Social Aspects of Early Buddhism

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM DEVANANDA SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM DR. BOKANORUWE DEVANANDA THERA First ...

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SOCIAL ASPECTS OF

EARLY BUDDHISM

DEVANANDA

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

DR. BOKANORUWE DEVANANDA THERA

First published in 2000 Copyright 1999 All Rights Reserved ISBN : 981-04-2641-0

Published and Distributed by the Author

Sri Lankaramaya Theravada Buddhist Temple (SSBA) 30-C St. Michael’s Road Singapore 328002 Tel : 0065-3910031 Fax : 0065-2965282

Printed in Singapore

DEDICATED TO THE LOVING MEMORY OF MY BELOVED PRECEPTOR THE LATE VEN B. GHANANANDA THERA AND MY DEPARTED BELOVED PARENTS

FORWORD Almost everyday a new book is out on many aspects of Buddhism. But most of them concentrate on either the life of the Buddha or doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. Very seldom we find a work on social aspects of Buddhist teachings. Ven. B. Devananda’s book on Social Aspects of Buddhism, therefore, is definitely a welcome addition to the ever increasing literature on this religion, which Albert Einstein, thought of as the religion recommendable to the people or the 21st Century. Buddhists, however, in spite of all glorifications by western admirers, are frequently initiated by the charge that their religion is renunciation oriented and lacks social message. Attempt of Ven. Devananda to present a comprehensive and academic treatment of some social aspects of Buddhism, therefore, will be an eye-opener for many readers. In fact, the writer will eloquently convince the reader with sufficient authority, that Buddhism not only presents a social philosophy but even surpasses social thoughts of many religions with its modernity and rationality. The facts brought here into limelight from the Discourses show that social concern in Buddhism is very much up front. Though, at times, a little apologetic, Ven. Devananda’s treatment of the subject is reasonably scientific. He has chosen some anthropological and sociological themes to organise his material and observations around. His arguments lead to conclusions like, 1. The Buddhist view on the origin of the world and the development of the being is scientific; 2. Buddhist teachings are impregnate with the hope of creating a new society based on equality, righteousness and non-violence; 3. Buddhist social thought is based on non-theistic, humanistic, pragmatic and practical concepts; 4. Buddhist economic philosophy recognises the dignity of labour and humanity; 5. The Buddhist community should uphold values and ideals like simplicity, frugality, equality, unity, sanctity, spirituality, utility and universal love. Throughout the six chapters, the author has adduced enough material to convince the reader that the Buddha was not just a teacher for those who were willing to renounce the world. Every chapter is well documented and kindles an interest in the mind of reader to pursue more research into the subject.

Prof. Chandima Wijebandara Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Sri Jayewardenepura Nagegoda, Sri Lanka

PREFACE Over two thousand five hundred years ago, immediately after the Great Enlightenment, the Buddha became reluctant to preach Dhamma to people because they lacked maturity. But, since an invitation was made by the Sahampati Maha Brahma, the Buddha decided to deliver His Noble Teaching firstly to five ascetic groups. They were His first and foremost listeners. After that, many thousands of people embraced Buddhism. Today, there are over 550 million Buddhists throughout the world. As a result of the spread of Buddhism worldwide, people are keenly interested to know its various aspects. To assist such readers, I decided to present my research to them under the title of “Social Aspects of Early Buddhism”. I was deeply interested to investigate the many aspects of Buddhism during my primary and secondary studies. I selected the above mentioned topic because I thought that research done in that aspect was not sufficient. In this research, the materials were obtained mainly from the original Pali Text and used as primary sources. The secondary sources were also used from Sanskrit and Sinhala literature sometimes in English translations and sometimes in original languages. My subject area is very vast. Source materials were scattered everywhere in the teachings of the Buddha. Therefore, I had selected very few discourses that were very relevant for the subject matter of my research. There are six chapters in this book. Apart from that, I have added a conclusion as well. The first chapter is devoted to make an introduction to my work. Hence, I have given relevant details in Tipitaka, primary and secondary sources, research methodology, and social background in India prior to the Buddha. The second chapter is fully devoted to describe the origin and evolution of human beings, human society, and the human world. Buddhist concepts or unity and equality has been discussed in the third chapter. In the fourth chapter, I have dealt with the social dimension (philosophy) of Buddhism in a descriptive way. The Teachings of Buddha about Buddhist economy has been explained in the fifth chapter. In the last chapter, I have made a long discussion on the Buddhist community of monks as an ideal society. This first very humble effort of mine is both for educated people and ordinary readers and I very warmly and humbly their comments and welcome suggestions that would greatly influence my career in the academic field in future. I avail myself of this golden opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all those who enabled me through their generous assistance and co-operation in the accomplishment of my work. I gratefully thank my esteemed, beloved supervisor, Prof. Sanghasen Singh for his gracious, noble, enlightened guidance which he magnanimously bestowed on me, during the pursuit of my research. His brilliant supervision and tremendous encouragement stood me in good stead.

I owe a debt o f gratitude to Prof. K.T.S. Sarao who is head of the Department of Buddhist studies, for his encouragement during my research. Similarly, my thanks are due to all my esteemed teachers who led me on the right path, during my period o f study. I am most beholden to Ven.K.Wajira Thero, Who was Professor at the University o f Kelaniya in Sri Lanka. Ven.Vijitha Dhamma Thera, Ven. Dr.K.Gunaratana Thera, Maha Krruna Buddhist Society Singapore, Ven.Dr.U.Devananda In Australia, Ven.B.Chandananda and Mr.U.G.K.Poddalgoda, The senior Assistant Registrar, University o f Kelaniya Sri-Lanka,for their generous support and best wishes during rfty research pursuit. I cannot adequately express my gratitude to my brother Ven.G.Palitha and Ven.B/Athula, as well as all my close friends, for their assistance and best wishes and also express my very special thanks to Dr.senerath Vijesundara. a lecturer o f Pali and Buddhist Collage in penang, Malaysia, who assisted me in many ways. Furthemore, I would like to say thanks to all My Singaporean friends, Madam Amara Goh, Hwee Koon, Bee Neo and Kelly who rendered priceless service in my work. It is my great responsibility to radiate my heartfelt gratitude and compassinate thoughts towards Mrs Tan Lee Lee and Mr Daniel Tan Kolc Hong who did tremendous service for computerising and make outer page cover. It is my very great duty to be grateful to Ken and yeo families and Mr Bruce A.Robin who sponsored to print my boo in their own wish. Let me thank Mr Chong Yew Weng owner o f Plyrich Printing Service and his all staff for their assistance . I am glad to avail myself of the opportunity to thank I.C.C.R. for giving me the most generous aid during my research. I wholeheartedly thank the staff of the Department o f Buddhist studies as well as the staff to the libarary. University of Delhi, for their friendly help during my reseach work. I Heartily thank Ven. Mrs.Dipamwita Chatterjee, Samir Chatterjee, And Anupam Chatterjee for thier kind assistance.. It is my another great pleasure to convey my heartfelt gratitude and thanks Professor, Kapila Abhayavansa and Chandima Vijebandara who assist me in proof reading and in many ways. At least not last, I would like to thank all management committee members in SriLankaramaya (SSBA)for their well co-operetion with me when I putsued my work. Bokan-oruwe Devananda Sri-Lankaramaya 30-C -St.M ichael’s Road Singapore 328002

ABBREVIATION

A.

:

Anguttara niknya

B.C.

:

Before Christ

C.V.

:

Cula vagga

Chap.

:

Chapter

D.

:

Digha nikaya

Dh.

:

Dhammapada

FF.

:

And the following

It.

:

Itivuttaka

J.

:

Jataka

Khu.

:

Khuddaka nikaya

M.

:

Majjhima nikaya

Manu.

:

Manusmrti

Mhv.

:

Maha vagga

N.

:

Nipata

No.

:

Number

P.

:

Page

PP.

:

Pages

p.T.S.

:

Pali Text Society

Pe.

:

(Peyyala) do

S.

:

Samyutta nikaya

S.B.E.

:

Sacred Books of the East

S.

:

Stanza

Sn.

:

Sutta nipata

V.

:

Vagga

Vs.

:

Verses

Vism.

:

Visuddhimagga

Vol.

:

Volume

CONTENTS Page No. Acknowledgement

Abbreviations

Chapter I

Introduction

1

Chapter II

The Buddhist View on the Origin and Evolution of Human Society

14-31

Buddhist Interpretation of Unity and Equality in Human Society

32-50

An Inquiry into the Social Philosophy of Early Buddhism

51

Socialised Economic Philosophy and Buddhist Interpretation

73-99

Ideal Bhikkhu Society and its Justification

99-131

Chapter III

Chapter IV

Chapter V

Chapter VI

13

-

72

-

Conclusion

132

Bibliography

134-139

Index

140-151

-

133

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION SOURCES The present work is based on a study of Pali Canonical texts with a view of crystallizing social thought of Buddhism. They are together known as the Tipitaka in Pali. It comprises three “baskets”, such as: I II III

Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka Abhidhamma Pitaka

The present Tipitaka was rehearsed and unanimously accepted at the First Council held at Rajagaha after three months of the passing away of the Buddha. The word Pitaka is a later collective appellation of the Buddhist scriptures. An early classification of the Canon was undertaken in terms of Dhamma and Vinaya. Dhamma was applied to the doctrinal portions and out of this developed the Third Pitaka, the Abhidhamma pitaka. It is true that the Pali Canon was not committed to writing for a long time. It remained as an unwritten compilation for nearly two hundred years, even after Buddhism had been introduced into Sri Lanka (Ceylon). The writing down of the Canon took place at about 80 B.C. Buddhaghosa has classified the Tipitaka as follows: Sutta Pitaka

The Sutta pitaka consists of five nikayas, such as: I. II. III. IV. V.

Digha nikaya Majjhima nikaya Samj'utta nikaya Anguttara nikaya Khuddaka nikaya1

According to the Mahavamsa the entire words of the Buddha were divided into two broad divisions i.e. Dhamma and Vinaya. Mahakassapa being the head of the Council asked Upali to explain the Vinaya. Upali the well known master of the subject seated in the preacher’s chair, expounded it and in turn all the bhikkhus repeated after him. “Then the thera Mahakassapa taking the task upon himself questioned concerning the Dhamma, Ananda, the chief of those who had most often heard the word, him the treasure keeper (kosarakkha) of the Great Seer (the Buddha), and the thera Ananda, taking the task upon himself, taking his seat in the preacher’s 1 Atthasaiini (pts) p. 18 Buddhaghosa

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chair, expounded the whole of Dhamma. And all the theras knowing all that was contained in the Doctrine repeated the Dhamma in turn after the sage of the Vedeha country."2 Furthermore, as it has been pointed out above, the Sutta pitaka was divided into five Nikayas. The term Nikaya is a group, class or collection, domain, especially the collection of Buddhist suttas, as the five sections of the Suttanta pitaka.3 All these five sections are divided in accordance with different criteria. Thus, Text that consists of the long discourses of the Buddha is called Digha nikaya. This Text is divided into three group such as: i. ii. iii.

Sllakkhandha Vagga Pali Maha V agga Pali Patika Vagga Pali

The Text again is divided into sixty four sections or Bhanavaras. Bhanavaras contains eight thousand letters.

Each

The SilakkhandhaVagga Pali contains thirteen Suttas. It begins with the Brahmajala sutta and ends with the Tevijja sutta. The second section Maha Vagga Pali comprises ten suttas. It starts with the Mahapadana sutta and ends with the Payasi sutta. The third section named Pathika Vagga Pali contains eleven suttas. It begins with the Pathika sutta and ends with the Dasuttara sutta. The Digha nikaya has altogether thirty four suttas.4 The Majjhima nikaya consists of the middle length sayings of the Buddha, therefore, it is designated as the Majjhima nikaya. It is divided into three sections, named Pannasas. It contains eighty Bhanavaras. It has fifteen vaggas (sections). Its three main sections are: i. ii. iii.

Mulapannasa Pali Majjhima Pannasa Pali Uparipannasa Pali

Mulapannasa Pali contains five vaggas (sections) such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mulapariyaya vagga SIhanada vagga Opamma vagga Mahayamaka vagga Culayamaka vagga

2 The Mahavasma, chap. Ill vs 31-36 pp 17-18. ’ Pali-English Dictionary, p. 352 4 The M ahavagga Pali, Introduction (Sinhala edition) p. 42

2

In t r o d u c t i o n

Mulapariyaya vagga consists of the ten suttas, and begins with Mulapariyaya sutta and ends with Mahasatipatthana sutta. The SIhanada section contains the ten suttas. It starts with Culasihanada sutta and ends with Vitakkasanthana sutta. The Opamma section contains ten suttas. It begins with the Kakacupama sutta and ends, with the Culasaropama sutta. The Mahayamaka section contains ten suttas. It begins with the Culagosinga sutta and ends with Cula-assapura sutta. The Ctilayamaka section consists of ten suttas. It begins with the Saleyyaka sutta and ends with the Maratajjanlya sutta. The Majjhima Pannasa Pali consists of five vaggas (sections). They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gahapati vagga Bhikkhu vagga Paribbajaka vagga -Raja vagga Brahmana vagga

The Gahapati vagga consists of ten suttas. It begins with the Kandaraka sutta and ends with the Apannaka sutta. The Bhikkhu vagga comprises the ten suttas. It begins with the Ambalatthikarahulovada sutta and ends with the KItagiri sutta. The Paribbajaka vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with the Tevijjavacchagotta sutta and ends with the Vekhanassa sutta. The Raja vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with the Gatlkara sutta and ends with Kannakatthala sutta. The Brahmana vagga contains of ten suttas. It begins with the Brahmayu sutta and ends with the Sangarava sutta. Uparipannasa Pali consists of the five vaggas (sections); they are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Devadaha vagga Anupada vagga Sunnata vagga Vibhanga vagga Salayatana vagga

The Devadaha vagga consists of the ten suttas. It begins with the Devadaha sutta and ends with Culapunnama sutta. The Anupada vagga contains the ten suttas. It begins with Anupada sutta and ends with the Sankharupapatti sutta. The Sunnata vagga comprises the ten suttas. It begins with the Culasunnata sutta and ends with the Devaduta sutta. The Vibhariga vagga consists of the twelve suttas. It begins with the Bhaddekaratta sutta and ends with the Dakkhina vibhanga sutta. The Salayatana vagga consists of the ten suttas. It begins with the Anathapindikovada sutta and ends with Indriyabhavana sutta. The total number of the suttas of the Majjhima nikaya amounts to one hundred and fifty two suttas. The collection of discourses in the Suttanta pitaka known as Samyutta nikaya has 7762 suttas of varied length, generally short, arranged in a special order, according to subject matter, into five major divisions:

3


1.. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Sagatha vagga Nidana vagga Khandha vagga Salayatana vagga Maha vagga

Each major vagga is divided into fifty-six groups known as Samyutta related subjects grouped together. The Samyuttas are named after the subjects they deal with, for example, Bojjhariga Samyutta on the Seven Factors of Enlightenment or after some principal personalities such as the Ven. Sariputta, King Pasenadi of Kosala or Sakka. Kosala Samyutta is a group of discourses concerning King Pasenadi of Kosala, and Devata Samyutta deals with Devas like Sakka, Indra, Brahma, etc. Each Samyutta is further divided into sections which are made up of individual suttas. Thus, the well-known Dhammacakkappavattana sutta is the first discourse (sutta) in the second section of Sacca-Samyutta which comes under the Maha vagga division of Samyutta nikaya.5 The whole of the Samyutta nikaya has one hundred Bhanavaras (sections). The collection of Discourses of Anguttara nikaya, containing 9557 short suttas is divided into eleven divisions, known as nipatas. Each nipata is divided again into groups called vaggas, which usually contain ten suttas. The discourses are arranged in progressive numerical order, each nipata contains suttas with items of Dhamma, beginning with one item and moving up by units of one till there are eleven items of Dhamma in each sutta of the last nipata. Hence, the name Anguttara means increasing by one item. The first nipata, Ekaka nipata, provides in each sutta single items of Dhamma, called the Ones, the second nipata, Duka nipata, consists in each nipata, two items of Dhamma called the Two, and the last nipata, Ekadasaka nipata is made up of suttas with eleven items of Dhamma, in each, all the Eleven.6 It has one hundred and twenty Bhanavaras (sections). O f the five nikayas, Khuddaka nikaya contains the largest number of treatises, and the most numerous categories of Dhamma. Although the word “khuddaka”, literally means minor or small, the actual contents of this collection can by no means, be regarded as minor including as it does the two major divisions of the Pitaka namely the Vinaya pitaka; and the Abhidharhma pitaka according to one system of classification. The miscellaneous nature of this collection is obvious. Compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in views, accounts of personal struggles and achievements by theras and theris also in verse, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc. may explain for its chapter. The following is the list of treatises7: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Khuddakapatha Dhammapada Udana Itivuttaka

5 Guide to Tripitaka. p. 82. 6 Ibid. p. 107 7 The M ahavagga Pali - Introduction (Sinhala edition) p. 42

4


5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Sutta nipata Vimanavatthu Petavatthu Theragatha Therigatha Jataka Niddesa (Maha and Cula) Patisambhida magga Apadana Buddhavamsa Cariyapitaka

Vinaya Pitaka

It consists of two Patimokkhas, two Vibharigas, twenty two Khandhakas, and sixteen parivaras. Later Vinaya pitaka was classified into five Texts such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mahavagga Pali Culavagga Pali Pacittiya Pali Parajika Pali Parivara Pali

Abhidhamma Pitaka

It consists of seven Texts. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Dhammasangan! Yamaka Dhatukatha Patthana Puggalapannatti Vibhanga Kathavatthu pakarana

The Kathavatthu pakarana was compiled by Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa Thera at the Third Council that was held at Pataliputta under the aegis of Emperor Ashoka.

Methodology

Apart from the use of original sources other methods such as comparative, historical, textual and scientific have been utilised for the present research, rational

5


thinking has been applied to clarify facts. In order to establish the facts, all the collected data have been compared and justified. Historical data have been gleaned from encyclopaedias and articles. Texts composed in Sanskrit and Sinhalese have also been consulted.

Social Background

The 6th Century B. C. witnessed a rapid socio-economic and political upheavals in India. According to available sources, society was divided into castes. The caste system was already rooted in the Indian soil. The lowest stratum of the society is reported to have suffered at the hands of both the rich and the kings. The society is said to have undergone two extremes. One being the extreme poverty and other one was extreme opulence. According to available sources, this situation was caused by the irresponsible kings. It is obvious that king had no specific programmes for socio-economic development of the country. Society was dominated by the priestly class. They were the royal chaplains. They enjoyed special privileges that were bestowed on them by the king. Certain chaplains were entitled to enjoy the income of the whole area. Thus, the economy of that area was not made available for other people. As a result, they suffered from poverty. Economy is meant by earning of wealth and consumption of wealth. Economic activities are recognised as the production of goods and sources for society and human beings. The combination of these things is called the economic system. Indian society believed in the concepts of soul and God, and their view of economy was also metaphysical. It was the Buddha who challenged the prevalent wrong views and tried to give a broad utilitarian outlook of the economy. This fact has been clearly pointed out in the suttas like Agganna, Kutadanta and Cakkavattisihanada. India in the time of the Buddha had a sort of semi-urban civilization. Economy was based on agriculture, caste system as a social institution has been an integral element of Hindu life. It has endured for many centuries. Castes are small and complete social worlds in themselves, marked off definitely from one another, though subsisting within the larger society. The caste system split the society into mutually exclusive social groups, prohibited inter-marriages, interdining, drinking and even smoking together. It prevented the social fusion, more than any other institution in the world. Hence, it has been rightly termed as the steel frame of Hinduism, a divinely ordained theory, connected with the law of karma. It has also been described as the keystone to the arch of Hinduism, and the foundation of Indian social edifice as every Hindu necessarily belongs to the caste of his parents. It has been the strongest barrier against social progress and national unity.8 The above mentioned conditions were prevalent at the time of the Buddha. Old beliefs, traditions and practices were replaced by new Humanitarian thoughts of Buddhism. Buddhism upheld social harmony, concord, brotherhood, co-existence and a just society devoid of caste system. The following verse of the Yajurveda is of importance, as far as the socio-religious beliefs are concerned.

8 Education and Social Change in South India, p. 165

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Om visvani deva savitarduritani parasuva Yad bhadrantanna asuva.9 “O’ Creator of the whole world, you are graciously immaculate. O’ Lord, thou art a giver of all happiness. Please remove our bad qualities, bad habits and suffering and make available for us the good qualities, nature and things.” The above verse clearly shows that men in ancient India were made helpless. They were misguided by the thinkers, instead of asking people to be self-reliant and active, the Vedic teachings made people just to pray to an unseen God and expect glory and prosperity from him. When the Buddha noticed this, he said that “Attanava katam papam attana samkilissati, attana akatam papam attanava visujjati. Suddhi asuddhi paccattam n'anno-annam visodhaye".10 Self committed sin defiles the self. If the sin is not committed by the self, then the self is purified, purity and impurity depend upon oneself, no person can purify another person. He further said, "Atta hi attano natho - ko hi natho parosiya” 11 self is the master of self. How could another person be the master of self? This grand saying of the Buddha, shows that no God can bestow any boon or prosperity on mankind. Man has to strive himself and work out his own destiny, so, it may He said that man is the master of his own destiny. When the Buddha visited Kapilavatthu for the first time and came across i.e. His father, the King Suddhodana, He did not advise him to pray to the Almighty God to seek his blessings to prosper in this world. On the other hand, He instructed him to practise righteousness (dhammam care sucaritam)'2 and not be negligent in his day to day activities and advised him to lead a normal life, for the moral people live happily here, in this world and hereafter. The Vedic teaching tempts people to pray, worship Gods, so that they could not be redeemed from all sins. The Buddha did not approve of such fanatism. He emphasized on non committal of sin. Nobody can escape the consequences of one's deeds. It is said “Na antalikkhe na samuddamajjhe na pabbatanam vivaram pavissa, na vijjati so jagatippadeso yatthatthito munceyyapapakamma"P The intelligence of Indian people seems to have been stunned by dogmatism, fanatism, narrow mindedness and superstitious beliefs. The lowest stratum is reported to have been denied the human rights and equal opportunities in almost all fields. The cunning and crafty composers and compilers of those imaginary Texts so called Holy Texts put some social injunctions into the mouth of the Almighty God. For example, the Manusmrti states that he who is devoid of learning, who does not learn, after trying to learn, who is bodily robust, and good at service, for such a low person only one duty to 9 Yajurveda10 Dh. p. 149 11 Dh. p. 145 12 Dh. p. 153 13 Dh. p. 121

Samhita, Bhasa-Bhaya. Part II, Chap. 30, p. 430 v.3 Attavagga Attavagga Lokavagga Papavagga

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be performed is that he should serve the other three strata of the society, i.e. Brahmana, Satriya, and Vaisya. Ekameva tu sudrasya Prabhuh karma samadisat Eteshameva varnanam Sushrsamanasuyaya 14 The Buddha is said to have raised His clarion call against this kind of corrupt practices and gave equal opportunities to all strata of the society. He said "Daso hutva ayyo hoti ayyo hutva Daso hoti” 15 - one being a slave, can become a master and the vice versa. The Buddha straightway rejected the current stereotyped social stratification and proclaimed that one does not become a Brahmana by birth or merely because he is bom out of the womb of the Brahmana lady. But one becomes a Brahmana by one’s wholesome deeds and one becomes lowly by one’s unwholesome deeds. It is said, “Na jacca Brahmano hoti na jacca hoti Abrahmano ’ kammana Brahmano hoti kammana hoti Abrahmano It was the Vedic literature that ignored good qualities such as goodness and kindness which have universal appeal. The following verses of the Atharvaveda will clarify the fact. The verse runs as follows: Aradaratim niitim parograhim Kravyadah pNaachana rakshoyat Sarvarh durbhutam tat tama Ivapahnmasi. 16 It means that an enemy and bad destiny, disease cruel animals that feed on raw flesh, non-vegetarians, demons and all the conditions that are harmful, should be destroyed from just like dispelling darkness. On the close examination of the above saying of the Atharvaveda we can say that it has no universal appeal. We have different inclinations, tendencies, likes and dislikes. Therefore, it is not advisable and appropriate to impose one’s ideals on others, if they do not suit others. Therefore, the Buddha is reported to have advised His disciples so as not to accept or practise Atharvaveda.17 The Teaching of the Buddha has a universal appeal and social concord, amity and brotherhood can be established through it; for example the Buddha says, “Let a person conquer anger by love, conquer evil by good. Conquer the miserly 14 Manu. Chap. 1 pp. 42, 43. 15 Vasettha sutta 16 Attarvaveda, A. 1 ,2 , Chap. 8, p. 477 17 Atthabbanam supinam lakkhanam Na vidahe atho p i nakkhattam irutam ca gabbhakaranam Tikiccham mamako na seveyya

12.


by generosity and the liar by truthfulness (akkodhena jine kodham asadhum sadhuna jine)”'s. His social ethic did not teach hatred towards any one. For instance, He says, “Hatred is never appeased by hatred, it is appeased by loving kindness, this is the Eternal Law”. Na hi verena verani - Sammantidha kudacancim Averana ca sammanti - Esa dhammo sanantano 19 The socio-economic conditions in the time of the Buddha were based on the Holy Brahmanical Texts and all these Texts had Vedas as their sources. The tenets that are found in the Vedas and Brahmanical Texts are not conducive to establish a free, just and democratic society. Therefore, Nagasena, a well known teacher who had defeated the King Menander in his arguments in the 2nd B. C. said “Tucha vata bho ime Veda palapa nissara". That is to say these Vedas are meaningless. They are just chaff, they are spiritless and essenceless. Rural area had cottage industry, such as weaving and spinning, handicrafts etc. Urban economy was much more advanced, various industries are reported to have been in vogue. Besides, the trade was handled by urban merchants. According to the Dhammapadatthakatha, this trade was controlled by the king. On the other hand, it was handled by individuals like Anathapindika, Migara, Mahadhana and Adinnapubbaka. The king protected the people and the country from foreign invasion, but harassed them by charging too much of taxes. The industry was controlled by such people. The poor people had no chance to improve their economic conditions. Slavery was widely practised. Poor people were hired for less wages. Sometime, they were bought and made slaves. These slaves had no freedom. Even their progeny were destined to be slaves. Women also had been subjected to slavery. The Buddha raised His humanitarian voice against this social evil. He said, “One can change one’s social status by one’s own good or bad actions” . According to Him, the status of slaves and master is interchangeable. One being a slave can become a master and vice-versa (daso hutva ayyo hoti ayyo hutva daso hoti). The Buddha was the first great Indian thinker who allowed both slaves and women to practise spiritual life. The economy that was restricted to the rich people was decentralized by the Teaching of the Buddha. This fact has been clarified in the subject matter of the work. Moreover, Buddhist Texts throw light on the careful utility of resources. They bring to our notice that the Buddha gave tremendous value to human dignity and human beings rather than to resources. Social evil like dowry, animal sacrifice, which needed wealth were denounced by the Buddha. The fact that dowry caused heavy loss of economic growth of a country, is proved by historical records.

,8 Dh. K odhvagga V.03 p. 190 ' Dh. Y am akavagga V.05 p. 8

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According to the historical records of Buddhism, King Pasenadi of Kosala Kingdom had given Kasi Kingdom to his sister who was married to King Bimbisara. As a result, the income of Kasi Kingdom was enjoyed by the royal family. It was not used for the development of the country. Nobody opposed the prevalent social evils as the society was dominated by all powerful kings. The Buddha is said to have tried to wipe out this social evil by righteousness. As far as the religious conditions are concerned, the 6th Century B. C. witnessed a lot of religious changes. In the time of the Buddha we are told Indian society was in the grip of priestly class and the people observed superstitious rites and rituals. They performed sacrifices in which innocent animals were killed. In order to get salvation, people resorted to various places of worship because they were taught that they could redeem themselves from all evils if they worshipped the natural forces and man made Gods and shrines. The Buddha raised His voice against these evil practices and taught the people to lead a moral life, so that they could achieve themselves the highest goal of their life. We are informed that the society was divided into two broad streams of thinking that was imposed by Sramanas and Brahmanas. Both Sramanas and Brahmanas followed two extremes, such as self-mortification and self-indulgence. The Buddha rejected these two extremes and followed the Middle Path that could lead to the realization of Nibbana. It is obvious that there were different types of religion. There was not a single religion that was practised by all. The Buddha was bom under such circumstances and taught His new Doctrine that gave social justice to all. This Doctrine was not other worldly as it has been misunderstood by some scholars but on the other hand, it was inclined to this life itself. Prior to the explanation of Buddhist social philosophy, it would be advisable to define social philosophy. The social philosophy is made up of two terms such as social and philosophy. The Oxford English Dictionary throws light on these terms. It is as follows: Marked or characterised by mutual intercourse, friendliness, or geniality, enjoyed, taken, spent, etc. in company with others, especially, with those of a similar class or kindred interests. Consisting or composed of person associated together in or for the purpose of friendly intercourse.20 According to the above definition, social means all the activities carried out by any society. Although we find various kinds of societies yet human society differs from other societies, especially in the field of spiritualism and intellectual development.

20 Oxford English Dictionary p. 905

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Philosophy is generally defined as all definite knowledge, love of knowledge.21 The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term philosophy as follows: “Sometime used especially, of knowledge obtained by natural reason, in contrast with revealed knowledge.” The study of the general principles of some particular branch of knowledge, experience, or activity, also less property, of those of any subject or phenomenon.22 The prima facie meaning of philosophy is a vision of anything. But if we consider its intrinsic, we get profound meaning of it. It enables us. to see the things as they truly are. When we combine these two terms, we get the word social philosophy. “According to A. C. Das, social philosophy is different from sociology. Social philosophy as the term indicates, is the philosophy of society, i.e. an interpretation of society. Social philosophy deals with analysis, criticism of concepts and categories with the problems of values.”23 Though we get some glimpses of Buddhist social philosophy in the Tipitaka yet we don’t find a separate section on this particular subject. All the Teachings of the Buddha are connected with men in society and their problems. I have made an attempt to explain the Buddhist social philosophy. The present work throws light on the Buddhist social philosophy. All the chapters are centred round the Buddha’s Teaching about it. Here, I wish to define it briefly. According to Buddhist Teaching, Buddhist social philosophy also sees things as they truly are (yatha bhuta nana dassana). The Buddha taught His philosophy to people of two categories Agarika (householders) (ii) Anagarika (leading a homeless life). The Buddha gave freedom of thought to His followers who were at liberty to follow either path. The basic principle of the Buddhist social philosophy is the same whether one follows the Agarika or Anagarika path. It may be taken for granted that the Buddhist social philosophy is found in the Agarika path. There is no obstacle to aim at the highest goal i.e. Nibbana while following the Agarika path. The present treatise consists of five chapters. It also consists of an Introduction, Preface, Conclusion, Abbreviation and Bibliography. In the second chapter, an attempt has been made to elaborate the facts about the Buddhist analysis of the origin and evolution of human society. 21 A H istory o f W estern Philosophy, p. 13 22 O xford English D ictionary p. 688 2:5 An introduction to the Study o f Society, p. 17 A. C. Das

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Different views about the origin and evolution of the world and man, have been compared and proved in the light of scientific investigation. It has been tried to explain the origin of beings by means of biological investigation, based on Darwin’s theory of evolution. Modem views of astronomy have been analysed, in comparison with Buddhist concept of the origin and development of man and of the world. It has been shown that the above concept of Buddhism is in keeping with other concepts found in Buddhism. It has been pointed out that Buddhist concept is much more advanced and is wholly scientific. A fresh light has been thrown on the third chapter which deals with the unity and equality of human society. It has been shown that how Buddhism treats all human being equally inspite of the fact that the human being differs as far as their respective deeds are concerned. An attempt has been made to glean all the relevant facts from various sources and comparing them a justification about the unity and equality of human beings has been made. The society in the time of the Buddha was based on inequality, social injustice and caste system. It has been shown that how the Buddha challenged those social evils and tried His level best to establish a society on the moral basis. It has also been explained that the Buddha founded a new social organization that was free from the social evils like caste, creed, or colour. The fourth chapter is devoted to the social conditions that were prevalent in the time of the Buddha. While interpreting the social conditions an attempt has been made to point out the different social organisations, such as family and its functions. The society has been defined in the light of Buddhist interpretations. An attention has been paid to the social ethics. Duties of social institutions have been explained. In addition to these facts, other important facts of social relations have been brought to light. A fresh light is thrown on the new social practices. An attempt has been made to disprove the age old social practices of contemporary people. Depending on the suttas like Sigalovada, superstitious practices have been condemned and in their places good and rational moral practices have been introduced, so that an agreeable social relationship can be founded. The fifth chapter is devoted to the subject matter of Buddhist economic conditions. In order to explain economy various Buddhist Texts have been referred to. An attempt has been made to define the Buddhist economy and the modem economy. It has been shown that the modem economy is based on materialism. It does not guide the man to lead a moral life. It is confined only to the material growth, and as such it is not concerned with spiritual development whereas, Buddhist economy emphasizes the material, moral and spiritual development of a person, nation and the world. Other economic aspects like production, consumption, distribution, investment, saving and banking, have also been discussed in the light of the Buddhist interpretation. The Buddha’s ministry lasted for about forty five years. During this period, the Buddha was in constant touch with the Community of Monks. So an

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effort in the sixth chapter, has been made, to elaborate the facts about the Community of Monks, its aims and administration. Enough light has been thrown on the origin and development of the Community of Monks. A special care has been taken to explain the gradual development of the Buddhist Community.

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CHAPTER II THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY The question as to how the earth and the living things came into being, has been the subject of human inquiry from the very beginning of human civilization. Even today such a question has been a gordian knot. Before the emergence of Buddhism there had appeared a number of religious sectarian views regarding the above mentioned problem and they seem to have made effort to solve it in the light of their own wisdom. Thus, while those thinkers were speculating over the origin and development of the world, the Prince Siddhartha (Pali Siddhattha) was bom in the 6th Century B. C.24 and after becoming Enlightened put forth His own views. The Buddha while delivering His sermon to His five disciples at Varanasi, explained that He had accumulated investigative knowledge of the origin of the world and the human nature through a number of lives25. The Buddha put forward His views on the world and the human beings in various ways. The Acinteyya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya explains the four domains as unthinkable. They are the domain of the world (loka visaya), the domain of the Buddha (Buddha visaya), the domain of the dhamma (dhammas visaya) and the domain of the deeds (kamma visaya)26. However, with the help of the Pali Texts, the Buddhist views about the origin and evolution of the world can be built up. According to the Manusmrti, the Great Brahma first created the mass of water and put an egg into it. The egg was as radiant as the sun. He then lived in that egg for a year. Then it was spilt into two parts. The upper part of the egg was formed into heaven and lower part was formed into the earth. The middle part of it was transformed into the firmament. And then he made eight directions with ocean and places. This specified in the following verses of the Manusmrti: 1. 2. 3. 4.

So-Sbhiddhyaya sariratSvatsiriKushuvrividhan Prajah Apa eva sasarjassdau tasu bijamavasrijat TadandaMabhavaddhainam Sahasramsusamaprabhama Tasminjagne svayam Brahma Sarvaloka Pitamahah Tasminhande Sabhagavanusitva Parivatsaram Svaymevasst manodhyanattadandamkaroddvidha Tabhyamsa sakalabhyamca Divan bhumimca nirmame Madhye vyoma disachastavapam sthanamivha sasvatam.27

24 What the Buddha Taught p. xv 25 Mhv Vol. (PTS) Dhammacakkappavattana sutta, pp. 94, 95 ff 26 A. Vol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Appannaka vagga, p. 80 27Manu. pp. 4, 5 vs 118, 119, 120, 12.

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The English rendering of the above verses is as follow: "He desiring to produce beings of many kinds from his own body, first with a thought created the waters and placed his seed in them / That (seed) became a golden egg, in brilliancy equal to the sun, in that (egg) he himself was bom as Brahman the progenitor of the whole world. The divine one resided in that egg during a whole year, then he himself by his thought (alone) divided it into two halves. And out of those two halves he formed heaven and earth between them the middle sphere the eight points of the horizon, and the eternal abode of the waters.”28 The main aim of this Chapter is to discuss the origin of the world, in the light of the Buddhist views. It can be thought that man embraced the forest life so as to get rid of the internal and social problems that were full of suffering. While living in a solitary place he began to speculate on the origin of the world, its evolution, dissolution and also the question like man’s future life etc. Thus, he began to think deeply about his environment. He pondered over the phenomenal existence of cosmos. He saw then sun, the moon, the stars, the air etc, and ascribed divinity to them. While speculating more on this problem, he presented his views as a theory of divine creation. These ideas are found in the Vedas, Upanishads and other literary works. Some of the concepts of them are as below: 1.

Sahasrsirsha purushah, Sahasraksah, saharapai Sa bhumim visvato vritva atyatishthad dasangulam

2.

Purusahah evadam sarvam yad bhutam yahcha bhavyam utamritatvasyesano yad annenatirohati

3.

Etavan asya mahima ato jyayamscha purusah pado sya visva bhutani tripad asyamritam divi

4.

Tripad urdhvaudait purushah pado syehabhavat punah tato vishvan vi akramai

23 The Law s o f M anu pp. 5, 6 vs 8. 9, 12, 13.

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Sasananasne abhi. 29 Translation of the above stanzas is as follows: 1.

Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, on every side enveloping the earth he overpassed (it) by a space of ten fingers.

2.

Purusha himself is this whole (universe) whatever has been and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immoratality, since by food he expands.

3.

Such is his greatness and purusha is superior to this. All existences are a quarter of him, and three fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky.

4.

With three quarters purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced here. He was then differed everywhere over things which eat and things which do not eat.30

The Brahadaranyaka Upanishad explains the origin of the world. It is as follows: Apa evedam agru asuh, ta apah satyam asrjanta 31 The English rendering of the above Sanskrit quotation is as follow: “In the beginning, this universe was just water. That water produced the true (or the real) Brahman. Brahman (produced) Prajapati and Prajapati (Produced) the goods. Those gods meditated on the real.”32 The Katha Upanishad states that the soul and world were made out of water. It is clarified further as follows: Hamsas sucisat uarsu antariksasat hota Vedisat, atithir duronasat nrsat, uarasat rtasat, uyomasat abja, goja, rtaja adviya rtam brhat,33 The English translation o f above mentioned statement is as follows: “He is a swan (sun) in the sky, the pervader in the space (between earth and heaven), the priest at the altar, the guest in the sacrificial jar (house). He dwells in

29 Hymns from Rgveda (x 90, I) pp. 41, 42. 30 Original Sanskrit Texts p. 9 31 Quoted at the Principal Upanishads p. 292 ff 32 Ibid. p. 292 5: Quoted at Ibid p. 636

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men, in gods, in the right and in the sky. He is (all that is) bom of water, sprung from the earth, bom of right, bom of mountain. He is the true and the great.”34 According to the Aitareya Upanishad the soul created water, and a man was made from the water. The different parts of the world such as the heaven, the earth were made of different limbs of the purusha. It clarifies the process in the following statements. Atma va idam eka evagra asit nanyat kincana misat sa aiksata lokan nusrja iti. Sa imam Lokan asrjata, ambho maricir maram apodombhah parena divam, dyauh pratistha antariksam maricayah prithivimaro ya adhastat ta aphah,35 The following is the English translation o f the above-mentioned quotations: “The self, verily, was (all) this one only, in the beginning. Nothing else whatsoever linked. He thought let me now create the worlds. He created the worlds, light rays, death and the waters. This water is above the heaven. The heaven is its support. The light rays are the atmosphere. Death is the earth. What are beneath, they are the waters.”36 The Chandyogya Upanishad reveals the fact that everything in the world was bom from the sky-elements. At the time of dissolution of the world, everything is merged in the sky-element. Furthermore it defines that existence as an egg. After a year, it was cloven into two. One portion of it became golden and the other portion became silver. The golden portion was transformed into the sky and the silver portion was transformed into the earth. The outer shell turned into mountains, and the white substance of the egg turned into the clouds and mist. Adityo brahmely adesah tasyopavyakhyanam asad samvatsaraya matram asayata tan nirabhidyata, te andakapale rajatam ca suvarnm cabhavatam tad yad rajatam seyam prythivi, yat suvarnam sadyauh, yajjarayu, te parvatah yad uldam sa megho niharah, ya dhamanayas ta nadyah yad vasteyam udakam sa samudrah,37 The English translation is as follows: “The sun is Brahman: this is the teaching. An explanation thereof (is this). In the beginning this (world) was non-existent. It became existent. It grew. It turned into an egg. It lay for the period of a year. It burst open. Then came out of the egg shell, two parts, one of silver, the other o f gold.

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid.

pp. 636, 637. p. 515 p. 515 p. 399

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That which was of silver is this earth, that which was of gold is the sky. What was the outer membrane is the mountains, that which was the inner membrance is the midst with the clouds. What were the veins the rivers. What was the fluid within the ocean38 the rivers. And the yolk and other liquid portion of the egg became the ocean.” It is stated in the second part of the sixth chapter of the Chandyogya Upanishad that in the beginning there was a being who had thought in many forms. Having thought he ejected the heat from his body. Because of the heat, the water came into being and the water gave rise to food. With the combination of these three factors everything that is material and a being possessed of senses, came into existence. The eighth and nineth paragraphs of the third chapter of the Brahadaranyaka Upanishad throw light on that Gargya asked Yajnvalkya as to how the part that is above the earth and below the sky is formed. His reply was the air element. Then she asked as to how the air-element was formed. He replied that it was formed by the invariable and indestructible nature. It is not a mundane thing. Therefore, he did not make an effort to elaborate it. However, he has pointed out that because of the everlasting person's order, the earth and the sky exist separately. The sun and the moon exist separately. All the things like seconds, hours, days, nights, seasons and years, continue because of his order.40 The fourth Brahmana of the first chapter of the Brahadaranyaka brings to our notice how this world came into being. Atma eva idam agre asit purusha-vidhah sa ’nuvikshya na any ad atma-no’ pasyat "so ham asm i” ............. Aja itara abhavad vastah itarah aviritara meshah tarn sam eva abhava tato ‘javayo ’jayanta evam eva yad idam kincha mithunam a pippilikabhyas tat sarvam asrijata.41 “This universe was formerly soul only, in the form of purusha. Looking closely he saw nothing but himself (on soul). He first said, ‘This is I ’. Then he became one having the name of I. Hence even now a man when called, first says, ‘This is I’, and then declares the other name which he has. Inasmuch as he, before (purusha) all this, burnt up (aushat) all sins, he is called purusha. The man who knows this bums up the person who wishes to be before him. He is afraid. Hence a man when alone is afraid. This (being) considered that there is no other thing but myself; of what am I afraid? Then his fear departed. For why should he have feared? It is of a second person when alone does not enjoy happiness. He desired a second. He was so much as a man and a woman when looked in embrace. He 38 Ibid. p. 399 39 Ibid. p. 449 f f Tad aiksata, bahu syam prajayeyeti, tat, teiosrjata, ta t terja, aiksata, bahu syam prajayeyeti, ta d aposrjata, ta sm a d ya tra K va ca so ca ti svedate va pursuah, tejasa eva ta d adhy apo ja ya n te. 40 Ibid. p. 2 3 1 ,2 3 2 . S a hovaca, y a d urdhvam, Yajnavalkya, divah, y a d avak prithivyah, y a d antara dyavaprthivi ime y a d bhutam ca bhavacca bhavisyac c e ti acaksate, ksmims ta d atam ca p r o ta m c e ti............ 41 Brahadaranyaka kavartikasarah p. 262

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caused this same self to fall asunder into two parts. Thence arose a husband and a wife. Hence, Yajnavalkya has said that this one's self is like the half of a split pea. Hence, the void is filled up by woman. He cohabited with her. From them men were bom. She reflected, “How does he after having produced me from himself cohabit with me. Ah! let me disappear.” She became a cow, and the other a bull, and he cohabited with her. From them kine were produced. The one became a mare the other a stallion, the one a she-ass the other male-ass. He cohabited with her. From them the class of animals with undivided hoofs was produced. The one became a she-goat, the other a he-goat, the one ewe, the other a ram. In this manner pairs of all creatures whatsoever, down to ants, were created.”42 The theory of incarnations of Visnu reveals the fact that God manifested in the world in ten manifestations. The first incarnation of God Visnu was a fish. It shows that in the beginning there was water. Fishes are bom in the water. Later, this water was turned into land. This was the incarnation of Visnu as a tortoise (Kurma). The term kurma lives in both water and on land. The land became stable and this was called the Varahavatara, i.e. an incarnation of Visnu as a boar. The term Varaha is used for the boar. The boar lives in water as well as on the land. In the evolution of the land beings, the highest point is shown in the incarnation of Visnu as Narasinha. This shows two forms of a being. That is to say, one half is a lion and other half is a man. This shows the transformation of a beast into a human being. The beast is transformed into an undeveloped human form. This is shown by the incarnation of Visnu as Vamanavatara-Vamana means a dwarf. He is represented as an undeveloped person. Having developed himself into the man got divinity. This is revealed by the incarnation of the Visnu as Parasurama, Sri Rama, Sri-Krisna. And the highest intelligence is shown by the incarnation of Visnu as the Buddha.43 This can be somewhat similar to the evolutionary theory of Darwin. The Taitiriya Brahmana sheds light on the origin of the universe. According to it, this entire universe has been created by Brahma. “Sarvam hedam Brahmana haiva srishtam.” 44 The Satapatha Brahmana ascribes the creation of the world to Prajapati. It is as follows: “Bhur" iti vai prajapatir imam ajanayata “bhurvah” ity antariksham “suar” iti divam/etavad vai idam sarvam yavad ime lokah sarvena eva adhiyat ............ “bhur ” iti vai prajapatir atmanam ajanayata “bhuvah ” iti prajam ‘suar ’ iti pasun etavad vai idam sarvam yavad atma prajah pasavah sarvena eva adhiyate.45

42 Quoted at, Original Sanskrit Texts pp. 2 7 ,2 8 . 43 Hindu Dharmakosha, p. 54

Paramatma ya vishnu ke mukhya Avatara dasa he. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nursingha, Vamana, Parashurama. Rama, Krshna, Buddhaevam Kalki 44 Taitt, Br. Ill 1 2 ,9 , Quoted at Original Sanskrit Text p. 17 45 S.P. Br. II 1 4, 11 f f quoted at Ibid p. 17

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SOCIAL ASPECTS O F EARLY BUDDHISM

The translation of the above Sanskrit paragraph is given below: “(Uttering) ‘bhuh’, Prajapati generated this earth. (Uttering) ‘bhuvah,’ he generated the air, and (uttering) ‘svah’ he generated the sky. This universe is co extensive with these worlds. (The fire) is placed with the whole. (Saying) bhuh, Prajapati generated the Brahman; (saying) ‘bhuh.” he generated the ksattra, (and saying) ‘svah’, he generated the vis. All this world is so much as the Brahman, ksattra and vis. The fire is placed with the whole, (saying) ‘bhuh’, Prajapati generated himself (saying), ‘bhuvah’ he generated offspring (saying) ‘svah’ he generated animals. This world is so much as self, offspring and animals, (the fire) is placed with the whole.” 46 According to Charles Darwin, evolution provided the first unifying general principle applicable to all living beings, who are as they now are because they have become what they are, having undergone modification during descent from other species.47 The Holy Bible also contains a theory of origin and development of man. According to it, the Almighty God created the earth and the sky. The soul of the Almighty God was moving on the water. There arose light according to His wish, the light was separated from the darkness. The light was named as the day and the darkness was named as night. Day and night were regarded as one day. Water was separated from water and the space was created. This space was named as the sky. The water that was under the sky was put aside and the land was created. This land was named as the earth. The water that was stored up in a place named as the ocean. The seed and plants that were sprung from them were created by the God. He created the seasons, day and night, year, then He created the sun and the moon. Then He created the living things in the water. Then He created birds in the sky. He blessed them for their development. It took only five days to accomplish this task and on the sixth day He created living things on the earth. The living things comprised of various kinds of animals, reptiles, beasts and then He created a name who was empowered with sovereignty over all living things. This entire task of creation was completed on the sixth day. He took leave on the seventh day and having blessed declared it to be a Holy Day. Then having made the earth wet, He blessed the nostrils of the man who was made of dust. As a result of it, the man became enlivened. Then He made a garden and named it the Garden of Eden and created lovely trees laden with fruits that were edible. Then He created a life giving tree in the middle of the garden and created another tree which could tell good and terrible things. Then He created a river by the name Pishon, and divided it into four directions. Then He named the first man Adam and created a woman from His ribs and named her Eve. One day they tasted the fruit of that tree which could tell good and terrible things. No sooner had they tasted it, they opened their eyes and found themselves to be naked. Seeing themselves in that position they covered their bare bodies with the covering made of leaves of the banyan tree. Then the Almighty God put on them a skin dress.

46 Ibid. p. 17. 47 The N ew Encyclopaedia Britannica p. 7

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From the union of Adam and Eve, two children were bom. They were named as Kayin and Abel. Kayin became a farmer and Abel became a shepherd. Kayin killed Abel. Adam had another son named Set. The future generation began from Set.48 Now the Buddhist theory of the origin of man and the world may be considered. It is based on exposition found in the Pali Discourses like the Brahmajala sutta and the Agganna sutta of the Digha nikaya.49 The origin and development of man and the world as depicted in the Agganna sutta, is as follows: The beings who die in the age of involution, are reborn in the radiant world of Brahma (Abhassara Brahmaloka). They are spontaneously bom in it by the power of their mind. They feed themselves on the diet of rapture. They get light from their bodies that radiate. They move in the sky. They are of long lifespan. After a long time of this involution the world starts developing again. This is called the age of evolution. The beings who were bom in the radiant world of Brahmas are reborn in this world of mortals during the age of evolution. These beings are spontaneously bom in this world by the power of their minds feeding on rapture, and being self-luminous, lived for a long time moving in the sky. The entire world was covered with thick darkness. And it was a mass of water. The sun, the moon, the stars, the day and night were not visible. The month, the half month, season, years, man and woman were visible. Beings were classified simply as Beings.50 After the lapse of a considerable period of time, the surface of the mass of water that was sweet turned into a solid crust, i.e. solid. (Literally earth in the sense of element.) It was like the skim of hot milk. The solid earth was juicy, fragrant and colourful. One of the greedy men tasted it with his finger. Thereupon there arose craving in him. Seeing him other beings did the same. After tasting the juicy skim, their luminosity disappeared. After the disappearance, they desired for light. Then there arose bravery in them and there manifested the light, they called it the sun, there arose in them a strange desire for light during the night. As a result of their strong desire the light appeared at night. They called it the moon.31 Thus, the moon and the sun appeared when their self luminosity disappeared. At the time of appearance of the moon and the sun, there arose the stars, in this way, there appeared month, day and night, half-month, year. The world originated in this way. Thus, those beings subsisted on the juicy earth for a long time. As a result of it their bodies became coarse. The complexion of their bodies changed in different ways. Therefore they became full of grief. Afterwards, fungus appeared on the ground like mushroom (Bhumipappataka). In course of time their bodies became coarser than the earlier forms. Their complexion changed to a greater extent. Their conceit increased and as a result of it, the fungus disappeared. Afterwards, a creeper appeared, (badalata) while feeding themselves on it for a

ff

48 The Holy Bible, pp. 1 ,2 49 D. V ol. I (PTS) p. 12 ff D. Vol. II (PTS) pp. 80, 81 ff 50 Ibid. p. 85 “Satta S attatveva Sankhyarit." Ibid. p. 86

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long time, their bodies became coarser, their complexion changed considerably, their conceit increased. As a result, the creeper disappeared and afterwards rice (sali) plant appeared for those beings. It ripened without cultivation. The people could collect enough rice. When the rice plants were removed the other rice plants came up automatically. While feeding themselves on this rice, their bodies became coarser, their complexion was changed considerably. Moreover, they got masculinity and femininity. Thereafter, lust and passion arose in them. Consequently, they had sexual intercourse. Others who saw them wenching threw cowdung and ash at them. In order to have their privacy they built up huts. Meanwhile, a lazy person collected more rice, others followed him. Thus hoarding took place. Thereafter the rice grew with husk. After cutting the rice plant it did not grow again. Thus they were filled with grief. Thereafter, they demarcated their land. This gave rise to personal property. As a result of personal property, theft took place. Those who were stealing rice, were caught red handed and were punished. Thus, theft, disparagement, lying, punishment and violence took place. As a result, inequality and unrighteousness became rampant. In order to bring this situation under control, they assembled and unanimously selected a handsome strong man. He came to be known as Mahasammata. (Mahajana sarhmatoti kho Vasettha Mahasammato, Mahasammatotveva pathmam akkharam upanibbattarh)52. In return for his service, the people provided him with some measures of rice. With the appointment of the king, taxation was introduced. As king, Mahasammata was the owner of the land, he was called Khattiya (Khettanam adhipatiti kho vasetfaa khatthiyo, khattiyotveva dutiyam akkharam upanibbattarh).53 As he ruled his subjects righteously, therefore he was called the king (Dhammena parehi ranjetiti kho Vasettha raja rajatveva tatiyarh akkharam upanibbattarh).54 The name brahmana came into vogue as some of them refrained from committing evil-things (Papake akusale dharrime bahentiti kho vasettha brahmana. Brahmana tveva pathamam akkharam upanibbattarhi).7’5 Those who practised meditation were called meditators (jhayantiti jhayaka).36 Some of them lived in the village and taught scriptures. They were called ajjhayaka (Na dhamme jhayantiti ajjhayaka) 51 These were considered to be low as they neglected meditation. The names such as brahmana, jhayaka and ajjhayaka, were used according to their behaviour. The name vessa came into vogue as some people were engaged in sexual intercourse and different kinds of occupations. (Methuna dhammam samadaya vissutakammante payojentiti kho vasetfiw vessa).58 The people who were rough, harsh in their behaviour, they were called Suddas. (Luddacara, khuddacarati kho vasettha sudda).59

57 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid.

p. p. p. p. p. p. p. p.

93 93 93 94 94 94 95 95

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the

B u d d h is t V ie w

on the

O r ig in

and

E v o l u t io n

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The Brahmajala sutta of the Digha nikaya throws light on the origin and development of the world as follows : One of the divine beings of the Khiddapadusika divine abode, (one of the six divine abodes) came down to the earth and renounced the household life and practised meditation. After that he gained the knowledge of the memory of the past lives. Through such a knowledge he could see only his past life. He sees the divine abode of the Khiddapadusika divine abode. He gets an idea about the Khiddapadusika divine world as an eternal abode. Thus there arose a view of Khiddapadusika. Similarly, there is a Manopadusika divine abode which belongs to the Caturmaharajika divine abodes. One of the inhabitants of the heavenly abode was bom in this world, as a result of his getting angry with another divine being. He too, renounces the worldly life and practises meditation and comes to know that the Manopadusika abode is an eternal abode. It is obvious from the above statement that the Manopadusika heavenly abode is an eternal place. Thus, there arose a view of Manopadusika. Thus, the Brahmajala sutta of the Digha nikaya brings to our notice that there was a view among the beings about divine creation.60 After the involution, a considerable time passed and at the time of the origin of the world there appeared a Brahmakayika mansion which was empty. A certain being had fallen from the Radiant Brahma world and fed himself on the joy and moved in the sky. He was self-luminous. Having reborn in that Brahmakayika world, lived there for a long time. While living there alone he felt lonely and lazy and wished a company of another being. Then another being was bom. He too fed on the joy and moved in the sky, for a long time. He was also self-luminous. There arose in them an idea of a creator. The first being who was bom in that mansion thought that other beings were bom after him. Similarly, the other beings who were bom after him thought that he was the creator. After the lapse of time, a being from that divine Brahmaloka was bom into this world. That being too renounced the worldly life and practised meditation and developed the reminiscence of the former births. However, he could see only one former birth. He could not go beyond it. He could not see the birth and death of the first Great being in the Brahmaloka. He admits that the great being was their creator as he could not see beyond the Brahmaloka.61 It is exceedingly difficult to see the beginning and the end of the world. Nevertheless, it was the primary duty of those persons to find out the creator of the world, the origin of beings. There were different persons who had different views, as there was unanimity of their knowledge. Therefore, some of them based their views on religious beliefs. In the beginning there arose theories like Brahmanirmana vada and Devanirmana vada. These views are found in the Vedas, the Upanishadas and in the Law Books like Manusmrti.

60 D. V ol. I (PTS) pp. 17, 18, 19 f f 61 Ibid. pp. 1 7 ,1 8

ff

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SOCIAL ASPECTS O F EARLY BUDDHISM

The Satapatha Brahmana and some Upanishads like Chandyogya, Katha, Aitareya and Taittiariya are inclined to a theory of origin; and development of the world, either by the Brahma or some other divine being. It is clear that the devotees of the Brahma thought that the world was created by him. However, when we examine the view, we find that in the beginning they had based their views on the basis of the mass of water, the aerial elements, from this world came into existence. According to the Brahmajala sutta, there arose the concept of Brahmanirmana and Devanirmana,62 about the origin and development of the world, as they could go beyond one birth and their knowledge was limited to only one rebirth. This concept is not a scientific one. The Agganfia sutta of Digha nikaya, says that when there was the mass of water that was filled with the obscurity of darkness, a certain being belonging to the Brahma world was bom in this world.63 According to Buddhist Philosophy, the world gets dissolved and reappears.64 At the time of dissolution, all the worlds, except the Abhassara Brahma world, get dissolved. But virtuous beings, in this world after their death are bom again in the radiant Brahma Loka.65 According to the Satta suriyuggamana sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the world is burnt by the heat of the seven suns, and it cools down again.66 Then the firmament between the nadir and the zenith is filled with darkness. After the lapse of a considerable time, there falls a torrential rain. It washes away all the things that were burnt. Then the Brahma world appears. The earth appears in its former place. Then it becomes solid. Its skin becomes savoury. A being of the Abhassara world after the exhaustion of his merit, falls from the Brahma world and is reborn in this world. Thus the Satta suriyuggamana sutta shows the origin and development of the world. Thus, as pointed out in the Agganna and the Satta suriyuggamana suttas, the Buddhist view is that the world which had a previous existence is dissolved again and originated again. It further clarifies the fact that at the time of evolution, the beings who get protection in the world of Abhassara, are reborn in the world. The above view has been stated by Ven. Dharhmananda in his “The Cultural Traits in the Tripitaka. He comments that according to the facts that are found in the Tipitaka, it is a mistake to find out the origin of the world and man. It is stated in 62 Ibid. p. 18 A ham asm i Brahma M aha-brahma abhidha anabhibhuto annad-atthu-daso vasavatti, Issaro katta nimmita m ay a ime sa tta nimmita. 63 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 85 E kodaki-bhutam kho p a n a vasettha tena sam ayena hoti andha-karo andhakara-timisa. 64 D. Vol. I (PTS) p. 17 Hoti kho so, bhikkh ave...... a y am loko sam vattati H oti kho so b h ikkh ave...... ayaiii loka Vivattati 65 Ibid. p. 17 Sam vattam ano loka yebhuyyena satta abhassara-sam vattanika honti. 66 A V ol. IV (PTS) Mahavagga. p. 102 H oti kho so bhikkhave sam ayo; y a m kadaci karahaci dighassa addhuno accayena sattam o suriyo patubhavanti.

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T

he

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ie w o n t h e

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H

uman

S o c ie t y

the Tipitaka that the world that was formerly in existence, undergoes changes like dissolution and reappearance. And at the end of the aeon, beings after their death are reborn in the world of Brahma, and after a long time are reborn again in this world. Therefore, this episode which is mentioned in the Tipitaka cannot be considered as a theory about the origin and development of the world and men.67 Buddhist view about the origin of the world and man shows that the man had come from the Radiant world. The being who came into existence had no other specialities. In course of the gradual development of beings they got their masculinity and femininity. It can be seen that they already had their existence. Afterwards, they began to live as husbands and wives. Because of their union the future generation came into being. Their genesis was the direct cause of craving. (Tanhajaneti purisam, i.e. craving begets man.)68 Similarly, when the following three factors like the union of parents and appearance of the interim being (Gandhabba) and mother’s menstrual purity are present, a foetus is bom. “Yato ca kho bhikkave matapitaro ca sannipatita honti, mata ca utuni hoti gandhabbo ca paccupatthito hoti evam tinnam sannipata honti gabbhassavakkanti.69 According to the theistic ideas, the genesis is entrusted with an invisible power. Therefore, it is said in the Rgveda, th a t: Brahman 'sya mukhamasit, Bahu rajanya Krtah, Uru tadasaya Yad vaisyah, padhyam sudro Ajayata.10 Those who respected the Varna dharma (caste system) regarded the generation and form as the soul or spirit. Buddhism did not consider it as essential. When the Yaksha Indaka put a question to the Buddha as to how could a being take new birth if the form is not considered as a soul. The Buddha responded that: Pathaman Kalalam hoti kalala hoti abbudam abbuda jayate pesi, pesi nibbattati ghano, ghana pasakha jayanti, kesa loma nakhapi ca yanca bhunjate mata annarii panam ca bhojanam

67 The Cultural Traits in Tripitaka p. 14. (S inhala edition) 68 S. Vol. I (PTS) Jara V agga, Tanha Janeti Sutta p. 37 69 M. V ol. I (PTS) M abayam aka vagga M ahatanhasankhaya sutta p. 266, kinh pali, BB. II. 70 R gveda (10) 90. Purusha Sukta p. 201, v. 12

25

SOCIAL A SPECTS OF EARLY BUDDHISM

tena so tattha yapeti matukucchigato naroti.7I The English translation of the above mentioned quotation is as follows: “At first the kalala takes birth and thence the abbuda. Therefrom the pesi grows, developing as ghana in its turn. Now in the ghana both appear the hair, the down the nails. And what’soever food and drink the mother of him takes thereby the man in mother’s womb both live and grow.72 Thus, the genesis of the person takes place. Then the person sets into society. According to the Brahmanical opinion he gets social status, social duties, mainly on the basis of his birth. Nevertheless, Buddhism presents a socioscientific basis, on which depends the social development of the person. There, the spiritual aspect of the person is more important than his outer aspect. According to the Brahmanical opinion, the men are divided according to their birth. They were allotted their social duties on the basis of their respective birth. The Manusmrti clarifies the above statement as belows: A dhyapanamadhyanam Yajanam yajam yatha Danam pratigrahanchaiva Brahmanana makalpayat Prajanam raksanam Danamijjhadhyana meva ca Visayasca prasastisca Kshatriyasya Samadishat Pasunam rakshanam dana Mijjhaddhyana meva ca Vanikpatham Kusidanca Vaisya krisi meva ca Ekamevatu sudrasca Prahbukarma samadisai Etesam meva vananam Susramana suyayaP To the Brahmanas, he assigned teaching and studying (the Vedas), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms).

71 S. Vol. 1 (PTS) Y akkha Sarhyutta Indika vagga, Indika sutta. p. 206 77 S. Vol. 1 (PTS) Ibid. p. 263 73 M anu p. 12 Vs. 8 7 ,8 8 , 9 0 ,9 1 .

26


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He, the Ksatriyas commanded to protect the people to bestow gifts to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures. The Vaisyas to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money and to cultivate land. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Sudra i.e. to serve meekly these three castes.74 But the Agganfia sutta presents the social duties of the four Varnas in a different way. According to it, the status of the four Varnas depends on their personal and spiritual development. The first being that is mentioned in the Agganfia sutta, was recognized as a special kind of being, such a being, while making development in society acquired different virtues. These virtues give rise to social stratification. As it is explained in the sutta, in the beginning man was endowed with pure thoughts, virtues etc. But later on, he was influenced by other unwholesome qualities such as tanha (craving), violence, falsehood, hoarding, theft, etc. As a result, he lost those good qualities and deteriorated. Because of the spiritual deterioration, cultural development took place. This has been pointed out by Ven. Dhammananda in his book mentioned earlier. The spiritual deterioration was the main reason for the external cultural development. The early man who had no permanent abode did not need agriculture. He was not aw'are of crime, did not need any law or jurisdiction. When the evil deeds of the man increased his virtues disappeared. As a result of it, he had to produce fire, improve architecture and had to develop medication to maintain good health. He had to make some arrangements for the educational progress of those who were intellectually backward. Furthermore, he had engaged himself in different occupations such as agriculture and trade. He did it so that he could easily get food and drink etc. Thus, he had to engage in many a cultural activity. If the early man, because of his merit, could get light from his own body, and could move in the sky, if his diet was the joy, he had no need of architecture, the method of producing fire and means of livelihood like agriculture.75 Mahinda Ranaweera is of the opinion that the statements about the early man’s development and good behaviour mentioned in the Agganfia sutta cannot be scientifically substantiated. His views are as follows : “In the beginning, the being was pure in his thoughts and virtues. He developed such things. Owing to the lack of scientific evidence, this cannot be proved. There is evidence about man who started as a single being and led a simple life, and was subject to evolution and had common tendencies of animals.”

” The Laws o fM an u , p. 24. vs, 88, 89, 90, 91. 75 The C ultural Traits in the Tripitaka p. 9 (Sinhala edition)

27


I would like to point out that the ideas about the origin of the world that was stated in the Agganna sutta, are contrary to the finding of Physics. According to Physics, the sun and the planets, when they were appeared because of natural causes, there was no living thing yet. The Sutta mentions that the sun and the moon appeared after the formation of the earth. But on the available evidence, it can be said that either the sun or planets appeared. The earth and other planets appeared simultaneously after the sun appeared. It is considered that when earth was formed, there was intense heat and was just like a ball of iron. If so, it cannot be proved that the earth was the enjoyment skin.76 Ven. P. Buddhadatta does not accept the Agganna sutta as the word of the Buddha.77 He says that the Agganna sutta puts forth the following view. According to this concept, the inhabitants of the radiant Brahma world having been bom in this world, created man. The beings who dwell in the Brahma world are reckoned as the Brahmas. They cannot be called human beings.78 In the same way, it has been pointed out in the Agganna sutta that the sun and the moon appeared while the world was undergoing evolution. Ven. Buddhadatta who sheds further light on this matter says that the meaning of the appearance of the sun and the moon is that the vapour covering vanished and there emerged the sun and the stars. Although it has been mentioned in the sutta that the moon appeared along with the sun, the commentators point out that the sun was appeared first and the moon appeared after the sun emerged.79 He further clarifies the fact that the above named sutta brings to our notice that when the early men started wenching because of their mutual affection, others began to throw cow-dung and ash at them, to express their objection to such an action. But it has not been mentioned that how the cow-dung and ashes came into being in the absence of cows and fire.80 According to the theistic concept, the world is said to have been created by god. The Agganna sutta informs us that this world has been considered by the Buddha as one in the cosmos. According to Buddhist view, it cannot be said as to how big the cosmos is. In the Culanika sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the Buddha explains to one of his disciples named Ven. Ananda about the cosmos as follows: “O’ Ananda, as far as the light of the sun and the moon is permeated, it is called one world. The similar thousand worlds make the sahassadha lokadhatu......... ”81 According to this, one world system is as far as the light of the sun and the moon is permeated. There are similar hundred thousand world systems.

76 Ibid. p. 9 77 The Buddhist Philosophy o f Theravada p. 61 (Sinhala edition) 7‘ Ibid. p. 58 79 Ibid. p. 59 “ Ibid. p. 60 81 A. Vol. I (PTS) Ananda vagg p. 228 Yavata Ananda candim asuriya parih aran ti disa bhanti virocona tava sahassadha loko ... ayam uccati Ananda sahassi culanika Lokadhatu.

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The Sarhkharuppatti sutta of the Majjhima nikaya Part III states about this world system. The quotation runs as follows: Sahasso, bhikkhave adhimuccitva viharati. 82

brahma,

satasahassi

lokadhaturh

pharitva

“O’ monks, there are hundred thousand Brahmas, having completely released themselves, they live.” Even the post-canonical Buddhist commentaries like Vissuddhimagga by Ven. Buddhaghosa, furnishes us with the hundred thousand world systems. This was seen by the Buddha himself, on the second day of His Enlightenment.83 The Buddha who realized the existence of hundred thousand world systems and expressed His ideas in the following way: Anamataggoyam bhikkave samsaro, pubba koti na patina yati.u The Buddha is reported to have said that in the beginning the world is inconceivable. This view of the Buddha is also found in the Rgveda. Considering these facts it becomes quite clear that the world becomes as it was in its early nature state. This view can be scientifically proved, but the description of the Agganfia sutta cannot be accepted. The Buddhist view presents the evolution of man.83 “O’ Vasettha after the lapse of a considerable period of time for those beings, the enjoyment skin appears on the surface of water.” 86 Considering this explanation, the earth, the trees, and plants as well as living things are evolved. From the explanation of the Aggafina sutta the question arises whether the description is applicable to man or the animal. It is the crux of the matter. As this description deals with the wenching and throwing of cow-dung and ashes at them, collecting of food and drink, constructing houses so it appears that the episode was meant for men. As mentioned in the sutta, it does throw light on the development of beings after the lapse of a considerable period of time. Accordingly, the world comes into being from time to time and is dissolved from time to time. It is stated in the sutta that in the beginning there were beings devoid of any complexity but later they were subjected to complexity. This is what the evolution points out. During this period, man developed both in masculinity, femininity and mentality. The first beings who were fallen from the Brahmaloka, led an immaculate life. But when evolutionary change occurred in them, they

82 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Uparipannasam. p. 101 83 The Path o f Purification p. 429. English edition Nanamoli. 84 V ol. I-II (PTS) Anamatagga Samyutta, Pathavi sutta p. 179 85 Quoted at p. 13. The Cultural Traits in the Tripitaka. 86 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) Agganfia Sutta p. 85 A llha kho tesam vasettha sattan am K adaci Karahaci dighassa addhuno accayena ra ssa p a th a vi udakasmim samatan

29


suffered spiritual loss, therefore, there occurred change of masculinity and femininity, roughness in their bodies conceit, passion, lust etc. Ignoring public property they accepted the individual property. The public utility was replaced by individual unity. Common property was replaced by individual hoarding. In early period, the land was not demarcated but later on it was subjected to the demarcation. The truth was replaced by falsehood. Non-violence was replaced by violence. Non-killing of animals was replaced by the slaughter of animals. Honesty was replaced by stealing. Self-governance was replaced by the state administration and non-punishment was replaced by punishment. This was the evolution of society. Thus, the evolution led to the downfall of man. It can be said that in order to redeem man from his deterioration, institutions like, state administration, education and religion were established. Through these institutions, man was enriched with civilization and culture. The Agganna sutta states that the early beings were reckoned to be mere beings. Therefore, it seems that there were in the beginning only beings. But those beings radiated light from their bodies.87 So it seems that they were possessed of human bodies. However, the Buddhist concept of the evolution of beings does not tally with Darwin’s theory of evolution. But it does tally with the theory of evolution that was put forth by Pansparmia. According to this view, the being came to this world from the other worlds. This has been pointed out by astronomers like Hoyle Fred and N. C. Chandrawickramasinghe in the book, ‘Evolution from Space. ”88 The advantage of looking into the whole universe for the creation of life is that it offers a staggering range of possibilities which are not available here on earth. For one thing it offers the possibility of high intelligence within the universe that is not God. It offers many levels of intelligence rising upwards from ourselves. (“........ Genes are to be regarded as cosmic. They arrive at the earth as DNA or RNA, either fully fledged cells, viruses, viroids or simply as separated fragments of genetic material. The genes are ready to function when they arrive.” “........ Large stores of genetic material became frozen and so preserved indefinitely in the outer regions of the solar system during the early days when our system was formed about 4.6 billions years ago.” “........ The genes ride around the galaxy on their pressure of light waves from the sta rs......... (Genetic material is exactly the right size to ride on the light waves of stars.)”

87 Ibid. p.85 "Te ca honti m an om ayapiti bhakkha s a y a m p a b h a . 88 Evolution from space pp. 31, 32.

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According to the Acinteyya sutta of the Anguttara nikaya, the subject of the world is beyond the power of human mind.89 Therefore, it is difficult to give a definite view regarding the origin and development of the world and man. At present some scholars are engaged in this complicated field.

89 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Appannakavagga p. 80 Cattarim ani bhikkhave acinteyyani na cintetabbani ya n i cintento ummadassa vighatassa bhagi ossa. B uddhanaw bhikkhave Buddha visayo acinteyyo na cintetabbo, y a m cintento um m adassa vighatassa b h a g ia ssa ...... Jhayissa~pe-vipako-pe-lokocinta-pe.

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CHAPTER III BUDDHIST INTERPRETATION OF UNITY AND EQUALITY IN HUMAN SOCIETY Before the advent of the Buddha, Indian society was organised under the Brahmanical influence. It was based on caste system. The Buddha through His Doctrine tried to refute the Brahmanical thoughts and establish the unity of mankind and equality. Therefore, the present Chapter throws light on human unity and equality. In so far as culture and biology are concerned, no distinction can be made between man and man. The distinction between man and man does not biologically or culturally affect human mental development. Human beings as far as biological facts are concerned are bom alike. There may be a distinction between man and man through climatical as well as environmental changes. Nevertheless, mankind all over the world, undergoes almost the same psychological experience. The feelings, sensations, tendencies, temperaments and desires, impulses are shared equally everywhere without any difference. Knowing the above facts well, the Brahmanical intellectuals divided society mainly to satisfy their selfishness. All men are bom alike and possess similar mind but their mental states are different. This becomes quite clear from the following stanzas of the Dhammapada: Duramgamam ekacaram Asariram guhasayam Ye cittam sannamessanti Mokkhanti Marabandhana 90 The mind wanders forth far off places, it wanders alone; it has not physical body, it dwells in the cave of heart. Those who realise and control this mind are free from the bonds of the Evil One (i.e. Mara). According to the analysis of Abhidharhma Compendium, the mind is associated with fifty two mental states and the thought moment is divided into seventeen categories. When the thought moment does not get any object, then it is dissolved. We call it death. Therefore, the mind is always in motion. Whether we sleep or awake, these things are common to all. The mind of man at the moment of birth is absolutely pure. This fact is substantiated by the Pali Text. The quotation runs as follows:

90 Dh. Citta Vagga p. 38, v. 5

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B u d d h i s t In t e r p r e t a t i o n

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Pabhassaramidaw Bhikkhave cittam Tanca kho agantukhehi upakilesehi Upakilittharh 91 “O’ Monks! This mind is fundamentally radiant, but it is defiled by extraneous defilements.” In the beginning, the current of the river is pure, but while passing through mountains, hills and plains, it becomes dirty. This current of river becomes impure by environmental effects, in the same way, the mind of a person is perfectly pure at the time of his birth, but as he grows up, unwholesome things are entered into his mind and as a result of it, his originally immaculate mind becomes impure. As this man moves in society, he is subject to low things, then his mind becomes impure, but when he commits wholesome deeds, his mind becomes pure. Accordingly, man is differentiated or distinguished as good or bad, but we don’t find other additional things in man. Hence, man can be categorized on the principles of his deeds. Dr. G. P. Malalasekera and Dr. K. N. Jayatilleke have pointed out that as society is divided on the basis of caste, its lower strata is deprived of special privileges. The privileges that are not given to the lower strata of the society are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Not Not Not Not Not

granting equal political rights. giving equal economic benefits and opportunities. granting equal social rights. giving equal religious rights. giving equal opportunities in the matter of jurisdiction.92

The problems mentioned above, were in vogue in India, in the 6th Century B. C. At this juncture, the Brahmins had formed unjustifiable social stratification into four categories. These four categories of the social stratification were assigned certain duties respectively. Excepting three upper castes, the fourth caste, i.e. the Sudras were deprived of their religious rights. They were separated from the other castes just and to serve upper classes. As mentioned in Brahmanical Texts, the Sudras were punished by pouring melted lead into their ears, if they heard the Vedic hymns.93 Aryans had two types of social stratifications, which were based on colour. Aryans were of fair complexion and the natures were of dark colour. Therefore, the Aryans looked down upon the natives as dark complexion and low people.94

91 A. Vol. I (PTS) I N ipata A cchara vagga p. 10 92 B uddhism and the Race Q uestion pp. 14, 15. G.P. M alalasekera and K.N. Jayatilleke (Sinhala edition) 93 Q uoted at H inda Jatika utthan aur Patan. p. 311

Athahasya Vedamupa Srnvatastrapu Jatubhyam Srautraparip aranam Uddaharane juhachedah Dharane Sarirabhedah 94 B uddhist India C hap IV pp. 53, 54. T. W. Rhys Davids

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Thus, the caste division in ancient India seems to have been based on the theory of colour. Here colour is related to the body. The words “Kanha and Sukka” are mentioned in the Pali Canonical. Their literal meaning is given as wholesome and unwholesome deeds. For instance: Kanham dhamam vippahaya Sukkam bhavetha pandito.93 Having given up the unwholesome deeds, let the wise man develop and improve wholesome deeds. According to the code of Manu, man was created by the Brahma. Lokanantu Vivrddhyartham Mukha bahurupadatah Brahmanam, Ksatriyam Vaisyam Sudram ca nirvartayat.96 According to the above mentioned stanzas, the Brahmins were bom out of the mouth of Mahabrahma, Ksatriyas from his arms, Vaisyas w'ere bom from the thighs and Sudras were bom from the feet of the Mahabrahma. According to their theory of creation, four persons were created from the Mahabrahma showing different qualities of a person and thus different duties were assigned to them.97 Because of this social stratification, the Sudras became victims of oppression. Traditionally rich families had Sudras as their servants hired for them. Thus, Sudras were deprived of their freedom by those rich people. These Sudras were liable to get disposed of by their masters. They could be bought by any master. The final decisions about the-Sudras were in the hands of the masters. In addition to their service, they could do the sweeping. The Brahmanas believed 95 Dh. P andita V agga. p. 81 v. 12 96 M anu. p. 24 s. 30 97 M anu pp. 42, 43. S 86, 87, 88, 89. Pratham a A dhyaya. A dhayapanam adhyyanam Yajanam yajanarii tatha D anam p ratigrah am chaiva Brahmananamakalpayatat. Prajanam rakshanam dan a M jyadhyanam eva ca Vishayeshvapusaktish ca K shtrisya samadishath. Pash unam rakshanam dana M ijyadhyanam eva ca Vanikpatham K u sidan ca Vaishasasya Krushim eva ca Ekamevatu shudrasya Prabhuh Karm a samadishath Eteshame ca varnanaiii Susrus am anas uyay a.

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that the Sudras were incapable of spiritual improvement. Therefore, reading and listening to the Vedas by them were deemed to be a grave offence. The teaching of the Vedic hymns to Sudras, was subjected to a severe punishment. Even in the matters of jurisdiction, Sudras were not given their basic human rights. Therefore, as Dr. G. P. Malalasekera and Dr. K. N. Jayatilleke point out in their book, Buddhism and The Race Question, the Sudras were deprived of such privileges. The Buddha has drawn attention to some facts in the Vasettha sutta. He did so, mainly to destroy the age-old social structure that was based on narrow principle of caste, creed, clan and injustice. He wanted to establish a new society that was based on equality, brotherhood and social justice. The following reasons have been given to show the unreasonability of the caste system: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Biological reason Historical reason Sociological reason Economical reason Psychological reason Ethical reason 98

While clarifying the biological reason, he told Vasettha and young brahmanas that there is a specific distinguishing mark among the trees, grass and plants, insects, quadruped reptiles, fishes, birds, but there are no such distinguishing characteristics among human beings. There are no distinguishing characteristics in the hair, head, ears, eyes, mouth, nose, lips, eye brows. Even in the privy parts of man and women, no distinguishing marks are found. There is no biological distinction among men but they are conventionally reckoned to be different from each other. The differences of men are based on their professions. For instance, one who lives by animal husbandry, is to be reckoned as a farmer and not as a Brahman, so on and so forth. Tinarukkhepi janatha - na capi patijanare Lingam jatimayarh tesam annamannam jatiya Tato kite patange ca yava kuttha kipillike Catuppade pi j anatha khuddake ca mahallake Paduderepi j anatha urage dfgha pitthike Tato macchapi j anatha udakevari gocare Tato pakkhipi j anatha pattayane vihangame Yatha etesu jatisu lingam jatimayarh puttu

98 Buddhism and the Race Question pp. 53, 54. G. P. Malaiasekara and K. N. Jayatilleke. (Sinhala edition)

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Evam natthi manussesu lingarhjatimayamputhu Ne kesehi na stsehi na kannehi na akkhihi Na mukhe na nasaya na otthehi bhamuhi va Paccattani ca sariresu manusseseva tam na vijjati Okaranca manussesu samannaya pavuccati Yohi koci manussesu gorakkharh upa jivati Evam Vasettha janahi kassako so na Brahmano 99 It is obvious from the above mentioned sutta that the difference is to be found in the vegetation and animal kingdom, but no difference is to be found between man and man. Human beings are the same in all respects. They differ only in their intellectual and karmic achievements. The Buddha did not recognize a Brahman on the basis of birth, womb, nor he approved of a Brahmanical claim of birth from the mouth of the Great Brahman. One becomes a Brahman or a Sudra by one’s own deeds. One becomes Brahman not by birth but by one’s own good deeds. In the same manner one becomes a low caste person by one’s own unwholesome deeds. Na Jacca Brahmano hoti Na Jacca hoti abrahmano Kammana Brahmano hoti Kammana hoti Abrahmano 100 If the above analysis of the Buddha, put into practice, then human equality and unity can be expected. The Buddha rejected the Brahmanical claims of superiority, on the historical background and tried to establish human equality and unity. The Agganna sutta of the Digha nikaya furnishes most authentic scientific description about the historical development of man and society. Two young men, named Vasettha and Bharadvaja approached the Buddha so as to remove their doubts about the claims of Brahmanas that were based on colour, clan, family and birth. As they belonged to the brahman’s family, the following statements were presented to the Buddha by them. Brahmano va settho vanno, hino anno vanno Brahmano va sukko vanno, kanho anno vanno brahmana va Brahmuno putta, Orasa, mukhato Jata, Brahmaja, Brahmanimmita, Brahmadayada, settharh hitva hinamattha vannam ajjhupaga........................ eva Kho no Bhante Brahmana akkosanti, paribhasanti attarupaya. Paribhasaya paripunnaya no aparipunnayati.101 According to the above description, Brahmins were regarded as superior to all other classes of the society, but Buddha refuted and rejected the false superiority complex of Brahmanas. The Agganna sutta, brings out that the society underwent stratification due to the social requirements. It may be accepted as a historical event. 59 Sn. (PTS) M aha V agga V asettha sutta. pp. 117, 1 1 8 ff 100 Ibid. p. 122 101 D. Vol. Ill (PTS) p. 81

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As far as cosmology is concerned. Buddhism divided the world into two ages, one is Samvattamana and the other is Vivattamana. Samvattamana signifies the period of the dissolution of the world and Vivattamana shows the emergence of the world. At the period of dissolution, the world is completely vanished and it appears again. Even at this juncture, no difference can be found among living things. All of them lead a peaceful life. They share the property equally. There arises with the passage of time, a concept of individuality, and they become subject to committing evil things. When these things become rampant, they need a well organised society. In order to accomplish this objective, they form social grades, such as Khattiyas, Brahmanas, Vessas and Sudras which are accepted as the pivot of social stratification. This stratification was based on their respective kamma (deed) and not on the birth, as Brahmanical or Function texts reveal. The Pali quotation from the Agganfia sutta elucidates this fact. It is as follows: Atha kho te Vasettha satta sannipatimsu, sannipatitva anuthutimsu sampatinsu papaka vata bho dhamma sattesu patubhuta, yatrahi nama adinnadanam paimayissati, garaha pannayisatti, ..................... Yannuna mayam ekam sattam sammanneyyama so no sammakhiyitabbam, pabbajetabbam ....................... mayam panassa salina bhagarh anuppadassamati. Athako te Vasettha satta yo nesam satto abhirupataro ca dassaniya taro ca, pasadika taro ca mahesakkha taro ca tam sattam upasankamitva etadavocum .................. mahajana sammato kho Vasettha maha sammato, maha sammatotiveva pathama akkharam upanibbattam akkharam upanibbattam.................... Ete kho Vasettha evametassa khattiya mandalassa poranena aggannena akkharena abhinibbatti ahosi................... Atha kho tesam Vasettha satta agganna va ekaccanam eta da hosi .................. Ete kho Vasettha evametassa Brahmana mandalassa poranena aggannena akkharena abhinibbatti ahosi. Vasettha tesanca kho sattanam sattanam ekacce satta methunan dhammam samadaya visutham kammatepayo je su m ...................ete kho Vasettha evametassa Vessamandalassa poraneha aggannena akkharena upanibbatti ahosi. 102 Basing our investigation on the Agganfia sutta, it may be said that the society, in each period, was peaceful and enjoyed common property equally, but later on, evil things such as theft, censure, falsehood etc., came into being. To bring this situation under control, they wanted an administration. So, they gathered together and elected a handsome, smart and strong person as their leader who could censure and punish. They supported him with a portion of their harvest. Thus, an administrator was elected by the people. That administrator after being elected belongs to the circle of Ksatriyas. This administrator who was elected by the people, was not a creation of the Almighty God. Taking the above statement as an example, it may be ascertained that other groups of the society, were also man made and were not a creation of God. Thus, all Brahmanical theories, concepts and claims based on divine sanctions become null and void. It lo: D. Vol. Ill (PTS) Pathika V agga pp. 92, 93.

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is stated that Brahmins, in order to fulfil their selfishness, gave sanction to social stratification and made it a part and parcel of their religious practice. Taking the economic and social facts into consideration, caste, clan, colour become meaningless. The following Pali quotation from the Madhura sutta clarifies the above facts. Tam kirn mannasi Maha Raja Sudassa cepi ijjheyya dhanena va rajatena va, jatarupena va, Suddopissasa, pubbuttayi pacchanipati kimkara patissavi manapacari piyavadi, Khattiyopi-Pe-Brahmano pissa ................. Pe ................. Vessopissaya pubbutthayi pacchanipati kimkarapatissavi manapacari piyavaditi.103 The Madhura sutta brings out that a person belonging to any caste can be respected, honoured and attended to by the so called upper classes, provided that he accumulates wealth. In such a case, the caste does not hinder a person getting service from his superior caste. Even in modem society, it becomes quite clear that the rich people belonging to any lower class get respect from other people. Thus, economic development decides the social status of any person, in a country. As such social status, caste, clan or colour do not help man. The above mentioned sutta adds that Ven. Mahakaccayana instructs King Madhura that there can be no difference among men on the basis of caste, clan or colour. People belonging to four castes can accumulate wealth, nonetheless caste, clan and colour do not stop them. The Pali quotation clarifies that fact, it is as follows: Tam kim mannasi maharaja yadi evam sante ime cattaro vannasamasama honti no va katham va te ettha honti? no va addha kho bho kaccayana, evam sante ime cattaro vanna samasama honti, nasarh etthakinci nanakaranam • • 104 samanupassamiti. According to the Assalayana sutta of Majjhima nikaya, we get a social tradition of slave and master and not the caste system. In the adjacent countries Yona and Kamboja, only two groups of the society are found. They are the master and slave, the Pali quotation explains them as follows: Evam bho sutam me yonakambojesu annesu ca paccantimesu janapadesu dveva vanna, ayyo ceva daso ca, ayyo hutva daso hoti daso hutva oyyo hotiti. Ettha Assalayana, Brahmananam kim balarh ko assaso yadettha Brahmana evamahamsu Brahmanava Settho vanno, hino annovanno......... Brahmadayati.105 It shows that people jjet social status through wealth. This social status was reversible. A master becomes a slave and a slave becomes a master.

I0, M. V ol. II (PTS) Majjhimapannasam p. 85 104 Ibid. pp. 85. 86. 105 Ibid. p. 149

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This analysis of social stratification is more scientific than that of Brahmanical concept of casteism. According to the Brahmanical concept, the four castes were created by Brahma. The other three classes could not transgress their social status which was based on caste, and it was not subject to any change. This concept contained hard and fast rules. It was codified for all the time and occasions. But the above sutta explains that the social status of master and slave was liable to change. This was a wholly dynamic position. Therefore, it is purely scientific and reasonable. Thus, it may be concluded that the four castes are the same without any difference. According to biological facts, man’s birth depends upon parents. A man who is bom out of the womb of mother, is possessed of a brilliant mind. We have already dealt with this fact, nevertheless, it is worthwhile to go into more details as it is related to man’s psychological thinking. This sort of mind is common to all. It has no caste, colour or clan. It is not affected by any worldly external objects for spiritual development or deterioration. In the same way, it is not affected by any external hindrances for worldly progress or downfall. The mentality of man is reliant on the environmental conditions and mutual relationship. It is developed on reciprocal understanding. Buddhism believes in man’s potentialities which help him to attain the Buddhahood. All people are endowed with the same capabilities, whereby they can get transcendental powers. To achieve it or not, it depends on man’s choice. Brahmanical thinkers consider it to be the union with the Supreme Being i.e. Brahmasahavyata. Brahmanical thinkers have propounded a theory that only the Brahmanas have the sole monopoly or authority to attain that union with the Supreme Being. This is a sort of depriving a man of his freedom of thought. The Buddha, for the first time, drew His attention to this problem. He maintained that any man irrespective of his caste, creed or colour, could get emancipation. No one can enable another person to get purity. While clarifying this fact, the Buddha said, “By oneself indeed, is evil done and by oneself is one defiled; but oneself is evil not done and by oneself is one purified, purity and impurity depend entirely on oneself, no one can purify another”. The Pali verse that throws light on this matter runs as follows: Attanava katampapam Attana samkilissati Attana akatampapam Attanava visujjhati Suddhi asuddhi paccatam Nanno annam visodhaye 106

106 Dh. Attavagga p. 146 v. 5

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From the following quotation, it becomes evident that the Buddha bestowed complete freedom on man. He admonished His disciples that they should make efforts and the Tathagathas can only show the way: Tumhehi kiccam atappam Akkhataro Tathagata 107 Whereas the Bhagavad Gita states that he who wants to get liberation, should give up all other beliefs and seek refuge in Krishna alone.108 On the other land, the Buddha says, “Self is the Lord of self. How can others be Lord of self. By subduing oneself, one can obtain a Refuge (i.e. Arahattaphala) which is so difficult to attain.” The Pali verse about it runs as follows: A ttahi attano natho Kohi natho parosiya Attana hi sudantena Natham labhati dullabham 109 After a careful comparison of both Buddhist ideals and those of Bhagavad Gita, one is tempted to arrive at the conclusion that Buddhism is more liberal, democratic and humanitarian than other philosophical thoughts of India. The human society is the creation of man. Man who lives in such a society has certain primary or basic as well as secondary requirements. Although these requirements which are same for all, yet the ways and means to fulfil them are wholly different. As far as the needs are concerned, man is the same. Man is the same in so far as the four types of conditions are concerned. The four postures are described as sitting, walking, lying and sleeping. These are common to all, so the mankind is the same. In the same manner, there is the same path to be trodden on to get the highest goal i.e. emancipation. As the Buddha pointed out that the emancipation can be attained by anybody, by following the path which He showed. There is no difference in it. It is common to all. Some people in His time, could not get this emancipation, as they followed different paths that were put forth by Brahmanical thinkers. These thinkers claimed that the path to purity was restricted to only a particular society. This is quite clear from the questions that were put to the Buddha by King Pasenadi of Kosala Kingdom.

aha.

Heturupam Bhante Bhagava aha. Saheturupam pana Bhante, Bhagava Cattaro me, Bhante vanna Khattiya, Brahmana, Vessa, Sudda, te cassu

107 Dh. M aggavagga p. 220 v. 4 108 Bhagavad Gita Chap. 18, S. N o. 66, p. 329 Sarvadharm an parityajya M Jmekam saranarii vraja A ham tv a sarupapebhyo M okshayisyami ma suchah 109 Dh. Attavagga p. 145 v. 4.

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imehi pancahi padhaniyanhgehi samannagato, te cassu sarhmappahana, ettha, pana tesam Bhante, siya viseso siya, nanakaranti. “Ettha, kho nesaham, Maharaja, na kind nanakaranam vadami. Yadidam vimuttiya vimuttirh. Seyyathapi Maharaja, puriso sukkham sakattham adaya aggim abhinibbatteeyya, tejo patukareyya .................... Tejo patukareyya, atha aparo puriso sukkham udumbarkattharh adaya aggim abhinnibbatteyya ..................... Tejo patukareyya, tam kim mannasi Maharaja? Siya nukho tesam agginam nanadaruto abhinibbattanam kind nanakaranam, acciya va, accim vannena va vannam abhaya va abhanti. 110 The king asked the Buddha whether there is any difference in emancipation attained by the four castes. The Buddha explained that people of four castes, may get different kinds of firewood, such as mango sticks, sala sticks, etc. and bum it. The fire that is created from the different kinds of firewood does not differ at all. In the same manner, people aspiring for emancipation can get the same spiritual flame in the hearts. Although a number of embryos are generated in mother’s womb, yet, a few are bom. Therefore, it is difficult to get a human birth in this world. The following Dhammapada verse clarifies the fact: Kiccho manussapatilabho Kiccham maccana jivitam Kiccham saddhammassavanam Kiccho Buddhanuppado 111 Wholesome and unwholesome deeds accompany any man as long as he exists. According to moral code, these wholesome and unwholesome deeds are significant, as they give rise to happiness and unhappiness in this world. According to Buddhist Philosophy, man reaps consequences of his good and bad actions. It is clearly stated in the Dhammapada that Mano pubbam gam a dhamma Mano settha manomaya Manasa ce padutthena Bhasati va karoti va Tato nam dukkhamanveti Cakkamva vahato padam Mano pubbam garna dhamma Mano settha manomaya Manasa ce pasannena Bhasati va karoti va 110 M. Vol. II (PTS) M ajjhim apannasam K annakatthala Sutta pp. 129, 130. 111 Dh. B uddha V agga p. 164 v. 4.

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Tato nam sukhamanveti Chayava anapayini 112 It is obvious from the Madhura sutta of the Majjhima nikaya that there is no difference in getting result too for a man for his committing good and bad deeds with good intention and bad intention, the consequence of such actions are enjoyed by all without any difference of caste, colour or clan. The Pali quotation about this fact is as follows: Sadhu, sadhu, maharaja, sadhu kho re etam, Maharaja, evam hoti, sadhu ca pana te etam arahatam sutarh. Tam kimmannasi, Maharaja? Idhassa Brahmano, idhassa Vesso Idhassa Suddo, panatipati, adhinnadayi, -pe-kayassa bheda paraihmarana apayam duggatim, vinipatam nirayam uppajjeyya? no va? Kathamva te ettha hotiti?....................suddho panatipata, adinnadayi-pe-kayassa bheda parammarana, duggatim vinipatam uppajjeyya?.............. 113 The Buddha never attached any importance to caste, creed, colour or clan. On the other hand, He emphasized the good behaviour of a man. In the first phase of the development and expansion of Buddhist Order, men from every walk of life, joined the Buddhist Order. It is said that the Sakyas were very proud of their clan. Some of the Sakyan princes namely, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila and Devadatta wanted to enter the Buddhist Order of Monks. A barber named Upali also joined them. The Buddha, in order to shatter the pride of those Sakyan princes initiated Upali first and others after him.114 According to the disciplinary code of the Buddha, those Sakyan Princes after their initiation had to respect Ven. Upali though he had hailed from a low family. Another instance may be given of a female member the lowest caste that was admitted to the Buddhist Order of Nuns and was respected by all. Among nuns, a nun named Punna hailed from a slave family. She too, after her entry into the Buddhist Order, was respected and honoured by all other nuns. For these noble men and women, caste and clans were not a bar, they enjoyed alike, the Supreme Bliss of Emancipation. The Buddha has elucidated the above fact in the Uposatha sutta of the Udana Pali, a Buddhist text of the Khuddaka nikaya. According to it, various rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna, Aciravati, Sarabhu and Mahi, after that flowing into the sea, it becomes impossible to differentiate the waters of the rivers from the water of the sea. In the same manner, the people belonging to the four castes, lose 112 Dh. Y am aka V agga p. 14 v. 2 llj M. Vol. Ill (PTS) M ajjhim pannasam p. 86 1,4 M hv. Vol. I (PTS) pp. 77, 78. Atha Kho tesarii Darakanam M atapitara Sabbepi Pirne Daraka Sam anacchanda KalyanadhiP a y a ’ti, Anujanirnsu te Bhikkhu Upasaiiikamitva Pabbajjaih Yaciriisu-te Bhikkha pabbajesum , Upasariipadesurii

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their different castes in the Buddhist Order of Monks and Nuns and are reckoned to be the sons of Sakya.115 The Brahmanical thinkers have made a social classification, according to the birth of a man, but the Buddhist classification is made on the basis of spiritual development. While rejecting the Brahmanical claims to superiority, the Buddha pointed out that one does not become a Brahmana or Sudra by birth, but one becomes so due to one’s deeds. Buddhism gives priority to one’s deeds and not one’s caste or clan. Na jacca vasalo hoti Na jacca hoti brahmano Kammanna vasalo hoti Kammam a hoti brahmano 116 Kassako kammana hoti Sippiko hoti kammana Vanijo kammana hoti Pessiko hoti kammana Coropi kammana hoti Yodhjivopi kammana Yajako kammana hoti Rajapi hoti kammana 117 The Buddha seems to have attached a new definition to man’s superiority. He did not accept Brahmanical concept of superiority based on birth, but on the spiritual development. The Vasettha sutta of the Majjhima nikaya, provides a welcome light in this regard and this bears a spiritual importance. Na caham Brahmanam Brumi Yonijam mattisambhavam, Bhovadi nama so hoti Sace hoti Sakincano Akificanam anadanam Tamaham Brumi Brahmanam. 118 The Ambattha sutta of the Digha Nikaya brings out that the Buddha refuted the false claims of Brahmanas. The young Ambattha who was a Brahmin by birth, disparaged the Buddha by stating that social classification of four castes and the 115 A . V ol. IV (PTS) VIII Nipata Mahavagga Paharada sutta p. 202 Seyyathapi bhikkhave, y a kaci mahanadiyo, seyyath idam ganga, yam una acivavati, sarabhu, mahi, ta m ah asam u ddam patvajah an ti purim ani nama gottani, mahasamuddo, tacca sabbam gacchanti, evam eva kho bhikkhave cattavo me vanna Khattiya, brahmana, vessa suddha, Te tatagatappavedino dhaihmvinaye agarasam a anagariyam pabbajitva ja h a n ti purim ani noma gottani, sabb.am Sabbam sakyaputtiyam eva sabbam gacchanti. 116 Sn. (PTS) Uragavagga, Vasala sutta, M ahavagga p. 23 117 Sn. (PTS) Mahavagga, Vasettha sutta, p. 122 118 Ibid. p. 119

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three classes such as Ksatriyas, Vaisya and Sudra are the servants of the Brahmans. But the Buddha while tracing the origin of Ambattha’s Brahmanical ancestry, pointed out that they originated from a female servant or housemaid of the Sakyas. Poanam khopana te Ambattha Mattipettikam nama gottam anussarato ayyaputta sakya bhavanti, dasiputto tvamasi Sakyanam sakiya kho pana ambatta Rajanam okkakam pitamaham dahanti119 The woman who was Sudra gave birth to a son and if so how7could a son who was bom from the womb of Sudra woman calls himself a Brahman and claim to such ancestry as Brahmanical ancestry? According to Buddhist Philosophy, man has to face three phases, such as uppada, i.e. arising, birth, thiti i.e. duration and bhanga, destruction, dissolution. While he undergoes these phases, his own kamma, action, stands him in good stead. Nevertheless, we cannot identify the above phases, such as. uppada, thiti and bhanga. These three phases may occur at any moment. As it is pointed out that the “Gati visayo is unthinkable”. It means, the sphere of movement of thoughts, is beyond one’s own thinking. So, the rebirth linking consciousness, “patisandhi vinnana" cannot be traced. We cannot know where it passes or leaves a person when he or she is at his or her eleventh hour. When we consider the cosmological order, it is not possible to know how many parents we have had. Even the Brahmanas could be bom in different species of animals such as goats, hens, cows, etc. If so, how can Brahmanas claim to be superior to others. Makkhali Gosala one of the six teachers during the time of the Buddha opined that people could get emancipation without any cause and effect. He further declares that six types of qualities lie in man. They are not subject to any change. Man behaves according to these six qualities. The innate qualities in man, such as blackness, blueness, redness, whiteness, yellowness are connoted by these six qualities. Mankind is divided in accordance with these colours. According to this classification, people who are engaged in selling meat, fish, game hunting and pig killing, are reckoned to be of black colour, i.e. Kanhavanna, that is to say, people of low caste. Others are divided, according to the colours. Even the saints are classified, in accordance with this classification.120 The people who are born in this way. are heir and successor to such classes. This is also the opinion of the Brahmanas.121 But the Buddha, according to the Chalabhijati sutta of Anguttara nikaya has refuted the above views of the Brahmanas.122 " " D . Vol. 120 A. Vol. 121 M. Vol. 122 A. Vol.

Ill (PTS) p. 92 Ill (PTS) V. N. pp. 383. 384. II (PTS) p. 222 11 (PTS) VI N ipata. M ahavagga pp. 64. 68.

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B u d d h is t In t e r p r e t a t io n o f U n it y a n d E q u a l it y in H u m a n S o c ie t y

Ven. Asvaghosa has further elaborated the Buddhist attitude to caste. According to him, as far as the feelings, likes and dislikes, expectations and physical limbs are concerned they are common to all the castes. The whole mankind belongs to one caste and that caste is human race. If the four castes were created by the Brahma, then how could a difference between castes could be established? Just as the children of parents are regarded to be same, so the four castes that are supposed to be the creation of the Brahma are same. There can be no difference among men, like that of vegetation and living things. There is a fundamental difference amidst the animal kingdom. We find radical diversity among animals such as tigers, deer, elephants, lions and horses, yet there is no such difference between Ksatriyas and Brahmanas. The feet and hands of all men and women are the same. There are distinguishing marks between quadrupeds, birds, insects, reptiles, fishes, etc. But we don’t find such distinguishing marks among men. Furthermore, he contends that the trees such as jack tree bears fruits in different part of the trees. There are certain other trees which bear fruits on the tip of the branches and some trees bear fruits in the middle of trunk. The argument of Asvaghosa is that the trees on the top of it, in the middle part of it, cannot be called as the fruits of Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra respectively. The fruits generated by the tree are possessed of the same qualities and the tree is recognised as a jack tree. Just so, how could the caste system be established, if all the castes are created by one great being that is Mahabrahma.123 If we take the sociological facts into consideration, the ideas that are found in the Sigalovada sutta of the DIgha nikaya, seem to be important. There the human relations are delineated, one the basis of sociological and ethical basis. According to it, the human relationship is indicated in the light of six directions. These directions are set apart as parents, wife and husband, children, teachers, disciples, masters, servants, friends and well wishers, monks and laity.124 In order to establish their welfare and well-being, they were required to follow four requisites such as generosity, commitment to the welfare of the people co-operation, using of pleasant words and equality. All these requisites lead a person towards development and happiness. Danam ca peyya vajjarh ca attha cariya c a y a idha Samanattata ca dhammesu-tattha tathatayatharaham Ete kho sangaha loke rathassani va yayato Ete kho sangahanasu na mataputta karana Labhetha manam pujam va pitava puttakarana 123

123 Buddhist and Social Philosophy Quoted at pp. 1 4 4 ,145 (Sinhala edition) 124 D. V ol. Ill (PTS) pp. 188-189. K athanca gahapati-putta ariya-savako ch addisa paticch adi hoti? Chayim a gahapati-putta disa veditabba dakkina disa acariya veditabba pacchim a d isa p u tta d a ra veditabba, uttara disa m ittam acca veditabba, hetthima disa dasakam m akaraporisa veditabba, uparima disa sam ana B rahm ana veditabba 123 Ibid. P. Sigalovada sutta p. 192

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According to this, the caste system is detrimental to social development. The four requisites pave the way for social prosperity and social equality. Human equality can be established through economical ways and means. Both the Brahmanas and non-Brahmanas are bom without any economic ways and means. Their economic condition is gradually developed. From time to time, the Brahmanas too, like other poor classes, undergo economic shortcomings. Therefore, even the Brahmanas have to engage themselves in different occupations. \ As far as the society is concerned all men are endowed with the same physical limbs, their necessary things are almost the same, but the way to fulfil all these requirements is fundamentally different. The difference lies in the distribution of the wealth. Such differences are found in the capitalist countries, whereas socialist countries do not have so much of economical differences. Therefore, the society is divided into two groups, such as, rich and poor classes, but their necessities are almost the same. Basic requirements are common not only to human beings but also to the animal kingdom. Human beings and animal kingdom differ in their thinking power. Therefore, it is said: Aharanidra bhaya maithunam ca Samana yametodpasubhir naranam Dharmo hi tesam adhiko visesah Dharmena vihinanpasubhir samanah 126 The Cakkavattisihanada sutta of the DIgha nikaya, brings out that the difference among the people is found mainly because of the unequal distribution o f wealth, because of this unequal distribution of wealth, poverty is to be seen and as poverty exists, theft is committed by people, and because of theft, people use weapons. This shows, how violence and unrest take place in society. The Pali quotation that explains that fact is given below: Adhananam dhane anuppadiyamane daliddiyath vepullamagamasi. Daliddiye vepullam gate adinnadanam vepullamagamasi, adinnadane vepullam gate satta vepulla magamasi satte vepullamagate Panatipato vepullamagamasi 127

Thus, the evolution of mankind took place in society. It was not a creation of an Almighty God. The Agganna sutta brings to our notice that caste system can disappear as a result of economical development. In this way, if we consider economic facts, we may prove the social equality and unity. Buddhism points out that political thoughts are necessary to each and everybody in society. Buddhist political philosophy is based on ethical principles. The Vedic people believed that the Ksatriya class was created by the Brahma and that was for the good administration of the country. The concept is not based on

126 Hitopodesha p. 6, v. 25 127 D. Vol. II (PTS) p. 116

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of

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rational foundation. The Agganfia sutta shows that the government was established with the consent of the people. As it was elected by the people, it came to be known as Mahasarhmata (elected by the people) (Mahajana Sammato Mahasammatoteva pathamam akkharam upanibbattam) Khattiya is he who is the master of the fields (khettanam adhipati ti khattiyo). He who governs the country righteously “Ranjetiti R aja’, therefore he is called the king.128 In electing the king, no caste, clan, colour or any social position of a person was taken into consideration. The general method of electing a king were to elect the king without considering any special (specific) characteristics of a person. The qualities which were taken into account were good looking personality that is, a person who was to be elected, should have been handsome and endowed with manliness, etc. He who was popular among the people was elected by the people. His caste, creed, colour, clan, etc did not matter or influence in getting elected by the people. Thus, while administering his country, all castes, including Brahmanas were under his command. Herein, only the humanity was considered to be a common law and not caste or colour. The Canonical Texts mention the Buddhist administrative policy. When we consider the Buddhist administrative policy, in terms of comparison, we come to know how it upholds unity and equality of mankind. Buddhism instructs the administrators to govern the people like their own children.129 If the king governs his country, unrighteously, it affects not only the people but also the natural resources of the country.130 The king should manage the affairs of the state in the light of four ways of showing favour and tenfold royal duties.131 The Jataka Literature throws light on the impartial administration of the king. While dispensing his duties, he should not consider the social classification which is based on caste, creed, colour or clan.132 As a matter of fact, the king should govern the country without resorting to the severe corporeal punishment and force devote and dedicate himself to the happiness of his subjects.133 Paying attention to these facts, the Buddha wished to establish the government policy on the democratic principles. Thus, human rights are secured and well-protected. The law is considered to be common to all. Through this policy, human beings with the feeling of unity and equality are expected to progress. Therefore, the Buddha points out that there should not be different policies for different castes.

128 Ibid. Ill p. 93 129 A V ol. Ill (PTS) p. 149 130 A. Vol. II (PTS) pp. 74, 76. 131 J. V ol. I (PTS) p. 471 132 Ibid. Ill p. 273 133 S. V ol. I (PTS) p. 166

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Psychological facts in this regard, may be discussed here. Man commits some mental, physical and verbal deeds. These deeds are based on four ways such as chanda, dosa, moha and bhaya i.e. means or actions based on strong desire, hatred, illusion (delusion) and fear. These four qualities are common to all mankind. It is human nature to commit deeds without due deliberation. This is a common to all. These ways are detrimental to both spiritual as well as material development of a person. The Buddha advised that a person should be attentive and do all his work without resorting to the four agatis i.e. four harmful ways. Thus, considering the mentality of a person all persons appear to be the same. The Brahmanas in order to show their superiority to all other classes called themselves Aryans and others non-Aryans. But the texts show a different connotation of these words. The Pali suttas explain that a person who is spiritually and ethically far advanced, is called an Aryan (P. Ariya). Those who were not spiritually and ethically elevated, were called Anaryan (Non-Aryan). The whole of mankind is subject to birth, old age, death, sorrow, grief and lamentation. Only the Buddha and Arahant who were freed from birth, old age, death, sorrow', grief, etc. and had attained the Supreme Bliss of Nibbana. were called Aryans.134 From the spiritual point of view, even the Brahmans who were handsome, and were bom out of the mouth of the Mahabrahma, were not reckoned as Aryans.133 Thus, taking literary sources of the Tipitaka into account, that Buddhism being based on the Universal Common Law, has divided mankind especially on the basis of kamma (action). The difference between man and man does not lie in caste, creed or colour but in spiritual development and enthusiasm towards it.136 The specific feature of the leader of the religious order is that he does not think himself to be inferior, superior or equal to any one and advises others to practise the same principle. These ideal characteristics are not to be found among the Brahmanas. It is quite obvious from the Sangiti sutta that man’s progress is based on his spiritual achievement. According to this sutta, there are certain people who go from darkness to darkness, while some other people from darkness to light. There are also certain people who go from light to darkness while some other people who go from light to light.137 The above classification indicates the fact that man’s self-respect and free will are preserved through it. Both darkness and light connote ethical meaning. The darkness connotes material and spiritual deterioration. On the contrary, the light connotes material as well as spiritual development. A question may be asked whether those who go from darkness to darkness and from light to darkness, are to be seen or not? Through this classification men are to be seen through their modes m M. Vol. II (PTS) p. 196 ff 155 D. Vol. I (PTS) p. 123 l5'’ Ibid. p. 99 1,7 Ibid. Ill (PTS) Paticcavagga p. 283

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B u d d h is t

in t e r p r e t a t io n o f

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of behaviour. The truth is that men cannot be differentiated in so far as their spiritual development is concerned. The theory of kamma (Sk. karma) action has been elucidated in the Culakamma vibhanga sutta of the Majjhima nikaya. It states that man gets inferior or superior status according to his actions. It means, beings are divided as low and high, excellent, superior, in accordance with their actions.138 Some scholars have misunderstood the above statement and have advocated that Buddhism is determinism and believes in karmic efficacy of previous births. If all happens according to the karmic efficacy of previous births, then it will become determinism. Nevertheless, Buddhism does not believe in karmic efficacy of previous births. The Buddhist karmic theory is based on cause and effect (paticca samuppada) which shows the volitional and dynamic movement of a man.139 Man’s development and deterioration depend upon his actions which he commits through the three doors, such as, mind (vinnana, citta) body (kaya, sarira), speech (vaca). For instance, the Vasettha sutta of Majjhima nikaya states that one does not become Brahman or non-Brahman by one’s birth. But one becomes Brahmana or non-Brahmana by one’s deeds. The Pali quotation clarifies it well. It runs as follows: Na jacca Brahmano hoti Na jacca hoti abrahmano Kammana Brahmano hoti Kammanna hoti abrahmano 140 The counterpart of four castes of Brahmanism is found in Buddhism in a totally different way. In Buddhism, the society has been divided into four classes, such as Bhikkhu, BhikkhunI, Upasaka and Upasika.141 This stratification is based on the ethical code of conduct. These four classes of Buddhism are not endowed with birth privileges. They have to make their human lives meaningful and fruitful by means of cultivating moral qualities. The culmination of spiritual life is Nibbana. There is no difference such as, caste, clan or sex. Buddhist ideas can be used to reject the view that everything is due to past kamma. The research in this respect was carried out by Prof. G. P. Malalasekera and Prof. K. N. Jayatilleke.142 They are of opinion that Buddhism while looking into this problem, found a solution to it and its cause lies in the individual as well as in society. What are the 138 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Uparipannasam p. 203 K am m assaka manava, satta kam m adayada kammayoni kaihmabandhu K am m apatisa ra n a K am m am sa tte vibhajati Yadidam hmappanitatati. 139 M. V ol. Ill (PTS) Yadidam avijjapaccaya samkhara, sam khara paccaya vinnanam, vinnanapaccaya namarupam nam arupapaccaya salayatanam salayatanapaccaya ph asso ph assapaccaya vedana 140 Sn. (PTS) Vasettha sutta p. 122 141 A. V ol. II (PTS) IV Nipata, Bhayavaggo, Cakkavatti accariya sutta pp. 132, 133. S ace Bhikkhave Bhikkhu parisa-pe-sace Bhikkhave Bhikkuni p arisa-pe-sace Bhikkhave Upasaka p a ris a-pe-sace Bhikkhave upasika p a ris a. 142 The Buddhism and Race Question, p. 65

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reasons for a person and society, as an individual and institution, to consider someone as of high or low caste. These are twofold. Firstly, when they function volitionally, we call it conceit. Buddhism has presented a philosophy of equality for such people who are possessed of conceit. The famous Sigalovada sutta furnishes four ways of showing favour (sangaha). The fourth way is equality. According to Buddhist Doctrine, all living beings are inter-related, as mother, father, brother, etc. According to this, man is also related to animal kingdom. All living things are subject to decay and death. Therefore, all are equal. It is a pity to say that one is superior to another, in spite of one’s being prey to a common phenomenon. If this is to be expressed in the words of the Buddha, it may be said that an insect that is bom and brought up in the filth, and nourished in it, thinks of other insects who have not been facilitated by such filth, as inferior to him.143 The Buddha has pointed out in the Karaniya Metta sutta, that one should cultivate a mind of boundless love towards all beings just as a mother loves her only son. The Pali verse which mentions the above attitude runs as follows: Mata yatha niyamputtarii Ayusa eka puttamanurakkhe Evarhplsabba bhutesu Manasam bhavave aparimanam 144 Thus, Buddhism has treated all beings alike. A person of noble character thinks of the whole world as his home. At the social level the ultimate aim of Buddhism is to remove all kind of barriers and build one human family.145 Taking above facts into consideration, it may be assumed that Buddhism advocates human equality and unity.

143 Ibid. pp. 65, 66 f f 144 Sn. (PTS) Uragavagga p. 26 145 The Social Philosophy at Buddhism p. 34

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CHAPTER IV AN INQUIRY INTO THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF EARLY BUDDHISM To begin with, it is important to deal with society. Both the Oriental and Occidental scholars have differently defined society. The word society can be defined as follows: R. M. Macivew, in his Community - a Sociological Study, states that a society is built up when a group of people on a certain occasion, create willed relationship among themselves.146 Alan Mcclave and others, in their book, named Understanding Society an Introduction to Sociology, have defined society as below: A society, then, is a group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture, who live in a definite territory, feel some unity as a group, and see themselves as distinct from other people. A society needs to be large enough to avoid being swallowed up by other societies, one test of a society is whether it could survive in a form close to its present one if other societies in the world disappeared. A society, in short, is an independent collection of people who share a common heritage, common ways of interacting, and a set of institutions such as the family and religion.147 Regarding the term society, A Dictionary o f Marxist Thought throws light in the following words: Marx used the term society (as do most Sociologists) in three senses which are contextually distinguished to refer to distinct but related phenomena (i) human society or ‘socialized humanity, as such (ii) historical types of society (e.g feudal or capitalist society) and (iii) any particular society (e.g. ancient Rome or modem France). What is distinctive in Marx’s conception is that it begins with the idea of human beings, living in society, and does not involve an antithesis supporting some kind social contract, or alternatively, by regarding society as a super individual phenomenon.148 Anthony Giddens, in his book named The Constitution o f Society has defined society, as a unity. It is given below:

146 Community a Sociology Study by R. M. M acivew p. 5 147 Understanding Society, An Introduction to Sociology pp. 58, 59. 148 A Dictionary o f Marxist Thought p. 448

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"It is easy to see that in ordinary usage the term, society has two main senses (among others, such as society in the sense of ‘high society'). One is the generalized connotation of ‘social association or interaction’, the other is the sense in which ‘a society is a unity, having boundaries which mark it off from other surrounding societies........................,149 According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a society is the state or condition of living, in association, company, or intercourse with others of the same species; the system or mode of life adopted by a body of individual for the purpose of harmonious co-existence or mutual benefit, defence, etc.150 Then again for a society the condition of having enacted or related is also stressed.131 The word society can be used to refer to a number of persons associated together by some common interest or purpose, enacted by a common law holding the same trade or profession etc.132 A society is a group of human beings sharing a self-sufficient system of action which is capable of existing longer than the life span of an individual, the group being recruited at least in the past by the sexual reproduction of the members.133 The word society is used by sociologists in two different ways, when they speak of a society, they usually have in mind, a social unit, such as, a TRIBE a NATION or a STATE, which has its own political, economic, familial, and other institutions relatively independent of those neighbouring societies. This usage has been strongly influenced by the old nation, as sovereignty in political theory. It can be misleading. The ties of social interdependence spread across political boundaries in much closer and complex ways which sociologists cannot ignore. It is also used in more general sense to designate the object of sociological investigation, in this sense, it is more or less, synonymous with social structure.154 Prof. O. H. De. A Wijesekera states in his book named Buddhism and Society that Buddhist society is more, merely limited to human beings but it includes all sentient beings as a whole and identifies a unity of all beings.155 According to Buddhism, society is not merely an aggregate of human beings, it teaches that all living things comprise society. This shows that society as a whole is a unity of all living things.156 When the primitive civilization is considered in accordance with historical facts the origin of the first the society becomes clear. An individual has an important place in society. According to this, society is not expected to have a group of individuals. If we define the 14

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