Rome from the late Republic to the late Empire

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF GREEK A N D RO M A N WA R F A R E

Warfare was the single biggest preoccupation of historians in antiquity. In recent decades fresh textual interpretations, numerous new archaeological discoveries and a much broader analytical focus emphasizing social, economic, political and cultural approaches have transformed our understanding of ancient warfare. Volume ii of this two-volume History reflects these developments and provides a systematic account, written by a distinguished cast of contributors, of the various themes underlying the warfare of the Roman world from the late Republic to the sixthcentury Empire of Justinian and his successors. For each broad period developments in troop types, equipment, strategy and tactics are discussed. These are placed in the broader context of developments in international relations and the relationship of warfare to both the state and wider society. Numerous illustrations, a glossary and chronology, and information about the ancient authors mentioned supplement the text. This will become the primary reference work for specialists and non-specialists alike. ph i li p sab i n is Professor of Strategic Studies in the Department of War Studies at King’s College London. His main academic interest concerns the analytical modelling of conflict, and he is the author of Lost Battles: Reconstructing the Great Clashes of the Ancient World (2007) and co-editor (with Tim Cornell and Boris Rankov) of The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal (1996). He teaches and writes about the strategy and tactics of warfare from ancient times to the twenty-first century. h ans van we e s is Professor of Ancient History at University College London. He is the author of Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History (1992) and Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities (2004) and editor of War and Violence in Ancient Greece (2000). He has co-edited (with Nick Fisher) Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (1998), (with Egbert Bakker and Irene de Jong) Brill’s Companion to Herodotus (2002) and (with Kurt Raaflaub) A Companion to Archaic Greece (forthcoming). m i c h ae l wh i tby is Professor of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Warwick. He is the co-editor of volume xiv of The Cambridge Ancient History (2001) and author of Rome at War, ad 293–696 (2002) as well as several articles on late Roman warfare, and has made several television appearances talking about ancient warfare from the Graeco-Persian Wars to the collapse of the Roman Empire.

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Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

THE CAMBRIDGE H I S TO RY O F G R E E K A N D RO MA N WA R FA R E VO L U M E I I

Rome from the late Republic to the late Empire Edited by P H I L I P SA B I N

Department of War Studies, King’s College London H A N S VA N W E E S

Department of History, University College London M IC H A E L W H I T B Y

Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Warwick

Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

c a m b r i d g e u n i ve r s i t y p re s s Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ao Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521782746  C Cambridge University Press 2007

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2007 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library isbn 978-0-521-782746 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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CONTENTS

page vii

List of figures List of maps Editors’ preface Acknowledgements

PART I:

xi xii xxii T H E L AT E R E P U B L IC A N D T H E P R I N C I PAT E

1 International relations harry sidebot tom (Fellow in Ancient History, Greyfriars Hall, Oxford)

3

2 Military forces boris rankov (Professor of Roman History, Royal Holloway, University of London)

30

3 War adrian gold sworthy

76

4 Battle catherine m. gilliver (Lecturer in Ancient History, Cardiff University)

122

5 Warfare and the state A. Military finance and supply dom inic rathbone (Professor of Ancient History, King’s College London)

158 158

B. The military and politics richard alston (Professor of Ancient History, Royal Holloway, University of London)

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contents

6 War and society colin adams (Senior Lecturer in Ancient History, University of Liverpool)

198

P A R T I I : T H E L AT E R RO MA N E M P I R E 7 International relations m ark humphries (Professor of Ancient History, University of Swansea)

235

8 Military forces hug h elton (Professor of Ancient History and Classics, Trent University)

270

9 War m ichael whitby (Professor of Ancient History, University of Warwick)

310

10 Battle philip rance

342

11 Warfare and the state a. d. lee (Senior Lecturer in Classics, University of Nottingham)

379

12 War and society andrew fear (Lecturer in Ancient History, University of Manchester)

424

Chronological table Glossary List of ancient authors Bibliography Abbreviations Primary sources Main bibliography Index of ancient passages cited General index

459 476 485 498 498 500 508 547 571

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FIGURES

1.1 Coin depicting Trajan presenting a Dacian to a senator. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. page 7 1.2 Engraved relief from the Boscoreale cup depicting Augustus, seated on a folding chair on a dais with soldiers and a lictor in attendance, receiving a kneeling delegation. 17 1.3 Relief from the arch of Marcus Aurelius in Rome depicting Marcus Aurelius, seated on a pedestal with standards, soldiers and an advisor in attendance, listening to a request. 18 1.4 Relief from Trajan’s column depicting the conclusion of the First Dacian War, with the Dacians submitting to Roman authority, except for the upright Decebalus.  C Copyright DAI Rom (neg. 89.748). 20 1.5 Coin depicting the seated Trajan crowning a king of Parthia. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 26 1.6 Rock-hewn relief depicting King Shapur of Persia humiliating defeated Roman rulers. Reproduced from R. Ghirshmann, Iran: Parthians and Sassanians. 27 2.1 Tombstone of Publius Flavoleius, a soldier of legio xiv Gemina. Mainz, Landesmuseum. 43 2.2 Sculpture of the praetorian guard. The Mansell Collection. 46 2.3 Scene from Trajan’s column depicting Numidian light cavalry. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. 52 2.4 Scene from Trajan’s column depicting Roman cavalry pursuing heavily armoured horsemen equipped with bows. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. 74 3.1 Coin of Caesar depicting a defeated Gaul (possibly the rebel leader Vercingetorix) surmounted by the triumphal vii

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list of f igures display of captured Gallic armour. London, British Museum. Scene from Trajan’s column depicting legionaries constructing a fort. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. Scene from Trajan’s column depicting the Roman army crossing the Danube into Dacia on a bridge of boats. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. Coin of Augustus depicting the recovery from the Parthians of the standards lost by Crassus in his disastrous defeat at Carrhae. University of Glasgow, Hunter Coin Cabinet. Parts of a small catapult from Ampurias in Spain. Barcelona, Archaeological Museum. Second-century ad shield boss of tinned brass found in the River Tyne, belonging to Junius Dubitatus of legio viii Augusta. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. Sculpture from Mainz of Roman legionaries of the first century ad in fighting pose. Mainz, Landesmuseum. Marble relief from Praeneste depicting a war galley of the late first century bc. The Mansell Collection. Scene from Trajan’s column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. Fragment of pay account of legionary (ad 70s). P. Masada 722. Reproduced by permission of the Israel Exploration Society. Scene from Trajan’s column depicting soldiers foraging for supplies. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. Scene from Trajan’s column depicting horses and supplies being transported by boat. Drawing by S. Reinach, R´epertoire de reliefs grecs et romains. Relief from the base of Theodosius’ obelisk in the hippodrome of Constantinople depicting Theodosius I, seated with co-emperors Valentinian II, Arcadius and Honorius, receiving kneeling foreign envoys. C Copyright DAI Istanbul (neg. 64/635). Photo: P. Steyer. Armoured infantry, mid-third century, from the fresco of the crossing of the Red Sea in the synagogue at Dura-Europus. Damascus, National Museum. Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europus Collection.

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list of f igures 8.2 Remains of a skeleton and the armour of an infantryman, mid-third century from a collapsed mine in Dura-Europus. Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europus Collection. 8.3 Relief from the arch of Constantine, Rome, depicting infantry on the march, c. ad 312–15. 8.4 Mosaic of hunters from Piazza Armerina, Sicily, showing the probable appearance of infantry, early fourth century. Photo: Scala/Art Resource, NY. 8.5 Late antique relief depicting armoured infantry. Musei Vaticani (neg. 87 VAT545). 8.6 Armoured infantrymen in the Virgilius Vaticanus MS, early fifth century. C Copyright Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Lat. 3225, fol. 73v. 8.7 Battle scene, mid-fifth century, from a mosaic depicting the flight of the Amorites. Rome, Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. 8.8 Armoured infantrymen in the Virgilius Romanus MS, late fifth century. C Copyright Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Lat. 3867. 8.9 Battle scene showing armoured infantry in a MS of Homer’s Iliad, c. ad 500. Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana. 8.10 Infantry, late sixth century, from the relief depicting the meeting of Joseph and Jacob at Goshen, from the throne of Maximian in Ravenna. 8.11 Armoured and unarmoured infantry, early seventh century, from a silver plate depicting the battle between David and Goliath. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 (17.190.396). 8.12 Graffito of a charging clibanarius from Dura-Europus, mid-third century. Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europus Collection. 8.13 Cataphract horse armour from Dura-Europus, mid-third century. Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europus Collection. 8.14 Relief from the arch of Galerius in Thessalonica depicting cataphracts, late third century. C Copyright DAI Athen (neg. Saloniki 225). Photo: Wagner. 8.15 Unarmoured cavalryman, fifth–seventh century, from a fresco depicting St Sisinnius spearing a female demon, in the monastery of St Apollo, Bawit, Egypt. 8.16 Porphyry statue of tetrarchs, depicting the probable appearance of senior officers, c. ad 300. Venice, Basilica di San Marco. Photo: Alinari.

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list of f igures

8.17 Missorium of Theodosius I depicting emperor and guards. Madrid, Academia de la Historia. 8.18 Consular diptych of Stilicho showing the probable appearance of an officer c. ad 400. Monza, Tesoro del Duomo. 9.1 Late Roman walls: Theodosian walls of Constantinople, early fifth century. Reproduced from C. Mango, Byzantine Architecture (1978). 9.2 Granaries at Dara, early sixth century. Reproduced from C. Mango, Byzantine Architecture (1978). 9.3 Plan of Dara, early to mid-sixth century. 9.4 Sangarius bridge, c. ad 560. Photo: author. 9.5 Relief depicting the battle of the Milvian Bridge from the arch of Constantine, Rome. 9.6 Mosaic of St Demetrius as protector of his city, with arms around the bishop and governor. Thessalonica, church of St Demetrius. Washington, DC, Dumbarton Oaks Collection (neg. D57.13 (57.6.8)). 10.1 Late Roman infantryman and his equipment from a MS of De rebus bellicis. Oxford University, Bodleian Library, MS Canon Misc. 378, fol. 74v. C Bodleian Library. 10.2 Sixth-century Egyptian ivory relief depicting a mounted armoured archer and armoured infantry. Trier, Rheinische Landesmuseum. Photo: Th. Z¨uhmer. 10.3 Late Roman artillery piece from a MS of De rebus bellicis. Oxford University, Bodleian Library, MS Canon Misc. 378, fol. 76r. C Bodleian Library. 11.1 The Barberini ivory, depicting a late Roman emperor, perhaps Justinian, as a victorious cavalryman. Paris, Mus´ee du Louvre. Photo: RMN. 11.2 Ivory diptych of Anicius Petronius Probus, depicting the emperor Honorius in military dress. Photo: Alinari. 11.3a Solidus of Arcadius, in military dress, c. ad 400. Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 11.3b Solidus of Honorius, in military dress, c. ad 400. 11.4 Page from a MS of Notitia Dignitatum depicting the insignia of the magister officiorum. Oxford University, Bodleian Library, MS Canon Misc. 378, fol. 141r.  C Bodleian Library.

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page xv xvi xvii xviii xix xx 234

Spain and Africa Gaul and Germany Italy and the Balkans The east Roman Britain The provinces under Trajan The provinces under Diocletian

xi

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EDITORS’ PREFACE

Warfare was the single biggest preoccupation of historians in antiquity, but modern academic interest in the subject has revived only in the last few decades The narrowly focused studies of war written before the First World War by Delbr¨uck, Kromayer, Veith and others have now been superseded by a much wider spectrum of work, ranging from the individual soldier’s experience of battle to the place of ancient warfare within wider social, economic, political and cultural structures. Partly as a result of this broader focus, and partly through richer textual analysis and a flood of new archaeological discoveries, our understanding of ancient warfare has been transformed. With the exception of popular survey works, however, there is no comprehensive overview of this burgeoning field of study. The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare aims to fill this gap: its two volumes survey the advances made since the 1970s in all aspects of research on ancient warfare, and provide an opportunity for a distinguished group of experts in the field to take the subject further still by presenting an array of new ideas and suggesting many new directions. Our aim in this work is not to provide a narrative account of the countless wars which took place across a period spanning fifteen centuries – such accounts are readily available from any number of other sources, not least the Cambridge Ancient History – but to offer a thematic analysis of the main aspects of warfare in the ancient world. Three important introductory chapters set the scene: the first puts the present volumes in their historiographical context and explains further the rationale for their publication; the other two address the nature of evidence and the problems of its interpretation, two issues which are fundamental to a new and better understanding of ancient warfare. The bulk of the volumes is divided into four chronologically ordered parts, each covering a span of three or four centuries. These chronological divisions serve to draw attention to the broad changes which occurred in warfare and the societies in which this warfare was practised and pursued. Detailed chronological tables at the end of each volume also help readers to place the discussion in its proper historical frame. The first part of volume i covers the earliest xii

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ed itors’ preface

xiii

centuries of Greek society, which generated our most famous accounts of ancient warfare, Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, as well as ‘proper’ historical accounts of conflicts, with Thucydides’ record of the Peloponnesian War often regarded as the acme of ancient historiography. In the second part, early Rome and the Hellenistic world are dealt with in parallel, a rather unusual combination designed to stimulate a fresh analytical perspective and to overcome the common tendency to keep the Greek and Roman worlds in entirely separate compartments. The first part of the second volume bridges one of the great political transitions of the ancient world, that from the Roman Republic to the Principate of Augustus and his successors, with the intention of highlighting continuing issues and recurrent themes. The final part deals with the later Empire, a period long seen through the prism of ‘decline and fall’ but one in which most scholars now identify a robust and protracted defence of imperial interests in a world which was experiencing profound changes, internally through the adoption of Christianity and externally through the arrival of the Huns. Within each chronological part, the subdivisions are thematic and reflect the key aspects of ancient warfare identified in modern historiography: (1) the role of war and peace in international relations; (2) the nature, composition and status of different kinds of armed forces; (3) the practicalities and ethics of the conduct of wars and campaigns; (4) the nature and experience of combat in pitched battles and sieges; (5) the political and economic dimensions of war; and (6) the social and cultural dimensions of war. The same sub-divisions are applied in each of the four parts, so as to enable readers to make comparisons and to pursue particular themes throughout antiquity. ‘War is terrible’, said Polybius, ‘but not so terrible that we should put up with anything to avoid it’ (4.31.3). These volumes examine both the forms taken by the terror of war in the ancient world and the forces which all too often made it seem necessary to resort to violence at the cost of giving up ‘the thing which we all pray that the gods may give us . . . the only incontestable blessing among the so-called good things in life – I mean peace’ (4.74.3). Philip Sabin Hans van Wees Michael Whitby 2007

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The inspiration for these volumes came from Pauline Hire, former classics editor at Cambridge University Press, and we are very grateful for her help and advice in the early stages of this work. Thanks are also due to Ashley Clements for his careful subeditorial work and to Hilary Scannell, Alison Powell, Michael Sharp and Sinead Moloney for their many and varied contributions in bringing this project to completion. We also wish to thank Barbara Hird for her work in producing the indexes.

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