all tip tosearch for the sites described in Homer's epics. He first uncovered the city ofTroy in Relations With Other Aegean Powers.Although theMycena northwestern Turkey. In 1876, focused greatly on military conquest, they also established important Schliemann moved to Greece, looktrade relationships with other empires. Tradewiththeislandsof the Cyjpg for King Agamemnon's home, He thought that he had found what clades and with CRETE probably existed B.C.asearly as3000 he was looking for when he discovFrom about 1600B.C., to 1400 therewasobviouslyagreat deal ofconered some prehistoric tombs at tact between the Mycenaeans and theMinoans. The twosocieties were : Mycenae* One ofthese tombs, probably in competition for the Mediterranean trade, but itseems that which Schliemann thought was the warfare between them until (possibly) theMycelocation of Agamemnon's burial site there was no ongoing contained a goldenmask that he naean destruction of the KNOSSOS palaceon at Crete B.C.around 1400 thoughtwas Agamemnon's. AlThereafter, the city ofKnossos remainedinMycenaean control. During though Schliemann was mistaken, this period, the Mycenaeans also established colonies on theislandsof he had opened a new understandthe Cycladesand Dodecanese, CYPRUS,Sicily,northern MACEDOGreece, ing of ancient Greece to later arNIA, and partsofAsia Minorand Italy. Being more warlike than the Michaeologists,

noans, they also raided the Egyptian andHittite coasts.

Culture. Although the Mycenaeans built several cities, most continued to live in small villagesin the countryside. Thiswasunlikethecaseof the great civilizations, suchasEgyptandMesopotamia,in theNear East.The 122

Mythology

fresco method of painting in which color Is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as It dries; also, a painting done in this manner Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

MYTHOLOGY

Mycenaeans borrowed their WRITING, pottery, ARCHITECTURE, and palace culture from the Minoans. They used a script called Linear B, which was based on the Minoan script, Linear A, and was an early written form of the Greek language. They built huge palaces with beautiful frescoes* and halls with large columns. Mycenaean pottery, which is similar to Minoan pottery, was known and copied throughout the ancient Near East, particularly in the Levant*. Unlike the Minoans, however, the Mycenaeans buried their kings in a tholos, or large tomb lined with rock and capped with a false dome. Dead leaders were buried with magnificent grave goods, such as golden masks, jewelry, game boards made of ivory, and several weapons. Many modern scholars, while impressed with the Mycenaean culture, feel that it did not compare with the culture of the Minoans, from whom they borrowed so much. One scholar even goes so far as to call Mycenaean culture "rather dull/' The Fall of Mycenae. The Mycenaean civilization began to decline after 1200 B.C. The city of Mycenae was destroyed around 1100 B.C., and the cities of Tyrins and Pylos were destroyed shortly thereafter. Other settlements on the Peloponnese were also abandoned around the same period. Most scholars believe that massive invasions and immigrations of the Dorian people were responsible for this. However, it is possible that the abandonment of the smaller sites was caused by the invasions of the SEA PEOPLES, who also invaded Egypt and perhaps the Levant around the same time. Finally, it is possible that environmental factors such as prolonged drought* or earthquakes or internal revolutions brought down the Mycenaean civilization. Notwithstanding the cause, the city of Mycenae and the Mycenaean civilization lost power in the region. Thereafter, Mycenae was only a village and did not again flourish until several centuries later. Around the 400s B.C., Mycenae reemerged as an independent city-state but soon declined in importance. Later, for a short time during the Hellenistic* period, Mycenae again became an important city, but by A.D. 160, the city had been abandoned and was in ruins. Modern Discoveries. Remnants of the Mycenaean civilization were excavated in 1876 by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. Schliemann's archaeological work, as well as the research conducted by later scholars, yielded fortification systems, bronze armor and weapons, precious grave offerings, and thousands of pottery fragments. Little remains of the city today, except its main entrance. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Minoan Civilization; Troy.)

M

ythology is a medium through which a culture expresses its most deeply held values. Myths put into words a culture's vision of its history, its place in the universe, and its relationship with its deities*. Many types of myths exist in the records of the ancient Near East. Some are CREATION MYTHS, which tell how the world came into being.

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Mythology * deity god orgoddess

Other myths recount the originofcivilization,the shapeof the cosmos, the actions and relationshipsof the gods,the foundingofstatesorkingships, or the interactionsof peopleand gods. Role of Mythology. Mythology existed long before writing was invented, and its original purposewas to help people make senseof the world around them. For example, many cultures havea myth thatexplains the change of seasonsas periodsofgrowthfruitfulness and alternating with timesof decayand barrenness. fact, Inthe Sumerian, Babylonian, Greek, and Roman myths explaining seasonal change feature all agoddess offruitfulness who must spend some time every yearin the kingdom of death, resultingin winter. Such similarities, which also exist among other myths, suggest that regionsof the ancient East Near may have shared a common heritageof beliefs, stories,and images largelybecause of their common climatic conditions. After the inventionof writing, myths became LIT-subject a of written ERATURE. Mythologywas woven fromthe same material asreligious belief-

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Mythology the gods of the stories were the same gods people worshiped in temples and in daily life.

* decipher to decode and Interpret the meaning * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* cosmic pertaining to the whole universe

Mesopotamia. Several myths dating from the 2500s B.C. have survived from ancient Sumer, but they are difficult to decipher* or interpret. Some Akkadian myths recorded during the second millennium B.C.* have also survived. From ancient Babylon, the most notable example of mythmaking is Enuma Elish, a creation myth. Its author wove together old mythical themes into a tale of conflict among several gods, explaining how MARDUK, the city god of Babylon, rose to power and became the chief god of Babylonia. Another Babylonian myth, the Erra Myth, is a dialogue between Erra (Nergal), the god of the underworld, and his lieutenant, Ishum. It dates from around 1000 B.C., when invasions by the ARAMAEANS disrupted life in Babylonia. The Erra Myth explains the turmoil in Babylonian society as the punishment for the noise produced on earth by humanity, which was out of control. The Sumerian Enki and Ninmakh and the Babylonian Epic ofAtrakhasis describe the creation of the human race from clay and divine blood. Other Sumerian and Akkadian myths deal with the adventures of legendary heroes such as GILGAMESH, Enmerkar, and Lugalbanda, who were later considered gods. Egypt. Myths were important in the religion of ancient Egypt. However, they existed more as spoken, not written, literature. Consequently, surviving Egyptian texts include relatively few myths, fragments of which lie embedded in incantations* and spells. It may be that the ancient Egyptian cults* guarded their myths as secrets or mysteries. Still, most people would have known the central myths about their major deities. A good example of the Egyptians not recording their myths is the story of Isis and OSIRIS, possibly the best known of Egypt's myths. Countless Egyptian texts and artworks refer to both Isis and Osiris, but no surviving Egyptian document tells the whole story. The myth only survives in a version told by the Greek writer Plutarch in the A.D. 100s. According to Plutarch, the myth centers around three events: the murder of Osiris by his brother SETH; the birth of Osiris's son HORUS and his protection by his mother, Isis; and the conflict between Horus and Seth. A key element of the myth is the cutting up of Osiris's body into pieces, which were buried at locations throughout Egypt. The Levant. The ancient Israelites and their neighbors, the Canaanites, shared a great many myths. Elements of their shared beliefs are found in the Canaanite myths that scholars call the BAAL CYCLE. These stories describe the activities of the storm god BAAL and his role in establishing the cosmic*, human, and natural orders. His battles against Sea (Yamm) and Death (Mot) are echoed in the Hebrew BIBLE. The Israelites also used imagery similar to that in the Baal cycle in their mythmaking, even after they officially ceased to worship Baal, EL, and the other Canaanite gods in favor of their national god, YAHWEH. 125

Nabonidus

Myths That Heal In the ancient Near East, myths were seen as having the power to heal and drive away evil A magician dealing with someone suffering from evil causes might call on a| myth that described the victory of good over evil This n[iyth would help drive the evil away* For example, learning how a toothache came to be (a worm refusing any other food but gumtissue)allowed j a healer to banish it In ancient Egypt, when people were sick, part] of their medical treatment included j listening to mythical stories. This i assured them of their place in the universe, enabling them to get well \ and to continue to live as part of the cosmic order.

NABONIDUS ruled 556-539 B.C. Babylonian king * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * regency form of government in which a regent rules in place of the rightful ruler, who is absent, too young, or otherwise unable to rule * patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * deity god or goddess

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Other elements of Canaanite myths focus on relations between humans and deities in days long past. For instance, Aqhat tells how the goddess ANAT killed a young man and how his sister avenged his death. Keret tells how El helped a king acquire a bride and overcome illness. The priests and kings of Israel who developed Israelite mythology used old, familiar mythic stories and images, but they added new details to make them their own. One example is the Hebrew Bible's image of Eden, or paradise, which features elements common to both Ugaritic and Mesopotamian myths. The Israelites' greatest story revolves around their central myth about how they were chosen by Yahweh from among their more powerful neighbors. Iran. All known ancient Iranian myths come from after the 600s B.C., when the religion Zoroastrianism was founded. As a result, it is difficult to determine which myths include elements from the time before Zoroaster and which were Zoroastrian creations. However, historians believe that Zoroastrian mythology was the first to mention a savior who would save the world from evil in the days of the world's end. Anatolia. The HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) blended mythological elements from the Hurrians and Mesopotamians with their own beliefs. For example, a major Hittite god, KUMARBI, was a Hurrian deity. Tales about Kumarbi refer to the Human weather god TESHUB and to EA, the Babylonian god of wisdom. One distinctively Hittite set of myths concerned gods who disappeared from the earth. In each version of this story, the deity's absence brought suffering on earth until someone found the vanished deity. The deity then returned to earth and resumed his duties. (See also Epic Literature; Literature; Religion.)

N

abonidus (nab»uh«NY*duhs) was the last indigenous* king of Babylonia. For much of his reign, he lived in Arabia, leaving his son Belshazzar as head of a regency* in BABYLON. Nabonidus also introduced several religious reforms centered on the worship of the moon god Sin, which challenged the superiority of MARDUK, the national god of Babylonia and angered the Babylonians. Nabonidus was the son of a Babylonian prince and Adad-guppi, a woman from Haran, an important religious center in northern Mesopotamia. Adad-guppi had an avid devotion to Sin, the patron* god of Haran, which might explain her son's support of that deity*. Though not a direct member of the Babylonian royal family, Nabonidus came to the throne in 556 B.C., after the assassination of King Labashi-Marduk. Scholars believe that Nabonidus may have taken part in the conspiracy, but that he did not expect to become king. As king, Nabonidus led successful military campaigns to Cilicia in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). He also began to focus religious attention on Sin. He rebuilt the Temple of Sin in Haran and installed his daughter as high priestess of Sin at the city of UR.

Nabopolassar

See map in Babylonia and the Babylonians (vol. 1).

NABOPOLASSAR ruled 626-605 B.C. Babylonian king

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

In 553 B.C., Nabonidus left on a military campaign to Lebanon and then to Arabia. During his absence, the Persians under CYRUS THE GREAT began to threaten Babylonia. This growing threat forced Nabonidus to return to Babylon. Thereafter, he continued to carry out his religious reforms with greater fervor, leading to increasing opposition from his subjects. In 539 B.C., the Persians attacked Babylonia and captured Babylon without a fight. Because of their hostility toward Nabonidus, the Babylonians welcomed the Persians as liberators. The capture of Babylon ended the Babylonian empire, which was incorporated into the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The fate of Nabonidus, however, is disputed. Some historians say that the Persians sent him into exile in Carmania, a Persian province in southeastern IRAN. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

N

abopolassar (nab»uh»puh«LAS»uhr) was the first ruler of the NeoBabylonian empire and the founder of the so-called "Chaldean" dynasty. During his reign, the Babylonians captured and destroyed a number of important Assyrian cities, including ASHUR, NINEVEH, and KALKHU, and played a leading role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire. Nabopolassar seized the throne of Babylon after the death of King ASHURBANIPAL in 627 B.C. At first, Nabopolassar encountered resistance from Babylonians as well as the Assyrians. After many years of fighting, however, he finally secured firm control over Babylonia. Nabopolassar then began working to extend his power into surrounding areas while defending Babylonia from the Assyrians. In 616 B.C., Nabopolassar began to advance into Assyria and gained limited control of some Assyrian provinces. Around the same time, a new power was growing in the region—the MEDES of IRAN. In 614 B.C., the Medes, led by King Cyaxares, attacked and raided the Assyrian city of Nineveh. Nabopolassar marched into Assyria as well and met Cyaxares at Ashur after that city had fallen to the Medes. The two rulers signed a treaty forming an alliance that they secured with the marriage of Nabopolassar's son to Cyaxares' granddaughter. The Medes and Babylonians together launched devastating attacks against Assyria and took control of several cities there. The fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. marked the end of the Assyrian empire, although the Assyrians made a few unsuccessful attempts at recovery over the next few years. According to the treaty between Nabopolassar and Cyaxares, the Medes gained control of northern MESOPOTAMIA, leaving the Babylonians in control of the rest of the region. After the Assyrian conquest, Nabopolassar turned his attention to the Levant*, which had been seized by the Egyptians. In 605 B.C., an aging Nabopolassar sent his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR II to fight the Egyptians. The Babylonians won a decisive victory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in SYRIA. Shortly thereafter, Nabopolassar died, and Nebuchadnezzar raced home from Syria to claim the throne. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans.) 127

Names, Personal

[NAMES, PERSONAL * deity god or goddess * assimilation adoption of the beliefs and customs of a society * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * matriarchal society in which women hold the dominant position

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

r

Asiatic referring to people who come from the Levant, the lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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D

epending on how the people of a particular culture select names, a personal name may be a link to an individual's ancestors, ethnic heritage, or deities*. Ancient Near Eastern texts contain thousands of names. Historians have looked through these texts to examine how change in a region, such as conquest, assimilation*, or changes in religious beliefs, might be reflected in its personal names. Customs of Naming. The peoples of the ancient Near East followed a variety of practices in giving personal names. Patriarchal cultures, in which people traced their descent and social status from their father's families, often used patronymics, names based on the father's name. Semitic* cultures generally used personal names followed by a patronym, except when the identity of the father was unclear, such as with slaves. In that case, the mother's name was used. Matriarchal* societies, such as that of the Lycians of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) took their names from their mothers. The people of ancient MESOPOTAMIA named their babies soon after birth. Some children were named for their grandfathers or for their dead relatives whom the new babies were thought to replace. Adults sometimes took or were given new names to reflect events in their lives. Scholars know of one case where the name of a Babylonian governor was changed to a Greek name by a Seleucid king. Slaves might receive a name that emphasized dependence on their owner, such as / look at her eyes. Mesopotamian scribes* and scholars signed their works with names that identified them as descendants of famous scribes of earlier generations. The use of ancestral names or occupations for "last names" came into use in Mesopotamia during the middle of the first millennium B.C.* The Akkadian people had the unique custom of giving names that seemed to reflect the newborn baby's feelings, such as My god has mercy upon me. The Sumerians used names consisting of a sentence or phrase, such as Servant of [king's name]. Theophoric names, personal names that included the name of a deity, were also common in many cultures. In Elam, people bore names that included the names of their gods. For example, Manzat, the name of an Elamite goddess, appeared in male and female names. These personal names usually took the form of sentences, such as God [name] loves me or God [name] may protect me. When the sentences became too long to be easily used as names, people shortened them until only the name of the god remained. The religious society of the ancient Egyptians was reflected in their use of theophoric names. For example, the personal name Sebekhotpe meant "[The god] Sebek is satisfied." When people from other ethnic backgrounds settled in Egypt, they often took Egyptian names. People of foreign origin were well aware of the power of names to identify them as outsiders or members of the community. For such people, taking an Egyptian name was an important step in being accepted by Egyptian society. For example, one royal official from the 1100s B.C. bore both the Asiatic* name Benazu and the Egyptian name Ramessesemperre. During the Ptolemaic period (305-30 B.C.), however, it was considered a crime punishable by death for an Egyptian to take a Greek

Naram-Siii name without permission. This was largely because the Greek-speaking Ptolemies were trying to keep the Egyptians separate from themselves. Nicknames were also common throughout the history of the ancient Near East. Usually, a nickname was given by abbreviating a long name.

* linguistic related to language

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * migration movement of individuals or peoples from one place to another

NARAM-SIN ruled ca. 2254-2218 B.C. King of Akkad

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * divinity state or quality of being a god

Clues to the Past. Many personal names from the ancient Near East appear in texts. Some are the names of kings or generals whose deeds were recorded. Others are the names of ordinary people found on population registers, tax rolls, property deeds, and other documents. The structure and content of names often reflect the ethnic or linguistic* roots of the people who bore those names. The study of the origins and uses of personal names is called onomastics, and it is useful to historians interested in tracing the movements of peoples and the spread of languages. Researchers investigating population changes toward the end of the third millennium B.C.* in Babylonia believe that there was a migration* of West Semitic peoples (Amorites) into Babylonia. They base this conclusion on the presence of West Semitic names in Babylonian texts, because no such names appear in texts from earlier periods in the same region. Another example of onomastics concerns the spread of Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans from Syria, across much of the Near East during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). Historians have found a high percentage of Aramaic personal names in Mesopotamia, even among non-Aramaean royal families. In these cases, studying personal names provides historians with a means to see the influences one culture had on another.

O

ne of the greatest kings of Akkad, Naram-Sin (nah»RAHM«seen) ruled for more than 35 years. The Akkadian empire reached its height of power under Naram-Sin, who changed the nature of kingship by claiming the titles of a god. After his death, the empire experienced a swift, irreversible decline. The grandson of SARGON I, Naram-Sin took the throne on the death of his father, King Manishtushu. He inherited a secure kingdom, which he enlarged by launching military expeditions to SYRIA, ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), Elam, and Magan (Arabia). Most of his military campaigns were successful, and the Akkadian empire reached its greatest extent. When his power threatened some Sumerian city-states*, which feared for their own independence, Naram-Sin quelled any rebellions that erupted. Naram-Sin unified the administration of Akkad and appointed members of the royal family to powerful positions in the empire. He encouraged growth in trade and began an extensive building program, constructing temples, fortifications*, and monuments commemorating his military victories and achievements. At some point during his reign, Naram-Sin began using titles usually reserved for the gods. This was the first time in Mesopotamian history that a king had claimed divinity* during his own lifetime. The practice continued under a few later kings in MESOPOTAMIA, but the idea of divine kingship never became as firmly established as in ancient Egypt. 129

Natural Disasters In the centuries after his death, Naram-Sin became the subject of many legends. Although most honor him for his military victories, some criticize him as a misfortunate ruler who caused rebellion and invasion because of his pride and unwise decisions. (See also Akkad and the Akkadian Empire; Dynasties; Kings.)

Natural Disasters

NAVAL POWER

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * third millennium B.C years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

* maritime related to the sea or shipping

See [color plate 12,] vol. 4.

130

See Disasters, Natural.

T

he major waterways of the ancient Near East—including the Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, RED SEA, NILE RIVER, TIGRIS RIVER, and EUPHRATES RIVER—all served as highways for commerce and conquest. In the early history of the region, naval power was relatively unimportant. Over time, however, developments in ships and weaponry made navies more significant. The first naval vessels in the ancient Near East were cargo ships, which were used to transport SOLDIERS to the scene of battle. When necessary, troops fought from the ships, standing on the decks and shooting arrows or throwing spears at the enemy. The earliest known depiction of a naval battle, dating from about 3100 B.C., is found on a carved ivory knife handle from Egypt that shows two rows of ships—one Egyptian and one, perhaps, Sumerian—with dead men floating between them. Another early reference to a naval battle dates from the 2200s B.C., when King Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad sent a naval force to conquer the islands and coasts of the Persian Gulf. Yet another reference dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 21122004 B.C.), when an enemy fleet of 240 ships threatened the city of KISH, located on the Euphrates River. Texts also mention an attack by the Egyptians on the coast of CANAAN in the Levant* during the late third millennium B.C.* Most powerful states in the ancient Near East eventually developed navies. Even the HITTITES, who were not naturally a seagoing people, assembled a navy when necessary. One of their greatest naval successes was the conquest of the island of CYPRUS in the 1300s B.C. During the same period, the Minoans of CRETE and Mycenaeans of Greece had the strongest navies in the eastern Mediterranean region. During the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), the Phoenicians were best known for their maritime* skills. In Egypt during the New Kingdom (1539-1075 B.C.), the navy in Egypt was a separate entity. Egyptian naval forces at this time had officers of various ranks and titles, as well as different classes of ships. The naval officers who sailed the ships were professional sailors. However, the men who served as combat troops and rowers were still land soldiers. In the 1200s B.C., one of the most famous battles in the history of the Near East took place between the Egyptians and the SEA PEOPLES. The Egyptian victory was depicted on a temple wall. By the 800s B.C., the first true warships appeared. Developed by the Greeks, these ships, propelled by oars and sails, had large, spearlike rams attached to the bow, or front, of the ship near the waterline. These rams

Nebuchadnezzar II

were designed to damagethehulls,orbodies,ofenemy ships, causing them to sink.BytheB.C., 700s theEgyptians hadbegun tobuild naval ships with rams, and the Phoenicianshadadoptedthedesign B.C.by the600s With the developmentandimprovementofsuch rams, naval vessels became formidableweaponsofwar. During the years between 1000 B.C., and naval 1 power became increasingly important in theNear Eastand theeastern Mediterranean region. The Persians,who dominatedtheNear East from B.C., atemleast 500 ployed sailorsfrom Phoenicia, Greece,andEgypt. B.C., Inthethe400s Greeks began to achieve naval superiority with Athenian triremes— oar-powered warships thatwere fastandeasytomaneuver—thathad crews of up to 200rowers. Byabout B.C., the 300use ofsuch ships allowed the Greeks to overcome both thePersiansand thePhoeniciansand to become the dominant naval powerin theentire also (See Armies; region. Ships and Boats; Wars andWarfare.)

NEBUCHADNEZZAR II ruled 605-562 B.C. Babylonian king

T

he greatest kingof the so-called "Chaldean" dynasty* ofancient BABYLON, Nebuchadnezzar (neb»yuh*kuhd»NEZ»uhr) II isknown for his military prowessand hisrolein thehistoryof theIsraelites. He also is credited with transforming Babylon intoone of thegreatestand most magnificent citiesof theancient Near East. The oldestsonNABOPOLASSAR, ofKing thefounder of thedynasty, Nebuchadnezzarbeganamilitary career at ayoung age andbecame known as a capable leaderand administrator. B.C., Inhe607 led theBabylonian troops in northernAssyriaandlater commandedthemilitary expeditions againstthe Egyptians SYRIAand in theLevant*.

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Necho II * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

NECHO II ruled 610-595 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh 132

Two years later, Nebuchadnezzar led his forces to an impressive victory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in Syria. This victory gave Babylonia control over Syria. Nebuchadnezzar then began to pursue the Egyptians toward Egypt. After receiving the news of his father's death in Babylon, however, he returned home to claim the throne. Soon after he secured power in Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar resumed his campaigns. In 604 B.C., he led his forces into the Levant and subdued local states there, including the kingdom of Judah. Gradually, he consolidated his control over the Levant, although pockets of resistance remained. In 601 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar clashed again with the Egyptians near the borders of Egypt. This time, however, the Babylonians suffered great losses and were forced to retreat. The kingdom of Judah, an ally of Egypt, took this opportunity to rebel, and it stopped paying tribute* to the Babylonians. Nebuchadnezzar remained in Babylon for a few years to strengthen his forces. In 597 B.C., he crushed the revolt in Judah. When the Judeans revolted again, Nebuchadnezzar's response was swift and fierce. He destroyed much of the city of JERUSALEM, including its great temple, and took many Judeans into captivity in Babylonia. Thereafter, Nebuchadnezzar had full control of the Levant. He continued to extend Babylonian power in other areas. After a 13year siege of TYRE, he gained control of that Phoenician city-state*. He also gained control of former Assyrian provinces in northern Mesopotamia but failed in his later attempts to invade and conquer Egypt. Nevertheless, Nebuchadnezzar had established Babylonia as the foremost power in the Near East, and the empire reached its greatest extent since the days of King HAMMURABI more than 1,000 years earlier. Nebuchadnezzar also launched extensive building projects, especially in Babylon. He built and repaired shrines and temples and constructed massive fortifications*, defensive walls, and lavish palaces. Many scholars credit him with building the famous HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON, considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. After his death in 562 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk, the first of several ineffective rulers. Despite Nebuchadnezzar's military successes and the magnificence of Babylon, his successors inherited a politically unstable empire, which began to decline. Within 25 years, during the reign of King NABONIDUS, the Babylonian empire fell to the Persians. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

N

echo II was the second pharaoh* of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, which ruled Egypt between the reigns of Ethiopian and Persian kings. During his reign, Necho II tried unsuccessfully to expand the territorial boundaries of Egypt and to promote Egyptian trade. Necho came to the throne on the death of his father, Psamtik I, the founder of the dynasty*. Like his father, Necho worked hard to keep Egypt independent of foreign rule and helped the Assyrians as their empire collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes. In 609 B.C.,

Nefertiti * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

NEFERTITI lived ca. 1370-1336 B.C. Egyptian queen * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * cult formal religious worship

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * deity god or goddess

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

Necho invaded SYRIA to stop further Babylonian expansion there. Despite early successes, the Egyptians suffered defeat in the city-state* of KARKAMISH in 605 B.C. at the hands of the Babylonian leader NEBUCHADNEZZAR II. Thereafter, Necho was forced to withdraw from Syria and abandon any hope of expanding Egyptian power into the Levant*. Necho also launched efforts to expand Egyptian trade and commerce. He maintained fleets of ships on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas. To promote Egypt's position as an intermediary in trade, Necho began building a canal between the Nile Delta and the Red Sea. However, technical difficulties forced the Egyptians to abandon that project. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, Necho then sought another way to promote Egyptian trade. He sent an expedition of Phoenician sailors to find a sea route around Africa. The expedition was successful, but the route was impractical for trade purposes. At his death in 595 B.C., Necho II was succeeded by his son Psamtik II. (See also Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Trade Routes.)

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ne of the best-known queens of ancient Egypt, Nefertiti was the chief wife of the pharaoh* AKHENATEN. She supported the religious reforms initiated by her husband and may have served as co-ruler during his reign. It is not known who Nefertiti;s parents were or even where she came from. Some historians believe she may have been a princess from Mitanni, a kingdom in upper MESOPOTAMIA. Nefertiti's husband, originally called Amenhotep IV, came to the throne around 1353 B.C. After a few years, he initiated revolutionary religious reforms that caused great turmoil in Egypt. Mainly, he cast aside Egypt's chief god, AMUN, and established a new cult* of ATEN, a sun god. Amenhotep also built a new capital dedicated to Aten, called AKHETATEN, and changed his own name to Akhenaten. Nefertiti played an important role in the new cult of Aten. In ancient Egyptian art, she is shown making offerings to the god, a privilege that was generally reserved for kings. Nefertiti's name also appears on stelae* alongside her husband's name and the name of Aten. These stelae were the focus of household worship, and they suggest that Nefertiti was worshiped as a deity* along with Akhenaten and Aten. Ancient Egyptian art from early in Akhenaten's reign shows Nefertiti wearing the same headdress as that worn by earlier queens. Later she wore a tall blue crown that became unique to her. In the last years of Akhenaten's reign, Nefertiti is shown wearing crowns normally reserved for kings, leading some historians to believe that she may have served as co-ruler. They also believe that she may have ruled as king for a brief time after Akhenaten's death around 1336 B.C. Nefertiti was not Akhenaten's only wife, but little is known about his other wives. Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters, two of whom later became queens of Egypt. Nefertiti is depicted in art and statues more frequently than any other Egyptian queen. She appears in many bas-reliefs* and artworks in the

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Neo-Hittites

* bust statue of a subject's and shoulders

head, neck,

NEO-HITTITES 134

templesKARNAK at AMARNA. and The mostfamous representation of the queen is alife-sized painted bust* in which she iswearing herunique blue crown. (Seealso Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

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he Hittite empire ANATOLIA in (present-day Turkey) fell shortly after 1200B.C., when invaders destroyed KHATTUSHA. its capital, The Hittite peoples then begantoform independent kingdoms KHATTI, southeast of their homeland. These kingdoms, and the people who inhabited them, are known as the Neo-Hittites,or new Hittites.Fornearly500 years,the

Neo-Hittites Neo-Hittites preserved the language and traditions of the Hittite empire before they were finally absorbed into the Assyrian empire.

HISTORY By 1200 B.C., a group known as the SEA PEOPLES may have advanced into Anatolia from the north and west. This migration put tremendous pressure on the Hittite empire there. Taking advantage of the situation, hostile armies from the north—perhaps the Hittites' old enemies, the Kashka people—possibly attacked Khattusha and burned it to the ground in about 1190 B.C.

* city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

Inscription of Azatiwada in the A,D. 1940s, archaeologists excavating the site of ancient Azatiwadiya in southern Turkey found bilingual inscriptions in Phoenician and in Luwian hieroglyphics. These inscriptions were commissioned by the Neo-Hittite ruler Azatiwada, who ruled in the 700s B.C. The inscriptions celebrate Azatiwada \ as the founder of Azatiwadiya. The complete Phoenician version has survived and is the longest Phoenician document known to scholars. The accompanying Luwian text has aided scholars in the study of the Luwian language and in deciphering the hieroglyphic script

New States and New Threats. As the Hittite empire disintegrated, many of its inhabitants migrated to southeastern Anatolia and northern SYRIA. They regrouped around old TRADE ROUTES and river crossings and established small independent city-states*. The westernmost of these states were grouped into a kingdom called Tabal. To the east, along the western bank of the EUPHRATES RIVER, lay the states of Melid and Kummukh. South of Kummukh in Syria lay KARKAMISH, the most important Neo-Hittite city-state. Several smaller Neo-Hittite lands lay south of Karkamish. Between about 1190 and 1110 B.C., the Neo-Hittites strengthened their control on the trade routes that ran through Anatolia. They also established new city-states in the Levant*. Around 1100 B.C., a nomadic* people known as the ARAMAEANS began to move into Syria, perhaps from east of the Euphrates River. The Aramaeans conquered some of the existing Neo-Hittite city-states and stopped Neo-Hittite expansion in the south. Notwithstanding their conquests, it was not the Aramaeans but the Assyrians who posed the greatest threat to the Neo-Hittites. The Assyrians. Around 1110 B.C., King Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria crossed the Euphrates River and attacked Melid and Karkamish. These kingdoms became vassals* of Assyria and paid tribute*, but they were not absorbed into the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians allowed the local NeoHittite kings to retain control in exchange for their loyalty. The Assyrians were not strong enough to advance as far as Tabal, which remained free of Assyrian influence for several hundred years. Finally, in the 840s B.C., the Assyrian king SHALMANESER III attacked Tabal, destroyed many of its cities, and forced the kingdom to pay tribute. By about this same time, a number of hill peoples north of Assyria had established a powerful new kingdom there, called URARTU. Thereafter, Melid, Karkamish, and many other Neo-Hittite states severed their alliances with Assyria and joined forces with Urartu. Around 745 B.C., King TIGLATH-PILESER III of Assyria launched the first of several campaigns to regain the lands lost to Urartu. During the next 30 years, the Assyrians conquered Tabal, Karkamish, Melid, and finally, Kummukh. The conquerors dealt harshly with the Neo-Hittites; they destroyed their cities, sold much of the population into slavery, and made the former kingdoms provinces of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians were resettled in the newly conquered Neo-Hittite states, which remained under Assyrian control until the Assyrian empire

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Neo-Hittites collapsed some 100 years later. Although some of the remote Neo-Hittite states in the west and north regained a degree of independence, the Assyrian conquest marked the end of the Neo-Hittite period.

CULTURE Many historians consider the period following the collapse of the Hittite empire as the Anatolian Dark Ages. Nevertheless, the Neo-Hittites preserved much of the culture and traditions of the empire during that period, making contributions of their own.

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes its name from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

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Language and Religion. The Hittites spoke two main LANGUAGES: Nesite, which was spoken in Khattusha and central Anatolia, and Luwian, which was spoken in the west and south. The Neo-Hittites abandoned the Nesite language but continued to use Luwian for official writings, such as INSCRIPTIONS, and for everyday texts, such as letters and contracts. Unlike Nesite, which was written in cuneiform*, the Luwian language used a type of HIEROGLYPHICS, in which pictures represented words and syllables. Many Luwian inscriptions have been found by archaeologists*, providing a significant amount of information about Neo-Hittite life and culture. The Neo-Hittites retained many of the religious traditions of the Hittites. They worshiped the storm god TESHUB, the sun goddess KHEPAT, and ISHTAR, the goddess of love and war. In the north, religious traditions were similar to those in Khattusha, while Syrian traditions prevailed in the south. In the kingdom of Karkamish, for example, the Syrian goddess Kubaba was the city's main deity for hundreds of years. Like the Hittites, the Neo-Hittites incorporated foreign gods into their religious system. For instance, the rulers of the state of Hamath worshiped the Semitic* goddess Baalat in addition to traditional Hittite deities. One new religious development among the Neo-Hittites was the belief in an AFTERLIFE for humans. Architecture and Art. Neo-Hittite cities were centered on a high citadel, or fortress, containing palaces and temples. The surrounding town consisted of residences and other public buildings. Most buildings were constructed of mud brick* and heavy wooden beams. The bases of the buildings were covered with carved stone. Massive walls and towers to protect against enemy attack surrounded both the city and the citadel. Neo-Hittite art consists largely of SCULPTURE from temples and public buildings and relief* carvings on walls, gates, and doors. These artworks usually portray religious, military, and mythological themes. Some freestanding sculptures have also been found, most of which are figures of deities or funeral monuments to dead leaders. While Neo-Hittite art has various distinct features, many of its elements can be traced back to the art of the Hittite empire. It also seems likely that early Neo-Hittite art influenced the art of both the Assyrians and the Aramaeans. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and CityStates; Indo-European Languages; Luwians; Religion.)

NILE RIVER

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol. 2).

Puzzling Behavior of the Nile The behavior of the Nile puzzled the people of ancient Egypt as well, as ancient Creeks and Romans. The Nile overflowed its banks each sunrxl mer, no matter how little rain fell in \ Egypt, Explanations for this were many and varied. For example, Thales, a Greek philosopher, suggested that strong winds blowing south from the Nile Delta in summer held back the waters of the river, causing floods upstream. Another ancient Greek, Oenopides of Chios, thought that heat stored in the ground dried up underground water in winter, causing the river to recede. It was not until the 10Os B.C \ that the correct explanation was of-j fered fay a Greek astronomer and mapmaker named Eratosthenes. He 3 was the first to learn about the heavy rains at the headwaters of the Nile.

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Nile River

he Nile River of Africa is the longest river in the world, covering a distance of more than 4,000 miles. Beginning near the equator, the river flows northward through northeastern Africa and passes through Egypt before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River was extremely important to ancient Egypt. Without the Nile, Egypt would be nothing but desert, because the region receives very little rainfall. The Nile has provided Egypt with fertile land since ancient times, allowing one of the greatest civilizations of the ancient world to develop. The ancient Egyptians were well aware of their dependence on the Nile River. Their name for Egypt, kemet, means "black land/' and refers to the rich, black soil carried and deposited by the river. In fact, because of the river's importance to Egyptian civilization, the ancient Greek historian HERODOTUS wrote that Egypt was "the gift of the Nile." Geography of the Nile. The Nile River consists of three major waterways: the Blue Nile and the Atbara River, which originate in the highlands of ancient Nubia (present-day Ethiopia), and the White Nile, which originates in Lake Victoria in present-day Uganda. The Blue Nile and White Nile join in the present-day Sudan to form one river. The Atbara River joins that river about 200 miles farther downstream. Before the Nile River flows into Egypt it passes through six rapids called the Nile Cataracts. These cataracts occur where the river flows between steep cliffs, causing the current to become swift and rough. The Sixth Cataract is downstream from the present-day city of Khartoum in the Sudan. The First Cataract is hundreds of miles farther north at a place known in ancient times as Elephantine. This cataract was the traditional southern boundary of ancient Egypt and served as a natural barrier to outsiders trying to enter Egypt from the south. North of the First Cataract, the river forms three fertile regions that have been intensively farmed and heavily populated since ancient times: the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta, and the Faiyum Depression. The Nile Valley consists of a long, narrow strip of land running along both sides of the river from the First Cataract to the head of the Nile Delta near the ancient city of MEMPHIS. In ancient times, the Nile Valley ranged between 1 and 13 miles in width. Barren desert stretched outward for hundreds of miles on both sides of the valley. The Nile Delta was formed of soil deposited by the river as it flowed into the Mediterranean Sea. In ancient times, the delta began north of Memphis, where the river fanned out into several branches. The Nile Delta covers an area stretching about 100 miles from north to south and about 150 miles from east to west. The entire delta has a very low elevation, enabling the land there to remain wet long after floodwaters recede. Many areas within the delta remain swampy year-round. Because of its great size and abundant water supply, the Nile Delta has always had more fertile land than the Nile Valley. Southwest of Memphis, the Faiyum Depression—a broad, low-lying area—is fed by the Bahr Yusuf, a branch of the Nile River. Since ancient times, this region has contained a lake whose level rises and falls with that of the Nile. Surrounding this lake is an area of fertile land where, 137

Nile River in ancient times, the Egyptians built CANALS and systems of IRRIGATION to use the water of the Faiyum Depression and expand the area of fertile farmland.

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

* levee embankment or earthen wall that helps prevent flooding

Impact on Agriculture. Ancient Egypt was dependent on the Nile River for AGRICULTURE, which was based on the flood patterns of the river. Egyptians also marked the season by the different phases of the Nile. The Nile flooded in a more or less predictable pattern. Each year in late June, the Nile began to rise because of heavy rains in the highlands of Ethiopia and farther south. The river continued to rise gradually, and by August, it overflowed its banks. The floodwaters spread slowly over the narrow plain on both sides of the river, depositing a thick layer of rich black silt* on the land and soaking into the soil. After the floodwaters subsided, Egyptians could plant crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet long enough for the crops to grow for harvest about three months later. The flooding of the Nile River irrigated the land naturally. Natural levees* formed along the banks of the river because more silt was deposited there than in the outlying floodplain. Ancient Egyptians built homes and other structures on these areas of higher ground and cultivated DATE PALMS and other trees on these natural ridges. Around 3000 B.C., Egypt's rulers began to build irrigation systems to bring more land under cultivation and increase production. Projects included repairing and reinforcing the natural levees, building artificial levees around fields to contain floodwaters, and maintaining channels to control the flow of water. Impact on Transportation, Government, and Society. The Nile was a convenient means of transportation in ancient Egypt because of its natural features. North of the First Cataract, the Nile flows slowly and smoothly all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the northflowing current of the river is matched by highly reliable south-blowing winds. Consequently, ancient boats and barges could float north with the current and sail south with the wind. Transportation along the Nile was easy, quick, and cheap, and the river served as the major highway of Egypt. The ease of transportation on the Nile promoted trade, which became an important part of the economy of ancient Egypt. The narrow width of the Nile Valley and the fact that the river runs the full length of Egypt enabled Egyptian rulers to extend their control over the entire realm. By about 3000 B.C., this had led to the establishment of a strong centralized government in Egypt. Because people clustered along the Nile, the rulers found it relatively easy to control the population and keep Egypt united. Although the Nile's flood patterns were quite regular, abnormal FLOODS caused serious problems in ancient Egypt. Unusually low floods caused food shortages and FAMINE, while high floods damaged crops and destroyed villages. Such fluctuations in Nile flooding may account for the periodic declines in the power of Egypt's central government, as people lost faith in the ability of their leaders to please the gods and guarantee prosperity. (See also Climate; Egypt and the Egyptians; Environmental Change; Euphrates River; Geography; Nubia and the Nubians; Rivers; Tigris River.)

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NINEVEH * sixth millennium B.C.years from 6000 to 5001 B.C. * second millennium B.C.years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * cult formal religious worship

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Nineveh

he last great capital of the Assyrian empire, Nineveh was also the oldest and most populous city in ancientAssyria. Located in northern MESOPOTAMIA on the east RIVER, bank TIGRIS theof the citywas continuously inhabited from as early as the sixth millennium B.C.* A.D. until the 1500s. Attracted byfertile land and a strategic location,early peoples established a settlement at Nineveh. During theUruk period (ca. B.C.),4000-3000 the city developed muchlike those in southern Mesopotamia. In the second millenniumB.C.*, Nineveh became famous as the main center for the cult* of the goddess ISHTAR. In the B.C., 800s Nineveh underwent significant expansion. King ASHURNASIRPALII (ruled 883-859 B.C.)and his successors builtand repaired palaces and temples there. However, Nineveh did not reach it height of power and prestige untilthe SENNACHERIB B.C., 600s whenKing made it the new capital of the Assyrian empire.

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Nippur

See map in Assyria and the Assyrians (vol.1).

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

NIPPUR * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * deity god or goddess * cult formal religious worship * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

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Sennacherib transformed Nineveh into a magnificent city. He constructed an enormous, lavishly decorated palace, enlarged the city square, and built impressive avenues. He also created acres of parks and open spaces, including a great wildlife park with exotic plants and animals. Sennacherib also built canals and aqueducts to bring water from mountain streams many miles away. The pace of construction in Nineveh slowed during the reigns of ESARHADDON and ASHURBANIPAL, although both kings continued to build new structures and modify existing ones. Ashurbanipal is noted for the library he established at Nineveh, which contained thousands of CLAY TABLETS on many subjects, and for the magnificent bas-reliefs* that decorated the walls of his royal palace. Nineveh became a symbol of the power, prestige, and wealth of the Assyrians, but it was short-lived. In 612 B.C., the Babylonians and MEDES attacked and sacked Nineveh during the last stages of their conquest of Assyria. The city survived but sank into obscurity. Parts of it continued to be inhabited for another 1,000 years, until they were absorbed into the city of Mosul. The ruins of ancient Nineveh consist of several mounds, the main one of which is known as Tell Kuyunjik. Excavated in the A.D. 1800s, these ruins have yielded evidence from many periods in the city's history. Among the most famous artifacts* recovered there are more than 20,000 tablets from Ashurbanipal's library and bas-reliefs from his palace. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and City-States; Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Libraries and Archives; Palaces and Temples; Sculpture.)

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n ancient city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Nippur (ni»POOR) was the site of the main temple of ENLIL, the supreme god of the Mesopotamian pantheon*. Nippur was occupied as early as the 5000s B.C. The city's religious importance dates from about 2100 B.C., when King UrNammu of UR constructed a temple dedicated to Enlil called the Ekur. The city also contained temples to other deities*, including the goddess Inanna. As the center for the cult* of Enlil, Nippur played an important role in Sumerian and Babylonian religion and politics. For instance, according to Sumerian tradition, the roots of kingship came from Enlil. Thus, Nippur was considered the seat of kingly power, and kings sought legitimacy through official recognition from the priests of Enlil. Yet Nippur never became a political capital, and no king or dynasty* from that city ever dominated Mesopotamia. Nippur grew into a large city, attracting people from throughout the region because of its religious significance. The city also became a center of learning, with an academy for training scribes*, founded by King SHULGI. Around the 1700s B.C., Nippur began to experience periods of prosperity and decline. The city was nearly abandoned several times but experienced a rebirth each time. The final period of decline began in the A.D. 200s, which led to the city's complete abandonment several centuries later. (See also Cities and City-States; Palaces and Temples; Religion; Sumer and the Sumerians; Ziggurats.)

Nomads and Nomadism

NlTOKRIS ruled ca. 2100s B.C. Egyptian queen * famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

NOMADS AND NOMADISM

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itokris was one of just a few queens of ancient Egypt to serve as the ruler of her country and not just as the wife of a king. She was the sister of King Merenre II of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2350-2170 B.C.). When Merenre was killed at the hands of his subjects, who blamed him for the famine* Egypt suffered during his reign, Nitokris took over the throne. Much of what is known of Nitokris's reign comes from the writings of later historians Manetho and HERODOTUS. Manetho claimed that Nitokris built the third pyramid at GIZA, but later historians have discovered that the monument preceded her reign. Nitokris is best known for avenging the death of her brother. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, she had a huge underground room constructed and connected by a hidden pipe to the NILE RIVER. She then invited all those she believed responsible for killing her brother to a banquet. While they feasted in the chamber, Nitokris opened the pipe and water flooded the room, drowning everyone present. She then committed suicide. Nitokris was the last person in her family to rule Egypt, so with her death, a dynasty* ended. Two other women named Nitokris are known from ancient times. One, as described by Herodotus, was a queen of BABYLON, who may have ruled during the 500s B.C. and been responsible for the construction of many public works. The other was an Egyptian princess who was named the wife of the god AMUN by her father, King Psamtik I, around 650 B.C. (See also Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

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he term nomad refers to people who travel from place to place in search of food and pasture. Most nomads are pastoralists, which means that their lifestyle is based on breeding and herding livestock. They live such a life because of the need to find new pastures in which to graze their herds of SHEEP, GOATS, CATTLE, or other animals. Nomads and nomadism existed throughout the ancient Near East, and they played an important role in shaping the history and culture of the region.

NOMADISM IN THE NEAR EAST Pastoral nomadism probably arose in the Near East sometime after 9000 B.C., when AGRICULTURE began to develop. Despite the differences between nomadism and farming, modern scholars believe that the two lifestyles may always have been intertwined and that they probably developed together rather than independently.

* domesticated adapted or tamed for human use

Origins of Nomadism. The earliest agricultural settlements in the Near East consisted of farmers who tilled the soil and individuals who cared for domesticated* animals. At first, the animals probably grazed in pastures close to the fields and villages. Some animals, especially goats, which grazed on crops as well as pasture, probably did a great deal of damage to land that was valuable for crops as well. The practice of herding animals in lands away from farming communities probably began for the purpose of conserving nearby land for 141

Nomads and Nomadism crops. Moving herds to and from distant pastures becamethe main task of individuals andfamilies who specializedin tendingthe animals. Over time, these people developeda nomadic lifestyle separate from thatof agriculturists and their communities. By about 3500 B.C., the largest agricultural settlementsin the Near East had developed into the first cities.The urban populations needed wool, milk, hides, and meat. The nomadic peoples and their herds supplied these animal products in exchange for manufactured goods from cities. By aboutB.C., 2300nomadism had becomefeasible a alternativeto agriculturalism. Pastoralists and agriculturists remained in contact with each other andoften moved between the two lifestyles. Farmers turned to nomadic pastoralism when raising crops became difficult or impossible becauseDROUGHTS of or other problems. Likewise, some nomads practiced HUNTING, trading, andfarming in addition to herding animals. The relationship between nomads and sedentists (people who live in one place) wasoften mutually beneficial, but this did not prevent the occasional outbreak of hostilities between the two groups. Sedentists sometimes waged war against nomads, and nomads frequently raided settled communities. The interaction of these two groups played major a rolein the politics and economy of the ancient Near East.

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Nomads and Nomadism

Frozen in Time Archaeological work has shown that nomadic lifestyles have remained much the same for thousands of years. For example, in 1973, American archaeologist Frank Hole studied an ancient nomadic campsite in southwestern Iran with the help of local nomads. Based on their modern practices, one of Hole's nomadic assistants was able to determine the size and arrangement of the site, the season in which it was occupied, and whether a tent site belonged to a leader or an average person* He also told Hole where to dig to uncover the locations of the fireplace and ash dumps of the ancient site. The assistant's accurate assessment of the site suggests that the layout of nomadic campsites has remained the same for nearly 9,000 years.

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * lingua franca language that is widely used for communication among speakers of different languages * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Notable Nomadic Groups. Among the earliest nomads mentioned in Near Eastern texts were the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains of IRAN. The Gutians are credited with destroying the Akkadian empire of MESOPOTAMIA in the 2100s B.C. Like many other nomadic groups that lived close to urban civilization, they became absorbed into settled societies and adopted many of the traditions and customs of the people they conquered. The nomads most often mentioned in Mesopotamian texts are the AMORITES, a group of peoples from northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA, who spoke a Semitic* language. Shortly before 2000 B.C., the kings of UR considered the Amorites a threat and built a wall to protect their kingdom. Yet records also indicate that many Amorites settled in Mesopotamian communities. After the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur in about 1950 B.C., the Amorites took control of several Mesopotamian cities. One Amorite leader, SHAMSHI-ADAD I, established a kingdom that included almost all of northern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian king HAMMURABI is also believed to have descended from the Amorites. Another important group of nomadic people were the ARAMAEANS of Syria. First mentioned in texts from the late 1100s B.C., the Aramaeans established many small states west of the Assyrian empire. The Aramaeans and Assyrians clashed frequently until the Aramaean states were finally defeated by Assyria in the early 700s B.C. Nevertheless, Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans, became the lingua franca* of the Assyrian empire. It remained in widespread use throughout the ancient Near East for more than 1,000 years, even following the introduction of Greek by Alexander the Great and his successors. Yet another nomadic group, the Arabs, first appeared in written records around 850 B.C. Arabs controlled important TRADE ROUTES through the Arabian peninsula on which CARAVANS carried luxury goods, such as frankincense and myrhh*, from southern Arabia to the Near East. Fearing that Assyrian expansion would disrupt trade, the Arabs often allied themselves with other groups in campaigns against Assyria. At the same time, Arab rulers paid tribute* to Assyrian kings who, in turn, relied on the Arabs to ensure the flow of goods through their lands. The Arabs played an important role in Assyrian campaigns against Egypt in the mid-600s B.C. Arab leaders provided King ESARHADDON with CAMELS and supplies to invade Egypt through the deserts. Still, the Assyrians continued to raid Arab territories to weaken the tribes, extract tribute from them, and ensure their loyalty and cooperation. Around the 500s B.C., two nomadic groups from southern Russia caused much destruction in the ancient Near East region. These were the Cimmerians and the Scythians. The Cimmerians were warriors who invaded the kingdom of URARTU and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the 700s and 600s B.C. The Scythians, were warrior horsemen who invaded Assyria, Syria, the Levant*, and Egypt in the 600s B.C. Their attacks contributed to the fall of the Assyrian empire and Urartu in the 600s and 500s B.C. Yet another tribe of nomadic people who had a strong impact on the ancient Near East were the Parthians, a horse-riding tribe who were originally from CENTRAL ASIA. The Parthians seized Iran during the 200s B.C. and Mesopotamia during the 100s B.C.

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fallow plowed but not planted, so that moisture and organic processes can replenish the soil's nutrients

Nomads and Politics. The relationship between nomads and sedentists ranged from distrust and hostility to trust and cooperation. The leaders of Near Eastern kingdoms considered nomads a threat because they were suspicious of any group whose movements they could not control. Not only did their wandering make nomads a security problem, but it also made them difficult to tax. On the other hand, nomads played an important part in the trade and economy of Near Eastern states. Expert animal breeders, they supplied donkeys to MERCHANTS, farmers, and soldiers. Nomads also hired themselves out as shepherds to farming communities. Nomadic herds were often allowed to graze on fallow* fields, where their wastes fertilized the soil. Nomads controlled trade routes between Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant. This was especially true after the domestication of the camel, which was better adapted to desert conditions than the donkey. Their knowledge of safe routes through deserts and other wilderness areas made nomads invaluable to merchants.

NOMADIC LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases

Because ancient nomads did not live in settled communities, historians have found it difficult to reconstruct their history and culture. Nevertheless, by studying artifacts* and written records and by looking at the life of present-day nomadic peoples, they have been able to piece together a picture of ancient nomadic lifestyle and culture. Migration. The most prominent feature of ancient nomadism was the nomads' migration between winter and summer grazing lands. The climate of the Near East made such movement necessary. From November to March or April, the rainy season brought abundant water to many areas, allowing herds to graze on lands that could not support crops as well as near desert oases*. During the dry season, from April to October, these areas could no longer support enough vegetation to graze large herds of animals, forcing the nomads to drive their herds to other pasturelands. There were two basic types of nomadic migration: vertical and horizontal. Vertical migration involved movement from lowland grazing areas in the rainy season to highland pastures in the dry season. This pattern was typical of nomads who lived near mountains, such as in northern Iran, southeastern Anatolia, and northern Syria. In horizontal migration, nomads grazed their herds in desert areas or grasslands in the rainy season and moved closer to agricultural zones during the dry season. Horizontal migration was common among groups who inhabited the fringes of desert regions in the Levant and the SINAI PENINSULA. Lifestyle and Culture. Nomads made their living by trading animal products. They also relied on hunting, gathering, and trade with agriculturists for grains, fruits, and other goods to supply other needs. Nomadic people sometimes raided agricultural settlements to obtain the goods they needed. Usually, however, they enjoyed peaceful relations with their settled neighbors, and the two groups learned to rely on and benefit from each other's special skills.

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Nubia and the Nubians

* clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest * hierarchical referring to a society or institution divided into groups with higher and lower ranks

NUBIA AND THE NUBIANS arable suitable for

growing crops

Most nomadic groups were organized into tribes whose membersbelonged to various clans*. Each group claimed descent fromacommonancestor. Politically, they ranged in organization from small, decentralized groups to large chiefdoms. In small groups, most individuals held equal status, while larger groups were more also (See hierarchical*. Animals, Domestication of; Arabia and the Arabs; Economy and Trade; Family and SocialLife; Land Use and Ownership.)

N

ubia was theArabic name for the region that comprises presentday southern Egyptand northern SUDAN.The ancient Greeksand Romans called the region Aethiopia. During their long history, the Nubians were periodically involved inaffairs the of Egypt and the Mediterranean world. Nubia also became the homeland of agreat civilization, the oldest inAfrica southofEgypt. Land and Early History. Physically, Nubia wasprimarily desert and not arable* exceptfor narrow strips NILE RIVER. along theHowever, the region was rich in gold and other valuable minerals. Moreover, theNile provided an important trade route between Egyptand the Africa. restof Nubia's minerals and trade goods brought the region great wealth. 145

Nubia and the Nubians

See map on inside covers.

Early farmers raised cropsin seasonallydry channelsof the River Nile and established the earliest permanent settlement in the region by about 5000B.C. By about B.C.,3800 the peopleof Nubiahad established several trading centers along the Nile.IVORY, Gold,shells, copper, semiprecious stones, INCENSE, and other luxury goods were traded northward Egypt to in exchange for Egyptianmanufactured goodsand agricultural products. First Nubian Kingdom. Sometime B.C., aaround small king3500 dom emerged in northern Nubia, a region that later became knownas Lower Nubia. The Egyptians called this first Nubian kingdomTa Sety (land of the bow), a name thatreflectedthe fameof Nubian archers. This early kingdomwas greatly influencedby Egypt.The kingsof Ta Sety modeled themselves after Egyptian rulers, a tradition continued by later Nubian kings.Like Egyptian kings, Nubian rulers built large tombs and monuments for themselves, and they were buried with many objects of wealth. At this time, the Nubian economywas basedon a mix of herding and farming, while contact with Egypt focused on a regular trade in luxury items and manufactured goods. Nubia was prosperous between aboutB.C., 3500 butand this pe3100 riod was followed by a shadowy period of nearly 1,000 years about which little is known. During this time, northern Nubia lost much of its population, and the distinctive culture of the region disappeared suddenly. It is possible that Egyptian raids may have caused the decline in northern Nubia. AroundB.C., 2300a new Nubian culture appeared,and Nubia again began to prosper. This culture was noted for the importance it placed on CATTLE raising, POTTERY, itsfine and increased trade with Egypt. Egyptian Rule and the Rise of B.C., Kush. the EgypAround 2000 tians conqueredLower Nubia, but the Nubians there managed to retain their cultural identity. The Egyptians built a series forts of alongthe Nile River in Nubia to protect trade and guard against a kingdom in southern Nubia (Upper Nubia) calledKush.The kingdomKush, of whichremained independent of Egyptian rule, was developing into major a power that began to rivalEgypt and its dominance of the Nile. Egypt controlledLower Nubia until B.C., about whenthe 1700 Egyptian government collapsed due to internal strife. Taking advantage of the situation in Egypt,Kush took controlLower of Nubia. The capital Kush of at this time was the city of Kerma, locatedon the Nile between Upperand

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Nubia and the Nubians

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans * deity god or goddess * hieroglyphics system of writing that uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire * cult formal religious worship

Opposing Views of the Nubians The Nubian people did not develop a written language of their own urv til quite late In their history. There* fore, most of what we know about them today comes from the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, each of whom had biased views. The Egyptians viewed the Nubians as culturally inferior to themselves. Consequently, early Egyptian scholars dismissed Nubian civilization as a crude copy of the Egyptian civilization. The Greeks and Romans viewed the Nubians a a morally and culturally superior people beloved by the gods. The Greek historian Herodotus even believed that Nubia was the source rather than a copy of the Egyptian civilization.

Lower Nubia. Kerma soon became an urban center with large temples, manufacturing sites, and huge tombs. Its people included metalworkers and potters, whose goods were exported throughout Egypt. By 1540 B.C., strong kings had reunited Egypt, regained control of Nubia, and extended their rule farther south to include Kush. Egypt also made a determined effort to "Egyptianize" Nubia and the Nubians, which led to their adoption of Egyptian culture. Nubian customs and artifacts* became almost indistinguishable from those of Egypt, and wealthy Nubians adopted Egyptian deities* and their system of writing, called hieroglyphics*. The Egyptian rulers built great temple complexes in Nubia that became important centers of religion, politics, culture, and economy. The best known is the famous temple complex at ABU SIMBEL. The Empire of Kush. Little is known about the history of Nubia and the Nubians in the years between 1100 and 800 B.C. By the end of this period, a new kingdom had emerged in Upper Nubia, centered at the city of Napata on the Nile River. This kingdom, which arose from the earlier kingdom of Kush, soon developed into a great empire. As the new empire of Kush expanded and gained power, the Egyptians experienced another period of political upheaval, during which northern Egypt fell to the LIBYANS. Taking advantage of this situation, the new rulers of Kush extended their control into Egypt as far north as the city of THEBES. Controlling Thebes, the old imperial* capital of Egypt, was an accomplishment. The city was the center of the cult* of AMUN, the state god of Egypt and later of Kush. Around 760 B.C., a Kushite king named Piye gained control of all of Egypt and united it with Nubia to form one of ancient Africa's greatest states. Piye and his successors ruled Egypt for about 100 years, a period known as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Kings of this so-called ''Ethiopian" dynasty led Egypt through its last era of great achievements, which included a massive building program under King TAHARQA. Around 660 B.C., invaders from Assyria advanced into Egypt and drove out the last Nubian king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. However, Kush remained a powerful state in Nubia for another 1,000 years. The Rise of Meroe and the Fall of Kush. By about 300 B.C., the capital of Kush had moved to Meroe, a city on the right bank of the Nile several hundred miles south of Napata. Meroe and Kush developed a culture that reflected Egyptian traditions as well as Greek, Roman, and African ideas. Nubian art and architecture became distinct and original, and Nubians used their own language and writing instead of Egyptian hieroglyphics. During this period, Egypt faced a succession of foreign rulers: the Persians, the Macedonians, and the Romans. The Nubians tried to help the Egyptians revolt against foreign rule, but they came under Roman rule themselves in about 20 B.C. In the A.D. 200s, Meroe came into conflict with Axum, a kingdom in Ethiopia. Around 350, invaders from the west known as the Noba overran most of Kush, ending the Kushite state. (See also Dynasties; Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kush and Meroe; Trade Routes.) 147

Numbers and Numerals

NUMBERS AND NUMERALS

* commodity article of trade

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

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N

umbers are units of quantity and the basis of counting. As ele ments of mathematical systems, they enable people to perform simple arithmetic and complex mathematical operations. Numerals are the symbols used for writing numbers. In ancient times, the peoples of the Near East developed systems for counting and expressing numbers—a necessary step toward the growth of mathematics, engineering, and astronomy. Counting and Writing Numbers. Even before writing was invented, Near Eastern peoples counted with small objects called tokens. Each token represented one of a particular type of item, such as a sheep. A clay packet found in the ruins of the Mesopotamian city of URUK contained six egg-shaped tokens, each representing a jar of oil. Scholars believe that before 3000 B.C., the people of the ancient Near East did not have a conception of numbers independent of the commodities* they counted. The signs included both the commodity and the measurement. In other words, abstract numbers such as one, two, or three, referring to any set of items was unknown. Once people began to write, they developed images for numerals. Some experts believe that the written symbols were imitations of the counting marks that people had made earlier by pressing tokens into wet clay. For instance, a CLAY TABLET found at Godin Tepe, IRAN, expresses the idea "33 jars of oil" with an egg-shaped symbol for a jar of oil preceded by three circles (three tens) and three wedges (three ones)—much easier than collecting and storing 33 tokens. The Egyptians developed a decimal system based on multiples of ten. They used distinctive symbols for 1, 10, 100, and 1,000. To write a number, they wrote down each symbol as many times as it appeared in the number. The numeral for 48, for example, was written with four symbols for 10 and eight symbols for 1. The Sumerians also wrote numerals by adding as many symbols as necessary. Their counting system alternated between units of ten steps and units of sixty steps. Number sequences ran from 1 to 60, 61 to 600, and 601 to 3,600. They used the number 3,600 to indicate any very large but indefinite number, as we might say "a zillion/' The Babylonians, who dominated Mesopotamia during the second millennium B.C.*, developed new methods of counting and writing numbers. Like the Sumerians, their counting system was sexagesimal, or based on units of 60. They had symbols for every number between 1 and 10 as well as symbols for 20, 30, 40, and 50. To write numbers of 60 and above, they developed a place-value method. Instead of repeating symbols as many times as necessary to reach a given total, they assigned a value to each position, or place, in the numeral. For example, the symbol for 1 could also represent 60 or 3,600, depending on its position within the numeral. Modern number systems also use place value—a single numeral represents units of one, a numeral to the left of it represents units of 10, and so on. By the 300s B.C., the Babylonians began to use a special sign for zero. Today, much of the world uses a decimal system that expresses numbers with the numerals 1 through 9. Called Arabic numerals, they originated in southern India before A.D. 500. Shortly thereafter, the Indians

Nazi began using the zero as a multiplier and placeholder. The Arabians adopted the Indian numeral system in the 700s or 800s, and through Spain, introduced it to the European world.

* deity god or goddess * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Nuzi * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

Mystical Meanings of Numbers. Numbers also held religious and magical significance in the Near East. Mesopotamians regarded seven as a powerful number, and many magical spells or ritual actions were repeated seven times. They used numerals to write the names of their gods in shorthand—EA, for example, was 40 and ENLIL was 50. Numerals could also represent deities* and heavenly bodies—the number 15 stood for both the goddess ISHTAR and the planet Venus. Numerals were also used by scribes* to indicate colors or the cardinal points of the compass, or to convey messages intended only for other scribes. Near Eastern peoples also gave mystical significance to numbers in a system called alphabetic numeration, where each letter of the alphabet corresponded to a number. In the Hebrew method, aleph, the first letter, equaled one. Beth, the second letter, equaled two, and so on. Jewish religious scholars used this method to find what they believed were hidden meanings in biblical texts. For example, they claimed that when the Hebrew BIBLE said that 318 men accompanied Abraham it really meant that his servant Eliezer accompanied him, because the numerical value of Eliezer's name was 318. During the 200s and 100s B.C., Greek letters were similarly used on the SEALS of certain officials and tax officers of the SELEUCID EMPIRE to indicate the year the seals were issued. (See also Mathematics.)

N

uzi (NOOzee) was a town in northeastern MESOPOTAMIA. During the period of the Akkadian empire, the town was called Gasur. In the second millennium B.C.*, when the town was controlled by the HURRIANS, it was renamed Nuzi. The town reached its height of prosperity in the 1500s B.C., when it was an administrative center in the kingdom of Mitanni. By the 1200s B.C., the Assyrians had attacked and destroyed Nuzi. Inhabited by the Hurrians, KASSITES, Assyrians, and Babylonians, Nuzi was an ordinary town. Its economy was based on AGRICULTURE and trade. Nuzi's population consisted of a mix of rich and poor residents, including farmers, merchants, craftspeople, and slaves. The town was governed by provincial* officials of regional kingdoms. At its height, the city's population was estimated at 1,600. Despite its small size, Nuzi possessed all the characteristics of major Mesopotamian cities, including defensive walls, temples and government buildings, outlying settlements, and surrounding agricultural lands. The town had several neighborhoods housing various classes of people. Archaeologists* began to excavate the ruins of Nuzi in the early A.D. 1900s. The ruins and artifacts* they found—including temples dedicated to ISHTAR (goddess of love, fertility, and war) and TESHUB (storm god), government buildings, canals and IRRIGATION systems, homes, and public 149

Obsidian

and private documents—have provided one of the most complete pictures of the economy and societyof a typical provincial townin ancient Mesopotamia. (Seealso Walled Cities.)

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

O

OBSIDIAN

* archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, other object made by humans

or

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

150

bsidian (uhb»SI«dee»uhn)is a natural, glasslike rock formedby the rapid cooling of volcanic lava. Slightly harder than window glass, it generally is blackin color. However,the presenceof certain minerals in the rock can produce red, brown, and green varietiesof obsidian. Obsidian is a brittle rock that chips easily, creating smooth surfaces bordered by extremely sharp edges. Since prehistoric time, humans have used sharp-edged pieces of obsidian to TOOLS make andcutting weapons. They sometimes used theJEWELRY rocktoand make decorative ornaments as well. Some ancient cultures, such as that of the Greeks, made mirrors from obsidian by polishing its smooth, glassy surfaces. In the ancient NearEast, one of the most important sources of the rock was in central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). AsB.C., early in-as about 6000 habitants of the settlement HUYUK £ATALused of local sources of obsidian to make tools and weapons. In fact, archaeological* evidence suggests that much of that community's prosperity centered on an obsidian trade with other regions. Obsidian was an important item of trade, and archaeologists have uncovered extensive trade networks over which the rock was carried. Obsidianartifacts* SYRIA found and in theLevant*,for example, can be traced to sourcesin central Anatolia. Others IRAN incan southwestern be traced to sourcesCAUCASUS in the region nearthe Blackand Caspian Seas. It is unclear whether obsidianwas carriedby tradersor was passed from village to village through exchanges of goods. In either case, obsidian

Offerings rock and tools made from obsidian reached areas far from the sources. (See also Caravans; Economy and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking; Trade Routes; Weapons and Armor.)

OFFERINGS

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Food of the Gods The gods of the ancient Near East had to eat just like humans did, so offerings of food and drink were common in religious rituals and cer emonies. In some places and time periods, meals were regularly served to the gods in temples, often twice a day, in the morning and evening. Such offerings included bread, cakes, beer, wine, fish cakes, meats, and all sorts of fruits and vegetables tn order to supply these offerings on a regular basis, temples often had their own gardens, wineries, and herds of livestock. They also relied on regular contributions from the people in the community.

consecrate to declare sacred or holy by means of a religious rite Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

P

eople in the ancient Near East gave offerings to gods, rulers, temple officials, dead ancestors, and spirits, such as the ghosts of loved ones. These offerings might consist of food or other necessities of daily life, luxury items, or an animal or human sacrifice. Caring for the Gods. A scholar who studied ancient MESOPOTAMIA coined the phrase "care and feeding of the gods" to describe the temple rituals of ancient Mesopotamia. The phrase can also be applied to religious rituals performed throughout the Near East. These rituals, which included making offerings of food and drink to the gods, were believed to be vitally important. Without them, the city-state* or kingdom might lose the favor of the gods, resulting in disaster for the society. During major festivals, the responsibility of making offerings to the gods fell largely on the king. This formal activity emphasized his duties as ruler and his obligation to maintain a good relationship between the gods and his land and people. Kings made such offerings in special ceremonies, using stone bowls and other containers to present offerings of food and drink. Offerings were also an important part of daily religious worship. Temple priests prepared and offered meals and drinks to the gods each day, generally in the form of a banquet. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, offerings included cooked meat, fish, bread, grains, fruits and vegetables, flour mixed with oil, honey, wine, and milk. Offerings might also include images, INCENSE, CLOTHING, COSMETICS, PERFUMES, and decorative objects. The daily offerings were intended for the gods, but the priests and worshipers who presented them partook from the food once it was consecrated*. In Israel, however, the offerings were burned and converted into smoke, which then reached YAHWEH in heaven. Throughout the ancient world, blood offerings were an essential part of worship. Such offerings involved the sacrifice of animals, where the blood was drained and offered to the gods. Although rare, human sacrifice was also performed to atone for sins or to avert major disasters. Evidence suggests that the Phoenicians sacrificed children at the city-state of CARTHAGE in North Africa as did other Canaanites in the Levant*. There is also evidence of human sacrifice dating from the earliest periods in Egypt and Mesopotamia, especially in royal burial sites. Offerings to the Dead. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and ANATOLIA (presentday Turkey), people believed that it was important to make offerings to the spirits of the dead. Called funerary offerings, they consisted of things the spirit would need for the afterlife. The spirits of dead kings might receive offerings of delicious meat dishes and baked goods as well as fine clothing, furniture, perfumes, and other luxury items. Ordinary people might receive cold water, hot broth, beer, flour, oil, wine, honey,

151

Olives

k

See colorplate7, vol. 1.

and occasionally the ribs of a sacrificed animal. These offerings were made to please the dead and to make their existence afterlife in the more comfortable. If the spirits failed to receive the offerings due them, they could return as troublesome ghosts to botheralso the After(See living. life; Book of the Dead; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Sacrifice.)

O

ne of the firstfruits cultivatedby peoplesof the ancient Near East, the olive was well suited toCLIMATE the types andofsoil foundin many parts of the region. Olive groves thrive in cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers, which are typical of the eastern Mediterranean region. They also require little rainfall and flourish in sandy, rocky, well-drained soil. Because the olive is so well adapted to the region's land and climate, it became one of the most important crops of the ancient Near East. The oldest evidence of olivesin theNear East comes fromthe Levant* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea and dates to about 3700 B.C. Olive trees were also nativeto southeastern (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), ANATOLIA (present-dayTurkey) and the Mediterranean SYRIA. coast of the West Bank, and Jordan Around 3000 B.C.,the cultivationof olives spreadto many regionsin the Near East.Local growers began to plant olive groves with cuttings taken from wild olive trees. Becauseit takes several years after plantingfor an olive tree to bearfruit, olives were not grownsatisfy to immediate needs for food. In many places, olives and olive oil, obtained by pressing the ripe fruit, became important trade goods. Olives and olive oil had many usesand werean important partof the diet, partly because they can be easily preserved. When stored in brine (saltwater), olives keepfor long periodsand can be transported across great distances. Oliveoil was used fuel asCOSMETICS asa well as to make and religious rituals. Is* anoint tobless by applying oil or someandPERFUME. The oil was also usedin political raelite and Hittite kings were anointed* with oliveoil as a signof their other substance

OLIVES

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Rit

Omens authority. Priests, too, were anointed with olive oil, and it was used in purification ceremonies and as a part of animal sacrifices. (See also Agriculture; Food and Drink; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

OMAN PENINSULA * oasis fertile area in a desert made possible by the presence of a spring or well; pi. oases See map in Arabia and the Arabs (vol.1).

commodity article of trade archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

OMENS * divination art or practice of foretelling the future * astrologer person believed to be able to foretell earthly events by studying the motions of heavenly bodies

T

he Oman peninsula in southeastern Arabia was an important center of trade in the ancient Near East. Although much of the peninsula is desert, it also contains oases*, mountains, and a plateau, which have enough water to support AGRICULTURE. The Omani Mountains contain large deposits of copper and two kinds of black stone—diorite and olivine-gabbro—which were popular for use in ancient SCULPTURE. Hunting, gathering, and fishing societies existed on the Oman Peninsula for thousands of years. By about 3000 B.C., permanent agricultural settlements had begun to emerge in the region. Around the same time, local inhabitants began to mine copper in the mountains. Around the 2500s B.C., cities in MESOPOTAMIA began to import copper from Oman, a land they called Magan. This is evident in texts found in the city of Akkad that mention that ships from Magan docked at its harbors. Early relations between Akkad and Magan were peaceful, but the two regions later went to war. Around 2250 B.C., an Akkadian fleet crossed the Persian Gulf to attack Magan, and texts mention a later campaign as well. By about 2100 B.C., trade had resumed between Mesopotamia and Magan. Commodities* included copper, black stone, IVORY, and semiprecious stones. The last two items probably came to Magan from MELUKKHA (in India), and archaeological* evidence suggests close trade links between the Oman peninsula and the Harappan civilization of western India. Shortly after 2000 B.C., for reasons that remain unclear, trade links between Mesopotamia, Magan, and Melukkha broke down. Thereafter, their names came to refer to distant places. Evidence also suggests that Oman was independent throughout most of its early history. (See also Arabia and the Arabs; Metals and Metalworking; Trade Routes.)

A

n omen is a natural phenomenon or other occurrence that is believed to be a sign that a good or bad event is to happen in the future. Reading omens is a form of divination*. Many texts from the ancient Near East refer to omens, and everyone from kings to peasants and slaves took the observation and interpretation of omens very seriously. Priests, diviners, and astrologers* were responsible for explaining omens. Belief in omens emerged from the notion that gods created and operated the universe in a meaningful way. People who knew how to read the patterns in natural phenomena could peer into the supernatural secrets of the gods. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the bam, Akkadian for examiner, asked the gods for omens and interpreted them. Most of the baru mentioned in the records worked for the crown; they were either palace scholars or were attached to a branch of local government or the army. One of the barn's standard methods of divination was extispicy, or reading omens in the liver and intestines of a sacrificial animal, usually a 153

Oracles and Prophecy

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

ORACLES ANDPROPHECY

154

sheep. Archaeologists* have found clay models of livers with notes describing and locatingfeatures important in divination. These models have been found not only in Mesopotamia but also in Anatolia and Canaan, where extispicywas also practiced. Such practices produced "solicited" omens, or omens requestedby individuals at a particular timefind to the answersspecific to questions.Diviners also found omens in such things as the movementof a dropof water placed in a dish of oil (lecanomancy) or the patterns in a cloud of INCENSE smoke (libanomancy).Usually,the client askedfor a yes or no answer to a question. If the omen was unclear, the diviner could repeat the process. A diviner might also provide advice on how to avoid a bad outcome foretold by the omen. Not all omenswere solicited. Any abnormal or unusual event, such as the birth of a deformed animal or an earthquake,was seenas an omen, often signaling looming evil or danger. Such unsolicited omens usuallydiffered in their significance.For example,an untimely thunderstorm might be interpreted as an omen affecting a city or district.A larger event, such as an eclipse of the sun or a large earthquake, was an omen of national importance, perhaps signaling an invasion or the death of a king. Divine messages might also DREAMS come or to peoplein trances. Among the most common unsolicited omens were astral omens, which dealt with such events as eclipses, meteor showers,and the movements of the planets and stars. In ancient times, astronomers closely watched heavenly objects in the sky,and the observation of astral phenomena led to the development of astrology, the belief that the move ments of heavenly bodies correspond to events on earth. Over the course of time, omens were gathered and organized into handbooks, which people used as aids in interpreting divine signs. Omen handbooksfrom Mesopotamia contain long listsof divine signs written in a specificformat: "If thisis the sign: thisis what will happen/' Many of these signs dealt with situationsin everyday life—for example:"If a man washes himself with water in the corridor of the house: he will become old." The use of such books becamean important partof lifetodaily discover and control the supernatural also forces (See Astrology of the gods. and Astrologers; Oracles and Prophecy.)

I

n the ancient Near RELIGION East, MAGIC andwere two closely related expressions of the relations between people and the supernatural world. Both were concerned with obtaining certain types of knowledge: those that interpreted the will of the gods and foresaw the future. Many Near Eastern peoples believed that with the right methods and the aid of a trained priest, magician, or other practitioner, they could uncover the hidden knowledge that was all around them, waiting to be revealed. Oracles, which are communications from the godsin answerto questions, and prophecies, which are messages from the gods thatmay predict

Oracles and Prophecy the future, were two avenues by which supernatural or divine knowledge reached humans. The term oracle also refers to people who deliver the communications from the gods and who operate within the religious, royal, or social structures of society. They included priests or priestesses at temples and shrines. Prophets, in contrast, believed they were called—or commanded—to prophecy by their gods. They were driven by strong feelings to share their prophecies, which could be unexpected or even unwelcome. Like oracles, many prophets also worked for the temple or state, although some prophets appeared outside these establishments, driven by the urgency of their messages.

DIVINATION AND ORACLES Many ancient Near Eastern societies practiced divination, or the technique of interpreting signs to tell the future. Oracles often served as diviners because they could respond to people's questions about the future or about the meaning of certain occurrences.

plague contagious disease that quickly kills large numbers of people

Types of Divination. Diviners in the ancient Near East helped explain the meaning of signs, including OMENS, or indications of coming events, either good or bad, and DREAMS. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, diviners looked for omens using ASTROLOGY, in which the movements of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars were thought to correspond to events or conditions in earthly life. Almost all cultures practiced divination through dreams. People regarded dreams as a channel through which the gods or dead ancestors communicated with individuals in the living world. However, the person who received the dream could not be the one who interpreted it; the process required separate individuals. Kings could receive divine commands through dreams. People sometimes slept in temples in the hope that the gods would appear in their dreams to give advice, a practice called incubation. Hittite texts contain descriptions of dreams along with omens and oracles. For example, one text describes how King Murshili II asked the gods to send a dream that would explain why his people were dying of a plague*. The Israelites also believed that dreams could contain communications from their god, YAHWEH. Oracular Process. An omen or a dream could appear on its own, but an oracle could be heard only when someone posed a specific question to the gods ab^ut the future or the meaning of events or things. Records of consultations with oracles provide the best documentation for Egyptian divination. According to these records, the general procedure was to present a prepared question that could be answered yes or no. The process of presenting the question was called "reaching the god." The subjects of questions varied widely and included such matters as nominations for offices and accusations of theft. The methods of acquiring the answer also differed from place to place. The Hittites relied on oracles to predict the success of almost all important undertakings in public and private life. Hittite texts contain 155

Oracles and Prophecy references to oracular inquiries about such matters as the course of a military campaign and illnesses in the royal family.

PROPHETS AND PROPHECIES * deity god or goddess

The Prophecy ofNeferti Composed during the reign of King \ Amenemhet 1 of the Twelfth Dynasty, The Prophecy of Nefertpsrais the king and celebrates his success in ending a chaotic period in Egypt-J ian history* Set fictitiously in the court of Fourth Dynasty king Sneferu, Neferti, a skilled scribe, sage, and priest, predicts the future. He foretells calamities for Egypt until a king from the south—Ameny {Amenemhet Intakes the two crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt and establishes stability and joy

156

Prophecy in the ancient Near East was associated mainly with Israel, although prophets lived in other places as well. A prophet believed that a deity* had chosen him to communicate important information to an individual or a community. The prophet could obtain that information from his or her deity or from other supernatural beings—in the case of the Jewish prophet Zechariah, an angel—through a dream, a vision, or ecstasy. Prophets are described as inspired, sometimes even frenzied by the urgency with which divine messages are conveyed. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran. Texts unearthed at the Mesopotamian city of MARI include prophecies from the reign of ZIMRI-LIM, around 1760 B.C. Prophets claimed to be speaking for the god Dagan, who at the time had a broad regional appeal. Some of the prophecies deal with the safety of the king and military affairs, while others relate to the temple. Men and women could be prophets, but their message was conveyed to the king through intermediaries, such as the queen or governors. Very little evidence exists for prophecy in ancient Egypt. Several narratives dating back to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate periods (ca. 2675-1980 B.C.) contain prophecies, but they are all set after the predicted event had occurred. Although these documents contain messages and predictions, they do not attribute their statements to the gods. In IRAN, the religion called Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet Zoroaster around 600 B.C. Zoroaster spoke out against the priests and religious practices of his time and declared that the god AHURA MAZDA had revealed sacred truths to him. In Israel. The largest surviving collection of prophetic writings and stories about prophets is in the Hebrew BIBLE. The prophets of the Israelites received messages from Yahweh in dreams, in trances, or while awake. Among the best-known biblical prophets are ISAIAH, JEREMIAH, and Ezekiel, who left records of their utterances, while others, such as Elijah and Elishah, are known mostly through stories that involved them. There were also women prophets, such as Miriam, Huldah, and Deborah. Like Zoroaster, some of the prophets of ISRAEL AND JUDAH criticized the religious establishments of their eras for wandering from the path of true and righteous worship. They claimed to be speaking for Yahweh and often began their prophecies with the words "Thus says the Lord." The Israelite prophets may have answered a divine call, but they also fulfilled earthly functions. They advised kings on matters of foreign policy and directed their oracles at enemy nations. In the biblical Book of 2 Kings, prophets are even credited with initiating revolutions and appointing rival kings to the throne. They also analyzed and criticized royal actions from the point of view of the common people, helping to keep

Palaces and Temples kingly power within limits. The prophets, like all diviners and oracles, gave expression to the universal belief that the affairs of this world were linked to higher levels of existence. (See also Witchcraft.)

OSIRIS deity god or goddess

See [color plate 10, vol. 1.

* cult formal religious worship

Painting

PALACES AND TEMPLES * millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

O

ne of the most important deities* of ancient Egypt, Osiris (oh»SY«ruhs) was the god of the dead, lord of the underworld, and protector of the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. He was also associated with rebirth, which was linked to human resurrection and the annual cycles of vegetation and flooding of the Nile River. Osiris and Isis, his sister and wife, played a central role in the bestknown Egyptian myth. Osiris was king of Egypt until he was killed by his evil brother SETH, who wanted to take the throne. Osiris was brought back to life by Isis, who gave birth to their son HORUS. Osiris then went to live in Duat, the Egyptian underworld. When Horus grew up he fought Seth and became king, and Isis joined Osiris in Duat. Some scholars believe that this myth was created to explain the death of an Egyptian king, who was considered a god, and to pave the way for the rightful successor. The Egyptians believed that their king was the "living god" Horus. When the king died, he was reborn as Osiris in Duat, and his son became Horus and thus the legitimate heir. The oldest and most important cult* center of Osiris was at ABYDOS. Because of his connection with death and kingship, Osiris was often depicted as a mummy wearing a crown and carrying a royal scepter, or staff. Although originally associated only with Egyptian kings, the myth of Osiris was later seen to offer the promise of resurrection for all people. The cult of Osiris became very popular and even spread beyond Egypt to the Greek and Roman worlds. (See also Amun; Cults; Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

See Art, Artisans, and Artists; Pottery; Wall Paintings.

P

alaces and temples were by far the most important buildings constructed in the ancient Near East. Ranging from modest structures to the largest and most magnificent ones, these buildings were the homes of kings and gods. They were the major centers of power in Near Eastern societies. Palaces and temples not only played crucial roles in the politics, GOVERNMENT, economy, and RELIGION of societies, but they also served as powerful symbols of both earthly and heavenly kingdoms. Because of their importance, palaces and temples were built to last. While many ancient buildings vanished into dust over the course of millennia*, the remains of a number of palaces and temples have survived, providing archaeologists* with evidence to reconstruct the history of ancient Near Eastern cultures. These structures provide information about ancient ARCHITECTURE and building techniques, and the artworks found 157

Palaces and Temples within them have helped increase our knowledge of ancient ART, ARTISANS, AND ARTISTS. Moreoever, the LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES excavated at these sites provide firsthand knowledge of ancient Near Easterners' political and business activities as well as their religious beliefs.

PALACES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST The palaces of the ancient Near East were the residences of kings and their families, as well as the centers of royal administration and government. The dual functionality was reflected in their layout and design, and a specific palace architecture was developed to meet the special needs and demands of these functions.

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * secular nonreligious; connected with everyday life

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Functions of Palaces. As the home of a king, the palace was equipped with kitchens, storage areas, dining areas, and living quarters. The size and level of comfort of these facilities varied according to the wealth of the ruler and his family. While the residences of some local rulers could be modest, the palaces of kings were large, magnificent structures. Decoration and artwork provided enjoyment for the king and served as symbols of his wealth and power. WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* depicted the king as a great warrior, protector, and builder. Palaces also served as the center of government and often contained large complexes of official rooms to serve the needs of the state. One of the most important official rooms was the throne room, where the king presided over the royal court and exercised his power. Palaces might also contain other ceremonial rooms, as well as workshops, treasuries, storerooms, and workrooms for scribes* and other members of the government bureaucracy*. Because the king played a central role in religion, palaces were often connected to temples and shrines. History of Palaces. Palaces did not always exist in the ancient Near East. In very early periods, the homes of local rulers were probably much like those of other people, though larger. However, as civilizations developed and the power of rulers grew, their residences became larger and more impressive. With the rise of large territorial states, the wealth, power, and responsibilities of kings expanded greatly. The size and splendor of their residences grew as well, becoming the first true palaces. Over the centuries, palaces became larger and more complex to meet the requirements of growing kingdoms and empires. This was especially evident in the palaces of great kings in imperial* capitals. Mesopotamian Palaces. The first true palaces in Mesopotamia were built in the early third millennium B.C.*, when large secular* buildings that were clearly different from temples and other official structures appeared. Among the earliest palaces of this period were ones built in the Sumerian cities of KISH and ERIDU. A classic example of an early Mesopotamian palace is the Babylonian Palace of the Governors at ESHNUNNA. Connected to a large temple complex, this building had an outer

Palaces and Temples

* citadel fortified place or stronghold that commands a city

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

* facade front of a building; also, any side of a building that is given special architectural treatment

Ninurta, a war god, was worshiped by ancient Mesopotamians. His principal cult center was the temple Eshumesha at Nippur, built during the first half of the second millennium B.C. From excavations at the ancient site of Nippur, archaeologists have obtained a great deal of information about the temple's activities, including the kind of staff it employed. This chart provides a list of some of the workers, whose responsibilities fell into three categories—religious, administrative, and domestic. While religious workers attended to the needs of the god, administrative and domestic workers oversaw the managerial aspects and upkeep of the temple. Some of these workers were considered specialists and worked at the temple on long-term appointments. Workers whose jobs did not require a high level of skill and training were probably replaced regularly.

courtyard for public affairs, an inner courtyard for more private functions, and a throne room used as an audience hall by the king. One of the best-preserved Mesopotamian palaces is the palace at MARI, which dates from the 1700s B.C. Much larger than the Palace of the Governors, it had more than 260 rooms on the ground floor and covered an area of more than five acres. The palace at Mari clearly reflected the dual function of Near Eastern palaces, with lavish and extensive living quarters for the king and his family, as well as a large complex of official areas. The official areas on the ground level of the palace included a richly decorated royal courtyard, a large throne room, a temple, ceremonial rooms, and storerooms for food and other goods. The second floor of the palace contained offices from which the king, officials, and bureaucrats governed the state. Among the largest Mesopotamian palaces were those of the Assyrians. Assyrian palaces have a design similar to that of the Palace of the Governors at Eshnunna, but they are much more extensive. The largest is the citadel* of SARGON II, built between 717 and 707 B.C. This palace had two outer courtyards, an enormous throne room, and living quarters. Assyrian palaces were usually single-story buildings, but there is some evidence that the king carried out religious ceremonies on the roof. The inner walls of rooms in the palace were covered with stone reliefs* showing scenes of the court, religious symbols, hunting scenes, and records of the king's military campaigns. The most magnificent palace of the Neo-Babylonian period (612-539 B.C.) was the Southern Citadel of BABYLON. In fact, King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II called it ''the marvel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining residence, the dwelling of majesty/' This great palace had a series of five courtyards, numerous reception rooms, a large throne room, and the other areas typical of large palaces. Its facade* was covered with glazed

STAFF OF THE Tg^ic AT NIPPUR Religious Staff high-priest lamentation-priest purification-priest high-priestess naditu [cloistered] priestess diviner snake charmer

Administrative Staff house suervisor treasurer accountant scribe overseer of the oil pressers

Domestic Staff miller cow herder oif-presser water-carrier fuel-carrier mat-maker weaver stonecarver (copper)-smith courtyard-sweeper barber guard

159

Palaces and Temples ceramic bricks depicting lions and trees.In one cornerof the buildingwas an unusual arrangementof rooms identifiedby some scholars as site of the fabled HANGING BABYLON. GARDENS OF

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

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Egyptian Palaces.Little has been preserved from the earliest palaces of ancient Egypt. Evidence suggests,however, thatthe architectural style of these palaces probably originatedin northern Egypt, perhaps influenced by Mesopotamia. When northern and southern Egypt were united at about 2000 B.C., the architectural stylewas adopted throughout the kingdom. The basicform of Egyptian palaceswas a mud brick* enclosure wall, within which were numerous buildings. The enclosure wallhad an elaborate pattern of recesses and projections on the facade that formed niches. These niches were plastered, painted white, and decorated with colored patterns and designs. The high walls of the palace enclosure dominated the skyline and were visible from great distances. The royal residences and buildings within the enclosure wall were built of brick as well. They included columned halls, reception areas, courtyards, private living quarters, artists' workshops, and areas for administration, storage, and other activities. The importance of the palace—and its symbolic role as the seat ofkingship—was reflectedin the term pharaoh ("great house"), which became the title of Egyptian kings during andafter the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. B.C.). 1539-1292 One of the most significant and best-preserved Egyptian palaces is the palace of Amenhotep THEBES. III atThis palace, situated next to a vast artificial lake, contained an extensive complexof buildings focusingon a series of rooms organized around columned hallsand open assembly areas. The structure was one story, but the halls were higher than the surrounding rooms, and their upper walls contained windows to let in air and light. In addition to official rooms, the palace contained apartmentsfor the pharaoh and for royal women different of ranks. Many of the interior

Palaces and Temples

Palatial Living Ancient Near Eastern rulers spared no expense in building, decorating, \ and maintaining their palaces. These buildings were not only the homes of the most important individuals in society and the seats of government, but they were also powerful symbols of the prosperity and prestige of the state. The luxury of palaces was an obvious ben fit to the ruler and his family. Yet the size and beauty of structures were meant to inspire awe in citizens—and perhaps fear in enemies because of the great power and wealth the buildings represented.

* diplomatic relating to the practice of conducting peaceful negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * deity god or goddess

* cult formal religious worship

walls and floors of the palace were decorated with brightly colored paintings related primarily to the world of nature. The ceilings of the public halls also had decorations, but they were more formal, often consisting of sacred symbols and designs. In ancient Egypt, a palace also served as an administrative center for high officials acting on behalf of the king. For instance, during the 1700s B.C., a palace at Avaris in the Nile Delta was used by an Egyptian official of the Thirteenth Dynasty. Bearing the title "overseer of foreign lands/' this official used the palace to conduct diplomatic* relations with the Minoans from CRETE and the Canaanites and other Semitic* peoples from the Levant* and SYRIA. Palaces in Other Regions. Palaces also were built by other groups in the ancient Near East, including the Hittites of Anatolia, the rulers of ancient Canaan and Israel, and the Persians. Although these structures different somewhat in layout and design, they all contained the same basic features and served the same purposes as Mesopotamian and Egyptian temples. A distinctive feature of palaces in Syria was a "half-timbered" construction, which consisted of a stone foundation with the walls above built of wooden beams and plaster. A number of Hittite palaces were built on fortified hill sites. The Persians often reoccupied the palaces of the rulers they conquered as they extended their empire.

TEMPLES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Temples in the ancient Near East were residences of the gods—the places where deities* lived and where humans served them. Temples also became important economic and social institutions. They controlled vast agricultural lands and other resources, providing products and work for members of the 'community. As centers of religious ritual and economic activity, temples also helped bring order and stability to the society and contributed materially and spiritually to its prosperity. Functions of Temples. Unlike churches, mosques, and synagogues of today, most of the temples of the ancient Near East were not places where ordinary people went to worship. Because they were thought to be the actual residences of the gods, temples were sacred sites and entrance was restricted to the king and the priests of the temple. In Near Eastern societies, the king was considered the chief priest of the state religion, and he was responsible for building and maintaining temples, performing religious rites and ceremonies, and supporting worship of the gods. How well he performed his duties was thought to have a significant impact on society, bringing prosperity or hardship to the kingdom because of the favor or displeasure of the gods. The day-to-day functioning of the temple was in the hands of the priests and other temple workers. The priests performed daily rituals involved with taking care of all the needs of the gods, whose presence in the temple was represented by statues and cult* images. To serve the gods properly, temples were equipped like households, with kitchens, tables (in the form of altars), receptions rooms, living and 161

Palaces and Temples

* hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower ranks

Temples to the Sun Cod in ancient Egypt, a special type of temple was dedicated to the worship of the sun god Ra. These solar temples were very different in design from the temples dedicated to the other gods. They consisted of an enormous open courtyard that had an altar in the center for making animal sacrifices. As early as th Fifth Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.), solar temples were built in connection with pyramid complexes. A thousand years later, the growing dominance of Amun, the god of the sun-disk, under pharaoh Akhenaten led to the construction of huge solar temples that were among the largest temples ever built in ancient Egypt.

sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

162

sleeping quarters, and storage rooms. The operation of the temple "household" required a large staff of priests, craftspeople, scribes, and servants, many of whom lived within the temple or in surrounding buildings. Temple staffs, including priests, were organized according to a hierarchy* of roles and responsibilities. In many ways, the large staffs that administered the affairs of temples were very similar to the palace bureaucracies that ran the government of the states. Maintaining the temple and its staff required not only a complex administrative apparatus but also enormous economic resources. Some of the resources needed for the temple came as offerings and gifts from the king and worshipers. However, temples also controlled land, large herds of livestock, and workshops for the manufacture of various goods. Control of such resources brought great wealth to the temples and their administrators, making temples among the most important economic institutions of society and their administrators among the wealthiest. History of Temples. Temples were built in the Near East long before the first palaces. The earliest known remains of temples in Mesopotamia date from before 5000 B.C., although some archaeologists have discovered wall decorations and statues several thousand years older that may suggest the existence of temples at a much earlier time. In Egypt, the earliest evidence for sanctuaries* dates from only about 3000 B.C. The earliest temples were small, simple shrines. Nevertheless, their design and structure show certain elements that remained basic features of temples throughout ancient times, including altars and niches for god statues and cult images. Over time, temples increased in size and complexity, but they always kept various features that were unique and that distinguished them from palaces, their earthly counterparts. Mesopotamia!! Temples. Temples throughout Mesopotamia, no matter what their size, had several elements that distinguished them as sacred buildings. The most sacred part of a temple was the inner sanctuary, a large room where the statue of the deity stood in an alcove set in one of the building's short walls. An offering table stood nearby. One or more rooms, perhaps used for religious purposes or for storage, flanked the inner sanctuary along the temple's long walls. Often a staircase led to the roof, where some rituals were performed. The layout of the temple's sacred spaces generally followed a pattern that remained relatively unchanged over time. In addition to sacred spaces, temple complexes had courtyards and rooms designed for use by the priests in their daily life. Large complexes also had surrounding buildings with living and working areas for temple staff. The entire complex might be surrounded by a wall. Many Mesopotamian temples were build on platforms approached by sets of stairs. Shortly before 2000 B.C., this design feature had developed into platforms consisting of several raised terraces with a temple on top. Known as a ziggurat, this type of structure was a distinctive feature of Mesopotamian temple architecture and was found in nearly every important city. One of the latest and tallest, the ziggurat at Babylon, was built by King Nebuchadnezzar II and is believed to have risen nearly 300 feet high.

Palaces and Temples

me Temple of Soloi One of the most famous temples o the ancient Near East—and perhaps the most mysterious—was the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Built in the 900s B.C., during the reign of King Solomon, the temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in the 500s B.C. Nothing of this fabled temple has survived to the present day except descriptions of it in the Hebrew Bible. Modem archaeologists have the skills to excavate the site of the temple—known as the Temple Mount—but they cannot do so because of religious tensions and opposition from Jews Muslims, and Christians, all of whom claim the site as a holy place. Excavations of other temples have helped confirm that the biblical descriptions are probably accurate and that the Temple of Solomon was rather modest in size. Though no trace of the temple exists, it remains a powerful symbol < Jewish faith.

See color plate 9, vol. 1.

Egyptian Temples. Most early temples in Egypt were of rather modest size and made from simple materials. Like Egyptian palaces, these temples often had enclosure walls decorated with niches. The focus of each temple was a shrine to its god located in the enclosure. Some temples were built on platforms filled with clean sand, which may have symbolized the purity of creation. The walls and doorways often were decorated with elaborate scenes, either painted or carved in relief. In later centuries, the Egyptians built enormous temple complexes, such as the great temple at KARNAK dedicated to the god AMUN. These temple complexes featured massive enclosure walls surrounding the temple, storehouses, residences for priests, and other buildings. The temples themselves were long buildings that featured a series of large courtyards surrounded by columned halls. The inner sanctuary, which held the statue of the god, was set apart from the other temple areas by a surrounding corridor. It also had a raised floor and a separate roof, forming a virtual temple within a temple. While early temples were built primarily of mud brick, later temples were often built of stone. Some temples were even carved out of rock, such as the great temples of ABU SIMBEL. Temples continued to be colorfully decorated with both realistic scenes and symbolic designs. Most of the elements of temple design, including building materials and the placement of a temple on its site, had various symbolic meanings. Temples in Other Regions. Temples in other areas of the Near East, such as Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant, served functions similar to those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Their basic architectural elements were similar as well, although certain design and decorative elements reflected regional differences. One of the characteristic features of Hittite temples was an elaborate gateway that contained small chambers on each side for gatekeepers and attendants. A distinctive feature of some Levantine temples, called bench temples, was a series of low mud brick benches around the walls of the sanctuary and near the central altar. This bench was not for seating but was used for presenting offerings. With the rise of small nation-states in Canaan after 1200 B.C., temple architecture increasingly reflected local religious differences. Several temples in Israel, for example, had open courtyards containing sacrificial altars. Sometimes a staircase at the front of a temple led to an open porch whose roof was supported by two columns. The porch led into the large main chamber and behind that was the "holy of holies/' a small chamber at the back of the temple that contained the cult statue. Only high priests were allowed to enter this chamber. The most famous temple of the region, the fabled Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, no longer exists. The close association between that temple and the royal palace of King Solomon—which was part of a huge templepalace complex—reflected the close connection between temple and state that existed throughout the ancient Near East. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Bas-Reliefs; Cults; Economy and Trade; Gods and Goddesses; Land Use and Ownership; Priests and Priestesses; Property and Property Rights; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Ziggurats.) 163

Palestine Palestine

PAPYRUS Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Ancient Medical Knowledge One of the oldest known medical works is a collection : of Egyptian medical texts that were \ recorded on a papyrus roll around 1550 B.C Named after the German \- scholar George Ebers, who acquired \ the document in the late A.CX 1800s, \ the Ebers Papyrus contains hundreds of magical spells and folk remedies for various health problems, ranging from toenail pain to crocodile bites* It also contains an ; amazingly accurate description of human blood vessels and the func* l tioning of the heart. In addition to :;ft$ medical advice, the Ebers Papyrus * contains directions for getting rid of I such household pests as scorpions, F- rats, and flies.

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

164

See Canaan; Philistines.

P

apyrus was the main writing material of ancient Egypt. Manufactured as early as 3000 B.C., it remained in use for some 4,000 years. By about 2000 B.C., the use of papyrus had also spread to Syria and parts of the Levant*, and much later, found its way to ancient Greece and Rome. Papyrus is a paperlike material made from the stems of the papyrus plant, a reed that grew widely in marshes and swamps in Egypt. Although stronger than paper, papyrus cannot survive rough handling, dampness, or fire. As a result, very few ancient papyri still exist. Most of those that survive were excavated at BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS in the desert regions bordering the Nile River in Egypt, where the dry climate helped preserve them from decay. A number of ancient papyri have also been found in the desert regions of the Levant and Mesopotamia.

Manufacture of Papyrus. The basic method of making papyrus remained unchanged for thousands of years. It required a great deal of skill, and the production of the material generally was left in the hands of specialized craftsmen, most of whom worked for the government. After the papyrus reeds were harvested, the long stems of the plant were cut into shorter pieces. The rough outer coating of these pieces was then removed, and the soft fiberlike material inside was cut or torn into long strips about an inch wide. A dozen or more of these strips were laid side by side, to form a layer. A second layer of strips was placed perpendicular to and over the first layer. The two layers were then covered with a cloth and pounded with a wooden mallet until they merged into a single sheet. This sheet was pressed under a heavy weight and left to dry. Dried sheets were often polished—perhaps by rubbing them with a smooth stone—to create a smooth finish. Finally, the edges of the sheets were trimmed. Several sheets of papyrus (20 was a standard number) were joined together to form a roll. To make this roll, the sheets were placed end-to-end, with each sheet overlapping the next by about half an inch. The overlapping edges were sealed with a starch paste. After drying, the pasted sheets were rolled up and tied with strings of papyrus fibers. Manufacturers almost always made rolls rather than separate sheets. If a single sheet of papyrus was required, it was cut from a roll. Use of Papyrus. Papyrus was used for writing many types of documents, from personal letters to government records, religious documents, and literary works. In ancient Egypt, scribes* usually wrote on complete rolls of papyrus rather than on separate sheets, which were used for letters. The rolls came in various heights, and rolls of different sizes were used for different types of documents. Typically, the more important the document, the taller the roll. Except for very important documents, most rolls were less than 16 inches in height, and many were less than 8 inches high.

Papyrus This painted relief from Egypt's Fifth Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.) depicts men gathering papyrus plants. Harvested papyrus stems were used to make not only writing material, but also baskets, rope, and even boats.

Most literary works and government documents took up a complete roll of papyrus. If a work was too long to fit on a standard roll (about 15 feet), additional sheets were pasted together to make the roll longer. One ancient Egyptian document that records temple donations during the reign of Ramses III was a papyrus roll 141 feet long. If a work was too short to fill a standard roll, excess sheets were cut off. In the case of school texts and private copies of literary works, several works were often written on one roll. Completed papyri were rolled and retied with papyrus strings. Such rolls often were sealed with a small amount of clay, which might be marked with identifying SEALS. Completed single sheets of papyrus were folded to form a small package and then tied and sealed. The contents of the roll—or the address in the case of a letter—were written on the outside. Sets of completed papyrus rolls were tied together and stored in boxes, baskets, pots, or bags, and the containers were labeled to indicate their contents. In some temples and government buildings, specific rooms were set aside for the storage of papyrus rolls. Papyrus was relatively expensive, costing about one-fifth of a skilled worker's monthly wages. It was also in short supply during the seasons of the year when papyrus plants were not yet ready for harvest. Because of cost and seasonal shortages, it was common practice to recycle papyrus by washing off old text and writing new text on it.

bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* commodity article of trade * monopolize to control exclusively or dominate a particular type of business * Middle Ages period between ancient and modern times in western Europe, generally considered to be from the A.D. 500s to the 1500s

Importance of Papyrus. Nearly all ancient Egyptian documents were written on papyrus. Many scholars think that the invention of this writing material accompanied the development of bureaucracy* in Egypt, which necessitated the maintenance of extensive government records. Papyrus was a more convenient and flexible writing material than the CLAY TABLETS used in ancient Mesopotamia, although it was not as durable. By about 2000 B.C., papyrus had become an important export commodity* in Egypt, and its manufacture was monopolized* by the royalty. Light in weight, easily transported, and conveniently stored, it remained the most important writing material in the Mediterranean world until the Middle Ages*, when it was replaced by parchment and vellum, which were made from animal skins. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Egypt and the Egyptians; Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)

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Parthia

PARTHIA * satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar • Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. r

aristocracy privileged upper class

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

See map in Persian Empire (vol. 3).

PATRIARCHS AND MATRIARCHS OF ISRAEL

P

arthia (PAHR»thee*uh) was the ancient name for the region that corresponds to present-day northeastern Iran. The term also is used to refer to the Parthian empire, which flourished there between 247 B.C. and A.D. 224. The empire served as a link between the Near East and the Far East and a bridge between the ancient world and the world of Islam. Nothing is known about Parthia before the 550s B.C. except that the Parthians were members of horse-riding tribes from CENTRAL ASIA and that Parthia was a satrapy* of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. In 330 B.C., when the Persian empire was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Parthia became a satrapy of his Macedonian empire. When Alexander died in 323 B.C., it became a satrapy of the succeeding SELEUCID EMPIRE. In 247 B.C., a Parthian satrap named Arsaces I revolted against the Seleucids and founded the Parthian empire and the Arsacid dynasty. Although he was not Parthian, Arsaces spoke the Parthian dialect* and adopted the region's Hellenistic* culture. Later kings expanded the empire, and by 124 B.C., it included all of Iran and territory from MESOPOTAMIA to India. The empire was divided into provinces and ruled by a small aristocracy*. The Parthian king was the supreme ruler, but the outlying provinces had a considerable degree of independence. The empire prospered and expanded during the reigns of Mithradates I (ruled 171-138 B.C.) and Artabanus II (ruled 128-124 B.C.). Artabanus was succeeded by Mithradates II, also known as Mithradates the Great. During his reign, Parthia was attacked repeatedly by Armenians from the northeast and Scythians from the northwest. Mithradates defeated both groups and further expanded the empire. When he died in 88 B.C., rival dynasties* struggled to take control of the empire until 70 B.C., when Phraates III took over the throne and restored stability. Beginning in 54 B.C., the Romans launched repeated attacks against Parthia for about 200 years, weakening the empire. Finally, in A.D. 224, the Parthians were overthrown by the Persians of the Sasanian dynasty, and the Parthian empire ended. Because of the Parthians' location and large territory, they controlled most of the trade routes between Asia and the Mediterranean. They used the wealth they gained from this trade to implement and fund their extensive building programs. In both their buildings and their artworks, the Parthians showed an interesting blend of Asian and Greek influences. (See also Iran; Scythia and the Scythians.)

T

he patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel are considered the most influential ancestors of the Israelites. These men and women whose stories are told in the Hebrew BIBLE include Abraham and his wife, Sarah; their son Isaac and his wife, Rebecca; Isaac's son Jacob and his wives, Rachel and Leah; and Jacob's son Joseph. The stories of the patriarchs and matriarchs explain the origins of the Israelites and why they were selected as their god YAHWEH'S "chosen people."

Abraham and Sarah. The first patriarch, Abraham (also known as Abram), lived in Ur of the Chaldees (city and district in Mesopotamia). According to the Bible, Yahweh commanded Abraham to leave Ur and

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Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel travel to CANAAN. In return for Abraham's obedience, Yahweh promised him that his descendants would inherit Canaan—the Promised Land. Abraham believed Yahweh's promise of an heir, but his wife, Sarah, was doubtful. Childless, she believed that she was too old to have children. To fulfill Yahweh's promise, Sarah urged Abraham to father a child by her slave, Hagar, whom she could claim as her own. Sarah herself later gave birth to a son, Isaac, and forced Hagar and her son Ishmael to leave the household. In Islamic tradition, Ishmael is considered the father of the Arabs. Abraham is thus revered as an ancestor by Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. One important story about Abraham concerns the potential sacrifice of Isaac. While Isaac was still a boy, Yahweh commanded Abraham to prove his obedience by sacrificing Isaac. At the last moment, however, Yahweh gave Abraham a ram to sacrifice in Isaac's place. This story reemphasizes Abraham's faith in Yahweh, who rewards him by promising him future power and glory. Isaac &nd Rebecca. When Sarah died, her death was a terrible blow to Isaac. To relieve his son's grief, Abraham sent a messenger to Mesopotamia to find Isaac a wife. The messenger left it up to God to choose the proper wife for Isaac: Rebecca. After 20 years of marriage, Rebecca gave birth to twins named Esau and Jacob. Yahweh tells Rebecca that both of her sons will establish great nations, but that the older son (Esau) will serve the younger one (Jacob). When her sons became young men, Jacob secured the right of firstborn from Esau, and Rebecca tricked Isaac, who had gone blind, into giving his blessing to Jacob instead of to Esau because she believed that Jacob would make the better leader. When Esau realized he had been deceived, he became angry, and Jacob was forced to flee for his life. During this journey, Yahweh appeared to Jacob and confirmed the promise originally made to Abraham, that Jacob would have numerous descendants who would possess much land.

concubine mistress to a married man

Jacob, Rachel, and Leah. Jacob went to live with his uncle Laban in Upper Mesopotamia, where he fell in love with Rachel, Laban's younger daughter. To win her as his wife, Jacob worked for Laban for seven years. At the wedding ceremony, Laban substituted his older daughter Leah for Rachel. Jacob was also given Rachel but then worked another seven years to deserve her. Jacob had 13 children by his two wives and their two servants, Zilpah and Bilhah, who became his concubines*. After many years in Upper Mesopotamia, Jacob returned to Canaan with his family. On the way, he had a physical struggle with a divine being—either Yahweh or an angel— after which his name was changed to Israel. This name was later used for the nation of Israel. Once back in Canaan, Jacob made up with Esau. Jacob's sons were ancestors to the 12 tribes into which the Israelite people were later divided. Joseph. Joseph was the son of Jacob and Rachel. Joseph was also his father's favorite son. When Jacob gave him a splendid "coat of many colors," 167

Peasants

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

PEASANTS * illiterate unable to read or write

Joseph's brothers became jealous and sold him as a slave to a group of traveling merchants, who took him to Egypt. After many episodes in Egypt, Joseph gained the pharaoh's* favor by interpreting the ruler's dreams. Joseph warned that the dreams referred to a coming famine* and advised the pharaoh to store the grain from a preceding period of good harvests. This advice saved Egypt from the famine and earned Joseph the pharaoh's gratitude and an important position in the kingdom. The same famine drove Joseph's brothers to Egypt in search of food. They met Joseph but did not recognize him because more than 20 years had passed since they sold him. He recognized them, however. Joseph finally revealed himself to his brothers and forgave them. He then invited them all to settle in Egypt, where the family grew, becoming the Israelites. After many generations, the Israelites (known to the Egyptians as the Hebrews), who had become slaves, left Egypt under the leadership of MOSES. They eventually resettled in Canaan and established the nation of Israel. History and Meaning of the Stories. Scholars debate whether the patriarchs and matriarchs are actual historical figures. Those who do believe that they are place their origins in Upper Mesopotamia during the second millennium B.C.* Some scholars argue that the patriarchs and matriarchs symbolize the earliest people who accepted Yahweh. From a religious standpoint, the stories reinforce the early Israelite belief that they were a "chosen people" and that the blessing and protection of Israel and its people depends on obedience to and faith in their god, Yahweh. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Monotheism; Religion; Theology.)

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easants were free laborers—agricultural laborers, craftspeople, and herders—who worked outside urban centers. They comprised the majority of the population of the ancient Near East and played a crucial role in AGRICULTURE, the basis of every economy. Despite their importance to the prosperity of early civilizations, scholars know very little about peasants. They were illiterate* and could not keep records of their lives. The literate classes did not write about peasants except for administrative purposes, such as recording taxes collected from them. Consequently, much of the information scholars possess about peasants is based on inferences from other sources. Peasant Work. Most peasants in the ancient Near East were tenant farmers, who toiled in fields owned by temples, kings, or other members of the ruling class. They were paid with rations, which consisted of a portion of the crops they harvested, or products from the animals they tended. Most peasants worked under overseers, who managed the land for its owner and often had complete control over the peasants. Peasants' duties were not limited to working the fields. Under a system of forced labor known as corvee, peasants had to perform work for

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Perfumes * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

the state for one or two months each year. In the Hittite kingdom of KHATTI, this could include building public works, such as fortifications*, temples, or roads. In addition to these duties, peasants in Egypt were required to perform military service as well. The role of the peasant in ancient Mesopotamian society changed over time. From about 3500 to 2000 B.C., most peasants worked for the temples, receiving rations in return. In the early second millennium B.C.*, lands were held by private individuals who paid the peasants in rations. Some peasants traveled and hired themselves out as workers or sold themselves into slavery. By the late second millennium B.C., when the economies of Mesopotamia began to disintegrate, peasants who could no longer handle their burden and lack of rights went to live on royal land. Ancient Near Eastern peasants who worked as farmers and those who worked as herders depended on each other for survival. In order for crops to grow, farmers needed the herders to bring their animals, such as oxen, to the fields to plow them. Peasant Life. The life of a peasant in the ancient Near East was difficult. Between the long hours tending crops and the corvee system, peasants had little free time. They rested on the occasional festival day, at which time the landlord might give them extra food or a jar of beer or wine. Most peasants struggled to survive on the food and produce they received as wages. Some peasant households owned poultry and goats that helped meet some of their food needs. Peasants in Egypt typically lived in tiny mud huts clustered together in villages that often lacked fresh water or sanitation. Despite their poverty, peasants were taxed regularly and faced being beaten if they failed to pay the tax. After suffering years of poor living conditions, some peasants abandoned the land and their families and moved to cities. Others formed outlaw bands and roamed the countryside assaulting travelers and isolated villages. (See also Land Use and Ownership; Labor and Laborers; Taxation.)

PERFUMES * frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes * incense fragrant spice or resin burned as an offering

H

ow fragrant your perfumes, more fragrant than all other spices/' wrote the author of the Song of Songs in the Hebrew BIBLE. Many ancient texts reveal an appreciation for perfumes, fragrant substances worn for personal adornment or used to beautify the air. Ingredients in perfumes, especially frankincense and myrrh*, became major trade items in the ancient Near East. Perfumes originated in the ancient Near East after people there had formed the custom of burning incense* at religious and healing rituals. Kings began to use fragrant woods in the construction of their palaces. Eventually, people started using aromatic spices and other fragrances in everyday life, although such delights were very costly. Ancient perfumes generally consisted of plant oils or animal fats to which aromatic substances were added. Sometimes they combined ingredients such as roses, myrtle, sandalwood, cinnamon, blue water lilies and

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Persepolis hennaflowers (especiallyinEgypt),andhyacinth saffron and (prized by the Israelites)to create distinctive scents. Perfumes were usedinrituals,asmedicinal treatments,and incosmetics. The Egyptians used aromatic creams MUMMIES andfor oils toprepare entombment. They also wore scented cones of fat onwigs forspecial occasions. As the warmthoftheir bodies meltedthefat, the perfumespread. InMESOPOTAMIA, perfumeswere oftenmade bywomen andwere used in medicine, magic, rituals, andcosmetics.Forinstance, herbalists sold scented medical resinsandperfumed cosmetic creams.Theancients created a variety ofjars and spoonsforstoringandhandling perfumes, scented body creams, bath oils,andother fragrances.Such containersare among the finest decorative objectsofalso (See theCosancient world. metics; Economy and Trade; Hair; Incense.)

PERSEPOLIS

See map inPersian Empire (vol. 3).

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T

he city of Persepolis(puhr«SE»puh«lis),also known Parsa, as was the capital of PERSIAN the EMPIREunder theAchaemenid dynasty. Thecity was founded around B.C., by518 Persian king Darius I toreplace theformer Persian capitalofPasargadae.It wascompletedbyDarius;successor, s XERXES. Other Persian kings also made additionsto thecity, butmost of it was built by DariusandXerxesoveraperiodofnearly60years. Because Persepolis waslocated in aremote, mountainous region,it was not convenient for theroyaltytoreside there. Persian kingsandtheir families probably only lived there in thespring. Much of theadministration of the empire wascarried out inother cities. Thus,it islikely that Persepolis wasmainly aceremonial center where coronations, royal burials, and other important ceremonies took place.

Persian Empire

bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

PERSIAN EMPIRE

The city was built on a huge stone terrace almost 50 feet high and measuring about 1,400 feet from north to south and 1,000 feet from east to west. Two stone staircases led from the plain to a single gatehouse at the top of the terrace. Palaces, audience halls, and other structures were constructed atop the terrace. The largest structure was the audience hall of Darius and the 100-column throne hall of Xerxes. Both were located in the center of the terrace, dividing it into two halves. The northern half of the terrace was devoted to the military. The southern half contained the palaces of Darius and Xerxes, living quarters of the royal family, and the state treasury building, where most of the empire's wealth was stored. All the buildings and other structures, including the staircases, were extensively decorated with bas-reliefs* and inscriptions. Around 330 B.C., Persepolis was captured and partially burned by ALEXANDER THE GREAT. The city then became a provincial* capital in the Macedonian empire, but it declined in importance during the succeeding SELEUCID EMPIRE. Today Persepolis lies in ruins, and the remains of the royal palaces and other colossal structures are the only evidence of its former grandeur.

T

he Persian empire flourished in the ancient Near East from 550 to 330 B.C. The empire began in ancient IRAN and came to include a vast territory stretching from Greece to India. It was the largest empire of the time, and its extent was unsurpassed until the advent of the Roman Empire, which reached its peak many centuries later. The Persian empire was a model for later empires because it demonstrated how a centralized government could bring together different peoples and cultures.

HISTORY * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

People of Indo-European origin began to settle in Iran more than 1,000 years before the Persian empire was founded. The empire itself can be divided into two periods: the period of the first Persian empire, from 550 to 522 B.C., and the period of the Achaemenid dynasty*, from 521 to 330 B.C. Early History of the Persians in Iran. Around 1200 B.C., people who spoke Indo-European languages began arriving in northeastern Iran from the CAUCASUS region between the Caspian and Black Seas. By the 900s B.C., two groups, the Persians and the MEDES, had gained control of most of Iran. The Medes lived in northern Iran, which was called Media, and the Persians lived in southern Iran, which was called Persia. Around 700 B.C., according to later traditions, the Persians were ruled by a king named Achaemenes. His descendants, known as the Achaemenid family, later became the royal family of the Persian empire. Achaemenes divided his kingdom between two of his sons, who later formed the two branches of the Achaemenid family. Each branch produced a line of Persian kings. The first line included*CYRUS THE GREAT, founder of the first Persian empire. The second line of kings began with Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, founder of the Achaemenid 171

Persian Empire

* vassal individual or state thatswears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomad person who travels fromplace to place to find food and pasture

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dynasty. Aroundthe same time, accordingtoHERODOTUS, Greek historian the Medes were unifiedbytheir king DeiokesandformedtheKingdom of Media. By the late B.C.,600s the Medeshad conquered Persia andmade it a vassal*. The First Persian Empire. B.C., In Persia the500s wasruledby aking named Cambyses I, who was among the earliest Achaemenid kings. When Cambyses died B.C.,inhis559 son, CyrusII,later known asCyrus the Great, took overasrulerofPersia. Cyrus II wasvery ambitious and set out to gain power and improve the position of thePersians inIran. He also negotiated an alliance with the Babylonians against theMedes. In 550B.C., he led a revolt againstthe Medes with help fromtheBabylonians. The Medes were defeated,and the Persians took controlof the Median kingdom, markingthe beginningof first the Persian empire. Cyrus immediately began to increasethe territoryof hisempire.He attacked Lydiaand captured B.C. SARDIS, itsThen capital, in he 547led his army in capturing all the Greek city-states* along thewestern coastof ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). B.C.,heIn turned 540on hisformer Babylonian alliesand captured BABYLONthe following year. This conquest gave Cyrus control of all the land westofIrantoEgypt. B.C. Cyrus died in 529 while trying todefeat atribeofnomads*inCentral Asia,althoughthe exact circumstances are in dispute. Cyrus's successor,CAMBYSES his son II,launchedasuccessful attack against Egyptand established Persian NILEforts RIVER. along Then thehe mounted unsuccessful attacks CARTHAGE, against Nubia,andAmon, an oasis in the Egyptian desert. B.C., hearing In 522 of anuprisinginIran,

Persian Empire Cambyses set out to return home to regain control of his kingdom. However, he died on the way, and one of his generals, later known as Darius I, went on to Iran to end the revolt. It took Darius and his troops more than a year to gain control. In 521 B.C., Darius succeeded to the throne.

Life in Iran Before the Persians The Persians were not the first people to settle in Iran. Archaeologists have found sites in Iran that were settled at least 5,000 years before the Persians arrived. One site, Ali Kosh, has more than 20 feet of accumulated deposits* Deposits from the lowest layer, which dates back to 7500 B.C., show that the earliest inhabitants gathered wild plants, cultivated wheat and barley, and herded goats and sheep. Deposits from higher layers are more recent, dating from about 6500 B.C. They show that by this time the inhabitants were living in well-built houses, making baskets and pottery, and taking part in a farreaching trade network.

* satrap provincial governor in Persiancontrolled territory

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

The Achaemenid Dynasty. Although Darius was from the Achaemenid family, he did not belong to the branch that had produced the first line of Persian kings. He was from the second branch of the family, which became known as the Achaemenid dynasty. It was during the reign of this dynasty that the Persian empire grew to its largest extent. Darius undertook an expansionist policy and gained control of large sections of northern India, as well as land previously controlled by the Scythians to the west and north of the Black Sea. He led his troops into Europe as far as the Danube River, although he failed to conquer any new lands there. Darius also invaded Greece, but he was defeated in the battle at Marathon in 490 B.C. Darius planned to return to Greece with a much larger force, but a revolt in Egypt and Darius's own death in 486 B.C. prevented him from carrying out his plan. Darius was succeeded by his son XERXES, who quickly put down the revolt in Egypt. Xerxes also ended a revolt in Babylonia in 482 B.C. Unlike Cyrus and Darius, who had ruled foreign lands with tolerance, Xerxes ruthlessly imposed his will. He next turned his attention to Greece, conquering northern Greece after the battle at Thermopylae in 480 B.C. He then led his troops to Athens, where they burned down the Acropolis. Shortly thereafter, Xerxes returned to Iran. His troops were later defeated by the Greeks in the battle of Plataea, and with that defeat, the Persian invasion of Greece came to an end. In the later years of his rule, Xerxes lost interest in foreign conquests and focused on domestic problems. He was assassinated in 465 B.C. The death of Xerxes marked a turning point in the history of the Achaemenid dynasty. The kings who followed Xerxes —Artaxerxes I, Xerxes II, and Darius II—were weak and struggled to retain control of the empire. Their reigns were plagued by rebellions, including one in Egypt that took five years to bring under control. Xerxes II was assassinated in a court intrigue after ruling for less than two months. Darius II was faced with several rebellions, including one by the Medes. In 404 B.C., Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius II. During his 45-year reign, Persia fought a 13-year war with the Greek city-state of Sparta. In the peace treaty that was signed at the end of the war, Greece gave up its claims in Anatolia to the Persians. Also during Artaxerxes' reign, Egypt revolted against Persia. The Egyptians were successful, and Egypt regained its independence. Artaxerxes tried to regain control of Egypt but failed. In 370 B.C., several satraps* mounted an unsuccessful revolt against him. Although these uprisings were put down, the Persian state was weakened, and Artaxerxes was assassinated in 359 B.C. Artaxerxes III took over the throne on the death of Artaxerxes II. He ordered the deaths of many of his relatives, whom he feared might challenge his rule, but revolts continued. He tried to regain control of Egypt, but without success, encouraging rebellions in other parts of the empire, including the Levant*. In 343 B.C., Artaxerxes led another attack on

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Persian Empire

The Storyof the FakeBardiya Accordingto Darius the Great, in 521B.C,when KingCambyses was fightinginEgypt he was informed thathisbrother Bardiya had led a revoltandseizedthe throne Iran. in Cambysesdied before he could return homeand reclaim the throne, but as he lay dying, he revealed to his troopsthatthe Bardiya who had seizedthethrone was fake. Apa parently,Cambyses knew that the realBardiyawas not on the throne becausehe had already had thereal Bardiyakilled. Ironically, Cambyses had arrangedhis brother's death becausehefearedhe would try to seizethethrone while Cambyses wasaway*

bureaucracy systemconsistingof officials andclerks who perform government functions

1200sB.C. The Persians first settle in Iran.

I/UO : ««;

IOOO

*WO

B,r,

B

700sB.C. Persia is ruledby King Achaemenes, founder of the Achaemenid family. r

550 B.C. Cyrus the Great founds the firstPersian empire. mah) was the son of the HITTITE king Tudkhaliya III. A skillful military leader, Shuppiluliuma strengthened the Hittite kingdom in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), used his skills to expand his territory, and founded the Hittite empire. In the early 1300s B.C., Shuppiluliuma served as a general in his father's army during campaigns against Mittani, a HURRIAN kingdom in northern SYRIA. Although the campaigns were largely unsuccessful, Shuppiluliuma gained several minor victories, which earned him a reputation as a leader. When Tudkhaliya died, senior officials murdered his successor, enabling Shuppiluliuma to take the throne. During the early years of his reign, Shuppiluliuma focused on securing his position, consolidating the kingdom, and establishing a hold on territories to the north and west. Thereafter, he turned his attention to Mitanni. He led his armies as far south as the Lebanon Mountains and subdued several Mitannian territories in Syria. Later he conquered the city of KARKAMISH, an important trade center on the western bank of the Euphrates River. This was a final defeat for Mitanni, which then became a Hittite vassal*. During his expeditions into Syria, Shuppiluliuma came into conflict with the Egyptians, who had vassals and allies there. However, to Shuppiluliuma's surprise, the widow of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN asked him to send one of his sons to marry her and become Egypt's ruler. When presented with the opportunity to take over his main rival and become the leading power in the Near East, Shuppiluliuma hesitated, thinking the message was a trick. When the Egyptian queen confirmed that the offer was real, Shuppiluliuma sent a son to Egypt to be pharaoh*. However, his son was murdered on his journey, probably by Egyptians opposed to a foreign leader, and Shuppiluliuma lost the chance to expand his territory into Egypt. Shuppiluliuma sent his troops to subdue minor uprisings in Syria and Anatolia. He also sent an expedition to face Egyptian troops to the south. There the Hittites emerged victorious, but in the end, the campaign was a

83

Sidoii

disaster because the Egyptian prisoners brought a plague into Hittite territory. The plague killed both Shuppiluliuma and his son and successor. Thereafter, Shuppiluliuma's younger son, Murshili II, inherited the throne. The Hittite empire survived until the late 1200s B.C., when it fell after years of unrest and an invasion.

SlDON * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi

relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Siege Warfare

Silver

SINAI, MOUNT 84

S

idon (SY*duhn) was a city-state* in ancient Phoenicia. The presentday city of Saida still exists on the site. It is located on the Mediterranean coast about 27 miles south of present-day Beirut, Lebanon. It is believed that the name Sidon is derived from the Semitic* word sayd, which means "fishing." Founded sometime between 3000 and 2001 B.C., Sidon, along with the other Phoenician city-states of TYRE and BYBLOS, soon became a successful trading and manufacturing city. Starting in the 600s B.C., Sidon was a vassal* to several ancient Near Eastern empires, including Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. After the Persian empire fell in 330 B.C., the city was ruled by the Macedonian king ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, and the Roman Empire. Sidon is perhaps best known for its famous purple dye, which was extracted from mollusks, a type of shellfish. In fact, a huge mound of these shells can still be found south of the city. Archeologists* believe that this was where ancient dye manufacturers dumped the shells after the dye had been removed. Archeologists have found very little evidence of the ancient city because the modern city still exists on top of it. However, an elaborate cemetery containing sarcophagi* from the Phoenician period has been discovered. Also, a temple dedicated to Eshmun—the Phoenician god of healing—has been uncovered. By far the most famous archeological discovery from Sidon is the Alexander Sarcophagus, apparently carved for Alexander's vassal king in Sidon. The reliefs* on the stone sarcophagus show Alexander hunting and fishing. (See also Cities and City-States; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

See Wars and Warfare.

See Metals and Metalworking.

A

ccording to the Hebrew BIBLE, Mount Sinai was where the Hebrew god YAHWEH revealed the set of laws known as the TEN COMMANDMENTS to MOSES. In addition, Moses received numerous other laws and instructions from Yahweh concerning the priesthood and rules for worship, celebration, and sacrifices. Mount Sinai is also where the Israelites entered into their covenant, or solemn agreement, with Yahweh. The Israelites

Slaves and Slavery exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

SINAI PENINSULA archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

See map on inside covers.

SLAVES AND SLAVERY

agreed to obey Yahweh's laws and worship him as their only God. Moses and the Israelites came to Mount Sinai during the period of their exodus* from Egypt to CANAAN. The first reference to Mount Sinai occurs in the Book of Exodus, where the mountain is called Mount Horeb. Its exact location is unknown. Beginning in the A.D. 300s, Christian tradition has identified Mount Sinai with a mountain known in Arabic as Jebel Musa (Mountain of Moses). It is located in the southern SINAI PENINSULA between the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. This location for Mount Sinai is accepted not only by followers of Judaism but also by those who follow Islam and Christianity. Some modern scholars have proposed other possible locations for Mount Sinai, including sites in Arabia and mountains in the Sinai peninsula but closer to the Mediterranean Sea. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews.)

T

he Sinai peninsula is a triangle-shaped landmass that lies between Egypt and present-day Israel. The southern part of the peninsula is bordered by the Gulf of Suez on the west and the Gulf of Aqaba on the east. These two bodies of water meet at the southern tip of the peninsula, in the RED SEA. To the north, the peninsula is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Archaeologists* have found evidence of seasonal campsites in the Sinai peninsula dating from prehistoric times. However, the earliest written information about the region comes from Egyptian texts that date from about 3000 B.C. These texts describe Egyptian expeditions that went to the region in search of copper and turquoise. Later the northern Sinai was an important trade route between Egypt and the rest of the ancient Near East. The region was controlled at various times by the Egyptians and later by the Assyrians, Persians, Nabataeans, and Romans. Many of these civilizations established trading posts in the region. The Sinai is most famous, however, because of references to it in the Hebrew BIBLE. According to the Bible, the Israelites crossed the Sinai peninsula during their exodus* from Egypt to CANAAN. The Sinai is also famous as the site at which the Hebrew god YAHWEH gave MOSES the TEN COMMANDMENTS. Although most scholars do not doubt that the Israelites traveled across the region, no one knows the route they took or on what mountain Moses received the commandments. However, most Christians, Jews, and Muslims believe that the Israelites traveled through the southern part of the peninsula and that Moses received the commandments on Mount Sinai. (See also Sinai, Mount.)

S

laves and slavery existed throughout the ancient Near East, although their conditions varied. The ancient attitude toward slavery was quite different from that of today, in which it is condemned as a violation of human rights. The concept of human rights was unknown to the ancients, who accepted slavery as a natural part of an existence in which no one was completely free of control by the gods, kings, the state, temples, the elite, or a social class above one's own. Although the fate of

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Slaves and Slavery

* serf peasant required to work land that he lives on but does not own

* commodity article of trade

* literacy ability to read and write

indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region

slaves was often considered unfortunate, there was little outcry against slavery on moral grounds. The distinction between free and unfree seems clear today, but the boundaries between slaves, serfs*, and SERVANTS were often blurred in ancient times. Many slaves were foreigners captured in war or raids. Others were citizens of a state who had become slaves because of debt or crime. Some individuals even sold themselves into slavery—perhaps for a limited time—when they could not pay their debts. A parent could sell a child into slavery, and many parents did so. The definition of a slave in ancient times was that he or she was property that could be bought or sold much like any other commodity*. Slavery did not play a significant economic role in any Near Eastern culture. Slave populations were not immense, partly because most Near Eastern cultures did not have the resources to buy and guard them. Outside the palaces, even the richest households probably did not own more than 15 slaves, and 1 to 5 slaves in a household was more common. Slaves tended to be used for indoor or craft work rather than for agricultural labor because it was too easy for them to run away while working in the fields. The life of a slave was not necessarily miserable, although the majority of slaves probably led difficult lives. Some slaves, especially those with valuable skills, such as literacy* or knowledge of MEDICINE, gained wealth and status. In some circumstances, slaves could marry, raise families, and gain their freedom. Some acquired political power as advisers to kings and queens. However, this was not the case with most slaves. Mesopotamia. Slaves were part of Mesopotamian society, although their numbers and economic importance were less in earlier periods than during the Greek and Roman eras. Most slaves were originally prisoners of war. They wore special haircuts, tattoos, or brands to distinguish them from free people. A significant number of slaves were not foreigners but indigenous* residents forced into slavery by economic misfortune, such as debt or poverty. Sometimes such slaves were freed by royal decrees that canceled all private debts. Most slave owners in Mesopotamia were upper-class families who used their slaves in domestic service. Skilled slaves might either work at crafts for their masters or be hired out for profit. Slave owners sometimes entrusted their slaves with managing estates or operating businesses. Successful or talented slaves belonging to wealthy families might even have been allowed to accumulate their own wealth and spend or invest as they wished. It was not uncommon for slave owners to give slaves their freedom, and some freed slaves were adopted into the families of their former masters. Female slaves might have borne children to either freemen or slaves, but all such children became the property of their mothers' owners. Some childless slave owners adopted their slaves' children. Egypt. The lowest social class in ancient Egypt consisted of slaves who worked on royal building projects, in private workshops, and as domestic servants. Slavery was rare in Egypt between about 2700 and 1500 B.C., but it increased significantly after that period.

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Slaves and Slavery

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Carried Into Slavery An Egyptian text—possibly simply a boastful inscription— j paints a woeful picture of the fate of war captives: / have brought back in great numbers those that my $word has spared, with their hands tied behind their backs before my horses, and their wives and children in tens of thousands. ,,. / have imprisoned their leaders in fortresses bearing my name, and I have added to them chief archers and tribal chiefs, branded and enslaved, tattooed with my name, and their wives and children have been treated the same way.

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

Foreign slaves entered Egypt through a private slave trade, and some Egyptians sold themselves into slavery. Most slaves, however, were foreign captives, either soldiers taken prisoner in battle or civilians seized during raids of foreign territory. One Egyptian king, Sneferu, claimed to have brought back 7,000 captives from the land of Nubia, south of Egypt. On various occasions, Egyptians raided the deserts west of the Nile River and brought back LIBYANS to serve as slaves. Egypt's kings did not hesitate to uproot large groups of people under the system of slavery. For example, King RAMSES II sent Nubians to work in the Levant* and Asians to Nubia. The biblical story of the captivity of the Israelites in Egypt and their forced labor is an example of such a policy. Slaves often labored in Egyptian mines and quarries and helped construct the PYRAMIDS, tombs, and temples connected with royal burial sites. Although many slaves toiled in dreadful conditions, those lucky enough to become domestic slaves had better lives, sometimes becoming trusted family servants. The king controlled all foreign prisoners and could decide to "give" them to individuals. Citizens could also buy slaves from traders. The Egyptian legal system gave slaves some rights. For example, owners did not have a legal right to have sexual intercourse with their slaves, although many undoubtedly did so. However, children born to slaves out of these relations belonged to the slave owners. Hittite Anatolia. The HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) bought and sold slaves just like other commodities. One ancient text lists the price of a slave artisan (such as a potter, carpenter, or weaver) as ten shekels of silver, about what it cost to keep a slave alive during a year of famine*. Some wealthy slave owners probably trained their slaves as skilled craft workers, which increased their usefulness and worth. Hittite law spelled out the rights and obligations of slaves. For example, runaway slaves could be captured and returned to their masters even if they fled to another country. Slaves could marry free people, but the free individuals became slaves for as long as the marriage lasted. Like free people, slaves could collect damages for personal injuries, but unlike free individuals, slaves were not exempt from physical punishments for certain offenses. For example, a slave caught breaking into a free person's house would have his nose and ears slashed and possibly removed. Hittite law ordered an especially gruesome death for any slave who attacked his master. Israel. The ancient Israelites developed a complex system of rules to define and govern slaves, most of whom worked for private households rather than for the state. They divided slaves into Israelites and non-Israelites. Non-Israelite slaves were either war captives or people who had sold themselves into slavery (or had been sold by others) because of debt. Such slaves were considered property to be sold and inherited. Like some non-Israelites, Israelites also sold themselves into slavery to pay off debt. These individuals were often more like hired servants than slaves, and they generally were supposed to serve for only a set number of years. When masters treated Israelite slaves more harshly than the law allowed, the slaves and their free relatives sometimes rebelled. The treatment 87

Social Institutions of slaves occasionally led to crises involving the king, the wealthy and powerful masters, and the angry slaves. (See also Eunuchs; Labor and Laborers; Property and Property Rights; Wars and Warfare.)

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * clan group of people descended from a common ancestor or united by a common interest * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

P

eople who live together develop rules that define their rights and responsibilities and determine how they will interact with one another. In every society of the ancient Near East, people existed within a framework, or institutions, that both supported and limited their individual actions. Some of these institutions were direct expressions of RELIGION, GOVERNMENT, and LAW. Others involved the structure of society and aspects of social and private life. Mesopotamia. The social institutions of the Sumerians and Akkadians who lived in towns and cities of ancient MESOPOTAMIA were based on an urban way of life. City dwellers identified more strongly with the communities where they lived than with relatives by blood or MARRIAGE. The nomads* or partly nomadic livestock herders who lived outside urban areas, however, placed greater importance on clan* and kinship. In the late second millennium B.C.*, many cities began to shrink in size, and villages became the typical settlements. People again began to identify more strongly with tribes or clans. Mesopotamia was a class-based society. While most people were free, each class had obligations and duties to family, community, and state. The property-owning elite held positions in government, palace administration, military leadership, trade, or the priesthood. One could enter these ranks by birth or by appointment. Other free people who did not own property might work as crafts workers or hired agricultural laborers, for whom there was always a demand. A class called subordinates lived on and worked lands owned by the king. Most slaves were foreign prisoners of war, although Mesopotamians could sell themselves into slavery if they fell into debt. Justice was one of the fundamental ideas around which Mesopotamian society was organized. Kings presented themselves as serving the gods by enforcing justice and ensuring fairness under the law. They published laws indicating that justice was a public matter, not something left to the whims of kings. Closely linked to justice was religion. In fact, judges often held hearings and swore oaths in a temple. In all classes, from kings to peasants, social institutions reflected the idea that a divine order operated in the universe. Egypt. The basic social unit of ancient Egyptian society was the nuclear family consisting of parents and children rather than the extended family or clan. One sign of the focus on the nuclear family was that the words for father, mother, brother, and sister were the most common terms for other relationships both inside and outside the family. For example, a student might address his teacher as "Father." Egyptians lived in communities that varied in size from small villages to large cities. Privacy and individuality—prized by many modern

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Social Institutions

The Wisdom of Experience The Instruction of Ptahhotep, an Egyptian text written in the 2400$ s»c, reflects the importance that Egyptians placed on values and social institutions. In the text, an of* r ficial asks the king's permission to write instructions on proper con\ duct for the son who will succee him in his post May this servant be ordered to make a staff of old age, So as to tetl him the words of those wfto heard, The ways of the ancestors, Who have listened to the gods. May such be done for you, So that strife may be banned from the people, And the Two Shores may serve you!

* commodity article of trade

provincial having to do with the provinces, outlying districts, administrative divisions, or conquered territories of a country or empire

societies—had little place in the culture and everyday life of ancient Egypt. Not only did crowded living quarters offer little physical privacy for most people, but individuals also were generally defined by their roles in larger family and communal groups, such as people working together at the same task. Egyptian society was divided into three main traditional classes. The nobility consisted of the elite members of the priesthood, the government administration, and the upper ranks of the army. Most members of this class, which probably accounted for less than 5 percent of the total population, were born into it. Commoners called citizens were ordinary free people. Within this large social group, special terms identified individuals who worked on royal, temple, and nonroyal estates. The unfree class included both slaves and peasants compelled to work on land they did not own. The great majority of Egyptians, whether free or unfree, were farmers. Many social institutions and values of ancient Egyptian culture stemmed from the fact that Egypt was a theocracy—a state in which the government was run by people believed to be guided by or descended from the gods. Whether in temple worship, religious festivals, or public ceremonies, religion played a major role in the lives of people in all social classes. Although Egyptians were united in their devotion to religion, Egypt was an ethnically diverse society. Foreigners frequently entered Egypt and absorbed its culture. Some even rose to high positions in the elite class of society. Hittite Anatolia. Like most other ancient Near Eastern peoples, the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) lived in a state based on kingship. The king was not only the head of government but also the chief priest of the national religion. As the main link between the human and divine worlds, the king was responsible for organizing his people to defend and work the land for the benefit of the gods, who depended on the toil of their human servants. These principles were the basis of Hittite government, law, and religion. The highest level of Hittite society consisted of the "Great Family"— the king and his extended family. Most major offices of the state were held by individuals from this group. Many members of the landowning elite class belonged to the "Great Family" and had some relationship to the king. Those members of the elite outside the royal family belonged to the upper class simply because they were rich and powerful. The basis of wealth in Hittite society was always land and livestock. Wealthy individuals sometimes paid for entire religious festivals or built, furnished, and staffed village temples. The lowest rank in Hittite society consisted of slaves, who were bought and sold as commodities*. While many individuals were enslaved for life, some entered into slavery or servitude for a specific period of time in order to pay off debts. Occasionally, rulers demonstrated their godliness by releasing their subjects from debt slavery. Much of the Hittite population lived in the countryside and worked in AGRICULTURE. These people had to deliver part of their produce to their provincial* governments, which passed it on to the central state authority. 89

Social Institutions The central government used these goods to maintain the people who lived and worked within its sphere, to support activities that strengthened royal power (such as military campaigns or the building of palaces), and to distribute to subjects in times of need. * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * indigenous referring to the original inhabitants of a region * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

* hierarchy division of society or an institution into groups with higher and lower rank

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* aristocrat member of the privileged upper class

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The Canaanites and Israelites. The Canaanites and Israelites were neighbors in the Levant*. Their cultures were similar in many respects, and they shared some social institutions. Both groups divided society into indigenous* inhabitants and foreigners. In Israel, however, there were further categories, such as resident aliens—foreigners who had settled in Israel but were not full citizens. The Israelites also made careful distinctions between free people and slaves. The king and his bureaucracy* formed the highest level of society in the Levant. In Israel, the king was thought to have been appointed by Yahweh as the shepherd of the people. Although kings were supposed to promote the stability of society, kingship sometimes disrupted social institutions. For example, the establishment of monarchies and the execution of state projects required a central authority to control all resources that had previously been controlled by kinship groups. Still, tribal and clan identity remained very important in Israelite society. People identified themselves first as Israelites, second as members of 1 of 12 tribes, and third as belonging to a clan or extended family called the Father's House. Members of a clan had certain responsibilities toward each other, including avenging murders and buying back land and clan members sold into slavery because of debt. Both the Canaanites and the Israelites had complex hierarchies* of priests. In Israel, where priests inherited their positions, the structure of the priesthood was thought to mirror the structure of society, with some groups having higher status than others. Status was reflected in such matters as how far into the temple a member of a particular class would be allowed to enter. Yet Israelite religion was never fixed or unified. Different priestly groups often disagreed on practices and organizational principles. Iran. Much of what is known about the ancient PERSIAN EMPIRE centered in IRAN comes from the writings of the Greek historian HERODOTUS. According to Herodotus, Persian society was divided into tribes of nomads and tribes of farmers. Within each of these categories, some tribes had higher status than others. Tribes were further subdivided into clans. One group in Persian society, the Magians, consisted of specialists in cult* rituals. As with a clan or tribe, status as a Magian was hereditary. Persian society was also described in economic terms. The Persian king DARIUS III referred to the powerful and the poor, and he considered himself the peacemaker between the two groups. The powerful were aristocrats*, while the poor were free peasants. Within each category were various subcategories and status rankings. There was also a class of people called kurtash, whose status was close to that of slaves. The kurtash were workers from many parts of the empire who toiled on royal lands and in royal workshops. The parental authority of fathers set the tone for Persian family life. Families worked together, shared high offices, and passed privileges from

Soldiers generation to generation, but family members could also be punished for another member's crime. Despite such family closeness, young men of the noble class generally spent the time between ages 5 and 20 undergoing tough physical and moral training organized by the king's men. The goal of this training was to make them worthy and faithful subjects of the king. Persian social values are well expressed in two terms: aria, which meant justice and truth, and drauga, a lie. In religious terms, aria meant worship of the god AHURA MAZDA. In political terms, it meant loyalty to the king. In moral terms, it meant honorable behavior. All these values were intertwined in the Persian understanding of religious, state, and social institutions. Woven together from laws, rules, customs, and preferences, social institutions of Near Eastern societies gave daily life in each culture its distinctive flavor. (See also Education; Family and Social Life; Priests and Priestesses; Slaves and Slavery; Women, Role of.)

SOLDIERS * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

T

he fates of cities, states, and empires in the ancient Near East were determined in part by their ARMIES. The soldiers who served in these armies ranged from peasants to highly trained and specialized professional troops. While top-ranking officers in Near Eastern armies could achieve wealth, power, and prestige, most ordinary soldiers fared less splendidly. Military service could offer security, but it also offered hardship, discomfort, and danger. An Egyptian scribe* knew well the potentially rough life of the army when he described an infantryman, or common foot soldier, as the "much tormented one" who marches over hills, carries his rations on his shoulders, drinks foul-tasting water, and after facing the enemy in battle is lucky to return to Egypt "full of sickness'' and tied to the back of a donkey.

Fighting on Demand. The first armies of the Near East existed only when needed. They consisted of people who came together to fight in a specific campaign, either to defend their homeland or to wage war on foreign soil. These soldiers were either volunteers or citizens required to provide military service to leaders and who therefore had no choice about fighting. In some cases, they were mercenaries—paid soldiers who fought not out of loyalty to king or country but for payment in cash, goods, or items they plundered*. In MESOPOTAMIA during the third millennium B.C.*, armies grew larger and better organized. One image from the city of LAGASH, dating from about 2500 B.C., portrays a tightly formed phalanx, or rectangular-shaped formation, of foot soldiers with overlapping spears. Such an orderly formation suggests a trained and disciplined fighting force. For the most part, however, being a soldier was not a full-time profession in Mesopotamia. The terms used to refer to soldiers came from words that described their peacetime activities, such as fisherman, animal herder, or civic official. Many workers had the right to farm state-owned land and to keep a share of the produce, but that right also imposed a certain number of days of military duty.

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Soldiers

A Soldier's Promise When soldiers joined the Hittite army they took an oath. They swore to be loyal, fearing dreadful curses if they were not:

As this wax melts and fat fries, so may he who breaks the oath and deceives the Hitttte king melt like wax and fry like fat... Whoever breaks these oaths and does evil to the king and the queen and the royal princes, let these oathgods change him from a man into a woman See the man who previously took his oath before the gods and then broke it. The oath-gods seized him. His innards are swollen May the oath-gods seize whoever breaks these oaths.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force

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The earliest recorded Egyptian soldiers were local followers of nobles or officials who fought in time of need. However, as early as the third millennium B.C., the Egyptians preferred to have others do their fighting for them. Their armed forces consisted of captured opponents who were made to fight for Egypt and of hired mercenaries. In early times, soldiers from the region of Nubia south of Egypt comprised a significant portion of the Egyptian army. Nubians remained an important element in Egyptian armies throughout ancient times. Professional Soldiers. During the second millennium B.C.*, warfare in the Near East became more international, and a new kind of fighting force appeared in various Near Eastern states to meet the needs of such conflict. This was the permanent, standing army. The rise of such armies marked the appearance of full-time professional soldiers. The rise of professional soldiers was accompanied by increasing differentiation in rank and function. New levels of officers formed a chain of command between the kings who led the armies and the soldiers who did most of the fighting. Moreover, groups of people within the armies began to specialize in certain types of fighting. In northern Mesopotamia, for example, a chariot-owning aristocracy arose. Charioteers were based in palace lands, and the titles of their officers were identical to those of the court officials. Training and equipping the chariotry was time-consuming and expensive, and the position of charioteer became hereditary, passing from father to son. Another specialized group was the royal bodyguard, called by a name meaning "men at the king's feet." Other members included archers who used the bow and arrow, shield bearers, engineers who designed and built FORTIFICATIONS and equipment for sieges*, and horsemen who served as messengers and later on the battlefield as CAVALRY. All armies contained large numbers of infantrymen, the backbone of the fighting forces. Professional soldiers might have received pay, goods, or small plots of land in return for their service. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) maintained an army of professional soldiers who campaigned from spring through fall. They spent the winter in quarters, where they were fed by the government and expected to be ready to march at a moment's notice. If the enemy was a major power or if the Hittites faced several conflicts simultaneously, the king would draft additional soldiers from the general population. The king also had agreements with semi-independent outlying districts to supply soldiers and junior officers for the army. Small units of such men were stationed at key points throughout the empire, generally far from their own homes. The Hittites also encouraged their allies to contribute soldiers to their army, and states that paid tribute* were often required to provide troops as well. During the years from 1000 to 500 B.C., Assyrian professional soldiers established themselves as a highly organized and fierce fighting force. They used new technologies to improve their weapons and armor, chariots, and horse riding equipment. These advances enabled them to successfully expand their empire. Assyrian soldiers were cruel in dealing with their prisoners of war, many of whom were killed, blinded, or mutilated to set an example for other potential Assyrian enemies. Although much

Solomon

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

SOLOMON ruled ca. 960-932 B.C. King of Israel prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

* concubine mistress to a married man

frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

of the information about the Assyrians' treatment of enemies comes from exaggerated accounts in Assyrian royal INSCRIPTIONS, historians believe the Assyrian army was especially fearsome in the ancient Near East. A permanent, professional army came into existence in Egypt between about 1500 and 1000 B.C. It included two combat forces, the infantry and the chariotry. Soldiers from western Asia, Nubia, and Libya appear in various WALL PAINTINGS from that period, proving that the Egyptians continued to use foreign soldiers whenever possible. Although foreign-born mercenaries probably fought in all or most ancient Near Eastern armies, they were especially numerous in Egyptian forces. After about 664 B.C., mercenaries from Greece and from Caria in western Anatolia arrived in Egypt to serve as soldiers of fortune. Their military skills made these mercenaries an important element in the Egyptian army that resisted the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. The Carians became so numerous that a Carian colony took root around the Egyptian city of MEMPHIS. The Greek historian HERODOTUS, who may have been part Carian, left a description of the achievements of Carian and Greek mercenaries who fought in the Levant*, Mesopotamia, and Persia as well as in Egypt. Jewish mercenaries also may have served in Egyptian armies. The Persians were known to have employed Jewish soldiers as well. When the Persians conquered Egypt in 525 B.C., they established a base of Jewish troops at the Egyptian city of Elephantine, which marked the southern frontier of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Herodotus also wrote that the Persian army often used large numbers of foreign captives as soldiers. He maintained that these foreigners were driven into battle, ahead of the regular Persian troops, by Persians using whips. (See also Caria and the Carians; Chariots; Libyans; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Armor.)

K

ing Solomon is among the most famous of the ancient kings of Israel. Solomon was the son of King DAVID, who united the 12 Israelite tribes and their territories into the kingdom of Israel around 1000 B.C. Almost all that is known of Solomon's life and reign comes from the Hebrew BIBLE. There is no mention of Solomon, David, or Israel in any sources surviving from their own time. Although he was not David's oldest son, Solomon rose to the throne largely through the efforts of his mother, Bathsheba, and a prophet* called Nathan. Once he became king, Solomon eliminated his opponents and placed men loyal to him in important positions in the military, the government, and the temples. Solomon also gained stability and power through his marriages. The Bible reports that he had 700 wives and 300 concubines*. Although these numbers are almost certainly exaggerated, it is probable that he made alliances with a number of powerful leaders of the Near East by marrying their female relatives. One of the famous women with whom Solomon was connected was the queen of Sheba. Sheba was probably a kingdom in southern Arabia that was rich with gold and frankincense and myrrh*. Later legends suggest that the queen and Solomon may have had a child together. 93

Sphinx

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

SPHINX

* Egyptologist person who studies ancient Egypt

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Whether or not this was true, the two leaders had powerful political reasons to work together. Solomon wanted Sheba's products and needed to be able to use trade routes through the queen's land. In turn, the queen of Sheba needed Israel's ports and merchants. In addition to marriage and diplomacy*, Solomon also used forced labor to develop the wealth of his kingdom. He continued to improve Israel's military, which had already been strengthened by his father. Solomon fortified cities and towns on important trade routes and made changes within Israel. He divided the territory of Israel into 12 administrative regions. Each region was responsible for providing taxes and organizing labor forces to support the central government. Solomon put the money and labor force to use when he began building his palace and the famous Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which became the Israelites' religious center. The men of Israel were required to work for the government for one out of every three months in order to finish these huge projects. Solomon is famous for his wisdom and goodness. He is credited with writing the Books of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon in the Hebrew Bible. He is traditionally said to have written many other proverbs and songs. However, most of the sections of the Bible that are credited to him were probably not written by him. Solomon's son and successor, Rehoboam, not did achieve the amount of success his father had. This was due in part to events that had occurred during Solomon's reign. Solomon had spent much of his country's wealth and may also have angered the people of the northern Israelite tribes by favoring those in the south. These conditions made it difficult for Rehoboam, who only made matters worse when he treated the northern tribes even more severely. As a result, the northern tribes rebelled and formed their own kingdom, which they called Israel. The southern kingdom then became known as Judah, which was the name of Solomon's tribe. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Kings.)

T

he sphinx (SFINKS) is an ancient mythical being with the body of an animal—usually a lion, but sometimes a ram or a hawk—and the head of a man, who may wear a royal head cloth. The word sphinx probably comes from the Egyptian term shesep ankh, which means "living image." Some language scholars believe that the term derives from the Greek word sphinx, which means "strangler," but others doubt that the mythical figure of the sphinx is related to this term. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make stone statues of sphinxes, which they associated with both the king and the god Amun. The most famous sphinx in the world is the Great Sphinx located near the PYRAMIDS at GIZA. With the body of a lion and the head of a king, the Great Sphinx is thought to represent the Fourth Dynasty ruler Khufu, who ruled Egypt from around 2585 to 2560 B.C. However, some Egyptologists* believe that the face of the sphinx is that of Chephren, Khufu's son. The Great Sphinx is more than 240 feet long and about 65 feet high. It has been covered by the sands of the SAHARA DESERT many times in its

Stamp Seals The Great Sphinx at Giza, shown here, is the most famous example of a sphinx. Another famous, although imaginary, sphinx exists in Greek mythology. According to the myth, the people of the Greek city of Thebes were being terrorized by a sphinx who posed a riddle to all passersby and devoured those who were unable to answer. When Prince Oedipus arrived in Thebes, he defeated the sphinx by answering correctly.

See [color plate 14, ] vol. 4.

funerary having to do with funerals or with the handling of the dead pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

Stamp Seals

long life. It has also been repaired several times over the centuries. As it stands today, the Great Sphinx is missing its nose, beard, and part of its crown. It continues to be worn down by erosion and pollution, but efforts are being made to protect the great statue. Some Egyptian sphinxes, such as those at the Temple of Amun at KARNAK, do not have human heads. The temple is guarded by rows of sphinxes with the heads of rams. A sphinx at the funerary* temple of Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353) was given the tail of a crocodile. Whatever animals they incorporated, Egyptian sphinxes were usually male. Even when a female pharaoh* such as Queen HATSHEPSUT was depicted as a sphinx, she was in her male role as king. The first female sphinxes were depicted in the 1400s B.C., outside Egypt. From Egypt, the idea of the sphinx traveled to other parts of the ancient Near East, including the Levant*, Anatolia, Greece, and Mesopotamia. In the Levant and Greece, the lion's body of the sphinx was often given wings. In Greek mythology, sphinxes played important parts in the tales of Oedipus and Perseus. Sphinxes did not appear in Mesopotamia until the 1500s B.C., when they were imported from the Levant. (See also Animals in Art; Human Form in Art.)

See Seals.

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Stars

STARS

* constellation group of stars that is thought to resemble, and is named after, an object, animal, or mythological character * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

L

ong before the establishment of the first settled civilizations, people looked in wonder at the night sky and attempted to understand the meaning of the stars they saw. By around 3000 B.C., the founders of the first cities in MESOPOTAMIA had probably acquired a basic knowledge of astronomy. However, the first recorded systematic observations of the night sky did not occur until after 1800 B.C. These observations were tied to the Mesopotamian religious belief that events in the heavens directly affected events on earth. The Mesopotamians believed that they could determine what would happen on earth by interpreting the signs they saw in the sky. Although knowledge of the stars was originally used to predict the future, it later came to exert a powerful influence over the development of CALENDARS and timekeeping in the Near East. The Stars and Fate. As early as 3000 B.C., the Babylonians had begun to combine careful observation of the sky with the prediction of earthly occurrences. Thus, in Babylonia, there was no difference between astronomy and astrology. Those who recorded the movements of the stars and PLANETS also interpreted their significance to human affairs. At first, the signs they saw in the heavens were believed only to be related to the welfare of the state or its ruler. Examples of this can be found in a series of tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil, the oldest of which date to before 1200 B.C. One tablet states that if the constellation* Aries is faint, misery or misfortune will befall the king of Subartu. Other predictions relate the color or appearance of certain stars to weather phenomena, peace or war, or the rise and fall of dynasties*. As astronomical observation became more sophisticated, Mesopotamian astrologers and astronomers refined their system of prediction. By noting the position of constellations throughout the night, they developed the ZODIAC, which divided the sky into 12 equal portions, or houses. Each house was named for the constellation that occupied it. Astrologers began to base their predictions on the arrangement of the planets within each of the houses of the zodiac at a particular date and time. This ultimately led to the casting of individual horoscopes, which related a person's fate to the position of the stars and planets at the time of his or her birth. The observational records used to make these predictions formed the basis of all later scientific astronomy. Calendars and Timekeeping. Stargazing had practical as well as religious significance to Near Eastern cultures. All civilizations at this time used a calendar based on the phases of the moon, because the time between one full moon and the next is constant. However, 12 lunar months of 29.5 days produce a lunar year of only 354 days instead of the 365-day solar year. This was a problem for agricultural societies, which needed to be able to predict when the planting season began each year. Because they could not calculate this using a lunar calendar, the Egyptians solved the problem through observation of the star Sirius. In ancient Egypt, there were three basic agricultural seasons of approximately four lunar months each. The first season began when the NILE RIVER started to rise and flood the surrounding land. The second season began when the waters had receded enough to allow planting, and the final

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Stone season lasted from the harvest to the beginning of the next flood. The Egyptians noted that, for part of the year, Sirius was aligned with the SUN and was invisible. However, shortly before the beginning of the annual flood, Sirius became visible just before sunrise. They used this event— called the heliacal rising of Sirius—to mark the beginning of their new year. By counting the days between heliacal risings of Sirius, they determined the length of a solar year to be 365 days. They then divided the year into 12 equal months of 30 days, with 5 extra days added between the end of one year and the beginning of the next. With this solar calendar, they could accurately predict the cycle of the seasons. Using other stars that rise heliacally as Sirius does, the Egyptians created star clocks to measure time at night. They divided each month into three 10-day periods called decades. They then identified which stars or constellations rose heliacally on the first day of each decade as well as 11 others that rose after the first one and passed across the sky from sundown to sunrise. These observations allowed the Egyptians to divide the night into 12 units of time. If one looked at the sky and noted how many of these stars or constellations were visible, one could determine how much of the night had passed. Because nights are longer in winter and shorter in summer, the Egyptians eventually had to calculate the total hours of daylight and darkness in different months. However, these calculations always assumed there were 24 hours in a day. This was the origin of the 24-hour day, divided into two 12-hour periods. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Oracles and Prophecy; Science and Technology.)

STONE relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background artisan skilled craftsperson quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

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tone was one of the most widely used materials in the ancient Near East. It was among the primary BUILDING MATERIALS in most Near Eastern societies, especially in monumental ARCHITECTURE. A great deal of the SCULPTURE of the region—both relief* and sculpture in the round—was executed in stone, and artisans* in many societies produced magnificently crafted stone vessels, such as cups, bowls, and vases. Stone was also extensively employed in the manufacture of certain TOOLS, even after metals such as bronze and iron came into widespread use.

Building in Stone. The cultures of the Near East relied on stone to construct their walls and buildings. Before organized societies began to quarry* specific types of stone, people used loose rocks known as fieldstones for building. These were obtained from blocks that had broken off from cliffs or boulders and had become exposed when a river or stream dried up. Small rocks and mud were used to fill spaces between the uncut stones to make the structures sturdy. The rise of centralized urban cultures around 3000 B.C. made it possible to assemble workers to exploit stone resources in a more systematic way. The Egyptians were probably the first to master these skills. Well before 2500 B.C., Egyptian stonemasons had learned how to cut massive blocks of even the hardest stone and transport them over many miles to building sites. In Mesopotamia, blocks of stone were cut after being quarried to 97

Stone

mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea(presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

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make transportationand handling easier. However, because of thescarcity of stone in Mesopotamia, especiallyin the south, stones were only used for the bases of walls that were regularly madeof mudbrick*. Stone construction took several different forms. Many structures, such as thePYRAMIDSof Egypt, were built with a core of rough, unfinished stone of poorer quality thatwas then covered witha casing finely of worked blocks of granite or limestone. Some city walls consisted entirely of dressed stone, or stones whose edges werecut sosmoothly that they could be fitted together very preciselyand requiredno mortar to hold them together. Moreoften, however, walls were constructed from rubble and uncut rock, supportedat intervalsby piersofpreciselycut and dressed stones. Often thin slabsof finished stone called orthostats were usedto coverthe lower portion of walls madeof rubble or mud bricks. Stone Sculpture and Vessels. Besides its practical use as abuilding material, stone was afavorite mediumfor sculptorsand artisansin the ancient NearEast.The Egyptians fashioned many colossal figuresand obelisks (tall,four-sided shaftsof stone that taperat the top to apyramidal point)from stone, a large numberof which have survived intomodern times. Many buildings throughout the Near East incorporated stone relief sculpture as partof their decoration. Sometimes sculptors would combine relief and sculpturein the roundin the same GATESpiece. Forexample, the of the city KHATTUSHA of ANATOLIA in (present-day Turkey) fig- feature lion ures whose bodies are carvedin reliefbut whose headsand front paws emergefrom the wallin three dimensions.Asimilar lion motifcan also be found throughout the Levant*. However, muchof the stone available in the Levantwas eithertoo hardorsoft tooforcarving,and as aresult, sculpture in the round is generally rare. Eventhe Mesopotamians used stone extensivelyfor sculpture, often importing from it distant lands.

Sudan

* basalt black or gray stone, often with a glassy surface

Sculptors were not the only artisans who employed stone in their work. Even before the rise of urban culture, Egyptian stone carvers were fashioning bowls from an extremely hard stone called basalt*. Some of the finest examples of such work date to before 3000 B.C., hundreds of years before the building of the pyramids. Egyptian artisans crafted basalt bowls, vases, jars, and other vessels featuring unbelievably thin walls and complex designs. However, for reasons unknown, this art declined dramatically toward the end of the Old Kingdom period, around 2130 B.C. The hard stones that had been used earlier gave way to softer materials, and the designs became simpler. Evidence of stone vessels has also been found at other sites throughout the Near East, but none of these pieces shows the quality and craftsmanship exhibited by the early Egyptian artisans. Stone Tools. Stone was widely used in the manufacture of blades for sickles (handheld tools used to harvest grain). Other common stone tools used during this time included scrapers for preparing animal hides, borers or drills to cut holes in hard stone, and grinding stones used to crush grain in order to make flour. Stone tools were also a basic part of the stonemason's tool kit. Removing hard stones from quarries required the use of tools made of even harder stone. After cutting the stones, masons used stone pounders and grinders to shape and smooth them. Drills with stone bits were used to cut INSCRIPTIONS and create delicate details in sculpture. Sand was used for the final polishing of stones for buildings or artwork. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Fortifications; Palaces and Temples; Walled Cities.)

SUDAN

archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

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he Sudan is a region that stretches across north central Africa south of the Libyan and Sahara Deserts. The term Sudan, which also refers to a present-day country in Africa that lies directly south of Egypt, derives from the Arabic term bilad as-sudan, which means "land of the black peoples/' The Sudan extends from the western coast of Africa across the continent to the mountains of Ethiopia. The northernmost part of the Sudan, a region known as the Sahel, borders the Sahara. South of the Sahel, the Sudan extends southward into the rain forests near the equator. The region consists of tropical or subtropical grasslands and high plateaus, which extend across the continent. Temperatures are high throughout the year, and the region experiences a long dry season. However, the southern Sudan receives more rainfall than the north and contains forests with small trees that grow among tall grasses. In the north, the region is arid and desertlike. Humans have occupied the Sudan since prehistoric times, particularly along the NILE RIVER. Archaeological* expeditions have provided evidence that people in the region were hunting, gathering, and fishing as early as 9000 B.C. In the desert regions of the northwestern Sudan, there is evidence that from around 9500 B.C. until around 3500 B.C., the climate was wetter than it is today. During that period, the predominant

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Sumer and the Sumerians

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* deity god or goddess

SUMER AND THE SUMERIANS

mode of subsistence in the region was fishing, supplemented by hunting hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and buffalo. In ancient times, the Sudan was part of ancient Nubia and home to the Nubians, a people whose history is closely linked with that of ancient Egypt. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, the Egyptians took control of the northern Sudan, a region they called Wawat. Soon the Egyptian armies began to move farther south into the Sudan, conquering a region known as Kush. The Egyptians valued Kush because it was located along TRADE ROUTES that ran to the Red Sea. Around 1000 B.C., the rulers of Kush and the Nubian armies joined forces and regained their independence from Egypt. The Kushites retained control of much of the Sudan until the A.D. 350s, when they were overthrown by invaders from the Ethiopian highlands. Throughout ancient times, the Nubians were influenced by Egyptian cultural practices, but their local culture continued to flourish. They worshiped Egyptian gods but continued to worship their own deities* as well. Like the Egyptians, they constructed PYRAMIDS for their royal tombs but modified the design. After the Assyrians drove them out of Egypt, the Nubians had far less contact with Egypt. Over time, the Sudan was more influenced by the African cultures to its south. (See also Kush and Meroe; Nubia and the Nubians.)

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cholars credit the Sumerians with creating the world's first true civilization, and indeed the list of their accomplishments is impressive. Sumer, located in the southernmost region of MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq), is considered the birthplace of WRITING, CITIES AND CITY-STATES, SCHOOLS, the WHEEL, large-scale ARCHITECTURE, and the earliest system of numbers. Sumerian civilization had a major impact on the political and cultural development of the entire Near East.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF SUMER * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

Sumer's origins are largely lost to history and can only be guessed at on the basis of the work of archaeologists*. It is clear that an advanced culture was well established in southern Mesopotamia long before the time of the earliest surviving written records (ca. 3300 B.C.). Most theorie about the organization of that society are based on knowledge of later Sumerian civilization. While this provides a general picture of the development of Sumerian culture, many gaps remain. Earliest Roots. The Sumerians probably included people who migrated to Mesopotamia from various places and had different origins. The earliest known settlement in Sumer was established before 5000 B.C. at Tell el-Oueili. Although the oldest remains found at the settlement are unlike other sites excavated in Sumer, the remains of later buildings at the site show strong similarities to architecture at the cities of UR and ERIDU. This suggests that a common culture developed and eventually

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Sumer and the Sumeriaiis

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding land

spread throughout the region. During thisearly period,agricultural tlements were established along the banks of theEuphrates andTigris Rivers, and these became the earliest cities.fact, In scholars believe that URUK, in Sumer,was the world's first city. As the cities grew, they required more agricultural land tosupport their populations. After a time, larger cities became city-states* bytaking control of surrounding territories. This eventuallyled toconflicts between neighboring city-states competing forterritory,andmany cities builtdefensive walls.Byaround B.C.,3000 Sumer contained about 30separate city-states that remained independently ruled centersformany years.

set-

Early Dynastic Period. Political conditions in Sumer began to changeafter aboutB.C. 2900 The first serious attemptsbylocal rulers to extend their control over neighboring city-states occurred during this period. Accordingto Sumerian KISHwas texts, the seat of first the Sumerian kings.The Sumerian KING LIST credits Etana, ruler Kish, of with being the first king to unitethe Sumerian city-states B.C.However, around 2800 the first king on the listforwhom thereisdocumentationisEnmebaragesi, who ruledKishin about B.C. 2700 Kish remained an important Sumerian city-stateforseveral hundred years, although the rulers of the other city-states competedforpower. This continued for several centuries untilLugalzagesi,therulerofUmma, 101

Sumer and the Sumerians conquered LAGASH and secured control over northern Sumer in the 2300s B.C. He then turned south, capturing Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Lugalzagesi became the first leader to unite all of Sumer. However, his achievement proved short-lived.

Shulgi the Proud King Shulgi of Ur was trained as a scribe. One Sumerian royal hymn describes Shulgi's education: 4s a youth, I studied the scribal art in the E&UB8A [the scribal schooll... Of the nobility, no one was able to write a tablet like me, In the place where the people attend to learn the scribal artf Adding, subtracting, counting, and accounting—I completed &n (of their courses]; The fair Nanibgal-Nisaba (goddess of scribes) Mowed me generously with wisdom and intelligence.

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

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Sargon and the Akkadian Empire. In about 2334 B.C., SARGON I became the king of Kish and set out to take control of Sumer. Sargon, a SEMITE rather than a Sumerian, whose origins are the subject of legend and fable, had held an important position at the court of the king of Kish. When the king died, Sargon succeeded him and moved the capital to the city of Akkad. Sargon first conquered the Elamites, a people living to the east of Mesopotamia in present-day Iran. He then turned south, capturing Lugalzagesi's capital at Uruk and destroying its walls. Sargon next conquered the remaining cities formerly ruled by Lugalzagesi. Having established himself as ruler of Sumer, he then turned his attention north and extended the empire as far as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). In the west, his forces captured city-states in SYRIA and present-day Lebanon, eventually reaching the Mediterranean Sea. Sargon became the first ruler to exert control over all of Mesopotamia, and his empire encompassed a large part of the ancient Near East. Sargon died in about 2279 B.C., after a reign of 56 years. His successors, who remained in power for nearly 200 years, continued to expand the empire, although most of their efforts were aimed at securing TRADE ROUTES rather than conquering enemies. Despite the glories of the Akkadian empire, during most of its existence, it was engaged in warfare with cities that challenged Akkadian rule. During the mid-2100s B.C., the empire was weakened by disputes over succession to the throne. This was followed by a series of invasions by the nomadic* Gutians from the northeast. The Akkadians were toppled, and the Gutians controlled much of Sumer for about the next 100 years. Although the Gutians did not settle in Sumer, they ruled the region from outside. Toward the end of Gutian rule, Lagash became a prominent city-state in Sumer. Its governor, GUDEA (ruled ca. 2144-2124 B.C.), was one of the most notable leaders in Sumerian history. He undertook extensive building projects and engaged in trade with such far-off lands as Magan in presentday Oman. The Third Dynasty of Ur. Around 2120 B.C., the king of Ur, Utu-khegal, defeated the Gutian general Tiriqan and ended Gutian control over Sumer. In doing so, he established the Third Dynasty of Ur. This series of kings, who ruled for more than 100 years, was the last native dynasty* to exercise control over Sumer. Utu-khegal was succeeded by his son URNAMMU, who ruled a region extending from the Persian Gulf to central Mesopotamia. During his reign, Ur-Nammu rebuilt many of Sumer's temples and palaces and repaired canals and other important structures that had fallen into disrepair under the Gutians. After Ur-Nammu's death, the throne passed to his son SHULGI, who completed his father's conquest of the Gutians and continued UrNammu's program of building and restoration. In the twentieth year of his rule, Shulgi undertook a massive reorganization of the kingdom. He

Sumer and the Sumerians

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* famine severe lack of food due to failed crops

restructured the tax system by collecting goods at central points and redistributing them throughout the empire. He also established schools to train the scribes* needed to run this complex system. Shulgi established a permanent army to extend Ur's influence and protect its trading interests. After his almost 50-year reign, however, his successors could not hold the kingdom together. Ur was threatened from two sides: by the nomadic Amorites from the west and the Elamites from the east. Around 2000 B.C., in the twenty-fourth year of the reign of King Ibbi-Sin, the city fell to the Elamites. After the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Sumer was loosely held together by a series of rulers from the cities of Isin and Larsa. For about the next 100 years, Sumer suffered from famines* and further invasions by the Elamites and other peoples from Iran. The Amorite ruler of the citystate of Larsa captured both Ur and Uruk, and the Elamites captured Isin. For the next 200 years, Sumer remained a patchwork of rival cities with no strong central authority. This marked the end of Sumerian control over southern Mesopotamia.

SUMERIAN SOCIETY Sumerian government, economics, and religion were woven closely. Rulers held political power by controlling goods produced in fields and in workshops that were owned and managed by the temples. Many kings served as priests of the temple, and a few, such as Shulgi, even declared themselves gods. Most of the people of the Sumerian city-states were thus bound to the king by ties of both religion and economics.

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs * deity god or goddess

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

Government. Sumerian city-states were probably originally governed by citizen assemblies rather than kings. The assemblies resolved disputes, authorized construction projects, and dealt with threats from neighboring city-states. They elected leaders who were responsible for ensuring that their decisions were carried out. Over time, these leaders became the most important people in their respective city-states. Political leadership also became associated with the local religious cult*, and rulers claimed to be chosen specifically by their city's deity*. Whether a leader called himself governor or king, he maintained legitimate authority through his ties to the local cult. If a leader was overthrown or defeated by his enemies, the Sumerians believed that he was no longer favored by the city's deity. Religion. Political and religious power in Sumer were associated in other ways as well. According to Sumerian beliefs, each deity made his or her home in a different city, becoming the patron* god or goddess there. Each city was thus the home of a religious cult dedicated to a local god or goddess. The Sumerians had a large pantheon* led by ANU, the supreme deity who called Uruk home. Other deities included ENLIL, who was both a god of plenty and a god of harsh justice, and Enki, the god of wisdom and of the sea. Ur was home to Nanna, the moon god; and Utu, the sun god, was worshiped in both Larsa and Sippar. The most important female deity was 103

Sunier and the Sumerians See

N'colorplate (vol. 1).

artisan skilled craftsperson

Inanna, a goddess whose many associations included fertilityandwar. Myths about these and other Sumerian gods makeup an important part of the literatureofSumer. Economy. The temple was the focus of not only the religious life of a Sumerian city but also its economic life. Temples controlled large amounts of agricultural land outside the city and ran workshops and warehouses within its walls. Temples employed farmers, shepherds,and artisans* in addition to priestsand other religious officials. Workersin temple workshops created pottery, wove fabric, produced leather goods, and created sculpture,jewelry, and other worksof art. Someof these goods were used insacrifices to the local deity, while most were distributed to the royal household aswell as to ordinary citizens. Many of the finer materials produced were usedas trade goods.The Sumerian citystates actively engagedin long-distance trade, establishing colonies as far away as Iran,Syria,and Anatolia. They tradedfor goods such astimber, metals, and precious stones thatwere not available locally. Through the temples, the city provided itsinhabitants with thebasic necessities oflife. In return, the people were requiredto work everyday of the week and to honor the local deity with sacrifices andobedience to the city's ruler. The temple did not control the entire economy, however. There is evidence that some land surrounding each city-statewasowned and worked by private individuals.The cities themselves were also centers of private economic production. Pottery making, textile production, metalworking, shipbuilding, carpentry, and other specialized activities flourished in the cities.

ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE AND ART, The Sumerians were accomplished architects who built the world'searliest monumental structures. Fewidentifiable remains still stand because

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Sumerian Language * mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * buttress brick or stone structure built against a wall to support or reinforce it

See [color plate 14,^ vol. 3.

* inlay fine layer of a substance set into wood, metal, or other material as a form of decoration * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

SUMERIAN LANGUAGE

buildings in Sumer were not made of stone (a scarce resource there) but of dried mud bricks*, which did not last. The most important buildings were the temples, which were built following a basic plan. Temples sat on raised platforms and their large outside walls were supported with buttresses*. The interiors might be decorated with clay cones set into the wall in patterns. The cones were painted in bright colors, and their tips were often covered in bronze. Murals were sometimes painted on the walls as well. Around 2100 B.C., King Ur-Nammu of Ur constructed the first true ziggurat, or stepped pyramid that supports a temple at the top. Ziggurats are the most famous large Mesopotamian buildings. The largest ziggurats rose some 300 feet high. Scholars know less about ordinary buildings, such as workshops and HOUSES, because few of them remain intact today. Sumerian art is largely represented by SCULPTURE, which served mainly religious purposes. These works were often beautifully executed and richly decorated with inlays* of precious metals or stones. Carved relief* sculptures were another favored form of decoration on buildings. Sumerians also produced beautifully carved cylinder SEALS containing both decorative patterns and scenes of animals, humans, and gods. These seals were used to make impressions in clay bands used to secure doors and storage jars. The patterns were also impressed in CLAY TABLETS containing business transactions perhaps as a form of personal identification similar to a signature. The Sumerians' most important cultural contribution was the invention of writing and the SUMERIAN LANGUAGE, which was rarely spoken after about 2000 B.C. The Sumerian script, called CUNEIFORM, consisted of wedge-shaped marks impressed in clay with a reed pen, or stylus. The symbols were originally developed for RECORD KEEPING and evolved into symbols to represent different syllables. The flexibility of this system made it ideal for recording the business of running a city-state. Tens of thousands of clay tablets have been recovered from Sumer, most of which are records of temple business transactions and palace archives. Many works of Sumerian literature have also survived, including royal HYMNS and epics* celebrating the deeds of a ruler. The best-known Sumerian literature features GILGAMESH, a legendary ruler of Uruk. Among the earliest tales known about Gilgamesh are several Sumerian poems that were probably composed around 2100 B.C. However, the version of Gilgamesh's story that survives today is a rewrite of a version written in the Akkadian language. (See also Languages; Religion; Ziggurats.)

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he early inhabitants of southern MESOPOTAMIA, known as the Sumerians, developed the world's first WRITING sometime before 3000 B.C. Sumerian was written in a CUNEIFORM script, which consisted of wedgeshaped characters that had specific word meanings, and these were pressed into CLAY TABLETS. The written form of the language was based on the spoken form. Although spoken Sumerian faded away as a "living" language by about 1800 B.C., written Sumerian continued to be used by scribes* and priests perhaps as late as the A.D. 200s.

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Sumeriaii Language * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

* city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

* linguist person who studies languages

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History of the Language. The oldest evidence of written Sumerian, called Archaic Sumerian, dates from about 3100 to 2500 B.C. and consists largely of governmental and business documents and also some school exercises. Scholars do not have a good understanding of this language, and the number of texts from this era is quite small. More documents exist in Old or Classical Sumerian, which dates from about 2500 to 2300 B.C. Most examples of Old Sumerian come from the official records of the city-state* of LAGASH. A fairly large number of private letters and INSCRIPTIONS written in Old Sumerian have also been found. The greater quantity of samples has made it easier for scholars to understand Old Sumerian than Archaic Sumerian. From about 2350 to 2193 B.C., the Akkadians ruled southern Mesopotamia, and their Semitic* language—Akkadian—replaced Sumerian as the main spoken language throughout most of the region. Sumerian was again used as the written language after the Akkadian empire collapsed and the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.) was established. By 2000 B.C., however, this dynasty* was destroyed by invasions by the Elamites, peoples from the east of Mesopotamia. Within the next 200 years, spoken Sumerian vanished completely. The new rulers of Mesopotamia continued to use written Sumerian alongside Akkadian. Among those who employed written Sumerian were the Babylonians, who established an empire that extended across much of the Near East. They and the empires that succeeded them brought written Sumerian with them into the regions they controlled. This stage of the language's development is called Post-Sumerian because it occurred after the disappearance of spoken Sumerian. As in the earlier stages of its development, Sumerian was used for government and business documents as well as royal inscriptions. It was during this period that most of the great Sumerian works of LITERATURE were recorded in writing. Because written Sumerian was so important as the language of business and government, schools that trained scribes continued to teach it until about A.D. 200. After that time, it was replaced by more modern languages, such as Greek and Latin, and its use—even in written form—ceased altogether. Characteristics of the Language. Scholars have tried without success to place Sumerian within one of the existing language families. Some linguists* have attempted to relate it to modern languages based on broad similarities between the sounds and meanings of some words. However, these attempts have failed, and most scholars now consider Sumerian a unique language with no close relatives. The form of written Sumerian most familiar to modern scholars had 4 vowels (a, e, i, and u) and 16 consonants, but it is thought that the language was originally more complex. Based on the information available about written Sumerian, linguists have tried to reconstruct the sound and pronunciation of spoken Sumerian. However, much of this work is based on knowledge of the Akkadian language, which itself depends on knowledge of modern Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Given this fact, any modern pronunciation of Sumerian would most likely be vastly different from the original. An ancient Sumerian hearing a modern person speak the language would probably not be able to understand it.

Sun Close study of the existing documents has revealed much about the structure and style of the Sumerian language. Nouns were not classified as masculine or feminine, but were divided into personal and nonpersonal types. Personal nouns included those referring to humans, gods, or (in literature) creatures that had human characteristics. There was no fixed way to indicate amount or the plural form of an inanimate noun. Sometimes a noun was repeated twice to indicate all of one class of objects. For instance kur meant "land," while kur-kur meant "all the lands." Otherwise, amount could only be determined from the way a word was used. Similarly, verbs had just one form, which might be modified by a prefix, suffix, or infix (an affix appearing in the body of a word) to indicate who was performing an action or when the action occurred. There were several styles of written Sumerian, depending on the type of material being composed. The writers of business and government documents used certain words and phrases, while the authors of POETRY, prose literature, or HYMNS used different ones. Sumerian even had a separate style called emesal used to quote female speech. However, it remains unclear why this variant of the language developed or in what situations it was used. (See also Alphabets; Books and Manuscripts; Decipherment; Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Record Keeping; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

SUN

* stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae * deity god or goddess

T

hroughout the ancient Near East, the sun occupied a particularly important place in RELIGION and MYTHOLOGY because of its connection with life, death, and rebirth. It provided the light and warmth that plants, animals, and people needed to survive. Each day it died, sinking below the horizon as it was conquered by the night. However, every morning it was reborn to once again bring light and life to the universe. As the symbol of light and day, the sun represented goodness and life, while night and darkness represented evil and death. In Mesopotamian society, eclipses of the sun were considered OMENS, or signs that something bad was about to happen. The Mesopotamians worshiped a sun god named Shamash, who represented justice. In this capacity, he is portrayed on a stela* giving the symbols of rulership to King HAMMURABI. Sun gods also held important places in other ancient Near Eastern societies. The Hittites worshiped the sun god of Heaven and the sun goddess of Arinna. Some of the most powerful Egyptian deities* were sun gods whose names corresponded to their many forms, or manifestations. These names included Ra, ATEN, and HORUS, the falcon god whose eye was associated with the sun. The rising and setting of the sun had profound significance for the Egyptians. Each night the sun god journeyed below the horizon to the underworld on a sacred barge, or raft. His soul traveled along a river that was the underworld's counterpart to the NILE RIVER in Egypt. There his soul was reunited with his body, symbolizing the rebirth of all the souls of the dead. This also signified the joining of Ra and OSIRIS, god of the dead, into a new deity containing aspects of both gods. As morning approached, the sun began its journey back to the sky, signaling the return of life to the

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Suva and Susiaiia

pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

SUSA AND SUSIANA * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

See map on inside covers.

* sack to loot a captured city 108

land. Each morning at dawn, a priest lit a ritual torch to signify the sun's triumph over death and its importance to Egypt's welfare and future success. The Egyptians developed a complex series of rituals to ensure the continued order of the universe, represented by the regular reappearance of the sun each day. The worship of the sun god in Egypt reached its peak during the reign of the pharaoh* Amenhotep IV (ca. 1353-1336 B.C.), also known as AKHENATEN. Amenhotep outlawed the worship of all other gods besides the sun god Aten. He even changed his own name to Akhenaten, which means "he who serves Aten," to signify his devotion to the god. This reform was not accepted by many Egyptians, and Egypt returned to polytheism, or the worship of many gods, after Akhenaten's death. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Rituals and Sacrifice; Theology.)

S

usiana was an ancient region in southwestern IRAN. Its major city, Susa, had a long and illustrious history, serving at one time as a capital of Elam and later as a capital of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Both the region and the city played a significant role in the history of Iran. By about 7000 B.C., permanent settlements began to be established in many parts of Susiana, and the city of Susa was founded around 4200 B.C. During the late fourth millennium B.C.*, Susa's culture began to resemble that of Sumer, with the use of cylinder seals, counting tokens enclosed in hollow clay balls (bullae), and a cuneiform-like accounting and writing system called Proto-Elamite, which was written on clay tablets. In the late third millennium B.C., Susa and Susiana were dominated both culturally and politically by the Akkadians, who also dominated MESOPOTAMIA. After the collapse of the Akkadian empire around 2193 B.C., Susa and Susiana fell under the control of the Mesopotamian kingdom of UR. Around 2004 B.C., the Susians allied themselves with the neighboring Elamites, invaded Mesopotamia, and reasserted their independence. Thereafter, the Susians became closely tied to the Elamites, who took control of and ruled Susa and Susiana. For the next 1,400 years, Susiana was an integral part of the Elamite civilization. As a royal capital and center of commerce, Susa developed into a large and important international city. Around 1500 B.C., for reasons unknown, the city entered a period of decline and was abandoned by most of its occupants. However, Susa regained prominence about 300 years later, when the Elamite empire reached the peak of its power and supremacy. Around 1110 B.C., Susa was conquered by the Babylonians, marking the beginning of another period of decline. Little is known about Susa or Susiana for the next 300 years except that political unrest and economic disaster plagued the region. In the late 700s B.C., Elamite power reemerged. At that time, Elam and Susiana became allies of the Babylonians and engaged in frequent conflicts with the Assyrians. Thereafter, Susa served primarily as a ceremonial and cultural center rather than a political or economic one. In about 646 B.C., King ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria renewed attacks on Susiana. He conquered and sacked* the city of Susa and relocated the

Syria

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the MediterraneanSea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest Bank, and Jordan satrapy portion of Persian-controlled territory under the rule of a satrap, or provincial governor

Syllabaries

SYRIA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

survivors to the Levant*. Thiseffectively ended the history of the Elamite state. Susa and Susiana remained in Assyrian control until Ashurbanipal's death in 630 B.C.Thereafter,Assyrian powerin the region beganto decline. By 550B.C., the Persianshad gained controlSusa of and Susiana,and the region became a satrapy* of the Persian empire. DAR- The Persian king IUS I fortified Susaand madeit one of his capitals. Susa prospered under Persian rule and became one of the most important cities of the empire.It had magnificent palaces and temples and once again served as a great cultural, political, and economic center. After the conquestof theGREAT Persian in ALEXANDER THEempire by 331B.C., Susa lost much of its powerand dominance,and the citywas renamed Seluciaon the Eulaeus.PARTHIA With after the B.C., 250 Susa riseof regained itsformer name and prospered yet again. Although it never regained itsformer greatness, Susa continued to flourish as a regional center for many centuriesafterward. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Elam and the Elamites; Seleucid Em

See Writing.

T

hroughout ancient times,Syria was an object of conquest and was often dominated by foreign powers. Along with Mesopotamia and Egypt, Syria was an early center of civilization in the ancient Near East. However, the civilization that developed there was somewhat different from that of the other two regions. Instead of large, unified kingdoms and empires, Syria consisted of small kingdoms and city-states*, many of which were based on loyalty within tribes rather than territory. Consequently, the inhabitants ofSyria were never able to achieve any kind of political unity except in smallareas of the total region.

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Syria

GEOGRAPHY EARLY AND DEVELOPMENT * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * arable suitable for

growing crops

* domesticated adapted human use

no

or tamed

for

Located in the Levant*, ancient Syria was home to many natural land routes that connect western Asia with Africa both and Europe. Although protected by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Anatolian plateau to the north, ancientSyria lay exposed to the plains of Mesopotamia to the east andArabia to the south. These geographic left factors Syria open to invasion and the target of many conquests. The Syrian landscape consistsof mountains, plateaus, fertile grasslands, and desert. The westernmost part is a coastal plain, whichin ancient times containeda numberof important UGARIT cities, and including the Phoenician city-states BYBLOS, TYRE. SIDON, and Although of Syria had limited natural resources, muchof the landwas arable*. Inhabited for thousands of yearsby peoplewho were huntersand gatherers,Syria later playeda significant rolein the early development of AGRICULTURE.A numberof plantsand animals were first domesticated* in Syria—including wheat,SHEEP, barley, CATTLE, rye, PIGS—and GOATS, and their domestication contributed to the development of farming in the region as earlyasB.C. 8300

Syria

* nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture

The development of agriculture supported an increase in population and the spread of village life in Syria. This led, in turn, to the emergence of towns as settlements grew larger and became centers of manufacture and trade. Some of the earliest towns in the ancient Near East were established in Syria, and towns and cities remained the focus of political development throughout much of the region's later history. Even with the development of larger settlements, many people in Syria continued to live in small villages scattered across the region. In addition, groups of nomads* traveled the area in search of grazing land for their herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. This mix of lifestyles contributed to the development of two different political systems in ancient Syria: centralized states that developed around large cities and decentralized tribal societies that were characteristic of villages and nomadic groups.

HISTORY Although distinct cultures emerged in Syria, the numerous invasions that occurred in its history left their mark on its people. The people of Syria found themselves under foreign rule many times.

Out of Africa Evidence suggests that the ancestors of modern hurnans migrated out of Africa more than a million years ago. Because of Syria's location at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe, these ancient ancestors no doubt traveled through the region on their way to other lands. The discovery of primitive stone axes and other tools dating from at least 250,000 years ago provides evidence of early habitation in Syria. Scholars also have evidence that early Neanderthal peoples inhabited Syria almost continuously between about 100,000 and 35,000 years ago.

Early History. By the 2500s B.C., an urban culture similar to that of Mesopotamia had emerged in Syria. One of the most important Syrian citystates of this period was EBLA, which dominated much of northern Syria for about 200 years. A number of port cities on Syria's Mediterranean coast traded with Ebla, but they were not politically dependent on it. In about 2320 B.C., the Sumerian city-state of URUK in Mesopotamia extended its power westward across Syria to the Mediterranean Sea. Uruk's influence over Syria was short-lived, however. Within the next few decades, SARGON I of Akkad and his grandson NARAM-SIN invaded Syria, sacked Ebla, and incorporated the region into the Akkadian empire. Following the collapse of the Akkadian empire, city life in Syria almost disappeared, and most people returned to living in small, temporary settlements. This decline of urban culture in Syria lasted for about a century. Between about 2100 and 1800 B.C., groups of nomadic peoples known as the AMORITES appeared in Syria and established a number of small kingdoms and city-states. By about 1800 B.C., urban culture was once again flourishing, and many cities had become the centers of small, independent states. One of the most powerful states during this period was Yamkhad, which had its capital at Halab (present-day Aleppo). The kings of Yamkhad dominated a number of minor rulers and tribal leaders in northern Syria, but a few cities remained independent, including KARKAMISH and Qatna. Various tribal societies also continued to exist, and their unruliness and demands for freedom from interference by centralized powers often caused problems for Syrian rulers. Invasion and Foreign Rule. Around 1600 B.C., parts of northern Syria suffered great destruction at the hands of the invading HITTITES from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Hittite control of northern Syria was short-lived, however. In its wake, a new power—the HURRIANS—gained control of the region. Ill

Syria

* vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

For some time, Hurrian tribes from the mountains of eastern Anatolia and western IRAN migrated to northern Syria and established settlements throughout that region. In many places, they comprised the majority of the population. Soon they gained political control over the Amorites and established Hurrian kingdoms throughout Syria. The most important Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni, located in upper Mesopotamia and eastern Syria. At the peak of its power, the kingdom of Mitanni ruled almost all of northern and central Syria. Its presence in the region effectively blocked other foreign intruders from entering Syria, at least until Mitanni clashed with Egypt in the mid-1400s B.C. Conflicts between Mitanni and Egypt ended peacefully when the two powers decided to divide Syria between them. They reached this agreement because of the Hittites, whose renewed strength posed a serious threat to the interests of Egypt and Mitanni. In the mid-1300s B.C., the Hittites defeated Mitanni and pushed the Egyptians back to southern Syria. Ultimately, the Hittites and Egyptians agreed to divide Syria just as Egypt and Mitanni had done earlier. Under both the Egyptians and the Hittites, most of the small kingdoms and city-states in Syria served as vassals*. Although they had little power to pursue independent foreign policies, local rulers often had significant authority to deal with their internal affairs. However, rivalries among the various Syrian states made it difficult for them to act in unison on any issues.

A PERIOD OF CHANGE Syria's history continued to be marked by foreign conquests. Sometimes the invaders were large empires acquiring more territories and resources. At other times, migrating peoples and nomadic tribes came to settle in Syria.

* Semitic of or relating to people of the Near East or northern Africa, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Jews, and Arabs * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

112

Upheaval and Change. In the late 1200s B.C., invasions by the SEA PEOPLES appear to have caused great change and upheaval in Syria and the Levant. In many parts of Syria, urban life declined dramatically as people moved away from cities to the countryside. Some cities, such as Ugarit, disappeared forever. Meanwhile, large numbers of people from Anatolia fled ahead of the invaders and migrated to Syria. These migrants, who became known as NEO-HITTITES, established a number of small states in northern Syria. In the 1100s B.C., the ARAMAEANS—a group of Semitic* peoples— appeared in Syria. Over the next few centuries, they spread throughout the region and came to play an important role in Syrian history. The rise of Aramaean civilization led to the reintroduction of tribal rule. In time, however, the Aramaeans established centralized states with ruling dynasties* of tribal origin. The principal Aramaean kingdom in Syria was DAMASCUS. Beginning in the 800s B.C., the fate of Syria became linked with empires to the east: Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. During the 800s B.C., the Assyrians launched repeated military campaigns against Syria, and by the next century, the entire region had been conquered. Some Syrian kingdoms became vassal states ruled by local kings. Others, including Damascus, were incorporated into the Assyrian empire as provinces governed by Assyrian officials.

Syria

Although the Assyrians'dominationofSyria lastedforless than 150 years, the regionforever bore their Syria name, is for ashortened form of Assyria.Before the endB.C., of the invasions 700s of northernMesopotamia by the CimmeriansandScythians from Russiaweakenedthe Assyrians, and in the late 600s B.C., Assyria fell toattacks from the BabyloniansandMEDES the ofIran. After fall the of theAssyrian empire, Syria became abattleground in astruggle between EgyptandBabylonia for control of the Levant.In theend, fell Syria underBabylonia'scontrol for about 50years. Later History.B.C., In the 539Persians BABYLON conquered andtook control of Syria, which becameasatrapy, PERSIAN orprovince, of the EMPIRE. While local dynasties continuedtoruleinsome coastal cities, most ofSyria was governedbyloyal Persian officialsappointedby the satrap, or provincial governor. 113

Taharqa

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. * urbanization formation and growth of cities

TAHARQA ruled 690-664 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh

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Persian rule of Syria was mostly peaceful, although the Persians occasionally had to put down local revolts. The Persians did not allow political independence, but they permitted the local cultures of Syria to develop with little interference. Syrians could practice their own religion and carry out their own trading activities. Syrian coastal cities were even free to establish colonies along other parts of the Mediterranean coast. As a result of such policies, Persia had little influence on Syrian culture during the 200 years of its rule. In 331 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA conquered the Persian empire and gained control of Syria. After his death in 323 B.C., the region was divided between Alexander's generals and their successors, the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. These two dynasties often competed for control of Syria, and conflicts erupted between them a number of times. The occupation of Syria by the Seleucids, ruling from Antioch, marked a significant change in Syria's history. For the next several centuries, the fate of the region became increasingly linked to the West instead of the Near East. During the Hellenistic* period, Syrian society was strongly influenced by Greek-style culture. The region also became involved in international political and economic affairs, which brought Syria prosperity and led to urbanization*. Hellenistic culture, prosperity, and urbanization continued under the Romans, who took control of Syria in 64 B.C. and incorporated it as a province of the Roman Empire. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hellenistic World; Migration and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Scythia and the Scythians; Sumer and the Sumerians; Trade Routes.)

T

aharqa (tuh«HAHR»kuh) was the fifth Nubian king in Egypt's Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He is best known as the king who lost Egypt to the Assyrians. Despite his unsuccessful military leadership, Taharqa is considered the greatest of builders. Taharqa inherited the thrones of Nubia and Egypt at the age of 32 after the death of his cousin (or nephew) Shebitku. Around 674 B.C., Taharqa fought off the invading Assyrians, led by King ESARHADDON. Three years later, Esarhaddon returned and successfully conquered northern Egypt, including the capital at MEMPHIS. However, Esarhaddon foolishly left the conquered territory in the hands of a few Assyrian military officers, and Taharqa was able to reconquer the region. Nevertheless, in 669 B.C., Esarhaddon's son and successor, ASHURBANIPAL, returned to Egypt and drove Taharqa into Nubia. Taharqa, who was never able to reconquer Egypt, died in Nubia and was buried in a pyramid in the cemetery of Nuri. He was succeeded by his nephew Tantamani. During his reign, Taharqa sponsored more building projects than any other Nubian ruler. He adorned the Great Temple of Amun at KARNAK with new processional ways and commissioned other buildings nearby. In Nubia, he commissioned several new temples in the Egyptian style in

Taxation the cities of Sanam, Kawa, and Pnuba. He also built several small temples in the northern province of Kush. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

TAXATION * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

T

he rise of centralized states in the ancient Near East required sources of income for GOVERNMENTS, which had to pay for ARMIES and the construction of public works and to supply food to the people in times of need. Loot seized during military campaigns on foreign soil did not provide an income large enough or regular enough to support governments, and neither did tribute* collected from conquered territories or vassal* states. From the earliest days of centralized states, the solution to the financial needs of governments was some form of taxation in which people living in a state paid set amounts to the government. The government then determined how the income from taxes was to be spent or redistributed. Payment and Collection of Taxes. Throughout much of the ancient period, people paid their taxes in kind, that is, in some form of goods rather than cash. The most direct form of taxation involved giving the government or its representatives a share of one's agricultural or craft production. Such taxes might consist of items such as grain, CATTLE, cloth, or other goods. In MESOPOTAMIA during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), the Sumerians maintained a large government animal pen near the city of NIPPUR. This place served as a clearinghouse for all sorts of in-kind payments, from GOATS to JEWELRY. The Mesopotamians also imposed a tax payment called ishkaru at Nuzi in the 1400s B.C. This consisted primarily of finished goods, such as garments, arrows, chariots, or armor; in Assyria in the 800s B.C., it consisted of silver. Labor was another kind of payment that could be regarded as a tax. Individuals, households, or villages might owe the government a certain number of days of work each year. Records from throughout Mesopotamia refer to a tax called the ilku, which was a labor tax owed by those who worked land owned by a higher authority. A tenant could assign someone else, such as a laborer on his property, to perform the ilku. As exchanges of precious metals become more common, some taxes were paid in such metals. For example, as early as the 2300s B.C., one ruler of the Sumerian city-state* of LAGASH required some taxes and fines to be paid in silver. Governments collected taxes through various means. In some societies, the temples or the army were responsible for gathering or receiving tax payments. Eventually, the office of tax collector emerged and became an important administrative division in all governments. In outlying districts, provincial governors often were responsible for making the appropriate payments to the central government. By the first millennium B.C.*, a practice called tax farming—in which the government sold to the highest bidder the right to collect taxes in a region—had become a basic feature of the Babylonian and Persian administrations. Having paid the tax required by the government, the tax farmer or collector often tried to collect an additional amount from the individuals or communities within his territory and keep it as profit.

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Technology

* Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Technology

Temples

TEN COMMANDMENTS 116

Types of Taxes. Because most ancient Near Eastern economies were based on AGRICULTURE, taxes on land and its products remained a key part of every state's overall income. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, for example, the prophet Samuel warned those Israelites who wanted a king that such a ruler would take a tenth of their crops and orchards. Some of the most detailed accounts of land taxes come from Egypt, where land was valued and taxed according to the amount of benefit it received from the annual flooding of the NILE RIVER, which enriched the soil. Officials measured each parcel of land carefully to determine how much tax—in the form of grain—its owner owed to the temples or to the government. Priests, however, did not have to pay taxes on the land they owned, and this was true in early Mesopotamia as well. Taxes paid by those who worked on or rented royal lands comprised a significant part of the income of the Mesopotamian state. One such tax, during the 2100s B.C., was the gunmada, a provincial tax owed by military men living on state-owned land on the outskirts of the kingdom. The gunmada was paid in cattle, delivered to the livestock pens near Nippur. Land taxes were commonly paid with grain, which served as a medium of exchange similar to money. Land taxes were not the only taxes paid in the ancient Near East. Trade and commerce were taxed as well. For example, MERCHANTS carrying goods into or out of a state had to pay import or export taxes, or customs duties, on them. Governments also charged fees, tolls, or taxes for the use of canals and roads or for the privilege of traveling through a place or using a harbor. By the Hellenistic* period, Near Eastern governments had developed many forms of taxation. The Babylonians, for example, had a salt tax, a tax on the sale of slaves, a canal tax, and a sort of sales tax that consumers paid when they bought certain other products. The collection of these and other taxes was crucial to the administration of the state. (See also Economy and Trade; Land Use and Ownership; Property and Property Rights; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

See Science and Technology.

See Palaces and Temples.

T

he Ten Commandments, which are recorded in the Hebrew BIBLE, form the ethical basis for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to the Bible, these commandments were revealed to MOSES when YAHWEH spoke to him on Mount SINAI during the Israelites' journey from Egypt to Canaan. The Ten Commandments are also called the Decalogue, from the Greek words deka and logoi, which mean "ten words/' and form the core of the contract between Yahweh and the Israelite people.

Teshub

* adultery sexual relations between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse

TESHUB * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C. * pantheon all the gods of a particular culture * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

The Ten Commandments are recorded twice in the Hebrew Bible. They are listed in the Books of Exodus (Chapter 20) and Deuteronomy (Chapter 5). Although the circumstances of how Moses received these laws are slightly different depending on which book reports the event, the laws are essentially the same. In the first two commandments, Yahweh tells the Israelites that he is their only God and that they should not worship other gods. The third and fourth rules state that the Israelites should not use Yahweh's name in a disrespectful manner and should observe the Sabbath (the day of rest and worship). The fifth commandment states that the Israelites should honor their parents. The last five commandments deal with ethics, saying that the Israelites should not murder, steal, commit adultery*, give false testimony, or desire their neighbors' possessions. No one is certain when the Ten Commandments were written. Some scholars believe that they were composed between the 1500s and 1200s B.C. Others believe that they were written around 750 B.C. It is also possible that they were written even later as a summary of the ancient religious and legal traditions of the Israelites. The Ten Commandments did not carry new ideas except for statements about the uniqueness of God and the holiness of the Sabbath. Similar laws existed in almost all other ancient Near Eastern cultures. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law; Mosaic Law; Torah.)

T

eshub (TE»shub) was the storm god of the HURRIANS, a group who lived in northern MESOPOTAMIA and SYRIA during the second millennium B.C.* The HITTITES adopted him, as well as his wife KHEPAT, into their large and complex pantheon* and merged him with the traditional Hittite weather god, Tarkhun. During the Hittite imperial* period, which lasted from 1350 to 1200 B.C., Teshub was considered the ruler of the heavens and head of the Hittite pantheon. He was usually portrayed holding a mace (a clublike weapon with a pear-shaped end for striking) and sometimes a lightning bolt as well. In a group of Hittite myths called the Kumarbi Cycle, Teshub appears as the son and enemy of KUMARBI, king of the Hittite gods. The Hittites adopted the mythology of the Kumarbi Cycle, like Teshub himself, from the Hurrians. The first tale in the cycle, titled Theogony (or Heavenly Kingship), tells how a series of four gods held the heavenly throne, each overthrowing the one before him. Finally, Teshub rises to power and prepares to overthrow the third king, Kumarbi. Unfortunately, the description of the battle has been lost. In the second tale, titled Song ofUllikummi, Kumarbi creates a stone monster named Ullikummi to destroy Teshub, but Teshub descends into the sea in his chariot to defeat the monster. A related myth, called the Myth of Khedammu, says that Kumarbi created a dragon named Khedammu, again to challenge Teshub. The dragon begins devouring humanity so that the people can no longer serve the gods. For a time it appears that "Teshub, the powerful king of Kummiya, will have to hold the plow himself/' Because the rest of the myth is lost, the 117

Textiles ending remains unknown. A later fragment of myth hints that Teshub's pride and violent nature were sources of trouble among the gods. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)

TEXTILES Beautiful Old Rugs and Carpets Perhaps the best-known textile products from the Near East today are beautifully woven rugs and carpets* The finest of these intricately patterned textiles were not woven on a loom but by hand, one knot at a time, In fact, archaeologists have found evidence of such carpets and the tools used to manufacture them in graves in Central Asia dating from about 2000 B.C. The earliest existing example of a pile carpet came from a tomb in Siberia dating from about 450 B.C. Unlike other decorative textiles from the ancient Near East, people from alt levels of society probably used carpets.

material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.

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extiles are fabrics of fiber or yarn that are made by hand or by machine. The production of textiles—for personal use and as articles of trade—was one of the most important activities in the ancient Near East. Documents from MESOPOTAMIA describe textile workshops that employed thousands of individuals, and textile manufacturing was often depicted in the WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* of ancient Egyptian tombs. Despite the importance and extent of textile production in the Near East, few examples of ancient textiles have survived to the present day. Unlike durable materials, such as STONE, metal, and POTTERY, textiles rarely survived thousands of years of burial or exposure to the elements. Only in very dry regions, such as Egypt, have archaeologists* discovered remains of ancient textiles. Nevertheless, from ancient texts, artworks, and remains of weaving equipment from ancient workshops, scholars have gained some insight into the production and uses of textiles in the ancient Near East. Origins and Use of Textiles. The earliest evidence of textile production in the Near East is a fragment of woven cloth from a site in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) dating from about 7000 B.C. Clay balls found in northeastern Mesopotamia dating from about the same time contain impressions of cloth that show the patterns of weaving. The quality of the workmanship evident from those impressions leaves little doubt that weaving was practiced long before that time. Scraps of fabric found at £ATAL HUYUK in Anatolia show that mechanical weaving machines, or looms, were in use in that region by at least 6000 B.C. Evidence of textile production in Egypt suggests that it may have developed later there, perhaps around 4500 B.C. The earliest textiles were made from linen, a fabric composed of fibers derived from FLAX. Flax grows naturally in many places throughout the region and was first domesticated* around 6000 B.C. Linen fabrics woven earlier than that must have been produced from wild flax. Although flax was the first fiber used for making textiles, wool eventually became the most widely used material in textile production. SHEEP were domesticated around 7000 B.C., but their coats were short and had little usable wool. Around 4000 B.C., breeders began to produce sheep with long woolly coats suitable for textile production. Other natural textile fabrics were unknown in the Near East until much later. Hemp, used for textiles in northern and central Europe and Asia as early as 5000 B.C., did not reach the Near East until about 1000 B.C. Cotton was probably introduced to the region from India around the same time. Silk, first developed in China in the third millennium B.C.*, did not reach the ancient Near East until about 650 B.C. Textiles served many functions. CLOTHING, tents, and similar items provided shelter and protection from the elements. Cloth sails helped propel ships, while burial shrouds covered the bodies of the dead. Colorful

Textiles rugs, furniture coverings,wall hangings,andother textile items beautified palaces, temples, and homes, while textile containers were used tohold and carry everything fromfoodsandpersonal belongingstoweaponsand tools. Textiles also servedas ameansofcommunicating values, status, and roles. For example, certain patterns, colors,anddesigns distinguished different groupsor individuals. Weaving and Dyeing. Toproduce textiles, ancient textile workers first stripped individual fibers from flaxorwoolandtied their ends together. Thefibers were thensoakedandsoftened. These softened fibers were spun intoyarn that could bewoven into cloth. The earliest looms in the ancient Near Eastconsistedof twowooden beams placed horizontally abovethe ground.Aseries ofyarns were stretched between these beams.Aweaver thenpassed bundles ofyarn back andforth through those yarnsatright anglestothemtocreatea woven fabric of verticaland horizontal threads.Byvaryingthecolorand arrangement of the yarns, theweaver could create differentdesigns and patterns in the cloth. Another type ofloom, thevertical loom, appearedinAnatoliain the early third millennium B.C. This loom stood uprightandrelied onsmall weights of clay, stone, ormetaltokeepthevertical yarns tight.Aneven more advanced typeofloomwas thetapestry loom, which hadspread from theCAUCASUSregion SYRIAbytothe middle of thethird B.C.Both millennium vertical and tapestry looms allowed weaverstoproduce complex patterns and more typesofweaves than horizontal looms. Althoughdifficult more to operate, they were less tiring physically because theweaver did nothave to squat orbend over to usethem. The earliest evidenceoftextile dyeingin theNear Eastdates from about 3000 B.C. The most commonly used coloring agents were natural dyes extractedfrom plantsoranimal-based dyes.Themost famousand expensive dye was apurpledyeobtained fromatype of seasnail. Known as Tyrianpurple—fromthe Phoenician TYREwhere itcity was of produced—the dye was sopopular among kings thatitbecameasymbol of

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Thebes royalty. During Roman times its production was a state secret, and only members of the elite were allowed to own or use the dye.

* second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

THEBES

See map in Egypt and the Egyptians (vol. 2).

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and .pasture

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Textile Industries. Textile production was probably the most important industry in ancient Mesopotamia. Records from the late third millennium B.C. indicate that tens of thousands of people worked in state-run textile workshops in the city of UR. These workshops used the wool from enormous herds of sheep to produce millions of pounds of woolen fabric each year. The palace and temples used some of this, but most was exported to other lands in exchange for goods not available locally. During the first half of the second millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians traded tin from IRAN and textiles from southern Mesopotamia for precious metals from Anatolia. They produced their own textiles, but these were considered inferior to the high-quality cloth woven in the south. Mesopotamian governments often used wool as a form of payment for workers, and households were expected to weave the clothes they needed and perhaps make extra cloth to meet commercial demand. Linen was the main textile produced in Egypt because woolly sheep were not raised there until after about 1000 B.C. The Egyptians also organized textile production in workshops, but the industry was less extensive than in Mesopotamia. In Egypt, Mesopotamia, and elsewhere in the ancient Near East, women did most of the spinning and weaving. However, whereas men supervised textile work in Mesopotamia, female overseers predominated in Egypt. After the vertical loom was introduced in Egypt around 1500 B.C., men become more actively involved in textile production. As in Mesopotamia, most Egyptian households wove their own cloth and made their own clothing. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade; Labor and Laborers; Women, Role of.)

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he ancient Egyptian city of Thebes was located on the NILE RIVER, about 400 miles south of present-day Cairo. The city and its surrounding area included the temples of KARNAK and LUXOR, numerous royal burial sites across the river, and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS and the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS. The ancient Egyptians called the city Nowe or Nuwe, which indicates that it was dedicated to the sun god AMUR The main part of Thebes was located almost entirely on the east bank of the Nile River, while the burial sites of the kings and queens were located on the west bank. Also located on the west bank were the villages that housed the workers who built the temples and tombs and the houses of the priests who maintained the religious sites. The oldest monuments in Thebes date from the Eleventh Dynasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.). It was during this period that Upper and Lower Egypt were unified and the city became the capital of Egypt. During the Twelfth Dynasty (ca. 1938-1759 B.C.), the royal capital was moved from Thebes to LISHT, closer to Lower Egypt. However, Thebes remained an important site, particularly for temples that honored Amun. Around 1630 B.C., a nomadic* group from western Asia known as the HYKSOS conquered Egypt, but they were unable to subdue Thebes. The

Theology

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

THEOLOGY

deity god or goddess

leaders of the city finally succeeded in driving the Hyksos from power in about 1523 B.C. This success marked the beginning of Thebes' greatest period. Grand estates for the country's elite and huge temples in honor of the gods were built in Thebes. On the west bank of the Nile, temples and elaborate tombs were built for the dead. Between 1100 and 950 B.C., the government was controlled by the high priest of Amun in Thebes, as well as a pharaoh* who ruled from the city of Tanis in the Nile Delta. During the early 600s B.C., Nubian pharaohs ruled Egypt from Thebes. In 663 B.C., however, the city was destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, and it never regained its former glory. (See also Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians.)

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he term theology refers to the systematic study of a religious faith. In ancient times, people did not question or study their beliefs. They were accepted as true, inherited traditions. Priests and temple workers did learn about their religions, but they generally focused on the correct performance of religious rituals. In terms of the ancient Near East, the word theology will be used to refer to the people's system of beliefs about the supernatural and their knowledge of the gods and the world. Modern scholars know about theology in the ancient Near East from several sources, including myths, HYMNS, PRAYERS, and other religious writings. Artifacts, such as religious statues and architectural remains of temples and tombs, also provide insights into the beliefs the peoples of the ancient Near East held about their gods. Nature of the Supernatural. In many ancient Near Eastern societies, the supernatural — existence beyond what can be seen—was first thought of as living forces. For instance, people felt that living forces permeated the rivers, lakes, wind, and animals. In more sophisticated cultures, the people came to believe that these forces were controlled by supernatural beings — gods. Gods could have animal forms, such as bulls or birds, but more commonly they were presented in human forms, both male and female, although larger and more powerful than normal beings. Once supernatural powers were given human form, there was a tendency to model the behaviors and existences of the deities* on the human world. For example, people assumed that deities had spouses, children, and servants and that they had the same emotions— jealousy, fear, anger, joy— as humans. Some gods, however, exhibited mixed human and animal forms. Deities were not the only supernatural powers believed to exist in the ancient Near East, however. In some sophisticated theologies, powers, such as "fate" or "norms" (me in Sumerian, ma' aim Egyptian), gave stability to the cosmos and order to the divine realms. People also believed that some forces became DEMONS, generally evil and irrational beings who caused harm to people for no reason. The dead were also believed to have supernatural powers. The spirits of parents, grandparents, and other ancestors could be either helpful or harmful, depending on how they were treated by their descendants. Because of this belief, the dead were feared and 121

Theology

* cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * sanctuary most sacred part of a religious building

* prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

The Memphite Theology One of the few theological writings: from ancient times Is the Memphite Theology, which was inscribed on a monument in the Egyptian city of Memphis around 700 B.C. This theological work was at first said to be a copy of a more ancient Egyptian creation myth. It describes how Ptah, the great city god of Memphis, created everything else in the universe simply through his thoughts and words. The Memphite Theology is now thought to be a fake, written in a deliberate at- \ tempt to establish Memphis as an Important religious center.

appeased. The Israelites, Mesopotamians, Canaanites, and Egyptians all made offerings to their dead ancestors to gain their favor and support and to avoid their anger. The cult* of the dead was especially important in ancient Egypt. Regional Theologies. The Mesopotamians, Hittites, Egyptians, and peoples of the Levant* had many gods. According to their theologies, the deities were present in the world in the form of small statues that were kept in temple sanctuaries*. Serving the deities centered on offering their statues food and drink. Failing to serve the deities properly was believed to lead to illness or some other misfortune. It was believed that the gods had created humans to serve them, and as long as the proper rituals, OFFERINGS, and other aspects of worship were carried out, the deities would be satisfied and act kindly toward their human servants. The theology of the Israelites was at first similar to the theologies of other Near Eastern cultures, with their many deities. However, over time, the Israelites came to believe in one deity, called YAHWEH. The Israelites viewed their place in the universe as a result of a covenant, or agreement, Yahweh had made with them. The covenant was that, in return for proper observance of Yahweh's laws, the Israelites would have a strong nation and just laws. Most of what is known about Iranian theology comes from the Zoroastrian religion. As taught by the prophet* Zoroaster in the 600s B.C., there was only one god. This god—AHURA MAZDA—created twin brothers, one of whom followed the path of goodness and truth, while the other pursued evil and lies. Over time, Zoroastrianism included other gods, and Ahura Mazda came to be identified with the good twin, while AHRIMAN represented the evil one. Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were believed to be engaged in a battle over the universe, a battle that Ahura Mazda would one day win. Theology and Government. The theological beliefs of the ancient Near Eastern peoples were reflected in the structures of their governments. Rulers in the ancient Near East were considered chief representatives of the gods. As such, they were responsible for overseeing their communities in accordance with the gods; wishes and for ensuring that the gods were worshiped properly. A community's favor with the gods and its prosperity depended on how well its ruler fulfilled his duties to the gods. The gods had also appointed the king to protect the people of his kingdom. Therefore, it was his responsibility to oversee the administration of the laws the gods had entrusted to him. Myths. Part of the theology of ancient Near Eastern cultures was communicated through their mythology. Most of the questions ancient people had about their origins and existence were answered in their myths—stories that explained how supernatural forces created and controlled the heavens and earth. All ancient myths were developed to resolve a problem or answer a question. For example, a myth might provide reassurance against a potential disaster, such as a flood, or explain some unknown part of life, such as conception. Myths were a way of

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Thera making sense of the world, and they provided ancient people with a sense of stability and security. Most people in the ancient Near East had theogonies—stories about how gods came to be. They also had CREATION MYTHS that answered the question of how the world began. Creation myths from different regions shared certain similarities. For example, all the myths began with some substance that was presumed to have always existed and required no explanation. In Egyptian and Mesopotamian myths, this substance was water. According to Zoroastrianism, the world was created from fire. According to the Israelite religion, before creation there was water, earth, wind, and darkness. In another Israelite story, the universe before creation was a rainless desert. Judaism and Zoroastrianism are unusual in that their theologies included myths pertaining to the end of the world. According to their beliefs, the immortal human soul receives punishment or reward based on a person's actions in life. There will be a day of judgment at the end of the world when the soul's fate will be decided. (See also Iconography; Judaism and Jews; Mythology; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

THERA

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

* tsunami large sea wave caused by a volcanic eruption or earthquake

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual * oracle priest or priestess through whom a god is believed to speak; also, the location (such as a shrine) where such utterances are made

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he island of Thera, also called Santorini, is part of a group of islands known as the Cyclades, which are located in the AEGEAN SEA, an arm of the Mediterranean Sea. Thera was famous for its wine, and in ancient times, it provided an important stop between CRETE and the rest of the Cyclades. Thera is perhaps best known for the enormous volcanic eruption that occurred there. This eruption affected the entire Aegean region. Humans have lived on Thera since at least 2000 B.C., when the town of Akrotiri was the main settlement on the island. The Minoan civilization was Thera's most important influence. Archaeologists* have uncovered pottery, frescoes*, and other items at Akrotiri exhibiting this influence. Unique multistoried houses have also been found at Thera. Archaeologists believe that the settlement was a major center for the seatrade among the Aegean islands. History's largest volcanic eruption occurred on the island in about 1500 B.C. (Some scholars date the eruption somewhat earlier, others somewhat later.) The eruption literally blew most of the island away. In fact, the entire Aegean region, especially the southern Aegean and Crete, was affected by the tsunamis*, ash fallout, and EARTHQUAKES caused by the violent eruption. Akrotiri was buried under almost 100 feet of ash, and scientists have even found ash from the volcano as far away as Egypt and Israel. Some scholars believe that the eruption gave rise to the myth of the lost island of Atlantis. Others believe that it was the source for stories in the biblical Book of Exodus. In about 1000 B.C., the island was resettled by Dorians from the Greek mainland. A drought*, as well as a command from the oracle* at Delphi, prompted many of the citizens of Thera to found a colony on the northern coast of Africa in about 630 B.C. This colony, Gyrene, became one of the islanders' most important achievements. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Volcanoes.) 123

Thutmose III

THUTMOSE III ruled ca. 1479-1425 B.C. Egyptian king * pharaoh king of ancient Egypt * regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch is too young or unable to rule * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

TIGLATH-PILESER I I I ruled 745-727 B.C. King of Assyria * usurp to wrongfully occupy a position * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under the threat of force * province region that forms part of a larger state or empire

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hutmose III (thoot»MOH»suh) was a pharaoh* during the Eighteenth Dynasty and is considered one of Egypt's greatest rulers. When his father, Thutmose II, died around 1479 B.C., his young son and heir was not old enough to become king. Therefore, HATSHEPSUT, both wife and half sister of Thutmose II, became regent*. Eventually, however, strong-minded and ambitious Hatshepsut declared herself pharaoh and ruled together with Thutmose III until her death in about 1458 B.C. When Thutmose finally gained sole power over the Egyptian throne, he began to reestablish the empire that his grandfather Thutmose I had created. First, he marched into the Levant* and subdued a rebellion of local princes. However, he understood the power of diplomacy* far better than his predecessors had; instead of killing his conquered enemies, he took the princes' heirs back to Egypt as hostages. Once a prince died, his heir was returned to assume the throne, having been trained to be an obedient vassal*. In just 20 years, Thutmose successfully conquered much of the Levant and southern SYRIA. Like his grandfather Thutmose I, he reached the EUPHRATES RIVER, but he was unable to go any farther because of the Mitannians. Thutmose III died around 1425 B.C. and was buried in the VALLEY OF THE KINGS. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

C

onsidered one of the most capable rulers in Assyrian history, Tiglath-pileser III (TIG»lath»pi»LAY»zuhr) was the first king of the Neo-Assyrian empire. He led a series of brilliant military campaigns that rapidly expanded the empire and restored it to greatness after decades of decline. In 745 B.C., while serving as governer of the city of KALKHY, Tiglathpileser usurped* the throne of Assyria during a rebellion against the weak ruler Ashur-nirari V. After taking power, Tiglath-pileser launched an aggressive policy in the north and west, conquering the kingdom of URARTU, a number of Neo-Hittite kingdoms, and several Phoenician city-states* in SYRIA and CANAAN. He also campaigned against the MEDES in the northeast and helped Babylonia defeat the Aramaean nomads*, who were threatening its borders. Following these conquests, Tiglath-pileser began to consolidate Assyrian control. Instead of just demanding tribute*, he turned conquered regions into Assyrian provinces*. He also renewed a policy of forced migrations, or deportations, removing thousands of people from conquered territories and replacing them with loyal groups from other parts of the empire. In 729 B.C., Tiglath-pileser took advantage of unrest in Babylonia and seized the city of BABYLON. He then declared himself king of Babylonia, thus linking the two kingdoms. He died soon afterward, having regained much of Assyria's former greatness and leaving an enormous empire to his son and successor, SHALMANESER V. (See also Aramaeans; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Kings.)

Tools

TIGRIS RIVER

* tributary river that flows into another river

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

Tin

Tombs

TOOLS * artisan skilled craftsperson * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

S

ince ancient times, the Tigris River has been one of the most important waterways in the Near East. The earliest civilizations in the region developed between the Tigris and the EUPHRATES RIVER, in a region that was known as MESOPOTAMIA (a Greek word meaning ''land between the rivers''). Both rivers originate in the mountains of eastern Turkey and run in a southeasterly direction, emptying into the Persian Gulf. From its source in Hazar Lake, the Tigris flows steeply downhill through mountainous territory. Most of the water in the river is supplied by winter rains and melting snows from mountains in Turkey. Its upper reaches are fed by four main tributaries* that drain much of eastern Turkey. When the winter rains and spring snow melts are heavy, the Tigris is prone to devastating floods. During these times, because of its steep course, the Tigris is much swifter and deeper than the Euphrates. This makes it more difficult to draw water from the Tigris for use in irrigating fields downstream. Although most of the early Mesopotamian cities were founded on the banks of the Euphrates, some cities were also built along the Tigris, including NINEVEH, perhaps as early as 7000 B.C., and ASHUR, around 2500 B.C. Both of these cities eventually became part of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians also built other cities, including KALKHU and Khorsabad, along the Tigris. Among the important cultures that arose in the lands surrounding the Tigris were those of the HURRIANS, the people of Mitanni, and the Urartians. The city of Seleucia, one of the capital cities of the SELEUCID EMPIRE, was built on the Tigris around 300 B.C. After the Parthians captured Mesopotamia in the 140s B.C., they built their capital, Ctesiphon, across the river from Seleucia. (See also Floods; Geography; Rivers; Water.)

See Metals and Metalworking.

See Burial Sites and Tombs.

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he laborers and artisans* of the ancient Near East used a wide variety of tools, many of which resemble those used by people today. With their simple tools and implements, ancient workers were able to produce a variety of artifacts* used in everyday life. Their tools—made from wood, stone, copper, bronze, and iron—built the ancient world and allowed the people to take care of themselves.

Tools of Farming and Industry. The earliest tools were stone objects, such as knife blades, spearheads, and arrow points used for hunting. Once an animal was killed, stone blades, choppers, and scrapers were used to cut it up and to remove and process its hide for CLOTHING or shelter. Early farmers used wooden plows to prepare soil for planting and stone sickles to harvest grain. They also used stone grinders to crush the

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Tools

* smelt to heat ore for the purpose of extracting pure material

* cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes itsname from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor,or teacher

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grain to makeflour for bread.Eventually,copper, bronze,andlater, iron tools replaced many ofthoseofstoneandwood.However,stonewasstill used for tools many hundredsofyears afterthe use ofmetals became widespread. Ancient carpenters used saws, hammers, chisels, planes (for shaving wood), and awls (for punching holes).Tobore holesinhard substances, workers used bow drills.Thestringof the bow(like that usedby anarcher) was wrapped around one ormore thinposts, each tipped with astone or metal bit at its cutting end. Movingthebowbackandforth horizontallyrotated the posts, allowing the bit topress down and cut into thematerial being worked. Builders also used several implements for planningandlaying out their projects.Theplumb bob, aweighted string from hungthecenter of one side of a triangular frame, servedas the earliest type oflevel. The frame was placed pointed side down betweentwobeamsorother objects on the ground. If the string aligned precisely with the point,thearchitect knew thesurface waslevel. Other surveyingandmeasuring tools included rulers called cubit sticksand squares that were usedtodetermine whether the corners of a building formed true right angles. The metalworkerswho created manyofthese measuring tools relied on specific tools of their own.Thehammer, tongs,andanvil were part of the metalworking trade from avery early date. first Themetalworkers blew through a metal tube to makefireshotterforsmelting* metals. This eventually gave way to the bellows, ahandheld device thatcould pump much more air and dramatically increasetheheatof a fire.

Tools of Artists and Scientists. Sculptors used many of thesam tools employed bybuilders—hammers,chisels,andadzes (cutting tools)— to shape stone into statues orstone bowls. Artisans used the bowdrill to bore holes JEWELRY, in SEALS, and other decorative objects. WRIT- Scribes used ING implements fashioned from reeds. In Mesopotamia, wedge-shaped cuneiform* symbols wereCLAY pressed TABLETS into wet with astylus (writing tool) madefroma reed called sedge. Egyptian scribes* stiffhollow used reeds for pens.

Trade Routes Ancient physicians had access to surgical and dental instruments, including scalpels, retractors (instruments for holding open edges of a wound), and needles. Remains of corpses from Egypt show that surgeons often achieved successful results using these very basic devices. Although tools had developed as a means to kill animals, they had also become a means of prolonging and enriching human lives. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Measurement; Metals and Metalworking; Sculpture; Stone; Wood and Woodworking.)

TORAH * exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

Trade

TRADE ROUTES

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he Hebrew word torah, which means "instruction/' refers to the first five books, also called the Pentateuch, of the Hebrew BIBLE. The term also came to refer to the oral tradition of laws and customs that interprets the written Torah. According to Jewish tradition, YAHWEH revealed the Torah and the TEN COMMANDMENTS to the leader MOSES on Mount SINAI. This event occurred during the Israelites' exodus* from Egypt. Modern scholars, however, believe that the Torah was written by different people, possibly under different circumstances and during different times. The names for the books come from the first line of each book, and the English names summarize the events in each book. Bereisheet (Genesis), meaning "In the Beginning/' discusses the origins of humankind and the selection of the Israelites as God's chosen people. Shemot (Exodus), which means "Names," as in "Now these are the names of the sons of Israel," describes the journey of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan. Va-yikra (Leviticus), which means "He called," as in "And the Lord called unto Moses," discusses priestly regulations and laws. Ba-midbar (Numbers) which means "In the Wilderness," refers to a census or description of the 12 Israelite tribes. Devarim (Deuteronomy) which means "Words," as in "These are the words of Moses," is a summary of the laws stated earlier. The written Torah is the most sacred religious text in Judaism, and parts of it are read weekly during most Jewish services. Today every synagogue houses at least two Torah scrolls, each handwritten on leather. These scrolls are kept in a special box called the ark of the Law. Special ceremonies are performed each time the Torah is removed from and returned to the ark. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

See Economy and Trade.

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rade between distant regions of the ancient Near East was common by the early third millennium B.C.* By studying records and ruins of ancient civilizations, archaeologists* and historians have been able to trace the main routes over which trade was conducted. Despite the danger of bandits and wild animals, most trade goods were carried overland

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Trade Routes * third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious stone

* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 tO 1 B.C.

* domestication process of adapting or taming for human use

See map in Economy and Trade (vol.2).

delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river

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on ROADS by donkey CARAVANS. Traders also used water routes. Water travel was faster, safer, and more efficient than overland travel, and large cargoes were sent by boat or ship whenever possible. Mesopotamia!! Trade Routes. As early as the late fourth millennium B.C.*, the city-states* of URUK and Susa had networks of trade routes. One such route was used to bring lapis lazuli* to Sumer and Elam from presentday Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli was then traded along the Great Khorasan Road that ran southwest from IRAN to MESOPOTAMIA. Another extensive trade network developed along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, connecting southern Mesopotamia to ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) through northern SYRIA. Most of the trade routes in this region followed the rivers closely where possible. Farther north and west, the routes ran through passes in the rugged mountains of southeastern Anatolia. The Assyrians opened up trade into central Anatolia, where they had established trading colonies by about 1900 B.C. Two major roads ran west from the Assyrian capital of ASHUR to the important trading colony of Kanesh. During the first millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians constructed and maintained an extensive road system that stretched from northwestern Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf and east into Iran. After the collapse of the Assyrian empire, the Persians took over and extended the Assyrian road system. Under the Persians, the "royal roads" as they were known reached to the westernmost portions of Anatolia. They eventually linked the cities of the Aegean seacoast to the rest of the Near East. The domestication* of camels around 1100 B.C. opened new caravan routes across the Syrian Desert between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean Sea. Tin and precious stones from Iran and Afghanistan and TEXTILES from Mesopotamia were the main goods carried north and west along these routes. The Mesopotamians brought back copper, silver, wool, dyes, and timber. Much of the southbound trade moved via rivers, especially large cargoes such as timber from the Mediterranean region. CANALS in southern Mesopotamia carried most of the trade goods from the northwest that entered Babylonia. Mesopotamia developed seaborne trade with its southern neighbors of the Persian Gulf by the middle of the third millennium B.C. Sumerian records report a brisk copper trade with the country of Magan, in the present-day OMAN PENINSULA. In the 2200 B.C., the Akkadians imported copper, ivory, turquoise, and exotic animals from MELUKKHA in present-day northwestern India, through the Persian Gulf. Many of these goods were bought and sold on the Persian Gulf island of Dilmun (present-day BAHRAIN). This small kingdom became an important trading center for MERCHANTS from Arabia, southern Mesopotamia, and India. Egyptian Trade Routes. Egypt had begun to trade with the island of CRETE by at least 2000 B.C. Ships from Egypt sailed the Mediterranean Sea on a current that flowed from the delta* of the NILE RIVER northward to Crete. In summer, a wind from the northwest aided ships on their way back to Egypt. However, seaborne trade in the eastern Mediterranean took place along the coastal cities in Syria. Egypt had a serious need for timber, which it obtained from Syria, along with olive oil and wine.

Transportation and Travel Egypt also traded with African states to the south, such as Nubia and Punt. Nubia was easily reached by sailing up the Nile (the Nile flows from south to north). Scholars are unsure of the precise location of Punt, but Egyptian records indicate that expeditions to that region traveled on the RED SEA. Punt probably lay along the African coast where the Red Sea flows into the Indian Ocean at present-day Somalia. Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree resins used to make incense and perfumes

TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL diplomat person who conducts negotiations or relations with foreign kingdoms, states, or nations

The Levant and Arabia. The people of the Levant* played a large role in trade because the region was centrally located in the ancient Near East. Several roads ran in a north-south direction, with crossroads connecting where the terrain allowed. By 1000 B.C., the main trading cities on the eastern Mediterranean coast had come under the control of the Phoenicians. These seafaring people had developed ships that were able to make sea voyages to places as far away as Spain and possibly England. By the 700s B.C., the Phoenicians were trading with Egypt, Anatolia, Greece, and other locations throughout the Mediterranean. The people of ancient Arabia used the camel for trade. In fact, these animals were especially important in the opening of trade routes to southern Arabia. Trade goods here included such luxury items as frankincense and myrrh*. Trade routes were also dictated by where traders could stop for water on their journey. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

T

he people of the ancient Near East lived in a world that was smaller than today's in many ways. First, they had little or no contact with the peoples of northern Europe, eastern Asia, and southern Africa, which lay beyond their world. Second, traveling long distances for pleasure—as vacationers do today—was probably not done. People traveled only when they had to: to take goods to market, to flee an invading army, to visit a temple in another city, or to lead livestock to new pastures. MERCHANTS, SOLDIERS, MESSENGERS, and diplomats* were among the besttraveled people of ancient times. Some of them made frequent and long journeys as part of their jobs and responsibilities. However, the great majority of people probably never traveled far from home, although written records suggest that short local journeys—as people visited each other, attended festivals, and engaged in commerce—were common in all periods. Much of what is known about transportation and travel in the ancient Near East comes from royal records concerned mainly with military matters. However, this material sometimes contains general information about routes and methods of travel. It sheds light on how the people of the ancient Near East moved themselves and their goods from place to place. Historical Importance of Travel. Three types of long-distance travel helped shape the history and culture of the ancient Near East— those concerned with war, trade, and COMMUNICATION. 129

Transportation and Travel

Praise for Road Builders One of the biggest engineering challenges of the ancient Near East was building and maingaining roads that allowed wagon crews to transport huge fogs from ;f orests high in the mountains to jwhera they were used to construct ^palaces and temples. Hie £pic of G//* Igamesh says of a mythical mountain j ""guardian, "Where Khumbaba was wont to walk, a trail was set down, roads were straightened, and the going was made good/ King Nebuchadnezzar ft of Babylonia, who .wanted some erf the credit for himfself, boasted of his road-building f achievements in$iat region; "I cut f through steep mountains, I split frocks, opened passages, constructe i straight road for the cedars/'

Much of the traffic that moved along the ROADS and waterways of the ancient Near East consisted of ARMIES on the move. Invasions, conquests, retreats, and similar events of long-lasting political and historical significance took place to the drumbeat of soldiers' marching feet and the sound of water lapping the sides of SHIPS AND BOATS. Traveling merchants comprised the second important category of long-distance travelers. The process of buying goods in one place and selling them in another led to the growth of a network of TRADE ROUTES and a system of organized commercial travel, much of which took place in CARAVANS. Many of the contacts that allowed languages, foods, customs, beliefs, and technology to spread among ancient cultures occurred in the context of trade. The third significant group of travelers consisted of messengers. Although the ancient Near East lacked formal public postal services, communications could and did travel over great distances. While some messengers traveled on royal or government business, there were also private services that carried messages for a fee. Messengers helped weave a network of cross-cultural connections, as shown by a series of tablets found in the Egyptian city of AMARNA. Dating from the 1300s B.C., these CLAY TABLETS consist of correspondence between Egypt and other states throughout the Near East, all carried by messengers. Similar evidence of communication by messengers exists throughout the region. Transportation and Travel by Water. The easiest and cheapest way to move large quantities of goods in ancient times was by water. The NILE RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in Mesopotamia served as vital transportation arteries from very early times. The oldest known evidence of water transportation in Mesopotamia—a clay model of a sailboat found in a grave in the ancient city of ERIDU—dates from before 4000 B.C. For thousands of years, RIVERS gave the Sumerians, and later the Babylonians, of southern Mesopotamia access to their northern neighbors, Assyria on the Tigris and Syria on the Euphrates. In the flatlands of central and southern Mesopotamia, the rivers flowed slowly enough to allow easy boat travel in both directions. In the north, however, the rivers flowed down out of the hills and mountains, and the current was too swift for upstream travel. Boats could be towed against the current, but this was costly and done only for especially important missions. Usually people sailed downstream only and then returned upstream by land. In addition to the large rivers, Mesopotamia had an elaborate network of primary and secondary CANALS fed by the rivers. Riverboats could navigate these canals. Waterways were vitally important to the well-being of Mesopotamian states, as King HAMMURABI of BABYLON pointed out in a message to the king of MARI, explaining why he wanted to control the city of Id and its wells of asphalt, a tarlike substance used to make boats watertight. Hammurabi wrote, 'The strength of your country consists of donkeys and wagons, but the strength of this country consists of boats/' Transportation and Travel by Land. Although transportation by water was economical, not everyone had access to boats or waterways,

130

Transportation and Travel

* first millennium B.C. period between 1000 and 1 B.C.

nor were all waterways navigable. Consequently,walkingwas themost common form of transportation in the ancient world, although women, children, the elderly,and the sickmight rideadonkey. Records fromthe first millennium B.C.* show people CAMELS, HORSES, but riding and mules, such means of transportation remainedless far common thanwalking. Thefirst wheeled vehiclesin the Near EastappearedinMesopotamia around 3000 B.C.Before that time, peopleand animalshadhauled goods on sleds. One common type ofearly wheeled vehiclewas theox-drawn wagon for carrying goodsand sometimes passengers (such ashigh-ranking men and women). There were also two-wheeled andfour-wheeled carts andCHARIOTS pulledby donkeys or horses. Although firstused forpassengers, chariots quickly acquired military uses throughout theancient world. Even with wheeled vehicles, however, most overland transport relied on pack animals. Donkeys were among firstthe animals used freight as carriers, and they remained themost common pack animal inmountainous regions, where they were prizedfortheir sure footingonnarrow paths.After about 1100 B.C., camels also became pack animals. Their ability to endure long stretches without water made themespecially valuable in desert areas. Whether onfoot, in a wagon, or on the backof ananimal, people who ventured out of familiar territory required roads with clear landmarks because MAPSfor travelers did not yet exist. Theimportance ofrecognizable points alongarouteisillustratedin theMesopotamian story of

131

Trojan War

GILGAMESH when the hero asks, "Where is the road to Utnapishtim, what are its landmarks?" Magical spells from ancient Mesopotamia speak of angry ghosts who removed landmarks and made travelers go astray. Then as now, getting lost was one of the hazards of a road trip. (See also Migration and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Shipping Routes; Wheel.)

Trojan War

TROY epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

See map in Anatolia (vol. 1).

132

See Troy.

T

roy is one of the most famous cities in history, yet until recently, most people did not believe that it was real place. Located in presentday Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), the city gained its fame from the Greek poet Homer's epics* the Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient city of Troy was located in northwestern Anatolia near the AEGEAN SEA. Throughout ancient times, Troy was essentially a fort that housed the Trojan king and his court. The city was rebuilt nine times during its 3,000 years of inhabitation. Each time the city was destroyed, the Trojans would level the ruins and build on top of them. Located along major trade routes in the ancient Near East, Troy quickly grew rich and prosperous. Little else of the city's early history is known. Archaeologists* believe that around 1260 B.C., Troy was destroyed by fire, perhaps during the legendary Trojan War as described in Homer's poems. The survivors of the fire rebuilt the city, but not to its former glory. During the next few hundred years, the city was destroyed and rebuilt several times until the 700s B.C., when the Greeks colonized the area. The Greeks resettled Troy, which they called Ilion. There they built a temple to Athena, which attracted many visitors and great rulers, including the Persian king XERXES and the Macedonian ruler ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In 85 B.C., the Romans attacked and destroyed Ilion. Shortly thereafter, the city was rebuilt. Over the years, Roman emperors added many imperial* buildings to the city, which they called Ilium. The city continued to flourish until the A.D. 300s, when the Romans founded Constantinople in Turkey. Thereafter, Ilium ceased to be an important city, and ultimately it was abandoned. The location of Troy was unknown until the early A.D. 1800s, when German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann identified a place in Turkey as the site of the ancient city. In excavating its ruins, archaeologists discovered ten levels of settlements occupied over a period of more than 3,000 years. Archaeologists found massive walls, citadels, gateways, and towers at several levels, indicating that the city was wealthy in ancient times. Other items unearthed during the excavations included jewelry and ornaments of gold, Mycenaean pottery, tools, vessels made of copper and bronze, and weapons. Although many scholars are unsure whether Homer's account of the Trojan War is based on actual events, archaeological excavations have

Tutankhamen

provided evidence that thecityofTroywasdestroyed aroundthe same time as the war isbelievedtohave occurred. Some historians think that the destruction wascausedby anearthquake fire, and while others maintain that the city wasdestroyed becauseof theeventsof Trojan the War.Although archaeology cannot prove whetherandwhere Trojan theWar took place, it providesframe a of referencefor theevents described in Homer's epics.(Seealso Greece and theGreeks; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

Turkey

See Anatolia.

TUTANKHAMEN ruled ca. 1332-1322 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh * pharaoh king ofancient Egypt * heretic person whogoes against established beliefs of a religion * deity god orgoddess

the

T

utankhamen(too-tehng-KAH-muhn),anEighteenth Dynasty pharaoh*, is one of the mostfamous rulersinEgyptian history. However, fame his comes notfrom alongand successfulreignorbecause he hadgreat military victories. Instead, Tutankhamen famous is because his is the best-preserved tomb everfound KINGS, VALLEY THE inOF acemetery the located near ancient THEBES. Tutankhamen succeededthepharaohs AKHENATEN. Smenkhkare and These rulers were considered heretics* because theyhad triedto make ATEN the sole Egyptian god, whereastheEgyptians worshiped many deities* of whom AMUNwas thechief god. Akhenaten hadeven established a new capital AKHETATEN called inAten's honor. Scholars areuncertain about Tutankhamen'sancestry. Some historians believe that Smenkhkarewas hisbrother. Texts fromtemple a at

133

Tyre

regent person appointed to govern while the rightful monarch is too young or unable to rule

pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

See [color plate 10,^ vol. 4.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi * amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

TYRE * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

134

LUXOR state that Amenhotep III was his father, but it is possible that the word father was used to mean ancestor. Notwithstanding the controversy regarding his ancestry, scholars know that Tutankhamen was first named Tutankhaten, meaning "living image of the Aten./; Tutankhamen inherited the throne when he was 9 years old. His main advisers were his regent*, Ay, and the general of the Egyptian armies, Horemheb. These two men advised the young king to distance himself from his Aten-worshiping predecessors. He therefore changed his name to Tutankhamen (in honor of Amun), returned the capital of Egypt to Thebes, and repaired temples and statues dedicated to the old Egyptian pantheon*. He married one of Akhenaten's daughters, Ankhesenpaaten, who also distanced herself from her father by changing her name to Ankhesenamen. Tutankhamen died when he was about 18 years old and was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb was probably originally meant for a minor official, for it did not have the long corridor typical of royal tombs and it only had four small rooms. It is most likely that the tomb actually designed for Tutankhamen was used instead by his regent and adviser, Ay. After Ay died, Tutankhamen's other main adviser, Horemheb, became pharaoh. Although he had made changes favorable to Amun, Tutankhamen later fell into disgrace for being associated with the Atenworshiping rulers. Consequently, most references to the young king were removed from monuments and temples, and his tomb was forgotten. During the 1100s B.C., the tomb of Ramses VI was unknowingly constructed above Tutankhamen's tomb. During the construction of this tomb, tons of stone chips fell over the entrance of Tutankhamen's tomb, hiding it for thousands of years. As a result of his short reign, his later disgrace, and the burial of his tomb, Tutankhamen was forgotten until A.D. 1922, when archaeologist* Howard Carter uncovered his tomb and its treasures, which were totally intact. Tutankhamen's mummy lay inside a sarcophagus* that held a nest of three coffins. The outer two coffins were made of wood with gold coverings. The third coffin was made of solid gold. The king's mummy was dressed with jewelry and amulets*, and his head was covered by a gold mask. The burial chamber also contained four shrines made of wood covered in gold. The other three rooms of the tomb were filled with furniture, clothes, weapons, statues, and a chariot. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

A

n important city-state* in ancient Phoenicia, Tyre was built on an island and on its neighboring mainland off the coast of present-day southern Lebanon. According to traditional stories, Tyrian king Hiram I (ruled ca. 969-936 B.C.) enlarged the city by joining two islands with a landfill. Later rulers of the city expanded it even farther to include the mainland portion, which was often known by a different name—Ushu. Some historians believe that Tyre may have been founded as a colony of SIDON, another Phoenician city-state.

Ugarit * archeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

~See map in Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (vol. 3).

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * vassal individual or state that swears loyalty and obedience to a greater power

UGARIT * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * artisan skilled craftsperson * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

Archaeological* excavations at Tyre, undertaken since the A.D. 1800s, have revealed that it was first inhabited from about 2700 B.C. However, there is a gap in the archaeological evidence from 2000 to 1600 B.C., when the city may have been abandoned. From then until the city was rebuilt in the 1400s B.C., the site was used for burials and storage pits. Thereafter, the city began to thrive as a center of trade and commerce. By the 900s B.C., Tyre had become the dominant city-state in Phoenicia and the most important harbor and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. Tyrians also established colonies throughout the region, including CARTHAGE in North Africa. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, Tyre also maintained a close relationship with the kingdom of Israel. The most famous king of Tyre, Hiram I, provided SOLOMON of Israel with building materials and plans for his palace and the first Temple of Solomon in JERUSALEM. Jezebel, the daughter of the king of Tyre and Sidon, was married to King AHAB of Israel. In 572 B.C., King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II laid siege* to Tyre during his attempt to consolidate Babylonian control in the Levant*. The Tyrians successfully held him at bay for 13 years, after which he was forced to withdraw. Although Nebuchadnezzar conquered the mainland portion of the city, he never took the city's island fortress. By 538 B.C., the Persians had driven the Babylonians out of Phoenicia, and Tyre became a Persian vassal*. In the 300s B.C., when the Macedonians conquered Persia, ALEXANDER THE GREAT became the first to conquer the island portion of Tyre. He achieved this by destroying the mainland portion of the city and using the rubble to build a road to the island. Alexander then invaded Tyre, killed 10,000 of its inhabitants, and sold the rest into slavery. After Alexander, Tyre came under the control of the SELEUCID EMPIRE and later the Roman Empire. (See also Byblos; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

U

garit (oo»GAH«rit) was an ancient city-state* located at Ras Shamra on the Mediterranean coast of northern SYRIA. The capital of a kingdom of the same name, Ugarit was one of the oldest cities in the ancient Near East. The city had a good harbor, natural defenses, and access to TRADE ROUTES. These features helped it become a center of commerce with extensive trading contacts with Mesopotamia, Anatolia (present-day Turkey), the Levant*, Egypt, Cyprus, Greece, and the Minoans of Crete. Settled by at least 6500 B.C., Ugarit experienced a period of expansion between 3000 and 2000 B.C., during which it became the center of a prosperous kingdom. Its inhabitants were a mixture of AMORITES, Canaanites, HURRIANS, and other peoples. Ugaritic society consisted of two main groups: free citizens and people employed by the king. While most residents of towns and villages in the kingdom worked as farmers and herders, inhabitants of the city of Ugarit included artisans*, soldiers, priests, scribes*, and other specialized workers. Early in the second millennium B.C.*, Ugarit formed an alliance with Egypt as protection against invaders from the north and east. Thereafter, the city fell under Egyptian. Still, it continued to flourish, and between

135

Ugarit

See map inSyria (vol. 4).

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * cuneiform world's oldest form of writing, which takes itsname from the distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed into clay tablets

136

the 1400s and 1200s B.C., Ugarit reachedthe heightof itsprosperity. During this period, trade grewtremendously, and thecity expanded greatly in size. Royal palaces, temples, libraries,andother public buildings were constructed, while art and literature flourished. Ugarit remained under Egyptian control until B.C., when about 1330 theHITTITES of Anatolia gained political dominance.Thecity did not begin to decline until theB.C.,1100s aperiod markedbynumerous pirate raids. Shortlythereafter,the cityofUgaritwasdestroyed andlargely abandoned, leading to the collapseof the kingdomaswell. Many scholarsbelieve that the city was destroyed PEOPLES, by SEA the but the chief archaeologist* who excavated Ugarit believed thatthecitywasdestroyed by a violent EARTHQUAKE. Archaeological excavations conducted A.D.in 1900s theearly yielded information about the city and itscultural heritage. Themost important discoveries include cuneiform* texts written in theAkkadian, Human, and Hittite languages. Archaeologists also excavated cuneiformalephbeth (script that contains symbolsforconsonantsbut notforvowels) texts

Ur * dialect regional form of a spoken language with distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar * stela stone slab or pillar that has been carved or engraved and serves as a monument; pi. stelae

UMMA * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

UR * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * patriarch male leader of a family or tribe * archaeological referring to the study of past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

written in the local Ugaritic language, a West Semitic dialect* with many similarities to biblical Hebrew. These texts contain a wealth of information about the cultural and religions traditions as well as the mythologies of the people of Ugarit. Other objects found at the site include carved ivory panels, engraved metal vessels, and carved stone stelae* and statues. (See also Cities and City-States; Cuneiform; Economy and Trade.)

A

city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Umma rose to prominence sometime before 2500 B.C., largely due to a change in the course of the EUPHRATES RIVER. The main channel of the river shifted to the east, causing it to flow away from established cities such as NIPPUR and URUK. Cities lying on the old channel—especially Uruk—suffered a decline in population, while settlements on the new channel—such as Umma—flourished. As Umma grew, it began to extend its influence into the regions surrounding the city. This brought it into conflict with neighboring citystates, such as LAGASH to the southeast. Umma clashed with Girsu, the capital of Lagash, over a boundary dispute as well as rights to the use of water from the Euphrates River. Records indicate that Mesilim, the king of KISH, negotiated a settlement and established a formal border between Umma and Lagash. However, Umma broke this agreement, and between 2500 and 2400 B.C., the two city-states engaged in several wars. These battles raged off and on for many years with neither side seizing a decisive advantage. Ultimately, Umma emerged victorious, and its king, Lugalzagezi, conquered Lagash. He then proceeded to attack and subdue major city-states in southern Mesopotamia and established the first large Sumerian state, with its capital at Uruk. Around 2340 B.C., King SARGON I of Akkad attacked and defeated Lugalzagezi and incorporated his former lands, including Umma, into the Akkadian empire. (See also Cities and City-States.)

L

ocated in southern MESOPOTAMIA, the city-state* of Ur was the capital of several empires as well as a major trading center connected to the Persian Gulf. Many scholars believe it was also the home of Abraham, one of the patriarchs* of Israel according to the Hebrew BIBLE. First settled in the fifth millennium B.C. (years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.) by people of the Ubaid culture, Ur developed into one of the region's largest settlements. According to archaeological* evidence, the Ubaid settlement was destroyed by a flood. However, it was resettled in about 3900 B.C. During the next 1,000 years, Ur grew from a prominent town into a walled city. By the 2500s B.C., it was a major Sumerian city-state with impressive art and architecture. This is evident from the excavations conducted in the early A.D. 1900s, which uncovered the Royal Cemetery of Ur. The tombs contained jewelry, weapons, furniture, and other artifacts*, revealing the existence of a complex and accomplished culture. During the 2400s B.C., the kings of Ur extended their power throughout southern Mesopotamia, and Ur became the capital of the region. This

137

Ur

period, known as theFirst Dynasty of Ur,lasted until the city wasconqueredSARGON by I ofAkkad around B.C. Thereafter, 2300Ur remained under Akkadian rule until that empire collapsed B.C.In thearound 2200 late 2100s B.C., KingUtu-khegal drove out the Gutians, who had settled in the region, and his successor, UR-NAMMU, establisheda newdynasty*,the * dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group Third Dynastyof Ur, that lasted more than100years. During this period, kings undertook several building projects at Ur,including the construc* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a tion of several ziggurats*.Ur reachedthe heightof its glory under Urmultistory tower with steps leading to a Nammu'sSHULGI. son Duringhis nearly 50-year reign, Shulgi reorganized temple on the top the empire and conquered new territory. However, B.C., around 2000 * nomadic referring to people who travel while the AMORITES, a nomadic* people, invaded fromthe west, Ur was from place to place to find food and sacked* by the Elamites fromthe east. pasture Ur was rebuilt and became RELIGION a center and oftrade. During this * sack to loot a captured city period, which lasted about250 years, fellUr underthe controlofBabythe lonians. In about B.C.,1740 the Babylonian army destroyedthe walls surrounding Ur as wellas several homesand public buildings as punishment for the city's participation in a rebellion against Babylonian control. Most See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). residents stayed in the city and had restored their homes and many of the religious buildingsbyB.C. theNevertheless, 1400s Ur slowly declined until about600 B.C., when Babylonian NEBUCHADNEZZAR, king NABONIDUS, and later undertook an extensive rebuildingof the city. This markedthe last periodof Ur's greatness.ByEUPHRATES the B.C.,the 300s RIVER had changed course

138

Urartu away from the city, leaving it without a ready source of water. Ur was abandoned shortly thereafter. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Burial Sites and Tombs; Walled Cities; Ziggurats.)

UR-NAMMU ruled ca. 2112-2094 B.C. King of Ur

* diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a multistory tower with steps leading to a temple on the top

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place to find food and pasture

URARTU

U

r-Nammu was the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, a succession of kings who ruled southern MESOPOTAMIA for more than 100 years. Little information exists about Ur-Nammu;s life before he became king. Some historians speculate that he was the brother of King Utu-khegal, who ruled UR from around 2119 to 2112 B.C. Others believe that UrNammu was his son. Whatever their relationship, Ur-Nammu served as military governor of Ur under Utu-khegal. When Utu-khegal died, UrNammu succeeded him as king. Ur-Nammu assumed several titles including Mighty Man, Lord of Uruk, Lord of Ur, and King of Sumer and Akkad. He then set out to live up to those names by extending his influence throughout southern and central Mesopotamia. He did this largely by negotiation and diplomacy* rather than by military force. The only exception involved the city-state* of LAGASH, which he apparently eliminated to redirect trade from the Persian Gulf into Ur. Ur-Nammu also began a large-scale program to rebuild large portions of Ur and repair irrigation CANALS that had been neglected for years. Among his most notable building accomplishments was the completion of the first true ziggurats* in Ur and in other cities under his control. The ziggurat of Ur, which consisted of three platforms topped by a temple, was nearly 50 feet high. Many scholars consider Ur-Nammu the author of the first recorded set of law codes. (Some, however, credit them to his son SHULGI, who followed him as king.) Although these codes were not used to decide court cases at the time, they were the first attempt to describe various legal situations and set penalties for those who broke the law. Ur-Nammu;s reign ended when he died in combat against the Gutians, a people who had ruled Ur for many years before they were driven out by Utu-khegal. Ur-Nammu;s son Shulgi took over as king and during his 50-year reign, greatly expanded the empire to the north and east. However, Shulgi's successors were weak and unable to hold the kingdom together. Around 2004 B.C., a combination of internal weakness, pressure from a nomadic* people called the AMORITES, and an invasion by the Elamites ended the dynasty founded by Ur-Nammu. (See also Dynasties.)

O

ne of the more mysterious civilizations of the ancient Near East, Urartu (u«RAHR»too) was a kingdom in the mountainous CAUCASUS region and flourished for about 600 years, beginning in the 1200s B.C. In the Hebrew BIBLE, the region of Urartu is called Ararat. During the 700s and 600s B.C., the kingdom enjoyed considerable political power, dominating eastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and competing with the Assyrian empire. 139

Urbanization

See map in Assyria and the Assyrians (vol.1).

assimilate to adopt the customs of a society artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest

URBANIZATION * sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C. * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * domesticate to adapt or tame for human use

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

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Little is known about the early history of Urartu, although evidence suggests that the its cultural heritage was influenced by the HURRIANS of northern Mesopotamia. First mentioned in Assyrian records from the 1200s B.C. as a region of many lands and cities, Urartu may have been unified into a kingdom in the following centuries in response to growing Assyrian power. In the late 800s B.C., Urartu entered an era of rapid conquest, and this expansion continued into the next century. Throughout this period, Urartu was often at war with Assyria, and the Assyrians exerted a strong influence on the kingdom. The Urartians assimilated* many aspects of Assyrian civilization while also maintaining a distinctive culture of their own. Among the best-known artifacts* of Urartian civilization are POTTERY, SEALS, and metalworks of decorated bronze. By the early 700s B.C., Urartu had become the most powerful state in eastern Anatolia. Its military success was no doubt aided by a decline in Assyrian power at that time. Within a few decades, however, Assyria began to reassert its power, leading to a number of dramatic military confrontations between the two kingdoms. One of the most famous of these engagements took place in 714 B.C., when SARGON II of Assyria defeated Rusa I of Urartu and plundered* Urartian temples and much of the kingdom. Despite these victories, the Assyrians never succeeded in conquering Urartu, and it remained powerful and prosperous, dominating the eastern Anatolian landscape. However, Urartu faced more formidable enemies in the 600s and 500s B.C., when repeated invasions by the Cimmerians, Scythians, MEDES, and Persians brought the kingdom to a final, violent end. (See also Scythia and the Scythians.)

T

he process of urbanization, the formation and growth of cities, was under way in the ancient Near East as early as the sixth millennium B.C.* Urbanization continued as small village settlements grew into towns and then cities and city-states*. Historians believe that the first large cities arose in MESOPOTAMIA, although urban centers also developed in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), Egypt, IRAN, and the Levant*. Urbanization could not occur until after people had started to domesticate* plants and animals instead of obtaining food through hunting and gathering. AGRICULTURE provided people with a steady food supply that allowed them to settle in one place, usually a location with useful features, such as a good water source. Not all early settlements grew into cities, but those that did became the first political organizations larger than villages. The shift to urban life brought lasting changes to the ways people lived, worked, and interacted with one another. Some of those changes involved resources and labor. Settled urban populations grew because they could store and stockpile food, sharing and distributing it as needed. This meant that instead of farming, some people could work full-time in crafts, in religious or governmental roles, or in professions such as that of scribe*. This greater variety of WORK in urban settings went hand in hand with other changes in social organization. First, a ruling class emerged,

Uruk * bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions

literacy ability to read and write

nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place in search of food and pasture

URUK * fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 to 4001 B.C. * city-state Independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

and then bureaucracies* were established to administer such aspects of city life as the gathering and distribution of food and the building of temples, CANALS, and other public structures. The diversification of LABOR also meant that differences in rank and social class became more pronounced in urban societies. Another development that occurred as a result of urbanization was the appearance of organized, large-scale warfare. Once people began accumulating material goods in central locations, such as the cities, they became targets of others who banded together to steal from them. The Sumerian and Akkadian cities in Mesopotamia, for example, were storehouses for the enormous agricultural wealth produced by the fertile plains around them. This concentrated wealth brought attacks by nonurban peoples from the mountainous countries to the north and east and from the semideserts to the west. In addition to defending themselves from attack, cities launched wars of aggression, usually to gain control of territory or access to resources. Literacy*, developments in the arts and in techniques such as metalworking, and other features associated with the growth of civilization in the ancient Near East appear to have been linked to urban centers. Not every ancient civilization was urban, however. The Scythians and other nomadic* peoples of CENTRAL ASIA developed arts, crafts, and high levels of military and political organization without becoming city builders. Although urbanization was not the only route to civilization, today's scholars look to the remains of ancient cities for the most complete and bestpreserved records of ancient history, culture, and people. (See also Cities and City-states; Egypt and the Egyptians; Scythia and the Scythians; Walled Cities; Wars and Warfare.)

M

any scholars consider the Sumerian settlement of Uruk (OOruk) in southern MESOPOTAMIA to be the world's first true city. Founded during the fifth millennium B.C.*, Uruk grew from an agricultural settlement into an influential city-state* by about 3200 B.C. It retained its importance in Mesopotamia until around 2000 B.C., and it remained occupied for 2,000 years. However, Uruk is not historically significant simply because of its size or the length of time it was occupied. The remains of the city uncovered by archaeologists* contain the earliest evidence of some of the most important cultural developments in human history. For this reason, Uruk has been called the birthplace of civilization. Uruk probably began as two separate settlements, Uruk and Kullaba, that merged to form one city. Each former settlement became a district in the city of Uruk. Kullaba was the location of the temple of the sky god ANU, while the Uruk district (then called Eanna) housed the temple of Inanna, the goddess of war. The earliest remains of advanced culture were found in the Eanna district. These include many CLAY TABLETS that provide evidence of the world's first system of WRITING. Monumental public ARCHITECTURE and works of fine art were also excavated there. Uruk expanded rapidly, attracting settlers from the surrounding regions. By about 3200 B.C., it was the largest settlement in the Near East. As 141

Uruk

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3).

* dynasty succession of rulers same family or group

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from

the

the populationgrew, the government and economyofUruk also developed. Texts recovered in Uruk show that the city had textile and metalworking industriesat a very early date. Because southern Mesopotamia contains no natural sourcesof metal,it isclear that Urukhad developedan active trade network with other regionsof the ancient Near East. Thereis also evidence that it established colonies in northern Mesopotamia and western IRANand thatthe people of Uruk TRADE established ROUTES to reach them. These colonies probably servedasplaces where goods producedin Uruk were tradedfor those itemsnot available locally. In the mid-2300s B.C., a king namedLugalzagezi established firstthe united kingdom in southern Mesopotamia, with Urukas itscapital. However, aroundSARGON B.C., 2334I of Akkad defeated Lugalzagezi and destroyed Uruk's walls.The citywas revitalized B.C., when in about the 2100 Sumerian king UR-NAMMUfoundedthe Third Dynasty of Ur and undertook an extensive construction programUruk. in When this dynasty* collapsed

Valley of the Kings 100 years later, Uruk went into another decline, and the city's population decreased. It did not grow again until about 1450 B.C., when the KASSITES took control of the city. By this time, however, settlement was confined to the Eanna district. After 1000 B.C., Uruk was controlled first by the Assyrians and later by the Babylonians. Rulers of both empires began new construction in Eanna, and Uruk once again became an important and prosperous city. This may well have been because it lay on one of the main trade routes through the Near East. However, Uruk's prosperity ended when the Parthians conquered Mesopotamia in the 140s B.C. Uruk gradually faded into obscurity, and its final residents probably abandoned the city sometime before A.D. 400. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Cities and City-States; Urbanization.)

VALLEY OF THE KINGS

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt

* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually made of stone; pi. sarcophagi * relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

T

he Valley of the Kings is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills on the western side of the NILE RIVER, near the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS. The Valley of the Kings, Valley of the Queens, and temples of KARNAK and LUXOR were all part of the ancient Egyptian city of THEBES. The Valley of the Kings is split into two main sections: the West Valley, which contains 4 tombs, and the East Valley, which contains 58 tombs. Although almost all the tombs belong to kings, there are also tombs belonging to two queens, a few important officials, and the many sons of RAMSES II. The valley served as the royal cemetery from around 1539 to around 1075 B.C. The first king to be buried there was the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh* Thutmose I. Kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties were also buried there. Ramses XI was the last ruler to be buried at the site. The tombs at the site were built in a style that had not been used previously. To protect the tombs from robbery, none of them had any aboveground decoration or monuments. They were cut into the secluded hills and their entrances hidden. Also, for the first time since the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were not built next to mortuary temples. Unfortunately, these attempts at protecting the tombs of the kings were not successful. All the tombs except one were robbed in the centuries that followed. Most of the tombs were of similar structure. They began with a long corridor descending into the hill. This corridor contained deep shafts and, occasionally, rooms of columns that were built to confuse tomb robbers. At the end of the corridor, the burial chamber housed the sarcophagus* of the king. There were also storage rooms that contained furniture and other goods for the king to use in the afterlife. Often, the walls of the tombs were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs* showing the king meeting the gods. Some walls contained magical writings that were meant to help the king as he journeyed through the life after death. The ceilings of the tombs were sometimes painted with stars, astronomical figures, and the sky goddess Nut. The longest tomb at the site belongs to Queen HATSHEPSUT. The corridor is almost 700 feet long and drops about 320 feet into the rock. The

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Valley of the Queens only tomb that was never robbed belonged to King TUTANKHAMEN. The wealth found in his small tomb gives an indication of the treasure that was robbed from the more ornate tombs. A more recent excavation is that of the enormous tomb meant to house almost all of King Ramses IPs 52 sons. This tomb—the largest one found in the Valley of the Kings— was discovered in the early A.D. 1800s but was never fully excavated because it was considered unimportant. In 1988, the tomb was rediscovered, and it is still being excavated. (See also Afterlife; Burials Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs; Queens.)

VALLEY o\ THE QUEENS

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

Vegetables

VOLCANOES

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T

he Valley of the Queens is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills on the west bank of the NILE RIVER. Along with the temples of KARNAK and LUXOR and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS, the Valley of the Queens was part of the ancient city of THEBES. Around 90 tombs have been uncovered at this site where queens and royal children of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (ca. 12921075 B.C.) were buried. Some Seventeenth and Eighteenth Dynasty queens were also buried there; however, most queens during those dynasties were buried alongside their husbands. Most of the tombs at this site are smaller than the tombs at the nearby Valley of the Kings. Each consists of a small room (called an antechamber) that leads into a small passageway. The passageway leads to the burial chamber. Like the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, the tombs in the Valley of the Queens were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs*. The first queen to be buried in the Valley of the Queens was probably Satra, a wife of Ramses I. The most notable person buried there is Nefertari, RAMSES H's principal wife. The site also contains the beautiful and well-preserved tombs of the princes Amenherkhopshef and Khaemwaset II, two of RAMSES Hi's sons. (See also Afterlife; Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

See Agriculture; Food and Drink.

of the earth's volcanoes are found in a series of belts located M along boundaries between the plates of the earth's crust. Two such

boundaries run through portions of the Near East. The more prominent of these, and the one that has produced the most volcanic activity in the region, runs east and west through the AEGEAN SEA and the northern half of present-day Turkey (ancient Anatolia). Here two plates collide where one slides underneath the other. Another such plate boundary runs along the eastern coast of Africa, through the RED SEA. There the plates are rifting, or pulling apart. The movement of these plates releases molten rock from deep underground, which then rises to the surface. The pressure

Wall Paintings

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

WALL PAINTINGS * deity god or goddess

forces the surface rock to form a dome- or cone-shaped mountain. When the pressure becomes too great for the overlying rock surface, the top of the mountain explodes, spewing ash and lava. In ancient times, the most spectacular volcanic eruption occurred on the Aegean island of THERA. Sometime around 1500 B.C. (experts disagree about the exact date), a volcano on Thera erupted with incredibly destructive force. The explosion buried the Late Bronze Age city of Akrotiri under a thick layer of ash and volcanic rock and caused shock waves that were felt for hundreds of miles. The main settlement on the island was apparently evacuated before the eruption, but its burial in ash preserved its remains intact until their excavation in the late A.D. 1960s. At one time, scholars believed that the eruption on Thera was responsible for the destruction of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION on Crete. However, they have since established that Minoan Crete did not fall into decline until around 1450 B.C., disproving their earlier theory. The eruption also may have inspired the legend of the lost continent of Atlantis. Another well-known volcano in the Near East is Turkey's Mount Ararat, which the Hebrew BIBLE identifies as the resting place of Noah's ark. A few archaeologists* believed that this story was supported by shipshaped features on the mountain, but these later turned out to be natural formations caused by landslides and lava flows. Volcanoes exist throughout central Turkey, which is covered with soft volcanic rock that was used in local construction from the A.D. 300s to the 1200s. Lava and volcanic rock are also found in northwestern Arabia, in a region known as Harrat Ash-Shamah. Volcanic eruptions have occurred there as recently as a few hundred years ago. (See also Disasters, Natural; Obsidian.)

W

all paintings represent some of the earliest and most important forms of visual art from the ancient Near East. The earliest wall paintings featured simple geometric designs done in a single color, while later works contained complex images of plants, animals, humans, and deities* in a variety of patterns and colors. Throughout ancient times, such works decorated the walls of palaces, temples, and private homes.

Materials and Techniques. Near Eastern wall paintings were done using paints made from natural pigments, or coloring agents, found in minerals, plants, and animal sources. The earliest and most basic colors used were red (made from iron oxide), white (from the mineral gypsum), and black (from a tarlike substance called bitumen). Other colors, developed later, included blue (from either copper oxide or the semiprecious stone LAPIS LAZULI), green (from the stone malachite), and yellow (from iron oxide mixed with clay or sand). Ancient painters mixed dry pigments with water and a substance called a binder, which makes paint adhere, or stick, to a surface. Among the binders used were egg whites or a substance in milk called casein. Artists applied paint to a surface with brushes made of reeds, one end of 145

Wall Paintings

* fresco method of painting in which color is applied to moist plaster so that it becomes chemically bonded to the plaster as it dries; also, a painting done in this manner

which had been split and chewed to make the reed fibers soft enough to absorb the pigment. Two basic techniques were used in wall painting: distemper and fresco*. Distemper, the earliest and easiest technique, involved painting on a wall covered with a layer of plaster, lime, or mud that had been allowed to dry. All wall paintings up to about 1500 B.C. were probably done using this technique. In fresco painting, several layers of plaster or a similar substance were applied to the wall, and the artist painted while the top layer of plaster was still wet. With the distemper technique, the paint formed a film on the surface of the wall. In fresco painting, the particles of pigment were bound to the plaster as it dried. Thus, a fresco actually became a part of the wall itself, which made fresco paintings very durable and allowed them to retain their color longer. However, fresco was a much more difficult technique than distemper because the painter had to work quickly before areas of fresh plaster dried. Early Wall Paintings. Wall paintings first appeared in the Near East between 8000 and 5000 B.C. in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), IRAN, and the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The earliest works contained simple monochrome (single-color) designs, which remained

This fresco from an Assyrian provincial palace at Til Barsip in Syria shows two officials in profile. Although the palace was decorated with many paintings, stone reliefs were more customary for Assyrian palace art.

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Wall Paintings

* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 to 5001 B.C.

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * bas-relief kind of sculpture in which material is cut away to leave figures projecting slightly from the background

* stylized referring to art style in which figures are portrayed in simplified ways that exaggerate certain features, not realistically

See [color plate 12, ] vol. 4.

standard for centuries. Multicolored paintings featuring simple geometric patterns appeared around 6000 B.C., and more elaborate patterns and designs began appearing soon afterward. Many such wall paintings have been discovered in Anatolia. By the early sixth millennium B.C.*, the imagery in wall paintings had expanded to include hunting scenes, birds, and landscapes that attempted to reproduce objects and scenes found in the natural world. Among the earliest examples of such wall paintings are ones found at £ATAL HUYUK in Anatolia and in SYRIA. However, geometric patterns remained the most popular form of wall decoration in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant* in the fifth and fourth millennia B.C. The first wall paintings in MESOPOTAMIA were associated with the construction of large temples in the southern region of Sumer between 3500 and 3000 B.C. The walls of Sumerian temples at that time featured primarily geometric designs, although human and animal figures appeared in some wall paintings. The most widely used colors were black, red, and white. Wall paintings in houses of this and later periods continued to feature simple geometric designs done in a single color. New Images and Colors. Little is known about wall painting during the third millennium B.C.* However, archaeologists* have uncovered many works dating from the 1800s B.C. and later throughout the Near East. Among the new types of images that appeared during the second millennium B.C. (2000-1001 B.C.) were ceremonial scenes, often depicting acts of worship or processions of people before a ruler. Humans were represented according to the same rules used in bas-relief*. That is, faces appeared in profile, with the fronts of bodies facing outward or turned slightly to the side. Such scenes were intended to support rulers' claims that they were divinely chosen leaders. Wall paintings from this period often included depictions of rich plant life and plentiful water, suggesting the fertility of the land. Other popular images included hunting scenes and images of sacred trees. Many paintings also incorporated bands of stylized* flowers and palm leaves, as well as groups of the ever popular geometric figures. Some paintings even attempted to imitate the look of materials such as wood or stone. Most wall paintings of this period made use of a variety of colors, including blue, green, yellow, and orange. Many of the wall paintings that have survived from the second millennium B.C. offer clues to the spread of ideas and influences among the cultures in the Near East. For example, wall paintings from the city of MARI reflect influence from the cultures of Sumer and Babylonia. Elements from the art of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of CRETE can be seen in wall paintings from northern Syria and Egypt. The artistic styles of the Levant influenced wall paintings in palaces of northern Mesopotamia, while paintings in the Levant featured images of bulls and masks associated with Egypt. Babylonian wall paintings from the 1100s B.C. provided models that were copied widely in Assyrian and Persian art several hundred years later. Later Developments. One of the major developments in wall painting after 1000 B.C. was the increasing use of glazed BRICKS and tiles, which 147

Walled Cities

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

WALLED CITIES

* epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * eighth millennium B.C. years from 8000 to 7001 B.C. * silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

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helped create a more durable form of art. A single ceramic tile might contain an entire scene, with one or several figures or decorative images. More often, however, many individual colored bricks or tiles were arranged together to form larger images and scenes. Artists in Assyria, Babylonia, and Iran created magnificent reliefs* made from colored tiles or molded bricks. Glazed brick decorations also were used widely by the Persians from the 500s to 300s B.C., but there is little evidence of true wall painting in the PERSIAN EMPIRE. After ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire in 332 B.C., wall paintings in the westernmost regions of the Near East reflected a strong Greek influence. Later with the expansion of the Roman Empire into the region, Roman artistic influences shaped wall painting styles and techniques. Farther east, artists combined both Western and Asian styles until the decline of Roman influence in the early centuries A.D. (See also Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Birds in Art; Burial Sites and Tombs; Human Form in Art.)

I

n ancient times, many cities in the Near East were surrounded by walls. Sometimes the walls surrounded an entire city, and as the city grew over time, its walls were extended to enclose new spaces. In other cases, the walls surrounded only the older part of a city or perhaps a central core of special importance, such as a fortress or a district surrounding palaces and temples. Although historians assume that cities were walled for defense against human attackers, other possibilities exist. For example, in the city of URUK in MESOPOTAMIA, people drove their livestock inside the city's walls each night. In fact, an early version of the epic* of GILGAMESH speaks of the city as a "sheepfold" or "cattle pen." Other early city dwellers may have built walls to protect their animals from wild animals or human raiders, turning their cities into large corrals. Other city walls originated as flood barriers. Huge walls of mud brick* around the Mesopotamian city of Sippar, for example, were intended as protection from the floodwaters of the Euphrates River. The earliest known city walls are the massive fortifications* built at JERICHO in the eighth millennium B.C.* Scholars have long thought their purpose to be military defense, but a later interpretation suggests that the Jericho walls were built to protect the settlement from silt* carried by a brook. Walls also served to define areas of settlement and as visible reminders of authority. A wall dating from around 7000 B.C. found at the Mesopotamian village of Maghzalia, for example, probably functioned more as a symbol of the identity of the enclosed community than as a defensive fortification. Another purpose of city walls was to display the wealth and power of their builders. To this end, some walls bore rich decorations intended to win admiration for the city's rulers. Most city walls were probably military structures built for defensive purposes. In times of war, farmers and people from the countryside sought safety inside walled cities. Between 3500 and 3000 B.C., the Sumerians built a well-planned and fortified colony in northern SYRIA. It was a

Wars and Warfare

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

WARS AND WARFARE * nomad person who travels from place to place to find food and pasture * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * imperial pertaining to an emperor or an empire

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

rectangular city about 44 acres in area, surrounded by a mud-brick wall about ten feet thick. The wall contained nearly 50 square towers from which the people could defend the city during an attack. Uruk, the largest Sumerian city, was surrounded by a defense wall almost six miles long, enclosing nearly 1,360 acres of land. This wall's 900 towers offered vantage points for lookouts or for soldiers. Cities built in the Levant* between 2000 and 1600 B.C. had massive fortifications, such as earthen mounds, steep artificial slopes, and moats, in addition to walls of mud brick or stone. Another impressive walled city was KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittites of ANATOLIA. Its fortifications included massive earthen ramps, thick stone walls, and gates with guard chambers and heavy wooden doors. In Egypt, walls were used as fortification as long ago as the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), although no remains have been found. Even heavily walled cities, however, could fall to determined attackers and foes. The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia became expert at conquering walled cities. They laid siege* to the cities surrounding the Assyrian empire and starved out their populations. They also assaulted city walls with battering rams (large logs mounted on wheeled frames), ladders, and axes and undermined them with tunnels. JERUSALEM, with stone walls 23 feet thick and at least as high, was one of the few walled cities in the ancient Near East that was able to hold off the Assyrian army. (See also Cities and City-States; Fortifications; Wars and Warfare.)

W

ars and warfare played an important role in the societies of the ancient Near East. The peoples of the region waged war for three main reasons. They fought defensive wars to protect their territories from aggression and offensive wars to conquer new lands. They also fought civil wars, which involved internal rebellions or uprisings. The earliest wars were disputes between small, loosely organized forces wielding hunting tools such as clubs, spears, and bows and arrows. Nomads* raided the fields and pastures of settled communities, whose inhabitants fought to protect their crops and livestock. City-states* fought for control of land and water resources. Over the course of several thousand years, the states of the Near East grew larger, stronger, and more centrally organized. In some cases, they developed into imperial* powers controlling vast territories. The fighting forces of these states and empires also grew larger and more organized, becoming ARMIES consisting of professional SOLDIERS with an array of WEAPONS AND ARMOR and commanded by ranks of officers. With the development of large states and empires, wars were fought on a larger scale, and sieges*, fighting at sea, and multiyear campaigns in distant lands became commonplace. The centerpiece of warfare, though, remained the pitched battle, in which land armies maneuvered for position and then clashed on the battlefield. Reconstructing Ancient Battles. Modern historians have a difficult time reconstructing ancient battles. Surviving information about even the 149

Wars and Warfare * Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* propaganda communication deliberately shaped or slanted toward a particular viewpoint

Holy Wars The ancient Mesopotamians justified warfare on religious grounds, claiming that their enemies had sinned against the gods. Consequently, victory in war was more than military triumph; it was the 1 umph of divine justice, backed by the gods. Invaders who seized thrones could also be viewed in a religious context. For instance, when Cyrus of Persia defeated Nabonidus of Babylonia, people I lieved that the Babylonian ruler had sinned against the gods, who had chosen the outsider Cyrus to replace him. So deep were such beliefs that when King Sargon II of Assyria was killed in battle, his son Sennacherib agonized over the sin that his father must have committed to arouse the terrible anger of the gods.

* fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack

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best-documented conflicts is often vague and incomplete. An example is a battle fought at MEGIDDO in the Levant*, which took place around 1456 B.C. This is the earliest Near Eastern battle for which detailed descriptions survive. Yet even the fullest account of the battle, which was recorded on the walls of the great temple of the god AMUN at KARNAK in Egypt, has many missing sections of text. Moreover, scholars realize that it was written in a literary style intended to glorify the achievements of the king. Many ancient accounts of battles were written for a similar purpose—to serve as propaganda*—making the accuracy of their information highly questionable. The battle at Megiddo pitted THUTMOSE III, the ruler of Egypt, against a coalition of Canaanite forces. The surviving record gives many details of the Egyptian army's long march to the city of Megiddo and its position on the day of battle on the Plain of Jezreel facing the city. However, it includes no details about the size or position of the Canaanite forces or about the actual fight. It says only that when Thutmose appeared on the battlefield, the enemy fled in great disorder. The battle of Qadesh, in which the Egyptians fought against the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) around 1274 B.C., is known in greater detail because pictorial records accompany written accounts in Egypt. However, these pictures and texts fail to reveal that the Egyptians lost the battle. Instead, they focus on the bravery and heroism of the Egyptian king, RAMSES II. Nearly all accounts of warfare in the ancient Near East contain no reliable information about such things as the location of battlefields, the weather and terrain in which a battle took place, the size and position of troops, the duration of the fighting, and how armies coordinated the movement of people and supplies. In short, information gathered from surviving official accounts of military encounters gives a broad picture of ancient warfare, but it lacks the details that would allow historians to reconstruct those battles. Siege Warfare. According to ancient texts, the battle of Megiddo was followed by a siege of that city. The ancient armies of the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians often employed siege warfare, which developed into a highly specialized form of combat with its own tools and weapons. Siege warfare was a way of capturing cities or fortresses that could not be taken quickly in battle. Fortresses and many ancient Near Eastern cities had strong walls and other fortifications* to help them withstand direct attacks by an enemy. During a siege, however, such protective barriers could become like the walls of a prison, trapping the defenders inside the city or fort. An attacking army laid siege to a city by surrounding it with troops to make sure that no one could enter or leave. The defenders inside the city could neither send messages to allies asking for help nor obtain fresh supplies or reinforcements. Their ability to endure a siege depended on the quality of their fortifications and the soldiers who operated them, their stockpiles of food, and their access to freshwater from wells or streams.

Wars and Warfare

The attackers in a siege had three ways to assault abesieged city or fortress. They could dig tunnels under the walls, climb over them,orsmash and burn theirway through them.Ifthese methods failed, they could seal off the city and try to starveits inhabitants until they surrendered. Usually, attackers used someor all of these methodsat the same time. Tunneling under city walls required no special equipment other than shovels. Climbing overthe walls requiredthe constructionofladders or towers. The attackers might also build huge rampsofearth leading up to the top of the enemy walls. Sometimes these rampshad to cross streams or water-filled ditches that helped protect the approach to thewalls. Attempts to break through walls usually centeredon gates, often made of wood, whichwere the weakest pointsin the walls. Attackersmighttry to set the gateson fire or break through them withabattering ram,ahuge log or wooden beam mounted in a wheeled frame. Using ropesor chains, the attackers drove the ram ashard aspossible against the gatesorpossibly the walls themselves.If the ram succeededin makingaholein the defenses, soldiers would charge throughto attackthe defenders inside. Another tactic involved shooting flaming arrows intoabesieged fortorcity, hoping to start fires that would cause the inhabitants toflee, panic, and surrender. It was not easytocarryout siege operations underthe watchful eyes of the defenders, who could shoot arrowsor hurl stones,hot fireliquids,or from the top of the walls onto the enemy below. Moreover, sieges took time, during which the attacking force also needed foodand other supplies. When these ran short,the attackers suffer from couldhungerand disease almost as muchas thedefenders insidethe besieged city. Thecapture of an enemy capital or sacred city had great psychological impact on both the victors and the vanquished. Because siege warfarewas difficult so and costly,it tended to be undertaken onlyas alast resort. 151

Wars and Warfare

epic long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written in a grand style

second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

* plunder property stolen by force, usually after a conquest

diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations

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Bribery, treachery, or trickery occasionally offered attackers a way into a besieged city. A well-known example of this appears in the Iliad, the epic* by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which tells the story of the long siege of TROY in Anatolia by the Greeks. After many years of siege, the Greeks built a giant wooden horse and a small band of soldiers hid inside it. When the Trojans hauled the horse into their city, the Greeks came out of the horse at night and opened the city gates to their armies. Military Tactics. Warfare involves strategies, which are overall goals, and tactics, which are the means used to reach those goals. The societies of the ancient Near East used different combinations of tactics to achieve their military strategies. The military history of Assyria illustrates a shift from defensive to offensive strategies and the use of a wide range of tactics, including psychological warfare. At the beginning of the second millennium B.C.*, the city-state of ASHUR in northern MESOPOTAMIA slowly built a fighting force to defend itself. The rulers of Ashur, believing that their state had to conquer or be conquered, raided surrounding regions that threatened to attack. Plunder* proved to be an added advantage to Assyrian raids, and greed became a motive for further campaigns. Another motive for warfare was the growing desire of Assyrian kings to gain prestige through successful military campaigns. By 700 B.C., Assyrian armies had waged offensive wars from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Persian Gulf in the south. Campaigns usually began in the spring and lasted through the summer. The Assyrians made little use of NAVAL POWER in warfare. Because they did not have a navy, they usually used Phoenician ships when they had to go to sea. They made extensive use of pitched battles and siege warfare, but these tactics consumed much time, energy, and labor. The Assyrians came to prefer psychological warfare, which involved breaking down the enemy's will to resist. Once the Assyrians decided to conquer a region, they would try using diplomacy* to get the inhabitants to submit. If diplomacy failed, they surrounded the foreign capital and shouted to its inhabitants, urging them to surrender. The next step was to attack small, weak cities and commit extreme acts of destruction and cruelty as a warning to all who did not submit. Using such methods of psychological warfare, the much-feared Assyrians made some conquests with minimal effort. During the second millennium B.C., the Hittites of Anatolia had a wellorganized and efficient military force that protected their borders and earned them a place among the great powers of the day. The Hittites used sentries, outposts, and spies to gather information about enemy movements. Sometimes Hittite agents disguised as deserters or fugitives deliberately passed false information to the enemy, a tactic that contributed to the victory of the Hittite king Muwattalli II over Ramses II of Egypt at the battle of Qadesh in about 1274 B.C. The Hittites, just like others in the ancient Near East, believed in seeking guidance from the gods on military matters. The king might ask the gods if they approved of a campaign and if the king would win. He might even ask the gods to approve specific tactics and plans of action. The Hittites favored direct attacks and pitched battles. One favorite tactic was to

Water burn crops and villages in an area until the men of the district were forced to fight the Hittite army. Another was to destroy one town in the hope that neighboring towns would submit without a fight. If a city did not submit and could not be taken by storm, the Hittites mounted a siege. Evidence suggests that, on occasion, a duel between two champions, one representing each side—for example, between David, the Israelite, and the Philistine Goliath; or between Achilles, the Greek, and Hector, the Trojan—might settle an issue. Such contests represented warfare in its most basic form. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cavalry; Chariots; Egypt and the Egyptians; Persian Wars.)

WATER

* urbanization formation and growth of cities

* silt soil or other sediment carried and deposited by moving water

M

any peoples of the ancient Near East considered water sacred, a symbol of fertility, and the source of life. Access to reliable sources of water was essential for survival, especially in places such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, where rainfall alone did not provide sufficient water to sustain large-scale settlements and AGRICULTURE. The ancient Near Easterners realized the importance of managing their resources so that they could make the most use of the water available to them. How well they were able to do so meant the difference between prosperity and starvation for many farming communities, cities, and even entire empires of the ancient Near East. As a consequence, water became an important resource to safeguard or control. Climate. About 15,000 years ago, during the most recent Ice Age, the climate of the Near East was cool and dry. There was little precipitation because a large amount of moisture was trapped in large ice sheets. As the earth warmed and the ice melted, the climate became warmer and more humid. Wetter conditions peaked around 7500 B.C. and again in about 4000 B.C., corresponding to times of increased population growth in Egypt and Mesopotamia. By the time the first cities in the Near East were founded, however, somewhat drier conditions had returned. Despite generally less favorable climatic conditions, rapid urbanization* and population growth occurred in the ancient Near East. Water Sources and Irrigation. Because most parts of the ancient Near East received little rainfall, the societies there had to rely on other sources of water. Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians depended on the annual flooding of local RIVERS to provide the water they needed. Every year, summer rains steadily increased the water levels of rivers emptying into Egypt's NILE RIVER. These rivers lay far south of Egypt, so the floodwaters traveled a great distance before spilling into low-lying basins adjacent to the Nile, soaking the ground, and depositing silt* rich in nutrients. After the waters receded, farmers plowed and planted the moist soil that was left behind. Consequently, there was little need for man-made IRRIGATION. The main water sources in ancient Mesopotamia, the EUPHRATES RIVER and the TIGRIS RIVER, originated in the mountains of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and were fed by rapidly melting spring snows. The 153

Water

See color plate 6 vol.4.

* siege long and persistent effort to force a surrender by surrounding a fortress or city with armed troops, cutting it off from supplies and aid

* drought long period of dry weather during which crop yields are lower than usual

* regulator gate or valve to control amount of water passing through a channel

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floodwaters traveled a shorter distance over steeper terrain, resulting in floods that were difficult to control for purposes of irrigation. Moreover, the timing of the flood was such that it occurred when crops were in the fields. Consequently, unlike those of the Nile, the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates needed not only to be controlled but also to be stored for use prior to the planting. In order to use the floodwaters, the ancient Mesopotamians constructed an elaborate series of CANALS that allowed them to hold the water and channel it to the fields where it was needed. Another problem in ancient Mesopotamia was that the Tigris and Euphrates carried sediments containing salts that built up in the soil over time, making it unsuitable for farming. The soil in the Tigris and Euphrates Delta became so salty after about 1850 B.C. that the population eventually migrated to more fertile regions where agriculture was still possible. Outside the main river valleys, people used other sources of water, such as brooks or natural springs into which water flowed by the force of gravity. The earliest permanent settlement in the world was at JERICHO in Canaan, which was located near the Jordan River and a spring. Protection of Water Resources. In the ancient cities of Canaan, inhabitants constructed public works to tap and protect valuable water sources. They built covered galleries to allow residents access to the streams or pools and to exclude their use by outsiders. In some cities such as MEGIDDO, tunnels were built so that water from a nearby spring flowed into a pool constructed under the city. Bringing the water to the city in this manner was not only more convenient, but it also ensured access to water if the city were attacked or placed under siege*. Water and Politics. Water had the potential to be used as a tool for destruction. For instance, cities along a river could ruin the economy of neighboring rivals by not maintaining their water-controlling devices or by diverting the water away from other cities, either causing a flood or a drought*. Several early Sumerian texts suggest that this was a cause or result of conflicts between cities. Mesopotamians also fought wars to defend themselves from invaders who wanted to conquer their wellwatered land. Access to water and construction and maintenance of water-controlling devices were important issues in the ancient Near East, because everyone had to share this essential resource. Records of wills and land sales from Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region show that people carefully defined the water rights associated with their property. Maintenance of canals was crucial, and each city appointed officials who were responsible for this task. Other large-scale projects, such as the construction of regulators* to control the flow of water from the rivers, required the efforts of several villages or even cities working together. These projects were considered so important that several Mesopotamian kings left INSCRIPTIONS celebrating the construction of canals and other steps they took to manage water resources. (See also Drought; Environmental Change; Floods; Geography.)

Weapons and Armor

WEAPONS AND ARMOR

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other object made by humans

* cudgel short, heavy club

* sinew tough cord of tissue that attaches muscles to bones

* third millennium B.C. period from 3000 to 2001 B.C. nomad person who travels from place to place in search of food and pasture

I

n the history of the ancient Near East, many battles were fought over territory and resources. The SOLDIERS fighting these battles relied on weapons to attack their foes and on protective armor to escape harm. Over the course of several thousand years, the weapons and armor used by the ARMIES of the region underwent many changes as people developed new materials, new technologies, and new ways of waging war. Weapons. The first weapons used for war were those used in hunting: spears, bows and arrows, axes, nets, and maces. Most weapons were made of stone or wood, but after about 3000 B.C., advances in metalworking led to the introduction of bronze weapons, with blades that were easier to keep sharp. After about 1200 B.C., bronze was replaced by iron. The number and variety of weapons increased as people developed implements specifically for combat. Texts, illustrations, and artifacts* of the Egyptians show the array of their weaponry. These weapons fell into two groups: weapons intended to serve as an extension of the arm and used at short range and weapons designed for long-range use. At times, short-range weapons were adapted for long-range use. Short-range weapons were meant to kill or disable opponents with bone-crushing blows. Maces, clubs, and cudgels* had weighted ends that could strike an opponent with terrific force. Thrusting and stabbing weapons were intended to pierce the body and penetrate vital organs. They included daggers, straight swords, and lances (stabbing spears). Slashing and cutting weapons, such as the battle-ax and single- and double-edged swords combined the qualities of the other two types. That is, they delivered cutting blows over a wide area of the body and, at the same time, struck like clubs and could lop off limbs. Ancient long-range weapons were missiles (objects that are thrown through the air) launched either by hand or by a launching device. Handlaunched missiles included stones, throwing sticks, throwing axes, and javelins (spears for throwing). The longest-range missiles were those driven by the energy of a launching device. Slingshots could be used to hurl stones with accuracy and force. An example of this is described in the Hebrew BIBLE, when the Israelite David uses a slingshot to kill the Philistine Goliath (1 Kings 17:50). The longest-range weapon, however, was the bow and arrow. Early bows in Egypt consisted of a single long piece of wood bent into a curved shape. The bows that developed later, called composite bows, were shorter and consisted of layers of wood, animal horn, and sinew*. Such bows were more powerful and more accurate than the earlier ones. Similar weapons came into use across the Near East, but various regions and cultures developed distinctive variations. In MESOPOTAMIA during the third millennium B.C.*, for example, the large number of words for different kinds of axes, such as single-bladed and double-bladed, indicates that axes were widely used not just as weapons but also in ceremonies and as a form of currency. The Scythians and other nomads* of CENTRAL ASIA, who were among the most skilled horsemen and archers of the ancient world, had bows that were small enough to handle on horseback but that could shoot powerfully over a long range. The Scythian arrowheads had thorn-shaped projections that prevented an arrow from being removed from a wound without causing more damage. 155

Weapons and Armor Armor. Weaponrywas only partof asoldier's equipment. Warriors also needed protection from their enemy's attacks. Twomain types ofprotective equipment came into use in the ancient Near East: shieldsand protective armor. Shields were portablebarriers, usually strappedto forearm, one that a soldier could position to block blows aimed at him. Most shields were made of wood or of leather on a wooden frame. Because metalwas both heavy and expensive, whole shields were rarely madeofmetal. However, metal bands, studs, or spikes were usedon shields madeofother materials. Egyptian wall paintings illustrating ANA-HITTITES a battle of with the TOLIA (present-dayTurkey) show that they favoreda tall shield with indentations on its sides. This shield wasprobably intended to protect the

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Wheel

Uncovering Ancient Armor The ancient Greeks believed that the Saka people of the Central Asian plains had invented several forms of battle armor, including a large shield. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that the Saka horses wore armored coats, Modern archaeologists have found evidence that the Saka were skilled armorers. The ruins of the Temple of the Oxus, built in the 300s B.C. in present-day Afghanistan, contain many iron plates from defensive armor. The major part of a complete suit of armor has also survived. Its plates are fastened together in overlapping rows. Those plates may have been the best protection from the hazards of ancient warfare.

Weaving

Wheat

WHEEL

entire body. By the end of the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), smaller, round shields were coming into use. Ancient armies employed shields in several ways. One widely used tactic was to march infantry, or foot soldiers, forward in a solid block called a phalanx. The soldiers were trained to march in rhythm and close enough together that their shields overlapped, presenting a solid wall to their enemy's arrows or spears. Another important use of shields was to protect the drivers of chariots and the archers who rode in the chariots. The Hittites used three-man chariots, with one soldier who carried the shield to protect both the driver and the fighter. In addition to shields, soldiers sometimes wore protective clothing, such as helmets or body armor. Helmets were generally made of leather, although metal plates might be attached to them. In Hittite Anatolia, helmets had pointed tops and flaps that protected the wearer's cheeks and neck. The Assyrians made helmets of hammered iron with bronze rivets. Crests and plumes often adorned warrior's helmets. These were sometimes symbols of rank but also may have helped identify members of a particular force during the confusion of battle. The earliest armor consisted of garments of leather or perhaps heavy felt, a dense woolen cloth. In the later part of the second millennium B.C., as swords and arrows became more powerful and lethal, people began wearing metal plates as armor. Scale armor, which consisted of many small overlapping discs or plates, offered some protection from the enemy's weapons, especially the supreme weapon, long-distance arrows. A soldier portrayed on the King's Gate in the ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA wears a sleeveless jacket that may have been made of leather. Underneath it is what looks like a shirt of scale armor. Hittites and other ancient soldiers may also have worn protective garments of chain mail, many small metal rings sewn together in a flexible sheet. The quest for more powerful weapons was paralleled by a drive to develop lightweight, effective protection from them. For the people of the ancient Near East, improved techniques of weapon and armor making could make the difference between life and death. (See also Cavalry; Chariots; Egypt and the Egyptians; Metals and Metalworking; Wars and Warfare.)

See Textiles.

See Cereal Grains.

H

istorians, archaeologists*, and other scholars consider the invention of the wheel one of the most important technological advances that occurred in the ancient Near East. The wheel made the transport of people and goods easier and faster. It also led to developments in many aspects of life, particularly in trade and war. 157

Wine * archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity * artisan skilled craftsperson

* fourth millennium B.C. years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.

* millennium period of 1000 years; pi. millennia

WINE * commodity article of trade

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Archaeologists believe that the wheel used for transport was adapted from the potter's wheel, which was invented around 4000 B.C. The potter's wheel was set on an axle, which in turn was set within a bearing that enabled the wheel to rotate freely. This freely rotating wheel enabled ancient Near Eastern artisans* to mass-produce pottery, which became a necessity with the establishment of cities. The first evidence of wheeled vehicles—depictions in pictographs from URUK—date from the late fourth millennium B.C.* Most archaeological evidence of wheels, however, dates from after 3000 B.C. Before that time, sledges, or sleighs, and pack animals were used to transport people and goods. The earliest wheels in Mesopotamia were made using three planks of wood that were cut to form a circle and held together by a thin strip of lumber. These disk wheels were then fixed to an axle that was attached to a cart. This type of wheel was soon adopted by the other cultures of the ancient Near East. However, these wheels were heavy and clumsy, making vehicles slow, and people continued to use sledges and animals for transport. When wheeled vehicles were used, they were ox-drawn wagons, two-wheeled or four-wheeled carts, or CHARIOTS, pulled by donkeys or HORSES. These were used for passengers or for carrying goods. Over the millennia*, ancient Near Easterners improved the wheel in several ways, including the addition of a tire by which the wheel wore down evenly. Eventually, tires of leather, and later, metal were used. The most significant improvement was the creation of openings in the disks. These eventually led to the invention of spokes, which were first portrayed in Hittite and Syrian carvings in the early second millennium B.C. (years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.). Wheels with spokes were lighter than disk wheels, and they could carry their loads at faster speeds. Because their speed and lightness made them more maneuverable, the spoked wheels were used in chariots to transport soldiers. Around 400 B.C., the Persians turned chariot wheels into weapons by mounting sharp, curved blades on them. When driven into an enemy infantry formation, these blades could cut down troops. Scholars are unsure of the extent of the impact the invention of the wheel had on ancient Near Eastern society. Some believe that improved TRANSPORTATION enabled people to move into cities even though they were farther away from food sources and supplies because these could now be easily imported. The invention of the wheel also stimulated the economy because it created new professions, such as jobs for people who made wheels and carriages. (See also Science and Technology.)

T

he earliest evidence of wine making in the ancient Near East—dating to about 3500 B.C.—was found in sediments inside a large pottery jar at a site in IRAN. However, it is most likely that wine was produced much earlier than that. In addition to grapes, wine was also made from other fruits, including dates, figs, pomegranates, and plums. Wine was a rare and valuable commodity* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, which contains few regions suitable for the cultivation of grapes. Described as ''mountain beer" or "bright wine like the uncountable waters

Witchcraft

* tribute payment made by a smaller or weaker party to more powerful one, often under the threat of force

archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

WITCHCRAFT incantation written or recited formula of words designed to produce a given effect amulet small object thought to have supernatural or magical powers

of the river," wine was never plentiful in Babylonia. Wine consumption was limited to the wealthiest classes, and wine was often presented as an OFFERING to the deities. An expensive luxury item of trade, wine reached BABYLON in the form of taxes from northern and western lands or as tribute* from defeated enemies. Vineyards were more commonly found in northern Mesopotamia, where the terrain was mountainous and the rainfall was sufficient for grape cultivation. For instance, Assyria enjoyed favorable conditions for growing grapes, with the best vineyards in the regions east of the city of NINEVEH. The royal palace at KALKHU contained space for the storage of up to 528 gallons of wine. Several clay tablets found in the palace describe the allocation of wine rations to the members of the royal household, indicating that wine was not as rare a commodity in Assyria as it was in Babylonia. In Egypt, the cultivation of grapes was easier, and therefore the consumption of wine was greater. However, because the cultivation of grapes required IRRIGATION, wine was still largely a drink of the upper classes. Archaeologists* have found sealed wine jars with labels indicating where and when the wine was made, the name of the vintner (the person in charge of the vineyard), and the quality of the wine inside. The quality listed could vary from simply "wine" to "very good" or "genuine" and, in at least one case, "for merrymaking." Depictions in tomb paintings as well as INSCRIPTIONS and texts have also yielded considerable information on wine making and consumption in ancient Egypt. As in Mesopotamia, wine was often used to pay taxes and as an offering to the gods. Wine was also well known SYRIA and in the Levant*, as indicated by the many references to it in the Hebrew BIBLE. (See also Food and Drink.)

T

he use of MAGIC was widespread in the ancient Near East. Both white magic, or helpful magic, and witchcraft, or black magic, were practiced. Magicians used incantations*, other special words, and objects such as amulets* to control the supernatural world for specific purposes. White magic, practiced openly in the ancient Near East, was closely related to both religion and medicine. It was generally used to protect people from harm. For example, it might have been used to cure someone by turning away the evil DEMONS who were believed to be causing the person's illness. In contrast, witchcraft was used to deliberately harm others for the benefit of the witch or the witch's client. For instance, it might have been used to cause illness in someone the witch or warlock (male witch) disliked. Because witchcraft was prohibited by law, it was practiced in secret. People believed that witches were frequent and unpredictable causes of harm, and they lived in constant dread of their black magic. Many written sources from the ancient Near East describe white magic, but little has been found about witchcraft. What is known about witchcraft comes primarily from texts describing the white magic that was used to combat it. Counterspells—spells designed to fight witchcraft— dealing with almost every facet of life have been found, indicating that the practice of witchcraft was common and widespread.

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Witchcraft

* divination art or practice of the future

foretelling

Methods of Witchcraft. Although their aims were different, witches and people who practiced white magic usedthe sameor similar methods. Of the two techniques most commonlyused,one was basedon analogy, or similarity,and the other was basedon contiguity,or closeness. In witchcraft based on analogy, an object that bore some resemblance to a person was manipulated by the witch. The assumption was that whatever happened to the object would happen to the person the object represented. For example, a witch might prepare a doll so that it th looked like a particular person. Then the witch would pierce the doll with needles to cause pain or injury to the person the doll resembled. In witchcraft based on contiguity, an objector objects that had belonged to or been touched by a particular person were manipulated by the witch. The assumption here, as in witchcraft basedon analogy, was that whatever happened to the objects would also happen to the people the objects had touched. For instance,a lockof hairor pieceof clothing belonging to a person might be damaged or destroyed by a witch to cause harm or death to the person from whom the hair or clothing had been taken. A special category ofwitchcraft thatwas commonin the ancient Near East, especiallyin Mesopotamia,was the "evil eye." Thiswas a cursedirected at another person to cause that person harm.Egypt, In ancient texts mention people who were "red of eye/; which may be related to the Mesopotamian evil eye. These people were believedtoSETH, be worshipersof the god of chaos.The Hebrew Bible describesthe evileye as well, but here it was not a curse.Rather, it was the idea thatan enviousjealous or person could injure another with a look. The spirits of dead people were believedto have supernatural powers and knowledge, including thatof the future. Necromancywas a method of divination* in which a magician tried to learn about future the by communicating with spirits of the dead. Although necromancy was practiced in many regions in the ancient Near East, it was considereda bad form of magic, practiced onlyby witches. Consequently,it was punishable by death.

Detecting and Punishing Witchcraft. Witchcraft was ill throughout the ancient NearEast. Several law codes banned it and set procedures to be followedin cases whereit was suspected.For example, the law code issuedby the Babylonian HAMMURABI king B.C. around 1750 states that bothwitchcraftand false accusationsof witchcraft were punishable by death. The Code of Hammurabi also spelled out how to determine if the person accusedof witchcraftwas actuallya witch.The accused person was to be put through a test called the river ordeal in which he, or more commonly she, plunged intothe watersof a river.If the person drowned, he or she was presumedto be guiltyof witchcraft.If the person survived,the presumptionwas of innocence. Another way of dealing withwitchcraftwas spelledout in an ancient Mesopotamian ritual calledMaqlu, meaning "burning/' This ritual, which always took place at night, did not require that the witch's identity be known. Instead,effigy, an or model,was usedin placeof the unknown witch. Much of the ritual and its accompanying incantations 160

Women, Role of were aimed at associating the effigy with the real witch. At the end of the ritual, the effigy was burned to punish the witch, whose true identity remained unknown. Although it is likely that witchcraft was practiced widely in the ancient Near East, it is unlikely that many people were actually accused and put through the river ordeal or some other type of trial. Because witchcraft was always practiced in secret, the identity of a witch usually was not known. Moreover, because a false accusation of witchcraft could mean death for the accuser, people probably avoided accusations of witchcraft whenever possible. (See also Amulets and Charms; Oracles and Prophecy; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

WOMEN, ROLE OF

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 to 2001 B.C. * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future

I

n every major civilization of the ancient Near East, men dominated the government, religion, and economy. Women did not enjoy equal status with men although they had more rights in some places and times than in others. Women's legal rights, both within the family and in society as a whole, were generally defined and limited by men. Although history does not tell of any organized resistance by women to male authority, some individual women achieved considerable status and power. These women usually came from elite, often royal, families. Several were QUEENS who governed their states in their own right. Although most women of the ancient world occupied humbler levels of society, they filled numerous vital roles in addition to those of wives and mothers. Their activities and responsibilities may have been viewed as separate from men's, but they were essential to the functioning of society. Mesopotamia. Women of the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures of MESOPOTAMIA could own property in their own names, even when married. As early as the third millennium B.C.*, their names appeared in records as property buyers. In the time of the Old Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), women could serve as witnesses to legal transactions, although they later lost this right. Women also served as scribes*, physicians, diviners*, artists, and performers, although in all of these roles they were outnumbered and overshadowed by men. Information about the status of some Mesopotamian women comes from the ruins of Nuzi, a Mitannian town in northeastern Mesopotamia. Free women (as opposed to slaves) in Nuzi were active in the town's economy and in its courts, particularly in connection with the ownership of land, which they acquired by purchase, inheritance, and grants from rulers. They bought and sold goods, lent money, and made investments alone or in partnership with other women and men. Although such activities show that women's legal status was equal to that of men, women participated in economic activities outside the household only when there were no men in their families to do so. Babylonians developed the custom of sending a rich young woman away to become a naditum. She lived apart from the world in an institution called a gagum, which was associated with a temple. As a naditum, a woman was forbidden to marry and was expected to devote her life to

161

Women, Role of * dowry money or property that a woman brings to the man she marries

Paying for a Man's Mistakes Although women without male relatives faced many difficulties in the ancient Near East, a husband or father was no guarantee of protection. A man's wife and chil- \ dren were likely to suffer if he had unpaid debts or other legal problems, A tetter from the Old Babylon-j fan period describes just such a situation: Immediately after you left for the trip, Imgur-Sin arrived here and claimed: "He owes me twenty shekels of silver/'He took your wife and daughter as pledges. Come back before your wife and daughter die from. ,. constantly grinding barley while in detention. Please get your wife and daughter out of this.

cult system of religious beliefs and rituals; group following these beliefs pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

162

prayer and religious worship. She controlled some private, portable property from her dowry*, such as money and jewelry, and with these goods she could engage in business activities and investments. Because she was free from the responsibilities of marriage and motherhood, a naditum was able to become an important businessperson. Mesopotamian women of the merchant class sometimes became alewives, or owners and operators of taverns who also lent money to farmers. Lower-class women had fewer opportunities to control their own destinies. Those without men to provide for them sometimes performed forced labor in dire conditions and received smaller rations than their male counterparts. Such women worked in the wool-processing and weaving industries. Egypt. Ancient Egypt was a male-dominated society that made sharp distinctions between men's and women's roles and occupations. Nevertheless, women enjoyed significant legal rights. They could inherit property, own real estate, and on their deaths, leave it to whomever they pleased. They could own slaves and free them. They could also conduct economic and legal transactions, including lawsuits. Records even tell of one woman who sued her father over ownership of some possessions. A woman's work in ancient Egypt depended largely on her social status or that of her husband. The titles given to women in Egyptian texts offer clues about their roles. During the Old Kingdom period (ca. 26752130 B.C.), elite and noble women bore such titles as "She-who-is-knownto-the-king," the female version of a high-ranking male official's title. Other descriptive titles, such as "inspector of treasure," reveal that women worked in administrative positions as stewards for other powerful women. Some were in charge of state or temple storehouses of food and textiles, while others worked in private households. Female weavers, wigmakers, singers, dancers, and doctors also appear in the records. As in Mesopotamia, however, women formed a minority in most professions. Women also had roles, although limited ones, in the temple cults* of Egyptian religion. Texts contain accounts of priestesses of the goddess HATHOR and of female singers and dancers in the temples. During the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a royal wife or daughter headed the priesthood at the temple of AMUN at THEBES. Married Egyptian women generally ran their households. One Egyptian text even recommended to men that they let their wives run the house without male interference. In addition to overseeing the household, a wife might also have performed textile work for a temple or other state institution or increased family income by selling or trading garden produce, cakes, clothing, or pottery. Female servants worked in houses and in the tasks of food and textile preparation, but most skilled crafts were limited to men. It is possible that some women worked outdoors as forced laborers as a form of punishment. Generally however, there was a division of labor in Egypt between men's and women's work. Anatolia. Although the pantheon* of the HITTITES of central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) consisted of almost as many goddesses as gods who

Women, Role of

received equal space and prominence in shrines and temples, the status of women wasless equalin everyday life.An exampleof thiscan be found in one Hittite story featuringa husband telling wife, his "Youare a woman and of a womanly nature:you know nothingat all." A Hittite woman's activities were usually limited to her home. Her roles were daughter, wife, mother,and widow. Her power, if she had any, was determined by her husband's statusand wealth.A king's daughteror sister, for example, could become queenof a neighboring state. A rich man'swife could command many servantsand have timefor leisure activities. She supervisedthe preparationof the family's foodand clothing, while ordinary womenperformed these tasks themselves. Some women, however, had roles outside the home, although they earned abouthalf as muchas men did. Those fromthe poorer ranks of society performed manual labor for wages. Some women workedin the palace, and temple personnel included priestessesand female singers. Midwives aided in birth, and women skilled in the magic arts werein demand to help people suffering from both physical ills suchas headaches and supernatural ones such as attacks by witches. The most powerful women in Hittite society were queens, someof whom exercised considerable power and conducted official business in their own names. Widowed queens held their power until death, which meant that their influence overlapped with the reigns of their husband's sons or stepsons, resulting in many strugglesfor powerin the palace. Queens were able to strengthen their positions and to influence others by using funds they controlled, their knowledgeof state secrets,and even their supposedskills in spellsand magic. 163

Wood and Woodworking

* patron special guardian, protector, or supporter

* patrilineal descending through the male line, from father to son

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

See [color plate 13, vol. 2.

WOOD AND

WOODWORKING 164

Iran. Women in the Elamite civilization of western IRAN had higher status than those in neighboring Mesopotamia. This may be reflected in the fact that many cities in Elam had a goddess as their patron* deity. Some scholars also believe that the Elamites had a matrilineal system of inheritance (one that ran from mother to daughter rather than from father to son). Evidence for this comes from a letter from an Elamite king who claimed he should rule Babylon because he was married to the oldest daughter of its king. Other Elamite records show that women could serve as witnesses to the swearing of oaths in legal transactions. In contrast to the state of Elam, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, which dominated Iran from 550 to 330 B.C., was organized along patrilineal* lines of descent and inheritance. Although women could not inherit their father's goods, they could and sometimes did occupy positions of higher rank than men. Records reveal that women sometimes supervised groups of male workers and received equal or larger shares of rations. Syria and the Levant. In Syria and the Levant*, as elsewhere in the ancient Near East, women's status and roles depended largely on their male connections. In the third millennium B.C., women of the royal household held a significant place in the society of the Syrian city-state* of EBLA. The king's mother and his primary wife had full access to the palace goods and their management, a privilege they retained in the Canaanite and Israelite cultures that later emerged in the region. The royal harem, or the ''women of the king/' lived in their own building and were assisted by a group of officials. Sometimes these women were placed in charge of important parts of palace work, especially textile manufacturing. Among the Israelites, many families raised livestock or engaged in farming. In such households, women and girls shared the work. Although women were raised primarily to be wives and mothers, the Book of Samuel in the Hebrew BIBLE lists jobs that women performed outside the home, including those of performer, cook, and baker. Some women participated actively in trade. Israelite women had few legal rights, however. They could not divorce their husbands, and only rarely could they inherit property. Unlike most Near Eastern societies, Israel barred women from holding religious offices. Although this prohibition set Israelite women apart, the existence of rules that established what roles women could have in society was common in the ancient Near East. (See also Childbirth; Children; Divorce; Egypt and the Egyptians; Family and Social Life; Marriage; Pregnancy.)

T

he natural abundance of wood, together with its structural qualities and the ease with which it can be worked, has made wood one of the most widely used BUILDING MATERIALS for many millennia*. Throughout history, wood has remained popular not only for building but also for crafts and necessities. Although the Near East is not noted for its extensive timber resources, the inhabitants of the region have made use of wood for a variety of purposes since ancient times.

Wood and Woodworking millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. millennia

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

Building the Tabernacle The Hebrew Bible describes the construction of the tabernacle, a makeshift woodeivframed tent used for worship by the ancient j Israelites during their journey to the Promised land: He [the craftsman] made upright frames, too, ofacada wood to support the tabernacle. Each board was ten cubits high, and had a width of a cubit and a half; and at the sides of it, two tenon»piece$ jutted out, so that each might be mortised to the next; all the frame work of the tabernacle he made in this way. (Exodus 36:20-23)

Levant lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (presentday Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Bank, and Jordan

* ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized wood from certain tropical trees

Construction and Building. Circular huts dating to around 8000 B.C. were among the earliest wooden structures built in the ancient Near East. These mud-covered HOUSES consisted of a timber frame with gaps filled with twigs, reeds, and branches. As buildings became larger and more sophisticated, STONE or mud brick* often replaced wood as the primary building material. However, builders did not abandon the use of wood for construction. The remains of early stone houses indicate that wooden posts were used as structural supports on the insides of walls. Throughout the history of the Near East, certain parts of most structures continued to be made of wood. These included doors, door and window frames, and roof beams. Sometimes roofs also contained twigs and branches that were typically covered with mud or plaster. The roofs on some Greek buildings were made of baked clay tiles set over supporting wooden beams. In larger structures, such as palaces and great halls, tree trunks often served as pillars to support the weight of the roof. Also, the outer walls of many large buildings contained horizontal timber beams laid between layers of stone or masonry. The wooden beams added a measure of flexibility, which was especially important in the many EARTHQUAKEprone regions of the ancient Near East. Particularly fine ancient buildings contained wooden floors and walls that were decorated elaborately. Exotic and expensive woods such as cedar were often used for the massive doors of temples and palaces. The type and amount of wood used for construction depended on the resources available to each region. In ancient times, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), IRAN, and the Levant* contained large forests that provided local builders a ready supply of sturdy wood. The cedars of Lebanon were famous for their majestic size and their strength as building materials. Because it was difficult to cut and transport these huge trees across long distances, only empires with substantial financial resources could afford to use them. Pine, oak, and poplar trees provided most of the wood used for building in the Near East. In contrast to other areas of the region, Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA boasted few timber resources. Those trees that were available, such as sycamore, acacia, and date palms, were often not suited to large-scale construction because they were smaller and their wood was of a lower quality. Societies without access to substantial sources of timber either used the inferiorquality local woods or imported what they needed from other regions. Egypt imported cedar and other conifers (cone-bearing trees such as pine) from Lebanon, as well as ebony* from the Sudan. Mesopotamians also used Lebanese cedar as well as juniper wood from SYRIA and Anatolia. Because of the expense of transporting wood from so far away, imported timber was used primarily in monumental ARCHITECTURE, such as PALACES AND TEMPLES.

Woodworking. Besides its use as a building material, wood was widely employed in the making of FURNISHINGS AND FURNITURE, such as tables, stools, chairs, cabinets, chests, and beds. Woodworkers also created a wide range of items, including screens, coffins, small statues and figurines, utensils, musical instruments, TOOLS, and game boards. One of the more interesting items fashioned from wood in Mesopotamia was an 165

Wood and Woodworking

* veneer thin layer of material the surface of an object

bonded

* relief sculpture in which material is cut away to show figures raised from the background

early form of writing tablet consistingof two wooden boards joined with a hinge. Ancient Egyptian woodworkers achievedahigh degree ofskill anddisplayed mastery over many artistic techniques. Some ofthese skills areevident from remainsoffurniture foundin royal tombs suchasthatof the to pharaoh TUTANKHAMEN.One chest fromhis tomb contains aveneer* of IVORY and is inlaid with more than 30,000 piecesofivoryand ebony.The Phrygians of Anatolia were knownfor the beautyand quality of their wooden furniture. Archaeologists have recovered numerous tables, stands, and beds withbeautiful inlayed designs. HERODOTUS The Greek historian described a wooden throne donated by the Phrygian king Midas to the temple at Delphi in Greeceas"well worth seeing/' Ancient carpenters' tools usedforwoodworking resembled their modern counterparts. These included saws, axes, chisels, planes,and wooden rulers called cubit sticks. Early carpenters' tools were typically fashioned from copper. AfterB.C., 4000 bronze becamethe most widely used material for these tools,and iron tools became common B.C. after only 1200 Wood in Shipbuilding. In ancient times, many ships werefrom built wood, and constructing them required skilled woodworkers. Reliefs*

166

Work

* artisan skilled craftsperson

Wool

WORK

* nomadic referring to people who travel from place to place in search of food or pasture

See (color plate 12,1 vol. 2.

from Egypt depict the process of building a ship, from preparing the trees to be used to putting on the finishing touches. The various reliefs show woodcutters chopping down acacia trees and splitting open the trunks with axes. They also depict artisans* called joiners making planks from the wood from which they constructed the ship's hull. These planks were held together by wooden pegs (called tenons) fitted into holes cut into the edge of each plank (called mortises). This was the basic technique for shipbuilding in the ancient Near East. Timber was also essential for making other forms of TRANSPORTATION. All wheeled vehicles, from carts and wagons to CHARIOTS, were constructed of wood. Most bridges in the ancient Near East were also wooden structures. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Ships and Boats; Wheel.)

See Clothing; Sheep; Textiles.

I

n the ancient Near East, as in the modern world, most people had to work for their living. As the economy and way of life of the people of the ancient Near East changed over thousands of years, the nature of work also changed. By the end of the ancient period, Near Easterners were engaged in many different types of work and occupations. Before the development of AGRICULTURE, most people in a given community spent their time performing very similar tasks. The only real differences, perhaps, were between men's and women's responsibilities. However, the role of work in a person's life depended not just on that person's gender but also on his or her social status. The class structure and the economy also shaped the nature of work within each culture. From Subsistence to Occupation. Before the development of agriculture, nomadic* groups lived by hunting and gathering wild foods. They lived in what economists call a subsistence economy, where individuals or family groups each produce what they need to subsist, or stay alive. Although there may have been some division of duties within bands or communities in ancient subsistence economies, everyone basically had the same "job," which was the daily business of survival—of obtaining food, clothing, and shelter. The shift from obtaining food by hunting and gathering to agriculture, which began around 9000 B.C., allowed people to occupy permanent settlements and to accumulate, store, and redistribute food. For the first time, not everyone had to obtain each day's or each week's food for himself or his family. Some people could work at other tasks—specializing in craft production, for example—and exchange the products of their labor for food that other people cultivated and harvested. This was the beginning of occupational diversity. Society and Employment. The development of settled communities was closely linked to other trends that affected work. One of these 167

Work * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

A fob With Good Benefits

Between 1539 and 1075 a.c, the Egyptian workers who built and decorated the tombs at the Valley of the Kings near Thebes lived at a village called Dayr-al Madina, Because these workers were doing important work for the king, they received many benefits that were not typical for workers of the ancient Near East. Not only were the workers paid generously with differ^ ent foodstuffs, but they also had people to do their laundry and servants to help them with other daily j tasks. Moreover, the workers' children were educated and taught how to read and write, a privilege usually reserved for nobility.

* bureaucracy system consisting of officials and clerks who perform government functions * scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher * diviner person who foretells the future * hierarchical referring to a society or an institution divided into groups with higher and lower ranks * diplomacy practice of conducting negotiations between kingdoms, states, or nations * artisan skilled craftsperson * quarry to excavate pieces of stone by cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) blasting

* apprentice individual who learns skills or a profession from an experienced person in that field

168

processes was URBANIZATION, the formation of urban centers as some settlements grew into cities and city-states*. The people living in urban centers were able to store large quantities of food for distribution among the population. This allowed some people to work at other occupations or to work at new specialized jobs to meet the needs of large communities. As these sweeping changes took place in settled states, new social classes emerged. A ruling class developed, and the growth of governments led to the rise of bureaucracies* that employed administrators and later, scribes*. In the same way, the growth of large religious institutions created work not only for priests and priestesses but also for those who served the priesthoods and temples as servants, scribes, stewards, singers, dancers, and diviners*. A result of these changes was that society became increasingly hierarchical*, and the kind of work people did had much to do with their status. Those in the royal and noble classes perhaps did nothing that a poor, hard-laboring peasant would consider "work/' but they had their own obligations, such as administering justice and conducting diplomacy*. As ruling institutions, the state and the temple influenced other people's work with forced labor. In many ancient Near Eastern societies, people owed the state or the temple a certain number of days of labor each year in exchange for the food and clothing rations they received. Much of that labor was devoted to agricultural production, although it might also be directed toward the construction or repair of roads, bridges, irrigation canals, or public buildings. Some laborers worked on royal or temple estates year-round. Trade generated much work for people in the ancient world. For instance, MERCHANTS bought and sold goods for long-distance exchange, scribes kept records of their transactions, and handlers and boatmen loaded and moved the goods by ship or animal CARAVAN. As members of society acquired wealth, they wanted to purchase fine, luxury goods as symbols of their status. Painters, jewelers, sculptors, and crafts workers such as potters and textile weavers worked to supply the demand for such goods. Large numbers of other artisans* were occupied producing everyday textiles, furniture, metalwork, POTTERY, SEALS, TOOLS, and household utensils for the general market. People in the ancient Near East worked at occupations dealing with many aspects of life. People working on farms might be shepherds, sheep shearers, cattle fatteners, or managers, to name a few possibilities. There were doctors to attend to the sick and people to care for the dead. People were needed to quarry* stones and to mine and process gems and metals. Women worked as grain grinders, weavers, oil pressers, and nurses for babies. Prostitution was also a known occupation, especially for women, some of whom worked for temples. The Worker's Life. The majority of people in the ancient Near East almost never faced the dilemma of deciding what to do with their lives or what kind of work to pursue. Those lucky enough to be born into a family of artisans, priests, or scribes generally acquired the skills and education to work in these high-status fields. Such opportunities were rarely open to individuals from the lower or peasant classes. Sometimes, however,

Writing

* creditor someone to whom a owed

Worship

WRITING

debtis

experts took peasant or slave boys intotheir householdsasapprentices* to whom they would teach atradeinexchangefor acertain numberof years of labor. Highly skilledor talented free laborers received wages fortheir work, sometimes in theform of silverand sometimesingrain. Such workers probably had some degreeofcontrol over their lives. Theymayhave been able to move around freely and choose whenand forwhom they worked. The same was probably trueofthosewhooperated theirownbusinesses. At any given time, however, more people worked forced as semifree or laborers under the controlof apublic institutionor acreditor*. These people did not receive wagesbut were paid only their rations,theamount food of needed to keep them (See also alive. Art, Artisans,and Artists; Economy and Trade; Labor and Laborers;Slaves andSlavery.)

SeePrayer;Religion;Ritualsand Sacrifice.

one of the most important cultural contributions made W byritingthewas people of the ancient Near East. Beforethe inventionof

writing, most information had to becommunicated orally andcommitted to memory. Writing, however, enabled detailed andprecise communication between people hundredsofmiles away.Italso permitted knowledge to be accurately recorded and stored, and theneasily retrieved, aftereven hundreds of years.The abilityto record information through writingenabled the developmentofSOCIAL advanced INSTITUTIONS in the early urban societies of the NearEast.

The Development of Writing. Theearliest existing evidence ofwriting consistsofTABLETS inscribed CLAYfrom the Sumerian URUK thatof city date to aroundB.C. 3300 Like most written records MESOPOfromancient TAMIA, theseare accounting lists thatrecord inventories ofgoods. Atthat 169

Writing * urbanization formation and growth of cities * deity god or goddess

The invention of writing in the ancient Near East was a direct consequence of the demands of developing economies in the region. As early as 3500 B.C., clay tokens and bullae (balls) were used for record keeping and accounting purposes. As cities and city-state emerged, governments became centralized, and trade and administration became more complex, accountants and scribes could no longer depend on this simple method of record keeping. Their needs led to the invention of writing, the aleph-beth, and later the alphabet.

early stage, writing mainly served the administrative function of RECORD KEEPING. However, the need to keep accurate accounting records was not the only inspiration for the invention of writing. Instead, writing was developed as a result of urbanization*. As societies of the ancient Near East became increasingly urbanized, the temples began to take over many of a city's productive activities. In Uruk, the temple of the city's deity* owned not only large tracts of agricultural land but also workshops that produced POTTERY, TEXTILES, SCULPTURE, metalwork, and other goods. The temple was also responsible for coordinating the work of thousands of employees and making sure they were paid by means of food and clothing rations. The needs of administering such a complex enterprise necessitated a system for recording all this information, leading to the invention of writing. The earliest form of writing is called logographic because it used symbols, or logograms (derived from the Greek words for word and writing) to communicate words and ideas. For example, the symbol for ox was a picture of an ox's head. The early Sumerian writing system contained more than 1,200 different logograms.

BBflEiOPMENT OF WRITING

ca. 4000-3001 B.C.

Tokens and clay balls are used to record and store information. Writing is invented at Uruk. Sumerian scribes develop cuneiform writing. Egyptians develop hieroglyphic script Proto-Elamite script developed in Iran.

ca. 3000-2001 B.C.

Egyptians develop hieratic, a cursive form of hieroglyphics* Sumerian cuneiform spreads to northern Syria. Elamites develop Elamite cuneiform system. Akkadians adopt the cuneiform script.

ca. 2000-1001 B.C.

Akkadian cuneiform spreads to Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt Minoans develop hieroglyphic and Linear A scripts. People of Syria and the Levant develop the first examples of the linear aleph-beth. Semitic-speaking northern Syrians create cuneiform-type signs for aleph-beth. Mycenean Greeks develop Linear 8 script. Hittites develop hieroglyphics.

ca. 1000-1 B.C.

170

Phoenician traders transmit the aleph-beth to Greeks. Greeks develop vowels for alphabet. South-Semitic aleph-beth is developed in Arabia* Aramaic language and aleph-beth spread throughout ancient Near East. Egyptians develop demotic script. Persians adapt the cuneiform script. Following the Invasions of Alexander the Great, Creek is introduced throughout the ancient Near East.

Writing

* scribe person of a learned class who served as a writer, editor, or teacher

Which Way Is Up? One of the challenges ancient writing posed for modern scholars who first attempted to decode and interpret it was figuring out in which direction it should be read. Early Sumerian writing was originally read top to bottom, starting in the upper right hand corner of the tablet Later, the symbols were written and read left to right In some cultures the writing had no fixed direction—sometimes it was read right to left, and at other times it was read left to right. One particularly interesting method was calW boustrophedon, which literally means "turning like oxen in plowing/' Here, one line is read left to right, while the next is read right to left, alternating in this way throughout the entire document or inscription.

city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory

Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician

Shortly after writing was invented in Mesopotamia, a logographic type of writing known as HIEROGLYPHICS appeared in EGYPT. Most scholars believe that the Egyptians borrowed the idea of writing from the Mesopotamians. Others claim that the Egyptians developed it independently. In either case, logographic writing systems were established in both societies by about 3000 B.C., but they were used for quite different purposes. In Mesopotamia, writing served primarily administrative functions, while the Egyptians used it for INSCRIPTIONS and for religious texts. The earliest Mesopotamian scribes* used a pointed tool called a stylus to scratch signs on their clay tablets. However, they soon began to use a stylus with a triangular-shaped tip to press the shape of the symbol into the clay. The stylus made a wedge-shaped mark; consequently, logograms were transformed into symbols composed of one or more variously oriented wedge-shaped strokes. Over time, these symbols, called CUNEIFORM writing, became more abstract and bore less resemblance to the original logograms. Meanwhile, scribes also invented symbols that stood for the syllables that formed a word rather than objects representing it. This made it easier to express abstract ideas in writing. For instance, they took the logograms for the noun "water" (a), and the verb "to strike" (ra), and combined them to produce the Sumerian word ara, which translates as "to the." Before they began using syllables, such words as ara could not be written. The move away from a purely logographic system was a significant step in the evolution of writing. The early logograms had meaning irrespective of language. Cuneiform symbols that represented syllables could be used to write words in any language that contained similar syllables. Once a word in a particular language was spelled out, it could be sounded out by anyone who could read the script, but it made sense only to a speaker of that language. Compared to fully logographic systems, this method of writing, called a syllabary, was easier to learn and use because it required fewer signs. As Sumerian cuneiform spread across the Near East, local peoples adapted it to write their own languages. They added symbols for syllables in their languages that did not exist in Sumerian. Most of these writing systems, however, continued to use logograms as well as syllables. In Egypt, hieroglyphics remained in use for more than 3,000 years. Like cuneiform, it consisted of syllabic signs as well as logographic signs. During its long history, two cursive forms of Egyptian hieroglyphics—hieratic and demotic—were adopted for use in writing in everyday practical matters. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) also developed a hieroglyphic writing system of their own during the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.). This script remained in use in the NeoHittite city-states* of northern Syria until about 700 B.C. Hittite hieroglyphs were generally used for royal seals and inscriptions on buildings and sculptures. Further Developments. The next step in the development of writing was the use of symbols to represent just the individual consonants. This occurred among Canaanite speakers sometime before 1500 B.C. Early Semitic* writing used a system known as the aleph-beth, which had no symbols for vowels. The reader had to supply the proper vowel depending on 171

Xerxes the context of the writing. For example, it is easy to determine the meaning of the following sentence even without vowels—"Th mn grbs th bttl." The Phoenicians, who traded extensively across the Mediterranean Sea, were probably responsible for the transmission of the aleph-beth writing to the Greeks during the 800s B.C. The Greeks added symbols for their vowels, creating the first true alphabet. Later, the Romans adopted a modified version of the Greek alphabet, which continues to be in use for almost all Western languages. Literacy. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, only a small segment of the population was literate—able to read and write. Even the majority of kings in the ancient Near East were illiterate. Only three Mesopotamian kings are known to have been trained as scribes—SHULGI of UR, Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, and ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria. In contrast, Egyptian princes were apparently regularly trained as scribes during their youth. The rate of literacy was low because very few people in the ancient Near East received an EDUCATION. Because schools were controlled by the state or by temples, the political and religious elites effectively controlled a society's knowledge. For instance, it was in the interest of the scribal class to limit the spread of literacy. This enabled them to maintain their high social position, which they gained from their ability to read, write, and keep society functioning smoothly. On the other hand, societies that lacked an established scribal class, such as the ancient Aramaeans, had less reason to restrict literacy and more incentive to adopt new forms of writing that were easier to master. The development of an alphabetic system made writing and learning more accessible to the people of the ancient Near East. Instead of a confusing system of many hundreds of symbols that took years to master, alphabets had fewer than 30 characters that could be learned in a matter of days or weeks. In Syria, Canaan, Phoenicia, and Israel during the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), many people learned to read and write well enough to conduct their daily business. Some scholars estimate the literacy rate in classical Greece (ca. 500 B.C.) at about 30 percent, which was dramatically higher than in Mesopotamia or Egypt. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Communication; Epic Literature; Languages; Literature; Schools; Scribes; Semitic Languages; Sumer and the Sumerians; Sumerian Language.)

XERXES ruled 486-465 B.C. Persian king

172

est known for his campaigns against Greece, Xerxes (ZUHRK^seez) B was one of the most famous kings of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. He was the

son of the Persian ruler DARIUS I and Atossa, the daughter of CYRUS THE GREAT. Named heir to the throne instead of his elder brother, Artabazanes, Xerxes became ruler of Persia after the death of his father in 486 B.C. By that time, Xerxes had had a great deal of administrative experience, having governed the province of Babylonia for more than a decade. When Xerxes ascended the throne, one of his first concerns was to regain control of Egypt, where a local ruler had usurped* power. In 484 B.C.,

Yahweh * usurp to wrongfully occupy a position * delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed of soil deposited by a river * fortification structure built to strengthen or protect against attack * plunder to steal property by force, usually after a conquest

* strait narrow channel that connects two bodies of water

YAHWEH * monotheistic referring to the belief in only one god * Semitic of or relating to a language family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician * patriarch male leader of a family or tribe

* exodus migration by a large group of people, usually to escape something unpleasant

Xerxes and his armies invaded the delta* region of Egypt and put down the revolt, regaining control of the country. When Xerxes learned of a rebellion in BABYLON, he sent his son-in-law to reconquer the city in 482 B.C. This reconquest was followed by violent repression during which temples and fortifications* were plundered* and destroyed. Xerxes also canceled the special status that Babylon had enjoyed since its incorporation into the Persian empire. After Xerxes had resolved the difficulties in Egypt and Babylon, he planned an invasion of Greece. Responding to pressure from his advisers, he became determined to avenge the defeat that his father, Darius, had suffered at the hands of the Greeks nearly a decade before. After three years of preparation, Xerxes was ready to invade Greece. In 480 B.C., Xerxes led a force of at least 300,000 soldiers and hundreds of ships across the Hellespont (present-day Dardanelles), the narrow strait* separating Europe and Asia, and entered Greece. The Persians enjoyed a few early successes, including victory over a small band of Greeks at a mountain pass called Thermopylae and the capture and plunder of the city of Athens. However, the tide of war changed when the Greeks destroyed the Persian fleet at the battle of Salamis. Without a fleet to bring supplies, Xerxes and his armies were forced to retreat into ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The following year, a Greek victory at a battle near Plataea in central Greece forced the Persian troops to withdraw from the region. Little is known of Xerxes' last 14 years except that he launched a vast building program at PERSEPOLIS. Xerxes and the crown prince were assassinated by a member of his bodyguard in 497 B.C. He was succeeded by his son ARTAXERXES I. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Persian Wars; Susa and Susiana.)

ahweh is the God of the Hebrews (or Israelites) whose worship led to Ythe development of Judaism, the first monotheistic* religion. The

early Israelites often referred to Yahweh as EL, a Semitic* term meaning "god," and also as Elohim, a Semitic term for "gods" that was understood to apply to the one God. The name Yahweh, which comes from the Hebrew root word hay ah, "to be," is often interpreted to mean "I am that I am"; "He was, He is, He ever will be"; or "He causes [things] to be." According to the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism, Yahweh is the creator of the universe and everything in it. Jews trace the foundation of their religion to the time when Yahweh made a covenant, or solemn agreement, with the patriarch* Abraham (also called Abram). Yahweh promised Abraham that he would have an heir and many descendants and that the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) would belong to them. Yahweh first revealed his true name to the Israelite leader MOSES during the exodus* of the Israelites from Egypt. At that time, Yahweh made a new covenant with the Israelites and gave them the TEN COMMANDMENTS, a set of laws to observe.

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Ziggurats Some scholars believe that worship of Yahweh developed from worship of the Canaanite god El, who was the king of the gods and the creator of the earth. Eventually, the Israelites began to identify El with Yahweh, a storm god. Although Yahweh could be portrayed as a warlike god, he eventually came to be seen as a benevolent father who had chosen the Jews to fulfill a special destiny. While it is possible that the early Israelites believed that Yahweh had a human form, they certainly later believed that he did not have a specific form and therefore could not be represented. As a result, Yahweh is not depicted in art or sculpture. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law; Sinai, Mount.)

ZIGGURATS

* archaeologist scientist who studies past human cultures, usually by excavating material remains of human activity

F

ound mainly in ancient Mesopotamia, ziggurats were large, multistory structures with steps leading to a temple at the top. Although their general shape resembled that of the Egyptian pyramids, there were many differences between the two structures. While most later pyramids had smooth, sloping walls, ziggurats, like the earlier stepped pyramids, resembled a series of rectangular boxes, set one atop the next. Also, the pyramids were built as tombs and funeral shrines for deceased kings, whereas ziggurats served as temples for the local gods of the cities in which they were located. Although no intact ziggurat exists today, archaeologists* have been able to reconstruct them by studying their ruins and ancient descriptions that have survived.

HISTORY OF ZIGGURAT CONSTRUCTION

See [color plate 14, vol. 3.

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The first ziggurats, built in SUMER sometime before 3000 B.C., were simply a single, large platform on top of which sat a temple. The temple was reached by climbing a stairway or ramp. Over time, the ziggurat changed to include additional platforms stacked on top of one another. The earliest "true" ziggurat, consisting of more than one level, was probably constructed by King UR-NAMMU, founder of the Third Dynasty of UR, around 2100 B.C. Its base is believed to have measured 210 by 160 feet, and the completed building might have been nearly 50 feet high. A reconstructed version of this early ziggurat, which was dedicated to the moon god Nanna, remains at the site of the ancient city. Like many early ziggurats, it consisted of three platforms, topped by a temple. The basic design soon evolved to consist of four stories, and later ziggurats were built with as many as seven levels. Moreover, some earlier ziggurats were expanded to include additional stories. The most famous ziggurat was a seven-story structure built in the city of BABYLON in the early 500s B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar II, on a foundation that possibly dates back to King HAMMURABI, who ruled in the early 1700s B.C. According to some ancient sources, the ziggurat rose some 300 feet above the ground and might have been the inspiration for the story of the Tower of Babel in the Hebrew BIBLE. The largest surviving ziggurat,

Ziggurats built in the 1200s B.C., is at Chogha Zambil in Elam. Rising more than 78 feet from the ground, the ziggurat still stands at half its original height.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ZIGGURATS OF Although they all originatedfrom the same basic plan, ziggurats were constructed indifferentforms indifferent regions of Mesopotamia. Despite the differences in architecture, all ziggurats were designed to serve as a platform for the temple of the city's god.

* mud brick brick made from mud, straw, and water mixed together and baked in the sun

Southern Ziggurats. The civilizations of southern Mesopotamia— Sumer and Babylonia—built ziggurats in what is considered the classic form. The ziggurat was situated in a walled courtyard that was entered by means of gateways. A large platform coveringan areaof aboutan acre formed the base of the structure. The corners of the platform were aligned with the four major points of the compass. This lower platform, like the ones above it, was a solid structure made of clay and sun-dried mud brick*. Unlike the pyramids, ziggurats had no interior passageways or chambers. Most ziggurats had three staircases that led from the ground to the lower level. All the staircases were on one side of the building. Two of them ran along the outside wall, and the third was perpendicular to the wall face and extended some distance away from the base of the ziggurat. Remains of a ziggurat at Ur indicate that only one staircase led to the top of the building. At the top of the ziggurat was a ''high temple" to the local god. A "lower temple" for other gods was usually located at the baseof the ziggurat. Although impressively designed and built, ziggurats were not very durable. During heavy rain, water penetrated the mud brick interiors and caused them to soften. Over time, the weight of the upper levels would

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Zimri-Lim

The Tower of Babel The ancient Mesopotamians be* lieved that the temple on top of a ziggurat was a place where their god might come down to earth. However, according to the Hebrew Bible, its purpose was quite different. According to the story of the Toweraf Babelln the Book of Genesis 11:1 *9, Noah's descendants attempted to build a tower that they hoped would reach heaven. However, to prevent them from completing construction, their god made them speak different languages so they could not understand one another. The tower was never completed, and Noah's descendants scattered over the face o the earth. This story is said to account for the origin of the world's different languages.

* deity god or goddess

ZlMRI-LlM ruled ca. 1776-1761 B.C. King of Mari 176

cause the lower walls to bulge and eventually collapse. Several texts from ancient Mesopotamia indicate that the rulers expected this to happen. To try to preserve the structure as long as possible, all ziggurats incorporated features such as internal drainpipes to drain water away from the building. Some ziggurats also contained layers of reeds and bitumen (tarlike substance used for waterproofing) between each level to absorb extra moisture. Notwithstanding these precautions, many ziggurats had to be rebuilt every 100 years or less. Northern Ziggurats. The ziggurats in northern Mesopotamia were similar in design and construction to southern ones, but with a few differences. Assyrian ziggurats were typically square, not rectangular like the ones in the south. The four corners were not always aligned to the points of the compass, nor were the external stairways the only means of reaching the temple at the top. However, the most important difference between the two types of ziggurats was their physical surroundings. Sumerian and Babylonian ziggurats stood alone on a site, while the Assyrians incorporated their ziggurats into larger temple complexes that contained other buildings. These temple complexes were constructed on three platforms. The first, or lowest, platform was simply a courtyard surrounding the buildings on the site. The second platform contained the main temple of the god. The ziggurat was the third, and highest, platform in the group. Function of Ziggurats. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the ziggurats served as a link between humans and the gods. Every important city contained a ziggurat dedicated to its local god. The structure rose to the sky, enabling the deities* to descend from heaven to visit their subjects. The high temple on top of the ziggurat received the god when he or she first descended from the sky. The lower temple at the base received the deity upon reaching the earth. The names given to many ziggurats express the idea that ziggurats were the stairways of the gods. The name of the ziggurat in the city of Sippar meant "the staircase to holy heaven/' while the great ziggurat in Babylon was called "the temple which is the foundation of heaven and earth." In some ziggurats, the high temple had a bedchamber in which sacred marriage ceremonies took place. In these ceremonies, the king would enact a ritual with a priestess of the temple to ensure the fertility and prosperity of the kingdom. (See also Architecture; Assyria and the Assyrians; Palaces and Temples.)

was the king of MARI, a city-state* located on the upper EUZimri-Lim PHRATES RIVER in present-day Syria. Historians know more about second millennium B.C.* Mari than about any other Near Eastern culture of this period because official records and many of the king's personal letters have survived. These sources have enabled historians to reconstruct a detailed picture of Mari society during Zimri-Lim's reign. Zimri-Lim was the son of a former king of Mari who had been defeated and removed from power by the Assyrian king SHAMSHI-ADAD I.

Zodiac * city-state independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory * second millennium B.C. years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.

ZODIAC * constellation group of stars that is thought to resemble, and is named after, an object, animal, or mythological character

Hellenistic referring to the Greekinfluenced culture of the Mediterranean world and western Asia during the three centuries after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.

Around 1776 B.C., shortly after Shamshi-Adad's death, Zimri-Lim reclaimed his father's throne. When the city-state of ESHNUNNA allied itself with his enemies and attacked Mari, Zimri-Lim joined forces with the neighboring Syrian city-state of Aleppo. He successfully defeated his rivals and increased his power by forcing the rulers of several cities near Mari to swear loyalty to him. Zimri-Lim had a friendly political relationship with the great Babylonian king HAMMURABI. He sent troops to aid Hammurabi's attack on the city-state of LARSA. Still, Zimri-Lim did not trust his more powerful neighbor, and his suspicions were soon justified. After the siege of Larsa, the Babylonians entered Mari. Over the next two years, they recorded the city's valuables, seized them, and then burned Mari to the ground. ZimriLim's fate is unknown, and scholars are still unsure why Hammurabi decided to destroy his ally's capital. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

B

abylonian astronomers were the first to observe that the SUN, moon, and PLANETS move across the sky within a narrow, imaginary band. This band, called the zodiac, extends about nine degrees on either side of the ecliptic—the path in which the sun appears to travel during the course of a year. The astronomers also identified constellations* on the ecliptic. By about 1100 B.C. they had named 17 such constellations and used them to mark the locations of the moon and planets. Around 500 B.C., Babylonian astronomers divided the band of the zodiac into 12 equal sections, each named for a prominent constellation contained within the section. The name of each constellation became the name of that segment, or sign, of the zodiac. The 12 signs of the zodiac in modern astrology are direct descendants of the signs of the Babylonian zodiac. Their modern names—Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces—are nearly direct translations of the original names given to the constellations by the Greeks when they borrowed the zodiac from the Babylonians during the late Hellenistic* period. Over a period of many hundreds of years, Babylonian astronomers, using the zodiac, compiled enormous amounts of data about the positions of planets and STARS. They were eventually able to use MATHEMATICS to determine the location of planets. Using these data, they could predict where the heavenly bodies would be on any given date, even if the sky was too overcast for direct observation. The Babylonians were able to use this information in their practice of astrology—the interpretation of the movement and relationships of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars in order to predict eclipses as well as human affairs and events. Because astrologers could refer to the zodiac to determine exactly where each planet was when a person was born, they could draw a horoscope—a map of the heavens at the moment of birth. Astrologers then interpreted that map, determining what the positions of the planets at birth meant for a given person's life. At first, horoscopes related only to the king or to the state as a whole. However, by the 300s B.C., astrologers had begun to draw 177

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Dating from the third millennium B.C., this clay tablet from Uruk is inscribed with the drawings of several constellations, or groups of stars. On the left, Corvus, a raven, pecks at the tail of a serpent, Hydra. The star (center) represents the planet Mercury, and the figure holding a spike (right) symbolizes Virgo.

horoscopes for individuals as well. Beginning in the 200s B.C., Babylonians, especially at Uruk, began to use images of the signs of the zodiac, either individually or in groups of twos or threes, as decorations on finger rings that could be used as seals. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Lunar Theory; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ZOROASTER AND ZOROASTRIANISM * prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights * monotheism belief in only one god

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F

ounded by a Persian prophet* and religious reformer named Zoroaster (ZOH»ruh»as«tuhr) in the late 600s B.C., Zoroastrianism (zoh»ruh»AS«tree»uh»ni»zuhm) is a Persian religion that still survives in some parts of IRAN and India. One of its notable features is a belief in monotheism*, and some scholars believe that this aspect of Zoroastrianism may have influenced other monotheistic faiths, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Little is known about Zoroaster, who was also known as Zarathustra. According to tradition, he was born in eastern Iran in about 628 B.C. Perhaps a member of a family of knights, he was credited with having knowledge of magical practices. When Zoroaster became a priest, however, local religious and civil authorities opposed his teachings. This was largely because Zoroaster focused his teachings on one god, AHURA MAZDA, or ''Wise Lord", whom he considered the highest god and the only one worthy of worship. Zoroaster believed that he had received a vision from Ahura Mazda in which the god told him to teach the truth. At that time, however, most religions were polytheistic, or based on a belief in many gods. According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was the creator of heaven and earth, the supreme lawgiver, the center of nature, and the originator of order in the universe. Although supreme, Ahura Mazda was not the only

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism Fire is a sacred symbol to the Zoroastrians, who keep their altars, shown here, perpetually lit. The importance that ancient Persians accorded fire is evident from a relief in the tomb of Darius I, which shows the king praying before a blazing fire altar.

The Magi Before the establishment of Zoroas- \ trianism, the priests of Persia were known as Magi or Magians. Famed for their skills in astrology, they adopted the religion of Zoroaster a their own. In fact, it is possible that Zoroaster himself was a Magi. The Magi acquired great power because of their knowledge of sacred rituals, and at times, they exerted great influence on the Persian government. Many ancient writers revered them as wise men, and their supposed power over demons j gave rise to the word magic. The Magi also appear in the Christian religion as the three wise men who followed a star and brought gifts to j the infant Jesus at Bethlehem.

spirit, however. He was surrounded by several immortal beings called amesha spentas, whom he had also created. These beings represented such qualities as truth, justice, righteousness, devotion, and salvation. Because Zoroaster maintained that the world was divided into good and evil, he also believed that there were evil spirits—daevas—ruled by a being named Angra Mainyu, or AHRIMAN, the source of darkness and lies. According to Zoroaster, there was a great war in progress, both on earth and in the heavens, between the forces of good and evil. He believed that Ahura Mazda allowed humans to choose between good and evil and to decide which side to serve. Because humans were free to determine their own fate, those who chose good and proved their worth through good words, thoughts, and deeds would be rewarded. Those who chose evil would be punished. Zoroaster taught that after death, the soul of every human received judgment from Ahura Mazda. The good entered the kingdom of everlasting joy and light, while the evil fell into the kingdom of misery and darkness. Zoroaster also taught that, in the end, good would triumph over evil, Ahriman would be destroyed, and the world would be renewed and inhabited by the good. Zoroaster's teachings are compiled in the Gathas, which form part of the Zoroastrians' holy book, the Avesta. The Gathas include early HYMNS believed to have been written by Zoroaster. These hymns contain many 179

Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

12,000 Years of Existence According to Zoroastrianism, the history of the universe is divided into four periods of 3,000 years each. During the first three periods, totaling 9,000 years, a great battle rages between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman—the forces of good and evil—for dominance. In the fourth 3,000-year period, however, a savior, known as Saoshyant, is expected to appear and help forces of good triumph over evil. The dead will then rise for a final judgment, and good will reign forever after.

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references to the basic beliefs of Zoroaster and are the only evidence of what the prophet actually taught. In addition to hymns, the Avesta also contains sections dealing with ritual and sacrifice that were to be followed by Zoroastrian priests during worship. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years and died in about 551 B.C. Many legends about him arose after his death, including stories that credited him with being a skilled healer, artisan, astrologer, and magician. He also was said to have founded sacred fires. This idea may have been associated with the ancient Persian respect for fire, which was later incorporated into Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrians believed that fire was a symbol of Ahura Mazda, and a fire was always kept burning in Zoroastrian temples. The early Persian kings were among the first followers of Zoroaster, although other Persians soon adopted Zoroastrianism as well. By the early 500s B.C., Zoroastrianism had become the major religion of the PERSIAN EMPIRE, and it was made the official state religion of Persia in the A.D. 200s. When the Muslims took over Persia in the 600s, many Zoroastrians sought refuge in India, where they became known as Parsis. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Magic; Monotheism; Mythology; Religion.)

SUGGESTED READINGS ATLASES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Raines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1980. Bienkowski, Piotr, and A. R. Millard. Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000. Branigan, K., ed. The Atlas of Archaeology. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982. Freedman, David Noel, ed. Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Grant, Michael. Ancient History Atlas. New York: Macmillan, 1971. . From Alexander to Cleopatra: The Hellenistic World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1982. *Haywood, John. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean. Library Reference ed. Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe Reference, 1997. Kuhrt, Amelie, and Susan Sherwin-White, eds. Hellenism in the East: Interaction of Greek and Non-Greek Civilizations from Syria to Central Asia After Alexander. London: Duckworth, 1987.

Leick, Gwendolyn. Who's Who in the Ancient Near East. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Manley, Bill. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York and London: Penguin Books, 1996. McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History. London: Penguin Books, 1967. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East; Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Radice, Betty. The Penguin Who's Who in the Ancient World. New York: Penguin Books, 1973. Roaf, Michael. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. Oxfordshire, England: Andromeda Oxford Ltd., 1996. Sasson, JackM., ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995. Speake, Graham, ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Ancient History. New York: Penguin Books, 1995. Whitehouse, Ruth D., ed. The Facts on File Dictionary of Archaeology. New York: Facts on File, 1983.

HISTORY Bright, John. A History of Israel. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981. The Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. 12 vols. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970-1998. The Cambridge History of Iran. 7 vols. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1968-1991. Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994. *Corbishley, M. J. The Near East. The Legacy of the Ancient World Series. Kernel Hempstead, England: Macdonald Young Books, 1995. *Currah, Ann. From Cities to Empires. This Is Our World Series. Glasgow, Scotland: Collins, 1975. Dunstan, William E. The Ancient Near East. Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998. Herodotus of Halicamassus. The Histories. Edited by Carolyn Dewald. Translated by Robin Waterfield. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

*Asterisk denotes book for young readers

Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East. 2 vols. London and New York: Routledge, 1995. Nissen, Hans J. The Early History of the Ancient Near East, 9000-2000 B.C. Translated by Elizabeth Lutzeier and Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Oates, Joan. Babylon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1986. Potts, Timothy. Mesopotamia and the East: An Archaeological Study of Foreign Relations ca. 3400-2000 B.C. Oxford, England: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1994. Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Reade, Julian. Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991. Saggs, H. W. F. Civilization Before Greece and Rome. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989. Starr, Chester G. A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

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Suggested Readings

CULTURE AND SOCIETY *Anatolia: Cauldron of Cultures. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. *Bianchi, Robert Steven. The Nubians: People of the Ancient Nile. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1994. *Church, Alfred]., and Arthur Oilman. The Story of Carthage. Austin, Tex.: BookLab, 1996. Crawford, Harriet E. W. Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbors. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Curtis, John. Ancient Persia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990. David, A. Rosalie. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1998. Dicks, Brian. The Ancient Persians. How They Lived and Worked Series. North Pomfret, Vt: David and Charles, 1975. Dothan, Trude Krakauer, and M. Dothan. People of the Sea: The Search for the Philistines. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Dumbrill, Richard]. The Music of the Ancient Near East. London: Athlone, 1999. *Egypt: Land of the Pharaohs. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Frankel, David. The Ancient Kingdom of Urartu. London: British Museum Publications, 1979. *The Holy Land. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Hoerth, Alfred]., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of the Old Testament World. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1994. Kramer, Samuel Noah. History Begins atSumer: ThirtyNine Firsts in Man's Recorded History. 3rd ed., rev. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986.

Maisels, Charles Keith. The Emergence of Civilization: From Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities, and the State in the Near East. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. *Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. Moscati, Sabatino, ed. The Phoenicians. New York: Rizzoli Bookstore, 1991. Murnane, William]. The Penguin Guide to Ancient Egypt. London: Penguin Books, 1983. *Odijk, Pamela. The Phoenicians. The Ancient World Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1989. * . The Sumerians. Ancient World Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1990. *Perl, Lila, and Erica Weihs. Mummies, Tombs, and Treasure: Secrets of Ancient Egypt. New York: Clarion Books, 1987. *Persians: Masters of Empire. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995. Postgate, J. Nicholas. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. London: Routledge, 1994. Potts, D. T. The Archaeology ofElam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999. . Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997. Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. New York: Penguin, 1992. Schulz, Regine, and Matthais Seidel, eds. Egypt: The World of the Pharoahs. Cologne, Germany: Konemann, 1998. *Sumer: Cities of Eden. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1994. Welsby, Derek. The Kingdom ofKush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empire. London: British Museum Press, 1996. * Wondrous Realms of the Aegean. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1993.

MYTHS AND LEGENDS Curtis, Vesta Sarkosh. The Legendary Past: Persian Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993. *Epics of Early Civilization: Middle Eastern Myth. Myth and Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 2000. Gray, John. Near Eastern Mythology. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1969. Hamilton, Virginia. In the Beginning: Creation Stories from Around the World. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988. Harris, Geraldine, David O'Connor, and John Sibbick. Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1982.

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Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. McCall, Henrietta. The Legendary Past: Mesopotamian Myths. Legendary Past Series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990. Skinner, Fred Gladstone. Myths and Legends of the Ancient Near East. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1993. *The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Myth and Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1998.

Suggested Readings

RELIGION Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith. Sussex Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices Series. Porland, Oreg.: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Revealing Antiquity Series. London and Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.

Jakobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976. Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York: Dover Publications, 1997. Ringgren, Helmer. Religions of the Ancient Near East. Translated by John Sturdy. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE Amiet, Pierre. Art of the Ancient Near East. Translated by John Shepley and Claude Choquet. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1980. Aruz, Joan, Prudence Oliver Harper, and Fran^oise Tallon, eds. The Royal City ofSusa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992. Cadogan, Gerald. Palaces ofMinoan Crete. University Paperbacks Series. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Caubet, Annie, and Patrick Pouyssegur. The Ancient Near East: The Origins of Civilization. Translated by Peter Snowdon. Paris: Terrail, 1998. Collon, Dominique. Ancient Near Eastern Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Doumas, Christos. The Wall-Paintings of Them. Translated by Alex Doumas. Athens: Thera Foundation, 1992. Downey, Susan B. Mesopotamian Religious Architecture: Alexander Through the Parthians. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988. Frankfort, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. 4th ed., rev. impression. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1970. Klengel, Horst. The Art of Ancient Syria. Translated by Joan Becker. Cranbury, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, 1971.

*Leacock, Helen, and Richard Leacock. The Buildings of Ancient Mesopotamia. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1974. Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Architecture. London: Routledge, 1988. Lloyd, Seton. The Art of the Ancient Near East. New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publisher, 1961. Lundquist, John M. The Temple: Meeting Place of Heaven and Earth. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993. Perrot, Georges. History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia. Boston: Longwood Press, 1977. Polin, Claire C. J. Music of the Ancient Near East. New York: Vintage Press, 1954. Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. . Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Weiss, Harvey, ed. Ebla to Damascus: Art and Archaeology of Ancient Syria: And Exhibition from the Directorate-General of Antiquities andMuseums, Syrian Arab Republic. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1985. Woolley, Leonard. The Art of the Middle East Including Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine. New York, Crown Publishers, 1961.

THE JEWISH WORLD Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Crenshaw, James L. Education in Ancient Israel: Across the Deadening Silence. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Galil, Gershon. The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah. Vol. 9 of Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East. New York: E. J. Brill, 1998. Gordon, Cyrus H., and Gary A. Rendsburg. The Bible and the Ancient Near East. 4th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. Jaffee, Martin S. Early Judaism. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1996. Josephus, Flavius. The Jewish War. Edited by Mary E. Smalley. Translated by G. A. Williamson. New York: Penguin Books, 1984.

Modrzejewski, Joseph. The Jews of Egypt: From Ramses II to Emperor Hadrian. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Niditch, Susan. Ancient Israelite Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Pixley, Jorge V. Biblical Israel: A People's History. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1992. Shanks, Hershel. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Destruction of the Temple. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999. Tcherikover, Victor. Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1959. Uffenheimer, Benjamin. Early Prophecy in Israel. Translated by David Louvish. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1999. Weber, Max. Ancient Judaism. New York: Free Press, 1967.

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Suggested Readings

DAILY LIFE Countenau, George. Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. New York: W. W. Norton, 1966. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Daily Life Through History Series. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998. Oppenheim, Adolf Leo, trans. Letters from Mesopotamia: Official Business and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Poliakoff, Michael. Contact Sports in the Ancient World. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987.

Saggs, H. W. R, Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1965. Snell, Daniel C. Life in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. Time Frame 3000-1500 B.C.: The Age of God Kings. Time Frame Series. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1987. What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile: Egypt 3050-30 B.C. What Life Was Like Series. Alexandria, Va.: TimeLife Books, 1997.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Bobula, Ida Miriam. Sumerian Technology: A Survey of Early Material Achievements in Mesopotamia. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1960. *Gonen, Rivka. Fired Up! Making Pottery in Ancient Times. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Hodges, Henry. Technology in the Ancient World. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1992. James, Peter, and Nick Thorpe. Ancient Inventions. New York: Ballantine Books, 1995.

Moss, Carol. Science in Ancient Mesopotamia. New York: Franklin Watts, 1989. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Cuneiform Mathematical Texts as a Reflection of Every day Life in Mesopotamia. American Oriental Series, Vol. 75. New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1993. Neugebauer, Otto. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1957.

WRITING AND RECORD KEEPING Ben-Tor, Daphna. The Scarab: A Reflection of Ancient Egypt. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1989. Cohen, Mark E. The Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near East. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1993. Collon, Dominique. First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. . Near Eastern Seals. Interpreting the Past Series. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Damerow, Peter, R. K. Englund, and Hans J. Nissen. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East. Translated by Paul Larsen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Daniels, Peter T, and William Bright, eds. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Pedersen, Olof. Archives and Libraries in the Ancient Near East 1500-300 B.C. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1998. Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing. London: Thames and Hudson, 1995. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Before Writing. Vol. 1 of From Counting to Cuneiform. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. *Woods, Geraldine. Science in Ancient Egypt. New York: Franklin Watts, 1998.

LITERATURE Andrews, Carol, ed. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Translated by R. O. Faulkner. New York: Macmillan, 1985. Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1996. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, trans. TheEpicofGilgamesh. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989. lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973-1980. Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1955.

184

Reiner, Erica. Your Thwarts in Pieces, Your Mooring Rope Cut: Poetry from Babylonia and Assyria. Ann Arbor: Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan, 1985. Roth, Martha. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Vol. 6 of Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Suggested Readings

ARCHAEOLOGY Ben-Tor, Amnon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. Translated by R. Greenberg. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994. Bibby, Geoffrey. Looking for Dilmun. London: Stacey International, 1996. Clapp, Nicholas. The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of the Sands. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1998. Dineen, Jacquelin, and Philip Wilkinson. The Lands of the Bible. New York: Chelsea House, 1994. Duchene, Herve. Golden Treasures of Troy: The Dream of Heinrich Schliemann. Translated by Jeremy Legatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Farnoux, Alexandre. Knossos: Searching for the Legendary Palace of King Minos. Translated by David J. Baker. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

Foreman, Laura. Cleopatra's Palace: In Search of a Legend. Del Mar, Calif.: Discovery Books, 1999. Maisels, Charles Keith. The Near East: Archaeology in the Cradle of Civilization. Experiences of Archaeology Series. London and New York, Routledge, 1993. Mclntosh, Jane. The Practical Archaeologist: How We Know What We Know About the Past. London: Facts on File, Paul Press, 1986. Meyers, Eric M. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 5 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.

WOMEN Bach, Alice, ed. Women in the Hebrew Bible: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 1999. Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. Women's Work: The First 20,000 Years. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. Ide, Arthur Frederick. Women in the Ancient Near East. 2nd ed. Mesquite, Tex.: Ide House, 1982. Lesko, Barbara S. The Remarkable Women of Ancient Egypt 3rd ed., rev. and enl. Providence, R.I.: B. C. Scribe Publications, 1996.

*Nardo, Don. Cleopatra. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1994. Robins, Gay. Women in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993. Tyldesley, Joyce. Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. London: Penguin Books, 1998. . Nefertiti: Egypt's Sim Queen. New York: Viking Press, 1999. Vivante, Bella, ed. Women's Roles in Ancient Civilizations. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

ECONOMY Aberbach, M. Labor, Crafts, and Commerce in Ancient Israel. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1984. Aubet, Maria Eugenia. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Finley, M. I. The Ancient Economy. Sather Classical Lectures Series. Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Groom, Nigel. Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. New York: Longman, 1981. Parkins, Helen, and Christopher John Smith, eds. Trade, Traders, and the Ancient City. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.

Pastor, Jack. Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine. London and New York: Routledge, 1997. Powell, Marvin A. Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987. Price, B. B. Ancient Economic Thought. Routledge Studies in the History of Economics, Vol. 1. London: Routledge, 1997. Wright, Christopher J. H. God's People in God's Land: Family, Land, and Property in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans, 1990.

WARS AND WARFARE *Brewer, Paul. Warfare in the Ancient World. Austin, Tex.: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 1998. Briant, Pierre. Alexander the Great: Man of Action, Man of Spirit Translated by Jeremy Leggatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. *Gonen, Rivka. Charge! Weapons and Warfare in Ancient Times. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The Persian Wars. Translated by George Rawlinson. New York: Modern Library, 1942. *Nardo, Don. The Battle of Marathon. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1996.

Stillman, Nigel, and Nigel Tallis. Armies of the Ancient Near East, 3000 B.C. to 539 B.C.: Organisation, Tactics, Dress, and Equipment. Devizes, England: Wargames Research Group Publications, 1984. Time Frame: Barbarian Tides, 1500-600 B.C. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1987. *Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. Ancient Warfare. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 2000. Yadin, Yigael. Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

185

Suggested Readings

ON-LINE RESOURCES Abzu: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near East. Contains information about the study of the ancient Near East. Provides links to other sites about the ancient Near East. http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html Ancient Persia. Contains a historical overview and a gallery of art and artifacts from ancient Persia. http://dolphin.upenn.edu/~pps/ Architecture in the Ancient Near East. Discusses building techniques used in ancient structures, with images and descriptions. http://www-lib.haifa.ac.il/www/art/archimedia.html Canaan and Ancient Israel. Contains information about the University of Pennsylvania's Museum of Archeology and Anthropology's permanent exhibit on Canaan and ancient Israel. Provides links to its galleries on Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world. http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Collections/ canaanframedocl .html The Hermitage Museum. Provides information about and examples of art from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/ hm3_5.html Hittite Home Page. Provides information about resources for Hittite and ancient Anatolian studies and information about other regions of the ancient Near East. http://www.asor.org/HITTITE/HittiteHP.html The Iraklion Archaeological Museum. Contains information about exhibits on ancient Minoan art and artifacts from Crete. Also provides information about the history of Crete and archaeological sites. http://www.interkriti.org/museums/hermus.htm The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Provides information about archaeological and historical discoveries in Israel and presents visual images of artifacts. http://www.imj.org.il/archaeology/index.html Learning Sites, Inc. Contains information on archaeological sites in Greece and the ancient Near East, including Anatolian, Assyrian, and Egyptian sites. http://www.learningsites.com

186

Lost City of Arabia. Contains information about the discovery and excavation of the site of ancient Ubar, a "lost city" in Arabia. http://www3.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ubar The Louvre Museum. Contains information about the Louvre's ancient Near Eastern collections, with photographs of art and artifacts from ancient Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, the Levant, and Arabia. http://www.louvre.fr/anglais/collec/coll_f.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art. Contains information and photographs of the museum's ancient Near Eastern art collection. Also provides an introduction to ancient Near Eastern art. http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/ department.asp?dep=3 National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Provides images and information on the museum's collections of ancient Greek and Egyptian art. http://www.culture.gr Near East—Cradle of Civilization. Contains information about the peoples and contributions of ancient Near Eastern civilizations. http://www.emory.edu/CARLOS/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/ homepg.html Oriental Institute. Provides information on the ancient Near East. Also contains a video tour of the University of Chicago's collection of Near Eastern art. http://www-oi.uchicago.edu http://www.oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/OLMuseum.html Science Museum of Minnesota: Mysteries of £atalh6yiik. Contains information about archaeological excavations and artifacts from fatal Huytik. http://www.sci.mus.mn.us/catal The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Provides information about the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Great Pyramid ofGiza. http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/list.html Smith College History of Science: Museum of Ancient Inventions. Provides an on-line exhibit of ancient inventions, with photographs and accompanying text. http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/ hsclist.htm

PHOTO CREDITS VOLUME 1 Co/or P/crtes for Religion

1: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 2: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 3: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York/Gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust/Schecter Lee; 4: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 6: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 7: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 9: Israel Museum; 10: Louvre Museum, Paris/Explorer/SuperStock; 11: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 13: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 14: Archaeological Museum, Iraklion, Crete/Bridgeman Art Library; 15: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 1: SuperStock; 4: Corbis/Werner Forman; 7: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/ET Archive, London/SuperStock; 15: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Index, Barcelona/ Bridgeman Art Library; 17: Louvre Museum, Paris; 21: Iraq Museum, Baghdad; 25: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 32: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 34: The

Granger Collection, New York; 36: Ekrem Akurgal, Die Kunst derHethiter; 42: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York; 46: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 55: Oriental Division, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 58: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emirate; 67: The Granger Collection, New York; 72: Corbis/Bettmann; 77: The Granger Collection, New York; 85: British Museum, London; 86: British Museum, London; 101: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 105: Louvre Museum, Paris; 106: Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; 114: Brooklyn Museum, New York; 116: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; 120: Corbis/Archivo Iconografico, S.A.; 120: Louvre Museum, Paris/SuperStock; 129: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 139: Louvre Museum, Paris; 149: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 152: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 154: Courtesy B.A. Litvinsky; 156: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 161: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 171: Friedrich Schiller University, Jena; 172: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York

VOLUME 2 Color Plates for Daily Life 1: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Bridgeman Art Library; 2: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York; 3: Christie's Images/SuperStock; 4: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 5: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 6: Corbis/Chris Hellier; 7: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 9: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 10: Corbis/Gianni Dalgi Orti; 11: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 12: World Photo Service Ltd./SuperStock; 13: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York; 14: Corbis/Adam Woolfitt; 15: Scala/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 2: Corbis; 4: Corbis; 8: British Museum, London; 10: Archaeological Museum, Teheran; 12: Egyptian Museum, Cairo; 14: Bridgeman Art Library; 17: J.D.S. Pendlebury, A Handbook to the Palace of Minos atKnossos; 25: After M. Matousova-Rajmova, Archiv Orientalni; 27: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; 31: Minneapolis Institute of Arts; 37: Louvre Museum,

Paris; 51: Louvre Museum, Paris; 55: British Museum, London; 60: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 62: SuperStock; 68: Louvre Museum, Paris; 71: Louvre Museum, Paris; 82: H. Von Minutoli, Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon in derLibyschen Wuste; 85: Louvre Museum, Paris; 86: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 93: Corbis; 102: SuperStock; 106: Adapted from Peter R. S. Moore and P. E. Newberry Beni Hasan; 108: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 111: Art Resource; 122: British Museum, London; 125: Art Resource; 127: National Museum of the Syrian Arab Republic, Aleppo; 128: Art Resource; 135: Art Resource; 145: Art Resource; 147: Louvre Museum, Paris; 152: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 161: Hieroglyphic text from Alan Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar; 163: British Museum, London; 167: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 172: Corbis; 173: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emirate; 176: British Museum, London; 179: British Museum, London; 180: The Granger Collection, New York; 181: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 185: J. Black and A. Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia

187

Photo Credits

VOLUME Co/or P/ates for Architecture and Tombs I: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 3: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 4: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 5: Israel Museum/Nachum Slapak; 6: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 7: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 8: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 9: Art Resource, New York; 10: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 11: SuperStock; 12: Vanni/Art Resource, New York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 14: Corbis/Charles & Josette Lenars; 15: SuperStock Black-and-White Photographs 3: Louvre Museum, Paris; 7: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 16: Louvre Museum, Paris; 22: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 25: Biblical Archaeology Review; 34: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 36: British Museum, London; 40: Fritz Hintze and Ursula Hintze, Alte Kulturen Im Sudan; 43: Louvre Museum, Paris; 52: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 55: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 60: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 64: Courtesy Trevor R. Bryce; 66: Courtesy Crawford M. Greenwalt, Jr.; 69: Courtesy Oriental Institute,

University of Chicago; 70: British Museum, London/ Bridgeman Art Library; 74: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 76: British Museum, London; 81: Corbis/Adam Woolfitt; 84: Corbis/Bettmann; 89: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 92: Courtesy Klaas R. Veenhof; 97: British Museum, London; 102: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 110: Christos G. Doumas, The Wall-Paintmgs of Them; 112: N. Angell, The Story of Money; 118: The Granger Collection, New York; 120: British Museum, London; 122: National Museum of Athens; 124: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 131: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 134: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 139: Courtesy Elizabeth C. Stone; 142: Courtesy Frank Hole; 145: Courtesy Frank Hole; 146: Fritz Hintze and Ursula Hintze, Alte Kulturen Im Sudan; 150: Richard F. S. Starr, Nuzi, Vol. 2; 152: Phoebe Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley; 154: British Museum, London; 160: Helen Leacroft and Richard Leacroft, The Buildings of Ancient Mesopotamia; 165: Giraudon/Art Resource, New York; 170: Ernst Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient Near East; 175: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 182: Israel Department of Antiquities, Jerusalem; 187: Private Collection

VOLUME 4 Color Plates for Arts and Culture 1: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 3: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 4: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 6: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 7: Museum of Baghdad/Silvio Fiore/SuperStock; 8: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 9: Erich Lessing/ Art Lessing, New York; 10: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 11: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 14: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 15: Scala/Art Resource, New York Black-and-White Photographs 2: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 8: Arnaldo Mondador, Ed., Anatolia: Immagini di Civilita; 15: Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, New York; 22: Courtesy John Ruffle; 25: NY Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen; 28: Louvre Museum, Paris.; 33: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 37: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 42: British Museum, London; 47: Giovanni Lilliu, La Civilta

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Nuragica; 53: British Museum, London; 57: Ekrem Akurgal, Ed., The Art and Architecture of Turkey; 64: British Museum, London; 67: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 75: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 81: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh; 95: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 98: Archaeology in the United Arab Emirates, Vol. 4; 104: State Museum, Berlin; 109: Courtesy Francois Vallat; 113: National Museum of the Syrian Arab Republic, Damascus; 119: Sergei I. Rudenko, The World's Most Ancient Artistic Carpets and Textiles; 126: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 131: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 133: Courtesy Hans G. Jansen; 136: Louvre Museum, Paris; 138: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 142: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 146: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 151: British Museum, London; 156: Giraudon/Art Resource, New York; 160: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 163: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 166: British Museum, London; 169: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 175: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 178: Giraudon/ Art Resource, New York; 179: Corbis/Roger Wood

INDEX A

Aba-Enlil-dari, 1:53 Abortion, 4:13 Abraham (Abram), 2:155, 3:24, 166-67 Absolute chronology, 1:166 Absolute dating (archaeological), 1:58-59 Abu Simbel, 1:1 (illus.) Abydos, 1:1-2, 3:157 Achaemenes, 3:171 Adad, 1:2-3 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 in Eblan pantheon, 2:130 in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Adad-nirari, 1:86, 87 Adad-nirari III, 1:88 Addu. See Adad Addu-yisci, 4:113 (illus.) Adoption, 2:87 Aegean Sea, 1:3 earthquake belt in, 2:46 Greek islands in, 2:139 Mycenaean colonization of islands in, 3:122 Thera, 4:123 volcanic belt through, 4:144 Aethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians Afro-Asiatic languages, 3:47-48. See also Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages Afterlife, 1:3-6. See also Burial sites and tombs; Death and burial and Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cosmetics for use in, 2:11 Egyptian beliefs about, 1:120-21, 2:63 Hittite beliefs about, 2:170 inscriptions as guide to, 3:4 and letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41 Mesopotamian beliefs about, 2:29 netherworld, 1:5 offerings for the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52 Osiris and, 3:157 of pharaohs, 3:180 pyramids and, 4:20 resurrection in, 1:6 and roles of dead in lives of the living, 2:86 soul (portrayal of), 1:4 (illus.) underworld, 1:1 Agade. See Akkad and the Akkadians

Agriculture, 1:6-11. See also Gardens of Akkadians, 1:20-21 in Babylonia, 1:108 calendars and, 1:135 in Canaan, 1:138 at Qatal Huyiik, 1:148 cereal grains, 1:154-57 development of, 4:167 as economic foundation, 2:47 in Egypt, 1:9-10,2:61-62 farming methods, 1:8-10 farmworkers, 1:10-11 and flooding, 2:38, 98-99 impact of, 1:11 irrigation, 3:8-11 in the Levant, 1:8-9 main crops, 1:7-8 in Mesopotamia, 1:9, 3:94, 95 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 Nile River's impact on, 3:138 nomadism and, 3:141, 142 olive growing, 3:152 origin of, 1:6 peasants' role in, 3:168 in Persian empire, 3:175 state-run (in Akkad), 1:20 in Syria, 4:110-11 Ahab, 1:11-12, 3:15, 4:44 Ahhotep, Queen (Egypt), 1:12 Ahmose, 1:12-13, 2:183 Ahriman, 1:6,1:13, 2:130, 4:179 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 on Behistun inscription, 1:116 (illus.)

earth as battleground of, 1:13 as Zoroastrian one true god, 1:6, 2:130,3:114,4:178-80 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 monotheism ordered by, 1:97, 3:113-1:114 Nefertiti and, 3:133 temple of, 1:15 (illus.) wives of, 4:25 Akhetaten, 1:16, 1:31, 2:174 Akkad and the Akkadians, 1:16-22, 1:19 (map), 2:79 agriculture and trade, 1:20-21 arts of, 1:21-22 attack on Magan by, 3:153 in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 barus, 3:153-54 cuneiform adopted by, 2:20-21 and Elamites, 2:67-68 fall of, 1:19

Page numbers of articles in these volumes appear in boldface type.

government of, 2:132 history of, 3:96 language of, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 35, 3:47, 4:72 literature of, 3:60 naming in, 3:128 Naram-Sin, 1:18, 3:129-30 poetry in, 3:59 political organization, 1:20 religion of, 1:21 royal inscriptions, 1:164 Sargon I, 1:17-18, 4:48-49 sculpture of, 4:57 social institutions of, 4:88 Akrotiri, 4:123, 145 Alaca Huyiik, 1:38,39 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Albright, William E, 1:64 Aleph-beths, 1:27-30, 4:171-72 Alexander IV, King, 1:26 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27 (illus.) army of, 1:74-75 and Darius III, 2:27 empire of, 1:24 (map), 3:67 and the Gordian knot, 1:26 Lycian invasion by, 3:63 Macedonia and Greece united by, 2:141 Ptolemy I and, 4:19 Tyre conquered by, 4:135 use of cavalry by, 1:152 Alexandria, library in, 3:55 Alliance of the twelve kings, 1:52 Alloys and alloying, 3:101, 108, 4:54 Alluvial plains, 2:118, 3:9 Alphabetic numeration, 3:149 Alphabets, 1:27-30, 4:172 Greek, 2:142-43 Hebrew, 2:157-58 Phoenician, 3:188 Alyattes, King, 3:65 Amamet, 1:5 Amarna, 1:31-32. See also Akhetaten Amarna letters, 1:31 Ambassadors. See Messengers Amenemhet I, 3:156 Amenemhet III, 3:36 Amenhotep III, 3:160-61 Amenhotep IV. See Akhenaten Amharic language, 4:73 Amorites, 1:32-33 in Babylonian history, 1:103 in Canaan, 1:138 dynasties of, 2:44

189

Index Hammurabi, 2:147-48 history of, 3:96 migration of, 3:105 nomadism of, 3:143 Phoenicians and, 3:184 Amulets and charms, 1:34-35 (illus.) animal carvings as, 1:46 for childbirth, 1:162 and magic, 3:68, 69 worn during pregnancy, 4:13 Amun, 1:35 in afterlife beliefs, 1:5 Akhenaten's discrediting of, 1:97 Amenhotep and, 1:14 combined with Ra, 2:128 in creation myths, 2:14 Great Temple of, 3:63 rams or geese as representative of, 1:47 temples to, 3:162 Amun-Ra, 2:128, 135 Amun-Re, 2:14 Analogic magic, 3:68 Analogic witchcraft, 4:160 Anat, 1:35-36 in Baal cycle, 1:99 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 displaced by Astarte, 2:130 Anatolia, 1:36-39 animals in art of, 1:45-46 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:61 architecture in, 1:70 building materials in, 1:126 Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 qatal Huyiik, 1:37,1:148-49 cities in, 1:173 climate of, 2:6, 120 clothing of, 2:8 Crete settled by, 2:15 dance in, 2:26 death and burial in, 2:31-32 domesticated animals in, 1:42 earthquake belt in, 2:46 ethnic and language groups in, 2:82 family and social life in, 2:87 feasts and festivals in, 2:93 funerary offerings in, 3:151 furnishings in, 2:107-8 geography of, 1:36, 2:119-20 gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30, 4:34 government of, 2:136-37 Hittites, 2:167-70 houses in, 2:173 labor and laborers in, 3:42-43 land use or ownership in, 3:46-47 languages of, 2:188, 3:48 location of, 1:37 (map) Luwians, 3:62 Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65 Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67 medicine in, 3:86-87 metal objects found in, 3:100 mining in, 3:107-8 mythology of, 3:126

190

Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 Neolithic settlements in, 1:37 omens in, 3:154 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3 queens of, 4:24-25 religions of, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:58 temples in, 3:163 trade in, 3:92 Troy, 4:132-33 Urartu, 4:139-40 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:162-63 Anaximander, 3:70 Ancestor worship, 1:5-6 Animal husbandry, systems of, 1:43 Animals, 1:39-41 in art, 1:45-48 birds, 1:40-41 burial of, 1:130 as burial offerings, 1:132 camels, 1:136-37 for caravans, 1:144 cats, 1:40, 1:149 cattle, 1:42 (illus.)t 1:150 cemeteries for, 1:2 chickens, 1:44 domestication of, 1:7, 1:41-45, 1:149, 150, 2:5, 179, 4:110, 140 Ethiopian, 1:39 figurines of, 1:36 (illus.) goats, 1:40, 2:126 gods and goddesses associated with, 2:129, 185-86 golden calf, 1:139 (illus.) herding of, 3:141-42, 144 horses, 1:40,2:170-71 humor in art depicting, 2:178, 179 (illus.) hunting of, 2:179-80 lions, 1:39, 3:57-58 mammals, 1:40 Palearctic, 1:39 pigs, 1:40,4:3-4 as sacrifices, 1:5, 3:151, 153-54, 4:37 sea animals, 1:41 sheep, 1:40, 4:78-79 as tax payment, 4:115 for transportation, 4:131 worship of, 2:63, 4:33 Annals of Thutmose III, 1:165 Antigonus Gonatas, 3:67 Anti-Lebanon Mountains, 2:120 Antony, Mark, 2:4 Anu, 1:48, 1:110,2:127 Anubis, 1:47,2:129 Apology of Khattushili III, 3:32, 60 Apprenticeships, 2:55 Arabia and the Arabs, 1:49-51 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62, 63 ethnic and language groups in, 2:83 geography of, 2:120-21 languages in, 3:47 location of, 1:50 (map)

merchants in, 3:93 nomadism of, 3:143 number systems of, 3:149 Oman Peninsula, 3:153 trade routes of, 4:129 Arabic language, 4:73 Arabic numerals, 3:148 Aramaean language, 4:73 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 in Babylonia, 1:105-6 and Chaldeans, 1:158 Damascus and, 2:24 deportation of, 3:106-7 migration of, 3:106 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135 nomadism of, 3:143 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 3:49, 4:73 Assyrian use of, 1:85, 3:143 in Babylonia, 1:109 as language of Persian empire, 3:176 and Phoenician alphabet, 3:188 replacement of cuneiform by, 1:122 study of, and names, 3:129 Ararat, Mount, 2:119, 4:145 Ararat (kingdom). See Urartu Archaeological sites, 1:55-57 Abydos, 1:2 Akhetaten, 1:16 Alalakh, 1:22-23 AliKosh, 3:173 Amarna, 1:31-32 Azatiwadiya, 3:135 Bahariya Oasis, 2:59 bird skeletons in, 1:41 gatalHiiylik, 1:148-49 in the Caucasus, 1:151 in Central Asia, 1:153 copper-working sites, 3:108 in Crete, 2:16 Eridu, 2:76-77 evidence from, 1:55-56 houses at, 2:172-75 Jericho, 3:17-18 Kalkhu, 3:28 Khattusha, 2:168, 3:31 at Kish, 3:38 Knosses, 3:39 kurgans, 1:151 libraries and archives at, 3:158 locating, 1:56 Median, 3:80-81 Midas Mound, 2:32 Mycenaean, 3:123 Nineveh, 3:21, 139, 140 nomad tent camp discovery by, 3:142, 143 Nuzi, 3:149-50 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102 (illus.)f 4:137 Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.) on Sardinia, 4:47 (illus.) Sidon, 4:84 Susa, 4:108 (illus.) Tel Dan, 2:28 Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), 2:78 Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100

Index Tell Hariri (Mari), 3:71, 72 temple Eshumesha, 3:159 textiles from, 4:118 on Thera, 4:123 Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.) Tutankhamen's tomb, 3:21 Tyre, 4:135 Ugarit, 4:136 (illus.) working, 1:56-57 in Zagros Mountains, 3:6 Ziwiye, 3:6 Archaeology and archaeologists, 1:54-64. See also names of specific people in Anatolia, 1:61 in Arabia, 1:62 and Aswan High Dam threat, 1:57 Babylonian puzzle and, 1:100 chronology for, 1:167-68 Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 in Egypt, 1:59-60 environmental change studied by, 2:73-74 ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 evidence and sites, 1:55-59 and evidence for biblical stories, 2:155-56 farming resources for, 1:11 flood evidence in, 2:98 importance of serendipity to, 1:56 in Iran, 1:62-63 in the Levant, 1:61-62 in Mesopotamia, 1:60 metal objects found by, 3:100-102, 104 methods used by, 1:56-57, 59 mummies studies by, 3:119 nomadic campsites and, 3:142, 143, 145 (illus.) palaces and temples, 3:157-58 Persian Gulf coastline change evidence of, 3:94 pottery as source of information for, 4:9 roads found by, 4:40 Rosetta Stone, 1:59 salvage archaeology, 1:57 search for Hanging Gardens of Babylon by, 2:150 theft of artifacts from, 1:62, 127-28, 131 and tomb robbing, 1:127-28 trade studied by, 2:48-49 Archimedes, 2:142 Architecture, 1:64-70. See also Building materials in Anatolia, 1:70 in Assyria, 1:93 in Babylonia, 1:111 in Egypt, 1:65-68, 2:63-64 engineering of, 4:53 (illus.) fortifications, 1:70, 2:104-6 Great Pyramid of Giza, 1:126 of Greece, 2:142 of Hittites, 2:170 houses, 1:64-65, 67, 68, 70, 2:172-75

of Israelites, 2:158 in the Levant, 1:68-70 of Lydia, 3:66 in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 of Minoans, 2:16 monumental, 1:66-67 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Oman peninsula towers, 1:58 (illus.) palaces, 1:65, 66, 68-70, 3:157-61 in Persian empire, 1:69-70, 3:176 pyramids, 1:66, 2:63-64, 4:20-23 Sumerian, 4:104-5 temples, 1:65-67, 69, 70, 2:63-64, 3:157-59, 3:161-63 tombs, 1:66, 69-70 ziggurats, 4:104, 4:174-76 Area, measurement of, 3:79 Arinna, 2:129 Aristotle, 1:94, 2:142 Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71, 3:19, 24, 115 Armageddon, 3:90 Armies, 1:71-75 Assyrian, 1:91 cavalry, 1:74,1:152 early, 1:71-72 of empires, 1:73-75 engineers in, 1:74, 75 of Hittites, 1:72-73 of Persian Empire, 3:174-75 professional, 1:73 soldiers, 4:91-93 travel by, 4:130 Armor. See Weapons and armor Arranged marriages, 3:74-75 ArsacesI, 3:166 Arses, 3:174 Art, artists, and artisans, 1:75-79 (illus.). See also Tools; specific topics of Akkad, 1:21-22 of Amarna, 1:31-32 (illus.) animals in art, 1:45-48 in Assyria, 1:93 in Babylonia, 1:111 bas-reliefs, 1:7 (illus.), 1:113-15 (illus.) birds, 1:118-20 bricks as "canvas" for, 1:124 at gatal Hiiyiik, 1:148-49 chariots, 3:7 (illus.) comic art, 1:40, 47 demons represented in, 1:47-48, 2:36 in Egypt, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 faience, 2:85-86 gems used by, 2:114 and gender roles/attitudes, 2:116-17 glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25 gods and goddesses in, 2:128 of Greece, 2:142 Gudea's influence on, 2:143 Hittite, 2:169 horses in, 2:171 human form in art, 2:175-78 Human, 2:181 (illus.) iconography in, 2:184-86 of Israelites, 2:158

ivory for, 1:153 (illus.)f 3:16-17, 4:13607/115.; jewelry, 3:20-23 lions in, 3:57 Lydian vessel, 3:66 (illus.) in Mesopotamia, 1:78-79 metal figurines (Bronze Age), 1:36 (illus.) metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 of Minoan civilization, 3:111-12 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) of Persian empire, 1:153 (illus.), 3:176 pharaohs portrayed in, 3:181 Philistine, 3:182 (illus.)f 184 of Phoenicians, 3:187 pottery, 4:6-11 purposes of art, 1:76 relief in, high vs. bas-, 1:113 religious, 1:46-48, 118-19 sculpture, 4:56-59 Scythian, 4:62 secular, 1:45-46,119-20 Sethin, 4:76 specialization of, 3:42 stela of the Vulture, 1:71-72, 119 stone used by, 4:98-99 Sumerian, 4:105 textiles, 4:118-20 tools for, 4:126 Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17 (illus.), 21 wall paintings, 4:145-48 woodworking, 3:43 (illus.) workshops for, 1:77, 78 ArtabanusII, 3:166 Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80, 3:173-74 Artifact typology, 1:168 Aryans, 1:80-81, 3:7,106 Ashdod, 3:183 Asherah, 1:139, 3:25 (illus.) Ashur, 2:128 Marduk and, 3:71 Mitanni's domination of, 1:85 Shamshi-Adad's rule of, 1:85 as trade center, 3:92 Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83 art in palace of, 1:46 construction and building by, 3:140 dream of, 2:41 library of, 3:55, 140 reign of, 1:90 Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84, 1:87 Ashur (city), 1:81-82 Ashur (deity), 1:82 Ashurnasirpal, 2:92 Ashurnasirpal II, 1:86 (illus.)f 87, 2:29-30, 3:4 Ashur-uballit, 1:85 Ashur-uballit II, 1:91 Asiatics, 2:80 Canaanites, 2:80 Hyksos, 2:182-83

191

Index Assyria and the Assyrians, 1:84-93, 2:79 Arabian trade routes and, 3:143 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaean conflict with, 1:52 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 army of, 1:73-74 art and architecture of, 1:93 Ashur, 1:81-82 Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83 Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84 Ashur (deity), 1:82 in Babylonia, 1:100, 105-6 bloodthirstiness of, 1:86 burial of kings and queens in, 1:130 and Chaldeans, 1:158-59 chariots in, 1:161 chronicles of, 1:165 clothing of, 2:7 death and burial in, 2:29 deportations by, 3:106-7 economy and trade, 1:92 and Elamites, 2:69-70 Esarhaddon, 2:77 fall of, 3:97-98 geography of, 1:84-85 government of, 1:91-92 and Israelites, 3:15 Karkamish, 3:29 king lists of, 3:34-35 lions in, 3:57 location of, 1:88 (map) Medes as vassals of, 3:81 merchant communities (karu) in, 3:92-93 (illus.) merchants in, 3:93 Middle Assyria, 1:85-87 monotheism in, 3:114 Nabopolassar and, 3:127 Neo-Assyria, 1:84, 87-91 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135-36 Nineveh, 3:139-40 Old Assyria, 1:85 palaces of, 3:159 Philistines conquered by, 3:183 Phoenicians and, 3:186 queens of, 4:23-24 religion of, 1:92-93 rise of, 3:97 roads in, 1:91 Samaria and Israel conquered by, 4:44-45 Sargon II, 4:49-50 sculpture of, 4:57 Scythians and, 4:60 Semiramis, 4:70 Sennacherib, 4:73-74 Shalmaneser III, 4:77 Shalmaneser V, 4:77-78 Shamshi-Adad I, 4:78 social structure of, 1:92 soldiers of, 4:92-93 Tiglath-pileser III, 4:124 trade routes of, 4:128 and Urartu, 4:140 women's role in, 4:161

192

writing of, 1:122 ziggurats of, 4:176 Astarte, 1:139, 2:130, 3:187 Astrology and astrologers, 1:93-95 divination and, 3:155 education for, 2:55 horoscopes, 1:95 omens explained by, 3:153 zodiac in, 1:95, 4:177-78 Astronomy and astronomers, 1:95-97 in Babylonia, 1:111, 166 and calendars, 1:111, 133, 134 development of, 4:53 lunar theory, 3:62 planets, 4:4 and pyramid positions, 4:22 stars, 4:95-97 sun, 4:107-8 zodiac, 4:177-78 Astyages, 2:23 Aten, 1:97-98; Amenhotep s worship of, 1:14-15 hymn to, 1:97 as only true god, 3:113-14 during reign of Akhenaten, 2:129 Athaliah, 1:98 Athens, 2:140-42 Atlantis, 2:38, 46 Atrakhasis, 1:48 Atum, 2:13-14, 128 Atum-Re, 2:14 Aurochs, 1:150 Avestan language, 2:188, 3:48-39 Axes, 4:155

B

Baal, 1:98-99 andAdad, 1:2 Ahab's temple to, 1:12 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 in creation myths, 2:15 El and, 2:130 BaalatGubla, 3:187 Baal Cycle, 1:35-36, 1:99, 3:60, 125 Baal Shamem, 3:187 Babylon (city) archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 art depicting animals in, 1:46 Hanging Gardens of, 1:100, 102, 2:149-50 historical role of, 1:100 Marduk and, 3:71 physical features of, 1:101 Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) roads in, 4:40 Southern Citadel of, 3:159-60 Babylonia and the Babylonians, 1:102-11,2:79 agriculture in, 1:108 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaeans and Assyrians in, 1:105-6 artifacts from, 1:55 (illus,) arts in, 1:111 Assyria and, 1:86,89

astrology in, 1:94-95 astronomy of, 1:95, 96 calendars in, 1:134, 3:62 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 1:157-59 chronicles of, 1:165 cosmetics used by, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:14 Dark Age, 1:104-5,3:96 demons and, 2:37 deportation of, 3:106 economy and trade in, 1:102, 108 and Elamites, 2:68-69 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 fall of, 3:97-98 family in, 1:109 geography of, 1:102 government of, 1:107-8 Hammurabi, 2:147-48 history of, 1:102-7, 2:166, 3:96 Jewish exiles in, 3:20, 25-26 Kassite rule of, 3:29-30 king lists of, 3:34 land use or ownership in, 3:46 language of, 1:109 literature of, 1:110-11, 3:59 maps from, 3:70 (illus.) Marduk, 3:71 mathematics in, 3:76-77 Median alliance of, 3:82 merchants in, 3:93 Middle Babylonian Empire, 1:104-5 monotheism in, 3:114 mythology of, 1:110-11 Nabonidus, 3:126-27 Nabopolassar, 3:127 Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32 Neo-Babylonian Empire, 1:100, 101, 103 (map), 106-7, 159 New Year's festival, 2:94 Nippur, 1:171 (illus.), 3:140 number systems of, 3:148 Old Babylonian Empire, 1:100, 103-4, 108-11 Palace of Governors, 3:158-59 Persian and Macedonian conquests in, 1:107 and Persians, 3:172 Philistines conquered by, 3:183 Phoenicians and, 3:186 religion of, 1:110 Samsu-iluna, 4:46 science in, 1:111 sculpture of, 4:57-58 social structure of, 1:108-9 Southern Citadel, 1:65 temple servants in, 4:75 Tiglath-pileser III and, 4:124 trial records, 3:52 Ur and, 4:138 women's role in, 4:161-62 Xerxes and, 4:172, 173 ziggurats of, 4:175-76 zodiac in, 4:177-78 Babyloniaca, 2:166 Babylonian Chronicles, 1:169 Bactra, 1:154

Index Bactria, 1:111-12 and Alexander the Great, 1:25 death and burial in, 2:33 location of, 1:153 Bagoas, 2:84 Bahrain, 1:50,1:112-13 Ballard, Robert, 3:187 Barley, 1:155 Barter, 2:49, 52-53 Barthelemy, Jean-Jacques, 2:33 Barns, 3:153-54 Bas-reliefs, 1:113-15 animals depicted in, 1:46 in Assyria, 1:93 from Egypt, 1:113-14 (illus.), 2:64 from Mesopotamia, 1:114-15 Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Phoenician ships, 3:131 (illus.) on stone stelae, 1:114-15 Bast/Bastet, 1:149 Bauer, Hans, 1:30 Beekeeping, 1:44 Beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 Behistun Inscription, 1:62,1:115-17, 3:4, 4:59 Bel. See Enlil Berber languages, 2:146 Bes, 1:162 Bessus, 1:25 Bible, Hebrew, 1:117-18 alphabetic numeration and, 3:149 Aramaic used in, 1:52, 3:48 archaeological evidence about, 1:61-62, 2:155-56 and Ark of the Covenant, 1:71 Athaliahin, 1:98 Book of Isaiah, 3:12 and Canaanite literature, 1:138 Chaldeans in, 1:159 Chronicles in, 1:165 clothing laws in, 2:8 Covenant Code, 3:53 creation myths in, 2:15 King David, 2:28-29 Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 dreams in, 2:41 droughts in, 2:42-43 earthquakes in, 2:46-47 Eden in, 3:126 edict of Cyrus the Great in, 2:54 Egyptian chronology and, 1:170 Elisha in, 3:86 "evil eye" in, 4:160 famine in, 2:91 feasts and festivals in, 2:92 flood story in, 2:97 Hurriansin, 2:181 illnesses and diseases in, 2:153 Israel and Judah in, 3:13-16 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jericho story in, 3:18 Jerusalem in, 3:19-20 Judaism and, 3:23-26, 28 kingship in, 2:45 law codes in, 2:149, 3:53, 3:114-16 locust plagues in, 2:38

Masoretic text of, 3:28 mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Megiddo in, 3:89-90 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Moses, 3:116-17 Mount Sinai, 4:84-4:85 music and dance in, 2:71-72 Nebuchadnezzar II in, 1:106 Omriin, 1:11-12 patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, 3:166-68 Philistines in, 3:181, 182 pigs in, 4:3 poetry in, 3:59-60 prophecies in, 3:156-57 Proverbs in, 4:18 Psalms in, 4:11 Red Sea vs. Sea of Reeds in, 4:31 Samaritans in, 4:45 7-day week in, 1:134 Shalmaneser V in, 4:77 Sinai Peninsula in, 4:85 tabernacle construction in, 4:165 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 Torah, 4:127 Tyre in, 4:135 use of El in, 2:66 Yahweh and other gods in, 3:114 Bibliotheca, 2:97 Bidu, 1:5 Bietak, Mannfred, 1:63 Birds in art, 1:118-20 Birthplace of civilization, 4:141 Bittel, Kurt, 1:64 Black magic, 3:68, 4:159 Black Obelisk, 4:77 Boats. See Ships and boats Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 Books and manuscripts, 1:121-23. See also Texts and documents clay tablets as, 1:121-22 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 on omens, 3:154 papyrus rolls, 1:122 writing of, 1:122-23 Botta, Paul-Emile, 1:60 Bows and arrows, 4:155 Bread, 1:156-57 Breads, 2:100-101 Breasted, James Henry, 1:63 Brick(s), 1:123-24 Egyptian use of, 1:125 Mesopotamian use of, 1:125 Persian use of, 1:127 as replacement for wood, 4:165 Bronze, 3:101, 108, 4:155 Bronze Age, 1:166,3:101 Alalakhin, 1:22-23 Khatti in, 3:30 metal figurines from, 1:36 (illus.) trade in, 1:3 Building materials, 1:124-27 in Anatolia, 1:126 bricks, 1:123-24 clay for, 4:6

in Egypt, 1:67-68, 125-26 fragrant wood as, 3:169 for houses, 2:173-74 (illus.) in Iran, 1:127 in the Levant, 1:68, 126 in Mesopotamia, 1:124-25 mud brick as, 1:64 of palace at Susa, 3:176 for palaces, 3:161 for ships and boats, 4:80-81 stone, 2:40, 4:97-99 in Syria, 1:126 for temples, 3:163 wood and woodworking, 4:164-67 Buildings. See Architecture Bulgur (recipe), 2:103 Bull, human-headed, 1:47 Bullae, 4:68 "bull leaping," 3:111-12 Burial sites and tombs, 1:127-32 Abydos, 1:1-2 amulets in, 1:34 of Assyrian queens, 4:24 bas-relief in, 1:114 at Qatal Hiiyuk, 1:148 for cats, 1:149 in Central Asia, 1:130-31 of King Darius I, 3:175 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:66, 128-30 graves, 1:128 inscriptions in, 3:4 in Iran, 1:131 kurgans, 1:151 in the Levant, 1:131-32 at Lisht, 3:58 in Mesopotamia, 1:130 of Mycenaeans, 3:123 near Thebes, 4:120 necropolises, 1:128 in Persia, 1:69-70 Ramses VI's tomb, 4:134 robbing of, 1:127-28 sarcophagi, 1:132 secondary burial, 1:132 tombs, 1:128 Tutankhamen's tomb, 4:134 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Valley of the Queens, 4:144 Byblos, 1:132-33, 2:10

c

Caesar, Julius, 2:4 Calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96 Babylonian astronomy and, 1:111 civil vs. religious, 1:134, 135 counting years with, 1:135 Egyptian, 1:134-35 and lunar theory, 3:62 Mesopotamian, 1:133-34 use of, 1:135-36 Cambyses II, 1:136, 3:172-74 Camels, 1:40, 1:136-37 Arabs'use of, 1:49 in art, 1:44-45

193

Index caravans using, 1:144, 4:128 trade using, 3:93, 4:128, 130 Canaan and the Canaanites, 1:137-40 afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 Baal, 1:98-99 burial practices of, 1:131 creation myths of, 2:15 El, 2:66 ethnic and language groups, 2:82-83 geography of, 1:137-38 government of, 2:137 hairstyles in, 2:144, 145 health in, 2:153 Hebrews and Israelites, 2:155-58 history of, 1:138-39 houses of, 2:175 Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 Israelites in, 2:83, 156 and Jews, 3:24 king lists of, 3:35 land ownership in, 3:46 languages of, 1:139, 4:72 magic in, 3:69 marriage in, 3:74-75 Megiddo, 3:89 merchants in, 3:93 mythology of, 3:125-26 palaces of, 3:161 Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, 2:83, 3:184-88 poetry of, 3:60 religions of, 1:139 resources of, 1:138 Semites in, 4:71 social institutions of, 4:90 temples of, 3:163 Canals, 1:140-42 for irrigation, 1:9, 3:9, 11 maintenance of, 4:154 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 trade routes along, 4:128 Capacity, measurement of, 3:79-80 Capital punishment, 1:142-43, 3:53 Caravans, 1:143-45 dangers facing, 3:93 messengers use of, 2:10 routes, caravan, 4:128 trade and, 3:92-93 Carbon-14 dating, 1:168 Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 Carmel, Mount, 2:121 Carnelian, 3:90 Carpets, 4:118 Carter, Howard, 1:59, 128, 4:134 Carthage, 1:146-48, 3:88 Cartography, 3:69, 70 Casting (metal), 3:103 fatal Hiiyuk, 1:148-49 birds in paintings at, 1:118 clothing of, 2:8 furnishing at, 2:107 houses at, 2:173 location of, 1:37 rock paintings at, 1:45

194

wall paintings at, 4:147 Cats, 1:40, 1:149 (illus.), 2:179 Cattle, 1:42 (illus.), 44, 1:150 Caucasus, 1:130, 1:150-51 Cavalry, 1:152 (illus.) Cemeteries. See Burial sites and tombs Centaurs, 1:47,2:171 Central Asia, 1:153-54 Bactria, 1:111-12, 1:153-54 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130-31 Margiana, 1:153 Central Semitic languages, 4:72 Ceramics. See Pottery Cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 Chadic languages, 2:146 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 1:157-59, 3:107 Champollion, Jean-Frangois, 2:34, 162, 4:41-43 Chariots, 1:152 (illus.), 1:160-61 (illus.) animals used with, 1:44 art depicting, 3:7 (illus.) cavalry vs., 1:152 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71 in Hittite army, 1:73 horse-drawn, 2:171 as tax payment, 4:115 wheels for, 4:158 Charms. See Amulets and charms Cheops. See Khufu Chickens, 1:44 Childbirth, 1:162, 3:85 Children, 1:163-64. See also Family and social life arranged marriages for, 3:74 burial offerings for, 1:131 divorce and, 2:39-40 education for, 2:54 in Egypt, 2:64 hairstyles of, 2:144 as laborers, 3:42 medical treatment of, 3:85 naming of, 3:128 sacrifice of, 1:147, 3:151, 188, 4:38 sold into slavery, 4:86 Chogha Mami, 2:172 Chronicles, 1:164-66, 2:165-66, 3:130 Chronology(-ies), 1:166-70, 2:165 Cimmerians, 3:65 Phrygians and, 4:1 Urartu invasion by, 3:143 Cities and city-states, 1:171-76 Akhetaten, 1:16 Akkad, 1:16-22 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Amarna, 1:31-32 in Anatolia, 1:38, 173 appearance of, 1:175 Ashdod, 3:183 Ashur, 1:81-82 Babylon, 1:100-102 Bactra, 1:154 building materials for, 1:125 Byblos, 1:132-33

in Canaan, 1:138 Carthage, 1:146-48 Damascus, 2:24 Ebla, 2:47 in Egypt, 1:173 Eridu, 2:76-77 Eshnunna, 2:77-78 founded by Philistines, 3:181-82 gates in, 2:113-14 Giza, 2:123-24 Greek, 2:140 Itjtawy, 3:58 Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 Kalkhu, 3:28 Karkamish, 3:28-29 Khattusha, 3:31 Kish, 3:38 Knossos, 3:38-39 Lagash, 3:44 and land use, 3:45 Larsa, 2:147 layout of, 1:175-76 in the Levant, 1:174 location of, 1:174 Maracanda, 1:154 Mari, 3:71-72 Memphis, 3:90-91 Meroe, 3:39-41 in Mesopotamia, 1:171-73 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 Nineveh, 3:139-40 Nippur, 3:140 nomads and, 3:142 Persepolis, 3:170-71 Philistine, 3:183 Phoenician, 3:184 populations of, 1:174 Samaria, 4:44-45 Samarkand, 1:154 Sardis, 4:47-48 Sidon, 4:84 size of, 1:174 Sparta, 1:80 Sumerian, 4:101 (map), 103, 104 Susa, 4:108-9 in Syria, 1:174,4:109 Thebes, 4:120-21 Troy, 4:132-33 Tyre, 4:134-35 Ugarit, 4:135-37 Umma, 4:137 Ur, 4:137-39 urbanization and, 4:140-41 Uruk, 4:141-43 walled cities, 4:148-49 waste disposal in, 1:175 "cities of the dead," 1:128 Civilization, birthplace of, 4:141 Clapp, Nicholas, 1:62 Clay tablets, 2:1-3 (illus.) agricultural records on, 1:10 at Amarna, 1:31 from Ashurbanipal's library, 3:55 (illus.)

Index of Assyrian kings, 1:92 astronomy records on, 1:96 Baal cycle, 1:99 in Crete, 2:16 at Ebla, 2:47 Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96 Farmer's Almanac on, 1:10 inscriptions on, 3:3-4 as manuscripts, 1:121-22 maps on, 3:69-70 fromMari, 3:71 Mesopotamian, 3:54 of Mesopotamian law, 3:52 messages sent on, 2:10 in Nineveh library, 3:140 numbers expressed on, 3:148 Plow Star, 1:96 for record keeping, 4:29 storage and retrieval of, 3:56 Three Stars Each, 1:96 Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 (illus.) Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.) Climate, 2:4-6, 4:153. See also Agriculture; Environmental change of Anatolia, 1:36,2:120 of Arabia, 1:48 and canals, 1:140 cosmetics and, 2:11 and drought, 2:42-43 of Egypt, 2:119 and environmental change, 2:73-75 herding of animals and, 3:144 of Iran, 2:120, 3:6 of the Levant, 2:120 of Mesopotamia, 2:118 nomadism necessitated by, 3:144 rainfall, 4:153 in Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 of Sudan, 4:99 Clocks, 1:134,135 Clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.). See also Textiles Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 as tax payment, 4:115 Code of Hammurabi. See Hammurabi, Code of Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52 Codes of Shulgi, 3:52 Coins, 3:112, 3:113 early, 2:142 as item of exchange, 2:53 Lycian, 3:64 (illus.), 112 (illus.) tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 Comedy. See Humor Commerce. See Economy and trade Commercial economies, 2:50 Communication, 2:9-11. See also Language^); Writing with the dead, 1:4-6 iconography, 2:184-86 between kings, 2:137 messengers for, 3:99 prayers as, 4:12

Contact magic, 3:68 Copernicus, 1:94 Copper, 2:22, 3:100, 101, 108 Coptic language, 2:34 Corvee (forced labor), 3:168 Cosmetics, 2:11-13 perfumes in, 3:170 on statue of Lady Nofret, 2:12 (illus.) Cosmogony. See creation myths Council of 500, 2:141-42 Counting, 3:148 Creation myths, 2:13-15 of Ahriman and Ahura Mazda, 1:13 Anu in, 1:48 Ea in, 2:45 Enuma Elish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 and Hebrew Bible, 1:118 similarities among, 4:123 Crete, 2:15-17 earthquakes of, 2:38, 46 geography of, 3:109 Greek influence on, 2:139 Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:110, 111 Minoan civilization, 2:15-17, 3:109-12 Mycenaean trade and, 3:122 shipping trade in, 3:88 Crime. See Capital punishment; Law(s) Croesus, King, 3:65-66 Cross-dating (archaeological), 1:58 Cults, 2:18-19 Cuneiform, 2:19-22 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 in Babylonia, 1:109 in Bahrain, 1:113 on clay tablets, 1:59, 122, 2:2 (illus.), 3:56 decipherment of, 2:34-36 as forerunner of alphabet, 1:28-29 mathematical texts in, 3:77 replacement of, 1:122 Sumerian language written in, 4:105 Currency. See Money The Curse ofAkkad, 1:18 Cushitic languages, 2:146 Cyaxares, King, 3:81, 127 Cybele, 2:129, 3:67, 4:3 Cyclades islands, 1:3 Cyprus, 2:22-23, 3:88 Cyrus the Great, 2:23-24 Lydian battle against, 3:66 and Median Kingdom, 3:82-83 Persian empire founded by, 3:172 tomb of, 1:129 (illus.)

D

Dagan, 1:54, 139, 2:130 Dairy products, 2:101-2 Damascus, 1:12, 2:24 Dance, 2:24-26 (illus.)

Darius I (Darius the Great), 2:27 (illus.) in art, 2:178 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16 (illus.), 3:4 and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71 Cambysesand, 1:136 palace of, 1:69 and Persian Wars, 3:177 reign of, 3:173 satrapies originated by, 2:138 Darius II, 3:173 Darius III, 1:23-25, 2:10 (illus.), 2:27, 3:174 Dark Age(s), 1:3 in Anatolia, 3:136 in Babylonia, 1:104-5, 3:96 in Greece, 2:140 Dark or Gloomy Earth (netherworld), 1:5 Date palms and dates, 2:27-28 Dating, archaeological methods of, 1:57-59, 166-68 David, King of Israel, 2:28-29 dynasty of, 2:45 historical evidence about, 2:156 Jerusalem and, 3:19, 24 sources of information about, 3:14-15 Dead Sea, 2:121 Dead Sea Scrolls, 1:62 Death and burial, 2:29-33. See also Burial sites and tombs; Capital punishment and afterlife, 1:3-6 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cosmetics used in, 2:11 Egyptian practices, 2:63, 3:68-69 feasts and festivals associated with, 2:94 funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) incense in funerary rites, 2:186-87 letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41 mummies, 3:117-19 by Mycenaeans, 3:123 offerings to the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52 supernatural powers of the dead, 4:121-22 Decimal system, 3:78, 148, 4:52 Decipherment, 2:33-36 of Behistun inscription, 1:116-17 of hieroglyphics, 2:161-62 of lost languages, 3:49-50 of Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 Deforestation, 2:39, 42, 75 Deioces, King, 3:81 Deities. See Gods and goddesses; Religion(s) Delian League, 3:178 Lycia in, 3:63 Rhodes as member of, 4:35 Democracy (Greece), 2:141 Democritus, 2:142 Demons, 2:36-37 and afterlife beliefs, 1:5 exorcisms of, 3:69 imaginary creatures representing, 1:47-48

195

Index incense as protection against, 2:186 Lamashtu, 1:162, 2:36, 37 (illus.), 3:68 magic rituals against, 3:68, 69 Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) in theology, 4:121 Demosthenes, 2:142 Demotic script, 2:34 Denyen, 4:63 Deondrochronology, 1:168 Deportation, 3:104, 106-7 Desertification, 2:75 Deserts Libyan Desert, 2:120 Negev Desert, 2:121 Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 Syrian Desert, 2:120 Western desert, 2:120 Dialogue of a Man With His God, 3:60 Digs. See Archaeological sites Dilmun, 1:50, 2:52, 3:91, 4:128 Diplomats merchants as, 2:49 messengers as, 2:9, 10 Disasters on Crete, 2:17 drought, 2:42-43 earthquakes, 2:46-47 famine, 2:90-91 flood legends and, 2:97 floods, 2:97-100 natural, 2:37-39 as omens, 1:94 volcanoes, 4:144-45 The Dispute Between Copper and Silver, 3:101 Distemper, 4:146 Divination education for, 2:55 goats for, 2:126 from incense, 2:186 necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160 omens for, 1:94, 3:153-54 and oracles, 3:155-56 The Prophecy of Neferti, 3:156 with zodiac, 1:95 Divine kingship, 3:129 Divorce, 1:163, 2:39-40 Diyala River, 4:39 Djoser, 2:40, 4:20 Documents. See Texts and documents Dogs, 2:179 Donkeys, 1:42, 44 The Doomed Prince, 2:63 Dorians, 2:139 Dreams, 2:41, 3:155 Drought, 2:42-43 Drums, 3:121 Dyes in cosmetics, 2:12 for Egyptian clothing, 2:7 hair, 2:12 purple, 3:186, 4:84, 119-20 for textiles, 4:119-20 Dynasties, 2:43-45

196

E Ea, 2:45 animals depicting, 1:47 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 in creation myths, 2:14 creation of humans by, 2:127 Eagles in art, 1:119 Early Bronze Age, art of, 2:177 Earthquakes, 2:46-47 East Semitic languages, 4:72 Ebers, George, 3:164 Ebla, 2:47 Adad (god of weather), 1:2 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61-62 land ownership in, 3:46 language of, 4:72 Eclipses, 4:107 Eclipses as omens, 1:94-95 Economy and trade, 2:47-53 of Akkadians, 1:20-21 in Anatolia, 1:38 animals' roles in, 1:44-45 in Arabia, 1:49-50 (map) of Aramaeans, 1:52 in Ashur, 1:81 in Assyria, 1:92 in Babylonia, 1:102, 108 inBactria, 1:111-12 in Bahrain, 1:112-13 inByblos, 1:132-33 in Canaan, 1:138 caravans for, 1:143-45 Carthage, 1:146-48 of Chaldeans, 1:158 city gates as centers of, 1:175 commercial economies, 2:50 of Crete, 2:16 Cyprus as center of, 2:22 Dilmun civilization (Arabia), 1:50 of Ebla, 2:47 of Egypt, 2:61-63, 3:133 essential goods, 2:51 by farmworkers, 1:10-11 fish in, 2:96 and growth of cities, 1:173 harbors and, 2:150-51 of Hittites, 2:168-69 incense in, 2:187 in Iran, 3:8 of Israelites, 2:156 lapis lazuli for, 3:50 luxury goods, 2:51-52 Lydian, 3:66 inMari, 3:71 maritime, 3:186-87 markets, 3:72-73 on Mediterranean Sea, 3:87-89 Melukkha, 3:90 merchants, 3:91-93 of Minoans, 3:109-10 money, 3:112-13 in Mycenae, 3:121-22 between nomads and city-dwellers, 3:142

nomads' part in, 3:144 of Nubia, 3:145-46 obsidian in, 3:150-51 with Oman Peninsula, 3:153 of Persian Empire, 3:175 of Philistines, 3:183 of Phoenicians, 3:185-87 (map) of Phrygia, 4:2 reciprocal economies, 2:49 redistributive economies, 2:49-50, 62 retail trade, 3:66 Rhodes and, 4:35 of Scythians, 4:61 shipping routes, 4:79-80 slavery, 4:87 staple goods, 2:51-52 subsistence economy, 4:167 of Sumerians, 4:104 textile industry, 4:120 trade routes, 4:127-29 in Transcaucasia, 1:151 work generated by, 4:168 Edict of Ammi-saduqa, 2:53 Edict of Khattushili, 2:53-54 EdictofKhattushilil, 3:60 Edict of Telipinu, 2:54, 166, 3:60 Edicts, 2:53-54 Education, 2:54-56 apprenticeships, 2:55 clay tablets used in, 2:3 in Egypt, 1:164 of Israelites, 2:157 Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39 literacy restrictions and, 4:172 schools, 4:50-52 of scribes, 4:54-55 Egypt and the Egyptians, 2:56-66 Abydos burial site, 1:1-2 agriculture, 1:9-10, 2:61-62 Akhetaten, 1:16 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 Amarna, 1:31-32 amulets worn by, 1:34 apiculture in, 1:44 Arabs and Assyrian campaigns against, 3:143 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:59-60 architecture. See Egyptian architecture archives and libraries in, 3:54-56 armies of, 1:72-73, 4:92, 93 art of. See Egyptian art Asiatics in, 2:80 under Assyria, 1:82-83 astronomy of, 1:97 autobiographies of, 3:60 burial sites and tombs in, 1:128-30 calendars in, 1:134-35 Cambyses II in, 1:136 Canaan and, 1:138 canals in, 1:141-42 capital punishment in, 1:142-43 Carians in, 1:145 cavalry in, 1:152 cereal grains in, 1:155

Index chariots in, 1:160 chronicles of, 1:165 chronology of, 1:170 cities in, 1:173 climate of, 2:5, 119 demotic script of, 2:34 dependence on flooding in, 2:98 dreams and, 2:41 economy of, 2:61-63 ethnic and language groups, 2:80-81 Faiyum Depression, 2:57 family life of. See Egyptian family and social life famine in, 2:90 farming in, 1:155, 3:45 funerary papyrus of Djedkhonsefankh, 2:31 (illus.) gardens of, 2:112-13 geography of, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 Giza, 2:123-24 god and goddesses. See Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion government of, 2:133-36 historical periods of. See Egyptian historical periods Hyksos and, 2:182-83 independence from Persia of, 3:173 irrigation in, 3:10-11 kings. See Egyptian rulers Kush and, 3:39-40,146-47 labor and laborers in, 3:42 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages of, 2:64-65, 2:146, 3:48 law in, 3:52-53 Libyan and, 3:56-57 literature of, 2:65, 3:60 location of, 2:58 (map) Lower and Upper Egypt, 2:133, 136 Luxor, 3:63 magic in, 3:68 maps from, 3:70 mathematics in, 3:76-78 (illus.) measurement in, 3:79, 80 medicine in, 3:85-86 Memphis, 3:90-91 merchants in, 3:91 messengers, treatment of, 2:10 mining in, 3:108 money in, 3:112, 113 Moses and, 3:116 mummification by, 3:117-19 (illus.) navy of, 3:130-31 Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 Nile River, 2:38, 56-57, 3:137-38 Nubia and the Nubians, 3:145-47 number systems of, 3:148 papyrus rolls from, 1:122 peasant labor in, 3:169 pharaohs. See Egyptian rulers Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 poetry of, 3:59 queens. See Egyptian rulers racial beliefs of, 2:80 (illus.) religion of. See Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion

roads in, 4:40 rulers of. See Egyptian rulers science of, 4:52-54 Sea People and, 3:106 Semitic influence on, 4:71 servants in, 4:74-75 shipping and, 3:88, 4:79-80 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 social life of. See Egyptian family and social life textile industry in, 4:120 Thebes, 4:120-21 timekeeping by, 4:96-97 trade in, 2:52, 2:62-63, 3:72 trade routes of, 4:128-29 wine and, 4:159 writing of, 4:171 Xerxes and, 4:172-73 Egyptian architecture, 1:65-68, 2:63-64 building materials in, 1:125-26 building techniques in, 1:67-68 earthquake protection in, 2:46 houses, 2:174 palaces, 3:160-61 pyramids, 4:20-23 temples, 3:163 Egyptian art, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 animals in, 1:40, 46-48 birds in, 1:118-19 deities shown in, 2:129 faience in, 2:85 human form in, 2:175-77 (illus.) jewelry making, 2:115-16 Nefertiti in, 3:133-34 (illus.) in Old Kingdom, 1:46 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) sculpture, 4:58 Egyptian family and social life, 2:65-66, 86-87, 2:89 banquets, 2:72 childbirth in, 1:162 children in, 1:163-64 clothing of, 2:7-8 cosmetics used by, 2:11-13 dance in, 2:25-26 death and burial in, 2:30-31 divination and, 3:155 divorce in, 2:39-40 eating practices, 2:62 education, 1:164, 2:55 entertaining, 2:62 ethnic diversity in, 2:65 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 94 furnishings in, 2:109-10 hairstyles, 2:144, 145 health in, 2:152-54 marriage, 1:164, 3:75 music and dance in, 2:71 naming in, 3:128-29 polygamy in, 4:6 schools in, 4:51-52 scribal education in, 4:54-55 slaves in, 4:86-87 social classes, 2:65 social institutions in, 4:88-89

sports, 2:72 use of perfumes, 2:13 women's role in, 4:162 Egyptian gods, goddesses, and religion, 2:63, 2:128-29, 4:32-33 afterlife beliefs of, 1:4-5 Amun, 1:35 animal worship, 2:63 Anubis, 1:47 Aten, 1:97-98 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 cats in, 1:149 in creation myths, 2:13-14 and demons, 2:37 feasts and festivals in, 2:93 funeral practices in, 1:4 funerary offerings in, 3:151 Hathor, 2:151 Horus, 2:171-72 hymns for, 2:183 incense for, 2:186 Isis, 3:13 Karnak, 3:29 magic in, 3:68 medicinal use of myths in, 3:126 monotheism, 3:113-1:114 music and, 3:119-21 in mythology, 3:125 offerings for, 3:151 Osiris, 3:157 prayers to, 4:11,12 priests in, 4:13-16 prophecies in, 3:156 Seth, 4:76 sun worship, 4:107-8 theology, 4:122 Egyptian historical periods, 2:57-61 Early Dynastic, 2:44, 2:57-59 Eleventh Dynasty, 3:63 Fifth Dynasty, 1:1 First Dynasty, 1:173, 2:44 First Intermediate period, 2:59 Greco-Roman period, 2:61 Late Period, 1:2,2:44,2:61 Middle Kingdom, 1:1, 66, 129, 149, 165, 2:26, 41, 44, 55, 2:59-60, 2:134, 3:11 New Kingdom, 1:12, 66, 130, 142-43, 149, 165, 2:26, 44, 2:60, 2:135-36, 3:4, 63 Old Kingdom, 1:46, 142, 2:38, 40, 42, 44, 2:59, 2:123, 124, 133-34, 3:4, 33 Predynastic, 2:57-59 Ptolemaic period, 3:11 Second Intermediate Period, 2:59-60 Third Intermediate Period, 2:60 Twelfth Dynasty, 2:134 Twenty-fifth Dynasty, 4:114 Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 2:135-36 Egyptian rulers Ahmose, 1:12-13 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 Amenemhet III, 3:36 Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.)

197

Index Djoser, 2:40 dynasties of, 2:44-45 Hatshepsut, 2:152 Hyksos, 2:182-83 Khufu, 3:33-34 king lists, 3:35 Necho II, 3:132-33 Nefertiti, 3:133-34 Nitokris, 3:141 Pharaohs, 3:178-81 Piye, 3:147 Ptolemy I, 4:19-20 queens, 4:24 Ramses II, 4:26-27 Ramses III, 4:27 Sety I, 4:76-77 Taharqa, 4:114-15 Thutmose III, 4:124 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 £1,2:66,2:130 in Baal cycle, 1:99 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70, 2:81 archaeological discoveries of, 1:63 in Babylonian history, 1:105 dynasties of, 2:45 family and social life of, 2:88 feasts and festivals of, 2:92-93 geography of, 2:66-67 gods and goddesses of, 2:67, 130, 4:33 history of, 2:67-70, 3:6 language of, 2:34, 36, 3:49 priests of, 4:14 Proto-Elamites, 2:67 religions of, 2:67, 3:7-8, 4:33 Susianaand, 4:108 women's role in, 2:67, 4:164 Elba, 2:47 Elburz Mountains, 2:120 Ellil. See Enlil Empire(s) armies of, 1:73-75 communication within, 2:11 idea of, 1:22 Employment. See Work Enkheduanna, 1:21, 4:138 (illus.) Enki, 1:110,2:14 Enki and Ninmakh, 1:110, 3:125 Enlil, 2:70, 2:127 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 in creation myths, 2:14 cult of, at Nippur, 3:140 Enmerkar, 2:19-20, 4:5 Enmerkar and the Lord ofAmtta, 2:75 Entertainment, 2:70-73. See also Feasts and festivals banquets, 2:72 dance, 2:24-26, 71-72 feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 games, 2:110-12 Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39 music and musical instruments, 2:71-72, 3:119-21 sports, 2:72-73 storytelling, 2:73

198

Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96, 3:62, 4:96 EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 Envelopes, clay, 2:1, 4:28, 66 Environmental change, 2:73-75 Ephermerides, 1:96 Epic literature, 2:75-76 Aqhat, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Atrakhasis, Epic of, 1:48, 110, 3:125 in Babylonia, 1:111 Curse of Akkad, 1:18 Ea in, 2:45 EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, 125 Gilgamesh, Epic of, 2:122-23 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 Iliad, 3:121 Keret, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Odyssey, 3:121 poetry as, 4:5 Epic of Aqhat, 1:138, 3:126 Epic of Atrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 2:97, 3:125 Epic of Creation. See Enuma Elish Epic of Gilgamesh, 2:122-23 Anuin, 1:48 dreams in, 2:41 Great Flood in, 2:97 Ishtar myth in, 3:12 netherworld in, 1:5 title of, 3:59 walls of Uruk in, 1:175 Epic of Keret, 1:138, 3:126 Eratosthenes, 3:70 Ereshkigal, queen of the dead, 1:5 Eridu, 2:76-77 Erra, 1:110-11 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 Esarhaddon, 2:77 and Ashurbanipal, 1:82 death omen of, 1:94-95 reign of, 1:90 Eshnunna, 2:77-78 divorce in, 2:39 laws of, 3:52, 73 (illus.) Palace of Governors, 1:65, 3:158-59 Eshtan, 2:129 Etana, 1:119 Ethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians Ethiopian language, 4:73 Ethnic and language groups, 2:78-84 Anatolian, 2:82 Arabian, 2:83 Canaanite, 2:82-83 Egyptian, 2:65, 80-81 Iranian, 2:81-82 Mesopotamian, 2:78-79 Ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 Eunuchs, 2:84 Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118, 4:38-39 changes in, 2:74, 4:137 flooding of, 1:9, 2:99, 4:153-54 harbors on, 2:150 and irrigation, 3:9 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98

shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes along, 4:128 Evans, Sir Arthur, 2:17, 3:39, 109 "evil eye, "4:160 Excavations. See Archaeological sites Exorcisms, 1:5 Extispicy, 3:153-54 Eye of Horus, 2:172 Ezra, 3:26

F

Fabrics. See Textiles Faience, 2:85-86 (illus.) Faiyum Depression, 2:57, 3:137-38 Falcons in art, 1:118 Family and social life, 2:86-89 of Anatolians, 2:87 of Babylonians, 1:108-9 burial customs, 1:127 of Chaldeans, 1:158 childbirth, 1:162 children, 1:163-64 dance, 2:24-26 divorce, 2:39-40 economy's effect on, 2:49 of Egyptians, 2:65-66, 86-87, 89 of Elamites, 2:88 entertainment, 2:70-73 feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 games, 2:110-12 gender and sex roles in, 2:116-18 gradual disasters and, 2:39 of Hittites, 2:87 houses, 2:172-75 influence of cities on, 1:171 inheritance and, 2:88-89 Iranian, 2:88 of Israelites, 2:87-89 legal rights in, 3:51 Lycian, 2:87 marriage, 3:74-75 merchant families, 3:92 Mesopotamian, 2:86, 89 naming, 3:128 nomadic, 3:145 of peasants, 3:169 of Persians, 2:88 polygamy, 4:5-6 pregnancy, 4:12-13 women, role of, 4:161-64 Famine, 2:90-91, 3:138 Farmer's Almanac, 1:10 Farming. See also Agriculture; Gardens animal husbandry with, 1:43 by Aramaeans, 1:52 and canals, 1:140-41 cattle, 1:150 in Crete, 2:15 as economic foundation, 2:47 effect of, on climate, 2:6 in Egypt, 1:155 and irrigation, 3:8-11 of Israelites, 2:157 in the Levant, 1:155

Index in Mesopotamia, 1:155 nomadism and, 3:105, 141 peasants and, 3:168, 169 plows for, 1:44 settlements depending on, 3:44-45 sharecropping, 3:45-46 tools for, 4:125-26 in Transcaucasia, 1:151 Fashion and grooming clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.) hair, 2:143-45 jewelry, 3:20-23 perfumes, 3:169-70 Fate, 4:121 Feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 Babylonian New Year's festival, 2:94 banquets, 2:72 cult festivals, 2:18 dance in, 2:26 of Egyptians, 4:32 of Elamites, 4:33 following blood sacrifices, 4:37 of Hittites, 2:89, 170,4:34 offerings during, 3:151 Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63 Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95 Field of Offerings, 1:4-5 Fires, sacred, 4:179 (illus.), 180 Fish, 2:102 Fishing, 2:95-96 Flax, 2:96-97,4:118 Floating chronology, 1:167 Flood legends, 2:97 Floods and flooding, 2:97-100 agriculture and water from, 1:9-10 of Euphrates River, 2:85, 98 and irrigation, 3:9-11 of Nile River, 1:10, 141-42, 2:61-62, 74,3:10-11, 138 in southern Mesopotamia, 1:9 of Tigris, 2:98, 4:125 Flutes, 3:120 Food and drink, 2:100-104 aurochs for, 1:150 banquets, 2:72 beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 birds as source of, 1:41 bread, 1:156-57, 2:100-101 cattle, 1:150 cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 crops raised for, 1:7-8 dairy products, 2:101-2 dates, 1:8, 2:27-28 deer and gazelles, 1:40 domesticated animals for, 1:41-44 in Egypt, 2:62 fish, 2:95-96, 2:102 fruits, 1:8, 2:101 goats, 2:126 for gods and goddesses, 4:32 hunting, 2:179-80 meat, 2:102 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 offered to gods, 3:151 oils, condiments, sweeteners, 2:102

olives, 3:152-53 pigs as, 4:3 preparation of, 2:103 rationing of, 2:101 sacrifices of, 4:37 storage and preservation of, 2:103-4 vegetables, 1:8, 2:101 wine, 2:101, 102, 4:158-59 Fortifications, 2:104-6 city walls as, 4:148-49 gates in, 2:113-14 inKhattusha, 1:70 of Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.) Fox-Talbot, W. H., 2:35 Frankfort, Henri, 1:47, 63 Frankincense, 2:186, 187 Frescoes, 2:16-17 (illus.), 4:146 (illus.) Friedrich, Johannes, 1:30 Fruits, 2:101 Funerals. See Death and burial Funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) Funerary offerings, 1:5, 3:151-52 Furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 (illus.) textiles for, 4:118-19 wood for, 4:165-66 Future, foretelling. See Divination

G

Games, 2:110-12 (illus.) Garbage contamination by, 2:154 disposal of, 1:175 Garden of Eden, 1:13 Gardens, 2:112-13 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 irrigation for, 3:11 shade gardens, 1:8 vegetable gardens, 1:8 Garstand, John, 1:63 Gasur. See Nuzi Gates, 1:175, 2:105, 2:113-14 Gathas, 4:179-80 Geb, 1:119,2:14, 128 Gems, 2:114-16, 3:21 Gender and sex, 2:116-18 eunuchs, 2:84 hairstyles and, 2:144-45 of potters, 4:7 property rights and, 4:16 women, role of, 4:161-64 Geography, 2:118-21 (map). See also Climate; Mountains; Rivers of Anatolia, 1:36, 2:119-20 of Arabia, 2:120-21 of Assyria, 1:84-85 of Babylonia, 1:102 of Canaan, 1:137-38 Caucasus mountains, 1:150-51 of Central Asia, 1:153 (map) of Crete, 3:109 of Egypt, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 of Elam, 2:66-67

Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95 of Greece, 2:138-39 and growth of cities, 1:174 harbors, 2:150-51 of Iran, 2:120, 3:6 of Israel, 2:121 of Lebanon, 2:121 of the Levant, 2:120-21 and maps, 3:69-70 (illus.) of Mesopotamia, 2:118, 3:94-95 of Nile River, 3:137 of Nubia, 3:145 of Oman Peninsula, 3:153 of Persian Empire, 3:172 (map) of Phoenicia, 3:186 of Syria, 2:120, 4:110 and trade routes, 2:52 Ghirshman, Roman, 1:63 Ghosts beliefs about, 1:4, 5 funerary offerings and, 3:152 magic rituals against, 3:68, 69 as type of demon, 2:36-37 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 in epic literature, 2:75. See also Epic of Gilgamesh in Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 war of, with Agga, 1:9 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 Giza, 2:123-24 Great Sphinx at, 4:94-95 (illus.) pyramids at, 4:21, 22 (illus.) Glaciers, 2:5 Glacis, 2:105 Glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25 (illus.) Goats, 1:40, 42, 43, 2:126 GodinTepe, 3:80-81 Gods and goddesses, 2:126-30. See also Demons Adad, 1:2-3 Ahura Mazda (Persia), 1:14 Amun (Egypt), 1:35 of Anatolia, 2:129-30 Anat (Syria and Levant), 1:35-36 animals associated with, 1:46-48 Anubis (Egypt), 1:47 Anu (Mesopotamia), 1:48 in art, 2:184-85 Ashur (Assyria), 1:82 associated with lions, 3:58 and astrology, 1:94 Aten (Egypt), 1:97-98 Baal, 1:98-99 in Babylonia, 1:110 Bast/Bastet (Egypt), 1:149 Bes (Egypt), 1:162 birds associated with, 1:118-19 boats for, 4:80 in Canaan, 1:139 childbirth practices and, 1:162 of cities, 1:171 and cults, 2:18-19 Cybele (Lydia), 3:67 Cybele (Phrygia), 4:3 Dagan (Aramaea), 1:54

199

Index dead pharaohs as, 3:180 Ea (Mesopotamia), 2:45 of Egypt, 2:63,128-29 of Elamites, 2:67 El (Canaan), 2:66 Eni mahanahi (Lycia), 3:63-64 Enlil (Sumeria), 2:70, 3:140 Erra (Babylonia), 1:110-11 "family" gods, 1:110 feasts and festivals and, 2:91-93 in Greece, 2:142 Hadad (Aramaea), 1:54 hairstyles of, 2:144 Hathor (Egypt), 2:151 Hecate (Greece), 1:145 Hephaestus (Greece), 3:103 of Hittites, 2:129-30, 169-70 Horus (Egypt), 2:171-72 incantations for healing to, 3:69 of Iran, 2:130 Ishtar (Mesopotamia), 3:12 Isis (Egypt), 3:13 jewelry of, 3:20 ofKassites, 3:30 Khepat (Hurrians), 3:33 kings and, 3:35-37 in Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39 Kumarbi (Hittite), 3:126 Kumarbi (Human), 3:39 law as established by, 3:51 of the Levant, 2:130 of Lycia, 3:63-64 Lydian, 3:67 magic and, 2:67 Marduk (Babylon), 3:71 Matar (Phrygia), 4:3 medicine and, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 of Mesopotamia, 2:127-28, 3:97 monotheism and, 3:113-14 Mot (Canaan), 1:6 music and, 3:119 natural disasters and, 2:38 of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 Ninurta (Mesopotamia), 3:124 (illus.), 159 number representing, 3:149 offerings to, 3:151 omens from, 3:153-54 oracles from, 3:154-55 Osiris (Egypt), 3:157 Papsukkal (Mesopotamia), 1:119 of Phoenicia, 3:187 Ptah (Memphis), 3:90 sacrifices to, 4:37 Sahr (Aramaea), 1:54 in sculpture, 4:56-59 of Scythia, 4:62 on seals, 4:68-69 Sekhmet (Egypt), 1:149, 2:37 Seth (Egypt), 2:37, 4:76 Shamash (Mesopotamia), 1:5, 21 Sin (Akkadia), 1:21 in Sumeria, 4:34 of Sumeria, 4:103-4 sun gods, 4:107-8 of Syria, 2:130

200

Taweret (Egypt), 1:162 and temple furniture, 2:110 Teshub (Human), 4:117-18 theogonies of, 4:123 theophoric names and, 3:128 Thoth (Egypt), 1:47 Vulcan (Rome), 3:103 Yahweh (Israel and Judah), 4:173-74 ziggurats and, 4:176 Gold, 3:100, 102 as item of exchange, 2:53 mining of, 3:109 Gordianknot, 1:26 Gordium, 1:61,4:1-3 Government(s), 2:131-38. See also Edicts; Law(s) of Akkadia, 1:20,2:132 of Anatolia, 2:136-37 of Assyria, 1:83,91-92 of Babylonia, 1:107-8 of Canaan, 2:137 and capital punishment, 1:142-43 in Carthage, 1:147 communication and, 2:11 edicts of, 2:53-54 of Egypt, 2:133-36, 3:138 eunuchs in, 2:84 of Greece, 2:141-42 of Hittites, 2:136-37, 168 of Iran, 2:138 of Israelites, 2:156 kingship form of, 3:35-38 of the Levant, 2:137-38 of Mesopotamia, 2:131-33 of Neo-Assyrian Empire, 2:133 nomadic tribes and, 3:144 palaces as centers of, 3:157, 158 of Persian Empire, 2:138, 3:174 of Philistines, 2:137 of Phoenicians, 2:137 protest literature and, 3:59 and religion in Israel, 3:24 rituals as responsibility of, 2:18 of Sumeria, 2:132, 4:103 taxation by, 4:115-16 theology and, 4:122 Governors and rulers Gudea (Lagash), 2:143 Gyges (Lydia), 3:65 kings, 3:35-38 of Mesopotamian city-states, 2:131 of Minoan civilization, 3:111 Perikles (Lycia), 3:64 pharaohs, 3:178-81 queens, 4:23-26 satraps, 4:50 Grain(s) cereal grains, 1:154-57 as money, 3:112-13 as source of wealth, 3:45 as tax payment, 4:115 Grave robbers, 1:127-28, 131, 4:20, 143 Graves. See Burial sites and tombs Great Kings, 2:132-33

Great Pyramid, 1:126, 3:33-34, 180, 4:23 Great Sphinx, 2:64, 123, 124, 3:33, 4:94-95 (illus.) Great Temple of Amun (Luxor), 2:62 (illus.), 3:63 Greece and the Greeks, 2:138-43 in Aegean Sea area, 1:3 and Alexander the Great, 1:23 alphabet, 1:29-30 Archaic Age in, 1:3 art and architecture of, 2:142 Athens, 2:140-42 and Carthage, 1:146-47 Classical period of, 2:140-41 Council of 500, 2:141-42 Crete, 2:15-17 in Dark Age, 1:3 geography of, 2:138-39 government in, 2:141-42 and Hellenistic world, 2:158-59 Herodotus, 2:159-60 history of, 2:139-41 hymns of, 2:183 incense in, 2:186 influence of, 1:26-27, 3:63-64 language of, 2:139, 188, 3:48, 49 literature of, 2:142 Lydia and, 3:65 Macedonia, 2:141, 3:67 maps from, 3:70 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 migration in, 2:42 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 mythology and religion of, 2:142 navy of, 3:130-31 Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41 Persian invasion of, 3:173 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78 philosophy and science in, 2:142 Rhodes, 4:35 shipping trade of, 3:89 Sparta, 2:140-41 Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.) writing in, 2:142-43 Grooming. See Fashion and grooming Grotefend, Georg, 2:34 Gudea, 2:143, 3:3 (illus.) dream of, 2:41 statue of, 2:178 Guide to Geography, 3:70 Gutians attacks of, on Akkadian empire, 1:19 migration to Mesopotamia of, 3:105 nomadism of, 3:143

H

Hadad, 1:54 Haft Tepe, 1:131 Hair, 2:143-45 dye for, used by Egyptians, 2:12 of slaves, 4:86 Halab, 3:31, 33

Index Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages, 2:146-47, 3:48 Hammering (metal), 3:103 Hammurabi, 2:147-48 Babylon's expansion under, 1:100 Code of Hammurabi, 3:52 (illus.) inscriptions about, 3:2 reign of, 1:104 Zimri-Lim and, 4:177 Hammurabi, Code of, 1:104, 2:147 (illus.), 2:148-49, 3:52 (illus.) canal laws in, 1:140 capital punishment in, 1:142 copy of, 3:52 (illus.) kings' role in, 1:107 respect due to fathers in, 2:86 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 irrigation for, 3:11 Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 search for, 1:100 Harappan civilization, 3:90 Harbors, 2:150-51 of Cyprus, 2:22 on Mediterranean, 3:88 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 Harps, 3:120 (illus.) Harvesting, 1:155-56 (illus.) Hathor, 2:128 (illus.), 129, 2:151 and childbirth, 1:162 cow as representative of, 1:47 Hatshepsut, 2:152 (illus.) aspharaoh, 3:179 temple built by, 1:66-67 tomb of, 4:143 Hattic language, 3:49 Hazael, 1:52 Healing. See Medicine Health, 2:152-54. See also Medicine and childbirth, 1:162 common diseases, 3:83 Hebrews and Israelites, 2:83, 2:155-58. See also Israel andJudah; Judaism and Jews afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.) alphabetic numeration of, 3:149 alphabet of, 2:157-58 amulets worn by, 1:34 archaeological evidence about, 2:155-56 architecture of, 2:158 Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 art of, 2:158 Assyrians and, 2:155 Athaliah, 1:98 Bible, 1:117-18 in Canaan, 1:138-39 and capital punishment, 1:143 clothing of, 2:8 cosmetics used by, 2:12-13 deportation of, 3:107 divination through dreams by, 3:155 divorce and, 2:40 economy of, 2:156 education of, 2:55, 56, 157

family and social life of, 2:87-89 forced labor and, 3:43-44 funerary practices of, 2:32-33 government of, 2:156 hairstyles of, 2:144, 145 history of, 2:155 houses of, 2:175 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 land ownership in, 3:46 language of, 2:157, 4:72-73 and magical practices, 3:69 marriage in, 3:74-75 Megiddo controlled by, 3:89 monotheism of, 3:114 Moses, 3:116-17 mythology and, 3:125-26 necromancy among, 3:69 offerings by, 3:151 patriarchs and matriarchs of, 3:166-68 poetry of, 2:158 priests of, 4:16 psalms, 4:18-19 roads of, 4:40 settlements of, 2:157 slavery and, 4:87-88 social classes among, 2:157 social institutions of, 4:90 theology of, 4:122 use of perfumes by, 2:13 women's role in, 4:164 Yahweh, 4:173-74 Hecataeus, 3:70 Hecate, 1:145 Hellenistic world, 2:158-59 Herding, 3:141-42, 144, 169 Hermos River, 4:47 Herodotus, 2:142, 2:159-60 on Cambyses, 1:136 and cartography, 3:70 and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149 History, 2:159 on marketplaces, 3:72 on Median kingdom, 3:81 on Nile's role in Egypt, 2:99, 100 on Nitokris, 3:141 on Nubians, 3:147 on Persian road, 4:41 on Persian society, 4:90 on polygamy, 4:5 on pyramid building, 4:23 on royal messengers, 3:99 and Scythian history, 4:59-60 and Semiramis legend, 4:70 Hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 (illus.), 4:171 on bas-reliefs, 1:113-14 decipherment of, 2:34-35 invention of, 2:64 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 on sculpture, 4:58 on stela, 3:152 (illus.) symbols for pharaohs in, 3:181 Hincks, Edward

Akkadian language deciphered by, 2:35 Behistun Inscription deciphered by, 1:62 hieroglyphics deciphered by, 2:35 Old Persian deciphered by, 2:34 Hinduism, 1:81 Hippocrates, 2:142 History and historiography, 2:162-66. See also Creation myths battle reconstruction, 4:149-50 chronicles as, 1:164-66 chronology in, 1:166-70 dynasties used in, 2:44 Egyptian, 2:163-64, 166 in Hebrew Bible, 2:165, 166 Herodotus, 2:159-60 of Hittites, 2:164, 166 of Israel and Judah, 2:165 of the Levant, 2:164-66 of Mesopotamia, 2:162-63, 165-66 of nomadic peoples, 3:144 recent events and, 2:162-65 remote past and, 2:165-66 of Syria, 2:164 Hittites, 2:167-70 afterlife beliefs of, 1:5-6 archaeological discoveries about, 1:61 armies of, 1:72-73,4:92 in Babylonian history, 1:104 banquets and, 2:72 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:31 and capital punishment, 1:143 chariot development by, 1:160 childbirth in, 1:162 cities of, 1:173 clothing of, 2:8 control of central plateau by, 1:38 dance of, 2:26 decipherment of inscriptions by, 2:35 deportations by, 3:107 divination and oracles of, 3:155-56 divorce in, 2:40 drought and fall of empire, 2:42 economy of, 2:168-69 empire of, 2:167-68 family and social life of, 2:87 famine and, 2:90 feasts and festivals of, 2:92-94 gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30 government of, 2:136-37, 168 health of, 2:153 hieroglyphic script of, 2:160 houses of, 2:173 inscriptions by, 3:5 Karkamish, 3:28-29 Khattusha, 3:31 Khattushili I, 3:31-32 Khattushili III, 3:32 king lists of, 3:35 Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39,4:117 labor and laborers, 3:42-43 language of, 2:188 laws of, 2:168, 3:53 literature of, 2:170, 3:60

201

Index location of, 2:170 (map) Luwians and culture of, 3:62 magic and, 3:68, 69 marriage among, 3:74 (illus.), 75 military force of, 4:152-53 Mitanniand, 2:181 music and dance of, 2:71 mythology of, 2:170, 3:126 navy of, 3:130 Neo-Hittites and, 3:134-36 Old Kingdom of, 2:167 palaces of, 3:161 peasant labor in, 3:169 poetry of, 3:60 prayers of, 4:12 priests of, 4:13, 14, 16 queens of, 4:24-25 religions of, 2:169-70, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:58 servants of, 4:74 Shuppiluliuma I, 4:83-84 slavery of, 4:87 social institutions of, 4:89-90 sports of, 2:73 temples of, 3:163 theology of, 4:122 women's role in, 4:162-63 writing of, 4:171 Hogarth, David George, 1:63-64 Hole, Frank, 3:142, 143 Holy wars, 4:150 Homer, 2:140, 142, 4:132 Honey, 1:44 Horoscopes, 1:95, 4:177-78 Horostepe, 1:38 Horses, 1:40, 2:170-71 in cavalry, 1:152 domestication of, 1:42 uses of, 1:44, 4:61 Horus, 2:128-29, 2:171-72 (illus.) birds representing, 1:47, 118 in creation myths, 2:14 Hathor and, 2:151 and Ishtar, 3:13 priests of, 4:16 Seth and, 4:76 "house" (family as), 2:86 Houses, 2:172-75. See also Palaces; Temple(s) in Anatolia, 1:70 Aramaean royal compounds, 1:53 burial under floors of, 1:128 at gatal Huyiik, 1:70, 148 construction of, 4:165 courtyard houses, 1:65 in Egypt, 1:67 furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 of peasants, 3:169 of Philistines, 3:183 inUgarit, 1:68 Human form in art, 2:175-78 combined with animals, 1:47-48 of Crete, 2:17 Egyptian, 2:64

202

Greek influence on, 2:142 on Narmer Palette, 1:114 Human rights, 4:85-86 Humor, 2:178-79 in animal art, 1:40, 47 in literature, 3:60 Hunter-gatherers, 2:179, 4:167 Hunting, 2:179-80 art depicting, 1:45, 46 chariots for, 1:161 domestication of animals and, 1:41-42 of lions, 3:57 transition to farming from, 1:7 Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81 Khepat, 3:33 Kumarbi, 3:39 language of, 3:49 migration of, 3:105 Mitanni established by, 3:97 Teshub, 4:117-18 Hyksos, 2:182-83 Ahmose's defeat of, 1:12-13 in Canaan, 1:138 Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 Hymns, 2:183 of Egypt, 3:59 Mesopotamian, 3:59 HymntoAten, 1:97

I Ice Ages, 2:5 Iconography, 2:184-86 Idrimi, statue of, 3:5-6 Iliad, 2:140, 141, 3:121, 4:5, 132 Ilion/Illium. See Troy Imdugud, 1:47, 119 Imhotep, 2:130, 4:20 Immortals (Persian army troops), 1:74-75 Inanna, 2:127 Inar, 2:129 Inara, 2:129 Incantations, 3:68, 69 Incense, 2:186-87 Incubation, 2:41 India Aryans, 1:81 number systems of, 3:148-49 Indo-Aryan language, 2:188 Indo-European languages, 2:187-88, 3:48-49 Indo-Iranian languages, 2:188 Indra, 2:129 Inheritance family and social customs about, 2:88-89 laws concerning, 3:52-54, 4:164 of priesthood, 4:13 property rights and, 4:17 in Scythia, 4:62 Inscriptions, 3:1-6 alphabet contributions from, 1:28 Anatolian, 3:5

Assyrian conquests described in, 1:83 at Azatiwadiya, 3:135 in Bahrain, 1:113 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17 bilingual, for decipherment, 2:33 on clay tablets, 2:2 (illus.) Egyptian, 3:4 format of, 3:1-2 as historical records, 2:163-65 HymntoAten, 1:97 Iranian, 3:4-5 from the Levant, 3:5-6 as literature, 3:60 materials and methods for, 3:2 Mesopotamian, 3:2-4 pillar of Xanthus, 3:5 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 royal, 1:164-65,2:2,3 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4 types of, 3:1 Insect plagues, 2:38 Inshushinak, 2:130 The Instruction ofAmenemope, 4:18 Instructions ofShuruppak, 4:18 Instruments, musical, 3:120-21 Investment, in trading missions, 3:93 Iran, 3:6-8 Achaemenid dynasty, 2:45 afterlife beliefs in, 1:6 AliKosh, 3:173 animals in art of, 1:45-46 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:62-63 Aryans in, 1:80-81, 3:7, 106 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17 building materials in, 1:127 burial sites and tombs in, 1:131 climate of, 2:120 clothing of, 2:8-9 domesticated animals in, 1:42 dynasties of, 2:45 early inhabitants of, 3:173 Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70 Elamites, 2:81 ethnic and language groups in, 2:81-82 family and social life in, 2:88 geography of, 2:120, 3:6 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:33-34 government of, 2:138 health in, 2:153 history of, 3:6-7 houses in, 2:174 Manneans, 3:6-7 Medes, 2:82, 3:7, 3:80-83 mining in, 3:108 mythology of, 3:126 nomads in, 3:143, 145 (illus.) Persian Empire, 2:82, 3:7, 3:171-76 religions of, 3:7-8, 4:33-34 sculpture of, 4:59 social institutions in, 4:90-91 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9

Index theology of, 4:122 trade in, 3:8 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:164 Iraq, archaeological work in, 1:60 Iron, 3:102-3, 108-9 Iron Age, 1:166,3:103 human form in art of, 2:177 Khatti in, 3:30 Irrigation, 3:8-11 canals for, 1:140-42 Euphrates River for, 2:84-85 at Lagash, 3:44 from Nile River, 3:138 quanat system, 3:11 Isaac, 3:167 Isaiah, 3:12 Ishkur, 2:127, 128. See also Adad Ishtar, 1:21, 2:127, 3:12. See also Astarte in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Gate of Babylon dedicated to, 1:101 walking bird as representing, 1:119 Isis, 2:128, 3:13 in art, 1:119 childbirth and, 1:162 Cleopatra in guise of, 2:4 (illus.) in creation myths, 2:14 Horus and, 2:171-72 references to, 3:125 Israel and Judah, 3:13-16. See also Hebrews and Israelites Ahab, 1:11-12 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Queen Athaliah, 1:98 Baal cult and, 1:99 burial practices in, 1:132 children in, 1:164 clothing of, 2:8 cosmetics in, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:15 David, 2:28-29 geography of, 2:121 gods worshipped by, 2:130 history of, 3:15-16 hymns of, 2:183 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 location of, 3:14 (map) mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Omri, 1:11-12 palaces of, 3:161 patriarchs and matriarchs of, 3:166-68 Philistines and, 3:182-83 prophets and prophecies of, 3:156-57 queens of, 4:25-26 revolt against Babylon by, 3:132 Samaria, 4:44-45 Solomon, 4:93-94 temples in, 3:163 tribes of, 3:15 Italic languages, 2:188 Itjtawy, 3:58 Ivory, 3:16-17, 3:89 (illus.)

]

Jacob, 3:167 Jarmo, 2:172 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 burial practices in, 1:132 history of, 3:15-16 Nebuchadnezzar's destruction of, 3:132 and Samaria, 4:44 Jewelry, 3:20-23. See also Amulets and charms at gatal Hiiyuk, 1:148 gems in, 2:114-16 lapis lazuli for, 3:50-51 metals for, 3:102 obsidian for, 3:150 as tax payment, 4:115 Jezebel, 1:12, 4:44 Jordan, archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Jordan River, 2:121 Joseph, 3:167-68 Judah. See Israel and Judah Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28. See also Bible, Hebrew and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 King David, 2:28-29 demons and, 2:37 deportation of, 3:107 Diaspora, 3:25 exile of Jews, 3:25-26 in Hellenistic period, 3:26-27 Holy Land of, 3:13 intermarriage, 3:26 Isaiah, 3:12 Jeremiah, 3:17 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 mathematics of, 3:78 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 rabbis, 3:27-28 Samaritan sect of, 4:45 Talmud, 3:27-28 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 theologies of, 4:123 Torah, 4:127 Yahweh, 4:173-74 Judicial systems, 3:51-54

K

Kalkhu, 3:28, 4:24 Kamose, 2:183, 3:4 Kanesh, 3:92 Karkamish, 3:28-29, 3:93 Karnak, 3:29, 3:163, 135 Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30 Babylonia and, 1:100, 104-5 Babylonian and, 3:96 chronicles of, 1:165

dynasty of, 2:44 and Elamites, 2:68-69 human form in art of, 2:178 land grants by, 3:46 language of, 3:49 migration of, 3:105 Kenyon, Kathleen, 1:64, 3:18-19 Khabiru, 2:158 Khabur River, 4:39 Khafre, 4:21 Khatti, 3:30, 4:24-25 Khattusha, 3:31 art depicting animals in, 1:46 monuments at, 1:70 reign of, 2:167 Khattushili I, 3:31-32, 3:60 Khattushili III, 2:168, 3:32, 3:60 Khepat, 2:129, 3:33 Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.) Khufu, 3:33-34, 4:21, 22 (illus.) Khumban, 2:130 King lists, 2:44, 3:34-35 (illus.) Great Flood in, 2:97 as literature, 3:60 Sumerian, 2:76 Kings, 3:35-38. See also Dynasties; Pharaohs Achaemenes (Persia), 3:171 Adad-nirari (Assyria), 1:86, 87 Adad-nirari III (Assyria), 1:88 Addu-yisci (Aramaean), 4:113 (illus.) Ahab (Israel), 3:15 Ahmose (Egypt), 1:12-13 Alexander IV (Macedonia), 1:26 Alexander the Great (Macedonia), 1:23-27 Alyattes (Lydia), 3:65 Amenemhet III (Egypt), 3:36 Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia), 3:67 Arsaces I (Parthia), 3:166 Arses (Persia), 3:174 Artabanus II (Parthia), 3:166 art and, 1:76, 2:184-85 Artaxerxes I, II and HI (Persia), 1:79-80, 3:173-74 Ashurbanipal (Assyria), 1:82-83 Ashurbanipal II (Assyria), 1:83-84 Ashurnasirpal II (Assyria), 1:86 (illus.), 87 Ashur-uballit (Assyria), 1:85 Cambyses II (Persia), 1:136, 3:172-74 as chief priests, 3:161 Croesus (Lydia), 3:65-66 Cyaxares (Media), 3:81 Cyrus the Great (Persia), 2:23-24, 3:172 Darius I and Darius III (Persia), 2:10 (illus.), 2:27, 3:173, 174 Darius II (Persia), 3:173 David (Israel), 2:28-29 Deioces (Media), 3:81 Djoser (Egypt), 2:40 Egyptian, 2:164 Egyptian titles for, 3:36

203

Index Enmerkar (Uruk), 2:19-20 Esarhaddon (Assyria), 2:77 funerary offerings to, 3:151 Great Kings, 2:132-33 in Greece, 2:141 Hammurabi (Babylon), 1:104, 2:147-48 hierarchy among, 3:37 Hittite, 2:168 hunting and, 2:179 inscriptions by, 1:164-65, 3:1-3, 5 Kamose (Egypt), 3:4 Kamose (Thebes), 2:183 Khattushili I (Hittites), 3:31-32 Khattushili III (Hittites), 3:32 Khufu (Egypt), 3:33-34 killed by cylinder seals, 4:66 lion hunting by, 3:57 in literature, 3:60 Manishtushu (Akkad), 1:18 Merenre II (Egypt), 3:141 Midas (Phrygia), 4:1 Minos (Crete), 3:109, 111 Mithradates (Parthia), 3:166 Murshili II and III (Hittites), 3:32 Nabonidus (Babylonia), 3:126-27 Nabopolassar (Babylonia), 3:127 Naram-Sin (Akkad), 3:129-30 Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonia), 3:131-32 offerings to gods by, 3:151 Omri (Israel), 3:15 palaces of, 3:158 Perdikkas I (Macedonia), 3:67 of Persian Empire, 3:171-74 Philip III (Macedonia), 1:26 Philip II (Macedonia), 1:23, 3:67 Phraortes (Media), 3:81 Piye (Kushite), 3:147 polygamy of, 4:5 privileges of, 3:36 (illus.) Ptolemy I (Egypt), 4:19-20 pyramids built by, 4:20-21 Ramses II (Egypt), 4:26-27 Ramses III (Egypt), 4:27 Rimush (Akkad), 1:18 rise of, 3:35-36 roles and responsibilities of, 3:36-37, 174 royal compounds of, 1:53 Samsu-iluna (Babylonia), 4:46 Sargon I (Akkad), 4:48-49 Sargon II (Assyria), 4:49-50 in sculpture, 4:56-59 Sennacherib (Assyria), 3:139-40, 4:73-74 Seqenenre II (Thebes), 2:183 Shalmaneser I (Assyria), 1:86 Shalmaneser III (Assyria), 4:77 Shalmaneser V (Assyria), 4:77-78 Shamshi-Adad I (Assyria), 4:78 Shamshi-Adad V (Assyria), 1:88 Shar-kali-sharri (Akkad), 1:19 Shoshenq I (Egypt), 3:57 Shulgi (Ur), 4:82-83 Shuppiluliuma I (Hittites), 4:83-84

204

Sin-muballit (Babylon), 1:104 Solomon (Israel), 4:93-94 substitute kings, 4:36 and succession to throne, 3:37 Sumerian, 2:134 Sumu-abum (Babylon), 1:100, 103 symbols of, 3:37 of TaSety, 3:146 Telipinu (Hittites), 2:43 Tiglath-pileser I (Assyria), 1:86-87 Tiglath-pileser III (Assyria), 4:124 tombs of, 1:129-30 Tukulti-Ninurta I (Assyria), 1:86 Ur-Nammu (Ur), 4:139 Xerxes II (Persia), 3:173 Xerxes (Persia), 3:173, 4:172-73 Zimri-Lim (Mari), 4:176-77 Kish, 1:17, 3:38 Kiya, 4:25 (illus.) Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:122 Kohl, 2:12 Koldewey, Robert, 1:63 Korte Brothers, 1:61 Kubaba, 2:129 Kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.)t 108, 119, 3:30 Kullaba,4:141 Kumarbi, 2:129, 3:39, 3:126 Kura-Araxes, 1:151 Kurgans, 1:151 Kush and Meroe, 3:39-41 Kushukh, 2:129

L

Labor and laborers, 3:41-44 animals for, 1:44 cattle as, 1:150 corvee (forced labor), 3:168 farmworkers, 1:7 (illus.)f 10-11 forced laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 free laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 for ilku (tax), 4:115 landowners' use of, 3:45 peasants, 3:168-69 for pyramids, 4:23 semifree laborers, 3:41, 45 servants, 4:74-76 slaves, 3:41, 45, 4:85-88 used by Solomon, 4:94 wages of, 3:41-42 work done by, 4:168-69 Lagash, 3:44 Gudea, 2:143 Ummaand, 4:137 Lamashtu, 2:36, 37 (illus.) on amulets, 1:34 childbirth and, 1:162 and pregnancy, 4:13 rituals against, 3:68 Lamellae, 1:34 Land use and ownership, 3:44-47 inheritance laws and, 3:52, 53 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 taxes on, 4:116 value of, 1:11

Language(s), 3:47-50. See also Ethnic and language groups; Writing Afro-Asiatic family of, 3:47-48 Akkadian, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 3:47 alphabets, 1:27-30 Anatolian, 3:48 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 109, 3:49 Assyrian, 1:85 Avestan, 3:48-39 Babylonian, 1:109 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16 Canaan, 1:139 Carian, 1:145 Coptic, 2:34 decipherment of, 2:33-36, 3:49-50 Egyptian, 2:64-65 Elamite, 2:34, 36, 3:49 Greek, 2:139, 3:48, 49 Hamitic, 2:146-47, 3:48 Hattic, 3:49 Hebrew, 2:157 Human, 2:180, 3:49 Indo-European languages, 2:187-88, 3:48-49 Israelite, 2:157, 3:27 Kassite, 3:49 Khatti, 3:30 Koine Greek, 2:139 Kushite, 3:40 learning of, 2:55 Linear A and B, 2:36 "love" in, 3:61 Luwian, 2:36, 3:62, 136 Lycian, 3:63 major families of, 3:47-49 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 Old Persian, 2:34, 3:48-39 outside major families, 3:49 Palmyrene, 2:33 of Persian Empire, 3:176 Phrygian, 4:1 Rosetta Stone and, 3:50 Semitic languages, 3:47-48, 4:72-73 Sumerian, 1:109, 3:49, 4:105-7 Ugaritic, 2:35-36 Lapis lazuli, 3:50-51, 3:90 Larsa, 2:147 Late Bronze Age, 4:63, 64 Law(s), 3:51-54. See also Edicts Code of Hammurabi, 2:148-49 codes of, 3:51 Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52 Codes of Shulgi, 3:52 contracts and, 3:51 Covenant Code, 3:53 edicts as, 2:53-54 of Eshnunna, 3:52, 73 (illus.) in Hebrew Bible, 3:53 of Hittites, 2:168, 3:42, 43 inheritance, 3:52-54 judicial system, 3:51 kings as source of, 3:36 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 ordeals, 3:52 in Persian Empire, 3:175

Index property rights in, 4:16 Ten Commandments, 3:53 on wages, 3:42, 43 against witchcraft, 4:160 Layard, Austen Henry, 1:60, 63 Lead, mining of, 3:109 Leah, 3:167 Lebanon, geography of, 2:121 Lebanon Mountains, 2:121 Legends Atlantis, 2:38, 46 flood legends, 2:97 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 Mycenaeans in, 3:121 Naram-Sin in, 3:130 netherworld in, 1:5 of Scythian origins, 4:61 Semiramis, 4:70 of Ubar's destruction, 1:63 Length, measurement of, 3:78-79 Lepsius, Carl Richard, 1:121, 2:35 Letters Amarna letters, 1:31 to the dead, 1:4,2:41 to the gods, 2:163 between kings, 2:137 the Levant agriculture in, 1:8-9 alphabet contributions from, 1:28 Amorites, 1:32-33 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:61-62 architecture in, 1:68-70 building materials in, 1:126 burial sites and tombs in, 1:131-32 Canaan, 1:137-40 cereal grains in, 1:155 chariots in, 1:160 chronicles of, 1:165 cities in, 1:174 climate of, 2:6, 120 clothing of, 2:8 creation myths of, 2:15 dance in, 2:26 death and burial in, 2:32-33 dynasties of, 2:45 entertainment in, 2:71-73 farming in, 1:155, 3:11 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 fortifications in, 2:105 furnishings in, 2:108 geography of, 2:120-21 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 government of, 2:137-38 houses in, 2:174-75 human form in art of, 2:177 labor and laborers in, 3:43-44 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages in, 3:47 law in, 3:53 magic used in, 3:69 medicine in, 3:87 Megiddo, 3:89-90 mythology in, 3:125-26 Philistines, 3:181-84 religions of, 4:34

sculpture of, 4:59 Semites in, 4:71 temples in, 3:163 women's role in, 4:164 Libraries and archives, 3:54-56. See also Books and manuscripts at archaeological sites, 3:158 at Nineveh, 1:83,3:140 Libyan Desert, 2:120 Libyans, 2:80-81, 3:56-57 Life expectancy, 2:154 Limmu lists, 1:169-70 Linear A and B, 2:16, 36 Lions, 1:39 in art, 1:46,3:57-58 on Babylon's Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:149 statuette of, 3:150 (illus.) Lisht, 3:58 Literature, 3:58-61. See also Libraries and archives in Aramaic, 1:53 authorship, 3:59 autobiographies, 3:60 Babylonian, 1:110-11 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 books and manuscripts, 1:121-23 Canaanite, and Hebrew Bible, 1:138 education in, 2:55 of Egypt, 2:65 epic literature, 2:75-76 Gilgamesh in, 2:121-23 of Greece, 2:142 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 of Hittites, 2:170 humor in, 2:178, 3:60 lions in, 3:57 myths in, 3:124 and oral tradition, 3:58 papyrus rolls for, 3:165 poetry, 3:58-60, 4:4-5 The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 prose, 3:60-61 protest, 3:59 proverbs, 4:17-18 Proverbs ofAhiquar, 1:53 Sumerian, 4:105 titles of, 3:59 Lloyd, Seton, 1:63 Logographic writing, 4:170 Looms, 4:119 Looting, 1:127-28 Lord of Abundance (Adad), 1:2-3 Love, 3:61 Lugalbanda, 4:5 Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, 2:75 Lugalbanda in Khunumkurra, 2:76 Lugalzagesi, 1:17 Lukka, 4:63 Lunar theory, 3:62 Lutes, 3:120 Luwians, 3:62 inscriptions by, 3:5 language of, 2:36, 188

Luxor, 2:62 (illus.), 3:63 Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65 burial practices of, 1:131 coins of, 3:63 (illus.) family and social life of, 2:87 inscriptions by, 3:5 Lycian League in, 3:63 Lycian League, 3:63 Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67 burial practices of, 1:131 Cyrus the Great's defeat of, 2:23 money in, 3:113 Sardis, 4:47-48 Lyres, 3:120

M

Macedonia, 3:67 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27 Babylonian conquests of, 1:107 cavalry in, 1:152 Greece and, 2:141 Judahin, 3:16 King Philip II, 1:23 Magan, 3:153 Magi, 4:179 Magic, 3:68-69 amulets and charms, 1:34-35 analogic magic, 3:68 ashipu (experts), 3:69 and capital punishment, 1:143 contact magic, 3:68 Ea and, 2:45 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 magicians vs. wizards/sorcerers/witches, 3:69 and medicine, 3:85 Metternich Stela and, 4:160 (illus.) necromancy, 3:69 numbers significant in, 3:149 oracles and prophesy, 3:154 during pregnancy, 4:12, 13 white vs. black, 3:68 witchcraft, 4:159-61 Makeup. See Cosmetics Mallowan, Max, 1:63 Mammals, 1:40 Manetho, 2:164 Egyptian history by, 2:57 and Hyksos takeover of Egypt, 2:182 onNitokris, 3:141 Manishtushu, 1:18, 20 Manneans, 3:6-7 Maps and mapping, 3:69-70 (illus.), 4:52 Babylonia, maps from, 3:70 (illus.) clay tablets, maps on, 3:69-70 Egypt, maps from, 3:70 Greece, maps from, 3:70 measurements on maps, 3:70 Mesopotamia, maps from, 3:69-70 as occupation, 3:69, 70 by Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius), 3:70

205

Index star maps, 1:97 underworld "maps," 3:4 Maracanda, 1:25, 154 Marduk, 1:90, 2:128, 3:71 animals depicting, 1:47 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110, 3:114 in creation myths, 2:14, 15 in Enuma Elish, 1:110, 3:125 temple of, 1:101 Margiana, 1:153 Mari, 3:71-72 Amoritesin, 1:33 Hammurabi's war against, 2:147-48 palace at, 3:159 prophecies from, 3:156 Zimri-Lim, 4:176-77 Markets, 3:72-73 Marmara, Sea of, 1:3 Marriage, 3:74-75. See also Divorce; Family and social life adultery and, 2:117 in Assyria, 1:92 Cleopatra's, 2:4 and continuation of dynasties, 2:43-44, 3:180 in Egypt, 1:164,3:180 and ghosts of the unmarried, 2:37 of gods and goddesses, 2:167 (illus.) legitimacy of, 2:89 polygamy, 4:5-6 pregnancy and, 4:12 slavery and, 4:87 and "son of the sister/' 2:67 Mastabas at Lisht, 3:58 locations of, 4:21 (map) in pyramid construction, 1:126 religious significance of shapes, 4:20 on tombs, 1:129 Matar, 4:3 Mathematics, 3:76-78 astronomical predictions from, 3:62 and body proportions in art, 2:177 (illus.) development of, 4:52-53 education in, 2:55 numbers and numerals, 3:148-49 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 (illus.), 77 Matriarchs. See Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel Matthiae, Paolo, 2:47 Mausolus, 1:146 Meander River, 4:39 Measurement(s), 3:78-80 chronology, 1:166-70 gur (Akkadian), 1:20 on maps, 3:70 tools for, 4:126 Meat, 2:102 Medes, 2:82, 3:80^83 (illus.) cavalry in, 1:152 migration of, 3:106 Persia and, 3:171-72 settlement of, 3:7

206

Medicine, 3:83-87 in Anatolia, 3:86-87 in Bible, 3:87 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 education for, 2:55 in Egypt, 3:85-86 incense as, 2:187 in Iran, 3:86 in the Levant, 3:87 and magic, 3:68, 69 in Mesopotamia, 3:83-85 myths for healing, 3:126 practice of, 4:54 tools for, 4:127 white magic and, 4:159 Mediterranean Sea climate and, 2:6 Crete, 2:15-17 Cyprus, 2:22-23 earthquake belt in, 2:46 harbors on, 2:151 Sardinia, 4:46-47 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade on, 3:87-89, 4:128 Medjay, 3:53 Megiddo, 3:89-90 battle at, 4:150 roads in, 4:40 water tunnels in, 4:154 Melukkha, 3:90,3:153 Memphis, 2:14, 3:90-91 Memphite Theology, 4:122 Menes, 2:133 Menkaure, 4:21 Merchants, 3:91-93 dangers facing, 3:93 as diplomats, 2:49 independent vs. agents, 2:50 Lydian retail trade and, 3:66 and nomadic trade routes, 3:144 taxes paid by, 4:116 travel by, 4:130 Merenre II, King, 3:141 Merodach-Baladan, 1:159 Meroe, 3:39-41, 3:147 Mersa Gawasis, 2:150 Mesopotamia, 3:93-98 afterlife beliefs in, 1:5 agriculture in, 1:9 Anu, 1:48 archaeology and archaeologists in, 1:60 architecture of. See Mesopotamian art and architecture archives and libraries in, 3:54, 55 armies in, 1:71-72,4:91 art of. See Mesopotamian art and architecture Aryans in, 1:81 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130 calendars in, 1:133-34 canals in, 1:140-41 cereal grains in, 1:155 chariots in, 1:160 childbirth in, 1:162 children in, 1:163

chronicles of, 1:164-65 chronology of, 1:169-70 cities and city-states in. See Mesopotamian cities, towns, and city-states clay tablets, 2:3 climate of, 2:6, 118 clothing of, 2:6-7 cosmetics used in, 2:12, 13 creation myths in, 2:14, 15 dance in, 2:24-25 death and burial in, 2:29-30 divination in, 3:155 divorce in, 2:39 domesticated animals in, 1:42 dynasties in, 2:44 education in, 2:54-55 epic literature in, 2:75-76 ethnic groups in. See Mesopotamian ethnic and language groups family and social life in, 2:86, 89 famine in, 2:90 farming in, 1:155 feasts and festivals in, 2:91-92 flooding in, 2:98 funerary offerings in, 3:151 furnishings in, 2:108 gardens of, 2:113 geography of, 2:118, 3:94-95 gods and goddesses of, 2:127-28, 4:31-32 government of, 2:131-33 hairstyles in, 2:144, 145 harbors of, 2:150 health in, 2:153, 154 houses in, 2:172-73 irrigation in, 3:9-10 Ishtar, 3:12 king lists of, 3:34-35 labor and laborers in, 3:42 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages in, 3:47-48 law in, 3:51-52 literature in, 3:59 location of, 3:94 (map) maps from, 3:69-70 marriage in, 3:74 measurement in, 3:78-80 medicine in, 3:83-85 merchants in, 3:91 money in, 3:113 monotheism in, 3:114 mythology in, 3:125 naming in, 3:128 nomads in, 3:143 numbers significant in, 3:149 omens in, 3:153-54 (illus.) palaces in, 3:158-60 peasants in, 3:169 poetry of, 4:5 polygamy in, 4:6 prayers of, 4:11-12 priests in, 4:13, 14 religions of, 4:31-32 roads in, 4:40 salt deposits in, 2:38-39

Index schools in, 4:51 science of, 4:52-54 scribal education in, 4:54-55 sculpture of, 4:56-58 secular rituals in, 4:36-37 Semites in, 4:70-71 servants in, 4:74-75 Shamshi-Adad I and, 4:78 slaves in, 4:86 social institutions in, 4:88 Susianaand, 4:108 temple rituals in, 3:151 temples in, 3:162 textile industry in, 4:120 theology of, 4:122 trade in, 2:50, 52, 4:128 wine from, 4:158-59 women's role in, 4:161-62 Mesopotamian art and architecture architecture, 1:64-65 art, 1:78-79, 119 building materials in, 1:124-25 depicting animals, 1:45-48 faience of, 2:85 human form in, 2:177 wall paintings in, 4:147 Mesopotamian cities, towns, and citystates, 1:171-73 Babylon, 1:100-102 Eridu, 2:76-77 Kalkhu, 3:28 Mari, 3:71-72 Nippur, 3:140 Nuzi, 3:149-50 origins of, 3:95 Umma, 4:137 Ur, 4:137-39 Mesopotamian ethnic and language groups, 2:78-79, 3:95 Akkadians, 1:16-22, 2:79, 3:96 Amorites, 1:32-33, 3:96, 105 Aramaeans, 1:51-54, 3:97, 106 Assyrians, 1:84-93, 2:79, 3:97-98, 106-7 Babylonians, 1:102-11, 2:79, 3:96-98 Chaldeans, 1:157-59 Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81, 3:105 Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30, 3:105 migration of, 3:105 Sumerians, 2:78-79, 3:96, 4:100-105 Messengers, 2:10 (illus.), 3:99 cavalry as relayers of, 1:152 classes of, 3:99 communication and, 2:9, 10 travel by, 4:130 Metallurgy, 3:100-101 Metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 of Achaemenid dynasty, 3:170 (illus.) in Anatolia, 1:38,39 bronze, 3:101 casting, 3:103 in the Caucasus, 1:151 in Central Asia, 1:154

copper, 3:101 development of, 4:53-54 gold, 3:102 hammering, 3:100, 103 iron, 3:102-3 as item of exchange, 2:53 for jewelry, 3:21 local traditions, 3:104 in Lydia, 3:66 metallurgy, 3:100-101 mining, 3:107-9 Minoan, 2:16 Phrygians and, 4:1-2 (illus.) Scythian, 4:62 silver, 3:102 smiths (metalworkers), 3:103 tin, 3:101 tools, metal, 4:126 (illus.) Midas, 4:1 Migration, 3:104-6. See also Nomads and nomadism of Aramaeans to Mesopotamia, 3:97 drought as cause of, 2:42 forced (deportation), 3:106-7 of Gutians to Mesopotamia, 3:105 horizontal, 3:144 of Hurrians, 2:180-81 large-scale, 3:105 names and study of, 3:129 nomadic, 3:144 prehistoric, 4:111 of Scythians, 4:60 vertical, 3:144 Military. See Wars and warfare Military tactics, 4:152-53 Mining, 3:107-9, 3:153 Minoan civilization, 2:16-17, 3:109-12 in Aegean Sea area, 1:3 destruction of, 4:145 human form in art of, 2:178 navy of, 3:130 palace at Knosses, 2:16, 3:39 Minos, 3:109, 111 Missiles, 4:155 Mitanni Ashur's dominion by, 1:85 establishment of, 3:97 kingdom of, 2:181 names in, 1:81 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 Mithra, 2:129, 130 Mithradates, 3:166 Moabite language, 4:72 Moats, 1:175, 2:105 Money, 3:112-13 barter and, 3:112 cereal grains as, 1:154, 157 coins, 2:53, 142, 3:63 (illus.), 112 (illus.), 3:113 definition of, 3:112 Lydian, and trade, 3:66 origin of, 2:53 and price of goods, 3:73 (illus.) tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) trade and, 2:142 Monotheism, 3:113-14

Months. See Calendars Moon cycles of, and calendars, 1:133, 134 lunar theory, 3:62 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Moses, 3:116-17,4:116 Mot, 1:6, 99, 2:130 Mountains Anti-Lebanon, 2:120 Caucasus, 1:150-51 Elburz, 2:120 Lebanon, 2:121 Mount Ararat, 2:119 Mount Carmel, 2:121 Mount Sinai, 4:84-85 Omani, 3:153 Taurus, 2:119 Zagros, 2:120 Mud for building, 1:124, 125 Mules, 1:44 Mummies, 3:117-19 (illus.) amulets in wrappings of, 1:34 of cats, 1:149 (illus.) information from examination of, 2:153 Mutnodjmet, 1:162 perfumes for, 3:170 process of creating, 2:30 rituals involving, 2:30 Murshilil, 2:167 Murshili II, 2:167-68, 3:32 Murshili III, 3:32 Music and musical instruments, 3:119-21 in education, 2:55 hymns, 2:183 psalms, 4:18-19 Mutnodjmet, Queen, 1:162 Muwattalli II, 2:168 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans, 3:121-23 in Crete, 3:111 history of, 2:139 navy of, 3:130 Myrrh, 2:186, 187 Mythology, 3:123-26 (illus.). See also Creation myths; Gods and goddesses about Ishtar, 3:12 Adadin, 1:2 Anatolian, 3:126 Baal cycle, 1:98, 1:99, 3:60, 125 Babylonian, 1:110-11 blacksmiths in, 3:103 Canaanite, 3:125-26 drought in, 2:42-43 Egyptian, 2:128, 3:125 El in, 2:66 EnkiandNinmakh, 1:110, 3:125 Enlill in, 2:70 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 Etanain, 1:119 famine in, 2:91 fish in, 2:96 of good vs. evil, 1:13 Greek, 2:142

207

Index Hittite, 2:170 horses in, 2:171 Iranian, 3:126 Isis and Osiris, 3:125 Israelite, 3:125-26 King Minos in, 3:111 Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39, 4:117-18 of the Levant, 3:125-26 lions as symbols in, 3:58 Macedonians in, 3:67 Mardukin, 3:71 Mesopotamian, 3:125 Minotaur in, 3:111 netherworld in, 1:5 Osiris and Isis, 3:157 Poseidon in, 3:111 role of, 3:124-25 sphinx in, 4:94 theology in, 4:122-23 Theseus in, 3:111

N

Nabateans, 1:51 Nabonidus, 3:126-27 and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 Neo-Babylonian empire under, 1:103 (map) reign of, 1:106 Nabopolassar, 3:127 and arranged marriages, 3:74 ethnicity of, 1:159 reign of, 1:106 Names, personal, 3:128-29 in Babylonia, 1:110 of Chaldeans, 1:158 given to babies, 1:162 Namma, 2:127 Nanna. See Sin (god) Naram-Sin, 3:129-30 and Enlil's temple, 1:21 government under, 2:132 inscriptions about, 3:2 reign of, 1:18 in Sargon's dynasty, 2:44 victory stela of, 1:17 (illus.), 21 Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Narunde, 2:130 Natural disasters, 2:37-39 Natwatwa twins, 2:129 Naval power, 3:130-31 of Assyrians, 4:152 in Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Navigation, 3:88 Neanderthal peoples, 4:111 Nearchus, 1:25 Nebayot tribe, 1:49 Nebuchadnezzar I, 1:105 Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32 and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50 rebuilding by, 1:100 reign of, 1:106 Necho II, 3:132-33 Necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160

208

Necropolises, 1:128 Nefernefruaten, Queen, 1:15 Nefertari, Queen, 1:1, 2:111 (illus.), 4:144 Nefertiti, Queen, 1:15, 3:133-34 (illus.) Nefrusobek, 3:37 Negahban, Ezat, 1:131 Negev Desert, 2:121 Nehemiah, 2:84, 3:26 Nemrik,2:172 Neo-Assyrian empire, 2:133, 4:40 Neo-Babylonians, 3:159 Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 Neolithic period gatalHiiyuk, 1:148-49 economy in, 2:49 Transcaucasia, 1:151 Nephthys, 2:128 Nergal. See Erra Nerik, 2:129 Netherworld, 1:5 Nile River, 2:56-57, 118-19, 3:137-38, 4:38-39 archaeological sites along, 1:59 farming along, 1:9-10 flooding of, 1:10, 141-42, 2:38, 42, 74,97-100,4:153-54 and irrigation, 2:61-62, 3:10-11 as Nubian trade route, 3:145 Opet festival at flooding of, 3:63 shipping routes on, 4:79 Nineveh, 3:139-40 library in, 1:83 roads in, 4:40 Sennacherib and, 4:74 Ninkhursag, 1:110 Nintu, 4:13 Ninurta, 2:127, 3:124 (illus.), 159 Nippur, 3:140 magic in, 3:68 map of, 3:70 orchards and gardens in, 1:175 plan of, 1:171 (illus.) temple Eshumesha at, 3:159 Nitokris, 3:141 Nofret, Lady, 2:12 (illus.) Nomads and nomadism, 3:141-45 Amorites, 1:33 animal husbandry and, 1:43 in Arabia, 1:49 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 in Central Asia, 1:154 pastoral nomadism, 3:104-5, 141 Scythians, 4:61 tent camp archaeological site, 3:142, 143 "norms," 4:121 Nubia and the Nubians, 2:81, 3:145-47 AbuSimbel, 1:1 (illus.) Rush, 3:39-41, 3:146-47 Meroe, 3:39-41 pyramids of, 3:146 (illus.) in the Sudan, 4:100 Taharqa,4:114-15 TaSety, 3:146

Numbers and numerals, 3:148-49 Nut, 2:14 (illus.), US Nuzi, 3:149-50, 4:161

O

Oases, 2:120 Obelisk of Manishtushtu, 1:20 Obsidian, 1:108, 151, 3:150-51 Occupations. See Work Octavian, 2:4 Odyssey, 2:140, 3:121, 4:132 Offerings, 3:151-52 burial, 1:130-32 for the dead, 1:5, 2:29, 3:151-52 food and drink, 4:32, 37 goats for, 2:126 to gods and goddesses, 3:151, 4:33 (illus.) of incense, 2:186 ritual offerings, 4:37 wine as, 4:159 Old Persian language, 2:34, 188, 3:48-39 Old Testament. See Bible, Hebrew Olives, 3:152-53 Oman Peninsula, 1:62, 3:153 Omens, 3:153-54 death omen of Esarhaddon, 1:94-95 and divination, 3:155 eclipses as, 1:94-95 for foretelling future, 1:94, 3:153-54 and medicine, 3:84 natural events as, 1:94, 3:154 weather as, 1:94 Omri, 1:11-12,3:15 Onomastics, 3:129 Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63 Oracles and prophecy, 3:154-57 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117 Isaiah, 3:12 Jeremiah, 3:17 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Oral tradition, 3:58 Ordeals, 3:52 Osiris, 2:128-29, 3:157 in creation myths, 2:14 cult of, and Abydos, 1:1-2 and Ishtar, 3:13 Seth and, 4:76 unrecorded stories of, 3:125

p

Paints, 4:145 Palaces, 3:157-61 art depicting animals in, 1:46 in Assyria, 1:93 bas-reliefs in, 1:114-15 in cities, 1:175-76 of Crete, 2:16, 3:110, 111 at Djoser's burial site, 2:40 in Egypt, 1:66 functions of, 3:157, 158

Index Great Palace of Mari, 3:72 history of, 3:158 in Khattusha, 1:70 at Knosses, 2:16, 3:38-39 in the Levant, 1:68-69 at Megiddo, 3:89 in Mesopotamia, 1:65 Minoan, 2:16 of Mycenaeans, 3:121, 123 in Persia, 1:69 Sennacherib's, 3:139-40 Southern Citadel (Babylon), 1:101 Susa, palace at, 3:176 inUgarit, 1:69 Palaic language, 2:188 Palermo Stone, 2:166 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) Palmyrene language, 2:33 Papsukkal, 1:119 Papyrus, 3:164-65 fromByblos, 1:133 funerary papyrus of Djedkhonsefankh, 2:31 (illus.) harvest of, 3:165 (illus.) parchment in place of, 3:56 rolls, papyrus, 1:122, 3:164-65 Papyrus Anastasi I, 3:77 Parchment, 3:56 Parsa. See Persepolis Parthia and the Parthians, 3:166 Iran and Mesopotamia seized by, 3:143 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 Patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, 3:166-68 Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) Peasants, 3:168-69 as farmworkers, 1:10-11 as laborers, 3:42 Peleset, 4:63 Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41 Pentateuch. See Torah Perdikkas I, 3:67 Perfume(s), 3:169-70 incense as, 2:187 manufacture and uses of, 2:13 wigs and, 2:145 (illus.) Pergamum, parchment used in, 3:56 Perikles, 3:63 Persepolis, 3:170-71 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 archaeological discoveries of, 1:62 art depicting animals in, 1:46 building of, 3:176 palace at, 1:69 Persia and Persian Empire, 2:82, 3:171-76 Achaemenid Dynasty, 3:173-74 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 and Alexander the Great, 1:23-25 Arabs and, 1:51 Aramaic as official language of, 1:52 architecture of, 1:69-70, 3:176 army of, 1:74-75 Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80 art of, 3:176

Aryan origins of, 1:81 Babylonian conquests of, 1:107 Bagoas in, 2:84 building style in, 1:127 Cambyses II, 1:136 capture of Babylon by, 3:127 caravansaries in, 1:144-45 Carianand, 1:145 cavalry in, 1:152 in Central Asia, 1:154 chariots in, 1:161 clothing of, 2:8-9 economy of, 3:175 education in, 2:56 establishment of, 3:7 family and social life of, 2:88 First Persian Empire, 3:172-73 gardens of, 2:113 gods and goddesses of, 2:130 government of, 2:138, 3:174 history of, 3:171-74 human form in art of, 2:178 Judahin, 3:16 Judaism and Jews in, 3:26 king lists of, 3:35 languages of, 3:48, 176, 4:73 law in, 3:54, 175 location of, 3:172 (map) Lycia in, 3:63 Lydia and, 3:65-66 marriage in, 3:75 Medes and, 3:82-83 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 migration of, 3:106 military of, 3:174-75 monotheism in, 3:114 navy of, 3:131 palaces of, 3:161 Persepolis, 3:170-71 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Phoenicians and, 3:186 polygamy in, 4:5 religion of, 3:8, 176 roads of, 4:41 Sardis, 4:47-48 satrapies and satraps, 3:174, 4:50 social institutions of, 4:90-91 trading and merchant activity, 3:93 wall paintings in, 4:148 women's role in, 4:164 Xerxes, 4:172-73 Persian Gulf, trade routes on, 4:128 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78 Petra, 1:62 Petrie, Sir William Matthew Flinders, 1:31, 63 Pharaohs, 3:178-81 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 animals in art of, 1:47 choosing of, 3:180 and co-regencies, 3:180 divine status of, 3:180 Egyptian beliefs about, 3:179-80 Hatshepsut, 2:152, 3:179 information sources about, 3:178-79

Necho II, 3:132-33 role of, 3:179 and Sed-Festival, 3:179-80 Sety I, 4:76-77 symbols of, 3:181 Taharqa, 4:114-15 Thutmose III, 4:124 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 Philip II, 1:23, 2:141, 3:67 Philip III, 1:26 Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84 art of, 3:182 (illus.) government of, 2:137 migration of, 3:106 as Peleset, 4:63 Philosophy, Greek, 2:142 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, 2:83, 3:184-88 aleph-beth, 1:29-30 (illus.) art of, 3:187 Byblos, 1:133 Carthage, 1:146-48 coins, 3:187 (illus.) deportation of, 3:106 economy and trade of, 3:185-87 (map) funerary practices of, 2:32 government of, 2:137 history of, 3:184-86 human form in art of, 2:177 language of, 4:72 merchants in, 3:93 navy of, 3:130-31 (illus.) religion of, 3:187-88 shipping trade of, 3:88, 4:79 Sidon, 4:84 trade of, 4:129 Tyre, 4:134-35 writing of, 3:188 Phraortes, 3:81 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:32 furnishings in, 2:108 Phylactery, 1:34 Pigs, 1:40, 42, 44, 4:3-4 Pillar of Xanthus, 3:5 Pinengir, 2:130 Piye, King, 3:147 Place-value system (mathematics), 3:77 Planets, 1:94, 96, 4:4 Plants for cosmetics, 2:11 date palms, 2:27-28 domestication of, 2:5, 4:110,140 flax, 2:96-97 in gardens, 2:112-13 grown for crops, 1:8 olive groves, 3:152 in Sahara Desert, 4:44 until 6000 B.C., 2:5 Plato, 2:142 Pleistocene epoch, 2:5 Plows, 1:44 Plow Star, 1:96 Plutarch, 1:24, 3:125

209

Index Poetry, 4:4-5. See also Creation myths Baal Cycle, 1:99, 3:60, 125 epic literature, 2:75-76 EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 in Hebrew Bible, 3:59-60 Hittite, 3:60 hymns as, 2:183, 4:5 of Israelites, 2:89, 158 love in, 3:61, 4:5 as style of literature, 3:58-60 in Sumerian language, 3:59 Police forces, 3:53 Politics. See Government(s) Polygamy, 3:75, 4:5-6, 4:62 The Poor Man From Nippur, 3:60 Population, estimating, 1:174 Potassium-argon dating (archaeological), 1:58 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Pottery, 4:6-11 (illus.) Prayer, 4:11-12, 4:36 Pregnancy, 4:12-13 Prehistoric Period, 2:73-74 Prices of goods, 3:73 (illus.) Priests and priestesses, 4:13-16 clothing of, 2:6-7 cosmetics used by, 2:11 cult rituals performed by, 2:18 of Egypt, 4:32 in Elam, 4:33 hierarchies of, 4:90 of Hittites, 4:34 Isaiah, 3:12 kings and queens as, 3:36, 161, 187 and magicians, 3:69 in Mesopotamia, 4:32 omens explained by, 3:153 rituals performed by, 4:36 in Syria, 4:34 Zoroaster, 4:178-80 Primogeniture, 4:17 The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 Propaganda, 1:75, 2:23 Property and property rights, 4:16-17 concerning slaves, 4:86 divorce and, 2:39-40 land use and ownership, 3:44-47 water included in, 4:154 for women, 4:161-62, 164 The Prophecy ofNeferti, 3:156 Prophets and prophecies. See Oracles and prophecy Proverbs, 4:17-18 Proverbs of Ahiquar, 1:53 Psalms, 4:18-19 Psalms of Solomon, 4:19 Ptah, 2:14, 129, 3:90 Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius), 3:70 Ptolemy I, 1:26,4:19-20 Ptolemy's Canon, 3:35 Ptolemy XII, 2:3 Ptolemy XIII, 2:3 Ptolemy XIV, 2:4 Pu-abi, jewelry of, 3:21, 22 (illus.) Punic Wars, 1:147 Punt, expedition to, 2:150-51

210

Purification, ritual, 4:36, 37 (illus.) Pyramid(s), 4:20-23. See also Ziggurats architecture of, 1:66 building of, 1:126, 2:63-64, 4:22-23 design of, 1:66 of Djoser, 2:40 at Giza, 3:33 Great Pyramid at Giza, 1:126, 3:33-34 of Kushites, 3:40, 146 (illus.) laborers for, 3:42 at Lisht, 3:58 location of, 4:21 (map) origin of, 4:20 outfitting of, 3:180 robbery of, 4:20 Step pyramid, 2:130 stones for, 1:125-26 structure of, 4:21 and tomb robbing, 1:129 Pythagoras, 2:142

Q

Qedar tribe, 1:49, 50 (map) QermezDere, 2:172 Queens, 4:23-26 Ahhotep (Egypt), 1:12 Athaliah (Judah), 1:98 Cleopatra (Egypt), 2:3-4 (illus.) Hatshepsut (Egypt), 2:152, 3:179 Hittite, 2:170, 4:163 Mutnodjmet (Egypt), 1:162 Nefernefruaten (Egypt), 1:15 Nefertiti (Egypt), 3:133-34 Nefrusobek (Egypt), 3:37 Nitokris (Egypt), 3:141 Pu-abi (Ur), 3:21, 22 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 Smenkhkare (Egypt), 1:15

R

Ra, 2:128 Rabbis, 3:27-28 Rachel, 3:167 Radio-carbon dating (archaeological), 1:58 Rainfall. See climate Ramman. See Adad Ramses II, 4:26-27 and Abu Simbel temples, 1:1 (illus.) and Khattushili, 3:32 tomb for sons of, 4:144 Ramses III, 4:27 cosmetics and, 2:12 and Sea People, 4:63 Ramses VI, 4:134 Rassam, Hormuzd, 1:63 Rawlinson, Sir Henry Behistun Inscription decipherment by, 1:62, 116 Old Persian decipherment by, 2:34 Re, 2:14

Rebecca, 3:167 Reciprocal economies, 2:49 Record keeping, 4:27-30. See also Libraries and archives by archaeologists, 1:57 of astronomers, 1:96-97 chronicles, 1:164-66 and chronology, 1:168-69 clay tablets for, 2:2-3 of climate, 2:5 education needed for, 2:54 of important events, 2:163 (illus.) influence of, on writing, 4:170 of land use, 3:45 measurement and, 3:78-80 of merchant activities, 3:91, 92 on Sumerian clay tablets, 4:105 of trade, 2:49 Redistributive economies, 2:49-50, 62 Red Sea, 4:30-31 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes on, 4:129 volcanic belt through, 4:144 Reeds for building, 1:124 Rehoboam, 4:94 Rekhmira, 1:77 Relative chronology, 1:166-67 Relative dating (archaeological), 1:57-58 Religion(s), 4:31-34. See also Creation myths; Demons; Gods and goddesses; Rituals; Sacrifice(s); Temple(s); specific religions afterlife beliefs, 1:3-6 Ahriman, 1:13 under Akhenaten (Egypt), 1:14-15 of Akkadians, 1:21 of Aramaeans, 1:54 art, religious, 1:46-48, 2:184-85 (illus.) of Assyrians, 1:92-93 of Babylonia, 1:110,3:140 birds in religious art, 1:118-19 calendars and, 1:134,135 in Canaan, 1:139 in Carthage, 1:147 cats in, 1:149 cosmetics used in, 2:11 cults, 2:18-19 dance and, 2:26 and drought, 2:42 education and, 2:55, 56 of Egypt, 2:63 of Elamites, 2:67 feasts and festivals and, 2:92-93 fish in, 2:96 and government, 2:131, 133, 136-38 of Greece, 2:142 and growth of cities, 1:171-72 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 of Hittites, 2:169-70 horses in, 2:171 in Iran, 3:7-8 and Jerusalem, 3:19 Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28

Index and justice, 4:88 lions as symbols in, 3:58 of Lydia, 3:67 and magicians, 3:69 and medicine, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 of Mesopotamia, 3:97 of Minoan civilization, 3:111 monotheism, 3:113-14 music and, 3:119, 120 of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 numbers significant in, 3:149 offerings in, 3:151 Opet festival, 3:63 oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 in Persian Empire, 3:176 of Philistines, 3:184 of Phoenicians, 3:187-88 prayer, 4:11-12 priests and priestesses, 4:13-16 purposes of art in, 1:76 science and, 4:52 of Scythia, 4:62 and shape of mastabas and pyramids, 4:20 of Sumeria, 3:140, 4:103-4 sun in, 4:107-8 theology, 4:121-23 use of seals in, 4:66 white magic and, 4:159 Zoroastrianism, 4:178-80 Reshef, 2:130 Resurrection, 1:6, 3:157 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 (illus.), 77 Rhodes, 4:35 Rich, Claudius James, 1:55, 60 Rimmon. See Adad Rim-Sin, 2:147 Rimush, 1:18 Rituals anointing with olive oil, 3:152-53 of Aramaeans, 1:54 by cult priests and priestesses, 2:18 Egyptian funerary rituals, 3:68-69 government responsibility for, 2:18 healing, of Jews, 2:37 Hittite funerary practices, 2:31-32 incense in, 2:186 involving mummies, 2:30 magic, 3:68, 69 Mesopotamian death rituals, 2:30 Mesopotamia temple rituals, 3:151 perfumes in, 3:170 prayers as, 4:12 and sacrifice, 4:36-38 at Sed-Festival, 3:179 substitute-king, 2:77, 4:36 against witchcraft, 4:160-61 Rivers, 4:38-39 of Anatolia, 2:120 canals from, 1:140 environmental changes in, 2:74 Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118 flooding of, 4:153-54 Hermos River, 4:47 and irrigation, 3:9

Jordan River, 2:121 land use along, 3:45 in Lebanon, 2:121 Nile River, 2:118-19, 3:137-38 Tigris River, 2:118,4:125 transportation and travel by, 4:130 watercraft using, 4:80 Roads, 4:39-41 economy and trade using, 2:48 (map) landmarks on, 4:131-32 messengers and, 3:99 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 traffic on, 4:130 in Uruk period, 2:48 (map) Robbers, grave. See Grave robbers Rock(s) animals in paintings on, 1:45 obsidian, 3:150-51 temples carved out of, 3:163 Rome and the Roman Empire artistic influences of, 4:148 and Carthage, 1:147-48 Cleopatra and Caesar's marriage, 2:4 and Jews, 3:27 andjudah, 3:16 Lycia and, 3:63 Macedonian Wars with, 3:67 Phoenicians and, 3:186 Rosetta Stone, 1:59, 2:34, 162, 3:50, 4:41-43 (illus.) Royal bodyguards, 4:92 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102 (illus.) Royal messengers, 3:99 Royal orders (misharu), 1:107 Royal Standard of Ur, 1:71, 72 (illus.), 2:93 (illus.) Rugs, 4:118 Rulers. See Governors and rulers Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.)

s

Sacrifice(s), 4:37-38 blood, as part of worship, 3:151 of cattle, 1:150 of children, 1:147,3:188 goats for, 2:126 to gods, 4:33 (illus.) human, 3:151, 4:38 of white horses, 2:171 Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 Sahr, 1:54 Saka, 1:154 battle armor of, 4:157 death and burial in, 2:33 Samaria, 1:12, 3:15, 4:44-45 Samaritans, 4:45 Samarkand, 1:25, 154 Samsu-iluna, 4:46 Sanitation, 2:154 Santorini. See Thera Saoshyant, 4:180 Sarah, 3:166-67 Sarcophagi, 1:132, 4:84

Sardinia, 4:46-47 Sardis, 3:65, 4:47-48 Sargon I, 4:48-49 Akkad's creation by, 1:16 army of, 1:72 dynasty established by, 2:44 government under, 2:132 inscriptions about, 3:2 rule of, 1:17-18 Sargon II, 2:135 (illus.)f 4:49-50 appeal to god by, 1:92 Khorsabad citadel of, 3:160 (illus.) palace of, 1:65, 3:159,160 (illus.) reign of, 1:89 relief from palace of, 2:51 (illus.) Satrapies and satraps, 4:50 Parthia as, 3:166 of Persian Empire, 3:174 Sayings ofAhiquar, 4:18 Scarabs, 1:34, 2:116 Schaeffer, Claude, 1:64 Schliemann, Heinrich Mycenaean work by, 3:123 search for Homer's epic sites by, 3:122 Troy identified by, 1:61, 4:132 Schools, 2:54, 4:50-52 Science and technology, 4:52-54 astronomy, 1:95-97 in Babylonia, 1:111 cartography as, 3:70 in Greece, 2:142 mapping, 4:52 mathematics, 3:76-78 metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 mining, 3:107-9 wheel, 4:157-58 Scribes, 4:54-56 academy for, at Nippur, 3:140 cuneiform use by, 2:19, 20 education of, 2:54, 55 Israelite, 2:157 in Judaism, 3:26 matrology (measurement) learned by, 3:78 names of, 3:128 numerals used by, 3:149 parchment used by, 1:122-23 schools headed by, 4:51 science as province of, 4:52 symbols invented by, 4:171 tools of, 4:126,171 writing on clay tablets by, 2:1-3 Sculpture, 4:56-59 Anatin, 1:35 bas-reliefs, 1:113-15 Behistun Inscription, 4:59 bronze head, Akkadian, 1:21 (illus.) Egyptian, 1:77-78, 2:64 Great Sphinx, 2:64 of Greece, 2:142 lions in, 3:57 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 puzzle sculptures, 4:58 relief sculptures, 4:57 (illus.)

211

Index stone for, 4:98 Sumerian, 4:105 Syrian, 4:113 (illus.) tools for, 4:126 of Uruk, 4:124 (illus.) Scythia and the Scythians, 4:59-62 and fall of Assyrian empire, 3:143 groups identified as, 1:154 Medes conquered by, 3:81 Seals, 4:64-69. See also Amulets and charms Adadon, 1:2 Akkadian, 1:21 animals depicted on, 1:45 for clay envelopes, 2:1 clothing represented on, 2:6, 8 cylinder seals, 3:97 (illus.), 4:67-68 (illus.) images on, 4:68-69 killing by, 4:66 making of seals, 4:68 Old Babylonian, 1:106 (illus.) for papyri, 3:164-65 stamp seals, 4:66 Sumerian, 4:105 uses of, 4:65-66 weapons shown on, 1:71 Sea Peoples, 4:63-64 (illus.) Mediterranean raids of, 2:22 migration of, 2:42, 3:106 Philistines, 3:181-84 Phoenicians and, 3:185 Secondary burial, 1:132 Sedentists, 3:142 Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 Sekhmet, 1:149, 2:37 Seleucid Empire, 4:69-70 Phoenicians and, 3:186 Southern Media in, 3:83 SeleucusI, 1:26 Semiramis, 4:70 Semites, 4:70-71 Semitic languages, 1:28, 2:146-47, 3:47-48, 4:72-73 Semito-Hamitic languages. See Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages Senenmut, 2:152 Senet,2:l\\, 112 Sennacherib, 4:73-74 Nineveh and, 3:139-40 reign of, 1:88-89 Seqenenre II, 2:183 Servants, 4:74-76 (illus.) Seth, 2:128, 4:76 Horus and, 2:172 andlshtar, 3:13 perceived as demon, 2:37 Sety I, 4:76-77 burial site of, at Abydos, 1:2 with Hathor, 2:128 (illus.) and Ramses II, 4:26 Seven Wise Men, 2:130 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 2:149-50

212

pyramids at Giza, 2:124 tomb of Mausolus, 1:146 Sewers, 2:154 Sexagesimal system (mathematics), 3:76, 148, 4:52 Sexual behavior. See Gender and sex Shadow clocks, 1:134 Shalmaneser III, 1:12, 87-88, 4:77 Shalmaneser V, 1:89, 4:77-78 Shamaneserl, 1:86 Shamash, 1:5, 21, 94, 106 (illus.), 4:107 Shamash-shum-ukin, 1:83, 90 Shammu-ramat, 4:70 Shamshi-Adad I, 1:85, 4:78 Shamshi-Adad V, 1:88 Shardana, 4:63 Shar-kali-sharri, 1:19 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 Sheep, 1:40, 42, 43, 4:78-79, 4:118 Shekelesh, 4:63 Sheol, 1:6 Shields, 4:156-57 Shiloh,Yigal,3:19 Shipping routes, 4:79-80 Ships and boats, 4:80-82 funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) lost cargoes from, 2:52 naval vessels, 3:130-31 navigation by, 3:88 of Phoenicians, 3:187 Royal Ship of Khufu, 3:33 for sea trade, 3:87 warships, 3:130-31 wood for building of, 4:166-67 Shipwrecks, 3:187 Shoshenql, 3:57 Shu, 2:14, 128 Shulgi, 4:82-83 government under, 2:132 roads built by, 3:99 Shulgi Law Code, 1:142 Shuppiluliuma I, 2:167, 4:83-84 Shurpu, 3:68 Siculus, Diodorus, 4:70 Sidon, 4:84 Siege warfare, 4:150-52 Silver, 3:100-102 as item of exchange, 2:53 mining of, 3:109 as money, 3:112-13 as tax payment, 4:115 Simut, 2:130 Sinai, Mount, 4:84-85 Sinai peninsula, 4:85 Sin (god), 1:21 in Babylonia, 1:110 and childbirth, 1:162 in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Nabonidus and worship of, 3:126 Sin-muballit, 1:104 Slaves and slavery, 4:85-88 divorce of, 2:40 hairstyles of, 2:144 naming of, 3:128 property ownership by, 417

serfs and servants vs., 4:86 tax on sale of, 4:116 Smenkhkare, Queen, 1:15 Sneferu, 4:21 Social classes among metalworkers, 3:103 animal ownership and, 1:43 of Aramaeans, 1:53 in Assyria, 1:92 burial practices and, 1:128-30,2:29-31 of Canaanites, 4:90 cattle ownership and, 1:150 in Central Asia, 1:154 clothing and, 2:7-8 in Code of Hammurabi, 2:149 economy and, 2:49 and education, 2:54, 4:54 in Egypt, 2:65, 4:89 hairstyles and, 2:144 of Hittites, 4:89 horse ownership and, 2:171 hunting and fishing and, 2:95 of Israelites, 2:157, 4:90 and life expectancy, 2:154 in Mesopotamia, 4:88 in Minoan civilization, 3:110 urbanization and, 4:140-41, 168 and women's roles, 4:161-64 Social institutions, 4:88-91. See also Family and social life education, 2:54-56 government, 2:131-38 schools, 4:50-52 Solar system, 1:94,96 Solar temples, 3:162 Soldiers, 4:91-93, 4:156 (illus.) Solomon, 4:93-94 historical evidence about, 2:156 Jerusalem and, 3:19 sources of information about, 3:14-15 temple of, 3:24, ;163 "son of the sister/ 2:67 Sophocles, 2:142 Soul(s) beliefs about. See Afterlife depictions of in art, 1:118 portrayal of, 1:4 (illus.) and underworld, 1:1 South Arabian language, 4:73 South Arabic aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.) Southern Citadel, 1:101 South Semitic aleph-beth, 1:30 South Semitic languages, 4:72 Sparta, 1:80, 2:140-41 Sphinx, 4:94-95 Sphinxes, 1:47, 2:152 (illus.). See also Great Sphinx Spirits. See Afterlife Sports, 2:72-73. See also Games archery, 2:169 hunting as, 2:179-80 (illus.) Star clocks, 4:97 Stars, 4:95-97. See also Astrology and astrologers constellations, 1:96, 4:178 (illus.) Egyptian maps of, 1:97

Index identification of, 1:96 Sothis, 1:170 Stelae of Aramaean storm god, 2:127 bas-reliefs on, 1:114-15 at burial sites, 1:128 Code of Hammurabi, 2:147 (illus.), 2:148-49 as focus of worship, 3:133 of King Amanikhabale, 3:40 (illus.) magic spells on, 3:68 of Mesha, 3:16 (illus.) Metternich Stela, 4:160 (illus.) Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 (illus.) table of offerings on, 3:152 (illus.) fromUruk, 1:46 Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17 (illus.), 21 of Vulture, 1:71-72, 119 Stone, 4:97-99. See also Rock(s) building with, 1:124-27, 4:165 diorite, 4:57 gems, 2:114-16 kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.), 108, 3:30 lapis lazuli, 3:50-51 for pyramids, 2:40, 4:22 for sculpture, 4:57 for tools, 4:125 Stone Age, 1:166 Stone towers (Sardinia), 4:47 (illus.) Storage canals for, 1:140,142 of cereal grains, 1:155 of clay tablets, 2:3 of cosmetics, 2:13 of food and drink, 2:103-4 libraries and archives for, 3:54-56 of perfumes, 2:13, 3:170 of personal possessions, 2:107, 109 The Story of Sinuhe, 3:60, 4:74 Storytelling, 2:73 Stratigraphy, 1:168 Sudan, 4:99-100 Suicide, 1:142-43 Sumer and the Sumerians, 2:78-79, 4:100-105 Akkadian Empire, 4:102 archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 architecture, 4:104-5 art of, 4:105 in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 cosmetics used in, 2:12 creation myths of, 2:14 cuneiform of, 2:2,19, 4:105 Early Dynastic period, 4:101-2 economy of, 4:104 Enlil, 2:70 epic literature in, 2:75-76 Eridu, 2:76-77, 2:134 gardens of, 2:113 Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 gods and goddesses of, 4:34, 103-4 government of, 2:132, 4:103 history of, 4:100-103 human form in art of, 2:177 hymns from, 2:183

king list from, 3:34 (illus.) Lagash, 3:44 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages, 3:49 literature of, 3:59, 60, 4:105 location of, 4:101 (map) naming in, 3:128 Nippur and religion of, 3:140 number systems of, 3:148 palaces of, 3:158 poetry of, 4:5 priests in, 4:16 queens of, 4:23 religion of, 4:103-4 SargonI, 4:102 social institutions of, 4:88 Third Dynasty of Ur, 4:102-3 trade in, 3:91 Uruk, 4:141-43 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:161 writing from, 4:169-71 ziggurats of, 4:175-76 Sumerian Flood Story, 2:97 Sumerian language, 4:105-7 in Babylonia, 1:109 literature written in, 3:59 Sumu-abum, 1:100,103 Sun, 1:133, 134,4:107-8 Sundials, 1:134 Supernatural demons, 2:36-37 gods and goddesses, 2:126-30 magic, 3:68-69 omens and, 3:153-54 oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 religion, 4:31-34 in theology, 4:121 witchcraft, 4:159-61 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9 archaeological discoveries of, 1:62, 4:W& (illus.) houses at, 2:174 wall relief from, 2:68 (illus.) Syria and the Syrians, 4:109-14 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Amorites, 1:32-33 Anat, 1:35-36 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 archaeological discoveries in, 1:61-62 building materials in, 1:126 cities in, 1:174 climate of, 2:6 clothing of, 2:8 (illus.) Damascus, 2:24 Ebla, 2:47 entertainment in, 2:71-73 faience in, 2:85 farming in, 3:11 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 geography of, 2:120, 4:110 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 health in, 2:153 history of, 4:111-14 human form in art of, 2:177

inscriptions in, 3:5 land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages used in, 3:48 location of, 4:110 (map) nomads in, 3:143 palaces of, 3:161 religions of, 4:34 sculpture of, 4:59 Semites in, 4:71 shipping trade in, 3:88 temples in, 3:163 Ugarit, 4:135-37 wall paintings in, 4:147 women's role in, 4:164 Syrian Desert, 2:120, 4:128

T

Tabernacle, Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 Tablet houses, 2:54 Tablets, clay. See clay tablets Taharqa, 4:114-15 Talmud, 3:27-28 Aramaic language of, 1:52 mathematics in, 3:78 measurement in, 3:79, 80 Tannit, 3:187 TaSety (Nubia), 3:146 Taurus Mountains, 2:119 Taweret, 1:162 Taxation, 4:115-16 in Babylonia, 1:107-8 and forced labor, 3:45 of peasants, 3:169 wine as payment of, 4:159 Tax farming, 4:115 Technology. See Science and technology Tefnut, 2:14 Tel Dan, 2:28 Telipinu, 2:43, 129 Tell Arpachiyah, 2:172 TellAsmar, 2:78 Tell Atchana. See Alalakh Tell el-Amarna. See Amarna Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100 Tell es-Sawwan, 2:172 Tell Hariri, 3:71 Tell Kuyunjik, 3:139, 140 Tell Maghzaliyeh, 2:172 Tell NebiYunus, 3:139 Temperature, 2:5 Temple(s), 3:157-59, 3:161-63 atAbuSimbel, 1:1 of Akhenaten, 1:15 (illus.) of Aramaeans, 1:54 archives in, 3:55 in Assyria, 1:93 building techniques for, 1:126 built by Gudea, 2:143 children as workers in, 1:163 in cities, 1:175-76 at Djoser;s burial site, 2:40 in Egypt, 1:66-67, 2:64, 4:32

213

Index Eshumesha, 3:159 functions of, 3:161-62 furniture in, 2:110 Great Temple of Amun, 3:63 Great Temple of the Aten (Amarna), 1:31 Greek, 2:142 and growth of cities, 1:171-72 history of, 3:162 Innana, Temple of, 2:86 (illus.) in Jerusalem, 3:19 in Jewish life, 3:27 at Karnak, 3:29, 3:29 inKhattusha, 1:70 at Kish, 3:38 at Lagash, 3:44 in the Levant, 1:69 libraries in, 3:54, 55 ofMarduk, 1:101,3:71 in Meroe, 3:40-41 in Mesopotamia, 1:65, 4:31-32 in Nuzi, 3:149-50 professional dancers in, 2:25 redistributive economies and role of, 2:49-50 solar temples, 3:162 Solomon's, 3:163 staff of, 3:159 Sumerian, 4:104 Syrian, 4:34 ziggurats and, 4:174-76 Ten Commandments, 3:53, 4:116-17 Moses and, 3:116 as part of Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, 3:15 Tepe Gawra, 1:45, 48, 64 Tepe Ghabristan, 3:108 Tepe Nush-I Jan, 3:80 Tepe Sialk, 2:174 Teshub, 2:129,4:117-18 Textiles, 4:118-20 (illus.) from Acemhuyuk, 2:8 from flax, 2:96-97 household, 2:107, 109 Phoenician, 3:186 purple dye for, 3:186 wool, 4:78-79 Texts and documents on afterlife, 1:4-5 Apology, 3:32 decipherment of, 2:33-36 The Disputte Between Copper and Silver, 3:101 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 Farmer's Almanac, 1:10 Guide to Geography, 3:70 historical, 2:162-66 of Hittite funerary practices, 2:31 on magic, 3:68, 69 mathematical, 3:77 medical, 3:83, 85-86 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Shurpu, 3:68 storage and retrieval of, 3:56 fromUgarit, 1:61 Theaters, Greek, 2:142

214

Thebes, 4:120-21 in creation myths, 2:14 Hyksos and, 2:182-83 Kushite control of, 3:147 palace of Amenhotep III at, 3:160-61 temples of Karnak, 3:29 temples of Luxor, 3:63 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Valley of the Queens, 4:144 Theology, 4:121-23 Thera, 2:17, 38, 46, 4:123, 4:145 Thermoluminescent analysis, 1:168 Thoth, 1:47, 119,2:129 Three Stars Each, 1:96 Thucydides, 2:142 Thutmose II, 2:152 Thutmose III, 3:4, 4:124 Tiglath-pileser I, 1:69, 86-87 Tiglath-pileser III, 1:52, 89, 4:124 Tigrinya language, 4:73 Tigris River, 2:118, 4:38-39, 4:125 changes in, 2:74 flooding of, 1:9, 2:38, 99, 4:153-54 harbors on, 2:150 and irrigation, 3:9 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98 shipping routes on, 4:79 trade routes along, 4:128 Time and timekeeping, 4:96-97 calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96-97 chronology, 1:166-70 shadow clocks, 1:134 star clocks, 4:97 water clocks, 1:134, 135 Tin, 3:101, 108 Tocharian language, 2:188 Tokens, 2:1, 4:28 (illus.) and bullae, 4:68 counting with, 3:148 mathematics and, 3:78, 4:30 record-keeping uses of, 4:27-29 replacement of, by cuneiform, 2:19 Tombs. See Burial sites and tombs; Pyramid(s) Tools, 4:125-27 in Central Asia, 1:154 metals for, 3:101, 102 obsidian for, 3:150 primitive, 4:111 of scribes, 4:55, 171 stone, 4:99 for woodworking, 4:166 (illus.) for writing inscriptions, 3:2 Torah, 4:127 books of, 1:117 Mosaic Law in, 3:114-16 Torture, 3:53 Tower of Babel, 4:176 Toys, 2:110-12 Trade. See Economy and trade Trade routes, 2:52, 4:127-29 Arab control of, 3:143 in Arabia, 1:50 (map) Bahrain as part of, 1:112 camels, 1:137

caravan routes, 1:144, 3:71 and Chaldeans, 1:158 Damascus' control of, 2:24 dependence of economy on, 2:47-48 Karkamish and, 3:28 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135 Nile River as, 3:145 nomadic control of, 3:144 Parthian control of, 3:166 Red Sea, 4:30-31 through Megiddo, 3:89 Transcaucasia, 1:150-51 Transportation and travel, 4:129-32 animals for, 1:44-45 camels, 1:137 canals for, 1:141 caravans, 1:143-45 chariots, 1:160-61 and growth of cities, 1:174 importance of rivers to, 4:38-39 maps, 3:69-70 messengers, 2:10-11 Nile River's impact on, 3:138 roads, 1:91,4:39-41 ships and boats, 4:80-82 of stone for pyramids, 4:22 taxes, travel, 4:116 through Megiddo, 3:89 trade routes, 2:52 wheels and, 4:157-58 wood's importance in, 4:166-67 Trash, disposal of, 1:175 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4 Trojan War, 4:132, 133 Troy, 1:38,4:132-33 archaeological discovery of, 1:61 battle of, 3:122 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46 fortifications of, 2:105 Tudkhaliyal, 2:167 Tudkhaliya IV, 2:168 Tukulti-Ninurta I, 1:86 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 and deities, 1:15 tomb of, 1:59,4:144 Tyre, 4:134-35 and Alexander the Great, 1:24 and Carthage, 1:146

U

Ubar, 1:63 Ugarit, 4:135-37 aleph-beth, 1:28-30 (illus.) archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 communal prayer of, 4:11 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46 El and, 2:66 forced labor in, 3:43 funerary practices of, 2:32 houses of, 1:68, 2:175 language of, 2:35-36 merchant protection agreement with Karkamish, 3:93

Index Umma, 3:91, 4:137 Underworld Abydos as entrance to, 1:1 "maps" of, 3:4 Osiris and, 3:157 spouse-seeking demons in, 2:37 Ur, 4:137-39 animal figures found at, 1:45-46 (illus.) archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 cosmetics, 2:12 and Elamites, 2:67-68 royal tombs at, 3:21 Shulgi, 4:82-83 Ur-Nammu, 4:139 Urartu, 4:139-40 metalworking in, 3:104 Scythians and, 4:60 Urbanization, 4:140-41, 4:167-68 Ur-Nammu, 3:97 (illus.), 4:139 Uruk, 4:141-43 clay tablets, 2:2 fortifications of, 2:105 Gilgamesh and, 2:121-23 rock stela from, 1:46 trade networks of, 2:51 White Temple at, 1:65 Utu, 2:127

V

Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 Tutankhamen's tomb in, 4:134 worker benefits in building, 4:168 Valley of the Queens, 4:143, 4:144 Varuna, 2:129 Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 (illus.) Vegetables, 2:101, 103 Vegetation. See Plants Vehicles, 4:131, 158 Virolleaud, Charles, 1:30 Volcanoes, 4:144-45 earthquakes and, 2:46 Thera, 2:17, 4:123 Volume, measurement of, 3:79, 80 Vulture, stela of, 1:71-72, 119

W

Wages, 3:41-42 Walled cities, 1:175, 4:148-49 fortifications of, 2:104-6 gates in, 2:113-14 Jericho, 3:17-18 Jerusalem, 3:19 Khattusha, 3:31 Megiddo, 3:89-90 Wall paintings Babylon's Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) birds on, 1:119, 120 (illus.) brick for, 1:124 at £atal Hiiyiik, 1:148

Egyptian, 2:64 of hunting, 2:180 Wars and warfare, 4:149-53 animals' roles in, 1:44 armies, 1:71-75 in art, 4:151 (illus.) attacks of walled cities, 4:149 cavalry, 1:152 chariots in, 1:160-61 fighting under banner of Amun, 1:35 fortifications and, 2:104-6 (illus.) horses in, 2:171 Lagash known for, 3:44 naval power, 3:130-31 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 propaganda in, 1:75 Scythians and, 4:61 slaves as war captives, 4:86, 87 soldiers, 4:91-93 urbanization and, 4:141 water important to, 4:154 weapons and armor for, 4:155-57 Waste disposal in cities, 1:175 Water, 4:153-54. See also Floods and flooding; Waterways and bodies of water agriculture and use of, 1:9-10 camels and, 1:136-37 climate and, 2:5 and drought, 2:42-43 and growth of cities, 1:174 and habitation in Iran, 3:6 health and, 2:154 irrigation, 3:8-11 and land use, 3:45 protecting supply of, 3:11 storage of, 3:10 transportation and travel by, 4:130 Water clocks, 1:134, 135 Waterways and bodies of water Aegean Sea, 1:3 canals, 1:140-42 Dead Sea, 2:121 harbors, 2:150-51 for irrigation, 3:9 linking Aegean and Black Seas, 1:3 Mediterranean Sea, trade on, 3:87-89 naval power and, 3:130 Red Sea, 4:30-31 rivers, 4:38-39. See also specific rivers trade routes using, 2:52 Weapons and armor, 4:155-57 (illus.) for charioteers, 1:160 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71, 72 ofHittites, 1:72 metals for, 3:101, 102 obsidian for, 3:150 of Persians, 1:74-75 as tax payment, 4:115 Weather. See also climate Adad (god of), 1:2-3 and drought, 2:42-43 as omen, 1:94

Weaving, 4:118,119 Wedding ceremonies, 3:74 (illus.), 75 Weight, measurement of, 3:79 Wepemnofret's stela, 3:152 (illus.) Western desert, 2:120 West Semitic languages, 4:72-73 Wheat, 1:155 Wheel, 4:157-58 White magic, 3:68, 4:159-60 Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, 1:31 Winckler, Hugo, 1:64 Wind rose, 3:88 Wine, 2:101, 4:158-59 Witchcraft, 3:68, 4:159-61 Women, role of, 4:161-64 (illus.) in Assyria, 1:92 divorce and, 2:39 education for, 2:55-56 in Egypt, 2:64 as Egyptian pharaohs, 3:179 in Elam, 2:67 gender and sex, 2:116-18 as laborers, 3:42, 43 as landowners, 3:46 in medicine, 3:84 (illus.), 85 in Minoan society, 2:16 occupations, 4:168 property control by naditus, 4:17, 161-62 property rights and, 4:16,17 as prophets, 3:156 as rulers, 3:37 Wood and woodworking, 1:125,126, 4:164-67 Woolley, Sir Charles Leonard and Noah's flood, 2:98 and Pu-abi's tomb, 3:21 Ur excavations of, 1:60,128, 130 Work, 4:167-69 (illus.). See also Economy and trade; Tools artists and artisans, 1:75-79, 3:42 cartography (mapmaking), 3:69, 70 children's training for, 1:163 education for, 2:55 farm work and methods, 1:8-11 labor and laborers, 3:41-44 magicians, 3:69 mining, 3:109 physicians, 3:83-87 pottery making, 4:7 of scribes, 4:55-56 temple workers, 3:159, 4:104 tenant farmers, 3:168 urbanization and, 4:140 women, role of, 4:161-64 Writing, 4:169-72. See also Books and manuscripts; Record keeping alphabets, 1:27-30 Aramaean influence on, 1:51, 53 Aramaic, 1:85 in Assyria, 1:85 of books and manuscripts, 1:122-23 from Byblos texts, 2:36 in Canaan, 1:139 on clay tablets, 2:1-2

215

Index Cretan, 2:16 cuneiform, 2:19-22 decipherment of, 2:33-36 demotic script, 2:34 development of, 4:29 in Greece, 2:139, 142-43 hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 inscriptions, 3:1-6 Linear A and Linear B, 2:16, 3:123 logographic, 4:170 of Mycenaeans, 3:123 of numbers, 3:148 numerical values of letters, 1:28 papyrus, 3:164-65 on parchment, 1:122-23 of Phoenicians, 3:188 phonemes represented in, 1:27 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 and scribes, 4:54-56 and Semitic languages, 4:72 Sumerian, 4:105-7

X

Xerxes, 4:172-73 and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71 and Persian Wars, 3:177-78 reign of, 3:173 Xerxes II, 3:173

216

Y

Yadin, Yigael, 1:64 Yahweh, 2:130, 4:173-74 and Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 in creation myths, 2:15 and El, 2:66 gifts to children by, 1:164 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 incense offerings to, 2:186 and Isaiah, 3:12 and Israel's patriarchs and matriarchs, 3:166-68 and Judaism, 3:23-26, 28 prophets of, 3:156-57 temple of, 3:19 Ten Commandments given by, 4:116-17 inTorah, 1:117 Yahwism, 1:6 Years. See Calendars; Chronology(-ies) Young, Rodney S., 1:61 Young, Thomas, 2:34, 4:41

z Zagros Mountains, 2:120 Zarathustra. See Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

Ziggurats, 4:174-76 (illus.) form of, 1:65 at Kish, 3:38 ofMarduk,3:71 in Mesopotamian temples, 3:162 Sumerian, 4:104 in Ur, 4:139, 174, 17S (illus.) Zimri-Lim, 3:156, 4:176-77 Zippalanda, 2:129 Ziwiye, 3:6 Zodiac, 1:95, 4:177-78 development of, 4:96 planets and, 4:4 signs in, 2:45 Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism, 3:8, 4:178-80 afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 Ahriman, 1:13 Ahura Mazda, 1:14 altars of, 4:179 (illus.) birthplace of Zoroaster, 1:111 healing in, 3:86 mythology and, 3:126 prophecies in, 3:156 as religion of Achaemenid dynasty, 3:176 rise of, 3:114 square towers of, 1:69 as state religion, 4:33-34 theologies of, 4:122, 123

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Plate I Made of ivory, this Phoenician carving of a female head, which is 6!4 inches tall, dates from the 700s B.C. It was found at a palace at Kalkhu (present-day Nimrud) in Assyria, where it was originally attached to a piece of furniture.The Assyrians prized fine furniture and often took it as booty from lands that they conquered.

Plate 3 Ancient Near Eastern artisans used silver and other precious metals to make jewelry and luxury and decorative items, suchas the vase shown here. Approximately 14inches tall, this silvervase belonging to King Entemena of Lagash dates from around 2450 B.c.The copper-basedvase bears engraved figures of both mythical and real animals.The top of the vase contains an inscription of devotion to the city god of Lagash.

Plate 4 The people of the ancient Near East used amulets as lucky or protective charms. A wingedscarab (representation of the dung beetle) made of precious stone sits at the center of this amulet, which was found in the tomb of Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian king Tutankhamen (reigned ca. 13321322 B.c.).The annulet, which is inlaid with lapis lazuli, carnelian, glass, and other stones,may have been worn as a pectoral.

P/afe 6 This round bronze sculpture from ancient Luristan (present-day Iran) features water spirits in the center. Dating from around 1850B.C., the sculpture measures 13 inches in height. Many bronze objects have been found at Luristan.

Plate 9 The 7-inch-highclayvase shown here dates from around 2000 B.C. and was found atSusa in ancientElam. It resembles a type ofvase found inLagash, reflecting the influence Mesopotamia had on its close neighbor,Elam. Similar vases have also been found in the region of the Diyala River and atTello,all of which appear tohave been made in the same shop, possiblySusa. in

Plate 10 The A.D. 1922 discovery of the tomb of ancient Egyptian king Tutankhamen (ruled ca. 13321322 B.C.) in the Valley of the Kings provided modern scholars with many examples of Egyptian art, such as this plastered and painted wooden chest.The scene on its central panel depicts Tutankhamen in his chariot, attacking a group of Nubians. On the ends of the chest,Tutankhamen is shown as a sphinx trampling Egypt's enemies.

Plate 11 This silver rhyton, or ancient drinking horn, was found in Central Asia and dates from theAchaemenid period (538-331 B.c.).The bottom of the rhyton depicts a mythical beast called a griffin. A small opening on the chest of the griffin indicates where the liquid poured into the rhyton came out.

Plate 12 Ancient Minoan and Cycladic art are known for their colorful frescoes, many examples of which were found on the islands of Crete andThera. The fresco above depicts a galley ship being rowed through waters where dolphins swim. It comes fromThera and dates from around 1500 B.C.

Plate 13 Animals were portrayed in ancient Near Eastern art for both secular and religious purposes.The gold- and silver-winged ibex shown here forms the handle of a vase. Approximately ten inches long, this ibex is typical of art from theAchaemenid period (538-331 B.c.).The Persians were especially skilled in metalworking, and their gold jewelry is noteworthy for its fine quality.

Plate 14 Although the sphinx originated in Egypt, its use in art spread to other cultures in the ancient Near East, who added their own elements. In Syria and the Levant, the body of the sphinx was often portrayed with wings. Dating from the 700s B.C., this 3-inch-high sphinx was found at Hadatu in northern Syria.

Plate 15 Glassmaking was an important industry in the Levant during ancient times.The Phoenicians were famous in the ancient world for their skill in producing colorful glass beads, such as those in this necklace, which dates from the 500s B.C. The Phoenicians might have learned some of their glassmaking skills from the ancient Egyptians.