Cover Page Inside Cover .................................................................................. 1 Association...
1405 downloads
7644 Views
98MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
Cover Page Inside Cover .................................................................................. 1 Association ..................................................................................... 1 Preface ........................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements ....................................................................... 1 Members of the Steering Committee ........................................ 1 Other Companies and Organisation .......................................... 1 Companies assist in Video Production ...................................... 2
Textile Handbook
The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
in collaboration with
Hong Kong Productivity Council
Supported by
Innovation and Technology Fund, Innovation and Technology Commission
Copyright© 2001
The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
FIRST EDITION FIRST PRINTING – February 2001 ISBN: 962-8040-50-2 All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the copyright owner.
Textile Handbook Publisher
The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
Publisher’s Address
3/F., 63 Tai Yip Street, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Tel: (852) 2305 2893 Fax: (852) 2305 2493
Editor
Hong Kong Productivity Council
Produced by Artfield Communications Company
PREFACE
Growth and competition in the Asia Pacific region, together with Hong Kong’s increasing economic interdependence with mainland China, has led to rapid relocation and expansion of the Hong Kong textiles and clothing industries in Southern China over the past decade. Effectively, Hong Kong has become a higher-value-added, design-intensive manufacturing and advanced services centre for a new industrial configuration in the South China economic region. In order to sustain the competitiveness of Hong Kong in the world textiles and clothing trade, there is a growing need for those in the trade to continuously enhance their knowledge in order to cope with the increasing market demand for sophisticated and quality textile products. This new and revised edition of The Textile Handbook, also available in CD-ROM format, is designed to meet such a need. First published in 1960 by the Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association, The Textile Handbook has been revised every 10 years to keep up with the technological advancements in the sector and has served as an indispensable source of information in the textile field. The contents of the present edition, produced with the assistance of the Hong Kong Productivity Council and funded under the Innovation and Technology Support Programme of the Innovation and Technology Fund administered by the Innovation and Technology Commission, have been enriched to meet the needs of the industry for quality information. We are indebted to them for their support. While greatest care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the information, there may be areas that readers might feel there is still room for improvement. In this regard, suggestion and comments from readers would be welcome.
Clement Chen Chairman of the Steering Committee ITF Project on Textile Handbook
Acknowledgements Members of the project team take this opportunity to thank all the individuals and companies that have contributed to this Textile Handbook. The project team would particularly like to record its appreciation to the Innovation and Technology Fund and its secretariat for providing the necessary funding and support, and to each of the following:
Members of the Steering Committee Mr. Clement Chen (Chairman), Tai Hing Cotton Mill, Ltd. Mr. Chi Woo Wha (Vice-Chairman), Central Textiles (Weaving) Ltd Mr. Sam Chen, East Asia Textiles, Ltd. Mr. Chu Ming Kong, Nan Fung Textiles Ltd. Dr. Clement K.M. Lam, Pacific Textiles Ltd. Mr. Peng Set Fen, Far East Cotton Ind. Ltd. Mr. Timothy Tam, Tai Hing Cotton Mill, Ltd Mr. Wong Kwong Hon, Honda Machinery Co Ltd. Mr. Eddie Yeung, Central Textiles (HK) Ltd
Other Companies and Organisation AB Carter (FE) Ltd Acordis H.K. Ltd (Tencel) Benninger FE Ltd C.D.M.(HK) Ltd (Mr. Arkin Ng) Central Textiles (H.K.) Ltd Central Textiles (Weaving) Ltd Chemtax Industrial Co., Ltd (Stoll) Cico Engineering Co., Ltd (Karl Mayer) Cotton Incoporated Cotton Technology International Du Pont China Ltd Kai Ping Ping Da Cotton Spinning Co., Ltd K & E Company Ltd (TEXparts) King March Development Ltd (Berkol) Link Dyeing Works Ltd Morrison Textile Machinery Co. Neumac Co., Ltd (Reiners + Furst)
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University –Institute of Textiles & Clothing (Professor X. M. Tao) Rieter Asia (Hong Kong) Ltd Staeubli (H.K.) Ltd Sulzer Textil Ltd Tai Hing Cotton Mill Ltd Tri-union Industrial Supplies Ltd (Kanai, Schlafhorst, Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba, Truetzschler, Zinser) Zellweger Uster
Companies assist in Video Production Central Textiles (Weaving) Ltd Lap Yick Knitting Factory Ltd Rieter Asia (Hong Kong) Ltd Sulzer Textil Ltd Tai Hing Cotton Mill Ltd Tri-union Industrial Supplies Ltd (Zinser) Win Win Industrial Co., Ltd (Shima Seiki)
To Table of Content
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Textile Fibres
Chapter 2
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Charter 3
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Chapter 4
Knitting and Knitted Fabrics
Chapter 5
Textile Coloration and Finishing Treatments
Chapter 6
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Appendix 1
Business Strategies for the Textile and Apparel
Appendix 2
Web Sites Related To Textiles
Appendix 3
The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association 2000/2001 Member List
Appendix 4
The Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association Committee Members of 2000/2001
Appendix 5
Chairman and Vice Chairman List of the Hong Kong Cotton Spinners Association
Chapter 1 Textile Fibres ......................................... 1-2 Section 1 Fibres Commonly Used for Texilies and Clothing 1-2 1.1
Classification of Textile Fibres ........................................... 1-2
1.2
Natural Fibres ..................................................................... 1-2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8
1.3
Man-made Fibres ................................................................ 1-9 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7
1.4
Cotton ............................................................................. 1-2 Flax (Linen) .................................................................... 1-4 Jute ................................................................................. 1-5 Ramie ............................................................................. 1-5 Silk ................................................................................. 1-5 Wool ............................................................................... 1-6 Hair ................................................................................. 1-7 Asbestos ......................................................................... 1-8
Acetate ............................................................................ 1-9 Acrylic ............................................................................ 1-9 Nylon .............................................................................. 1-10 Polyester ......................................................................... 1-10 Rayon (Viscose Rayon) .................................................. 1-11 Spandex .......................................................................... 1-12 Olefin .............................................................................. 1-13
Microscopic Appearance of Common Textile Fibres ....... 1-14
Section 2 Fibre Properties ......................................................... 1-18 2.1
Desirable Fibre Properties ................................................. 1-18 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.7 2.1.8 2.1.9
Fibre length .................................................................... 1-18 Cross-sectional shape and surface .................................. 1-18 Straightness .................................................................... 1-18 Strength .......................................................................... 1-18 Extensibility and elasticity ............................................. 1-18 Hand feel ........................................................................ 1-19 Plasticity ......................................................................... 1-19 Absorbency .................................................................... 1-19 Abrasion resistance ........................................................ 1-19
2.1.10 2.1.11 2.1.12 2.1.13
Resiliency ....................................................................... 1-19 Lustre .............................................................................. 1-19 Density ........................................................................... 1-19 Wicking .......................................................................... 1-20
2.2
Important Characteristics and Major End-use of Textile Fibres .................................................................................... 1-21
2.3
Examples of Commercial Names and Manufacturers of Man-Made Fibres ............................................................... 1-25
2.4
Properties of Major Textile Fibres .................................... 1-30
2.5
Chemical Resistance of Fibres ........................................... 1-31
Section 3 Types of Cotton .......................................................... 1-32 3.1
Kinds and Types of Cotton ................................................. 1-32 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6
3.2
Classification of Cotton ...................................................... 1-38 3.2.1
3.3
The Features and Characteristics of the Three Principal Cotton Fibre Groups ....................................... 1-33 Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibre ....................... 1-34 Composition of Cotton Fibre .......................................... 1-35 Chemical Composition of Cotton Fibre .......................... 1-35 Physical Properties of Cotton Fibre (Upland Cotton) .... 1-36 Chemical Properties of Cotton Fibre .............................. 1-37
Classification of Upland Cotton ..................................... 1-38
Cotton Species ..................................................................... 1-44 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5
Upland Cotton ................................................................ 1-45 Sea-island Cotton ........................................................... 1-45 Peruvian Cotton .............................................................. 1-45 Asiatic Rough Cotton ..................................................... 1-45 Tree Cotton ..................................................................... 1-45
3.4
World Cotton Classification and Standard ...................... 1-46
3.5
Chinese Cotton Specification ............................................. 1-47 3.5.1 3.5.2
Chinese Cotton Grading ................................................. 1-47 . Length ............................................................................ 1-48
3.6
Indian Cotton Grading ....................................................... 1-50
3.7
Pakistan Cotton Grading ................................................... 1-51
3.8
Influence of the Fibre Characteristics of the Yarn .......... 1-51
3.9
Other Disturbing Factors in the Yarn Manufacturing Process .................................................................................. 1-53 3.9.1 3.9.2
Stickiness ........................................................................ 1-53 Cotton Contamination .................................................... 1-55
3.10 Relationship between Fibre Length, Fineness and Yarn Count to be Spun ................................................................ 1-64
Section 4 World Cotton Production ......................................... 1-65 4.1
World Cotton Production and Related Statistics ............. 1-65
4.2
The World’s Major Cotton Growing Areas ...................... 1-73 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6
China .............................................................................. 1-74 United States .................................................................. 1-75 India ................................................................................ 1-76 Pakistan .......................................................................... 1-77 Australia ......................................................................... 1-78 Republic of Uzbekistan .................................................. 1-79
Section 5 Man-Made Fibre Production ................................... 1-80 5.1
Methods of Man-Made Fibre Spinning ............................ 1-80 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4
5.2
Wet Spinning .................................................................. 1-80 Dry Spinning .................................................................. 1-81 Melt Spinning ................................................................. 1-81 Gel Spinning ................................................................... 1-83
The Processing of Tow ........................................................ 1-84
Section 6 New Developement of Textile Fibres ....................... 1-85 6.1
Microfibres .......................................................................... 1-85 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6
Direct Spinning .............................................................. 1-85 Splittable Fibres ............................................................. 1-85 Mechanically Splittable Bicomponents .......................... 1-86 Solvent Splittable Bicomponents ................................... 1-86 Uses for Microfibres ...................................................... 1-86 Shin-Gosen ..................................................................... 1-88
6.2
Lyocell .................................................................................. 1-89 6.2.1 6.2.2
6.3
High Performance Fibres ................................................... 1-93 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 6.3.11
6.4
TENCEL® ........................................................................................................................... 1-89 TENCEL® A100 ............................................................. 1-92
Aramids, Meta-aramid ................................................... 1-93 Para-aramid .................................................................... 1-94 Carbon Fibres — PAN and Pitch Based ......................... 1-94 Fluorocarbon Fibres (PTFE) .......................................... 1-94 Glass Fibre ..................................................................... 1-95 Melamine ........................................................................ 1-95 Polybenzimidazole — PBI ............................................. 1-95 Polyphenylenebenzobisoxazole — PBO1 ...................... 1-96 Cellulose acetate - MicroSafe ........................................ 1-96 Optical Fibres ................................................................. 1-96 Chitin, Chitosan (shells of crustacean) ........................... 1-97
Smart Technology for Textiles and Clothing .................... 1-97 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5
Phase-Transition Materials and Polymer Crystals ......... 1-98 Smart Microcapsules/Microspheres ............................... 1-98 Smart Fibres for Measurement of Temperature, Moisture and Strain ........................................................ 1-99 Shape Memory Polymers ............................................... 1-99 Smart Gels and Gel Fibres ............................................. 1-100
Chapter 2 Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn 2-2 Section 1 Blowing Room Process .............................................. 2-2 1.1
Purpose of Blowing Room Process .................................... 2-2
1.2
Bale Opening ....................................................................... 2-2 1.2.1
1.3
Cleaning ............................................................................... 2-5 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3
1.4
Features of Mixer and Blender ....................................... 2-9
Machine Arrangements ...................................................... 2-11 1.5.1
1.6
Purpose of Cleaning ....................................................... 2-5 Feeding System .............................................................. 2-5 Features of Some Cleaning Machines ............................ 2-6
Blending ............................................................................... 2-9 1.4.1
1.5
Features of some Automatic Bale Openers .................... 2-3
Examples of Machines Layout of Blowing Room ......... 2-11
Foreign Substance Detector ............................................... 2-13 1.6.1 The Vision Shield (Jossi) ................................................ 2-14 1.6.2 Securomat (Truetzschler) ................................................ 2-15 1.6.3 Cotton Sorter RX-CS (Barco) ........................................ 2-15 1.6.4 Optiscan (Uster) ............................................................. 2-16
1.7
Maintenance Recommendations for Opening and Cleaning Machines .............................................................. 2-17 1.7.1 1.7.2
1.8
Maintenance of Opening Room/Opening Hoppers ........ 2-17 Maintenance of Cleaners ................................................ 2-19
Trouble Shooting for Opening and Cleaning Machines .. 2-20
Section 2 Carding Process ......................................................... 2-25 2.1
Purpose of Carding ............................................................. 2-25
2.2
Carding Actions .................................................................. 2-26
2.3
Card Feeding System .......................................................... 2-27 2.3.1 2.3.2
Rieter Aerofeed U .......................................................... 2-27 Rieter UNIstore A 77 ...................................................... 2-28
2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5
Truetzschler Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK ...................... 2-29 Truetzschler Sensofeed ................................................... 2-30 Truetzschler Webfeed ..................................................... 2-30
2.4
Card Clothing ...................................................................... 2-31
2.5
Card Clothing Specifications ............................................. 2-33 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4
2.7
Card Setting Recommendations ........................................ 2-58 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3
2.8
Conventional Revolving Flat Card ................................. 2-58 Rieter C51 Card .............................................................. 2-59 Truetzschler DK-803 Card ............................................. 2-60
Grinding ............................................................................... 2-61 2.8.1 2.8.2
2.9
ECC Card Clothing ........................................................ 2-33 Graf Card Clothing ......................................................... 2-36 Hollingsworth Card Clothing ......................................... 2-44 Kanai Card Clothing ...................................................... 2-48
Grinding Intervals .......................................................... 2-61 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS) ...................... 2-61
New Features on Carding Machine ................................... 2-66 2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5
Precision Flat Setting System (Truetzschler) ................. 2-66 Flat Distance Measuring System .................................... 2-67 Webclean System (Truetzschler) .................................... 2-68 On-line Nep Counting (Truetzschler) ............................. 2-69 TREXplus (Rieter) ......................................................... 2-70
2.10 Tandem Card ....................................................................... 2-71 2.10.1 The New Twin Cylinder Card-Crosrol CST .................. 2-71 2.10.2 Technical Specification .................................................. 2-72
2.11 Production Calculations ..................................................... 2-73 2.12 Conversion of Grain Weight and Sliver Count ................ 2-74 2.13 Nep Counting ...................................................................... 2-74 2.13.1 Three Different Ways of Nep Counting ......................... 2-74 2.13.2 Nep Content of Card Web .............................................. 2-75
2.14 Uster AFIS N Application for Cotton Card Maintenance ........................................................................ 2-76 2.15 Maintenance Recommendations ........................................ 2-77 2.15.1 Lubrication Schedule ..................................................... 2-77
2.15.2 Cleaning Procedures For High Production Carding Equipment ...................................................................... 2-77
2.16 Troubleshooting ................................................................... 2-80
Section 3 Drawing Process ........................................................ 2-85 3.1
Purpose of Drawing ............................................................ 2-85
3.2
Definition of Draft ............................................................... 2-85
3.3
Drafting Zone Setting ......................................................... 2-87 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4
3.4 3.5
Trumpet ............................................................................... 2-92 Sliver Can ............................................................................ 2-93 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3
3.6
Order Specifications for Cans ........................................ 2-93 Specifications for Can’s Bottom With Casters ............... 2-94 Sliver Can Information ................................................... 2-94
Auto Levelling System ........................................................ 2-99 3.6.1
3.7
Technological Main Draft Roll Settings ......................... 2-87 Technological Break Draft Roll Setting ......................... 2-88 Draft Rolls Setting .......................................................... 2-89 Examples for Drafting System Setting of Rieters Draw Frame .................................................................... 2-91
Examples of some Auto Levelling Systems ................... 2-100
Recent Developments in Draw Frames ............................. 2-101 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3
Integrated Draw Frame IDF ........................................... 2-101 CUBIcan Sliver Deposit System .................................... 2-103 Sliver Watch (Foreign Matter Detector) ......................... 2-103
3.8
Relationship between Sliver Weight and other Parameters ........................................................................... 2-105
3.9
Production Rate per Delivery Head of Draw Frame ....... 2-106
3.10 Front Roller Surface Speed in Relation to Production Rate ...................................................................................... 2-108 3.11 Relationship Between Sliver Weight and Production in Hanks and Pounds .............................................................. 2-109 3.12 Conversion of Sliver Weight to Sliver Count ................... 2-110 3.13 Maintenance of Draw Frame ............................................. 2-111 3.14 Possible Causes of Drawn Sliver Defects .......................... 2-113
Section 4 Combing Process ....................................................... 2-115 4.1
Purpose of Combing ........................................................... 2-115
4.2
Combing Preparation ......................................................... 2-115
4.3
Combing Mechanism .......................................................... 2-119 4.3.1 4.3.2
4.4
Introduction .................................................................... 2-119 Operations ...................................................................... 2-119
Combing Components Specification ................................. 2-125 4.4.1 4.4.2
Combing Cylinder .......................................................... 2-125 Top Comb ....................................................................... 2-127
4.5
Examples of Input and Output of Combing Process ....... 2-128
4.6
Advanced Development and Automation in Combing .... 2-129 4.6.1 4.6.2
4.7
Computer Aided Process Development ......................... 2-129 SERVOlap E 6/4 - L ....................................................... 2-130
Possible Faults in Combing ................................................ 2-131
Section 5 Roving Process ........................................................... 2-133 5.1
Function of Roving Process ................................................ 2-133
5.2
Drafting System .................................................................. 2-133 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6
5.3
In -feed Material ............................................................. 2-133 Total Draft ...................................................................... 2-133 Rear Draft ....................................................................... 2-134 Roller Loading ............................................................... 2-134 Top Roller Cots Grinding ............................................... 2-134 Roving Guide and Condensers ....................................... 2-134
Example of Drafting System on Speed Frame ................. 2-135 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10
Zone Settings And Maximum Fibre Length ................... 2-136 Roller Loading ............................................................... 2-137 Top Apron Cradle System .............................................. 2-138 Opening at Apron Release Point .................................... 2-139 Top Aprons ..................................................................... 2-140 Top Roller Cots .............................................................. 2-141 Bottom Apron Nose Bar ................................................. 2-141 Rear Roving Guide ......................................................... 2-141 Rear Zone Condenser ..................................................... 2-142 Front Zone Condenser .................................................... 2-143
5.4
Roving Twist ........................................................................ 2-143 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3
5.5
Flyer Speed and Roving Conditions .................................. 2-147 5.5.1 5.5.2
5.6
Relationship Between Fibre Fineness (Based On 1 Inch Fibre Length) and Twist Factor of Roving ..................... 2-144 Factors Affecting Twist Factor of Roving ...................... 2-145 Relationship Between Fibre Length and Twist Factor of Roving ........................................................................ 2-146
Flyer Speed ..................................................................... 2-147 Roving Weight ................................................................ 2-148
Bobbin Building .................................................................. 2-149 5.6.1
Bobbin Building Mechanism of Toyota Roving Frame .............................................................................. 2-149
5.7
Roving Tension Adjustment ............................................... 2-152
5.8
Horizontal Coil Density of Roving .................................... 2-153 5.8.1
5.9
Horizontal Coiling Density and Roving Count .............. 2-153
Number of Coils of Roving ................................................. 2-154
5.10 Number of Coils Per Inch of Roving ................................. 2-155 5.11 Common Defects in Roving ................................................ 2-156 5.12 Factors Affecting Roving Elongation and Remedies ....... 2-158 5.13 Machine Automation .......................................................... 2-159 5.13.1 Automatic Doffing and Bobbin Transfer System (RO-WE-MAT 670 Roving Frame, Zinser) ................... 2-159 5.13.2 Automatic Transfer System (Toyota) ............................. 2-160
Section 6 Spinning Process........................................................ 2-162 6.1
Purpose of Spinning ............................................................ 2-162
6.2
Process Flow Chart for Various Common Spinning Systems ................................................................................. 2-162
6.3
Ring Spinning ...................................................................... 2-162 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6
Drafting System ............................................................. 2-163 Draft zones ..................................................................... 2-164 Examples of Drafting System for Cotton Ring Frame ... 2-164 Top Roller Cots .............................................................. 2-172 Twisting .......................................................................... 2-179 Ring ................................................................................ 2-179
6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 6.3.11 6.3.12 6.3.13 6.3.14 6.3.15 6.3.16 6.3.17
6.4
Open-End Spinning ............................................................ 2-218 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4
6.5
Principle of Open-end Spinning ..................................... 2-218 Relationship between Rotor Speed, Rotor Type and Yarn Count .............................................................................. 2-224 Layout of Spinning Components ................................... 2-225 Example of Recent Development in OE Spinning ......... 2-228
AIR-JET SPINNING .......................................................... 2-230 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3
6.6
Traveller ......................................................................... 2-186 Wear and Life of the Traveller and Ring ........................ 2-191 Setting of Traveller Cleaner ........................................... 2-194 Traveller Speed in m/s .................................................... 2-197 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Spindle Revolution and Traveller Circumferential Speed .......... 2-198 Relationship between Bobbin Diameter, Twist Number, Spindle Revolution, and Traveller Revolution ............... 2-199 Relationship between Inside Diameter of Ring, Bobbin Diameter and Winding Angle ......................................... 2-200 Ratio Values of Ring Diameter, Bobbin Diameter, Bobbin Length And Spindle Gauge ............................................ 2-201 High Performance Ring and Traveller ........................... 2-203 Suessen Novibra Spindle HP-S 68 and Spindle Bearing ........................................................................... 2-208 Bobbin Building ............................................................. 2-213
Processing Parameters and Fibre Characteristics for Spinning 100% Cotton Yarn ........................................... 2-231 Muratec 851 MVS Air-jet Spinning Machine ................ 2-236 Muratec 804 RJS - Roller Jet Spinning .......................... 2-236
Various Developments in Spinning ................................... 2-237 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.6.4
Suessen Ring-Can Spinning System .............................. 2-237 Rieter ComforSpin ......................................................... 2-238 Suessen EliTe Yarn ......................................................... 2-239 Zinser Compact Yarn ...................................................... 2-241
Section 7 Winding Process ........................................................ 2-243 7.1
Purpose of Winding ............................................................ 2-243
7.2
Knotting Mechanism .......................................................... 2-243
7.3
Air Splicing Mechanism ..................................................... 2-246
7.4
Correct Build of Ring Cops ................................................ 2-247 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3
7.5
Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding .............................. 2-251 7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6 7.5.7
7.6
Causes of Sloughing ....................................................... 2-247 Optimum Shaping of Spinning Bobbin .......................... 2-248 Balloon Breaker ............................................................. 2-250
Ribbon Winding ............................................................. 2-251 Measures to Prevent Ribbon Winding ............................ 2-252 Contact Pressure ............................................................. 2-252 Ribbon Breaker Interval ................................................. 2-253 Tension ........................................................................... 2-256 Increase (dish) ................................................................ 2-256 Drum .............................................................................. 2-257
Balloon Control and Tensioning Device ............................ 2-258 7.6.1 7.6.2
Tension Manager and Bal-Con (Muratec) ...................... 2-258 Autotense Yarn Tension Control (Autoconer338) .......... 2-259
7.7
Calculation of Package Density ......................................... 2-261
7.8
Measures Against Excessive Yarn Breakage .................... 2-263
7.9
Causes and Corrective Actions for Poor Winding ........... 2-264
7.10 Electronic Yarn Clearer ...................................................... 2-267 7.11 Conversion Graph of Peyer and UAM ............................. 2-269 7.12 Correlation Between Material and Type of Yarn by the Static Electricity Amount ................................................... 2-270 7.13 Material Setting of Uster UAM Yarn Clearer .................. 2-271 7.14 Types of Yarn Faults ........................................................... 2-271
Section 8 Twisting Process ........................................................ 2-273 8.1
Up Twister ........................................................................... 2-273
8.2
Ring Twister ........................................................................ 2-273
8.3
Two-for-One Twisting ......................................................... 2-274 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3
8.4
Two-for-One Principle ................................................... 2-274 Characteristics of Two-for-One Twisting ....................... 2-275 Tritec Twister .................................................................. 2-275
Twisting Parameter ............................................................. 2-277
Section 9 Application of Information Technology in Spinning ....................................................................... 2-283 9.1
ABC-Control for Blow Room and Carding ...................... 2-283
9.2
Spiderweb : The Mill Data and Information System ...... 2-284
9.3
Barco Sycotex System ......................................................... 2-286
9.4
Uster Labdata ...................................................................... 2-286
Section 10 Special Types of Yarns ............................................ 2-287 10.1 Production of Rough-Spun (Slub and Neps) Yarn on Conventional Equipment ................................................... 2-287 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.1.3 10.1.4
Introduction .................................................................... 2-287 Machinery Settings ......................................................... 2-287 Maintenance ................................................................... 2-288 Other Considerations ...................................................... 2-288
10.2 Recommendation for Producing Linen-Look Yarn on Conventional Equipment ................................................... 2-290 10.2.1 Operating Procedures ....................................................... 2-290 10.2.2 Experiment Details ......................................................... 2-291
10.3 Slub Effect Yarn with Amsler GOE Device on OE Spinning Machine ............................................................................... 2-293 10.3.1 Function .......................................................................... 2-293
10.4 Amsler Cortex System ........................................................ 2-295 10.4.1 Features .......................................................................... 2-295
10.5 Core Spun Yarn by Plyfil Spinning System ...................... 2-297 10.5.1 Equipment for Hard Core Yarns ..................................... 2-297 10.5.2 Equipment for Soft Core Yarns ...................................... 2-298 10.5.3 The advantages of PLYfiL ............................................. 2-300
10.6 Parallel Yarn by Parafil Spinning System ........................ 2-301 10.6.1 Structure of Parallel Yarn ............................................... 2-301 10.6.2 Properties of Parallel Yarn .............................................. 2-302
Section 11 Wool Spinning Process ............................................ 2-304 11.1 Worsted System ................................................................... 2-304 11.1.1 The Worsted Spinning Process Flow .............................. 2-304 11.1.2 Scouring ......................................................................... 2-304 11.1.3 Drying ............................................................................ 2-304 11.1.4 Oiling .............................................................................. 2-305 11.1.5 Carding ........................................................................... 2-305 11.1.6 Backwashing .................................................................. 2-305 11.1.7 Combing ......................................................................... 2-305 11.1.8 Gilling ............................................................................ 2-306 11.1.9 Drawing .......................................................................... 2-306 11.1.10 Spinning ......................................................................... 2-306
11.2 Woollen System ................................................................... 2-306 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.2.6 11.2.7 11.2.8
Woollen Spinning Process Flow .................................... 2-306 Scouring and drying ....................................................... 2-307 Carbonizing .................................................................... 2-307 Dyeing ............................................................................ 2-307 Blending ......................................................................... 2-307 Oiling .............................................................................. 2-307 Carding ........................................................................... 2-307 Spinning ......................................................................... 2-307
Section 12 Texturing .................................................................. 2-308 12.1 Purpose of Texturing .......................................................... 2-308 12.2 False Twist Method ............................................................. 2-308 12.3 Edge-Crimped Yarns .......................................................... 2-310 12.4 Stuffer-Box Crimping ......................................................... 2-311 12.5 Air-Textured Yarns ............................................................. 2-312 12.6 Knit-De-Knit Method ......................................................... 2-313 12.7 Gear Crimping .................................................................... 2-313 12.8 Twist-Textured Yarns .......................................................... 2-313
Charter 3 Weaving and Woven Fabrics... ............ 3-2 Section 1 Warp Preparation Process ........................................ 3-2 1.1
Warping Process ................................................................. 3-2 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3
Direct Beaming .............................................................. 3-2 Section Warping ............................................................. 3-2 Ball Warping ................................................................... 3-3
1.2
Warping Data ...................................................................... 3-3
1.3
Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ..................... 3-5
1.4
Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine ...... 3-5
1.5
Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming ............... 3-6
1.6
Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing .................................. 3-9 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 1.6.6
1.7
Slasher Dyeing ..................................................................... 3-13 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3
1.8
Ball Warper Specification ............................................. 3-9 Ball Warping Process Parameters ................................... 3-9 Rope Dyeing ................................................................... 3-10 Typical Recipe of Master Solution for Rope Dyeing ..... 3-11 Technical Features of Rope Dyeing Range .................... 3-12 Processing Parameters for Re-Beaming Of Rope Dyeing ............................................................................ 3-13
Warping Requirements ................................................... 3-14 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher Dyeing 3-15 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters .......................... 3-16
Rope Dyeing Versus Slasher Dyeing .................................. 3-16 1.8.1 1.8.2
Characteristics of Rope Dyeing ..................................... 3-16 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing ...................................... 3-17
Section 2 Warp Sizing ............................................................... 3-19 2.1
Purpose of Warp Sizing ...................................................... 3-19
2.2
Warp Size Types and Properties ........................................ 3-19 2.2.1 2.2.2
Warp Size Types And Properties .................................... 3-19 Size Auxiliary Chemicals ............................................... 3-23
2.3
Sizing Agents and Applications .......................................... 3-25
2.4
Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution ............................ 3-25 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5
Protein Sizes ................................................................... 3-25 Starch Sizes .................................................................... 3-25 Cellulose Ether Sizes ...................................................... 3-26 Polyvinyl Alcohol Sizes ................................................. 3-26 Acrylate Copolymer Sizes .............................................. 3-27
2.5
Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of Sizing Agent .................................................................................... 3-27
2.6
Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax ..................... 3-28
2.7
Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid Wax ....................................................................................... 3-28
2.8
Size Defects and Possible Causes ....................................... 3-29
2.9
Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ..................... 3-30
2.10
Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during Sizing .................................................................................... 3-34
2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim .................................... 3-35 2.11.1 Size Requirements .......................................................... 3-35 2.11.2 Causes of Faults in Sizing and its Solutions .................. 3-35
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing ........................................... 3-37 2.12.1 Wetsize Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba) .................... 3-37 2.12.2 Ben-ecosize (Benninger) ................................................ 3-37
Section 3 Weaving Preparation ................................................ 3-38 3.1
Introduction ......................................................................... 3-38 3.1.1 3.1.2
Leasing ........................................................................... 3-38 Drawing-in ..................................................................... 3-38
3.2
Specifications of Heald Wires ............................................ 3-38
3.3
Specifications of Drop Wire ............................................... 3-40
3.4
Reed ...................................................................................... 3-43
3.5
Tying-in ................................................................................ 3-44
3.6
Recent Development in Weaving Preparation ................. 3-44 3.6.1 3.6.2
Quick Style Change in Weaving .................................... 3-44 The Process Flow of a QSC System .............................. 3-44
Section 4 Weaving ...................................................................... 3-47 4.1 4.2
Introduction ......................................................................... 3-47 Basic Motions of A Weaving Machine ............................... 3-47 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3
Shuttle Loom .................................................................. 3-47 Shuttleless Looms .......................................................... 3-48 Useful Calculation Formulae for Weaving ..................... 3-54
Section 5 Woven Fabric Features ............................................. 3-56 5.1
Introduction ......................................................................... 3-56
5.2
Warp and Weft Yarns ......................................................... 3-56
5.3
Selvedges .............................................................................. 3-57 5.3.1 Selvedge Structure for Conventional Loom ...................... 3-58 5.3.2 Selvedge Problem .............................................................. 3-62
5.4
Yarns Per Unit Length ........................................................ 3-62
5.5
Face and Back ..................................................................... 3-63
5.6
Top and Bottom ................................................................... 3-63
Section 6 Woven Structure ........................................................ 3-64 6.1
Introduction ......................................................................... 3-64
6.2
Plain Weave ......................................................................... 3-64 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3
6.3
Twill Weave ......................................................................... 3-67 6.3.1 6.3.2
6.4
Characteristics ................................................................ 3-64 Ribbed Plain Fabrics ...................................................... 3-65 Plain Weave Derivative .................................................. 3-66
Characteristics ................................................................ 3-69 Broken Twill Weave ....................................................... 3-70
Satin Weave ......................................................................... 3-70 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3
Satin-Weave Fabric ........................................................ 3-71 Sateen Fabric .................................................................. 3-71 Characteristics ................................................................ 3-72
6.5
Comparison of Basic Weave Properties ............................ 3-72
6.6
Special Weave Sturctures ................................................... 3-72 6.6.1
Pile Weaves .................................................................... 3-72
6.6.2 6.6.3 6.6.4 6.6.5
6.7
Woven Pattern Design ........................................................ 3-77 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3
6.8
Double-cloth Weave ....................................................... 3-75 Crepe Weave ................................................................... 3-75 Leno Weave .................................................................... 3-76 Swivel Weave ................................................................. 3-76
Introduction .................................................................... 3-77 Dobby Pattern ................................................................. 3-77 Jacquard Pattern ............................................................. 3-78
A Summary of Special Weaves and their Characteristics 3-79
Section 7 Woven Fabric Analysis ............................................. 3-81 7.1
Introduction ......................................................................... 3-81
7.2
Identification of the Construction of a Fabric ................. 3-81
7.3
Determining Yarn Counts of a Fabric ............................... 3-82
7.4
Fabric Weight ...................................................................... 3-82 7.4.1 7.4.2
Expression of Fabric Weight .......................................... 3-82 Fabric Weight Calculation .............................................. 3-82
7.5
Converting Fabric Weight from one System to Another . 3-83
7.6
Weight of Silk Fabric .......................................................... 3-84
7.7
Woven Fabric Design .......................................................... 3-84 7.7.1 7.7.2 7.7.3
7.8
Cloth Setting Theories .................................................... 3-84 Similarly Built Cloths .................................................... 3-89 Other Expression of Setting ........................................... 3-91
Fabric Cover ........................................................................ 3-92 7.8.1 7.8.2
Cover and Cover Factor (F.T. Peirce) ............................ 3-92 Cloth Cover Factor ......................................................... 3-94
Chapter 4 Knitting and Knitted Fabrics .............. 4-2 Section 1 Knitting ..................................................................... 4-2 1.1
Knitting Process .................................................................. 4-2
1.2
Weft-Knitting ...................................................................... 4-2
1.3
Weft Knitting Machines ..................................................... 4-3 1.3.1 1.3.2
1.4
Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Beard Needles 4-3 Two Types of Knitting Machines Using Latch Needles 4-4
Key Components for Weft Knitted Fabric Formation .... 4-5 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.4 1.4.3 1.4.5 1.4.6
Knitting Needles ............................................................. 4-5 Needle Bed ..................................................................... 4-6 Yarn Feeding .................................................................. 4-7 Cam Box ......................................................................... 4-7 Sinker ............................................................................. 4-8 Key Terms of Knitted Fabric .......................................... 4-9
1.5
Stitch (loop) Formation Sequence on a Latch Needle ..... 4-10
1.6
Types of Knitting Stitches .................................................. 4-11 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3
1.7
Plain Stitch ..................................................................... 4-11 Miss Stitch (Welt or float) .............................................. 4-11 Tuck Stitch ..................................................................... 4-11
Recent Developments in Weft Knitting ............................. 4-12 1.7.1 1.7.2
Examples of Recent Developments in Flat Knitting Machines ........................................................................ 4-13 Examples of Recent Developments in Circular Knitting machines ......................................................................... 4-14
Section 2 Typical Weft-Knit Structure ..................................... 4-17 2.1
Methods Used to Represent Weft-Knitted Structures ..... 4-17 2.1.1
2.2
Three Kinds of Methods used to Represent Weft Knitted Structure ............................................................ 4-17
Single Knit Structures ........................................................ 4-18 2.2.1 2.2.2
Plain Knit. ...................................................................... 4-18 Lacoste ........................................................................... 4-19
2.3
Double Knit Structures ...................................................... 4-20 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7
2.4
Structures and Techniques Commonly Applied to Sweaters ............................................................................... 4-24 2.4.1 2.4.2
2.5
Rib .................................................................................. 4-20 Half Milano .................................................................... 4-20 Full Milano ..................................................................... 4-21 Full Cardigan .................................................................. 4-21 Half Cardigan ................................................................. 4-22 Purl Structure ................................................................. 4-22 Interlock Fabrics ............................................................. 4-24
Intarsia ............................................................................ 4-24 Designs Through Loop Transfer .................................... 4-25
Special Knit Fabrics Produced by Circular Knitting ..... 4-26 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.5.7
High-Pile Knits ............................................................... 4-26 Knitted Terry .................................................................. 4-27 Knitted Velour ................................................................ 4-28 Fleecy Fabric .................................................................. 4-28 Coloured Stripe Fabrics .................................................. 4-29 Jacquard Fabric .............................................................. 4-30 Polar Fleece .................................................................... 4-31
Section 3 Yarn Count and Machine Gauge ............................. 4-32 3.1
Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Circular Knit ........ 4-32
3.2
Yarn Count and Machine Gauge for Wool Knitwear ...... 4-34
Section 4 Quality and Production of Circular Kniting .......... 4-36 4.1
Pre-requisites of a Circular Knitting Machine ................. 4-36
4.2
Production Conditions for Knitting .................................. 4-37 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5
4.3
Selection of Proper Yarn Count ...................................... 4-37 Setting of the Knitting Machine. .................................... 4-37 Yarn Storage ................................................................... 4-38 Air Conditioning of the Knitting Plant ........................... 4-38 Cleaning of Knitting Machines ...................................... 4-38
Production Calculations ..................................................... 4-38 4.3.1
Introduction .................................................................... 4-38
4.4
Quality Characteristics of Ring-spun 100% Combed Cotton Yarn for Circular Weft Knitting ........................... 4-40
Section 5 Fabric Analysis ......................................................... 4-45 5.1
The Geometry of Plain Weft-knitted Fabric .................... 4-45
5.2
Stitch Density (Fabric Count) ............................................ 4-46
5.3
Cover Factor ........................................................................ 4-46
5.4
Prediction of Knitted Performance by Mathematical Model ................................................................................... 4-47 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4
5.5
Engineering the Fabric ................................................... 4-47 Checking the Specification ............................................ 4-47 Calculations Based on K values ..................................... 4-48 Limitations of K values .................................................. 4-50
STARFISH - Engineered Knitted Program for Cotton Circular Knits ..................................................................... 4-51
Section 6 Typical Fabric Imperfections on Circular Knitting4-53 6.1
Fabric Skew ......................................................................... 4-53 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4
6.2
Barre .................................................................................... 4-58 6.2.1 6.2.2
7.2
Definition ....................................................................... 4-53 Causes ............................................................................ 4-53 Evaluation of the Effect of Yarn, Knitting and Finishing Parameters on Skew ....................................................... 4-54 Summary ........................................................................ 4-58
Definition of Barre ......................................................... 4-58 Causes of Barre .............................................................. 4-58
Warp Knitting Machine Classification ............................. 4-61
Section 7 Warp knitting and Warp Knitted Fabrics ..............4-61 7.1
Warp Knitting ..................................................................... 4-61 7.2.1 7.2.2
Tricot Machines .............................................................. 4-62 Raschel Machines ........................................................... 4-62
7.3
Knitting Elements of Warp Knitting Machine ................. 4-63 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4
7.4
Key Terms of Warp Knits .................................................. 4-66 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5 7.4.6 7.4.7
7.5
Needle ............................................................................ 4-63 The Sinker ...................................................................... 4-64 Guides and Guide Bars ................................................... 4-64 Driving Mechanisms of Knitting Elements .................... 4-65
Course and Wales ........................................................... 4-66 Stitch Density ................................................................. 4-66 Loop Parts ...................................................................... 4-66 Open and Closed Laps ................................................... 4-67 Technical Back ............................................................... 4-67 Technical Face ................................................................ 4-67 Run-in ............................................................................. 4-68
Common Warp Knit Fabric Structures and their Characteristics .................................................................... 4-68 7.5.1 7.5.2
Tricot Fabrics ................................................................. 4-68 Raschel Fabrics .............................................................. 4-72
Chapter 5 Textile Coloration and Finishing Treatments ............................................ 5-2 Section 1 Textile Coloration and Finishing ............................. 5-2 1.1
Introduction ......................................................................... 5-2
1.2
Preparation of Cotton Goods ............................................. 5-2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7
Grey Inspection ............................................................. 5-3 Singeing .......................................................................... 5-3 Desizing .......................................................................... 5-3 Scouring ......................................................................... 5-3 Bleaching ........................................................................ 5-4 Mercerization ................................................................. 5-5 Summary ........................................................................ 5-5
1.3
Fluorescent Brightening ..................................................... 5-5
1.4
Dyeing .................................................................................. 5-6 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.4.8 1.4.9
1.5
Printing ................................................................................ 5-22 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5
1.6
Terminology Relating to Dyeing .................................... 5-6 Factors that Affect Dyeing ............................................. 5-7 Classification of Dyes .................................................... 5-8 Colour Formulation ........................................................ 5-10 Colour Fastness .............................................................. 5-10 Application of Pigments ................................................. 5-12 Methods of Dyeing ......................................................... 5-12 Special Dyeing Effects ................................................... 5-20 Computer Colour Matching ........................................... 5-20
General Printing Procedures .......................................... 5-23 Methods of Printing ........................................................ 5-25 Printing Effects ............................................................... 5-33 Types of Prints ................................................................ 5-33 CAD/CAM System for Textile Printing ......................... 5-35
Finishing .............................................................................. 5-36 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3
Preparation ..................................................................... 5-36 Finishing ......................................................................... 5-37 Classification of Finishing ............................................. 5-37
Section 2 Common Finishing Treatments for Cotton Fabrics 5-44 2.1
Wrinkle-free Treatment of Cotton Fabrics and Garments ............................................................................. 5-44 2.1.1 2.1.2
2.2
General Considerations for Wrinkle-free Treatment ...... 5-44 Treatment Processes ....................................................... 5-45
Flame Retardant Treatment on Cotton Fabric by Precondensate/NH3 Process ............................................... 5-50 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7
2.3
Fabric Preparation .......................................................... 5-50 Precondensate Formulation ............................................ 5-50 Application ..................................................................... 5-51 Ammoniation .................................................................. 5-51 Oxidation and Process Washing ..................................... 5-53 Fabric After-Treatments ................................................. 5-54 Treatment of Cotton Blended Fabrics ............................ 5-54
Hints for Wet Processing of Cotton/Spandex Fabric ....... 5-55 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.3.9 2.3.10
Spandex in Knitted Fabric .............................................. 5-55 Relaxation ...................................................................... 5-55 Heat-Setting .................................................................... 5-56 Dyeing ............................................................................ 5-57 Drying ............................................................................ 5-58 Cotton/Spandex Woven Fabric ....................................... 5-58 Relaxation ...................................................................... 5-58 Heat-Setting .................................................................... 5-58 Dyeing ............................................................................ 5-59 Finishing ......................................................................... 5-59
Chapter 6 Textiles Testing and Quality Control .. 6-2 Section 1 Cotton Fibre Testing ................................................. 6-2 1.1
Terms Relating to the Conditioning and Testing of Textiles ................................................................................. 6-2
1.2
Recommendations for a Physical Testing Laboratory for Fibre and Yarn .............................................................. 6-3
1.3
Fibre Testing Condition ...................................................... 6-4 1.3.1
1.4
Fibre Moisture ..................................................................... 6-4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3
1.5
1.5.4
Micronaire Testing Procedure ........................................ 6-18 Calculation of Average Fibre Fineness ........................... 6-19
Fibre Maturity Testing ....................................................... 6-20 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3
1.8
Staple Diagram Method - Shirley Comb Sorter ............. 6-9 Fibrograph ...................................................................... 6-11 Comparison and Evaluation of Staple Diagram and Fibrogram ....................................................................... 6-13 Staple Length Conversion .............................................. 6-17
Fibre Fineness Testing ........................................................ 6-17 1.6.1 1.6.2
1.7
Measurement of Moisture Regain .................................. 6-4 Commercial Moisture Regain Values ............................. 6-5 Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Moisture Regain of Cotton ........................................ 6-7
Fibre Length Testing Principle .......................................... 6-8 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3
1.6
Ambient Laboratory Conditions for Fibre Testing ......... 6-4
Microscopic Array Method ............................................ 6-20 Differential Dyeing ........................................................ 6-21 Caustic Method .............................................................. 6-21
Fibre Strength Testing ........................................................ 6-22 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3
Pressley Fibre Strength Tester ........................................ 6-22 Stelometer ...................................................................... 6-24 Pressley Index and Fibre Strength (lb/in2) Conversion Table ............................................................................... 6-25
1.9
Fibre Dust and Trash .......................................................... 6-26 1.9.1 Definition of Dust and Trash .......................................... 6-26 1.9.2 Trash And Dust Measurement By Using Shirley Analyzer ......................................................................... 6-27
1.10 Fibre Identification ............................................................. 6-29 1.11 Typical Fibre Testing Equipment ...................................... 6-34 1.11.1 1.11.2 1.11.3 1.11.4
High Volume Instrument (HVI) ..................................... 6-34 Advanced Fibre Information System (Uster AFIS) ....... 6-38 MicroDust and Trash Analyser (Uster MDTA 3) ........... 6-40 Comparison Between Uster® MDTA 3 and Uster®AFIS-T ................................................................. 6-41 1.11.5 Recommendations for Fields of Application .................. 6-43 1.11.6 Statistics on Raw Cotton Fibre Properties Determined with Uster HVI ............................................................... 6-44
Section 2 Yarn Testing ............................................................... 6-49 2.1
Yarn Conditioning .............................................................. 6-49 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5
2.2
Basis of Unscoured Yarn ................................................ 6-49 Basis of Scoured Yarn .................................................... 6-49 Preconditioning .............................................................. 6-49 Conditioning ................................................................... 6-50 Oven-Drying .................................................................. 6-50
Yarn Numbering Systems ................................................... 6-50 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3
Direct and Indirect Systems ........................................... 6-50 Conversion Between Yarn Numbering Systems ............ 6-52 Yarn Diameter ................................................................ 6-52
2.3
Testing Plan ......................................................................... 6-52
2.4
Yarn Count Testing ............................................................. 6-61 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3
2.5
Lea Yarn Strength ............................................................... 6-62 2.5.1 2.5.2
2.6
Instruments ..................................................................... 6-61 Sampling ........................................................................ 6-61 Testing Procedure ........................................................... 6-61
Lea Yarn Strength Testing .............................................. 6-62 Yarn Strength Conversion .............................................. 6-62
Yarn Twist Testing .............................................................. 6-65
2.7
Yarn Appearance Characteristics ..................................... 6-66 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5
2.8
Tensile Properties ................................................................ 6-71 2.8.1
2.9
Count Variation .............................................................. 6-66 Mass Variation ................................................................ 6-66 Hairiness ......................................................................... 6-67 Imperfections .................................................................. 6-67 Testing of Yarn Appearance Characteristics (Uster® Yarn Testing Series) ................................................................ 6-67
Uster Tensojet ................................................................. 6-72
Classimat Defects ................................................................ 6-73
2.10 Yarn Quality Statistics of 100% Cotton Carded Ring Spun Yarns ........................................................................... 6-74 2.10.1 2.10.3 2.10.2 2.10.4 2.10.5
Yarn Quality ................................................................... 6-74 CLASSIMAT Defects .................................................... 6-77 Imperfections .................................................................. 6-77 Tensile Properties ........................................................... 6-78 HV Tensile Properties .................................................... 6-81
2.11 Standard Tolerances for Yarn Spun on the Cotton System .................................................................................. 6-85 2.11.1 2.11.2 2.11.3 2.11.4 2.11.5 2.11.6
Strength .......................................................................... 6-85 Yarn Number .................................................................. 6-85 Twist ............................................................................... 6-85 Extractable Matter .......................................................... 6-85 Appearance ..................................................................... 6-85 Uniformity ...................................................................... 6-86
2.12 New Developments in Testing ............................................ 6-86 2.12.1 Uster® Qualiprofile ......................................................... 6-86 2.12.2 Uster® Lab Expert .......................................................... 6-87
Section 3 Woven Fabric Inspection and Testing .................... 6-88 3.1
Woven Fabric Testing ......................................................... 6-88 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4
Fabric Construction ........................................................ 6-88 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance ... 6-91 Fabric Strength ............................................................... 6-94 Relationship Between Strip Test & Grab Test ................ 6-95
3.2
Woven Fabric Inspection System ...................................... 6-95 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3
4 Point System ................................................................ 6-95 10 Point System .............................................................. 6-98 Graniteville “78” System of Visual Quality Evaluation for Woven and Knitted Fabrics ...................................... 6-99
Section 4 Knitted Fabric Inspection and Testing .................... 6-101 4.1
Knitted Fabric Testing ........................................................ 6-101 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3
4.2
Fabric Construction ........................................................ 6-101 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance ... 6-102 Fabric Strength Testing .................................................. 6-102
Knitted Fabric Inspection Systems ................................... 16-02 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3
The KTA System for Circular Knitted Fabrics ............... 6-102 The KTA System for Raschel Knitted Fabrics ............... 6-104 The KTA System for Tricot Fabrics ............................... 6-107
Section 5 Fabric Quality and Performance ............................. 6-113 5.1
Quality Standard and Performance Tests for Apparel .... 6-113 5.1.2
5.2
Quality Guideline for Fabrics Containing Lycra® .................. 6-116
US Standard for Flammability .......................................... 6-120 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3
Flammable Fabrics Act Standards - USA ...................... 6-120 Federal Test Method Standard 191 - Textile Test Methods .......................................................................... 6-122 Miscellaneous Tests ........................................................ 6-123
5.3
Woven Fabric Defect Description and Cause ................... 6-124
5.4
Illustrations of Woven Fabric Faults ................................ 6-129
5.5
Knitted Fabric Defect Description and Cause ................. 6-136
5.6
Illustrations of Knitted Fabric Faults ............................... 6-140
Chapter 1 Textile Fibres ........................................ 1-2 Section 1 - Fibres Commonly Used for Textiles and Clothing...............................................1-2 1.1
Classification of Textile Fibres .......................................... 1-2
1.2
Natural Fibres .................................................................... 1-2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8
1.3
1-2 1-4 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8
Man-made Fibres ............................................................... 1-9 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7
1.4
Cotton ........................................................................... Flax (Linen) .................................................................. Jute ............................................................................... Ramie ........................................................................... Silk ............................................................................... Wool ............................................................................. Hair ............................................................................... Asbestos .......................................................................
Acetate .......................................................................... Acrylic .......................................................................... Nylon ............................................................................ Polyester ....................................................................... Rayon (Viscose Rayon) ................................................ Spandex ........................................................................ Olefin ............................................................................
1-9 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13
Microscopic Appearance of Common Textile Fibres ...... 1-14
Section 2 - Fibre Production......................................... 1-18 2.1
Desirable Fibre Properties ................................................ 1-18 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.7
Fibre length .................................................................. Cross-sectional shape and surface ................................ Straightness .................................................................. Strength ........................................................................ Extensibility and elasticity ........................................... Hand feel ...................................................................... Plasticity .......................................................................
1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-19 1-19
2.1.8 2.1.9 2.1.10 2.1.11 2.1.12 2.1.13
Absorbency .................................................................. Abrasion resistance ...................................................... Resiliency ..................................................................... Lustre ............................................................................ Density ......................................................................... Wicking ........................................................................
1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-20
2.2
Important Characteristics and Major End-use of Textile Fibres ...................................................................... 1-21
2.3
Examples of Commercial Names and Manufacturers of Man-Made Fibres .......................................................... 1-25
2.4
Properties of Major Textile Fibres ................................... 1-30
2.5
Chemical Resistance of Fibres .......................................... 1-31
Section 3 Types of Cotton ...........................................1-32 3.1
Kinds and Types of Cotton ................................................ 1-32 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6
3.2
The Features and Characteristics of the Three .............. Principal Cotton Fibre Groups ..................................... Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibre ..................... Composition of Cotton Fibre ........................................ Chemical composition of Cotton Fibre ......................... Physical properties of Cotton fibre (Upland Cotton) ........................................................... Chemical Properties of Cotton Fibre ............................
1-33 1-34 1-35 1-35 1-36 1-37
Classification of Cotton ..................................................... 1-38 3.2.1
Classification of Upland Cotton ................................... 1-38
Back to Table of Content
Chapter 1
TEXTILE FIBRES
1-2
Textile Fibres
CHAPTER 1......... .........TEXTILE FIBRES SECTION 1
FIBRES COMMONLY USED FOR TEXTILES AND CLOTHING
1.1 Classification of Textile Fibres Textile fibre is an individual, fine, hair-like substance, which forms the fundamental element of textile yarn and fabric. Fibres are either found in nature or made by man. Natural fibres are obtained from plants, animals and minerals, while man-made fibres are produced either purely chemically (Synthetic fibres) or by modifying natural fibres by chemical means (Regenerated fibres). The classification of textile fibres is presented in fig. 1.1.
1.2 Natural Fibres 1.2.1 Cotton Cotton is the seed hair of the plant of the genus Gossypium. It is classified as natural, cellulosic, mono-cellular, staple fibre. Different kinds and types of cotton are grown in various parts of the world. Variations occur among cotton fibres because of growth conditions, including such factors as soil, climate, fertilisers, and pests. The quality of cotton fibre is based on its colour, staple, fineness, and strength. Usually, longer fibres are finer and stronger. The particular kind of cotton is often identified by the name of the country or geographical area where it is produced.
However, cotton has little lustre and has poor elasticity and resiliency. It is attacked by mildew and weakened by resin chemicals used in
Wool (sheep)
Polyolefin (olefin)
Polyvinyl derivatives
Anidex
Acrylic
Modacrylic
Nytril
Vinylal (acetalized vinyl alcohol)
Polyamide (nylon)
Fluorofibre (PTFE)
Aramid
Trivinyl
Polystyrene
Synthetic polyisoprene
Deacetylated Lyocell acetate Polyester
Modal
Cupra
Cellulose ester Acetate Triacetate
regenerated cellulose (rayon)
Other (carbon,glass, metal,ceramic)
Vegetable (arachin zein)
Regenerated protein
Natural polymer
Man-made
Animal (casein)
Rubber
Viscose
Alginate
Synthetic polymer
Poly vinylidene chloride (saran)
Chlorofibre
Segmented polyurethane (spandex)
Polyurethane
Poly vinyl chloride (vinyon)
Non segmented polyurethane
Leaf (manila, heneguen, phormium tenax, sisal)
Mineral (Asbestos)
Polyethylene Polypropylene
Novoloid
Lastrile
Bast(flax, hemp,jute, kenaf, ramie)
Vegetable
Hair (alpaca,camel,cow,goat (mohair,cashmere),horse, rabbit (angora),vicuna)
Polymethylene urea (polycarbamide)
Silk
Seed(cotton, kapok,coir)
Animal
Natural
Textile fibres
Textile Fibres (Source: Textiles Terms and Definition)
Textile Fibres
Figure 1.1
Textile Handbook 1-3
1-4
Textile Fibres
When dry, cotton fibre is almost entirely made up of cellulose (up to 96%). The other components, being regarded as impurities, include small amounts of protein, pectin, wax, ash, organic acids and pigment. The length of cotton is normally between 1/2 to 21/2 inches (12.7-63.5mm). Cotton has a shape like a flat twisted tube when viewed under a microscope. Cotton fibre has good strength and abrasion resistance. It is hydrophillic, absorbs moisture quickly and dries quickly, has no static or pilling problems. finishing and by acids, but is highly resistant to alkalis.
1.2.2 Flax (Linen) Flax comes from the stem of the flax plant of the species Linum usitatissimum. It is classified as a natural cellulose, bast, and multicellular fibre. When the fibre is processed into fabric it is called Linen. Flax fibre is the stem of flax plant, fibre length between 2 to 36 inches. (50.8-914.4mm) The fibres are hackled (combed) to separate the long line and short tow fibres. The line fibres are generally drafted and doubled, and then lightly twisted before undergoing a wet spinning process. This produces strong, fine yarn. The short tow fibres are carded and drafted and then spun using a dry spinning method. Dryspun yarns have a heavier count and are used for furnishing fabrics, heavy apparel and household textiles and knitwear. Flax is lint-free because of the absence of very short fibres. It has excellent strength, especially when wet. It has poorer drape and resiliency than cotton but is more hydrophillic, and therefore good for hot weather. Major flax producing countries are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Ireland, Scotland, and the former USSR. The highest quality flaxes come from Belgium, Northern France and the Netherlands.
Textile Handbook 1-5
1.2.3 Jute Jute is the common name given to fibre extracted from the stems of plants belonging to the genus Corchorus. It is yellowish-brown in colour, which is classified as natural, bast, and long staple fibre. People all over the world have used jute for most of their packaging requirements. Demand for jute goods reached a peak between the two world wars, but since then the industry has experienced strong competition from bulk handling paper sacks and more recently synthetic fibres like polypropylene and polyethylene. The bulk of the world jute is grown in Bangladesh and India. Both countries are large-scale manufacturers of jute goods. A small amount of jute is also grown in China and some African countries. Jute is commonly used in making sacks and bags and woven into fabric for carpet backing.
Ramie is a bast fibre from a plant known as reha, and China grass; it is obtained from a tall shrub grown in Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Southern Europe. The fibre is stiff, more brittle than linen, and highly lustrous. It can be bleached to extreme whiteness. Ramie lends itself to general processing for textile yarns, but its retting operation is difficult and costly, making the fibre unprofitable for general use. Ramie is seldom used for garments worn next-to-the-skin because it can cause a prickle and itchy sensation to the human skin, particularly when the skin is moistened such as during humid summer. It has poorer drape and resiliency than cotton. Since it has hydrophillic property similar to linen, it was used to produce fabric, called “Summer Cloth”, to be worn in summer in China.
1.2.5 Silk Silk is a continuous strand of protein filament cemented together forming the cocoon of silk worm Bombyx mori. The silk worm forms silk by forcing two fine streams of thick liquid out of tiny openings in its head. On contact with air, the streams of liquid harden into filaments. Silk is classified as a natural, protein filament fibre.
Textile Fibres
1.2.4 Ramie
1-6
Textile Fibres
Silk classification depends whether it comes from cultivated or wild silk worms. The cultivated silk worms, which solely live on mulberry leaves, produce the finest lustrous fibres, and these fibres are known as real silk fibre. The wild silk worms which are not cultivated, feed on the leaves of other trees such as oak and cherry, and produce brown, much thicker and less lustrous fibres. These fibres are known as tussah silk and are used for heavier, rough-textured fabrics. Duoppioni is made when two silk worms make their cocoons at the same time, thus joining together in one cocoon. Silk has excellent drape, lustre and luxurious hand. It is hydrophillic and with little problem in static, wet strength is 15% less than dry. It has poor resistance to prolonged exposure to sunlight and can be attacked by moths. Under strong alkaline condition, silk will be weakened. Today China is the leading silk producer of the world. Other major silk producing countries include Japan, India and Italy.
1.2.6 Wool Wool is the fibre from the fleece of sheep. It is a natural, protein, multi- cellular, staple fibre. Early wool was a very coarse fibre. Its development into the soft, fleecy coat so familiar today is the result of long and continued selective breeding. The breeding of animals and the production of the wool fibre into fabric are more costly processes than the cultivation of plant fibre (e.g. cotton, linen) and their manufacture. Wool fibre is composed of proteins and organic substances with composition of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulphur. All wool fibres have scales in the fibre surface. Wool fibre has good resiliency when dry, but poor when wet. It retains warmth because of slow moisture absorption and slow drying which creates no cooling effect, and its natural crimp provides an air trap for insulation. The major disadvantages of wool are felting, and it is easily attacked by moth. There are about forty breeds of sheep. Counting the cross breeds, there are over 200 distinct grades of sheep. Those that produce wool may be classified into four groupings according to the quality of the wool produced.
Textile Handbook 1-7
Class-one or Merino Wool: Merino sheep produce the best wool which is relatively short, ranging from 25-125 mm, but the fibre is strong, fine and elastic and has good working properties. Class-two wools: They are not quite as good as the Merino wool, but this variety is nevertheless a very good quality wool. It is 50-200 mm in length, has a large number of scales, and has good working properties. This class of sheep originated in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. Class-three wools: These fibres are of about 100-455 mm long, are coarser, and have fewer scales and less crimp than Merino and Classtwo wools. As a result, they are smoother, and therefore, they have more lustre. These wools are less elastic and resilient. Class-four Wool : These fibres are from 25-400 mm long, are coarse and hair-like, have relatively fewer scales and crimp, and therefore, are smoother and more lustrous. This wool is less desirable, with the least elasticity and strength.
Lambs wool : This is the first fleece sheared from a lamb about six to eight months old; sometimes it is referred to the first clip. This wool is of very fine quality. The fibres are tapered because the ends have never been clipped. Such fibres produce a softness of texture in fabric, and it is a popular material for sweaters.
1.2.7 Hair Hair fibres that have qualities of wool are obtained from certain kinds of animals. The hair of these animals has been so adapted by nature for the climate in which they live that the cloth produced from the fibres gives warmth with light weight. Hair fibres include camel hair, mohair, cashmere, llama, alpaca, vicuna, and angora. (rabbit hair) Camel hair is a fine and naturally water-repellent hair, which is able to protect the body in both heat and cold. Camel hair fabrics are ideal
Textile Fibres
Wool can be classified by fleece. Wool shorn from young lambs differs in quality from that of older sheep. Also, fleeces differ according to whether they come from live or dead sheep, which necessitates standards for the classification of fleeces. The typical classes of fleeces are Lamb’s Wool, Hogget Wool, Wether Wool, Pulled Wool, Dead Wool and Taglocks.
1-8
Textile Fibres
for comfort, particularly when used for overcoating, as they are especially warm but light in weight. It is divided into three grades. Grade 1 is the soft and silky light-tan underhair of from 1 1/4 to 3 1/2 inches (30-90mm), it is the choicest quality. Grade 2 consists of short hairs and partly of coarse outer hairs, ranging from 1 1/2 to 5 inches (40125mm) in length. Grade 3 consists entirely of coarse outer hairs measuring up to 15 inches (380mm) in length and varying in colour from brownish black to reddish brown. Mohair is the hair of the Angora goat, which is a smooth, strong, and resilient fibre. It does not attract or hold dirt particles. It absorbs dye evenly and permanently. Its fine silk-like lustre permits interesting decorative effects. It is more uniform in diameter than wool fibre, therefore, does not shrink or felt as readily as wool. The underhair of Cashmere goat is made into luxuriously soft woollike yarns with a characteristic highly napped finish. This fine cashmere fibre is soft, lighter in weight than wool, and quite warm ; however, because it is a soft, delicate fibre, fabrics produced from cashmere are not as durable as wool. Alpaca fibre is valued for its silky beauty as well as for its strength. The hair of the alpaca is stronger than ordinary sheep’s wool, is waterrepellent, and has a high insulative quality. It is as delicate, soft, and lustrous as the finest silk. The best selected type of alpaca is the suri which is longer, silkier, and finer and has curl throughout its length. The Angora rabbit produces long, fine, silky white hair, and comes mainly from France, Italy, and Japan. Its smooth, silky texture makes it difficult to spin, and the fibres tend to slip out of the yarn and shed form the fabric.
1.2.8 Asbestos Asbestos is fibrous mineral mined from rock deposits. Chemically, chrysotile asbestos (used in textiles) is a hydrated silicate of magnesium which contains small amounts of ferrous, ferric and aluminium oxides. The soft, long, glossy white fibres are pressed into sheets; and the best quality can be spun into yarn. Asbestos will not burn, but it will melt at a sufficiently high temperature. It is acid proof and rustproof. However, it has been found to be hazardous to health, as particles can
Textile Handbook 1-9
lodge in the respiratory system and are carcinogenic. Its use is now prohibited in many countries.
1.3 Man-made Fibres 1.3.1 Acetate
1.3.2 Acrylic Acrylic is a long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of acrylonitrile units. It was initially developed to simulate wool properties for making sweaters and blankets. The first acrylic fibre, named Orlon, was produced at Du Pont. Because of its homopolymer structure, it is almost as strong as nylon and was highly resistant to chemicals (notably acids) and to sunlight. However, it is virtually undyeable. Acrilan and Creslan are copolymer acrylic fibres, which have a more open fibre structure, and therefore disperse dyestuffs are absorbed into the fibre more readily. Some acrylic fibres are graft polymers, which are more open and less crystalline than homopolymer or copolymer. Dye receptivity is increased. Acrylic fibres are used in staple rather than filament form, mainly in knit apparel items. They are medium in tenacity, toughness, and abrasion
Textile Fibres
Acetate is a regenerated man-made fibre made from acetylation of cellulose by acetic acid. The cellulose source is similar to viscose rayon but it differs greatly in chemical nature because the acetylation of the cellulose makes it a hydrophobic character. Different degrees of acetylation will result in different fibre properties and entitlement, i.e. Secondary Acetate and Triacetate. It gives excellent drape and a luxurious hand, no pilling problem and little static, and is also inexpensive. The characteristics of acetate are quite different form those of all the other man-made fibres. One of its unique characteristics is its thermoplasticity; that is, it can be softened by the application of heat and placed or pressed into a particular shape. Creases and pleats heatset into acetate fabrics are relatively durable and are retained better than in cotton, linen, wool, silk, or rayon. It is not very absorbent and, in fact, it is one of the weakest textile fibres, weaker than any rayon.
1-10
Textile Fibres
resistance. Acrylic fibres have poor hot-wet performance. They are soft fibres with low moisture regain. They exhibit high resistance to ultraviolet light and to most chemicals to which they are commonly exposed during use.
1.3.3 Nylon Nylon is a man-made synthetic polymer, polyamide filament or staple fibre. It is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which less then 85% of amide linkages are attached to two aromatic rings. The first nylon produced by Du Pont was nylon 6.6, so called because its chemical components contain six carbon atoms per molecule. Nylon 6 was produced from a polyamide called caprolactum, which contain 6 carbon atoms. Some other forms of nylon were also developed known as Nylon 7, Nylon 11, Nylon 6.12 and Nylon 4, 8, 10, 6.10. Nylon is produced in both regular and high tenacity strengths. Although it is one of the lightest textile fibres, it is also one of the strongest. The strength of nylon will not deteriorate with age. It has the highest resistance to abrasion of any fibre. It can take a tremendous amount of rubbing, scraping, bending, and twisting without breaking down. Nylon is one of the elastic fibres, however, such stretch nylon yarns as Helanca and Agilon have exceptional elasticity. It has excellent resilience and draping qualities. Nylon does not absorb much moisture, therefore the nylon fabric feels clammy and uncomfortable in warm, humid weather.
1.3.4 Polyester Polyester fibres are long chain polymers produced from elements derived from coal, air, water and petroleum. Polyester fibre is chemically composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester of a substituted aromatic carboxylic acid, including but not restricted to substituted terephthalic units and para substituted hydroxybenzoate units. The polyester fibres may be primarily divided into two varieties i.e. PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PCDT (poly-1,4-cyclohexylene dimethylene terephthalate). Most of the production is PET. Modification of each of these varieties is engineered to provide specific properties. It is also possible to produce other variants of polyester. PBT
Textile Handbook 1-11
(polybutylene terephthalate) is the other polyester made by condensing terephthalic acid with butane diol and is melt spun to get the filaments.
Polyester fibres are dyed almost exclusively with disperse dyes. Because of its rigid structure, well-developed crystallinity and lack of reactive dye sites, PET absorbs very little dye in conventional dye systems. Research work has been done to improve the dyeability of PET fibres. Polymerizing a third monomer, such as dimethyl ester, has successfully produced a cationic dyeable polyester fibres into the macro-molecular chain. This third monomer has introduced functional groups as the sites to which the cationic dyes can be attached. The third monomer also contributes to disturbing the regularity of PET polymer chains, so as to make the structure of cationic dyeable polyester less compact than that of normal PET fibres. The disturbed structure is good for the penetration of dyes into the fibre. The disadvantage of adding a third monomer is the decrease of the tensile strength.
1.3.5 Rayon (Viscose Rayon) Viscose (or viscose rayon) is a man-made fibre composed of 100% regenerated cellulose discovered in 1891 and first commercial production was undertaken in 1905 by Courtaulds. It is made from cotton linters or wood pulp, usually obtained from spruce and pine trees. Initially viscose was called ‘Artificial silk’ and later named as ‘rayon’ because
Textile Fibres
Fabrics made of PET polyester yarn should be given compressive shrinking and heat setting to obtain dimensional stability to subsequent finishing processes and washing. PCDT polyester fabrics need not be initially heat-set because they are inherently stable. Both forms of polyester fabrics can be permanently pressed since they are thermoplastic and hold their shape exceedingly well. Polyester fibres are subject to the accumulation of static electricity. In general, PET polyester filament yarns used for tires and industrial purposes are extremely strong. The abrasion resistance of polyester fibre is exceptionally good, being exceeded only by nylon among all of the commonly used fibres. However, the abrasion resistance of low-pilling types, including those of PCDT polyester, is of a lower order that is generally similar to wool. As polyester fibres do not have a high degree of elasticity, its strength, abrasion resistance, and stability make it very suitable for sewing thread.
1-12
Textile Fibres
of its brightness and similarities in structure with cotton (Sunray & Cotton). The other two regenerated cellulose fibres are cuprammonium (Cupro®) and polynosic (Modal). In the USA these three regenerated cellulose fibres are still referred to collectively by the generic term rayon. But the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) prefers the name viscose and defines viscose as regenerated cellulose obtained by the viscose process. The name viscose was derived from the word viscous, which describe the liquid state of the spinning solution. Viscose rayon is weak, with high elongation at break and a low modulus. It loses 30 to 50% of its strength when wet, and needs careful laundering. It also shrinks appreciably from washing. Viscose rayon is one of the most absorbent of all textiles. It is more absorbent than cotton or linen and is exceeded in absorbency only by wool and silk. A variation of rayon is classified as high wet modulus (HWM) rayon or polynosic rayon. This type of rayon is launderable.
1.3.6 Spandex Spandex is an elastomeric fibre, that is it has superior elasticity. It is capable of being stretched over 7 times its length and returning immediately to its relaxed state upon release of tension. Spandex may be described as being molecularly composed of a chain-like arrangement of soft, stretchable segments of polyurethane linked together for reinforcement by hard segments. There are two members of the spandex group - the polyester segmented and the polyether segmented. The polyester spandex fibres are more resistant to oxidation and oil absorption. Polyether spandex fibres are more resistant to detergents and mildew. In 1958 DuPont was the first to introduce to the trade man-made elastic fibre under the Lycra trademark. This synthetic elastic fibre overcomes the product deficiencies such as stress-strain properties, denier range and mouldability of rubber yarn. Elastic fibres have contributed to improvement in fashion, freedom of motion and the comfort and fit in modern clothing. For example, the Lycra® Soft family of products was developed to provide added comfort while responding to movements without tension.
Textile Handbook 1-13
Since the introduction of synthetic elastic fibre, the major application area was in the replacement of rubber in waistbands and foundation garments. This was followed by expansion into underwear and swimwear, and later continued into hosiery, sportswear ready-to-wear, diapers, shoes, upholstery and technical applications. Spandex fibre is available as filament in a variety of deniers ranging from 20-5400. Deniers of 20-210 are used in lightweight support hosiery and of 140-560, in men’s hosiery. Coarse deniers of 70-2240 are used in panty hose tops, swimwear, and foundation garments. Spandex fibre may be delustered and white in colour; it can also be transparent when used for fine knit products.
1.3.7 Olefin
Olefins are used for making indoor/outdoor carpeting and bathroom floor covering because of their low specific gravity. Important apparel end uses are athletic clothes, exercise suits, and underwear because of its excellent wicking action.
Textile Fibres
Olefin is a manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polyethylene, propylene, or other olefin unit, except amorphous ( noncrystalline) polyolefins. It is a very lightweight fibre possesses very good strength and abrasion resistance. It possesses a unique combination of low moisture absorbency and exceptional wicking of water, which are advantages in providing comfortable apparel in certain circumstances. Olefin is almost completely hydrophobic. Such moisture properties are sought for active sportswear fabrics, particularly sweatshirts, socks, and warm-up suits, because water is moved away from the skin. This fibre also has excellent sunlight resistance and weatherability, and can be washed or drycleaned easily. However, because olefin is sensitive to perchloroethylene, the most frequently used drycleaning solvent, generally, petroleum solvent should be specified if necessary.
1-14
Textile Fibres
1.4 Microscopic Appearance of Common Textile Fibres
Longitudinal View
Cotton
Linen
Jute
Ramie
Cross-sectional View
Textile Handbook 1-15
Longitudinal View
Cross-sectional View
Silk
Wool
Textile Fibres
Angora
Acetate
1-16
Textile Fibres
Longitudinal View
Acrylic
Nylon
Polyester
Rayon
Cross-sectional View
Textile Handbook 1-17
Longitudinal View
Cross-sectional View
Olefin (Polyethylene)
Spandex Textile Fibres
1-18
Textile Fibres
SECTION 2
FIBRE PROPERTIES
2.1 Desirable Fibre Properties Fibres usually are grouped and twisted together into yarn and the yarns are then used to make woven and knitted fabrics. A fibre’s structure contributes to the performance characteristics of a fabric made from it. The properties are determined by a fibre’s physical attributes, chemical composition and molecular formation.
2.1.1 Fibre length Fibres which can be measured in length are called staple fibres, while fibres of infinite length are called filament fibres. For staple fibres, the longer the fibre length the better the quality of yarn being spun.
2.1.2 Cross-sectional shape and surface These determine the bulk, texture, luster and hand feel of the fibre. For example, round shape fibres do not pack as well as flat fibres (which results in bulkier products) and they have a smoother, and more slippery hand.
2.1.3 Straightness Fibres may be straight, twist, coiled, or crimped, and this affects the performance properties such as resiliency, elasticity, and abrasion resistance. For example, crimp on fibre inverse resiliency, bulk, warmth, elongation and absorbency.
2.1.4 Strength Fibre strength contributes to yarn strength and eventually affects fabric durability. It is usually expressed as tenacity (gram per tex).
2.1.5 Extensibility and elasticity This is the ability to increase in length when under tension and then return into the original length when released. Fibres that can elongate at least 100% are called elastometric fibres.
Textile Handbook 1-19
2.1.6 Hand feel This is affected by its shape, surface and configuration. The terms such as soft, crisp, dry, silky, or harsh are used to describe the hand feel.
2.1.7 Plasticity A thermoplastic fibre melts or softens when heat is applied. Thus, permanent creased and pleats can be made on fabrics containing thermoplastic fibres.
2.1.8 Absorbency This is the ability to take in moisture. It is expressed as a percentage of moisture regain (M.R.). M.R. is the amount of water a bone-dry fibre will absorb from the air under 20°C and 65% R.H.. Fibres which absorb water easily are called hydrophilic, while those which only absorb a small amount are called hydrophobic.
This is the ability to resist wear form rubbing; fibres that have high breaking strength and abrasion resistance are more durable.
2.1.10 Resiliency This is the ability of a material to spring back to shape after being distorted. It is closely related to wrinkle recovery.
2.1.11 Lustre This refers to the light reflected form a surface. Various characteristics of a fibre will affect the amount of luster produced. The cross-sectional shape, lengthwise appearance, yarn type, weave and finish used will affect the amount of lustre.
2.1.12 Density A fibre of low density can produce a thick and lofty, but still relatively lightweight fabric.
Textile Fibres
2.1.9 Abrasion resistance
1-20
Textile Fibres
2.1.13 Wicking This the ability of a fibre to transfer moisture form one section to another. Usually the moisture is along the fibre surface. The wicking propensity of a fibre is usually based on the chemical and physical composition of the outer surface; a smooth surface reduces wicking action. A hydrophilic fibre such as cotton possesses good wicking action, while a hydrophobic fibre such as polypropylene also possesses good wicking action when it is in an extra thin filament form. This property is especially desirable for sportswear; body perspiration is transported by wicking action along the fibre surface to the outer surface of the cloth thus providing improved comfort.
Textile Handbook 1-21
2.2 Important Characteristics and Major End-use of Textile Fibres Fibre ACETATE
ACRYLIC
COTTON
Luxurious appearance Crisp or soft hand Wide range of colours; dyes and prints well Excellent drapeability and softness Shrink, moth, and mildew resistant Low moisture absorbency, relatively fast drying No pilling problem, little static problem Most acetate garments require dry-cleaning Light-weight, soft, warm for winter wearing Dyes to bright colours with excellent fastness Outstanding wickability Machine washable, quick drying Resilient; retains shape; resists shrinkage, & wrinkles Flexible aesthetics for wool-like, cotton-like or blended appearance Excellent pleat retention Resistant to moths, oil and chemicals Superior resistance to sunlight degradation Static and pilling can be a problem
Major end-uses Apparel - Blouses, dresses, linings, special occasion apparel, Home Fashion - Draperies, upholstery, curtains, bedspreads
Apparel - sweaters, socks, fleece, circular knit apparel, sportswear, childrenswear Home Fashion - Blankets, throws, upholstery, awnings, outdoor furniture, rugs/floor coverings
Apparel - protective clothing, Does not melt military helmets, protective Highly flame-resistant vests High strength Others - hot-gas filtration fabrics, structural composites High resistance to stretch Maintains its shape and form at high for aircraft and boats, sailcloth, tires, ropes and cables, temperatures mechanical rubber goods, marine and sporting goods. Apparel - Wide range of Comfortable wearing apparel: blouses, Soft hand shirts, dresses, childrenswear, Absorbent activewear, separates, swimwear, suits, jackets, skirts, Good colour retention, prints well pants, sweaters, hosiery, Machine-washable, dry-cleanable neckwear. Home Fashion - curtains, Good strength draperies, bedspreads, Drapes well comforters, throws, sheets, towels, table cloths, table mats, Easy to handle and sew napkins.
Textile Fibres
ARAMID
Characteristics
1-22
Textile Fibres LINEN
Comfortable Good strength, twice as strong as cotton Hand-washable or dry-cleanable Crisp hand Tailors well Absorbent Dyes and prints well Lightweight to heavyweight No static or pilling problems Fair abrasion resistant
Apparel - dresses, suits, separates, skirts, jackets, pants, blouses, shirts, childrenswear. Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, upholstery, bedspreads, table linens, sheets, dish towels.
LYOCELL
Excellent strength Washable Shrink- and wrinkle-resistant Soft hand Excellent drape Absorbent Dyes and prints well
Apparel - dresses, suits sportswear, pants, jackets, blouses, and skirts.
MICROFIBERS .
Ultra fine (less than 1.0 dpf), finer than the most delicate silk Extremely drapeable Very soft, luxurious hand with a silken or suede touch Washable, dry cleanable Shrink-resistant High strength (except Rayon) Excellent pleat retention Insulates well against wind, rain and cold
Apparel - hosiery, blouses, dresses, separates, sportswear, ties, scarves, menswear, intimate apparel, activewear, swimwear, outerwear, rainwear.
MODACRYLIC
Soft Resilient Abrasion- and flame-resistant Quick-drying Resists acids and alkalis Retains shape
Apparel: Deep pile coats, trims, linings, simulated fur, wigs and hairpieces Home Fashion: Awnings, blankets. Carpets, flameresistant draperies and curtains, scatter rugs.
MOHAIR
Long, lustrous, strong fibre Luxurious Soft hand Most resilient natural textile fibre Lightweight, warms, good insulator Dyes well, brilliant colours Non-crush, -mat and -pill qualities. Resists fading
Apparel - coats, suits, dresses, sweaters, accessories, loungewear, and socks.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, upholstery, sheets, towels, and blankets.
Home Fashion - blankets, throws, upholstery, draperies, carpets rugs.
Textile Handbook 1-23 NYLON
POLYESTER
RAYON
Apparel - swimwear, activewear, intimate apparel, foundation garments, hosiery, blouses, dresses, sportswear, pants, jackets, skirts, raincoats, ski and snow apparel, windbreakers, childrenswear.
Strong Crisp, soft hand Resistant to stretching and shrinkage Washable or dry-cleanable Quick drying Resilient, wrinkle resistant, excellent pleat retention (if heat set) Abrasion resistant Resistant to most chemicals Because of its low absorbency, stain removal can be a problem Static and pilling problems
Apparel - essential every form of clothing, dresses, blouses, jackets, separates, sportswear, suits, shirts, pants, rainwear, lingerie, childrenswear
Lightweight, lightest fibre, it floats Strong Abrasion resistant, resilient Stain-, static-, sunlight-, and odor-resistant High insulation characteristics Resists deterioration from chemicals, mildew, perspiration, rot and weather Fast drying High wickability Colour fast, because colours are incorporated during fibre forming stage Spills can be readily wiped up Static and pilling can be a problem Ironing, washing and drying need to be done at low temperature Non-allergenic
Apparel - activewear, sportswear, jeans, socks, underwear, lining fabrics.
Soft and comfortable Drapes well Highly absorbent Dyes and prints well No static, no pilling problems Fabric can shrink appreciably if washing dry clean only rayon Washable or dry cleanable. Read the label
Apparel - Blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery, slacks, sportshirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes Home Fashion - bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slip covers, tablecloths, upholstery.
Home Fashion - carpets, rugs, curtains, upholstery, draperies, bedspreads Other - Luggage, back packets, life vests, umbrellas, sleeping bags, tents.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, floor coverings, fibre fill, upholstery, and bedding.
Home Fashion - indoor and outdoor carpets, carpet backing, upholstery, wall coverings, furniture and bedding construction fabrics.
Textile Fibres
POLYOLEFIN (OLEFIN)
Lightweight Exceptional strength Good drapeability Abrasion resistant Easy to wash Resists shrinkage and wrinkling resilient, pleat retentive Fast drying, low moisture absorbency Can be pre-coloured or dyed in a wide range of colours Resistant to damage from oil and many chemicals Static and pilling can be a problem Poor resistance to continuous sunlight
1-24
Textile Fibres SILK
Soft or crisp hand Luxurious Drapes and tailors well Thinnest of all natural fibres Dyes and prints well Hand-washable or dry-cleanable Little problem with static, no pilling problem Only fair abrasion resistance Poor resistance to prolonged exposure to sunlight
Apparel - dresses, blouses, skirts, jackets, pants, pants, scarves, and ties.
SPANDEX
Lightweight Can be stretched over 500% without breaking Able to be stretched repetitively and still recover original length Abrasion resistant Stronger, more durable than rubber Soft, smooth and supple Resistant to body oils, perspiration, lotions or detergents No static or pilling problems
Apparel - articles where stretch is desired: athletic apparel, bathing suits, foundation garments, ski pants, slacks, hosiery, socks, belts.
TRIACETATE
Luxurious hand Excellent drapeability Resilient Excellent pleat retention Washable or dry-cleanable No pilling problem Can have static problem
Apparel - dresses, skirts, sportswear, robes, particularly where pleat retention is important
WOOL
Comfortable Luxurious, soft hand Versatile Lightweight Good insulator Washable Wrinkle-resistant Absorbent Easy to dye
Apparel - sweaters, dresses, coats, suits, jackets, pants, skirts, childrenswear, loungewear, blouses, shirts, hosiery, and scarves.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, upholstery.
Home Fashion - carpets, draperies, upholstery, blankets.
Textile Handbook 1-25
2.3 Examples of Commercial Names and Manufacturers of Man-Made Fibres Fibre type
ACETATE
ACRYLIC
BICOMPONENT FLUORO LYOCELL
MELAMINE MODACRYLIC
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Atlon Celanese Chromspun Dicel Estera Estron MicroSafe
Manufacturer 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Toho Rayon Co. Ltd., Japan Celanese A.G. Eastman Chemical Company British Celanese Ltd., U.S.A. Dai Nippon Celluloid Ltd., Japan Eastman Chemical Company Celanese A.G.
1. Acrilan 2. Beslon 3. BioFresh 4. Bounce-Back 5. Cashmilon 6. Creslan 7. Cresloft 8. Crylor 9. Courtelle 10. Duraspun 11. Dynel 12. Euroacryl 13. MicroSupreme 14. Orlon 15. Pil-Trol 16. So-Lara 17. The Smart Yarns 18. Toraylon 19. Ware-Dated 20. Vonnel 21. WeatherBloc
1. Solutia Inc. 2. Toho Beslon Co. Ltd., Japan 3. Sterling Fibers, Inc 4. Solutia Inc. 5. Asahi Chemical Ind. Co., Japan 6. Sterling Fibers, Inc 7. Sterling Fibers, Inc 8. Rhodiaceta Co, France 9. Courtauld Co., England 10. Solutia Inc. 11. B.I.F. Fibres., U.S.A. 12. Anic Co., Italy 13. Sterling Fibers, Inc 14. DuPont Company 15. Solutia Inc. 16. Solutia Inc. 17. Solutia Inc. 18. Toyo Rayon Co. Ltd., Japan 19. Solutia Inc. 20. Mitsubishi Vonnel Co. Ltd., Japan 21. Sterling Fibers, Inc
1. Kevlar 2. Nomex
1. DuPont Company 2. DuPont Company
1. 1. 1. 2. 3.
Resistat Teflon Fibro Lyocell by Lenzing Tencel
1. 1. 1. 2. 3.
BASF Corporation DuPont Company Acordis Cellulosic Fibers, Inc. Lenzing Fibers Corporation Acordis Cellulosic Fibers, Inc.
1. 1. 2. 3.
Basofil Dynel Kanekalon SEF Plus
1. 1. 2. 3.
BASF Corporation B.I.F. Fibres, U.S.A Kanefushi Chemical Industry, Japan Solutia Inc.
Textile Fibres
ARAMID
Trade names
1-26
Textile Fibres Mitsubishi Rayon Co., Ltd, Japan Fuji Spinning Co Ltd, Japan Tejin Co Ltd, Japan Daiwa Spinning Co Ltd, Japan Toho Rayon Co Ltd, Japan Toyobo Co Ltd, Japan Lenzing Fibers Corporation Lenzing Fibers Corporation
MODAL
NYLON 6
1. Anso 2. Caprolan 3. Dry Step 4. Eclipse 5. Enkalon 6. Grilon 7. Hardline 8. Hydrofil 9. Matinesse 10. Micro Touch 11. Nylon 6ix 12. Bayer-Perlon (Dorlon) 13. Powersilk 14. Shimmereen 15. Silky Touch 16. Softglo 17. Sportouch 18. Stay Gard 19. Tru-Ballistic 20. Ultra Touch 21. Zefsport 22. Zeftron 200
1. Honeywell Inc 2. Honeywell Inc 3. Honeywell Inc 4. Honeywell Inc 5. British Enkalon Ltd, England 6. Fibron S.A. Ems/Format, Switzerland 7. Honeywell Inc 8. Honeywell Inc 9. BASF Corporation 10. BASF Corporation 11. BASF Corporation 12. Farbenfabriken Bayer 13. BASF Corporation 14. BASF Corporation 15. BASF Corporation 16. BASF Corporation 17. BASF Corporation 18. Honeywell Inc 19. Honeywell Inc 20. BASF Corporation 21. BASF Corporation 22. BASF Corporation
1. Amilon 2. Antron 3. Assurance 4. Avantige 5. Cantrece 6. Cordura 7. Durasoft 8. Duratrek 9. DyeNAMIX 10. Hytel 11. Micro Supplex 12. Natrelle BCF
1. Toyo Rayon Co Ltd, Nagoya 2. JapanDuPont Company 3. DuPont Company 4. DuPont Company 5. DuPont Company 6. DuPont Company 7. Solutia Inc. 8. Solutia Inc. 9. Solutia Inc. 10. DuPont Company 11. DuPont Company 12. DuPont Company
NYLON 6.6
Hipolan Junlon Polycot Polyno Toholon Tufeel Modal by Lenzing Modal Micro
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Textile Handbook 1-27
NYLON 6.6
NYLON 6/6.6
PBI
13. Nippon Rayon Co Ltd, Japan 14. Solutia Inc. 15. Solutia Inc. 16. DuPont Company 17. DuPont Company 18. DuPont Company 19. Solutia Inc.
1. Wellon 2. Wellstrand
1. Wellman, Inc. 2. Wellman, Inc.
1. Alpha 2. Condesa 3. Courlene 4. Essera 5. Impressa 6. Innova 7. Marves 8. Meraklon 9. Propex 10. Spectra 1000 11. Spectra 900 12. Spectra Fusion 13. Spectra Guard 14. Spectra Shield 15. Spectra Shield Plus 16. SpectraFlex 17. Telar 18. Trace
1. American Fibers and Yarns Company 2. American Fibers and Yarns Company 3. British Celanese Ltd 4. American Fibers and Yarns Company 5. American Fibers and Yarns Company 6. American Fibers and Yarns Company 7. American Fibers and Yarns Company 8. Montedison (Montefibre), Italy 9. American Fibers and Yarns Company 10. Honeywell Inc 11. Honeywell Inc 12. Honeywell Inc 13. Honeywell Inc 14. Honeywell Inc 15. Honeywell Inc 16. Honeywell Inc 17. American Fibers and Yarns Company 18. American Fibers and Yarns Company
1. PBI Logo
1. Celanese Acetate A.G.
20. DuPont Company 21. Solutia Inc. 22. Solutia Inc. 23. Solutia Inc. 24. Solutia Inc. 25. Solutia Inc.
Textile Fibres
OLEFIN
13. Niplon 14. No Shock 15. OPTA 16. Stainmaster 17. Supplex 18. Tactel 19. Traffic Control Fiber System 20. Ultramirage 21. Ultron 22. Wear-Dated 23. Wear-Dated Assurance 24. Wear-Dated Freedom 25. Wear-Dated II
1-28
Textile Fibres POLYVINYL CHLORIDE FIBRE (PVC)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Avsico Vinyon, HH Dynel Fibravyl Rhovyl
1. 2. 3. 4.
American Viscose Corporation Union Carbide Corporation Societe Rhovyl, France Societe Rhovyl, France
POLYVINYLIDENE CHLORIDE FIBRE (PVDC)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Kurehalon Saran Verel Velon Permalon
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Kureha Kasel Co. Ltd. Dow Chemical, U.S.A. Tennessee Eastman Co., U.S.A. Firestone Ind. Products., U.S.A. Pierce Plastic Inc., U.S.A.
POLYESTER
1. A.C.E. Polyester 2. Avora FR 3. Celbond 4. Colorfine 5. Comforel 6. ComFotrel 7. Coolmax (CM) 8. Corebond 9. Corterra Fibers 10. Dacron 11. Dacron Microfiber 12. Diolen 13. DSP 14. ESP 15. Fiberbrite 2000 16. Fillwell 17. Fillwell II 18. Fillwell Plus 19. Fortrel 20. Fortrel BactiShield 21. Fortrel EcoSpun 22. Fortrel EcoSpun2 23. Fortrel MicroSpun 24. Fortrel Plus 25. Fortrel Spunnaire 26. Fortrel Spunnese 27. Hollofil 28. Kuraray 29. Loftguard 30. Microloft 31. MicroMattique 32. Microselect 33. Microtherm 34. Nature Tex 35. Polyguard 3D
1. Honeywell Inc 2. KoSa 3. KoSa 4. Martin Color-Fi, Inc. 5. DuPont Company 6. Wellman, Inc. 7. DuPont Company 8. DuPont Company 9. KoSa 10. DuPont-Akra Polyester, LLC 11. DuPont-Akra Polyester, LLC 12. Acordis Industrial Fibers, Inc. 13. Honeywell Inc 14. KoSa 15. Honeywell Inc 16. Wellman, Inc. 17. Wellman, Inc. 18. Wellman, Inc. 19. Wellman, Inc. 20. Wellman, Inc. 21. Wellman, Inc. 22. Wellman, Inc. 23. Wellman, Inc. 24. Wellman, Inc. 25. Wellman, Inc. 26. Wellman, Inc. 27. DuPont Company 28. Kurashiki Rayon Co. Ltd., Japan 29. KoSa 30. DuPont Company 31. DuPont Company 32. DuPont Company 33. KoSa 34. Martin Color-Fi, Inc. 35. KoSa
Textile Handbook 1-29
RAYON
1. 2. 3. 4.
Fibro Galaxy Viscose by Lenzing Viscose FR by Lenzing
1. 2. 3. 4.
Acordis Cellulosic Fibers, Inc. Acordis Cellulosic Fibers, Inc. Lenzing Fibers Corporation Lenzing Fibers Corporation
CUPRAMMONI UM RAYON
1. 2. 3. 4.
Bemberg Bemsilkie Cuprama Cupresa
1. 2. 3. 4.
J.P. Bemberg A.G., Germany Asahi Chemical Ind. Co. Ltd., Japan Farbenfabriken Bayer A.G., Germany Farbenfabriken Bayer A.G., Germany
POLYESTER
SPANDEX
SULFAR
TRIACETATE
1. Clearspan 2. Dorlastan 3. Estane 4. Glospan 5. Lycra 6. Spanzelle 7. Vyrene 8. Roica 9. Espa 10. Texlon
1. Globe Manufacturing Co. 2. Bayer, A.G., W. Germany 3. B.F. Goodrich Chemical Co. Ltd. 4. Globe Manufacturing Co. 5. DuPont Company 6. Courtaulds, U.K. 7. U.S. Rubber Co. 8. Asahi Chemical Industry Co.Ltd 9. Toyobo Co.Ltd 10. Tongkook Corporation, Korea
1. Ryton
1. American Fibers and Yarns Company
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Arnel Courpleta Rhonel Trialbene Tricel
Celanese Corp. of America., U.S.A. Courtaulds., U.S.A. France Rhodiaceta, France British Celanese Ltd., U.K.
Textile Fibres
48. Wellene
36. DuPont Company 37. DuPont Company 38. KoSa 39. Honeywell Inc 40. Honeywell Inc 41. Nan Ya Plastics Corporation, America 42. I.C.I Ltd, England 43. Toyo Rayon Co. Ltd., Japan 44. Teijin Ltd,. Japan 45. DuPont Company 46. DuPont Company 47. Farbwerke Hoechst A.G. West Germany 48. Wellman, Inc.
36. Quallofil 37. Qualloform 38. Serelle 39. Stay Gard 40. Substraight 41. Tairilin 42. Terylene 43. Teteron 44. Tetolon 45. Thermastat 46. Thermoloft 47. Trevira
(3)
Good
132
Good Fair-Excel. Fair Fair Good 1.32 Fair 0.8-2.0
20%
No
(2)
Fair
260
Good Fair Fair Good Poor 1.52 Good 3.5-6.0
+10%
No
(2)
Poor
150
Fair Good Good Good Poor 1.54 Good 3.0-5.0
+10%
No No
15%
Poor Excel. Fair Good Fair 1.30 Fair 2.4-5.1
135
Good
90
65
75
20
99
20-40
3
3-10
Silk 11%
(2)
Wool 131/2%
Flax 12%
Cotton 81/2%
Yes
30%
Good Excel. Poor Good Fair 1.32 Fair 1.2-1.5
177
Excel.
Excel. Good Fair Fair Good 1.14-1.19 Poor 2.0-3.5
150
Excel.
(3)
92
35-45
No
Yes
30-50%b 20%
Fair Good Fair Good Poor 1.48-1.54 Good 1.2-3.0
177
Fair
(2)
95
48-65 (4)
15-30
25-45
Man-made Cellulosic Acetate Viscose Rayon 1.5% 11% 6.5%
note:(a) Softening temperature. (b) HWM (high wet modulus) rayon has much higher wet strength than viscose rayon.
Properties Absorbency (% M.R.) Elongation at break (%) (21oC, 65% RH) Elastic recovery (%) at 21oC, 65%RH (% strain) Mildew resistance Heat resistance temperature (oC) Sunlight resistance Hand feel Abrasion resistance Pilling resistance Resiliency Specific Gravity Static resistance Strength (g/denier) Strength loss when wet (approx.%) Thermoplastic
Natural
2.4 Properties of Major Textile Fibres
Yes
0.10%
Excel. Poor Poor Excel. Excel. 2.54 Excel 9.5
315
Excel.
(33)
100
Yes
0
Poor Fair Excel. Poor Good 1.14 Poor 2.5-7.3
150
Excel.
(5)
82-100
Yes
0
Good Fair Excel. Good Excel. 0.91 Good 2.5-3.5
75
Excel.
(3)
96
Yes
0
Good Fair Good Very poor Excel. 1.38 Very poor 3.0-6.0
120
Excel.
(50)
81
19-55
30-100
3-4 16-75
Olefin 0.4%
Nylon 01-0.1%
Acrylic Glass 0% 2.8-4.8%
Man-made non-cellulosic
Yes
Fair Poor Good Excel. Excel. 1.21 Excel. 0.07-1.0
175a
Excel.
99
400-700
Polyester 1%
1-30
Textile Fibres
CHEMICAL AGENT INORGANIC ACIDS Dilute Concentrated
Acrylic Glass Nylon Olefin Polyester Spandex
Swells Swells Degrades easily Degrades Dissolved Saponifics § Swells (loses tenacity)
Resistant Resistant Degrades easily Attacked (hot) Resistant Resistant
Degrades ε
OXIDIZING ALKALIES Dilute Concentrated AGENTS
Degrades
Degrades in conc. bleach
REDUCING AGENTS
* Degrades in 96% sulfuric acid. ↑ In concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids ε In concentrated sulfuric acid.
§ Reverts to cellulose. Destroyed by hot sulfuric acid # Not damaged by hypochlorite or peroxide bleaches
Attacked (strong agents) # Degrades (hot) Resistant Resistant (hot) Resistant Resistant Dissolves ↑ Do not bleach Fairly resistance Poor Good Good Resistant Fair Resistant Moderate Slowly oxidized Resistant Resistant Resistant Degrades (hot) Resistant Resistant * Resistant Good to most acids Good to most alkalies
= =
Textile Fibres
Cotton
Hydrolyzed (hot) Hydrolyzed (hot) Oxidized conc. Hydrolyzed Flax (linen) Hydrolyzed Resistant Resistant Wool Dissolved Silk Fairly resistant Acetate Decomposed Resistant (conc) Disintegrates Rayon Disintegrates (hot) (cold)
FIBRE
2.5 Chemical Resistance of Fibres
Textile Handbook 1-31
1-32
Textile Fibres
SECTION 3 - TYPES OF COTTON 3.1 Kinds and Types of Cotton Cotton, the purest form of cellulose found in the nature, is the seed hair of the plants of the genus Gossypium. It is classified as natural, cellulosic, mono-cellular, staple fibre. Cotton has been cultivated for more than 5000 years. Different kinds and types of cotton are grown in various parts of the world. Variation among cotton fibres occur because of growth conditions including such factors as soil, climate, fertilizers, and pests. The quality of cotton fibre is based on its colour, staple, fineness, and strength. Usually, the longer fibres are finer and stronger. The particular kind of cotton is often identified by the name the country or geographical area where it is produced. Though many species of cotton are grown commercially, they may be conveniently divided into three principal groups. The first group (Gossypium hirsutum) form the bulk of the world crop and has been developed for extensive use in the United States as American Upland cotton. The staples length (i.e. average fibre length) varies from 23 - 33 mm. The second group (G. barbadense) has staple lengths varying from 33 to 45 mm. In the United States, it is known as American Pima. This group also includes high quality fine cottons such as the Egyptian, Sudanese and Sea Island varieties commonly referred to as Extra Long Staple (ELS) cotton (up to 60 mm). The third group (G. herbaceum and G. arboreum) embraces cottons of shorter staple length, about 13 - 25 mm, commonly produced in various Asian countries. Major cotton producers at the present time are China, the USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan; other countries producing small but not insignificant quantities include Brazil, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt and Sudan. At present the four largest exporters of cotton in the world are the USA, Uzbekistan, Franch-zone Africa and Australia.
Textile Handbook 1-33
3.1.1 The Features and Characteristics of the Three Principal Cotton Fibre Groups Coarse staple Asiatic Cotton Small Shape as a pike 5 to 7 deeply split Triangular shape or small heart shape Yellow, white, red, always have red spots at the base. Long and slightly pointed Opening is small or smooth 3-4 Small Fluffy
26
13
Growing period 120-140 (number of days)
135-160
100-125
Productivity Colour Fibre fineness Fibre length (mm)
High White Fine 23-33
Low Grayish white Short and thick 13-25
Fineness (m/gm) Fibre diameter (µm) Fibre width (µm) Convolution (turns/ cm) Single fibre strength (gm) Breaking length (km) Range of yarn tex
4500-7000 15-19 28-25 50-80
Medium Creamy or light brown Long and fine 33-45 6500-9000 12-15 14-22 100-120
3-5
4-6
4-7
20-28
28-40
Below 21
10-60
4-12
Above 28
Medium staple Upland Cotton Crop Large Stem Wide triangle Leaf blade 3 to 5 slightly split Humber of lobes Heart shape, length Shape of bud is longer than width Creamy white,no red Colour of petal spots at the base Shape of boll Oval Boll surface Smooth Locules 4-5 Seed Big Seed appearance Fluffy and some sleek Homo-chromosome 26 number
2500-4000 16-22 20-32 30-60
Remark: 1. For long staple cotton, the development is to mix cross of Upland cotton and Seaisland cotton. 2. Medium staple gradually replaces coarse staple cotton.
Textile Fibres
Fibre Long staple Sea-island Cotton Large Long and gradually sharp 5 to 7 deep split Heart shape,length and width are equal Yellow,red spots at the base Long and slightly pointed Opening is large 3-4 Big Sleek or fuzz
Item
1-34
Textile Fibres
3.1.2 Structure and Properties of Cotton Fibre The mature cotton fibre forms a flat ribbon-like structure that resemble a bicycle inner-tube from which the air has been removed, varying in width between 12 to 20 micrometer. It is highly convoluted and the number of convolutions varies between 4 to 6 per mm, reversing in direction about every millimeter along the fibre. Cotton fibres have a fibrillar structure. Their morphology exhibits three main features: primary wall, secondary wall and lumen. The primary wall consists of a network of cellulose fibrils covered with an outer layer of pectin, protein and wax. The wax renders the fibre impermeable to water and aqueous solutions unless a wetting agent is used. Although the primary wall accounts for only 5% by weight of the fibre, it contains most of the non-cellulosic constituents. The secondary wall constitute the bulk of a mature fibre and consists of cellulose fibrils arranged spirally around the fibre axis. Composition of a typical cotton fibre is given table 3.1.3. The actual composition depends on the type of cotton, growing conditions and maturity.
Figure 3.1.2 Schematic diagram of cotton Fibre structure. Primary wall (approx. 0.1µ thick) Secondary lameliae (approx. 0.4µ thick)
Winding (approx. 0.1µ thick)
Lumen
Textile Handbook 1-35
3.1.3
Composition of Cotton Fibre Constituent Cellulose Protein Pectin Wax Ash Other substances
Proportion of dry weight (%) 94.0 1.3 1.2 0.6 1.2 1.7
3.1.4 Chemical composition of Cotton Fibre Chemical analysis of cotton fibre is given in the following table. 44.4% 6.2% 49.4% (C6H10O5)n 10000-15000 2000000
Textile Fibres
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Chemical structure Crystallinity Molecular weight
Element composition
1-36
Textile Fibres
3.1.5
Physical properties of Cotton fibre (Upland Cotton) Properties
Fibre length Fibre diameter Fibre circumference Fibre width Fibre cross-section area Lumen cross-section area Special area Cell wall thickness Convolution Fibre fineness Single fibre tenacity Elongation at break Breaking Length Relative strength Strength per specific area Initial modulus Moisture regain Specific density Thermo hydrometer Thermal transmissivity Exposure strength Friction coefficient
Birefringence Compression resistance Compressional resilience Torsional rigidity Shearing strength Breakdown voltage Mass specific resistance Dielectric constant
(mm) (µm) (µm) (µm) (µm2) (µm2) (1/µm) (µm) (Convolutions/cm) (m/gm) (gm) (%) (km) (gm/tex) (kg/mm2) (gm/tex) (%) (gm/cm3) (calorie/gmoC) (kcal/mhroC) (strength drops 50%xhr) (cotton with cotton) (cotton with leather) (cotton with steel) (ne-no) (%) (%) (dyne/cm2) (108dyne/cm2) (Kvolt/mm) (Ωgm/cm2) 0 (60Hz,20 C and 65%R.H.)
Applicable range 23-33 15-19 50-56 18-25 85-145 11-27 0.33-0.42 5-8 50-80 4500-7000 3-5 7-12 20-28 2.0-3.5 30-40 68-93 7.0-9.5 1.50-1.55 0.315-0.319 0.05(0oC) 940 0.22-0.29 0.28-0.35 0.26-0.33 0.040-0.043 80-84 38 0.04-0.06 12.9 4.5 2.29x107 7.7
Textile Handbook 1-37
3.1.6 Chemical Properties of Cotton Fibre Chemical treatment Reaction to Water Hydrolysis reaction
Acidity reaction
Alkaline reaction
Oxidization reaction
Reaction to heat Reaction to micro organism
Dye ability Reaction with organic solvent
Fibre swells, but not dissolves in water, cross section enlarges about 40-50% and length increases 1-2%, absorbent fibres absorb water greatly. Hydrolyses in acidic aqueous solution or high temperature acidic solution, polymerization degree drops and strength decreases. Corrodes in sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, dissolves in high temperature dilute acid and in cool concentrate acid. However the reaction with organic acid such as formic acid is not strong. The acidity reaction changes with different temperature, concentration and different time phase. Stable reaction in dilute alkaline solution at constant temperature. Can be mercerized at 18% NaOH bath and becomes alkaline cellulose in concentrate alkaline treatment. Fibre will be oxidized in oxidization agent and under long period of steam treatment. Molecular chains break and fibre decomposes. Cellulose structure is destroyed while exposing under sun light. The ultra violet beam is the strongest, it lowers down the degree of polymerization of cellulose, therefore, fibre strength decreases and cotton fibres become fragile. Fibre strength decrease 40% while exposing under sun for 100 days. Moisture absorbed evaporates at 100 o C; fibre dehydrates at 160oC, decays at 240oC and carbonizes at 400-450oC. The moisture regain of fibre with micro-organism is greater than 9% at R.H. above 75%, cellulose structure decomposes and cotton fibre can be attacked by mould easily and greatly. The dye absorption rate of cotton is very strong; it can be easily dyed with normal dyes. Cellulose fibre does not dissolve in organic solvent, only symbiotic materials of it will be dissolved. Fibre swells very slightly at benzene and petrolatum, therefore, these solvent are used for measuring fibre weights.
Textile Fibres
Reaction to Light
Reaction
1-38
Textile Fibres
3.2 Classification of Cotton The term “cotton classification” refers to the application of standardized procedures for measuring those physical attributes of raw cotton that affect the quality of the finished product and/or manufacturing efficiency. In the United States, laws were passed authorizing the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) to develop cotton grade standards and offer cotton classification services. USDA classification currently consists of determinations of fibre length, length uniformity, strength, micronaire, colour, preparation, leaf, and extraneous matter. Research and development for the technology to rapidly measure other important fibre characteristics, such as maturity, stickiness and short fibre content, continues.
3.2.1 Classification of Upland Cotton a) Instrument Determination Measurements for the following quality factors are performed by high-volume precision instruments, commonly referred to as “HVI” classification. (i) Fibre Length Fibre length is the average length of the longer fibres (upper half mean length). It is reported in both l00ths and 32nds of an inch (see conversion chart 3.2.1a(i)). It is measured by passing a “beard” of parallel fibres through a sensing point. The beard is formed when fibres from a sample of cotton are grasped by a clamp, then combed and brushed to straighten and make parallel the fibres.
Textile Handbook 1-39
Table 3.2.1a (i)
Upland Length Conversion Chart
Inches 0.79 & shorter .80-.85 .86-.89 .90-.92 .93-.95 .96-.98 .99-1.01 1.02-1.04 1.05-1.07 1.08-1.10
32nds 24 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Inches 1.11-1.13 1.14-1.17 1.18-1.20 1.21-1.23 1.24-1.26 1.27-1.29 1.30-1.32 1.33-1.35 1.36 & longer
32nds 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 & longer
(ii) Length Uniformity Length uniformity is the ratio between the mean length and the upper half mean length of the fibres and is expressed as a percentage. If all of the fibres in the bale were of the same length, the mean length and the upper half mean length would be the same, and the uniformity index would be 100. However, there is a natural variation in the length of cotton Fibres, so length uniformity will always be less than 100. Table 3.2.1a (ii) tabulation can be used as a guide in interpreting length uniformity measurements. Table 3.2.1a (ii) Length Uniformity Measurements Degree of Uniformity Very High High Intermediate Low Very Low
HVI Length Uniformity Index (Percent) Above 85 83-85 80-82 77-79 Below 77
Textile Fibres
Fibre length is largely determined by variety, but the cotton plant’s exposure to extreme temperatures, water stress, or nutrient deficiencies may shorten the length. Excessive cleaning and/or drying at the gin may also result in shorter fibre length.
3.3
Cotton Species .................................................................... 1-44 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5
3.4
Upland Cotton : ............................................................ Sea-island Cotton : ....................................................... Peruvian Cotton : ......................................................... Asiatic Rough Cotton : ................................................. Tree Cotton : .................................................................
1-45 1-45 1-45 1-45 1-45
World Cotton Classification and Standard ..................... 1-46 3.5.1
3.5 3.5.2
Chinese Cotton Grading ............................................... (Souice: China National Standad GB 1103-1999 Upland Cotton) ............................................................. Chinese Cotton Specification ....................................... Length ..........................................................................
1-47 1-47 1-47 1-48
3.6
Indian Cotton Grading ...................................................... 1-50
3.7
Pakistan Cotton Grading .................................................. 1-51
3.8
Influence of the Fibre Characteristics of the Yarn (Source: Zellweger Uster) .................................................. 1-51
3.9
Other Disturbing Factors in the Yarn Manufacturing Process ................................................................................. 1-53 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.10
Stickiness ...................................................................... 1-53 Cotton Contamination .................................................. 1-55 Relationship between Fibre Length, Fineness and Yarn Count to be Spun ................................................. 1-64
Section 4 - World Cotton Production ........... ........... 1-65 4.1
World Cotton Production and Related Statistics ............ 1-65
4.2
The World’s Major Cotton Growing Areas ..................... 1-73 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6
China ............................................................................ United States ................................................................ India .............................................................................. Pakistan ........................................................................ Australia ....................................................................... Republic of Uzbekistan ................................................
Back to Table of Content
1-74 1-75 1-76 1-77 1-78 1-79
1-40
Textile Fibres
(iii)
Fibre Strength
Strength measurements are reported in terms of grams per tex. A tex unit is equal to the weight in grams of 1,000 metres of fibre. Therefore, the strength reported is the force in grams required to break a bundle of fibres one tex unit in size. The table 3.2.1 a(iii) tabulation can be used as a guide in interpreting Fibre strength measurements. Table 3.2.1 a(iii) Fibre Strength Degree of Strongth
HVI Strength (grams per tex) 31 & above 29-30 26-28 24-25 23 & below
Very Strong Strong Average Intermediate Weak
Strength measurements are made on the same beards of cotton that are used for measuring fibre length. The beard is clamped in two sets of jaws, one-eighth of an inch apart, and the amount of force required to break the fibres is determined. Fibre strength is largely determined by variety. However, it may be affected by plant nutrient deficiencies and weather. (iv)
Micronaire
Micronaire is a measure of Fibre fineness and maturity. An airflow instrument is used to measure the air permeability of a constant mass of cotton Fibres compressed to a fixed volume. Table 3.2.1a(iv) can be used as a guide in interpreting micronaire measurements.
Textile Handbook 1-41 Table 3.2.1a (iv)
3.4 and below
Relationship of Micronaire Readings to Market Value
3.5-3.6
3.7-4.2 Premium
4.3-4.9
5.0 and up
Base Range Discount Range
Micronaire measurements can be influenced during the growing period by environmental conditions such as moisture, temperature, sunlight, plant nutrients, and extremes in plant or boll population. (v) Colour
The colour of cotton Fibres can be affected by rainfall, temperatures below freezing, insects and fungi, and by staining through contact with soil, grass, or the cotton plant’s leaf. Colour also can be affected by excessive moisture and temperature levels while cotton is being stored, both before and after ginning.
Textile Fibres
The colour of cotton is determined by the degree of reflectance (Rd) and yellowness (+b). Reflectance indicates how bright or dull a sample is, and yellowness indicates the degree of colour pigmentation. A three-digit colour code is used. The colour code is determined by locating the point at which the Rd and +b values intersect on the Nickerson-Hunter cotton colourimeter diagram for Upland cotton.
1-42
Textile Fibres Figure 3.2.1 a(v)
(vi)
Nickerson-Hunter cotton colourimeter diagram for Upland cotton
Trash
Trash is a measure of the amount of non-lint material in the cotton, such as leaf and bark from the cotton plant. The surface of the cotton sample is scanned by a video camera and the percentage of the surface area occupied by trash particles is calculated. Although the trash determination and classer’s leaf grade (see below) are not the same, there is a correlation between the two as shown in the table below.
Textile Handbook 1-43 Table 3.2.1 a(vi)
Trash Measurement
Trash Measurement (4-yr. Avg.) (% area)
Classer’s Leaf Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.12 .20 .33 .50 .68 .92 1.21
b) Classer Determinations
(i) Colour Grade There are 25 official colour grades for American Upland cotton, plus five categories of below grade colour, as shown in Table 3.2.1b (i) Colour tabulation below. USDA maintains physical standards for 15 of the colour grades. The others are descriptive standards. Table 3.2.1b (i)
Colour Grades of Upland Cotton Effective 1993
Colour Grades of Upland Cotton Effective 1993 White
Light Spotted
Spotted
11* 12 Good Middling 21* 22 Strict Middling 31* 32 Middling 41* 42 Strict Low Middling 51* 52 Low Middling 61* 62 Strict Good Ordinary 71* Good Ordinary 81 82 Below Grade * Physical Standards. All others are descriptive.
13 23* 33* 43* 53* 63* 83
Tinged 24 34* 44* 54* 84
Yellow Stained 25 35 85
Textile Fibres
Although USDA provides instrument measurements of colour and trash, the traditional method of classer determination for colour, leaf, and extraneous matter remains useful to the cotton industry and continues to be included as part of the official USDA classification.
1-44
Textile Fibres
(ii) Leaf Grade The classer’s leaf grade is a visual estimate of the amount of cotton plant leaf particles in the cotton. There are seven leaf grades, designated as leaf grade “1” to “7,” and all are represented by physical standards. In addition, there is a “below grade” designation which is descriptive. Leaf content is affected by plant variety, harvesting methods, and harvesting conditions. The amount of leaf remaining in the lint after ginning depends on the amount present in the cotton prior to ginning, and on the type and amount of cleaning and drying equipment used. Even with the most careful harvesting and ginning methods, a small amount of leaf remains in the cotton lint. From the manufacturing standpoint, leaf content is all waste, and there is a cost factor associated with its removal. Also, small particles cannot always be successfully removed and these particles may detract from the quality of the finished fabric. (iii) Preparation Preparation is a term used to describe the degree of smoothness or roughness with which the lint is ginned. Various methods of harvesting, handling and ginning cotton produce differences in roughness or smoothness of preparation that sometimes are very apparent. (iv)
Extraneous Matter
Extraneous matter is any substance in the cotton other than Fibre or leaf. Examples of extraneous matter are bark, grass, spindle twist, seedcoat fragments, dust, and oil. The kind of extraneous matter, and an indication of the amount (light or heavy), are noted by the classer on the classification document.
3.3 Cotton Species Basically, cotton can be divided into American Cotton and Asiatic cotton, and each can be further sub-divided into five categories.
Textile Handbook 1-45
3.3.1 Upland Cotton : There are too many species in this category; an American, Dugger, classified it into eight types: • • • • • • • •
Cluster type: cotton fibre clusterly grown together in one region. Semi-cluster type: not too dense as cluster type. Rio-grande type: such as Trice Early type: the bolls mature early as type King. Big boll type: bolls are larger as type Acala and Long star. Long limb type: stems are longer Long staple type: fibre is longer like type Dolfose Intermediate type: like Stoneville
3.3.2 Sea-island Cotton :
3.3.3 Peruvian Cotton : Originally grown in South America, and the Egyptian crop belongs to this category.
3.3.4 Asiatic Rough Cotton : Grown in China, Japan, India and Pakistan, also known as coarse cotton. Productivity is going down and it is gradually being replaced by medium cotton.
3.3.5 Tree Cotton : Cultivated in India and Africa; being typically a large shrub, it has different varieties. Improved varieties are making this crop, obsolete.
Textile Fibres
Origin from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida of southeast America and West Indies, suitable for cultivation in a sea-island environment. It is the longest and silkiest among the cotton. Recently, a complex cross of other species has been proceed.
10
ZZ
Z
9
U
7
Y
O
6
8
I
E
4
5
A
3
2
1
Below grade
7th
6th
5th
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
Egyptian Cotton
yellowish
Middling Fair (M.F.) Strict Good Middling (S.G.M.) Good Middling (G.M.) Strict Middling (S.M.)
Fair (F.)
Extra (E) Fully Good to Extra (F.G. to E.) Fully Good (F.G.) Good to Fully Good (G. to F.G.) Good Middling (G) (M) Fully Good Fair To Good (F.G.F. to G.) Fully Good Fair (F.G.F.) Strict Low Middling (S.L.M.) Fully Good Fair to Good (F.G.F. to G.) Good Fair Low Middling (G.F.) (L.M.) Fully Fair to Good Fair (F.F. to G.F.) Strict Good Ordinary (S.G.O.) Fully Fair (F.F.) Good Ordinary Fair to Fully Fair (G.O.) (F. to. F.F.)
Grading Chinese American Upland Staple cotton (White) Symbol
TIPO 9
TIPO 8
TIPO 7
TIPO 6
TIPO 5
TIPO 4
TIPO 3
TIPO 2
TIPO 1
Brazilian cotton1
No. 8
No. 7
No. 6
No. 5
No. 4
No. 3
No. 2
No. 1
No. 5
No. 4
No. 3
No. 2
No. 11/2
No. 1
L.M.2
S.L.M.2
M.2
S.M.2
G.M.2
M.2
S.M.2
G.M.2
L.M.2
S.L.M.2
M.2
S.M.2
G.M.2
American American Peruvian Peruvian American cotton Upland cotton Upland cotton Upland cotton cotton (Gray) (Tinged) (Spotted) (Tanguis) (Pima)
Remarks: 1. Brazilian cotton, standard grading is lower than American Upland Cotton grading, so for simplification American Upland Cotton grading system is used for Brazilian Cotton. 2. American colour grade, i.e. spotted, grey, tinged is classified according to the difference between each whiteness degree.
Below grade
Low grade cotton
Medium grade cotton
Top grade cotton
Grade
3.4 World Cotton Classification and Standard 1-46
Textile Fibres
Textile Handbook 1-47
3.5 Chinese Cotton Specification 3.5.1 Chinese Cotton Grading (Souice:China National Standad GB 1103-1999 Upland Cotton) Grade
Table 3.5.1 (1)
Chinese Cotton Grading Saw Gins
Roller Gins Grade
1st
2nd
4th
5th
6th
7th
Maturity
Colour
Ginning Quality
Maturity
Colour
Ginning Quality
W h i t e o r Roots and White or creamy, good trash are rare creamy, good lustre with pale Excellent lustre with yellow pale yellow
Neps, trash and linters are few
White or creamy, good lustre with some pale yellow
N e p s , trash and linters are few
White or creamy, lustre, some y e l l o w spotted
Neps, trash and linters are not many
Greyish white with l i t t l e Average contamination
N e p s , trash and linters are increasing
Greyish white with Poor pale yellow, increased contamination with linters High content Greyish of trash white or Very poor g r a y i s h yellow, contaminated and linters Greyish Dark grey, high High content All immature, yellow, high contamination of trash damaged and Extremely contamination contaminated cells, Extremely and linters. poor and linters. high content of poor trash
N e p s , trash and linters are more
White and fine in early and middle stage, fibre cells Excellent are big and thick, only few are pale yellow, little trash. White and good in early and middle stage, some raining spotted and some Good semi-mature cells, few trash White in early and middle stage, good and white in late stage, cells are Fair random in size, some raining spotted and some immature, more trash Fair in early and middle stage, white in late stage, cells are small, some Average frosting greyish and some immature, much trash Poor white in late stage and immature in early and middle Poor stage, high trashes
W h i t e o r Roots and creamy, good trash are rare lustre with some pale yellow W h i t e o r Roots and c r e a m y , t r a s h slightly pale increases yellow, lustre, more in pale yellow or yellow spotted Greyish white Roots and w i t h l i t t l e trash become contamination higher
Greyish white with pale y e l l o w , increased in contamination with linters All immature and G r e y i s h greyish white in y e l l o w , late stage, high Very poor contaminated content of trash and linters
Roots and trash are high
Good
Fair
High level of neps, trash and linters High level of neps, trash and linters
Textile Fibres
3rd
Seed
1-48
Textile Fibres Table 3.5.1 (2) Grading Parameters Ginning quality Grade Maturity Tenacity Index (not strength (not Roller gin less than) less than) Seed coats Linters % Impurities cN/tex % ( n o t (not more per 100 gm (not more more than) than) than) 0.4 1,000 0.3 20 1st 1.6 0.4 1,200 0.3 19 2nd 1.5 0.6 1,300 0.5 19 3rd 1.4 0.6 2,000 0.5 18 4th 1.2 0.6 3,000 0.5 18 5th 1.0
Saw gin Linters % (not more than) 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6
20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30
Remarks: 1.Impurities include leaf , trash, fuzzy seeds, linters, lint hair butts, dust and neps. 2.The standard of ginning is the quality standard of roller ginned cotton. 3.For tenacity strength, gauge setting is 3.2 mm. Calibrated by ICC (International cotton calibration) cotton.
3.5.2 Length a) Each increment of cotton staple length (here called length) is 1mm. The grading is as follows: 25mm
from 25.9mm or below;
26mm
from 26.0 to 26.9mm;
27mm
from 27.0 to 27.9mm;
28mm
from 28.0 to 28.9mm;
29mm
from 29.0 to 29.9mm;
30mm
from 30.0 to 30.9mm;
31mm
ranges from 31.0mm and above.
b) Length standard 28mm is the acceptable staple length. For grade 5 cotton, a length longer than 27mm is counted as 27mm. For grade 6 and 7, length is counted as 25mm. Remark: The 1mm increment system commenced in 2000. 1999 cotton length standards were counted according to GB1103-1972 standard.
Textile Handbook 1-49
c) Micronaire Micronaire is divided into A,B,C classes, B is the standardlevel.
Micronaire grading is shown in table 3.5.2c:
Table 3.5.2c Below 3.4 3.5-3.6
Micronaire Value 3.7-4.2
4.3-4.9 Above 5.0
Class A Class B Class C
Remark:This system commenced in 2000. d) Moisture regain
e) Trash Content Standard trash content for roller gin is 3.0% and for saw gin is 2.5%.
Textile Fibres
The standard moisture regain is 8.5%, and the maximum moisture regain range is 10.5%.
Textile Fibres
1-50
3.6 Indian Cotton Grading Table 3.6
India Cotton Grading
Standard Descriptions with Basic Grade & Staple in millimeters (in inches) based on 2.5 Span length (By-law 66 A (a) (4))
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.** 13. 14. 15. 16.
17. 18.** 19. 20.** 21. 22.
23. 24.
(a) (b)
(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d)
Bengal Deshi Bengal Deshi Waged V-797 Laxmi/Hampi 197/3/ Virnar 197/3/ Virnar Gaorani (A) Gaorani (B) A.K.235/277 R.G.J.-34 CJ-73 Jayadhar Y-1 Y-1 Digvijay G-12 A-51-0 L-147 (Berar) R.G.F.-414 including Agatti and H-777 S.G.F.-414 including Agatti and H-777 1007 1007 H-4 H-4 Laxmi Shankar 4 (Hybrid 4) Shankar 4 (Hybrid 4) MCU-5 Varalaxmi (A) Varalaxmi (B) Varalaxmi (C) Varalaxmi (D) DCH-32 Suvin
-
-
Fine Extra Superfine Fine 19mm. (24/32") Fine 21mm. (27/32") Fine 21mm. (27/32") Fine 21mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 22mm. (28/32") Fine 23mm. (29/32") Fine 23mm. (29/32") Fine 23mm. (29/32") Fine 24mm. (30/32") Fine 24mm. (30/32") Fine 25mm. (31/32") Fine
- 25mm. (31/32") - 26mm. (1") - 26mm. (1") - 27mm. (12/32") - 28mm. (13/32") - 28mm. (13/32") - 30mm. (16/32") - 31mm. (17/32") - 33mm. (19/32") 34mm. (1 10/32") 34mm. (1 10/32") 35mm. (1 12/32") 36mm. (1 13/32") 36mm. (1 13/32") 40mm. (1 18/32")
Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine Fine
Textile Handbook 1-51
3.7 Pakistan Cotton Grading Table 3.7
Pakistan Cotton Grading
Variety
Staple length
Micronaire value
Pressley tensile 1000 lb/sq in
UPLAND VARIETIES PUNJAB B-557
1-1/32
4.45
92.9
MNH-93 NIAB-78 MS-84
1-1/8 1-1/32 1-1/4
4.47 4.46 3.90
94.0 92.5 91.3
SLH-41
1-1/32
4.40
95.8
SIND M-4 M-100 NT
15/16 1-113
3.3-4.5
85.0 85.0
TH-1101
1-1/8 1-1/8 1-3/16 1-1/16
4.3 4.0-4.4
90.0 92.7 96.1 89.0-90.0
DESI VARIETIES PUNJAB D-9
3/8-5/8
7.5
80.0
Ravi
3/8-5/8
8.0
-
SIND TD- 1 SKD-10/19
11/16 3/8-5/8
10.0-10.2 9.6-10.2
79.5 -
3.8 Influence of the Fibre Characteristics of the Yarn (Source: Zellweger Uster) The quality characteristics of a yarn are very much dependent on the following quality factors of the raw material (see table 3.8 (1) and 3.8 (2)). Examples of the influence of fibre characteristics on yarn are given in the same two tables.
Textile Fibres
H-59-1 (Qallandavi) S-59-1 (Sarmast) K-68/9
3.5-4.0 3.3-3.7 3.5-3.7
1-52
Textile Fibres
Example 1:
The influence of individual fibre characteristics on a certain yarn characteristics.
Table 3.8 (1) The influence of the fibre characteristic on the yarn breaking force.
Example 2:
Various interrelationships between the fibre and yarn quality characteristics
Table 3.8 (2) Relationship between fibre and yarn properties for ring-spun yarns
Textile Handbook 1-53
Example 3 : Influence of the variation in fibre characteristics on the yarn characteristics. The following are some examples of the variation in fibre characteristics on the tenacity of rotor-spun yarn: • An increase or decrease in fibre tenacity of approx. 1 cN/tex results in an improvement or a downgrading of the yarn tenacity by 0.5 cN/ tex. • An increase or decrease in fibre length of approx. 1 mm (2.5% span legnth, HVI-value) results in a change of 0.4 cN/tex in the yarn tenacity. • An increase or decrease in fibre length of approx. 1 mm (50% span length, HVI-value) can even result in a change of 0.8 cN/tex in the yarn tenacity.
Apart from those measurable fibre characteristics, there are other factors which are difficult to measure but which can downgrade the spinning process and the resulting yarn quality. These factors refer to stickiness and contamination (foreign matter) in the raw material.
3.9.1 Stickiness “Sticky cotton” is a term to describe cotton lint which sticks to moving machinery parts and causes problems in yarn manufacturing. a) Causes Stickiness on cotton lint can be caused by secretions from insects (honeydew) or natural plant sugars resulting from nectaries on the cotton plant or cellulose precursors in the cotton boll. It has been estimated that most sticky cotton problems are related to insect honeydew contamination on cotton lint. However, problems do occasionally arise because of natural sugars on cotton lint.
Textile Fibres
3.9 Other Disturbing Factors in the Yarn Manufacturing Process
1-54
Textile Fibres
(i) Natural Sugars These natural sugars are produced by leaf and floral nectaries on the cotton plant as well as sugars present on Fibre from newly opened bolls. Stickiness due to natural sugars usually disappears on storage. This stickiness is uniformly deposited on the lint and is often less of a problem in high rainfall production areas of the cotton belt. (ii) Insect Honeydew Insect honeydew is most often caused by aphids, whiteflies and mealy bugs, all members of the insect order Homoptera. Of these, the whitefly most often causes stickiness. These insects ingest plant juices, extract proteins and other nutrients from these plant juices, and then expel excess sugars in the form of honeydew. These sticky liquid droplets subsequently fall on leaves or lint after boll opening. In view of these manufacturing problems, mill trials were run and industry contacts were made to determine recommendations for control. The results of this work follow. b) Processing Recommendations The processing of sticky cotton during yarn manufacturing may be improved by introducing or adjusting some conditions in cotton bale storage and/or the yarn preparation stages. The following list of items is presented to assist the manufacturer in processing. These items can be evaluated individually or in combination with each other. (i) Fibre Storage Store suspect or identified bales with the sticky condition for an ageing period. (ii) Opening/ Blending • Incorporate a minimum number of suspect bales in each laydown blend. • Distribute contaminated bales throughout the mix. • Optimize blending conditions to assure an even distribution through the blend mix.
Textile Handbook 1-55
• Introduce a lubricant in fog form at the end of the hopper conveyer to minimize sticking problems. • Reduce relative humidity below 50%, or a workable level, in opening, picking, and carding. (Note: Reduced humidity conditions may be required and could be beneficial in drawing. combing, and spinning.)
(iii) Carding • Reduce or adjust rate of production of card to optimise processing of Fibre. • Reduce pressure on crush rolls of card, while continuing to maintain sufficient crushing action for dried trash. • Replace and adjust card crush roll blade as necessary, and Roll blade may require more frequent cleaning during processing.
3.9.2 Cotton Contamination Foreign matter, stickiness and seed-coat fragments in raw cotton continue to be among the most serious problems affecting the cotton spinning industry world-wide. This is the conclusion to be drawn from the “Cotton Contamination Survey 1999” which has just been released by the International Textile Manufacturers Federation (ITMF). The survey is carried out every other year. In the 1999 report, 87 growths were evaluated by 283 spinning mills located in 24 countries.
Textile Fibres
• Improvements may be experienced by sparingly spraying the card crush rolls with lubricant twice each shift. (Some U.S. mills used “Pam”, a spray product to prevent fry pan sticking and in made by Boyle-Midway Household Product Inc., as the lubricant.)
Textile Fibres
1-56
Table 3.9.2 (1) Participation Participation in 1999 Survey Country Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Czech Republic Egypt France Germany Greece Hungary India Indonesia Italy Japan Korea Rep. Madagascar Morocco Portugal South Africa Spain Switzerland Taiwan Turkey USA Total *
Number of respondents (participating companies) 2 1 5 11 14 1 3 14 4 11 69 16 14 10 8 1 5 2 6 6 7 13 15 43 283
Divided among 87 cotton descriptions
Number of samples (evaluations) 2 2 23 59 78 25 25 146 10 21 301 117 129 84 53 1 25 27 29 22 53 69 62 162 1,501*
Textile Handbook 1-57 Table 3.9.2 (2)
Source of Contamination
Number of Samples: 1,501 Degree of contamination (%) NonSource of contamination existent/ Moderate serious insignificant 14 woven plastic 6 1 Fabrics made of 80 11 plastic film 5 2 84 17 jute/hessian 8 3 75 19 cotton 5 4 76 17 woven plastic 8 5 Strings made of 75 16 plastic film 6 6 78 19 jute/hessian 11 7 70 19 cotton 6 8 75 29 leaves,feathers,paper,leather,etc. 61 10 9 Organic matter 23 sand/dust 7 10 Inorganic matter 70 14 rust 4 11 82 12 metal/wire 4 12 84 18 5 13 Oily substances/chemicals grease/oil 77 5 rubber 1 14 94 11 stamp colour 3 15 86 3 tar 1 16 96 15 6 Average of 1-16 79 No(%) Yes(%) No(%) Yes(%) Stickiness Seed-coat fragments 38 20 62 80
All Countries/ All growths
Year 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999
Degree of Contamination
Summary 1989-1999 Degree of contamination (%) Non-existent/ Serious Moderate insignificant 9 86 5 11 85 4 11 85 4 13 82 5 13 82 5 15 79 6
Stickiness (%)
Seed-coat fragments (%)
21 27 26 20 23 20
0 34 36 39 32 38
Textile Fibres
Table 3.9.2 (3)
Textile Fibres
1-58
Table 3.9.2 (4)
Ranking 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
The Most Contaminated Descriptions
Description India Pakistan India India India India India India Turkey Sudan Turkey Turkmenistan India Egypt Tajikistan Mexico Iran Turkey China Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Tanzania Turkmenistan Turkey Tajikistan Tanzania Mexico Mali Uganda
F-414 AmSeed AFZAL J-34 India-Others Shanker-4/6 H-4 LRA DCH Cukurova/South Barakat Turkey-Others Long Staples MCU-5 Giza Long Staples Mexicali Iran Izmir Xinjiang Long Staples Medium Staples Mwanza Medium Staples Antalya Medium Staples Coastal Juarez Mali Uganda
Degree of contamination (%)* Number of Non-existent/ Moderate Serious samples** insignificant 36 51 52 57 59 59 59 61 65 66 68 68 68 69 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 78 78 79 79 80 82 83 83
53 23 32 27 25 26 28 26 27 28 18 18 22 23 12 24 15 22 19 17 19 15 20 13 17 17 13 14 14
11 26 16 16 16 15 13 13 7 6 14 14 10 8 17 4 12 5 7 8 5 7 2 8 4 3 5 3 3
* Average degree of contamination by each of the 16 pre-indicated contaminants ** Minimum: 5 samples
6 9 31 38 54 26 38 40 18 14 12 6 43 45 11 6 9 23 10 17 66 8 18 5 25 7 11 39 8
Textile Handbook 1-59
Table 3.9.2 (5)
Ranking
Description Israel Zimbabwe Argentina Sudan Australia Cameroon Israel Spain USA USA Syria USA USA USA South Africa Zambia Burkina Faso Benin USA Paraguay USA USA USA Chad Senegal Brazil Ivory Coast Togo Greece
Acala Zimbabwe Argentina Acala Australia Cameroon Pima Spain Memphis Territory USA-Others Syria Texas High Plains California EL Paso South Africa Zambia Burkina Faso Benin Arizona Paraguay Pima South Eastern Rio Grande Valley Chad Senegal South Brazil Ivory Coast Togo Greece
1999
Degree of contamination (%)* Number of Non-existent/ Moderate Serious samples** insignificant 95 94 94 92 92 90 90 90 89 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 87 87 87 87 86 86 86 85 85 84 84 84 83
5 5 5 8 7 9 8 7 9 11 10 10 9 9 9 31 11 10 10 7 11 11 8 13 12 15 12 12 15
0 1 1 0 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 9 2 3 3 6 3 3 6 2 3 1 4 4 2
* Average degree of contamination by each of the 16 pre-indicated contaminants ** Minimum: 5 samples
14 34 19 9 55 10 11 26 59 5 37 37 75 22 13 5 37 34 30 7 59 38 11 28 11 12 32 18 41
Textile Fibres
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
The Least Contaminated Descriptions
1-60
Textile Fibres
Table 3.9.2 (6)
Ranking 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Descriptions Most Affected by Stickiness
Description Sudan Sudan Mexico Tanzania India Cameroon Chad Pakistan USA USA Mali Mexico Senegal Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Benin Togo USA Tajikistan Uzbekistan India India South Africa Burkina Faso USA Iran India China Turkey
Acala Barakat Mexicali Coastal DCH Cameroon Chad AmSeed AFZAL Arizona USA-Othera Mali Juarez Senegal Long Staples Long Staples Benin Togo California Long Staples Medium Staples MCU-5 H-4 South Africa Burkina Faso Texas High Plains Iran India-Others Xinjiang Antalya
1999
Affirmative replies (%)*
Number of samples**
78 71 67 57 53 50 46 44 40 40 38 36 36 35 33 29 28 27 27 24 23 23 23 22 22 22 21 20 20
9 14 6 7 40 10 28 9 30 5 39 11 11 17 6 34 18 75 11 66 43 23 1 37 37 9 38 10 5
* Percentage of replies 18 indicating the existence of stickiness ** Minimum: 5 samples
Textile Handbook 1-61
Table 3.9.2 (7) Descriptions Least Affected by Stickiness
Ranking
Turkey Israel USA Paraguay Zambia Spain USA Greece USA Argentina India Israel Brazil Australia Zimbabwe USA Syria Turkey Egypt India Tanzania Uganda Tajikistan Turkmenistan Turkey India India USA Ivory Coast
Izmir Pima Rio Grande Valley Paraguay Zambia Spain Memphis Territory Greece South Eastern Argentina Shankar-4/6 Acala South Brazil Australia Zimbabwe El Paso Syria Cukurova/South Giza J-34 Mwanaz Uganda Medium Staples Medium Staples Turkey-Others F-414 LRA Pima Ivory Coast
Affirmative replies (%)* 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 5 5 5 7 7 8 9 9 9 11 11 13 13 13 13 16 17 17 17 18 19 19
* Percentage of replies indicating the existence of stickiness ** Minimum: 5 samples
Number of samples** 23 11 1 7 5 26 59 41 38 19 54 14 12 55 34 22 37 18 45 31 8 8 25 18 12 6 38 59 32
Textile Fibres
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Description
1999
Textile Fibres
1-62
Table 3.9.2 (8) Descriptions Most Affected by Seed-Coat Fragments
Ranking 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Description India Turkey Pakistan India Turkmenistan India India Sudan Tanzania Turkey India Turkey Sudan Tajikistan India India Turkey Egypt India Togo Brazil Uganda Mexico Mail Greece Uzbekistan Cameroon USA Zambia
DCH Cukurova/South AmSeed AFZAL F-414 Long Staples LRA J-34 Barakat Mwanza Antalya MCU-5 Turkey-Others Acala Long Staples India-Others Shankar-4/6 Izmir Giza H-4 Togo South Brazil Uganda Mexicali Mali Greece Long Staples Cameroon USA-Others Zambia
1999
Affirmative replies (%)*
Number of samples**
85 72 67 67 67 66 65 64 63 60 58 58 56 55 53 52 52 51 50 50 50 50 50 46 41 41 40 40 40
40 18 9 6 6 38 31 14 8 5 43 12 9 11 38 54 23 45 26 18 12 8 6 39 41 17 10 5 5
* Percentage of replies indicating the existence of seed-coat fragments ** Minimum: 5 samples
Textile Handbook 1-63
Table 3.9.2 (9)
Ranking
Description Australia USA USA Turkmenistan Burkina Faso Israel USA South Africa Benin Zimbabwe Tajikistan USA Chad Uzbekistan USA Syria Spain Mexico Ivory Coast Paraguay Tanzania China USA USA Iran Israel Senegal USA Argentina
Australia Rio Grande Valley El Paso Medium Staples Burkina Faso Acala Arizona South Africa Benin Zimbabwe Medium Staples California Chad Medium Staples South Eastern Syria Spain Juarez Ivory Coast Paraguay Coastal Xinjiang Mmphis Territory Texas High Plains Iran Pima Senegal Pima Argentina
Affirmative replies (%)*
Number of samples**
5 9 14 17 19 21 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 32 32 33 36 36 37 37
55 11 22 18 37 14 30 13 34 34 25 75 28 66 38 37 26 11 32 7 7 10 59 37 9 11 11 59 19
* Percentage of replies indicating the existence of seed-coat fragments ** Minimum: 5 samples
Textile Fibres
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
Descriptions Least Affected by Seed-Coat Fragments 1999
1-64
Textile Fibres
3.10 Relationship between Fibre Length, Fineness and Yarn Count to be Spun a) Fibre length in relation to yarn court to be spun Carded Cotton
Fibre length (in)
Warp
Weft
10S
10S 10-20S 20-30S 14-20S 30-36S 20-30S 36-45S 30-36S 45-60S 36-50S 60-80S 50-70S Carded Cotton
1/2-5/8 5/8-3/4 3/4-7/8 7/8-1 1-1-1/8 1-1/8-1-3/8 1-1/4-1-3/8
10-14S
Fibre length (in)
Warp
Weft 40S 40-70S 70-100S
30S
1-1-1/8 1-1/8-1-3/8 1-1/4-1-3/8
30-60S 60-70S
b) Fibre fineness and length in relation to yarn count to be spun Yarn Court Range
Fibre length
Fineness (m/g)
mm
in.
Nm
Ne
2200 2400 2600 3000 3400 3800 4200 4600 5000 5500 6000 8000
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
3/4
24 30 36 44 56 74 100 128 160 200 250 340
14 18 22 26 32 44 60 76 94 120 150 200
7/8 1 1-118 1-114 1 38 1 12
Textile Handbook 1-65
SECTION 4
WORLD COTTON PRODUCTION
4.1 World Cotton Production and Related Statistics Table 4.1(1)
World Cotton Production, Yield, Supply And Utilization (in Thousand 480-lb. Bales, MY 1990/91-1999/2000) (1) (1) Ending Beginning Total ConStocks Production Imports Supply sumption Loss Exports Stocks
25,347 27,812 37,747 35,403 27,609 29,899 35,760 38,189 40,772 41,743
87,069 95,754 82,507 77,051 85,859 93,065 89,593 91,629 84,535 86,358
30,653 29,077 26,875 27,717 30,528 27,538 28,939 26,290 25,159 26,651
143,069 152,643 147,129 140,171 143,996 150,502 154,292 156,108 150,466 154,752
85,518 85,745 85,549 85,298 85,543 96,644 89,013 88,388 85,216 88,193
749 29,560 683 28,468 1,071 25,520 509 26,771 245 28,385 341 27,757 253 26,845 298 26,650 (138) 23,645 211 26,479
27,812 37,747 35,403 27,609 29,899 35,760 38,189 40,772 41,743 39,869
Notes : (1) Beginning with 1970/71, world import and export totals were expanded to include trade among the 12 countries of the former Soviet Union and the 3 Baltic States. (2) Estimate (3) Forecast
Source: USDA/FAS Jan-2000
Textile Fibres
Yield Marketing 1,000 Kg/ year Hectares Ha 1990/91 33,155 572 1991/92 34,787 599 1992/93 32,631 551 1993/94 30,710 546 1994/95 32,176 581 1995/96 35,936 564 1996/97 33,818 577 1997/98 33,815 590 (2) 1998/99 (3) 32,971 558 1999/2000 32,610 577
1-66
Textile Fibres
Table 4.1(2)
Cotton Production, Supply and Distribution by Country MY 1999/2000 (1,000 480 lb Bales)
Beg. Stocks Afghanistan 13 Albania 53 Algeria 22 Angola 7 Argentina 798 Armenia, Rep. 2 Australia 1,206 Austria 49 Azerbaijan; Republic 122 Bangladesh 41 Belarus 5 Belgium-Lux. 20 Benin 166 Bolivia 26 Brazil 1,446 Bulgaria 18 Burkina 115 Burma 41 Cambodia 1 Cameroon 86 Canada 23 Cen. African Rep. 10 Chad 68 Chile 39 China 17,433 Colombia 90 Costa Rica 12 Cote d’’Ivoire 234 Cuba 10 Cyprus 1 Czech Republic 61 Denmark 4 Dominican Rep. 2 Ecuador 26 Egypt 520
Prod. 100 1 0 20 550 0 3,100 0
ImportsTotal Supply 0 113 34 88 130 152 0 27 35 1,383 5 7 0 4,306 140 189
Dom. Loss* Use 75 0 35 0 130 0 15 0 400 9 5 0 200 0 125 0
Exports Ending Stocks 25 13 0 53 0 22 5 7 500 474 0 2 2,800 1,306 10 54
145 70 0 0 625 40 1,900 30 600 130 0 300 0
0 700 35 210 0 0 2,000 70 0 2 5 0 350
267 811 40 230 791 66 5,346 118 715 173 6 386 373
40 750 30 200 10 10 3,800 100 25 105 5 45 350
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
120 0 5 15 600 35 0 0 550 25 0 270 0
107 60 5 15 181 21 1,546 18 140 43 1 71 23
75 375 0 17,600 160 4 750 2 1 0 0 3 15 1,075
0 0 100 150 195 10 0 40 1 260 15 15 115 100
85 443 139 35,183 445 26 984 52 3 321 19 20 156 1,695
5 15 100 20,500 340 14 130 45 2 250 15 18 120 900
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 23
60 350 0 1,200 10 0 575 0 0 0 0 0 0 375
20 78 39 13,483 93 12 279 7 1 66 4 2 36 397
Textile Handbook 1-67 Table 4.1(2)
Cotton Production, Supply and Distribution by Country Prod.
ImportsTotal Supply 1 130 163 0 140 153 70 20 112 0 50 73 0 500 678 0 10 13 0 620 692 70 15 103 1,750 20 2,132 3 140 177 10 0 18 2 12 17 0 600 718 0 85 110 13,000 450 18,132 17 2,500 2,705 600 0 781 40 60 127 0 110 147 125 40 233 1 1,350 1,465 0 1,250 1,576
Dom. Loss* Use 130 0 120 0 90 0 50 0 480 20 10 0 560 0 70 0 600 5 145 0 10 0 15 0 550 0 80 3 13,000 0 2,400 50 600 0 100 0 110 0 100 0 1,300 10 1,250 0
Exports Ending Stocks 0 33 20 13 0 22 0 23 0 178 0 3 60 72 15 18 1,100 427 0 32 0 8 0 2 50 118 0 27 200 4,932 0 255 20 161 0 27 0 37 75 58 10 145 0 326
350 30 5 1 130 0 0 0 60 30 0 950 600 0 1 150 0 10 5 250
80 60 110 1,550 45 30 10 70 60 35 400 15 2,450 10 210 10 17 1 4 210
240 0 0 35 80 70 0 30 0 5 0 925 200 0 0 140 0 9 1 115
0 40 105 1,600 0 100 10 100 0 10 425 0 2,100 10 210 5 17 0 0 70
408 100 140 1,995 144 114 13 110 73 43 471 1,237 3,146 19 239 190 22 12 8 469
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
88 40 30 410 19. 14 3 10 13 3 71 297 471 9 29 40 5 2 3 144
Textile Fibres
Beg. Stocks El Salvador 32 Estonia 13 Ethiopia 22 Finland 23 France 178 Georgia, Rep. 3 Germany 72 Ghana 18 Greece 362 Guatemala 34 Haiti 8 Honduras 3 Hong Kong 118 Hungary 25 India 4,682 Indonesia 188 Iran 181 Iraq 27 Ireland 37 Israel 68 Italy 114 Japan 326 Kazakhstan, Rep. 58 Kenya 30 Korea, North 30 Korea, South 394 Kyrgyzstan, Rep. 14 Latvia 14 Lebanon 3 Lithuania 10 Madagascar 13 Malawi 3 Malaysia 46 Mali 287 Mexico 446 Moldova, Rep. 9 Morocco 28 Mozambique 35 Netherlands 5 Nicaragua 2 Niger 3 Nigeria 149
1-68
Textile Fibres Table 4.1(2)
Cotton Production, Supply and Distribution by Country
Beg. Stocks Norway 8 Pakistan 1,711 Panama 1 Paraguay 54 Peru 61 Philippines 77 Poland 17 Portugal 285 Romania 92 Russia 142 Senegal 9 Singapore 8 Slovakia 23 Somalia 1 South Africa 97 Spain 215 Sri Lanka 16 Sudan 56 Sweden 10 Switzerland 66 Syria 674 Taiwan 227 Tajikistan, Rep. 72 Tanzania 84 Thailand 376 Togo 92 Tunisia 38 Turkey 583 Turkmenistan 659 Uganda 24 Ukraine 64 United Kingdom 110 United States 3,939 Uruguay 5 Uzbekistan, Rep.615 Venezuela 25 Vietnam 65 Yemen 4 Yugoslavia 52 Zaire 5 Zambia 52 Zimbabwe 146 World Total 41,743
Prod. 0 8,000 0 325 185 5 0 0 0 0 85 0 0 7 230 550 5 375 0 0 1,400 0 435 185 30 375 10 3,950 1,200 100 0 0 16,953 0 5,300 50 30 65 1 15 100 460 86,358
ImportsTotal Dom. Loss* Supply Use 15 23 15 0 500 10,211 7,300 25 5 6 5 0 0 379 40 0 170 416 320 0 160 242 170 0 325 342 325 0 735 1,020 750 0 200 292 200 0 1,000 1,142 1,000 0 0 94 20 0 55 63 0 0 75 98 60 0 5 13 12 0 155 482 350 0 250 1,015 540 5 35 56 40 0 0 431 60 0 25 35 25 0 150 216 150 0 0 2,074 415 0 1,450 1,677 1,425 0 0 507 90 0 0 269 50 0 1,350 1,756 1,300 46 0 467 15 0 125 173 130 0 1,400 5,933 5,100 0 0 1,859 150 0 0 124 10 0 150 214 50 0 90 200 90 0 75 20,967 10,200 (33) 10 15 10 0 5 5,920 850 0 150 225 200 0 250 345 275 0 0 69 25 0 100 153 100 0 15 35 30 0 0 152 65 0 0 606 175 15 26,651 154,752 88,193 211
Exports Ending Stocks 0 8 700 2,186 0 1 275 64 35 61 0 72 0 17 0 270 0 92 0 142 50 24 55 8 10 28 0 1 40 92 230 240 0 16 270 101 0 10 5 61 1,000 659 4 248 355 62 125 94 0 410 325 127 0 43 200 633 850 859 85 29 100 64 0 110 6,400 4,400 0 5 4,100 970 5 20 0 70 40 4 0 53 0 5 20 67 270 146 26,479 39,869
Textile Handbook 1-69
* Loss for countries outside of the United States reflects cotton lost or destroyed while in the marketing channel. For the United States, loss reflects the difference between stocks as reported by the Bureau of the Census and implicit stocks based on supply plus total use. A negative “loss” is a positive number. Source: USDA/FAS Jan-2000 Table 4.1(3)
Cotton Area, Yield, and Production World and Selected countries and Regions
Region and Country
Textile Fibres
1998/99 1999/00 1998/99 1999/00 1998/99 1999/00 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Ha Ha KG/Ha KG/Ha Bales Bales WESTERN HEMISPHERE United States 4,324 5,415 701 682 13,918 16,953 Brazil 800 850 572 487 2,100 1,900 Mexico 229 160 951 816 1,000 600 Argentina 650 325 301 368 900 550 Colombia 55 60 673 581 170 160 Paraguay 140 175 451 404 290 325 Peru 60 85 617 474 170 185 Guatemala 2 2 327 327 3 3 Nicaragua 4 4 544 544 10 10 Venezuela 30 30 363 363 50 50 Others 75 60 316 279 109 77 TOTAL 6,369 7,166 640 632 18,720 20,813 EUROPE Greece 412 425 926 897 1,753 1,750 Spain 97 110 1,084 1,089 483 550 Others 18 18 399 399 33 33 TOTAL 527 553 937 919 2,269 2,333 AFRICA Egypt 280 275 816 851 1,050 1,075 Sudan 150 225 363 363 250 375 Zimbabwe 320 300 359 334 528 460 South Africa 137 137 381 366 240 230 Tanzania 250 250 118 161 135 185 Cameroon 180 180 435 363 360 300 Nigeria 300 280 218 194 300 250 Chad 420 420 156 194 300 375 Others 2,625 2,684 333 334 4,013 4,118 TOTAL 4,662 4,751 335 338 7,176 7,368
1-70
Textile Fibres Table 4.1(3)
Cotton Area, Yield, and Production
ASIA AND OCEANIA China FSU-12 Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Others India Pakistan Turkey Australia Syria Israel Burma Thailand Afghanistan Others TOTAL FOREIGN TOTAL WORLD TOTAL
4,459 2,500 1,485 475 540 9,300 2,900 757 562 272 30 180 14 60 379 21,413 28,647 32,971
3,900 2,465 1,500 475 490 8,700 3,000 730 450 240 15 180 15 60 375 20,130 27,185 32,600
1,011 575 674 435 423 298 473 1,107 1,274 1,232 1,706 157 498 363 499 573 537 558
983 668 769 550 471 325 581 1,178 1,500 1,270 1,814 157 435 363 493 604 556 577
20,700 6,600 4,600 950 1,050 12,727 6,300 3,850 3,289 1,539 235 130 32 100 868 56,370 70,617 84,535
17,600 7,560 5,300 1,200 1,060 13,000 8,000 3,950 3,100 1,400 125 130 30 100 849 55,844 69,405 86,358
Note: Total may not add because of rounding. Harvest season begins August 1. Bales of 480 lb. Net. Source: Production estimates & Crop Assessment Division, FAS,USDA. January 2000 Table 4.1(4)
World Cotton Supply, Use, and Trade 1994/95 - 1999/2000 (Season Beginning August 1) In 1,000 480 lb. Bales 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 Estimate Forecast Production
World Total China, People’s Rep. United States India Pakistan Uzbekistan, Rep. Franc-Zone Africa (2/) Turkey Others
85,859 19,900 19,662 11,148 6,250 5,778 2,656 2,886 17,579
93,065 21,900 17,900 13,250 8,200 5,740 3,144 3,911 19,020
89,593 19,300 18,942 13,918 7,323 4,813 3,665 3600 18,032
91,629 21,100 18,793 12,337 7,175 5,228 4,320 3,651 19,025
84,535 20,700 13,918 12,727 6,300 4,600 4,050 3,850 18,390
86,358 17,600 16,953 13,000 8,000 5,300 4,140 3,950 17,415
Textile Handbook 1-71
World Total China, People’s Rep, India United States Pakistan Turkey EU-1 5 S,E, Asia (1) Others World Total S,E, Asia (1) EU-15 Mexico Brazil Korea, South Taiwan Turkey Others
World Total China, People’s Rep India United States Pakistan EU-15 Brazil Australia Others
88,388 20,800 12,675 11,349 7,187 5,000 5,349 3,987 22,041
85,216 19,800 12,472 10,401 7,000 4,600 4,952 4,280 21,711
88,193 20,500 13,000 10,200 7,300 5,100 4,862 4,545 22,686
26,290 3,945 4,613 1,480 1,884 1,322 1,209 1,450 10,387
25,159 4,340 4,101 1,488 1,360 1,472 1,375 1,139 9,884
26,651 4,746 4,132 2,100 2,000 1,600 1,450 1,400 9,229
26,650 7,500 4,570 3,617 2,710 1,345 34 905 5,969
23,645 4,344 3,800 3,621 3,000 1,399 681 1,150 5,650
26,479 6,400 4,100 3,706 2,800 1,425 1,200 1,000 5,848
40,772 16,855 4,174 3,887 1,521 1,582 1,486 1,102 10,165
41,743 17,433 4,682 3,939 1,711 1,484 1,446 1,206 9,842
39,869 13,483 4,932 4,400 2,186 1,590 1,546 1,306 10,426
(1) Includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. (2) Includes Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, CAR, Chad, Cote d’lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Source: USDA/FAS Jan 2000
Textile Fibres
World Total United States Uzbekistan, Rep, Franc-Zone Africa (2) Australia EU-15 China, People’s Rep, Syria Others
Consumption 86,644 89,013 20,600 21,350 11,747 13,120 10,647 11,126 7,200 7,000 4,363 4,735 5,149 5,265 4,426 4,412 22,512 22,005 Imports 30,528 27,538 28,939 4,310 4,584 4,503 4,930 4,748 4,792 580 695 950 1,612 1,768 2,386 1,747 1,661 1,504 1,114 1,380 1,300 1,083 519 1,355 15,152 12,183 12,149 Exports 28,385 27,757 26,845 9,402 7,675 6,865 5,006 4,524 4,550 2,682 2,798 3,308 1,345 1,466 2,384 1,353 1,676 1,545 183 21 10 568 567 670 7,846 9,030 7,513 Ending Stocks 29,899 35,760 38,189 8,878 13,202 14,755 4,032 5,053 4,679 2,650 2,609 3,971 1,692 1,358 1,818 1,615 1,611 1,464 1,931 1,485 1,257 433 747 947 8,668 9,695 9,298 85,845 21,000 10,545 11,198 6,750 3,904 5,535 4,416 22,195
1-72
Textile Fibres Table 4.1(5)
MY 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 (3) 1999/2000 (4)
New Independent States (NIS) Supply and Demand Marketing Years 1991/92 - 1999/2000
Beginning Stocks 3,414 3,629 2,712 2,163 2,122 2,469 1,774 1,867 1,802
Production 11,065 9,146 9,378 8,778 8,260 6,588 7,108 6,600 7,560
Imports
Exports
Internal1 Internal2 Internal1 Internal2
5,450 3,530 3,535 2,969 1,820 1,550 1,700 1,375 1,505
50 20 10 20 45 45 80 30 50
5,450 3,530 3,535 2,969 1,820 1,550 1,700 1,375 1,505
3,300 5,550 6,012 5,974 5,048 4,755 4,345 4,225 4,465
Consum- Ending ption Stocks 7,600 3,629 4,538 2,712 3,925 2,163 2,865 2,122 2,910 2,469 2,573 1,774 2,750 1,867 2,470 1,802 2,580 2,367
(1) Reflects only trade among the 12 countries of the former Soviet Union and three Baltic States. (2) Reflects NIS trade with external trading partners. (3) Estimate. (4) Projection. Notes: (i)
: Adding internal and external trade will provide a total trade figure.
(ii)
: Ending stocks may include any loss that has occurred.
(iii) :The NIS includes: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. Source: USDA/FAS/COTS Jan-2000
Textile Handbook 1-73
4.2 The World’s Major Cotton Growing Areas
Figure 4.2
World’s Cotton Growing Areas
Textile Fibres
1-74
Textile Fibres
4.2.1 China Table 4.2.1 a (000) 480-pound bales Year Beginning Stocks 95 8,878 96 13,202 97 14,755 98 16,855 99 17,433
Produc- Imports Total Supply tion 21,900 3,045 33,823 19,300 3,613 36,115 21,100 1,834 37,689 20,700 359 37,914 17,600 150 35,183
Mill Use 20,600 21,350 20,800 19,800 20,500
Exports Ending Stocks 21 13,202 10 14,755 34 16,855 681 17,433 1,200 13,483
SUR* 64.02% 69.08% 80.90% 85.12% 62.13%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use (Use & Exports)
Figure 4.2.1b
China
Textile Handbook 1-75
4.2.2 United States Table 4.2.2a Year Beginning Stocks 95 2,650 96 2,609 97 3,971 98 3,887 99 3,939
(000) 480-pound bales
Produc- Imports Total Supply tion 17,900 408 20,958 18,942 403 21,954 18,793 13 22,777 13,918 443 18,248 16,953 75 20,967
Mill Use 10,647 11,126 11,349 10,401 10,200
Exports Ending Stocks 7,675 2,609 6,865 3,971 7,500 3,887 4,344 3,939 6,400 4,400
SUR* 14.24% 22.07% 20.62% 26.71% 26.51%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use (Use & Exports)
Figure 4.2.2b
United States
Textile Fibres
1-76
Textile Fibres
4.2.3 India Figure 4.2.3(a)
(000) 480-pound bales
Year Beginning Produc- Imports Total Stocks Supply tion 95 3,385 13,237 85 16,707 96 4,163 13,918 40 18,121 97 4,679 12,258 145 17,082 98 4,174 12,727 429 17,330 99 4,682 13,000 800 18,482
Mill Use 11,977 12,367 12,675 12,472 13,200
Exports Ending SUR* Stocks 567 1,190 312 176 100
4,163 4,564 4,095 4,682 5,182
33.19% 33.67% 31.53% 37.02% 38.96%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use(Use & Exports)
Figure 4.2.3b
India
Textile Handbook 1-77
4.2.4 Pakistan Table 4.2.4a
(000) 480-pound bales
Year Beginning Produc- Imports Total Stocks Supply tion 95 1,692 8,200 122 10,014 96 1,358 7,323 279 8,960 97 1,818 7,175 120 9,113 98 1,521 6,300 925 8,746 99 1,711 8,200 500 10,411
Mill Use 7,200 7,000 7,187 7,000 7,400
Exports Ending Stocks 1,433 1,358 119 1,818 380 1,521 10 1,711 700 2,286
SUR* 15.73% 25.54% 20.10% 24.41% 28.22%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use (Use & Exports)
Figure 4.2.4b Pakistan
Textile Fibres
1-78
Textile Fibres
4.2.5 Australia Table 4.2.5a Year Beginning Stocks 95 433 96 747 97 947 98 1,102 99 1,206
(000) 480-pound bales
Produc- Imports Total Supply tion 1,970 3 2,406 2,792 1 3,540 3,059 1 4,007 3,289 0 4,391 3,100 0 4,306
Mill Use 193 209 195 185 200
Exports Ending Stocks 1,466 747 2,384 947 2,710 1,102 3,000 1,206 2,800 1,306
SUR* 45.03% 36.52% 37.93% 37.86% 43.53%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use (Use & Exports)
Figure 4.2.5b
Textile Handbook 1-79
4.2.6 Republic of Uzbekistan Table 4.2.6a Year Beginning Stocks 95 956 96 1,304 97 822 98 635 99 603
(000) 480-pound bales
Produc- Imports Total Supply tion 5,740 5 6,701 4,813 5 6,122 5,228 5 6,055 4,600 5 5,240 5,300 5 5,908
Mill Use 873 750 850 825 850
Exports Ending Stocks 4,524 1,304 4,550 822 4,570 635 3,812 603 4,200 858
SUR* 24.16% 15.51% 11.72% 13.00% 16.99%
Source: USDA-Foreign Agriculture Service *
Stocks-to-Use Ratio: Calculated by dividing Ending Stocks by Total Use(Use & Exports)
Textile Fibres
Section 5 - Man-Made Fibre Production ................ 1-80 5.1
Methods of Man-Made Fibre Spinning ........................... 1-80 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4
5.2
Wet Spinning ................................................................ Dry Spinning ................................................................ Melt Spinning ............................................................... Gel Spinning .................................................................
1-80 1-81 1-81 1-83
The Processing of Tow ....................................................... 1-84
Section 6 - New Developement of Textile Fibres ... 1-85 6.1
Microfibres ......................................................................... 1-85 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6
6.2
TENCEL® ................................................................... 1-89 TENCEL® A100 .......................................................... 1-92
High Performance Fibres .................................................. 1-93 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 6.3.11
6.4
1-85 1-85 1-86 1-86 1-86 1-88
Lyocell ................................................................................. 1-89 6.2.1 6.2.2
6.3
Direct Spinning ............................................................ Splittable Fibres ........................................................... Mechanically Splittable Bicomponents ........................ Solvent Splittable Bicomponents ................................. Uses for Microfibres .................................................... Shin-Gosen ...................................................................
Aramids, Meta-aramid ................................................ Para-aramid .................................................................. Carbon Fibres - PAN and Pitch Based ......................... Fluorocarbon Fibres (PTFE) ........................................ Glass Fibre ................................................................... Melamine: Basofil (BASF) .......................................... Polybenzimidazole — PBI ........................................... Polyphenylenebenzobisoxazole — PBO ...................... Cellulose acetate - MicroSafe (Celanese Acetate) ....... Optical Fibres ................................................................ Chitin, Chitosan (shells of crustacean) .........................
1-93 1-94 1-94 1-94 1-95 1-95 1-95 1-96 1-96 1-96 1-97
Smart Technology for Textiles and Clothing ................... 1-97 6.4.1 6.4.2
Phase-Transition Materials and Polymer Crystals ....... 1-98 Smart Microcapsules/Microspheres ............................. 1-98
6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5
Smart Fibres for Measurement of Temperature, Moisture and Strain ...................................................... 1-99 Shape Memory Polymers ............................................. 1-99 Smart Gels and Gel Fibres ........................................... 1-100
Back to Table of Content
1-80
Textile Fibres
SECTION 5
MAN-MADE FIBRE PRODUCTION
5.1 Methods of Man-Made Fibre Spinning The earliest man-made fibre was proceed using the wet spinning method. Through this process, fibre is produced by spinning liquids in a coagulating or regenerating bath. The second method is dry spinning, which has been applied to the production of other fibres from solutions of fibre-forming materials in suitable volatile solvents. Melt spinning is another method applied to the production of thermoplastic and relatively high melting point polymers.
5.1.1 Wet Spinning The equipment required for wet spinning consists of a supply tank for the spinning solution, pump, filter, spinneret, and coagulating bath. Viscose rayon is the fibre that is spun in greatest quantity using this method. High tenacity rayons and polynosic (cotton-like) rayons are produced in a similar way, with different formulae for the composition of the coagulating bath and varying stretching techniques. Calcium alginate and polyvinyl chloride are other fibres in this category. Most acrylic fibres such as acrilan and courtelle are wet spun.
Figure 5.1.1 Wet spinning
Textile Handbook 1-81
5.1.2 Dry Spinning Cellulose acetate is produced by the dry spinning method. The dope is filtered between the pump and spinneret; the hot air enters the drying chamber at 100°C and removes the solvent, leaving the filament. A certain degree of stretch is imparted between spinneret and take-up roller that gives some molecular orientation and higher tenacity. Cellulose triacetate and Orlon, which is a polyacrylonitrile fibre, are also spun this way.
Figure 5.1.2
Dry spinning
Textile Fibres
5.1.3 Melt Spinning Melt spinning is used for the production of nylons, polyester and polyolefins. The polymer chips are first washed with a solvent such as alcohol, acetone, or water to remove most impurities. It is then melted and extruded through small orifices of a spinning nozzle to form fibres. The amount of molten polymer in the sump is kept to a minimum to prevent the possibility of decomposition and changes in the degree of polymerization arise. The filaments are extruded, solidify,
1-82
Textile Fibres
and pass through a cooling chamber in which they are cooled by a current of cold air. In the case of nylon, this is followed by a steaming process that moistens the fibres; polyester fibres are moistened by passing them over moist rollers or discs. It is also essential that water and air bubbles should be absent from the material being proceed. Nylon is cold drawn by about 400%; polyester is hot drawn by about 500%. For high tenacity polyester, yarns may be stretched more than this. Melt spinning has the advantage of needing no chemical baths or solvent recovery systems. Glass fibre and Spandex yarns are produced in a rather similar way. Figure 5.1.3
Melt spinning
Textile Handbook 1-83
5.1.4 Gel Spinning Gel spinning is defined as a spinning method for high strength fibres through a gel-like state as intermediate substance. In gel spinning, the degree of polymerization is the most critical property; therefore, for polyethylene the ultra-high molecular weight above 600,000 g/ mol is used. A relatively high-concentration polyethylene solution must be prepared as uniformly as possible, because any in-homogeneity will remain as a defect in the final fibre structure and reduce the final mechanical properties of the fibres. In addition, essential to the formation of high strength fibres, is control of this entanglement. This can be controlled either by dilution in an appropriate solvent or morphological control through the crystallization process. The extruded solution is substantially cooled down by a gas or a liquid cooling medium. Polyvinylalochol (PVA) polymer and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) can also be processed by gel spinning. Figure 5.1.4
Schematic diagram of (1) gel spinning process, (2) technical points of gel spinning process.
Textile Fibres
(1)
(2)
PROCESS
DEFECT REMOVAL
1 Dissolution Process Homogeneous soulution of ultra-high molecular weight PE
2
3
Chain end entanglement
Spinning Process Gel-like as-spun fiber Crystallization control
Entanglement
Drawing Process High draw-ratio drawing
Folded chains Amorphous content
1-84
Textile Fibres
5.2 The Processing of Tow A tow is a collection of thousands of parallel, continuous filaments of man-made fibres in rope form, processed so that individual filaments are cut, or broken, into staple fibres of suitable length, which are processed into yarn on conventional spinning machinery. Rather different procedures are adopted for the cutting of different types of fibre. Viscose rayon may be cut when wet immediately after coagulating and drawing; it is then washed, given suitable purifying chemical treatments, and dried. Alternatively it can be drawn, purified, and dried before cutting. Other man-made tows have similar treatments appropriate to their properties; thermoplastic fibres such as polyesters are drawn, crimped, heat set, and cut. Tow-to-top is the method, which eliminates the conventional spinning process, such as opening, carding, and combing operations. The tops are introduced into the drawing operation. Two-to-top converters can either be operated by stretch breaking or by cutting. The stretch breaking system has a pair of sharp teeth gear-like wheels that intermesh but do not touch. All filaments are broken in turn as they pass through the wheels, so the fibre length is more uniform. Fibre cutting systems take a tensioned tow, and cut it on the bias using a rotating upper roller, around which spiral knives are wound. These spiral cutting edges are pressed with great force against a lower, smooth anvil roller. By this means, fibres are cut to uniform length, the fibre length being equal to the pitch of the cutting spirals. Tow to top have the advantage over cut-staple processing in that further opening, carding, drawing, and combing operation are avoided, the yarns made from them are more uniform and stronger, and they can be spun to finer counts.
Textile Handbook 1-85
SECTION 6
NEW DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILE FIBRES
6.1 Microfibres One of the most important developments in recent years has been the technology to extrude extremely fine filaments (less than 1.0 denier) while maintaining all of the strength, uniformity and processing characteristics expected by textile manufacturers and consumers. These “microfibres” are even finer than luxury natural fibres, such as silk.
Microfibres are made primarily by three methods; direct spinning, mechanical splitting and solvent splitting.
6.1.1 Direct Spinning The direct spun route to microfibres is the most economical and is used by all major producers. Most offer direct spun filament microfibres in the 0.7 to 0.9 denier range. A few like DuPont, Toyobo and Unitika supply fibres as low as 0.3 dpf. Microdenier staples down to 0.5 dpf are available from several suppliers and Kuraray even sells a 0.4 dpf staple. Fibres in this range are extremely difficult to process on textile equipment. Deniers in the 0.7 range can be carded at commercial rates (25 to 36 kg/hr) with proper card clothing and good card maintenance.
6.1.2 Splittable Fibres Fibres below 0.3 dpf, usually called ultrafine or super microfibres, are made by spinning conventional deniers and during later processing are split into individual fibres. This can be done by direct spinning of homopolymer fibres having weak points that subsequently split when the fabric is brushed, abraded or subjected to high velocity gas or water as in the DuPont Spunlace® process. For example, if a 1.2 dpf
Textile Fibres
Microfibre is defined as a fibre of less than 1.0 denier (i.e. 9000 metres of fibre weigh less than one gram). It can be extruded by reducing the polymer output at the spinneret and drawing with a large draw ratio. It is classified into two types: continuous filament type and random (staple) type. Their designed characteristics are extreme softness, high flexibility and smoothness.
1-86
Textile Fibres
hexalobal hollow fibre is split, each segment will be 0.2 dpf. However, this method usually leads to a mixed denier product since it is difficult to control the splitting of all segments.
6.1.3 Mechanically Splittable Bicomponents When two incompatible or partially compatible polymers are spun through the same spinneret capillary, subsequent working easily separates the fibres. This could be during drawing, relaxing or bombardment with a gas (e.g., interlacing) or liquid (e.g., hydraulic needling). After separating into individual strands, both components are part of the final fabric. A frequently used variety is the segmented pie or citrus type with alternating polymer segments (PET/Nylon, PET/PP). After splitting, the fibres can have sharp edges which are not possible in monocomponent spinning. This can enhance fabric aesthetics.
6.1.4 Solvent Splittable Bicomponents In this variation of the bicomponent route, the segments are separated by dissolving one of the components. The solvent can be administered at any stage after spinning, but most practically during fabric finishing. The most commercially successful use of this technology is the “islandsin-the-sea” variety used for suedes and leather-like application. Multiple fibres are spun into an expendable matrix or sea. During fabric finishing, the sea is dissolved leaving the fine filaments. Typical compositions use PET as the islands and polystyrene or PVA as the dissolvable sea. Toray has perfected the technology and is producing deniers in the 0.05 dpf range for eyeglass wipes. Deniers in the 0.15 to 0.3 range are used for suede-like fabrics like Ecsaine® and Hilake® (Ultrasuede® in the U.S.). Kuraray has succeeded in producing 0.0001 denier ultra microfibre by this technology for an artificial leather called Sofrinau®.
6.1.5 Uses for Microfibres The lower bending rigidity, high surface area and greater number of fibres per unit weight enable the production of fabrics which, are softer, quick drying, have greater cover and cooler hand. Consider, for example, the advantages of polyester microfibre when used in outerwear. A raincoat or jacket made from 100% microfibre will be much lighter and more comfortable than one made from conventional fibres. Since the small filaments pack closely together, they provide a wind barrier to prevent loss of body heat and assuring
Textile Handbook 1-87
Coolmax
Polypropylene
Acrylic
Nylon
Wool
Moisture Management Tests
Cotton
Table 6.1.5 (1)
Textile Fibres
comfort on chilly days. This close packing of fibres, together with polyesters’ natural resistance to wetting also gives the fabric the ability to repel rain. The non-wetting surface of the fibres causes water to form beads (like rain on a newly-waxed car). These beads are much larger than the spaces between the yarns and water is effectively locked out. And this is done without the need for chemical treatments or coatings which can make the fabric heavier and less able to “breathe”. Fabrics from microfibres, on the other hand, breathe well. Although the spaces between the yarns are too small to be penetrated by liquid water, they are ample for the passage of moisture vapour, leaving the wearer dry and comfortable. For example, DuPont CoolMax™ is a high-performance fabric that can help the athletic performance of the people who wear it. Using DuPont’s proprietary Dacron® fibres, CoolMax™ moves sweat away from the body to the outer layer of the fabric. This is due to the unique shape of the fibre with four channels on the surface; they speed moisture faster to the outer surface (see Fig. 6.1.5 (2)). In moisture management tests, garments made with CoolMax™ dried almost completely in 30 minutes. Cotton, by comparison, remained wet nearly 50%).
1-88
Textile Fibres Table 6.1.5 (2)
Unique Shape of Coolmax
Tetra-channel fibre pulling moisture away from skin. Even though microfibres are more expensive, the high fashion market segments love these products because they imitate silk at a fraction of the cost. Microfibres have been combined with other fibres. DuPont has promoted Lycra 3D®, a stretch knit yarn with a microfibre surface and Lycra® core. Polyester and Nylon Microsupplex® jackets, worsteds, suedes, athletic wear, and denims are even important in fibrefill due to superior insulation. Polypropylene, acrylics and rayon microfibres are primarily used in blends with the PET and nylon fibres. An important new rapidly growing market is in spunbondeds, particularly polyester/ PP fabrics like ComforMax I B®. Apart from application in the apparel industry, polyester type microfibres are good for making wiping cloth, owing to the large number of very fine filaments on the surface. They are also very good in absorbing grease. Polyester microfibre is an excellent material for wiping cloth to clean spectacle lenses.
6.1.6 Shin-Gosen This word was introduced by the media in Japan during the latter half of 1988 to describe a completely new generation of textiles based on synthetic fibres. Micro, random and a combination of all availability technologies, were used to produce these fibres, which have a different quality and performance from those of ordinary fibres. Shin-Gosen is classified into four types : new silky, new worsted, dry touch, and peach skin based on the hand feel of fabrics.
Textile Handbook 1-89 Figure 6.1.6
Classification of technologies to impart the various types of hand feel to Shin-gosen.
Cross-sectional shape Mircrocrater Twist Dry touch New silky
Polymer modification Bicomponent spinning Caustic reduction Fabric heat treatment
Shin-gosen Peach Skin New worsted Micro fibre Direct spinning Bicomponent spinning and separation
Thick and thin yarn Multi-feed false twist Air-texturing or twist
6.2 Lyocell Lyocell is a cellulose fibre obtained by an organic solvent spinning process where:
6.2.1 TENCEL® TENCEL® is the registered trademark of Acordis Fibres (Holdings) Ltd. It is a 100% cellulosic fibre. It is produced from natural cellulose derived from wood pulp using a solvent-spinning process which is designed to minimise environmental impact. A solvent, an amine oxide, is used to dissolve the cellulose directly into a very viscous solution. After filtration, the solution is extruded to yield fine filaments, from which the solvent is subsequently removed by washing, The resulting tow is dried and cut to staple fibre.
Textile Fibres
• “organic solvent” means a mixture of organic chemicals and water, • “solvent spinning” means dissolving and spinning without the formation of a derivative.
1-90
Textile Fibres Figure 6.2.1(1)
The Process Route
Wood Pulp Amine Oxide Dissolve Filter Evaporate Extrude Purify
Wash Dry Fibre
TENCEL®, as a cellulosic fibre, absorbs moisture and is fully biodegradable. Table 6.2.1 (2)
Stress and Strain Comparison Between TENCEL® and other Fibres TENCEL®
Viscose
Titre (dtex)
1.7
1.7
Dry Tenacity (cN/tex)
Cotton
Polyester 1.7
38 - 42
22 - 26
20 - 24
55 - 60
Dry Elongation (%)
14 - 16
20 - 25
7-9
25 - 30
Wet Tenacity (cN/tex)
34 - 38
10 - 15
26 - 30
54 - 58
Wet Elongation (%)
16 - 18
25 - 30
12 - 14
25 - 30
TENCEL® fibre is available commercially in a range of dtex viz 1.1, 1.4, 1.7, 2.4 and 3.3 dtex. It is also available in a range of staple lengths suitable for short staple spinning systems, and in longer staple lengths for worsted and woollen spinning systems. On short staple spinning systems, a wide range of yarn counts can be created in 100% TENCEL®. For example, yarns can be produced from the 1.7dtex fibre in the range Nm 10 - 60 (Ne 6 - 36); Nm 30 100 (Ne l8 - 60) from the 1.4 dtex fibre, Much finer yarns are possible with the 1.1 dtex fibre, e.g. Nm160 (Ne100).
Textile Handbook 1-91
a) Fibrillation Fibrillation is the longitudinal splitting of a single fibre into microfibres of 1 to 4 microns in diameter. The splitting occurs as a result of wet abrasion against fabric or metal. The fibrils are so fine that they can become almost transparent, giving a white or ‘frosty’ appearance to finished fabric. In cases of extreme fibrillation, the micro-fibrils become entangled, giving a pilled appearance.
b) Using fibrillation
Fibrillation can be used both in piece dyeing of fabric and in garment washing/dyeing to produce characteristic softness and drape aesthetics.
Figure 6.2.1 b (1)
TENCEL® fibre
Textile Fibres
Fibrillation can occur in the wet processing of fabrics and garments in TENCEL®. The microfibres generated can be used to create a variety of interesting touch and feel aesthetics. A peach skin effect, which can also withstand repeated domestic washing at 40°C, is possible, providing the fibrillation is developed such that the fibrils cannot become long and entangled.
1-92
Textile Fibres Figure 6.2.1 b (2) Fibrillated TENCEL® fibre
Figure 6.2.1 b (3)
Fibrillation in a fabric in TENCEL®
6.2.2 TENCEL® A100 Tencel A 100 is a new Tencel fibre which possesses all the properties of Tencel. The most distinctive property of Tencel A 100 is that it does not fibrillate. This makes dyeing and finishing much easier and economical. Tencel A 100 has been used predominantly in knitted fabric production but on a relatively small scale. a) TENCEL® Al00 attributes • • • • • • •
Characteristic drape and fluidity of TENCEL® Full, soft handle Fibrillation-free fabric surface Subtle surface lustre Deep, clear colour Excellent print definition Pronounced stitch definition
b) TENCEL® A100 performance • Superior dye uptake and retention • High tear strength: twice that of cottons (in wovens) a High burst strength in knitted fabrics
Textile Handbook 1-93
• Excellent laundering performance • Retention of 3D character in wash and in wear Applications c) TENCEL® A100 Applications • Knitwear and jersey • Yarn - and piece-dyed wovens • Unfinished fabrics for garment processing Table 6.2.2 c Comparison of Fibre Properties between Tencel and Other Fibres fibre properties fibre TENCEL®Al00 TENCEL
®
38-40
26-32
Dry Water Wet extension modulus inhibition (cN/TEX) (%) (%)
11-16
10-14
950
70-85
1,100
65-70
40-44
36-38
13-15
14-16
18-44
21-53
3-10
25-50 700
75-80
900
55-70
Modal
32-34
19-21
13-15
14-16
Polynosic
34-42
25-34
10-13
13-15
Polyester
31-53
31-53
45-55
60-280
6.3 High Performance Fibres High performance fibres are driven by special technical functions that require specific physical properties unique to these fibres. They usually have very high levels of at least one of the following properties: tensile strength, operating temperature, limiting oxygen index and chemical resistance.
6.3.1 Aramids, Meta-aramid: Nomex (DuPont), TeijinConex (Teijin) Meta-aramids are perhaps the best-known and most widely used specialized Fibres. Nomex is a familiar fibre to many. Meta-aramids are best known for their combination of heat resistance and strength, at reasonable cost. In addition, meta-aramid fibres don’t ignite, melt or drip.
Textile Fibres
Cotton
Dry Wet Dry tenacity tenacity extension (cN/TEX) (cN/TEX) (%)
1-94
Textile Fibres
6.3.2
Para-aramid: Kevlar (DuPont), Twaron (Akzo), Technora (Teijin)
Due to their highly oriented, rigid molecular structure, para-aramid fibres have very high tenacity, high tensile modulus and high heat resistance. Para-aramid fibres have similar operating temperatures to meta-aramid fibres, but have 3-7 times higher strength and modulus, making them ideal for reinforcement and protective type applications. The special high modulus of para-aramids allows them to be used in cut-resistant and ballistic applications. The so-called “bulletproof vest” worn by law enforcement was made possible with development of Kevlar and is perhaps the most famous application for the para-aramids, but now only one of a multitude of uses.
6.3.3 Carbon Fibres. PAN and Pitch Based: Numerous U.S., European and Asian producers The different categories of carbon fibres based on modulus, tensile strength, raw material and final heat treatment temperature. Some are rigid and brittle and used in composites; others are soft and supple and used in apparel. In the carbonization process, temperature exposures range from 1,000-2,000°C, each different level of exposure creating a different property for the fibre. For example, high-modulus type is processed at 2,000°C, at 1,500°C for high-strength type and at 1,000°C for low-modulus and low-strength type. The main carbon fibres are made from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) base or are pitch based, and are well known for their composite-reinforcement (i.e., golf clubs) and heat-resistant end uses. Many, especially the pitch-based materials, are considered “engineering” materials more than textile products, and are often used in specialized composites, e.g. aerospace.
6.3.4
Fluorocarbon Fibres (PTFE): Teflon (DuPont), Toyoflon (Toray)
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) fibres offer a unique blend of chemical and temperature resistance, coupled with a low friction coefficient. Since PTFE is virtually chemically inert, it can withstand exposure to extremely harsh temperature and chemical environments. The fibre’s low friction coefficient, as well as its low tensile strength, makes it difficult to process, and difficult to blend with other fibres. Due to its excellent ultraviolet and chemical resistance, PTFE sewing thread is ideal for a number of protective and outdoor applications. PTFE is familiar to most people as the breathable, porous membranes laminated
Textile Handbook 1-95
to fabrics to create Gore-Tex, (W. L. Gore) for high-performance wearing apparel.
6.3.5 Glass Fibre Glass fibre is the “grandfather” of high- performance fibres, being one of the first manmade fibres to be commercialized (late ’30s). Glass is an inorganic fibre, which is neither oriented nor crystalline. It is widely used in woven-fabric form for reinforcing thermoplastic composites in products ranging from circuit boards to boat hulls. Hightemperature filtration is another volume use. Glass is the most widely produced and used fibre in the high-performance arena, and is the least expensive. But since it is basically a glass rod, it has its limitations, especially in abrasion resistance and brittleness.
6.3.6
Melamine: Basofil (BASF)
6.3.7
Polybenzimidazole — PBI: PBI (Celanese)
Polybenzimidazole is an organic fibre with excellent thermal resistant properties and a good hand. PBI does not burn in air and does not melt or drip. High Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) coupled with good chemical resistance and good moisture regain make PBI an excellent fibre for fire-blocking end uses, such as safety and protective clothing and flame-retardant fabrics. Its physical properties are relatively low, but PBI processes on most types of textile equipment. It blends well with other materials such as carbon and aramid fibres, most often for performance and cost reasons. PBI has had significant success in the firemen’s apparel market where, blended in a 60-40 para-aramid-PBI mixture, it has become the standard “premium” material. PBI’s characteristic gold colour blends well with other materials for a pleasing appearance.
Textile Fibres
Basofil recently entered the high-temperature fibre market. It’s the newest fibre to be fully commercialized. Based on melamine chemistry, Basofil offers a high operating temperature and a high Limiting Oxygen Index, and typically targets the hot-gas filtration and safety and protective apparel markets. Because of its variable denier and staple length, low tensile strength and difficulty in processing, Basofil is generally blended with stronger fibres such as aramids. It is more often used in needled products, or yarns made from wrapped spinning techniques.
1-96
Textile Fibres
6.3.8
Polyphenylenebenzobisoxazole — PBO: Zylon (Toyobo)
PBO is another new entrant to the high-performance organic fibres market. Toyobo’s Zylon is the only PBO fibre in production. PBO has outstanding thermal properties and almost twice the tensile strength of conventional para-aramid fibres. Its high modulus makes it an excellent candidate for reinforcement of composites. Its high LOI gives PBO more than twice the flame retardant properties of metaaramid fibres.
6.3.9 Cellulose acetate - MicroSafe (Celanese Acetate) Cellulose acetate staple fibre and filament yarn, both called MicroSafe® fibre, feature in Microban antimicrobial protection. MicroSafe® provides continuous inherent control of the growth of a broad spectrum of bacteria, as well as fungi, mould and mildew in products. The antimicrobial protection contributes to a more hygienic product; inhibits the growth of odor-causing bacteria and mildew in products so that they stay fresher longer; and is engineered to last the life of the product. MicroSafe® fibre can be blended with other fibres to create a wide range of fabric types to fit many applications. It brings the naturallike qualities of acetate-comfort, breathability, softness and luxury-to the fabric blend, both enhancing natural fibres and complementing manufactured fibres.
6.3.10 Optical Fibres Optical fibres are classified into three groups according to the types of core material, quartz, multi-component and plastic optical fibres (POF). The quartz optical fibre is used for long distance optical communication including public trunk lines. The multi-component optical fibre is used for middle-distance communication, of 1-2 km, including local area networks (LAN) in plants and fibrescopes. The glass optical fibre has shortcomings because it is expensive, brittle and hard to process. Advantages of plastic optical fibre (POF) are that it is inexpensive, flexible, light and easy to process, though the transmission loss is higher than in glass optical fibre. The material of both the core and sheath of the plastic optical fibre require high transparency. Generally, Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Polycarbonate (PC) are used as the core material. Since the refractive index of the sheath material should be lower than that of the core
Textile Handbook 1-97
material, fluoroplastics including polyvinylidene fluoride, Teflon FEP, Teflon AF, fluorinated methacrylate and fluorinated polycarbonate are used as the sheath material.
6.3.11 Chitin, Chitosan (shells of crustacean) Chitin and chitosan are natural ingredients which can be abundantly found in the shells of crustaceans, such as crabs, lobsters and prawns. These extremely safe, nontoxic materials both as bandaging materials which accelerated up the healing of wounds and as animal drugs. Chitosan films and chitin paper interact comfortably with the human body, and experiments on animals have also proved that these new materials attain the same or even greater effects than antibiotics against suppuration caused by bacterial infection.
6.4 Smart Technology for Textiles and Clothing Smart materials and structures are the materials and structures which can sense and react to environmental conditions or stimuli. According to the manner of reaction, they can be divided into three categories: passive smart, active smart and very smart. Passive smart materials can only sense the environmental conditions or stimuli; active smart materials will sense and react to the conditions or stimuli; very smart materials can sense, react and adapt themselves accordingly. An even higher level of intelligence can be obtained from those intelligent materials/structures capable of responding to or being maturally activated or pre-programmed to perform a function. Such materials and structures are the results of a successful marriage of traditional textiles/clothing technology with modern technologies such as new materials, wireless communication, artificial intelligence, and biology. The following are some of available smart materials suitable for textiles and clothing, classified according to their principles:
Textile Fibres
Chitopoly was first created by Fuji Spinning from an ultra-fine chitosan powder. Chitogreen is a new anti-microbial material for the next generation. The positive mechanism of Chitogreen is that the fabric attracts germs with an electrostatic power, then the cell membrane of the seized germs is destroyed. A major characteristic of Chitopoly and Chitogreen is their long lasting effectiveness. Since the chitosan ingredient is fixed in the textile itself, its performance and effectiveness remain the same even after repeated washings.
1-98
Textile Fibres
6.4.1 Phase-Transition Materials and Polymer Crystals Phase-transition (solid-liquid) materials, such as inorganic salt hydrates and polyethylene glycols, exhibit high enthalpy changes at their phase change temperatures. Polymer crystals are compounds that exhibit large changes in enthalpy and entropy, not because of phase change but because of solid-to-solid transition due to decrystallization or crystallization. The application of these materials has led to the invention of temperature-adaptable fabrics with enhanced cooling when the ambient temperature increases and enhanced warmth when the ambient temperature decreases. One problem associated with the technology is that adhesion of these materials to fibres is poor, and thus the treatments by normal application techniques such as pad-dry-cure are not durable in laundry. Various methods for improvement have since been developed. The first approach is to make microcapsules containing these phase transition materials or polymer crystals, which has resulted in commercial products in the forms of powder and slurry, with a wide range of transition temperatures for various applications. The second approach is to design and manufacture a polymeric fibre with a certain molecular weight distribution. Functional groups can be grafted onto the ends of the molecules or blended into the fibre, hence phase transition occurs on the side chains of the polymer or its surface. Compared with other methods, the advantages include better adhesion and good handle as the main chains are not affected by the grafted groups at the ends of molecules. The third approach is to develop hollow fibres filling them with smart materials, and then sealing the fibres. A number of research groups around the world have been working on acrylic, polyester and nylon fibres since the1980s, and some prototypes have been developed.
6.4.2 Smart Microcapsules/Microspheres Cells, the basic units in life, possess many functions, such as multiplication, excitation and control, and the abilities of self-diagnosis, self-repair, self-adjustment. Membranes of cells can exchange information with, and transfer energy to and from the environment, and have capacities for protection. Smart microcapsules and microspheres are recent developments which attempt to mimic the functions of natural cells. Smart microcapsules have been designed and fabricated by controlling their chemical compositions, size and distribution, physical and chemical properties as well as response characteristics to light, electricity, magnetism, temperature, pH values and pressure.
Textile Handbook 1-99
6.4.3 Smart Fibres for Measurement of Temperature, Moisture and Strain
6.4.4 Shape Memory Polymers Many polymers exhibit shape memory behaviour: they can remember one (one-way) or two (two-way) or reverse (reverse) status of configurations below and above their respective glass transition temperatures. Wool, polypropylene, polyoxymethylene, trans-polyisoplyne and polyurethane have this effect to various extents. By adjusting its glass temperature around certain temperatures, say room temperature, one can introduce substantial changes in specific volume, gas permeability, mechanical properties, dielectric and optic properties. A typical example of its application is a smart fabric Diaplex with invisible pores which can open and close with temperature change by using shape memory polyurethane.
Textile Fibres
In parallel with rapid developments in the area of optical fibre communications, smart fibre sensors have also attracted much attention and experienced fast growth in recent years. An optical fibre normally consists of a core surrounded by a cladding whose refractive index is slightly smaller than that of the core. Inside the fibre core, light rays incident on the core-cladding boundary at angles greater than the critical angle undergo total internal reflection and are guided through the core without refraction. By modifying the reflective index of the core via masked exposure of intense UV pulse generated by a laser, smart fibre optic sensors have been made and integrated into a number of textile structures such as yarns, fabrics and composites, in the laboratories of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Fibre optic sensors, with the dimension of a textile yarn and flexibility, are capable of measuring internal strain and temperature, humidity, gas content etc. A number of such sensors can be multiplexed along a single optical fibre using wavelength-, frequency-, time- and polarization-division techniques to form one-, two- or three-dimensional pseudo distributed sensing systems. Fibre based moisture sensors are also available.
1-100
Textile Fibres
6.4.5 Smart Gels and Gel Fibres Smart polymeric gels change their structures and physical and chemical properties according to environmental stimuli. For instance, when subject to external stimuli such as changes in pH values, moisture, temperature, light intensity and electric field, or composition of solution, the gels undergo a sudden phase change. Noticeably, super-absorbent gel powders have been used for nappies and inconvenience pads. For textile and clothing applications, it is more desirable to have such materials which have fibre forms under normal conditions and will remain so when wet. In this regard, a few new super-absorbent bicomponent fibres made via conjugate spinning are now commercially available. The core of the fibre has a normal fibre-forming polymer such as polyester or nylon, while the sheath comprises the gel which will swell up to 300-400% of its original volume when wet, and generates a considerable amount of heat upon absorption.
Chapter 2 Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn ...................................................... 2-2 Section 1 - Blowing Room Process ............................ 2-2 1.1
Purpose of Blowing Room Process ................................... 2-2
1.2
Bale Opening ...................................................................... 2-2 1.2.1
1.3
1.4
A
1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3
Purpose of Cleaning ..................................................... 2-5 Feeding System ............................................................ 2-5 Features of Some Cleaning Machines .......................... 2-6
A
Blending .............................................................................. 2-9
A
Features of Mixer and Blender ..................................... 2-9
Machine Arrangements ..................................................... 2-11 1.5.1
1.6
Features of Some Automatic Bale Openers ................. 2-3
Cleaning .............................................................................. 2-5
1.4.1
1.5
Example of Machines Layout of Blowing Room: ....... 2-11
Foreign Substance Detector .............................................. 2-13 1.6.1 The Vision Shield (Jossi) .............................................. 1.6.3 Cotton Sorter RX-CS (Barco) ...................................... 1.6.2 Securomat (Truetzschler) .............................................. 1.6.4 Optiscan (Uster) ...........................................................
1.7
A
2-14 2-15 2-15 2-16
Maintenance Recommendations for Opening and Cleaning Machines ............................................................. 2-17 1.7.1 1.7.2
1.8
A
Maintenance of Opening Room/Opening Hoppers ...... 2-17 Maintenance of Cleaners .............................................. 2-19
Trouble Shooting for Opening and Cleaning Machines ............................................................................. 2-20
Section 2 - Carding Process ..................................... 2-25 2.1
Purpose of Carding ............................................................ 2-25
2.2
Carding Actions ................................................................. 2-26
A
2.3
Card Feeding System ......................................................... 2-27 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5
Rieter Aerofeed U ........................................................ Rieter UNIstore A 77 .................................................... Truetzschler Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK .................... Truetzschler Sensofeed ................................................. Truetzschler Webfeed ...................................................
2-27 2-28 2-29 2-30 2-30
2.4
Card Clothing ..................................................................... 2-31
2.5
Card Clothing Specifications ............................................ 2-33 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4
2.7
Conventional Revolving Flat Card ............................... 2-58 Rieter C51 Card ............................................................ 2-59 Truetzschler DK-803 Card ........................................... 2-60
Grinding .............................................................................. 2-61 2.8.1 2.8.2
2.9
2-33 2-36 2-44 2-48
Card Setting Recommendations ....................................... 2-58 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3
2.8
ECC Card Clothing ...................................................... Graf Card Clothing ....................................................... Hollingsworth Card Clothing ....................................... Kanai Card Clothing ....................................................
Grinding Intervals ........................................................ 2-61 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS) .................... 2-61
New Features on Carding Machine .................................. 2-66 2.9.1 Precision Flat Setting System (Truetzschler) ................... 2.9.2 Flat Distance Measuring System ..................................... 2.9.3 Webclean System (Truetzschler) ...................................... 2.9.4 On-line Nep Counting (Truetzschler) .............................. 2.9.5 TREXplus (Rieter) ...........................................................
2-66 2-67 2-68 2-69 2-70
2.10 Tandem Card ...................................................................... 2-71 2.10.1 The New Twin Cylinder Card-Crosrol CST ................ 2-71 2.10.2 Technical Specification ................................................ 2-72
2.11 Production Calculations .................................................... 2-73 2.12 Conversion of Grain Weight and Sliver Count ............... 2-74 2.13 Nep Counting ..................................................................... 2-74 2.13.1 Three Different Ways of Nep Counting ....................... 2-74
A
2.13.2 Nep Content of Card Web ............................................ 2-75
2.14 Uster AFIS N Application for Cotton Card ..................... 2-76 Maintenance ....................................................................... 2-76 2.15 Maintenance Recommendations ....................................... 2-77 2.15.1 Lubrication Schedule ................................................... 2-77 2.15.2 Cleaning Procedures For High Production Carding Equipment .................................................................... 2-77
2.16 Troubleshooting .................................................................. 2-80
Back to Table of Content
Chapter 2
SPINNING PROCESSES AND TYPES OF YARN
2-2
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
CHAPTER 2.........
.......SPINNING PROCESSES AND TYPES OF YARN SECTION 1
BLOWING ROOM PROCESS
1.1 Purpose of Blowing Room Process Opening and picking of cotton necessitates several steps to get the cotton from a tightly packed bale containing trash and other foreign matter, and ready for the carding operation. These steps include separating the cotton into particles small enough to facilitate cleaning and reforming the tufts into a sheet suitable for carding. Since the feeding of cotton is done from the original bales, this operation includes the blending or mixing of the various fibre properties to be contained in the final yarn and fabric. For synthetic material, the opening and beating points should be minimized to as few as possible.
1.2 Bale Opening
A
At the very beginning, automatic feeding of cotton is generally accomplished by the use of a circular bale picker or a continuous rectangular bale opener. This picker or opener is designed to receive the layers of cotton directly from the bale and to break these layers into small lumps. To ensure evenness in blending, usually the lay-out of the cotton bales should have the same height level. Lying bales of material on a conveyor belt is a special idea on today’s continuous bale opener. Figure 1.2
Continuous Rectangular Bale Opener
Textile Handbook 2-3
1.2.1 Features of Some Automatic Bale Openers a) Truetzschler Blendomat BDT 019 One to eight groups of bales can be allocated to form one to three opening lines
•
Can process on either one or both sides of the track
•
Can accommodate up to 180 bales with a working width of 2300mm.
•
Traverse speed can be controlled between 6-13 m/min.; production rate is up to 1500kg/hr.
b) Truetzschler Blendomat BDT 020 •
Works on a continuous basis with bale replenishment done either automatically or manually. New bales are brought into the working zone on a conveyor belt
•
Fibres strip off at an inclined angles, blending takes place in adjacent bales and from various layers from the different bales
•
A reserve belt attached with a bale carriage is used for the continuous supply
•
Microcomputer control of the operation is a standard option
Figure 1.2.1b
Truetzschler Blendomat BDT 020
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
•
2-4
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
c) Rieter UNIfloc A11 •
Alignment is performed automatically, bales are opened parallel down to the last tuft
•
Laydown up to 2 x 130 bales
•
Alternate take off for 4 assortments
Figure 1.2.1c (1)
Rieter UNIfloc A11
Figure 1.2.1c (2)
Rieter UNIfloc A11
Textile Handbook 2-5
1.3 Cleaning
A
1.3.1 Purpose of Cleaning
Measures of cleaning efficiencies have been facilitated either by the use of the Shirley Analyser, Uster AFIS or Uster MDTA3. They are laboratory instruments used to separate cotton or waste into its lint and non-lint (trash) components. By computing the percentage of trash or non-lint content in the sample, the cleaning efficiency and over beating effect of the processing can be determined.
1.3.2 Feeding System
A
It is generally understood that the handling, cleaning, and metering of cotton is facilitated by having the cotton particles as small as is practical. To handle cotton over longer distances, blowers or fans are usually used; for shorter distances, condensers have been very satisfactory. These condensers operate on the principle of a suction or vacuum produced by a radial-type fan, drawing through a perforated screen section. This type of condenser is adaptable for use with a number of different types of cleaning and distribution systems.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The purpose of the cleaning machines is the opening of larger particles of cotton and the removal of large motes, pieces of trash, and other heavy foreign matter in the cotton. The main action of cleaning machines is to beat the cotton which tends to be carried upward. In addition, any air motion is upward. This air motion is quite important; it sets up a definite suction through the machines. During the beating about of the opening action, the cotton is repeatedly thrown against the inner casing, and the heavy particles, which are exposed, are thrown off, passed through the openings, and settled outside the beater chamber. Many types of cleaning machine have grid bars underneath the beaters which can be adjusted externally while the machine is in operation to allow and control the amount and type of droppings to drop out.
2-6
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 1.3.2
Condenser and Chute Feed attached to Cleaner
1. High-capacity condenser LVSA 2. Feed chute BS 3. Cleaner CLEANOMAT CVT1
1.3.3 Features of Some Cleaning Machines a) Truetzschler Cleanomat CXL •
Specially developed for high production rate, a working width of 1600 mm processes cotton at up to 800kg/hr.
•
4 roll cleaner with fully spiked roll, coarse saw tooth roll, medium saw tooth roll and fine saw tooth roll.
•
Use of direct suction over a conventional system with grid bars and waste chambers is an advantage in processing sticky cotton.
Figure 1.3.3 a
Truetzschler Cleanomat CXL
Cleaner CLEANOMAT
Textile Handbook 2-7
b) Rieter UNIclean B 11 •
Combined cleaning and de-dusting, raw material is guided over the integrated dusting filter; dust, fibre fragments and pepper trash are stripped off mechanically.
•
Material passes 7 times over the cleaning grid.
•
Amount of waste and cleaning intensity is controlled by the Varioset software.
Rieter UNIclean B 11
c) Rieter UNIflex B 60 •
Fine cleaner for natural fibres
•
Its maximum production capacity is 500 kg/hr. (1100 lb/hr)
•
Without additional components it can be used as a feeding machine for cards
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Figure 1.3.3 b
2-8
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 1.3.3 c Rieter UNIflex B 60
d) Truetzschler Dustex DX
A
•
Material is fed into the Dustex DX at high speed by a fan, and is equally distributed over a perforated plate through two distribution flaps.
•
Fine and micro dust comes off through the perforated plate and is then led to a filter unit via a dust removal pipeline.
•
The integration of this machine in a cleaning line is particularly recommended in OE spinning mills for rotor spun and air-jet yarns.
Figure 1.3.3 d
Truetzschler Dustex DX
Textile Handbook 2-9
1.4 Blending Nowadays, blending or mixing of cottons is accomplished by the use of a multi-blender. These machines have 6 to 8 rooms, and the more rooms the machine has, the better the blending results. There are two openings in each room, one at the top and one at the bottom. Cottons are deposited into each room in a sequential order through the top opening and dropped onto a conveyor belt from the bottom opening. The conveyor belt carries tufts of cotton from different rooms towards a stripping roller which further beats cottons into fine and small particles.
a) Rieter UNImix B •
A smooth air stream simultaneously feeds fibre tufts into six vertical filling chutes
•
Ensures an instantaneous blend of every bale is deposited uniformly in all six chutes
•
Material is pneumatically compacted and dust is eliminated
•
After a deflection of 90o, fibre layers placed on top of each other are formed and opened into small tufts by an upright lattice, working in a vertical direction
•
A stripper roller throws excess material back into the blending chamber
Figure 1.4.1 a
UNImix B
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1.4.1 Features of Mixer and Blender
2-10
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
b) Rieter UNIblend A80 •
Can be delivered with two to eight blending modules, each with a production capacity of up to 300 kg/hr (660 lb/hr)
•
The maximum production is 1000 kg/hr (2200 lb/hr)
•
Combines precise dosing with homogeneous blending in one single machine
•
Possibility of splitting lines after the machine into as many as four different card lines with each receiving a different blend ratio of the same components
Figure 1.4.1 b
Rieter UNIblend A80
c) Truetzschler Multimixer MPM 6 •
Uses direct suction at the blending duct underneath the opening rolls
•
No conveyor belt
•
Works on the basis of a closed air circulation, i.e. the transport air entering the machine also feeds the material to the flowing machine
•
Trouble free operation of the mixing process is ensured by an integral control
Textile Handbook 2-11 Figure 1.4.1 c
Truetzschler Multimixer MPM 6
1. Feed funnel 2. Closing flap 3. Mixing chamber 4. Feed duct 5. Light barrier
8. Delivery rolls 9. Opening rolls 11. Blending duct 13. Material suction funnel
1.5 Machine Arrangements In the past there was an almost limitless number of opening combinations. Today there are still many opening combinations designed to meet the needs of each combination of plant and type of cotton to be handled. In spite of the different combinations of needs, to some extent there appears to be a general trend toward standardization of opening lines.
1.5.1 Example of Machines Layout of Blowing Room: a) Cotton Carded Ring-Spun Yarn
Figure 1.5.1 a Cotton Carded Ring-Spun Yarn
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
7. Perforated plate
2-12
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
b) Cotton OE-rotor Yarn Figure 1.5.1 b
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Cotton OE-rotor Yarn
Automatic Bale Opener BLENDOMAT BDT 020 High-Capacity Condenser LVSA B Multi-Mixer MPM 10 High-Capacity Condenser LVSA B Multi-Mixer MCM 4/ Cleaner CLEANOMAT CVT 4 Dedusting Machine DUSTEX DX
c) Cotton Coarse Count OE-rotor and Carded Ring Yarn Figure 1.5.1 c
Cotton Coarse Count OE-rotor and Carded Ring Yarn
1. Automatic Bale Opener BLENDOMAT BDT 019 2. High-Capacity Condenser 3. Waste Feeder AS 4. Double - roll Cleaner AXI-FLO AFC 5. Station for Separating Foreign Matter SECUROMAT SC 6. Multi-Mixer MPM 8 7. Dedusting Machine DUSTEX DX
Textile Handbook 2-13
d) Production of Cotton Combed Yarn Figure 1.5.1 d
Production of Cotton Combed Yarn
1.6 Foreign Substance Detector Spinning mill problems associated with foreign matter in cotton have increased during the past years. In developing countries with their low labour costs, it is not uncommon to employ up to 100 persons per shift for contaminant screening. However, in high labour cost regions, automated systems are the only sensible alternative. For example, magnets located after the automatic bale opener or cleaner would pick up any tramp iron particles which might be picked up with the cotton at the feeding bale. Newly developed foreign substance detectors are also recommended to be arranged in the blowing room for high quality bleached white or raw white yarn. Over the last few years, the number of suppliers of such systems has increased continuously. The main differences between the technical solutions can be found in the areas of the material feed and the sensor technology.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1. Automatic Bale Opener BLENDOMAT BDT 019 2. High-Capacity Condenser LVSAB 3. Double-roll Cleaner AXI-FLO-AFC 4. Waster Feeder AS 5. Station for Separating Foreign Matter SECUROMAT SCF 6. Multi-Mixer MPM 6/ Cleaner CLEANOMAT CVT 4 7. Dedusting Machine DUSTEX DX
2-14
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1.6.1 The Vision Shield (Jossi) The system employs 2 ultrafast CCD colour line cameras with digitised image processing to catch the colours of the passing cotton tufts and transfer the collected data through a fibreglass cable to the image processing unit. The resolution and photorealistic real-colour processing guarantees the differentiation between cotton and contamination. The system uses fuzzy logic software to detect contamination with very little colour difference to cotton. Immediately after detection, the pneumatic ejection eliminates the detected contamination. The ejected contaminants can be collected by an optional automatic evacuation which consists of a fan with a control box and collector cart. In combination with a foreign-fibre cleaner at the cone winder the result will be a high quality yarn, almost free of foreign fibres. With this combination a production rate of up to 1000 kg/hr is possible. Without a foreign-fibre cleaner, a production rate of 400 kg/hr is normal.
Figure 1.6.1
The Vision Shield Compact
Textile Handbook 2-15
1.6.2
Securomat (Truetzschler)
To detect foreign fibres, tuft is guided through a rectangular duct. Electronic cameras operating with front and back lighting scan the tufts from both sides of the duct. Characteristic features for detecting foreign parts and foreign fibres are colour, size, geometry, transparency and reflection. Detected foreign fibre tufts are diverted into a waste box via a separation flap.
Figure 1.6.2 Securomat
1.6.3 Cotton Sorter RX-CS (Barco) The Cotton Sorter RX-CS employs four line cameras to scan the cotton through illuminated glass windows. Condemnations can be described as a deviation in colour and size. The line cameras interpret colour deviation as colour level deviations. Tolerances in colour are defined by means of threshold levels. Objects with a colour value below this limit being marked as contaminant.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The Securomat SC can be equipped with special individual sensors such as metal detectors for metal particles and spark sensors for burning material and sparks. All sensors are connected to a single point of separation.
2-16
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The ejection of the contaminant is performed by a mechanical flap that is positioned in the outfeed pipeline located a few metres from the detection unit. On request, the ejector valve can be completed with spark detection and metal detection.
Figure 1.6.3
Cotton Sorter RX-CS
1.6.4 Optiscan (Uster) The tufts are released from the chute feed onto a conveyor belt, which, together with the machine frame, forms a tapered channel. At the narrowest point of this channel, there is a two-line sensor array with 64 fibre-optic cables and microprocessor controlled colour sensors, which continuously monitor the flow of tufts. As soon as an object which deviates from the colour of the cotton is detected, the machine control system will activate one or several of a total of eleven compressed air nozzles arranged across the width of the machine and in that way ensure a selective extraction of the contaminated tufts into the waste bin. As an option, a sensitive metal detector can be introduced in parallel to the foreign matter sensor. The metal detector is also subdivided into sections so that few good fibres are extracted together with the particles of metal.
Textile Handbook 2-17 Figure 1.6.4 Optiscan
1.7.1 Maintenance of Opening Room/Opening Hoppers a) The following routine is suggested for most hoppers: General overhaul every 12 months. •
Run stock out of hoppers.
•
Inspect the lattices, replace worn aprons, broken slats, torn canvas, etc.
•
Clean out waste, especially that packed under slats.
•
Check length of pins, number and thickness of slats. If thickness differs, no standard setting is possible.
•
Shorten or replace lattices which are too long or damaged. They should be short enough to permit future tightening.
•
Both sides of the apron should have uniform tension to prevent slippage and undue stretch.
•
Check condition of hackle comb (combing roll) and doffing rolls. Repair and replace as needed.
•
Set hackle comb (combing roll) and doffing rolls as per manufacturer’s recommendation.
•
If hoppers are equipped with grid bars under the doffing roll, the grid bars should be removed, cleaned, and deburred and set to proper setting.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1.7 Maintenance Recommendations for Opening and Cleaning Machines (Source: Cotton Incorporated)
2-18
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
•
Check condition of bearings and shafts. Replace as needed.
•
Check condition of all belts and pulleys. Replace and adjust as needed.
•
Check condition of all guards and covers before replacing.
Note: After the hopper is back in production, check tuft size and production rate.
b) Maintenance of Top Feed Bale Plucker (i) Daily Cleaning and Inspection Clean and check power supply chain. (ii) Weekly - Clean safety lights and deflectors. - Clean control cabinet. - Clean the duct (inside and outside). - Clean all motors, removing any lint from the fan covers. - Clean the milling head and inspect for damage and loading. - Clean fibre from the track. (iii) Monthly - Clean external sheet metal casing. - Clean all roller chains. (Check for proper tension.) - Clean all V-belts. (Check for proper tension.) - Clean and check counting mechanism. - Check run time of bale plucker. (This should be no less than 85%.) (iv) Every 6 Months - Clean and check gears, motors and brakes. - Clean counter weight guides. (v) Yearly - Clean and check telescopic tube. - Clean and check suction pipes. - Clean and check cover-belt guide and sliding block.
Textile Handbook 2-19
1.7.2 Maintenance of Cleaners a) General overhauling frequency every six months. Remove all guards and covers.
•
Take out and clean feed rolls, gears; smooth out nicks, dents, and replace worn parts.
•
Check beater bearings and shafts, clean old grease from bearing and housing and renew.
•
Inspect, renew, and polish damaged or rounded beater pick. Evaluate the possibility of turning beater to obtain new working edge.
•
Take out grid bars, clean, deburr, straighten and polish.
•
Set beater to feed roll on cleaners equipped with feed rolls.
•
Set cut-off plate to beater on cleaners equipped with cutoff plates.
•
Line grid bar brackets and replace bars.
•
Set grid bars to beater and grid bar angle,
•
Adjust all safety latches.
•
Check all belts, replacing any that are worn.
•
Adjust all belts for proper tension.
•
Check condition and replace all guards and covers.
•
After cleaner is back in production, check waste percent.
Note: Cleaners equipped with Kirschner beaters should have beater lags replaced every six months.
b) Maintenance of Multiple Wire Wound Roll Cleaners Multiple wire wound roll cleaners can range from two to four wire wound rolls with mote knives on the first roll, and sometimes on the second roll, with other cleaning points throughout the multiple roll system. The feed should be adjusted to run 85 to 90 percent of the time for better cleaning and to reduce fibre damage.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
•
2-20
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
(i) Weekly - Clean control cabinet. - Clean gear and drive motors. - Clean lights and deflectors on safety barriers. - Clean by suction inside waste compartment. - Clean all suction points. (ii) Monthly - Clean interior frame walls. - Clean all roller chains; check tension. - Clean and check all gears. - Clean interior roller covers. - Clean all V-belts and check for proper tension. (iii) Every 6 Months - Clean all gear and drive motors. - Clean and check all servo-drives. Note: Wire on all rolls must be sharp and free of damage.
1.8 Trouble Shooting for Opening and Cleaning Machines Table 1.8
Trouble Shooting
TROUBLESHOOTING 1.8.1 OPENING HOPPERS a. Hoppers Feeding Large Clumps Probable Cause
Solution
1. Comb bar or combing roll set too far form lift apron.
1. Set comb bar or combing roll close to lift apron.
2. Comb bar or combing roll too slow.
2. Speed up comb bar or combing roll as needed.
Textile Handbook 2-21 b. Hopper Production Not Equal 1. Set comb bars or combing rolls the same on each hopper.
2. Surface speed of lift apron not equal.
2. Check tension on lift and bottom aprons.
3. Comb bars or combing rolls running at different speeds.
3. Check all pulleys and belts.
4. Different type pins on lift apron.
4. Check pins on all lift aprons for height, length, number of pins per row, and diameter.
5. Different type of comb bars or combing roll.
5. Check teeth on comb bars or pins on combing rolls.
6. Hoppers being fed unevenly.
6. Maintain a consistent level of stock in hoppers at all times.
c. Hoppers Stop Too Often 1. Hoppers too full.
1. Don’t overfill hoppers.
2. Comb bars or combing roll set too far from lift apron.
2. Set comb bars or combining rolls closer to lift apron.
3. Lift apron speed too fast
3. Slow lift apron to desired speed.
d. Hoppers Running Too Much 1. Hopper choked
1. Remove choke and start hopper
2. Belt broken on hopper.
2. Repair or replace belt.
3. Hopper level too low.
3. Maintain proper level in hopper.
e. Lift or Horizontal Apron Too Slow 1. Apron too loose.
1. Adjust apron tension.
2. Choke in apron.
2. Remove choke and check tension on apron.
3. Belts loose.
3. Check for loose belt and adjust.
f. Drive Motor Overheating 1. Hopper chokes.
1. Remove choke and restart.
2. Bearing bad on hopper.
2. Check all bearings and replace any bad bearing.
3. Motor going
3. Have motor checked by an electrician.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1. Comb bars or combing rolls not properly set.
2-22
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn g. Lift or Horizontal Apron Rubbing the Sides 1. Apron not adjusted properly.
1. Adjust apron as needed.
2. Choke in apron.
2. Remove choke and check adjustment.
3. Bearing bad on apron shaft.
3. Replace bad bearing and readjust apron.
4. Apron inside belt broken.
4. Repair or replace apron.
5. Guide pulley slipped on apron shaft.
5. Adjust pulley as needed.
6. Apron too wide for hopper.
6. Replace with proper apron.
h. Losing Good Fibre Under Hopper 1. Seal bad under lift and horizontal apron.
1. Replace seal and reset.
2. Screen under lift apron damaged.
2. Check screen for damage and replace as needed.
3. Horizontal apron damaged.
3. Check apron; repair or replace as needed.
l. Hopper Noisy 1. Pulley loose.
1. Check pulleys; adjust and replace if damaged.
2. Gears worn.
2. Replace as needed.
3. Gears need lubrication
3. Lubricate gears with proper lubrication.
4. Bearing bad on hopper or motor.
4. Check and replace bearing as needed.
5. Guards and covers loose.
5. Check for loose guards and covers, making sure they are not touching the pulleys.
6. Hopper choked up.
6. Unchoke hopper as needed.
1.8.2 TOP FEED BALE PLUCKER a. Frequent Feeder Stopping 1. Cards out of production.
1. Check to see if all cards are in production.
2. Feeder taking too much fibre from each bale.
2. Adjust feeder to take off less fibre from each bale.
3. Bales not allowed to bloom.
3. Bales should be opened and allowed to set for 8 to 24 hours before feeding.
Textile Handbook 2-23 1.8.3 CLEANING EQUIPMENT a. Cleaner Removing too little waste 1. Adjust grid bars to a greater angle.
2. Grid bar dirty.
2. Remove grid bars; clean and replace.
3. Grid bars set too far from beaters.
3. Set grid bars to manufacturer’s recommendations.
4. Beater speed too slow.
4. Increase goods to manufacturer’s recommendations.
5. Lint built up under grid bars.
5. Check condition of grid bars; check the amount of air pulling up through the grid bars - too much air will cause lint buildup.
b. Cleaner not cleaning 1. Grid bars not set properly.
1. Set angle of grid bars for maximum waste removal.
2. Too little run time.
2. Adjust feed on opening line to run at least 85% of run time.
3. Tufts too large feeding into cleaner.
3. Check opening hoppers.
4. Pulling air through step cleaners.
4. Check exit transitions. Fibre should free fall out of cleaner in an air stream for transporting.
5. Production too high.
5. C h e c k m a n u f a c t u r e r ’s recommendations for maximum production. (do not exceed).
c. Cleaner Producing Neps 1. Beaters dull
1. Check condition of beater lags, blades or pins (must be sharp and free of damage).
2. Beater not set properly to feed rolls.
2. S e t b e a t e r t o f e e d r o l l t o manufacturer’s recommendations.
3. Setting between cut-off plate to beater.
3. If cleaner is equipped with a cut-off plate, set plate to manufacturer’s recommendations
4. Production too high for cleaner.
4. C h e c k m a n u f a c t u r e r ’s recommendations for maximum production. (Do not exceed.)
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1. Grid bars out of adjustment.
2-24
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn d. Cleaners Noisy 1. Cleaner choking.
1. Stop cleaner and clean.
2. Bad bearing.
2. Check all bearings. Replace as needed.
3. Beaters out of balance.
3. Check all beaters and balance as needed.
4. Loose pulley.
4. Check all pulleys; tighten or replace as needed.
5. Guards loose.
5. Check guard and tighten as needed.
6. Pulley rubbing guard
6. Check pulleys and adjust as needed.
7. Loose beater lags
7. Check beater lags and repair as needed
1.8.4 MULTIPLE WIRE WOUND ROLL CLEANERS a. Cleaner Producing High Neps 1. Wire on rolls dull or damaged.
1. Replace wire as needed.
2. Roll not set properly.
2. S e t r o l l s t o m a n u f a c t u r e r ’s specification.
3. Run time not high enough.
3. Adjust feed to assure 85 to 90 percent run time.
b. Cleaner Not Cleaning 1. Run time too low.
1. Adjust feed to assure 85 to 90 percent run time.
2. Mote knives or baffles not set properly.
2. Adjust mote knives and baffles to manufacturer’s specification
c. Drive Motor Overheating 1. Rolls lading.
1. Check wire condition.
2. Bearing bad on cleaner
2. Check all bearings. Replace as needed.
3. Motor giving trouble.
3. Have motor checked by an electrician
Textile Handbook 2-25
SECTION 2
CARDING PROCESS
2.1 Purpose of Carding
A
In the entry part of a carding machine, the licker-in (a cylinder covered with metallic wires,) strikes against the fringe of fibre as it is fed forward, tears away tufts of fibres, and carries them forward to the main cylinder. The card cylinder is the heart of the card. All other parts are built around and adjusted to it. The cylinder consists of a large, cylinder cast-iron shell. The card flats is a series of mounted, narrow, flat clothing surfaces concentric with the cylinder. Two endless chains that move them slowly over the top of the cylinder carry them. The working flats form a practically airtight cover over the entire top of the cylinder. This prevents the formation of disturbing air currents. Normally the flats move slowly in the same direction as the cylinder but the wires’ point backward, which is opposite to the direction of the cylinder. It is between these surfaces that the fine separation of fibres is caused to occur. The doffer is a small cylinder made and clothed like the main cylinder. Metallic clothing is used for the doffer. The function of the doffer is to collect the cotton from the cylinder in a uniform fleece, which is delicately removed to form the card web. The transfer of fibre from cylinder to the slow doffer is accomplished by a stripping action, after which the film of cotton is stripped from the doffer as a web by the action of a stripper roll, and is drawn forward and gathered through a funnel-shaped opening, the trumpet plate, which shapes the web into a round sliver. Today, for all high speed carding machines, after being stripped from the doffer, the film of fibre is delivered to a conveyor belt which collects and gathers the web towards an opening, which then passing through a funnel-shaped trumpet to a pair of grooved rolls. Finally, the sliver is drawn upward to the top of the coiler and delivered into a can.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The fibres opened in the blowroom will be fed to the card for further cleaning and fibre separation. The principle of carding is to separate cotton fibres into their individual elements, thereby exposing and removing the bits of leaf, trash, and other foreign matter enclosed by the unopened fibre aggregates, and form the cleaned, disentangled fibres into slivers to feed the next process.
2-26
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 2.1
Carding Machine (Truetzschler DK903)
2.2 Carding Actions The carding function is accomplished by the action of card clothing, a system of inclined wires, and the entire carding machine may be considered as a convenient frame to support this clothing, so that it may operate at maximum efficiency. Two surfaces covered with clothing usually work together to achieve the objective of carding. Fundamentally, there are two important actions performed with carding surfaces, carding and stripping. Carding action is accomplished when the wires of the two surfaces are inclined in opposite directions and the direction and rates of motion are point against point. This action can result from both surfaces going in the same direction, with the lower surface moving faster than the upper surface, or the action can result from both surfaces moving in opposite directions, each in the direction of inclination of the wire. Carding action causes a thorough opening of the cotton tufts by tensioning and separating the fibres. Stripping action is accomplished when the wires of the two surfaces point in the same direction. With this arrangement, the action is point against smooth side. The surface which moves faster lifts the cotton away from the other wire and collects it. Stripping is used in transferring cotton from one surface to another and in removing it from a surface.
Textile Handbook 2-27 Table 2.2 Carding and Stripping Actions Showing Different Combination of Wire Points, Movement Direction and Relative Speeds
Direction
Relative Speed Movement
A
➔
B
➔
Fast
Slow
➔
Wire point
➔
Surface
Fast
Slow
Continuous material flow control for a complete spinning preparation installation from bales to card sliver has been established for some time. On modern carding feeding systems the makers have already taken care to ensure even distribution of material over the full width and very homogeneous condensing of the raw material for improved card sliver. Usually, the distribution duct terminates after the last tuft feeder. There is no excess material having to be conveyed back to the cleaner or opener. A shut-off flap in the distribution duct after the penultimate tuft feeder prevents material collecting and becoming compacted in the last tuft feeder, if the last card is stopped for any length of time. The controllable fan blows the tufts through the distribution duct into the material reserve trunks of the tuft feeder. The conveying air escapes through air outlets in the trunks. The air outlets are in the form of grids or perforated plates covered with filter fabric. One fan serving all the tuft feeders in a line extracts the dust laden exhaust air and passes it to a filter. The conveyor air thus assists the extraction of dust from the material.
2.3.1 Rieter Aerofeed U • • •
•
Aerofeed U forms flocks from the feeding machine into a homogeneous bat for the card C50. Material can be processed with a maximum production of 400 kg/hr (880 lb./hr.) per feeding machine A 7/U system controls the filling of the chute with two photocells arranged vertically to avoid running empty or over-filling. A 7/C system uses eight photocells and an invertercontrolled feed roller motor. The filling is thus held very constant and ensures a low CV%.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2.3 Card Feeding System
2-28
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 2.3.1
Rieter Aerofeed U
1. Feed duck 2. Separator head 3. Feed Chute 4. Opening roller 5. Metering Chute 6. Extracting rollers 7. Exhaust air
2.3.2 Rieter UNIstore A 77 •
A 77 is used as a feeding machine for cards or for storage after the UNIblend.
•
The storage and opening capability of the UNIstore A 77 is in some cases required when feeding man-made fibres into the UNIblend.
•
A maximum production of up to 600 kg/hr (1300 lb/hr.)
Figure 2.3.2
Rieter UNIstore A 77
1. Material input 2. Dust and air extraction 3. Opening and feeding unit 4. Material output 5. Air to filter unit
Textile Handbook 2-29
2.3.3 Truetzschler Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK The delivery roll of the tuft feeder is identical to the feed roll of the card
•
There are no faulty drafts caused by false or not optimal settings, therefore the evenness of the feeding is considerably improved
•
The air outlet combs, with direct and permanent suction, are positioned right in front of the feed roll of the cardhere the web is formed
•
The feed tray has been separated into 5 segments which are individually spring-born
Figure 2.3.3 Tuft Feeder Directfeed DFK
1. Feed trunk 2. Air outlet combs 3. Upper trunk 4. Feed roll 5. Segmented tray 6. Opening roll 7. Fan 8. Bottom trunk 9. Air outlet combs
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
•
2-30
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2.3.4 Truetzschler Sensofeed •
The web is guided to the transfer point between feed roll and 1st licker-in roll via 10 spring elements
•
Each spring element exactly adjusts itself to the momentary mass of the web to be fed, i.e. if mass variations in the web occur, the spring elements are deflected differently
•
The deflections of all 10 spring elements are processed to become one signal for the short wave regulation, therefore it is possible to avoid thickness variations and obtain better sliver evenness
Figure 2.3.4
Sensofeed & Webfeed
1. Feed roll 2. Feed table 3. Measuring lever with measuring plates 4. Pre-opening segments 5. Clearing units 6. 1st Webfeed roll 7. 2nd Webfeed roll 8. 3rd Webfeed roll
2.3.5 Truetzschler Webfeed •
This system consists of three opening and cleaning rolls in series arrangement
•
The first WEBFEED roll runs at a clearly lower speed than the only licker-in roll of conventional cards
•
The effect of nep reduction prior to the cylinder is unique
•
Each licker-in roll is equipped with direct suction, which prevents a build up of sticky particles, therefore cotton containing honey-dew can be processed without any problem
Textile Handbook 2-31 Figure 2.3.5 Licker-in system WEBFEED
There are two general classifications of card clothings: fillet and metallic. Fillet card clothings consists of foundation and wire, and are continuous strips of clothing 1-1/2 inches to 2 inches wide. Card flats are special fillets about 40 inches long mounted on cast-iron slats to enclose the upper portion of the card cylinder. Metallic clothing is somewhat like licker-in or garnet clothing, and consists of a steel band with teeth punched in one side and a thick rib on the other. The advantage of metallic clothing is that it does not require frequent grinding and stripping like fillet clothing. The tapered shape of the metallic wire points permits easy transfer of fibres without retaining them as cylinder and doffer wastes. The choice of the clothing depends not only on the raw material being carded, but also to a considerable extent on the card involved. Usually, the clothing makers have developed special equipment for mounting the saw tooth wire, and have worked out sets of rules which go a long way to assuring successful operation. Modern mounting equipment ensures proper guidance and unrolling of the wire, and guarantees proper alignment, firm positioning and constant pressure between turns. Special importance is attached to uniform tension. The winding on speed may be adjusted to anywhere between 0 to 40m/min.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2.4 Card Clothing
2-32
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Cylinder and doffer clothings need grinding after mounting, to ensure that all points have the right shape for good carding performance. A distinction is made between grinding in newly mounted clothings and subsequent regrinding. At least 90% of all points should be touched by the grinding stone when grinding-in. The grinding roller must be exactly parallel to the cylinder on the card. This prevents hollow grinding, which impairs quality. Grinding metallic clothings much more difficult than fillet ones, because the metal tooth cannot yield under the grinding pressure. Normally the grinding intervals depend on the amount of material put through. They are also governed to a very large extent by the hardness of the clothing wire, i.e. its points. The first regrind should be postponed as long as possible. Generally, doffer regrind intervals can be attained amounting to many times the cylinder interval.
Textile Handbook 2-33
2.5 Card Clothing Specifications 2.5.1 ECC Card Clothing a) Licker-in Wires Licker-in wire designs for the processing of 100% cotton, cotton/man-made blends and 100% man-made. Rib thickness is determined by the groove, except where interlocking licker-in wire is required.
Number Grooved 6STL 8SN 6STM
4SAM R110 R111 R115 Interlocking B8TR/6STL B8TR/4SAL BSTR/SSN B8R10 B8R5 B12 R10 B12 R5 B16T/250/70 B16T/195/70
Licker-In Wire Specification
Total height Rows per Pitch Angle (mm) Inch (mm)
ppsi
5.65 5.65 5.50
8 8 8
5.65 4.80 5.10
80 90 80
36 42 40
5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50
8 8 8 8
5.10 5.10 5.10 7.60
85O 78O 85O 90O
40 40 40 27
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
8 8 8 8 8 12 12 16 16
5.30 5.30 4.70 5.30 5.30 2.70 2.70 2.50 1.95
80O 85O 90O 80O 85O 80O 85O 70O 70O
38 38 43 38 38 113 113 161 206
O O O
b) Millennium Cylinder Wire Millennium teeth are positioned on the rib surface with a minimimum free blade area (B) (see Figure 2.5.1.b (1). The Micro Tooth Depth concept provides that even the smallest fibre bundlecan be carded. Figure 2.5.1b(1)
Millennium Teeth
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Table 2.5.1 a (1)
2-34
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Table 2.5.1b(2) Millennium Specification
Dedicated designs for super high production carding of all types of fibres. Number
Total height (mm) 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
5511 5595 5585 5586 5686 5672 5676 5572 5666
Rib (mm) 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.65 0.65 0.65
Pitch (mm) 1.50 1.70 1.90 1.50 1.50 1.80 1.30 1.40 1.50
Angle 55O 55O 55O 55O 60O 60O 60O 60O 60O
ppsi 1075 950 850 860 860 720 760 720 660
c) Doffer wires Doffer Wires have been developed with added strength and durability to combine with the Millenium cylinder wires for all super high production applications. Table 2.5.1c
Number 5635 5640 8635 8641 8640 8326
Doffer Wire Specification
Total height (mm) 3.70 3.70 4.00 4.00 4.30 5.00
Rib (mm) 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.90
Pitch (mm) 2.00 1.80 2.40 2.00 2.00 2.20
Angle
ppsi
60o 60o 60o 60o 63o 60o
358 398 350 403 403 326
Also available in striated form for cotton and synthetic applications: 5635R1 5640R1 8635R1 8641R1 8326R
3.70 3.70 4.00 4.00 5.00
0.90 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.90
2.00 1.80 2.30 2.00 2.20
60o 60o 60o 60o 60o
358 398 350 403 326
Textile Handbook 2-35
d) Tops The Ecco series of tops covers carding requirements at all levels of production on every type and grade of fibre. Special finish is standard on this series. Plattflex is used where little or no flat strip is desirable. Table 2.5.1d
Number
Top Wire Specification
Total height (mm)
Angle
ppsi
27 30 24 27 27 30 30 50 27 30 27 30
75O 70O 75O 75O 75O 70O 70O 75O 75O 75O 80O 80O
332 443 276 332 370 443 480 516 370 480 267 393
e) Regrinding cycle in relation to Nep count Curves (2) and (3) indicate the effect of regrinding the wire after a 20% increase in Nep count. Note that MILLENNIUM wires run significantly longer from start up to the first regrind, and between regrinds, compared to conventional wires. Too high a Nep count acceptance limit (1) can allow excessive wear of the points which cannot be rectified by grinding. Table 2.5.1.e Grinding Cycle in Relation to Nep Count
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
CLIPPER33 7.50 CLIPPER4-4 8.00 ECCO300 7.50 ECCO330 7.50 ECCO400 7.50 ECCO440 8.00 ECCO500 8.00 FINO 42 7.50 ECCO 400A 8.00 ECCO 500A 8.00 PLATTFLEX HD 7.90 PLATTFLEX 400 7.50
Rows per Inch
2-36
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2.5.2 Graf Card Clothing a) Metallic Wire Figure 2.5.2 a (1)
Metallic wire
> 50kg/h
15-50kg/h
< 15kg/h
1.5-3.0 dtex >3.0 dtex
Licker-in
Doffer
Cylinder
Doffer
N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9
R-2520-x0.7 O-2515-x0.9 R-2525-x0.6 R-2525-x0.6
E-5510-x... E-5510-x... D-5505-x... D-5505-x... C-5500-x... D-5505-x... E-5510-x... E-5510-x... V.E-5010 ... 8 V.E-5010 ... 8 V.E-5010 ... 8 V.D-5005...8 V.D-5005...8 V.C-5000...8 V.D-5005...8 V.E-5010 ... 8
R-2030-x0.5 R-2030-x0.5 P-2030-x0.4 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9
R.2030-x0.6 R-2030-x0.6 R-2030-x0.5 R-2525-x0.6 R-2520-x0.7 O-2515-x0.9 R-2525-x0.6 R-2525-x0.6 R-2525-x0.6 R-2525-x0.6 R-2525-x0.5 R-2525-x0.5 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025Bx0.9 N-4025BX0.9
50kg/h
15-50kg/h
< 15kg/h
Production
PT 43/0
PT 35/0 PT 43/0
PRIMATOP
MT 42/0
PT 43/0 HS 40/0
PT 43/0 HS 40/0
PRIMATOP RAPPOTOP DIAMANT/PICCODIAMANT
RAPPOTOP DIAMANT/PICCODIAMANT M-TOP
PT 43/0 HS 5010
PT 43/0 HS 40/0
HS 40/0
PT 43/0 PT 35/0
>3.0 dtex
DI/PD 24/0 DI/PD 24/0
PT 35/0
127V
Textile Handbook 2-265 4. Stitch
6.Ribbon winding
At the winding end of spinning bobbin or at yarn breakage, yarn end is wound on the either end of the take-up tube or wound into the package layer. 1. Liable to occur with coarse yarn, unstable yarn, elastic yarn and two-ply yarn. 2. Due to static electricity. 3. Improper gap between the drum cover and the package. 4. Excessive sloughing. 5. Excessive-surface-cut of spinning bobbin. 6. Winding speed not suited to spinning bobbin building. This is most likely to occur when the ratio of the drum diameter and package diameter is an integer. With a rotary traverse type of winder, it is not possible to completely prevent ribbon winding, but dispersing is possible. 1. Improper setting of ribbon breaker. 2. Excessive contact pressure. 3. Improper rotation of cradle. 4. Excessive moisture in spinning bobbin.
1. Set the tension properly (8 to 12% of single yarn strength). 2. Correct the flaw on the drum. 3. Replace the cradle bearing. 4. Correct the loose cradle. 5. Adjust the cradle. 6. Refer to the article for ribbon winding. 7.Remove the cause of sloughing. 8. Increase the humidity to 60% or more.
2. Increase the humidity (60% or more). 4.Remove the cause for sloughing. 5.Improve the spinning process. 6. Improve the spinning bobbin building (spinning process) or lower the winding speed.
1. Change the interval setting. 2. Lower the contact pressure by adjusting the spring of pressure reducer and cradle weight. 3. Replace the bearing of cradle if the rotation is heavy.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
5. End missing
The yarn is drops off the edge of the package. 1. Inadequate tension or variation of tension. 2. Flaw near the drum nose. 3. Improper rotation of cradle bearing centre. 4. Loose cradle. 5. Improper position of drum to cone holder. 6. By ribbon winding. 7. By sloughing. 8. By low humidity (hemp, acrylic) 9. Decrease the tension variation. 10.Liable to occur at high tension with low contact pressure.
2-266
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn 7.Stepped winding
1. Flaw on drum. 2. Flaw on drum cover. 3. Low tension. 4. Disengaged yarn from the yarn path after machine cleaning.
1&2. Check the flaw and repair by sanding. 3. Increase the tension (with dial). 4. Be careful not to blow the yarn when cleaning with air.
8. Pattern winding (small dia. Side)
1. Improper guiding of yarn to the tensor. 2. Foreign substance on tensor disc. 3. Improper rotation of tensor motor. 4. Excessive variation in unwinding tension due to improper forming of spinning bobbin.
1. Check and correct any flaw on yarn guide. 2. Clean the tensor. 3. Check the contact of tensor disc with other parts. Check for any disconnection of tensor motor connector. 4. Check and improve the spinning bobbin building.
(large dia. Side)
(besides the 1 to 4 above) 1. Low increase. 2. Improper height of balloon breaker. 3. Low tension.
l. Improve the increase.
3. Increase the tension (with dial).
9.Saddle back package
1. Over tension. 2. Low contact pressure. 3. Low increase.
1. Lower the tension (with dial) 2. Increase the contact pressure (cradle weight). 3. Improve the increase.
10.Swelled package
1. No tension is applied, covered by - Improper guiding of yarn to tensor. - Foreign substance staying on tensor disc. 2. By ribbon winding.
1. - Poor return of tensor cutter - Clean tensor disc. 2. Refer to ribbon winding.
Textile Handbook 2-267
7.10 Electronic Yarn Clearer The tables below show the main yarn clearers by each manufacturer. Refer to the catalogues or the instruction manuals supplied by each manufacturer for details. Comparison table by type Table 7.10 (1)
Applicable yarn clearer (control box) for each machine Nippon Selen
Peyer
ZAG
KC60 KC50 KC40 UPM D4 D4 C3 W3 FR YM YM YM P150 P531 P551 Seletex 68A4 700 700 800 900
7-II (Stepped √ pulley) 7-V - 7-Vss (Individual √ inverter)
√
√
√ √
√ √
√
√
√
√
√
√
√ √
√
√
√
√
√
√
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
ZAG
KSK
Table 7.10 (2)
Variable (per section)
Per section
Thick place
Thin place
Per section
On bus bar
On bus bar
In bus bar
In bus bar
On bus bar
On bus bar
(1) Capacitance means detection by cross-section, and “photoelectric” means detection by diameter. (2) Per group means that it is possible to set the sensitivity per group as required, and per section means that it is possible to set the sensitivity per section.
On bus bar
In bus bar
Ampblified Mounting
Solid (replaced Separate (1 amp 2 spdles, in pair) plugged-in) Separate (plugged-in)
Separate (plugged-in)
Separate (plugged-in)
√
√
√
√
√
X
Per group Variable (per gruoup)
Per section
Per section
Per section
Per section
Per group
Variable Variable (L=40cm or more) (per group)
Variable (per section)
Variable (per section)
Per section (with additional adapter)
Per group
Per section
Per section
Per section
Variable (per section)
Per group
Per group
Variable (per group)
Per group
P531, 551 Photoelectric
Photoelectric
YM700 Photoelectric
FR700 Photoelectric
P150
ZAG-Peyer
Variable (per section)
Separate (plugged-in)
Head and amplifier
UPM Capacitance
Loepfe
Variable (per gruoup)
Fixed (+50%)
X
√ √ (within _+ (15%) Separate Separate (plugged-in) (plugged-in)
Fixed
X
Per spindle (with additional adapter)
Variable (+ 50%)
Sensitivity auto-correction
Doubled Fixed (+150% upper yarn per section) at lay-in
Nep
Per section
Variable (per section)
Per section
Per section
Slub (2)
Per section
D3 Capacitance
D4
KC60
Capacitance
ZAG-USTER
Capacitance
KSK
Yarn clearer (control box) comparison
Detection system (1)
Yarn clearer
Item
Sensitvity
2-268
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Textile Handbook 2-269 Table 7.10 (3)
Applicable yarn count range of each yarn clearer
Note that the data in this graph is based on theory, and may differ in actual practice.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
7.11 Conversion Graph of Peyer and UAM
2-270
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
7.12 Correlation Between Material and Type of Yarn by the Static Electricity Amount Table 7.12
Correlation Between Material and Type of Yarn by the Static Electricity Amount Notes
Yarn
M 7.5
Cotton, Wool, Viscose
At high relative humidity: Set at 8.5 for 80 % R.H. At low relative humidity: Set at 6.5 for 50 % R.H. .
5.5
Acetate, Polyacrylo nitrile fibre
Estera, Caloran, Minalon, Exslan, Kamilon, Danelon, Torelon, Beslon, Bonnel, Nitron Vinylon, Nylon
4.5
Polyvinyl Alcohol, Polyarnid Polypropylene
Pilen, Polypro
3.5
Polyester
Ester, Tetron
2.5
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Ebilon, Tebilon
Mixed fibres
For the material value of mixed fibre, the value of each fibre is calculated from the rate of mixing, then the values are added together. Examples: Polyester/wool mixtures Polyester 55%: 0.55x3.5=1.9 Wool 45%: 0.45x7.5=3.4 Material value: 5.5 approx.
Textile Handbook 2-271
7.13 Material Setting of Uster UAM Yarn Clearer Graph 7.13
Material Setting of Uster UAM Yarn Clearer
Figure 7.14 (1)
Types of yarn Faults
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
7.14 Types of Yarn Faults
2-272
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Table 7.14 (2) Faults in Cotton Yarns Faults
Appearance Nep
Seed Leaf Thick place Thin place Piecing Spinners’ waste Piecing Spinning piece-up Fly Fly waste Lint Slub Torpedo slub Cracker kink Spinners’ doubles (*100%)
Spinners’ doubles (>> + 100%) Thick yarn
Double thread Double end Lash-in Knurl Snarl Loop
Knot
Textile Handbook 2-273
SECTION 8
TWISTING PROCESS
8.1 Up Twister The yarn bobbin (feed package) is put on the spindle, which is rotated with the bobbin at high speed to insert the twist into yarn. Twisted yarn is then wound slowly on a cylinder or tube type of take-up bobbin.
8.2 Ring Twister Yarn from feed package is withdrawn slowly by the pair of feed rollers and goes through the yarn guide and wind on a ring spindle. Twists are inserted by the ring and traveller system. There are two types of twist insertion kits, ring and flyer. Figure 8.2
Ring Twister and Uptwister
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Twisting is the last stage after ring spinning. Though the yarn quality has already been determined during ring spinning, processing, twisting parameters and mechanisms have their influence while producing twisted or ply yarn, such as lustre, strength, extension and balance. There are different twisting systems; the ring twister, the up-twister and the twofor-one twister. The latest development is the Tritec Twister.
2-274
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
8.3 Two-for-One Twisting 8.3.1 Two-for-One Principle With the Two-for-One twisting system, the thread receives two turns with one revolution of the spindle. To obtain this Two-for-One effect, the protection pot with the untwisted feed package is kept in a stationary position on the spindle rotor by permanent magnets. The yarn is unwound from the stationary feed package, passes through the hollow axle, and the yarn tension device, enters the rotating upper part of the spindle and leaves it through the opening of the spindle rotor. Between the tension device in the hollow axle and the exit in the spindle rotor, the yarn receives its first turn (1). The yarn circles around the protection pot as a yarn balloon. The second turn (2) is given within the balloon between the spindle rotor and the balloon thread guide. The apex is the eye of the balloon thread guide. Figure 8.3.1 Two-for-One twisting system
Spindle speed(r.p.m) x 2 Yarn speed =
(m / min.) Number of twists(T / M)
Textile Handbook 2-275
8.3.2 Characteristics of Two-for-One Twisting Two-for-One twisting is a textile process to improve the quality of yarn. While twisting two or more single yarns are wrapped around each other. This makes the yarn strong and smooth without chemical treatment. Quality features are: • Optimum cross-wound take-up packages for further processes,
• Higher uniformity (doubling effect), • Softer, thanks to lower bending rigidity, • Higher elastic resilience (less bulging), • Good binding of the edge fibres, • Higher wear resistance (no pilling), • Higher tear resistance, • Greater absorbency of the fibres (towels), • Less fluffing (domestic dryers and washing machines), • Allow customers to develop additional market potential for the use of twisted yarns.
8.3.3 Tritec Twister The Saurer Tritec Twister spindle consists of two contra-rotating systems on bearings. The outer system with the spindle shaft (red) and the inner system with the parallel wound feed bobbin (grey) rotate at the same speed but in opposite directions. Both systems are equipped with a cylindrical thread-guiding device. The thread comes off the bobbin due to the rotation of the inner section, and accumulates on the thread-guiding device (self regulating function). It is then drawn into the hollow spindle where both contra-rotating systems immediately give it a double twist. The thread then accumulates on the external thread-guiding device and is given a third twist before being wound up on the delivery rollers.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
• Better coverage with the same yarn volume, thus less material is required,
2-276
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 8.3.3 Tritec Twister
Maximum productivity: Low spindle rotation speeds of just 7,000 - 10,000 rpm result in an effective maximum speed of 30,000 rpm.
Textile Handbook 2-277
8.4 Twisting Parameter Table 8.4.1
Twist Factor Ratio of Ply Yarn and Single Yarn
Final Product
Quality Requirement
Ratio
High density, less hairiness, high strength
1.2-1.4
Weft
Softness and lustre
Voile
Stiff and smooth, Twist on same direction and heat setted High density and smooth, good circular shape, twist direction ZSZ
1.0-1.2 1.3-1.4
Narrow Fabric Knitted Underwear
High density, smooth and shinny
Primary Twist: 1.7-2.4 Secondary Twist:0.7-0.9 1.3-1.4
Cotton Sweater and Socks Sewing Thread
Soft shiny, few knots
0.9-1.1
High density, shiny, good strength and circular shape, few and small knots
2 Ply : 1.3-1.4 3 Ply : 1.6-1.7
High density, shinny, good strength and circular shape, twist direction SZ, few and small knots Good lustre, soft, few and small knots
1.5-1.6
High density, good recovery, good strength, twist direction ZZS
Primary Twist: 2.4-2.8 Secondary Twist: about 0.85
High density, good recovery, good elongation, high twisted
2.0-3.0
High quality sewing thread Embroidering Thread Tyre Cord
Hand-twisted Thread
0.8-0.9
Theoretically, the relationship between single yarn Twist Multiplier and ply yarn Twist Multiplier is:
2 Ply yarn: a1 = 1.41a0 3 Ply yarn: a1 = 1.59a0
a1 - Twist Multiplier of Ply yarn a0 - Twist Multiplier of Single yarn
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Warp
2-278
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Practically, the following condition should be followed to obtain high quality ply yarn while using low twisted single yarn. a1 > 1.41 a0 However, to have the best quality of Ply yarn by using high-twisted single yarn, their relationship should be as follows: a1 < 1.41 a0
Table 8.4.2 Twist Factor for Different Applications Usage Normal Soft Twist Extra Soft Hard Twist Extra Hard
Twist Multiplier 4.0 3.4 1.32-2.8 5.0-5.4 5.0-6.5
Textile Handbook 2-279 Table 8.4.3
Single Single Yarn Yarn Count Twist
Twist Contraction % on Same Twisting Direction Between Ply and Single Yarn Ply Yarn Twist Multiplier
350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 (3.68) (3.95) (4.21) (4.47) (4.74) (5.00) (5.26) (5.53) (5.79)
Multiplier 36
24
20
16
14
10
8
6
4.95 5.1 5.25 4.8 4.95 5.1 4.65 4.8 4.95 4.5 4.65 4.8 4.35 4.5 4.6 4.25 4.4 4.55 4.05 4.2 4.3 3.95 4.05 4.2 3.8 3.9 4.0
5.5 5.65 5.85 5.35 5.5 5.65 5.2 5.35 5.5 5.0 5.15 5.3 3.85 5.0 5.15 4.75 4.9 5.05 4.5 4.65 4.8 4.4 4.5 4.65 4.2 4.35 4.45
6.1 6.3 6.45 5.95 6.1 6.25 5.75 5.9 6.1 5.55 5.7 5.9 5.4 5.55 5.7 5.25 5.4 5.6 5.0 5.15 5.3 4.85 5.0 5.15 4.65 4.8 4.95
6.75 6.9 7.1 6.55 6.7 6.9 6.35 6.5 6.7 6.15 6.3 6.45 5.95 6.1 6.25 5.8 5.95 6.15 5.5 5.7 5.85 5.35 5.5 15.65 5.15 5.3 5.45
7.4 7.6 7.8 7.2 7.35 7.55 7.0 7.15 7.35 6.75 6.9 7.1 6.5 6.7 6.85 6.4 6.55 6.7 6.05 6.25 6.4 5.85 6.0 6.2 5.65 5.8 5.95
8.1 8.3 8.5 7.85 8.05 8.25 7.6 7.8 8.0 7.35 7.55 7.75 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.0 7.15 7.3 6.6 6.8 7.0 6.4 6.6 6.75 6.15 6.35 6.5
8.8 9.0 9.3 8.55 8.8 9.0 8.3 8.5 8.7 8.0 8.2 8.4 7.75 7.95 8.15 7.6 7.8 8.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.0 7.2 7.35 6.7 6.9 7.65
9.6 9.8 10.1 9.3 9.5 9.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 8.7 8.9 9.1 8.4 8.6 8.8 8.25 8.45 3.65 7.85 8.05 8.25 7.6 7.8 8.0 7.3 7.45 7.65
10.4 10.6 10.9 10.1 10.3 10.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 9.4 9.7 9.9 9.1 9.3 9.6 8.9 9.1 9.4 8.5 8.7 8.9 8.2 8.4 8.6 7.9 8.1 8.3
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
30
320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79)
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2-280
Table 8.4.4
Single Single Yarn Yarn Count Twist
Twist Contraction % on Reversed Twisting Direction Between Ply and Single Yarn Ply Yarn Twist Multiplier
350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 (3.68) (3.95) (4.21) (4.47) (4.74) (5.00) (5.26) (5.53) (5.79)
Multiplier 36
30
24
20
16
14
12
10
8
7
6
320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79) 320(3.37) 340(3.58) 360(3.79)
+0.3 +0.15 0 +0.2 0 -0.15 0 -0.15 -0.3 -0.1 -0.3 -0.45 -0.25 -0.45 -0.65 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -0.5 -0.7 -0.75 -0.65 -0.9 -1.1 -0.85 -1.1 -1.35 -1.0 -1.25 -1.15 -1.45 -1.4 -1.65
+0.55 +0.4 +0.2 +0.4 +0.25 +0.05 +0.25 +0.05 -0.1 +0.1 -0.1 -0.3 -0.05 -0.25 -0.45 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.3 -0.55 -0.75 -0.5 -0.75 -0.95 -0.7 -0.95 -1.2 -0.85 -1.1 -1.35 -1.0 -1.25 -1.38
+0.8 +0.65 +0.45 +0.7 +0.8 +0.5 +0.5 +0.3 +0.1 +0.35 +0.15 -0.05 +0.2 -0.05 -0.25 +0.05 -0.2 -0.4 -0.1 -0.35 -0.65 -0.3 -0.55 -0.8 -0.5 -0.5 -1.05 -0.65 -0.95 -1.2 -0.85 -1.1 -1.4
+1.1 +0.95 +0.75 +1.0 +1.1 +0.55 +0.8 +0.6 +0.35 +0.6 +0.4 +0.2 +0.45 +0.2 0 +0.3 +0.05 -0.2 +0.15 -0.1 -0.4 -0.05 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.85 -0.45 -0.75 -1.051 -0.65 -0.95 -1.25
+1.45 +1.25 +1.05 +1.3 +1.45 +0.85 +1.1 +0.9 +0.65 +0.9 +0.7 +0.45 +0.75 +0.5 +0.25 +0.6 +0.3 +0.05 +0.4 +0.15 -0.15 +0.2 -0.1 -0.35 -0.05 -0.35 -0.65 -0.2 -0.55 -0.85 -0.4 -0.75 -1.05
+1.8 +1.6 +1.4 +1.65 +1.45 +1.2 +1.45 +1.2 +0.95 +1.25 +1.0 +0.75 +1.05 +0.8 +0.5 +0.9 +0.6 +0.35 +0.7 +0.4 +0.15 +0.5 +0.2 -0.1 +0.2 -0.1 -0.4 +0.05 -0.3 -0.6 +0.15 +0.5 +0.85
-2.2 +2.0 +1.75 +2.05 +1.8 +1.55 +1.85 +1.55 +1.3 +1.6 +1.35 +1.1 +1.4 +1.1 +0.85 +1.25 +0.95 +0.65 +1.05 +0.75 +0.45 +0.8 +0.5 +0.2 +0.5 +0.2 +0.4 +0.35 0 -0.35 +0.15 -0.2 -0.2
+2.65 +2.4 +2.15 +2.45 +2.2 +1.95 +2.25 +1.95 +1.7 +2.0 +1.75 +1.45 +1.8 +1.5 +1.2 +1.6 +1.3 +1.0 +1.4 +1.1 +0.8 +1.15 +0.8 +0.5 +0.85 +0.5 +0.15 +0.65 +0.3 -0.051 +0.45 +0.05 -0.3
+3.1 +2.85 +2.6 +2.9 +2.65 +2.4 +2.65 +2.4 +2.1 +2.45 +2.15 +1.85 +2.2 +1.9 +1.6 +2.0 +1.7 +1.35 +1.8 +1.45 +1.15 +1.55 +1.2 +0.85 +1.2 +0.85 +0.5 +1.05 +0.65 +0.25 +0.8 +0.4 0
Yarn NO. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
46
5.3 6.8 8.2 9.5 10.7 11.9 12.9 13.9 14.9 15.8 16.6 17.4 18.2 18.9 19.6 20.2 20.8 21.4 22.0 22.5 23.0
48
5.3 6.9 8.3 9.6 10.8 12.0 13.1 14.1 15.1 16.0 16.9 17.9 18.5 19.2 19.9 20.6 31.2 31.8 22.4 23.0 23.5 24.0
50
5.4 6.9 8.3 9.7 10.9 12.1 13.2 14.3 15.3 16.2 17.1 18.0 18.8 19.5 20.2 20.9 21.6 22.2 22.8 23.4 24.0 24.5 25.0
5.3 6.8 8.2 9.4 10.6 11.6 12.8 13.8 14.4 15.5 16.4 17.1 17.9 18.5 19.2 16.8 20.4 21.0 21.5 22.0
44
40
5.2 6.7 8.0 9.2 10.4 11.4 12.4 13.3 14.2 15.0 15.8 16.5 17.1 17.8 18.4 19.0 19.5 20.0
42
5.3 6.7 8.0 9.3 10.5 11.6 12.6 13.6 14.4 15.3 16.1 16.9 17.5 18.2 18.8 19.4 20.0 20.5 21.0
5.2 6.6 7.9 9.1 10.2 11.3 12.2 13.1 13.9 14.7 15.4 16.1 16.8 17.4 17.9 18.5 19.0
38
Resultant Count of Ply Yarn
5.1 6.5 7.8 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.4 15.1 15.8 16.4 16.8 17.5 18.0
36 5.1 6.5 7.7 8.9 9.9 10.9 11.8 12.6 13.4 14.0 14.7 17.4 17.9 18.5 19.0
34 5.0 6.4 7.6 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.5 12.3 13.0 13.7 14.4 14.9 15.5 16.0
32 5.0 6.3 7.5 8.6 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.3 13.9 14.5 15.0
30 4.9 6.2 7.4 8.4 9.3 10.2 11.0 11.7 12.3 12.9 13.0 14.0
28 4.9 6.1 7.2 8.2 9.1 9.9 10.6 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.0
26 18 4.5 5.5 6.4 7.2 7.9 8.5 9.0
4.8 4.7 4.6 6.0 5.9 5.7 7.1 6.9 6.7 8.0 7.8 7.5 8.9 8.6 8.2 9.6 9.3 8.9 10.3 9.9 9.5 10.9 10.5 10.0 11.5 11.0 12.0
22 20
24
14 4.2 5.1 5.8 6.5 7.0
16 4.4 5.3 6.2 6.9 7.5 8.0
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Table 8.4.5 8 3.4 4.0
10 3.8 4.4 5.0
12 4.0 4.8 5.5 6.0
3.0
6
Textile Handbook 2-281
2-282
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1. Ply Yarn: 1 N=
1 1 + N1 N2
N1 x N2
=
N1 + N2
N = Yarn Count N1- N2 = Individual Yarn Count
2. Three single yarns or above 1 N=
Table 8.4.6
1 1 1 + + ...... + N1 N2 N3 Twist Types for Plied Yarns and Twist Twist Direction
Process Spinning
Z
S
Z
Z
Ply Twisting
S
Z
S
Z
Z
S
ZSZ
ZZS
2nd Ply Twisting Twisting Sequence
ZS
SZ
Examples: ZS Twist - Weaving yarn, Wrapping yarn, Sail twine ZSZ Twist - Seine twine, Cable cord, Twist rope
2-282
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1. Ply Yarn: 1 N=
1 1 + N1 N2
N1 x N2
=
N1 + N2
N = Yarn Count N1- N2 = Individual Yarn Count
2. Three single yarns or above 1 N=
Table 8.4.6
1 1 1 + + ...... + N1 N2 N3 Twist Types for Plied Yarns and Twist Twist Direction
Process Spinning
Z
S
Z
Z
Ply Twisting
S
Z
S
Z
Z
S
ZSZ
ZZS
2nd Ply Twisting Twisting Sequence
ZS
SZ
Examples: ZS Twist - Weaving yarn, Wrapping yarn, Sail twine ZSZ Twist - Seine twine, Cable cord, Twist rope
Section 9 - Application of Information Technology in Spinning Procsss ......... 2-283 9.1
ABC-Control for Blow Room and Carding .................... 2-283
9.2
Spiderweb : The Mill Data and Information System .... 2-284
9.3
Barco Sycotex System ....................................................... 2-286
9.4
Uster Labdata .................................................................... 2-286
Section 10 - Special Types of Yarns ......................... 2-287 10.1 Production of Rough-Spun (Slub and Neps) .................. 2-287 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.1.3 10.1.4
Introduction ................................................................. 2-287 Machinery Settings ...................................................... 2-287 Maintenance ................................................................ 2-288 Other Considerations ................................................... 2-288
10.2 Recommendation for Producing Linen-Look Yarn on Conventional Equipment ................................................. 2-290 10.2.1 Operating Procedures .................................................... 2-290 10.2.2 Experiment Details ...................................................... 2-291
10.3 Slub Effect Yarn with Amsler GOE Device on OE Spinning Machine ............................................................. 2-293 10.3.1 Function ....................................................................... 2-293
10.4 Amsler Cortex System ...................................................... 2-295 10.4.1 Features ....................................................................... 2-295
10.5 Core Spun Yarn by Plyfil Spinning System .................... 2-297 10.5.1 Equipment for Hard Core Yarns .................................. 2-297 10.5.2 Equipment for Soft Core Yarns ................................... 2-298 10.5.3 The advantages of PLYfiL ............................................ 2-300
10.6 Parallel Yarn by Parafil Spinning System ...................... 2-301 10.6.1 Structure of Parallel Yarn ............................................ 2-301 10.6.2 Properties of Parallel Yarn ............................................ 2-302
Section 11 - Wool Spinning Process ........................ 2-304 11.1 Worsted System ................................................................. 2-304 11.1.1 The worsted spinning process flow is as follows ........ 2-304 11.1.2 Scouring ...................................................................... 2-304 11.1.3 Drying ......................................................................... 2-304 11.1.4 Oiling ........................................................................... 2-305 11.1.5 Carding ........................................................................ 2-305 11.1.6 Backwashing ............................................................... 2-305 11.1.7 Combing ...................................................................... 2-305 11.1.8 Gilling ......................................................................... 2-306 11.1.9 Drawing ....................................................................... 2-306 11.1.10 Spinning ..................................................................... 2-306
11.2 Woollen System ................................................................. 2-306 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.2.6 11.2.7 11.2.8
Woollen spinning process flow:- ................................. 2-306 Scouring and drying .................................................... 2-307 Carbonizing ................................................................. 2-307 Dyeing ......................................................................... 2-307 Blending ...................................................................... 2-307 Oiling ........................................................................... 2-307 Carding ........................................................................ 2-307 Spinning ...................................................................... 2-307
Section 12 - Texturing ............................................... 2-308 12.1 Purpose of Texturing ........................................................ 2-308 12.2 False Twist Method ........................................................... 2-308 12.3 Edge-Crimped Yarns ........................................................ 2-310 12.4 Stuffer-Box Crimping ....................................................... 2-311 12.5 Air-Textured Yarns ........................................................... 2-312 12.6 Knit-De-Knit Method ....................................................... 2-313 12.7 Gear Crimping .................................................................. 2-313 12.8 Twist-Textured Yarns ........................................................ 2-313 Back to Table of Content
Textile Handbook 2-283
SECTION 9
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN SPINNING PROCESS
9.1 ABC-Control for Blow Room and Carding
In addition, the machines in the blowroom are expected to operate without interruption, as they frequently serve a key function. If there is an interruption on a cleaning machine, in a matter of minutes 10 to 20 cards come to a standstill. As a result, the entire production can be disrupted for a long period of time. The adjustable values on a Rieter cleaning machine are “waste amount” and “intensity”. They are defined in relative sizes in the range of 1 to 10, or 0 to 1 and make up the two-dimensional VarioSet cleaning field. The “cleaning intensity”, and “relative amount of waste” cleaning parameters can be changed at the operator panel by means of the VarioSet cleaning field. The microprocessor control unit automatically adjusts the machine elements such as the feeding trough, cleaning roller and separating. ABC Control is a system which consists of a programmable logic control (plc), responsible for actual-time control of all machines and parts of the plant, as well as a visualizing system based on a PCcompatible industrial computer. This is connected via a computer network to the plc, UNIfloc, the VarioSet cleaners B 10 and B 60, and the C 50 cards.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The quality of a blowroom is often the subject of debate, and the question of which aspects are most important rarely leads to a consensus. Depending on the case and prevailing opinion, emphasis could be placed on a higher degree of cleaning, lower waste of good fibres, minimal nep accumulation or less damage to fibres,
2-284
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 9.1 Rieter VarioSet Blowroom/Carding
9.2 Spiderweb : The Mill Data and Information System SPIDERweb is a data collection and information system for all quality and production data of the Rieter machinery. All production data are available in the form of texts, graphics or tables. On-the-spot optimisation possibilities are visible for the spinning plant. Ideally designed for Rieter equipment, SPIDERweb keeps everything under central control. Figure 9.2(1) and Figure 9.2(2) illustrate the information provided by Spiderweb. The most important advantages are: • Increase in production and improvement in quality due to specific, central and comprehensive information. • Simple operation and high flexibility through full adoption of the Windows operating philosophy.
Textile Handbook 2-285 Figure 9.2 (1)
Rotor Spin Places Events
Machine Monitored by Spider Web: Cards: C50, C51 Draw frames: SB851, SB951, RSB951, D10, D30 Combers: E7/5A, E7/6, E60, E70R UNIlap: E5/3, E30 Roving frame: F5, F10, F30 Rotor: R1, R20 Ring frame: G30, G33, K40
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Figure 9.2 (2) Card Production per shift (kg)
2-286
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
9.3 Barco Sycotex System All BARCO and Loepfe detector systems and sensors can be integrated in BARCO SYCOTEX plant wide monitoring system. With SYCOTEX, the whole production process can be monitored starting from opening lines to draw frames, flyers, ring frames, OE machines, winders and twisters. The SYCOTEX system also allows the connection of production machines equipped with other (non BARCO) yarn quality detection or clearer systems.
9.4 Uster Labdata It is quite clear that, as a result of the combination of on-line and offline quality assurance measures, a large amount of quality data will become available on both a daily and a weekly basis. The textile mill, and particularly the laboratory, has the task of arranging this quality information in an easy-to-understand form, and of making it available to the people within the mill who require such information (Figure 9.4). Uster Labdata is an integral system to provide the flow of information and quality reports. Figure 9.4 Uster Labdata: schematic arrangement of the integral information system
Textile Handbook 2-287
SECTION 100 SPECIAL TYPES OF YARNS 10.1 Production of Rough-Spun (Slub and Neps) Yarn on Conventional Equipment (Source: Cotton Incorporated)
10.1.1 Introduction
These limitations could be largely overcome if normal raw cotton and standard yarn mill machinery were used. Rough-spun yarns may be spun using either ring or open-end spinning machines. The count range using a ring spinning frame is from 8/1 Ne to 30/1 Ne, while the open-end count range is 6/1 Ne-20/1 Ne. The “roughness” of the ring-spun yarn will be somewhat more pronounced than open-end yarn spun from the same material. The cotton selected for rough-spun yarn should be of similar quality, at least initially, to that normally spun by the mill into a given yarn. As experience is gained, it is likely that the cotton grade may be reduced.
10.1.2 Machinery Settings The rough-spun effect is achieved by altering card settings to cause fibre “rolling” on the cylinder (see table 10.1.4 card settings). This effect is essentially achieved by setting the doffer to cylinder setting and the flats to cylinder setting to 0.040 inches in each case. The effect is enhanced by also setting the licker-in to cylinder setting to 0.040 inches and by using strapless flats or slowing down the flat rotation to one or two inches per minute. If a yarn containing additional leaf and other trash is desired, under card waste as well as opening room waste may be appropriately reduced.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Many random effect yarns are made by the use of unusual raw materials such as waste, or additional machinery, such as slub attachments. In the case of the former, spinning efficiency and low yarn strengths are common problems; and the yarn character changes as the quality of the waste supply varies. In the case of the latter, additional money must be spent on machinery which may not be fully utilized as customer preferences change with time.
2-288
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
No other changes in machinery settings in the card room or spinning room are required. It is likely that some multiple twist changes may be necessary in order to obtain a reasonable yarn strength.
10.1.3 Maintenance The rough-spun effect is achieved by allowing a certain amount of fibre to roll on the face of the card cylinder. Therefore, only cards with sharp, undamaged wire should be used, otherwise the cylinders will load excessively with fibre and may jam. Additionally, poorly maintained cards will lead to the production of variable roughness yarn.
10.1.4 Other Considerations • Production rates of the cards may be maintained at the same rate previously used to card the same raw material. • The rough-spun effect is not dependent on the type of wire or the make of the card used. • Sliver weight has no appreciable effect on the rough-spun effect. • Finer counts require longer fibre if yarn strength and ends down are to be maintained at reasonable levels. • Depending on circumstances and yarn quality requirements, a certain amount of waste may be introduced into the blend. However, this should be done only after the desired yarn roughness, strength and ends down levels have been achieved using standard raw cotton.
Textile Handbook 2-289 Table 10.1.4
Card Setting Of Rough-Spun Yarn Setting Points
Note:
Feed Roll To Plate Feed Plate To Licker-in Licker-in To Cylinder Back Plate Flats
Front Plate Doffer To Cylinder Take-Off Roll To Doffer Calendar Roll Screen
Trumpet Hole Diameter Arches To Cylinder (Not Shown)
Setting expressed in inches
Top Bottom Back Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Front Top Bottom Top Bottom Front Middle Back Basket To Lickerin Nose To Lickerin Card Coiler
. 005 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 040 . 034 . 034 . 040 No Crushing Mill Standard Setting
Mill Standard Setting Mill Standard Setting
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Rough Spun (ins)
2-290
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
10.2 Recommendation for Producing Linen-Look Yarn on Conventional Equipment (Source: Cotton Incorporated) Cotton Incorporated developed a totally new novelty yarn with a linen look which can be produced on conventional mill machinery without special attachments. It is called “linen look” because it simulates long stubs common to linen yarn but is made using 100% cotton. The slubs are formed by using small amounts of comber noils (short fibres) in the final drawing operation. One of the main targets for this yarn is women’s wear fabrics for blouses and skirts. In the current work, counts of Ne 18/1 were spun. The effective count range of this type yarn is projected to be from Ne 8/1 to Ne 28/1.
10.2.1 Operating Procedures • Process 100% upland comber noils into card sliver - a sliver weighing 30-55 grains per yarn (Ne 0.28-Ne 0.15) was produced. • Process carded upland cotton through the first drawing to produce a sliver weighing approximately 44 grains per yard (Ne 0.19). • Second Process Drawing - At the second drawing process blend one comber noil card sliver with six upland cotton slivers from the first drawing process. The comber noil sliver should be creeled in the middle of the six regular slivers. A 30-40 grains-per-yard sliver should be produced using a high front draft of at least 5. • Roving - Roving should be produced using the blended second process drawing sliver.The draft at roving should be as low as possible (2.5-4.0). It will be necessary to change the roving tension gear in order to build successfully a full package due to the heavy noil slubs in the roving. • Spinning - Adjust spindle speed, select traveller and adjust twist to achieve desirable yarn strength, and spinning efficiency.
Textile Handbook 2-291
10.2.2 Experiment Details a) Characteristics of fibre used in this project Type Grade Length (ins) Mic Strength (gr/tex) Comber Noil
-
US upland cotton SLM 1.12 3.8 - 4.6 24 and up any upland cotton noil
Opening Cleaning Cleaning Flock Feeder
- Fibre Controls Hoppers - Whitin Axi-Flo - Model A* - Centrif Air XL Step Cleaner* - Fibre Controls 310 Fine Opener
* Bypassed for noil processing c) Cards Card Chute Feed System - Fibre Controls - Snotlaker Saco Lowell Cards Rebuilt by Hollingsworth Production Rate (lb/hr) Sliver Weight (grains/yd) Sliver Count (Ne) Revolving Flats
Regular Cotton 40 57 0.146 yes
d) Drawing - First Process* Saco Lowell Production Rate (ft/m) Sliver Weight - 44 gr/yd Number of Slivers Fed
- Model DE8C - 600 - (0.19 Ne) -6
Draft Distribution Lifter roll to back roll Back roll to 4th roll 4th roll to 3rd roll 3rd roll to front roll Front roll to calender roll
0.99 1.18 1.25 5.07 1.01
Noils 15 55 0.151 yes
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
b) Opening and Cleaning
2-292
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Roll Settings (center to centre - ins) 1
Back roll to 4th roll 4th roll to 3rd roll 3rd roll to front roll
1 2
22 32 5 8 17 32
*Card sliver made of noil is not introduced into the first process drawing. e) Drawing - Second Process Saco Lowell Production Rate (feet/minute) Sliver Weight - 30 grains/yard Number of Slivers Fed
- Model DE8C - 400 - (.27 Ne) -7 - 6 First process - 1 Noil card sliver
Draft Distribution Lifter roll to back roll Back roll to 4th roll 4th roll to 3rd roll 3rd roll to front roll Front roll to calender roll
0.99 1.18 1.25 7.3 1.01
Roll Settings (centre to centre - ins) Back roll to 4th roll
1
4th roll to 3rd roll
1
27 32 5 8
3rd roll to front roll
1
17 32
f ) Roving Saco Lowell Hank roving Twist multiple Tension gear (number of teeth)
- Rovematic (14x7) - 0.75 - 1.48 - 55*
Draft Distribution Back roll to middle roll Middle roll to front roll Total draft
1.34 2.01 2.70
Textile Handbook 2-293
Roll Settings (centre to centre - ins) Back roll to middle roll
1
Middle roll to front roll
2
23 32 1 4
*Note: Tension will have to be adjusted to build a proper package. g) Spinning - Zinser model 317 Spinomat - 2 14 -1 - 5000 Single
10.3 Slub Effect Yarn with Amsler GOE Device on OE Spinning Machine The system is based on a high dynamic servomotor which controls the basic as well as the overfeed rate of the OE-spinning machines input rollers. Variations in the feed rate are precisely controlled by an advanced microprocessor enabling all kinds of controlled yarn structure variations and slubs. The microprocessor also guarantees reliable reproduction of the desired effects.
10.3.1 Function The high speed slub servomotor with Amsler-differential gear controls the draft according effect patterninl. The slub device is fully integrated in the open-end frame headstock and operates synchronized with the production speed.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Spinning frame Ring size (ins) Flange # Spindle speed (RPM) Creeling
2-294
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 10.3.1 (1) AMSLER-IRO fancy yarn attachment on AUTOCORO OEframe
Figure 10.3.1 (2)
Working principle Rotor slub GOE on Rieter-SSI RU 11/ RU 14
Textile Handbook 2-295
10.4 Amsler Cortex System 10.4.1 Features • Elastic CORE spun yarns with adjustable draft • Non-elastic CORE spun yarns with constant tensioning device • BI-Spun yarns with two roving’s per spindle covering the filament
• SPUN-BOUCLE yarn using the CORE device with overfeeding staplefibres and grooved Figure 10.4.1 (1) Principle sketch of AMSLER COR device, front and side view
1. FILAMENT SENSOR with GUIDING DEVICE on SWIVELLING ARM. 2. TRAVERSING DEVICE syst.AMSLER with new guiding supports. 3. CAN-BUS processor systems with full control of each individual spindle. 4.ELASTHAN DRIVE with MP-SERVO draft synchronisation, independent supervision 5.ALARM SYSTEMS, i.e. each spindle, -segment, central digital display. 6.CENTRAL CONTROLBOX for display, edit and network-communication 7.DELIVERY SYSTEM, 4-rollers, for filament with optional park position separators 8.OPTION - individual yarn stop motion syst.AMSLER 9. OPTION - additional synchron middle roller
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
• INJECTED color-slubs using the CORE device in combination with the AMSLER SLUB YARN device.
2-296
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn Figure 10.4.1 (2) Option: variation for production of NON-ELASTIC coreyarn from bobbins
Figure 10.4.1 (3) Option: variation for production of INJECTED color-slubs with AMSLER SDE-slub device
Textile Handbook 2-297
10.5 Core Spun Yarn by Plyfil Spinning System PLYfiL machines are suitable for the production of both hard and soft core yarns. The core of hard core yarns is a continuous filament. Tensile strength and elongation of hard core yarns are mainly determined by the characteristics of the filament.
The sheath of hard and soft core yarns can be formed of natural as well as man-made fibres. These fibres are drafted in the PLYfiL drafting system. Compared to a conventional yarn, the total draft applied is increased by the percentage of the core. The core is fed to the sliver at the front roller pair of the drafting system by means of devices and guiding components specially designed for hard and soft core yarns. Both components then run through the assembly and spinning nozzles. Such devices and guiding components can be retrofitted to PLYfiL machines already installed.
10.5.1 Equipment for Hard Core Yarns A special creel is fitted on the PLYfiL machine for producing hard core yarns. As a rule, the filament is unwound overhead. A sensor in the feeding mechanism monitors the filament. The filament must be pretensioned before entering the drafting system. The pretension selected should not be so high as to permanently impair the elasticity of the filament. The filament must run exactly in the centre of the fibres to achieve good coverage. The yarn guiding element in front of the front top roller can be adjusted for this purpose. After leaving the drafting system, the filament and the fibres run through the assembly and spinning nozzles, receiving a false twist from the spinning nozzle. When this false twist is dissipated, the fibres wrap the filament to form a sheath capable of resisting slippage during the subsequent twisting procedure.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Soft core yarns incorporate an elastomeric core which provides the core yarn with high elasticity and the fabric with good recovery qualities.
2-298
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The filament can be fed to one or two ends of the ply yarn. When it is fed to both ends, the operation of the machine is more complex. Finer filaments must be selected to maintain the given proportion of fibres and filament. Economic aspects must be considered, too, when finer filaments are required. The hard core yarns produced on the PLYfiL machine must finally be twisted and steamed.
Figure 10.5.1
Hard Core Yarns
10.5.2 Equipment for Soft Core Yarns The fibre sheath of soft core yarns is formed in the same way as for hard core yarns. The essential difference for the production of soft core yarns is that the elastomeric core must be pre-stretched. The necessary unwinding device for the bobbin carrying the elastomeric core material is fitted above the drafting system and incorporates two driven delivery shafts (see Figure 10.5.2 (1) & (2)).
Textile Handbook 2-299 Soft Core Yarns
Figure 10.5.2 (2)
Unwinding Device for Elastomeric Core
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Figure 10.5.2 (1)
2-300
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Usually, the degree of pre-stretching is between 3.5 and 4.5, which is achieved by an adjustable speed ratio between the unwinding device and the front roller pair of the drafting system. The elastomeric core is fed to the front roller pair over an adjustable guiding roll (see Figure 10.5.2 (3)). This guiding roll must feed the elastic filament into the centre of the drafted fibre sheath to ensure that it is completely embedded in the covering fibres. A sensor monitors the core. If it is missing, the corresponding winding position is stopped. The specific PLYfiL yarn structure makes it possible even in soft core yarns to feed the filament to only one yarn end. By combining the two yarn ends in the subsequent twisting operation, the wrapping fibres provide excellent coverage of the core. In principle, stretch filaments can be fed to both ends of the ply yarn. The soft core yarns produced on the PLYfiL machine must be subsequently twisted and steamed.
10.5.3 The advantages of PLYfiL • Compared with conventional ring spinning, three processing stages are omitted : - the roving frame or apron condenser frame - winding and clearing after spinning - separate assembly winding before twisting • The output of a PLYfiL spinning Position is 40 times higher than that of a ring spindle. • In twisting, only approximately 60 to 80% of the turns needed for the conventional process are necessary. The number of twisting positions therefore can be reduced.
Textile Handbook 2-301
The PLYfiL route thus offers the advantages of • • • •
reduced reduced reduced reduced
investment space requirements energy consumption labour requirements
Figure 10.5.2 (3) Adjustable Guiding Roll for Elastic Filament
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
10.6 Parallel Yarn by Parafil Spinning System 10.6.1 Structure of Parallel Yarn Parallel Yarn (PL yarn) consists of non-twisted parallel staple fibres held together by a filament wrapping them spirally. The filament provides the strength of the Parallel Yarn. It produces the necessary cohesion between the individual staple fibres by exercising radial pressure on them. This inter-fibre friction is increased when the PL yarn is subjected to tension. The number of filament wraps per unit length in a standard PL yarn is approximately the same as the amount of twist in a comparable ring-spun yarn of the same fineness.
2-302
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
10.6.2 Properties of Parallel Yarn a) Structure The cross-section of a Parallel Yarn is round. When not under tension, it shows a slightly undulating character. This is caused by the filament, which encircles the staple fibres spirally with a slight local compressive effect. Once embodied in a fabric, this feature of a PL yarn becomes unnoticeable. b) Volume During processing, PL yarn is relatively lean and smooth. That is the result of the constrictive effect of the wrapping filament which becomes effective under tension. This characteristic accounts for the ease with which PL yarns slip through thread guides, brakes, guide rods, needles, etc, On the other hand, when not under tension, PL yarns are considerably bulkier. This is because the staple fibres are without twist, which is very important, particularly after steaming, because the bulking capacity of the fibres is not inhibited by twist. c) Spinning Limits PLyarn can be produced with fewer fibres in the crosssection than is the case with conventional yarns. Yarn up to 15% finer in count can be spun, or alternatively coarser staple fibres can be used. d) Hairiness Compared with Ring and Open End yarns, PL yarn is less hairy. This results in a noticeable reduction of dust and fly during subsequent operations. The virtual lack of hairiness is the reason that PL yarn has less tendency towards pilling. e) Contraction through Twist Since PL yarn is not twisted, its fibre content is not shortened by twist as in the case of conventional yarn.
Textile Handbook 2-303 Figure 10.6.2 e
Parafil Spinning System
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
2-304
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
SECTION 11
WOOL SPINNING PROCESS
Two main systems are used to process wool from fibre into fabric. Worsted system uses fine long clean wool to produce high quality suit and fashion fabrics, while woollen system uses coarser, short wool to produce upholstery, bulky knitwear, blankets and tweeds.
11.1 Worsted System 11.1.1 The worsted spinning process flow is as follows Raw wool==>Scouring (opening & cleaning) ==>Drying (Scoured wool) ==>Oiling Carding==>Preparatory gilling==>Combing ==> Backwashing==> Finisher gilling (Wool top) ==> Drawing (Roving) ==> Spinning (worsted yarn)
11.1.2 Scouring This is another part of the opening, cleaning, and mixing process. Wool fleece contains grease, suint (sheep perspiration, or sweat), sand, dirt and vegetable matter, all of which have to be removed. Wool grease can be emulsified by an alkaline solution at a temperature above its melting point (55°C is the optimum). Suint contains potassium salts of various fatty acids and is soluble in water.Soft water is recommended, since hard water can precipitate the salt. Alternatively, in order to prevent the yellowing of wool in alkaline conditions, non-ionic detergents in a neutral solution at a higher temperature (60 to 70°C) can be used. The scouring machine contains a series of scouring bowls by a hopper feeder that feeds a uniform flow of wool at a rate that will provide uniform and adequate treatment. Felting (the excessive shrinkage of wool due to the interlocking of wool fibres) can occur when wool is agitated, and so careful control of the rate of agitation is essential. Fine wool contains more grease, and so requires more treatment.
11.1.3 Drying Wool is dried after scouring, in preparation for carding. It should not be dried excessively, since this may impair the wool’s elasticity and
Textile Handbook 2-305
formation of neps.
11.1.4 Oiling In order to minimize dust in the card room and to lubricate the fibre, about 0.5% by weight of oil is applied to it.
11.1.5 Carding
11.1.6 Backwashing This process is for cleaning and mixing. Large numbers of slivers are passed side by side through a wash bowl containing soap or detergent solution, then through a second one for rinsing. They are finally dried in a drier. In -a dry-combing process (explained in 11.1.7), backwashing straightens the fibre and removes the crimp from it. By doing this, individual fibres become wet and pliable, thereby helping the stretching process when dried under tension. In an oil-combing process, oil is added after drying so that the slivers are spread uniformly over the feed roller of the combing machine.
11.1.7 Combing This process is for opening, cleaning and mixing the fibres, to make them parallel and to assist in sliver formation. In the dry-combing system, a rectilinear comb (French comb) is used. Sheets of fibre are fed into the comber by an intermittent action. The fibre lap is advanced and gripped by a feed roller, leaving a fringe of fibres, which is combed by a half-toothed roller. The untoothed half of the roller carries the combed fringe to the draw-off rollers to join with the previously combed fringe to form a continuous strand. In the oil-combing system, a Noble comb is used. The machine consists of pins which are steam-heated and contain moisture. These enhance the sleek and silky appearance of the fibre arrangement. Eighteen balls of wool, each containing four slivers, are arranged around the circumference of the machine and the fibres are fed radially inwards. A pair of epicyclic comber wheels comb the fibre fringes to remove
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
This process is for further opening, cleaning and mixing and for sliver formation. The carding machine contains roller cards fitted with workers, strippers and fancy rollers. During carding, fibres are opened, and small traces of wool grease and dust residue from scouring are removed.
2-306
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
short fibres. The wool leaves the machine with the fibres well aligned and parallel.
11.1.8 Gilling This part of the process takes place both before and after combing. Before combing, the purpose of gilling is to reduce fibre entanglement. The pins of the gill boxes control the movement of short fibres, minimize the development of unevenness in the slivers and also straighten the fibres. After combing, the purpose of gilling is to improve the evenness of the combed sliver; to produce what is known as a top with an acceptable moisture content and linear density; to blend the output of a number of combs; and to package the top sliver in a suitable form for storage, handling and transport.
11.1.9 Drawing The drafting zone of this system is longer than for other yarns because of the longer fibre length required for worsted yarn. Fibre control is assisted by: (i) In an oil-combed system, two or three sets of carriers and tumblers set between the drafting rollers, consisting of driven steel bottom rollers, which control the fibre movement. (ii) In a dry-combed system, strands which are rubbed between reciprocating rubbing leathers to produce a twistless roving. A porcupine (a rotating roller covered with pins) is used to exercise some fibre control. It is placed just behind the front drafting rollers so that the fibres are drawn through its pins.
11.1.10 Spinning Finally, the roving is spun into worsted yarn. The system consists of a drafting zone with two pairs of rollers, the delivery rollers and the drafting rollers. In between, there are two pairs of additional rollers, the carrier rollers and the tension rollers, together with a flume (a narrow funnel-shaped guide). The top carrier roller enables twistless rovings to be drafted and is removed when twisted rovings are processed.
11.2 Woollen System 11.2.1 Woollen spinning process flow:Raw wool==> Scouring==> Carbonizing==> Dyeing (Optional) ==>
Textile Handbook 2-307
Blending and Oiling==>Carding==>Condensing (Slubbing) ==>Spinning (Woollen yarn)
11.2.2 Scouring and drying This is the same as for the worsted process.
11.2.3 Carbonizing
11.2.4 Dyeing The dried wool is dyed in lots or batches, to a number of shades. The different coloured wools are combined with fibres from other sources.
11.2.5 Blending The material is blended in large circular bins in which it is distributed by a rotating spreader. It is then passed through an opening machine and the whole operation may be repeated to improve the blending.
11.2.6 Oiling At the end of the blending process, oil is applied to make cleaning easier and to prevent dirt from entering the card.
11.2.7 Carding The carding machine straightens and attenuates the wool fibres. The carding process is very important, since the uniformity of the yarn depends upon it. There are two sections, called the breaker and the finisher. The blend is fed into the machine by a weighing hopper, whose function is to feed equal weights of material to the card at equal intervals of time to ensure uniformity in linear density. The condenser at the delivery end divides the carded web into strips which are rubbed by leather to form slubbings or rovings. Each slubbing is wound onto a separate package called a spool.
11.2.8 Spinning Finally, the slubbing is spun into woollen yarn. The spinning system, similar to the ring frame of cotton spinning, consists of feed rollers and delivery rollers. A false twister is located close to the delivery roller, and twists in the opposite direction to the spinning, mainly to
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Carbonizing uses acid to turn buffs and grass seed into carbon for removal.
2-308
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
SECTION 12
TEXTURING
12.1 Purpose of Texturing The purpose of texturing is to introduce permanent waviness (crimp), loops, coils, and wrinkles and thereby to modify the geometry of the constituent filaments. Textured yarns may be classified into three major groups: stretch yarns, modified stretch yarns or set yarns and bulk yarns. Stretch yarns are characterized by their high extensibility and good recovery, but possess moderate bulk in comparison with the other two classes of textured yarns. They are produced mainly by the false-twist and by the edge-crimping processes. Modified stretch yarns may be defined as those with characteristics intermediate between stretch and bulk yarns. Overfeeding may modify stretch yarns. They may be first soft wound in packages and then heat set or stabilized either in an autoclave in steam or during the dyeing process. These yarns are generally used in knitted fabrics. Bulk yarns are characterized by their high bulk with moderate stretch and generally possess adequate recovery characteristics. They are mostly used in carpets, upholstery, and garments requiring warmth and comfort characteristics. Bulked yarns are produced by air texturing, stuffer box, knit-de-knit, gear crimping, twist texturing, and various other types of crimp texturing processes.
12.2 False Twist Method This is the most versatile and most widely used method of producing stretch-type textured yarns. The false-twist method combines all three stages, namely, twisting, heat setting, and untwisting in one continuous operation. The general principle of the false-twist texturing process is illustrated in figure 12.2. The yarn is drawn from the supply package, fed at controlled tension over the heater and through the false-twist spindle, and finally wound on a package. The twist in the yarn is set when it is between the input feed roll and the false-twist spindle, by heating and cooling before it leaves the false-twist spindle.
Textile Handbook 2-309
Draw texturing is a process in which an undrawn (fully or partially) flat yarn is drawn to the desired size and then textured in a continuous manner. The most important system of texturing combined with drawing is the false-twist process. The two-zone method produces yarn with characteristics similar to conventionally textured yarns.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
Figure 12.2 Line diagram showing the path of a yarn through a false-twist texturing machine
2-310
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
12.3 Edge-Crimped Yarns Stretch and modified stretch yarns can also be produced by a process known as “edge crimping”. Thermoplastic yarns are edge crimped by a continuous process in which a yarn is tensioned, stretched, heated, bent, and drawn around an edge, followed by shrinking and cooling steps. The basic principle of edge crimping is illustrated in figure 12.3. The part of the filament touching the knife-edge is under compression, whereas that on the outside experiences extension. To develop crimp in the filament, the strains thus induced are relaxed by subsequently relaxing and heating the yarn under controlled conditions. Relaxation is carried out either in steam or in dry heat. Modified yarn with lower stretch and high bulk can be produced on the same machine by adding a bulk development section. Fabrics made from these yarns have a soft, full hand, good surface texture, very good dye uniformity, moderate stretch, and excellent recovery from stretch.
Figure 12.3
Principle of edge crimping
Textile Handbook 2-311
12.4 Stuffer-Box Crimping
Figure 12.4 Stuffer-box principle used for producing Textured yarns.
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
The process of texturing by the stuffer-box is based on the principle of heat setting filaments being held in a confined space in a compressed state, and then withdrawn in their crimped form. The chamber in which the filaments are stuffed is known as the “stuffer-box”. The thermoplastic feed yarn is positively fed by two feed rollers into the heated tubestuffer-box to be. On the output side, the yarn is passed through a weighted hollow tube or slug that impedes the progress of the crimped yarn travelling up the tube, thereby causing the yarn to back up inside the stuffer-box tube. At the same time the feed rolls keep delivering fresh yarn against the backed-up aggregate in the tube. The aggregate in the tube moves up, and is heat set at a required temperature in the stuffer-box, which is jacketed by the heater. The yarn is oiled as it emerges from the weighted tube, and then coned. The hot stuffer-box yarns generally have a wiry appearance, a soft feel, and high cover and bulk characteristics. These yarns also have good moisture absorption properties because of the minute spaces created between the filaments that can hold moisture.
2-312
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
12.5 Air-Textured Yarns The yarns used in air texturing generally have some initial twist. Bulk in continuous filament yarns can be produced by blowing a stream of air into a twisted yarn while it is being delivered at a higher rate than is being taken up by the winding process. The air stream creates a turbulence that causes the formation of random loops in overfed individual filaments. In this process, the yarn contracts in length, and as it emerges, the loops are locked in place to impart bulk to the yarn. The yarn thus produced has an appearance like a staple yarn but possesses higher bulk, greater covering power, reduced opacity and a warmer hand compared to flat continuous-filament yarn.
Figure 12.5 Cross section showing air-jet assembly used for producing Taslantype yarns.
Textile Handbook 2-313
Air-textured yarns generally exhibit lower tenacity and elongation-tobreak than that of the parent continuous-filament yarn before texturing. Processing conditions such as twist, overfeed, and air pressure significantly modify the tensile behaviour of air-textured yarns. Airtextured yarns are used in a number of end-use applications, such as apparel, furnishings, and some industrial fabrics.
12.6 Knit-De-Knit Method
12.7 Gear Crimping Bulk can also be produced in a continuous filament yarn when it is passed through closely meshed gears. The gear head is heated so that the crinkle produced in the yarn is permanent. These yarns are used in a variety of end-use applications, such as ladies’ and children’s knitted outerwear, sweaters, and ladies blouses.
12.8 Twist-Textured Yarns If two ends of yarn are twisted together around a common axis, rather than each yarn being twisted around its own axis, and the configuration is then heat set in the twisted state and finally untwisted, the yarn thus produced possesses excellent bulk. This is a very simple concept of introducing texture into thermoplastic continuous filament yarns. The yarns textured by this method have excellent dyeing uniformity, high
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
In this method, the flat yarn is first knitted, then heat set and unraveled to produce a crinkle structure, the crimp frequency and shape can be varied by varying the needle gauge on the machine and the fabric structure (plain jersey, rib, double jersey, interlock, etc.). The fabrics produced from knit-de-knit crinkle yarns have a pronounced sparkling boucle texture, excellent stretch and recovery from stretch, and full hand. These yarns are torque free and therefore do not require any subsequent heat setting.
2-314
Spinning Processes and Types of Yarn
cover, and extremely soft, smooth hand. Twisted textured yarns find uses in tricot fabrics, hosiery, and all types of knitted outerwear structures.
Figure 12.8
Principle of twist texturing
Chapter 3 Weaving and Woven Fabrics ..............3-2 Section 1 - Warp Preparation Process ................... 3-2 1.1
Warping Process ............................................................... 3-2 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3
Direct Beaming ........................................................... 3-2 Section Warping .......................................................... 3-2 Ball Warping ................................................................ 3-3
1.2
Warping Data .................................................................... 3-3
1.3
Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ................... 3-5
1.4
Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine .... 3-5
1.5
Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming ............. 3-6
1.6
Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing ................................ 3-9 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5
1.7
A
Ball Warper Specification .......................................... 3-9 Ball Warping Process Parameters ................................ 3-9 Rope Dyeing ................................................................ 3-10 Typical Recipe Of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing 3-11 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range ................ 3-12
Slasher Dyeing ................................................................... 3-13 1.6.6 1.7.1 1.7.2
Processing Parameters For Re-Beaming Of Rope Dyeing ......................................................................... 3-13 Warping Requirements ................................................ 3-14 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher Dyeing ......................................................................... 3-15
1.8 ROPE DYEING VERSUS SLASHER DYEING ................ 3-16 1.8.1 1.7.3 1.8.2
Characteristics of Rope Dyeing .................................. 3-16 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters ....................... 3-16 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing ................................... 3-17
Section 2 - Warp Sizing ........................................... 3-19 2.1
Purpose of Warp Sizing .................................................... 3-19
A
2.2
Warp Size Types and Properties ...................................... 3-19 2.2.1 2.2.2
Warp Size Types And Properties ................................. 3-19 Size Auxiliary Chemicals ............................................ 3-23
2.3
Sizing Agents and Applications ........................................ 3-25
2.4
Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution .......................... 3-25 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5
Protein sizes ................................................................ 3-25 Starch Sizes ................................................................. 3-25 Cellulose ether sizes .................................................... 3-26 Polyvinyl alcohol sizes ................................................ 3-26 Acrylate copolymer sizes ............................................ 3-27
2.5
Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of Sizing Agent .................................................................................. 3-27
2.7
Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid Wax ..................................................................................... 3-28
2.6
Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax ................... 3-28
2.8
Size Defects and Possible Causes ..................................... 3-29
2.9
Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ................... 3-30
2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during Sizing .................................................................................. 3-34 2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim .................................. 3-35 2.11.1 Size requirements ........................................................ 3-35 2.11.2 Causes of faults in sizing and its solutions .................. 3-35
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing ......................................... 3-37 2.12.1 2.12.2 3.1.1 3.1.2
3.2
WETSIZE Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba) ............ 3-37 BEN-ECOSIZE (Benninger) ....................................... 3-37 Leasing ........................................................................ 3-38 Drawing-in .................................................................. 3-38
Specifications of Heald Wires .......................................... 3-38
Section 3 - Weaving Preparation ............................. 3-38 3.1
Introduction ....................................................................... 3-38
A
3.3
Specifications of Drop Wire ............................................. 3-40
3.4
Reed .................................................................................... 3-43
3.5
Tying-in .............................................................................. 3-44
3.6
Recent Development in Weaving Preparation ............... 3-44 3.6.1 3.6.2
Quick Style Change in Weaving ................................. 3-44 The process flow of a QSC system ............................. 3-44
Back to Table of Content
Chapter 3
WEAVING AND WOVEN FABRICS
3-2
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
CHAPTER 3.........
.......WEAVING AND WOVEN FABRICS SECTION 1 WARP PREPARATION PROCESS 1.1 Warping Process The purpose of warping is to arrange threads in long length parallel to one another preparatory to further processing. The primary operation of warp making in which ends withdrawn from a warping creel, evenly spaced in sheet form, are wound onto a beam to substantial length. There are three warping methods; the first is direct beaming, the second is section warping and the third is ball warping.
1.1.1 Direct Beaming Direct beaming is the winding of the total number of warp ends in full width in a single operation from a creeled bobbin, either onto a weaver’s beam or onto a sectional beam.
1.1.2 Section Warping Section warping is a two-stage-machine method of preparing a warp on a beam, consisting of firstly winding a warp in sections on to a reel, and then beaming-off the complete warp from the reel onto a weaver’s beam. Figure 1.1.2
Sectional Warping Machine
Textile Handbook 3-3
1.1.3 Ball Warping Ball warping is the winding of a number of warp ends from creeled bobbins into rope form and then winding it onto a ball warper. These ball warps are then sent for rope dyeing process.
1.2 Warping Data To ensure a perfect warp quality, it is necessary to input all warping data such as warp length, warping speed and warp density before warping. The following table is an example of data required for warping process designed by Benninger. Figure 1.2
Example of a Warping Data Sheet (Front side)
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
3-4
Weaving and Woven Fabrics Figure 1.2
Example of a Warping Data Sheet (Back side)
Textile Handbook 3-5
1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping Table 1.3 Item
Product Specification
Unit
1
2
Product Number 4 5 6
3
7
8
cm 152.4 114.3 152.4
114.3
152.4
114.3
152.4
114.3
ends 4200 3510
3510
4680
3510
4680
3510
4680
tex (Ne)
84 (7)
58 (10)
48 (12)
36 (16)
g/m2
457.7
256.0
271.2
203.4
m/min piece m
600 to 1200 350 262/263 390 292/293 390
292/293 390 292/293
9000 11000 11500 15000 14000 18500 18500 24500
Beam flange mm 710 diameter No. of beams no. of 12 per batch beams g Tension 30-35 35-40 45-50 The creel can be divided into 3-5 zones for tension adjustment; yarn Remark tension at the rear part of the creel should be lower than the front part because the weight of the released yarn should be considered.
1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine The sectional warping process is gaining importance due to decreasing order lengths. New models of the sectional warping machine usually equipped with roller units for a wider range of yarn tensions. These rollers are positioned between creel and sectional warping machine, enabling precise control of the breaking force. For example, the warping table of the T-2000 Sectional Warper (SuckerMueller-Hacoba) equipped with a sensor control roller automatically determines the right traverse, a deflecting roller for optimum guidance of the section of warped threads, and an articulated roller for correct measuring of the actual number of metres. This measuring system ensures equal lengths of all ends and uniform wound-on tension of the warping process. The operating principle is that once the article-specific
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Fabric width Total ends Warp yarn count Fabric weight Warping speed Total number of cones Warp length
Examples of Machine Settings for Warping
3-6
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
pressure has been defined, the sensor control roller automatically determines the right traverse from the first revolution of the warping drum. The measuring accuracy of the sensor control roller ensures a traverse with a tolerance of less than 0.001 mm. The system continuously controls the measured traverse in the first section and compensates for error if necessary. The copying phase follows right after the measuring phase of the first section. All traverse values determined in the first section are then used to achieve exactly the same winding structure in the subsequent sections. The system will also automatically check the yarn counts warped in the subsequent sections and reacts accordingly.
1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming Table 1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming Defect Crossed end
Description
Possible causes
Broken end entangled with 1) Operator’s fault adjacent ends in the warp sheet 2) Malfunction or slow reaction of the auto-stop device 3) Improper function of drum brake, machine stops slowly causing free end wrap in warp sheet
Loose end Yarn tension of individual end (uneven tension) or group of ends is loosely wound on the warp
1) Insufficient tension applied or accumulation of waste or flies in the tensioner 2) Mis-threading of yarn through tensioner or yarn guide 3) Incorrect position or direction of tensioning device 4) Warp end coming out from the tension disc 5) Uneven density of the adjustable reed 6) Scratched surface of the guide roller behind the adjustable reed
Textile Handbook 3-7 Few ends on one or both edges 1) Wide gap between press roll and of the warp sheet are slack beam flange 2) Pressure of press roll is too high 3) Width of adjustable reed is either too wide or not centered so that edge yarns are pressed towards the flange 4) Deformed beam flange 5) Incorrect tension of edge yarn tensioners 6) Malfunction of traverse motion device of the reed holder
Convex edge
One or both edges formed a 1) Width of adjustable reed is either convex shape causing tight too narrow or not centered and the tension on edge yarns during gap between the edge yarn and flange unwinding is too wide causing the density of edge yarns to be relatively low 2) Deformed beam flange 3) Incorrect tension of edge yarn tensioners 4) Rear part of the creel humidity is too high
Broken end on Frequent end breaks on one or edge both edges during un-winding
1) Beam flange is deformed or rough 2) Convex edge
Missing end
Machine continues to run with end break
1) Malfunction of machine stop device 2) Improper function of drum brake 3) Stop motion sensor blocked with waste
Double end on An extra end entangle to an fabric face adjacent warp is woven into the fabric
1) A lengthy broken end was not properly pieced and adhered to adjacent warp that created a double end
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Wave edge
3-8
Weaving and Woven Fabrics Waste accumulation
Waste yarn wrap into warp sheet
1) Operator’s fault 2) Waste yarn ends are not properly trimmed 3) Waste trapped in cones
Wrong yarn
Wrong yarn being wound into the beam
1) Wrong yarn wound to the cone during winding 2) Change of the wrong cone
Incorrect warp length
Warp length different from requirement
1) Malfunction of yardage meter 2) Malfunction of drum brake device 3) Incorrect setting of yardage meter 4) Malfunction of length control device
Wavy ends
Slack tension in group of a few or tenths of warp ends during un-winding
1) Beam shaft worn out or eccentric 2) The centre line of the warp beam and the press roll is not parallel 3) Big difference in humidity between both sides of the creel
Incorrect Variation in actual and nominal number of ends number of warp ends
1) Operator does not check the number of cones required
Stain
Stain on surface of the warp sheet
1) Soiled cones 2) Lubricant stains on roller or press roll during cleaning
Flies
Flies trapped in warp sheet during warping
1) Insufficient cleaning 2) Flies accumulated on cones 3) Tension disc does not rotate 4) Cleaning fan inefficient or inactive
Too many knots In a perfect warps, knots on single yarn shall not exceed 20 per 1,000 metre of warp. For high speed shuttless loom, knots on single yarn shall not exceed 10 per 1,000 metre of warp
1) Poor yarn quality 2) Improper cone winding 3) Cone holder on creel is not properly set 4) Tension too high 5) Rotten yarn or high moisture content 6) Knots on yarn too loose 7) Tensioner improperly set or worn out 8) Humidity too high
Textile Handbook 3-9
1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing 1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification (Source: West Point Foundry And Machine Company)
Ball Capacity- Ball diameter up to 1200 mm (48") Ball Width - 1067 mm (42"), 1220 mm (48") Accessories- Leasing equipment, Digital Counter In-Line Creel: Package size up to 356 mm (14") diameter
Tension System- Post/Disc ROTATENSE® Fig 1.6.1
A Ball Warper
1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters Parameters
Unit
Specifications
Yarn count
tex (Ne)
84 (7)
58 (10), 48 (12)
36 (16)
Number of cones
pcs
340~420
390~480
390~480
Warp length
m
10000~15000
15000~20000
24000~32000
Warping speed
m/min
250~300
250~300
250~300
Ball weight
kg
300~450
300~450
300~450
Warp density
g/cm
0.55~0.60
0.55~0.60
0.55~0.60
Lease interval
m
300~500
300~500
300~500
Yarn tension
g
45-50
35-40
30-35
Relative humidity
%
65-70
65-70
65-70
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Stop Motion- Faller wire or drop wire, Motion sensitive (ELECTROSENSE®)
3-10
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
1.6.3 Rope Dyeing A group of undyed yarns (360 yarns) are twisted together and dyed as a single unit (rope like). This system allows all the yarns to be treated identically. The rope runs through a long machine where the yarn is dipped into indigo, taken out and allowed to oxidize and redipped again into the bath. Most rope dye machines allow 6 or 8 dips. Figure 1.6.3
Rope Dyeing Range
Textile Handbook 3-11
1.6.4 Typical Recipe Of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing Dyeing processing: 8 dips of oxidization, dyeing temperature 20 - 30oC, dye bath surface area 1.2m2 per vat Figure 1.6.4(1)
Tex (Ne)
Typical Recipe of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing
Master solution Ratio (by content of concentration (g/l by Total Dyeing D e p t h 100%) content of 100%) mass of no. of ends (g/min) s h a d e Indigo Sodium Caustic Indigo Sodium Caustic h y d ro - soda h y d ro - soda (%) sulphite sulphite
83.3 (7s)
4282
8223
106 (5.5s) 58.3 (10s) 36.4 (16s) 18.2 x 2 (32s/2) 9.7 x 2 (60s/2)
3630
8866
4640
6233
4760
3992
6496
5448
7140
3197
1.0 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 3.0 4.0 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.9
36 54 65 72 80 90 97 108 120 85 90 90 90 90 97 90 97 97 105
57 71 79.5 85.5 92.6 100 105.5 115 123.5 95 100 91 102 105.5 111 107.5 114 116 123
38.7 50.8 58 63 68.7 75.5 80.2 88 95.7 71.6 75.5 72.5 76.5 78.3 83 79 84.3 85.3 90.8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.58 1.32 1.22 1.19 1.16 1.11 1.09 1.06 1.03 1.12 1.11 1.14 1.13 1.17 1.14 1.19 1.18 1.20 1.17
1.08 0.94 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.80 0.84 0.84 0.85 0.85 0.87 0.86 0.88 0.87 0.88 0.86
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Table 1.6.4(2)
Dye Bath of a Rope Dyeing Range
3-12
Weaving and Woven Fabrics
Remarks: This recipe may be suitable for the machine without a separate chemical feed-in device. For machines with a chemical feed-in, the ratio of Indigo : Sodium hydrosulphite : Caustic soda can be 1:0.8 ~ 0.9 : 0.8 ~ 0.9. The machine speed can be adjusted as long as there is no overflow or drop in level of the dyeing solution.
1.6.5 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range The capacity of rope dyeing is determined by the number of ropes in each vessel. The number of ropes can be 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, etc., and the specification is listed in the table 1.6.5. Table 1.6.5 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range Komatsu -bara Iron Works Co Ltd
Items
No. of ropes Cylinder width Machine length Machine height Power Water consumption Steam consumption Compressed air consumption No. of ends per rope Dyeing speed (max.) Dipping length per passage Oxidizing length per passage Dye vat surface area Dyeing passage No. of guide rolls per dye vat Annual production capacity
Morrison Textile Machinery Co
12 1220 56 8.6 72 3.5 1800 16
pcs mm m m Kwatt m3/h kg/h m3/h
10 1500 58 5.6 55 3.0 1600 16
ends
400-500 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400
m/min 3.0% can impair fabric appearance, primarily in knitting.
2.7.2 Mass Variation Mass variation includes nomograms on the mean linear irregularity (U%), the coefficient of variation of yarn mass (CV%) and the between-
Textile Handbook 6-67
sample coefficient of variation of the CV% (CVb) In the last few years, the USTER CV% has clearly become more popular than the USTER U%, the classic measure of yarn evenness. A factor of 1.25 has been derived from the theoretical considerations which are based on the assumption that the yarn mass signal corresponds to a perfect normal distribution.
2.7.3 Hairiness
2.7.4 Imperfections The sensitivity settings for the detection of imperfections are -50% for thin places, +50% for thick places, and +200% for neps. These settings are commonly used for all yarn types except rotor-spun yarns. Neps in rotor-spun yarns tend to be spun into the solid yarn body which represents a short mass defect, and therefore the +280% sensitivity setting for neps has become a common convention for the testing of rotor spun yarn.
2.7.5 Testing of Yarn Appearance Characteristics (USTER Yarn Testing Series) Mass variations, count variations and imperfections have a decisive influence on the utility and market value of a yarn. The USTER TESTER determines these quality parameters on yarns, rovings and slivers very quickly. The capacitive measuring system permits fast and reproducible measurements. Based on spectrograms and diagrams, it is easy to eliminate the sources of defects. In recent years. the hairiness measurement has become more and more important, because hairiness can also affect the quality of a woven or knitted fabric, The modular design of the USTER TESTER permits simultaneous testing of all parameters. With the USTER, TESTER 4 additional optical sensors have been introduced (sensors OM and OI).
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Yarn hairiness is expressed in the form of the hairiness value H, which is an indirect measure for the number and the cumulative length of all fibres protruding from the yarn surface. High or low hairiness is not necessarily a quality deficiency. The yarn hairiness requirements are strictly governed by the end use. Yarns with higher hairiness are usually produced for end uses in knitting, such as underwear, knitted outerwear and sportswear. Most weaving applications call for a smooth yarn surface, especially with warp yarns.
6-68
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
a) Parameters Measured by Capacitive Measuring Unit Figure 2.7.5.a.(1)
Irregularity U
Figure 2.7.5.a (2)
Coefficient of Variation CV
Textile Handbook 6-69
Um
[%]
Mean linear irregularity now obsolete, CVm is more common today, Figure 2.7.5a (1))
CVm
[%]
Coefficient of variation of the yarn mass (Fig 2.7.5 a (2))
CVm(L)
[%]
Coefficient of variation of the yarn mass at cut lengths of 1, 3, 10, 50, 100 m and in the Inert and Half Inert modes
Mass deviation
m(max)= maximum mass
cut lengths for the calculation are 1, 3, 10 m or Half Inert Index
Ratio between the ideal and actual evenness of staple fibre strands
Imperfections
Number of thin places, thick places and neps at selected sensitivity settings (staple fiber yarns only)
- thin places:
-30% , -40%, -50%, -60%
- thick places:
+35% , +50% , +70%, +100%
- neps:
+140%, +200%, +280%, +400%
Rel. count
Abs. count
[%]
Count deviation relating to the length of yarn tested; the mean corresponds to 100% Linear density of the yarn e.g. tex, Ne
b) Hairiness Measuring Sensor (sensor OH) The receiver detects only the light transmitted by the protruding fibres (Figure 2.7.5b). The yarn body remains black and does not transmit light. The light intensity at the receiver, therefore, measures the light intensity which is proportion to the hairiness of the yarn.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
m(min)= minimum mass
6-70
Textiles Testing and Quality Control Figure 2.7.5 b
Protruding Fibres Detected by Sensor OH
Hairiness
The hairiness H corresponds to the total length of protruding fibers divided by the length of the sensor of 1 cm, therefore the hairiness is a figure without a unit.
sh
Standard deviation of hairiness
sh (L)
Standard deviation of hairiness at cut lengths of 1, 3, 10, 50, 100 m
Hairiness deviation h(max)= maximum hairiness h(min)= minimum hairiness cut lengths for the calculation are 1, 3, 10 m
c) Multifunctional Measuring Unit (sensor OM) This is an optical sensor which illuminates the yarn from 2 different directions and with an angle of 90 degrees.
2DØ
[mm] Mean value of the two-dimensional diameter over the measured yarn length
s2D8mm
[mm] Standard deviation of the diameter over the reference length of 8 mm
CV2D8mm [%]
Coefficient of variation of the diameter over the reference length of 8 mm
Textile Handbook 6-71
CV2D 0.3mm [%] Coefficient of variation of the diameter over the reference length of 0.3 mm CV FS
[%] Coefficient of variation of the fine structure, assessment of short-wave variations
CV1D 0.3mm [%] Coefficient of variation of the onedimensional yarn diameter, related to 0.3 mm Non-dimensional value between 0 and 1, which describes the roundness of a yarn (1 = circular, 0.5 = elliptical)
D [g/cm3]
Mean yarn density related to the nominal count
2.8 Tensile Properties The term CRE serves as an abbreviation for ‘constant rate of extension’. CRE describes the movement of the moving clamp which is displaced at a constant velocity. The velocity of the moving clamp, also referred to as the testing speed, must be exactly 5m/min. The gauge length, i.e. the length of the specimen, or the distance between the stationary and the moving clamp, should be 500mm and a pre-tension of 0.5cN/tex must be applied. In general, there are two fundamental criteria which affect the compatibility between different measurements of tensile yarn properties: testing conditions, i.e. the testing principle (CRE, CRL), testing speed, gauge length and pre-tensioning; and the specific stress/strain characteristic of the yarn itself, which is determined by the fibrous materials, the blend ratio, and the yarn construction. The breaking tenacity is calculated from the peak force which occurs anywhere between the beginning of the test and the final rupture of the specimen. The peak force or maximum force is not identical with the force measured at the very moment of rupture (force at rupture). The breaking elongation is calculated from the clamp displacement at the point of peak force. The elongation at peak force is not identical with the elongation at the very moment of rupture (elongation at rupture). The work to break is defined as the area below the stress/strain curve drawn to the point of peak force and the corresponding elongation at
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Shape
6-72
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
peak force. The work at the point of peak force is not identical with the work at the very moment of rupture (work to rupture) (see Figure .2.8). Figure 2.8
Tensile Strength Testing
2.8.1 Uster Tensojet The USTER TENSOJET is a laboratory instrument which provides highvolume and high-velocity features in tensile testing (see Figure2.8.1) . The mechanism to load, elongate and finally break the test sample consists of two pairs of counter-rotating rollers, which are arranged at a distance of 500 mm. The measuring cycle consists of four phases: continuous yarn take-up and intermediate storage, insertion of the yarn by a compressed air nozzle, clamping and extension to rupture by the rollers, and removal of the broken end into the waste bin via an air flow. The USTER TENSOJET operates according to the CRE principle at a testing speed of 400m/min. The actual time-to-break is about 3ms for a 100% cotton yarn. The instrument is capable of performing 30,000 individual breaks per hour. Parameters measured by Tensojet are: B-Force
[cN]
Breaking force = maximum tensile force measured
Elongation
[%]
Breaking elongation = elongation at maximum force
Tenacity
[cN/tex]
Breaking force divided by the linear density of the specimen
B-Work
[cNcm]
Work to break = work at breaking force (area below the force/elongation curve drawn to the point of maximum force
Max values
Maximum value of force, elongation, tenacity or work within one test series
Textile Handbook 6-73
Min values
Minimum Value of force, elongation, tenacity or work within one test series
Percentile Values e.g. P. 0.01
0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0% of all measurements are below the reported value
Figure 2.8.1 Uster Tensojet
There are basically two types of yarn faults. Firstly, there are the frequent yarn faults, known as imperfections, which are detected with an evenness tester. Secondly, there are rate yarn faults, which occur at such irregular intervals that at least 100 km of yarn has to be tested to ensure reliable detection. For open-end yarns, a test length of 1,000 km is recommended. As a yarn fault classifying installation, the USTER CLASSIMAT detects all seldom-occurring yarn faults and classifies these into the respective classes of the CLASSIMAT system. Using the CLASSIMAT matrix, it is possible to define or control the most suitable yarn clearer settings. The defect classification matrix covers short thick places (A, B, C, D), long thick places (E, F, G) and long thin places (H, I). The classification system is illustrated in Fig 2.9. Figure 2.9
Classimat Defect Classication Matrix
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
2.9 Classimat Defects
6-74
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Where : Fault lengths A: B+TB C+TC D+TD E F+H G+1 Fault sizes 0 1 2 3 4 E F+G TB1/TC1/TD1/H1/I1 TB2/TC2/TD2/H2/I2 Fault channels of the clearers N channel for very short thick places S channel for short thick places L channel for long thick places T channel for long thin places C channel for count deviations
shorter than 1 cm 1 to 2 cm 2 to 4 cm 4 to 8 cm longer than 8 cm 8 to 32 cm longer than 32 cm +45 to +100% +100 to +150% +150 to +250% +250 to +400% over +400% over +100% +45 to 100% -30 to -45% -45 to -75%
Sensitivity +100% to +500% +50% to +300% +10% to +200% -10% to -80% % to 0%
Reference length 1 to 10 cm 1 to 200 cm 10 to 200 cm 12.8 m
2.10 Yarn Quality Statistics of 100% Cotton Carded Ring Spun Yarns (Source: Uster Statistics 1997) 2.10.1 Yarn Quality Figure 2.10.1(1)
Between-bobbin coefficient of variation of yarn count
Textile Handbook 6-75 USTER U%, mean linear irregularity of yarn mass
Figure 2.10.1(3)
USTER CV%, coefficient of variation of yarn mass
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Figure 2.10.1(2)
6-76
Textiles Testing and Quality Control Figure 2.10.1 (4)
Between-bobbin coefficient of variation of USTER CV%
Figure 2.10.1 (5)
Hairiness
Textile Handbook 6-77
2.10.2 Imperfections Figure 2.10.2(1) Thin places -50% per 1000m, Thick places +50% per 1000m, Neps +200% per 1000m
Figure 2.10.3(1) CLASSIMAT defects
Figure 2.10.3(2)
CLASSIMAT defects (Non-cleared)
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
2.10.3 CLASSIMAT Defects
6-78
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
2.10.4 Tensile Properties Figure 2.10.4(1)
Breaking tenacity (CRE, 5m/min)
Figure 2.10.4(2)
Total coefficient of variation of breaking tenacity
Textile Handbook 6-79 Breaking elongation(CRE, 5m/min)
Figure 2.10.4(4)
Total coefficient of variation of breaking elongation
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Figure 2.10.4(3)
6-80
Textiles Testing and Quality Control Figure 2.10.4(5) Work-to-break (CRE, 5m/min)
Figure 2.10.4(6)
Total coefficient of variation of work-to-break
2.10.5 HVI Tensile Properties ................................................ 6-81
2.11 Standard Tolerances for Yarn Spun on the Cotton System .................................................................. 6-85 2.11.1 2.11.2 2.11.3 2.11.4 2.11.5 2.11.6
Strength ....................................................................... 6-85 Yarn Number ............................................................... 6-85 Twist ............................................................................ 6-85 Extractable Matter ....................................................... 6-85 Appearance .................................................................. 6-85 Uniformity ................................................................... 6-86
2.12 New Developments in Testing .......................................... 6-86 2.12.1 Uster Qualiprofile ........................................................ 6-86 2.12.2 USTER® Lab Expert .................................................. 6-87
Section 3 3.1
Woven Fabric Testing ....................................................... 6-88 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4
3.2
Woven Fabric Inspection and Testing .. 6-88
Fabric Construction ..................................................... 6-88 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance ... 6-91 Fabric Strength ............................................................ 6-94 Relationship Between Strip Test & Grab Test ............. 6-95
Woven Fabric Inspection System .................................... 6-95 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3
4 Point System ............................................................. 6-95 10 Point System ........................................................... 6-98 Graniteville “ 78 ” System of Visual Quality Evaluation for Woven and Knitted Fabrics ................. 6-99
Back to Table of Content
Textile Handbook 6-81
2.10.5 HVI Tensile Properties Figure 2.10.5 (1) Breaking tenacity (CRE, 400m/min)
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Figure 2.10.5 (2) Total coefficient of variation of breaking tenacity
6-82
Textiles Testing and Quality Control Figure 2.10.5(3) Breaking elongation (CRE, 400m/min)
Figure 2.10.5(4)
Total coefficient of variation of breaking elongation
Textile Handbook 6-83 Figure 2.10.5(5) Work-to-break (CRE, 400m/min)
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Figure 2.10.5(6) Total coefficient of variation of work-to-break
6-84
Textiles Testing and Quality Control Figure 2.10.5(7)
Breaking force percentile value 0.1% (CRE, 400m/min)
Figure 2.10.5(8) Breaking elongation percentile value 0.1% (CRE, 400m/min)
Textile Handbook 6-85
2.11 Standard Tolerances for Yarn Spun on the Cotton System (Source: ASTM D2645-85) 2.11.1 Strength The average breaking load of each lot shall be equal to or greater than the specified minimum.
2.11.2 Yarn Number
2.11.3 Twist The direction of twist in each package or end shall be S or Z, as specified. In all cotton-system yarns, except single yarns made of cotton, the average twist conforms to the limits: specified value ± 5.0% of the specified value. In single cotton yarns, including the single yarn components of plied cotton yarns, the average twist shall conform to the limits: specified value ± 10.0% of the specified value. In yarn spun on the worsted system the average twist shall conform to the limits: specified value ± 7.5% of the specified value.
2.11.4 Extractable Matter The average percent of extractable matter in yarns spun on the worsted system shall not exceed the following values: Oil-spun yarns
4.0%
Dry-spun yarns
1.75%
2.11.5 Appearance (Applicable to 100% cotton single yarns only, except by agreement) At least 80% of the specimens examined shall be equal in appearance to the standard for the specified grade. The remaining 20% shall not fall below the next lower grade.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
The average yarn count of yarns spun on the cotton system or the worsted system shall conform to the limits: specified value ± 4% of the specified value.
6-86
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
2.11.6 Uniformity Yarns spun on the Cotton System - The coefficients of variation of individual observations shall not exceed the following limits:
Yarn number Breaking load, skein Breaking load, single strand Twist (direct-counting method) Twist (untwist-twist, 5 in.) Twist (untwist-twist, 10 in.)
Carded % 5 8 18 25 14 12
Combed % 4 6 16 22 12 10
Notes : Higher coefficients of variation than those listed may indicate either poor control of the manufacturing processes or mixed yarn from two or more production lots.
2.12 New Developments in Testing 2.12.1 Uster Qualiprofile Describes total quality with regard to structure, seldom-occurring events, mechanical characteristics, type of yarn and customer-specific parameters. Radius and colour show the quality, and the width of the segment relates to the weighting of the respective yarn parameter. The dots in the segment show the distribution of single test values. USTER® QualiProfileTM is the metric by which all yarn quality is rated. Figure 2.12.1
Uster Qualiprofile
Textile Handbook 6-87
2.12.2 USTER® Lab Expert USTER® LAB EXPERT provides unique support by managing and evaluating the extensive amount of data which is typically handled in the textile laboratory: • Checking the measurement values with regard to exception values. • Detection and interpretation of periodic faults. • Comparison of the produced quality with a specific quality profile.
• Simulation of yarn boards, woven and knitted fabrics. • Presentation of long-term reports. • Preparation of exception reports and quality certificates. Figure 2.12.2
USTER LAB EXPERT
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• Comparison with the implemented USTER® STATISTICS.
6-88
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
SECTION 3
WOVEN FABRIC INSPECTION AND TESTING
3.1 Woven Fabric Testing 3.1.1 Fabric Construction a) Fabric Length Fabric should be conditioning first before processing the fabric length testing. Testing Methods: • ISO 3933:1976 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Measurement of length of pieces • ASTM. D3773-90(1996)e1 Standard Test Methods for Length of Woven Fabric b) Fabric width Fabric should be conditioning first before processing the fabric width testing. Testing Methods: • ISO 3932:1976 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Measurement of width of pieces • ASTM: D3774-96 Standard Test Methods for Width of Textile Fabric c) Fabric Weight Fabric must be fully conditioning before processing the fabric weight testing and the bone dry weight is the key measurement weight. Testing Methods: • ISO 3801:1977 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Determination of mass per unit length and mass per unit area • ISO 7211-6:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 6: Determination of the mass of warp and weft per unit area of fabric • ASTM D3776-96 Standard Test Methods for Mass Per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric
Textile Handbook 6-89
d) Fabric Count Determination of Number of Threads per unit Length. Testing Methods: • ISO 7211-2:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 2: Determination of number of threads per unit length • ASTM. D3775-98 Standard Test Method for Fabric Count of Woven Fabric
Pressing weight and time duration should be noted while processing the fabric thickness testing and thickness evenness. Testing Methods: • ISO 5084:1996 Textiles - Determination of thickness of textiles and textile products • ASTM. D1777-96 Standard Test Method for Thickness of Textile Materials f) Fabric Crimp or Take up Provides technological data for weaving design and for computation of yarn usage. Testing Methods: • ISO 7211-3:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 3: Determination of crimp of yarn in fabric • ASTM. D3883-99 Standard Test Method for Yarn Crimp or Yarn Take-up in Woven Fabrics g) Filling Bow and Skewness Measurement of the angle and curvature between the fabric selvage and the weft. Testing Method: • ASTM. D3882-99 Standard Test Method for Bow and Skew in Woven and Knitted Fabrics
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
e) Fabric Thickness
6-90
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
h) Moisture Regain As a reference and a correction variable for fabric weight testing and strength testing. Testing Method: • ASTM D2654-76 Moisture Content & Moisture Regain of Textile Material. i) Yarn Count from Fabric Testing Methods: • ISO 7211-5:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 5: Determination of linear density of yarn removed from fabric • ASTM. D1059-97 Standard Test Method for Yarn Number Based on Short-Length Specimens j) Yarn Twist from Fabric Testing Methods: • ISO 7211-4:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 4: Determination of twist in yarn removed from fabric • ASTM. D1423-99 Standard Test Method for Twist in Yarns by Direct-Counting k) Weave Diagram Woven Fabric Structure Analysis. Testing Method: • ISO 7211-1:1984 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Construction - Methods of analysis - Part 1: Methods for the presentation of a weave diagram and plans for drafting, denting and lifting
Textile Handbook 6-91
3.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance a) Air Permeability Fabric Permeability per second under 1cm H2O pressure. Testing Methods: • ISO 9237:1995 Textiles - Determination of the permeability of fabrics to air
b) Wear and Abrasion Measurement on abrasion and wear ability. Testing Methods: • ISO 12947-1:1998 Textiles - Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method - Part 1: Martindale abrasion testing apparatus • ISO 12947-2:1998 Textiles - Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method - Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown • ISO 12947-3:1998 Textiles - Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method - Part 3: Determination of mass loss • ISO 12947-4:1998 Textiles - Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method - Part 4: Assessment of appearance change • ASTM. D3884-92 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Rotary Platform, DoubleHead Method) • ASTM. D3885-99 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Flexing and Abrasion Method) • ASTM. D3886-92 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Inflated Diaphragm Method) • ASTM. D4157-92 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Oscillatory Cylinder Method) • ASTM. D4158-92 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Uniform Abrasion Method)
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• ASTM. D737-96 Test Method for Air Permeability of Textile Fabrics
6-92
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
c) Stiffness Measurement on Fabric handle and Fabric drape. Testing Method: • ASTM. D1388-96 Standard Test Method for Stiffness of Fabrics d) Crease Resistance and Crease Recovery Measurement on crease recovery level. Testing Methods: • ISO 2313:1972 Textiles - Determination of the recovery from creasing of a horizontally folded specimen of fabric by measuring the angle of recovery • ISO 9867:1991 Textiles - Evaluation of the wrinkle recovery of fabrics - Appearance method • AATCC 66-1984 Wrinkle Recovery of Fabrics: Recovery angle method • AATCC 128-1985 Wrinkle Recovery of Fabrics: Appearance Method • AATCC 88C-1984 Appearance of Creases in Wash and Wear items after Home Laundry. • JIS L1059-1985 Crease Recovery of Woven Fabrics. e) Thermal Properties Testing Methods: • ISO 5085-1:1989 Textiles - Determination of thermal resistance - Part 1: Low thermal resistance • ISO 5085-2:1990 Textiles - Determination of thermal resistance - Part 2: High thermal resistance • ASTM. D1518-85(1998) Standard Test Method for Thermal Transmittance of Textile Materials f) Pilling Testing Methods: • ASTM.D3511-99 Standard Test Method for Pilling Resistance and Other Related Surface Changes of Textile Fabrics: Brush Pilling Tester
Textile Handbook 6-93
• ASTM.D3512-99 Standard Test Method for Pilling Resistance and Other Related Surface Changes of Textile Fabrics: Random Tumble Pilling Tester • ASTM.D3514-99 Standard Test Method for Pilling Resistance and Other Related Surface Changes of Textile Fabrics: Elastomeric Pad • ISO 12945-2:2000 Textiles - Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling - Part 2: Modified Martindale method
g) Water Repellency and Wetting Testing Methods: • ISO 4920:1981 Textiles - Determination of resistance to surface wetting (spray test) of fabrics • ISO 9865:1991 Textiles - Determination of water repellency of fabrics by the Bundesmann rain-shower test • ASTM.D3779-95a Standard Performance Specification for Women’s and Girls’ Woven Rainwear and All-Purpose, Water-Repellent Coat Fabrics. • ASTM. D3781-95 Standard Performance Specification for Men’s and Boys’ Knitted Rainwear and All-Purpose, Water-Repellent Coat Fabrics h) Dimensional Stability Testing Methods: • ISO 675:1979 Textiles - Woven fabrics - Determination of dimensional change on commercial laundering near the boiling point • ISO 3005:1978 Textiles - Determination of dimensional change of fabrics induced by free-steam • ISO 7771:1985 Textiles - Determination of dimensional changes of fabrics induced by cold-water immersion • ISO 9866-2:1991 Textiles - Effect of dry heat on fabrics under low pressure - Part 2: Determination of dimensional change in fabrics exposed to dry heat
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• JIS L1076-1985 Pilling of Woven and Knitted Fabrics
6-94
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
3.1.3 Fabric Strength a) Fabric Tension and Elongation • ASTM. D1775-94 Standard Test Method for Tension and Elongation of Wide Elastic Fabrics (Constant-Rate-ofLoad Type Tensile Testing Machine) b) Grab Test • ISO 13934-2:1999 Textiles - Tensile properties of fabrics - Part 2: Determination of maximum force using the grab method c) Strip Test • ISO 13934-1:1999 Textiles - Tensile properties of fabrics - Part 1: Determination of maximum force and elongation at maximum force using the strip method d) Tongue Tear Test • ASTM. D2261-96 Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by the Tongue (Single Rip) Procedure (Constant-Rate-of-Extension Tensile Testing Machine) e) Ballistic Tear Test • ASTM. D1424-96 Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by Falling-Pendulum Type (Elemendorf) Apparatus f) Bursting Test • ISO 13938-1:1999 Textiles - Bursting properties of fabrics - Part 1: Hydraulic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension • ISO 13938-2:1999 Textiles - Bursting properties of fabrics - Part 2: Pneumatic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension • ASTM D3786-87 Bursting Strength, Hydraulic of Knitted Goods & Nonwoven Fabric - Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method. • ASTM D3787-80a Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods Constant Rate of Traverse (CRT), Ball Burst Test.
Textile Handbook 6-95
g) Strength of Seam • ISO 13935-1:1999 Textiles - Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles - Part 1: Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the strip method • ISO 13935-2:1999 Textiles - Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles - Part 2: Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the grab method
• ASTM D1683-81 Failure in Sewn Seams of Woven Fabrics. • JIS L1093-1078 Seam Strength of Clothes
3.1.4 Relationship Between Strip Test & Grab Test (By Mr. H. A. Mereness) Material Used in Fabric Silk Rayon Staple fibre Cotton Wool
Warpwise S = 0.8 G S = G - 12 S=G-9 S = 0.83G - 4.4 S = 0.75G - 2.5
Fillingwise S = 0.75 G S = G - 12 S = G - 14 S = 0.83G -3.8 S = 0.75G - 2.5
where S=Strip Test; G=Grab Test; Unit: pound force (lbf)
3.2 Woven Fabric Inspection System 3.2.1 4 Point System This standard is issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials with reference to the designation : ASTM D5430-93. Faults are scored with penalty points of 1, 2, 3 and 4 according to the size and significance.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• ASTM D434-95 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Slippage of Yarns in Woven Fabrics Using a Standard Seam
6-96
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Size Of Defect-(Length In Inch)
Penalty Points
3 inches or less over 3 but not over 6 inches over 6 but not over 9 inches/half width over 9 inches/full width
1 2 3 4
Note (i) Assign no more than a total of 4 points to any one linear yard of fabric, regardless of the number or size of the detected individual defects. (ii) Assign 4 points to each consecutive linear yard in which a continuous running defect exceeds 9 inches. (iii) Assign 4 points to each linear yard of fabric where the useable width is less than the minimum specified. Assign 4 points to each seam or other full width defect if applicable. A piece is graded as “passed” if the total penalty points do not exceed (xx) points per 100 square yards. A piece is graded as “failed” if the total penalty points exceed (xx) points per 1 00 square yards. The entire lot shall be rejected if the average penalty points exceed (xx) points per 100 square yards. Total points x 100 Average points per 100 linear yds = Piece length Average points per 100 sq yds =
Total points x 36" x 100 Piece length x fabric width
Textile Handbook 6-97
Example:The following condensation of an inspection sheet is given to illustrate the use of the formula: Yard
slub slub smash 1 /2 mispick to 49 bias to 61 flat
1
/2
stain slub slub slub
1 1 4 0 16 12 3 1 1 1
95 bar 1 98-99 /2 shaded Total
Penalty
} }
}
4 8
(small defects, each less than 3".) (note, no yard is penalized more than four points.) (4 yards of exceptional defect at 4 (points per yard.) (defect runs through yards.) (defect from 6 to 9 inches long.) (small defects, each less than 3 inches long - all penalized within the same yard since the total is not more than four.) (defect full width-i.e., over 9".) (Exceptional defect entering 2- yards penalized four points per yard.)
52
Width of fabric 40 inches. Total yardage 120 yards. Formula applied: 52x100 = 43.4 points per 100 linear yards 120 Alternate formula applied: 52x3600 120x40
= 39 points per 100 square yards
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
12 14 28 28 45 58 3 64 67 67 68
Defect
6-98
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Supposing a contract for an average quality level of 20 points and a shipment of 10 rolls of 40-inch fabric, the quality level would be found as follows: Piece 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Points/100 yards 24 40 28 32 25 25 15 35 20 12 256
256 ÷ 10 = 25.6 quality level of shipment
3.2.2 10 Point System This standard is jointly approved and adopted by The Textile Distributors Institute, Inc. and The National Federation of Textiles, Inc. Faults are scored with penalty points of 1, 3, 5 and 10 according to the size and significance. Size of defect (length in inch) 1 inch or less over 1 but not over 5 inches over 5 but not over 10 inches/half width over 10 inches/full width
penalty points 1 3 5 10
Note : (i) Assign no more than a total of 10 points to any one linear yard of fabric regardless of the number or size of the detected individual defects. (ii) Assign 10 points to each consecutive linear yard containing a continuous running defect. (iii)Assign 10 points to each linear yard of fabric where the usable width is less than the minimum specified.
Textile Handbook 6-99
(iv)Assign 10 points to each splice or other full width defects. A piece is graded as “first quality” if the total penalty points do not exceed the yardage of the piece. A piece is graded as “second quality” if the total penalty points exceed the yardage of the piece. The entire lot shall be rejected if the average penalty points exceed (xx) points per 100 linear yards.
3.2.3 Graniteville “78” System of Visual Quality Evaluation for Woven and Knitted Fabrics a) Inspection Fabrics will be inspected full width, face side only, with no back lighting. All defects having the potential to second end item will be counted. Defect threshold will be that agreed upon between buyer and seller. b) Demerit Points Demerit points will be assigned for defects in increments of nine inches (or 25 centimetres), or parts thereof. Example -
0"- 9" or 0 cm to 25 cm - 1 point 9"-18" or 25 cm to 50 cm - 2 points 18"-27" or 50 cm to 75 cm - 3 points, etc.
c) Maximum Penalty The maximum penalty per square yard (or metre) is four points. The maximum number of points per linear yard (or metre) is determined by the fabric width.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
An increase of not more than 10% in penalty points will be allowed on “first” quality goods over 50 inches wide.
6-100
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Per Linear Yard-Divide width in inches by 9. Examples-
48" Fabric - 6 points 60" Fabric - 7 Points
Per Linear Meter-Divide width in centimetres by 25. Examples-
122 cm Fabric (48") - 5 Points 153 cm Fabric (60") - 6 Points
No defect within eighteen inches (or 50 cm) to either side of an extended or running defect shall be counted. No defect within nine inches (or 25 cm) of one point defect shall be counted. d) Computation of Inspection Results Results shall be computed in points per 100 square yards or 100 square metres. Step 1-
Divide yards inspected by 100.
Step 2-
Divide results into total points to obtain points per 100 linear yards or metres.
Step 3-
For points/100 sq. yards - multiply points per 100 linear yards by 36 the fabric width in inches. For points/100 sq. meters - multiply points per 100 linear metres by 100 divided by the fabric wide in centimetres,
e) Conversion Formulae Points/100 sq. yards X.836 = Points/100 sq. metres. Points/100 sq. metres X 1.196 = Points/100 sq. yards.
Section 4 - Knitted Fabric Inspection and Testing...... 6-101 4.1
Knitted Fabric Testing ...................................................... 6-101 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3
4.2
Fabric Construction ..................................................... 6-101 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance ... 6-102 Fabric Strength Testing ............................................... 6-102
Knitted Fabric Inspection Systems ................................. 6-102 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3
The KTA System for Circular Knitted Fabrics ............ 6-102 The KTA System for Raschel Knitted Fabrics ............ 6-104 The KTA System for Tricot Fabrics ............................ 6-107
Section 5 - Fabric Quality and Performance........... 6-113 5.1
Quality Standard and Performance Tests for Apparel ... 6-113 5.1.2
5.2
Quality Guideline for Fabrics Containing LYCRA® .... 6-116
US Standard for Flammability ........................................ 6-120 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3
Flammable Fabrics Act Standards - USA ................... 6-120 Federal Test Method Standard 191 - Textile Test Methods ....................................................................... 6-122 Miscellaneous Tests ..................................................... 6-123
5.3
Woven Fabric Defect Description and Cause ................. 6-124
5.4
Illustrations of Woven Fabric Faults .............................. 6-129
5.5
Knitted Fabric Defect Description and Cause ............... 6-136
5.6
Illustrations of Knitted Fabric Faults ............................. 6-140
Back to Table of Content
Textile Handbook 6-101
SECTION 4
KNITTED FABRIC INSPECTION AND TESTING
4.1 Knitted Fabric Testing 4.1.1 Fabric Construction a) Fabric Width
Testing Method: • ASTM: D3774-96 Standard Test Methods for Width of Textile Fabric b) Fabric Weight Fabric must be fully conditioning before processing the fabric weight testing and the bone dry weight is the key measurement weight. Testing Methods: • ASTM D3776-96 Standard Test Methods for Mass Per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric c) Fabric Thickness Refer to woven fabric testing section 3.1.1e. d) Filling Bow and Skewness Refer to woven fabric testing section 3.1.1g e) Moisture Regain Refer to woven fabric testing section 3.1.1h f) Yarn Count from Fabric Testing Method: • ASTM. D1059-87 Yarn Number based on Short Length Specimen. g) Yarn Twist from Fabric Testing Method: • ASTM. D1423-82 Twist in Yarns by the Direct Counting Method.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Fabric should be conditioning first before processing the fabric width testing.
6-102
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
4.1.2 Durability, Aesthetics and Environmental Resistance Refer to Woven fabric testing section 3.1.2
4.1.3 Fabric Strength Testing Bursting Testing Methods: • ISO 13938-1:1999 Textiles - Bursting properties of fabrics - Part 1: Hydraulic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension • ASTM D3786-87 Bursting Strength, Hydraulic of Knitted Goods and Nonwoven Fabric - Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method. • ASTM D3787-80a Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods Constant - Rate of Traverse (CRT), Ball Burst Test.
4.2 Knitted Fabric Inspection Systems 4.2.1 The KTA System for Circular Knitted Fabrics This standard is approved by Knitting Textile Association Circular Committee and endorsed by the American Textile Manufacturers Institute and Textile Distributors Association. a) Applicability This standard apply to circular knitted fabrics including basic, face finished and novelty types. b) Method Four-Point System- The following schedule of penalty points is based on fabrics 64-66 inches in width for defects visible when inspected on face side of fabric only: Length of Defects Number of Penalty Points 3 inches or less 1 Over 3 but not over 6 inches 2 Over 6 but not over 9 inches 3 Over 9 inches 4
Textile Handbook 6-103
• Four penalty points per linear yard are the maximum assessable for fabrics up to 64/66 inches in width. • For fabrics over 64/66 inches in width, maximum penalty points are to be increased in proportion as the width exceeds 64 inches. • Regardless of the length of the fabric, the quality shall be expressed in the number of penalty points per 100 yard length. (Example: A 40-yard piece with six penalty points is to be rated as 15 points per 100 yards.)
(i) Bias/bowing but bias/bowing is not to exceed five inches per 60-inch width for all knitted fabrics (ii) General aesthetic characteristics are not to be assigned penalty points. (iii) Barre and pin holes are not to be assigned penalty points. These conditions must be judged as to extent and degree to which they affect the garment being produced. c) Quality Determination Determining First Quality Circular Knitted Fabrics Shall Be Done As Follows: • Basic Fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed 50 points per 100 linear yards. • Face Finished Fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed 60 points per 100 linear yards. • Novelty Fabrics are to be classified by the knitter in relation to difficulties of producing them. (Types of yarns, stitches, fibers, etc. affect the difficulties of production.) Novelty fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed the maximum for the type(s) as designated by the seller in the sales contract or by written notice prior thereto:
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• Penalty points will not be assigned for the following.
6-104
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Novelty Type
Maximum Points Per 100 Linear Yards
A
70
B
75
C
50
D
85
d) Weight and Length Tolerances (i) Weight of circular knitted fabric may not vary by more than plus or minus five percent from the stated weight. The standard weight is to be stated as a whole number, such as six ounces, not a range such as 6-6.5 ounces. The yield is to be based on individual roll measurements of lengths or pounds, (ii) Length/Weight-If the total length, or, if fabric is bought on a weight basis, the total weight of the delivered quality varies no more than plus or minus ten percent of the stated quality ordered, all such goods shall be deemed in conformity with the order and acceptable. To the extent that the quality exceeds such limit, only the excess over the limit may be rejected; and a deficiency or shortfall of more than ten percent may be deemed a non-delivery to the extent that it exceeds ten percent. (Cutting table measurement of length by the buyer is not in conformity with this standard; measurement shall be made on a knitted fabric examining machine).,
4.2.2 The KTA System for Raschel Knitted Fabrics a) Applicability This standard applies to fabrics for apparel and apparel accessories of basic, flat finished, textured surface and novelty raschel fabrics. Fabrics for other end users made subject hereto by express agreement between buyer and seller.
Textile Handbook 6-105
b) Method Four-Point System: The following schedule of penalty points is based on fabrics 60/62 inches in width for defects visible when inspected on the face side of the fabric only: Length of Defect 3 inches or less Over 3 but not over 6 inches Over 6 but not over 9 inches Over 9 inches
Number of Penalty Points 1 2 3 4
• For fabrics over 60/62 inches in width, maximum penalty points are to be increased in proportion as the width exceeds 60 inches. • Regardless of the length of the fabric, the quality shall be expressed in the number of penalty points per 100 yards length. (Example: A 40 yard piece with six penalty points is to be rated as 15 points per 100 yards.) • Bowing and skewing (bias); bowing may not exceed 3 inches and skewing may not exceed 4 inches per 60inch width, and any yard containing bowing or skewing in excess of these limits shall be penalized 4 points. • Penalty points will not be assigned for the following: (i) General aesthetic fabric characteristics. (ii) Pin holes (whether caused by knitting or by tenter frame pins); they shall be judged by the extent and degree to which they occur and their probable effect on the type of garment or other end use. (iii) Defects appearing outside the selling width, the selling width being centred in the total width of the fabric. (iv) Defects resulting from napping, shearing and other surface treatments (which shall be otherwise evaluated). (v) Irregularities normal to the existing state of the art or beyond reasonable control of the manufacturer, or inherent in Raschel knitted fabrics.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
• Four penalty points per linear yard are the maximum assessable for fabrics up to 60/62 inches in width.
6-106
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
c) Quality Determination Determining first quality Raschel fabrics shall be done as follows: • Basic fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed 40 points per 100 linear yards, • Raised surface fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed 50 points per 100 linear yards. • Novelty fabrics shall be classified as first quality if the number of penalty points does not exceed 60 per 100 linear yards, Novelty fabrics are to be so designated by seller. Novelty fabrics are those whose production involves special difficulties including those arising from special types of yarn, stitches, fibres or other factors. Fabrics are to be classified if they are thus designated in the sales contract or in other written notice given by the seller to the buyer. Note:Laps: No more than two laps per 100 yards are allowable and not more than one lap in less than 100 yards. The shortest unlapped portion of a piece shall not be less than 10 yards. d) Length And Width- Measurement Methods (i) Length shall be measured with any surface contact device (Tru-meter or equivalent) that is calibrated regularly. The device shall contact the back or a smooth surface of Raschel fabrics. (Preferred calibration method: Measure a known length of canvas or other stable, lowelongation fabric less than 2% in either direction) through the measuring device. Reference: ASTM D1910-64 hand method. The actual yardage of each piece shall be accurate to within plus or minus 2% when measured by the above method. (ii) Width shall be measured with an accurate tape after laying Raschel fabric flat on a table without tension or elongation. (Reference ASTM 3887-80.) Conformity to the selling width of Raschel fabric shall be determined on the basis of one of the three following methods.
Textile Handbook 6-107
• Width between gummed edges of gummed fabrics, • Width between tenter frame pin marks when pin marks remain in shipped fabrics. • Overall width of Raschel fabric when neither of the above two criteria exist. Note: If width is stated in a range such as 60/62 inches, the lower figure governs.
4.2.3 The KTA System for Tricot Fabrics This standard applies to plain, flat, finished and raised tricot fabrics. b) Method The method for measuring and rating the quality of fabrics according to the number and nature of certain common types of defects affecting their usability shall be known as the Four Point System and is as follows: (i) Penalty points shall be imposed for defects in a piece of fabric according to the size of such defects, as set forth below: Number of Penalty Points 1 2 4
Description of Defects Run, hole or damage in width or warp direction measuring not over 3 inches in its greatest dimension. Run, hole or damage in width or warp direction, over 3 but not over 10 inches in its greatest dimension. Run, hole or damage in width or warp direction, over 10 but not over 36 inches. Defects over 36 inches are to be charged to the extent that each additional yard is affected.
(ii) Point limitation: Regardless of the number of defects no single linear yard of fabric shall be charged with more than 4 points.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
a) Applicability
6-108
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
(iii)Exclusions: -
This standard evaluates quality only with respect to knitting defects and other distinctly measurable defects including grease, oil and dye spots, slubs, picks and bowing and skewing but not including napping, shearing, surface effects or other general defects which must be otherwise evaluated. Irregularities normal to the existing state of the art or beyond the reasonable control of the manufacturer or inherent in tricot fabrics shall not be classified as defects and shall not bear penalty points.
-
Penalty points shall not be assigned on the basis of general aesthetic characteristics of fabrics.
-
Unless otherwise agreed upon by buyer and seller, fabrics are to be examined for defects only on their face side.
-
Defects appearing within one inch of either edge shall be disregarded.
-
Count shall not be considered.
-
Conditions such as pin holes may not be assigned penalty points, and must be judged by the extent and degree to which they occur and their probable effect on the type of garment to be cut; pin holes are not limited to those caused by tenter frame pins.
c) Quality Determination Tricot fabric shall be classed as first quality if it meets both of the following requirements: In the case of plain, flat, finished tricot the number of defect points shall not exceed the proportion to its length of 40 per 100 linear yards; and in the case of tricot with a raised fibre surface the number of defect points shall not exceed the proportion to its length of 48 per 100 linear yards. The fabric shall come within the tolerances allowed for other characteristics as set forth below:
Textile Handbook 6-109
-
Selling width of tricot fabric shall be determined on the basis of one of the three following methods: • Width between gummed edges of gummed fabrics. • Width between tenter frame pin marks when pin marks remain in shipped fabrics. • Overall width of tricot fabric when neither of the two above exist.
-
Weight: Weight of tricot fabrics per linear yard may not vary by more than plus or minus 5 per cent from the weight stated in the contract.
-
Wales: Variation in wales per inch may not exceed five across the actual width of the fabric measured as provided in above.
-
Bias/Bowing: Bias or bowing may not exceed 3 inches of bias per 60 inches of width.
-
Laps: No more than two laps per 100 yards are allowable and not more than one lap in less than 100 yards. The shortest unlapped portion of a piece shall not be less than 10 yards.
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
Note: If width is stated in a range such as 60-62 inches, the lower figure governs.
7
5 6
4
3
2
1
No.
Defect Counting Conversion of Defect Size and Count to Point Definition of Defects Counted
Scope- Product
Importance
4 Points
10 Points 78 System
5-10 ins Over Over half-full 10 ins width Direct count 1,3,5,10
Over 6-9 ins Over 9 ins
Defects counted should be Nil changed with different fabric types since same defect may cause different reactions
Imperfections are defects which can be prevented under normal conditions or with reasonable care.
5- half width
All defects having the potential to second and end item
Direct count 1,2,3
Over 18-27 ins
0-9 ins Over 9-18 ins
0-1 ins 1-5 ins
0-1 ins 1-5 ins
Over 3-6 ins
0-3 ins
Any direction
Weft
Visual
Warp
Visual
Any direction
Visual
Grey and Plain dyed Grey and finished woven fabric Woven and Knit Fabric woven fabric All Around 50 ins Around 50 ins
Defect seriousness Direct count Combine size and Qty into 1,2,3,4 a single index
Different fabric have different important criteria Fabric width will affect the Scope - Fabric first fabric Width Evaluation method Hidden defects will not be counted Defect Size Range Defect seriousness Definition
Criteria
Table 4.2.3 Comparison of Different Inspection Systems (Size and Quantity) BS 6395
KTA
Visual
Any feature within the usable width of a fabric which, if it appeared in a finished product would down grade that product.
Direct count 1
0-25 cm
Nil
1,2,3,4
Direct count
Over 9 ins
6-9 ins
0-3 ins 3-6 ins
Any direction Any direction
Visual
All kinds of Circular fabric Knit fabric All 64-66 ins
6-110
Textiles Testing and Quality Control
F i r s t q u a l i t y Acceptance level should be a d j u s t m e n t t o sensitive to area of fabric, different fabric not length of fabric only width
Side of inspection Depends on End-Product Piece length Depends on Cutting Table, wastage can be minimized
11
12 13
—
Total penalty points 50 ins Continuous Total penalty poinst 50 ins total points e.g. If fabric width is >50 ins, then Max. 110 points per 100
