Snack Foods Processing

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Author: Edmund W. Lusas | Lloyd W. Rooney

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Table of Contents

Preface Acknowledgment List of Contributors

Section I: The Snack Foods Setting 1. OVERVIEW EDMUND W. LUSAS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction and Industry Scope Past Innovations Nutrition Total Quality Management of Technology References

2. THE SNACK INDUSTRY: HISTORY, DOMESTIC AND GLOBAL STATUS JAMES A. McCARTHY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction History The Domestic Snack Food Market The Global Market The Snack Food Association References

©2001 CRC Press LLC



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Section II: INGREDIENTS AND GENERAL EQUIPMENT 3. Food Quality of Corn L. W. ROONEY and E. L. SUHENDRO

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Introduction Types of Corn Corn Grades, Standards and Specifications Corn Kernel Structure and Composition Aflatoxins and Fumonisin Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOS) Food Corn Quality Attributes Properties of Corn for Alkaline Cooking Handling Food Corn Industrial Dry Corn Milling Dry Masa from Dry-Milled Corn Fractions Sorghum Utilization in Snack Foods Acknowledgments References

4. ALKALINE-COOKED CORN PRODUCTS CASSANDRA M. McDONOUGH, MARTA H. GOMEZ, LLOYD W. ROONEY and SERGIO O. SERNA-SALDIVAR

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Introduction Traditional Corn Products Ingredients Preparing and Using Fresh Masa Baked and Reduced-Fat Products Preparing and Using Dry Masa Flours Physicochemical Changes in Alkaline–Cooked Products Quality of Alkaline-Cooked Products Shelf Life of Corn Products Acknowledgments References

5. STARCHES FOR SNACK FOODS DAVID P. HUANG and LLOYD W. ROONEY

1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Starch Granules Definitions Changes in Starch




5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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Starch Ingredients for Savory Snack Foods Selection of Starches Conclusions Acknowledgments References

6. OILS AND INDUSTRIAL FRYING DON E. BANKS and EDMUND W. LUSAS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Introduction World Oil Supply Oil Chemistry Oil Extraction and Refining Oil Processing The Frying Process Selection of Frying Oils Frying Oil Management References

7. HOT AIR DRYERS ROBERT SUNDERLAND

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Fundamentals of Drying Psychometric Charts Sizing a Drying System Selecting a Dryer Reference

Section III: Snack Foods Preparation and Dedicated Equipment 8. POTATOES AND POTATO CHIPS WILBUR A. GOULD

1. 2. 3. 4.

Potato Production Potato Analysis and Composition Potato Chip Manufacture Suggested Reading

9. USE OF DRIED POTATOES IN SNACK FOODS VELDON M. HIX

1. Introduction 2. History of Fabricated Potato Snacks 3. Dried Potato Ingredients for Fabricated Potato Snacks




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4. Other Potato Snack Ingredients 5. Future of Fabricated Potato Snacks 6. References 10. TORTILLA CHIP PROCESSING SURENDRA P. MEHTA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Introduction Processing Steps Corn Cooking and Soaking Washing and Draining Grinding Equipment Reconstitution of Dry Masa Flour Masa Feeding/Pumping/Presheeting Sheeting/Cutting Baking Conditioning/Equilibration Frying Process Flowchart Raw Materials

11. SNACK FOODS FROM FORMERS AND HIGH-SHEAR EXTRUDERS OCTAVIAN BURTEA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction History of Corn Snacks Processing Equipment Corn Chip Processing Extruded Bake-Type Snacks Extruded Fry-Type Snacks References

12. SNACK FOODS FROM COOKING EXTRUDERS GORDON HUBER

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction Formula Hardware Software (Conditions) Extruded Products New Developments: Future of Snack Foods Extrusion References




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13. PERFECT PRETZEL PRODUCTION E. TERRY GROFF

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The Pretzel: A Snack Food with 800 Years of History Types of Pretzels Formulation Processing Problems in Pretzel Manufacture References

14. POPCORN PRODUCTS CHARLES CRETORS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Introduction Raw Popcorn Selection and Preparation Popping Methods Home Preparation of Popcorn and Equipment Commercial Processes for Fresh Popcorn Industrial Processes for Packaged Popcorn Commercial and Industrial Flavorings and Applicators Popcorn Packaging Relative Nutrition Marketing of Popcorn References

15. SNACK FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN PETER J. BECHTEL

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Introduction Jerky Products Shelf-Stable Sausage Stick Snacks Other Dried Meat Products Pork Rind Products and Expanded Products Pickled Snack Foods Dairy- and Egg-Based Snack Foods Dried and Marinated Fish and Shellfish Snacks References

16. RICE-BASED SNACK FOODS SHIN LU and TSE-CHIN LIN

1. Introduction 2. Rice Milling




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3. Milling Effects 4. Snack Foods 5. References 17. JAPANESE SNACK FOODS SEIICHI NAGAO

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Introduction Japanese Baked Confections Fried Japanese Confections Molded or Pressed Japanese Confections Coated Japanese Confections Western Confections Noodles Western Snack Foods References

18. SNACK FOODS OF INDIA SUMATI R. MUDAMBI and M.V. RAJAGOPAL

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Introduction Roasted Cereal Snack Foods Roasted Legume Snack Foods Dehydrated Snack Foods (Served After Frying) Fried Cereal Snack Foods Fried Legume Snack Foods Fried Grain and Legume Snack Foods Fried Fruit and Tuber Snack Foods Nutritional Value of Indian Snack Foods References

Section IV: Operations After Shaping and Drying 19. SNACK FOOD SEASONINGS JON SEIGHMAN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Ingredients Seasoning Formulation Seasoning of Major Snack Foods Suggested Reading




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20. SNACK SEASONINGS APPLICATION DOUGLAS E. HANIFY

1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Coating Arenas Types of Seasoning Applications Conclusion

21. SENSORY EVALUATION IN SNACK FOODS DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION DENISE JACOBY and CLAY KING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction Overview of Flavor Analytical Methods Sensory Methods Sensory Aspects of Processing Sensory Evaluation During Product Life Cycle References

22. PRODUCT PROTECTION AND PACKAGING MATERIALS TOM DUNN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Quality Properties of Snack Foods Assessment of Packaging Requirements Packaging Materials Functionality Properties of Snack Food Packaging Materials Current Issues in Snack Foods Packaging References

23. SNACK FOODS FILLING AND PACKAGING CURT KUHR

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction Package Styles Automated Bag and Pouch Packaging Cartoning Case Packing Improving Efficiency and Future Considerations Suggested Reading




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24. EVALUATION METHODS AND QUALITY CONTROL FOR SNACKS RALPH D. WANISKA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Quality Programs Evaluation Methods Statistics in Quality Control Summary References




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Preface

T

snack foods industry is a remarkable sector of the food industry. For many years, annual snack sales in the United States have compounded at several times the rate of population increase, thus indicating a vigorous and growing industry. It has evolved as part of the trend toward increased flexibility and mobility in daily living patterns as national affluence increased. Most of the “snacks” we know today have been developed or significantly modified in the United States. Yet, room still exists domestically for new snack ideas and processes. Moreover, U.S.-style snacks are being accepted in newly prosperous countries, where opportunities for additional development are plentiful. This book is for people who want a technically based practical review of how snack foods are made. Individual motivations to learn differ and may include: a new job with a snack foods producer, transfer of a talented manager in a large corporation to the snacks division, or promotion of a worker from the production line to responsibilities with a broader scope. A technical sales specialist for a machinery, ingredients, packaging materials or services supplier may be assigned to call on snack producers. Some entrepreneurs may want to assess the technical requirements for making snacks, or selling supplies or services to snack processors. Also, researchers and quality control/assurance personnel need an overview of the interrelated technologies for identifying sources of product quality problems. Savory snacks are emphasized in this book—salted, shelf-stable finger foods, including: potato and corn chips, alkali-cooked corn tortilla chips, pretzels, popcorn, extruder-puffed and dried/fried products, half-products, and animalproduct snacks. Readers are also introduced to snacks of China, Japan and India. HE




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Authors of the 24 chapters have extensive experience in their specialties, and range from pioneers to younger members of the industry. Their names, or their employers, already are familiar. Several consultants enrich the book by their experiences in snacks processing and snack-related technologies. Many have influenced development of various sectors of the industry. This book follows the Practical Short Course philosophy honed by 18 years of teaching technical processing of various products to domestic and international industry supervisors at Texas A&M University. Nearly 5,000 people have been trained through this program, many of whom have grown in responsibility and stature in their companies and the industry. We initially asked representatives of the major equipment and ingredient companies to teach what they would like prospective buyers to know about their type of equipment or ingredient when working with them—in a sense, to give the students a vocabulary and bring them to the “street smart” level of knowledge without disclosing proprietary secrets. As in the short courses, chapter authors use their company’s products as illustrations, but the vast majority are representative of multiple sources. Few secrets exist in equipment or supplies when discussing principles, although individual suppliers have their own techniques for gaining optimum performance from their product. The strength of suppliers as authors is that they typically see and solve many problems that would surface only occasionally, if at all, at any one location. Also, some have run commercial snack production lines for prolonged periods in addition to startups. Several bookshelves would be required to hold all that is known about savory snack foods but will never be published because of their proprietary nature and obligations of suppliers to keep their customers’ secrets. But, once the basic principles are understood, problems can be solved in several ways, some of which are described in this book. Chapters are arranged in a chronological need-to-know basis. The status of the industry is reviewed, followed by important properties of major ingredients, including starch, potatoes, dry potatoes, dent corn; popcorn, oils and seasonings; succeeded by manufacturing equipment, including cookers, grinders, formers, fryers, seasoning applicators, packaging materials, and weigher-filler-sealers. Additionally, sections are included on sensory evaluation, and quality control— in specific chapters and throughout the book. Readers will notice that some overlap occurs between chapters, and authors differ in recommended processing conditions and equipment. This merely documents that snacks are made many different, successful ways in the real world. The book dwells slightly on the histories of various snack foods industry companies, primarily to show that multibillion-dollar industries have been built starting with simple ideas and simple ingredients (potatoes, corn and rice). It may inspire individuals around the globe to focus on new ways of utilizing local crops and resources. Many U.S.-origin corn-based snack foods are gaining popularity throughout the world. Would-be overseas processors need help in developing reliable sources of good-quality raw materials.




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This book has two objectives: —To provide new entrants with an introduction to the snack foods industry and its terminology, so they can confidently reach out for more information in communicating with suppliers and associates. —To explain the technical interrelationships between the many materials and processes used in making the finished snack food, so managers, on-line supervisors and quality control/assurance personnel will better understand where to start in solving problems that arise. The reader will benefit the most by: (1) reading through the book first for scope and interrelations; (2) returning for detailed reading of those sections that relate to the specific concern at hand; and (3) keeping the book on a nearby shelf as a reference of ingredients specifications and process operating conditions. EDMUND W. LUSAS LLOYD W. ROONEY




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Acknowledgment

T

book is dedicated to the chapter authors, without whose input it could not have materialized. Individuals who make their living in the snack foods industry were invited to summarize the important principles and critical requirements of their specialties. However, they also are among the busiest of people and the modern business day leaves no time for such writing. Editors can help but little, since ideas must come from those who solve problems first-hand. Each chapter is a gift of experience to later entrants to the industry, often written after regular work hours, in the evenings, while traveling, and sometimes during vacations—personal time that can never be replaced. We thank all for their generosity in participating. We also thank C. McDonough for her help with the graphics in this book. HIS




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List of Contributors

Mr. Don E. Banks Consultant, Edible Oil Technology 8155 San Leandro Street Dallas, TX 75218 E-mail: dbanks@flash.net

Mr. Charles Cretors President C. Cretors & Company 3243 N. California Ave. Chicago, IL 60618 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Peter Bechtel Professor of Seafood Technology School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences (SFOST) University of Alaska P.O. Box 99775-7220 Fairbanks, AK 99775 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Tom Dunn Printpack, Inc. 4335 Wendell Dr. Atlanta, GA 30336-1622 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Octavian Burtea Vice President, Sales Snack Foods Group Maddox Metal Works, Inc. 4031 Bronze Way Dallas, TX 75237 E-mail: oburtea@maddoxmetal works.com


Dr. Marta H. Gomez Research Scientist, Nabisco Foods 21-11 Route 208 Fair Lawn, NJ, 07410 Dr. Wilbur A. Gould Consultant 1733 South East 43rd Street Cape Coral, FL 33904 E-mail: [email protected]



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Mr. E. Terry Groff President Reading Bakery Systems 380 Old West Penn Avenue Robesonia, PA 19565 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.rpmcorp.com

Dr. Clay King Professor Texas Woman’s University Department Nutrition and Food Sciences Denton, TX 76204-2134 E-mail: f [email protected]

Mr. Douglas E. Hanify, P.E. Director of Sales Spray Dynamics Ltd. 108 Bolte Lane St. Clair, MO 63077 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Curt Kuhr Director of Marketing Services The Woodman Company Division of Kliklok Corporation 5224 Snapfinger Woods Drive Decatur, GA 30035 E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Veldon Hix Director of Research Miles Willard Technologies P.O. Box 1747 Idaho Falls, ID 83403 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. David P. Huang Business Manager National Starch Company, Inc. 10 Finderne Avenue Bridgewater, NJ 08807 E-mail: david/[email protected] Mr. Gordon Huber Director, New Concept Development Wenger Manufacturing Company 714 Main Street Sabetha, KS 66534-0130 E-mail: [email protected] Ms. Denise Jacoby Frito-Lay, Inc. 7701 Legacy Drive Plano, TX 75024 E-mail: [email protected]


Dr. Tse-Chin Lin Chief, Division of Food Processing Council of Agriculture Department of Food Science National Chung-Hsing University #250 Kwua Kwang Road Taichung, 404 Taiwan Dr. Shin Lu Professor and Head Department of Food Science National Chung-Hsing University #250 Kwuo Kwang Road Taichung, 404 Taiwan E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Edmund W. Lusas Consultant, Ed Lusas, P.S.I. 3604 Old Oaks Drive Bryan, TX 77802-4743 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. James A. McCarthy President and CEO The Snack Food Association 1711 King Street, Suite One Alexandria, VA 22314-2720 E-mail: [email protected]



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Ms. Cassandra M. McDonough Research Scientist Cereal Quality Laboratory Soil and Crop Sciences Department Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-2474 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Surendra P. (Paul) Mehta Processing Systems Division Heat and Control, Inc. 24325 E. Sunnycrest Ct. Diamond Bar, CA 91765 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Sumati R. Mudambi Food Industry Consultants RL-1, G. Block MDIC, Chinchwad Pune 411019, India E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Seiichi Nagao Wheat Flour Institute Flour Millers Association 13-6, Kabuto-CHO, Nihonbashi Chuo-Ku, Tokyo 103-0026, JAPAN Dr. Mudambi V. Rajagopal Food Industry Consultants RL-1, G. Block MDIC, Chinchwad Pune 411019, India E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney Faculty Fellow and Professor, Food Science and Technology Cereal Quality Laboratory Soil and Crop Sciences Department


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Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-2474 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Jon Seighman Manager, Seasoning Development Givaudan-Roure Flavors 1199 Edison Drive Cincinnati, OH 45216 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar Head of Food Science and Technology Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos Monterrey, NL, Mexico Dr. E. L. Suhendro, Research Associate Food Science and Technology Cereal Quality Laboratory Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-24 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Robert Sunderland Wenger Manufacturing Company 714 Main Street Sabetha, KS 66534-0130 E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Ralph Waniska Professor, Food Science and Technology Cereal Quality Laboratory Soil and Crop Sciences Department Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843-2474 E-mail:[email protected]

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SECTION I

THE SNACK FOODS SETTING


1



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CHAPTER 1

Overview

EDMUND W. LUSAS

1. INTRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY SCOPE

1.1. CHAPTER OBJECTIVE

T

HE

objectives of this chapter are to:

r Introduce the reader to the scope of the snack foods industry, including its

development and current sales.

r Expand on processing principles and quality interlinks. r Review Total Quality Management of industry technology.

1.2. WHAT IS A SNACK FOOD? Several of the chapter authors define snack foods as “foods eaten between regular meals.” Webster’s New Ninth Collegiate Dictionary [1] defines the noun “snack” (first recorded use, 1757) as “a light meal, food eaten between regular meals, food suitable for snacking;” and the verb “snack” (1807) as “to eat a snack.” Thus, a cold leftover from last evening’s home or restaurant meal, an afternoon bowl of breakfast cereal, a cup of soup reconstituted from a dry mix package, or cookies and milk for children returning from school in midafternoon, are properly called “snacks.” But, what if there are no, or only a few, “regular meals?” It has been estimated that less than 20% of U.S. families eat breakfast. Moreover, scheduling of “regular” meals is erratic when both parents (or a single parent) and children




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leave home at different times for work and school, when lunches are primarily eaten away from home, and when structured athletic and social activities for the children occupy weekday evenings and sometimes weekends as well. Eating in the company of others, including families gathered for a meal, workers eating box lunches together, and communal mid-morning and midafternoon coffee breaks, also have eroded. Increasingly, food is purchased at drive-up windows and consumed alone in vehicles, and many office workers take coffee, and sometimes microwave popped corn, to their desks. A growing part of the population, no longer eats “meals,” preferring instead to “graze” as the day progresses. Clearly, the times are changing. The desires for freedom of mobility (expressed by long-distance moving for new employment, and long auto vacations) and freedom of personal action (keeping hours and eating when one wants) are reflected in the foods we eat. With a domestic population of about 280 million, there is no new style of living, but rather many simultaneously evolving diverse styles. Snacks are the convenience and fun foods of people on the go, and older opinions about their propriety don’t apply anymore. The terms “snacks,” “snack foods,” and “savory snacks” mean the same throughout this book. The latter term has been used frequently with various meanings, including “salty” and “seasoned.” Webster’s dictionary [1] further expands the definition of “savory” to include “pleasing to the taste” and “a dish of stimulating flavor” (1661). Besides being tasty, modern savory snack foods are: r safe, and free of hazardous chemicals, other toxic substances, and r r r r r

pathogenic microorganisms as defined by federal laws and enforced by various agencies typically prepared commercially in large quantities by continuous processes seasoned, usually with salt, and often with additional flavorings shelf-stable, requiring no refrigeration for preservation packaged ready-to-eat, typically divided into bite-size pieces, easily handled with the fingers, and may have an oily or dry appearance depending on customer expectations for the specific product sold to the customer in fresh condition, often achieved by: —employing packaging materials to exclude moisture, oxygen, and often light, to protect product crispiness, slow natural oil oxidation, and further remove an oxidation catalyst, respectively —sometimes using an inert package atmosphere (nitrogen) and/or approved anti-oxidant systems for additional oil protection —code dating packages and removing them from store shelves if not sold in time

1.3. INDUSTRY SIZE AND CURRENT TRENDS Snack Food and Wholesale Bakery includes an annual State of the Industry Report in its June issues [2]. Domestic sales of various snack groups and allied




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products through public outlets in 1999 are shown in Table 1.1. Savory snacksales amounted to $19.375 billion and 6.166 billion lb in 1999, with increases of 6.2% and 4.4%, respectively, over the previous year [2]. Numbers in Table 1.1 do not include the substantial sales of tortilla, tostada and potato chips to restaurants and mass feeding programs, or sales of popped corn at movie theatres and public events. Reliable sales information is not available for the global snack foods industry, but has been estimated at twice or more that of domestic sales, depending on definitions of “snack foods” in respective countries. Terms from the report, in Table 1.1, do not always coincide with those used in this book. Tortilla chips and tostada chips include the large and small forms (Chapter 10). Corn chips are products made from masa (alkali-cooked and ground corn), formed, and direct-fried or sheeted and then partially dried and fried (Chapter 11). Cheese snacks mainly consist of extruder-puffed degermed dry corn meals that are dried or fried before coating with cheese slurry (Chapters 11, 12, /19, and 20). Potato chips, made from fresh potatoes (Chapter 8), was theleading savory snack in dollars and volume in 1999. Snacks made from dried potatoes (Chapter 9) are included in the “other snacks” category. However, corn products in total (including tortilla chips/tostada chips, corn snacks and cheese snacks) outsold potato chips in value and volume even without considering the various popcorn products. Table 1.1 also shows that average per capita consumption of snacks, for an estimated 1999 U.S. population of 280 million, ranged between $17.11 for potato chips to $0.29 for unpopped popcorn [2]. Major changes in this dynamic industry are included in each year’s State of the Industry Report [2]. Frito-Lay, Inc., alone, introduced 13 products in 1999. As usual, some manufacturers were acquired by others, some went bankrupt and their facilities and equipment were redistributed, and new snack food companies appeared. Noted successes in 1999 included: r A 13.8% increase in corn snack sales, partially resulting from a major

manufacturer introducing a scoop-shaped chip well suited for use with dips and a new line of three-dimensional chips made from finely ground dry masa. r A 13.7% increase in snack nuts sales and a 13.1% increase in pumpkin and sunflower seeds—although the latter group is still at a relatively low dollar volume. r Phenomenal sales increases of 28.5% for (jerky-like) dried meat snacks and 18.4% for fried pork rinds. Meat snacks have been available for many years. Their sales increase resulted at least partially from a leading meat snack producer joining forces with a large snack foods manufacturer to take advantage of the latter’s national distribution capabilities. Publications (Dr. Atkins and the Zone diet), favoring high-protein/low-carbohydrate foods, also are credited for increased interest in fried pork rinds—popular with African Americans and Hispanics, but mainly regional products in the past.




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TABLE 1.1.

Estimated Sales of Salted Snacks and Related Products through Retail Outlets in 1999. (With permission from State of the Industry Report. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, 89(6):SI-3–SI-74. 2000. Estimated average U.S. per capita usage added.) Product Bakery food sales Bread aislea Cookies and crackers Baked sweet goods Refrigerated and frozen baked goods Snack bars Toaster pastries All bakery sales

1999 Volume (lb Millions)

1999 Sales ($ Millions)

% Change from Last Year

Av. per Capita Use ($U.S.)

3,108.2 −−

11,242.5 10,284.0 3,679.6

+2.9 +5.4 +4.6

−− −− −−

−− 269.1 300.2 −−

3,048.6 1,636.7 637.7 30,528.7

+2.3 +13.9 +8.1 +4.5

−− −− −− −−

1,538.5

4,688.1

+2.2

17.11

1,431.7 272.4 605.4 483.6 424.7 131.6 91.9

3,748.5 847.5 1,220.2 1,693.8 1,156.8 492.9 80.8

+5.0 +13.8 −2.2 +13.7 +1.8 +6.1 −5.1

13.68 3.09 4.45 6.18 4.22 1.80 0.29

−−

Salted food sales Potato chipsb Tortilla chips/ tostada chips Corn snacks Pretzels Snack nuts Microwave popcorn RTE popcorn Unpopped popcorn Cheese snacks (extruded snacks) Pumpkin/ sunflower seeds Meat snacks Pork rinds Variety pack Othersc All salted snacks

310.5

919.6

+13.4

3.36

45.8 96.2 66.5 82.7 584.2 6,165.7

113.3 1,321.0 420.2 337.1 2,334.9 19,374.5

+13.1 +28.5 +18.4 −1.6 +1.2 +6.2

0.41 4.82 1.53 1.23 8.52 70.71

Speciality food sales Pizzad Hot snackse Dips and salsa Rice/corn cakes Dried processed fruitf Frozen noveltyg Other specialityh All speciality snacks

−− −− −− −− −− −− −− −−

2,471.8 564.6 1,422.7 160.2 811.7 1,744.9 2,749.5 9,925.4

+9.8 +10.9 +84.7 −10.4 +5.4 +4.1 +5.6 +5.2

−− −− −− −− −− −− −− −−

Confectionery sales Chocolate candies Non-chocolate candies Gum All confectionary sales Total industry:

−− −− −− −− −−

16,910.0 9,180.0 2,650.0 28,740.0 88,568.6

NA NA NA NA NA

−− −− −− −− −−

a

Includes bread, rolls, buns, bagels, tortillas and related shelf-stable food items. From fresh potatoes. Includes potato crisps, party mixes, pumpkin/sunflower seeds, corn nuts and other miscellaneous snacks. d Includes frozen pizza and refrigerated pizza/pizza kits. e Includes refrigerated appetizers/snack rolls/frozen appetizers, snack rolls, onion rings, breaded vegetables. f Includes raisins, fruit snacks, other dried fruits. g Includes frozen pudding/mousse, frozen fruit juice and ice cream novelty products. h Includes squeezable cheese, yogurt, refrigerated puddings/gelatins/parfaits, cheese spreads/balls, flavored spreads. NA = not applicable. b c




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Notable sales losses in 1999 included: r A second full year of sales decline of snacks fried in non-caloric oils

(olestra), and continuing sales decreases of low-fat/no-fat snacks. The latter typically are made by drying in high-velocity air impingement dryers rather than deep fat frying. Low-fat snacks then are sprayed with minimal oil to adhere (“tack on”) salt and flavorings, and no-fat products are sprayed with water-soluble flavorings dissolved in starch or gum solutions, followed by additional drying or heating (Chapter 5). The major criticism of the three types of products has been “lack of taste.” Criticisms of products fried in non-caloric fat oil also have included “high price” and “digestive tract disturbances.” r A third year of 10% annual decreases in puffed rice and popcorn cakes. Originally, potato chips were popular in the U.S. Northeast; corn, tostada and tortilla chips in the Southwest; and pretzels in the Mid-Atlantic states and other areas with concentrations of German descendents. Modern transportation has exposed alkali-processed corn products and pretzels to the public throughout the nation. A distinct increase in pretzel consumption occurred in the early 1990s as the public became concerned about the high fat content of nuts. New fat labeling laws led to reduced portions of peanuts served by the airlines. Then, pressure by activist groups concerned about peanut allergies led to further replacement of peanuts by single-serving packages of pretzels. Now that public emphasis is on “taste,” sales of nuts is increasing, although peanut allergies are still of concern to airlines. Pretzel manufacturers are working to regain their former market share, which has slipped in recent years, including a 2.2% decrease in 1999. Individual snacks typically have life cycles in the market, with some being introduced and others retired throughout the year. Total snack food sales during the 1990–1999 decade increased by an average of 4.7% annually in dollars, and 3.1% in volume. Total volume decreased during only one year (2.7% in 1995), although sales showed a slight gain [2]. The savory snacks industry is not guaranteed to be recession proof, but the products are popular in the diet, and sales are not as adversely affected during economically trying times as are sales of other goods. There is no room for complacency in the industry. For example, snacks do not have to be salty. Shelf-stable “sweet snacks,” previously introduced by traditional breakfast cereal manufacturers, experienced a 13.9% gain in snack bar sales and an 8.1% gain in toaster pastries sales (in $1.634 and $0.636 billion product lines, respectively) in 1999 (Table 1.1). Replacements of traditional snacks could come from a wide variety of food manufacturers. Many processors are hesitant to formally define “snacks”—they want to be among those who innovate or recognize eating trends, and join in the manufacture of future foods, whatever the form.




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Data from the State of the Industry Report [2] have been recompiled on the basis of purchase outlets in Table 1.2. Supermarkets, grocery stores, mass merchandisers and warehouse clubs were arbitrarily grouped as “planned shopping outlets” on the assumption that grocery supplies are purchased at such stores by shoppers more likely to plan meals and prepare shopping lists. Neighborhood and gasoline station convenience stores, vending machines and drugstores— probably more likely to cater to impulse shoppers—were grouped as “nonplanned shopping outlets.” Because characteristics of “other outlets” in the report could not be determined, they were included in the second group. Table 1.2 shows that essentially 65–70% of savory snacks are purchased in “planned shopping outlets.” It may be argued that convenience stores, vending machines and large drugstores are limited in some parts of the country and that impulse buying can occur anywhere. But it is believed the table shows that the majority of shoppers have already planned for home use of snack foods when they purchase their groceries. This should affect some long-time rooted opinions about savory snacks as impulse purchase products and their accepted role in the U.S. diet. Two exceptions exist—approximately 45% of meat snacks and 17% of snack nuts were sold through convenience stores in 1999. This may indicate usage by motorists on long trips. The purchase of 86.7% of microwave popcorn through “planned shopping outlets,” with less than 2% through convenience stores, also is a surprise as one might expect impulse to be a greater factor in purchasing this product [2].

2. PAST INNOVATIONS The U.S. snack industry has a fascinating history [3]. Attention is called to Chapters 2, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 23 where more details are provided. r A Native American chef at a prestigious New York state spa in 1853,

irritated because a customer returned fried potatoes that were “too thick,” sliced the next batch paper-thin and fried it until brittle. The customer, a man of influence, liked the crispy product and told his friends about it. Other restaurants picked up the idea. By 1895, potato chips were being made commercially. r In 1926, a woman potato chip manufacturer in California sent sheets of waxed paper home with women employees to iron into bags in the evenings. The bags, filled with potato chips, were readily accepted by the trade. Within several years, preprinted formed bags became available. This was followed by in-plant bag makers, and eventually by machines that form, fill and seal bags from laminated roll stock.


SM

GS

MM

WC

PSO

CS

V

DS

O

NPS

Potato chips Tortilla chips Corn chips Cheese snacks Microwave popcorn Pretzels Snack nuts Meat snacks Other snacks

44.8 41.0 48.2 42.0 43.1 41.1 41.5 9.2 45.9

10.8 12.8 10.5 12.6 3.2 14.4 13.0 8.2 8.7

7.8 6.8 9.7 6.8 26.1 5.8 11.8 17.1 10.5

3.7 4.3 2.8 6.1 14.3 7.9 5.3 5.9 4.9

67.1 64.9 71.2 67.5 86.7 69.2 71.6 40.4 70.0

13.0 14.8 12.1 14.8 1.7 15.2 17.3 45.3 13.8

5.0 5.6 4.3 4.4 3.9 4.2 1.7 1.2 4.8

2.7 1.9 2.3 2.5 1.9 3.2 4.9 3.3 4.4

12.2 12.8 10.1 10.8 5.8 8.2 4.5 9.8 7.0

32.9 35.1 28.8 32.5 13.3 30.8 28.4 59.6 30.0


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Product

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“Non Planned Shopping Outlets” CS: Convenience Stores V: Vending DS: Drug Stores O: Other NPSO: Total Non-Planned Shopping

12:43

“Planned Shopping Outlets” SM: Supermarkets GS: Grocery Stores MM: Mass Merchandisers WC: Warehouse Clubs PSC: Total Planned Shopping

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April 20, 2001

Percent of Snack Foods Purchased through Various Public Outlets in 1999. (Compiled from: State of the Industry Report. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, 89(6):SI-3–SI-74. 2000.

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PB047-01

TABLE 1.2.



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r In 1885, a young man left Decatur, Illinois, to become a street vendor in

Chicago, which was still rebuilding from the Great Fire of 1871. By the time of the 1893 Columbian Exposition, he had developed and patented a gasoline-fueled corn popper and peanut roaster. The fourth generation of his family is still in the popcorn machinery and product manufacturing businesses. r In 1932, a young man in San Antonio, Texas, who had tried his hand at other businesses, borrowed $100 from his mother to purchase a recipe, some limited hand-processing equipment, and a short list of retail accounts for a “corn chip.” Initially, the product was made in the kitchen and sold from a Model T Ford. The enterprise grew to become part of the country’s largest snack foods processor. These and other Horatio Alger-type entrepreneurs and their associates are part of the snack foods industry’s history [3]. Not much is recorded about the “also rans,” but they left their impact and contributions as well. The industry pioneers had several characteristics in common: r Logically, the time for their ideas was never right. After all, how many

people in San Antonio (and later in Dallas) would be expected to buy “snacks” in the midst of the Great Depression? But fortunately, the corn chip product tasted good, was affordable, and brought happiness to people and their children during the hard times. r The enterprises had low-tech starts—inexpensive ingredients (potatoes, corn, wax paper) and simple equipment and processes. As cash flow increased, better salesmen were hired to sell more product, followed by engineers/machinists to design and build new equipment to expand production capacity, and eventually scientists to develop products that were better than those of other competitors. r All of these were “pull” type enterprises. Expanding markets “pulled” the need for more agricultural products and technologies and were a more effective motivation for agriculture than “push” type projects to find uses for surplus crops. The snack industry has stimulated domestic technology and the economy, as well as gained from it. Increased need for potatoes, alkali-cooked corn, popcorn, frying oil and packaging has meant: (1) better and more uniform ingredients and materials, (2) methods to handle the ingredients and materials with reduced damage; and (3) potential markets to warrant inputs from other people and companies with a variety of skills. Breeders, seedsmen, contract growers, storage technologies for potatoes, techniques for cleaning, storing and conditioning corn, and improved facilities for producing frying oils became needed, as well as improved processing and packaging machinery and packaging materials.




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The companies that developed equipment, materials, and skills for the snack industry soon found multiple uses for them. Many expanded to service other industries and, in turn, reduced the economic uncertainty of supplying only one industry in case of a business cycle downturn. At times cooperation with other companies proved beneficial. For example, when designing a thermostatcontrolled electric popper pan for movie theatre machines in 1936, Cretors & Company, a major manufacturer of popcorn processing machinery, working with the Wiegand Company, pioneered the flat, ring-style ChromoloxTM heating element. This later was used in most commercial poppers and in many electric ranges [3]. Simply being a significant customer also ensured a say in improvements of items such as packaging materials, carton filling, sealing, and palletizing equipment, semiautomated warehouses, in-store wire-frame display racks and delivery vans. Snack foods have been the incubator for other industries and applications. Many persons were first introduced to salsas in Mexican food restaurants, where the common practice is to serve large tortilla chips and dips while customers wait for their food order. Acceptance of salsas as dips, cooking ingredients and condiments has grown rapidly, and domestic sales of salsas outpaced those of ketchup in the last half of the 1990s. The practice of dipping potato- and corn-based chips as appetizers, at parties and in the home, has given rise to two additional types of products: (1) Dips, a $1.423 billion business in 1999, which grew by 84.7% over the previous year [2]; and (2) sturdier snack products that don’t break when dipped. It is estimated that one third of all chips are eaten away from home, with refrigerated dips the most common accompaniment. Dips have included Mexican sauces and marinades, shelf-stable dips, and refrigerated dips. Cheese, salsa, refried beans, guacamole, and others have been popular, and single-service dips for snacks were introduced in the last several years. Scoopshaped corn chips, more sturdy for dipping, were introduced by the Frito-Lay Company in 1999. Stronger smooth and ruffled potato chips had been introduced in earlier years. BuglesTM , a cornucopia-shaped extruded corn product developed by the General Mills Company in the 1960s, is sold in the United States as a breakfast cereal, and is a popular snack product in England, sometimes served with dips. In some countries, where puffed corn-based snack foods are made by high-shear extruders followed by coating with a cheese and oil emulsion, similar colored corn bases are shaped using different dies and are then coated with syrups for sale as cocoa- or fruit-flavored ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals. Snacks are used as cooking ingredients and meal accompaniments. The National Potato Chip Institute, predecessor to the Snack Foods Association, hired a home economics director in 1946 to demonstrate new uses for potato chips and develop recipes. Cooking with snacks continued to grow as corn products became available. Casseroles including corn chips, tortilla soup and other dishes are common in the U.S. Southwest, in home and in restaurant cooking.




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Many restaurants serve hamburgers on plates dressed with a slice of pickle and a handful or bag of potato or corn chips, and single-service snack packages are put in lunch pails and school lunch boxes. There is still room for new food ideas and improved processes in the United States. But the development of snack foods industries in other countries, based on local crops (like cassava and sorghum) and adjusted to local tastes, has hardly been explored. Development of reliable infrastructures to supply good-quality ingredients is one of the first challenges.

3. NUTRITION

3.1. BACKGROUND In the late 1970s and early 1980s, manufacturers of snack foods and ready-toeat breakfast cereals and, to a lesser degree, fast food chains serving hamburgers and french-fried potatoes came under criticism for selling “junk” and “emptycalorie” foods. In some cases, it appeared that otherwise professional comments by nutritionists and dieticians were fanned by the news media into vicious attacks on these industries. This era was unfortunate for the nation, and mainly led to only lawyers talking to lawyers. Such scars take a long time to heal. McDonaldsTM and others sponsored full-page advertisements featuring data supporting the nutritional value of fast service foods. Interestingly, several years later, the U.S. Navy found, by weighing post-meal tray scrapings, that enlisted men aboard ships were not consuming enough “traditional” meals for adequate nutrition. As a result, fast food vendors were invited to help establish trial hamburger, salad and snack bars to serve familiar foods to young recruits on a large warship during a long voyage. The gains in food intake and improved morale were so impressive that the practice spread to other ships and to garrison feeding in other services. During the same period, ready-to-eat breakfast cereal manufacturers conducted considerable research on the relationships between presweetened cereals and the development of dental caries in children. Snack manufacturers offered products with different salt levels for individuals concerned about hypertension. Sodium chloride-potassium chloride mixtures were tried as seasonings, but negative effects on flavor were experienced and concerns arose about excessive potassium intake. Now, approximately 20 years later, the complex carbohydrates of cereals (starch) are considered desirable. Processes that convert starch into nondigestible forms (resistant starch, RS) (Chapter 5), which acts beneficially as dietary fiber, have been identified. Options for developing RS through processing and its direct addition as a food ingredient are being explored. Advances in heart disease therapy have led to medicines such as diuretics for improved




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control of salt balance. Fluoridation of municipal water supplies has helped reduce the incidence of dental caries. Nutritionists now favor Mediterranean-type diets, where the oil is high in monounsaturated fatty (oleic) acid content, instead of the earlier recommendations for polyunsaturated fatty acids. The role of natural antioxidants (typically preservatives of polyunsaturated fats) in the diet is being explored. Saturated fats (stearic acid in beef tallow and palmitic acid in palm and other tropical oils) repeatedly have been shown to have no negative effect on atherosclerosis as previously claimed, although they do raise serum cholesterol levels. Obesity still continues to increase in affluent sectors in poor as well as wealthy countries. However, other factors like genetics, early childhood development, physical activity, and stress factors are being considered in addition to diet [4]. The snack food industry continually searches for products and processes that increasingly please consumers and addresses nutritional concerns, sometimes, only to find limited demand or acceptance in the marketplace. Such was the case for snacks with reduced salt content, use of non-caloric frying oils and low-fat/no-fat snacks. People are coming to realize that increased snacks consumption is the result, rather than the cause, of our fast-changing society, and therefore cannot be blamed for all its problems. The following applaudable comment, by a qualified nutritionist, also appeared in the 1980s: Nutritionists are concerned that people eat the right amounts and combinations of foods to promote good health. Individuals should learn, however, not to feel guilty when they have a snack of a favorite food. The bottom line to the role of snacking in the American diet is that individuals need to learn how to eat in a rational way. With the exception of special medical restrictions, all foods can contribute to a healthful diet, provided individuals eat a variety of foods, and eat them in the right proportions. [5]

The public often sees depictions of the USDA food guide pyramid—in the press, printed on packages of foods and elsewhere—but each year votes for more snack foods at the checkout register. Books on nutrition repeat that 60–70% of American children eat snack foods, which contribute 12–17% of the RDA energy intake of teenagers [6]. Snack foods are here to stay, but can be modified as warranted by the needs of good health and public acceptance. Snacks need to be recognized as part of the nation’s food resources and be included in constructive plans to improve diet and health.

3.2. NUTRITIONAL LABELING There are no secrets anymore about what food products contain, except for certain flavorings. Nutritional labeling, while expensive to implement and maintain, provides such information for consumers who may need and use it,




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and has done much to level the playing field regarding composition claims and counterclaims. Although limited in market demand, snacks with reduced salt and fats contents are available. By various regulations and conventions, labeling on a typical snack food package includes: r Product name r Net weight of product contents (in ounces and grams) r Name and address of the manufacturer (If the product is a private label, or

store label, the distributor’s name and address may be used.)

r A list of ingredients, using legal names, and arranged in order of

diminishing preponderance

r Typically, some comments about the product, offers of prizes, or other

promotions to encourage shoppers to purchase the product

r A bar code to automatically enter the price in the store’s cash register, to

provide information on sales and to enable automated reordering of replacement inventory r A code that identifies the plant in which the snack was made and would enable the manufacturer to recall product made at the same time and/or from the same lots of ingredients if found necessary. The code also alerts the company’s or distributor’s route men of when to remove unsold product from store shelves. Some states require that the expiration date also be readable to customers. r A Nutritional Facts panel, presented in a format specifically prescribed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The snack industry has generally standardized nutrient statements on the basis of a one-ounce serving. However, statements for single-portion packages may be based on the net weight of package contents. When Nutritional Facts are presented on a one-ounce basis, they include: —Serving size —Number of pieces in one serving —Servings per container —Calories per serving —Calories from fat —Content and percent of daily (recommended) value, provided by the product for specified nutrients. These are based on a 2,000-calorie daily diet for adults, and include total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, calcium, and iron. —The maximum Percent Daily Value standards also are listed for 2,000and 2,500-calorie diets for total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium, as well as recommended levels for carbohydrate and dietary fiber intakes.




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4. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF TECHNOLOGY

4.1. BACKGROUND Frederick Taylor, through his time and motion studies in the 1890–1915 era to increase productivity in assembly operations, is recognized as a founder of management science in the United States. From then until the 1950s and 1960s, the emphasis was on maximizing productivity of workers. While motivation and productivity of individuals still are important, starting in the 1970s, domestic emphasis shifted to committing firms to satisfying their customers—in other words, to making products that buyers want, rather than what companies or production departments may have preferred in earlier times. The magic word is “quality,” which in this chapter means reproducibility or consistency. Total Quality Management (TQM) is a commitment by the entire organization to make customer wants the highest priority (while ensuring a profitable operation by efficient use of resources). For the most part, “quality” options occur in buyer’s markets, i.e., where there is no scarcity of goods or suppliers, and the customers are qualified by having money for purchases. In buyer’s markets, purchasers are value optimizers and select products that provide the most satisfaction for the cost. In such cases, buying decisions are seldom made on price alone. Value may also include: product appearance; taste; crispiness; color; shelf life; package appearance including graphics, ease of opening and temporary reclosure features; ease of using the product; beliefs about product safety and wholesomeness; persuasion by prior advertising; lot-to-lot consistency; and other factors. For industrial buyers, ability of the supplier to repeatedly fill orders, reliable and timely delivery, technical support, if needed, and defects not to exceed acceptable levels also are important. Since many suppliers can produce almost similar products, small differences may be the deciding factor for industrial buyers and consumers.

4.2. THE NEW QUALITY AGE How did we get to today’s quality control and TQM practices? The United States learned a costly lesson after World War I. The German economy had been shattered during the war. Preparation demands by neighboring countries and a general world economic recession led to severe postwar poverty where the people were ready to grasp at any hope, including the promises of a dictator. Determined that similar scenarios would not happen after World War II, the United States intentionally undertook rebuilding the economies of its former enemies. However, many people had low regard for prewar Japanese consumer goods, and their quality image had to be improved if an export economy was to be developed. Two capable quality control statisticians, William Edwards Deming




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and Joseph M. Juran, were sent to help Japan in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Deming had been with the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, involved in improving compatibility of parts for armaments and other assembled products made by many U.S. manufacturers. Juran had a long history of teaching quality control to industry and numerous publications. In Japan, Deming became known for establishing Statistical Quality Control programs, and Juran for implementing Quality Circles. The two men significantly changed the world’s appreciation of statistical quality control and the manner in which business is done today. Deming established 14 Points for Management [7]. These are paraphrased in a different fashion, but focus on: r Creating a corporate atmosphere, where improvement of product and services is the main commitment.

r Getting all levels of employees trained in statistical quality control and

r r

r r

involved in improving quality—including breaking down hierarchical and departmental barriers as needed, and periodic retraining as new methods develop. Eliminating employee fear of suggesting changes by guaranteeing retraining if jobs are obsoleted by process improvements, and encouraging pride of workmanship. Getting top management visibly sincere and involved in quality improvement, including: (1) eliminating slogans and banners emphasizing quality if such practices are not followed; and (2) searching for problems, including asking employees. (Previous studies had shown that 85% of quality problems occur because of conditions that only management can change.) Changing emphasis in quality control from mass inspection and sorting out defects to improving processes so fewer defects occur—in other words, making the product correctly the first time. Changing from buying supplies on price alone, reducing the number of suppliers and helping the remaining ones do a better job so they can prosper and reinvest in modernizing their businesses.

Juran’s Quality Circles, originally intended to focus on process and product improvement, soon realized that their techniques also were applicable to other company operations, including internal communications and management systems. Together, Deming’s and Juran’s principles, and those of their associates and followers, led to the evolution of concepts like “Just-in-Time delivery,” “selfcertification,” ISO-9000, and the development of methods to determine what really is important to customers. After World War II, world manufacturers generally returned to previous systems of quality control—except for the Japanese, who were committed to




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improving the quality image of their products. However, domestic products had changed and were more complex than those made before the war. During the postwar era, the author experienced the common practice of returning new automobiles to dealers several times to correct defects that hadn’t been found before when they left the manufacturer. Also, several calls for home appliance repairs were typical before machines worked correctly. The automobile industry, admittedly, started including “planned obsolescence” in its models, thinking customers had no say in the matter. As Japanese products appeared on the U.S. market with far fewer defects, the contrast first was ascribed to differences in commitment of Japanese labor. As Japanese-owned assembly plants in the United States began to make equally defect-free products using American labor and domestic markets were being lost, U.S. companies started sending observers to Japan and hiring Japanese consultants to help reorganize their own quality control programs.

4.3. CONTROL, CRITICAL PATHS AND POINTS The traditional functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling have been honed to maximize efficient use of resources in modern management. Even though projects and types of work differ, the basic components of controlling are similar and include: r An objective, best stated in numerical terms as an acceptable range if

possible.

r A monitor to watch the process or system. r A signal to alert the system that the process has or is heading out of the

acceptable range.

r An empowered corrector to return the process to the acceptable range. r An archiving (data recording) system often is additionally added to

document that the process/system operated in a desirable fashion at a specific time. Universality of these principles is shown in the following examples. r Temperature control. The objective may be to operate a deep fat fryer at

398–402◦ F. Recording thermometers are the typical monitors, and also archive the temperature in case checking consistency of the process is desired later. When the temperature of the frying oil drops below the acceptable range, a horn may sound or a red light flash to alert the operator. In simple installations, the operator may be empowered to further open a steam valve to increase the frying oil temperature. But automatic temperature controllers are relatively inexpensive and typically respond faster than operators. The common practice is to delegate such repetitive




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actions to a robot (controller which continuously adjusts and records the temperature), thus freeing the operator to focus on other parts of the process. r Product quality control. The objective may be to produce a snack containing 0.7–0.8% salt. The monitor is the quality control technician who periodically conducts salt determinations. Results of assays typically are kept in a laboratory notebook, which archives product identities, dates and time. Optionally, a computerized data acquisition system may collect and store the information until printouts are needed. If salt content of the product falls below the acceptable range, an empowered operator on the production floor typically would be alerted by the quality control laboratory to adjust the setting on the applicator. r Production throughput. Each line or plant is expected to process a specified number of product units per shift (objective). Typically, the previous day’s performance is reviewed (monitored) in a report (archive) prepared for the respective production supervisor. If a deviation out of the normal range (alert) is detected, the (empowered) supervisor is expected to find and correct the problem. r Profitability. Companies typically prepare annual plans that project their expected profit (objective) based on the most realistic estimates of the various departments. Progress toward the profit objective is monitored monthly (sometimes weekly or more often) by the accounting system and reported (archived) to appropriate executives. If progress toward the annual profit objective falls behind, the (empowered) Chief Operating Officer (COO) is expected to find out why and take corrective action. If progress exceeds expectations, effective COOs also determine why and seek opportunities to further improve the results. Modern management techniques increasingly focus on “critical” or “indispensable” [1] factors. An early application was the successful planning and supervision in establishing the Polaris weapon system in the late 1950s using the PERT/CPM (Project Evaluation and Review Technique/Critical Path Method). Large projects consist of many subprojects, each requiring specialists, which often cannot be started before other subprojects are completed and, in turn, must be completed to enable the start of yet later subprojects. In a computer-assisted CPM method, relationships of the first and last possible start and finish dates of thousands of subprojects in a program can be established relative to each other, and a “critical path” identified. The critical path is the shortest sequence of events that must occur before a project can be completed. The slack times available between the first possible undertaking and the last finish date of subprojects not on the critical path also are calculated. Completion time of the entire project can only be shortened by accelerating the subprojects on the critical path.




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Introduction of the CPM forced examination of systems to determine what was “critical” and planning in greater detail than normally had been done previously. The advantages of using CPM were so significant that the technique became a common tool for one-time projects like constructing buildings. Later improvements included PERT/COST techniques which also consider costs in planning and control. While PERT/CPM is less applicable to repetitive operating systems, its lessons have been useful. For example, a processing operation really does not need raw materials or supplies until the time of use, thus encouraging the carrying of smaller supply inventories and ordering of Just-In-Time deliveries. “Critical” also can mean “decisive” [1]. Examples include: (1) a label may be satisfactory for a product currently, but, after a critical date, can become illegal for the same product. (2) Snack foods may be crunchy at up to a 2% critical moisture content, but become soggy at higher levels. (3) Many types of bacteria in dry ingredients pose little hazard to health but may cause spoilage or food poisoning if the moisture content is raised above critical levels where they can grow. The properties of many materials and products change significantly beyond certain critical conditions. An example is loss of snack protection against moisture and oxygen because of incomplete end or side seals of the package. Many companies have thoroughly reviewed their management procedures as well as product processes, and have installed critical control point checks to ensure that various operations are proceeding as expected. The sites of the checks are the points beyond which a continuously processed product should not be allowed to proceed because further expense is not warranted. An example is diverting burnt snacks after the fryer and before additional costs of seasoning and packaging are incurred. Implementation of HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) programs became required by law for U.S. processors of high-moisture foods in the mid-1990s, and has since spread to essentially all food products. The program was originally motivated by the need to reduce food-borne disease in poultry and red meat products, and eventually was broadened to include general sanitation in all food processing. Under the program, processors are required to review their operations relative to risks that might develop to human health, make equipment and operation changes if necessary [9], and identify critical points where in-process products are checked and held back from further processing if previously self-established criteria are not met.

4.4. ESTABLISHING QUALITY OBJECTIVES Quality programs typically start with a corporate quality statement and evolve with need.




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Snack foods research generally is of three types: r Maintenance of existing products by finding new sources of suitable

ingredients if older materials become unavailable or too expensive; incorporation of newer processes that may be necessitated by other products also made on the same equipment; ways to save energy in processing; and typically minor changes as needed to support new and improved marketing claims. Product maintenance work usually can be supported by sensory panels described in Chapter 21, since the decisions are of the “difference-no difference” type. r Product line extensions to create new flavors and shapes, often with the objective of gaining increased grocery store shelf facings for the entire line, but usually employing the same equipment, processes and ingredients with minor changes. This type of development uses consumer input, sometimes before prototypes are made and always to verify product acceptance before production is begun. r Development of new products that may differ significantly from current lines in composition, appearance, processing, and marketing concept. Special efforts are made to involve consumers, often before the first prototype is made in the research laboratory. Focus groups consisting of a spectrum of snack users are organized, often by independent consumer research agencies, to discuss shortfalls of currently available snacks in general, and to probe the likely acceptance of new types of products and flavors. When formulation, processing, consumer acceptance and marketing research are completed, a detailed definition of the product is sent to the respective operating department, in the forms of (1) ingredient purchasing specifications; (2) manufacturing manual; (3) quality control manual, defining tests to be performed on the product, target values and acceptable ranges; and (4) distribution instructions about expected product shelf life (number of days the product can be offered for sale). Unfortunately, sensory characteristics (flavor, texture and color) are not easily defined by numbers, but the best effort possible is made to record chemical analyses, create a “living memory” in the form of descriptive profiles and trained expert panels and make and preserve samples for later comparisons. After the manufacturing startup problems have been resolved, and the process is running smoothly (in control), it typically generates products whose characteristics resemble a Normal Distribution Curve, as shown in Figure 24.2(A) (Chapter 24). It is essential that the product made in the plant closely match the consumer and management objectives, as determined by consumer testing, and selected by product development and marketing personnel who authorized its commercial production. If the goal is not met, then the full benefits of the product development program has been in vain. As shown in Figure 1.1 (Loss Function Curve) [8], losses occur to the company by not meeting the product specifications (designer’s target). Depending




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Figure 1.1 Loss Function Curve. (From: Robertson, G. H., 1990. Quality Through Statistical Thinking: Improving Process Control and Capability. American Supplier Institute, Livonia, Michigan [8]. With Permission.)

on severity, deviations to the left of the target are expensive. The product may require expensive sorting, rework or discarding, and result in dissatisfaction and loss of customers. Deviations to the right of the target are also expensive, often in the form of lost opportunity of producing additional units that could have been sold. Also, if a product appreciably better than average (intended designer’s mean) is sent as a sample to a potential customer for evaluation, the buyer is likely to be disappointed when shipments are received since they won’t consistently meet the raised expectations.

4.5. QUALITY CONTROL (QC) AND QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) Quality Control is the mechanism intended to achieve management’s intended characteristics of the company’s products and services. However, guidelines and directives may not always become implemented as intended. Someone needs to certify that the mechanisms actually are in place and working, hence, Quality Assurance. Business, governmental and military organizations have long used auditors (reviewers) to certify existence of assets and prescribed records and to verify that operations are conducted as intended. Today’s QC and QA programs are merely extensions of long-established management practices, but they have acquired new names and forms tailored to the food industry.




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The roles of these two functions, responsible for ensuring product quality, and their reporting relations to senior management, vary with the size of the company. They often are two separate entities in medium- and large-size companies. r Quality Control works at the plant level to ensure that a consistent product is

made on a daily basis, although ingredients may vary. The resident QC manager often typically reports to the plant manager and is empowered/expected to make process adjustments as required to produce the intended products. However, he/she is not authorized to change the products themselves. QC personnel often are assigned additional responsibilities since they have the best technical training among resident employees. r Quality Assurance works company-wide to ensure that products reaching customers are as intended, that other functions affecting product characteristics (including purchasing, production, quality control) also are operating as intended, and that the technical requirements of various regulators are met—in a sense keeping the company out of trouble. While objectives for the Quality Control group are set internally in the company, often the QA group also is expected to identify the expected technical requirements of regulators for various product lines, and recommend and help implement corporate-approved programs before the company is found in violation or fined. Examples of corporate-wide QA programs include preparing the company to meet new product labeling requirements, Good Manufacturing Practices and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Programs as implementation deadlines draw near, and later ensuring that the added programs are being followed. Like the QC staff in its environment, QA personnel often are called on for technical matters at the corporate level because of their knowledge. The QA supervisor typically reports to a separate corporate officer, with policy-setting powers, to insulate against pressures that might be put on the program by other operating departments. Other Quality Assurance functions may include: —Having samples of products picked up throughout the country by private services for periodic examination of their condition in supermarkets. —Being the official repository of ingredients purchasing, product production, and quality control manuals for the company—often to ensure they are on record. —Being aware of the extent and nature of consumer complaints regarding specific products and recommending corrective reviews as appropriate. —Auditing the operating groups (purchasing, production, quality control, and distribution) to ensure procedural manuals are kept current and followed. —Participating in approving self-certified suppliers.




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—Ensuring that a product recall program exists, in case of need. —Recruiting consultants or private inspection services to audit various operating functions for a third-party evaluation of their performance. —Advising senior management on what proposed technical legislation may mean to company operations to assist a company response and testimony at legislative hearings. —Identifying and assessing potential problems for which a company may want to prepare a technical readiness.

4.6. SELF-CERTIFICATION OF SUPPLIERS In earlier years, large amounts of capital were tied up in raw materials inventories, and warehouse costs were substantial. Development of bulk handling systems, larger trucks and interstate highways, and improved scheduling of freight trains, made deliveries more reliable and encouraged reduction of demurrage charges (resulting from holding ingredients in tank and box cars longer than needed for unloading). Just-In-Time (JIT) systems were developed in the hard goods industries to produce parts and ship them in a short time frame to arrive as needed at the final assembly plants. However, except for perishables, JIT had limited use in food processing operations because of the practice of locally verifying compositions of ingredients before use—using tests that could require several days for completion. Thus, supplier certification programs (later called “Self-Certification”) were developed to enable JIT delivery of food ingredients and minimize capital invested in construction of holding tanks, silos and ingredient warehouses at processing facilities. In Self-Certification, the seller’s analysis is used instead of waiting for the manufacturer’s assays. Authorization to purchase from Self-Certified suppliers is not given lightly, and typically is preceded by visits by the buyer to inspect production facilities and assess the capabilities and integrity of the supplier’s Quality Control program and personnel. In effect, buyers have pushed quality control and warehousing responsibilities back to suppliers, who can only accept them as an expense of doing business.

4.7. PRODUCT RELIABILITY IN DOMESTIC AND GLOBAL TRADE The trading of commodities and processed foods on an international basis, or between unacquainted buyers and sellers, requires a common “vocabulary” regarding product characteristics. Three significant changes have occurred in the last quarter century. r Improved analytical methods. Improved chromatographic separation and

spectroscopy techniques and electronic microcircuitry have given chemists




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new, highly sensitive, affordable instruments capable of quantifying product components and characteristics that were unrecognized in the 1960s. The methods have been standardized under the oversight of various governmental agencies and professional societies and often are incorporated in purchase specifications. Chemical components and microorganisms, recognized as hazardous to public health, are excluded from food and feed supplies by laws of various countries, and are monitored by regulatory agencies—the extent dependent on their relative hazards. Typically, the official analytical methods used for snack foods and their ingredients in the United States have been issued by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), American Oil Chemists’ Society (AOCS), or the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). Increasing use is made of rapid methods that, although not official, are helpful in process control because of reduced assay time. The Snack Foods Association has listed some methods specifically applicable to snack foods in its quality control manuals. r Analytical laboratory assessment and certification procedures. Today’s business requires that analytical laboratories make correct assays of samples and that assays of the same sample by two or more laboratories be identical. Professional analytical laboratories (company-owned on-site or private off-site) are expected to have QA programs in place that continuously audit their own performances. This includes periodic checking of equipment calibration and sensors and inclusion of previously analyzed “standards” in daily runs to ensure that tests perform as expected. Professional societies, like AACC and AOCS, also administer sample check programs, which distribute samples to participating laboratories worldwide and statistically analyze and publish the results. Commercial laboratories that perform well in AOCS programs may qualify as Certified Chemists and act as referees in case of disputes on trading contracts. r International quality management standards. Establishment of the ISO 9000 program originated with the development of the Common Market in Europe, as a means of certifying that sellers have quality control systems in place that meet recognized procedural standards. The program is to be applauded for its objectives and accomplishments to date. Suppliers from various countries have found that obtaining respective ISO certification is essentially required to trade in the Common Market, and also a benefit even when trading in areas other than the European Community. Some domestic companies believe that advertising their ISO 9000 certification is an additional stamp of “good quality.” However, it should be remembered that ISO 9000 certification is merely confirmation that a recognized quality control program is in place, not a guarantee of analytical values. It still is well to include specific requirements in purchase specifications and




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contracts, as well as a Referee Chemist and methods to be used for resolving analytical disagreements between seller and buyer.

4.8. RECALL PROGRAMS AND INGREDIENTS/PRODUCTS TRACKING With consolidation of suppliers and enlarged processing facilities, modern mistakes involve more products and cover greater areas. Processors are well advised to identify sources of ingredient lots as received, keep track of them in the system, and keep records of products made and where they went. Even if no mistakes occurred during processing, snack manufacturers may still be required to retrieve all product made from purchased ingredients that may have been contaminated or mislabeled. Some European countries are implementing Certificates of Origin, which are required to accompany food and feed ingredients and must be updated as lots are traded. Minimizing the cost of recalls requires knowing exactly where suspect ingredients and products went. If a food manufacturer cannot reliably identify the suspect product batches, regulatory agencies may require recall of all products in the distribution system, on store shelves, and publicize requests for buyers to return products in their home—obviously an expensive and embarrassing situation. Readiness in case of recalls (Chapter 24) is wise, but hopefully will never be needed. Providing (preferably refrigerated) storage space for samples of ingredients received and products shipped, until the processor is reasonably certain the products no longer are in stores or kitchens, also is advisable.

4.9. ACQUISITION AND LAYOUT OF PRODUCTION FACILITIES Total Quality Management objectives can be met more easily if buildings, work areas and equipment are properly designed. Construction standards specifically for snack food production facilities do not exist currently, but many facility construction engineers refer to Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation, by Imholte and Imholte-Tauscher [9] for guidelines. This guide can be obtained from the publisher, or the American Institute of Baking (AIB), Manhattan, Kansas. Bakeries are reasonably similar to snack food plants. The AIB has also developed an extensive collection of applicable literature and special training courses, and offers various plant inspection services. If the product includes red meat or poultry, and is sold in interstate commerce, the manufacturing plant comes under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS). This agency provides (processor-paid) resident inspectors and is very specific about manufacturing facility construction and sanitation requirements. Information about




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FSIS and its authority and requirements can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 9. The Imholte and Imholte-Tauscher book [9] is a good review for meeting current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and expected near-term additions. Regulations regarding GMP for non-meat/poultry products are described in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food section in CFR, Title 21. This agency also leads the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) program and fisheries products inspection. New plants are expected to be GMP and HACCP capable, and significant expenditures may be needed to bring old facilities to a level where they can be used. Factors to consider include: r Ability to daily wash wet processing areas [using clean-in-place (CIP) r r r r r r r

techniques where feasible], suitably sloped and drained floors and acceptable means for wash water disposal. Pumpable grease/oil traps to separate spilled oil and that which comes from wash water. Ability to provide clean (often filtered) air in the product processing and packaging areas. Hoods and exhaust systems to remove steam from cookers and vapors from fryers. Minimum horizontal edges on walls, overhead conduits, wireways, plumbing, and light fixtures to collect dust. Adequate locker rooms, toilets and wash areas for personal sanitation. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) compliance regarding employees. Compliance with national, and respective local and state, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements.

It would be well to determine why an existing facility is for sale before negotiating for purchase. In many localities, upgrading older plants to meet current EPA requirements has become prohibitive in cost. Hidden problems, such as contamination of the soil and ground water from leaking fuel tanks or other sources, by the current or earlier owners, also may exist. For new facilities, soil characteristics, drainage, flood susceptibility, availability of a processing water supply and waste disposal need to be considered in selecting a site. Past neighbor relations and zoning limitations should be included. (The aroma of frying corn chips may be pleasant to the new owner, but not to neighbors, and might require a washing system for discharged air in some localities.) The selected equipment should be easy to clean, equipped with Clean-InPlace (CIP) systems if feasible, and non-corroding. It the company is successful, the production facilities are likely to grow in increments, with enlargements of capacity made as needed. It would be wise to anticipate this during building construction and laying out of processing lines, leaving many branches available for future elongation.




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4.10. STAYING CURRENT WITH THE INDUSTRY The speed of today’s technical evolution is exceeded only by the proliferation of regulations. Although the principles summarized in this volume are basic, details about their implementation and labeling change rapidly. The snack foods technologist can easily establish a constant incoming flow of news about the industry by requesting subscriptions to trade magazines such as Snack Foods and Wholesale Bakery, Food Processing, Prepared Foods, Powder/Bulk Solids, Powder and Bulk Engineering, and Food Testing & Analysis, which are free to qualified individuals. Many of these magazines also print useful Annual Buyer’s Guides, which list suppliers of equipment, ingredients and services. Memberships in technical societies typically include subscriptions, for example: Cereal Foods World (which periodically includes updates on snack foods, ingredients and extrusion technology), published by the American Association of Cereal Chemists; INFORM, published by the American Oil Chemist’s Society; Food Technology, published by the Institute of Food Technologists; and Quality Progress, published by the American Society for Quality. Annual trade shows that exhibit applicable equipment and suppliers include: SNAXPO, sponsored by the Snack Food Association; the IFT Exposition, held during the annual meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists; the exposition accompanying the American Oil Chemists’ meeting; and tabletop displays during the annual meeting of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. Various universities and institutes, and trade associations like the Snack Food Association, offer training courses in specialized topics. When questions exist about where to start gathering information and solving problems, the internet should be one of the first choices. Its development has created a valuable self-refreshing information system, unimagined in earlier times. Most of the information is free for the finding. Snack food technologists are encouraged to surf the net, assess and select sites containing useful information, and bookmark them for future reference. Some sites also offer news updating services in their specialties.

5. REFERENCES 1. Unidentified, 1985. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc., Springfield, Massachusetts. 2. Unidentified, 2000. State of the industry report. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, 89(6):SI-3– SI-74. 3. SFA, 1987. 50 Years: A Foundation for the Future. Snack Food Association, 1711 King St, Suite One, Alexandria, VA 22314. 4. Krwczyk, T., 2000. The spreading of obesity. INFORM 11(2):160–171. 5. Morgan, K. J., 1983. The role of snacking in the American diet. Cereal Fds. World, 28(5):305– 306.




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6. Hegarty, V., 1995. Nutrition: Food and the Environment. Egan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 7. Deming, W. E., 1982. Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position. Center for Advanced Engineering Study, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 8. Robertson, G. H., 1990. Quality Through Statistical Thinking: Improving Process Control and Capability. American Supplier Institute, Livonia, Michigan. 9. Imholte, T. J. and T. K. Imholte-Tauscher, 1999. Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation: A Guide to the Sanitary Design of Food Plants and Food Plant Equipment, 2nd edn., Technical Institute for Food Safety, Woodinville, Washington 98072.


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CHAPTER 2

The Snack Industry: History, Domestic and Global Status JAMES A. McCARTHY

1. INTRODUCTION

S

is not a new phenomenon. Savory or salty snack foods, such as the potato chip and corn chip, are seen as relatively new because they were only commercialized in the last century and a half. Always evolving with new flavors and styles, savory snack foods are considered uniquely “American.” They have become icons of the American lifestyle and symbols of the hard-charging, everchanging image most people of the world associate with the American style and spirit. Savory snack foods are multipurpose foods that can be eaten with a meal or on the go and are often associated with fun-filled events like picnics, barbecues, or sports, where an informal atmosphere reigns. Their association with fun reinforces the image of these foods as typically American to the rest of the world. NACKING

2. HISTORY Not all snacks were invented in the United States. The pretzel is said to have its origins sometime after 610 AD in southern France, where monks baked scraps of dough in the image of arms folded as in prayer to reward young children for learning their prayers. Tortilla chips have origins in Mesoamerica where corn masa has been used in tortillas and snack making for centuries; popcorn has been traced back as far as 3,000 BC. The success of snack foods worldwide, however, is attributed to American processing and marketing skills. The ingenuity of the early founders of this industry, now roughly $30 billion in annual global sales, is in many ways



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typical of the drive and spirit that has made American innovations the envy of the world. To illustrate, let us walk through the history of snacks in this country.

2.1. POTATO CHIPS, THE BEGINNING In 1853, railroad magnate Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt was vacationing in Saratoga Springs, New York. One evening at dinner he sent his fried potatoes back to the chef, complaining that they were too thick. The chef, George Crum, decided Vanderbilt’s complaint deserved a sarcastic reply. So, he sliced potatoes paper thin, fried them in oil to a crisp, salted them and sent them back to the commodore. Commodore Vanderbilt loved them and called them “crunch potato slices.” Soon afterwards, “Saratoga chips” became a fad with the restaurant’s patrons [1]. Potato chips became very popular, but remained primarily a restaurant food item. By 1895, people like Cleveland, Ohio, businessman William Tappenden set out to make chips a household snack. Tappenden delivered chips to neighborhood stores in his horse-drawn wagon. He filled orders by cooking chips on his kitchen stove and, because of growing demand for the product, converted his barn into one of the first potato chip factories. Potato chip companies soon sprang up across the United States. For many years, retailers dispensed potato chips in paper sacks from horse-drawn wagons, cracker barrels or glass display cases. In 1926, potato chip maker Laura Scudder had a fresh idea. Every evening she had women employees take home sheets of waxed paper and iron them into bags. The next day, workers would hand pack chips into bags, seal the tops with warm irons, and deliver them to retailers. The potato chip bag was born. The late 1920s and early 1930s gave rise to cellophane and glassine bags for chips. Today’s snack food packages are advanced polypropylene bags that keep chips fresh and crunchy for several weeks. The end of Prohibition in 1933 brought an increased demand for potato chips. Patrons of now legal bars and saloons liked salted snacks with their drinks. About the same time, Harvey Noss, the general manager of Noss Pretzel and Cone Company in Cleveland, Ohio, persuaded other potato chippers to join forces and establish the Ohio Chip Association in 1931 [2]. Six years later, Noss and his colleagues formed the National Potato Chip Institute (NPCI), forerunner to today’s Snack Food Association (SFA). The new association was founded to provide education to retailers and consumers on the use of potato chips and to develop product quality standards for potato chip manufacturers. A quality assurance package seal was adopted for members’ use. Today, the Snack Food Association symbol is seen on many snack packages around the world. In 1939, NPCI premiered its first newsletter, titled The Chipper, at its annual convention in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. This later became SFA’s SnackWorld magazine, with subscription circulation at 10,000 worldwide. In 1999, SFA



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joined resources with Stagnito Communications Incorporated, an MWC Company, Northbrook, Illinois, to launch Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery magazine with an expanded circulation. By agreement, the Snack Food Association publishes a monthly section in Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery and participates in developing the June State of the Industry Reports and the October Buyer’s Guides. With the advent of World War II, fats and oils became much in demand for manufacturing explosives and cellulose, the major ingredient of cellophane, for making gunpowder. As a result, NPCI members were faced with the threat of being forced out of business due to food rationing and possible declaration of potato chip as an “non-essential food.” However, NPCI prepared a document called “32 Reasons Why Potato Chips Are an Essential Food,” and convinced the government about the importance of this high-energy food. The document stressed that potato chips represented the most efficient and economical way of packaging and shipping potatoes in a ready-to-eat form. This was the beginning of NPCI’s, and later SFA’s, successful tradition of petitioning the U.S. Congress on behalf of the industry. The success also made it clear to NPCI members that the association should be headquartered near the seat of the federal government in Washington, D.C., to make the industry’s presence and importance known to the government [3]. By 1956, NPCI’s membership had grown substantially and included nine international members. The addition of international members prompted NPCI to hold the first international potato chip meeting in May 1958, at the Grosvenor House in London, England. This meeting also led to another change in the association’s name to the Potato Chip Institute International (PCII), reflecting the growth of popularity and interest in snack foods worldwide.

2.2. NEWER SNACK FOODS The 1960s and 1970s ushered in concerns about the effects of eating habits on health for most Americans. The industry as a whole faced the need to develop a positive message to consumers in the wake of various attacks on snack foods as junk food of little or no nutritional value. The industry mounted a successful public relations campaign pointing out the positive nutrients in potato chips and other savory snacks and started to respond to consumer demand for healthier, lower-fat snack products. The PCII changed its name again to the Potato Chip/Snack Food Association, initiated education about the positive nutrients in snacks, and helped develop advancements in snack manufacturing technology. In the 1980s and 1990s, public concerns about healthier foods continued to open new opportunities for fat-free and sodium-free snack products. Pretzels, which are naturally low in fat because they are baked, exceeded $1 billion in annual sales in 1993. While taste and “crunch” were still what the consumer



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demanded, a low- to no-fat snack became the industry’s “holy grail.” With the passage of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act in 1990, additional products were introduced and manufacturers put nutrition information about snack foods at the consumer’s fingertips. Although development of new baked snacks and fat-free oils has become a focus of snack food technology, as we enter the new millennium, sales of the traditional snacks continue to hold their ground. For example, the fried and salted potato slices Commodore Vanderbilt raved about in 1853 now account for over $5 billion annually in U.S. sales.

2.3. MAJOR ADVANCES Highlights in the development of the modern snack foods industry include: 1853 George Crum, cook on duty, prepares “crunch potato slices” for Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt at Saratoga Springs Resort, New York. 1861 Julius Sturgis establishes first commercial pretzel bakery in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The product had been introduced to the United States earlier by German and Austrian immigrants, who called it “bretzels.” 1885 Charles Cretors, Chicago, Illinois, develops a portable gasoline-powered corn popping machine, with a small peanut roaster, for street vendors. 1890s William Tappenden prepares potato chips at home and delivers them to neighborhood stores by horse-drawn wagon. 1906 Amedo Obici, Italian immigrant, develops process for commercially roasting shelled peanuts in oil; Planters Peanut Company formed with Marie Piruzzi in Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania. 1926 Laura Scudder, Montgomery Park, California, invents first potato chip bag by ironing sheets of waxed paper into bags. 1929 Freeman McBeth of J. D. Ferry Company invents first continuous potato chip cooker and gives the device to Ross Potato Chip Company in Richland, Pennsylvania. Broad application delayed by the Depression years. 1933 Dixie Wax Paper Company, Dallas, Texas, introduces first preprinted waxed glassine bag, which keeps potato chips fresh longer. New inks that don’t fade or bleed are developed. Reading Pretzel Machinery Company, Reading, Pennsylvania, introduces first automatic pretzel-twisting machine. 1937 National Potato Chip Institute (NPCI) founded; initiates program to educate retailers and consumers about use of potato chips. 1943 Potato chip manufacture allowed to continue during World War II, but industry firmly confined to rations of materials needed for production.



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1946 Adams Corporation, Beloit, Wisconsin, formed to market Korn KurlsTM , made on first high-shear extruder patented in 1938, but marketing product was delayed until after World War II. Adams Corporation acquired by Beatrice Foods Company, Chicago, Illinois, in 1961. Early 1950s Pork rinds made commercially by frying cured pork skins. 1958 NPCI holds international potato chip meeting in London; later changes name to Potato Chip Institute International (PCII). 1961 Two of nation’s largest snack food companies, the Frito Company and the Lay Company, merge to become Frito-Lay. Initial main national products were FritosTM brand corn chips and CheetosTM brand extruded snacks. Lay’s Potato ChipsTM produced nationwide by end of 1961. 1964 DoritosTM tortilla chips (meaning “little gold” in Spanish) introduced by Frito-Lay Company; becomes largest-selling snack food in the world three decades later. 1970 U.S. potato chip sales top $1 billion mark. 1976 PCII changes name to Potato Chip/Snack Food Association (PC/SFA). 1978 PC/SFA moves headquarters from Cleveland, Ohio, to Washington, D.C., area. 1983 Thicker ridged chips introduced for dipping. Kettle-made potato chips again distributed widely. 1986 PC/SFA changes name to the Snack Food Association (SFA) and celebrates its golden anniversary. 1989 February declared National Snack Food Month by SFA and National Potato Promotion Board; leads to 41% increase in snack food consumption during February. 1995 Boom experienced in sales of low- and no-fat snack foods. Seventyfive percent of full-line snack foods companies responding to industry survey reported introduction of low- or no-fat products during this year. 1996 Website, http://www.sfa.org, established to inform public about snack foods. 1997 Flavor technology developments lead to broadened variety of snack food products.

3. THE DOMESTIC SNACK FOOD MARKET The June 2000 issue of Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery includes snack sales data provided by the Snack Food Association, Information Resources, Inc.



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and A. C. Nielsen Company [4]. Domestic sales of 6.17 billion pounds of snack foods for a total of $19.37 billion are reported for 1999. Sales in dollars increased by 4.4% in weight and 6.2% in dollars over the previous year. These numbers represent commercially made and traded products. Snack foods prepared in small scale in restaurants, quick food service stores and by street vendors are not included and the actual amount of snack foods consumed by the U.S. public is underestimated. Potato chips still are the sales leader, commanding $4.69 billion (24.3%) of the market. Tortilla and corn chips take second place at $3.75 billion (19.3%), snack nuts are third at $1.69 billion (8.7%), meat snacks fourth at $1.32 billion (6.8%), pretzels fifth at $1.22 billion (6.3%), microwaveable popcorn sixth at $1.16 billion (6.0%), and pretzels sixth at $1.16 billion (6.9%). With an estimated U.S. population of 274 million, this equates to a 5.62 lb annual per capita consumption of potato chips worth $17.11; 5.23 lb tortilla and corn chips worth $13.68; 1.61 lb snack nuts worth $6.18; 2.21 lb pretzels worth $4.45; 1.55 lb microwaveable popcorn worth $4.22; 0.35 lb meat snacks worth $4.82; and 22.5 lb total savory snacks worth $70.71. In 1998 [5], supermarkets accounted for approximately 42.7% of total snack food sales, followed by 13.6% sales at convenience stores and 12.4% at mass merchandisers. Grocery stores, warehouse clubs, drugstores, vending machines and other businesses accounted for the remaining sales. In recent years, percent sales at convenience stores and mass merchandisers have grown rapidly at the expense of other outlets.

4. THE GLOBAL MARKET No reliable mechanism exists for estimating worldwide sales of prepared snack foods. But it is fair to say that the worldwide market is at least double the size of the U.S. market. Therefore, a rough working estimate of $30–35 billion worldwide annual sales, including the United States, seems reasonable. Overseas exports of U.S. snack food machinery are growing, and some domestic companies have established divisions or joint ventures overseas. Many snack food products are first exported to evaluate overseas acceptance before production is started in the respective country.

5. THE SNACK FOOD ASSOCIATION The Snack Food Association (SFA) is an international trade association dedicated to advancing the snack food industry and improving the quality of its products. SFA’s headquarters is located at 1711 King Street, Suite One, Alexandria, Virginia 22314-2720, U.S.A., telephone 703–836–4500, facsimile 703–836– 8262. SFA’s services are available to its members worldwide. Domestically, it monitors pending legislation that may impact snack foods and organizes



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presentations and petitions to the federal government on behalf of the industry. SFA also conducts employee training sessions for its members, cooperates with universities in additional education programs, and organizes SNAXPO, the largest annual trade show in the world devoted exclusively to snack foods. SFA news, industry calendars, services for its members, and information about snack foods for the public are available at the website: http://www.sfa.org.

6. REFERENCES 1. SFA, 1987. 50 Years: A Foundation for the Future. Snack Food Association, Alexandria, Virginia, pp. 10–12. 2. SFA, 1987. 50 Years: A Foundation for the Future. Snack Food Association, Alexandria, Virginia, p. 30. 3. SFA, 1987. 50 Years: A Foundation for the Future. Snack Food Association, Alexandria, Virginia, p. 75. 4. SF&WB (June), 2000. State of the Industry Report 2000. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, 80(6):SI-1–SI–74. 5. SF&WB (June), 1999. State of the Industry. Snack Food & Wholesale Bakery, 88:(6):SI-1–SI-82.


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SECTION II

INGREDIENTS AND GENERAL EQUIPMENT


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CHAPTER 3

Food Quality of Corn

L. W. ROONEY E. L. SUHENDRO

1. INTRODUCTION

M

or corn (Zea mays L.) is the third most important crop worldwide with a total production of 576 million metric tons in 1997–1998. Nearly 41% of the total production is in the United States. Other major producers include China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Central America and many African countries [1]. Maize grows well in hot, humid areas of the world and responds to fertilizer and moisture by producing large quantities of grain. However, it does not grow as well in hot, dry areas of the world where sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is raised. Sorghum is similar to corn in many respects and can also be used for snack food production. Corn is processed into a wide variety of products and traditional foods, i.e., porridges, tortillas, arepas, empanadas, atoles, polenta and many snacks [2–6]. Utilization of corn for food and industrial products has increased rapidly in the United States, using nearly 20% of the annual corn crop of 225 million metric tons with the balance going to animal feed. The largest users are wet millers, who produce sweeteners, glucose, starches, starch derivatives, alcohol, oil and other products, with considerable growth recently in sweeteners and alcohol. The U.S. snack food industry produced nearly $6 billion of corn-based snacks in 1998. Corn with soft, floury endosperm is desirable for wet milling because it requires less steeping time and yields high recoveries of starch containing less than 0.3% protein. Hard food corns require extended steeping times to achieve the desired starch purity. Further, broken kernels and improperly dried corn cannot be wet milled efficiently. U.S. environmental conditions favor production AIZE


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of soft corn. Thus, dry milling and snack food industries must make special efforts to obtain harder corn suitable for processing. Critical factors that affect food corn quality for dry milling and snacks are discussed in this chapter. Key indices and measurements of food corn quality are described, and a section on sorghum is included. Nixtamalization (alkaline cooking) of corn is discussed in Chapter 4.

2. TYPES OF CORN Flint, dent, floury, sweet or sugary, popcorn, waxy, multicolored and other types of corn are grown throughout the world, with color, size, kernel shape and other attributes varying significantly. The production of yellow corn predominates in the United States, Brazil and China. However, white corn is preferred in Africa, Central America and Northern South America because of its sweeter, more flavorful products. Mexican-type foods in the United States are increasingly made with white corn. The production of identity-preserved, value-enhanced corn hybrids has been increasing in the United States recently [7]. These include white, waxy, high-oil, hard-endosperm, nutritionally dense, and low-temperature dried corn that have improved properties over commodity corn. Physical properties and composition are shown in Figures 3.1, 3.2(A), and Table 3.1 [7]. Most white corns in the United States are harder than yellow corns, have excellent properties for processing and are grown primarily for use in food. About 3 million metric tons (120 million bushels) of this specialty corn is grown in the United States annually. Prices for white corn generally are 40–50 cents per bushel higher than for yellow corn, but prices are volatile depending on crop

Figure 3.1 Mean test weights (bulk densities) of U.S. yellow dent corn in elevators and export shipments, 1995–1999 [7].


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Char Count= 0

Figure 3.2 (A) left to right, ears of yellow dent feed corn, white food corn, yellow food corn, blue corn and popcorn; (B) dent corn with tight shuck (left) and loose shuck (right) on the ears; (C) diagram of corn kernel structure.

supplies and export demands in Southern and East Africa, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. Typically, domestic white corn is grown under contract for food corn suppliers or processors, who specify the hybrids desired for their operations. White corn must be grown in isolation to avoid cross-pollination from yellow corn. Yields of white corn per acre relative to yellow corn, have increased but are not yet equal in the United States. Few white corn hybrids, genetically modified by recombinant DNA techniques, are grown, and essentially none is expected to be produced in 2001 and beyond. Currently, white corn is the most reliable source of non-GMO (non-genetically modified organism) corn in the United States. Several million acres of high-oil content, non-GMO corn are grown domestically each year. It is used predominantly by the broiler industry because of its higher energy level from the increased oil, and slightly improved protein quantity and essential amino acids balance. Growers, seedsmen, handlers, and feeders have profited from the development of high-oil corn, but its production


P1: GKA PB047-03 April 7, 2001

Composition and Properties of Value-Enhanced Dent Corn Grown in 1998 in the United States Corn Belt [7].a

Number of samples Moisture, % BCFMd , % Total damage Test weight, lb/bue True density, g/cm3(e) 1,000-k weight, ge Kernel volume, cm3(e) Thins, % thru 20/64 Total stress cracks (%) Stress crack index Protein, % (d.b.) Oil, % (d.b.) Starch, % (d.b.) Fiber, % (d.b.) a

44 14.2 0.2 1.5 61.1 1.32 338 0.26 17.7 23 60 9.3 4.1 72.4 2.1

Waxy 37 14.2 0.8 1.7 59.9 1.30 309 0.24 33.1 31 113 9.3 4.4 70.7 2.2

High Oil

44 14.0 0.2 0.7 60.9 1.30 339 0.26 22.6 15 45 9.2 4.1 72.1 2.3

29 14.6 0.4 1.6 56.8 1.26 306 0.25 27.9 7 17 9.5 6.9 68.1 2.9

Nutritionally Dense 14 12.9 0.4 1.3 59.9 1.28 289 0.22 47.2 4 9 10.2 4.8 70.1 2.4

LowTemperature Dried 43 14.9 0.6 1.3 58.1 1.29 331 0.26 21.7 18 52 9.1 4.1 72.1 2.3

Elevatorb 175 14.3 1.3 1.9 57.4 1.28 328 0.26 22.8 44 176 9.0 4.1 72.2 2.3

White, waxy, hard endosperm, high oil, nutritionally dense, and low-temperature dried corns are value-enhanced corns with special end uses. Samples were taken from grain elevators in the Corn Belt. c Samples were taken from samples of exported corn. d Broken corn and foreign material. e Reported on ‘‘as is” moisture content. b


Exportc 33 14.6 3.1 4.1 56.5 1.29 326 0.25 22.6 48 198 9.0 4.2 72.2 2.4

Char Count= 0

White

Hard Endo

12:42

TABLE 3.1.

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Char Count= 0

slowed in the year 2000 because of reduced prices for feed-grade fats used in the broiler industry. Waxy corns are used specifically for starch production, and also to improve the texture of baked snacks. Waxy maize starch is all amylopectin, which significantly affects extrusion and expansion properties of corn snacks. Low-temperature drying of corn significantly reduces stress cracks in kernels compared to typical elevator and export corns. As a result, dry milling properties are significantly improved in hard-endosperm, low-temperature dried corns. The corns described thus far were developed by conventional, rather than recombinant DNA, breeding techniques. Food sorghums, certified GMO-free, are available. They have a light color and a bland flavor. The marketing of corn with enhanced value is a recent development and will increase as long as farmers, handlers, suppliers and end users profit from it. Over the long term (five years or more), the acceptance of biotechnology will increase, especially for expediting the development of grains with enhanced value for processing and improved nutrition [8].

3. CORN GRADES, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS Six grades of corn and three classes are recognized in U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements Table 3.2 [9]. Moisture content is also determined and reported, but is not a part of the grade. Specifications for food corns usually indicate Number 1 Grade, yellow or white dent corn, with added requirements as needed. Typical specifications and variations for corn used in alkaline cooking or dry milling are shown in Table 3.3. Tighter specifications command higher prices TABLE 3.2.

U.S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Corn [9]. Maximum Percent Allowed

Grade

Minimum Test, Weight/Bushel (Ib)

Heat-Damaged

Total

Broken Corn and/or Foreign Material

56.0 54.0 52.0 49.0 46.0

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0

3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 15.0

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0

U.S. No. 1 U.S. No. 2 U.S. No. 3 U.S. No. 4 U.S. No. 5

Damaged Kernels

U.S. sample grade is corn that: (a) does not meet the requirements for the grades U.S. No. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; (b) contains 8 or more stones that have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.20% of the sample weight, 2 or more pieces of glass, 3 or more crotalaria seeds (Crotalaria spp.), 2 or more castor beans (Ricinus communis L.), 4 or more particles of an unknown foreign substance(s) or a commonly recognized harmful or toxic substance(s), 8 or more cockleburs (Xanthium spp.) or similar seeds singly or in combination, or animal filth in excess of 0.20% in 1,000 grams; (c) has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor; or (d) is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.


P1: GKA PB047-03

Standard

Measurement

Moisture (11−15%)

Electronic moisture meter, NIR, standard oven method

Foreign material (none) Breakage/damaged kernels (5−10% maximum) Fissures/stress cracks (

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