Teaching of History ; The Paedo-Centric Approach

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The Teaching of History The Paedo-centric Approach ii iii THE TEACHING OF HISTORY The Paedo-centric Approach S.P. Pathak KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS NEW DELHI-110 002 iv KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS 4697/5-21A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi-110 002 Phones :; 2327 0497, 2328 8285 Fax: 011-2328 8285 e-mail: [email protected] First Published 2003 © S.P. Pathak ISBN 81-7391-608-X PRINTED IN INDIA Published by Madan Sachdeva for Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, 4697/5-21A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi110 002; Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, Delhi, and Printed at Nice Printing Press, Delhi. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It gives me great pleasure and a sense of fulfilment to acknowledge the inspiration which I received from my teachers — Professor A.B.L. Srivastava, an eminent historian and a lighthouse of knowledge, as an M.A. student, and from Prof. D.N. Gaind who taught me about the nuances of the methods of teaching history. It may be stated that these two eminent scholars perhaps never knew as to what sort of spark they had kindled in me. I am also beholden to my wife Smt. Kanchan Rani Pathak who always stood by my side and constantly encouraged me to complete this assignment and my grandson Ashutosh Trikha who typed the manuscript on computer. I am also thankful to my publisher Messrs Kanishka Publishers, Distributors to give the final shape to this endeavour. In the end I also thank all the scholars and friends from whom I borrowed ideas directly or indirectly. S.P. Pathak vi vii

PREFACE Let us not forget the fact that history as a subject has earned a bad name for itself. It is regarded as boring, listless,

monotonous and a subject concerned with rote memory. Students feel that they are supposed to mug up facts and then vomit them out at the time of the examination. So where is the question of enjoying or imbibing or assimilating them? The present book is, therefore, an answer to this false perception of this lively subject. An effort has been made to suggest to the teachers to follow the paedo-centric approach so that children may become co-travellers in the journey to discover the facts, so that they may be inspired to think about the situations and the problems in a logical way and then come out with their well reasoned out reactions. This active involvement of children at every stage of learning history will surely infuse in them a positive and strong liking for the subject. This approach — to think, to reflect, and attempt a solution in a given situation, is sure to place the subject of history at its high pedestal. It is said that history is the queen of subjects, and this place, due to her, can be won back by her once again, if we sincerely and honestly follow this approach. Here, I may assert that this approach is not time-consuming as is feared by many practicing teachers. On the other hand, if teachers adopt this approach sincerely, then they can cover the whole course in the prescribed time allotted to them. We perhaps forget, that if the interest of the learner is aroused in the subject and if he is inspired to act as a discoverer or explorer then the pace is automatically quickened and the learning so viii accrued, becomes permanently etched in his mind and surely this is what education demands. I am sure that this book would be a source of great help to students of education and working teachers and the author would feel more than rewarded if our combined efforts enthuse and inspire the children to learn history and also learn from history. AUTHOR ix

CONTENTS Acknowledgements v Preface vii Chapter 1 WHAT IS HISTORY 1 Introduction What is History? Definitions History of Historiography Present Concept of History Is History Science or Art History as Art History Both Science and Art Message for Teachers Chapter 2 HISTORY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SUBJECTS 9 Introduction History and Geography

History and Civics History and Economics History and Literature History and Science Message for Teachers x Chapter 3 AIMS OF TEACHING HISTORY 16 Introduction Aims of Teaching History Development of Imagination Critical Thinking Moral Aim International Understanding Inculcation of Objectivity Source of Pleasure Conclusion Message for Teachers Chapter 4 SYLLABUS OF HISTORY 25 Introduction Principles of Syllabus Construction Chronological Method Concentric Method Topical Method Regressive Method Syllabus of CBSE Its Appraisal Message for Teachers Chapter 5 METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY 34 Introduction Text-Book Method Question-Answer Method

Lecture Method Project Method Unit Method Source Method Some Practical Difficulties Message for Teachers xi Chapter 6 AUDIO VISUAL AIDS 62 Introduction Audio Visual Aids—Their Meaning Merits Kinds of Material Aids How to Use the Material Aids Message for Teachers Chapter 7 CULTIVATION OF TIME AND SPACE SENSE 72 Introduction What is Time? How to Develop the Time Sense Space Maps How to Use the Map Use of Roll-up Maps Globe Conclusion Message for Teachers Chapter 8 TEXT-BOOK 84 Introduction Importance Characteristics of a Good Text-Book Other Features Message for Teachers Chapter 9 EVALUATION 92 Introduction Evaluation—Its Present Form Evaluation—Its Benefits Evaluation in History Evaluation Tests in History

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation Conclusion Message for Teachers xii Chapter 10 HISTORY ROOM 105 Introduction Need Equipment Message for Teachers Chapter 11 THE HISTORY TEACHER 114 Introduction Academic Qualities General Message for Teachers Chapter 12 LESSON PLANNING 125 Introduction Aims Material Aids Preparation Presentation Recapitulation Home Work Conclusion Message for Teachers Chapter 12(a) LESSON PLANS 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY 156 Index 158 1

Chapter 1 WHAT IS HISTORY INTRODUCTION

In a curriculum we include several subjects and history is one of them. For our purpose it would be worth while to address ourselves to the question as to why should we have history in the curriculum? It is a very valid and pertinent question. But to comprehend this issue properly it would be advisable to consider it in a wider perspective.' Broadly speaking, education aims at the development of man's personality to the maximum. But this development is to be attained in some social context. This context has been amply explained and stated in our Constitution, which in most unambiguous terms says that we want to build a society in which each individual will be granted EQUALITY, LIBERTY, EQUAL OPPORTUNITY and JUSTICE and inculcate in him/her a sense of FRATERNITY. So the mandate for education is as clear as crystal. Education, therefore, should help the child to grow to his/her maximum potentiality so that he may be fully imbued with the above ideals. Here our intention is not to philosophically analyse or discuss the above ideals, but to broadly highlight this universally accepted aim of education - growth to one's maximum potentiality. Now history is included in our curriculum because in its own inimitable way, it also helps us to realise this goal. We shall discuss it at appropriate place in this book. However, presently we shall focus our attention on "What is history"? 2

WHAT IS HISTORY? History has been defined by different scholars in different ways. If we look at the genesis of the word "history" we will find that it has been derived from the Greek word "Historia", which means "information", or an inquiry to find out the truth. Chambers 21st Century Dictionary defines it as "an account of past events and developments; a methodical account of origin and progress of a nation, institution, the world, etc." It is an account of the growth of man from the day when he appeared on the earth. It is a record of what man did or thought.

DEFINITIONS At this juncture, it will be advisable to refer to some of the definitions of history given by some of eminent scholars. Henry Johnson says, "History in its broadest sense, is everything that ever happened". Rabindra Nath Tagore says, "There is only one History -the History of Man". Jones says, "History is a veritable mine of life experiences and the youth of today studies history that he may profit by the experiences of the race". Carr says, "History is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts. It is an unending dialogue between the present and the past". Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru says, "History is the story of man's struggle through the ages against nature and elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own benefit". We can give many definitions of history as given by great historians or scholars, but for our purpose it will be sufficient to say that it is the man's story in different facets of his life. It is not confined to the story of the kings, nobles, the rich or haves but it is the story of all of us in a wider sense. It gives us information as to how a savage - a food gatherer became a food producer; how the settled life began and, how progress 3 was made in different fields of life - social, political, economic, cultural, etc., and how man arrived at the present level of the so-called growth or development. So in short it is a narrative of the deeds, actions and thoughts of our ancestors right from the past to the present and this we study so that we may further build upon what they have left for us.

HISTORY OF HISTORIOGRAPHY Since we are dealing with history as a discipline, it is all the more incumbent upon us to have a brief but passing look at the history of historiography. Western scholars say that Herodotus, a Greek scholar who lived in 5th Century B.C. is the father of history. He was the first person who tried to give a systematic account of the happenings of his times. He travelled to different countries and carefully observed and collected information about people. He also tried to gather information of the past. This information he compiled in a systematic way and narrated it in his own words. He simply tried to reproduce the information as it came to him. He did not dilate over it. Thucydides, another Greek Scholar, a contemporary of Herodotus, also collected information, but he narrated it with his

own interpretation. He tried to give his own considered views and comments on what he had gathered. So he was not a mere chronicler. However, slowly history was written to please the rulers or the patrons who employed or patronised the so-called historians. To illustrate what has been said here, it would be not out of place to refer to Minahaj-us Siraj, the historian during the reign of Balban. He painted Riyan who ousted Balban in the blackest of the black ink but when Balban was recalled he used hyperbole in his praise because he was a protege of Balban. Khafi Khan the historian of Aurangzeb's reign condemned Shivaji whereas Maratha historians eulogised him. So history by and large was not the real reproduction of what had happened, but what suited the historians to please their patrons. In Europe too, by and large history was written in this very 4 vein. Napoleon, perhaps because of this, remarked that history was nothing but a 'fable agreed upon'. So history was the handmaid of the ruler's wishes and objectivity or empiricism was by and large conspicuous by its absence. It may be noted that because of such a state of affairs it was held in very low esteem. It was regarded as a subject containing many lies. It was considered as a figment of imagination on the part of the historian who was believed to weave fanciful stories around his patrons. It is said that a king in a lighter vein asked his attendant to call his liars (historians). So history was considered as a tissue of lies, but in spite of it, even these writings contained some useful material and information for the discerning scholars to build up a true history from the narrative. Anyway till the end of 18th Century history was not held in high esteem. But in the 19th Century a perceptible change occurred. Two German scholars, Niebuhr and Leopard Von Ranke tried to put history in its rightful place. They pleaded for empiricism and objectivity in history. They tried to make it scientific. They applied scientific methods in the writing of history. They wanted facts and information to be collected in a scientific way, properly and systematically classified and arranged and then interpreted not as per liking of the historian but as per the evidences culled from the information in a logical and dispassionate and objective manner. In this context Ranke's contribution was very significant. He emphasised on, finding out the veracity and validity of facts through a very close scrutiny. His aim was to find out something particular or special from the common run of facts or from the general storehouse of truth. His purpose was to reproduce the events scientifically in the form in which they happened. As said above, in this process he would try to find out something special in these facts through analytical approach and impartial research and would then try to present facts which are neither painted nor tainted. Ranke himself tried to practise it while writing about France, the avowed enemy of his country — Germany; his patriotism did not come in his way of calling a spade a spade. So the 19th Century witnessed a sea change in the writing of 5 history. A beginning was made to write history without injecting any biases into it. However, in India, history continued to be written with a tangent and bias to serve the purpose of English rulers. English historians in most of the cases painted Indians as backward, barbarians and uncivilised. They regarded us as inferiors in every respect and called India as white man's burden. James Mill's history of India is a compendium of vulgar abuses and denigration of Indians. However, as discussed above in West a beginning had been made in the 19th Century to make it scientific.

PRESENT CONCEPT OF HISTORY History in its true sense is a study of man, his growth and development in all aspects — political, economic, social and cultural etc. It is a true unalloyed account of what he has done and thought. It is a scientific description of his achievements, successes, failures and shortcomings. It is not confined to a region or a nation, it is concerned with the entire human race right from the day when man appeared on this planet. It is a continuous and unending stream tracing the man's growth from barbaric stage to the present day. Actually it is the memory of the race. It is a continuum from the past to the present with its sight fixed on the future too. History is not only confined to the political aspect of society. It is not restricted to major political events or the achievement or great deeds of reputed conquerors, kings and rulers. Now the history takes in its compass also the history related to the common man-history of the life style of people, their economic and social life too and its effect on the overall political life. So, in brief, in the present-day-world, history has a very broad canvas and it takes in its embrace the progress of the man or the society in its myriad fields.

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IS HISTORY SCIENCE OR ART A very interesting controversy about history is - whether it is Science or Art? For a student of history, it is essential to understand the implications of this controversy. If we properly comprehend it, then our role as teacher will become very clear and our path to interact with children in the classroom will become easy and effective too. One school of thought considers history to be science. As stated earlier, Ranke of Germany was the advocate of this idea because till the 19th Century, history was written by and large, as a piece of fiction and the so-called chroniclers impregnated the facts and events with their biases and prejudices. So it was more of a fiction. It was not a true account of what had happened. It was more of a distortion of the truth. Naturally, this invited a lot of criticism and many an eyebrow were raised against it. Many historians raised the banner of scienticism and empiricism in the writing of history. According to them the role of historian was to reproduce the events as they occurred in a detached and unbiased manner. They should be neutral in their approach. History should not be written to please or displease any one. It should present the past "as it actually was". So like a scientist he should collect his data, classify it and then interpret it in an objective and detached manner. It is possible that truth may evade historian, but he should cling to truthfulness to the best of his ability in a relentless manner. In short history should be given the treatment of a science.

HISTORY AS ART But a very strong reaction to scienticism in history also started in 19th and 20th Centuries. Macaulay ridiculed this scienticism. To him to collect the boney and lifeless events of the past and reproduce them in this lifeless way had no meaning. In a way the scientific approach gives us the skeleton and skeleton never attracts any one, on the other hand it is repelling and abhorring. If history is only to reproduce the facts of the past then it would 7 never attract the young children pulsating with life because the dead presented in the dead form have no appeal. The corpses do not inspire. Therefore the job of the historian is to infuse life into the dead skeleton which is the gift to us by our scientific approach. We have to make it breathe, act, talk, dance, cry and relive. The historian with his powerful narration, imagination and understanding of the human psychology can delineate the human emotions and motives which might have prompted the characters to act in a particular way, of course within the parameters of the facts collected by him. The historian therefore must possess the most effective and powerful trait of weaving a powerful and interesting story pulsating with life around his facts in a captivating and fascinating style. Johnson, perhaps, stated half the truth when he remarked, "The historian tells either what is false or what is true; in the former case he is no historian; in the latter he has no opportunity for displaying his abilities for truth is one; and all who tell the truth must tell it alike". But here he stopped half-way and did not take the argument to its logical conclusion. We all know that the truth is one, but take the instance of an accident being witnessed by two people at the same moment from the same angle, but their description would vary considerably. One endowed with a powerful expression and deeper understanding will delineate the same in a colourful and absorbing style, whereas the other one will present it in a lifeless and listless manner. And so the difference is there. Therefore a historian has got to be an artist. He puts colours in a very skilful manner in the outline of his painting, the smile on the lips, expressions in the eyes and the glow on the cheeks, whereas the same painting will be a lifeless object in the hands of the other, because he simply reproduces the figure without putting life or expressions in it. So a historian has got to be an artist. Toynbee, therefore very aptly remarked, "Dull history is false history". In sum the scientist in the historian gives him basic facts and information, the truth, a clear outline of the past unalloyed and untainted, but the artist in him makes it lively and vibrant as it was when the event or the fact occurred. 8

HISTORY BOTH SCIENCE AND ART The above discussion amply proves the incontrovertible fact that History is both Science and Art. The science part of it gives the facts in their original and pure form. They are unalloyed and without any biases or prejudices. But the art part of it, paints them in the most presentable form without distorting the truth. The art makes the facts vibrant with life.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS

The above discussion has not been made only for academic purpose or information. It has a clear and very articulate message for history teachers, who, in their classrooms, reproduce facts after facts, stuffing children's minds with them, with the sole purpose to finish the course in time, with the fond hope that they would mug them up and reproduce them in the final examination, which has become the only aim of our education. In fact, it may be admitted that this causes irreparable harm to the subject, the child and to the society. As we are talking about history, let us confess to the fact that if history is considered as a dull and boring subject then the blame lies on us - teachers. Therefore, we the teachers of history must in our classrooms, through our approach as an artist, choosing the choicest of words and phrases and delineating the situation or events, in the most absorbing way, should infuse life in the subject matter. We must realise that our task is most challenging as well as interesting and absorbing.

EXERCISE Q.1. What is History? Q. 2. Give a brief history of historiography. Q. 3. 'History is a combination of art and science'. Discuss. Q. 4. What is the modern concept of History? Discuss. 9

Chapter 2 HISTORY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SUBJECTS INTRODUCTION G.M. Trevelyan says, "History is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell". This statement very clearly underscores the fact that history is at the centre of several subjects and has very close relationship with them. In the present-day-world, at school stage we have introduced social sciences, which comprises History, Geography, Civics and Economics. Even this dispensation clearly underlines the fact that these subjects are interrelated and therefore naturally have close relationship with history. Besides we must understand that a man leads a life in different dimensions. He effects and is effected by his total environment, which is social, cultural, economic, religious and political etc. He is also effected by the geographical environment too. So history which is a part of his very being has relationship with these aspects. Koerner brings out this fact very well when he says, "Occupying as it does an intermediate position between the humanities and the social sciences, and employing both the qualitative approach of the humanities and the quantitative data of the behaviourist, it serves as a medium through which students can learn something of literature and arts on the one hand and politics, economics and social behaviour on the other". In sum it can be argued that history is a very important subject at the school 10 stage and that it has relationship with other subjects which touch our life very significantly in one way or the other.

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY History tells about man's progress with reference to time on this planet, whereas Geography studies about the planet. We know that entire progress or development of man has occurred on this earth, which has been the stage for him to play his varied roles. Thus history provides us with the action and Geography with the stage. The influence of the space or the geographical environment on man is a common place knowledge. We learn that civilisations grew near the banks of rivers. The Indus, the Nile, the Euphrates and the Tiber rivers etc. saw civilisations growing along their banks. To take another example; the Turks, the Afghans etc. from the Central Asia attacked India continuously, because India was a land of abundance, whereas in those regions life was very hard and tough. Moreover our way of life, our social formations, our food habits, clothing etc. too have direct relationship with our physical environment. The effect of living in an island on the British people is well known. How this tiny island was saved from Spain, France and Germany because of a small stretch of sea separating it from the main land is a well known fact of history and the contribution of its Geographical location too in this regard is an accepted fact. Why did Shivaji take to guerrilla war-fare has much to do with Geography. Hence space is inextricably related with the history of man and so there exists very close relationship between History and

Geography. So the message for history teacher is loud and clear. He must understand that without showing the space i.e., without showing the relevant location on the map and also its effect on the people, teaching of history would be a meaningless exercise, because without showing the students the stage on which the action took place would be tantamount to teaching in the air. So this relationship which is in the very nature of this subject must be continuously and carefully established by the teacher in the classroom situation. 11

HISTORY AND CIVICS Civics deals with administrative set up of a country, its various administrative institutions, its Constitution and also with several theories of the origin of State its functions etc. and also everything related with our civil life. Naturally, we get the information about the growth and development of all these institutions from history and also the way the rules functioned or could function under different dispensations. History also gives an insight into the weaknesses and shortcoming of various types of administrative institutions and their strengths too. We know through our study of history the despotism, dictatorship and monarchy tend to become very tyrannical; that when the ruler gets absolute power, then by and large, he also becomes absolutely corrupt and people suffer at his hands. Then how the feudal system in league with the monarch or royalty exploit the subjects, is also a well known fact of history. History tells us that capitalist system also fleeces the poor and then finally it brings home to us the fact that a Democratic set up with its weaknesses and shortcomings is much better a political dispensation than other dispensations though it is also used by the haves to meet their narrow ends. So civics gives us an insight into various types of political set up with their merits and demerits and history by supplying the facts substantiates or refutes it. Besides the political theories describing different set ups - like monarchy, dictatorship, capitalism, democracy, totalitarianism etc. explain their effects on the people's life, and history once again supplies the proof in terms of what happened under their dispensation. History delineates or describes what actually happened. In this way we find that civics and history are very intimately related with one another. In short today's administrative structures and institutions and their actions would become the history of tomorrow, whereas their history would give us a better, deeper and thorough insight into their merits and demerits and thus help us to improve upon them. Professor Seeley, therefore, said "History without Civics has no fruit, Civics without History has no root". 12

HISTORY AND ECONOMICS History brings out the fact that among other things, one of the constant struggle of man has been to improve his economic condition. The fight between the haves and have-nots is a perennial one. It started from the day when man became a producer of food and started hoarding it and began a settled life. Karl Marx very rightly says that history of man is the history of class struggle or for that matter economic history. It is the history of gaining more power and one of the attributes of power is the possession of wealth. So economic gain is the root of all struggle. To gain more and more wealth has been the constant endeavour of man, and this urge prompted him to wage wars, conquer new lands, establish colonies, make new discoveries and inventions. The entire history of colonising other countries, and fleecing them shamelessly is a living proof of economic roots of history. For instance, it was not for the sake of discovery alone, but also to find new markets, that the white man navigated the high seas putting his life at stake. The white people started with the trade - an economic activity, and then gradually annexed the new territories, and turned them into their colonies, so as to get an absolute economic hold over them. The underlying but clear purpose was to gain economically. Sitting across a big table, the European powers with a pencil and measuring scale in their hand divided a big map of Africa into various regions and then shared them among themselves. The purpose was plain and simple - to gain markets and also to use the wealth of these lands both in the form of natural resources and, for their own economic upliftment. If we carefully read the slogan "No taxation without representation" raised by the American revolutionaries then we clearly see its economic overtones. Even today man is waging the economic war relentlessly and the world is divided into the developed, developing and under-developed nations and the undeveloped nations are fighting hard to become developing nations and the developing ones are making efforts to become developed. The ploy of liberalisation and globalisation today is also a covert step to exploit the under13 developed and developing countries economically. The attack on Kuwait by Saddam Hussain and its defence by the USA, resulting in the Gulf War is another proof of economic undertones behind these events of great significance in our history. Hence economic factors are also, inter alia, at the root of shaping the history of man. To understand and comprehend

history properly and in a befitting manner it is incumbent upon us to read and understand the currents under currents and cross currents caused by economic factors, because, by and large, they have also been at the root of many or most of changes and developments in the history of man. The incontrovertible inference is that history and economics are very closely interrelated.

HISTORY AND LITERATURE History has also very close link with literature. Historical novels, stories and dramas etc. contribute to history in a substantial manner. Sir Walter Scott's and Charles' Dickens' novels give a world of ideas about the contemporary political and social life. Voltair's dramas and Alexander Duma's novels draw richly from historical facts. War and Peace is another great example of such literary works of the highest order. The authors with their powerful imagination and impeccable literary style infuse life into the story. The description, narration and delineation of characters are superb. So the historical events, with the flair of their imagination as well as input of fiction in them, which is within the purview of man of literature, have been presented to us. Even our own literature is replete with powerful and outstanding novels, dramas and stories based on historical events. So in fact literature draws very widely from history. On the other hand, historian draws a lot of information from these historical works, because even though they are fictions, yet sometimes they are based on some historical facts or events. Moreover they supply to the historian a lot of information about the contemporary social, economic and cultural life. A good historian chooses from these write-ups 14 the factual information or what can be accepted as truth, being corroborated by other sources, and leaves out what is a figment of imagination of the author. Thus in one way the historian supplements his information from these literary works and sometimes, reinforces his historical facts on the basis of what he finds in the literary works. Therefore the mutual relationship between history and literature is a well established fact. To substantiate what has been asserted, let us take one or two examples. While discussing the First War of Indian Independence of 1857 we refer to the statement made by Laxmi Bai the Rani (Queen) of Jhansi — "I shall not part with my Jhansi". So a beautiful description rich in its literary style may be given about the thoughts of Rani, and a few couplets from the famous Poem "Jhansi Ki Rani" written by Subhadra Kumari Chauhan be recited to enliven the atmosphere in the class. Take another example of French Revolution. While teaching it a resourceful and intelligent history teacher can richly draw from the novel 'A Tale of Two Cities' to bring home to the students how the people were gullitoned in the streets and market places in Paris by the revolutionaries. And all this clearly proves the contention that history and literature are very closely related to one another.

HISTORY AND SCIENCE Earlier it has been remarked that history is at the centre of all subjects. We have discussed above that history is closely related with humanities, but if we study the subject closely, we shall find that it has close relationship with sciences too. Actually the man's material progress is the story of his scientific inventions and discoveries too. The invention of the wheel, the discovery of fire brought about a revolution in the history of man. Invention of spinning wheel and locomotive etc. also had their effect on history, and even in the present-day-world our inventions of nuclear weapons which may result in mass destruction and other inventions in so many other fields are affecting the history. To illustrate my point, let us take the case of industrialisation—a gift of scientific inventions which 15 ultimately led to colonisation and this changed the course of history of mankind. So history owes a lot to sciences and sciences too have a lot to do with the demands of man—the demand of more power and more prosperity which contribute to history in their own way. Hence, we can also say that sciences and history are also interrelated. In sum it can be said that history is at the heart of all the subjects and Ziller did say the same thing, when he remarked that history is at the centre of all subjects.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS The aforesaid has a clear message for teachers. Realising the close link between history and other subjects, they must religiously forge link with them as and when called for, and it will definitely add lustre and charm to the teaching-learning process. To inspire children, the correlation with other subjects is a must, more so because it is the demand of history and hence in the classroom situation this relationship must be forged by the teacher.

EXERCISE Q. 1. "History is not a subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell". Discuss. Q. 2. Bring out the relationship of history with other subjects of the school curriculum. Q. 3. Since history is closely related to other subjects in the school curriculum, bring out the role of the teacher in the classroom situation to forge this relationship, with appropriate examples. 16

Chapter 3 AIMS OF TEACHING HISTORY INTRODUCTION In the first instance let us briefly consider the importance of "Aims". We know that whatever we do, we do with some purpose. Our actions are guided to attain some objective or aim. They have some purpose. If we come to the school then there is some definite purpose behind it. Actually human life is purposeful and we all have some goals or aims before us. Aims also give us direction. They make our life meaningful and purposeful. Aims also help us to charter out our course of action so that we may not miss our target and get lost in wilderness. If my aim is to become a doctor in my life, then I have to charter out my course of action accordingly, and at appropriate stages of my education offer subjects which may lead to my goal. So I will have to adopt my line of action keeping in view my aim. Thus aim gives purpose and direction to our actions in the life too so that we may not drift aimlessly on the high seas of life.

AIMS OF TEACHING HISTORY Study of the Past If we look at the subject matter of history, we obviously find that it deals with the past. It studies the past as it happened. It is a systematic and objective narrative of the past. But a very 17 serious objection to this aim is raised, when it is said, "Of what use it is to study about the past or the dead who have been consigned to grave or burnt to ashes? Of what use it is to dig out the dead from their graves and uselessly talk about them?" Such questions are often posed by the critics, but they emanate from their ignorance. Actually they do not know what they are saying. If they just pause for a while and seriously give a thought to their utterance they will realise how much mistaken they are. If they put a question to themselves about their dress, their beliefs, their rituals, their food habits and their day-today life style, they will know how important past is to them. All these have been bequeathed to us to a very great extent by the past. We are not animals who do not learn or make any progress. The lion still stalks and kills its prey very precisely in the same way in which the first lion on this planet preyed. But the progress of man from a savage or a cave man to the present day is remarkable. He has been an avid learner right from the very beginning, and he leaves his knowledge to his successors. We are born with a past and we are the heirs of all the ages. Our social formations, political institutions and cultural life is the gift given to us by our forefathers. History is the great preserver of all this treasure. In this endless struggle for the growth and progress in which we are also engaged like our ancestors, the past supplies us with proper guideline. History is the memory of the race, and we all understand and appreciate the role of memory in our life. In Gita, Lord Krishna underlined its importance when he said that with the loss of memory the wisdom departs, and with the departure of wisdom the man is destroyed. We also know that without memory a man is like a traveller who finds himself on crossroads knowing not where from he has come and where he has to go. He is like a ship on the high seas being tossed by high waves, knowing not where-from it has come and where-to it has to go. A society not knowing its history, is a society suffering from amnesia, and we know that people suffering from amnesia lead almost a vegetative or aimless life. Besides it is an established fact, that the knowledge of the past is extremely essential for our further growth. Man learns 18 from his failures, and a people who do not learn from their past mistakes are doomed to suffer. History is the store house

of our failures and successes too. Therefore knowledge of the past is basic to our intelligent existence and history aims at treasuring it for us.

Understand the Present But while advocating the above aim, it has been emphasised that the past helps us to understand the present. We are the offspring of the past. Our present day problems have their genesis in the past. In fact the aim of history is to understand our present. If we can understand it, then we can lead a good and sensible life. It can safely be asserted that the present which is the child of the past, is the real focus of history. When we read about the past in history, the underline aim is to learn about it to shape a better present for ourselves. So the aim of history is to have a better and proper understanding of the present.

Forward Look Aim But to study the past in order to understand the present is only half of the story. We do all this exercise, so that we may learn from the past, learn from our mistakes and thus be well informed, to make a better present and thus pave the way for a still better future. To recapture or reconstruct the past, for the hack of it, is not the purpose of history; it is done in order to make the present devoid of our past mistakes and then prepare the way for a better future. So in brief, history is a continuum; it is an unending current which encompasses in its orbit past, present and future. The examples and incidents of the past blunders and mistakes should be an eye opener for us. For example we did not properly guard our frontiers in the past and suffered miserably for centuries. In the 1999 because of some sort of intransigence or slackness the enemy sneaked into our territory in Kargil area in Kashmir and after lots of sacrifices in terms of man and material we could throw them out, so the 19 lesson for future is to keep them fully guarded so that no enemy could put his unholy foot on the sacred soil of our mother land. Therefore, in short, we can say that history has a wide canvas which accommodates past, present and future. In our classroom teaching, therefore, a conscious effort should be made to help students imbibe this message of history.

National Identity If we refer to the "National Policy on Education - 1986 -Programme of Action" Government of India, we find that, interalia, it emphasises the inclusion of "India's Common Cultural Heritage and Nurturing of National Identity" as important constituents of the core curriculum at school stage. It recommends that the entire school programme should be pervaded with the values specified in the core curriculum. The message, therefore, for the history teacher is also very loud and clear. Through his teaching of history he should consciously try to inculcate the above values in children. He should inspire them to love their mother land, make them feel proud of their country and also help them preserve its culture. Though we talk of many other aims of education but the importance and significance of these values are immense. Though teachers in other areas of study are also supposed to develop these values in children, the contribution of history teacher in this regard is to be very substantial, because history is the subject which takes them to their past with all its glory and all its failures. The knowledge of the greatness of our forefathers as reflected in their great achievements should inculcate in all of us the sense of national pride and their failures and base acts should fill our minds with the feeling of national shame. Needless to say that the feelings of national pride and national shame are the greatest factors to inculcate in children the sense of national identity. Study of history also makes us familiar with our culture. Truly speaking history is the surest instrument and means to inculcate national identity in our children and also preserve our cultural heritage as enshrined in our National Education Policy 1986. 20

DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGINATION A successful person should also be endowed with powerful and rich imagination. A man of imagination can even visualise the events not seen by him. He can reconstruct the past and also fill in the missing links with the help of systematic and logical imagination. Not only this, he can also peep into the future and imagine what would be the possible result or the outcome of an action or thoughts or ideas in circulation today. So to be imaginative is also an attribute of a man of knowledge and a man of understanding. History is a sure means to develop this imagination. A good history text or a good history teacher can and should help the children to see with their mental eyes the troops of Humayun fleeing from the battlefield of Kannauj, or with his imaginative description he can help children see the brute soldiers of Nadir Shah massacring with gay abandon and fiendish brutality the unarmed innocent men, women, young and old in the streets of

Chandni Chowk, or the conflicting ideas assailing the mind of Shivaji while coming down from his fort to meet Afzal Khan and so forth and so on. Besides, about some controversial issues, the student of history evaluates the evidences, weighs them and then with his rich imagination backed by the evidences, tries to reach some logical conclusion. In this way history does aim at enriching and enhancing the imagination of the learner. However, this imagination is to be confined to the parameters of the facts or the data collected empirically and not be allowed to run riot as is the case with a poet or a fiction writer.

CRITICAL THINKING Since history deals with the past, which happened once upon a time, and in many a case painted by different brushes by different people with different perceptions, or buried under layers after layers of the past, it is almost a daunting task to arrive at the truth or unearth it and bring it to light. Being besieged by such a challenging situation, it is essential that history teacher should develop the critical faculty in the child. 21 The child should be trained to keep an open eye and open mind and critically analyse the data or the information, weighing its pros and cons from different angles or points of view. Even small children can be encouraged to raise their doubts and be encouraged to give their own logical conclusions. Hence the aim of history is not to push down the facts through the gullets of children forcibly. It is essential that they develop their crucial faculty because the nature or the subject demands it.

MORAL AIM Some scholars say that one of the aims of teaching history is to inculcate moral values in children. They argue that history is a storehouse containing the deeds of great men, religious leaders, saints, nobles and kings etc. The history of Lord Buddha, Christ, Nanak, Kabir etc. lehve an indelible print on our mind. The greatness of Asoka and Akbar are the object lessons in love, piety, kindness, non-violence and secularism etc. The teachings of Swami Vivekanand and Gandhiji etc. are the beacon lights for the entire human race. Life of Martin Luther has its own message. Abraham Lincoln and his contribution to uphold the dignity of slaves is another example to raise our spirits from the lowly depths to sublime heights. So the history of mankind all over the world is replete with the noble deeds and thoughts of great men in different fields of life. But, if history is to be a true account of what happened then in that case history is also full of instances of man's brutality, wickedness, meanness, treachery, caprice, cunning, deceit and immoral acts. Actually it also tells us about the beastly behaviour of people. In history we read about numerous instances where vice took better of virtue, where deceit, treachery and cunning came out with flying colours, trampling under its feet ruthlessly honesty, integrity and uprightness. Who can forget the treatment meted out to Jalaluddin Khilji by his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khilji, who established a dynasty and ruled over India for about 20 years, quite successfully? Who is not familiar with the cunning and deceit of Clive when he conspired with Mir Jafar and Jagat Seth etc. 22 to bring about the downfall of the Nawab of Bengal and thus laid the foundation of a very big empire for Britishers which lasted for about 200 long years. So history is full of such stories when the unscrupulous had the better of scrupulous, the vice vanquished the virtue and where the kind the noble and the just were humiliated and put to sword in the most inhuman way. And these brutes and savages sat on the destiny of their large subjects for years together enjoying every material comfort of life. Therefore, history also tells us that evil mostly gets better of virtue. It is a different thing that through our treatment of the subject matter we may denigrate the success of the wicked person in spite of the fact that from the point of view of material gains he might have been a great success. To give such a tangent to history would be giving a tangent which obviously is the product of our age-old belief in the sublime values of truth, love, honesty and compassion etc. But this tangent would belittle the achievements of the tyrants which to a very extent would mean negating the truth which is the bedrock of history. Therefore to say that one of the aims of teaching history is to inculcate moral values does not seem to be so easy. Since the ultimate goal of life is and should be moral upliftment, we as teachers should deal with this issue very intelligently. As the votary of truth, we must highlight the successes of monarchs or kings etc., and while doing it, their achievements and accomplishments, if they deserve praise, should be praised, but if they also acted tyrannically, unethically or committed atrocities, as has happened in most of the cases, then this aspect of their personality should also be presented in an objective but clear manner. Thus the teacher should give the complete picture, presenting both sides of

the coin, and then leave the judgment to the children. The teacher, if he chooses, can give his opinion, but he must ensure that is no way it should be an imposition on children. In short he may give freedom to children to have their own value judgment, based on sound and clear logic. 23

INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING Since we also study the history of the world, we learn about men living in different regions of the world and their life style to an extent. We also learn that life style food habits, clothing and dwellings etc. are very much influenced by the geographical conditions of a place and that these conditions differ from place to place. This knowledge creates understanding and appreciation of their style of life and this appreciation and understanding is a sure way to the world peace or international understanding. History also conveys to us the futility of wars, which result in heavy loss of men and material and almost leaves the entire human race bleeding. We also know that the continuation of these destructive tendencies will ultimately lead to the annihilation of the entire human race. We also know fully well that war in future will have "no win" situation for any one. Every one will be a loser. So history is a great help to us to bring about international understanding and thus the world peace.

INCULCATION OF OBJECTIVITY With empiricism and objectivity thrown into the subject matter it creates the habit of objective analysis of the content in a non-biased way using our imagination and this helps us to develop an independent and unbiased mind. In the present day when we live in a democratic set up the inculcation of this trait is extremely needed.

SOURCE OF PLEASURE Study of history in itself gives us a lot of pleasure. We are transported to the past and we can see the characters alive, talking and enacting their roles. This living contact with the dead is an extremely exhilarating experience and is very rewarding. 24

CONCLUSION In short we can say that the aim of teaching history is to create a world order which may be conducive to world peace and which may make this planet a better place to live. How far we shall be able to realise this goal, to a great extent, depends upon our honesty and sincerity in dealing with the subject matter in the right spirit.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS The teacher should make a careful note of the above aims of teaching of history. He should keep in mind that his teaching should not be confined to the past alone, it should take in its stride the understanding of the present so that we may build up a better future. He should also strive to realise all the aims referred to above such as development of national identity, imagination, critical thinking, international understanding and objectivity. With regard to inculcation of moral values, he should handle this issue very sensibly keeping in mind the fact that history is replete with such characters and instances where evil triumphed over virtue. Anyway teacher should try to realise the above aims through his teaching in a subtle way.

EXERCISE Q. 1. "History is a continuum encompassing past, present and also future". Discuss. Q. 2. "The aim of teaching history in our schools is to nurture national identity as mentioned in the core curriculum suggested in our National Education Policy, 1986". Discuss.

Q. 3. "The aim of teaching history in our schools is to develop in our children the power of imagination, critical thinking and inculcation of international understanding". Discuss. Q. 4. Discuss different aims of teaching history in the school. 25

Chapter 4 SYLLABUS OF HISTORY INTRODUCTION The purpose of discussing the syllabus of history here is not to discuss in detail the principles which determine the preparation of a syllabus. We intend to briefly touch upon them and then deal with the ways in which History syllabus is framed. The dictionary meaning of the world syllabus is "a series of topics prescribed for a course of study in a particular class in a particular subject". Here our focus will be on history.

PRINCIPLES OF SYLLABUS CONSTRUCTION Broadly speaking while framing the syllabus we must keep in mind the age, capacity, capability and total load of differe subjects on the children for whom it is meant. Since the basic principle of any or every good education is that it should be child-centred, it is very essential that in every respect he should be the main focus. To give an example, at the primary and upper primary level history should mainly concern itself with the stories of great men, women, leaders and their contribution to the society during their times. The content should have simple but interesting narrative not demanding reflection. However, at the secondary level the content may demand some sort of logical and analytical thinking with more and more of information keeping in view the capacity of children. The other important principle is, the demand and nature 26 of the subject. We have to carefully decide as to what should be included and what may be excluded without compromising with the demand of the subject. To give an example, it will be unnecessary and superfluous to give the details about the number of soldiers or guns or horses etc. used in war or battle. For example we can always omit minor incidents in the course of a revolution or a battle such as minor skirmishes between the British army and Indian armed soldiers during the 1857 war of independence without breaking the continuity of the story. In this way we can reduce the load on children and make the learning enjoyable and manageable. By and large, the worst thing about the selection of facts in our text-books is that we stuff too many unnecessary facts in too small period of time span and thus make the content boring and unpalatable for the young children. So an extremely intelligent and judicious selection of the content is a real challenge for the framers of the syllabus. However, with this brief preface with regard to some of the principles to be followed to make the syllabus, it would be proper to consider the ways or methods which we follow to make the syllabus of history.

CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD History as we know is an account of the past. Now the events in the past happened in a time span and this time span has its own unalterable order or sequence. Hence a popular method is to select the facts and present them in the sequence in which they actually happened. In this method the content comes before us one after another maintaining the continuity of the time or chronology. In short what happened first comes first and what happened next comes next. The advocates of this approach say that it is also in consonance with the Cultural Epoch Theory of Stanley Hall. This theory, in brief says that before attaining adulthood a man passes through several stages of development such as infancy, childhood, adolescence and the adulthood. He further says that these stages of development synchronises with man's cultural development as reflected in the history of human race, for 27 instance our pre-historic period is his infancy, then the growth of civilisation thereafter, is his childhood, and the medieval

world is his adolescence and the modern period is his adulthood. So a child during his growth recapitulates all these periods of man's cultural growth as reflected in his history. However, it can safely be remarked that to forge such a relationship with history ostensibly seems to be an imposed one. By no stretch of arguments or imagination our infancy could be compared with the barbaric or savage state of man during the pre-historic period. Moreover our ancient civilisations were highly developed and sophisticated and therefore cannot be compared with the childhood of man's cultural development. Moreover even the psychologists do not give credence to Stanley's theory. So it is better to leave it at that.

Merits However, it would be advisable to evaluate this chronological approach. It seems to be a natural arrangement of the events of the past because here we place them chronologically in the order in which they actually occurred. Therefore, this approach maintains and ensures a continuity and on the canvas events appear in the order in which they took place. This avoids confusion.

Shortcomings However, as said above we recount the events in the order in which they occurred, but this does not allow us to build a thematic approach. For instance it will not allow us to deal with the Religious Policy of the Mughals - a well knit and complete theme in a compact form. It will no doubt cover it, but it will be done in fragments. For instance while dealing with Babar, we shall study about his early life, conquests, administration, foreign relations, religious policy etc. and almost under the same headings we shall study about other rulers who succeeded him. So a student while reading his textbook will find the religious policy of each king separated from 28 others because of the description of so many other events. So the religious policy of the Mughals, which could have been dealt as one unified coherent and compact unit becomes disjointed because of the arrangement of the syllabus. However, it may be argued that the teacher should forge this linkage while discussing these topics in the classroom. He should from time to time, while dealing with each ruler, put an extra brick or storey to complete the edifice. Ostensibly it is challenging and for children to recall every time what was done by earlier rulers, and then reconstruct the theme again and again will be an arduous task. To go back in the memory lane each time, to locate what was done by the earlier ruler and then to weave the fabric again and again bit by bit will be a difficult exercise for children. Therefore the topical approach, about which we shall study in this chapter, may be given due consideration. It is also feared that the chronological approach will result into the reproduction of bare events and thus history will turn into a drudgery.

CONCENTRIC METHOD Under this dispensation entire history is taught to children in a concentrated form repeatedly, though with different levels of difficulty and with more and, more details thrown in higher classes, for example students are called upon to study the entire history of India at higher primary stage (VI-VIII) then again at lower secondary stage (IX-X) and again at the senior secondary stage (XI-XII).

Merits The advocates of this method say that in our Constitution compulsory education is to be provided to every child till the age of 14 years, that is, upto Class VIII. In other words, it can be safely assumed that a large number of our children will leave the portals of schools and enter on the responsibilities of life after Class VIII. Keeping this fact in view, it becomes necessary that every child should be exposed to our entire historical past though in a limited way, and that will be a great asset for these youngsters — the citizens of tomorrow. However, it may be 29 once again repeated that the content would be made more and more detailed as children move to higher classes. Since the content is repeated again and again it gets easily stuck up in the minds of children and so history becomes a part of their personality.

Moreover in this scheme the level of difficulty can be raised keeping in view the capacity and capability of children. So this approach is more child centred and hence psychological in nature.

Shortcomings But this dispensation has its own weaknesses. To repeat the game story again and again means creating no inquisitiveness in the minds of children and thus boredom is caused. The subject matter will appear stale, it will lose its freshness and therefore its appeal. The repetition, as we know, is by and large a drudgery. It is the easiest of all things to say that the subject matter in its graded level of difficulty would be presented before the children, but to decide as to upto what extent one should cover the events of history and upto what depth, is a very intricate and difficult proposition. It is very easy to propound this principle but very difficult and arduous to give it a practical shape. Since too much is to be covered in too small a time, it may become a burden for children. To study the history of about 3500 years in one go, is a daunting task and the sufferer is the child, more so when history upto Class X is not a separate subject but a part of Social Sciences which includes Civics, Geography, Economics in addition to History.

TOPICAL METHOD Another method of selection of content is Topical Method. A particular topic is taken up and its development in all its facets is dealt with, without dealing with the entire history or other events of that particular period. For example, let us take the 30 case of the Rajput Policy of the Mughals. Here we begin with Babar and go right upto Aurangzeb and in a sequential manner we trace the policy of these rulers. This approach is quite systematic and presents a well connected and well knit picture on the canvas without any interference from other events not related to it.

Merits This approach has its own advantages. A particular topic or theme or movement is traced throughout the length of time. So a complete and integrated picture emerges in its varied facets and its influence on the society or polity becomes quite evident. It also generates interest in children because the focus on a particular issue is continuous and uninterrupted with no interference from other contemporary events not related with the topic.

Shortcomings However, this approach has its shortcomings too. As stated above the Rajput Policy from Babar to Aurangzeb is traced in a logical and systematic way but during the same period many other things too happened such as Babar's conquests, Humayun's difficulties, and Sher Shah's administration and so forth and so on. Out of such a cluster of important events we pick up only one important segment, ignoring the rest and so a total picture of the events happening in a particular period of time is not taken care of. The result is that students do not get the gestalt view of the happenings of that period. And this is a serious handicap of this approach. Besides, this approach generally lays more emphasis on social aspects of history e.g. Bhakti movement, condition of farmers or the Agrarian policy, Development of Art and Architecture etc. In a way it places the political history on the back burner whereas we know that political history is also very important. 31

REGRESSIVE METHOD This is another method to select the content of history. In this arrangement the present day problems or institutions are the starting point. We begin with their study and problems connected with them and as these institutions or problems are the gift of the past to us, we make an inroad into the past and study about them in their past setting and thus try to comprehend them fully with regard to their growth whose culmination is their present'day status.

Merits

This approach makes history meaningful and purposeful. We can see the clear link of the present with the past. We comprehend the past with more understanding. History no longer remains a study of the dead as is labelled by its critics.

Shortcomings But this method has its own critics. It is said that it makes us obsessed with the past. Though we start with the present, yet our concentration gets focussed on the past and a feeling is created in the children that the dead rule the living. Moreover it does not leave much scope to develop futuristic outlook. In a way our ideas get so much entangled with the past that the future which we should try to build up is neglected and becomes a casualty. In short it blocks the futuristic vision of the child, whereas any or every system of good education or even the study of history should help us build a bright and prosperous future.

SYLLABUS OF CBSE In our country different states have their own syllabus. It is not possible or feasible to comment on each one of them. However, an attempt has been made to briefly give the syllabus of CBSE from VI Class to X Class with its appraisal too. Class VI - From Pre-Historic Culture of India to 800 A.D. 32 Class VII - Medieval India - Including Asia in Medieval Times, Arab Empire, Europe in Medieval Times – Feudalism, Turks etc. and India from 800 A.D. to Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Class VIII- India and the Modern World till 1947 and also integration of Princely States and liberation of French and Portuguese Colonies. Lower Secondary Stage - Classes IX and X Semester I - Pre History to Medieval World Semester II - Beginning of Modern Age to Imperialism Semester III - The Contemporary World Semester IV - India - The Cultural Heritage, Indian Awakening and Indian Struggle for Freedom

ITS APPRAISAL A cursory look at this arrangement shows that a child upto Class VIII learns about the history of India from pre-historic times to Medieval India and then to Modern India, with some information thrown in about Europe and Asia and also about the modern world. The purpose is clear. It is to bring home to him the entire history of India with some rudimentary knowledge of the world. Now as per our constitutional directive every child is supposed to study upto the age of 14 years and this generally coincides with the end of Class VIII. So a reasonably good attempt is made to familiarise him with our history and a sprinkling of world history so that to a sufficient extent the child may be well equipped to carry on with his duties as an informed citizen. In Classes IX and X again he is exposed to the history of the world from pre-historic times and then to contemporary world and finally to our cultural heritage and our struggle for independence. So the child learns about the growth of civilisations in different parts of the world and this develops in him the liberal outlook and then his exposure to the contemporary world helps him to understand to some extent the plight in which the entire human race finds itself in the present. Along with this he also learns about our cultural 33 heritage and our struggle for independence and thus the child gets a brief idea of the history of the world with somewhat deeper understanding about our own country and this is a sure step in the direction of nurturing in him a common national identity and love for our culture. The selection of content appears to be quite satisfactory, but in passing it may be said that it is too much for the child and it is a challenge for the history text-book writer to condense the subject matter as much as possible without compromising

with the continuity of the story.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS Teachers must have the understanding and knowledge that the presentation of subject matter of history in the form of syllabus can be organised in different ways. They should also know about the merits and shortcomings of each approach. He should therefore choose the approach or a combination of approaches, which to his mind will be most effective during his interaction with the children in the classroom.

EXERCISE Q. 1. What is a Syllabus? Give some broad principles of framing history syllabus at the school stage. Q. 2. What are the different approaches of framing history syllabus? Give briefly their merits and shortcomings. Q. 3. Give briefly a critical appraisal of the school syllabus from VI to X Class of the CBSE or (of your own State). 34

Chapter 5 METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY INTRODUCTION Let us first of all realise and appreciate the fact that different methods are employed by us to achieve our aims. In our context we have already highlighted the aims of teaching history in an earlier chapter and the methods we employ must help us to realise them. It is a very sad and pathetic fact that when we talk of methods we forget the basic fact that they are tools or means to help us realise the goals. By and large we talk about methods in abstraction but here an attempt has been made to relate them to the aims of teaching history. Later on their real application has been attempted in the chapter in which lesson plans have been prepared. However, while using any method principles of learning should always be kept in mind and the basic principle is that it should be child-centred. It should generate interest in him. It should raise his perceptive mass and inspire him to learn. We all know very well that our teaching should be learning based, meaning thereby, that it must create in the child an urge to learn and imbibe knowledge and naturally it means his full and active participation in the teaching-learning process. Therefore any or every method should cater to this basic principle of learning. Besides the method should also suit the subject matter. 35

TEXT-BOOK METHOD In the first instance let us understand that a text-book is prescribed for a class so that the teacher and the children may know the content and its scope. It also helps them not to get into digression. Besides, it is always available with them and so they can consult it again and again to refresh their memory.

The Text-Book Method — (The Acceptable Procedure) Text-book method is one of the oldest methods of teaching. The procedure is like this — the teacher calls upon children to come to the class after studying the content at home. Thus the students get acquainted with the subject matter. When they come to the classroom, the teacher after proper introduction of the lesson presents the content step by step in a logical, systematic and effective manner or else asks some students to present the events in their sequence, but in between, the narrative is punctuated with questions. Since children are acquainted with the content they can reproduce it. But such questions will only be the test of their memory so questions should mainly be directed towards their capacity to analyse and critically interpret the facts learnt by them from their history text-book. In this way they should be called upon to probe into the 'why' or 'how' of the event or the situation. For instance if the class is studying about Asoka's war with Kalinga, then the teacher may put this question to them, "Why did Asoka attack that small kingdom"? In the course of the development of the lesson they may be asked to answer the question, "Why did a change occur in the perception of Asoka"? So this procedure would compel children to think to probe and analyse the facts and thus they would become an

active participant in the teaching-learning process. This approach will help them to imbibe the subject matter for good, or in other words the matter will get etched up in their mind because now they see the fact in its proper perspective. Therefore the text-book method can briefly be described as a method which calls upon children to learn the matter at home and then discuss the why of the content in its several dimensions in the classroom. This approach is 36 the real Text-book method (The acceptable procedure) of teaching history at the school stage.

The Distorted Version of the Method But the ground reality is most heart rending and unpalatable as for decades together the method is being used in the most distorted way and countless children of this country, with some exceptions, are being subjected to it. The procedure generally is somewhat like this — the teacher asks children to open their books and then read aloud the content as if it were a language class. When the reading is over the teacher asks them to turn to questions given at the end of the lesson and tells them to underline the lines or the portion that would fit into the question. The students are expected to mug them up without understanding anything and reproduce them, as such, in the examination. So in short the entire procedure is only content centred. The students are kept passive and there is hardly any academic interaction between the teacher and the class. In short it is the very anti-thesis of child-centred approach in education. The entire process is monotonous and against the basic principles of good teaching.

Critical Estimate (a) The real text-book method (The acceptable approach) to be followed The real text-book method (The acceptable approach) which calls upon the children to read the content at home and come duly prepared to the class, and followed by thought provoking questions is quite interesting and acceptable. Questions prompt the children to think critically and systematically and the ensuing discussion helps them to consider things in a logical way. It also makes them think about the cause and effect relationship. It thus broadens the outlook of children. It also generates a healthy learning atmosphere in the class and this leads to arouse in students a liking and love towards the subject itself. 37 But the distorted method, referred to above, is slowly, steadily and surely creating an atmosphere of revulsion towards the subject. Children virtually start hating the subject because the facts of history are presented to them in the most insipid and detested manner through the cold print of the book. The words of the print become meaningless to students and the life, action and vibrancy behind these words get buried deep into the ground because of the inaction of the teacher. Actually the content is forced down the gullets of children and they are forced to swallow it without comprehending anything. The only purpose is to cover the course, and make them mug up things in a mechanical way so as to reproduce them at the time of examinations. The revulsion towards the subject created by this approach is a common place knowledge. In fact this approach is steadily but surely sounding the dealt knell of the subject.

Conclusion In brief it can be said that the teacher and the school system should immediately stop this distorted version of text-book method and bury it so deep that it may never surface again. However, the real method, discussed above, may be adopted by the teacher and for this a teacher should be very well informed so that he may be able to take care of different perceptions of children which would surface during the thought provoking discussions.

QUESTION-ANSWER METHOD Child is born with an inquisitive mind. He is curious by nature. He wants to know more and more and still more. He questions about everything that he sees around him or what he experiences. He seeks answers to his questions and his insatiable curiosity is the mother of all knowledge. A teacher has, therefore, to make use of this God given attribute of the human nature. An eminent scholar highlighted this phenomenon when he remarked that he had six faithful servants — 'why', 'what', 'who', 'when', 'where' and 'how'.

38 And every teacher worth his salt knows their significance and makes best use of them. They all point towards the art of questioning in the process of teaching. A history teacher should also use this method to be successful and effective. In brief this method adopts more or less this procedure. The teacher prepares his lesson in advance to equip himself with the details of the subject matter and also with other related information which may be useful to throw more light on the content. After the usual brief introduction in the class, he makes a beginning and then during the course of the development of the lesson he puts questions off and on to involve the students actively in the teaching-learning activity. He carefully tackles with their views or reactions and then again puts supplementary questions to help them see more light and then again with his narrative proceeds further and this cycle goes on throughout the period. In short the start is made with a brief narrative interspersed by questions and answers and then further narrative thus involving almost every one. The teacher takes full care that because of the interjection of questions and answers no break may be allowed to occur in the sequence or the continuity of the subject matter. If there occurs any digression because of the responses of the children then the teacher should take care of it and through his narrative build a suitable bridge and bring back the discussion on the rails. To illustrate the above, let us take an example. Suppose we are dealing with the causes of the downfall of the Mughal Empire. After a brief introduction the teacher may ask the class, "What was the religious policy of Aurangzeb? What was the religious policy of Akbar? What difference do you see between the two? What would be the reaction of the Hindus towards the treatment meted out to them by Aurangzeb? The teacher after receiving answers from the children would weave them in the story and maintain the continuity. For greater clarity let us take another example. Suppose we are teaching about Alexander's invasion on India. The teacher with the help of a suitable map shows Taxila to the students and asks them what should the ruler of Taxila do when 39 Alexander is ready to invade his kingdom with a large army? Naturally most of the students would say that he should fight against him. But the teacher while accepting their answer would tell them that Ambhi on the other hand accepted his subjugation. Then the teacher can talk of Porus and ask them as what he should have done in the given situation. Perhaps the children would again say that Porus should fight against the invader. A good teacher can also ask them to give the character of these two Indian rulers, on the basis of what they did. And with constant 'give and take activity' in the class the teacher in a participatory way builds up his lesson. Children here react to a situation presented to them by the teacher but teacher supplies them with the fact of history. So the entire exercise consists of questions, answers and narrative of the teacher and so almost every one participates in this process.

Critical Estimate (a) The most effective method The above method does not need any electronic or other costly gadgets, though they are not a taboo. The truth is that any ingenious teacher without incurring any extra expenditure on so-called modern costly equipments or apparatuses can use it with utmost of efficacy. In short it is effective without being expensive - the real need of our country. It is child-centred. It is a participative device in which child is an active learner. He is called upon to critically analyse the situation presented before him by the teacher. He logically thinks over it and considers various aspects of it in his own way and then reacts to it as if he himself was occupying the centre of the stage. It also develops in him the power of imagination. With his mind's eye he can visualise the things happening before him and he virtually gets immersed in the learning process, because he is being asked to actively come in grips with the situation or the problem. 40 In short, it can be said that this method is an exercise in joy. The child is given the understanding that in the pursuit of new knowledge he is a co-traveller with the teacher and this develops in him immense self confidence. Moreover the subject of history becomes a source of pleasure and joy. And the greatest achievement of any or every teacher is to make the learning experience joyous. (b) Some objections raised against this method

But this age old method has fallen on evil days because the teachers assert that this is slow and time consuming. They argue that it will not permit them to finish course in time. It is also argued that if the facts are presented in their total setting, tracing their causes, etc. then children would not be able to retain the facts of the history and their mind would get entangled in the interesting background only. One more objection to this approach emanates from the fact that the teachers are very much obsessed with the examination system which calls for facts of history in a cut and dry fashion, so as to fit into the questions set by examiners. An abundance of guides and note books with questions and their crisp answers bear eloquent proof of the phenomenon. Some teachers say that this approach would result in guessing game and children would come out with wild guesses. So according to them the net result would be the wastage of precious time and also a lot of digression. However, it may be stated that these objections have hardly any substance. First of all, to raise the bogey of finishing the course in time tantamounts to the fact that we are not at all concerned with the child. "Is our aim confined to pushing the subject matter down the throat of the child forcibly or to make him a co-traveller in the pursuit of gaining knowledge". The answer is obvious. Then to say that it is time consuming, is ridiculous. The boot is actually on the other foot. Since the method involves the students in the development of the lesson in a very active manner and as it arouses their interest they are able to 41 comprehend and understand the things very rapidly and also imbibe it. And in any case it is hundred times better than dictating them dull and second hand notes or asking them to read the subject matter aloud in the class and then asking them to underline the relevant lines which would fit into some questions given by the teacher. Then to argue that this approach to present the fact in its total context with a proper and appropriate background may lead children to retain or remember the interesting background only and not the fact of history, has hardly any validity. This argument hardly carries any conviction. If we give some description of Shivaji's state of mind and precautions taken by him before meeting Afzal Khan then it would help students to retain permanently the fact that "Shivaji killed Afzal Khan". So this background is needed to bring to the real focus the truth or the fact of history. Hence this argument has no substance. As regards the compulsions of examination system it has some meaning. Actually the school takes pride in flaunting its good or excellent result. Even the worth or competence of a teacher is assessed on the basis of the result of the examination. In fact examination results have become the sole criterion of the excellence of a school. Questions set in the question papers, by and large, call for mugged up answers within ten or twenty words. Therefore Examination Boards of different states should bring about a change in their style or approach and see that more and more questions seeking the logical and systematic thinking on the part of the children find their place in the question paper. We must appreciate the fact that we should produce thinking citizens in our country and not the ones who just like machine reproduce what they have mugged up. Those who say that it would lead to a guessing game and thus history would become the real sufferer, perhaps do not know what they are saying. History is nothing but a guessing exercise done even by eminent scholars on the basis of evidences available to them. No historian was ever present on the scene when an event took place, perhaps in most of the cases it happened much earlier before he was born. But he builds up the story in an authentic way with his rich 42 imagination on the basis of the data available to him. After all Clio is the daughter of Muse and Memory according to Greek mythology. So History which is related to Clio must have a rich incidence of Muse in it and this calls for imagining the scenario within the parameter of the facts collected by the historian. Therefore if we ask our children also to do the same exercise on the basis of the situation or facts presented by the teacher then where is the harm? On the other hand by not giving the child opportunity to muse over the situation we do a positive disservice to him and to the subject as well. (c) Some Precautions to be Taken This approach needs some precautions. In a situation presented by the teacher in the classroom there can be several responses to a question because human mind is extremely creative and innovative and sometimes most uncommon and incredible answers can come from the children. To illustrate this point let us refer to Alexander's advance towards

Ambhi's kingdom with his army. In response to the question "What should Ambhi do? A child can say, "He would run away". Now such an answer does fit into the scope of the question and the teacher should accept it and then tell the class, "He could have done it but he preferred to welcome him and surrendered before him". As such the teacher should keep an open mind and receive the wrong or partly wrong or correct answers with grace and put supplementary questions or else give the fact of the history in a pleasant and winning way. Secondly the teachers should always keep in mind that these questions and answers should not lead to a break in the continuity of the lesson. Through his brief intervention he should weave the whole thing in the required pattern. Therefore he has got to be very vigilant and alert and should also be very well informed. Besides this, the teacher should follow the maxims of teaching — 'From the known to the unknown; From concrete to abstract, From particular to general, From induction to deduction' etc. However, sometimes he can give the 43 consequences of a situation and then ask children to think of the causes. In short, the questions should be based on what they know or understand and on the basis of it they may be ushered into the world of the unknown facts of history which constitute the part of new knowledge. In short, if we really want history teaching-learning process to be a source of joy and pleasure then we shall have to adopt the above method. It will make the subject vibrant with life and vigour which in reality it is, and which we have snatched away from it by our most unacademic and lifeless approach.

Conclusion In short, this is one of the best methods of teaching history. If we really want to put the history on its rightful pedestal, then teachers with full sincerity and dedication will have to adopt this method in their classrooms.

LECTURE METHOD One of the most commonly used methods of teaching history is 'lecture method'. Though we endlessly eulogise the child centred approach, yet with gay abandon we use this method which is basically teacher-centred. In this method, the teacher comes prepared with the content, and inflicts a lecture on the students explaining the content at great length and children passively listen to him. Sometimes a conscientious teacher may throw a question here or there, otherwise it is teachercentred and generally gives him full and complete scope to hear his own voice only. Thus there is activity in the class but that is limited to teacher alone. Since most of us have been subjected to this method in our school days, we know, being the victims, that, it creates monotony and a positive disliking for the subject. If some of us did pursue our study of this subject then it was in spite of the treatment given to the subject by our teachers and not because of it. 44

Critical Estimate However, advocates of this method defend it with some arguments. They assert that if this method is followed then the course can be covered well in time. Moreover a good lecture if properly and effectively delivered can attract the attention of children. Besides, some children learn better by hearing the word in place of reading it from the print. And the fact is, that in many a case spoken word is more effective than the printed word. It also gives them training in patience, because they have to listen to the lecture patiently. This is what they are expected to do when they grow up because in a democracy we have to learn to hear the other person with patience. In some cases a good lecture stimulates and inspires children to gather more information on their own. It may also inspire them to learn the art of lecturing with proper pauses and modulation in their voice. So it can inspire them to develop this skill. However, the fact is that the so-called merits of the method cited above have no substance in them. To assert that we can cover the course quickly is the gross negation of good teaching. It means that the teacher is only concerned with the content of the course and not at all bothered about children for whom the course has been prescribed.

It is true that many of us may learn more effectively by listening to what teacher says in the class but children go to school to have interaction with teacher. One of the most important function of the teacher is to act as a guide and as a philosopher and not to inflict lengthy lectures on children. To listen to the lecture of the teacher is a punishment because children cannot concentrate too long on talks passively. Hence this argument that they can learn easily from the lectures holds little water. Moreover, if it were so, then a teaching machine delivering a full recorded lecture could be more effective. Then to say that it gives them training in listening to others' ideas patiently is ostensibly a very funny argument. Children are not sent to school as dumb sheep, or empty vessels in which 45 ideas or information is to be poured in. They go there for the development of their personality through active interaction with others including teachers. They go there to learn as to how to present their own point of view, as well as to listen to others' point of view, with an open mind and not to listen to the views of others with no interaction whatsoever. No doubt a good lecture stimulates and inspires but in order to inspire students, a teacher must seek children's involvement through crisp and thought provoking questions. It may once again be repeated that question-answer approach does not deny the opportunity to teacher to give short narratives.

Conclusion In sum it may be stated that at school stage lecture method, as such, should not be used. Let students be active participants in the quest of knowledge and so teaching should be no longer teaching but a teaching-learning venture in which both children and teacher actively participate. Hence lecture method which is primarily teacher-centred should be discarded.

PROJECT METHOD Project Method is the contribution of pragmatism — a school of thought. In brief it is primarily based on the principle of utility. It says that whatever is good is useful and whatever is useful is good. It wants education to be goal oriented. It does not subscribe to the adage, "Knowledge for the sake of knowledge. On the other hand it insists that knowledge should be purposeful. Naturally therefore, it wants education to be activity based to attain our well articulated purpose or goal. As such children take up a project to fulfil their felt need. But before describing the project method let us first of all understand, 'What a project is'? In this context it would be proper to refer to the definition given by C.V. Good. He says, "A project is a significant unit activity having educational value and aimed at one or more definite goals of understanding. It involves investigation and solution of problems and frequently the use and manipulation 46 of physical material. It is planned and carried to completion by the pupils and the teacher in a natural life like manner". In short it means learning by doing and not through the discourses of the teacher in the classroom. The procedure adopted is like this. The teacher looking at the requirement of the course, initiates discussion on some topic. Children start coming out with their own opinions and views and thus there is an interaction in the class. Suddenly children come face to face with a problem arising out of their discussion and it calls for sustained work and collection of relevant information from different sources and agencies. Thus a felt need takes birth in the classroom. Then children start making a plan to resolve the problem. Various aspects of the problem emerge in the course of making the plan. Then children divide themselves in different groups, each group taking the responsibility to look after their own small area. Details of the execution of the plan are worked out sitting in the classroom by children themselves. The role of the teacher is only to help and guide and give his expert advice as and when he feels its necessity. But nothing is imposed upon children. After that children execute the plan. Thereafter each group prepares its report and then one whole report is prepared and presented before the whole class. Students again get the chance to highlight their achievement and their shortcomings so that next time the mistakes may not be repeated. In history a teacher can think of several projects such as a study of the monuments built by the Mughals in Delhi. For children of Delhi schools it would be a very interesting project, then there can be projects like Bhakti Movement, 'The Marathas after Shivaji to the third battle of Panipat'. Of course it would entail a good deal of field work to collect information but it would be self rewarding and very educative.

Critical Estimate Ostensibly the project method is very effective and useful. First of all the learning experience becomes goal oriented to fulfil a felt need. It is no longer knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Besides, it is learning through self directed activity. 47 It also turns the child into a discoverer. He is no longer a passive recipient of knowledge, on the other hand he acquires information which turns into knowledge because it is self acquired. Since children work in smaller groups they develop a sense of cooperation. They also learn how to interact with one another and also with the agencies or people whom they contact to collect information. Children also enjoy freedom. No doubt they seek and get guidance and expert advice from the teacher yet they are free to have their own way. Besides they are also free to have their own inferences on the basis of their perception of the information supported by their own arguments. Thus, in short it is a democratic style of learning and so a lesson in democratic way of life.

Limitations Actually the method is child and activity-centred, yet the project may come in the way of the continuity in history. A project may leave many loose ends open or unattended to. Knowledge thus gained becomes therefore scrappy. As said earlier, children and teacher will have to put in extra labour to complete the project. In our school system children are whole time students in the sense that they are to remain in the school from first period to the last period. They study according to a fixed time-table. If they are allowed to move out of the school during school hours then it would disturb the whole working of the school. Naturally it means that children by and large will have to devote extra time to complete the project without disturbing the school schedule, or else schools should organise themselves in such a way that many children may remain out of it. This needs a great overhauling in the school administrative practices. Perhaps we are not at all prepared for it. It is also feared that under this dispensation, shirkers may not work and enjoy themselves by remaining in the background. Moreover because of their zeal and exuberance 48 some students may not give opportunity to backward and slow learners to come forward. So this is a great danger and a skilful and intelligent teacher should take care of this shortcoming.

Conclusion A careful perusal of the above will lead us to the conclusion that in our school setting with its fixed time-table and schedule it will not be possible to adopt this method, but with a little modification here or there we can adapt it. In our country we have short vacations and long vacations. In the classroom a teacher can discuss and help children to prepare a plan of the project and then they may be asked to complete it during their vacations. In this way the project can be taken up by children without disturbing the school schedule. So history teacher with a vision can give a trial to this method keeping in view the constraints in which they work. One thing which will always help us and our teachers is to adapt the methods given to us by the western thinkers and educationists and not follow them in to because we have our own limitations and constraints and therefore a proper compromise should always be made.

UNIT METHOD Introduction To understand the term 'Unit' let us refer to C.V. Good who in his 'Dictionary of Education' defines it as "a major subdivision in history, Practical arts or sciences". So unit is a small segment of the course complete in itself with no gaps, giving us a continuous and uninterrupted information related to the topic. It has a definite theme such as Bhakti Movement, Mughal's Administration, Rise and fall of the Sikhs etc. Thus it has a well spelt out focus and it concentrates on it, leaving aside other events or information of the contemporary period not related to it. Its focus is well defined or well articulated and the aim is to do as much in-depth study as possible. It is also relevant for the class.

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How to Form Units Units are formed by the teacher to help children to learn the content more effectively. The purpose is to give them suitable learning experience focussed on a definite issue and place them in the position of an active learner and not a passive recipient of information. In consonance with the above principle the units should be child-centred, or while forming them we should keep in mind age, capacity, capability and interest of children, for instance the level of difficulty should be less for smaller children whereas it may be more challenging for senior classes. The units should have a direct relationship with the whole syllabus. It should be an integral part of it, and its study should result in better understanding of the whole course. While formulating a unit, teacher should himself be well informed and well read and should be well familiar with the sources from where relevant information may be collected by children without much difficulty. He should always keep in his mind that his role is that of a guide, so as to ease their difficulty, and make their quest of knowledge a voyage into a pleasurable adventure. A good unit must involve a lot of active work on the part of children. It must put them on the high road of discovering facts and it should also give them opportunity to establish linkages with the relevant facts falling in the domain of any other subject. It should also give them opportunity to correlate history with other subjects, wherever possible and necessary, history should be correlated with Geography or Civics or Economics or literature etc. Since it is goal-centred or purposeful, its completion should give them satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment and this sense inspires one to work still harder and harder and reach higher and higher goals.

Steps of Unit Method At this stage let us discuss the method itself. H.C. Morrison in this context suggested some steps. They are: 50 (a) Exploration — The teacher takes up a unit and discusses it in a formal way in the classroom seeking the full participation of the children. He can also ask them to write whatever they know about the subject matter related to the unit. Having known the background of the class, teacher is in a position to motivate them still further to collect more information. He also tells them the name of books, journals or magazines or other sources from where more information can be gathered. (b) Presentation — After this the teacher in a short and crisp way presents a bare outline of the content. In this way children have a sketchy outline of the matter sans details. Thus the teacher convinces himself that the children have been sufficiently motivated to explore the new knowledge by themselves. Then he asks them to go ahead with the job. (c) Assimilation — The children through their own efforts collect the relevant information from different sources, they discus about the content among themselves, they write their own papers and all this they do with the active guidance of the teacher. The teacher goes through their study sheets, asks them to refer to more sources if need be and also seek cooperation from one another. In this way they are put on the high road of self learning. (d) Organisation — Then every child is asked to prepare a systematic and well organised version of his findings. This write-up can very well reveal as to how far he has been able to comprehend and imbibe the content of the unit. Teacher can still at this stage give him some more concrete suggestions for further improvement if needed. (e) Report Presentation — In the end individual pupil gives a presentation of what he has done. This may also involve some discussion from others.

Critical Estimate In short this approach is child-centred and hence learning/ 51

learner oriented. It is activity based and children no longer remain passive learner, they on the other hand become discoverer of knowledge. The learning becomes interesting and also helps children to be creative. Children also learn to share their experiences and views with other members of the class They indulge in healthy discussions where freedom is given to them and an exchange of ideas at academic and intellectual plane takes place. These features of Unit Method helps them to develop a healthy and wholesome democratic outlook. In addition to this they also get training in cooperation and fellow feeling. Children are given due opportunity to work according to their own pace. They tackle with the problem according to their own perception and thus their individuality is granted full scope to grow No doubt we talk at length about Unit as a method but the truth is that unit is an organisation of syllabus in a specific way. On the pain of repetition it may be stated that it is a subdivision of the syllabus. The method followed requires a lot of self study on the part of students. It entails collection of data from different sources and it would mean extra work and hence putting in extra hours of work even beyond school hours. So it can create problems in the school schedule which is by and large fixed and followed religiously. The method adopts a thematic approach. So the unit runs vertically through the time span — focussing on one aspect only which is the main theme of the unit. For instance if the unit is on the Rajput Policy of the Mughals from Babar to Akbar, then the main focus will be on the Rajput Policy of the kings during this period ignoring many other important events which took place during this period. Hence the chronology of history would be a casualty and it may create a lot of confusion in the minds of children.

Conclusion In the and it may be suggested that this method may be used 52 with regard to a few topics. But before taking it up an outline of the entire unit may be given by the teacher, so that children may have an overview of the entire content. And thereafter the students be motivated to gather information in detail from various sources, and finally make a presentation thereof. It may also be borne in mind that in the teaching of history a teacher should use as many methods or devices as needed according to the need of the lesson and not religiously follow one and only one approach. Ultimately the aim is learning on the part of children, and to achieve it, there can always be more than one method or approach.

SOURCE METHOD Introduction As stated again and again, history is a record of the past, and a good and honest historian always tries to present it in an untainted way. His efforts are to present it in the form in which things actually happened. But to say so, is the easiest of all things but to translate it into action is a Herculean task. No historian who writes about the past witnessed the events himself. Naturally he has to fall back upon some information authored by some one else or else he tries to build up his account of history on the basis of some monuments or relics or some other things connected with the past which may throw light on it. Sources are in fact the information which help a historian to reconstruct the past honestly and accurately. They are the bricks, mortar and other raw material which helps the historian to build the edifice of history. They give him sufficiently good material to write history or reconstruct the past. Sources also prove the fact that history is not a figment of imagination of the historian; and that they are the dividing line between history and fiction and they also define the parameters within which a historian should work. 53

Types of Sources The past has left for us different types of sources. We can broadly classify them as follows: 1. Archaeological Sources

2. Literary Sources 3. Oral Traditions 1. Archaeological Sources The past has left for us a store house of archaeological sources. In our country, the country side almost in every region is littered with these sources. Relics, monuments, pillars, potteries, terracotta etc. have been found at different places. Not only this, even whole cities or towns have been unearthed and they give us a world of information about the life of people — their religious practices, their customs or in one word about their culture. These sources give a lot of information to a discerning historian to build up his theme in an authenticated way. In addition to this, we find inscriptions on stones, rocks and pillars etc. and they also reveal several things of the past and these sources are almost above board. 2. Literary Sources The literary sources are also a source of information. Historians in the past wrote about the events of their times; they gave us accounts of the deeds or misdeeds of the rulers or other great people who contributed to the shaping of history at that time. They, also, many a time, threw light on the social, economic and cultural life etc. of the people and thus left a rich treasure of information for the historian to reconstruct the past. In addition to them the novels, stories, poems, essays or other writings of the authors also provide enough material to write about the past. Besides, diaries, firmans (Court orders), official documents like the appointment orders of officials, their transfer orders or the orders of their dismissals etc. give us a lot of information and insight into the contemporary life. A 54 historian falls back upon these literary sources, attempts to remove the chaff from the grain and then give a reliable account of the past. Another type of literary sources available almost all over the world are religious books or scriptures. These religious books give a very rich account of the contemporary world. Though they may contain sometimes quite imaginative or fictitious account of many things yet with our insight we can pick up what is relevant and leave what is not. Our mythologies — Ramayana and Mahabharata and Puranas etc. throw light on the Hindu psyche and thus provide us with a lot of information about the Hindu society. And same holds good with regard to the mythologies or the religious books of other faiths 3. Oral Traditions In addition to the above, we also get information about the past from oral traditions or oral accounts passed on to us from a long chain of our ancestors. They may, in many a case, be nothing but the figment of imagination on the part of their creators and in many cases be highly exaggerated accounts of what actually happened, yet they are sources of lots of information. It is the job of historian to classify this information, sift it and then try to find out the truth.

Further Classification of Sources These sources can be further sub-divided into two categories — (a) Primary, (b) Secondary. (a) Primary Sources — Primary sources are also known as original sources. They are either written by the eyewitnesses or by contemporary historians or they may be in the form of contemporary court orders, laws, treaties, letters, autobiographies etc. Their authenticity springs from the fact that they were written by the people who were quite close to the events in terms of time and space. 55 (b) Secondary Sources — Secondary sources are the sources not written by eyewitnesses. They are written by writers who base their narrative on the information supplied by the eyewitnesses or by the people who claim to have received information about the events from some reliable contemporary source. The very term 'Secondary' is self explanatory.

How to Use Sources As teachers our main thrust should be on 'How to use Sources' in the classroom. So whatever has been said above is just to apprise the teacher with the basic information about sources in a summary fashion. But before using sources we have to take some precautions.

Precautions It may be noted that all sources are not necessarily the true accounts of what actually happened. Even the accounts written by the eyewitnesses may be tainted. The person who writes it, if he happens to be an employee of the ruler or getting the patronage of his benefactor in some form or the other, or if he has some religious bias or has some grudge against some one then his version is likely to suffer from his prejudices or biases. So the personality of the author and his background are likely to give a particular tangent to the truth and distort it. Besides in the world of today many cheats and unscrupulous people do manufacture spurious or fake documents claiming them to be original. So the teacher has to keep an open and discerning mind and while using the sources keep in mind the background of the author and also keep an eye on the genuineness of the source. Therefore due care be taken about the origin and originality of the source.

SOME PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES As regards archaeological sources like monuments, ruins, terracotta figures, paintings and other sources such as coins, 56 dresses, etc., no history teacher in the world can possibly claim to have an expertise to sit in judgment upon their genuineness because he is not a trained archaeologist or a scientist. In many a case he may not read the language of the art or of the stone. But this should not dishearten a good history teacher in the least because the versions of the scientists and archaeologists are easily available and a history teacher can conveniently build upon them. As regards literary sources they may be found in old classical languages, or in some languages which have become obsolete or may be one with which the history teacher is not familiar. By no stretch of imagination can we expect a history teacher to be familiar with all the countless languages of the past or the present. But even this is not an insurmountable problem. A resourceful history teacher can make use of the authentic translations of these sources, and the truth is, that most historians do use the translation of the original material.

Method of Using Source Material Having discussed precautions to be taken while using sources and also difficulties that come in the use of sources, let us now focus our attention on the method to be adopted to use them in classroom situation. As regards ruins or monuments or other archaeological sources it is ridiculous even to think that they can be transported into the classroom. So teacher should use their authentic pictures or models which in many a case can be made by children themselves. With a little resourcefulness and imagination the teacher can inspire children to prepare the models of coins on the clay. So the teacher can inspire the children to make the replica of the original thing and the same can be used in the class to make the lesson interesting and real. In addition to the above, wherever possible or feasible, teacher can take the class on a historical tour and give them the opportunity to see the archaeological remains for themselves, but as it may not be possible for an average poor child in a poor country, as stated above, pictures and models will be a very effective substitute. In some cases, if possible the slides can be shown to children. 57 With regard to the literary sources a teacher can adopt more than one approach. He can collect the relevant extract of the original source or its translation and distribute it among the children and ask them to come well prepared to the class after studying it at their home. Then in the classroom he can, while dealing with that topic, ask students to give their own reactions on the basis of what they have read from the source material. To give an example, let us think that the teacher is teaching about the measures taken by Asoka to spread Buddhism. He can distribute among his students the translation of what is inscribed in his edicts and ask them to study it at their home. Then in the classroom while dealing with that aspect he can ask his students to substantiate or contradict it and the discussion that will ensure would naturally enthral students and history would become vibrant with life. The other approach is that while dealing with a particular issue, teacher reads out the relevant passage from his own collection and then displays the same written by him on a roll-up black-board and then through intelligent and thought provoking questions invites them to give their reactions. In this way he can secure their full and complete participation in the development of the theme. Still another approach can be that at the end of the lesson students are introduced to the relevant extract of the source material and thereafter a discussion is initiated so that

children may express and form their own opinion in the light of this fresh evidence in a logical but dispassionate way. It may be asserted here that these approaches are recommendatory and not mandatory. An intelligent and imaginative teacher can formulate his own device which may be still more effective. However, the use of source in no way should compromise with the traditional approach in which students are forced to listen to the teacher in a passive way. While discussing the topic based on the information contained in the source material, teacher should also, if need be, tell the students about the veracity of the source in the light of the background of the author so that children may also think about the possible prejudice that might have crept into the account presented by the author. In this way even at the school 58 stage, particularly at the secondary and senior secondary stage, children may be trained to think in an objective and dispassionate way in which a good historian also thinks and to give such a training to the children, is, what is needed. To argue that it is time consuming and so not feasible is an argument which emanates from those who have never tried to put this in action. In fact it does not require any extra time. In fact this all is done when we present the subject matter and as it makes the learning very interesting, child imbibes it for good. No doubt it calls for more labour and hard work on the part of the teacher but the learning on the part of children becomes exhilarating. As regards oral traditions which have percolated to us from the past by way of words from the mouth, we must consider them very judiciously and carefully. In many a case our folk songs, our folklores and traditions and beliefs are stepped deep in superstitions. But still in their own way they communicate to us a lot of information. A discerning history teacher can with his ingenuity and insight sift the chaff from the grain and thus with their help give a good deal of information about the past. An example of a folk song sung by women in the western part of the Uttar Pradesh near Agra will be quite informative. While going to worship the well from which they draw water, they sing in chorus on the road. The song says "O White man (Firangi) do not install water taps, the water of these taps is not good and by drinking it I get a feeling of nausea". Now such songs give a lot of information about the mistrust that Indian masses might have had towards the white people. A good and effective teacher while teaching about the invasion of Alexander on India can always refer to what was said by King Porus to Alexander when Alexander asked him (Porus) as to what sort of treatment should be meted out to him (Porus). Such anecdotal references which have come down to us through our ancestors may be talked about in the classroom with due precautions.

Critical Estimate It may once again be reiterated that the teaching of history is 59 not confined to give an account of the past to children, the real purpose is to make the past real and authentic. Sources are the real tools to help us achieve this goal. They infuse real life into the dead past and are the biggest bulwark against those who say that history is "nothing but a fable agreed upon" They really make history scientific and empirical. Sources also give even small children a chance to critically analyse the facts. They also help them to logically reach some conclusion and also help in the development of their power of imagination. Their use also instils in their mind that history is not fiction; that it is real. Contradictory views and controversial facts will also give them the understanding that it is a very tedious task to reach the truth. They will also learn that truth is not simple, it may be grey and may also be cross eyed. So sources may also give them the understanding about the intricacies of the human mind and his behaviour and the message, that, to reach the truth one needs a constant and endless endeavour and sources are the tools which help us in this endless endeavour. No doubt historical facts are based upon the findings drawn from the sources available to us thus far, but there is every likelihood that tomorrow we may find some new sources giving us additional information. So teacher should very well bear in his mind this fact that truth in history, at least in regard to the controversial issues is relative and if tomorrow some other information is found out then another relative truth may take its place because history is an endless dialogue between the facts of history and the historian. So sources also help us to indulge in the dialogue and thus keep our mind open for further and still further query.

Conclusion In our schools we should use the source method as and when necessary at all stages - Elementary and Secondary. We should not shy away from it saying that it is time consuming and expensive. In fact it is neither time consuming nor expensive. It only requires imagination, ingenuity, sincerity and a hard

60 work on the part of the teacher. It may be said that these are the basic prerequisite of becoming a good and effective teacher and every society has a claim over the teacher to possess them or else cultivate them in the interest of children and his own sacred profession. In sum it can be asserted that it is one of the most effective methods to make history interesting and making the learning a joyous experience.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS Different methods discussed above are various approaches through which a teacher can realise the goal of inspiring children to learn by themselves. These methods are different path-ways to reach the goal of involving children actively in the pursuit of knowledge. They follow the accepted pedagogical principles which regard the child as the centre of teaching-learning activity or which make this activity paedo-centric. A teacher is only to follow this principle as the guiding star, and in this process he can use these methods as per the need and requirement of the specific occasion. The main purpose is to help the child feel that he too can adequately contribute in an intelligent way to the development of the theme. This feeling, if aroused in the child, will inspire him to appreciate, analyse and also internalise the content of history and this will make the past re-live in the mind of the child, and thus enable him to understand the present more intelligently and prepare him for the future. But once again it may be repeated that all these methods should lead to the active participation of the child in the classroom deliberations.

EXERCISE Q. 1. What is the Text-Book Method? As a teacher how can you use it in the class? Explain. Discuss its merits and shortcomings. Q. 2. "Question-Answer Method is the most effective method of teaching history". Discuss. 61 Q. 3. "Lecture Method is not suitable for teaching history at school stage". Comment. Q. 4. "How can you use Project Method in the teaching of history"? Discuss its merits and shortcomings. Q. 5. Explain Unit Method and critically evaluate it in the context of teaching of history. Q. 6. What are different kinds of sources? Explain their importance in the teaching of history. Q. 7. Explain how would you teach history in the classroom using the source method? What precautions will you take while using this method? 62

Chapter 6 AUDIO VISUAL AIDS INTRODUCTION At the very outset let us refer to the word "Aids" used in the title of this chapter. We must keep in our mind the fact that "Aids" are only "Aids"; they are by no stretch of imagination an end in themselves. They are tools or means with the help of which a teacher can reach his goal with greater effect. If, as a teacher, we can keep this fact constantly in our mind, then many problems which crop up will not arise at all. History primarily deals with what happened in the past and through his verbal exposition a teacher can give a narrative of the events or the happenings but to make things really effective and pulsating with life, if some concrete representation of the facts is also given then it will make a permanent impression on the minds of children. The verbal communication made by the teacher is received by children through the auditory senses whereas visual aids reach the mind through the visual senses and when the knowledge is received simultaneously through both the auditory and visual senses, learning becomes much more effective and in case of history it becomes lively. The visual and audio aids arouse interest in the lesson and students are then able to see the situation or the event in a concrete form as these aids make the abstract,

concrete and enliven the past. 63

AUDIO VISUAL AIDS—THEIR MEANING Audio-Visual Aids may be defined as devices, which stimulate auditory or visual senses, or both and thus help the child to receive knowledge or information with greater intensity. They provide an experience which combines words with objects or their replica and thus enrich it. Their appeal to the mind is quite irresistible as combination of visual with voice or touch lends reality and life to the experience and knowledge, thus gained, gets imprinted on the canvas of the mind of the child. They also concretise the abstract.

MERITS Before discussing the merits and utility of these aids it would be advisable to refer to Edgar Bruce Wesley's statement in this regard. Wesley says "Audio Visual aids furnish experiences. They facilitate the association of objects and words. They save pupil's time and they provide simple and authentic information. They enrich and extend one's appreciation and furnish pleasant entertainment. They provide simplified view of complicated data. They stimulate the imagination and develop the pupil's power of observation. These aids may need explanation but they do not need translations. They speak a universal language of form, colour, position and motion. They constitute one of the royal roads to learning".

Appeal to Senses We know that senses are the gateways of knowledge. If more than one sense is put to use while receiving knowledge then the knowledge, so gained, becomes permanently embedded in the mind. Material aids concretise what is abstract. A scene of war, a picture of a vanquished king in chains or on stakes, or the picture of a great general on the horse back leading his troops, or a great revolutionary leader leading his followers arouse interest, imagination and curiosity of children and help them to experience the dead past in the living form. 64

Motivation Pictures, models, charts, films etc. make the lesson colourful and generate interest in the classroom proceedings and children automatically get motivated to learn still further. This interest and motivation helps them to imbibe the facts and retain them. The mental images created by models, charts or pictures etc. make a lasting impact on them and thus the content is easily stored in memory.

Stimulates Imagination These aids stimulate imagination too. A picture showing an attacking army, trying to scale the walls of a fort and the defenders defending it desperately, can give a world of ideas to children with regard to strategies adopted, strengths and weaknesses of the two armies and other related things. Children can understand the ways the wars were fought, the role of forts and strategies adopted. Thus the material aids help the child to visualise, analyse and also draw conclusions.

Concretises the Verbal Information Material aids also concretise information given in the text. We all know that written or verbal information is not as forceful and effective as the concrete one is. While talking about the killing of two sons of Bahadur Shah Zafar by the Britishers and presenting their heads to him on a plate, if the same is shown to the class, in the form of a pictorial form too, the result or effect would be tremendous. Children will never forget this part of history. (Here we are not dealing with the desirability of showing such pictures).

Helps Slow Learners Material aids are also a boon to slow learners. The concrete replica of things in the form of models, pictures, films, film strips etc. motivate them to learn. The abstract representations when presented in such a concrete way help them to understand

65 the lesson readily and more quickly and easily as compared to information passed on to them through words by teacher or the information received by them from the cold print of a book. It is said that one picture, sometimes can convey what a thousand words cannot.

Makes the Past Real In one word it can be said that material aids make the past real. They help children to recreate it by seeing them or by making pictures or models or charts etc. Thus they are able to feel the past from close proximity. Even when they hear cassettes or recorded speeches or talks or see the models or pictures etc. they become active participants in the learning process or an active spectator of the event and thus they easily internalise knowledge. Thus these aids are of immense help to a teacher. They can even bring the world inside the classroom. They act as effective means to help the child to feel, see and even touch the past. Thus these aids make the past alive and real.

KINDS OF MATERIAL AIDS Material Aids can be broadly divided into three broad categories. (a) Visual Aids (b) Audio Aids (c) Audio Visual Aids

(a) Visual Aids These are the aids which appeal to the visual sense. They may be figures or diagrams etc. drawn on the black-board in front of the class, or ready made charts, pictures, models, globe, silent movies, bulletin boards, flannel boards etc. So children see them in the classrooms and with their help build up an image of the real thing. 66 But some critics may argue that many schools in our country may not even have these aids. However, it may be stated that even in the most deprived or the penurious school, one can expect to find at least a blackboard in the classroom, and in the context of a very large majority of our schools, which by and large are known for their poor conditions in terms of facilities, at least we may expect this to be true. With this minimum equipment, a good and sincere teacher can do wonders. He can use the chalk to show the movement of armies, the routes taken by the invaders and with appropriate graphs drawn on the blackboard show the rise and fall of empires, draw the time line of important dates etc. And all this he can do in a jiffy without consuming any extra time. While talking about an important event he is only to draw a rough graph or a time line. For depicting the movements of armies or people he can draw arrows in the relevant direction to heighten the effect. If a teacher can provide a roll-up blackboard also then he can do still greater wonders. It may be stated that the cost of a roll-up board is not at all prohibitive and can be borne by every school. On this roll-up board he can draw an outline of India or of any region or country and with the help of some signs he can very effectively show the movement of soldiers or the gradual expansion of an empire or the important places etc. where the events took place. In fact the blackboard and the roll-up blackboard can be used as the screens of the classroom on which scenes of history may emerge one after another. Charts, pictures, graphs, flannel boards, bulletin boards etc. are also very effective aids. Teachers can ask students also to prepare them. Some of them can be stored in the school library or in a store room or in the history room for ready reference so that they may be used by the students as and when needed. It may be noted that the aids prepared by children themselves give them tremendous sense of achievement and because of their active involvement in the process, learning becomes very effective. In fact in this process words or ideas or events become graphic or concrete and so they comprehend historical facts easily. Map is also an extremely useful and important material 67 aid. A detailed discussion about them has been attempted in another chapter, but here it would be suffice to say that maps give children space sense — an integral constituent of history. A relevant map should be placed before the class right at

the start of the period so that children may constantly associate the events of history with the place or places where they took place. Teacher must always point out relevant places on the map so as to forge due association between events and space. Another important visual aid is Time Line. History has to deal with time. Whatever happened, happened at a particular point of time. In order to give students proper concept of time, a timeline is to be presented before the class so that they may be able to develop the time sense, an extremely important ingredient of history. It may be stated here that the cultivation of time sense has been discussed in another chapter. Use of models is also very essential in the teaching of history. It is stupid to think that the Taj or the Qutub Minar can be transported into the school or the classroom, but its replica in the form of a model can be shown to children. Since models are three dimensional, they are closer to the actual object and metaphorically it can be said that children through their mind's eyes can visualise it and even feel it. Besides, children can be inspired to prepare these models using clay, plasticine or thermocol etc. under the guidance of teacher. Some of the models which can easily be prepared by children with the help of teacher and under his guidance can be weapons, used by man during different ages, models of utensils, ornaments, dwelling places, vehicles used for transport, and costumes etc. Students can also prepare models of some coins, and also of rock inscriptions or pictures or printings. It may be stated that the preparation of these models will not entail much expenditure and they can be prepared in every school if the teacher has the will to do so. The effect on children of these models would be almost everlasting and history teaching-learning would turn into a joyful experience, as these models would make history vibrant and living. Slides and silent motion pictures are other important visual aids which give children a vivid and detailed information. A 68 child sitting in a remote village in North India can see temples of South or the ruins of Lothal. Silent motion pictures can give them the story of a period or of an event, and we all know that what we see on the screen has a very powerful impact upon us. So we can use various visual aids depending upon our resources, but at the pain of repetition, it may be stated once again that chalk and blackboard which are almost universally available, are extremely useful and effective and any and every teacher with sincerity, dedication and imagination can make the best use of them in the interest of children and in the interest of academics.

(b) Auditory Aids These are radio, transistor, loud speaker, gramophone etc. They appeal to our auditory senses. Knowledge communicated to us on radio by learned scholars or educationists is also very effective. The recorded voice, carrying the words of wisdom has its own effect on children. Speeches or discourses of the great men if recorded in their own voice, leave a powerful effect on children. For instance speeches of Netaji, Gandhiji or Pt. Nehru or Patel etc. will leave an indelible print on children's mind. So all types of auditory aids are also very important.

(c) Audio Visual Aids These are the aids which are audio and visual both at the same time. We see a historical building or a place and along with it we hear a commentary on it and thus we receive knowledge simultaneously through auditory and visual senses. A suitable and powerful commentary can infuse life into the inanimate buildings or the relics or the monuments which children see on the screen and thus past once again becomes alive. In addition to this we can see characters acting on the screen and presenting the story of their times. Children can see all this in their classroom or in the school itself on a television or on a video. Though these are costly gadgets, yet wherever 69 possible and feasible use of T.V. and video should be made. But before screening a picture or a documentary children should be academically prepare for it. Teacher should tell the class that the film or the documentary is not meant only for entertainment. They should be told that they should be mentally prepared to discuss the information which they would receive from the film and after the film is over children should be helped to discuss it and in this way they would be able to receive the knowledge for good.

HOW TO USE THE MATERIAL AIDS

Let it once again be stated that these aids have no meaning or significance in themselves. They are lifeless and dead objects. It is the teacher's intervention which gives them life, meaning and significance. Moreover they are only aids and are to be used to attain some specific objective. Therefore the teacher must know fully well that a display of these material aids needs a careful and intelligent handling. Now let us consider as to how these aids should be used. In the first instance the relevant material aid should be displayed at the time when the teacher is discussing the event or the situation related to it. Teacher may then ask students to give their opinion or reaction in view of the material aid placed before them. For example if a teacher wants to project the secular image of Akbar, he can show a picture of Akbar with a 'Tilak' on his forehead and giving "Jharokha Darshan" to his Hindu subjects from the balcony of his palace. Now children will automatically form an image of Akbar and through skilful questions teacher can elicit from them their reactions about Akbar and his secular attitude. Take another example of showing a film to children. In this context the teacher must tell the students that the film show will be followed by a question-answer session, and students will be required to give their reaction. For better result the teacher may even give them a list of questions right in the beginning and till then that they would be required to answer them after the show. So after the show is over, teacher would 70 call upon them to answer the questions and will hold full fledged discussion on different aspects of the historical information. In brief the above examples though not exhaustive, are given to bring home to the teachers the fact that material aids of different varieties are not meant to please or entertain children; they are meant to be used to heighten or deepen the academic attainment of children and make the teaching-learning process in history an excursion into joy. In the end, it may be again repeated that these material aids should help in the development of the lesson and its theme. They should not throw a spanner in the systematic and logical and well knit development of lesson. In no way they should lead to digression. Moreover they should be almost true representative of what they want to depict, for instance the portrait or picture of a person should bear resemblance to the real person and for this purpose teacher should try to present authenticated aids as far as possible. In a word the resemblance with the original should be as close as possible. In case some films go beyond the parameters of history, then they should not be shown, and if for some reason they are to be shown then teacher must tell them what is fact and what is fiction.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS In sum it can be said that every teacher must use the material aids depending upon the resources of the school. He should always keep in mind the fact that the use of these aids do not demand any extra time. They are used in the course of a lesson in the context of discussions or the narrative. He/she should remember that they are the spices of the lesson which make teaching-learning a joyful experience.

EXERCISE Q. 1. What is the importance of material aids? Why are they useful to a Teacher? 71 Q. 2. What are different types of material aids? As a history teacher how would you use them in the classroom situation? Give examples in support of your answer. Q. 3. "Material aids are means and not end in themselves". Discuss, bringing out the purpose of using material aids in the teaching of history. 72

Chapter 7 CULTIVATION OF TIME AND SPACE SENSE

INTRODUCTION Whatever happens, happens at a point of time and at a given place, and in history we primarily deal with the events or the trends or movements etc. and they all happened at a given point of time and at a given place or places. Therefore we cannot conceive of history without reference to time or space. History as a matter of fact has been compared to a tripod whose three legs are events, time and space. If we remove any of them then the entire tripod would fall down. Hence their importance is self proven. But the concept of time is a little difficult and abstract. Small children by and large cannot comprehend it easily, but even then it is the job of the teacher to cultivate it and accept the challenge because for a proper comprehension of history, development of this concept is essential.

WHAT IS TIME? It is difficult to define time. But we can try to understand it through its well-known characteristics. One of its traits is that it is not static. It is continuous like the flow of a river. It is ever changing. It is the harbinger of change. It is perhaps in this vein that a Greek Philosopher remarked that they do not take bath in the same river again. The message is clear; ostensibly 73 the water changes the very next 'moment', but here along with the water equal emphasis is on "moment" too. How much mighty the time or the "Kaal" (the name given to Time by the Hindus, a synonym of Death) is, can be understood by the fact that every second, every minute we are undergoing some change and are drawing nearer to our death. Even the earth below our feet is not where it was a moment ago. Entire history of the development of the mankind has taken place in this fast changing time frame. So it is essential that our children should have a proper concept of this time. For instance if we say that we were subjected to foreign rule from the beginning of the 13th century to the middle of the 20th century then we should also convey to children that this period of seven and a half century is very small in the context of our history of about five thousand years and such a small piece of understanding will give a lot of inspiration and vision to the young children, and they will understand that in the usual cycle of rise and fall of a nation this period of 750 years is quite insignificant in our context.

HOW TO DEVELOP THE TIME SENSE Location Time, as has been said earlier, is an abstract notion and it is very difficult to understand it. But, here as students of history, we are not much concerned with the scientific theory or other theories about its measurement etc. But it is quite sufficient for us to remember that children do have some elementary understanding of the time span of a year, a month, a week, a day, an hour and a minute. Children by and large are able to grasp it and comprehend it. On the basis of this we should try to build up their time sense. However, we should keep in mind that it is incumbent upon a successful and effective teacher to tell children about the date or the period in which a particular event took place. So the location of time is to be conveyed. But this information in itself will be quite uninteresting. To give any date or a period of time in isolation is a sort of meaningless 74 and boring exercise. In place of motivating children it will be a kill-joy, or a demotivating approach.

Distance Therefore in order to make the exercise interesting and meaningful, teacher should try to make this abstract date concrete and meaningful and for this he should relate it to some other point of time known to children. Here we can and should follow the self proven and incontrovertible maxim of teaching "from the known to the unknown" or "from the concrete to the abstract". To illustrate this point let us take the example of the birth day of the child. He is very keen and highly interested in celebrating his birth day as he is the centre of attraction on that day, and he receives so many gifts. He, on his own, develops some sort of time sense related to it. He remembers a lot as to what happened on his last birth day and also to some extent as to what had happened on the birth day preceding to it and in this way he has developed some time

sense. He has some idea about the space of time between one birth day and the other. He, also, in his own limited way tries to calculate as to how much time span stands between now and the next birth day. Actually in his tiny mind he has some hazy idea about the duration of time and he does make an excursion into the past and future too. Therefore it will be a folly to believe that children have no time sense. In fact they have one, and they are struggling to develop it and therefore it is the bounden duty of history teacher to help them to develop it and conceptualise it. In order to illustrate this assertion, it would be worthwhile to give some more examples. Suppose we tell them that Shivaji was born in the year 1627. In that case after giving them this information we can ask them to calculate the time distance from today. While telling them that the Taj Mahal was built during the reign of Shah Jahan, between 1631 and 1653 we can ask them to calculate the time distance from today rather than tell them that it was built about 350 years back. Since children will do the simple calculation themselves they will be actively involved in the exercise and it will have a deep impact on their 75 mind and thus help them to develop proper time sense. So distance from today is a powerful strategy to develop the time sense in the child. We can and should relate one date with the other if it has some relevance or if it can help children to remember them. For instance while talking about 1857, in order to help children to remember and retain it, we can say that just 100 years ago i.e., in 1757 another great and significant event, that is, the battle of Plassey was fought. Here the principle of learning through meaningful association will operate and this will facilitate children to retain both the dates in their mind.

Caution However, let it be clearly understood that our history of 5000 years or even more is dotted with innumerable events and hence with countless dates. It is well nigh impossible for any one to remember them. Besides, the purpose of history is not to recount each and every event with its date. A good history teacher is supposed to weave a continuous, logical, chronological and systematic theme and underline only the important and significant events or trends, leaving out the trivials. In no way history should be presented as an unbearable burden in the form of innumerable events with their dates. In sum, only relevant and important events are to be highlighted and only very few dates which are significant should be mentioned.

Duration Another important thing about time is its duration. In history we know the dynasties came to power and ruled for a long period of time. Some movements in history originated at a particular point of time and lasted for decades, or even centuries. Even individual kings and rulers ruled over their territories for different duration of time. Hence this concept of the duration of time should also be given to the students. A good teacher with the help of a time line or a graph can show, when a particular movement or trend made a beginning, when 76 it reached its climax and when it gradually started to decline and finally when it ended. The rise and fall of empires, dynasties with reference to their duration can be given to students. In order to involve students actively, they can be called upon to calculate the duration of these events, for instance if Babar founded his empire in India in 1526 and the Mughals ruled the country in full glory till 1707, then students can be asked to calculate the effective period, and if the dynasty came to its end in 1857 then they can be asked as to how long it lasted in its degenerated form i.e., from 1707 and onwards. This exercise also gives children the idea how the empires grow, flourish and then ultimately disappear. Thus this phenomenon of the rise and fall also become intelligible to them.

Time Line To give children better and clear understanding or concept of time, Time Line is a very good and effective device. In the classroom a resourceful teacher can draw a time line on the blackboard displaying the occurrence of the events at different points of time. However, in order to be more precise and accurate, he can also carry with him a properly prepared time line accurate in its measurement, for example he can draw a line measuring 10 cm. divided into ten equal parts of 1 cm. each, and each part denoting a period of 10 years. On it he can pinpoint the year in which a particular event took place and then another one which took place later on. For instance on a time line covering a period from 1701 to 1800 the teacher can mark 1707 on it, when Aurangzeb died and then 1757, the year when the famous battle of Plassey took place and then 1761, when the third battle of Panipat was fought. Now this will give a complete understanding of the time to students, distance of one event from the other in terms of time and with his ingenuity and intelligence the teacher with intelligent questions can also bring home to students the distance of these events from today.

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Features of a Time Line The time line should have a uniform scale. Moreover only selected and significant dates should be shown on it. The teacher should mark the ten year scale or whatever scale suits his requirement on its left hand side. On the right had side important dates with the name of the events should be marked. Such lines can be drawn to represent 50,100 or even more years depending upon the requirement of the situation. This visual representation will invariably give students the idea of chronological development along with the sequence of the events and a broad concept of time span. It may also be mentioned that in some cases some parts or the units of the time line may be over crowded whereas some may have few or no entries. But it is natural because in human history sometimes some very significant events occur in quick succession and sometimes they happen after a long gap. However, the basic consideration which should be religiously adhered to, is, to make the scale uniform so that children may not be confused.

Progressive-Regressive Approach in the Use of Time Line History is the chronological account of events, and this chronology is always progressive. It is always from the past that we move to the present and then to the future. So time always moves forward. Today will give way to tomorrow, and tomorrow to day — after and so forth and so on. This cannot be reversed. As such to prepare progressive time line is logical and is the demand of the subject. But we should keep in our mind the basic fact that our aim is to give the concept and for small children it is difficult to comprehend the time without its relationship with the present. They understand the present and have a proper idea of today and for that matter have some concept of recent important days, months or years, but they cannot easily comprehend or visualise the time span of 100, 200 or 500 years or more, hence we can move backward too. We may start from today and then say that in the year 1526 Babar fought the first battle of Panipat, i.e., about 477 years 78 back. Thus in this case on the time line we start from the year 2003 and then move backward to 1526. After giving this concept we may discuss Babar's feats and achievements etc. in the progressive way. In this way we make a start from present, go backward and then revert to progressive approach starting from 1526 and onwards. This will illumine the minds of the children and give them a sufficiently good concept of time.

SPACE Another most important requirement of history teaching is to develop concept of space. As stated earlier whatever happened or happens, it happened or happens on this earth at a given place or places. Figuratively speaking, the earth is the stage and we are the actors who play the drama of our life on it. As we cannot enact a drama without a stage, so we cannot think of history of man without this stage - the earth. Therefore our narrative or understanding of the history will hang in the air if it is not related to the place or places where the action took place. To understand and comprehend history this stage is extremely significant.

MAPS Maps are the surest and the most convenient tools to fulfil this demand. They can bring the entire world into the classroom. No doubt an ideal thing will be to take children to the actual place where the drama took place, but ostensibly even to think about this impossible thing is ridiculous and senseless. But maps fulfil this requirement to a great extent. We can take children on an intellectual journey to all the relevant places with their help. The entire district, region, country or even the world can be brought inside the classroom with the help of the maps.

Two Dimensional Device It may be clearly understood that the map is a two dimensional device, whereas we live in a three dimensional world. To reduce 79

the three dimensions into two is not easy, and to comprehend it, is still more difficult, but what cannot be cured has got to be endured. We have to deal with this problem and that too quite effectively. We know that in the map the North is shown at the top and the South at the bottom. But on the earth there is nothing like the top or the bottom. But even then we have to give a clear concept to the children and one very useful and effective way is to take the children in the open and ask every child to keep his or her map on the ground in a manner so that the north shown in the map is placed in the actual direction of the North. This will give them real understanding and with repeated practice they will be able to do away with any confusion associated with this problem of its being two dimensional.

HOW TO USE THE MAP But the question is how to use the map? In the first instance we should always keep in our mind the fact, that map is not an object of exhibition. It is to be used effectively and usefully as and when required. If a teacher hangs it on the wall in front of the class and then thinks that his job is over then he is sadly mistaken. In that case he does injustice to the map, to the students and also to himself as well as to the academics. He should on the other hand point out in the map the place or the area where the action took place. If he is talking about the route taken by the invaders to attack a particular place/s then simultaneously, with the help of the pointer, the same should be shown on the map. If he is talking about Shivaji's meeting with Afzal Khan then he must show the place and the terrain around it on the map. If he is talking about Shivaji's surprise attacks on Aurangzeb's army then he must point out the Sehadri Hills from where he used to swoop down on the Mughal armies and then suddenly disappear in a flash. This synchronisation of the narrative or the discussion with the pointing out of the place/s on the map with the help of a pointer is the most essential and important part of teaching history. The teacher can also call upon the students to prepare maps on the chart 80 paper and show in them the places or the areas concerned with the relevant events. The teacher can also ask the students in the classroom to come to the map and show in it the relevant places referred to in the discussion. In any case, students should be made completely familiar with the geographical locations of the places so that they may visualise and internalise the impact of the Geographical surroundings, if any, on the course of the events. In order to illustrate this point still further let us take another example — the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devgiri by Muhammad Bin Tuglaq. The use of map here can work wonders and children can fully comprehend the agony and torture experienced by the people in this arduous and painful journey. We should also think about the expansion of empires, addition of new territories to it and also its gradual disintegration; this all cries for the use of the appropriate map. This will always make the proceedings in the class lively and vibrant.

How to Give Concept of Distance and Direction Another important thing with regard to the use of maps is to give to students the concept of distance and direction. The best way is to follow the maxim "From the Known to the Unknown". In this context they should be helped to conceptualise the distance from their home to the school and also to some other important place in the city. Then they may be asked to think about the distance from their town to some other important town in their own region. Such exercises will give them sufficiently good idea of distance and then it can be extended still further. They will also be told about the scale given in the map. Along with this they should also be fully made familiar with the concept of direction. If we relate the distance and direction to our own habitat, the exercise will become meaningful. Actually the purpose is to bring home to the children the fact that the map is not a show piece. It is on the other hand a lively and effective aid to help every one to imbibe and comprehend the subject matter in its proper perspective and spatial setting. 81

USE OF ROLL-UP MAPS Another very useful and effective aid in this category can be the roll-up boards on which students can draw the outline of different countries or continents or the world. These are easily available in the market. On these roll-up boards we can show or draw the things we require every time when we go to the class and then rub it off so that the information with regard to the subsequent class may be drawn on it. In a way their utility is very great as they are not very expensive and like the blackboard can be used regularly without incurring any further expenditure. In addition to these roll-up boards, we can also use the printed outline maps of countries, continents and even of the world. These outline maps are made of the stuff of which roll-up boards are made. We can rub off what we show or draw

on them and thus use them repeatedly. They can, for instance, be used to show the growth or decline of the empires in terms of their territories. The expansion of Akbar's empire on British empire etc. can be shown by the students using different colours depicting the gradual expansion. Such an exercise will help the children to see this growth bit by bit and thus history will become lively. It will be an exhilarating and permanent experience for students to see a small red blob or dot, gradually expanding and ultimately covering the whole of India. [Students may be told that red colour was used to depict the British Empire] These maps can also be used by the teacher and students in different situations. Since they can be used again and again there utility is immense. They can help us to realise two broad aims — (1) Develop the conceptual location of the place or the area where the events took place to help children understand the event more effectively and comprehensively, and (2) secure their active participation in the learning process which is the key to effective learning.

GLOBE Teacher should also use the Globe in the classroom while 82 teaching history. Since it is the model of the earth in its three dimensional form, though in miniature, it is extremely useful and its use will definitely remove the confusion created by the use of the map. In fact it is a great ally of the teacher and will help the children to understand things better.

CONCLUSION It may be asserted that the use of these aids are not at all time consuming. They are to be used in the course of presentation, during discussions or narration etc. so they do not demand any extra time. Of course they require a little more attention of the teacher as well as a little more of preparation on his part and no teacher worth his salt can grudge it because the impact of maps and other aids mentioned above will be immense on the children and their learning will be more effective - the real purpose and aim of teaching-learning process.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS Teachers must understand that the development of the concept of time is the basic requirement of the subject. After all the events occurred and even today occur at a particular point of time and children must be helped to conceptualise it. There are several methods to develop this concept but the most important one is to relate it to the present and also calculate it in terms of time span from today. The next important thing is the cultivation of the sense of the space or the location of the event. If a teacher ignores it then he kills the very soul of the subject. It is like teaching the subject in the vacuum or in the air. Therefore in every lesson, relevant map has got to be used and be placed in full view before the class so that the children may have a proper concept of the place where the event/s took place. It may be stated very emphatically that even while teaching about the administration or the culture of the people or the religious policy of a ruler the relevant map should be there constantly before the class, hung on the wall or placed at an appropriate place in the classroom, so that students may constantly see that the things happened at such and such area, or place. In short the cultivation of the time sense and space in the students is a must and we should remember that there can be no genuine history teaching if these are not properly taken care of.

EXERCISE Q. 1. Discuss at length the importance of cultivating "Time Sense" in the teaching of History. Explain various ways in which it can be done with examples. Q. 2. Why is chronology so important in teaching of History? Discuss. Give examples in support of your answer. Q. 3. Why is it essential to develop the sense of space in History? Q. 4. "Teaching of History without a relevant map/s is like teaching it in the vacuum". How far do you agree with this statement? Discuss bringing out its/their importance and various ways in which it/they can be used with examples.

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Chapter 8 TEXT-BOOK INTRODUCTION Instruction in ancient times was given orally. The teacher used to give information by way of mouth and the children worked hard to retain it by memorising it. The rote memory was the device to learn, but the oral repetition of the knowledge or the information to memorise it was very arduous and not easy. It had its own serious limitations. Even many intelligent disciples could not retain the vast content, so only a limited exceptionally brilliant children could keep the torch of learning ablaze. Besides sometimes the vast store of knowledge in the mind of a seer could be lost for ever because of his accidental or premature death. Therefore it was keenly realised that some record of this knowledge should be kept and naturally in due course of time books were written on palm leaves and later on, on paper etc. Naturally there number was very small and under the circumstances there was no question of providing every child with a text-book. But the man in his march forward, invented printing press in the middle of 15th Century Circa. Now books could be printed in large numbers and more cheaply too. Today books are printed in lakhs. They are therefore available to individual students. Since they are printed in bulk, they are cheap too and Government also subsidises them so that children may get them without spending much. 85

IMPORTANCE Text-book has now become an integral part of education. It is a great ally of the students as well as teachers. Students can prepare their lessons by studying the relevant material from it. They can, with the help of the text-book, revise what has been discussed in the classroom. They can fall back upon it again and again, as many times as they like, according to their personal requirement and thus refresh their memory. They can also try to think and reflect over the content contained in it, referring to the content umpteen times, according to the need and thus develop their critical faculty. The teachers are also greatly benefited from the text-book. Since they are, by and large, written by experts in accordance with the syllabus, the teachers get to know as to how far they should go with regard to the requirement of the students in a particular class. In other words they are helped to comprehend the depth to which they should go while discussing a particular topic. Moreover the text-book reminds them about the parameter of the syllabus. Thus in a way it acts as a guide to keep them on the track. Moreover any or every good text-book generally deals with the bare outline containing important and essential information related to the subject matter. In spite of his best intentions, the text-book writer cannot attempt detailed and analytical description or give fuller or finer details, in view of the constraints of time and space and also cost factor. But still the fact remains that he attempts to cover and mention or deal with what is essential. Therefore it is a very important ingredient of teaching-learning activity.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEXT-BOOK (a) In accordance with the syllabus In the first place it should be written keeping in view the syllabus. It must cover every portion of it in a systematic and logical way. It should not leave out any portion and must deal with every topic keeping in view the amount of information 86 suitable for that class. It should go only upto the depth which would suit the age and comprehension level of children belonging to the class for which it is written. The text-book should also try to realise the broad aims and objectives of teaching history as well as of the particular topic in consonance with the broad aims of the educational system of the particular society or the nation.

(b) "Why" and "How" of the Facts to be Taken Care of

A good text-book is not a listless and monotonous record of facts or events in their chronological order. It is a narrative of the facts in a sequential but logical manner. The text-book writer as far as possible, should carefully delve into the "Why" and "How" of the events. He should analyse them carefully in a convincing manner. We know that the characters of History, when they took any decisions or framed any policy or followed any line of action, were guided by some considerations. They did have their own motives, their own designs and their own limitations. A little analysis of these, make history abundantly interesting and therefore a good history text-book writer should take care of the "How" and "Why" of the events as far as possible. This point can be illustrated by an example. Aurangzeb wanted to remove his father from the throne and grab it. While marching towards Delhi from the South, as a shrewd person he extends his hand for alliance towards his brothers Murad and Shuja. Naturally this inroad into the reason of this action can be very effective and the children will be able to understand the situation properly. Therefore a good history text-book writer has to talk about the motives of the characters and their designs etc. But while doing so, the author must keep in mind the age and mental capacity of the children alongwith the demands of the syllabus and consequently describe those details or things in a manner so that they may not become too taxing or difficult for the children. In short we can say that the author has to do a lot of tight rope dancing. 87

(c) Language Language, the vehicle of thought and ideas is also of great importance. Needless to say that it should be simple. It should suit the level of the comprehension of the children. It should be lively and contain popular phrases and idioms. As far as possible it should not contain abstract notions or ideologies. Descriptions, narratives and explanations or logical presentations should be straight and unambiguous as well as absorbing, helping children to imbibe the matter without difficulty.

(d) Without any Bias History as we have stated earlier should be an objective narration of the past. Its primary aim is to call a spade a spade. It should not be coloured to suit one's own designs or ideology or biases. Empiricism and objectivity are its basic ingredients. Therefore a history text-book writer should keep away his preferences or biases. He must present the events as independently as possible because history ceases to be history when empiricism is replaced by bias. Therefore history textbook should delineate the facts, events or historical movements or trends in their proper setting and perspective, bringing out their strengths and weaknesses in an impartial way.

(e) Help Realise Values (i) Love for the Mother Land But whatever has been said above about the impartial and objective presentation of the facts is not an absolute statement. There are some riders attached to it. History teaching or learning does not mean that it should be divorced from the values that we cherish. In our case we can always take our cue from our Constitution which very clearly and emphatically in its Preamble suggests the type of the society to be created and the values to be inculcated. The Document "Plan of Action" 1986 of the Ministry of Human Resource and Development, taking 88 its cue from the Constitution, talks of the Core Curriculum and the goals to be realised through education. Under the Core Curriculum it talks of development of National Identity, egalitarianism, democracy secularism, and scientific temper etc. Now history teaching will be a useless proposition if it does not try to inculcate these values. Impartial or unbiased or empirical narration of the facts does not forbid a good history text-book writer to attempt to inculcate in children the values enshrined in our Constitution or Education Policy without distorting the facts. It is a question of highlighting a phenomenon in the way it should be done so as to meet our broader educational objectives. It should be our overt as well as covert agenda. Many events in our history brought glory to the country whereas many brought shame and dishonour to it. Now for the sake of inculcating national identity, given in our Education Policy, we must highlight the glorious deeds of our forefathers, so that we may take pride in their greatness. This feeling no doubt will draw us together, develop a sense of unity and also develop love for the mother land. But at the same time our deeds of national shame which brought about our downfall and degeneration should also be underlined in most unequivocal terms without any bias. Our history is replete with such acts of national shame. Our treacherous acts towards our mother land in order to meet our petty and selfish ends are a legion. Our history is replete with the instances when we pawned away the interest and the honour of the mother land; when we fought endlessly amongst ourselves to settle our individual scores and shook hands with the

foreign invaders resulting in the enslavement of the country. These instances along with other atrocities committed by our people on the poor and downtrodden and the weak should be highlighted with full force so that children may get the message "United we Stand and Divided we Fall" or "If India Lives Who Dies and If India Dies Who Lives". It may also be stated in passing that the aim is not to develop in the children a sense of narrow patriotism or bigotry, on the other hand it is the first right step in the direction of inculcating in them the sense of National identity. When we try to sow in them the feeling of hatred and 89 revulsion towards traitors and treachery, a common bond of love for the country is also created. Therefore, in sum, it can be said that one of the functions of the history text-book is to inculcate these values in the young so that as citizens of tomorrow they may be fully imbued with a sense of dedication and love towards the mother land which would transcend any or every narrow loyalty pertaining to caste, community or region etc. and above all one's own selfish narrow gains. (ii) Inculcate Internationalism Though, a good history text-book must convey the message of patriotism, yet it should not end up with it; on the other hand, it should gradually and perceptibly expand this love to cover the entire human race. It must give the message, as and when possible and feasible, that the whole world is our home and the entire human race is one family. It must also generate the feeling of internationalism, world peace and welfare of the entire human race.

(f) Illustrations The text-book must be studied with true and beautiful illustrations. The word "true" here means that pictures of great men, women or of antiques such as seals etc. should be authentic. The charts, diagrams etc. should be self explanatory. They must be clear, neat and in no case hazy, as is generally found in several of our text-books. In place of creating interest in the subject they diminish it and therefore are counterproductive. In addition to these, the book must contain accurate and beautiful maps and time lines so as to give children a true perception of time and space. Graphs and sketches of historical incidents should also find a place in it. All these illustrations are very important not only to make the subject matter clearly intelligible but also to create interest and sustain it in the children. 90

(g) Exercise At the end of each chapter suitable exercises should be given in the form of questions, project work, or collection of information etc. The questions should call for objective based information, short answers and also long answers. They may also enjoin upon children to prepare maps, charts, diagrams, graphs etc. In short the exercise will help the children to recapitulate the entire lesson and may also call upon them to do further self study on their own. In this way they will also pose some sort of challenge for them.

OTHER FEATURES (i) Reasonable Price Since the text-books are to be used by millions of children year in and year out, by and large, by poor children of our country the price of the book should be on the lower side so that even a child, with less than average means, may afford to buy it. It is very difficult to state any definite price tag for it but even then it can be said that it should not be, by any means, costly. As the cost of paper and also printing cost is increasing with great rapidity such demand cannot be placed on the publisher. The publisher — a business man, must get necessary margin from his enterprise. The question therefore arises as to who will foot the bill. Since we are a welfare State and also committed to give education to our children, ostensibly it is the duty of the State to subsidise the books heavily.

(ii) Attractive In addition to the price, another very important thing is that it should be attractive. It means that the quality of the paper and the print should be good. As regards the quality of the paper, if, because of the cost factor, high quality paper is not used, then in no case it should be coarse and repulsive. As regards the print, in no way it should be hazy and indistinct. It should be, on the other hand bold, with no mistakes. It should attract

91 the child and not repulse him. It should be easily readable. We should remember that the aim of education is to involve the children in the process but a bad and ugly print will go against this basic principle of education.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS As has been said earlier, the history text-book is not a language text-book. In language class a child is asked to read a passage from the book and thereafter a complete analysis of the same is done. But in the teaching of history we are not to follow this method. In history class a teacher is supposed to come to the class well equipped with the content that is to be discussed. After giving a proper introduction with the active help of students through questions and their answers he presents the matter. He develops the theme by putting suitable questions to the students so as to ensure their active participation in the teaching-learning process and naturally the text-book finds no place in this scheme. Some major points are given to the children so that they may with their help weave the story at length at home or supplement the matter, if need be, with the help of the text-book at home. Thus we find the text-book is not at all used by the teacher or the child in the classroom.

EXERCISE Q. 1. What is the importance of text-book in the teaching of history? Q. 2. Describe the important features of a good history textbook. Q. 3. Critically evaluate the history text-book used by you as a teacher. Q. 4. Discuss in detail, how would you use a history text-book in the teaching of history? 92

Chapter 9 EVALUATION INTRODUCTION If we cast a glance over the history of man, we find that he has been constantly making efforts to grow and make progress in every walk of life. Since man is a thinking animal, he uses his intellect to bring about changes for his own advantage. But as soon as we talk of this phenomenon, we also find that as a thinking person, he also takes stock of the changes brought about by him. He evaluates the results and outcomes and tests the efficacy of his efforts. He also constantly tries to evaluate or examine his attainments. In a way it is inherent in his nature to find out the level of his achievement and thereby also his shortcomings alongwith the scope of further improvement. This process known as evaluation has been constant and continuous because man has perennial appetite to attain more and still more. Evaluation is thus a part of our life and in the field of education it occupies a very significant place, because it helps us to find out the level of the attainment of the children, their shortcomings and also their problems with regard to learning, along with the efficacy or otherwise of our teaching or interaction with the students and thus gives us a clear signal for improvement.

EVALUATION—ITS PRESENT FORM It would be worthwhile to have a cursory look at the system of 93 evaluation prevalent in our country. By and large it continues to be the traditional examination system. Generally these examinations are held after each term and then finally at the end of the year known as the annual examination. Generally they contain essay type of questions and children are supposed to reproduce what they have learnt within the time limit mentioned in the question paper. It is mostly a test of their rote memory and there is hardly any effort to watch and keep a track of their regular and continuous growth or progress. It does not generally test their analytical power, reasoning, independent and logical thinking, etc. It has all the defects which go with the essay type of written examinations. It is subjective i.e., dependent on the subjective assessment of the examiner. It has been found empirically that the same scripts

given to the same examiner after a reasonable gap of time, resulted in great and perceptible divergence of marks. Actually the system is horrendous and disgusting but it has seized the entire system in its vile strangle-hold like a viper and is virtually squeezing it to its death slowly but surely. Its ugly and pernicious shadow has overpowered the entire system and like a Colossus, it jeers at our puny efforts to get rid of it. Our educational system is geared to please this Colossus. Students are taught to pass their examination willy-nilly at the cost of everything. In this connection one feels tempted to refer to famous Radhakrishnan Commission Report which underscored its tyranny and evil effects on our educational system when in most emphatic words it remarked: "We are convinced that if we are to suggest one single reform in university education it should be that of the examination". As Radhakrishnan Commission was called upon to give its recommendations on University Education, in the above statement the word "University" is mentioned but the truth is, that, it is equally relevant to our whole educational system. Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 also highlighted the grave defects of the examination system and hence 94 recommended objective type tests and also continuous and comprehensive assessment. So it has been decisively proved as well as agreed upon that our examination system has been the Achilles Heel of the educational system and is still the most difficult challenge to be addressed. In brief, therefore, the evaluation system in our schools continues to be our weakest point and we have been trying to meet this challenge.

EVALUATION—ITS BENEFITS (a) Effects Classroom Interaction Evaluation, by and large, is related to the learning outcomes of each content area. If our aim is restricted to test the intake of the students of the information aspect of the content, then our instruction in the classroom will be focussed mainly on imparting information and then our evaluation too will be centred round it. In passing, it may be remarked that presently we are so much obsessed with this aspect that our teaching has been reduced to passing on this information to the children in some way or the other. But on the other hand if the objective of our evaluation is to find out as to how far our students can critically think, analyse and then arrive at a logical conclusion, then our presentation of the content will not be the boring and monotonous recounting of the facts one after another. The presentation will then call for a lively discussion of the matter so as to involve the children in the coveted art of looking at the things from different points of view and then arriving at some logical conclusion. In short it may be said that our evaluation system also determines to a great extent as to how should we teach the children in the classrooms. As is well known, our system is overwhelmingly examination centred, so the entire emphasis is on forcing students to mug up the facts and then reproduce them in the examination and thus we find that our examination system dictates even the classroom interaction between the teacher and the students. Thus we find that teaching-learning process is closely related to our evaluation system. 95

(b) Guide for Self Improvement (for Teachers) Every teacher worth his salt thinks about the outcome of his interaction with the students in the classroom. He ponders over it and then to improve himself or to keep himself on the right track either writes down his own shortcomings for his future guidance or else makes a mental note thereof. Keeping them in view he plans his next course of action, deciding about the way he will introduce the lesson, put questions, tackle the answers, use the material aids, draw diagrams, etc. on the black-board and develop the black-board summary. This all is done for self improvement and this all springs from his efforts to evaluate his own performance. In this way he informs himself about the efficacy of his teaching in the classroom. Thus he continuously evaluates his efforts and as such this exercise of self evaluation which is constant and continuous throws open the gates of improvement.

(c) Changes in the Syllabus It also gives the teacher enough understanding about the shortcomings of the syllabus. He may find that some dead wood

which has no relevance to the needs of the children has got accumulated and he can suggest its removal in an effective and convincing manner. He may also find that some information is rather repetitive in its nature and that some areas are either too much above the level of the students or are below their standard. As a practising teacher, while assessing students, he realises all these things and thus can be a source of great help in the improvement of the syllabus which according to a standard norm calls for necessary revision at least after every five years. In addition to this, the teacher can also find that some information by itself or the way in which it has been projected is against the spirit of our Constitution or not in conformity with the ideals mentioned in our Core Curriculum. For instance he may find that some facts may lead to the inculcation of hatred amongst different communities or are against the spirit of developing National Identity. So the teacher 96 as the practitioner of evaluation techniques realises where we are going wrong and then suggest the needed changes in the syllabus.

(d) Proper Guidance to Pupils The entire system of education is created by the man to give proper and needed guidance to the children. The teacher, in fact, is a facilitator and a guide who is required to remove the grey or dark areas and help the children to see the light. Since each child may have his own difficulties and requirements the evaluation process gives the teacher an insight into his approach and difficulties. The teacher duly equipped with this knowledge, through the evaluation process, will be able to remove the obstacles that come in his way and help him (student) to reach the truth and see the light.

EVALUATION IN HISTORY (1) Knowledge In-take of the Child As our focus is on history, let us consider this issue with reference to this subject. Firstly the evaluation should give the teacher information about the amount of information retained by the student. It should reveal to the teacher as to how much factual information has made an inroad into his (student's) mind. It should also give the teacher the idea whether this piece of information has been retained as a dead piece of information or he has retained it as a part of the theme in which it occurs. It should also help him to find out whether the "Why or How" of the event or the phenomenon has been imbibed by the student or not. It should give the teacher the idea about the understanding of the child at the conceptual level.

(2) Finds Out the Weaknesses of the Child It also helps the teacher to find out the weaknesses of the individual child as well as that of the class as a whole. This 97 information is essential as it will give the teacher a whole range of ideas about modifying his approach vis-a-vis the whole class and also vis-a-vis the individual child. Thus we find that evaluation is a very meaningful and effective tool to bring about necessary changes in teaching methods so as to remove the weaknesses of the children.

(3) A Source of Great Help to Parents If it is found that some problems of children have their genesis in the circumstances related to the family, then a good teacher, with the active cooperation of the parents, can try to address the problem. In this way the child will be helped to regain his self confidence and generate full interest in the subject. The truth is that these days because of the demand of the market, students in droves, opt for Computer Science, Commerce and Accountancy, Medicine and Engineering etc. and Social Sciences have been relegated to the background, which is very harmful and against the norms of a healthy life in the society. In view of this it is all the more necessary to seek full cooperation of the parents in the learning of social sciences of which history is a very important part. This can be made easy and possible if the teachers inform the parents about the weaknesses of the child and a good and continuous evaluation process will help the teacher to find out those weaknesses.

(4) Tests Attitudes

History is one of the subjects which helps the child to understand his constitutional obligations, his cultural heritage, and to develop in him the sense of National Identity, and also scientific temper - some of the important components of our Core Curriculum as mentioned in our educational Policy Document of 1986 entitled "Programme of Action". Now these call for attitudinal changes and history is required to bring them about in children. Therefore while teaching history the teacher must keep an eye on them and constantly endeavour to inculcate them in the children. The evaluation process in history 98 also helps us to find out, whether the teaching of history in the classroom has effected these changes or not.

(5) Tests Skills Besides, history also attempts to give some skills to students. It tries to give them the skill of preparing maps, models, pictures, diagrams and graphs etc. in addition to the intellectual skill to analyse things in an objective manner, comparing and contrasting the situations and then arriving at logical conclusions on the basis of the facts in an impartial and unbiased way. The evaluation tests in history help us to find these out.

EVALUATION TESTS IN HISTORY The history evaluation tests, on the whole should test the factual information, concepts, attitudes, interests and analytic power and skills of the children. To realise these objectives, let us consider the tests that we can conduct.

(1) Oral Test In order to test as to how much information or knowledge has been gained and retained by the students we can conduct oral tests too. In a classroom situation the teacher through his recapitulatory questions can find this out. He can also through his skilful questioning find out their attitudes, their capacity to do analytical thinking, their logical and systematic approach to reach a conclusion and also arrive at some generalisation. This oral interaction calls upon the students, to use their power of imagination to a very great extent. It also induces them to systematically argue and probe into a situation. It will also help them in the art of probing into the explicit and implicit motives of the man. Naturally, it means that some weightage must be given to these oral tests. In fact in a liberal and free atmosphere, where teachers work without any fear or favour, oral test should be given at least 25 percent to 30 percent of weightage to be increased gradually to 50 percent in due course of time. 99

(2) Objective Type Tests Objective type tests are to find out the factual information gathered by the students. They are, by and large, information based. They are the tests of rote memory. We cannot deny the importance of information. But we also know that mere information and its reproduction is the lowest level of learning but still it is the foundation on which the higher level of learning is built. Hence these tests find a place in History too. The advantage of these tests is, that being objective, they do not permit the subjectivity of the examiner to operate and play its pernicious and harmful role. We may once again say that the examiner is after all a human being and despite his best efforts, he, in many a case, easily falls a prey to his own biases, prejudices, likings and dislikings, which effect his assessment adversely. But in objective type tests these factors do not operate. Hence objective type tests which ensure unbiased assessment are acclaimed by the academics and are given due place in our scheme of evaluation in history.

(3) Essay Type Tests But, as said earlier, the objective type tests may turn the child into an automaton or robot which will supply the information fed into it. But man is not an automaton or robot, he is a thinking person. He thinks and analyses things in his own independent way. History is also not a compendium of dead information. It is a discipline which reads into the minds of the characters, their designs, their schemes, their explicit as well as implicit motives etc. which prompted them to do certain things in a certain way. An analysis of such delicate phenomena cannot be made through objective type tests. Hence there should be a sufficient sprinkling of essay type tests. While talking about the aims of teaching history we very

clearly stressed on the development of imagination as one of its important aims, and we do know that this trait is an extremely important trait of the man. Through our logical and systematic imagination based 100 on facts we can graphically describe a given situation or even the mental state of an individual and with its help try to reach the truth which otherwise is there, but in a hidden form. Now history teaching and learning should ensure it, and our evaluation process should take care of it. Hence the need of questions which call for this imagination to come in full play. The essay type tests fulfils this important need and hence their importance in history.

Combination of Objective Type and Essay Type Tests Therefore history tests should constitute objective type as well as essay type tests. In what proportion we should have them, can be easily left to the discretion of the teacher because he is the best judge to decide about it, in view of the treatment given by him to different topics or sub-topics and also the requirement of each one of them. The question still remains as to how to minimise the subjectivity of the examiners in essay type questions. For this some guidelines can be prepared with regard to each essay type question so that some uniformity between different examiners may be ensured and some sort of objectivity may be injected even in the case of a single examiner.

CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION In fact the above mentioned objective and essay type examinations are also not the panacea of the varied ills of the system. The real education of children demands continuous and comprehensive evaluation of the children. Everyday the teacher should do it in some form or the other. The classroom interaction, discussions, assignments, completion of projects and writing their reports, periodical unit tests and terminal and annual examinations should constitute the continuous evaluation. In addition to this, child should be carefully observed with regard to his performance in games and sports, his behaviour on the field and in the school corridors and almost at every place. This will constitute his comprehensive evaluation. Thus if we really want the education system to be effective and productive then this is essential and then alone 101 one can talk about the genuineness and efficacy of evaluation. If we really want the education system to turn the corner, and bring about the coveted all round development of the personality of the child, then the continuous and comprehensive evaluation is the answer.

(a) Difficulties But to call for such a change is easier said than done. The execution of such a procedure bristles with some major difficulties and to remove them falls outside the ambit and capacity of the education system. The first problem is that of teacher-taught ratio in a class. To do continuous and comprehensive evaluation, requires a continuous meaningful and purposive watch over the academic social and other performance of the children. The teacher has to correct their assignments with all sincerity, discuss with each child his shortcomings at length and then also suggest to him the corrective measures and then again and again see as to how far the child is trying to get over his shortcomings. In case he finds that the difficulties have their origin from home environment then he will have to arrange meetings with the parents and then evolve a combined plan of action so as to overcome them. If the difficulties are related to the peer group, then suitable measures have got to be planned so as to harmonise the relationship between the child and the peer group so that irritants may be removed. However, it may be said that all this does not need one time operation. In fact it is a continuous and endless process and to think that a teacher can do it with large classes, will be nothing but a folly. When we say that it is beyond the ambit of education system, we actually hint at the financial implications of our proposal and finances are not in the domain of the system, they are provided by the government.

(b) Extra Periods Given to Teachers Naturally, no human being can perform all this arduous, complicated, and challenging task if he is not given suitable 102 working conditions. In our context our teachers are given a class generally comprising 40 to 60 students. If a school works for 8 periods a day then he is given 5 or 6 periods per day. Not only that, he is also assigned one or two extra periods as

substitute periods to look after the classes of the absentee teachers. Such periods are known in the popular school language as "substitute periods". In this way a teacher has to deal about 40 x 6 = 240 children per day plus 40 or 80 children more if he is given substitute periods. So the tally comes to about 320 children per day. However, for argument sake if we take the minimum of 240 children per day then how on the earth, can any teacher or for that matter any human being, perform, what we have mentioned above in connection with continuous and comprehensive evaluation. Obviously it is a piece of rhetoric and wishful thinking. But the fact is, that, if we really want to be true to what we profess and preach from the house tops then we have to improve the working conditions in the school and make them really workable and practicable. We will have to drastically reduce the number of children in the classes and also reduce the number of periods of teachers. In no case they should be given more than 4 or 5 periods per day so that during the remaining time they may attend to correction work and give individual attention to children or give them individual or collective guidance as the case may be. From the above discussion it follows that we should substantially increase the number of teachers or if possible double their number, it means double the present expenditure, double the number of classrooms and the number of schools, the laboratories, the equipment etc. In short it means almost spendings 100 percent more on our school education. So the question is that of finances and resources. If we look at this proposition in the context of the stark realities then we can understand that it is almost unrealistic to crave for such an impossible thing. So far we have not been able to enrol all the children upto the age of 14 years in our schools. We launched the scheme of Black-Board Operation because our elementary schools do not have the minimum basic facilities such as 103 teachers, black-boards, buildings and drinking water etc. This scheme eloquently proves the fact that the above mentioned minimum facilities are not there. With such a back drop to speak in terms of increasing the number of teachers by 100 percent or doubling the school education expenditure is just like crying for the moon. Therefore we can fix our sight on the above ideal model of small classes and less number of periods for the teachers, but so long as it is not practicable, we must put our best foot forward to do whatever we can, in order to move towards that goal. We have to gird up our loins and do whatever is possible in the given conditions and work sincerely to reach the targeted model.

CONCLUSION Our Model-Combination of Essay Type and Objective Type Examination Therefore in the present condition we should have a combination of essay type and objective type examination and also maintain report card of the student containing his different essential traits and performance-scholastic and non-scholastic and also conduct periodical tests in order to keep a constant watch over his improvement. For the present we should try to do this to the extent possible depending upon the time and facilities available and then try to move inch by inch towards our ultimate goal of 'comprehensive and continuous evaluation'.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS Teachers must realise the great importance of constant evaluation. They must try to keep a constant watch over the growth of the children as far as possible. They should be well equipped to prepare and conduct and assess students on the basis of essay type as well as objective type tests. They must know the nuances of these tests. They should try to be very •impartial while evaluating the students. They must fully know 104 that essay type questions, calling for analytical thinking and systematic and logical development of the theme, are also very important in history and they should be given proper weightage in their scheme of evaluation.

EXERCISE Q. 1. What is the importance of evaluation? Discuss, with reference to the teaching of history. Q. 2. Discuss the merits and demerits of essay type and objective type tests in history. Q. 3. Why is continuous and comprehensive evaluation necessary? Discuss. How far can we practice it in our schools in

relation to history? 105

Chapter 10 HISTORY ROOM INTRODUCTION Can we think of teaching Chemistry or Physics or Biological Sciences without a Laboratory. The answer is obvious. In the conditions prescribed for recognition of a school, it is invariably laid down that there should be well equipped laboratories for these subjects. However, we never think about history in the same terms, for the reason that for ages it has been taught through lecture method in most of the schools, so much so that in some cases the content is read out from the text-books in the class in an insipid manner as if it were a language class. But if we really want to put history at its rightful pedestal then we must take care of all the facilities which should be made available for the teaching-learning of history. History room is such an essential facility. It is not only desirable but it is essential for interesting and effective transaction of history lessons in the school.

NEED We know that in order to motivate the children we must try to raise their apperceptive mass or in other words we should try to create an atmosphere so that a mindset is developed which is ready to receive new knowledge. We may say that ambience should be such that children may find themselves in a situation conducive to the learning. Now if we have a history room 106 equipped with different colourful attractive and interesting charts, pictures, graphs, models then, students, as soon as they enter into it would be transported to the world of history and thus be automatically spurred to learn the subject. In a way the entire atmosphere would be exuding history and we can figuratively say that there children would be breathing history. It would be, in a nutshell, a source of great motivation to the children. Besides, the subject demands the use of different kinds of material aids such as maps, charts, models coins, dresses, etc. to make the past real — the very basic aim of teaching or learning history. Naturally we must have a place to keep and store them. If we have a history room then we can keep all the necessary aids in it, in a well planned and decent manner, so that they may be consulted, referred to and used by students. It may be clearly understood that history room is or should not be used as a store room to dump the things or an exhibition room to display these aids or a museum, on the contrary it should be a room generating new and purposeful and effective learning activities. It should be the hub centre of learning history. It should be like a laboratory for children where they may consult relevant extracts from different texts, newspaper cuttings, charts, models, coins or pictures and thus may have a real and living contact with the so-called dead past. It can thus develop a right attitude and a passion for studying the subject. It can thus act as a very strong motivating factor.

EQUIPMENT A history room must have different types of learning material or aids. We can divide them into many categories but here we propose to classify them into two major categories - inexpensive and expensive in view of their cost.

(a) Inexpensive Material Aids Let us first of all take up the inexpensive aids and material which any and every school can provide and which in most of 107 the cases can be prepared by students too, without incurring much expenses. (i) Charts, Graphs, Pictures, Maps

Every history room worth its name should have charts. These charts can be, and in most of the cases be, prepared by students on chart papers. Each one of us is endowed with creativity and the preparation of charts is positively a creative activity. Creating something on the paper gives children immense joy and we know that learning is at its peak when we enjoy the work that we do. Children sometimes can draw the charts copying them from some given chart or even on occasions they can give shape to their own idea. They can also seek the advice of the teacher in this regard. Children may also be motivated to prepare graphs and diagrams etc. These can be prepared without much difficulty. Students can also be advised to draw pictures of great people. They may also be asked to draw some pictures showing some events like Jalianwala Bag or Gandhiji's Dandi March etc. In this way with a little imagination and initiative we can have a pile of material aids prepared by children. Difficulties - Remedy But let us also consider the difficulties that can come in our way. We must accept the fact that in most of the cases children will not be able to draw figures properly. After all it is a truism that every one is not born with an artistic bent of mind or with the specific skills of an artist. But this fact should not discourage us. Therefore in every school we should try to provide an epidiascope. No doubt it will entail some expenditure because it is a little costly gadget. But if a teacher sincerely wishes to have it then he can manage it with a little effort. In the first instance the management should be pressed hard with right type of persuasion to provide money for it. If here the teacher fails then parents should be taken in confidence and convinced about its usefulness for children who are none else but their own offspring. If the teacher courts failure even here, then he 108 can collect nominal amount of money from children and in the course of one or two years the school can have the gadget. Besides it should not be forgotten that for such sincere and honest purpose there can never be shortage of money, the only need is the transparency on the part of the teacher and transparency in the keeping of accounts. The epi-diascope will really be a very great help to children to prepare different aids with precision and this precision will give children lots of satisfaction. In case even if it is not possible to have this gadget then children can be advised to trace the figures or other things like outline of maps etc. on sheet of paper. (ii) Models Model is another extremely effective, interesting and useful aid. Since it is three dimensional it appears to be an exact replica of the original though on a smaller or in some cases even on bigger scale. These days we have lots of material with the help of which these models can be prepared. Thermocol, plaster of paris, plasticine, clay, card board etc. are the things which can be handled and manipulated easily. In training colleges pupil-teachers prepare models of Qutab Minar, Tajmahal, Gol Gumbad, Sanchi Ka Stupa, The Great Bath and the Township of Harappan Civilisation etc. It is the guidance and the inspiration from the teacher which cart and will inspire children to prepare all these models and it will not be a tedium for the students; on the other hand, they will enjoy themselves in creating these objects. On the pain of repetition it may be said that it is the role of the teacher which is most important as an inspirer and as a guide. It may again be emphasised that all this will not entail much of expenditure, besides if the teacher finds it a little beyond the pocket of the students, then he can easily form groups of children and the groups may be assigned the job of preparing the model and thus expenses can easily be shared. Thus without making a sizeable hole in the pockets of children or their parents things can be done without much inconvenience to any one in the school. It is ostensibly the case of "where there is a will there is a way". 109 (iii) Collection of Articles As teachers, we can conduct some very useful and effective activities without incurring much expenses. A teacher can ask his students to bring the soil or stones or any other material from the place or places visited by them. When they are taken out on an historical excursion they can be advised to do this exercise also. In case some of their relatives or friends visit some historical places children can request them to bring such specimen for them. It may be noted that these things do not cost anything, nor they are heavy to carry. So without incurring any expense many things can be collected. Now all these things can be arranged in some specific order in a big wooden case with a glass top, placed on a table with a note describing the material. This display of the material can be of immense use. For example some soil brought from

Jhansi with a note narrating the significance of Jhansi and the valour of Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi placed by its side, can work wonders. Even this note is to be prepared by children. In this way History Room will be a living room full of information along with some concrete visual material to make the past real and living. Students coming to the history room will get readymade information about the place. Since they will be seeing the soil from Jhansi they will be able to visualise or imagine that it is this soil on which she was brought up; breathed the air which got its fragrance or heat or coldness from this soil and that it was that very soil on which she fell down dead while fighting against the enemy. Likewise models, coins or dresses or other materials would tell their own tales, provided the notes appended below or by the side of the material are a little self explanatory and thought-provoking and teacher while teaching in the class delineates a word picture of the events in an absorbing and effective manner. (iv) Written Material History room should also have some beautiful and interesting reading material. Obviously it is well nigh impossible to have 110 original texts. We should not even talk of it in a school situation. But a teacher can always try to procure extracts from original sources, or interesting passages from the books of renowned historians or the quotable quotes of some eminent historical figures, for example such immortal statements as "Do or Die", "Freedom is my birth right and I shall have it" or "Give me blood and I shall give you freedom" etc. It may be stated that history is replete with such statements. To make the entire thing more effective if these epoch making statements are placed with the pictures of these great men the effect on children will be immense. This material can be placed in a properly well bound register and arranged in the chronological order or in a thematic order depending upon the choice of children and teacher. But in any or every case it should begin with an index. Now all this material will constantly be augmented as the collection from the children will be a continuous exercise. It is also the bounden duty of the teacher to tell the children while teaching a topic to consult the material available in the history room. Now all these things can be procured or collected by the most penurious school because children of different classes, year in and year out can procure these things without spending much money. It may be borne in mind that nowhere they are being called upon to purchase them. Moreover in the poorest of the poor schools there may be five to ten percent of children who can give some money for this noble cause on their own and in the course of a few years the room will have lots of reading material. In addition to it, some books and collateral reading material can also be placed in the room for the benefit of children.

(b) Expensive Material In our country we have some affluent schools too known as so-called public schools or progressive schools. By God's grace they have lots of money as children from rich families, by and large, come there for their education. There we may manage to have a separate History Room. They can also easily afford to 111 have expensive material aids. However, it may be stated emphatically that this does not mean that they will not try to collect the aids mentioned earlier in the category of inexpensive aids. These schools may provide computers, projectors, overhead projector, T.V., Record Player, and many other gadgets. These modern or ultra modern equipments will add extra colour and infuse more life in the teaching of history. Since these gadgets are very costly we cannot recommend them for our common schools, but even then let it be clearly understood that the way they (common school children) would manage their aids would be definitely more satisfying and fulfilling as they will be the result of their own efforts. Since they will on their own replenish them year in and year out, there can never be paucity of them as they will be replenished by children every year.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS But in the end once again it may be stated that the basic requirement is to have a room exclusively meant for history otherwise whatever has been said above will remain a wishful thinking. In case a pucca room is not available then some make shift arrangement can be made or some temporary structure be raised. Ultimately it comes down to our strong will and where there is a will there is a way.

Teachers of history in this age of shortage of space must fight relentlessly for a history room. With perseverance and unceasing efforts they are sure to win the battle more so because it is not being fought to gain some personal advantage but it is for the benefit of children. They can always put forth the argument that when students of Physics and Chemistry and Biology can have a laboratory in their respective subjects then why should they be deprived of their legitimate right. It may be brought home to the administrator or the management that it is a purely academic need and will go a long way in motivating the children to learn the subject. Another great responsibility of the teacher is, that they should ensure that it is put to constant and continuous use by 112 the children. It should be the hub centre of activity. In no case it should be converted into a retiring or rest room for the teacher. The teacher should see that it is constantly replenished with fresh and more and more of reading material in the form of extracts or news items or articles etc., and also with pictures, charts and models etc. The management and upkeep of the room is another important thing. Students must prepare the index of things available in the room and arrange it in proper order. In case children want to carry something to their homes by way of studying it in detail or for some other purpose then arrangements can be made to issue and receive it back from them. Of course for such an arrangement the eacher will have to do proper planning. As regards its maintenance and day-to-day working, with a little bit of planning, the teacher can arrange it. In case of common schools, the main emphasis should be, that, it does not become a drag on the finances of the school. It should be entirely self supporting. It is to be managed, maintained and sustained by the efforts of the students and the teacher. Since it will be the result of their combined efforts and sincere labour, it will be in a way their combined property, and so there will hardly be any pilferage or loss. In fact it will be like a temple for them and they will have a sense of belonging towards it and this sense will create in them a love for the room as well as for the subject too. However, LL passing it may be stated that in affluent schools where costly gadgets are kept in history room, we will need a person or two to take care of them, but since these schools are affluent they may easily bear the expenditure. In the end it may once again be stated that entire enterprise will rest upon the sincerity, honesty, dedication and devotion of the teacher. He or she is the lynch pin. He should lead and inspire the children with example and become a role model for children. 113

EXERCISE Q. 1. Why is it essential to have a history room in a school? Discuss. Q. 2. Prepare a case for having a history room in a school. Mention the difficulties that can come in your way in this regard and suggest how will you overcome them. Q. 3. What equipment will you like to have in your history room? Discuss. Q. 4. 'Even without much money we can have a history room'. Discuss. Q. 5. Discuss how a history room should be managed and used without any financial assistance from the Management/Government. 114

Chapter 11 THE HISTORY TEACHER INTRODUCTION If the destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms as claimed by the Kothari Commission, then the shaper of the destiny invariably is the teacher. In our ancient texts we have highlighted his/her importance in most unequivocal terms and have compared him with God himself or even a shade higher than Him as he is the instrument or means through

whom one can reach God. No doubt mother is the first teacher of the child but the person who gives the child further knowledge, understanding and wisdom is the teacher. If education is the main instrument of change, growth and progress, as it undoubtedly is, teacher is the person who helps the child in its realisation. He is the potter, who shapes the child, helping him to grow in the direction most suited to him. Actually he is a gardener who tends, nurtures and nourishes the tender plants (children) to grow into big and strong trees. The entire quality of education of a country depends on the quality of its teachers. Lots have been written and said about the great importance and significance of the teacher, but in order to convey the message in a nutshell it would be quite sufficient to refer to Kothari Commission in this regard. The Commission in its report underscores the importance of the teacher in these words, "Of all the different factors which influence the quality of education and its contribution to national development, the quality of teachers are undoubtedly the most significant" (p. 42). 115 Therefore, in short, we can say teacher is the foundation on which the entire edifice of education stands; he is the lynch pin and is the central figure in the scheme of education. In a history teacher too, we expect all those qualities which we visualise in any or every teacher and so there is nothing special about him but still we can enumerate them with reference to him.

ACADEMIC QUALITIES (a) Knows the Subject In the first instance, let us be very clear about one thing; a teacher is a person who communicates new knowledge or information to the students or helps them to receive it. He enlightens them (students) and throws open new vistas of knowledge before them. He inspires them to learn and discover new things. But to do this, a teacher himself should be a storehouse of knowledge. He should be very well informed. It is a well known fact that a lamp which consumes its own flame can light other. It is only light which can dispel darkness. Ignorance or lack of knowledge is another name of darkness which can dispel darkness. Ignorance or lack of knowledge is another name of darkness which can only be removed with the help of knowledge another name of light. Hence the first essential quality of the history teacher is that he should be fully conversant with his subject. He must possess a broader and deeper knowledge of the content so that he may be able to present the same to students in a vivid and effective manner taking care of those shades of facts which a text-book writer cannot describe in his book because of the paucity of the space and other reasons. However, it may be mentioned that it is the bounden duty of the teacher to see that the content does not go beyond the comprehension power of the children.

(b) Replenishes his Knowledge Constantly We know that there is an explosion of knowledge and every day some thing or the other is being discovered in almost every 116 field. History is no exception to this fact. With new discoveries and new interpretations history is assuming new look and a teacher must keep himself posted with it. For instance, a claim is being made with regard to river Saraswati with several ramifications associated with it and a good history teacher must be well conversant with it. Another notable instance is the discovery of new sites of Harappan civilisation near and beyond Delhi and this added information gives another dimension to the spread of the Harappan Civilisation. Therefore a teacher must constantly replenish his knowledge with more and more information and update it regularly. It is most essential and in order to avoid rusting himself away, he should keep the torch of knowledge burning by consuming its own flame.

(c) Knowledge of Events in their Different Shades Besides, he must also know different angles from which light has been thrown on the subject mater by different authors imbued with their own prejudices, perceptions, likings or dislikings. At junior stage he may not apprise children with the contradictory and controversial aspects inherent in the content because it may be a little too much for them and confuse them. Naturally the challenge is very great for the teacher. In any case he should tell them what appears to him very close to the truth but even then he must add one sentence to his narrative in the end, that the fact is still under investigation. However, it does not mean that he himself should be ignorant of all the dimensions of the fact and be content with the

words and sentences or information given in the text-book of the child. Moreover unless he himself is in the know of all the dimensions, how can he give a balanced view or tell the children that the fact is under investigation, more so when some precocious students may ask him to discuss the same in the class or in private meetings held outside the class.

(d) Possesses an Analytical and Unbiased Mind This wider understanding of the subject matter leads us to 117 another attribute of a history teacher. Being confronted with different controversial facts, he must possess an analytical mind, so that he may logically probe into their truthfulness, analyse and logically evaluate them from different angles so as to reach some cogent conclusion. Even when a conclusive sort of decision is not possible at least he will be able to appreciate different views and several dimensions of the fact and then can leave them open. At school stage and particularly with regard to junior classes he may not be required to come out with those finer and complicated details before the children but at the same time being himself conversant with them he will be in a better position to give his presentation in a balanced manner.

(e) Inspires Children to Think for Themselves Since he is expected to be unbiased, he should have the patience to listen to the points of view of children and thereby inculcate in them the habit of listening patiently to the views of others. This exercise will also develop in them the quality of not accepting others views blindly. They will also learn to weigh arguments and evaluate them in a wider perspective and arrive at the truth in a logical way. Thus to reach the truth in a dispassionate and impartial way will be the outcome and this will also have the complete backing of the teacher as he will also be a useful contributor to the discussions. How to discuss issues on the basis of fac's and arrive ?" the conclusion on the basis of healthy discussions is the basic demand of a democratic society, which we are. In a democracy discussions and arguments are the basic attributes of a good citizen and they are thus developed through the teaching of history. In this way history is the subject which strengthens the roots of democracy.

(f) Develops National Identity Here it may also be stated that in spite of presenting the facts in a non-partisan and unbiased manner, history teacher should not forget to develop in the children a sense of National Identity. 118 In each and every case, this particular aspect which constitutes a part of our Core Curriculum, as mentioned very emphatically in our National Education Policy -1986, should be underscored or highlighted. Even the facts which tell us of our national shame should be underlined so that our conscience may prick us and we may get the message loud and clear that we would never repeat such shameful acts. History should give us the message that to act as traitor is the biggest sin that one can commit towards one's mother land. At the same time the teacher must underscore our glorious past too. So history should also definitely aim at developing these traits in our children. On the other hand if history is presented to children in a dull and monotonous manner as insipid chronology of past events without giving the above message then its very purpose will be defeated.

(g) Develops International Understanding But a good history teacher would not stop here. He would also try to inculcate in children the eternal and most noble idea that the entire world is one family, so beautifully enshrined in our ancient texts with the message "Vasudhaiv Kutumbkam". In other words the teacher will move from "National Identity" to "International Understanding", the greatest need of the entire humanity in the present day. It may always be kept in mind that narrow and blind patriotism is very dangerous and can create so many problems for the human kind but at the same time a liberal but true patriotism which gives us the message to stand up against all foreign aggression and at the same time not invade or exploit the people of other nations is the crying need of the world. In short a good history teacher would move from national identity to international understanding.

(h) Well Conversant with the Nuances of Teaching In addition to the above qualities a teacher of history should be properly trained to teach history effectively. He should be

thoroughly conversant with the methods and techniques of 119 teaching the subject. He should very well know that his job is not to fill the mind of the student with the dead pieces of information, on the other hand, as a facilitator his role is to help the child to acquire new knowledge, as far as possible, on his own. He should fully understand that his role is that of a director giving suggestions, hints and cues but the real person to act on the stage is the child himself who has to put in efforts not only to imbibe the subject matter but to make it his own. In short the entire teaching-learning process is nothing but a combined effort of the teacher and the child who actively contributes to it and in the process learns. He should never forget that in teaching-learning process entire exercise should be learner based. He should therefore know through his professional training as to how to arouse the apperceptive mass of children, how to create interest in the proceedings so that students get inspired to learn through their own efforts. For this he has to master all the nuances of teaching — questioning, tackling answers of students, using material aids, and involving students in the classroom proceedings. Of course, it may sound to be a tall order for the teacher to do all these things in place of coming to the class unprepared, inflict a lecture on the children and give them the information contained in the book. But we all know that this approach is the very undoing of the principles of child-centred learning which is the very soul of learning. Besides we also know that in a teacher-education institute teachers are trained in the very art and technique of teaching and therefore it should not be difficult for them to practice it in the actual field.

(i) Attends In-service Programmes Constantly The history teacher should be constantly exposed to in-service programme in order to replenish his repertoire of knowledge and refresh his technique and methods of teaching. As the learning is an endless and life-long process and as the process of growth and progress is an endless phenomenon, it is essential that the teacher should attend such programmes regularly. These days when information technology and even knowledge 120 is expanding at a very fast pace it is all the more necessary that history teacher should also avail of the opportunity to learn more and more so that he may really be more useful to his students.

GENERAL Like any other good teacher a history teacher should also have some other traits or qualities.

(a) A Good Narrator Narration or the art of telling story is the bedrock of teaching history. A good and effective history teacher must have the quality of a good story teller. He must have the power to narrate the events or facts effectively and in absorbing manner. He should have the art of painting the events with words. Through his narration he should be able to present a wordpicture and graphic detail of the situation so as to transport the children to the scene where the actual event took place. He should have the capacity and power to make his words talk, dance, sing, cry and rejoice etc. as per the requirement of the situation. Here there can be no compromise. It is through his ability of narration that he can make the past alive and put life into it. We should not forget that all the good and famous historians had this quality. Professor J.N. Sarkar's writings speak and talk. The graphic descriptions given by him create images in the mind of the reader and the reader actually feels a communion with the so-called dead past. Same is the case with other good historians. Now these great historians have left for us their lively writings and we, as teachers have to give tongue to them in our classroom. As history teacher, we must take our inspiration from these great authors and through our narratives make our class echo and re-echo with the emotions and feelings which should go with a particular situation and thus make the past alive. 121

(b) Voice-Clear and Distinct To achieve what has been written above, a teacher must have a distinct voice. His words must be clearly audible and intelligible. In many a case we find teachers chewing words or muttering them in such a way as if they are talking to themselves and the result is that it is well nigh impossible for children to comprehend them. He must realise that he is talking for the consumption of others.

(c) Audible

It is extremely important that his voice must reach to the last child sitting in the class. But it does not mean that he should shout in the class. He must realise that his voice reaches every child in his room and does not go beyond it, so as to disturb other children sitting in other rooms or even in the verandahs. If he becomes too loud then his voice becomes jarring to the ears of the children. Besides it should also be remembered by the teachers that if they unnecessarily speak at a louder pitch then in the first instance they harm their own vocal chord and at the same time develop a feeling of revulsion in the minds of children and thus cerates in them a sense of disinterest and this is the undoing of a good and effective teaching and is grossly counter productive. In addition to the above the narration of the teacher should be punctuated with proper modulation. Sometimes sentences uttered without proper pauses, run into one another and entire narrative loses its meaning. Such a delivery virtually creates chaos and confusion.

(d) Modulation of Voice In addition to this the voice should be modulated properly. A flat narration in spite of the above mentioned qualities will not inspire children, if it is not punctuated with proper modulation in the voice. Modulation in fact reflects appropriate mood and emotions of the situation or the story and helps the teacher to 122 create an atmosphere conducive to learning. Through this device, which is one of the most effective of teaching devices, the teacher helps children to feel one with the characters and sympathise with them. Virtually they are transported in the past and with their mind's eyes they can see the events or the characters in their fullness. It may be kept in mind that this trait is absolutely must for history teachers if they want this great subject to survive. On the pain of repetition it may again be emphasised that history is a living subject though it may deal with the past and this living and vibrant subject must be taught with all vibrancy and liveliness and modulation in the voice so as to make the past alive. I can say with all the confidence that this one quality is worth all the material aids used by a teacher because this modulation of voice exuding proper emotions will create word pictures which children will be able to see with their imagination. Needles to say that to achieve this a teacher must have a rich vocabulary so that he may not fumble for words while giving his narration.

(e) Knows How to Use Material Aids The teacher should be well versed in the use of material aids. He must know how to use the maps. It is not necessary that he must possess the skill of drawing the map, but he should have the knowledge how to use it in the classroom and he must associate his narration with the place or places referred to in the content. He should have the minimum skill in drawing charts and making models so that he may give necessary guidance to children. In the present age he should also have the basic training in the use of computers or overhead projector or other electronic gadgets so that when needed, and if available, he may use them for the benefit of children and may also give them necessary training in handling them.

(f) A Friend, a Philosopher and a Guide In short he should be a friend, a philosopher and a guide. He should understand the needs of students. He should have the 123 knowledge about their psychological problems and he should have the capability of tackling them properly. He should possess the art of motivating them. He must give them his love, affection and friendly guidance which they by and large, always need. He should also give them all the necessary academic help which may enable the children to deal with their difficulties and meet the academic challenges which come in their way. In sum he should be a versatile person having all the qualities of hand, heart and head. But let it be understood that we are not demanding something which is impossible. All these qualities by and large are dormant in each of us. With sincere efforts we can bring them to the fore. The question here is that of efforts and sincere efforts.

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS The above qualities, if not present in a history teacher, should be cultivated by him. There is nothing impossible about them. It is not at all expecting too much from him, if he is required to keep his information up-to-date. It is rather essential that he should constantly replenish his information and continue to expand it because a teacher who does not

have a constant intake of knowledge will start stagnating and stagnation in the field of education is a virtual decadence or an academic death casting its evil shadows on young children too. So a teacher, worth his salt must continue to study more and more and still more. Besides he must continue to add to his professional skill and for that purpose join the inservice programmes which are organised by different academic bodies, such as NCERT, SCERT, CBSE, NIEPA and Universities etc. With regard to his skill in communication, he should work hard in that direction and bring perfection to this art. With constant practice he can easily attain the coveted success. After all a teacher should remember that he is to deal with children who are full of life and only a lively and vibrant teacher devoted to his work can satisfy their expectations of more and more life. 124

EXERCISE Q. 1. Give in brief, a profile of an ideal history teacher. Q. 2. Write a brief critical note on the importance of narration in the teaching of history, highlighting its important characteristics. 125

Chapter 12 LESSON PLANNING INTRODUCTION It will be in the fitness of things to trace briefly different steps we take in the preparation of a lesson plan. However, the first question that assails our mind is "Why is planning needed"? We all know pretty well that every intelligent and right thinking person will say that if we have to take a plunge in any venture or take up any assignment then without planning it may end up in chaos and disaster. It would be like moving out on an expedition without visualising what will be required on the way — food, water, clothing, bedding, medicines etc. One can realise the torture and trouble if one has not made advance planning to meet all possible eventualities that one is likely to face. In teaching too it is like setting out on a voyage. We are to impart new knowledge to students and to help them to actively participate in its acquisition and for this planning is absolutely necessary and hence the need of lesson planning. Therefore it is absolutely necessary that every time when we go to the class we prepare our lesson thoroughly, think about the manner in which it is to be delivered and charter out our course of action meticulously in advance so as to meet any and every situation that may crop up. In our mind also we should have a complete plan of action so that we keep ourselves on the track and not indulge in any useless diversion. However, this brief introduction will bring home to the teacher the necessity of planning a lesson. Now let us consider the various components of a good lesson. 126

AIMS Whenever we take up a task we also have certain aims or objectives before us. In a history lesson plan too we have two broad types of aims. They are (i) General Aims and (ii) Specific Aims.

General Aims These are the aims of teaching of history, which we have discussed at length in the Chapter "Aims of Teaching of History". In our lesson plan we have to mention them. As this exercise has already been done in that chapter students are advised to pick them up from there.

Specific Aims These are the aims or objectives relevant or specific to each lesson. They invariably differ from lesson to lesson, because each day we deal with a different piece of content. By and large we always cover something fresh even when it is the extension or continuation of the earlier lesson. Actually they are derived from the subject matter or the content which we

deal with, in a particular class on a particular day. To illustrate what has been said here we can take an example. If our topic is Akbar, and in a given period our subject matter deals with his early life, early difficulties and conquests, then our specific aims will be derived from this content, but on the next day if we are dealing with his administration then our specific aims will flow from that content. These specific aims are further classified into the following categories: (a) Knowledge or Information As its very name denotes it pertains to the piece of information which is contained in the subject matter to be discussed in that lesson. So it is specific and definite. As is evident it pertains to the first level of knowledge i.e., getting information. 127 (b) Understanding This is the second or higher stage of learning. Here the information received by us is compared or contrasted with similar information and then information is imbibed by us in a more comprehensive manner. It can then be seen in a wider perspective. Actually it means to have it at the conceptual level. (c) Application Here the children are enabled to apply this knowledge in new situations as and when possible. It is in fact, to bring them out of that narrow groove, in which the information has been received by them from the text-book and equip them to imagine, analyse and then apply the acquired knowledge in similar and contrasting situations. It will equip them to infer or draw conclusions and then help them to learn how to deal even with the present day problems. In a way it helps the learner to learn from the mistake of the ancestors. It goes with the saying that those people who do not learn from their history are bound to repeat their mistakes. It also gives the child an understanding as to how to build further on the successes or attainments of their forefathers. It also helps in creativity and divergent thinking. In short application stage in learning is the highest form of learning and a history teacher must help his students to attain it. (d) Skill A history teacher has also to see that children also learn the skill of drawing pictures, charts, diagrams, prepare flash cards, maps, models and also learn the art of using modern electronic appliances such as T.V., video, overhead projector and slides etc.

MATERIAL AIDS The history teacher must think about probable and possible material aids that can be used in the course of lesson in advance. 128 These can be maps, models, charts, pictures etc. however, one thing should always be borne in mind that the map of the place about which the content deals with should invariably be constantly displayed in the classroom before the children even when we are dealing with the culture or the life of the people.

PREPARATION (a) Previous Knowledge First of all a teacher must decide in his mind as to what is that piece of knowledge with the students which may have direct relevance to the content which he has to discuss in the class. It needs really a lot of thinking on the part of the teacher as he is to speculate about it so that he may not go off the target. Having thought about it we have to write it down in our lesson plan.

(b) Preparatory Questions Having decided about the previous knowledge we are to put questions based on it. We are very much within our rights to put questions, which are in consonance with the age-old universally accepted maxim "From the Known to the Unknown".

The answers from students will prove whether our assumption with regard to their previous knowledge was correct or not. In case students draw a blank and are unable to answer questions then at the spur of the moment we should change our line of action and tackle the situation accordingly, for instance we can tell a story or recite a poem or give a piece of narration suiting to the content we are to deal with and then put questions on it and then relate it to the content that we are to present to the students. The basic principle is that our preparation stage should help us to introduce the lesson in a logical and systematic way, raising the apperceptive mass of students and prompting them to get ready for the new information or content which is to be discussed in the class. 129

(c) Statement of the Topic After this we have to clearly and distinctly announce the topic to be discussed. It should be directly in line with the answers received from the students in response to our questions of preparation stage or in line with the exercise done by us at that stage. In fact the topic should flow from that exercise and there should be direct and clear relationship between the two. In case we have to utter a few sentences to forge this relationship then we should not hesitate to do so. These sentences act as the bridge or linkage to fill in any gap, if left out there. In no way it should appear that the topic has emerged from the blue. In short it should be a logical, sequential and natural outcome of our preparation stage. Let it also be stated that the announcement of the topic makes it quite clear as to what we intend to discuss in the classroom. Children then learn without any ambiguity as to what would be the main focus of the interaction. This helps both the teacher and the students to keep on the track and it protects every one from digression.

PRESENTATION Thereafter comes the time to present the lesson, the basic principle involved here is to invariably involve the students in the development of the lesson through thought-provoking, stimulating and relevant questions or through some other activities. It may be emphasised that it should be like a journey to discover new lands in which children move step by step with the teacher so that the entire effort becomes a joint venture in which the children's role becomes central to the process. Actually it should be paedo centric and should be an enjoyable exercise. The teacher should try to create an atmosphere in which students may feel transported to that time and situation of history about which the discussion is to take place. In short it should be a lively journey into the past so that students may feel the events, see them, talk to the characters and really see the things happening before them. In no case it should be listless, monotonous and a boring chronology of events. 130 During the course of presentation important points emerging from the exercise will be written on the black-board to form the blackboard summary. These points will help the students to reconstruct the entire theme later on, at home. During this stage the teacher will use different techniques, methods, devices and aids etc. already discussed in earlier chapters.

RECAPITULATION In the end the teacher will put a few recapitulatory questions to students to find out how far they have been able to imbibe the subject matter. It will also be a feedback to him to assess his own shortcomings.

HOME WORK The teacher, if he feels it necessary, may give some home assignment to children.

CONCLUSION The above is just a brief outline of the various steps that we take to prepare a lesson plan. A detailed treatment of this exercise has not been attempted here because it is expected that in the general lectures arranged for students, lesson planning is discussed in detail bringing out its nuances at length. Besides we have given some model lesson plans in the second part of this chapter, and they will provide still more extensive information along with suitable examples.

So the above is just an attempt to give the "Why" and "How" of lesson planning to help the students to have an overview of this important exercise. Let us be very clear about one fact, that there can be several ways to reach one's destination. While we go to the class, there can be more than one approach to interact with the students in order to help them to acquire new knowledge, so one can always choose one's own plan of action, but even then in very approach there will always be some essential features, common 131 almost to every one. For example, when we engage ourselves in a task or venture, in order to execute it successfully and effectively we do follow a procedure. In the first instance we plan our course of action keeping before us our objectives. In planning we do take care of several steps, resources to be pooled and the sequence of steps that we are to take. Then we take a plunge and execute it and in the end we evaluate it or judge our attainment or do the stock-taking. Lesson planning in education is nothing but taking all the above steps e.g. mentioning broad general objectives as well as specific objectives, preparation to launch upon the new lesson, then presentation of the lesson and finally recapitulation of the entire exercise to evaluate the success or effectiveness of the endeavour. However, in our execution we do exercise as much freedom as is called for in the given circumstances because in a class when we interact with about 30-40 thinking and vibrant minds there can be many unexpected responses to a given problem which no human mind can predict in advance and therefore alteration to the original approach becomes absolutely essential. This is necessary to help students see the light and to remove their doubts and misconceptions. Therefore any necessary variation or change in the actual execution of the lesson plan is a must in the interest of academics and for the benefit of the children. In the end, let it be reiterated that the lesson plans given in the next chapters, is just an effort to give in concrete shape the principles and suggestions articulated by us while talking about the various methods of teaching in previous chapters. In no way they are mandatory, they are only recommendatory. In addition to it, it should also be constantly borne in mind that our lesson plans are not our "Masters", they are just our "Guides".

MESSAGE FOR TEACHERS It is essential that pupil-teachers should plan their course of action before taking a class. It applies even to the teachers who 132 have been teaching for ages, the only difference being, that they may do this exercise mentally without scribbling down it on the paper as is done by a pupil-teacher. Since a pupil-teacher is at the initial stage of learning the art and nuances of teaching, it is a must for him to jot down every conceivable thing which may happen in the class. It is like a rehearsal of the entire thing at a theoretical plane. To begin with, he should write the general aims of teaching history in his first five or six lessons. Thereafter in subsequent lessons under the heading of "General Aims" he may write "Same as in Lesson 1". The reason is very simple. These aims are similar and therefore their repetition again and again will serve no purpose. The reason to repeat them in five or six lessons is to help the children to retain them in their mind permanently. As the pupil-teacher knows the structure or the several steps of the lesson plan it would not be difficult or time consuming for him to write it. However, it may once again be repeated very emphatically that in history lesson plan he should not write the probable answer of the students, because in history when we put developmental questions to the students, they demand the reaction of the student in a given situation and as a human mind is an extremely intricate and unpredictable thing, there can be innumerable response befitting the situation. So the lesson plan should never have it. However, after receiving the answers befitting the situation it is the teacher who is to supply the actual happening or the reaction of the people or the concerned character/s of the history. To illustrate let us take a concrete example: "Alauddin Khilji was on the throne of Delhi. At that time hordes of Mongols were invading Delhi repeatedly". Now a teacher can put the question, "What should Alauddin do to solve this problem? Now there can be many answers to this question. One student can say that he can buy peace with them. The other one can say that he will buckle down under their pressure and run away to the South or he will surrender. A third one can say that he will fight with them and so forth and so on. The point made here is that there can be many cogent 133

reactions to the same situation and therefore we should not make an attempt to write the expected answer. Even God cannot visualise the myriad answers that can come from the thinking children. However, a teacher has to frame supplementary questions in response to the answers received from the children. And this is the real challenge for the teacher and therefore he must be very well conversant with the content and also have a wide repertoire of general knowledge. History like sciences cannot and should not be given in a structured way, on the other hand, it should open up the mind of children and spur them to logically and systematically try to reach the truth. Then the teacher is to ensure that he builds up the theme in a systematic and logical way with the active cooperation and involvement of children. His own presentation should be interesting, absorbing and that he should modulate his voice in the right manner so as to convey to the children the appropriate mood of the situation. He should use the material aids including the maps etc. in a proper way so as to create a proper and congenial atmosphere of learning the history. In brief teaching of history has its own typical challenges. The subject itself is full of romance, full of emotions, and a compendium of different moods depicting the man at his best and also at his worst and therefore a teacher must have the proper understanding of all these things connected with those particular events. It is a journey into the past in which teacher and students are co-travellers and the combined effort is to witness that past in its full measure - its glory as well as its decadence.

EXERCISE Q. 1. Why is lesson planning essential for a teacher? Discuss. Q. 2. What are the components of a lesson plan? Discuss them bringing out their importance. Q. 3. "A history teacher should not write the expected answer to be received from the students". Discuss. 134

Chapter 12(a) LESSON PLANS LESSON PLAN 1 (Class VI) Date.................. School................................ Subject: History Topic: Asoka (273 B.C. to 232 B.C.) Time: 35 minutes

General Aims To develop in students: (i) Understanding of the past and the capacity to relate it to the present wherever possible so as to build a bright future, (ii) Active interest in history, (iii) Imagination and logical thinking, (iv) Feeling of national identity, (v) Love for the mother land, (vi) Feeling of internationalism

Specific Aims To enable them to learn about: (i)Asoka's accession to the throne,

(ii)The conquest of Kalinga, (iii) His efforts to spread the message of brotherhood, 135 (iv) His administrative set up, (v) Estimate of Asoka

Material Aids Contemporary map of India Map of Asia Extracts from his edicts

Previous Knowledge (assumed) It is assumed that children know that Gandhiji was an apostle of peace and that he was instrumental in winning independence for us from the Britishers through non-violence.

Preparation 1. Who ruled over India before 1947? 2. Name the great leaders who fought for our independence. 3. What was the weapon used by Gandhiji to fight against the Britishers.

Statement of Aim Children, Gandhiji was an apostle of peace and non-violence. He fought against the Britishers through non-violent means. In our country there was a great ruler who in place of using force took to non-violence, love and affection to rule over his people. He was Asoka the Great and today we will read about him.

Presentation Bindusara was the ruler of Magadh (show Magadh on the map of India). After his death his son Asoka sat on the throne of Patliputra in 273 B.C. (show Patliputra on the map and also give the concept of B.C. by relating it to the present year i.e., 2003 A.D.) 136 Tr. ... Asoka had inherited a vast empire (show it on the map). We see that a very vast part of India was under his rule. But present day Orissa known as Kalinga (show it on the map) was an independent state and it did not accept his suzerainty. Q. What in your opinion an ambitious but powerful ruler can do seeing such audacity of Kalinga? Tr. ... So he invaded Kalinga with a large army. Q. What can be the consequence of such a war? (A teacher can refer to Iraq-USA War - 2003) Tr. ... Naturally he trounced Kalinga and annexed it. Asoka himself went with his army and took part in the battle. Q. What could he have seen there? Tr. ... After receiving the response from the children the teacher will give a graphic and heart rending description of the

battlefield. Q. What could be its impact upon Asoka? Tr. ... Though a blood thirsty warrior, yet the ghastly sight full of corpses and mutilated bodies writhing with pain moved his heart and a great change occurred in him. He vowed not to shed blood like this and not wage any war in future. He took the vow of Ahimsa and decided to spread the gospel of love, brotherhood and peace. Q. How do we spread our message today or propagate our views. Q. But during those days all these means were not available, then what could he have done to propagate his ideas? Tr. ... He sent his emissaries to different parts of the empire and also carved the preaching on rocks at different places such as at Junagarh etc. (show the places on the map and the chart of edicts) Q. Which language is easily understood by the people of a particular area? Tr. ... It is always the mother tongue in which we feel more comfortable. When we talk of masses it is the mother tongue of the people which is always popular. Q. So what language he should have used in his edicts? Tr. ... He also wanted to spread this message in other countries also. Q. So what could he do to realise it? Tr. ... He sent Bhikkus and even his own brother and sister to other countries like Sri Lanka, Tibbet and China etc. (Map to be used). 137 Q. What else could he do to spread this gospel in his own country? Tr. ... He used even the government machinery for this purpose. He appointed Dhamma Maha Maatra to do the job.

B.B. Summary Kalinga war brings about a change in him. Takes to Buddhism. Spreads Buddhism in his own country and in other countries. Tr. ... A benevolent and good ruler also feels deeply concerned with the welfare of his people. Q. What does our present Government do for our welfare? Tr. ... He also opened hospitals, built roads, dug wells and built inns etc. for travellers.

B.B. Summary He took benevolent measures for the welfare of the people such as digging of wells, building roads and inns etc. Tr. ... As has been stated earlier Asoka had a vast empire. (Map to be shown) Naturally he had to administer it well and efficiently. The king was the head of the State so it was his duty to take care of the vast empire. Ostensibly one person all by himself could not do it. Q. What should he do to get proper advice to run the administration? Tr. ... So he appointed ministers to help and advise him. But as we know that the empire was very vast he could not administer the whole of it directly from Patliputra. (Map to be shown) Q. So what could be done? Tr. ... He divided it into four provinces and appointed Governors who were responsible to him. (Map to be used, a flow chart will be drawn on the blackboard and children will also be advised to draw it at their homes)

138 Q. In your opinion what should be the desirable qualities of a Governor? Tr. ... Generally Asoka appointed his own kith and kin, who were faithful and trustworthy. Q. Even the provinces were very big, so what could be done. Tr. ... The provinces were further divided into districts and the last unit was village. In this the entire administrative set up was formed. (The above flow chart will be extended to cover districts and Villages. Teacher can also put questions to compare it with our present day administrative set up in a broad way) Tr. ... Asoka's capital was Patliputra, present day Patna (show it on the map) and its affairs or administration was looked after in a very efficient manner. Q. Who manages the civic affairs of our town? Tr. ... Patliputra was managed by Six Committees. The members of these committees were appointed by the King. Q. What could be their functions? Tell us in view of the functions of our Local Bodies of today. Tr. ... They looked after the upkeep of the town, kept a record of foreigners and also manage the things which are done by our present day Local Bodies.

B.B. Summary The king was the head of the State, assisted by Ministers. The kingdom was divided into 4 provinces, headed by Governors. Provinces further divided into districts and then the villages. Patliputra was managed by six committees. Tr. ... Thus we have learnt about Asoka and his great deeds. Now let us attempt to delineate his character. Q. What was the impact of Kalinga war on him? Q. So what trait of his character is revealed by it?

Note Teacher will like wise put a series of questions pertaining to vows of Ahimsa taken by him, on his efforts to rule the country with love and compassion, sending his own kith and kin to other countries to propagate the message of love and 139 brotherhood etc. and thus deduce from the children various characteristics of his personality. So in fact the estimate of his character will be given by the students themselves and teacher will put intelligent questions to elicit the required information from the children. In the end teacher can put a broad general question—"How can we call him Great."

B.B. Summary He was brave, kind, benevolent, good administrator, a father figure for his subjects. So he is called 'Great'.

Recapitulation Q. 1. What was the impact of Kalinga war on Asoka? Q. 2. How did Asoka spread the message of Buddhism? Q. 3. Describe his administrative set up. Q. 4. How was Patliputra administered? Q. 5. Give an estimate of Asoka.

Note

The lesson plans given here are recommendatory and not mandatory. They are just an effort to illustrate in a concrete way what has been theorised in this book. However, students are advised to have their own independent approach, but in any case the teaching-learning should invariably be paedo-centric and the questions put by teacher to students should make them think. Questions should never be put on the new knowledge. Here new means that part of knowledge or information which we want to give to them. To illustrate this point it will be worthwhile to give an example. For instance "When Asoka saw the carnage and blood-shed his heart moved". After making this statement we can put the question "What could he do"? and not "What did he do"? Since the lesson is for Class VI students, teacher will give his narration in a story form in a very absorbing way. He can and he should paint the battle scene, the misery and pain suffered by men and even animals, with the choicest words reflecting the mood and agony of the situation. 140

LESSON PLAN 2 MUHAMMAD BIN TUGLAQ (13251351) (Class VII) (Initial entries being a routine affair and General Aims being the same as given in earlier lesson, we start from Specific Aims)

Specific Aims To help students to learn about: (i) Muhammad Bin Tuglaq's accession to the throne, (ii) His Taxation Policy in Doab - 1326, (iii) Transfer of Capital 1326-1327, (iv) Token Currency, (v) Plan of World Conquest, (vi) His Estimate

Material Aids Map of contemporary India. A chart depicting the conditions of people during their journey from Delhi to Devgiri. A picture of Delhi-desolate and forlorn.

Previous Knowledge Students have read about Alauddin Khilji and also how Ghyasuddin Tuglaq came to power.

Preparation 1. Who was the great Khilji ruler who ruled over India with great brute force? 2. Name some of the conquests made by him. 3. What did he do to maintain a big army? 4. What was his market policy?

Statement of Aim Today we shall study about another important ruler, who like Alauddin Khilji was ambitious and had many innovative

ideas. 141 His name was Muhammad Bin Tuglaq and he ruled from 1325 to 1351.

Presentation Tr. ... It is said that his father Ghyasuddin Tuglaq the ruler of Delhi had gone to South to suppress some revolts. When he came back from there after crushing the rebels he was welcomed by his son Prince Juna Khan later known as Muhammad Bin Tuglaq at the outskirts of Delhi in a huge pavilion built for his grand welcome. While the father was entering into the pavilion, it crumbled down and he was crushed under it. It is said that lightening hit it and the accident took place. Q. Who generally ascends the throne after the death of the king? Tr. ... So Juna Khan assuming the name of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq ascended the throne. Muhammad was an ambitious man, he was a scholar and well versed in Mathematics, Philosophy and Theology etc. To fulfil his ambition he needed lots of money. He saw that the Doab area was very fertile and therefore he increased the tax on the farmers. He also instructed his officials to be very strict while collecting the tax. (Doab be shown on the map) Q. What would be the reaction of farmers? Tr.... But Muhammad did not listen to them and used brute force to collect the tax. But unfortunately the famine struck the area and it made the things very grim for the farmers. Q. Under these conditions what would be the plight of the farmers. Tr. ... The farmers pleaded before the officials for mercy. Q. But what were the orders for the officials. Tr. ... So farmers had to suffer a lot. Their condition grew very pitiable more so because the tax was being collected with all the force. Q. What would be the result? Tr. ... There was the reign of misery and the farmers even fled away from their homes. Q. What should a good king do under such conditions. Tr. ... Muhammad, when he came to know about it waived the tax, but by that time it was very late and the harm was done. 142 Q. So what was the end result? Thus this project proved to be a failure.

Summary He levied more tax on the farmers of the Doab, famine struck the region, and farmers suffered and the plan ended in failure. Tr. ... Muhammad Bin Tuglaq was a visionary. He felt that Delhi, the capital of his empire was not centrally situated and it caused difficulty in administration (Teacher would show the empire on the map). Moreover the Mongols were constantly invading the country from the North West and Delhi being comparatively nearer had to bear the brunt of these attacks, (map to be used) Q. What should he have done to meet this menace? Tr. ... He in his own inimitable style thought of a plan to shift the capital from Delhi to Devgiri, which according to his thinking was far away from the region from where Mongols used to come and was also centrally located, and so more

effective to administer his vast empire, (map to be used) Q. What do you think of such a plan? Tr. ... Not only that, he ordered all the inhabitants of Delhi to migrate from Delhi to Devgiri a distance of about 800 miles. (Map) Q. Tell us the miseries faced by the people to take up this long and arduous journey during those days. Q. What would have happened to Delhi? Tr. ... But those people who could reach Devgiri renamed as Daulatabad could not adjust themselves to new situation and they felt very miserable. To his great discomfiture Muhammad realised his blunder and took back his order and shifted his capital back to Delhi. Q. So what was the end result? Tr. ... It was another great failure

Summary Transfer of Capital from Delhi to Devgiri was another failure. 143 Tr. ... But as said earlier Muhammad was a man of ideas. In order to augment the wealth of his treasury he introduced token currency of brass and copper equivalent to silver coins. Even today we have paper currency. Q. But what measures does the Government take to prevent the people from making this currency? Tr. ... The government makes it difficult for people to counterfeit this currency and also inflicts heavy punishment on them who do it. But Muhammad did not take all these precautions. Q. So what would be the result? Tr. ... So every one who could make fake currency did it and the market was flooded with the counterfeit coins and there was complete anarchy in the market. Q. So what should he do? Tr. ... He stopped the issue of these coins and exchanged them with the silver coins. Q. So what was the end result of this plan? Tr. ... It ended up in disaster and failure.

Summary Introduced token currency and courted failure. Tr. ... As stated earlier Tuglaq was a visionary and a man of ideas. He was also ambitious. He had a strong desire to extend his empire. Q. What does a king need to conquer new territories? Tr. ... So he also raised a big army and in order to give shape to his desire, he sent his army to Northern Hilly region to conquer it. (Map) Q. What precautions and preparations are required when we have to fight in such regions? Tr. ... But the army was not well equipped to fight in the severe cold conditions of that area. (A history teacher possessing up-to-date knowledge can relate it to the Kargil war, and also how we equip our army stationed in Kashmir.) Q. So what could be the result of such a venture?

Tr. ... Thus we find that this plan also ended up in failure. 144

Summary He raised a big army to extend his empire and here too he failed. Q. What happens to the authority of the king under such circumstances? How do vessels react when they find that the king is nothing but a bundle of failures? Tr. ... The centre became weak and revolts started taking place in many parts of the empire. Q. What would the king do under these circumstances? Tr. ... He tried hard to restore the prestige of the centre and set off to quell these rebellions, but died in 1351 while trying to put down the rebellion in Sindh. (to show it in the map). His Estimate The teacher will put questions on the above and with their help deduce from the students his character and give in short the various attributes of his character so elicited from the children.

Summary A visionary, ambitious man much ahead of his times but very poor in executing his ideas.

Recapitulation Q. 1. How did Prince Juna Khan come to the throne of Delhi? Q. 2 What was his plan with regard to Doab? Q. 3 Describe his plan regarding the transfer of his capital. Q. 4 Describe his plan of Token Currency. Q. 5 What did he do to annex new territories? Q. 6 Give in your own words the estimate of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq.

Home Work Write about various plans of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq. Why did he fail? 145

LESSON PLAN 3 CAUSES OF RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (Class X) (Note - Initial entries upto the General aims are a routine affair therefore we start the lesson plan from Specific Aims) Specific Aims To help students to learn: 1. Why farmers were opposed to the Czar?

2. Why labourers were discontented with their plight? 3. How the life style and tyranny of the Czar provoked the people to rise against him? 4. How the Czar's involvement in the First World War created dissatisfaction in the army? 5. How did the thinkers and philosophers contribute to the revolution.

Material Aids Map of Europe, picture depicting the killing of labourers - men, women, children in 1905 by the soldiers of the Czar.

Previous Knowledge Children have read about the French Revolution. They are also aware of the fact that revolts generally occur when the tyranny of the ruler transgresses all bounds and people also become conscious of this truth.

Preparation Q. 1. Why were people in France sick of the misrule of Louis XVI towards the end of the 18th Century? Q. 2. What sort of atrocities did he commit on the French People? Q. 3. What did people ultimately do in retaliation? 146

Statement of Aim The French Revolution was against the tyranny of the French Ruler. In Russia too in 1917 a great revolution took place against the Czar and today we shall study about its causes.

Presentation Tr. ... The condition of farmers in Russia was very pitiable. They were living a very wretched life. They had small farm lands and in many a case they were scattered and away from one another. Q. How does small pieces of land go against the interest of the farmer? Tr. ... So the labour to be put in was much more than the return. Besides the means of irrigation were costly and not satisfactory. Q. How would it effect the farmer? Tr. ... Naturally it meant more cost and more labour with less returns. Q. What would be the net result on the economic conditions of the farmers? Tr. ... They were therefore reduced to abject poverty and by and large they did not have enough to keep their body and soul together. Q. What inputs are needed to augment the yield even in today's context. Tr. ... So they also needed some facilities. Q. But what is needed to procure these facilities. Tr. ... As they were very poor they could not pay for them and so their condition was very pitiable. But to add insult to injury they were taxed very heavily and tax was collected from them by using brute force? Q. What would be the result of it?

Tr. ... So the farmers were a disgruntled, dissatisfied and frustrated lot and were the ready material to rise in revolt.

Summary Miserable conditions of farmers. 147 Tr.... The Industrial Revolution started quite late in Russia. It started towards the end of the 19th century. As Russia did not have many resources it invited foreign investors to their country to set up industries. Q. What would be the design of the foreign investors? Tr. ... They had the design to earn maximum profit and this led to the exploitation of the labour employed by them. Q. In such a situation what would be the plight of the labour? Tr. ... So the foreign investors took more work from them and paid them less wages and also provided them with poor and remarkably bad facilities? Q. In your opinion what would be the reaction of the labourers under the circumstances? Tr.... They formed their own organisations and raised their voice against the mill owners.

Summary The labourers were exploited and they were also a discontented lot. Tr. ... The Czar was tyrant. He led a very luxurious life. He had no concern with the extremely miserable life of his people. He was also very ambitious and wanted to annex foreign territories. Q. To achieve this what would he do. Tr.... To raise a bigger army he imposed taxes on his people and spent lots of money on the wars which by and large were not productive. Q. So what sort of reaction people would have towards his policy? Tr. ... He was despised by the people and they hated his rule which had become virtually unbearable. The revolutionary spirit was getting momentum. Being very much suppressed, oppressed and exploited the farmers and labourers took out a procession to present a petition to the Czar in St. Petersburg. Q. How should a good and intelligent ruler act in such circumstances? Tr. ... But Czar was a tyrant and a rank persecutor. The procession was fired at and thousands of men and women and 148 even children were killed in cold blood. This event took place on a Sunday so it is also known as Bloody Sunday. Q. What do you think would be the reaction of people at this ghastly event? Tr. ... Naturally it provoked the labourers, farmers and the oppressed people belonging to different sections of the society united together to stand against the atrocities of the Czar.

Summary Czar a tyrant, an autocrat, he oppressed and exploited his people - Bloody Sunday witnessed the killing of people. Tr. ... Czar as we have said earlier was ambitious. He was an Imperialist and wanted to extend his empire. (Use the map to show the territories he wanted to conquer). To realise this goal he jumped into the First World War). But his army was ill equipped and not well prepared for war.

Q. What would be the result of such a venture? Tr. ... The army incurred heavy losses and lakhs of soldiers were killed and the Czar got nothing in the bargain except shame and humiliation. Q. What would be the reaction of the soldiers? Tr. ... So even the army was dissatisfied with him.

Summary So even the army was unhappy with him. Tr. ... It was the time when thinkers, philosophers and writers were propagating their views criticising the autocratic rule of the Czar. Q. What would be the effect on the people of such revolutionary ideas. Tr. ... Philosophers like Karl Marx had a great impact on the thinking of the people. In this way these thinkers also prepared the ground for the revolution. 149 Note (Teacher, if possible can present before the class some beautiful extracts from some historians or from some original works and then base his questions on them seeking the reaction of the children. He may also ask students to collect some material concerning the subject matter from different sources such as novels, poems, stories, dramas or the books written on the subject and the same can be placed before the class for further discussion)

Summary The thinkers and philosophers also inspired people to rise against the Czar.

Recapitulation Q.1 Why were the farmers discontented with the Government of the Czar? Q.2 What was the attitude of the labourers towards the Government? Q.3 How Czar and his style of life was responsible for the revolution? Q.4 Why were the soldiers unhappy with the Czar? Q.5 What was the role of philosophers in the revolution?

Home Work Briefly write the causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Note The Teacher would tackle myriad answers of students given in response to his questions and would try to give a detailed, effective and absorbing account of the situation, or conditions or of the events through his narration. The brief and sketchy narratives given in the above lesson plan are to give an idea to students about the approach and method. An intelligent and 150 well informed teacher can give a graphic and beautiful description of the situation in an absorbing manner. He can also

supply the much needed details if needed through his oral interaction with the class. 151

LESSON PLAN 4 HARAPPAN CIVILISATION (Class X) (Initial entries upto General Aims are a routine affair, therefore we start the plan from Specific Aims)

Specific Aims Children will be able to learn about the life of the people during the period of the Harappan Civilisation with regard to: 1. Their Town Planning, 2. Their Food, 3. Their Religious Belief, etc.

Material Aids Charts and pictures of the remains of houses or cities, seals and pictures showing ornaments etc. and the map of the Contemporary India.

Previous Knowledge Students know our present day life style. Q.1 What sort of houses do we see around us? Q.2 What sort of dresses do we put on? Q.3 What do we grow on our agricultural fields? QA What do we eat?

Statement of Aim All these things along with many others pertain to our way of life or indicate our civilisation. Today we shall study about the Harappan Civilisation which flourished around 2500 B.C.

Presentation Tr.... In the year 1920 the Harappan Civilisation was discovered. 152 It existed in Baluchistan, Sindh, Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Western Uttar Pradesh (the regions are to be shown in the map). It is claimed that it flourished about 2500 B.C. (Students may be asked to calculate the distance of time in relation to today i.e., about 4500 years back) Tr. ... Now let us study about the various facets of this civilisation. The excavations reveal that people were living in planned cities. Q. Of what material your houses are built? Tr. ... Their houses were built of burnt bricks. Q. In order to have more space in the same area how do we expand our house? Tr. ... So they also in some cases had more than one storey in their houses. Q. What facilities or convenience do you provide in your house? Tr. ... They also had bath rooms in the house. Q. What provision do you have for water supply in your house?

Tr. ... They used to have a well in it. Q. What arrangement is made to drain out water from the house? Tr. ... They also had a drainage system. All the waste and water was emptied into the underneath street drains and it was thus discharged into the river. Q. Today while planning a colony what do we do with regard to the laying of the roads ? Tr. ... They also had wide roads which intersected one another at right angles and houses were built along the roads. So in brief the towns were well planned. In addition to this a great tank has been found in Mohanjadaro. A flight of steps lead to the level of water and all around it were rooms. (Map to be shown as well as the picture showing the bath may be shown). Q. What does this denote? Tr. ... So it seems that people used to come to these great baths, may be on some festivals and rooms might be used to change clothes or for women for a cover and so they had a concern for privacy. Tr. ... In the town we have found a citadel, built on raised ground and it also appears that there they had built some public buildings too. 153 Q. What does it indicate? Tr.... May be the affluent and influential people or the elite lived there. Tr. ... In the towns we have found granaries too. Q. So what does it indicate? Tr. ... It means that they used to store the grain so that could be used through out the year and even when there is scarcity. Tr. ... At Lothal (map to be used) we have found a structure which looks like a dock yard. Q. What does this indicate? Tr. ... It means that they knew how to make boats and also that they had relation with other countries and that they must have had trade relations with them.

B.B. Summary Planned cities, houses had bath rooms, wells, good drainage system. Great Bath, Citadel, granaries. Lothal-dock Yard, trade relations with other countries. Tr. ... Now let us study about the life of the people. Q. What grains do we grow for our food? Tr. ... They grew wheat, barley and peas. They also ate fish. Q. Of what stuff are our clothes made? Tr. ... They grew cotton and perhaps used cotton cloth. Q. What domestic animals do we rear? Tr. ... They had goats, cows, buffaloes and perhaps elephants too, perhaps horse was not used. Q. What sort of pottery is made by us?

Tr. ... They used pottery made on the wheel. They were also made of different sizes. It was also used to store the grain. Tr. ... Models of carts and wheels and animals yoked to them have also been found. Q. What does it denote with regard to their sense of creativity? Tr. ... They were artistic and also used the pottery for their day to day use. Tr. ... They also used metals and earthen pots. The bronze figure of a dancing girl has also been found several seals 154 decorated with beautiful figures of animals such as bulls, rhinoceros tiger and elephants have been found. Q. Now what does all this tell us about their civilisation? Tr. ... We also have the evidence of their trade relations with Mesopotamia. On some seals some small boats have been drawn. Q. So think about them as traders.

Summary They grew wheat, barley, peas. They used cotton fibre, had domestic animals, made potteries, used metals and seems to have trade links with Mesopotamia. Q. What religion do you follow? What are your Gods and Goddesses? Tr. ... They also seem to follow some religion. A large number of seals depict the humped bull which might be considered sacred. The impression of God-like form on a seal may be Lord Shiva. The great bath may be used on auspicious occasions for religious bathing. Q. How do we dispose off our dead? Tr. ... Perhaps they buried or cremated their dead. Tr. ... Some of seals have some inscriptions on them. But so far they have not been deciphered. Tr. ... We have no knowledge about their political system but it seems that they had some efficient system of governance. Q. As we have not been able to decipher their inscription, then how do we interpret things about them. Tr. ... We try to infer things on the basis of common sense but the fact is that we have no definite knowledge about them.

Summary Not much known about their religion, they buried or cremated their dead. The script is not yet deciphered. They seem to have some efficient system of governance. 155

Recapitulation Q. What do you know about their city planning? Q. What is the significance of the Great Bath? Q. What crops did they grow? Q. What do you know about their religion? Q. What do you know about their trade relation?

Q. What do you know about their system of Government?

Home Work Briefly describe the Harappan Civilisation. 156

BIBLIOGRAPHY Carr, E.H., What is History; London; Macmillan&Co. Ltd., 1961. Collingswood, R.G., The Idea of History, London: Oxford University Press, 1951. Dale Edgar, Audio Visual Methods in Teaching, New York: The Dryden Press, 1954. Drummond, H.A., History in Schools, Harrup, 1929. Findlay, J.J., History and its Place in Education, London: University of London Press, 1923. Ghate, V.D., Suggestions for the Teaching of History, Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1953. Ghosh, K.D., Creative Teaching of History, Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1951. Hasluck, E.L., The Teaching of History, London: Cambridge University Press, 1926. Hill, C.P., Suggestions on the Teaching of History Towards World Understanding, Paris: UNESCO, 1954. Jarvis, C.H., The Teaching of History, London: Oxford University Press, 1932. Johnson, H., The Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools; New York: Macmillan, 1942. Keating, M.W., Studies in Teaching of History, London: Bluck 1910. Vajreshwari, R., A Handbook for History Teachers, Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1966. Wesley, E.B., Teaching Social Studies in Elementary Schools, Boston: D.C., Heath, 1946. 157 Zevin, Jack, Social Studies for the 21st Century, London: LEA - 2000. "Programme of Education, 1986", Govt. of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education. "Report of the Secondary Education Commission", Govt. of India, Ministry of Education, 1952. "Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66", Govt. of India, Ministry of Education. "Report of the Indian University Education Commission", 1949, Govt. of India, Ministry of Education. 158

Index Academic Bodies 123 Achilles Heel of Educational System 94 Administrative Setup of a Country 11 Advocates of Concentric Method 28

Age-old Maxim 128 Aim of History 18, 21 Aims of Education 19 Aims of Teaching History 126 Ambit of Education System 101 American Revolutionaries 12 An Account of Past 24 An Apostle of Peace 135 Ancient Civilization 27 Annual Examination 93 A Record of Past 52 Archaeological Sources 55 Storehouse of 53 Attribute of a History Teacher 117 Attributes of Power 12 Audio Visual Aids—Meaning&Merits 63 Auditory Aids 68 Banks of Rivers 10 Basic Attributes of a Good Citizen 117 Basic Demand of National Identity 117 Battle of Plassey 75, 76 Beginning of the 13th Century and Middle of Twentieth Century 73 Bibliography 156 Black-Board Operation—Scheme of 102 Bounden Duty of History 74 Brief Teaching of History 133 Capitalist System 11 Carr2 Causes of Russian Revolution 145 Central Asia 10 Centre of Several Subjects 9 Chamber 21st Century Dictionary 2 Chauhan, Subhadra Kumari 14 Characteristics of Good Text-Book 85

Chronological Account of Events 27 Chronology of History 51 Classification of Sources 54 Clive 21 Combination of Easy Type and Objective Type Examination 103 Components of Good Lesson 125 Compulsions of Examination System 41 Concept of History 5 Concept of Time 72, 82 Constituent of Core Curriculum at School Stage 19 Contribution of History Teacher 19 Deeds of Great Men, Religious Leaders, Saints, Nobles and Kings, etc. 21 Definitions of History 2 Democratic Style of Learning 47 Density of India 114 Downfall of the Nawab of Bengal 22 Easy Type of Written Examination 93 Economic Roots of History 12 18th Century History 4 Empiricism and Objectivity 23, 87 English Rulers 5 Entire System of Education 96 Essential Quality of History Teacher 115 European Powers 12 Evaluation Test in History 98 Events of the Past 27 Examination Boards 41 Father of History 3 159 Figment of Imagination 4 First War of Indian Independence 14 Framers of the Syllabus 26

Function of the Teacher 44 Futility of Wars 23 German Scholars 4 Gift of Forefathers 17 Gift of Scientific Invention 14 Good Education Basic Principle of 25 System of 31 Good History of Teacher 20 Good, C.V. 45, 48 Grave Defects of the Examination System 93 Greek Mythology 42 Greek Philosopher 72 Greek World "Historia" 2 Gulf War 13 Hall, Stanley Cultural Epoch Theory of 26 Theories 27 Handmaid of Rulers Wishes and Objectivity 4 Harappan Civilization 116, 151 Heart and Centre of all Subjects 15 Herodotus, a Greek Scholar 3 Historians 3, 6, 13, 41 English 5 Job of the 7 in the Past 53 Historical Novels, Stories&Dramas 13 History Both Science and Art 8 and Economics 12 and Geography 10 and Literature 13, 14 and Science 14 Teachers 122 History of Colonising Other Countries 12 the Development of Mankind 73 Historiography 3 India 32

Mankind 21 World 23, 32 Human Life 16 Important Visual Aids 67 Important Subject at School Stage 10 Industrialisation 14 Ingenious Teacher 39 Instruction in Ancient Times 84 Integral Part of Education 85 James Mill's History of India 5 Job of Historian 54 Johnsons, Henry 2, 7 Jones 2 'Kaal' 73 Kargil Area in Kashmir 18 Khan, Afzal 41, 79 Khan, Khafi 3 Knowledge of the Past 17, 18 Koerner 9 Kothari Commission 114 Land of Abundance 10 Lecture Method 43, 45 Advocates of 44 Lesson Plan 134, 140, 145 Literary Sources 53, 54, 56, 57, 70 Lord Krishna 17 Macaulay 6 Man of Imagination 20 Mandate for Education 1 Marx, Karl 12 Material Aids 64, 135 Expensive 110 Inexpensive 100

Kinds of 65, 66-67 Use of 69 Meaning of World "Syllabus" 25 Memory of the Race 5 Message for Teachers 8, 10, 15, 24, 33, 70, 91, 103, 111, 123, 131 Methods of Teaching History 43 Ministry of Human Resource and Development 87 Modern Electronic Appliances 127 Modulation 121 Morrison, HC 49 Napoleon 4 National Education Policy 1986 19, 118 160 Need of Entire Humanity 118 Lesson Planning 125 Nehru, Pt. Jawaharlal 2 Nineteenth Century 4, 5 and 20th Century 6 Objective Type Tests 99 Oldest Method of Teaching 35 Oral Test 98 Oral Traditions 58 Ploy of Liberalisation and Globalisation 12 Political Theories 11 Power of Imagination 39 Pre-Historic Period 27 Principles of Syllabus Construction 25 Printing Press 84 Project Method 45, 46 Limitations 47 Qualities of History Teacher 120,122 Quality of Education of a Country 114 Question-Answer Method 37 Critical Estimate 39 Objections 110

Precautions 42 Radhakrishnan Commission Report 93 Ranke 6 Ranke, Leopard Van and Niebuhr 4 Rajput Policy of Mughals 30, 31 Regressive Method 31 Religious Policy of the Mughals 27, Requirement of History Teaching 28 Role of Historian 6 Memory in Life 17 of Teacher 46 Ruins of Lothal 68 Saddam Hussain 13 Scheme of Evaluation in History 99 Scientism in History 6 Scott, Sir Walter and Charles 'Dickens' 13 Secondary Education Commission 93 Seeley, Prof 11 Shivaji 3, 41, 74 Silent Motion Pictures 68 Slides and 67 Siraj, Minahaj-us 3 Social Aspect of History 30 Social Sciences 8, 9, 29 Source Method 52 Storehouse of Failure and Success 18 Study of History 23, 31 Syllabus of CBSE 31 System of Evaluation 92-93, 94 Tagore, Rabindra Nath 2 Text-Book Features 90 History 87, 88 Writer 85, 86 Text-Book Method 35-37 Critical Estimate 36

Distorted Version 36, 37 Thucydides 3 Time Line 67, 68 Features of a 77 Topical Method 29 Merits and Shortcomings 30 Travelyn, CM. 9 True Account of flappenings 21 Tuglaq, Muhammad Bin 140 Two Dimensional Device 78 Toynbee 7 Ultimate Goal of Life 22 Underdeveloped and Developing Countries 13 Unit Method 48 Features of 51 Steps of 49-50 Use of Map 79, 80 Model 67 TV and Video 69 Voltair's Dramas and Alexander's Novel 13 Votary of Truth 22 Well-known Fact of History 11 Wesley, Edgar Bruce 63 Western Scholars 3 Ziller l5