Saladin in Egypt (Medieval Mediterranean)

SALADIN IN EGYPT

THE MEDIEVAL MEDITERRANEAN PEOPLES, ECONOMIES AND CULTURES, 400-1453 EDITORS

(\'Varwick) (St. Andrews) D AVID ABULAFIA (Cambridge) BENJAMIN ARBEL (Tel Aviv) MICHAEL \ 'VHITBY

PAUL M AGDALINO, H UGH KENNEDY

M ARK M EYERSON

(Nolre Dame)

VOLUME 2 1

SALADIN IN EGYPT BY

YAACOV LEV

BRlLL LEIDEN . BOSTON· KOLN 1999

This book is printed on acid-rree paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lev, Yaacov. Saladin in Egypt I by Yaacov Lev. p. em. ( rile medieval Mediterranean, ISSN 0928- 5520 ; v. 21 ) ) and index. Includes bibliographical rererences (p. ISBN 9004 112219 (alk. paper) I. Saladin, Sultan or Egypt and Syria, 1137-1193. 2. Egypt- History-Saladin, 1171-1193. I. Title. II. Series. D'f 95.8. L48 1998 962'.02'092 dc21 98- 33830 e lP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Lev, Yaacov: Saladin in Egypt I by Yaacov Lev. - Leiden ; Boston; K61n : Brill, 1998 (lne medic:vaJ Mediterranean; Vol. 21 ) ISBN 9()-()+- 1 1221 ~9

ISSN 0928· 5520 ISBN 90 04112219

o Copyrighl 1999 ~ Konin*/iju Brill NV /..eiden,

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PRI NTED IN TIn : NETIfERLANDS

CONTENTS

List of Abbreva tio ns ..... . ... .. ........ . ........... Acknowledgements ............... . ... . ... .. .... . .. Introduction ..................................... a. Questions and th e Sources ..................... b. The Ou tlines of Political History, 1 ]69-1174 ......

. . . . .

Chapter One: The So urces .......................... . I. Selling the Stage: The Twelfth Century .......... . a. Cultural and Religious Trends ................ . b. Political Life ............................•.. 2. Sa ladi n 's Hi slOri a ns ................ . .... . ..... . a. Qadi al-Fad il .............................. . b. ' iina d ai-Din .............................. . c. Ibn Shaddad .............. . .......... . d. Ibn a l-Athir e. Ibn Abi Tayy and Abu Sham a ................ . f. Maqrizi ................................... . 3. Textual Problems: Tendentious and Con fli cting Versions ..................................... . a. The Campaign of 11 67 ..................... . b. The Killing of Shawar ................ . ..... . c. The Nomination of Saladin as Vi zier ......... . d . The Battl e of th e Blacks .............. . .... . . e. The Procl amatio n of Abbasid Suzerainty

VII

IX XI XI XII

10 14 14

26 33 36 4I

43 45 45 46 49 49

50

Chapter Two: Saladin in Egypt. 11 69-1 174 . . . . . . . . . .. .. 53 1. Saladin's Rise to Power ................ . ... . . ... 53 a. The Sick Man on the Ni le. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53 b. The Killing of Shawar ....................... 61 c. The Betrayal of the Fatimid State ............. 66 d. The Battle of the Blacks ............ . .... .. .. 8 ] 84 e. The Demise of the Fatimid State. . . . . . . . . . f. The Conspiracy of I 174 ...................... . 86 2. Expansionism and the Search for Legitimacy ...... 94 a. The Rupture with Nur aI-Din . . ............... 94 b . Yemen and Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97

VI

CONTENTS

c. Syria........................... . ......... d. In Search of Legitimacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

IOl 105

Chapter Three: The Consolidation of Saladin's Rule. . . I . The Dismemberment of the Fatimid State ........ a. T he Appropriatio n of Urban Properties. . . . . .. h. In vestments in the Urban Econo my .......... c. The Acquis iti on of Agricultural Land. .. . . . . .. 2. Salad in 's Religious Policy ...................... a. Ismai li sm in Fatimid Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. b. The ReSLOration of Sunni Isla m ......•. . • . . .. c. Taxation and Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. d. The Impact of Saladin's Pol icies ....•. . ......

108 108 108 J 13 11 5 11 6 11 6 J 24 132 136

Chapter Four: The Army. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. a. The Size and Military Composition o f the Army .. b. The Ethnic Composition of the Army ........... c. T h e Administration of the Army. . . . . . .. . . . . . ...

141 141 150 158

Chapter Five: The Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. a. T h e Fatimid Naval Inh eritance ................. b. Saladin and the Egyptian Mediterranean Towns .. c. The Creation of the Office of the Navy. . .. . . . . .. d. Saladin's Navy in Combat. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. e. Saladi n 's Navy and the Siege of Acre............ f. The Wider Context of Saladin's Naval Activity....

16 1 161 163 166 168 172 175

Chapte r Six: Th e No n-M uslim Com munities ... . . . . . . . a. Fatimid Realities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. b. Oppression and Pe rsecutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... c. The Impact of Saladin's Policies........... . ....

185 185 187 190

Co nclusions .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . ..

194

Bibliograp hy ....•........ • .... • ............ . •....

199

Ind ex ................................. . ... . •....

209

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAS Abu Shama (Beirut) AI

BED BIFAO

BSOAS Crwadm and MII.dims

£,1.2. I:.gypl mid Syria

JESHO Th e jihad and its Time

l}MES JAOS JARCE

jNES JRAS JSM

JSS Maritime Asptr.1s

Asian and A/neall Studies ( H aira) Abu Shama, Al-Rawdatayn fi AltMar af-Dawlal(l)'II. (Heirul . o. d .), 2 vols Annahs hlam%giqllu Bulltlin des Eilides Oritmtaks Bulldin dt {'/nsli/1I1 Francais J'Archiologit GriU/lale Bulle/in of the School of Oriental (!lId A/neall S/lUlits

Crusadns and Muslims in

T~lflh-&lIl ury

Syria, (cd) M. Shalzmiller (I..eiden, 1993) Encyclopaedia of biOll/, 2nd Edilion I:.gypl arid Syria in the Falimid, Ayyubid and Ma1llluk Ears, (cds)

U. Ve rm eule n ;wc! D. De Sme t (Lcuven, 1995) jOllrrwl oj lilt Economic and Social History of lilt Orient The Jihad Gild its Time. Dedicated to And rew Stefan EhrenkrclILZ, (cds) H. D;yani-Shakeel and R. A. Messier (An n Arbor, 1991 ) International Journal of Middk f."'aJt Studies jOllnwl oJ the American Oriental Society journal of the American !usearch Center in Eg)'pt journal of Near Em/enl Studies jOllnwl of the ROJ'al Asiatic Society jenuakm Studies in Arabic and Islam journal of Semitic Studies Maritime Aspects of Migration, (cd ) K.. Friedland (Wien , 1989)

of Migration Medieval Historical Medieval Historical Writings in the Christian and Islamic Worlds, (cd ) D. O. Morgan (London, 1982 ) Writings MAl

MW REI SI War and Society

The Mariner's Mirror The Muslim World RevIU des Etudes /slarniques Studia Is/arnica War (md Socuty in the Eas/c7i MrditnTanean. 7th-151h CentuM, (cd) Y. Lev (Leiden. 1997 )

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the course of my research and preparing this book I incurred debts of gratitude to many individuals and institutions. My thanks go first to Anne-Marie Edde of Paris, who read the elllire manuscript and made many helpful com ments and suggestions. John H. Pryor of Sydney read two early versions of the chapter on navy and cOnLributed much to its content. This chapte r was also read by Ruthi Geru.vagen of Haifa, who made valuable suggestions and ge nerously shared with me her vast knowledge of Acre during a tollr of th e city. John France of Swansea read th e chapter on army and offered many useful comments. Finaiy. I wish to thank Julian Deahl of Brill, who read the entire text and corrected my English. Need less to say that the responsibility for the book's content is sole ly mine. I am also pleased to acknowledge the generous assistance of the lib rarian s and staff of the following institutions: the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the Library of th e School of Oriental and African Studies, London; the Or iental Reading Room, the J ewish National and Un iversity Library, Jemsalem and Bar-Ilan Un iversity Library.

INTROD UCTION a) Questions and the SQurces

Th e m ain aim of thi s book is to discuss the wa nin g ofth e Fa timid sta le a nd to exa min e Sa ladin 's po li cies in Egyp t, whi ch created a new po liti cal and social o rde r. At th e beginnin g, it see med a simple and strai g htforwa rd malle r , the so urces abun da m and free ly avail· able. Howeve r, progress was ha mpe re d by pro bl e ms with the source ma te rial. It beca m e cl ear that m os t or o ur data o n Saladin 's adm inistrative , fiscal , military and naval poli cies in Egypt arc derived fro m a sin gle so urce: th e lost co ntem po rary c hro nicle by Qadi a lFa d il. O nl y Saladin 's re li gio us polic ies a rc we ll a ttested to by a va ri e ly of th e sou rces due to th e rich la te me di eva l bi og ra phi cal li te ratu re. I Oth er sou rces contem po rary with Saladin do p rovide in fo rm atio n o n hi s inte rn a l po licies, b ut th e data are bese t by imm e nse co ntradi cti o ns. Th e d iffi culti es with th e so urces are nOt a n ew pro bl e m . A numbe r of schola rs h ave d evo ted g reat effort in th e a tte mpt to und e rsta nd a nd cla rify th ese pro bl e ms, an d m y own work reli es mu ch o n th e ir Iindin gs.2 Th e co nte nt of th e book is shaped by th e n eed to re~exa min e th e sources a nd evenLS th a lle d to Saladin 's rise to power in Egypt. It must be said th a t re~exa minati o n of th e so urces is fru stra ting a nd occasionally quite futil e. Sa ladin is po rtrayed in diam e tri ca ll y o p posed ways by hi s admi rers a nd so m e of his c riti cs, nOla bl y Ibn a l~Athi r. Our ability to pe ne trate beyond th ese con t radi ctory ac~ counLS is se ri o usly ha mpe red by o ur limi ted unde rstandin g o f th e syste m o f po liti cal and m oral va lues th a t guide d th e men of th e tvre Lfth ce ntury. Th e refore, o ur abili ty to d iscern th e hidde n motives be hind th e confli cting prese nta tio ns of Saladin is restri cted. C hapter On e re n ec LS a nd d ea ls with th ese diffi culti es. But th e situa ti o n is no t a ltogeth e r ho pe less. T he o bvi o lls way out o f such dit-li culti es wi th connicting a nd co ntradi ctory d a ta is to empl oy sou rces whi ch d o not be lon g to th e tWO o pposin g hi sI Th is aspect has been deall with in great detai l by G. Lli Vicre Leiser, see bibliography. 2 See the works H. A. R. Gibb, P. M. Holt and D. S. Richards listed in the bibliography a nd quoted in Cha pters One and Two.

or

XII

I NTRODUCTION

torical traditions: of Saladin's admirers and his critics. Indeed, on some occasio ns. such independcm fragments do exist and provide an impo rtant corrective to sources biased one way or the other lO Salad in. Most surpri si ngly some origina l documents cited in fu ll in th e lite rary sources remain neglected. A careful reading of them sheds much fresh li ght on the events unde r discussion. These types of sources a re utili zed in C hapter Two. H owever, it is not only a question of so urces but also of perspeClive. Th e second chapter is written fro m the point of view of Fatimid history. The years 1169-1171 constitute a chapter in Fatimid history as much as they offe r a hislOI), of Saladin's rise to power. When th e events of these years are also approached from th e point of view of Fatimid realiti es a clearer picture of Saladin 's intentions and policies emerges. T h e n eed to exam in e and re·exam ine the sources also looms large when Saladin's inte rnal policies are examined (see Chapler Three). Frequently these policies are prese nted so as to accord with Salad in 's image as a pious and just ruler and devoted warrior of th e Holy War. We must always be aware of the fact that Salad in 's very real ac hi evements-th e victory at Hittin and the conquest of Jerusalem-had already been formed into a myth d u ri ng his lifeti me and thi s obli terated Saladin's personali ty and deeds . Only on rare occasi9ns is the non-mythical Saladin di sce rnable .

b ) Th e Outlines oj Political History, 1169-1174

The aim of this subsectio n is to provide a short account of th e political history of th e period 1169-1174 which wi n serve as an unifying te nn of reference for the whole book. T h e main eve n ts that took place in those years are refe rred to co nstan tl y in subsequent chapters. During th e .1060's Egypt became a battle ground between Fatimid military leade rs, who fo ught with th e h elp of fo reign armies for the post of the vizier. Two regional powers became involved in the internal affairs of Egypt; Nur ai-D in of Damascus and the Crusader Kingdom ofJ erusalem. From 11 62, Fatimid politics were overshadowed by Shawar's bid for power. In that year, Shawar, the governor of Upper Egypt, established himse lf in Ca iro and

I NTRODUCTION

X III

became the stro ng ma n beh ind th e throne . But hi s triumph was sh ort-li ved; he was drive n away fro m the capital by another co ntender for powe r , Dirgham . Shawar found refu ge in Damascus at the court of Nur ai-Din wh o m he persuaded to give military backin g to his attempt to regain power in Egypl. In Apri l 11 64, Shawar, supported by Nu r al-Din's expeditiona ry force commanded by Shirkuh. moved to Egypt. Shawar's bid for power was crowned with success: with Shirkuh 's help he re-established himself as vizie r. h oweve r , he had no intention of keeping his promises to Nur alOin . In order to oust Shirkuh from Egypt. Shawar e nlisted the support of Amalric. the King ofJ entsalem. Shawar's gamble proved to be correct beyond all expectations: the Fran ks a nd Shirkuh dashed in dec isively on Egyptian soi l and eve ntu all y both parties agreed to leave Egypt (Oc tober J 164). For a short period of time, Shawar cou ld enjoy the success of his divisive po li cies. In 11 67, Amalric and Shirkuh at th e h ead of their forces were again in Egypt. This rou nd of fi ghti ng was rich in eve nt. On 19 Marc h 11 67. th e Franks and Sh irk uh fought a major but inco nclusive battle kn own as the Battle of Babayn. In its wake. Shirkuh left Salad in to defend Alexandria whil e he himse lf overran Upper Egypt. For three months, Saladin was besieged in Alexandria by Shawar a nd the Franks. The siege brought great misery to tJl e be leaguered town and its inhab itants, but Salad in' s finn stan d c reated a military stale mate which co nvin ced th e Franks and Shirkuh to agree to the wi thdrawal from Egypt of both th e Crusad ers and Nur al-Din 's forces (Spri ng 11 67). By 11 68. the weakness of Egypt also attra cted th e atte n tion of Byza ntium . Th e two Christians powers o f the Eastern Mediterranean-Byzantium and the Crusad e r Kingd o m o f J e rusa le mnegotiated to combin e forces in ajoint military expediti on agai nst Egypl. It was an attractive alli a nce; Byza ntium had an important asset to offe r- h er nava l forces. No ne th eless, Amalrk lau nch ed hi s new offensive aga in st Egypt alone. In October 11 68, Shawar alone, with no h elp from Damascus, was confronted by the third Frankish invasion of Egypt. T he Crusaders stormed and conquered tJle town of Bilbays, and moved against the capilal whi ch comprised the two cities of Fustat and Cairo. On 12 November, Shawar set Fuslat on fire and alTered vast sums of money to buy off Amalric. Appeals for h elp from Shawa r , or a1-alrician.J, 49, 50. To what ex tent these conclusions apply to th e Arabic· speaking la nds ofthe Middle EaSt in the eleventh·twelfth ce ntu ries is, at th is stage of the researc h, uncleOlf.

4

CHAPTER ONE

were fin anciall y supporte d durin g the pe riod of th e ir learnin g by in com es derived fro m pious e ndowme n ts se t up for the benefit o f th ese institutions. Needless to say that the tcachin g staff of the co llege was paid too. Under th e SeUuks the in volve m e nt o f th e government in the religious life, in th e form of politica l backing of lega l and theological sc hools of thought, was greatly inte nsified. The Turks adhered fanatically to th e Hanafi legal sys tem and objected to Ash'an theology. In th e la nds unde r th e ir rule in Ira n a nd the Middle East these re ligious pre fe re nces were translated into morc or less sys te mati c s late po licies.5 Wh e n approaching the religious and c ultural li fe o f the twe lfth century il would be misleadin g to focus o nly o n th e hig h culture of the jurists a nd law co ll eges or the lea rn ed Sufis in th e khanqas. Th e Islam of the m asses, urban a nd certainl y rural , was differe ntly o ri e n ted; more toward spirituali sm a nd less concern ed with texts. In popular Islam ho ly men we re m ore ce ntral than lea rn ed m e n of religion. But the religion of th e e duca te d e lite and that of the masses were not worlds e ntirely apa rt. Adherence to legal sc hoo ls was important and cen t ral in the lives a nd ou tlook of the historians of th e peri od as mu ch as it was in the li ves of their less renowned contempo rari es. 6 Within Sunni Islatn, a wide common ground can be discerned betwee n hig h a nd po pular fo rms of religion , and many religious practices were typical of bo th the Islam of the edu cated elite and o f that of the peopl e. Cross influences are discerned a lso be t\vee n Sh i
b. The Killing of Shawar 1. Undo ubtedly th e re treat of the Crusaders strengthened Shirkuh but Nul' al·Din's expediti o nary force in Egyp t was vas tly ou tnumbered by the Fatimid army. It is tru e that both th e Syrians and the Crusade rs had a low estee m for the fighting abiliti es of the Fatimid forces. 28 The Fatimid army suffe red from two major shortcom in gs: it co nsis ted mostly of blac k in fa ntry and there fore its mobility and attac king capabil ity were restl; cted. Moreover, it lacked internal cohesion. The army was composed ofvario lls military corps differe nt in o ri gin , e thni c compositio n , military specializa ti o n a nd in the c haracte r of their troops: mi litary slaves or free·born troops. Th e fragmentation of Lhe anny ,vas an imporullll conuibllung fa ctor in the inte rnal political destab ilisation of the Fa timid sta te. Not· wilhstanding th e d e fi cie n cies of the Fatimid a rm y as a fighting count in Khilal as un rel iable o n two point.'i: the supposed moth'es for seuing the town on fire and the extent of the damages. Working fro m a wide range ofsOll rccs Kubiak expresses doubt.'i regarding the supposcd scalc of the dest ruction caused by the firc . He point.'i OUt tha t prior to Shawar's fire man y parts of Fustat were a lready in ruins. 26 William of Tyrc attributes th e failure to conque r Cairo to Amalric's slow advance followin g rh e co nquesr of Hilbays. Sec. II . 35 14, esp., 353 27 Ibn a l-Athir, Kam ii, XI, 222; Nuwayri , ff, 235 1~ 236A. 28 William of T yre, II , 3 134. In this account William refers to a sup posed meeting betwee n Shi rku h and the Caliph in which hc made some scornrul remarks about the fighti ng capabilities or the Fatimid army.

62

CHA PTER TWO

force, it e njoyed a massive numerical superiority over Shirkuh 's army. Th e \vay to Ayyubid ascendancy in Egypt was opened by th e killing of Shaw-ar, the on ly person who cou ld possibly face Shirkuh . This even t provides an unique opportu ni ty to utilize sources not traditionally used in the study of Salad in . The possible benefits of tapping suc h so urces have been demonstrated on two occasions by Ric hards. 29 A c hronicle from 11 96- 11 97, the a nonymous Bustan al-Jami', published long ago by Cahe n , furnishes interesting insighLS iOLO the conduct of the civili a n e lite of Alexandria during the period when the town was besieged by Shawar and Arnalric. Another examp le, a nd a far m orc signifi can t one, is provided by Ibn 'A.,akir's account of the killing of Shawar, ci ted by Abu Shama. Thi s account has not th e sli ghtest resemblance to the oth e r ver· sions disc ussed in C hapter One. In plain words Ibn 'Asakir says th a t Sh irkuh, with the he lp of Sa lad in , se t a trap for Shawar who was lured to the Syria n cam p to visit the su pposed ly sick Shirkuh. Upon his arrival, Shawar was ove rpowered and kill ed by Jurdik a nd Barghash, who are desc ribed as me n in th e service of Nur al· Din (litera ll y mawali, i.e. hi s cli e nts o r fr eedm en). Ibn 'Asaki r reminds his readers that Shawar was known for his wickedness a nd cunnin g. The fact that Shirkuh was responsible for th e killing of Shawa r is mentioned also in a terse remark that Ibn
THE

MEDIEVAL MEDITERRANEAN PEOPLES, ECONOM IES AND CULTURES, 400-1453 Editors: Michael Whitby (W'arwick), Paul Magdalino, H ugh Kennedy (SL Andrews), David Abulafia (Camblidgc), Benjamin Arbcl (l'cI Aviv), Mark Meyerson (Notre Dame).

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