Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology; Part 6, Military Technology: Missiles and Sieges

SCIENCE AND CIVILISATION IN CHINA BY

JOSEPH NEEDHAM,

C.H., F.R.S., F.B.A.

50)olI(TIN£ "''-ITER OF CO"Y1LL£ ... NO CAIUI COLLtG!, CAN RIl I DGE, OIIl£(:TOR EMERITUS Ot' Til E .'< 1:[1)11 "W RESE" RGII '"IT I TUT1, CA.\lRIlIDCE. HONORARY PROFESSOR OF ACADEMIA $ISIGA

ROBIN D. S. YATES PItOflUOJl; 00' HISTORY ... ,,0 OF EAST ASIA" LA:0

0'

0'

'74 275 '76 '77 '78 '79 ,80 ,8, ,8, ,83 ,84 ,85 ,86 ,87 ,88 ,89 '90 '9'

.0' '93 '94 295 '96 '97

OF

I L L U S T R A T I ONS

Pottery mood of two fortified manors, Eastern Han, front and rear views, from Kuang-Chou Shih Wen-Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Yuan Hui and Kuang-Chou Shih Po-Wu Kuan (I), pI. 148 Pottery model of twO fortified manors, Eastern Han, front and rear views, from Kuang-Chou Shih Wen-Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Yuan Hui and Kuang-Chou Shih Po-Wu Kuan (1), pI. 107 Hemp-cloth curtain, from WGTrICC, eh. [2, p. 32a Well-sweep used for lowering 'swallow-tail torches', from WeTneC. eh. [2, p. 60a Reconstruction of thc chh ii shield, from Yates (3) Reconstruction ofthe vertically hung firescreen, from Yates (3) Reconstruction ofthe horizontal firescreen, from Yates (3) Representations of targets on Warring-States pictorial bronzes, from \Veber (S ), fig. 77 Iron plated ram, from WCTrICC, ch. [2, p. 2sa 'Flying hook' (left); 'wolf's tooth striking board' (right), from WCTrt CC, ch. [2, p. 23a Fork cart, from WCTrtCC, ch. [0, p. 32b Hungry falcon cart, from WCTnCC, ch. [0, p. 33a Double hook cart, from WCTy/CC, ch. [0, p. 32a ;"'[ovable sky cart, from WCTY/CC, ch. [0, p. 28a Rake cart, from WCTy/CC, ch. 10, p. 28b High sided carl, from Hayashi (8) High sided can, from Hayashi (8) Nest cart, from WCTytCC, ch. 10, p. 3 1 a Watchtower cart, from WCTrtCC, ch. 10, p. 20b Tank, from WCTy/CC, ch. 10, p. 18a 'Sharp-topped wooden donkey', from WCTy/CC, ch. 12, p. ooa Swallow-tail tOrch, from WCTnCC, ch. 1 2, p. 28a Iron-tip� wooden ram (It:fl), from WCTrtCC, ch. 1 2 , p. 28a Windlass cart (right), from WCTy/CC, ch. 12, p. 2sb Wooden screen, from WCTytCC, ch. [0, p. [9a 'Waggon for filling in the moat', from WCTy/CC, ch. 10, p. 30a 'Leather cart for filling in the moat', from WCTrtCC, ch. [0, p. 30b Battering-ram from the Beni-hasan wall-paintings, from Newberry (I), vol. 2, plate XV Early Chinese elevator, the 'Windlass cart for descending walls', from WCTY/CC, ch. 12, p. 28b Iron rings for catching rams, from WCTY/Ce, ch. 12, p. 28a Duke Lu's overlook and assault cart, from WPC A highly imaginative drawing ofa ramp, from WCTy/Ce, ch. 10, p. sa Reconstruction of the counterweighted ladder, from SCC, Vol. 4, pI I Scaling ladder, from WCTy/Ce, ch. 10, p. ISb

XXIII

4'" 4'3 4'5 4,6 4'7 4 ,8 4'0 4'0 4" 4" 4'3 4'3 4'4 4 '7 4'7 4'7 4'7 4,8 4'9 4'9 430 433 437 439 444 449 453

XXIV

LIST OF I L L US TR A T I O N S

'98 '99 300 30' 3°' 303 304

Flying ladders, from WCT ytCC, ch. [0, p. [ 7 b The ru jang, from Hayashi (6), figs [O-[S, 10-19 A cheval-de-Jrise, from WCTr Geophones, from WC Ty/CC,ch. 12, p. 30a AnOlher type ofgeophone, from WCTytCC, ch. 12, p. 70a Reconstruction ofa Mohist mine, from Yates (3) :M ining complex at Thung-Lu-Shan, from Thung-Lil-Shan Khao-Ku Fa-Chueh Tui (I), fig. 5 Pipes for introducing smoke into Mohist mines Flying gadfly arrow, from Hayashi (5), fig. 391 The wandering fire cauldron, from WC Ty/CC, ch. 12, p. 62a 'The Wooden ox', from WCT ytCC, ch. 10, p. ISb Completed 'plaited gallery', from WCTr,CC, ch. 10, p. 7b (left); ch. 1 0 , p. 9 a (right) Screens for the 'plaited gallery', from WCTy/CC, ch. 10, p. Sa Uncovered frame for the 'plaited gallery', from WCTr,CC, ch. 10, p. Sa Uncovered frame for the 'plaited gallery', from WC Tr{CC, ch. 10, p. 6a Screens for the 'plaited gallery', from WC TrICC, ch. 10, p. 6b Hemp mop for applying liquid mud, from WC TytCC, ch. 12, p. 27a Sheepskin water-jug, from WCTy/CC, ch. 10, p. I i a 'Head cart', from WCTYjCC, ch. 10, p. 9h Earth-coloured felt screen for use in hiding subterranean tunnels, from WCTytCC, ch. 12, p. 3Sa Fan for propelling smoke and missiles down mineshafts, from WCTYfCC, ch. 12, p. 3 t a Leather screen for excluding noxious substances and gases from mine­ shafts and galleries, from WCTytCC, ch. 2. p. 25b Instruments for use in pouring noxious substances into enemy mines, from IVC T y/CC, ch. 1 0 , p. 25a Mining implements, from WCT rICC, ch. [0, p. 24a Pang maces, from WC TrICC, ch. '3, p. 13a Shu spiked mace from the tomb of Tseng Hou-I, from Sui-Hsien Lei-Ku­ Tun I-Hao-Mu Khao-Ku Fa-Chueh Tui (I), plate 9.2

3>0 3" 3" 3'3 3' 4 3'5 3,6 3' 7

3'9

3" 3" 3'3

454 458 46, 465 465 467 468 469 470 4 7' 473 473 473 4 74 4 74 474 476 476 476

LIST OF TABLES Books on military subjects, Chou to Chhing

page 29

2

The Eight Formations (according to the Thai Po rinChing)

3

Comparative information on different types ofbows and crossbows

176-177

4

Complement and ranges of mediaeval artillery (from the WC Tr etc.)

216-217

5

Artillery systems in different ages in East and West

59

238

LIST OF ABBREVIATIO N S The following abbreviations are used in the text. For abbreviations used for journals and similar publications in the bibliographies, see pp. 487 ff. B CKCTCCS CKT CLCf CSHK

NCC HNS

i

i

i

3

/lNT HSPC

K

B

KHCPTS MCPT I'TSC

8

R

SI'PF

sppr

SPTK STT/l TCHCC TCKM

59 77 TCTC

Bretschneider, E. ( [ ), Botanicon Sinjcum (succ�ive volumes indicated as B \, B II, B ill).

Chung-Kuo Chin Tai Chan Ching Shih. Unknown writer, Chan Kuo TsM. Sun I-Jang (ed.), Chou Li Ching /, 1899. Yen Kho-Chun (ed.), Chhiian Shang-Ku San- Tai Chhin Hall San-KuQ Liu eflnao Win (Complete Collection of prose literature (including frag­

ments) from remote antiquity through the Chhin and Han Dynasties, the Three Kingdoms, and the Six Dynasties), [836. Hsu Tung, Hu Chhien Ching (Tiger Seat Manual, a ylilitary Encyclopae­ dia), Sung, begun +962, finished + [004. Fan Yeh & Ssu-ma Piao, Hou Han Shu (History of the Later Han Dynasty), +450. Liu An et al., Huai Nan T�u (Book of the Prince of Huai-Nan), - 1 20. Wang Hsien-Chhien (ed.), Han Shu Pu Chu, 1900. Karlgren, B. (I), Gfammala &rica (dictionary giving the ancient forms and phonetic values ofChinese characters). Kuo Hsiieh Chi Pen Tshung Shu edition. Shi:n Kua, MingChhi Pi Than (Dream Pool Essays), Sung, + 1089. Yii Shih-Nan, Pt; Thang Shu Chhao (Book Records of the Northern Hall), Thang, c. + 630. Read, Bernard E. et aL, Indexes, translations and pri:cis ofcertain chap­ ters of the Pin Tshao Kang Mil. ofLi Shih-Chi:n. If the reference is 10 a plant see Read ( I ) ; if to a mammal see Read (2); if to a bird see Read (3); if to a reptile see Read (4 or 5); if to a mollusc see Read (5); if to a fish see Read (6); iftoan insect see Read ( 7) . Sun Pin Ping Fa (Sun Pin's An of War), Chou (Chhi), c . - 235. Ssu Pu Pei Yao edition. Ssu Pu Tshung Khan edition. Wang Chhi, San Tshai Thu /lui ( Universal Encyclopaedia), Ming, + 1609. Tshung Shu Chi Chhing (The Compcndius Collectania), Shanghai Com­ mercial Press, 1935-9. Chu Hsi et al. (cds.) , Thung Chitn Kang Mil. « Shon View of the) Comprehtnsivt Mirror (oj History),jof Aid in Coummtnl), classified into Headings and Subheadings); the T�u Chih Thung Chitn condensed, a general history of China, Sung, + 1 189; with later continuations. Ssu-ma K uang, T�u Chih Thung Chitn (Comprehensive Mirror (of His­ tory) for Aid in Government) , + [084, xxv

XXVI TFtK TH TKKW TPrc

TPrL TSee

TT II'CTt

wcrnee

LIST OF ABBREVIATiONS Wang Chhin-Jo & Yang I (eds.), Tsh; Fu Yiian Kuti (Lessons of the Archives, encyclopaedia), + 1013. Wieger, L. (I), Ttxles Hisloriques. Sung Ying-Hsing, Thitn Kung Khai lVu (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature), Ming, + [637. Li Chhiian, Shin Chi Chih Ti Thai Po rin Ching (Ylanual ofthe While and Gloomy Planel (of War, Venus» , Ireatise on military and naval affairs, Thang, + 759. Li Fang (ed.), Thai-Phing ru Lan (the Thai-Phing reign-period Imperial Encyclopaedia), Sung, +g83' Chhen :-vleng-Lei et al. (eds.), Thu Shu Chi Chhlng; the Imperial EncyclD­ lmedia of + ! 726). Index by Giles, L. (2). References to 1884 ed. given by chapu�r (thuan) and page. References to 1934 photolitho repro­ duclion given by lsh i (vol.) and page. Wieger, L. (6), Taoi"sme, vol. [ , Bibliographie Generale of the works con­ tinued in the Taoisi-Patrology, Tao Tsang. Tseng Kung-Liang (cd.), Wu Ching Tsung rao (The �'[ost Important Affairs to the :Vlilitary Classics - a military encyclopaedia), Sung, + 1044. Tseng Kung-Liang (ceL), lVu Ching Tsung rao ( Chhien Chi), military en­ cyclopaedia, first seCiion, Sung, + 1044 .\-Iao Yuan-I, Wu Pei Chih (Treatise on Armament Technology), Ming, + [628. .

WPC

AUTHOR'S NOTE

This is the first of the three 'earthly' volumes on Military Technology,. though it is not the first to be published, Pan 7 on the Gunpowder Epic having preceded it. Such derangements in the sequence of the volumes are due to the exigencies of collaborative work - but without them the completion of the whole enterprise would not be possible. After the Introduction the next three sub·sections were mostly drafted by KrLyszlof Gawlikowski, a leading authority on that immortal book the Sun Tzu Ping Fa (Master Sun's Art of \'Var), still greatly valued by strategists in spite of its high antiquity. One of the most interesting differences which is here brought out is the fact that plebeian people in ancient and mediaeval China were much more military-minded than the educated scholar-bureaucrats. Evidences or this come rrom novels such as Feng Shin Yen I (Promotions orthe Martial Genii), the deifica­ tion ormilitary heroes such as Kuan Yii and Yo Fei in the San Kuo and the Sung respectively, and the great popular interest in combat arts (kungfu). On the other hand nobody has ever been more successrul than were the scholar-bureaucrats in keeping the soldiers down all through the ages, 'on tap but not on tOp' ror more than twO thousand years. 'Power grows rrom the barrel or a gun' as Mao Tse­ Tung is reported to have said, but no one would have been more insistent than he that the Party should be in control or it. In this he would have been continuing (with a difference) the tradition orall the Chinese ages. For the bow, the crossbow (probably invented in the Chinese culture-area and introduced to Europe twice) and pre-gunpowder artillery, I have had the benefit orthe collaboration or Edward McEwen and Wang Ling respectively; the rormer a consummate archer and bowyer, the latter willing to extend his interests rrom Ihe history or gunpowder to the machines which supplied the place or cannon berorc cannon existed. Finally, the section on early poliorcclics, siege warrare in ancient and mediaeval times, is due entirely to Robin Yates or McGill University, a great authority on the /vlQ Tzu book, who has also devoted a great deal or painstaking time in the proor-reading or the entire volume. As ever 1 extend my warmest thanks 10 all my collaborators. And now it is time to offer thanks to all those whose selfless administrative work has made this book possible. The publication or this volume has taken an unusu­ ally long time, and much has changed since we first sent the volume to press. Then we had just moved into our new purpose-built home at the corner or Herschel Road and Sylvester Road in Cambridge. To Colin Ronan, then Secretary or the • Whcn Wang Ling and I

"'C",

planning these volumes in 194-8 "'e thought that Ie"en ",ould be enough to

('()\'cr aU thc lICicoces and technologies, BUI "'C had no idea ofthe "'ealth ofmaterial ",hich ",ould have 10 be dealt ",ilh ill each. Prople awxialcd ",ith the project have come to s�a.k oflhc

original Kvcn as 'hcavcnly' volumes, and oflhc Sl'paralc PUts as carthly volumes, For it proved 10 be ntcesUry 10 bring out thc Kvcral parts as disdllct ph)'sical volumes, and illdccd Vol. 5 may come 10 ha,·c as man)' as 13, '

'

XXVII

XXVIJI

A U T H O R 'S N O T E

East Asian History of Science Trust,a we owe much gratitude for all his help with settling us down there, as well as for the host of administrative tasks he shouldered daily. Responsibility for the publication of the volume now lies in the capable hands of Christopher Cullen, Deputy Director of the Needham Research Institute and Chairman of the Publications Board. Since this is one of the first volumes to appear from the new Institute and Library, it would only be proper to salute the architect, Christophe Grillet, and his assistants, together with the builder, Roger Bailey, and his foreman Peter Ashman, and all the workers who spared no pains to make the building beautiful and worthy. All our staff accomplished miracles in the move from our old home in Brooklands Avenue. Then I must say a word of gratitude to our secretary, Diana Brodie, accurate and imperturbable, who retyped many of the pages in this vol­ ume, and to the present secretaries of the Institute, Angela King and Winne Chen, for all their invaluable back-up work. We have pleasure in offering thanks to our formcr Librarian, Mrs Liang (Liang Chung Lien-Chu) who copied many a Chinese character onto the pages of successive drafts, and to her present successor, John Moffctt, as also to my research assistants,Jovana Muir and Corinne Richeux. Finally I should like to thank lain White and Helen Spillett, copy editors at the Cambridge University Press, and the officers of the publishing division for all their help in taking over this volume at an unusually early stage in its development and for resolving all the problems that have been involved. Since this volume first went to press, we have suffered a great blow, namely the loss of Lu Cwei-Djen, my life-long collaborator and second wife. She was taken from me in November 1991 after only two years of happily married life. She went through every word that was written in all the volumes, ineluding this one, and gave much valuable guidance into the intricacies ofknowledge about China. She also collaborated with me 0 11 many original papers mostly on medical subjects. It would be no exaggeration to say that this whole project would never have been started without her. In IgB7, we were also shocked to hear of the death of Victor Meally of Dublin, who weill through all our published volumes 'with a fine-tooth comb, letting us know of the mistakes and printer's errors. We are mOst grateful for this work, done with such devotion and dedication. Lastly, we must offer thanks to those who interpret for us languages which we do not know. For Korean we rely on Professor Gari Ledyard, for Japanese the late Dr Charles Sheldon and now Dr Ushiyama Teruya, for Arabic Dr Douglas Dunlop, and for Sanskrit Professor ShackletOn Bailey. Thanks are also due to Dr Christopher Cleary, Sarah Burgess, Bret Hinsch and Liu Hlli-chlin, research assistants to Robin Yales, and to the staff of the Harvard­ Yenching Library. And now let us draw back the curtain which conceals the military activities and the military science of two Chinese millennia from general knowledge. I

• And also the writerofthe volumes in the 'Shorter Scil.'nce and Civilisation in China' Jeries.

30. MILITA R Y TECHNOLOGY

(0) I N T R O D U C T I O N

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,

e

II

"

.e n " d .e It ,n

n, us ne

....e he las

nd dnd

In a foregoing section the current of our enquiries led us in the direction of naval combat,' and the time could therefore not be long postponed when we must come to study the inventions connected with combat itself. To regard the Chinese as a people who were never successful in war would be as great an absurdity as to set them down as deficient in the great seafaring qualities. Yct this is what Europeans have sometimes done, misled by the predominance of a civil philosophy with a great pacific tradition, and also perhaps by the effects of post-Renaissance occi­ dental science in raising so greatly the war potential of Westerners in their later COnlnets with the Chinese seaboard. In fact, China has never lacked devoted soldiers, ingenious military technicians, and distinguished captains; though no doubt certain historical situations gave them a more ample field for their genius than others. The tale of wars throughout the ages in China and around her borders is nevertheless long, cominuous and intricate. After the innumerable cam­ paigns of the feudal period which ended in the unification of the first empire, there were the struggles with the Hsiung-Nu (possibly the Huns) which continued throughout the Han. I n the San Kuo period ( + srd century) there were the epic conflicts of generals such as Chu-ko Liang', Tshao Tsha02 and Sun Chhuan'; while after it, for many hundred years, the barbarian houses of the northern kingdoms warred with the autochthonous empires confined to their southern do­ mains. This same patlern, indeed, reasserted itself after the long peace of the Sui and Thang, for we find the Sung thrown back upon Hangchow in the + 1 2 th century, just as the Liu Sung had had Nanking for their capital nearly a thousand years before. But now the northerners recruited abundant Chinese talent as well as valour to the service of their arms, and it is precisely in the + 1 1 th and + 1 2 th centuries, as will clearly be seen later on, that the greatest advances were made in military techniques. The manifold applications of the new knowledge of the incen­ diary and explosive properties ofgunpowder and its related compositions were all made in the wars between the Sung and the (Jurchen) Chin, including the inven­ tion of the true metal-barrel cannon, which can now be dated to + I 128.b After this crowning achievement of Chinese military science, there followed the long decline of the Ming, a dynasty whose defences were never seriously challenged until the Manchu invasion discovered their inadequacy, both material and moral. And then the Jesuit cannon-founders ushered in symbolically the modern period. The study of the technique of war is not so lamemable a subject as in some • Vol. 4. pI 3. pp. 678f[ b 5« Lu, Nttdham & Phan (I) and VoL ;" pI 7, Appendix I.

' ff. fI

30. M I L I T ARY T E C H N O L O G Y

moods it may appear to us to be.- I n all ages it has stimulated the improvement of techniques, in China as elsewhere. 1> The perennial search for the hardest possible metal led from bronze through iron to steel of various kinds, and this not only for shock weapons but also for the defence of the individual against them, as in all the forms of armour, replacing the prepared skins of animals or the pierced slips of wood or bamboo. And what the metallurgist began the chemist continued. How great were the effects which flowed from the invention of gunpowder, a Francis Bacon did not dare to underestimate," A chemical explosion was something abso­ lutely new in human history, newer qualitatively than the physical sub-atomic explosions of our own time, for man had never known an explosion of any kind whatever. The preparation of the substances required for it invited the study of crystallisation and filtration; the fact that though fire it needed nOt air, invited meditation on the relations of these two 'elements'. Then, after the appearance of the true barrel-cannon, the problems of dynamics, of flight and violent motion, began to present themselves in earnest, for the trajectory of the missile could now be controlled to an extent far greater than with any of the old catapult machines. These, of course, in their time, had afforded much opportunity for the exercise of engineering skill, in China as in the West. But now the boring of the cannon to make an accurate cylinder, besides giving rise to the modern comprehension of the relation between heat and mechanical work, also led to possibilities ofemploying, in ways before undreamt-of, that other occupant of cylinders, in itself quite an­ cient,d the piston. While before it had always been used as the handle of a tool, in Malaysian fire-lighters, Chinese bellows and Alexandrian pumps, now it could for the first time be thought of as a projectile, but a tethered one, capable of produc­ ing alternating rectilinear motion ifsomeone could arrange an obedient succession of explosions within the cylinder.c This last chapter of technological history, which led to the steam engine and the internal-combustion engine, is of course well known; what needs expounding is that earlier obscurer chapter between the first achievement of the faleful mixture of chemical substances and the appearance of the true metal barrel-gun. This chapter is a Chinese one; the events which it contains took place between about + 850 and + ' 350; and we shall try to leU it in due course.' The hollow bamboo stem was the invitation of Nature which led to • It �tm$likdy that the pURly economic asp«ts ofprimili"e and ancicm social organisms have been empha­ sised a liule too much at the e�pen� of their mechanisms of sur"i"al; their incorporation, or resistance to incorporation, in highcr social organism•. - Cr. our quotation from Francis Bacon in Vol. I , p. 19. < Thil ofcoune does nOt imply that war will �ontinue to be a stimulating inAuence in the future. [t secms to have reached the point wherc nothing willsurvive to be stimulated. - Seeoll thispp. [35ff. abo"c, in VoI. 4,pt� . • One might reasonably apply here an extension of the tcrminology which proved fruitful and convcniem 3t an earlier stage - 'ad_aqucfort, it had formed the ba,is ofthe disquisitions of,heJcsuiIJ.J. M. Amiot (2) which, though valuable for their lime ( + 1782), contained very poor translations ofthe theorists and showed little understandiJlg ofthe fire-weapons. • 1 8 chs.

( I ).

.

.

•

33 chs.

t �r chs. I 5.) chi.

"

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

e e .­ , I.

n g " ,t­ ts ;e

m

" of e­ " :k

from Rags· and mobile spear-rack armouriesb to bombards and cannon� a t least equivalent to those ofcontemporary Europe, as well as the types introduced by the Portuguese. One finds rocket-launcher bancriesd and land-mines,e Finally Mao Yuan-l added a long section on divination tcchniques,r and another on geograph­ ical malters which includes not only many maps of the coast but also sailing-chans from the + 15th century naval expeditions,- Of these remarkable documents we have already said something in Section 22d on Geography (in Vol. 3) and then again in connection with Navigation (Sec!. 30rin Vol. 4, P(3). After the establishment ofthe ehhing dynasty further publications based them· selves on Mao's book, such as the Wu Pei Pi Shu 1 (Confidential Treatise on Arma· mem Technology), issued by Shih Yung.Thu2 in the + 1 7th century, but the changes were mostly mistakes.h It is interesting to tabulate the rises and falls in the rate of production of military literature through the different dynasties, and the bibliographies of Lu Ta-Chiehi enable us to do this. Including the works of which only the titles have come down to us, the detailed figures are as follows: Table I . Books on military subjecls, Chou to Chhing

Chou Chhin

H,n

,u '"

". "g­ ook

'h,

did :ing ions ions

San Kuo Chin Nan Pei Chhao Sui & Thang WuTai & Sung Liao,J/Chin & Yuan :Vling Chhing

• Chs.99 and 100. • Ch. 98, p. I ;:.b. , E.g. eh. 172, p. 4b. • Ch. 132, pp. 9b, loa, • Ch. 134,P."b. f 4' ens. I 52cn5. � Cf. Pcltiol (33). I fl, pp. 35-7: c[ abo (I l.

no. of years

no. of books on military subjects

Bog '4

'0

4"

'5

59 I SS

'0'

3'5 37' '53 '76 ,67

9'

60 ,6 '3 77

'07 ,6 ,68 '0'

0

0 of the whole

production

books/year

1 1 .4 3· '

0.10 1 . 33 0.06

M

0.07

' ·5 H

,.8 9.6 1 3·3 '.0

J3.3 12·5

1 .0 7 0.14 0.24 0.29 0.04 0·97 0.38

30.

MILITARY TECHNO LOGY

From this one can pick out the Chhin, the San Kuo and the Ming periods as the mOSt productive, but the intensity of writing does nOt seem always to follow the times of greatest strife and warfare; if it did, one would expect the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the Sung with the Northern 'barbarian' dynasties, to have made a better showing. No doubt the conditions which have to prevail in order to induce generals, technologists and military theoreticians to set down their thoughts and experiences in writing are quite complicated. But at least it is inter­ esting to have a breakdown of this kind. Clearly, Chinese literature on military matters is vast, though as yet unfortu­ nately very little known abroad. It had importance even in antiquity, for the Chhien Han Shu bibliography lists 55 books entirely concerned with military af­ fairs.- Another group of ' 5 dealt with military techniques (chi chhiao I ) , including 7 on archery, '2 specifically on the crossbow and its use, with 3 on the construction of war machines of all kinds. Pan Ku also tells us that in the time of the Empress Lu (c. - ,85), her family, for some reason or other, made away with many of the texts which had been collected. Then, sixty years or so later, under the Emperor Wu, Yang Phu2 (admiral of river and coastal fleets) was commissioned to assemble them all again and edit them. This work was completed about -30 by Jen Hung', a guards officer of literary interests, but most of these texts were also subsequently losl. Our knowledge of the military theories and philosophies of ancient China is incomplete because it has to be based on texts, many of which were preserved or mentioned by accident only. Moreover, much teaching at that period was trans­ mitted by word of mouth and not committed to a written text. And, of course, during great political upheavals great quantities of works were lost, including many of importance. Besides the texts recognised as 'military' today, there were many others which we normally think of as the classics or the works of ancient philosophers, having particular chapters devoted to quasi-military matters. Some of these played an important role in Chinese military thought, and mention must be made of the Tao TiChing\ the Kuan Teu) book and the Shang Chiin Shu'; these were often counted outright as military works,b while the Hsiin Teu ? book was also occasionally numbered among them. Other texts related to or including sections on military matters are the I ChingB, Shu Ching 9 , Chan Kuo Tshi 1 0, Tso Chuan I I , Lii Shih Chhun Chhiu l2, Ming T;:'U I3, Mo T;:,u. 14 and Kuti Ku. T.{U I�. But none of these could conceivably be called military encyclopaedias. • Ch. 30, pp. 37bff.

b The Thu Shu ChI Chhl�g " for example, includes lhem in the part concuned wilh the an of war (lUll, (hhg litll, chs. 82 to 90). All were di.c:ulSed in earlier volumes, espedally Vol. � , s.v.

' {f a; ' II '" " ;&: +

' m ", ,,, ' .. '" .. .. 7-

a.. ' tom
ing Fa. eh. 9, p. �8. < Sun T�u Ping FII, ch. [0. pp. 33-�.

' ± ' " "

",

, ," ' 'Ii " \'I

(1), pp. 7 [-2. Th� same opinion OCCUR in Menciu5, book 2, parI 2,

' ''' ' Ii " I'l .l1!!

30.

MISSILES AND SIEGES

47

2. A place where doubts and hesitations arise (chhing til ) , from which individual

f

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a­ Itst' In 'l, IS'

as'l,

ne rt 2,

escape is still possible. A place of strategical value, for which every side would like to fight (ching ti2). Open ground, where any side may move across it in any direction (chiao ti'). 5 - A place of intersecting highways, important for international relations (eMu Ii 4 ) . 6. A place of serious situation (chung li�), i.e. territory within the enemy's State, with many unbesieged cities behind the advancing troops, and a place from which retreat would be difficult. 7. Embarrassing terrain (phi Ii '), with mountains, forests, narrow passes, marshes and lakes. 8. Hemmed-in ground (wei ti7); a potential place for ambushes, with few roads leading in and all easy to block. 9. A place ofdeath (ssu tit), from which there is no escape, and where soldiers may expect only to die.a

3. 4.

These categories were interpreted in different ways, even by Chinese commenta· tors. To Westerners, accustomed to classifications based only on physiographic characteristics, it was unusual and difficult to understand, so that it was sometimes even thought of as illogical.b But ifone remembers that territory was treated as creating fighting power and impetus for the army, this classification becomes quite logical. It was, indeed, an interesting attempt to describe territory according to those characteristics which determined human behaviour. The function ofterritory in war was also interpreted in another way. In Sun Tzu there is the following statement, According to the principle of war the first measurement is Distance, the second measuremelll is Volume, the third is N umber, the fourth is Weight, the fifth is Victory. TerritOry creates distances, distances create weight, weight creates victory.c

This passage is probably a quotation rrom a very ancient text, older than Sun Tzu's (reatise. I t was not rully understood and has always disturbed commenta· tors. However, the basic meaning is clear enough; territory determines physical distances and contours, and these determine the necessary strength for an army, because there are potentially strong and weak areas which indicate the number of troops which should be used in particular places. The distribution of troops deter· mines the might that can be mustered at any particular place, and this in turn affects the balance of power; this last ractor is the one which determines victory. This is why terrain or territory constitutes a primary factor in war. • Sn T�� Pi", FIf. tho I " pp. 36-7.

b Su. for u:ample• •ht opinion e�pn:sscd by Gila (I .), pp. '00, I 'of. Konrad undenlood il belltf (Konrad

( l j , P· l!44j ·
7, p. 1074; C(lmmeotl to S�1I T�It, ch. 3, Kuo Hua·Jo (I), p. 7 1 - II''; l..illo T�It, ch_ 8, p. 176; Weigand (I), pr. 8df. • Lill Thao, ch. 3, pan .., p. 166; Li Wli KII", II'''' T�I, ch. 3, p. 146. .see Ob,a Os.amll (t), pp. 70-1, on the Han generals. � SS/t·/IUI F(J, ch. t, pan 1, p. 81. , t:. ' II

' ill ' ,.

. ..

30.

53

MISSILES AND SIEGES

(iv) Secrtt agents (chim) Any army and any combat unit needs military intelligence, and the classical Chi· nese theory of war especially emphasised this aspect because it was closely related to the understanding of war as a competition of plan-making, a duel of minds. As Sun Tzu put it: thus what enables the wise sovereign and the good commander to act and win, to achieve successes beyond the reach ofordinall' men, is foreknowledge.-

According to him and to many other writers, subversive activity constituted a basis for combat and competition, in accordance with the principle 'weaken the enemy before an engagemem'. Sun Tzu even believed that victory over the Hsia dynasty, the establishment of the Shang, and afterwards that of the Chou, were accomplished mainly because the attacking side had one important person at the opposition's court.b Thus all great historical changes had the use of secret agents as one of their basic factors. Of course this concept of the function of spies in making history was limited by Sun Tzu when he recognised also the need for certain virtues such as the enlightenment ofa ruler and the wisdom ofa command­ er. He believed that only highly talented persons could obtain virtuous agents and use their information and assistance in the right way. Nevertheless the concept of the value ofspies remained, because it was related to the general conviction of the classical theory that man is the most important factor in war. Sun Tzu said: Foreknowledge cannot be elicited from spirits [i.e. by divination], it cannot be obtained by analogies ofoccurrences, nor by calculations alone. [i,e. measurement of the numbers of . ofthe enemy's situation can only be obtained from trOOps, distances, etc.]. Kno....ledge other mcn,c

"

,


t

Yin

IE ,E

IE

Chhi

� ,

'"

�

N!

Yang

,

j

Colour

Q

Li

a

Ken

'"

Ghhi

'"

Chhi

'"

Chhi

N!

Yang

N!

Yang

N!

Yang

Black I\'

Yellow '*'

R,d r3

upper Vellow below Green

Remark; In some platH thl" Snake is gi"(n as equi"aknt 10 the trigram Khan, and the Clouds as corresponding 10 the trigram Ken rnp«li"d�', which "'II probably a mistake.

."

cr.

,h. '", F.

'"' !Tal

enemy. The formations were thought of as distinguished from one another in terms of configuration, colour and number! (One particularly popular numer­ ological idea was to begin with five and end with eightb) . The patterns were often supposed to be invested with magical powers and liable to magical control.c Yet • Stt Tluli Po 17" CIt;"A, ch. 6, pan 7 1 , p. 160; HM CltAu" CAi"A, ch. 8, pans 82, 83; Li Wti KrUlg II'h Tit;, ch, 1, pp. 98-101. Th( sam( balie symbols and magical meanings were also used for camping arrangements. Stt also n"A 110/1 Ww CAi CAmg, WN I{O/l Pa CM" Pi"g Fo ' (Wu Hall', Plan ofIhe Eighl formalions) , IVN Ho" Hsi" Mioo ("",, l'lo,,'s M}'ileriOl1S Ideas). b Seefor exampteLi W.; Kling W", Tui, ch. I, p. 106. • See TAni Po r;" Chi"A, ch. 3, pan 28; ch. 6, pan 1 7 1 , p. 161; Hu CMi." CAi"" ch. 8, part 78, p. 178. See also ralcl1lalions rdaled to the River Chart and Lo \\'riling, Rieken (I), pp. 183-8.

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

60

o

Fig. 2. An uampl� oramogromancy from (he H" CAAi", CJii�t (WangYun·\\'u ed., Shanghai 1936).

there is no doubt that straightforwardly rational arrangements and formations, such as the 'Ten Formations' of the Yin-Chhiieh-Shan military texts, were also known.Besides the pseudo-scientific ideas just mentioned, there were olher components and practices related directly to magic and religion. For example, beliefs con­ cerning omens, fonune-telling, sacrifices to spirits, amulets, magical training of lhe body, and the magical power of weapons (especially swords) were popular.b Indeed, they were still strong at the beginning of the twentieth century,e though ever since Sun Tzu's time they were condemned and rejected by many profcssionais.d • Sun Pin Ping FlI, ch. 16.

b Descrip!iOll5ofmany of!hem ar�� ........ ,",,'"

•

J.

he

by .os

lu·

.ed JIe

;'un

cp':ll�""'"

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0

O O O O O O O O O O f.,o O O O O O O o o

OOO

0000 000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 0 0 0 0 000 000

-- - - (, • '.'. . -

"

-

-

�

....c.t> l...."'"

�- -..o....v., . . ,----

sr.,)o.lw.,?�I� nl than the prOfit orlht Earth' . . . . . . I Ins wn"ept IS "xplalll"d III d"1311 1ll Lii Sh,h Chhun CkkIU, (h. 7; H!fin . r�u, ch. 1.5; Ir. Dubs (8), pp. t.57-70. Cf. Chhltn Han Shu, (h. 74. The nam" seems nOt to be aecid"ntal, because while 'human-heartedlless' (jin') cor�_ spond«l to ranS, righteouslI"ss (i") "orrt'"Spo"d«l 10 }'in. Therefore righteousness was a virtu" b3.5ic 10 all army. I It seems Ihal it was an important factor in t'"Stablishing lIew dynastiC$, for it paralysed resistance against a n"", ruler who was �tTei"ed as 'virtuous' and 'legal', JXl6$(Uillg Ih" ':-'Iandate of Hea""n'. [I was due to this faclor that the Kuominlang ulliled China �lati\"ely easily in t9�9, and in a similar way the Chinese Communist Pan)' achie\"«! liberatiOIl ill t949. In bQlh ClIscslocal chi"fssubordinated Ih"mselve5 to the new gO\'emment, and the old regime ...·as "roded befo,.., th" military victory of the opposition. On the use oflhis principle by Thang Thai Tsung. sec Bingham ( I ), p. g6. � C( f{!M� T.{M. (h. 1.5; IT. Dubs (8), p. t .59. 1 5«, for example. KIUJ" T�",ch. 9, p.8a, If. Rickett (t); r"" Tltilll Uft. ch. 8, p. 4a, If. Gale (I); Sw-ma Fa, ch. I, pp. 7.5�6; howcvu, in a diffe,..,nt degTtt, this opinion was acttpted by many mililary Ir"aliscs, 11''; Lial> T�M, liM TAoQ, Sa.. Liitll, Su" Pi� PI"S "-a. d

I

' ft �

' I::.

' jl

n

•

30.

6j

MISSILES AND SIEGES

tary theoreticians and the Confucians. This has been expressed excellently by Hslin Tzu 1 , in his account of a debate before Prince Hsiao Chheng2 of Chao! about - 250.

The prince said 'I should like to ask what are the most important points of military art.' The Hon. Lin Wu' replied 'To observe the seasons of heaven above and to take advantage of the canh below. Observe the movements orlhe enemy. Depart after the enemy and yel reach the goal before him. These are the important points in managing an army.' :\!laster Hsun Chhing$ said 'No, I can't agree. From what I have heard orthe ancient Tao, in managing an army combat, everything depends on uniting the people. [ . . . ] If the officers and people had not been attached to each other and in accord with their prince, Thang6 and Wu [Wang]' could not have conquered. Hence the men who can gain the support ofthe people are the best men {Q wage war [ . . . ]' The Hon. Lin \·Vu replied, 'No, I disagree. Whal is valuable in war is strength and advantage; when one moves one does it suddenly, and uses deceitful stratagems. He who knows best how to manage an army is sudden in his movements, his plans are very deep [aid, and no one knows whence he may attack. Whcn Sun [TZUJ8 and Wu [TzuJ9 led armies, they had no enemics in the whole world; why should it be necessary to wait for the support of the peoplC?"

I

f

The unity of the soldiers mentioned here was of course based on the virtues of the ruler and the government. According to this Confucian concept , im provem ents of administration, introducing proper agrarian organisation and cultivating virtue among the people would guarantee military victory. Other military theoreticians, however, advocated the necessity of good weapons, equipmen t and fortifications.b This was expressed quite clearly by Mo Tzu:

.,

lethe storehouses have no reserves ofweapoIls, even though you may be righteous, yet you cannot punish the unrighteous!

.-

Nevertheless t he Confucian tradition has been strong for two millennia, and even some political leaders of modern China have s upported these concepts and under­ estimated the role of weapons.d Another importan t dis pu te concerns a similar problem: what is the most impor­ tant means to vic tory, numeri cal s uperiority or a righteous and courageous spirit? There were twO basic a ltitudes to this question . The first, presented by Sun Tzu,

,.

" ;lis in "'

".

• HSiin T�M, th. '0 (th. • �). pp. • bff.; 'T. Dubs (8), pp. '57-8. mod. autl.; Wa\.Wn (5), pp. 56ff. • Sec, for cxample, ....,Q T�M, ch. 52-3; SMII Pill Ping I'll, ch,. 4, 9, pp. -l9-�o, 64-5; WM T�M, th. ", pari 2; 11''; LiQO T':;M, chs . ... 6. CMif1l HIP! SlzM. ch. ..9, pp. 2279-81. • Mo T�M. ch. • , p. '23; Ir. Rand (,). Cr. CMif1l H(J" Sr\.., ch. 49> p. 2280.

FOTcxamplc. Sun Yal.�n Sla.ed Ihal malcrial conditiOns. including "'capons, ho,,·c,·cr nceanry, all: much " as go " in achic,·ing victor.,.. According to him. a "ictory may be achiC'o·ed e,·cn when .he balancc of material potential is • to ',000, if.hc spirit is excl1c was playing Ihc airs on the!t� chlti,," violin.
ry; 5t ..

"f

DC

pn ...

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.. -

..

-

•

30.

MISSILES AND SIEGES

day, as shown by the tremendous popularity of films depicting combats.- A char­ acteristic of the military-type hero given by Ruhlmann confirms this opinion; The swordsman-hero's primary attribute is great bodily strength [ . . . ] Good fighters have trained for years in 'military arts' (wu shu I J, i.e. boxing and wrestling, fencing and the use ofvarious weapons.b These arts remain their favourite pastime. They can also jump and climb high walls, walk on roofs and so on, with exceptional agility. Some know how to walk under water ( . . . ] Not content to fight well and bravely, the tfue swordsmen-heroes add to their prowess the spice ofan often humorous bravura, crowning serious action with an aura of playful an. [ . . . J Outspoken bluntness and a volcanic temper characterise most swordsmen-heroes in popular fiction. They are obtuse, guileless, child-like, belligerent, tempestuous, irascible, devoid of manners, and completely uninhibited. They boast and quarrel as a pastime, and occasionally kill by mistake ( . . . ] Why are these raving bullies still so loved by their companions and by the devotees offiction? First, because they are honest and straightforward in a world in which persons officially vested with authority prefer the devious approach. With them one knows where one stands. Their friendships, born in the street, in wineshops, or in other humble places, are disinterested, spontaneous alliances ofcongenial souls. They are totally indifferent to money and will not take a penny ofwhat is not theirs. They do not fawn and flatter, and nothing can make them shift their loyalty [ . . . 1 They are resolute men, always ready to lay down their lives for their friends, never willing to surrender or to leI themselves be curbed or humiliated. �uscle play brings them a natural exhilaration, their"strength and courage lead to a careless self-confidence, their crude jokes reveal a robust sense of humour, and their whole manner cxudesjQie dt vivTe. They have all the companionable qualities that are subsumed in the phrase haQ_han2, 'good fellow'.c

Heroes of this kind, shaping the popular image ,of the military man in China, would naturally fascinate the common people of any count ry. Moreov er, aU the types ofChinese military hero presented by Ruhlmann have one basic characteris­ tic: their activity is directed to restoring order and juslice, to fighting against evil persons and bad adm inis tration . Sometimes, in the sorry circumstances of a par­ ticular age, only robbers or rebels can behave like Confucian gentlemen and make an attempt to restore a moral order. This tradition, as h e pointed out, began in

• Inde�d, one ofthe most popular opera sc�nes al th� prC$Cnt time i. Ih� fight in th� dark bel"'un a knight.

erratU Slaying

at an inn, and th� innke�per who is trying \0 kill him. W� hav� often seen Ihi. played in China.

� l\'u sku - \h� military arts - is a common name for different kinds of phpicaI exercists and fighting tcch­

niqucs. Some made uSC only of the hands and the whole body, like the famom ChinC$C kung-fu orJapan�judo and karate; othen used the traditional eightun weapons. Th�y are ofl�n dos-ely connected one with another, and ..-eTC learned not only as fighting techniques but a. a means for achieving spiritual excellence, immortality, nirvana. etc. In each case t raining ofth� spirit was truted at eut:ntial, and they W�Te nC'o'er percei"ed merely a. physical abililies. This was the reason for the de"elopment ofsom� ofth� techniquCl in Buddhist monut�ries. Sometimes the military and spiritual upt
' J!Il Iii

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«ft,.

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30.

M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G ES

89

military texts that it regarded as 'dangerous' or 'immoral'.· In consequence such texts were read clandestinely, distributed illegally, and, even if used, were not referred to.b The sphere of influence of classical theory and its applications was extremely broad. I t was applied in politics and diplomacy, also enjoying success with mer­ chants as a theory of conducting business." It was recommended for use in every­ day life and in every activity of society.d However, even jf its uses in political activity, which often assumes the character of a fight, or even in trade, can be explained with comparative ease, yet viewing social life as a form of struggle may seem surprising, especially in China.e To determine the origins of this view would require some research, though it does seem that in China such a tradition goes back long before the influence of Western social Darwinism. Indeed, the easy assimilation (and dissemination) of the latter in China at the beginning of this century may well have been due to that tradition.r As early as the Chuang Ttu book we find the following fragment: Great words are clear and limpid, little words are shrill and quarrelsome. In sleep, men's spirits go visiting; in waking hours, their bodies hustle. In [human J relations and [humanJ unions 'fighting' between minds goes on every day, fit is) sometimes irresolute, sometimes sly, sometimes secret. Over liule fears people are careful, but over great [fears] they are deliberate. Some bound off like an arrow or a crossbow bullet, certain that they :tre the arbiters ofright and wrong. Olhers cling to their position as though they had sworn 10 be A ban on the �tudy ofmilhary leXIS was enrorced by Ihe .\lanehu Dyna�ty in + 1648. One year laler, th"y eased that restrielion and permiued the �ssion of cerlain kinds of arms, but upheld Ihe ban on thc poss
'

-

' it

30.

93

MISSILES AND SIECES

(hsing l ) and thus with law (Ja � ), with torture,' destruction and killing, with the

production of misfortunes, and hence with savagery.b According to the Five­ Element concept, wu was attributed to the fin season when everything withers away and dies down, that is, to autumn and to the element Metal. This theory established war's ties with Fire, Earth and Water, correspondence with the nu­ merals (9, 6 and 5), with directions (mainly western), and with certain animals.( Win' on the other hand, was identified with rang and corresponded to Heaven; wu\ identified with fin, must therefore belong to Earth. From an astrological aspect, Thai Po (the planet Venus) was assumed to be the heavenly body in charge of war, while the Moon presided over punishment in the narrower sense.d The principles determining these magic counterparts changed and were not al­ ways free from contradictions; some relationships appeared obvious, but others were of a speculative character.e At the end of the Warring States period the full or broken lines of the trigrams were considered as corresponding to the fang and fin forces. Thus there came aoom an intimate connection between the Eight Trigrams theory and military thought; moreover, the concept of correspondence between Heaven, Earth and Man was born. According to this, the Way of Heaven was based on the fang and fill forces, the \''\fay of Earth on Hardness (kallg�) and Softness (jouf.) • and the Way of Man on the virtues of human-hearledness (jin ' ) and righteousness (is).' Therefore Win 9 corresponded to Softness and Righteousness; a Softness (also oftcn understood as Flexibility, Weakness or Gentleness) which was expected to over­ come Hardness (i.e. Rigidity, Strength, Arrogant Violence).i Consequently Soft• C( Vol. �, p. 5\15. From + 15\10 onwards the early Ponugune travellers had b«n d�ply impressed by the justice of the Chinest magimat�, who 'lake all possible meanl lO 1Y0id oondemning anyone to death'. The evil conditions orprisons. and lhe use ofjudicial torture. they were accustomed to in their own coumry. so they did nOt remark on it.Just lhesame testimony was borne by a Timurid amb..wdor from Persia in + 14\10. Yet ","hen the British and other European sailors re..ched China in t820 the puni,hmenl$ of Chin.. Sttmed perfttdy barbarous. and the CUltoms ol' the country highl)' b..ckward. Wh..t had happened was tht growth of humanitari­ anism in Europe; this was cenainly not due 10 Capilalism, but it may well have b«n due to the rise of modern $("ience, with ilS coroliarie$ ofmodem plumbing and the appcar..nce ofa certain 'squeamishneM' about blood and excrela. The riK of anaeslh�ia had also increucd sensitivity 10 pain whether in onetelf Or in others. Hence perhaps the rise offorms oftorlure in our own time which avoid tOO obvious subsequent signs ofill having laken place. We shall return 10 this subject of the gro,,"th ofhumanitariani5m/Hlri/HlJsw with thedevelopmenl ofmooern S(icnce, in Vol. 7. Foucault ( t ) , it is true, maintains that the substitution of more Jubtle forms for the more ritualised and bloodr tOrtures ofearlier cemuries has nOi necessarily led to gre..ter humanitariani.m. • Cr. CMi". Hall S,b, rh. 2�, PI" t03I-\l, ch. 23, 1'1'.1079-81. eh. 26, PI'. 1282-92. • Particularly the cock and the monkey; cr. Vol. 2, p. \162. • CMtit� liaIl Sh". ch. 26, p. 1291; Thai Po }'in Ching, ch. 84, sect. .:,. Cf. l.i Vij·Jih \"01. V, p. 209. • for example. (he corre5pondence of �'Ietal and u:u,· ""ith the liver s.ecms natural beeaul< Ihil org..n was commonl)' a((epted as Kat of the animal wul. producing anger and courage. Warriors were often p�nted as 'haif')' men'. which corresponded to Ihe 'hair)' animals' attributed to �lel..I, Other correspondences, "'ith hemp, with an acrid laSte, the colour white. the White Tiger, with given hours, nOles, Iteml. etc., werc connected with the whole Fivc·Element s)"Stem. On theS(: 'symbolic corr(!lpondenccs' $ill

.. n Ifa r "'ill CO( puRiVl c:JtrntR n1tc-nn snOltn"

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\\brn ..-..Ii aJkd ·pacific ppon ... offici.&

....... . ""ould \ Ioadrn. ""llh tho

\nd to
1 04

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

I

I

A-A

KEY SINEW WOOD BA�"BOO HORN ANTLER CORK

c-c

D-D

E-E

rig. I�.

Cross-sutions showing (he slruclUral compClIlcnlS ofthe Chinne bow.

The structure can readily be understood from Fig. 15. The horn component was always applied to the central wood, bamboo or cane stave (often made affive or morc lengths spliced together) on the belly or compression side,- The carefully treated sinew, soaked in glue and laid in glue, was always applied to the back, and often protected by a layer of flexible tree·bark such as birch. The whole 'leaf. spring' assembly was then lacquered or painted externally for protection against the weather,b Primitive forms of this sySTem of course there were, such as the • Note that the terminology ofba�k and belly is ulkeo from the bow in itS unstrung oondi\ion.

b Th� diagram, in Fig. I .') are taken from two aClual specimens ofChhing dynasty bows, Md:wen (2), and may Ix taken as giving Ihe general principles ofcormrllClion ofall composite bows.

...

••

bu

• • •

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

,as

0'

Illy .nd :afnst the ,m!

sinew-girded (not glued) bows of the Eskimo, and the wooden or horn/antler bows of the Amerindian peoples which were backed with sinew laid in glue,' but these might be regarded as vestigial remnants of the bowyer's technique on fringes of cultural regions. We may notc here one analogy ofsome scientific interest; the glue was essentially a solution of gelatin and therefore a partial breakdown product of the elastic collagen fibres of the sinew tissue itself. Its fibrous micro-structure therefore bore a relationship to the sinew in some sense analogous to that between the micro-layers of hard cementite and soft ferrite in wootz steel, and the welded sandwiches of hard and soft steels which the smiths jointed together in hammering their blades. We have already noted the fact that both these techniques, the one based on plant and animal materials, the other on metals, arose and flourished especially in Asia. The antiquity of the reflex shape of the Chinese bow is strikingly shown in the character which has always served to denote it, kung ! (K/gO l ) . Among certain hidden derivatives, 5M2, to shoot (K/807), added to the pictograph an arrow and the hand of the archer. The design of the composite bow changed and developed over the course of centuries. Perhaps this was a result of an early 'arms race' between the nomadic peoples of the steppes north of the Creat Wall and the Han people themselves. The advantage in Chhin and Han probably lay with the crossbow which out­ ranged the double curved 'Scythian' type of bow then in use.b This type of bow had a long history and continued in use across Asia, even penetrating into Europe in the hands of Scythian auxiliaries who made their first appearance in the Athenian army in - 530.c Although Rausingd supposed that the type was con­ fined to Europe and Western Asia, its depiction on bronze vessels as early as the Shang is clear evidence for its early use in China.' It is impossible to say with any degree of certainty just when the change oc­ curred, but by about + 200 bows were being stiffened by plates of bone or antler both in the handle section and, more importantly, at the ends of the limbs. These stiffened ends were acutely reflexed and formed 'ears', a term used nowadays by students of archery history. The reflexing of the ears gave additional leverage resulting in a longer draw and an increased power output for the same draw weight (input) of the bow. Apart from bone plates recovered from a number of burials, in 1934 Sven Hedin excavated one of these bows intact from a burial ncar

• Hamilton (I), pp. 9 and 93, traces Ihe development oflhe Amerindian composite bow and consideR illl Invention to be linked with the 'usc of the horse in hunting and fighting . . . ', a Iheory which might be applied with equal foree to Central Asia. , Cr. p. 123.

• Vos, (I),p. 88.

• Rausing (I), p. 140. • Weber (I), p.l4.

106

30.

M I LI T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

Fig. 16. 80". al'l'O"'S and qui-eroflhe Eallern Han dynasty ( + 7nd ccnlu!)·!. unearthed ;n '9.'i9 at Niya, Niya COUnly. Sinkiang.

the mouth of the Qum-Darya river in Sinkiang. Unfortunately, the bow was severely damaged in transit and reconstruction is not possible. However, a further complete bow, also from Sin kiang, has been found and this was published in 1975 although no detailed description was given (Fig. 16).- The construction is clear from the photograph and although the bow is distorted due to having been in­ terred in a braced state ready for shooting, it can readily be equated with bows depicted in art from the Thang to the Yuan periods. b Subsequent developments involved the replacement of antler or bone plates by • Anon. (26jl. - Exampln are 100 numerous 10 list he� bUI for SOme eumplacr. Rorex &. W�n (I .

30.

MISSILES AND SIEGES

1 07

,

; ,

s ,

Fig. 17. Iklail from paiming on silk showing lh� improved fcaluresoflhc: '-ling bow held by the emperor �lingShih-Tsung r + ljUIO + 1566).

additional wood. The handle reflex diminished somewhat so that at brace height the bowstring loop-knots rested at the base ofeach ear. To provide extra stability a bridge of antler or wood was provided for the knots to rest on (Fig. 14F). This style of bow predominated in the ehhing but the older 'Scythian' type was

30.

108

M I L IT A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

fig. 18. The /ui(J(JslMll blfl or shorl-tarM short bow. From Ogyu Sorai, SMsAe RNiji Kobjitri 2f3.:;b. Fig. 19- The /11 shaD hltg or IOllg-eared long bow. From Ogyu Sorai, Sh(Jsiw Rllij; KQkNjihi 'l/3Sa.

not entirely superseded. By the Ming period it had acquired short ears coupled with a long ridged section on the arms below each ear (Fig. [ 7) which gave improved efficiency. In this form it resembled the 'Krim Tatar' style of bow so much favoured by the Otloman Turks, judging by the large numbers collected at the end of the last siege of Vienna in + 1 683 and even now impressively displayed in that city's museums.3 The encyclopaedias continued to illustrate the two basic types: onc a short bow with short ears (hsiao shao kung I ) and a longer bow with long ears (la shaQ kung2) (Figs. 18 and 19). According to the Wu Pei Chih the short·eared bow was used by civilians and the long·eared bow was more suitable for military use." The short· eared bow was said to be more liable to become distorted, and indeed bows of the Iype illustrated in the Wu Pei Chih having acutely set·back handle sections do have this difficulty. The type survived in Korea where it is still made and used as a • cr. Hein

I I.

30. M I S S I L E S

AND

SIEGES

1 09

}'ig. 1I0. The struCture oflhe compound bow. The end is of horn. The arm husucces"i"e layers ofwood or bamboo, and sinew in glue; Ihe hand·grip or bdly is made of birch·bark and lacquer,

sporting weapon. European archers have often been amazed at the difficulty expe­ rienced in bracing and adjusting them before they are ready for use, although the Koreans themselves appear to have no great problem and are excellent archers using them.' When we turn to the ancient texts for information, we find that the Chou Li (Record of the Rites of Chou), compiled in the Former Han dynasty probably about the - 2nd century, has a long section on the bow simple in the Khao Kung Chi (Artificers' Record) chapter. With the exception of that devoted to the chariot-makers, it is the longest of all.b The bow's composite character appears at once in a phrase which the writer might have borrowed verbatim from one of the old artisans: Wood ror range, horn for speed, sinew for penetration, glue for union, silk binding for firmness, lacquer for guard against frost and dew. The bowyers collect the six materials, each in their proper season, and then they are combined together by men ofskill." •

And he goes on to say that the wood is cut and trimmed in winter, the horn is soaked and glued in the spring, the sinew is prepared in the summer, and the three combined in the autumn.d From this text we know also the technical terms for the different parts of the bow, stabilised at that time and used throughout subsequent cemuries.' Thus there was the back (see Fig. 20), pi I , with its backing of glued sinew bound with silk (ju2), the arm (Ju3), the hollow belly (wei·), the shoulder Elou (I). b Ch. 44, pp. 161f. (ch. Ill, pp. 1I4alf.); tr. Biot ( I j, "0]. 1I , pp. !)80If. , Tr. aUCI. The order of the Iwosentences is invtrted in the original. d P. 2 7a; Biot, p. !)87. We arc fortun ate thaI al a late �riod (19411) al least one Chinese bowmaker was following the craft and his methods and materials were recorded (Than Tan.Chhiung (I)). No reference is made in Ihis report to soaking the horn. We arc originally uncLear whether the referencc in Ihe CIwM Li was to soaking the horn in glue or in waler, but on a recent visit 10 Outer Mongolia Edward McEwen had the opportunity to di$Cuu bowmaking with a Mongol bowyer. Apparently Ihey do soak the hom in waler, the purpose being temporarily to increase Ihe flexibility and softness ofthe horn so that it wi]] conform more cLosely 10 the sha� of the co� during the gluing process. After the death ofEdmond BiOI, JOmeofthis was worked out by his father the greal chemist,J. B. Biot, aided by SIJulien, and an appropriate appendix was added (vol. 2, pp. 60t If.). On the Khao Kung Chi chapter oflhe Clift Li ICC tOO HayaJhi Minao (s), pp. 247-81, (6), pp. 10-52, 1I04-5, 462-3.

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30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

110

(kan I ) , so called because no morc horn was affixed at that part, and finally the inAcxible extremity or ear (hsiaoM). The central grip (pa4) oflhe early Han bow was situated at the point (d) where there was a prominent set-back, so it was called the 'corner' (chiao), or the character may be read ,hiiel! and mean the angle of the grip section). The point where the horn ended (f) towards the shoulder was called chiao chieh6• Other texts ofcourse have variant terms; the Shih Ming dictionary (ca. + 1 00) calls the ear mi' , the armful and the shoulderyuan 9 . The ChQU Li also gives a list of the woods most suitable for bows" Its order of preference starts with a hard wood known as the silkworm thorn,b and ends with the bamboos,c passing through privet ofa certain kind,d the wild mulberry,t orange wood,' quincel and thornh in descending value.; I t does not mention san­ dalwood,J used ceremonially and recommended later on in Taoist books,k per­ haps because endowed, like the peach, with magical powers. Sinew (chin 10 ) from the Achilles tendon of the elk or moosel was especially valued, but those of many quadrupeds were used.m Horn (chio I I ) came from the water-buffalo and from the long-horned cattle of the western borders (Hsi hsia chu niu 12 ) .n As for the cutting of the wood according to the grain, the application of the pieces of horn to JUSt the right extent on each side of the grip, and the preparation of bows for different purposes and for different human psycho-physical Iypes, many details will be found in the Chou Li.O The pride of the bowyers of Chou and Han is nicely shown

• Ch. l � . p. 24b.

CMor /Sn ". C�Jmni� triloba. R/�99. Ch� ", BnmbM$a. tpp., B/II, 501. 563. Howe\·u. bamboo was ust:d :Ilmost exclusively by later bowyers for Ihe flexible partt of Ihe bow core. e�crpt in the north of China where bamboo was not readily available, Than Tan.Chhiung (I), Laver ( I ). • J". 1-i,ItS/TII"'. tpp.. B/I I . .)01. ,)44. • r"" $till, " IIQT/l.ul/nl, BIll, .)001 .)01. I 0.". CUTIII Ipp. producing 5mall oranges, B/II. 486, 501. I .11/1 kIM ", C,JdQ"illSillmsis, B/II. 4i8, 501. • CII'", '". I·iI1' 5pp.. B/II, 501, 521. I Thi, list held good for ccntury aner century, and was copied from onc encyclopaedia 10 another. Thus Adler (2), who WTOIC On Ihe North Asian bow in modern limes, gOI il from Ihe KII�n,Shih ui FII of + 1699. J CMII11I thnn". Ihe San/a/iMm alhm of the Li Chi. R/590, Blli, 540. Or peThapl C,lli$ sinrnsi s, B/ll. 531, or Dalb"lia huprana, R/38 1, also varieli� of/h�1I. I E.g. the TU1I Chia lilw.i Shan TIIu ", probably part ofTT/850 or 866; cit. TPrL, ch. 347, p. 7b. I Ch;III min, Alus marMis, R/365. Laler bowmaken used tendon from Ihe backs ofcallie; TKKIV (p. 262 Sun & Sun Ir.), Than Tan.Chhiung (t). McEwen ( I ) ,peculale! on Ihe reaKlns for Ihi,. - Ch. 1 2, p. 26b, bUllhe animals are not spedfied. • [t "'as also wekomed from tributary countries. Thus Sun Chhiian, the Wu emperor, gOt Klme from Korea aboul +235 (Ch'd1l1 PiIJf} Cha"". cit. TPrL.ch. 347. p. 7b). Ch. 12, pp. 25", 28b, 3 1 b; BiOI Ir. \'01. 2. pp. $83,591, 597. For a mor� complete exposilion oflhe craft, albeit {('mred nound the Chhing00"" reference $hould be made to Than Tan-Chhiung (.1'). �

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30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

in a story from the Lith. Nii Chuan I (Lives of Celebratcd Women):-

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the mists of legend as Manchuria and the Liao River,' which produced a valuable fish glue called 110 chiao ! . The reference was no doubt to this when the +4th or + 5th cen tury Hai Nei Shih Chou Chi (Record of the Ten Sea Islands) spoke of the wonderful adhesive of Feng Lin Chou7, a place in the western ocean fifteen hun­ dred Ii across, surrounded by 'weak water',b and containing abundant drug plants and many hsien.' As onc should not disdain to learn from legend, here is the account of this glue stronger than wood. From the bill orthe phoenix and the horn orthe unicorn a glue is made which is called 'bow-repairing glu(:' [hsii hsien chiao4J." Anoth(:r nam(: for it is th(: 'm(:tal-joining mud' [lien chin nis J. This glue can make joins in ttl(: broken curves of bows and crossbows, and (:v(:n cement the metal of broken sabres and swords. Jfthese things are again pulled violently [or struck], and so break, they will not break at the joins but somewhere else. In tl)(: 2nd year of the Thien-Han reign-period [ -99J, when the emperor [Han \\iu TiJ went to worship the spirits of the Northern S(:a and ofHcng-Shan, th(: ambassador of this coulltry [Feng Lin Chou] came and pr(:sented four ounces of this glue, together with som(: bright auspicious coats offur. Wu Ti accepted th(:se things, but not knowing th(:ir mysterious \,irtu(:S, just had them sent to the store-hous(:S. H(: thought that such native tribute was so unimpOrtant that he did not even give th(: envoy leave to return. One day the emperor visited the Hua-Lin park, and in shooting a tiger broke his crossbow, As th(: ambassador happenro to Ix pr(:s(:nt h(: offered another sampl(: of,h(: glue, oll(:jin in weight, advising the (:mperor to moisten th(:joint with spiul(: (and apply the glue, which mended it immediately). The emperor was quite stanled, and got his mighty men of war to pull on it in different directions a whole day long- but th(:y could never br(:ak it. This glue is blu(:-green, coloured like caerutean ( pj6) jade.d The fur coats, how(:ver, were yetlow, and came from some sort ofmagic horses; they could float in the water for months without sinking, and pass through fire without getting scorched," Thus the emperor was delighted and dismissed the envoy with many presenlS.f

Good glue mixtures were certainly the reality behind this pleasant tale,a Some investigation of the mechanical propenies of the Asian composite bow has been made by Klopsteg,h who studied the efficiency of different types of bows in the transference ofenergy from the drawn state to the moving arrow. If curves are

• Cr. the Tdlu Lin Hai TsIID' by Hsia Shu_Fang". On Ihis, Stt .5«1. �3b abcl\"e. , SlriVang Cheng,3 the collaborator of the Jesuit physicist John Terence, described in his own book, the Chu Chhi Thu Shuo· (Diagrams and Explanations of a Variety of Machines), an old bronze trigger mechanism which had been dug up, and which he had copied • Presumablr the same as Chhing Chhung-Tou, see p. '37 below. •

WPC, ch. 8�, p. 5a, reproduced in TSCC, JUIIl (killl /im, ch. 284, pp. 3b, 4b.

, F i'J:

30.

MISSILES

A N D SIECES

' 35

in iron according to his own modified designs.- The basic principle was lhe same as the good old method but he had (less elegantly) three separate shafts, and the trigger had to be pressed forward, not backward, in order to release the rocking lever and the nul. The componenlS were also endowed with new and fanciful names. (ii) Origin and deuelopment ofthe crossbow

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1

What was the origin of the crossbow in China? What relation had it to the simpler crossbows of the tribal peoples, and what account did the Chinese themselves give of its origins? These are the questions (Q which we must now lUrn. When they have been dealt with it will be natural to offer a sketch of the history and importance of the crossbow in the Chinese cuhure-area. Vlc shall then be able to return to the technical side to consider the various ways in which the crossbow was armed, and the invention of testing and sighting devices. A continual urge was the increase of firc-power and as we shall see this took various forms, sometimes the development of crossbows and arcuballistae which would shoot off a number of bolts at one time, later on the brilliant invention of the repeating or magazine crossbow. Facts here to be presented will give us a transition to the real artillery of the Chinese middle ages. The consideration of the parallel history of the crossbow in Europe and the Islamic lands will then conclude our report. Throughout southeastern Asia the crossbow is still used by primitive and tribal peoples both for hunting and war, from the Assamese mountains through Burma, Siam and to the confines of Indo-China. The peoples of northeastern Asia possess it also, both as weapon and toy, but use it mainly in the form of unattended traps; this is true of the Yakut, Tungus and Chukchi, even of the Ainu in the easl. There seems no way of answering the question whether it first arose among the barbaric forefathers of these Asian peoples before the rise of Chinese culture in their midst, and then underwent its technical development only therein, or whether it spread outwards from China to all the environing peoples. The former seems the more probable hypothesis, given the further linguistic evidence in itS support.b In any case the crossbow of the tribes has been written of by many travellers, both West­ ern and Chinese,� for example Rock ( I ) from whose work we reproduce Fig. 34, the picturc ofa Li-su guard on a pass near Yung-Ning in Yunnan.d A good deal of information about the crossbows of the tribes is contained in the works of Fan Chhcng-Ta and Chou Chhli-Fei, who were both writing about + 1 1 75. We are • P. 17bff.

- Jerry Norman and :-'1ci Tsu-lin (I), pp. 293-4; cr. Robin D. S. Vales (3), p. 410; Robin D. S. Vales t�), P· 404· • The crossbows ol'lhc Miao arc often depiw�d in lhose .less anlhropological geographies orlhe Chhing period (er. Sec,. '12b abo\'e); one such ilJuSlralion has been reproduC«! by Horwitz (13), Fig. 3. a crossbo...... .-or a fine colour photograph 01' a Naga . d Cr. al50 his Fig. 1:;7 of a Na·khi tribesman ....ith tribesman shooting a boh, Itt Ripley (I), p. 2:;1.

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

Fig. 34.

A Li-su guard d(monsmna a ·�ri...:( crossbow, from Rock (I).

told that they were of a special type called pitn cltia lIU I . a term which almost certainly means that the bowstave was made ofseveral pieces of bamboo or wood in leaf-spring form, a The bolts were not feathered,b and the range was remarkably small - under 20 yards - bm the poison which was applied to them was so power­ ful that anyone hit by them died at oncc.c A much earlier account of such weapons • Kuri Hai rii HfngChih, p. tlla; Ling IVai Tai Ta, ch. 6, p. �b. WuhalJ r(llIrn below (p. 156) 10 th� l�af_lpring invention. - Thr lrigger-mearne-Gall,,'ey (t), pp. 13, 154); in Spain lhe ,,-hite hellebore was known as the crossbowman', plant. Feng Ta-Jan &. Kilborn (I) idenlified aconite as th( poison of the NIHu and Hua Miao arro-,,'s. Other southeast Asian tribes, as Seligman (6) found in a classical raeaITh fifty rears ago, used poisons related to digitalis. Cf. Biml ( I , 2).

30. M I S S I L E S

'37

AND SIEGES

occurs in the Po IVu Chih of about + 290, where i t is said that the bows of a people in Indo-China ( Win-Lang Kuo l ) were several feel high and shot poisoned arrows over I ft long, and that the poison was kept secret under a strange oath.I n the oldest Chinese discussion of the crossbow which we have, there is no hint that il was adopted from neighbouring barbarians; on the contrary a specific inventor is named, and he is placed, perhaps significalllly, not very far back to­ wards the age of legends. The text is contained in the lVu tiith Chhun Chhiu, but though therefore not necessarily older than the + 2nd century, may well be con­ sidered to embody traditions going back to the Chhin or even the late Warring States period. We readb that: Fan Li� also presented [to Kou Chien,d the kingofVuehJ a skilful archer from Chhu, whose name was Chhcn Vin2• The king discussed with him, saying, 'I have heard ofyour skill at shooting. Pray how did the Tao of it arise?' Chhen Vin answered that he was but a commoner ofChhu who had learned the technique but was not a master of its Tao. The king said, 'Still, tell me a few things about it.' [Chhen Vin then speaks of the pellet-bow as the origin of the bow used with arrows, in words the translation of which has already been given, p. [ [6 above.] 'So Shen �ung and Huang Ti " took string and wood to make bows, and sharpened wood for arrows" ." And Ihus the power ofarchery overawed the whole world. After Huang Ti there came, ill Chhu, Hu Fu" who' was born parentless at Ching-Shan'. He learnt his shooting \\'hen young, and never missed a targe!. From him Vi) gOt his art,' and passed il on 10 Feng �leng6 whob taught in his turn :\·I r Chhin' ofChhu. :\Ir Chhin considered, howe\'er, thai the bow and arrows were no longer sufficient to keep the world in obedience, for in his time all the feudal lords were fighting againsl one another with weapons, and could not be controlled by [ordinaryJ archery. He therefore added at right angles to the bo,\' a stock [htng kung cho pi' J and established a [trigger-J mechanism within a box [or housingJ rshih chi sM J.:U()' J ,i thus increasing its strength,j I n this way all the feudal lords could be subdued. k :\'! r Chhin transmitted his invention to the Three Lords ofChhu [ . . , J • Ch. '1. I). ja; K'e H. ),Iaspt:ro ( 1 8).

b Ch. 9. 1r. aU('I. In Tl'rl. ch, 348. p. 5b, the teXl is so much abridged as to � $Om�lima unimdligible. but (hat \'crsion pre�ncs $Om... octter readin�. , The Stalesman interested in agronomy and pisdeuhure. d Reigntd 496/ 470 • Quolation from [Ching. 'Ta CJ1U3n" pI 2, ...h. 2; R. Wilhelm (Baynes) (r., "oJ. I, p. 356. 1 I'raumabl)' a lo IN.

30. M I S S I L E S AND S I E G E S

1 47

fig. 36. Arming a t:uropean crossbovo' "�lhoUI stirrup, Payne-Gall,.."')' (I , Fig. 2,.. t";g. 37. Arming a European crossbow with stirrup. Pa)'n�·Gallwcy ( I), fig. 2j.

I

r


OS$iblc inLcrpreLaLioH. Each grid might ha"c had thrtc horizontal and Lhrtc nrlical rrOf$wires, wiLh �rhaps a bud aL Lheccmral cross, bUl lhis would �m raLhcr loocomplicaLM a syslcm. Ahcrnali"dy there mighl have !xcn onl� one pairol (rosswirC$, $0 LhaL Lhe 'Heaven' and Ihe 'Eanh' wires ....ould both ha,·c !xcn included i n Ihe coordinates. yel Ihis �ms 10 be gainsaid by Ihe leXI. I t was ne\'cnhcless the interprclalionofShen Kua in + 1086 (�VoL 3. pp. :'74-5).

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30. M I S S I L E S

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AND

SIEGES

1 53

mentioned in the Liu Thao (Six Quivers): which, though incorporating material as old as the - 3rd century, did nOI reach its present form before the + 2nd. We have noticed il already in the conversation between Chhen Yin and the King of Yliehb , but again the Wu ruth Chhun Chhiu is a + 2nd cenlUry work. Ofpanicular interest is its appearance in the Chou Li,c The imperial tutor (Paa Shihl ) is in charge of the education of the princes, and one of Ihe arts which he has to teach them is the 'five kinds of shooting' (wu ski' ) . Cheng Hsiian (c. + 1 80) quotes the opinion of Cheng Chung (c. + 80) that these wefe the pai shih' (white arrows), the IsllOTI Jim· (the triple connection), the)'tn cnu' (peering through sighting holes), the "siang chhih6 (movable according to the graduated rule), and the ching i' (a

device like the character ching). It seems evident that this was a list of sighting devices - though that was not the belief of later commentators.d Ifso, the last of the five would be some variant form of the grid which is mentioned by name in the second place. The fourth would have something to do with the graduated scale on the nut-lug. In general, then, there seems every reason for believing that the grid-sight was an invention of the + 1st century,� while the lug scale would proba­ bly go back to the Chhin. Another reference to sighting may be contained in one of the + 3rd-century chapters of the Shu Ching. f The text says: 'Just as the forester, with [his finger on thel trigger, and his bow drawn, aims at the target embraced in the graduations [of his sights], and so lets fly [ . . . ] [JQ yii chi chang wang hsing kuayii lu lsi shih 8].' • 'Chiin rung' eh.; cit. TPrL, eh. 348, p. 6b; TSCC, Jung tMng lim, eh. �83, p. I a. 1'. 139 above. • Ch. 13, p. �71T. (eh. 4, p. 8b); Ir. BioI ( I ) , vol. I , p. 297. � Their "�plallalions of Ihese lerms ....ere dislinctly fantaSlic; doubdeu Ihey had 110 practical e�periellce of rr�bo....s. For c�ample Chia Kung-Yen in Ihe Thang ....role of/Shan lim Ihat il meant Ihree arro....s lied togelher and ShOl 1LI a largel already pierced by a previous arrow. II was al$O supposed Ihal IrJiang Jhould be readjang', and ,hul mcam yielding placc 10 Ihe prin,,·e,"er. A parallel analogy occurs in Willi HOI! SAN, ch. 8, p. ga, see Dubs (2), \'01. 2, p. 219. I P. 1 32 above (ch.23,cil. TPYL, ch.348, p. la).

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

I jO

There is really nothing here that would nOt apply to the standard trigger-mecha­ nism. On the whole, therefore, it does not seem likely that crossbows of magazine type were known in antiquity.

"'" d I d.,

(v) The crossbow in East and West When we survey the comparative distribution of the hand-crossbow in time and space, we find ourselves in the presence ofa pattern of interchange rather different from any which have so far appeared. That this weapon was in common use from at least the - 4th century in China, and that it attained a high degree of perfection already in the - 1st, has been shown beyond doubt by the material summarised in the foregoing pages.a In European antiquity, however, it docs not appear early, and the evidence of its existence between the + I st and + 5th centuries is sparse and curious. After that there is a complete gapb until it reappears in the + loth to enjoy a period of flourishing and dominance, lasting on in the hands of hunters and amateurs well into the + [ 7th century and, indeed, it is still in use today. The possibility therefore arises of two separate introductions from East Asia, of which the former would perhaps have been direct, while the latter would no doubt have involved Arab intermediation. \\"hat can be said of the 'first crossbow period' in Europe? Immediately we come upon the strange and isolated invention of a crossbow armed by the pressure of the body, nOt traction or tension, the gastrapheles ("yClO"l:p(l¢lhT1�) of Heron of Alex­ andria.c This mOSt ingenious device has been carefully studied and reconstructed by Schrammd and Becke, and has orten been figured.f It consisted in having the stock of the crossbow in two longitudinal pieces which could slide upon one an­ other, the sliding piece (which carried the arrow-groove) and a simple trigger being fixable at any point along the base by a catch and ratchet mechanism. Since, in the unarmed position, this sliding piece projected well beyond the bow­ stave end of the stock, the archer had simply to lean with all his weight upon the other end of the stock in order to draw the string. As Horwitz says,lI the substitu­ tion of pressure for traction was brilliant, but unfortunately there is no evidence that the device was ever used in practice. hs strange isolation, moreover, can only be appreciated when one realises that nearly all the catapult artillery pieces of the Greeks and Romans were based not on the tension ofa bowstavc, but on the radial • The ",imale Qf HQrwitz (q) in his CQmparali"e swdy, Qf Ihe - 12th fQr China il. Qf CQUIX. very exagger-

3t�.

� FQre�ample. there is nQ ment;Qn Qfit at all in the SI'II"licIIQf :\laurikiQlc. + 600. • The passages cQncerning this in his Btlo/»l,ka have bttn trans1atM by Dids & Schramm (t); Schneider (2 and Bcd (3 . • 2 . p. 217 and Fig. 6-\.

•

(31. p. t6-\. E.g. by Detnmin ( I ) . p. t 16; alSQ �Iarsdfn (2), fig. 3, p. 47, cQrresponding IQ pp. 2 t -3 Qf th� IranslaliQn Qf HerQ"'s miliw.ry lexu. A phQlograph Qf a rcronslruclro full-Kale mood in QJXratiQn is giv�n by Feldhaus {2 , p. '9�. cQpied from Dids & &hramm ( I). f

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,

,

movement of bars secured in upright twists of sinew, the torsion of which pro­ duced the clastic return.Nearly, but not all. Much though we may desire a clear picture of occidental developments for comparison with happenings at the eastern end of the Old World, we have to recognise that we cannOI always obtain it, and unfortunately the early history of catapult artillery in ancient Mediterranean civilisation has problems still unsolved. One of the lesser-known writers on projectile-throwing engines in antiquity was named Biton, and his text, edited and translated by Rehm & Schramm ( I ) , describes a number ofarcuballistae (i.e. crossbow cata­ pults sel upon stands). There arc two forms of a large single-spring crossbow for shooting small stone balls, mounted on a sloping frame capable of varied eleva­ tion; these machines are ascribed to Charon of Magnesia and Isidorus of Abydos. Another type, shooting off two arrows at one time, is attributed to Zopyrus of Tarentum, and this is strangely called a gastraphtltS though it is not a hand­ crossbow and not armed by a sliding stock. We must conclude, therefore, that at some time or other catapult artillery pieces (arcuballistae) of strictly crossbow type were used in the Graeco-Roman world. The difficulty is to know exactly when. That important catapult (ka/aptftikon , KlltCutEivt(KOV) inventions were made by the engineers of Dionysius at Syracuse in preparation for the siege of - 399 is distinctly stated by Diodorus Siculus,b and no one has seen good reason for contradicting him. But he failed to reveal what they were. On one widely-held view, this was the moment of the invention of the tor­ sion sinew-bundle types, true crossbow lypes having existed for at least a century earlier.� Another opiniond would remove the gastraphetes from Heron's paternity and place it here at Syracuse. In any case, there may have been two Herons. For, as will be remembered, thefloruil of the Alexandrian Heron of the Mechanica is now placed at +6'2 by Neugebauer (6), strongly supported by Drachmann ('2,3).e Yet lhe title of the relevant treatise may be translated 'The Artillery Manual of Ctcsibius' Heron', suggesting that the latter was the son or pupil of the former, and must therefore have flourished about - 230 to - 2 1 o. Internal textual evidence is held to agree with this date.r The dating of Biton and his text seems no less a puzzle. I t cannOt be earlier than - 315, and well-informed opinion clings to the traditional time of about - '235.' Now on the orthodox views the arcuballistae • cr. Sch"'nlm (I, �); Huuri (I); R. Schneider (,); Payne.Galh,·cy (I. �).

'I

,f

171

b XI\" .J�, 43. , Schramm (�). p. � 1 6; R. Schneider (;.) . d Communicated to us by Dr E. D. Marsden or Livcrpool. • Heron Jhowed Ihal it was poouiblc 10dClcrminc Ihc dislance bf:twccn Rome and Alexandria by observing the Io3me lunar edipsc rrom both plac(S, and Neugebauer pointed out that the only edipsc he could have used wu that of this ·) ear. Draehmann added twO examples or inveOlions of Heron conccmed with prwing machinery both daled by Pliny in Ihe + ru century (cr. Vol. 4, pt 1, p. 1(9). f Dr :\Iarsden nato that the writer mcntions the calibration rormulae which came in aboul -'270 bUI nOI the standard size spC"("ificalions ....hich . weTC" current after - '200. AJ 10 the former, cr. Drachmann (4). I Personal comn,unication rrom Dr :\iarsdCII.

I )'

30.

M I LI T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

which he describes were then entirely OUI of date,· yet the fact that h e calls onc of them agasfrapheles when it is no such thing suggests that his text ought to be placed lalcr than - 200 or even later than +62. Moreover no crossbows or crossbow arcuhallistae appear on the reliefs orthe Trajan Columnb of + 1 10 or on any other monument of these centuries - all arc torsion-type pieces. At the present time there seems to be no assured solution to all these contradictions. The provisional view which we shall here adopt is that the Syracusan inventions were of torsion-type catapults, and thaI these remained the characteristic engines of both Greek and Roman armies. At the same lime we would ascribe the gas(raphtltS to perhaps the - [St century and the date of Biton's text and machines (though not necessarily of the man himself) to a slightly later time.� The rest of the evidence for hand-crossbows in late European antiquity can be summarised in a few words. These weapons are seen quite clearly in two Gallo­ Roman monumental reliefs showing hunting parties, one at Salignac-sur-Loire, and one at Le Puy,d but so far as can be made out, they depict an ordinary type, and not the gaslraphelts. As to their date, there is much uncertainty, opinions varying from the + [st to the + 5th century.t On the textual side, there is almost nothing but passing references in the military historian Vegetius (fl. + 386) to 'manuballistae' and 'arcuballistae'/ which he said he must decline to describe as they were so well known. His decision was highly regrettable, as no other author of the time makes any mention of them at all.* Perhaps the best supposition is that the crossbow was primarily known in late European antiquity as a hunting weap­ on, and received only local use in certain units of the armies of Theodosius I , with which Vegctius happened to be acquainted. II One of the most extraordinary facts about the history of these devices is that a magazine form was devcloped by the Alexandrian mechanicians. I t was the polybolon (KO:t(:mtA:rT1� 1[0}.1)�6A.o�) described by Philon of Byzantium (commonly placed in the - 2nd century).; As reconstructed by Beck (3) and Schramm ( I ),j it • Ie i5 generally agrero that tile ccollibo....-type arcuballi!tae ....ould lIa"e been more robusl and 1e5S tricky, and must ha"e laslro longer, than Ih.. more po....erful tonion-types. BUI their grealer simplicity docs not prove tllat Ih,,}' ....ere more primili..e: il mighl indeed indicale the opposite. b On Trajan's column sc :he �t. ta ·os

e

'P'

·tly flat md pe. no the nge :nts rids

g

h

1\

� ,a

hall

:ar­ mly

'olon ,

m

s oc

Fig. 6 [ . R'-':OIISlTUClions orcarly forms ofarcuballis\ac.

:I and

{ [ , 2);

or nO!

u[ (he

being

,m'Cll­

,dp'o

�bow

for lapuh

$C,

use it was probably placed on a wheeled carriage (Fig. 6 1 b).· Chinese mountings tcnded to be rectangular frameworks, often wheeled (Fig. 6 1 c), and it was possible 10 couple two or three bowstaves together in order to increase the energy or tension and hence thc initial velocity of the bolt (Fig. 6Id). Quite different in principle were all those machines which depended upon the torsion of sinew or hair. The torsion catapult (Fig. 61e) consisted of two arms the forward ends of which were tightly held in vertical bundles of sinew so that when the string was released • This "as",Ucd 'springarda' Huuri. I , p. 51 . C[ Bonapartc &. .'a,t

(

. "01. 1. 1'1. J opp. p. 18,

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

the elastic torque gave the effect of a powerful spring. When used for shooting arrows or boils, this piece of artillery was termed tuthytonon (tU96TOVOV) or scorpio; when adapted for stone balls it was the palintonon (1! in Ihe drafting of Ihe following sub-5e'('lion$. The Contribution of Yata (3 is. howe"cr,

II

indislJ3, Ir. �un. adju\. t'orke (3 . p. 60;.

forke', Ir-..llulation was gl"QlS$Jr abridged, and conlains

sc-w'ral misapprt:"h! lIu has 30 arrow·groo,·cs on one >. lock a ddiniliOIl oncn «"pealed aflCTwards. as ill ,ht liun�l run and olher cnqTlopacdias. Yell Shih.Ku 'ca. +600 ,upporlt'd him. lIu, Liu I'in + 102�/+ 1088 said Iha! all lhncimcrprelaliom wc«" nonsense. and Ihal �h . ..,

' 111 ' ill

,l ij

• :k /iIj

' 1;1

' " II: ,t..' t::

206

30.

MILITARY TECHNOLOGY

case the COnlext alone decides. Eventually the fire radical was incorporated in the word itself as plwo 1 , but even this· docs not infallibly designate the tfue barrel gun or cannon, for which other terms came in. Here we can follow these terminological problems no further, but naturally we shall have to return to them more than once.b l\one orthe phao words were the oldest term for the swape catapult or trebuehel, however. This was kuai2 (or kuti), but unfortunately the original meaning of the word was signalling-flag,C Perhaps its oldest appearance (about the -gth cen­ tury?) occurs in the T a Ming oded in the Ta Ya section or the Shih Ching: ' rin­ Shang ,hih iii, chhi kuaiju lin's ('The cohorts of Yin-Shang with their banners were massed like a forest').c Somewhat later is the mention in the Tso Chuan' in connec­ tion with the ballie of Hsu-Ko in - 706, at which the prince of Cheng ordered the drums to beat whenever the signal-flags were moved (cuai tung erh kuf). The origin of the trebuchet from the single flagpole would have been extremely natural, since the swape usually embodies but a single vertical pole. And by the Han it had certainly taken place, for commentators then explained both these passages as referring to trebuchets. In + 1 2 1 Hsu Shen, quoting the Shih Ching, said' that the kuai is 'a great arm of wood on which a stone is laid, and this by means of a device [chiS] is shot off and so strikes down the enemy'. Before him, about + 50, Chia Khuei had given the same explanation of the Tso Chuan passage. But the word kuai continued for some time more to mean flags, since one can find it for instance in a poemh ofMaJ ung's about + 150. If one had to fix any particular time for the first origin of the trebuchet, it would be tempting to associate it with the name of the Yiieh statesman Fan Li about - 480, or whoever it was in the following couple of · ccnturies who wrOlC the now long lost Fan Li Ping Fa' (Military Manual). Chang Yen had a copy of this in the + grd century, and a quotation which he made from il has reached us through the commentary of the Shih Chi;; 'The flying stones , weigh 1 2 calliesl and by devices [chiS] are shot off 300 pacesk . Any earlier refer­ ence than this would be unlikely. • II was distingui!hed from the old won! pM.', meaning to roa1t or fry, by OJ. dilfe�nt orthography, though composed ofthe same elements. b Below, pp. 210- t I and 230. < As was "cryreasonable from ils pennant 'radical',.J •

85

a flll

rcC'tangular, with SC\'cncomponent arm countcrweightcd trcbuchct

L:ff'I�

hui-hui p.

li'IF'lm

IO?

,

»00

(Polo fig. 300l

< 300'

• "\U1jllified from Ihe mbicsofHng Cllia·Sheng (z), p. 43 and Huun (I), p. '101. � II is hardl) l'rcdibk Ihal all ofl� haula:! al one mome"'; Ihe figurn prr$umabJy represent Ihe IOlal numberofmen in the unil who di"ida:! inlO groups and look lun" �t Ihl' hauling. Thi. i, al ... Huuri', "iew ( t ) . p. 14. < I'r�umabl) ;-':COs .....ho atlended 10 the aiming and ga"e the order to pull. • Cilkulalro fmm thl' Sung eauin (c.+i_) given at Ihe rate ofabout 0.6 �ilo. • C:,kulalro from the �I('CS (I'M) given. assuming the UJUl,1 doublc-I);,cn ofc(juivaleul lo:, ft. , Thl'Swd"r by Chang Chiin-Tso in all his olher engagemcrHS. He was richly rewardro by Khubi lai for his SUrl-c�CS, • This Chang family was noteworth),. Chang J ung' ( + I 159/ + 1230) ""as Chagatai's chicfengineer, and built Ihe fi,muus floaling bridge o,er Ihe ....mu Darya, as ....ell as a mili!ary road l hrough a pa� caSI of Kuldja in Sinki:U1g which had .. 8 doublt-trarkro 1!""IIe·bridges, For Ihcs( feats Chingiz Khan conferKd upon him the honorifk Ilam( Wu_Su_Chhih' (+ 1'1'10). He was a Ir(buehet arlillery general in + IHl His SQn, Chang Nu­ Pd" 1 + t l89/ + 1261) - sirangely named - followed Ihe same Tarttr and (ook charge of naval fOTd citywllli

;:J!tDCily gale

j

e

j

y ,f .0

old

- Railway - Mod.,.n road ""'" County town of HSln-ChinIa's ('(Im�mion Ihal ancicnt cilies wcn: originally squan: and that thcir shape ""U partially baS«! on Ihe icka Ihal 'Heaven is round and E.arth is squan:' and, as I hey wen: ofearlh, Ihey should be squar�, Furthermore, Ho don not accepl :'>Ia's opinion Ihal Ihe shape was inAuenee.:! by Ih� dlllll ll",,, I 'wcll. fidd' agriruhu�1 system, Ralher Ihcrwere originally rectangular, with the north·south dimension being slightly longer Ihan Ihe e3$I-....('$1 dimension, :'>Ia Shih·Chih (3), hO"'c"cr, has successfully refuted Ho s objcctions, al lrasl to our satisfaction, cf. Ho Yen·Chfi (/); Chu Ling.Ling (I), pp. 1:'3-{.

'

' ,Ina

30, M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

�'-M.M



Ma-Oluang

CtJ ml Ma-Chuang

�

Hsi·Chh6ng· Wang IE)

Nan.Hsi

.....-+-+ Railway

=

Modern roads

_ Modern villages D Ancient cities rig. ag. The ancient cities ,ha, comprised HJin·Thien. capitaJ ofthe state orChin. (M,er Shansi Sheng KharrKu Yen·Chiu So Hou·Ma Kung.T50 Chan (I), fig. I.)

wall and/or ditch or moat divided the city into two parts, but they remained integrally connected. (Figure 85).3 The capitals or the states or Yen I , Hsia-Tu2 (Figures 86, 87) b and orChhi3, Lin-Tzu4,e (Figure 88) also belong to this type. The second is the Hou-Ma� type. This is the site or the last capital orthe state or Chin' in north-central China whose dissolution and division into the three Slates or Han1, Chao', and Wei' in - 403 is considered by many scholars to be the beginning or the Warring States period.d In the written records the capital was • Honan Sheng Po Wu Kuan Hsin·Cheng Kung Tso Chan, Hsin·Cheng Hlien Wen·Hua Kuan (I). Hsin. Cheng W

' ,1.0, . JII �

' ill "' ' '''

' . " 11\

2 96

30. M I L I T A R Y

TECHNOLOGY

t N

" "

Fig. '40. Ground-plan orlhc Hsia or Shang city at Yen-Shih, Honan, rrom Chung-Kuo Shc-Hui Kho-Hsiich Yuan Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So Lo-Yang Han Wei Ku.Chheng KungTsoTui (I), fig. 2.

and Warring States periods, before it was conquered by the state ofChhu 1 , for the Han city, and the modern city, are smaller in size and located in the southwest corner oftile original enceinte. The outer perimeter, 1 1 , 7 7 ' metres in circumference, is punctuated by eleven gates, three each located in the north, cast, and west sides and two in the south. Of these, the mOSt distinctive was the Eastern Gate in the south wall (sile T60 1 ) . Thien A n describes it i n the following terms: The Eastern Gate along the southern wall (site T6o l ) has surviving wall remains on both sides. The eastern remains are now 7 metres high, and those on the wcst are 2 metres. The road through the gateway was 36 melres long and 10 metres widc. It was aligned slightly west ofsouth at 185 degrees. On both sides of this gate are platforms of rammed earthen

" 51 :n )f ) , ,

.

"-r--Fig. 141. Plan Qfthe upital of•he Slal(: ofLu, Chhu·Fu, Shantung, from Shantung Sh�ng W�n·Wu Khao-Ku Yen·Chiu So ( ,), fig. 3.

.;

...

I I�

,�

N

I

Ii

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!

: ..

�

r-

Iff

•

I

Fig. 142. EXU"alion areas ofthe capital oflhe stale of Lu, Chhii·Fu, Shantung, from Shantung Sheng WCn.Wu Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (Il, fig. 2.

I

t

300

30.

MILITARY TECHNOLOGY

:

,

Ancient , ,... ,

-- - -

"

, , , , , , ,

' ,� "'"

, , , ,

South-W(lst I �ale

Fig.

South.ellst "..

I

IH. I.

South-w�1 galt ofthe city of Lu: �. South·eul galt oflhc cit)' of Lu. From Shantung Shing W':;n-\\I.. Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (I).

construction. The surveyed surface ofeach is 58 metres north to south and 30 metres across and a metre in height- [see Figure 1 44] '

The road was a major highway, for it led directly to the Rain Dance Platform ( Wuyii tnai l ) 1 .7 kilometres to the south and, to the north, to the palace in the

centre of the city. The original gateway must have been impressive indeed, for undoubtedly on top of the platforms wooden gate-towers would have been con­ structed and the entire gate protected by portcullis and other devices which we will presently describe. Most Chinese cities were square or rectangular and oriented to the cardinal points, although there were some variations,b emphasising that they were reli­ gious centres, as well as centres for secular administration, and were symbols of the eternal order of the cosmos.c But this is not an aspect that concerns us here; we will return to it in the third volume of our study. And there were certainly varia­ tions in the structure of cities in different regions and states. For example, the • ThicR An (I), tram. David D. Buck (I), p. 13.

b A nOlable exampte of such irregularity is the remairu of the town now known a5 Tso-Ching-Chhcng', Huang-Phi county', Hupei province (figun (45), which probably originally belonged 10 the state ofChhu, dating from the middle of the Springs and Autumns period (Huang-Phi �Isien Wcn_Hua Kuan(l), cf. K. C. Chang (g). p. 67. , Wheatley (�) especially pp. 'P9-59; Vandcrme¥..... _,_

•

$t....� ...,...,. '*""""____

l:.

£o"..no.o.. _

'"

Eo".." Chou_ '''-'''I ..�'''

e __.. Iiil Anc_' �"..

.6..

l.ocoDona d__........_ Eoo..... ChoucoAnl_

� ...... "' IIUmped - -.. - twy......

='= ', .c. ...

-

Oohon rod Han�_

CiIIwI _ _ c!vnn'V ___ """,_ , ::''-''':; _.ond_� __ b\'triM ....-.,., _;,...._....

o

,

;,

:, h. •

fig. 146. Ground-plan ofChi.Nan city, silt oflh( capital of.ht Stal( ofChhu. from Hupci Sheng Po-Wu Kuan (I:, fig. 2.

however, different from that given in later Chinese military manuals, which state that 'the height shall be twice that of the base width and the base width shall be twice that of the upper width, if the city wall is 5 chang high, the base width is 2 chang 5 ,Mill and the upper width 1.25 chang' • ,

. TIt"., Tim, eh . 1:)2. p. 800a: H. CMim 0/11'" en. 6 P.,,,, 56 'Ch u Chh�ng' , p...5: TluJi p� 11� elm'l. ("h. 6, p. 10.). This formula st"("ms IQ ha\e �n followed. mon: or Ins. in the Thang t"u H.i-i"ien I . p. 136..

��g�7 /

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/

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----- --.- ..-

0 ",

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1 _6'= "

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.. m

I� 0

o�

IL JI

0

,

•

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,

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HI�hh;." Rioter

, ,

i

h

$§f.'"'� �n.::= �Y!!'Ji i? i: ..4!8H.

D

•

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= !

",:)---g

Fig. 1 47. Vertical and hor;:lontal crO$N«lions orthee passage oflhc Hsin·Chhiao river through the $Ouchcrn "'all orChi·�an city, $itl .t0ld1l rhlrilMl·). < We will explain Ibis tenn below, p. 472. d

WCT17CC, (h. 1'2,pp. l43-b.

• . H IIi

37'

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

-' '//'./

� �

.

(/

�-t-=m /_� j / / I ..l", _',::.:1 -=--== T �=::ft ".

-==

I

/

J

/

, I

i"

Fig. '1 [ 9' 'Rcle.uable' or 'revolving' bridge, from WCT1"/CC, ch. ['1, p. [jot and b.

these side doors and attack while safely covered by their shields and supported by the troops on lOp of the walt; in Ihis way, they will be able to force the enemy to put! back their equipment. These small doors should have gates so they can be secured when necessary and not remain open."

By Sung times, a second type of drawbridge had been developed called the 'fishing bridge' (chQ chhiaQ' ) . The details of construction are not entirely clear, but it does seem to have been made of planks ofelm or Sophora wood laid over a trench or moat dug approximately ' 5 feet in front of the gate. It was raised by means or two iron chains attached to two iron rings rastened onto the bridge. They met at a third ring bound to a hemp rope which in turn was tied to a wrought iron windlass (?) (lhith chuon shu') ' probably mounted on one or the wall-towers. Ap­ parently, when raised, the bridge rested between twO large posts each 25 feet tall. Unfortunatel y, the illustration in the WCTY (Fig. 220) is not at all helpful for visualising this bridge, because the posts, windlass and wall-tower are all m issing, and the artist has depicted not the three rings, but four, and substituted two hemp ropes for two iron chains and one hemp rope.b We propose a solution rather as in Fig. 2 2 1 . Should the enemy manage to cross the various trenches, break down the gates, and smash through the portcullis, the Sung engineers had one more trick up their sleeves: the 'knire cart for blocking up gates' (sai min tao chhi' ) (Fig. 222) which must have been held at the rear of the gate for any such eventuality. No measure­ mentS are given for this machine: presumably it was custom-made to fit precisely each panicular gate.� In function, it was similar to the wooden parapet (mu nii lholl4) (Fig. 223) made of boards 6 feet high and 5 feet wide mounted on two wheels, which was rolled along to fill any holes in the crenellation made by stones thrown by the besiegers' trebuchets or by their hooks, orwhich more anon. d If this movable wooden parapet was not available, the holes could also be filled by the 'leather matting' (phi litn5) made out of tough water buffalo hide to reet • Dcnni5 (1), p. 109. � Il'CTf/CC, ch. 12, p. lob, iIIu5lnlion, p. loa.

• 'Clrlrim Chi', ch. 12, p. 20a, iIIuSlration, p. 19a. � '

WCTf/CC, ch. 12. p. 2oa: illUSlralion, p. 19b. Stt below pp. 4 r 4-9.

,., '"

, � r' � 7J lf!

' 1/.:: .

372

30.

M I LI T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

Fig. 2"2(). Drawbridge or 'Ilshing bridge', from WCT1"jCC, eh. 12, p. loa.

hemp rope

0 .

f'ig. �n' Tema,i,",' recoll'l,rue,ion orllle Sung drawbridge or 'fuhing bridge'.

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

373

Fig. �2�. 'Knife can for blocking up gato', from II'CTr,CC, ch. r � , p. 19'1.

rig. �23. Woo11/ 1 , p. 8t. lranslalcd by Rick�u (I). p. 228. and (2), p. 27$, '",hen crossing mounlain defiles [Ihe troops} will not wait for hooks and ladden'. "

,

•

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

4'5

f\ '\

Fig. 273. 't"lying hook' (Idt); 'wolf's tooth linking board' (nght), from WCTYfCC, ch. t 2, p. 23a.

Ahernatively, the Mohist 'hook' may have been some vast curved blade at­ tached to the end of a pivoting beam and mounted on a cart with which the allackers chopped away at the walls. Two such vicious engines, the Fork Cart (to chh£l) (Figure 274) and the Hungry Falcon Cart (I ku chhi2) (Figure 275), are illustrated in the WCTr, and they must have struck panic into the hearts of all but the most doughty defenders. A third, called the 'Double Hook Cart' (shuong kou chhi'), consisted ofa pivoting ladder built on a four-wheeled cart whose upper side struts terminated in long claws that would have sunk into the parapet so far that the defenders would have had great difficulty in dislodging them. But regrettably the texts accompanying the illustrations have been lost and we are ignorant of the specifications of these machines' (see Figure 276). Regardless whether the machines were invented as early as the Warring States period or not, they were definitely in operation by the time of the civil war be­ tween Tshao Tsha04 and Yiian Shaol at the end of the Han dynasty. Chhen Lin6 (c. + 1 60 to + 2 1 7)b, one of the seven literary geniuses of the Chien-An7 period ( + 196 to 2 I g), who drafted military despatches and pronouncements first for Yuan and then for his conqueror Tshao, vividly describes the 'divine hooks' (shin kou8) in his Rhapsody on a Martial Ar"!}' ( Wu Chiin Fu9). 'The hook carts [kou cMI IO] join the fray and the nine oxen [hauling each cart] turn and heave, bel• WCTY/CC, ch.lo,PP· 3u-33a. - Shen Yii.Chheng and Fu Hsiian-Tshung (I), pp. :.-6.

, lOll' . '" '"

' ... , ll �

' 1f t;! . �. �

, ""'. I . Slil JI[

30. M I L I T A R Y T E C H N O L O G Y

,­ '-

, - . '�;

, \ '

..

, " '_./

Fig. �74- Fork cart, from II'CTrtCC, eh. 10, p. 3'lb,

lowing like thunder, and furiously smash the towers and overturn lhe parapets . . . ' Then the 'flying ladders' (fei thit ) , 'movable overlooks' (Ming Iin2), 'cloud pavil­ ions' (yiin ko') and the 'buildings in the void' (hsii kou·) are rolled forward into the breaches so that the attackers can swarm into the city. Chhen notes in his preface that these divine hooks, flying ladders and battering-rams are not found in lhe books ofWu (ChhiP and Sun (Tzu)', nor in the stratagems of the Three Plans (San Lfieh7 ) and Six Bowcoses (Liu Thao8).' • TPff., eh. 336, p. Sa. Clthbl Clti Shih Chi', Han lllri liM ChlulO Pai Son Chia Chi, Ishl '13, p , ,b. The latter text conHatcs the 'movable overlooks' and the 'cloud pcrry (I , \"01 . 7 . plale XV; Ho",,·ilz (1 7), P·.')· I It(. jf[

430

30.

MILITARY TECHNOLOCY

rig. �91. Battering_ram from Ihe Belli-hasan wan.paimings, from Newberry (1), \"oL �, plale XV.

it cannot have been particularly effective in dislodging enormous boulders at the base ofrhe wall: it may have been most successful at prying loose the parapet and upper levels of the wall, thus exposing the defenders to the missiles of the besieging forces. Its practicality in destroying fortifications was, however, quickly appre­ ciated throughout the ancient Middle East. Later textual evidence from Mad on the banks of the Euphrates of - 18th century date and from Boghazkoy, the capital of the Hittite empire, shows that siege towers and earth ramps built up to the top of the walls over the moat had also been introduced by lhat time.• GOTn(cY II, pp. 23, '09-'0; Kopper ( I., pp. 12.)-8; Yadin ( I). pp. 69-7 I.

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

43 1

Urshu, north ofCarchemish on the Euphrates, was captured and destroyed by the Hittites using these engines, and the Hurrians were known to have developed a special form of ram, possibly of great weight and size, not unexpectedly since they hailed from the mountain fastnesses where trees grew in an abundance totally unknown on the Mesopotamian plain.The earliest record of the battering-ram (cMung I ) comes later in China, in poem 2 4 1 of the Shih Ching1 (Book of Odes), mentioned above, which lauds Wen­ Wang3 of Chou4. Here, Shang-Ti5 is said to have ordered the king to attack the mighty walls of Chhung& using 'overlooks', rams, hooks, and ladders. b We may not, however, be far from the truth in supposing that some kind ofram and assault engine had been invented in the late neolithic Lung-Shan7 period a millennium earlier, for the excavators of the settlements at Chheng-Tzu-Vai' in Shantung� and Hou-Kang' in Honand found traces of surrounding walls.e The massive terre pis! (hang lhu 1 0 ) walls found at Cheng-Chou I I r and Phan­ Lung-Chhengl 2 a suggest even more strongly that the earliest Bronze Age people in China were forced to defend themselves against determined enemy assaults. The size of the Shang structures definitely indicates that siege engines had been developed by the mid-second millennium, even though no textual evidence is available until just before the Chou conquest. Of course by no means were all towns and ritual centres protected by walls. An-YanglS was originally thought to lack one,h and the early pre-conquest palace remains recently unearthed in the Chou heartland are apparently wall_less.; Yet the walling of towns and cities continued unabated throughout the Springs and Autumns period:j rams and other types of siege engines must have been brought into battle on some occasions,

• • •

4

Kupper ( I ) , p. [28.

Shih MIU> Shih Cha� Su, uhi5, pp. 107-1og; Karlgren (19), pp. 49-50, gloucs 843, 844. Fu Ssu-Nien, Li Chi et al (/) (2) Watson (6), p. 1 7; Chang (I) p. 178 and p. 179, fig. 81 .

Shih Chang-Ju, I;). pp. 21-48.

• A wall ofnx:ks fonifin a Lungshanoid village at Tung-Pa-Chia'" Chhih-FCn Hsien", Liaoning (Thung Chu·Chhin (/); Chang (I). p. IBg). f Honan Shing Po-Wu Kuan, Cheng-Chou Shih Po-Wu Kuan, (I), PP. 1t-31; Chang C�), p. 168, pp. 273-7; Tsou Heng {I}, p. ! 76ff.

I Hupei Sheng Po-Wu Kuan & Pei-Ching Ta-Hsiieh Khao-Ku Chuan·Yeh Phan-Lung-Chhing Fa·Chiieh B Tui, (I), pp. 5- 1 5; agley (I); Chang (5), pp. 297-305. • FUTlher exea\'ations in the vicinity may, of COUI"$f:, bring a defensive wall 10 light. Wheatley (2) questtollJ Ihe Iheory that military needs eaused lown formalion and suggesu thai archaic walls wen: more delineators of sacred space than bulwarks against Ihe enemy. Practical military comiderations and religious beliefs need not be in such unequivocal opposilion as Wheatley suupmes: the two are, in fact, quite compalible. For evalualions of the Wheatley thesis, sec: Vandermeench ( I ) and Keightley (5), (6). An:haeologisu have only rC(ently n:poned [he eOCiJlenCe ora wall at An-Yang, but thedelaib have not yet been published. I Shcnsi Chou.Yiian Khao-Ku Tui (I). PP.17-36. O J shima TO$hikuu; Wheadey (1);Tu Ching-Sheng (/) and (t).

'" Ii " , . JkA '*

43 2

30.

MILITARY TECHNO LOGY

even though the records are silent from the pre-conquest Chou to the late Springs and Autumns period. Then we find the defenders of Lin-Chhiu1 in ChhF setting fire to the battering-rams of Ting, Duke of Lu'. in - 50 1 . Some soldiers of the invading army, however, soaked serge horse-blankets in water and extinguished the flames and the rams managed to destroy the outer walls oflhe town,Su Chhin4, the great strategist and architect of alliances at the end of the -4th century, and a contemporary of the later Mohists, speaks of rams 100 feCI long: these must have been felled trees and have required large numbers afmen to guide them, b But unfortunately only a few sentences oflhe Mohisl defence against a ram assault have been preserved in the TPrL encyclopaedia and so we cannot be certain about the weight, size, and overall construction of the late Warring States rams." The defence envisaged by the Mohists consisted of a machine possibly similar to the 'windlass cart for descending the walls' (hsia chhing chiao chhP) illustrated and described in the WCTr which was a kind of early eievalor.d Two ropes were attached to a windlass mounted between two vertical posts which were positioned on the terreplein. The ropes were threaded through holes in a horizontal cross· bcam at their lower ends and tied off. Men could stand on the beam and be lowered over the walls at great speed (Figure 292). The Mohist ropes were 80 feet long and strong men were instructed to chop the enemy rams to pieces with axes whose handles were 6 feet long. Arter completing their task, they would have been raised up again to the relative safety of the parapet. One other fragmem, now located in the section 'Defence against Ladders' (Pei Thi5 ) , may have originally belonged in the 'Defence against Battering-rams' (Pei Chhu1/g1).e In it is described a device called the 'movable parapet' (hsing lieh8). This was 6 feet high and 'all level' (?) (i lingO). Swords were inserted into the face of the 'parapet' and fired by a trigger mechanism when the rams arrived. The 'parapet' may have been hung horizontally out from the walls so that when the swords were released, they dropped in a deadly salvo onto the enemy swinging the ram, or it may have resembled the Sung 'knife cart for blocking gates' (sat' men tao chhi'O) which was rolled forward to block entrance into the city when the gates had been destroyed (Figure 2'2'2, above) . r The passage continues with the instruction that a hole for a torch be dug in the • Tso Clruan. Duke Ting 8, voL 1I, ch. 1I8. p. �; ugge ( I I ) , p. 769. b CKT (,Chhi T.h�· 6), ch. Ill. p _ #0: Crump (I), p. 1I01. < TI'fl., ch. 336. p. 7b. d ·C""'(� Chi" ch. Ill. PP. 1I9ab; illuslralion. p. 1I8b. • lto T�II, TIIII TSIIng ed.,ch_ 14, p. Illb. f WCTf/CC, ch. Ill. p. 1I0a; illWlraiion. p. '9'1. The WCTralso describes a -wooden parapet' (mil �'iI"""") on wheels. :\lade QUI of planks and 6 fttt high and 5 feet broad, it wa, ru$hed to fill in ilny breaches made in the parapet (II'CTf/CC. ch. Ill. p. lIoa; iliumation, p. t9b) (figure 1I113, abo\·e).

.

' J!! , lliti

.

.

".

-"

30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

433

Fig. 292. Early Chinese elevator, the 'Windlass carl for descending walli, from wcrr,CC, ch. t2, p. 28b.

wall every 3 feet: these torches would have been lit at dusk to guard against a surreptitious night attack.' Finally, the Mohists insisted that cylindrical caitrops (chi ii thou t ) be used against the lines of auack. These eaitrops, similar to the Sung 'thundersticks' (mu lti2) and 'night rorked thundersticks' ()'tn chilo iti') mentioned above, but proba· bly smaller, 2t chllih long and more than 46.2 cm in circumrerence, were attached to ropes which passed over windlasses mounted on the walls. When the enemy advanced, the derenders turned the handles to make the ealtrops roll down the wall and towards the enemy. The Mohists also deployed heavy 'wooden crossbows' (mu nu4) against rams and siege towers (lung tshungl), placing one every twelve reet along the battle· ments. These crossbows could shoot iron.lipped arrows more than 300 feet.b In the Thang dynaslY, this crossbow was constructed or poplar, Cudrania triloba,� or • There is probably textual CQl'ruption at this poinl. for other pauages Slate that Ihe 3 feci referred to Ihe distance ofthe hole �low the parapel. � .110 T�u, eh. 14, pp. t4ab: Sun I-Jang (2), eh. 14, p. lola: Tshen Cltung-�'Iien (3), pp. 9- 10; Wu Y\.i-Chiang (I). The leXI of tile pauage ;s corrupt and difficult. [t appears as though iron from Ihe Siale ofChhi' was the prtferred metal and that ifno bamboo was available 10 make Ihe shafl$, Iut' wood, redbud, Cw/'/lII;/I, or elm could be substituted. Sec Yaln (�), pp. gS-9, notn 14-97, for the reconstruclion ofthe text. , d. Vol. 6, pt t, p. ag.

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30.

MILITARY TECHNOLOGY

rams, and trebuchets that threw rocks. Yiian and his son Hsiu 1 tried to Aee with a few hundred followers but were captured and beheaded on the banks of the river Liang7• More than 7,000 of the soldiers and towns-folk of Hsiang-Phing were executed and their corpses piled up into a mountain (ching kuan') as a warning to other recalcitrant rebels. The ram was put to another use in + 450, when the Tho Pa Wei4 made a furious assault upon the strategic town of Hsiian-Hu-Chheng� in Honan which guarded the approaches to the Liu Sung' heartland. Chhen Hsien 7, who had taken charge ofJu-NanB commandery closed the city for the defence. The northerners built many tall towers (kao lou9) from which they rained crossbow bolts down into the city. Because the defenders were outnumbered by almost one hundred to one, they carried doors on their heads to gather up the missiles and replenish their stocks. Then the besiegers melted down Buddhist statues and cast large hooks which they altached to the ends of rams. With these, they succeeded in tearing down the south parapet and wall. They pushed up 'toad carts' (ha ma chhtlfJ) to fill in the moat and charged into the breaches stripped of their armour. But Chhcn personally led his elite corps and managed to ereCl a wooden palisade (mu cha " ) on the outside and a parapet (nii chhiang17) on the inside to hold the enemy back. In the bitter hand-to-hand fighting, more than half the defenders were killed and the attackers are said to have climbed up the piles of corpses of their dead comrades to reach the top of the walls.· Finally, however, after 42 days of such combat, the Wei army was forced to withdraw and Chhen was promoted to a general for his valour. b During the famous siege of Yii-Pi 13 in 546, after Wei Hsiao-Khuan 14 had thwarted Kao Huan'sl� attempts at forcing an entrance to the castle by raising ramps first over the south wall and then over the north and had subsequently stopped the mines under the south wall, Kao brought up great rams called 'assault wagons' (kung chhtI6), and proceeded to smash the towers and battlements again along the south defence perimeter. No shield could withstand the force of the rams and Wei had to construct special screens (man 17 ) sewn out of cloth which he sus­ pended from poles and hung out from the walls at whatever point the rams chose as a target. Frustrated again, the attackers tied branches of pine and hemp twigs onto long bamboo poles, soaked them in oil, lit them, and tried to set fire to the screens, hoping in the process to catch the lowers on fire as well. But the ever-

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the -

Thi$ perhaps i5 th� historian's aaggeralion: Keegan ( I), pp. 106-7 has ob$Cf\'w thai Ihe famous 'building of the pil� ofd�ad' at Agincourl could nOI ha"� occurred in fael, b«au$C it would ha"� be�n physically impossi­ ble for soldi�n 10 duel 'while balancing on Ih� corp§cs oftw�nty or Ihirty olh�n· . • TCTC, ch. (25, p. 3936; Shcn Yii�h " SMItI SIoM, quo..:d in TPYL,cil. :136, p. 'lab. •

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30. M I S S I L E S A N D S I E G E S

43 7

Fig. �93. Iron rings forcatching rams, from IVCTy/ce, ch. I�, p. �8a.

inventive Wei devised long hooks with sharp blades and cut down the fire poles when they approached. The blazing torches dropped to the ground outside, pos­ ing no danger to the citadel.By the Thang, another method of hailing the attacks of rams had been in­ vented. Large, coarsely made rings were manufactured, either forged out of wrought iron or bent into shape from soft wood such as mulberry, and were suspended from the walls by heavy ropes or chains (Figure 293). When the rams reached the walls, the defenders slipped the rings over the heads of the rams and pulled with all their might, attempting to overturn them. I n the meantime, ar­ chers fired a continuous stream of arrows and crossbow quarrels on either side to prevent the enemy from venturing forth to release the ring. Once they had fled, strong defenders were let down over the walls to throw hay OntO the disabled rams and set them on fire. (vi) Overlook carls As we have mentioned above. section 53 of the extant text of Mo T{u contains twO different passages: the first is a defence against the 'sheep's bank' ramp (yang ling ' ) and the second is one against the 'overlook' (lin 2). This latter passage is unique in the Mohist chapters in that it consists only of detailed specifications for the con­ struction ofa single weapon, the multiple-bolt arcuballista (lien nu chhi3) and gives no other techniques or devices with which to counter the 'overlook cart'. This would suggest that the passage was later in date than those which present a formu­ laic introduction and conclusion in which the disciple Chhin Ku-Li+ asks his master Mo-Tzu a question about one of the twelve types of attack and Mo-Tzu answers by describing various tactics and machines,b possibly being composed in the - mid-3rd century. The reason that the compiler of the Mohist fragments placed the defence against • Th�ng Tit�, ch. 15�, p. &l I a; wcry/cc, ch. I�, p. �n C,Og'i1fJ!tVI A" lti", InllflUlliOlUl/lS d'HiJloirt dll Scilnm (continuation ofAm'rtion) AmtTiclfn An/JmfJIJ/ogiJI Allhand/ungtll d. Mr. Aki1d. Wiss Miill· ,Ittil (Phil.·Hist. KI.) Arcllit'eS of Ill, CllilllJ( Art S()(I·lty of

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Cltao Hun

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490

BIBLIOGRAPHY A Chill

lAW T(N � tI T.

[mainly or his own invention or adaptation). Ming + t6�7. Wang Cheng 1: II .

Rook oflh(C GoJd�n Hall Mamr. Liang, t. + 5,)0. Hsiao I .. . . (LiangYuanTi . :7i . ) . Clti" Sltilt

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1t: "' "E .

Yin_T(, Index, no, 35. CAi" SlIM tt • . History of the Chin DynUly [ + 765 to +4t9). Thang, +635. fang Hsiian-Ling li1 1:: it . A few chi. Ir. Pfizmaiu (54�57); Ihe utronomical chs, Ir. Ho Ping-Vii (I). For Iranslations of pauages, se5.

,\111 'T

I1I)11(UC In'�

,

Y". 1 q.v.

J'�

[novel].

1'1' �� Itt; . � -I!!i !i! .

( I ). FlIIg SM Thll, f .. 1tt .iA !iII . Tr. Gru�

L tan "'"

The Meaning of I'opular Traditions and

� "

CUStoms.

HIHan, +

17 ....

Ying Shao

Lt! iliJ .

Chung·Fa Index, no.

m

A�

3.

F" Kuo TIM, Chltiallg Pillg TIM till Mill TIM

jj * � 'Ji l� • .

?if Iii!1I �

Essays on Enriching thc State, Strengthening

Li Kou

Jlai Xti Shih CItOM Chi

Itt I2.l + lHI fi!

Ascr. Han: prob. +4th or Aurib. Tung-fang Shuo

.1� r .

+ ...th ccntury.

)( 1f !¥J .

The Book of �laS\er Han Fei. Chou, carly Han t'ci

- 3Td century.

.. .no .

hgt

Sun H�

/lUll Slut

Cominenl$ in the World Ckcan].

HaIl F" T,{.M

"

Hu CU""

Cf!

'" l1li. .

Rcoord of the Ten Sca Islands [or, of the Ten

-72"2 and -481. Writen unknown.

S«: W u Khang (I)_

Ho Io"WJ.

eM N' T��.

Springs and Autumns].

Tung Chung.Shu

Ch.

Chhing + 1739.

r,," T{M Clti Jail

o

:\hn

Philological Glosses, Reprint Edition.

Sung ca. + to"'....

S«: Wu Khang ( t ) ; Legge ( I I ) . '" 8: ': JI .

T

The Thirteen Oassia with Commentary and

the Army, and Pacifying the P�ople,

Chu Pien

- 1 35 .

t

n"

More probably Lu Hsi.Hsing

& S , Sung Yu * :Ii;; , Huai·Nan Hsiao-Shan $: rii Ij' IU tI al.). I'anial tr. Waley ("23); tT. Hawkes ( I ) . Chlla II'ti CltiM Win d!i #f 'W IIIl

C. Han, t.

H..

alit.

Allrib. Hsu Chung-Lin

-300. (with Han additioll$).

CU." Chlti. FtlII u.

"

C H

/Jail II",

CIJrM", Klui Sltill Su Chi", Chit Sit Fit KIuui CIth,

:\Iing middle + 16th.

Elegies ofChhu (Stat�) [or, Songs of th� South].

Clthn Cltlti�

:l.luhitude of Boob.

Stones of the Promotions of the Martial Genii

Wu Tai

III mt , & Chia l

Guide to the Most Important Things in the

H�n Sh•• )101

FhI,Slth f". 1 tt if 91 ft .

Exhilarating Talks on Strang� Things.

Chhtl Yiian

Chili" Shit Cltilt r,,# Il I1f i1f ,. .

Popular form ofthc title F iI!g SAlII

00.11' f u. tII .w f\l .

Chou e.

(2).

b«ame the deity ofUtronomy and the military an.)

�liscdlantQus Recorth on Grttn Bamboo

Sung, c. + 1070.

(�.)

Tr. Liao \\"cn·Ku�i ( I).

""'" HT

.-\ur Tr IfWJ. \. I-I Th< 1< C H

Wnllen

I uu AI

BIBLIOGRA P H Y A

IIml Slrilr 11'", CIr.."" � q *" At: .

'\Ioral D'Kouno Illustrating the Han Text of the &KHc �JOd�J ( .\Ir Han's Rtttnsion). C/Han. l. - 13$. Han Ying • � .

Hml II'" Lilt CUM P(J/ Sail Clri" CIr; iI f/!l /c;; II B .::.

�m.

The Colltttro Woru ofOne Hundrro and Th� Authon from tht Han, Wei and Six Dynasties. .\Iing. Chang l>hu 'II 1lt ( + I601l10 + I�ip ) . II� K.."" T{." a H T- . Book of the Phrasam-Cap .\Iaster. A "rry composi!e trxt, slabi[i.scd br + 629, as is shown by one of the .\ISS found at Tunhuang. .\Iu(h ofit musl br Chou (-4th CeHtUry) and most is not later than Han (+ 2nd (cmury), bUI Ihcre arc latcr interpolations including a +4th or +5 century commetltarr whi(h has breome part of the text and accounts for about a seventh of it (Haloun (5), p. 88). It comains also a lost " Book ofthc Art of War." Allnnativclr, Chhin. Attrib. Ho Kuan Ttu . :KI T . rr/ i l 6 t .

HOlllhlJ C..diU .of.: tlJ . ·U :iJ .

[m'tsligation of the .\Iilitary Weapons and .\Iachints of the r�nt Dynasty. Japan. I>rcfacr + 1 709. postfacr + 1722, printro + 1737·

Arai l1akuseki ( + 16;'9 to + I i';,) iii J� A .u .

HQII H"" SIr.. 1f iJ( • •

Hi.llor)· of the Later Han Drnasty [+':, to + " oJ . I./Sung, +4;'0. fan Yeh it! 1IitI . Thr monograph chaptcn by s.su-ma Piao ii.I .� J! (d. +305), with oommrmary by Liu Chao III IIR (l. +:'10), who first incorporated them imo the work. A few ch. In. Cha\'annes (6. 16); Pfizmaier (52. $3). Yin·T� Index, no. 4t.

Hu Chlrim Clrilll 1ft it if..

Tiger Seal .\1anual [mililary encrcloparoiaJ. Sung, begun +962, finishro + 1004. Hsu "["ung Wl' lllI . Cr. Balazs & Hen'ouet ( I ) , p. 236.

I/u" Slru it if .

Book ofthr Tran�formations (in Naturr). H(rhang ca. +940. Anrib. Than Chhiao . 1If'! .

rr'I032.

IIlUJi. \"fll T(u � tf r T- . [_II..,,; ,V"" H""l Lulr Clrrrlr � Hi � f.!I if I .

The Book of(th� Princr of) Huai-Nan [oom�ndium of natural philosophy]. CIHan, l. - 1'10. \\"ritlen by the group ofscholars galherro by Liu An ,, :Ii , Prince of Huai-Nan.

493

Partial trs. .\Iorgan (t); Erkes ( I ) ; Hughn (I); Chalky (t); \\"ieg�r (II); Ames (I), elc. Chung.Fa Inde�, no. 5. TTft '70. HIl""l SMIr K..wl .5.l" l.itlr . ?5 n .:: iii'! . The Thru Stratagems of the Old Gentleman of the Yellow Stone. Alternative titl� ofs..11 /.IIt. q..... HIUJ"l 1'../1" Clriq ,\f'nl L.. R jf; fl. fill: [_ n". CIrIut� C"irIt .\llnI L..j. Records of the Imperial '\Iongol Expedition against Burma ( + t300). Yuan or a ycar or tWO later.

HIUJ Uurl Ch;"1 ;k _ .. .

The rire-Drake (Artillery) .\Ianual. .\Iing. + t 4 1'1, but probably containing information dating from th� previous half­ Century. Chiao \'U 1« Ji. . The first part of this book, in Ihrec s«tions, is fancifully anributcd to Chu·ko Wu Hou (i.c. Chu-ko Liang. +3rd Cent.), and Liu Chi � oMi ( + t 3 1 t 10 + 137;,) appears aHO­ roilOr, rcallr perhaps co·author. The sc, and his JOn Li Pai·Yao

* S •.

A few chs. tr. i'fizmaier (60). For translations of passages see the index of frankd ( t ) .

Pn Th"., Sk. Cltlum :It � • .,. . Book Records of the Northern Hall [encyclopaedia]. Thang, t. + 630. Yii Shih-Nan IA ill m .

Pi-Ii TS(l Tshult fI. T. .. ¥f .

Miscellaneous Records of I'i·li. Ming. Tung Han.Yang _ jJl Pl .

Pi(lo J u. :& ,W. f.I. .

Notices of Strange Things. Ming. Wang Chih·Chien .:£ iiI;; !II!; .

P� K. TIou u.

IW S . H . TIou u..

Stt /ls;u,,,·Ho P� K.

P� IVM Chih 1S .., :.t . Record oflhe Investigation of Things. (C[ Hsli

Po IV" Chih.)

Chin, c. +290 (begun about +270). Chang Hua � .. . StIlt KuO Chih :=: iii � . History of the Thr« Kingdoms 1+ 220 to

+280]. Chin, c. + 290. Chhcn Shou � .. . Yin.TC Inde", no. 33. for trall$lations of passages .stt the indeJ< of Frankel (t). $QJI K.o Cltill rtil ,

:=: 111;. iK 8; .

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms [novd). Yiian, finishw c. + 1370, first known edition

+ 1494·

Lo Kuan·Chung II J{ rp . Tut rt"vi$e", Cltu Sku .. tt :& . Book of the Lord Shang. Chou -4th or - 3rd century. Allrib. Kung-sun Yang Tr. Duyvendak (:\).

i} If ,* .

Shasho R�ij. Kobjiiai � IF" • • � .. . CllUIlifled Coll�tion of faCIS about AlThcT)'

taken from (Chinese) Boob and tra.wated inlOJal»'nese. Japan (po$thumous) + 1789. Ogyii Sorai Yi � ill i* .

SItI Chi�g .U "' .

:\Ianual of Shooting. i\lt�rnati"e titk ofChiu Sltl Clti"" q.v.

S/0I Chi Cltih Ti TluJiPo Yi� Chl�'

� II!F. .

'M' II � 18: � S

Secrt"t Contrivances for the Defeat of Enemies; the Manual of the White l'lanel. full title of Tluli Po Yi� Chilli, q.v.

Skill CAi * 1£ .

Hutorical Records (or perhaps better: :\Iemoin of the Hi$loriographer (.Royal); down to

-99J· C/Han, c. -90 {first pro (. + 1 0001 · Ssu-lIla Chhien i'i] .1f.l it, and his father Ssu-ma Than iij.�". Partial tn. Cha"annes (I); Pfi�maier (13-36); Hirth (2); \\"u Khang I t ) , Swann (I), Burton Wauon I t ) etc. Yin-Tt Index, no. 40.

Sltil! Ching #., w. .

Book of Odes [ancient folksongs]. Chou, - t IIh to-7th cemuries. (Dobson's dating.) Writen and compilers unknown. Tr. Legge (8); Waley (t); Karlgren (tot).

Shih I Chi :In iJ iC .

:\'Icmoirs on Negketw 1-laucn. Chin. f. + 370. Wang Chia .:E " . cr. Eichhorn (5).

$/rilt .\fi", " £ .

Expositor of Namo. Early +�nd century. Lin Hli rIi � .

Sh,It Pn., P(JChun, tl.t * J\ II .

Book of Origins, Eight Vcnions (imperial genealogies, family names, legendary in"emon, etc.]. Han (incorporating Chou material) -2nd century. Annotated by Sung Chung * 1.( . (HO·lan.)

Skih Sk�o IIsi� rii tlt lit ffi" 9lf .

New Distounes o n the Talk of the Times (notes of minor incidenlS from Han to Chin). Commelllary by Liu Hsiin � � (Liang) L/Sung: + 5th century. l.iu l-Chhing � . !I! . Tr. Mather (3).

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Situ. T(.M P -1" .

The Book 0{ MasTer Shih. ruer. Chou, -4th cemul)'; probably +3rd or +4Th century. Amib. Shih Chiao P & . Shih IYN Clti rila� If' ttJ JC. It t. Records of the Origins ofAffairs and Things. Sung ca. + 108.',. Kao Chh�ng iI'J:i • . Shik IYN Clti riln� ChiUi $ :1!I .8C. Jlil • • . The Recorded Origins of Things, CaTegorized. Sung. Kao Chh�ng � . (fl. [078-(085). SII"" CMi1I1 Cki. Milll Skit 'if -'At.ft h • . O n Saving The SiTuaTion by The (Successful) Dd"ence of Cities. �Iing + [607. Lii Khun a ,. . cr. Goodrich & Fang Chao-Ving (t), p. [006. SkOM Chhlllg Lu "f- J$: � . Guide TO the Defence of Cities (lasons of the sieges or Te-An in Hupci, + [ 1 � 7 to + 1[32]. Sung, ca. + 1 140 and + 1193 (combined in + 1 225), Chh�n Kuci F.lt: .IJi & ThangTao ta Ji . cr. Balazs & Hervouet (I), p. 237. SItu Cltu., • • . Historical Classic (or, Book of Documenu). The 29 'Chin W�n' chapten mainly Chou (a few pieces possibly Shang); [he 21 'Ku Wen' chapten a 'forgeI)" by Mei Tse Iff " , (. + 3�0, using fragments of genuine antiquity. or the former, 13 are considered to go back to Ihe - loth century, TO to Ihe -8th, and 6 not before the-5th. Some scholars accept only 16 or 1 7 as pre-Confucian. Writers unknown. Sec Crecl (4). Tr. Medhunt (I); Legge ( I , TO); Karlg�n (12). Sh. ChillI TkIt ShM� 3-". �. The HiJI�rir,u CI/UJic wilh Illustrations. [pub­ lished by imperial order]. Chhing, 1905. Ed. Sun Chia·Nai � a iWI t1 ,u. SlIM HJii C�ik Nan • t:l m m The Literary South-Poimer [guide to s tyle in lelter.writing, and to tcchnical terms]. Sung, + I 1 �6. Jen Kuang fE !It . Shu; Chan I Hsia�1 LMn * _ III n ... Advisory Discourse on Naval Warfue. Ming, late + 16th eenmry, before + 15B6. Wang Ho-Ming .x . .. . Sk..; Clti,., CAM *" I( it . Commentary on the IVntmc.·.."s CliUSU (geographical aecount g�atly extended). N/Wci, late + 5th/early +6th century. LiTao-Yiian • itt 7i: . SAui Hu CArulN *" . j:fJ . Stories of the River·Banks fnovel 'All Men a� Brothers' and 'Waler Margin')' Ming, first collected c. + 1380, but derived from older play. and stories. Oldest eXlam loo-ch. _

version, + 15Sg., a reprim of an original

earlier than + t550. Oldest extant 12o-ch. version, + 16[4' ruer. Shih Naj.An .6t Iij .- . Tr. Buck (1); Jackson (I). ShMOFM IN. n . Horilegium of (Unofficial) Literature. Yiian, c. + 1368. Ed. Thao TJung-1 IIIiJ * it . Stt Ching PIlei-Yiian (I): des Rotours (.), p. 43. ShM� r� CkkiUul CkMan ilIl. ffi � _ . The Complete Story o{General Yo (Fei), (of lhe Sung Dynasty, + 12th cent.) .

T.

(Nm'el)

!'.Iing ca. + 1550. Chhien Tshai .. t;; . ShUD WlII Chuh T-tM 1!t :t ... ¥ . Analytical Diclionary ofCharactcTI (lit. Explanations of Simple Charaelers and Analyses of Composite Ones). H/Han + 1 � t . Hsu Shen l"A' tI ShMD IV"" nu�g Hsiin Ting SlllIIg, see Chu Chiin­ Sheng (I). Sk" Yi04.. Il Je . Garden of Discourses. Han, c. -20. Liu Hsiang ,, (.;] . SJU C""/Ill Win CAim L. I!!I tJI /MI R. ., . Record of Things Seen and Heard a t Four Imperial Couru. Sung, early + 13th century. Yeh Shao.Ong ;& � :U . Ssu.ma Fn 1i] .1t,) $ . The Marshal', Art of War. Chou prob. - 5th, but the present tcxt may date from the + 5th or + 6th century. Aurib. Ssu-maJang-ChU iij .1e lI :rr . Ss.·ma Fa CkiA CAitk iij .lli f!: rt ... . Direct Explanations or the SSM-"'" F... Ming, 1371. Liu Yin Iff •. Sui Shu "' ,. . History orthe Sui Dynasty f + 581 to +6! 7). Thang, +636 (annals and biognphies): +656 (monographs and bibliography). Wei Cheng ft 11 II al. Sun Pin P,ng Fn � . oR: m . Sun Pin's An of War. Chou (Chhi) ca. -235. Sun Pin Wi • . Alrudy lost in antiquity, but now T«OVCred from a tomb at Sil,·er-sparrows Mountain, ncar Lin-I in Shamung. Sec Anon. (z/o). Su.. T�u Ping Fn � 7- � t1;. . �hncr Sun's An of War. Chou (Wu) early - 5th. SunWu Wi it . Sun T�u Shih I Ckin Chu IJ T -,- - jj( It . Elevcn Commentaries on the Sun T�u Ping Fa (Master Sun's Art of War). Sung ca. + 12th.

T.

T.

T.

499

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Editor not known. facsimil.. Niitlon, Shanghai, 1978. Sw�g Shih

��.

History oflhe Sung Dymuty [ + g60 to + 1279]. Yuan, (. + 1345. Tho-Tho (Toktaga) JlStmt & Ou-yang Hsuan ., "" " Yin_To: Index, no. 34.

ThallI riill

Til HSiitlt *- * .

The Great Learning [or The Learning of Grealllns]. ChOU,f. -260. Trad. amib. Tseng Shen ft .. , but probably wnuen by Yo-ns of) Ihc Archives, (the True) Scapulimancy], [a goveTllmemal cthical and potilical encyclopaedia.] Commissioned + 1005. Sung. + 1013. Ed. WangChhin-Jo .:E tt; ;fi & Yang I

lIJl I !

Cf. d" Rotours (2), p. 9 1 .

TJO ChMan ti.. I'J .

�h"ef Tso Chhiu-�'ling'5 Enlargement of Ihc cv,1UI cv,i. (Sprillg uu/ llM/MIIIII AlllIoIisl (duling wilh Ihe period -722 to 4!J3J Latc Chou, compiled betwcen -430 and -250, bll! with addiliolll; and changn by Confucian &holars of the Chhin and Han, C$pecial1y Liu Hsin. Gn:alesl of the Ihree commelltariC$ on Ihe CfrfrUi/ CMiu, the others being Ihc KUlIg fdllg ChMdll and thc K. LidllG Ch_all but, unlike them. probably originally itself an independent book of hislOl)·. Anrib. Tso Chhiu-�'ling ti.. Jit\ IfI . Sec Karlgren (8); �Iaspero (I); Chhi Ssu-Ho (I); Wu Khang (I); Wu Shih-Chhang ( I ); Van der Loon (I); Eberhard. Milller & Hcnseling (I). Tr, Couvreur ( I ) : Legge ( I I): I'fhmaicr (1-12). Index by Fra�r & Lockhart (I). -

.

TM Hs;IIg Tu: Chih . fiI . :.t �.

.\Iiscellaneou, Re1! III 1f( .....

Oi$(uloI'iont on the I,;se: of Military-Agrkuhural Scnlements, Muskets, Field Artillery and Mobile Shields against the Japanese (Pirates). "ling ca. + t '18.; Chao Shih·Chen m t l({ . Chhi Chb"l 'Fit" il a supplement to this. .

I " . CIII�g ClIff, Sh.

.

it !IF. � t!f .

&\'cn Ancien! :\Iilitary CIa.uiC$.

SUllg Ixtwttn + 1078 and + 1085. Ed. Ho Chhu.Fei (oJ 1: -If. . ling Rc·cditcd in the :\Iillg by Shen Ying \•.

It 1tI H}I .

11'. Citing SItI,., Uio. li!if JW iii . The (fMelKe ofthe) Fi, e (:\Iililary) Cla.uio, for Imperial Comultalion. Sung ca. + I t SO. Wang Shu 1: ,* . Now exHIIII only in quolalions. 11'. Citing TJWlIl 1'110 it !lf. • • . Collection oflhc :\IOiIt Important :\lililary Techniques [compiled by Imperial Order1. Sung, + 1040 ( + 1044). Repr. + t23 t and ca. + 15to. This :\Iing edition is Ihe oldest now exlant. Ed. T$\:lIg Kung_Liang � i� Jt; , assisled by Yang \\"ci·Te fl m itl and TingTu

T "' .

II'w I Til. Plrw Th"l Chilr

� • • • .iiI t;. .

IIluSlTaled Encyclopaedia of :\Iilitary Am. Korea (ChoWn) + t 790. Ed. l'ak Chega n·. � & Yi T....ngmu

. . � !'II 'Ii

Based on an carlier draft by Han Kyo .. � , done in the + 1590'S in (OnSUllalion with Chinnc military lechnologiSlS then in Koru fighting the Japanese under HideYOilhi (C!tonv- SIUDk, 30/3ta). cf. Mwyt Tobo Tontii Onlrat, Ihc Korean "e�ion oflhe texl.

Ij'u Lin ChiuShih

it *f.:. W " .

In$litutions and Customs of the Old Capital {HangchOYo" . SU"g. t. + 1270 (but referring to C\'ents from about + . ,65 onwards), Chou :\I i Hil w. . lI'u Pti Ckhilan Shu it /II � 1!f . Complete Collection of Works on Armament Technology (;nduding Cunpo""dcr Weapon, . :\Iing + t62t. Ed. Phan Khang it 1M . Ij'u Pti Chilt it lM .tJ, . Treati$( 011 Armament Technology. :\Iing. prdaces of + ,6"" pro + 1628.

!l'u Pn. Cluh l.ihlr

it 111 �'!;; 1& .

Classified :\Iatcrial from the Treatise: on Armament Technology. Chhing (. + .660. fuYu f� � . Wu P�i Chih Shrng Chilt it 11M ftt1 . :\!,\ The Ikst OM:igns in Armament Technology. :\Iing, t. + 16,8. :\Iao Yuan-I Of: ji /1: . :\15. of t8�3 i n the Cambridge Unive�ity Library. cr. Franke (4), p. 209. Wu P�i Hsin Shu it flUJi ;!F . New Book on Armament Technology [vcry similar 10 Clri IIsi"" IIli� Shu, q.,..J. :\Iing + 1630. Aurib. Chhi Chi-Kuang 1t _ 1t . true compiler unknown. IVu P(i Pi Situ it fM l£. IF . Confidential Treatise on Armamem Technology [a compilation ofse:lections from earlier works on the same subj«t1. Chhing, la.c + t7.h century (repT. ,800). Shih Yung-Thu 6l A:. • . lI'u Shih Tlrao Liitk it r.t Wi ll/!- . A. Classified Quivcrful of Military Tcsts. :\Iing. before + 16" . Wang Wan.Chhing if " If( . III. SItw To CM.aw

it .. *- 1t .

Complete Collection of Ihe :\Iilitary Books. :\Iillg, + 1636. Ed. Yin Shang ].I" ill . cr. Lu Ta·Chieh (.�), p. 12.

W. SunPiNlFa � w. � r� .

\\"u-State Sun's Art of War. Alternativc title for SUN T'o-Oil iI .l1i db F,! .ft. . fI"� {f- fI.:.fU � "'*' tliJ,� .

IlIlrocluction 10 the Chronology and Basic SlruCture of the Cily of Lu, Chhii-FII.

11"11", 1981, "'", 13-16. Chang Kuang·Chih (I) 'iU ;)'t )'(

h'un,,:ri, C�ung-/>"uo ellhu-CMt ·Chhin..f.-Shlh' Ch,,_/>"o />'·lIl-.\"im III � l' iii fJJ M I � Iii J .iiI fl W: .ot.. 011 Ihe concept of Ihe 'city' in early Chin....

11"11", '985.2,61-7. 'M: . "* . Ch�"I_A'tU/ Jill I; .l/ia�Chi

Chang J....o.Shui I

'f. � L

II/in-Hai K�'\/ing Chfrim-Sfrih-Nim Chi", Shih­ l.ulI JlSllan-Clli .$ � Jti. 1l) IliJ 1- if- /I� JI,' 1ft

jJI � .

Collection of Topical l'.5.sa)·s written during Ihe Ten Years pr«eding Ihe Re,'olution of 19' r .

4 ,"0Is.

l' li!UI:.'I!" � .

\·ols. la and b, Hong Kong. ,g62. \·oh. la and b, ]'eking. 196j.

Ch.,,"g T.e-Tun�

Chng-Win Ta 1'dtu-Titn

Chang Wei-Hua

1* Jt Ill:l . '.t :;.t :* It ft. .

An Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language. 10 'ols, Taipei, Taiwan. 1973. Chang Chhien (I) o jIf: " .

Chllllg+K�o KN- T"i ChN-MIIIg Chan·/ Hsiia,,-Chu

1' 111 n lt ;Jt z lit t!t .il it .

Selecl Annotations on the famous Baltles of Ancient China. Shanghai, 1975. Ch'.g "m'g-Y"

(,) 01 .. . .

CJrJu'II-ChhiN Chall-K.. Sh.h-Chlti C""mg-Shih Tsa, Shi-Hui Fa-CluJ" Chunt Ti 1'i_Wti Ho TJ�rUnl @. tk 'll iA JI.'jl AII . llf {[ tt @" � lit 'l' (J(J

.ll!! flZ. .fIr f1O JII .

The Position and Function ofCities in Social Development in the Springs and Autumns and Warring States periods.

'Vin Shih Chi, 1984,4. SS-9.

Chaltg Hsi-K hung � t1 it & TshaoTsengHsiang (I) • ttl rf. .

TSlli K. Chall-ChMIII shanl lE li •.II- 1: .

On Ihe Ancient Balllefiekb of China.

Chung-Kuo Chhing-Nien Chhu-Pan Sh�, Peking, ,g6'1. Chang Hsin Chhcng (I) ;m: ,c.' 11: .

IVti-Shu ThulIg·llluJo '" i!f .ll � . A Complete Investigation oflhe (Ancient and

:\'Iediae,"al) Books of Doubtful Authenticity. Com. Press, '939, repr. I9S7.

2 \"ols..

'I' iii A (J(J .tt tt .

The L:nfalhomable Strluagemsofthe Chinese I'cople. Glor}' ]'ress, Hong Kong, '97 1 . Chang Nan � Iff & WangJcn-Chih (I) (ed.)

Collected Studies on History or War in China.

Taipei. Tai"'an, '95-4. Chang Chhi-Yun (5) (ed.)

M *' iff .

Chang Hsueh-Hai

-M a! IIJ .

Yun-:\!cng Hsien Wrn-Hua-Kuan Wen·\\"u Kung-Tso Tsu (f).

SC(" :

It!

om • • .

Shih i.un Tshao_Wfi Thun- Thit"yii HSI·Chill C/ian· Thim shang Ii ;\Iou·HJith lI'in- Thi

a.t ..

�t\ II! lfl W f§ lf ,Ii III J: A� :l,t; � "11 .11[ .

Remarks on the Queslion of Ihe El .\II. lf 1Ii ;(P ,\i,j 1'JCJ .. .. . The Characteristics of Plane LayOUt of the Capitals in Ancient China. 1ST/.. t986, 4, t;'3-63· Chu Yu-Tsing ed. I * t; f'9 . I ClrlUl-Shlt CIr;-HsiN CIr'dtt-SII;k iA ]a! i!f . " .. "' . Interpretation ofand Commentary on the I Ckou Shll (Th, Extanl B(I(J* �fChOfl.) (KJlCPTS cd.). Shang-Wu Yin_Shu·Kuan, Chhang-Sha, '9-10. Chun-Shih Kho-Hsueh Yuan (I) :ill: $ # * � . Chung-KilO Ch,n. Tai Chan-Ching Shih rp 1iI .i1i: It

lit 'J> "' .

HiSlo!)' of �Iodtrn Chi� Warfare. "oIs. Chun·Shih Kho·Hsueh Chhu-Pan Sh�. Peking, 1984,-$' Chung-Hua Shu.Chii Pien_Chi Pu (ed.) (I) 't> �fI .. .i6 !1UII $. .�

3

n',,-Mbrg Cltltm-Cltitfl J"tn·CJti�

• � 1ft III!

ijf n , Reilearches on the Chhin Dynast)· Slips from Yun-Meng. Chung-Hua Shu-Chu. Peking, '!J8t. Chung-Kuo Kho-Hsiieh-Yiian Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (I) rjl ll -M* r;;?: ;t} "i!i" � JUJf. Cltltang-Sha Fa-Cltii," PaQ-Kao R t!-. M' !IiI

. "' .

Report on the Excavations a t Chhang-Sha. Kho-Hsiieh Chhu-Pan She, Peking, '9::'7. Chung-Kuo Kho-Hsiieh-Yuan Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (I) rt< 1iII f4 . R � ,t; ilf n ar .

Chii-l . .iI l-Chilr

H: . 1i .i1l it!: .

� 'Ji 'r f1f. - W, JdI D:: IJt �

Pan-Pho, Sian: Remains ofth� Primitive Clan Communal ViIlag�. Wen_Wu Chhu-Pan She, Peking, t�3 . Chung.Kuo Kho-Hsueh-Yiian Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (4) rp lill # * R � ,!i" ijf rl ar . IIJhlt/ P�II-1'1ro

l!i 'Ji 'f- Jzt .

I'an-I'ho, Sian. Wen_Wu Chhu-Pan Sh�, Peking, t �3. Chung-Kuo Kho-lisiieh·Yiian Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So Hsi-An Kung-T$O Tui (l) IiII M . � .J}" "' ilf Jt Hi l!i x I W. � . Tltang-Tai Chh""l-A� Cltltlt/l Ming- TI .A.lfn I-Chih F,,-Chiith Chiln-Pao � ft 6k $; � 1lJ1 1I �, ill:

JJI: V 1II /IlHIl .

Brief Report of the Exca"ations of the Remains of Ihe �Iing-Te (Bright Vinue) Gate of Thallg Dynasty Chhang-All. AT. '974. I. 33-9.

Chung-Kuo Kho-Hsueh Yuan Khao-Ku Yen-Chill So Shansi Kung-T$O Tui(I) 1I .f.4!JR � � i!F 1£ 8T IU fi I tv ",. Shans; Ihia lis;", Yii-lI'ang Chking Tiao-Cltha liJ fi I M � "E � III It . In"estigation or King Yii', City in Hsia County, Shansi. KK. 1963, " 474-9·

Chung_Kuo Li,Shih Po-Wu-Kuall Khao-Ku Tsu (Il


Preliminary Remarks on the 'Book or Master , Wei Liao (on the Art of War) . WII', t977, 2, �8.

Ho Ping-Vii (iiJ N � &. Ho Kuan-Piao (t)

(oJ;a 1'-

Tskalt·Ch.,It 'CIuJIt y,.,. CMi Sh,,' rtll-Chi" (sRa"l) tHUt: 1) r 0" • • if J

TUII-HulVlg

iff R (j: L

A Rac:arch on the Damaged Scroll oflhe Book ' Prognostication from Clouds and Vapoul"I' (Tunkuang [CY!:!t) MS, Stein ColI. no. 3326) . Early +7th century, copied in �arly + loth. I·Wen Yin·Shu·Kuan, Taipei, 198!:!. Also in

...

WS, 'g8;:,. 25, 67-94.

Ho Yeh·Chii (/) :W .ill.

SJ" h./-lUI Choll- Tai l.ialll· TUtu CItIt�·Shih

Chitll-Sili Kao-ClWlo 1it • JId It '" l:J( � rti

�U!l: jQj it!.

Som� Notes on the Two High Tides of Urban Construction during the Chou Dynasty. CCLT. 1981, I, 36-45. Ho Yiin-Ao (/) :W lUll .

r,h nalt

Wo-Kilo K�.CMhlg Hsi�g-Chih Ii Chi-Pin

.\lv·Shih - TM ,lit! Shih·Chih HJim-Shing WIn)'M � &.����m � � �* m � ­

iII .� tl! z ge 1:. :x: 11 � .

A Further discussion of the b.asic paltnn ofthe shape of my Country's ancient cities - a reaction to ",ading j\lr Ma Shih·Chih·, articla. CnVlV, 1986, lTtJ '6" IS . IR &

..

511

BIBLIOCRAPHY B Jll

Chefl8-Chou Shih Po-Wu Kuan . ffl

.M(/). CIWI:-Choll Shl/lll:-Tai CMlhlg.Ckih Shih-Chilth Chi.n-PaQ � ffl 1f5 ft lJ&: hi: r.t iii! fIIJ :ttl .

Bri�f R�port ofth� Surv�y ofth� R�mains of the Shang Dynasty Wall, Cheng-Chou. 11"11', 1977, I, �1-31. Honan Sheng Po-Wu Kuan Hsin.Cheng Kung.Tso

Chan HSin.Cheng H!ien Wen-Hua Kuan (I)

fOJ i+i' 15 lt lM t1f fli Illl I f t M Wi Jlll M. :.t

it .. .

H�}{1/lI Hsill.Clthtg Chhlg HI/ll KII-CklriI!t Ii Tsltl/ll Ao ShiJI-C/ti.1t i'iI Ifif ti JIll !II! '* At *'- fttJ • .fIl

It .. .

Borings and Trial Excavation! of the Andnt Cheng and Han City at Hsin-Cheng, Honan. 'rom

WhI_W" T(M-Liao TJltMlfg-Kfwe, l¢o, 3, :;6-66.

Honan Sheng Wcn.Wu Yen-Chiu So Chou-Khou Ti·Chhii Wen·Hua Chii Win-Wu Kho (I) j'iiJ fff � :.t � fiif 1E Hi fill IJ

", # .

.ltl!. 1I: .:t it M: :Jt

H�}{alf Shhlg HWli-Talfg Philfg.LUu.g. TluJi t..llfZ-SMIf WhI-Hd CMlhlZ-Chift Shift·CIt.tIt Chinl-Pu iiJ "ItT � ffk foI .,.. fa. ft LlI .:t 1t

#i: JU: fA: II! ,IIU9. .

J ok "

lI6).

h.

Bri�f Report ofth� Trial Exeavations ofth� Lung-Shan Culture R�mains at Phing. Liang.Thai, Huai.Yang, Honan Provinc�. 11'11', 1983, 3,�1-36. Honan Sheng Wcn-Wu Yen·Chiu So Chung.Kuo Li-Shih Po-Wu Kuan Khao-Ku Pu (I)

fiJ/ti � .:t lM tiIf 1E Hi '!' ll lrf .'i! It lM til

� n -BIL ThlZ·F hI, Wlllff."CItlrhz·KI/lIZ I·Cltill Ii Fa·Clti.1t !f tot .:£ lJ&: /Ii8 jJ Jll; tIHUi! .

Excavation ofthe Anci�nt Ruins at Wang­ Chheng-Kang, nng-Feng. 11'11', [g83, 3, 8-�o. Hopei Shing Wen·Hua Chii WCn.Wu Kung.Tso Tui ,

(I) l�I'.:tt q; :Jt fU'6 :t ., I 11' � .

H�Pti I Hsit" frn Hsill-Til KII-ChM"g Khll".CItktr ho Shih-CMt" j'iiJ :l1: M N. �..t. m tit lJ&: Kb JX

:fO ld: tlII .

R�connaissance and Trial Excavations of Yen Hsia-Tu, I CounlY, Hopei. KKHP, '96:;, I, 83-10:;. English summary,

"

10.)-6. Hopei Sheng Wen·Hua Chii Wcn·Wu Kung.Tso Tui (�) i'iI :l t tf ::t. «:. � :t � I t F � .

H�Pn' l 1I" m r... Hsia. T. Ii Silill-lilt Hu Mit Fa·CIlikil iiI':lt � .u. � r '8 M + " It ,Jj

9 .. .

Excavation Tomb Number Sixtun at Yen Hsia.Tu, I Cou nty, Hopei,

KKHP, '96.), ii, 79-10'. English summary, UY.!.

Hopei Sheng Wen-Hua Chii Wen-Wu Kung-Tso Tui (3) iiiJ :lt ti :t ft Jjfi :t � I ft lW: .

1¢i4-1g65 .Nit� Yrn Hsia-TM Mu-Tsalll Fa·Chil,h Pa�Kao '964-t965 �� . r . nunf tlll

lO "' .

Rcpon on the '964-1965 Exca"ations of the Y�n Haia-Tu Grava.

KK, 1965, II, S4,8-6., 598·

Hopei Sheng Wen·Hua Chii Wen-Wu Kung-Tso Tui (4) � :tt ti :t ft J16 ::t. ltJ I ft � .

fen Hsia- Tu Ii 2t HaQ I·Chih }oil·Chlkh Pao KdO � 1: � � 2 a t it .b1 V tIiI .fIl � .

Report of the Excavation of Ruin Number Twenty.Two, Yen Hsia·Tu. KK, 196j, II, .)62-70. Hopei Sheng Wen.Hul Chii Wen-Wu Kung-Tso Tui (5) 10 1 :11: 'fi ::t. ft 1f6 :t ttl I 11' � .

r�n Il5ia. Tw I·ChiA lYai.Wn' Fa·Hsi... Clullf-K�o M�- TJlUII CUill � T . it JU: ;t- II V l3l

eli! « JII " . The Warring Slal • • 16 !Q .. ,. •

"It fIi! Ii1f R .

Chung.Hua Shu-Cha, Peking, 1981, 301l- 15. Kao �Iing (I) ;Ai 191 .

Liith·um Clri HJim Slra�·Piao·CIrI" j·HM Mu Ii Nim-Tai � . t!t JIj LlJ m i4 - tt MO till

iJO-it.

Brief DiKU5JIion of Ihe Daling of Tomb Number One, Shan-Piao-Chen, Chi County.

KK, ,g{i7. 4, 7 " -15. Kawasaki Takaharu (I) iif if -Jf: #3 . Slrillr/r6 IIi oIelnl &hslri gllh - So" Sti'm Bohshi /;61r01l f� HilJII Gill Bohslrirlrii

m � I: .6tlt

/I .:r ., - W, M fIj � .:r 6: * .!::: . m Il: .:r it . i!>

On Studies ofMo T(II in the Chhing - Sun Hsing-Yen's C«/gud £diliM ofMo T(II and Pi Yiian'sC�m1lltl1l l '7 l 1111 Mo T(u. THG (Jan. 1988), 75, 1 1 3-33· Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So Lo-Yang Fa-Chiieh Tui (/)

!tJ ""5 if 1l Wi 1& PI 9 til � .

IA-rnng Clritll-Pin Tllllg-Chow Clrh.ing-Chilr Fa­

CMuh P�I)oKaQ fa PI ilII m: JIr Jft\ � Jtt V M lit '" .

Excavation Report ofIhe Remains of Ihe Eastern Chou City on the Banks orthe River Chien, Lo-Yang. KKHP, 19.59, a, '5-34. English summary, 34-6. Kiangsu Sh�ng Wen.Wu Kuan_Li Wei·Yiian Hui

(/)

g. � fij Jt #.I ff J:!I! � jUt .

KiangJ� HJ;;·Clrou Han-H�a Hsiang.Shih

ffl lJi: . ,, :fl .

if @ �

Han Stone Rclie& fTOm Hsii-Chou, Kiangsu. Peking, 19.59. Ku Chi-Kuang (t) q � :J't . FII-Pi", CIt;Ir- Til KIr4o-Shih If! B- $II It ;lt " . SlUdics on the Fu-Ping (Personal Bodyguard) SYSlem. Shanghai, 1967. Ku Chieh.Kang (.5) E "AJt 11M . Hi Clrhim Hslian-Tlrung Hsitll-Slring LJ" Ku·Slrilr

SAM JUI: -g fi\j ge 1£ • '0 � i!F .

On Ancient History - two Jetten t o Chhien H3iian-Thung. KSP, 19116, l, 59. Eng. aMlr. CIB, t938, 3, no. 67· Ku Chieh·Kang (9) • III: "' .

CMill Han Ii Fallg-SlrihJii Ju-Slrirtg ± W . �t .

• 8( till 1i

Taoim and Confucians in the Chhin and Han Epoch. Shanghai, 1957. Ku Chieh-Kang (/0) •• JIII] . SAilt-ill TStl-Shilt CMu-Pim � # •• -w til . A Preliminary Collection of Miscellaneous Historieal Studies. Ptking, I g63. Ku Chieh-Kang (II) aUJi lin .

I.

51 .. K_H a n £J K_H F, n £J

K�"

a .. a KuoHI ... I ... ,', AJ;

Shih-Lill TJa-CMh :J:.. .# fl it: .

Collecled Studies on Hislory. P�lr.ing, 19{i3. Kuang-Chou Shih Wcn-Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Yiian Hui & KuangChou Shih Po-Wu Kuan (/) rtf 18 �

JIt � m�"ffJJ.�ft*

III

lfI�

Kuang.Chou Hall.llh • � II " .

Han Tombs in Kuang-Chou. Chung.Kuo Thien·Yeh Khao-Ku Pao-Kao Chi Khao·Ku Hsiieh Chuan Kan. Ting-Chung Ii f.rh·Shih.[ Hao

all She, Taipei. 1968.

J'.I JII[ � .

Liu Tung-Va I)

HJ1t� K".C!thiltl�C1rih Ii TII1C·C1rJw. '-iiI r+I • � N 0 iii hi: tl(J III 'Ii . [11\'e5tigation oflhe Remain ofan Ancient Cil)' in Yen-Ling County. Honan. KK. 1!)63. 4, ��}-6. Liu Yun_Yu I III 'S &, . n.",-KIHI nitti-II',,, Sill" SIt4If, I; i-h ChIl",- ru FiJ-Hmfl 'f> iii X :t .If J:. I'JCJ - u . � lIo·Yolt 1'''''{-I1I8

V "I.

An Imponalll Di$Co\�ry in the History of Chinese AlHronomy (the liar-maps found at ),Ia-Wang-Tui ncar Chhang-Sha). In . .. 197.h II. �8. Lo Che-Wen (3) . « :It . Ho-Li�-Ko-Eth Ho".MIl I'i·llull rh'/fIS S"..CII;m Ii /.Il5i," K" Chi,ll-Ch" ,f(1.fi'j; m _ il "-i .!lll .

tr I!! ., . 'f> 8i .Ii I'I<J - � ..

Some Ancient ArchitcclUrc in Ihe Han Tomb ),Iurals at HOoLin·KOoErh.

lVII', 1974,

I,

31-7.

Lo I::rh.Ka'lg (3) .• • • . Lii- rillg l'ing_Chilt !J: 1.f Ii< ;,!:, . The Chine$( Troop.! in 1he Chhing Dyna$ly. Chung-Hua Shu-Chii, I'eking, 1984. Lo ru-I (3) M hil lf4 . Lill-I Hall-Chi,,, Kai·Sltu I( iii' tl fIli . at . A Rbume of Ihe Han Bamboo Slips found at Lin.I. WI!', 1971, III !IJ o !fc iff � .

Researcha in Chi� Archaeology. Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, lJn;"cnity of Tokyo. Institute for OrielllaJ Culture, Tokyo, 1956. S«ki"o'rakeshi

!HI It J:t & Komai Kuuchika (/) � Jt- :fU • .

Kalllall: SmgoliM Jldlll CM-I� Jlslti "" lIaHMIJ"

till . : . 1II ""lt-.m � Jd! Jlb1) 9 t1i

Han-tan: Exca.'ation of [he Ruins of the Capital of Chao in the Warring Stales !'eriod. Archarologia Oritlllali$, Series B. vol. 7.

FII·CAii.It Clti-rllo

.td:V tll l! Y .

()i: .II,} * I"l J,' ft� � fiJ

Summary of the Excavalion of the Ea'I[ern Chou Period Pottery Kilns at Hou·Ma. !I'll', 19:'9,6, 4:,-6, 44,

Shansi Sheng Wen·Kuan·Hui Hou-Ma Kung-Tso Chan (3) III i!!i 11 j( 'If if 6:: � I f1' tli . Ho�-Mo Ti-Chhil TMlIg CIw. UOlIg Hall Tlumg

1.l1li MM F,,·Cftitlt CAim·Pu 6:! .1U JI!!: 1I( :If(

Jaj WJ jJi 1M j[; 4\' ft tti! !III • .

Brief Repon of the Excavation of Eastern Chou, Wa[em and Eastern Han, Thang, and Yuan DynaSlY Tombs in the Vicinit)" of Hou·i\la.

,"

". "

BIBLIOGRA P H Y B 11'11', 19�9, 6, 47-9.

Sharl$i Shcng Wcn-Kuall-Hu; Hou-:\Ia Kung-Tso Chan (.,) Ill � W Jt 'N � f)'! .• I i1' tIi .

1!1j9 '\"iM 1I1nt-.lla '. \·i�- TJJiu K�-CMrillg' NlUI Tlllfg CkGll /-Cltill Fa-Cltitlt Cltim-Pu 1 9 5 9 lf b'! .!?i 40 H 1i l.ll. * * Al iI .bI: Vtli!

IlI ff! .

Brief Report ofIhe 19�9 Exca,·ation of the Remains of the Soulhern Section of the t:astem Chou Cil)' al Niu·Tshun, Hou-Ma. IJIIV, IgOO, 8""9. 1 1-14. Shans; Shcng l\'en·Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Hui Yiian (I)

III 1!i 'U :t: .m 'I'f Jt � It tt .

TJI>­ IlI ·ttI !lf Jt

SltallSi Slthlg II'hI-Kllatl-Hlli HOIl-Ma Kllffg Cltan Kling. TJ� Ii TslI", SIt�Il-Hwo

'If fit fj'!,1fS I f1' M I f1' ACJ . 1& .

Celleral Relull$ of Ihe Work Directed by the Shanl; Provincial Hislorical Relics (;Qmmissioll at the Hou-Ma Site. KK,

19�9, 5. �22-8.

Sh�n5i Shcllg Wen·Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Yiian Hui Hou_l-.·Ia Kung_Tso Chan (/l I ll -tti 'lr X � ,", J:II! � tt ft fj'!.\ljI W- t,'; .

Shatlsi f//Jil-MtI Shang-,\f(J Tshun Tung Chou ..\tll-Tstlng

IU � fj'! .� 1: .\!;) tf *- 141 :& JIl .

�:attem Chou Tombs in Shang·:\la Village, 1I0u-:\·Ia. Shansi.

KK,

1963. 5,229-45.

Shansi Shcng Wen_Wu Kuan-Li Wei-Yuan Hui III l§ ! {j ::t. ., 'If JlII � t:t fit, Shansi Sh(ng Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So (I) Ill D 11 "'J ti

Iilf R JiJi .

1I01l_Ma Tllng CkGtr Hsilf-lhl

.11"

A J< .

� ,I!lj * � f'J

Eallern Chou Sacrificial Slave Tombs at Hou :\la. 11'11', 1960,8-9, 1�-18.

Shansi Sheng Wcn-\\"u Kung_Tso Wei-Yuan Hui (I) III D "li ..It :HI I i1' � tl ft . ·1I0�-.l11J .lJing-Sltu· Ii FIJ-HJi�n, FtI-Cltiith,yi

r 6':: ,IJ;\ :u. ff J ACJ §it .lJl , V !IiI W Jl 1! ""' l!i. .

Oliltg-/.! CliJiing-KltlllJtlg

The Circumstan(es Surrounding Ihe DiKovery, Excavalion, and Arrangement of the ·Hou·Ma (;Q"cnam TexIS'. !VIV, 1975.�. 7- 1 1 .

Shan,i Sheng Wen·Wu Kung-Tso W"i-Yuan Hui Hsich-Tso Hsiao-Tsu (I) Illl!§ tf :t: 1m I f1; � .u f!'f � f1; + !tl .

1I0u_M� Ch�w.Kllo Nu-Li-Hslitl Tstlng-Mu Ii fa·

Ii Tswi-Ching fj'!>� t!: iii Jtlt ;; It '" ltIi ACJ ft !lii � U \\II Ht 1Y:J 1I!! ,'Iff .

Chllth NIl·Li Cltih. Til

Excavation of Warring Stalc$ Period Sacrificial Slave Tombs at HOII-:\Ia and Incriminaling EI'idencc ofa Slave System. 1II1l', 1972. I , 63-7.

ShallS; Sh(ng IWn-Wu Kllan-Li Wei-Yuan Hui l"Iou·:\la KUII/l-Tso Chan III I!§ tf :x � 'I!f JJ. � f.I. fit �.IJG.!: t1 t! (I).

ShtlllSi Hsitlng_FhI CJuw-Kh/lJlg FIl-Cltilf Ku­ ChliJtlg-Cliilt Ti_CIUuJ

.ifi: S ¥: ht lll :6: .

III I!§ ,. is!' @ Ul Ifff

1nv0'5ligat;011 of,he Ancient City i n Ihe Vicinity ofChao-Khallg. H5iang.Fen. Shansi.

KK.

,963, 10. �«-9.

Shantung Sheng Wcn-\\"II Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So llJ JK ti' :t HJ :tt S if � 8f .

I

Chhjj-F� L..Kuo KIl-ClthhIg

db . 8- ill S lJ&: .

The Anciem City of the Stale o f Lu. Chhu-Fu.

Vol. I. Chhi Lu Shu-She. ni-Nan, 19112. Sha'llung Sheng \\"en-Wu Kuan·Li Chhu (I) IU *

I'i :t: .m '"' J!II II .

ShlUllw�g l.ln_ T�1l CIiJiI KIt-Cltlthlg SAilI-Clilith Ch"n_Pt14

11l * . lliI jf � .. 1It tll! lIIJ f(f..

Brief Report ofthe Trial Excavations of the ....ndelll Cily of the Stale ofChh; at Lill-Tzu, Shamung. KK, 1961, 6. 28g-97.

Shensi Chou-Yuan Khao-Ku Tui (I)

�i � .

� i!!i � �\ ;tJ

SM�si ChIt,_Sh(JR ntlg-CMu TJhulf Hsi Choll Chim-Chw Ch,_Chih fli·Chh·th Chim·Pno

� ILl

II*: I!§

" . H I!§ /,'lI i! . � JiI: � !lii flll .f6.

Bricf Rcport of the Exc3vluion orlhe W0'5tern Chou Building Foundations at Foi:ng-Chhu Village, Chhi-Shan, Shensi. WII',

1979. to, 27-36.

Shcmi Sheng She-Hui Kho-H$ueh Yuan Khao-Ku Yen-Chiu So Feng.Hsiang Tu; ', i!*: i!§ tf

u: fit « !II: J;i ;f} 'I , if 'f!. JiJi . FtI � .

CAki�- Til futlg_Chhing I·Chlli Kliatl·CAIut

tI .t.al il Jil: AlJ D: .

!Sf �

Explorat;on of the Remains of the Chhin Capilal of Yung-Chhcng. KK,

1963, 8, -l19-1l.

Shensi Sheng Wcn-Kuan Hui ,

If If .

P.f;: I!§ ti' Jt

Thung.Wan Chheng Chhcng,Chih Khan·Tshe Chi M "' lJ&: .lJ&: bl:. AIJ � ae Account of the Sun·e�· of tile Remains of Thung-Wan Chhcng. KK,

19.81,3, 22�-32.

Shensi Sheng Yung-Chheng Khao-Ku Tui (I)

� i!!i I6' * .lJ&: JMJ ,!r � .

Chltin_ Til rllng-Chhlwg TJIl�It-Thatl Shi"·Cltii�h Cltim'Pao

!Ii n * !At II � f.t !lii 118 N .

Brief Report of the Borings and Trial Excal'alion of Ihe Chhin Capital Yung­ Chhcng. KK yIl'W,

19.8�, iii. 7-10.

Shen·Yang Pu·Tui 'Sun Pin I'ing-Fa· Chu·Shih Tsu ( , ) tt ,.. BUt . IU'lH� tk . tt: " II. Sun Pin Pi�g-Fa Chll·Shih

If .. � it: it "' .

Annotation and Elucidation ofSw� Pin's Art of War.

Liao-NingJcn.Min Chhu-Pan She, Shen.Yang, 197�·

Shen Yii-Chheng it li: fJ1. 0.\ fu Hsuan-Tshung (I)

� • .ti! .

C huI/g-A-u. rl'/� IIlith TshnS-KItaG

. JMJ .

,t' t1 ::t. !II:

A Series of Textual Criticisms of the :\Iiddle Ancient Chinese Lilerary Writings. CHWSLT,

1911 1 , 3, 1-2 1 .

5 22

BIBLIOGRAPHY B

Sh;h Ch'''g-J" (,) "'RU, PRISCE NAPOLio!
l

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C

53 '

BoYLJ:, J. A. (Ir.) ( I ) . TM Ta',rth.; )aMn·G�jh/J, (HisIDf)' �f Ihr WDrld Conqurr�r, C1ti,.,i� Kfum) , by 'AI/J'al·Drn 'A(/J·;\IIII;k [al·] )urmynr [ + 1:133 10 + 1283]. "2 , ols. Harvard Uni\". P�ss, Cambridge, Mass, Uni\". Man· chc,�cr Prelll, �hncheSlcr, 1958. BRAOBURy,J. ( I ) . Tht Mrdi"'al AT(htr. Boydell &. B�w
Calif. . 1973. t:ReES, W. ( t). 12, I, 203 . W.P'...A. . Z. G. ( I ). PoIilitlrtJkaJo. bo,ba urrd�tt'tklWOm Kito.r. hdaICb{\'D Nauka, '\[oscow. 1970. W.K\', D. ( I ) . lI'orlord 5oI4im; CkiIltJ' CQI1I""'" S«dim, 19"-1935. Colllemporary China [ n"ilute Publicalions, London. lgS;,. w.sst:s. J. B. A. & D"lI.cEl., ..... (�s.) ( ,). Th. Album �j Villard dt I-IIIII"KOI',I. Paris. ,8;:,8. facsimile addilions by J. Quichcr.1I and t:ng. IT. by R. Willis, lAndon, .859. w.T......... j. D, & i'ATF.RSO::oolt,j. (Ir.) (7). TM TUIS'jCOIIjucialliJm: PtlII. TIu'Li Ki'. 2 volll. Oxford, 188,;; reprim, 1926. (SBE, nos. 'l7 and �8.) u;oor., J. (Ir.) (8). Tilt Cllina! Cla.ss;(/, t�.: Vol. 4, Pts 1 and 2. SIu Iti"l; Tiu &KHc � PINlry. I . The Fint Pan of Ihe SM Killg; or, the Lessons from the Slates; and the Prolegomena. 2. The Second. Third and Fourth Part! of the SIIe King; or the Minor Odes of the Kingdom, the Greater Odn of the Kingdom; the Sacrificial Odes and Praise-Songs; and the Indexn. Lane Crawford, Hong Kong, t871, Trubner, lon­ don. 1871. Repr. without notes, Com. Press, Shanghai, n.d. Photolilho re-i$.Sue. Hong Kong Univ. Press, Hong Kong, 1960, with supplementary ,"olume ofconcordance tables eiC. UOOE,j. (Ir.) (9). Tiu TutsojCwrjll(;allis.... P t l l . nt' Yi Killl' (/Cllint'j. Oxford, 188,. ISgg. SBE, no. 16.) LEGGE,j. ( 1 1 ) . Til, Ckitu� ClaJSus, t�.: Vol. ,;, Pts I and 2. T� 'Ch'.n Ts'ta/ lLitll /M ' T" CIb.nt' 'eM"n Chill.' and ' Ts. Ch.... ,,' ) . Lane Crawford, Hong Kong, 1872; Triibner, London, t872. Phololitho re-i"ue. Hong Kong lini,'. Pros, Hong Kong. 1960, with supplemenlary volume ofconcordance tables eiC. LEPPER. fRASK A. ( I ) . T,op.n's CoI.m,,: a IltuudiliQII ojlM CirllqriMS p/a"s. Alan Sulton, Gloucester, 1988. LEPR1SCI':-RISOUI:T, L. d ol. (cd.) (t). us 1"''nIiturs ClUb'll,- SOmers Pllysil/lfts tl ApphCQIIIIIIS. ;'Iazenod, Paris, 19';0. LUOI-GOVRHAN, A. ( I ) . £t'o/wlion ,I Ttclllliquts; vol. i; L'Hommt tl la Maliift; \'01. [ I : Mi/i,U II Ttchniquls. Albin Michel, Paris, 1\}43, 1\}4;;. LEWIS, MARK, L ( I ) . SaM/ioll,d Villlnra in Ea./.y China. State Uni"enity ofNew York PrC"SI, Albany, '990' Lt CHI (ed. in chief) , WSG SsU-YliSO and TliSG Tso-Pis (cd.), t"u SsU-NI.t.'!, Wv CH1S·TISO, Kt:o PAn-CHUS and uv Yii-HSIA (I), trans. Kenneth Starr. CII'tIII·I�j-.JOi. TJu BI/Uk POI/try Cull".t Srlt III '-"nl-slw.n",,"'" in Li Clt'tIIt'.luim Skll1l11l1l1 PrOM·JIlt. Gcoffrcy Cumberledge, Oxford U.P., London, [9,;6. u CHIIIAn-PHISG (ed. & Ir., with 14 collaboraton) ('l). 'Thitff /(11111 Klw.i IV.' ( TM Exploilillion Djllu II'D.b �j Naluu) ; ChilUst Agritul/uTl II1Id TKhnDlo!:J ill tilt Sn-mIUlllh Ctll/Wry, b)' Sung fjnl·Hsilll' China Academy, Taipei. tgBo. (Chinac Culture Series Ii, no. 3.) LI GUOHAO [LI Kuo-HAoj, ZHASO Jl,ltSOWE S [CHANO MtNo-W�Sj. CAO TIAIlILS, E. A. ( I ). Tou'If,d a Gt�tfal Thto,), 4ArlieR. Ha1\ard u niversity Press, Cambridge. P...RKtR.

;"Iass

" 0!H, 7, I I , 19, II, SI 1 'A II '{PH, 1881, g6, 'l93. (Tr. ehs. 34-36 (II'M Hsi"1 Chilt), 88, Sg IIsilll TIu"'g SII...) P!-·IZlotA1U., A. (68) (IT.). 'OaTkgung der ehint$i$Chen Amlef.' DIVA "'IPH, 1879, 29, l.p, qo, 'l13; 1880, 301, 30�, 341. (Tr. chs. 46, -n, -f8, olgA Hsill TIuJIIl Sh.; cr. des ROIOu" (I).) !'F\ZlotAIU. A. (6g) (If,). 'Die SammdhiuS("f de. Lehenkonige Chinas.' SIt'A II'IPH, 1880,95, 919. {TT. eh. 498 Hsill Thallg ShM: ef. des ROlours ( I ).} l'nZlotAIER, A. (70) (IT.). 'IJtKr einige ehincsi$Che Schriflwerke des sie1J.c,nten und aehtcn Jahrhundcrll n. Chr.' SJI"AI1"//,H, 1879, 93, 1'l7. 1 59. (Tr. chs. 57, 59 (in paf!: 1 JIIill Chih including agficulture, aSlronomy, malhematics: war, fl.'e·clemenl theory) Hsi" Thang Shu.) PflZlotAl[]l., A. (71) (Ir.) . 'Die philosophi$Chen Werke Chinas in dem Zeilalter derThang.' SII'AII'IPH. 1878, ag, 'l3;. (Tr. eh. 59 (in parI: I II';" Cltih, philosophical 5eClion, including Buddhism) Hs;" T/tu.g SAw.) PFTZlotA1t;R, A. (7a) (IT.). 'Ik. Stand der chinnische GeschiehlSSChrcibung in dem «ilalter de. Thang' (original has Sung as misprint). D1I'.41l'1PII. 1877, 27, 309. 383. (Tr. chs. H . (in part), S8 (J IVh Chih, his10ry and dassics5eClion) Hsilt TIuJIII SlIM.) PFTZ)tAlt;R. A. (73) (�r.). 'Zur GCS('hiehle d, Grundung d. HaUl!e1 Thang.' SlYA II'{PH, 1878, 9', a 1 , 46, 71. ('1'•. ehs. 86 (ill part), 87, 88 (in part) IIsin Thllng Sh".) PfIZ.'IAIER. A. (74) (Ir ) , 'Naehrieh�en von Gdehrten Chinas.' (&holars such as Khung Ying-Ta, Ouyang HSUIl, el(.) SI1'A JI'f/'H, 18i8, 9', 694, 734, n8. (1'.. ehs. 19B, �99, 200 Hsill Thallg Shu.) PHAS Hn-I..t; ,Illi. (I). XoIJ Tradilions Mi/iMirts. £tudes Viemamicnnes, no. 55, Hanoi, 1978. PHILLIPS, T. R. (ed.) ( I ) . R«H5 0/St1dltV. Lane, London, 1943. (A collec;lion orclassical Taclica, including Sun Tzu, Vq:eliu5, de Saxe, Frederick the Greal, and Napoleon.) PnT·R1VERS. A. H. USE-rOJ
548

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C

ROOU$, S. L. (I). 'Th� Aboriginal Bow and Arrow in North Am�rica and £a'l Asia.' AAN, 1940, {2, �SS. ROHl)E, F. (�). 'Di� Abzugs"orrichtung d�r rruhen Armbrust und ihre Emwiddung. ' -{HItIK, 19:330 13 (nF 4), '00. ,·os ROllOC"'t, S. J. ( I ). GtJ(�if�I' d. E.)P/�Jil'II�ff' � ,·ols. (usually bound in onc). Oppc-nheim (Schmidt), Berlin, 1895, repro Jannl:("ke, Hannover, IfI96. Vol. i GfS(IIirlll, d" Sp,tr!ls/liffcltnrrit, ur SftFt.,IN""it "'"US Terft"o­ INS"'S bis til'" B,gi"" d" �'u'SIt" -{ril (wilh imrodUCl ion by lI,l. Jihns). Vol. ii D, i r�Mrlls(hu"{Jthtlt PMit't. ilt ihre, /:'·,,/u·ickriuR bis "tIDU" Rt;DOLf

(J). A_JIIIi'Dt IUb/U Btl/rns' ulHr; Tnt und£rIIMttTN�gtff. Weidmann, Berlin, 1908.

ScIl.'>"UDER, Rt;DOlY (4). Cd 10 major ci'ation,.

(6) Rcftrtna:o in italicsdeno,. illu..rations.

A·Chu (Art.., Mong1 general,jI. + u67), no A-Li.Hai-Ya (Ariq Qaya, Uighur general in Mongol umy,jI. + .:267), 220 A-Tha-Hai (Mongol general,ft. + 1283), 226 Abbo (fl. +8g0) Dt Btllo PtlriJUno, 233 absinthol. &1 anemisia Abli Bah (Pu-Pai, anillery general,fl. + 1114), 111, '"

Abu'l !\·Iojid (fu-Mou-Chih, artillery general,fl. + [300), � � 1 (d) Acre, siege of ( + [19[), �39 action, principles of, 31-7 administration, civil anny's involvement, 73, 74-7, 78, 84, 99 provincial, 79 urban centres, 313-4 advisers, Soviet military, 67, 81 (g) Aegidim Romanus (fl. + 1280) Do R.gimi.u Prillrip/fl, 133 Aeneas Tacticm (fl· +3oS71 +367), 270, 3[ 7 (g), 343 (i), 344 (k) tmD/Q1IDII (Alexandrian compressed air catapult), ,86 Afranjah, siege of ( + 793), 133 agents, secret, [5, 53-4, 73, 343 (e), 459 Agincour[, bailie of, 436 (a) agriculture organisation, 74-5 w:lIerwaY' and, 33� Aigues Mones 3�� (a), 324-5 Aikah Nowin (Chingix Khan's chiefengineer), 2 1 8

(oj

ainuofwarfare, 37 Ainu prople, 135 air, CQmpressed, 186 'Ala' ai-Din (A-Lao-Wa_Ting, engineer,fl· + 1271), 210-2 Albcrtus Aquensil (c. + 10601 + [ I �O), �33 (e) alchemy, 9, 192 Alekseev, V. M. (2), 81

Alexandrian [«:hnology, 1 7 [ , [7�-3, 186 Sit dlso Hilon; Heron altar of$Oil (sM), 243 (e) ambushes., 461-2 arbalesu in, 161 in mine, 477, 478 multiple_boh crossbows in, 157, 155} in ramparl and gate a mile outside city, 46t-2, ,6, ..oIr.merindian proples boWl, 185 Amiot, J. J. M., SJ (fl. + 1782), 28 (f) Ammianul Marcellinus (b. c. +33°), 186 Amu Darya floating bridge, 2�� (d) l's, '20 (a), ,84, 'go, 440, 44' draw weighl, [g.3 European, 1 7 1 , 184-5, 231-2, 238, 239

fornu, 187-203 Graero-Roman, 17[, 172 in Indo-China, t45 ja\'elins, u5, ,84

Li Ling shoots Hun khan Wilh, 123, 191 mobile (IIU chlt/). [23 mounting, 184-5 multiple-bolt, (lint It", tWIIU), '40, 188-93, 232,

437, +40-1 multiple-spring (""uumg lo!M IIU), 185, 188, [93-9 periods of use, 238 projcclile weights and rangn, [25, [87 sighting, 19o (d), 441 lrigger mcchanism, 440- 1

Ariq Qaya. Su A-Li-Hai-Ya armour, '.I animal effigies, 10-1 I animal skins, 2, 4

chain-mail. 1 80. 275 chariot-fighting period, 4

Europe, 173 leather, 180,275 metal, 8, 180 (d) sea-sheIL, 180 Shang bronze helmets, 180 KN:ial aspccu ofdevelopment, [So Tseng Kung-Liang on, 27 type ofwarfarc and weight of, 9 Warring Slales period, 8, 180 armoured personnel carrier, high-sided carl U, 41g,

42'

armourics, mobile spear-rack, 29 '=y civil administrative role, 73, ]4-7, 78, 84, 99 modernisation. 77 personal loyahics, 2]4

KN:iai altitudes 10, ii, 79,85 (g), g8 KN:ial functions, 99 State separated from, 52 S« o./JO commandcrs AI-'orriJdo.il (Arabic, 'onager'), 186 (k) arrows arcuballista, [20 (a), 114. 190. 440, '141

bamboo, sct under water around fortifications, '70

crossbow, 139, 433 (b), 470 earliest found in China. 102 (d) Eastern Han, ,06 graphs, [ [ 7 inccndiary, 15, 1 t 7, 446 malerials, [ I ' , 1 ' 7 paper feathering, [ 1 7 poisoned, 136-7, tM, 167 size. and range• •67, [76-7 tethered, 1 [ 8, 120, 1 9o, 44( lorsion catapul[, 186 tU�-5hooting, 166-7, 168 arrow-lube (1A�lIg ,},itll) , [66-7, 168 artemisia gas (absinthol), �M-3, 464-5, �66-7, 1i9, 47°, 47 1 Artkaidstrfl, by KauJilya, 54 (a) artillery. Stt ballisli c machinery arlisaru' quarten. 245, '9' (e) aru. military (a.'� sh), 28 (b), 8] (b) a.!bestos, 1 [ 3 (e) aJhcs, 274, 466-7, 477 Asia, Central. St. nomads Alia, Ea.!t cultures, and classical lhcory ofwar, 68-9, 70, 9',

'"

lOCial struCtures, 9' tribal peopla' archery, 135 views of military in world order, [00 Alkul, island of, Nubia, 3 I 7,318-19 assauins, 177 (It) assault, dircct frontal. Su infantry (mass assault) assault wagons (bill """), 436 Auyria bows, '0'-3

a.!lro-gcomancy, 24, 56, 60 astrology, 22, 23. 24, 38, 55-6. 88 astronomy, 22 (b)

Athenacus or NaueTati' (ft. e. + �oo)

D.ipMJOphiJlfli, 17' (c)

Alhenacus (prob. +,nd cenl.) Pm M«�I(IfI, 186 (j), a39 (d) Athens Long Walls, 354, J58 alloll (throwing-stid), 1 [ ,5 attad:.

surprise

(IA�), 413, 46 t-3

t.....d\"c Iypes of, 4'3-85 Sa II1J� iltdividwfll lJJH.s �fflilact attiludes to military, KN:ial, 77, 79,85 (g), g8

aulumn 3.$ scaSOIl of rill, 93 avoidancc ofoombat, 37-8, 39, 44-5, 70-g, 94, g6-8 awl, footless (},,,,, thi), 479

,,�

r. I. ul

Bab) Bacl1 bod,

Bagh

Th balco '.. '�

Balfo bal/ul �

balliS! d,f d" diu

��

..m Sa

"

balliu

balls. I bambc ,�

�un m«

'oc. K�

Stta

Bomb< bannC! COI01

com. d= ,'" . lIa,'1

siege for Ii

,ymb ....am .

Bantiy Barbari ""

".

barbica: Barcekll

R,�

banizat

Saul a

bastion

balleri.... Bauer, \ Ba)'all I

'" Bayon. ( beacons. Beck. T Bcli�riu

INDEX axes, 275, 484 for chopping hands, ISIN JIIoMJM, lI9O, �' long {cMa.or,/M), lI77,II79 sapper's, phoenix-headed (fin, thow/_), 480

· 9l1,

Babylonia, 4, 102-3,201 Bactria, Greelr. Ir.ingdom of, 175 badges (""i), 270-1 Bagha-durbeljin Tho-Tho J,tnI-btall, .ID balconies 'enemy' (Ii pith,), 339, 3P 'movable' (hsill ,hall), 4I I Balfour, H. (3, 4), 102, 103 (a, b) 6«/iJI/lt, ,8j, 186 rolary, 200-3 ballistic machinery, 184-lI40 definitiOlu and distribulion, 114-7 deploymenl, 307, 4'2 distribution and diffusion, 231-40 projectile weights and ranges. 187 simplification ofdesign, progressive, lI37 Sn tUS� arcub;,dlistae; balliJ/4r, catapults; mangoneb; slings; swape; trebuche15 balliStics, study of, II balls, stone, 114, 186 bamboo arrows sct under water around fortifications. 270 guns, 2-3 incendiaries, 164 (b), 168 roelr.ets, 168 $Creens on city walb, 340 Sa abD slips, Han Bamborough Castle, siege of ( + 1464), lI39 bannen and flags colours, 57-8, 384 commander's family name on, 411 (c) decepti\'e use, 49. 267, '.I6g, 461 and divisions ofspace, 57 naval, 460 siege defence maleriab marked by, lI80-- l , 283-4 for signalling, 15, wfi, 314 symbols of hea\'enly bodies, 56 warning, 317, 329-30 Banlily Chm:lr, Cambodia; reliefs, 194-5, '97 Barbariam Han practice of pitting agairurl each Olher, '24, '" barbican, curved.,.n8, 353 Ban::clona Roman gale, J60 bartinn, Chinese, 375, 3]6 Basel Chronicle, 2119 (e) banion (wIN, dIM,,) , 337, J3fJ, 353, 370 ballering-rams. Su rams Bauer, W. (4), 86 Bayan (Po-Yen, l\longol general, + IlI37 10 + IlI94), ,,, Bayon, Cambodia, t93-5, '!Ii, 197 beaeorur, signalling, 25 Beck, T. (3), 170, 172, 114 (a) Belisarius (Roman general, + 5051 + 565), lI3l1 (c)

557

bell-boards, hanging (,,uui ,hUll, pall), 384, j8j bello.., double-acting pislon, 465 (a) 'fire pumped by' (f1amelhrower), 445 Jou and lIN. 465 and mining, 463, 464, 465 bells 10 warn ofattaclr., 267 belt-claw, cTossbowman's, 147-8, 1-19 Beni-Hasan wall-paimings, 4�9, 430 biffa (European lrebuchet), lI33 bill, long (cftMn,f <m), IlI4 Bitth ThN reN LuM (A Summary ofthe Military Boob). by Tran Quoc Tuan, 88 (e) BiOI, E. (19). 3 (d), 1 1 0 (0) BiOI, J. B., I 10 {oj BilOn (- 3rd or -2nd cenl.), 1 7 1 -2, )84, 168 (a), '39 blast furnaces, 463 Blochet, E, (I), lip, lI37 blockhouses 10 defend roads, 260, 26j boards callrop, lI64 (a), �, 470 hanging bell_, 384, J85 mine support, 463, 466, -P7 wolf'l tooth Jlriking, 4'j, 485 00..

against Hooding attack. 456-7, 4)8-9 paddle-wheel, 210, 220 bodyguards, 14'; Boghazkoy, 430 bolas. lIO) bombards. 29 bombs, 27 delivered by lrebuchet, lI04. �05, lIog-1O fire_, 209-10, 445 bone, armour made from, 180 &ok ojlArd Slum,. See SJuJIII Cite Shu Boots, J. L. (I). t61, ,65, 167 border, ,;, 7-8, 27, 126, 141-3 Han fOTts, lI64. 266-7, 309. 314 lbang look-.lon801 conquest, 215 (i) fullness and empliness, 35 Fu-Mou-Chih (Abii'l Mojid, artillery general,fl. + 1300), 221 (d) gadfly, flying (fti mlng, arrow), 470 Gaillard, Chaleau, siege ( + 1204), 239 gallenes, flying (fit 1II" n" ('box-and-tube wooden crossbow'), .0"

Kan Ying (envoy 10 Syria,ft. +97), 173 (b) Kanuawa Kanemiuu. Sec Wdmr Snt.JI-slil kanazawa'jO, 347,349 kllng (hardnct$), 93-4 Kansu, Han finds from, IW, 141, 393, .399 Kao-Chhang. 214.340 Kao Chheng. See Shih IV" Chi riian Chi L,i Kao Huan (general, +496/ + 547), 436, 444,

."

Kao Mu-Sun. See Wti LiUi Kao Thung (mechanic, -2nd cent.). 190-1 Kao Tsu. Sa Liu Pang

Kao Yu comm Kao YIM Karakbc: karale, 8 Karlgrn

ullfptl/u Ip k/Jlaptltd. Kaulil)"_

Artlt4/i.

Kayamoo Keegan, Kellmull Romal KhaifeD! sile of si�e Khang, , Khang S .,6 Khuars,

.tho I; k.... Khubilai

,,.

tJn..., rltJtl Khung C

khutlg-III"1 kilns, 4B3 Kingly \\' Kipling, I Kil4b a/·F

" "' �1ac:1

Klops1CS, knife can

:173, 4

knighu.er Ko Hung. Kohler, G Korea archery arro.. ·n

,="'"

Han COl Thang l Kou Chlet ll�-I Ku-su SUo Kuan·Tu.

Kf«J� TQl

g Kuan Yu

84-6, Kuang.cn Han Ion Kuang-Ha Han rna;

KlUlng SIbA

Eney.:

KIUJ�g T�

Pro.i.

INDEX

)

KilO Y u ( + �ndl+3rd cem.) commentary on HIUIi /{Illf T(II 1Ei9 (e), 191, 434 Kao Yiieh (general,ft, +548). 446 Karakhoto, siege of, � 14-15 kan.te, 87 (b) Karlgren, B., 1 1 6 kal"fHll�$ MlybolQ$ (Alexandrian magazine catapult), [72-3 ulDfJlllikDN (Cuek, catapult), 171 Kau\ilya A,'MJdJl,4, � (a) Kayamoto Kamcjiro, 126, 144 K�gan, J. ( 1 ) , 436 (a) KeJlmiinz Roman gale, fo Khaifeng site of Pieo-Chou, 339 liege ( + 1127), 19� Khang, ViKount of Han (ft· - 455/- 453) . 4.'1,5-6 Khang Shen (croubow-bolt maker, + [31h cem.), [46 (b) Khanrs, 115. 233 (j) tAD Ii *1mI (multiple.bolt crossbow), 157 Khubilai Khan (+ 12141 + (294), 219, 220, 225 (d), ",

khMIll cMhr, cm. Sa Empty Stronghold $Iralagcm Khung Chhiu (Ma.'Iter Khung, +479/+ 55!), 182 khu�g-Iung (unidentified \y� of anack). 413, 419 kilns, 46], 464 Kingly Way, 78 Kipling, Rudyard (2, 3), 5;; (c) Kil4h al.F�rWsIya w,J·MII1t4fd ,J·HlJrhry. (TrtalUe on the An ofCaYalry Combat and War Machines), by l;Iasan al·Ramma�, :I.J5, 237 Klopsteg, p, E. (I), 1 1 3, I/�, 176-7 knife cart for blocking gata (ui mb! f4II cMl), 371, 373, 432 knights--err.o.nt, 86-8 Ko Hung. See PdO Phil T�II Kohler, G. (I), 184 (a), 737 Korea al"(.hery, 103 (c). 109, 1 to (n), 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 arrow'lube (p.JKII ,bll) , 167, 168 crossbows, 176, 1:17. 144, 16,. 165 Han commandery, 99 (a) Thang expedition, ( +668). 7 1 1 Kou Chien (king of Yiieh, r. -496{ - 470), 13 (c), 1 '5-,6, 137-9 Ku·su (Suchoul, siege of ( + 1366), 228, 229 Kuan·Tu, siege of ( + 200), 710 IIl1ml T�II (Book of Master Kuan), 30, 34 (d), 38, ;;;; (g) Kuan Yii (d. +219, God of War and Peace), 82, 8J, 84-6. 88 Kuang·Chou province Han tomb modeh 394 (b),.pr� Kuang.Han Han market scene, JPB AlUl1Ig Shill Ui FII (Extended Rhyming Encyclopaedia, + (699). 1 1 0 (i) ArumR TII"g Hsin ra (New Description of Kwangtung Province), by Chhii Ta·Chiin, 465 (a)

57'

IIlUmg riilt diCiionary ( + 1011), 191 (d) Kuangsi rebellion ( + 1 186), 199 (d) Krui Hai rii Hmg Cllik (Topography and ProdUCIS of Ihe Soulhern PTovincCl), by fan Chheng.Ta, ."

Auti KII hll (Book oflhe Devil Valley Master), 30, 31-2 trui160 (way ofdeccplion), 91, 96 Kllri Thien FII, by Chang Heng, [70 Kun (falher of Yii Ihe Greal, -3Td millennium), '4' Kling cMJ (assault wagon), 436 kung.fu, 87 (b) felllfg luill (psychology), 23 Kung Nu Shu, Kung Nu Yiian (crossbow facl0ry), ."

Kung.shu Pan (engin«r, rival of Mo-Tzu), 446-7, ".

Kung·Sun nan (Han loyalist general, d. + 199), 435 Kung·sun Yiian (warlord of Liaolung, d. + 238), 435-6 Kllllt rang, 244 IIl111g rug ClUllur, 4'P felllJ.jm, 244 Kuo Jung (ruler of Laler Chou, r. +954{+9;;9), 215 (e) Kuo Pa·Chiin (3), 460 (b, d) Kuo Pho (scholar, +776tO +734). 10 (e), 464 (a) KilO rii (Discourscs ofthe (ancient feudal), Stata), 3� (d), �43 {el Kuomimang, 64 (g), 68 (b), 70 (b) S" also Civil War Kycscr, Konrad, von Eichstadt (fl· + ' 39;;) Belli/o,tis, :lj6, 237, 239 (d) ladden (tlti), 2;;, 26, 413, 446-;;;; countC"""eighted, 'cloud' (fill tlti), 41 1-12, �34, 438, 443, 446-8, '1'19, 450-2, �5J, 4B4 Hying Uri tlti), 280{- (d), PB5, 416, 453, �5� wilh hooks, (fe.,. tIIi), 414, 453 relractable, 381 rope, (shlng Ihi), 384, J85 Lai, capital of, 442 Lamb, Harold (I), 102 Lan Chi" T�u (Book oflhe Truth.through.lndolence MaSler), by Ma ¥ung.Chhing, 123 Lan Yung·Wei (t), 3 (d) lances ((hhiang), 4. 290, �I fire· (tslllln hMO), 27, 277 land·mina, 29 Landstuhl, siege of (+ 1;;23), 239-40 Lang. Olga. 8S (g) Lang Chi (arrow·maker, +61h cem.), 1 1 7 l.4ng Chi TsAliltl TIuur (Impressions Collectal during Official Travell), by Liang Chang.CM, 230 (e) Lao Kan ( I , 6), 143,4;;7 Lao Tzu. � UN. TOt: Li £,11 l.4o T�M (Book or M.aster Lao), 22 (b) lasso, 201 Lateran Council, Second ( + I 139), 174

57'

INDEX

latrines, �80, 31;', 317 law (fa), 93 Chhin, on liability for collapse ofwalls, 307 I..r; Puy

Gallo-Roman relief, 17'

leaf_spring. Sa llruin Cl'(I$Jbow$ leather armour, ISo, 27!i ma�, for siege prottttion, 272, 37' , 373. 473. "74, m

s'

nel5 hung on to....en., 100 (b), �25 Neugebauer. O. (6), 17' Neumagen Roman gate, 359 1Inj,�lIItIqj (Greek, tonion machines), 186 New Year'. images ("it!! moo), 80, 81, 83 Newcomen, Thomas (engineer, + 1663/+ 1 7'.19).

'0,

nineteenth century rcfonn$, gS Ning-Chheng, city of, 391, � Niu Fu (Sung officer, d. + 1�72). �19, '.110 Niu-Tshun, 2,¢, 149 No-au people, 136 (c) nomads, Asian, 5, 7-8 archery, 5, 7, 100 (c), 105, 167 later Han relations Wilh, 391. 393 militarism, 100 tactiCi against. 1'.13-5 SUallQ Ht.iung·nu; Huns Normans adaptation of Roman fortifications, 330 (c) siege engines, '.133 Northern and Southern Dynasties period, I , 338 nO'o'els, popular restrictions under Manchus. 8g {a}

See also Smr liNe Chill rt!! i Su crossoo.... n� (hltJ (mobile arcubaltista), 123

11M.

Nu Fang Tllang cTO$Sbow-making factory, 145 Nu Wen (Chine$f officer in Champa,.J1. c. +31:'),

,.,

Nubia

forl5, early dynastic period, 317,3,8-19 Numben, magic, 13, 38, .'17. 58• .'19, 75 (I"), 93 numerical IUperiOrily offorces, 43, 65-6 Oba Tsunekichi

& Kayamoto Kamejiro ('), 116,

'44 offensi�'cldcren,ive halance, '.139-40 officials military and civil, relationship, 16-7 Su dis. bureaucracy; oommanden Ogotai Khan (Thai Tsung, emperor, " + l'l'.Igl

P. p,

... p. p.

P.

p.

I

p� p. pol (

, , •

pu

•

pol. ... • " •

p,," •

P,.

P,. P'o

... P.

+ 1'.141),125

Ogyii Sorai

SMrhQ RUijN Kobjikai, f08 Oil boiling, 345 incendiana dipped in, 404-5, 426, 445 Oman, Sir Charles, 139 omens, 258 onager, 185, 186. 187,132 (I")

p,o

P,.

"'�

"

"

INDEX open field, ballle in cloud·laddcn ustd as lookouu, 4::'[ flooding, 456 rams, 434 operas, 70 (a), 50, 8[ opponuni[)" creation and seizing or, 33 oracle·bone inSCriptions, Shang dynast)', 2.p, 243 order, maintcnancc of, 87-8, 94 Stt d/so policing orderlies, 280 ordnancc records, Han, 14[-3 Oudcnburg Roman gate, 361 overlooks (lill), 4[3, 424, 43', 437-41 boats, 4::.7, 459 lung, 438 movable (flsin& /ill), 416, 414 ox, wooden (mu niu, tank), 47[-2, 473 oxen used to arm arcuballistae, [91, [gB I'd Chi" Tu Ho Pi'll SkaD (Eight Formalions Plan), ::.8 (g) Pa·Ling, siegc of ( + 6th cent.), 210 pacifism, [, '9, 45, 79, gB I'aeslum, J.13 Pai chhang Wu·Ssu (archcr), [ ' 7 (a) Pai ChifJ", CklUJ" (Memoin ora Hundrw. Gcnerals , by Chang Yii, 27 Pai-Hua-Than middle school sile, Chhicng_Tu bronze vessel, ....6, ....7-8, 460 Pai Kuti (rounder orChincsc art ofcommerce, laiC -4,h cem_), go Pai.Ticn, 2#1, 249 palaces Chou, 2...., 250, 254, 256, 295, 431 Spring and Autumn, 2,).1., 256 Thang, Ta-Ming, 364, #-9 warlords', 339 Palaeolithic era archcry, [01 (c), t02 (d) pafilllmro� (GTtCk 'onion catapult), /8j, 186 palisades 4'9 combustible, ouuide citics, 450, 48, in ditches,J.13 wooden, outer dcfcnces ofcilia, 334,335, 336, 436 Palmanova rortifications, :162-3 Pan Chhao (Governor-General of Central Asia, + 3 1 / + rOI), 143 Pan Chhiu (rebel prince of Sinkiang,jI. - (0), [43 Pan Ku. Sit CMim Hall Sku pan-Sinicism, 9' PaD Phu T(.u (Book of the Preservarion_of_Solidarity MaSter), by Ko Hung, 192 Pao Shih (imperial tutor, 4. + [,).I.). 153 Pao Thung Chiang-CMn (military deity), 85 (f) paper armour, ,50 al'TOWS feathcred with, J 17 grenades, 477 parapeu li,lI, IIiJfltJII, pltill'JfltJII, 307-8, 336 movable, ",'OOden, 371, .173, 432, 450

57 7

SC(ond, 336, ....5, 452 stakes hammerw. into top 0(, 264, 48[ Wan-Chhcng_Tzu, 380, ]I/J Panhia, 175 passports (thll5 Su o.lso MIUin IICl"«ns rerorms, + 191hl + 20th cen�. and military.agrarian t)'Slems, 75 and lIaUD of military, 98 Regino (abbot or Ptiim, d. +915), 233-4 R(Chm, A. & Schramm, E. (I), 1 7 1 , 114 (d) Reinard, J. T. & t'avc, I. (t), 230-1, z.15 reincarnation, 4� n:ligion, &> and anti.miJilaritm, 98 d�itiC5 of war, I I , 82, 8J, 14-6, 88 and orielllalion or titiet, 300 Sun Tzu rejeparalion of anny and slale towards end of, 76 stalUS ofmililary, g8 (d) lowns, 245 walls, 244, 431 Yen-Chhcng, 25[, :lj4 springs, bron�e, ,86 leaf, set ulllia crOl!llbo.... Ssu (possibly type of [Ower), '57 SSM Cfrlwo Win Clrin! LII (Record of Things Seen and Heard al t-our Imperial Courts), by Yeh Shao­ Ong, 157 (j) Ssu Kung Shih (Superintendenl ofArchery Equipment) , 1 17 , 1 4 [ Ssu-ma Chhien. See Shill CJri 5111-""" Fa (The Marshal's Art of War), '0 on army/State separation, 5' on moral, spiritual and human factors in war, 62, 6, on proper lime, 55 (g) on viclory withoul fighting, 38 Ssu-ma I (fouoder of line of Chin dynasty, + [78/ +'SI), 435-6 Ssu·ma Jang-Chii (ofChhi, -6th cent.), 20 Ssu·ma Kuang. Sec T(II Chilr Thulll Chim Ssu·ma Than. See Slrih CJrj Ssu-ma Tzu-Fan (officer ofChuu, -593), 44t-� Ssu-ma Tzu-Ju (.I. late +51h Cent.), 45S Sill sJw. (Four Animals), 56 SSII Slrll ClriM Clumg (malhematical manual, + 131h

cenl'), 375-8 Ssu Ta Thien Chiang (Four Great Heavenly Gene.-ais), 85 (C) JSll li (place ofdcalh), 4'-3, 47 slaircases in cily walls, 317 Slakes around camps, 267 in dilches, 364, 365 around forlifications, '14, 267, 268, 480-1 in wall parapets, 264, +44-S, 480-1 Slate and army, relationship of, 51-' l[eel, welding of hard and soft, 105, 344 Sleelyard, 1 14 , l lj slcin, Sir Aurel (4), [26 Slep Cilrts (elritlr /ao cfrJrJ), 4 [8-19 stirrup crossbow, 146, '47, 1.,8, 156 riding, 8, 147 Stones siege malerials, '77, 484 lrebuchet delivery, 2 1 0 stores fire-proofing of storehouses, 347 (a) stockpiling in besieged cilY, 257, '58, '71, 272, 274-5, '77, ,80-1 , 283-4, 3 [ 7 Slon:5, mO"able, 277, ,80, t8J slrangen, 91 Slra[agems (em), 24, 67, 73-4, go-I Chu-ko Liang and, 23, 71-2, 8.3 'empty slronghold', 71-', 8 [ , 83 5« also San Llith; Son-Shilr-lill Clri Slral(gikoll. Stt linda Maurice

INDEX strategy planning (cMii411 moll). 13-_

, Thiel

lit,,,, L , Tho I Tho-­ Tho-' thorn

·Ibr� ', m

mil mil R.

�

thra.. Ihu Sl Ihu t(

Tltll .

TltIlS

"0'

"0'

"0 ,

thuml

tlt"" d thund thund thund ThUll!

, Th.., Th.

,

ThUll! /It""g I Th"'l

"01

"0'

"0'

"0 ,

"0'

"0,

, "0 •

INDEX SI, 8S TIrh, Pita; Cltht Th (album, ehhing dynasty), 61 Theodosilll I (Roman Em]X"ror, c. +346{+:19.l), ' 7' Theoreticians, Mililary (Pi", Chia), 31 theory, military, 46-s.. change of emphasis from philosophical to practical, after + Sih cenl., 13-4 com!)al and com]X"tition, 37-4.1 general principia of action, 3t-7 liteDture, to-14 .scienlific mentality, 13-14 Yin-Yang, �SS Su als� ;lIdil.dlUll lJ.V1M theatre, 50,

thermod)·namics, study of, :I Thien An (/l , 2g6, 300 nint Ku", Kha; IVM (The Exploitation of the Works of Nature) , by Sung Yung-H,ing, I 14, 115, I S9,

,..,

Thien l\lao-Kuang (engineer-general,jI. + 617), 2 1 1 thim thim ('heavenly fields, raked area around fort) ,

166-7

Tho Pa Wei, 436 Tho-Tho (Togata). See Sung Shih Tho-Tho h�lI-ha�, Bagha-durbdjin, li5 thorn trees pial;«{ in ditches, 330,331 Three Kingdoms, I 'empty stronghold' tlratagem, 71-1, military technology, 8, 180, 110

8 1 , 83

military writings, 21-3, 19

Romance of, sa:: Sail KIltJ CIUh rtil I socielY, 394 (b), 3gB

throwing-stid, liS, 164 (b) lItM (Iurprise attack), 4 '3, 461-3 lit. (Ierrilorr). 46-8 n. mho Stt &ally-pom Til. SIr. Chi CUblg (Imperial Encyclopaedia, + 1 716) on croubows, 11S (f), 1 47, 1!9, IS7, 1;;8 on mililllrr literature, 30 (b) on Irebuchc� :114, 116-17, 213, 11:24, ��6, fin thumb-rings, archers', I 17-18, 119 lItUll lh;tll (military.agricultural colonies) , 25, 74 thunder as omen, :l5S thunder carriages (phi I; chM, trebuchcts), 210 thunder slones (It; shih, hand miS$iICl) , 277 Thundenticks, (/ri mil), :l7S, :184, 285, IlfJ6, 287,�, 427, 433 Thu"l ,hitll. Sa arrow-tubes nUllg Chien Shi" "'hi (Explanation of Pa5.'lagc$ in the C�mprthtIlS;Vf Mi"or), by Shih Chao, 166 Thung.Lii.Shan, 285 (b), 466, ,tfj8 tlrulIl pi(ff (,whip-tube' on crossbow), 164, 166, 168 Tltullg Tim (Comprehensive Inslitule), by Tu Yu on Aooding allack, 457, 459 on mining, 470-1 on moau, 332 on Ilaval trcbucheu, 116 on sh«p-horse wall, 336 on liege defence, 274-S, 2a., »8g-9O, 313-14,

403, 4S»-3 siege engines, 2:16, 4:11, 4:13,42.1

on

Thung.Wan Chhcng, 388-9 (a),,lP-I Ti proples, 386 Ii sl (caltrop board). 18g

Ti SSlI-�li ..·arnor,jI. -563). 408 Tibet archeI")· t«hnique. 1 1 7 Chinese annnalion, 99 (a) requesl Chinese: for books on an ofwar, (+ Slh cent . , 73 IItlt (walls, panpeu . 307-8 Ticnuin bailIe ( + 19'5 , 68 a tiles, Han tomb-, 348,:p6 timber Jtockpiling in bc:sieged cilY. 271, 27:1, '74 lime

appropriate, 31, SS. 90

measurement of, Stt water..clocb Tillg, Dukc of Lu (jI. -SOl), 43' Ting the bUlcher. 36 icl Ting-Chiin Shan, 165 Ting Tu (official and .scholar. +9901 + 1053), load caru (lla ma eMil, 4,S-g, 436 Toledo, siege or (+ 761), :133 tomhs ?f hhin Shih Huang Ti, 1:17-8. 141

,6 (b)

C:

. 301 10 CTUH,

croubow traps,

141

Ho-Lin-Ko-Erh, 391, J[P-4

tiles,

348,:p6

Sn IIlsG models

Tonh, SS (f) lorch holes, 309, 449. 4SO torches

on cily walls, 309, 313-14, 43'-3 Han. :log (e) phea&ant lail (e/ll1t .... ' 1 fAi , 4'S-6

swaUow tail L),(ff letl (hi , olin. 404,405, .p6, P7 use to mark enemr·) progras through cil)"·, defences, 3:19 lonion, sine...·bundle. SIt C3lapulu ( tonion types)

torture, 93 Tower carIS

lou chili, .. 18, 419, 421, 421, P3, 438-9 pM"g chill, 434-S, 438 to...en, mobile siege assault, S, 1S, 200, 435, 43S ·flying' (ftl /ou), 418. 424 Hinite, 430-1 Tltoi PQ r;� ChillI on. :IS 'well.railings' ((ltilll 1011), 451 lOwers, mobile liege defence, 408, 4 1 1 , 449, 450 towen, permanent defClUive, 373-gB gatc' , 3S1 horse-face {ma mint), 339. 340, 3P, 386, 387-90, 39 ' M� T�M on, 157 prolccli"e neu and ICr«ns, :I:IS, 375 fIf· 3S2-3 Sn olSlt crossbow plalfonns; walchtO\,

Vegetius, fiavius Renatus (military historian,ft. +385), (6, 1]2, 354 (b) Venus, planet, 93 Verdun, liege 0{ ( +g84), 173 vehicles, military. Sucaru; tanks; towen, mobile; trebucheu vaseb bronze pictorial, of Warring States period (lim). t20 (a), 139 (d), 275, 2n; Chhcng_Tu, +46, +47-8, 460; Liu-Li-Ko, 375, 3;6; Shan-Piao­ Chen, !rj8, 447-8, 460; Werner Jannings hII, +17-8,460

for siege defence, 2]4-5, 277, 280, 317, 344-5 Veter.l, Lower Germany Roman military hOlpital!rj)

victory without lighting, 37-8, 39, 44-5, 70-9,94, 06-8

Vienna siege ( + 1683), 108 Vietnam eommandery under Han, 99 (al importance in 20th cenl. ofclassical art ofwar, 68 militarism, 100 secrecy about military aru, 88 (c) Sa als� Champa ,·ilIaga 15""", 394 (b) Han, 329; foTlili�, 394 Villard de Honn...:oun (ma$ler-mason and cr.lfuman,ji. + 1225/ + (240), 233 'inegar antidote to gas, 469 �XlinguilJher for oil lira, 345 (al violence. Su force Violl�t-le-Duc, E. E. (archarologi$l, + 18141 + 1879), 357, 360

\"irtua chilo ofpopular military hema, 85. 87-8

ofcommander, 50 role in military maners, 61-6 violence justili� if u5ed to maintain, 85-6 Visdelon, C. d� ( I ), �30 u .. 357, 359-60 Vwg od

"·agom. SIt caru It'd.. St'9'f-"". Collect� Studia on th� Ships used by the Japanese and Chinac), by Kanuawa

Kananiuu, 2]6 f) w:a.l1-elimben {/hII (Mitel cW), 418 ,,-alls, 290-0

angular projttting, at g�le (J"l" or 1t·1I), 3�2-3, 379..]82-)

bastions

It."., ,w..,) , 337,jj8, 353,370

baltering, 292 (a) breaehed by mining, 463, 472, 474 Chou: Ea.llertl, 244, �45, 24-7-53; Weltern, �41, '+I crenellations, 25, 339

dC\;ces mounted on, 307, 3g11-41 3, 440 dimensions, 301-7, 375, 440 embrasures, 307 enc�inte inside inner city (J'" r/thiRl), 339 extra-mural scttlemenu., 337-8 lield-, 393 first noted, 242-3 flood def�n(es, 241 (e), 337, 459 gales proteet� by turn in, 266, jj8, 353,354, .ll5 inner (I.9-70 usc in coulltennining, 464 wells, hCil\'enly {illia ,hi"" holes dug inlo enemy mines), 47t well-sweep (,hith ku) on dly walls, 3!)8, 402, 404, "os, 426, .p7, 485 we againsl eroc:my miroc:s, 464, 46;" 47' wi" {civil values), !)8 idemified wilh r""I, 92 in Kuan Vii cult, 85 relationship with 1