Revolutions of 1848: A Social History

REVOLUTIONS OF

1848:

A SOCIAL HISTORY

Princeton University Press Copyright, 1952, by

London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press

Printed in the United States of America

By

Princeton University Press at Princeton s

New

Jersey

To

the

memory of my father3

PRESERVED SMITH

Preface

No one has

ever numbered the revolutions which broke out in

Europe

Counting those in the small German states, the Italian states, and the provinces of the Austrian Empire, there must have been over fifty. Out of all these outbreaks I have picked the ones that in 1848.

were most important in themselves and that showed most clearly the

ways men acted. To

made up

the opinions of the age and the have included the story of the revolutions in

intertwining strands that

Prussian Poland, in Bohemia, even the one in Naples, would have repeated the same patterns without bringing in much that was new.

This book

men

lived

is

and

called a social history because its felt

aim

is

to

show how

a hundred years ago rather than to describe at

length other important factors like constitutions, battles, or Lord Palmerston's foreign policy, all of which have been adequately treated by other historians. own purpose is to show what it was

My

be a worker in Paris, or a student in Vienna, or an Italian patriot, or an aristocrat, or a king in those days. In a peculiar measure the men who were alive then had to face, in a simplified, almost like to

a laboratory form, problems which have beset their descendants during the subsequent century problems of socialism, nationality,

power, and above all the meaning of democracy. I have tried to show how both sides looked quite reasonably it seemed to each at the same questions and came out with different answers.

No leader was really very imin 1848 as he portant except typified for a while, and rode to power, the ideas current in some class or group. Because each one repreI have not emphasized leaders.

sented only one class or group and was unintelligible to the other side, none of them transcended the age and formed (as great leaders

new synthesis of ideas at a different level. The people I have been most interested in, instead, are that large and paradoxical group who were for the revolution before it broke do) a

out and against it after it was over. Their dilemma derived, I think, from the conflict of their theories with the actual social conditions

and unquestioned assumptions of their particular class or racial background. Nearly everyone was surprised at some phase or other of the revolutions, and that surprise is a measure of the miscalculation of their theories.

History

is,

after

all,

something that happened to people. v

1 1

No

-

PREFACE

"force" whether economic or political can act except as re acts through the minds and bodies of human beings. It is of course true

much human activity is the result of conditions which are unknown to the participants. Many economic forces work seemingly that

outside the awareness of the individuals affected

by them, and to

and rewarding. The

revelation of exciting this mystery is one reason for the smashing success of the economic that work interpretations of history. It is not only economic motives our behavior for mysteriously, however. Many of the social reasons

uncover these forces

is

are imbedded in feelings too deep ever to be clearly voiced ; and most violence prejudices, though partly conscious, create passions whose

can only be understood by assuming that they go to the unconscious roots of a man's personality.

The 1848 period

offers a peculiarly interesting opportunity to happens when people suddenly find their compla-

investigate what cencies challenged or their ideals too suddenly fulfilled. Looking at the year 1848 in this spirit some of the questions which

have puzzled other historians disappear. Most students have found something "inexplicable" about the ferocity of the June revolts in Paris.

Again

the Austrian

impossible to begin to understand clashes within Empire without untangling the different codes of loyit is

which pulled and pushed not one race more than in previous periods but, only against another, of history, each man against himself.

alty, the different concepts of freedom,

Since there was no revolution in England in 1848, I might have out of my story altogether. Instead I chose to

left the British Isles

put in some brief remarks which are intended to illuminate the conby contrast and contradiction rather than to afford a complete history of Chartism, Young Ireland, or the British tinental revolutions

genius for muddling through. I could never have written this book without the help, both physical and mental, of many other people. large share of both kinds

A

of help has been given

by the

staff of the

Library of the University

of Louisville, particularly Miss Evelyn Schneider,

its

head, and

Miss Virginia Winstandley, who spent five untiring years in locating books at distant libraries and procuring them for my use through the inter-library loan service. At the Harvard College Library,

v

1

11

Mr. Robert H. Haynes has

PREFACE smoothed

my path as he has that of many guests

at his incomparable

institution.

thank Harvard University for a generosity elsewhere unknown, in opening its facilities to the wives of that happy group of men, the Nieman fellows. The Curator of the Nieman Foundation, Mr. Louis F. Lyons, was possibly my severest critic, but I am grateI

must

also

ful for his strictures as well as for his personal kindnesses. If it had not been for the insistence of Professor Ernest C.

Moss-

ner, of the University of Texas, this book would never have been finished. He has also read the manuscript with considerable benefit to its readability. Several historical scholars

have been extremely generous with help; notably Professor Emeritus Sidney B. Fay, of Harvard, who advised me on the method of writing history as well as letting me draw on his wide knowledge of facts Professor Alma Luckau, of Vassar College, who offered me dozens of carefully thought out sug;

and Professor Donald C. McKay, of Harvard, who has given me unstintedly both information and encouragement. Professor Helen Lockwood of Vassar and Professor David Maurer of gestions;

the University of Louisville have provided valuable criticism. The maps are the result of the painstaking care of Mr. Edward

Schmitz, of the Harvard Institute of Geographical Exploration. Vivian Graves put many thoughtful hours into helping me organize the index.

Mrs. Herbie Koch did an unusually understanding and careful job of typing the bulk of the manuscript; and I was lucky also in the typists who did the other parts, particularly Mrs. Pat Littell. As the mother of a young family I could not have pursued research without help in the management of my household and for this help at different times I am greatly indebted to Mrs. Annie Belle Taylor,

Mrs.

Emma

Taylor, and their families. They have supported

me

with sympathy, understanding and cheerful assumption of responsibility. I am also deeply grateful to my niece, Nancy Easley Clifford, and my college classmate, Elizabeth Miller Davis. Each has run my

home

for a few weeks in order to allow

me

periods of study in a

big library.

Gary Robertson has most generously given to this book his great skill as an editor, and I only wish it were more worthy of his talent. ix

PREFACE It

Is

my friends and advisers that they have added judgment to a book whose faults are entirely my own.

the case with, all

learning and

Thanks are due the following publishers for permission to quote from material copyrighted by them: Constable & Company, Ltd., Longmans Green & Co., Ltd., John Lane The Bodley Head, Ltd., Peter Davies, Ltd., Chatto and Windus, and Victor Gollancz, Ltd. :PRISCIX,:LA Anchorage, Kentucky May 16, 1951

ROBERTSON

Contents PREFACE

CHAPTER,

CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER

Vli

I.

Introduction

l

START OF A HUNDRED YEAR CYCLE

3

France

9

THE WIND OF REVOLUTION THE REVOLUTION OF CONTEMPT IV* THE REPUBLIC OF INTELLECTUALS V. THE RIGHT TO WORK VI. THE REVOLUTION OF DESPAIR II.

11

III.

24

CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER

KING OF PRUSSIA BY THE GRACE OF GOD VIII. A CROWN FROM THE GUTTER IX. LIGHT CASES OF FEVER VII.

107 14*2

168

187

THE CHINA OF EUROPE XI. STUDENT GOVERNMENT IN VIENNA XII. THE HAPSBURGS* RETURN XIII. THE MODERNIZATION OF HUNGARY XIV. SLAV AGAINST MAGYAR

189

X.

xv. ITALY:

EACH AFTKR

206 287 259 286 309

HIS

OWN IMAGK

GLORIOUS DAYS ITALY ON HER OWN

811

xvi. MILAN'S FIVE

881

XVII. XVIII.

846 862

xix.

881

ROME OF THE PEOPLE VENICE: A MODEL REPUBLIC Conclusion

CHAPTER CHAPTER

85

The Austrian Empire

Italy

CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER

65

105

Germany CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER

48

XX. XXI.

4*08

THE WORKINGS OF BRITISH JUSTICE THE REVOLUTION OF THE SPIRIT

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

449

X

i

INTRODUCTION

Start of a

Hundred Year Cycle

WHEN

the year 1848 broke upon Europe, everywhere men were waiting for the death of Louis Philippe, King of the French. Whenever or however it should occur, it was supposed to be the signal for the revolution which everyone was sure was coming, though some

men looked for it with fear and some with hope. The poet Heine, living in Paris, said that the fall of the King would be like the projected taking down of the conspicuous and Elephant of the Bastille: thousands of rats would be let loose. Other men loved to talk of the great conspiracy to kill the King that was supposed to have been, working for seven years. In Germany, too, the mounting fever of the 1840's was expected to mark its crisis with Louis Philippe's death. And in South America Garibaldi was waiting for this sign to bring him back to liberate Italy. Even in Austria, where another monarchy hung on disliked statue, the

the aged Metternich's survival, of the French.

As

men counted

the days of the

King

turned out, Europe did not wait for the match to be applied. Louis Philippe was destined to die a natural, if unroyal, death in England late in 1850 after the outburst which his death was supposed to kindle had burned across Europe and had been extinguished. it

For Parisians were

in a state of spontaneous combustion

;

in a swift

struggle they ousted their King ; and the university students of Germany, the plain patriots of Italy and Hungary tried to follow their

example and make revolution. In the end they all failed. What they fought for was brought about under different auspices, often ironically by specific enemies of the 1848 movement. Could the bloodshed have been avoided?

argument

is

the same after

lost for centuries

many

wars. Battles

The have been won or

without winning or losing what they were ostensibly

fought for. In the melange of 1848 Europe, Louis Philippe was certainly neither the most wicked nor the most hated ruler. If law and order

INTRODUCTION seemed symbolically attached to his life, it was partly because his was a child, so that there would be a fine chance for a coup amid the arguments about succession and regency; but mostly because ever since 1789 the rest of Europe looked to France as the

heir

natural source of revolutions. into such tiny Italy at this time were both divided states that no one of them, not even Prussia, could hope to give the cue. As a matter of fact, revolution did break out in Naples before

Germany and

did in France in this year of 1848, forcing the Bourbon who happened to be on that southern throne to grant a constitution* Yet no one much attention to the Neapolitan affair, while the news

it

paid

from Paris precipitated revolution in almost every other capital. The lands that were ruled by the Hapsburgs Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, northern Italy, and a large par,t of Poland were far more oppressed and discontented than France. However, the Austrian monarchy was commonly considered to exist behind a Chinese wall where no modern ideas penetrated. Even the Napoleonic ferment had disquieted Vienna less than any other capital. So it seemed almost as hopeless to think of revolution coming out of Austria as of Russia, the great dark reservoir of reaction. The nations that were panting to be free from foreign rulePoland, northern Italy, and Ireland were too severely repressed to start a revolution by themselves, but they were the watchwords of liberals all over the continent.

Many

besides their

own

citizens

were

hoping for the chance these countries would get with the first crumbling of the regime that had endured, more or less unchanged, since 1815, when the Treaty of Vienna attempted to undo the work of Napoleon and to strait-jacket Europe against another attack of the madness of 1789. Most men, however, suspected the truth, which was that conditions had changed since 1789. If Europeans were afraid of a revolution in 1848 it was because their uneasy consciences whispered that sixty years of the swiftest industrial progress the world had ever known had created a new working class whose miseries were likely to be explosive. Plenty of other people were restive in the strait-

jacket, plenty of businessmen both large and small resented the eighteenth-century restrictions which limited their nineteenth-cen-

tury opportunities. But the moral question centered around the proletariat and what freedom might or ought to mean to them.

4

START OF A HUNDRED YEAR CYCLE Should they be given a vote, or would they use it immediately to destroy the whole precarious system by which even their own livelihoods were created? Or were they perhaps so much the creatures of their employers that only those

who were what the Germans

called

selbstdndig could honestly be considered independent enough to vote? Or did freedom mean more than a vote? Was not productivity

great enough for the first time so that society could now guarantee man should starve? Could not the state go further and guarantee each man a job in order to protect the pride of its citizens

that no

and

make them

to

selbstdndig? If some of these things were not done, would not the proletariat itself rise up in hideous strength

and demand them?

The

social problem, then,

was one

to

which most Europeans had

given some worried thought, whether out of a desire for justice or out of fear. The other problem of 1848, the national one, which tangled with the social problem and almost smothered it outside of

France, had not previously aroused nearly so much general appreThe Germans wanted to unite but before 1848 they were not afraid of the idea, they did not yet know what there was to be

hension.

afraid of. And similarly with the Italians. They did not foresee that they might have to choose between freedom as civil liberties and the greater opportunities that might come to them as citizens of

powerful, unified, but autocratic states. Even in France the question arose, unexpectedly, whether they could have a revolution in one country or whether free France should not its arms to the

carry oppressed of other nationalities. In Austria the ruling clique knew that it governed an uneasy hodgepodge of peoples but it is safe to that it never dreamed how ferocious the clamor of these races say to

become nations would grow.

e, the socialism of an era is naive so long as the term means only a concern wiffilHe social problem. There were even some groups calling themselves "conservative socialists." In 1848, as at present, a great many people wanted to be democratic and simply did not know how. The psychological and economic barriers were far ;

stronger than they could have imagined. Indeed the social lines thai were drawn between classes did as much to make the revolutions take the shape they did as the more talked-of economic self-interest of those classes. An absurd of how these lines held ocexample strictly curred in the time of Louis before 1848. Philippe, shortly

5

A group

INTRODUCTION of political prisoners, charged with a common crime and serving sentence in a common jail, split into two groups which never spoke to each other. The only activity which the working class segment

shared with their white collar prison mates, men who were being 5 punished for defending workers rights, was to sing the Marseillaise

every day. After they had knelt together at the last verse the two groups always separated, and it was the occasion of remark when a

good doctor strolled over from the side of the intellectuals to pass th time of day with the workers. / Because of this almost complete separation of life and thought it was easy for the intellectuals to imagine that the workers would be far-seeing and generous about social reorganization, and they imagined they would follow happily the lead of their sincere wellwishers from the upper classes. Incongruous as it may seem, these white collar "socialists," many of whom had never gone so far as to shake hands with a worker, believed in the fusion of classes. ^JCarl Marx saw that as society was set up they would not fuse, and in 1847 he had already laid down the doctrine of the class struggle in the Communist Manifesto. But the class struggle as a of the 1848 revolutions than political actuality was rather the result the leaders had had time or inclination their cause. Hardly any of to read the Manifesto, and they led their insurrections, some more "

the opinion that all classes could benefit together. Only after the liberals won power did they discover that they were afraid of the workers ; when the workers found this out

and some

less honestly, in

they turned to the Marxian gospel. As for the^nationalism of the period, it too was romantic. Nationa mission to every people, so men said. ality could give character and revived dying languages and cultures which would better have been left to die, and stressed military glory even in countries like France where the right to nationhood had long been won. Interna-

They

made

and selfish, while the petty which have caused so much strife jealousies of Balkan nationalities, in a century, were made to seem like holy wars. Before 1848 Germans tionalism was

swam in a

to seem materialistic

vague patriotism during that year they crystallized their decision that they cared more about power than civil liberty, and that their Lebensraum lay to the east. In this year Hungarians and Irishmen showed that they would prefer autonomy to power, if power was to be had by remaining within the empires that claimed sea of

;

START OF A HUNDRED YEAR CYCLE them. In this year also hitherto

less

vocal groups, Croats and Czechs

and Roumanians, began to turn their cultural revival into political excitement. And in this year Italy showed that she would not let the nineteenth century cheat her out of either unity or liberty. It was therefore often difficult for a man to decide whether his

be to his class or to his nation, but whichgreatest loyalty should ever he decided, after 1848, his loyalty was buttressed by hatred of What was lost, in 1848, was the idea that classes

opposing groups. and nations had anything to give to each other.

through the 1848 days wrote his recollections. A large part of the energy which might have been devoted to successful social action if the revolutions had turned It sometimes seems as if everyone

who

lived

out differently was cramped into the covers of books which purported to explain why so much hope, courage, and idealism had failed. us today should Certainly part of the story as it has meaning for

what these men thought about themselves, what they wanted future generations to understand concerning these most beautiful

tell

and their subsequent heartbreak. It is lucky for an historian, however, that not all the observers were participants. Particularly the occasional Americans who were days of their

lives

make a refreshing class of their own. From Richard Rush, the minister at Paris who took it upon himself to in

Europe

at the time

William Stiles at Vienna recognize the Second French Republic, to who coolly told Prince Schwaraenberg that the Austrian Navy

might sink an American frigate when they could catch her, American Jackson diplomatic agents did credit to their republic. Andrew his legation in tribute to the victhe American consul at Rome gave Mazzini a pass-

Donelson at Berlin illuminated torious people ; port to escape.

Untouched by the romantic dreams which kept

Europeans of that period (as perhaps of most periods) from the direct perception of reality, they provide a touchstone which shows

up

the sickness of

European

society.

These Americans were heartily

movements, and they rejoiced at every victory over governments which they saw as stupid and vicious. Yet they could not but see that class distinctions in Europe, as well as a kind

in favor of peoples'

of wild impracticality in aims, prevented a happy outcome to the revolutions. With a healthy disgust they noted that the conditions

7

INTRODUCTION European capitals were so degraded that there like them in the United States. the However, greatest commentator upon the revolutions was a Russian, Alexander Herzen, a socialist who came to Western Europe of the lower classes in

were none to be found

first time in 1847. He hoped to discover there all the comforts and culture befitting the center of civilization, and instead he found bloodshed and reaction. Upon this scene he looked with a detachment like the Americans', yet, being European, he felt a tragedy which was quite beyond their experience. When, after the June days of Paris, he writes of the desolation of his soul in which he had not supposed there was so much left to be destroyed, when he tells how

for the

no longer dared to wish her children to live for fear there was a fate as awful as the revolution in store for them, Herzen seems like no other writer of his time. His memoirs read as if a twentiethcentury intelligence had somehow been sent back to record for us the meaning of those struggles that seem in so many ways the birth pangs of our modern era. The insights which were choked off in 1848 were a real loss to the his wife

The psychologists, sociologists, and technologists of today continue to rediscover them. How many times have we heard, in the

world.

lingoes of these various disciplines, Victor Hugo's cry after the 1848 adventure was over: "We are a predestined generation. have

We

bigger and more frightening tasks than our ancestors. time to hate each other" ?

We

have not

PART

I

FRANCE

II

The Wind

of Revolution

ON

Sunday, July 18, 1847, the citizens of Macon, forty miles north of Lyons in southern France, spread a banquet for their favorite son, Alphonse de Lamartine. Lamartine was France's most popular

Macon's representative in the Chamber of the and Deputies, banquet was in honor of his recent completion of a history of the Girondins of 1790 which was the literary sensation

living poet as well as

of 1847.

The banquet

place covered two acres, with 500 tables for 3,000 guests, and there were grandstand seats for 3,000 more who, as far as the record shows, did not share in the menu. The day was fero-

open and was Lamartine talking and he By nobody thought of leaving. They were all electrified

ciously hot, until a thunderstorm ripped the tent wide

drenched the

did not stop, so by his words "It will

royalty, be sure of that. It will fall, blood like that of '89 ; but it will fall in its trap. And after :

not in

its

this time

listeners.

fall, this

having had the revolution of freedom and the counter-revolution of glory, you will have the revolution of public conscience and the revolution of contempt.'

men wanted, some

51

France was uneasy and this was what Frenchaction, some word on which their restlessness

could crystallize.

The banquet was ostensibly in honor of a literary triumph, but the people who bought tickets did so as a political act. To put down money for a seat at the table and to put one's name on a list of subscribers to hear the government's

most prominent

more

who opposed the government had

political action than those

critic,

represented

had a chance to show in a long time. And Lamartine himself gave them the word "the revolution of contempt" flew over France,

making everybody

realize

what

it

was he had been feeling for the

government of Louis Philippe. Louis Philippe was one of those kings who distinguished them1

As reported by Daniel

Stern, Histoire de la revolution de 1848,

1 1

i,

21.

FRANCE by being good men, and In the nineteenth century that meant being good to his wife and children. True, he had fought in battle on the side of the first French Revolution, taking his cue from his father, Philippe Egalite, the one member of the royal family who had voted to send Louis XVI to the scaffold true, he showed a wide eagerness to see the world, including the sorts and conditions of men to be found clear down to the Mississippi Valley. An American story said he had even proposed marriage to a young Philadelphian, but her father cagily pointed out that while the heir to the House of Orleans was an exile he was not a good enough match for the girl,

selves

;

he should be restored to his fortune she would not be good He finally married the daughter of the King of enough Naples, and with the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne in 1815 he was able to come to Paris as the first peer of France, under the title of Duke of Orleans, and to devote himself to

whereas

if

for him.

restoring his fortune and bringing up his eight children. He also set to work to build up his popularity. Aristocracy was scandalized

that his sons went to public school, but the Duke, though he may have been an aristocrat at heart, was clever enough to realize that the future of the country lay with the bourgeoisie, enraptured by the informal manners as well as

who by

were, in turn, the expensive

found at his establishment in the Palais-Royal. Meanwhile the two dull old brothers of the beheaded Louis XVI who successively occupied the throne between 1815 and 1880 were becoming steadily more unpopular. At the end of this period Charles flagrantly violated the charter of liberties which had been guaranteed to the French people after Waterloo in order to induce them to take back the Bourbons; and his subjects, who had acquired confidence and some ability in the technique of revolution, rose in three famous July days and overthrew him. Apparently Louis Philippe was by no means surprised to find himself on the throne after those three days of 1880. He took scrupulous care not to engage in any of the but when it was fighting, was being escorted out of the country, Louis over, when Charles parties to be

X

X

Philippe allowed himself to be publicly embraced by Lafayette, the best guarantor to the people that the new king would enforce the Charter, that his would be a "monarchy surrounded by republican institutions," or even "the best of republics."

To

the bourgeoisie his

pear-shaped figure seemed to promise that France would become rich, to the republicans his part in two revolutions held out fine, fat,

12

THE WIND OF REVOLUTION the hope that she would become free. These promises he kept but of his subindifferently well, while he ignored two other passions

and their need for social secuFrance enjoyed either of before was many years rity. Although how deeply she desired 1848 showed in events these last satisfactions, jects completely, their love of glory it

them.

People who visited France under the regime of Louis Philippe were usually favorably impressed. Railroads were being built, gas lights were beginning to illuminate the cities, the semaphore, that wig-

wagging system proudly

called the "telegraph," carried messages

over the country with splendid speed. Looms were moving out of homes into factories, and other industries were developing. Guizotj the King's chief minister, told the bourgeoisie to get rich, so busily. There were even noticeable improvements in the condition of the poor ; one such sign was the quantities of wool and cotton which, thanks to machinery, they were now able

and they were doing

to buy, so that well as the rich

poor the

girls could afford bright-colored cottons as sign of visible equality.

first

Furthermore, compared to other European countries, France was a home of liberty. The ministry governed through laws ; the press was startlingly outspoken a large part of its pages was given over to personal scurrility about the King and his family which would not have been allowed even in Britain with its theoretically wider tolerance; and trial by jury was so well established that for years a series of would-be assassins were acquitted. The American Minister to Paris, Richard Rush, wrote in December, 1847, "If I looked to the country, instead of the newspapers or speeches at political banquets, I should have thought I had come to a country abounding in prosperity of every kind and full of contentment. France appeared as well off as could be expected of any country where opulence, prosperity and power, existing on a large scale, must have in spite of the pleasantness, drawbacks there

proved, to

drawbacks." Still, were enough, it

make an eruption which blew Louis Philippe

clear off

his throne.

The man who applied the metaphor of the volcano to his country was Alexis de Tocqueville, he who had studied democracy in America and had impressed European political thinkers by his analysis of the tyranny of the majority. Early in 1848 he rose in the Chamber of Deputies to warn his colleagues. Looking back a few years later he admitted he was not actually so alarmed as he had allowed himself

13

FRANCE but

it happened that events overtook his prophecy almost was out of his mouth: "The working classes are not bothered by political passions; but do you not see that, from political, the passions have become social? Ideas flow through their

to sound,

as soon as it

.

.

.

breasts that will shake the basis of society they say that everything above them is incapable and unworthy of governing; that the dis:

tribution of goods to the profit of some is unjust. When such ideas take root, they lead soon or late, I do not know when, to the most terrible revolutions. Do you are sleeping on a volcano. .

We

is

.

.

not see that the earth trembles anew?

storm

.

.

.

A wind of revolution blows, the

on the horizon." 2

Tocqueville thus analyzed more acutely even than a sympathizer what was going on in the depths of society. He was observing, though more intuitively and less thoughtfully, the same phenomena which had caused Marx and Engels to get out the Communist Manifesto a few months before. Up to this time political revolutions had produced fairly satisfactory results in England, France, and America. In 1848 for the first time the working classes were going to assert, unsuccessfully, their demands for redistribution of goods. The working classes were at the bottom of the volcano and Louis Philippe's government was on top. The first eruption, in February 1848, would blow off not only the King but also, indifferently, the top layer of men who had hoped to reform the monarchy and who had by their criticism helped prepare for the revolution. The volcano would cool off temporarily with political democrats, headed by Lamartine, on the surface, while underneath the social passions boiled with only a little less pressure than before. When socialists discovered the republic was quite as eager as the monarchy to suppress them, first a socialist newspaperman like Louis Blanc would try to crack the crust of the new government by stirring it from above and then a revolutionary, Auguste Blanqui, would try to make things boil up again from below. Finally, in June, there was to be a second eruption, one which just lacked the strength to carry the

down to destruction. None of these types of leaders reckoned with the strength of the others. The men who wanted electoral reform would not believe that Lamartine could make a republic; Lamartine did not believe there was a great demand for Louis Blanc's socialism; and Louis Blanc republicans

3

Quoted from Barret, Mtmoires Posthumes,

14

i,

478.

THE WIND OF REVOLUTION how workers might follow the cynical and than himself. rather Blanqui the variety of the opposition because to miscalculate It was easy Louis Philippe's government made it expensive to publish newsin turn could not see

sinister

than twenty people papers and impossible to hold meetings of more of Such without police permission. opinion naturally repression acted more heavily at the bottom of the social scale than at the top, where a political meeting could masquerade with wine and platters of cold veal.

Those middle

class citizens

whose chief complaint was

that they were not allowed to vote could voice their wishes more easily than the poor whose trouble was that they were starving. the bourgeoisie the loudest clamor was for electoral reforms. The French election law of 1831 allowed only those persons

Among

to vote

who paid a

200 francs or more there were never voters out of an adult male population

direct tax of

;

many as 250,000 qualified of 9,000,000. The situation may have been even worse than the fig-

as

any rate small and middling businessmen were excluded along with the learned and professional classes and, of course, the workers and peasants; and these disfranchised citizens began to look to England where the Reform Bill had passed in 1832, and to hope naively that France could have an equally easy transition. However, Prime Minister Guizot was not the Duke of Wellington, who shuddered for the future of England yet used his influence to keep the more intransigent peers from voting against the Reform Bill rather than see his country disrupted by open^ ures show, but at

To

every proposal for electoral reform Guizot replied,^ "Get rich ; then you can vote," until even the advocates of reducing

revolution.

the electoral qualification to 50 francs (a mild measure which would very likely have saved the day) were forced to take extreme measures.

The answer

of the government to

its

growing unpopularity was

corruption. If it could not placate the majority of the people because it did not trust them, it could at least control its own minority

were returned to the Chamber by promises and hospitals to doubtful districts a practice which led, incidentally, to an extraordinarily spotty development of railroad connections in those first years when they were being pushed through. Another common favor was the issuance of pardons or of exemptions from military service. Public morals sank below any

by

bribes. Its candidates

of bridges, railroads,

1

5

FRANCE recent remembrance.

The

director of the military bakery used state

funds to speculate in wheat, leaving a tremendous deficit at his death. Two peers of France were actually tried and sentenced for dishonesty in a mining concession, and the case might never have come to trial if the principals had not quarreled and one published the other's incriminating letters. But the climax was the "affaire

when Guizot himself, hitherto felt to be a rock of personal honesty, was shown to have paid 60,000 francs out of secret service money to recompense a man who had bought a place in the bureau o/ auditing and then not received the post. Pervading dishonesty seemed to filter down through all classes, for people complained constantly of adulteration and false weights on the part of small shopkeepers. French wine was so constantly adulterated that it was difficult to export. Commercialism seemed everywhere; even pleasure became measured by price and art by Petit,"

income. Louis^ Blanc, put his finger on one aspect

,32^^

when he complained that France was a nation of warriors doomed to impotence because it was governed by shopof this discontent

keepers; in those days the poor were all jingoistic. The King's devotion to peace won him the esteem of his brother monarchs in Europe,

whom,

as a parvenu, he was anxious to impress; and this have endeared nim to the Rothschilds. But in the breasts

quality may of the workers and peasants of France, of the liberal newspapermen, of the students in schools and universities, his policy aroused only

shame and disgust. They recalled to each other the bright days of Empire when their fathers and grandfathers carried liberty across

Europe on their bayonets. Yet, now, the Citizen King, himself raised to power by another revolution, calmly acquiesced in the treaties of 1815 which deprived France of Nice and Savoy on the south and

much

the sorest point

to spend the least

of her frontier on the Rhine.

He

hesitated

money put the army in first class shape. Nor did he show sympathy for oppressed nationalities like the Poles, whose to

revolt every liberal

Frenchman burned

to assist.

Jules Michelet, the historian of the great revolution, who was dismissed from his chair in the Sorbonne just before the 1848 outbreak, did his best for years to make his students feel that France was the hope of Europe. Each day, he told them, there is less sun, as Ireland, Italy, Poland perish. Germany is about to follow them into a state 1 6

THE WIND OF REVOLUTION of reactionary oppression, and all the citizens of all these countries look to France, whose only true eternal name is Revolution. Michelet and deeper in every hoped that national feeling would grow stronger seem part of the battle country, for did not the freedom of peoples the of freedom for people?

weakness" depression of 1847 was blamed on "external and "idle pacifism," as Ledru-Rollin charged in the Chamber. Per"While other nations hated haps Guizot was right when he said, amusement she is somean It is war, France actually liked it. times forced to refuse herself, but it is always with regret. Peaceful

Even the

and in one sense is anti-national. But repubthe nations virtue by its military licans, though they still measured that its arms must be used in a good prowess, were beginning to feel cause. At any rate they had their past glory to capitalize on, and of Man. Their lunatic they played this tune as often as the Rights shot at the King seventeen times in as many years, and the 55

policy

is

called

fringe

American Minister, for so many attempts at assassination was just that Louis Philippe wanted peace. first

reason, said the

In spite of their belligerency, the intellectuals were the first to of the ideas of their genrecognize that peace hath her victories. One eration was that it was their particularfmission to solve the social to every family. problem, and that meant giving decent security to them not it seemed of and were out times joint, They knew the

a cursed spite, but a privilege, that they were born to set it right. For France did not become the second industrial power in Europe without at the same time accumulating the second most miserable

England, of course, had the first, French orators were loud in the theme that France must not be allowed to sink to the level of Britain where squalor hit every passing eye, and class of factory workers.

where even eyes well chaperoned from misery were assaulted with books about the new problems of child labor, the inadequacy of workof intelligence, of hope. ing-class homes, the degradation of morals, 3 In France, too, there were numbers of such studies, but the only *M. Georges Creveuil has made a careful study of the workers of Nantes under Louis Philippe. Those who earned over 600 francs a year, masons, carpenters and with spirit, often even printers, were good workers, generally honest. They worked joyously, because they were not completely deprived of every happy thought. By contrast, those who earned less than 300 francs showed physical suffering pushed to the limit. They raised only a fourth of their children, they lived mostly in under1

7

FRANCE they produced during Louis Philippe's eighteen children under a was single law against daytime labor by years law was left this Since twelve. eight and night labor by those under to the enforcement of voluntary inspectors chosen from the manu-

political action

facturing class, its effect was unnoticeable. The government proba desirable bridle to the ably agreed with Guizot that work was ambitions of the lower classes, and the only effective one in the absaj.ce of

those moral bridles whose lack he found deplorable.

the Along with poverty came unemployment, endemic throughout When an interreign and a new problem for the nineteenth century.

many broke over Europe in caused French production and 1846, it made matters much worse, to fall by a billion francs out of a total of somewhat less than three

national financial crisis

billions. Skilled

the

first

of

workers found themselves hurled back into the lower

and unskilled ones into the casteless group of the unembad in places other than ployed. The harvest of 1846 was notoriously famine-stricken Ireland; but though the French government tried to help their hungry people by eliminating the tariff on wheat, their action came too late. The transportation system of the country was still too limited to prevent starvation in some places and hardship

brackets,

everywhere. There were peasant revolts which were sternly put down; and some estimates had a third of the population of Paris on relief in 1847. The city had been swollen to almost a million by

and by the need for labor on the extensive fortifihad pushed through in the early 1840*s, and these workers hung on in town. They were to become the fighters earlier prosperity

cations which Louis Philippe

at the barricades. 1

up to meet the problem of an industrial working and there were a number of schools. In France these 1848 "class, by were mostly based upon the hard thinking which Saint-Simon and Socialism grew

Fourier had done a quarter of a century before. In the 1830's and 5 40*s their socialist doctrines, watered down, became almost fashiona-

were unusual enough to attract all literate classes, calling attention to evils which everyone saw in front of him. At the

ble, for their ideas

ground houses with no furniture or heat, and as the price of bread rose in the 1847 crisis, a family of three or four children would eat over a franc's worth a day, while the father as a weaver could only earn 75 to 80 centimes. (See the periodical, tions de 1848, for February and June, 1948.) 1

8

THE WIND OF REVOLUTION same time, their solutions, though often bizarre, seemed innocuous, since they mostly involved the construction of ideal communities. It was not until the streets of Paris ran with blood in June 1848 that the potential hatred of bourgeois and peasant toward the workers was uncovered; after that experience, socialism would create a

hardier doctrine.

Of the

socialist leaders just before 1848, Louis Blanc was the most he seemed the most practical and was the author of because popular the best-liked slogan of the period, *^the rightjo work." In a way

was hardly fair to introduce him as a jingo yet, that was part of his character, too. In 1848 the most earnest social reformers were usually the most nationalistic, and in this respect Blanc was only acting like Kossuth in Hungary or Mazzini in Italy. He was born in Madrid in 1813, the son of a French official there, and when he arrived in Paris seventeen years later he was so utterly it

without resources that he nearly starved for a while. Eventually he got a position as tutor to the sons of a rising manufacturer and

became interested in the employees as well as the children of his patron. Blanc was surprised to find what a passion for education these workers developed. As soon as he could, Blanc moved into the wider field of journalism,4 and in 1840 he offered to the people his

biggest work, The History of Ten Year $, which was nothing but an expose of Louis Philippe's government in the light of its campaign promises. Nothing else did as much to open the eyes of Frenchmen shams of their politics, and the King himself called the book

to the

"a battering ram against the bulwarks of loyalty. 55 Louis Blanc had taken "the oath of Hannibal, 55 as he said, against the unjust social order and for a contribution toward a just one he produced his most famous pamphlet on The Organization of Work, which he hoped would point the way to happiness for all classes. For he excoriated the idea of class struggle, and believed

who were "pale from fear, 55 would welcome his way out as joyfully as the poor who were pale from undernourishment. To his mind competition, especially as it developed under the new Engthat the rich,

lish theories of free enterprise,

Labor was

was the source of incredible

to be organized, according to Blanc,

*

by

evil.

setting

up

Blanc was a stickler for exactness. Once he insisted that a hurt dog does not "howl," it "yelps." Another time he refused to accept a patent medicine advertisement until the maker could produce one individual who had been cured by the product. 1

9

FRANCE "social workshops," essentially producers' cooperatives, with state money. The state would not drive out capitalist enterprises directly,

but would use competition to kill competition by offering employment to all who wished it. This was the nub of "the right to work," and Blanc not only assumed that most workers would prefer the social workshops but that they would be more efficient because of 35 good morale and the "cheaper communal life they would offer their workers in the way of housing, laundry service, and so on. For Blanc

was not free of the idea so common in his day that ultimate social happiness would be found in planned community living. It would be up to the government to keep prices from falling too low. Thus, though he talked about the possibility of the workshops'

becoming independent of the state buying themselves free there w&s always in the back of Louis Blanc's mind something authoritarian and absolute. Heine, as subtle a psychologist as any modern Freudian, felt that Blanc's aversion to eminent individualism came from jealousy in his hidden mind against any superiority, a complex based on Blanc's stature. For Louis Blanc, with his dark eyes and shining white teeth, was only a bit taller than a dwarf. Besides Heine one other person saw through Louis Blanc at the time of his popularity, Two bons mots J^rr8. Paris,

1848. A catalogue for contemporary collectors. Delvau, Alfred. Les murailles revolutionnaires. Paris, 185. Elaborate, hand-tinted facsimiles of all the wall placards which adorned Paris during the first two months of the republic. Delvau seems never to

have finished

his job past that point. Charles. Journees de ^insurrection de juin, 1848, par un Richomme, garde national, precedees des murs de Paris, Journal de la rue, collection des principales affiches opposees de fevrier a juin, 1848.

Paris, 1848.

Wallon, Henri. La Presse de 1848, ou revue critique des journeauoc publies a Paris depuis la revolution de fevrier jusqu'a la fin de decembre. Paris, 1849. A reactionary editor lists all journals of the period named, classifying them as "socialist" (bad), or "political" (good). Essentially another catalogue.

HISTORIES

WRITTEN BY CONTEMPORARIES

Marx, Karl. The Class Struggles in France, 1848-1850. New York, 19&4. This is what Marx (or Engels) wrote for the Neue Rheinische Zeitung shortly after the events. The Marxian economic interpretation of history is here brilliantly applied for the first time, with strikingly original and sharp effect. Stein, Lorenz von. Geschichte der sozialen Betvegung in FranJcreich

von 1789

bis

auf unsere Tage. Leipzig, 1850, 3 vol. Stein analyzes way that almost does the work of both Marx

revolutions in a

and Crane Brinton. With the idea that freedom means the highest development of each person's personality, Stein shows how the social order prevents it. Stern, Daniel. Histoire de la revolution de 1848. Paris, nd ed, 186&.

42

5

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2

vol.

Daniel Stern was the pen name of the Comtesse d'Agoult,

Liszt's mistress

and the mother of Cosima Wagner. Her history 1848 is by far the best full account written by

of the revolution of

a contemporary. Later, during the Empire, she maintained the only republican salon in Paris.

CONTEMPORARY ESSAYS ON ECONOMICS AND POLITICS Blanc, Louis.

The History

of

Ten Tears, 1830-1840. Translated by

Walter Kelly. Philadelphia, 1848. Louis Blanc's indictment of the bourgeois civilization of Louis Philippe's France was important in rousing different ideals. The French edition, of course, was published in 1840. . The Organization of Work. Translated by M. P. Dickore. translation of the first edition. Blanc wrote Cincinnati, 1911. versions his famous pamphlet. of many

A

Blanqui, Jerome Adolphe. Des Classes ouvrieres en 1848. Paris, 1849. This Blanqui, the revolutionist's brother, was sent by the Academy to study labor conditions at the end of 1848.

Though he

ridiculed

up and condemned the misery of labor, unemployment, and the results

the socialist solution, he showed

working class housing, child of low wages. Boncour, P. Lamennais. Paris, 19&8. A collection of quotations from the unfrocked priest whose poetical, early Christian version of Christianity had tremendous effect in Europe just before 1848. Corbon, Anthyme, Le secret du peuple de Paris. Paris, 1863. Corbon, one of the worker members of the Constitutional Assembly, describes his fellow workers in a vivid, almost Freudian way. His that moralists and educators never get very far in imthe people because they do not touch their passions. Under proving the prevailing social conditions, workers did not have scope to use thesis

is

their passions and abilities, and repression of these passions upset their whole personalities. Corbon had a vision beyond his age. Guizot, F. P. G. Democracy in France. New York, 1849. From exile

Guizot urged France to return to the family, religion, the class system, lest democracy lead the nation into anarchy. Michelet, Jules. Le Peuple. Paris, 1865. Originally written in 1846, when Michelet still adored the people.

MODERN HISTORICAL

STUDIES CONCERNING- MEMBERS OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT

Cahen, Georges. "Louis Blanc et la Commission du Luxembourg," Awiales de I'Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Volume xn, Paris, 1897.

426

BIBLIOGRAPHY Caiman, Alvin R. Ledru-Rollin and the Second French Republic. New York, 1922. Cherest, Aime. La vie et les auvres de A. T. Marie. Paris, 1873. A favorable biography. Includes Marie's notes. Droz, Heinrich A. Lamartine und die Revolution von 184$* Zurich, 1919. Anti-Lamartine. Compares what really happened in the first few days of February revolution with Lamartine's official account of them. A pedantic study. Guillemin, Henri.

Lamartine, I'homme

et

I'ceuvre.

Paris,

1940. In-

teresting and modern, not exhaustive. Ibos, General P. E. M. Le general Cavaignac, un dictateur republicain.

Paris, 1930. The military author sees nothing unfavorable in his military subject. Keller, Paul. Louis Blanc und die Revolution von 184,8. Zurich, 1926.

Whitehouse, R. H. Life of Lamartine. London, 1918, 2 vol. Reviewed by J. S. Schapiro in the Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 34, as "a study of the poetic temperament in politics." With British reserve, Whitehouse lays out the course of Lamartine's psychological development.

MODERN

STUDIES ON BARBES AND BLANQUI

None

of these materials are adequate, and it is difficult to find out answers to even simple questions in any available sources.

Dommanget, .

V.

M.

Blanqui a

Blanqui. Librarie de 1'humanite, Paris, 1924. Belle-lie. Paris, 1935. After 1848 Belle-He was

Blanqui's prison, where he carried on political conversations and correspondence. His life at this time is better documented than

during the revolution. Jeanjean, J. F. Armand Barbes: 1809-1870. Paris, 1909. Volume i of this work goes through April 1848. I was unable to locate

Volume n, if it was ever printed, in this country. Stewart, Neil. Blanqui. London, 1939. Elementary communist propaganda.

Wassermann, Suzanne. Les Clubs de Barbes Paris, 1913.

A useful, day-by-day account

et

de Blanqui en 1848.

of these clubs.

MODERN

STUDIES WHICH DEAL WITH Louis NAPOLEON DURING THE PERIOD OF THE SECOND REPUBLIC

Boon, Hendrik N. Reve et realitS dans Vosuvre economique et sociale de Napoleon III. The Hague, 1936. Cheetham, F. H. Louis Napoleon and the Genesis of the Second Empire. New York, 1909.

427

BIBLIOGRAPHY Guedalla, Philip. The Second Empire: Bonapartism, the Prince, the President, the Emperor. New York, 192. An unconvincing job of debunking. Guedalla attributes Napoleon's success to the ineptness of his opponents, or to historic irony, and makes it thereby inconsequential.

Guerard, Albert. Napoleon III. Cambridge, Mass., 1943. An interesting, up-to-date, sympathetic account. The author believes Napoleon was the one ruler of his age who built for the twentieth century. Lebey, Andre. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte et la Revolution de 1848. Paris, 1907-1908. % vol. Long-winded. Robert-Pimienta, Robert. La propagande bonapartiste en 1848. Paris, 1911.

Simpson, F. A. Louis Napoleon and the Recovery of France, 1848-1856. New York, 1923. The Rise of Louis Napoleon. New York, Snd ed., 1925. Simpson's biography, though eulogistic, is both extraordinarily inter.

esting

and extraordinarily convincing.

MODERN STUDIES OF MISCELLANEOUS PEOPLE CONCERNED WITH THE FKENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 M.

S. Thiers and the French Monarchy. Boston, 19&6. John. Charpentier, George Sand. Paris, 1936. M. Elliott Victor Grant, Hugo during the Second Republic. Northamp1935. ton, N.Y., Josephson, Matthew. Victor Hugo. Garden City, N.Y., 1942. Monin, Georges. "George Sand et la republique de fevrier, 1848,"

Allison, J.

Revolution franpaise, Vol. 37, 1899. Monod, V. Marie-Octave. Daniel Stern. Paris, 1937.

A fine life

of

Marie

d'Agoult, the historian of 1848, whose personal story was not only highly dramatic but full of social implications.

Puech, J. L. La vie et I'asuvre de Flora Tristan. Paris, 19&5. Flora Tristan was a French feminist and socialist who died in 1844 on a trip

around France to teach the workers their

volving a trip to Peru, a husband

who shot

rights.

at her

Her

life, in-

and kidnapped

dramatic enough for a movie. Its value for a connection with working conditions and

their children,

is

study of 1848

lies in its

early socialist thought. Reclus,

M. Maurice. Emile de

Girardin. Paris, 1934. Highly enter-

taining.

Zevaes, A. B. La chute de Louis-Philippe. Paris, 1930. good example of the popular, vivid histories which have been written recently in France for popular consumption. This one is full of detail, but

A

lacks a bibliography.

428

BIBLIOGRAPHY MODERN

HISTORIES AND MONOGRAPHS ON 1848 IN

FRANCE

Benoist, Charles. "L'Homme de 1848," Revue des deux mondes, 1913. Cassou, Jean. Quarante-Jiuit. Paris, 1939. thoughtful critique of the soul of 1848, the end of romanticism, the squalor and hope of the

A

workers, the fear and indifference of the bourgeoisie. Cremieux, Albert. La Revolution de fevrier. Paris, 1912. A standard monograph on the February days which manages to be charming. It uses eye-witness accounts only. Its thesis is that the revolution was carried through by the working classes, not the so-called leaders.

Duchon, Paul. "Les elections de 1848," Revue de Paris, 1936. France Illustration. May 1, 1948. A special centenary number of this famous magazine, devoted to a review of the year 1848. McKay, Donald Cope. The National Workshops: a study in the French Revolution of 1848. Cambridge, Mass., 1933. Renard, Georges. La Republique de 1848. Vol. ix of Histoire socialiste, Paris, 1905. Schmidt, Charles. Les journees de juin, 1848. Paris, 1926. Popular and

none too accurate.

MODERN MATERIAL NOT SPECIFICALLY ABOUT 1848 BUT USEFUL AS BACKGROUND

H. Economic Development 1914. 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1923.

Clapham,

J.

Cuvillier,

M.-A.

Un

of

journal d'oumiers:

France and Germany, 18159

I

Atelier,

1840-1850. Paris,

1914. Dickinson, G. Lowes. Revolution and Reaction in Modern France. Lonfine little book, covering the period 1789 through don, 1892. 1871.

A

Elton, Godfrey. The Revolutionary Idea in France, 1789-1871. 2nd ed., London, 1931. Anti-Marxian. Alexander. The Socialist Tradition. London, 1946. Contains

Gray,

Saintchapters on Blanc and Proudhon, and their forerunners, Simon and Fourier. Louis, Paul. Histoire de la classe ouvriere. Paris, 1927. Full of statistics.

Maigron, M. Le romantisme

et les moeurs. Paris, 1910.

The

writer be-

that the drenching of life with romance in the 1820's and 1830's led to a general falsity in social relationships, evidenced by the prevalence of suicide and adultery, as well as a general in-

lieves

capacity on the part of individuals to face

42

9

life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Uldee de Vetat: essai sur I'histoire des theories societies et France depuis la Revolution. Paris, 1896. Including

Michel,

politiques en

essays on Blanc, Lamartine, Proudhon. Soltau, Roger. French Political Thought in the Nineteenth Century.

New Haven,

1932.

Weill, G. Histoire du parti republicain en France de 1814 & 1870. Revised edition, Paris, 19&8. An admirable survey.

Ill

-

GERMANY

SOURCE BOOKS Klein, Tim. 1848, der VorJcampf deutscher Einheit. Leipzig, 1914. Dr. Klein, sure that 1848 was a struggle for unity, not, as the

Weimar

historians would have

it,

for freedom,

made a compilation

of all sorts of documents, excerpts of published accounts, philosophical explanation telling a complete story of 1848 in the words of those who lived through it.

Revolution in Germany. A Study in German History, Life, Literature and Character: 1813-1850. London, 1918. Legge took over Klein's work, not exactly verbatim, and with a very different set of comments, tending to show that Ger-

Legge, J. G.

Rhyme and

many had always been hopelessly nationalistic, ruthless, and power-mad. Not trustworthy as history, but has sources hard to find elsewhere.

MEMOIRS AND LETTERS, HAVING TO Do WITH THE COURT CIRCLE AROUND FREDERICK WILLIAM IV Bailleu, P.

and G. Schuster. Correspondence of Empress Augusta. Volume i contains her letters written during 1848 as

Berlin, 1912.

Princess of Prussia.

A Memoir of Baron Bunsen. London, 1868, vol. More personal than political. Bunsen was the Prussian represen-

Bunsen, Frances. tative in

London, besides being Frederick William's only

liberal

friend.

Frederick William IV. Briefwech&el zwischen Konig Friedrich Wilhelm IV und dem Reichsverweser Erzherzog Johann von Osterreich. Frankfort, 1924. .

Brie-fwechsel mit L.

Camphausen. Ed. by Brandenburg:. Berlin,

1906. Gerlach, Leopold von. Denkwurdigkeiten. Berlin, 1891, vol. Gerlach was one of the King's most conservative friends. His

accounts of conversations at court feeling.

430

day by day

tell

a good deal about court

BIBLIOGRAPHY Radowitz, Josef von. Nachgelassene Briefe und Aufzeichnungen zur Geschichte der Jahre 1848-1853. Ed. by Walter Moring, Berlin

and Stuttgart, 1922.

MISCELLANEOUS MEMOIES AND LETTERS Bamberger, Ludwig. Politische Schriften von 1848-68. Berlin, 1895. Bergstrasser, Ludwig, ed. Das Frankfurter Parlament in Briefen und Tagebuchern. Frankfurt, 1929. Chiefly valuable for a complete set of Blum's letters to his family from the Frankfurt Assembly. Contains letters from some others too. Born, Stephan. Erinnerungen eines Achtundvierzigers, Leipzig, 1898. Corvin, Otto von. A Life of Adventure. London, 1871. Corvin's life was highly romantic, and his account of it most entertaining. He was in Paris in February, joined the German Legion there, fought in at the siege of Rastatt, for which he was

Baden and commanded

imprisoned. His book is valuable not only for his revolutionary exploits but for its description of Germany in the period leading up to 1848. Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Kraft. Aus meinem Leben. Berlin, 1897, 4 vol. The observations of a straitlaced soldier.

Schurz, Carl. Reminiscences. New York, 1907. Schurz was not yet twenty when the revolution broke. His adventures show how ro-

mantic life could be for young Germany. Siemens, Werner. Personal Recollections. New York, 1893. One of the inventors of the electric telegraph tells a little about 1848. Unruh, Hans Viktor von. Erinnerungen aus dem Leben von H. V. v. Unruh. Ed. H. v. Poschinger, 1895. The President of the Prussian National Assembly. Wagner, Richard, My Life.

New York,

1911. % vol.

EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS OF THE REVOLUTION IN PRUSSIA Angerstein, Wilhelm. Seit 1848: Beitrage zur preussischen Geschichte. Vol. i, Die Berliner Mdrzereignisse in Jahre 1848. Leipzig, 1864.

Boerner, Paul. Erinnerungen eines Revolutionars : SJcizzen aus dem Jahre 1848. 1920, 2 vol. Busch, Wilhelm. Die Berliner Mdrztage von 1848. Miinchen, Oldenbourg, 1899. 9 Circourt, Adolphe de. Souvenirs d une mission a Berlin en 1848. Paris, 1908.

A

conservative but observant friend of Lamartine, sent to

Berlin to keep peace between France and Germany. Donelson, Andrew Jackson. "The American Minister in Berlin on the

Revolution of March, 1848." AHR, Vol. 23, 1918.

431

BIBLIOGRAPHY Gneist, Rudolf. Berliner Zustdnde: Politische Skizzen aus der Zeit

18 Marz 1848

bis

vom

18 Marz 1849. Berlin, 1849. Tells of working

classes.

Perthes,

Otto.

"Beitrage zur Geschichte der Marztage June 1889.

1848." In

PreussiscJie Jahrbucher, Berlin,

Springer, R. Berlins Strassen, Kneipen und Klubs im Jahre 1848. Berlin, 1850. Very interesting.

Vitzthum von Eckstadt, E, K. Berlin und Wien in den Jahren 18451852. Stuttgart, 1886. A young, well-connected Saxon diplomat, who describes Berlin before the revolution, Vienna during it.

THE BADEN REVOLUTIONISTS Hecker, Friedrich. Die ErTwbung des Volkes in Baden fur die deutsche Republik in Friihjahr 1848. Basel, 1848. Herwegh, Emma. Zur Geschichte der deutschen demoJcratischen Legion aus Paris. Griinberg, 1849. uber den Feldzug in Baden. Mieroslawski, General Ludwig. Berichte .

.

.

Bern, 1849. Struve, Amalie. Erinnerungen aus den badischen Freiheitskampfen. Hamburg, 1850. Struve, Gustav. Geschichte der drei VolkersJiebungen in Baden. Bern, 1849.

HISTORY AS WRITTEN BY CONTEMPORARIES Becker, Bernhard. Die Reaction in Deutschland gegen die Revolution von 1848. Vienna, 1869. An early but very clever study of the maneuvers of the reaction. Engels, Friedrich. Germany: Revolution and Counter-revolution. New York, 1933. The material Engels wrote for the New York Tribune in 1851. Appendix contains a history of the Communist League. Engels has a wonderfully clear point of view and fine style. Heller, Robert. Brustbilder aus der PaulsJcirche. Leipzig, 1849. Dull.

Laube, Heinrich. Das erste deutsche Parlament. Leipzig, 1849, 3 vol. An orderly history with many quotations from speeches, and some color.

POLITICAL PAMPHLETS AND SPEECHES SHOWING THE SPIRIT OF THE

AGE

Arnim, Bettina von. Dies Buch g short dem Konig. 2nd ed. Berlin, 1852. The author, who had fallen in love with the aged Goethe as a young girl and made herself famous by publishing his letters, by 1848 was the enfant terrible of Berlin She wrote this book society.

before 1848, to explain to the

King how the other half

432

of his peo-

BIBLIOGRAPHY pie lived, and had to spend a short while in prison because it was not properly censored. Petzet, W. and O. E. Sutter. Der Geist der Paulskirche. Aus den Reden

der Nationalversammlung. Frankfurt, 1923. Speeches of the Frankfurt Assembly, edited with a view to justifying the Weimar Republic and the eternal German love of freedom. Radowitz, J. M. von. DeutsMand und FriedricJi Wilhelm IV. 2nd ed.

Hamburg, 1848. This pamphlet appeared anonymously, and was influential in turning Germans to the idea of the King of Prussia as their natural leader.

V Allemagne et les revoluis made up of quotahalf Second tions europeennes. Paris, 1939. sickness of Germany the romantic tions from Heine, who hated Nazism. and is made out as foreseeing Wagner, Richard. UArt et la revolution. Brussels, 1898. Written in July 1849, from Switzerland, hot from Wagner's part in the

Vermeil,

Edmond. Henri Heine,

ses vues sur

revolution.

MODERN

HISTORIES OF THE

GERMAN REVOLUTION

Blum, Hans. Die deutsche Revolution, 1848-49. Eine Jubildumsgabe fur das deutsche Volk. Leipzig, 1897. The son of Robert Blum, no revolutionary himself, wrote a huge volume, full of pictures, porproclamations as well as narrative. Revolution Die deutsche E. 1848. Leipzig, 1919. FirstBrandenburg, traits, caricatures, facsimiles of

class little narrative.

Dahlinger, Charles W. The German Revolution of 1849. New York, 1903. The third Baden uprising. Saxon revolution. Ellis, William Ashton. 1849. London, 1892. The evolution Marzr 1848 und die Belagerung Fiedler, Fritz. Die Berliner von Paris 1870-71. Jena, 1926. critique of Hohenlohe's reporting.

A

Hohlfeld, Johannes. Die deutsche Revolution 1848-49. Leipzig, 1948. Liiders, Gustav. Die demokratische Bewegung in Berlin im oJctober

1848. Berlin, 1909. Matter, P. La Prusse et la revolution de 1848. Paris, 1903. Mommsen, Wilhelm. Grosse und Versagen des Deutschen Burgertums. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Jahre 1848-1849. Stuttgart, 1949. One of the books unpublishable under Hitler. Mommsen gives but his own judgquotations to show all points of view,

enough ments are discriminating. A fine book. the Drang Nach Pascal, Roy. "The Frankfurt Parliament, 1848, and 1846. June Osten," JMH, Geschichte der Quarck, Max. Die erste deutsche Arbeiterbewegung; Arbeiterverbruderwng 1848-49. Leipzig, 1924.

433

BIBLIOGRAPHY Wilhelm IV und die Rachfahl, Felix. Deutschland, Konig Friedrich of Sybel and Berliner Mdrzr evolution. Halle, 1901. A refutation Perthes.

A

translation of excerpts from not of remarkably enlightening to 1848, his long German history an American reader. Geschichte der deutschen Revolution 1848-49. Berlin, 1930,

Valentin, Veit. 1848.

New

York, 1940.

.

2 vol.

The most

complete, standard study.

MODERN BIOGRAPHICAL

STUDIES OF

MEN

IMPORTANT IN 1848

An admirably written Carr, E. H. Michael Bakunin. London, 1937. be. should study all that a biography Anna. Ludolf Camphausens Leben. Stuttgart, 1902. Overly Caspary,

personal, dull, unimportant.

De

"Kobert Blum/' La Revolution de 1848. Vol. 1919-1920. Straightforward account of Blum's life.

la Faverie, Schalck.

xvi,

1911. UnenlightFleury, Victor. Le poete Georges HerwegJi. Paris, ening. seines Lebens. Leipzig, 1870. Freytag, Gustav, Karl Mathy: GescliicTite Mathy was the leader of the Baden moderates.

und die OrganisationsbestreFriedensburg, Wilhelm. Stephan Born Arbeit Berliner der 1840-Sept. 1848. Leipzig, erscliaft, bungen 1988. Geiger, Ludwig. Bettina von furt, 1902.

Arnim und Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Frank-

Kohn, Hans. "Arndt and German Nationalism," AHB, July, 1949. M,arz 1848." Lenz, Max. "Bismarcks Plan einer Gegenrevolution im der Akademie der Wissenscha~ften> preussisclien Sitzungsberichte Berlin, 1930. BerLewalter, Ernst. FriedricJi Wilhelm: das ScMcJcsal eines Geistes. education of the King of Prussia's lin, 1938. An interesting study

and character. Meinecke, Friedrich. Radowitz und die deutsche Revolution. Berlin, 1918. Life of Richard Wagner. New York. Volume n, from 1848-1860, came out in 1937. Studt, Bernhard. Bismarck als Mitarbeiter der "Kreuzzeitung" in den

Newman, Ernest. The

Jahren 1848 und 1849. Blankenese, 1903. Largely a collection of Bismarck's opinions, as he expressed them in his paper. A running

and

vivid

commentary. Wentzcke, Paul. "Zur Geschichte Heinrich von Gagerns. Seine Burschenschafterzeit

und

seine deutsche Politik," Quellen

434

und Darstel-

BIBLIOGRAPHY lungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der deutschen Einheitsbewegung. Vol. i, Heidelberg, 1910. Wyndham, Horace. The Magnificent Montez. London, 1935. One example of the inaccurate and sensational literature which is all that Lola Montez has ever had devoted to her.

MAEX

STUDIES OF

Barzun, Jacques. Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique of a Heritage. Boston, 1941. A savage attack on the characters, originality and philosophical influence of these three. Bloom, Solomon. The World of Nations. New York, 1940. cludes that Marx was not a nationalist, though he

Bloom conmade some

nationalistic statements.

Mayer, Gustav. Friedrich Engels

.

.

a Biography.

.

New York,

1936.

MODERN WORKS OF MORE GENERAL HISTORY WHICH TOUCH ON 1848 IN GERMANY Gazley, J. G. American Opinion of 1926.

German

Unification.

New York,

Hayes, C. J. H. The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism. York, 1931.

New

Meinecke, Friedrich. Welfburgertum und Nationalstaat. Studien zur Genesis des deutschen Nationalstaates. Miinchen and Berlin, 1908. Sybel, Heinrich von. The Founding of the German Empire by William I. New York, 1890.

Taylor, A. J. P. The Course of German History. A Survey of the Development of Germany since 1815. New York, 1946. This, though brilliant, shows touches of the anti-German fever that besets British scholars during every war. It is particularly interesting on the relations between Germans and Slavs. Treitschke, H. von. History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century, 1815-1848. Tr. by Eden and Cedar Paul. New York, 1915-19. 7 vol. Offensive in its nationalism, anti-Semitism, anti-liberalism,

but

undeniably interesting.

Ward,

Sir A.

W. Germany,

1815-1890. Cambridge, England, 1918,

3vol.

IV

-

AUSTRIA

MATERIAL BY CONTEMPORARIES Andrian-Werburg, Victor. De VAutriche et de son avenir. Paris, 1843. One of the books, printed abroad and smuggled widely into Austria, which did the most to show up the bad system of government.

435

BIBLIOGRAPHY A

Narrative of Events in Vienna from Latour to Tr. by Taylor, London, 1849. The author, who Windischgratz. was to become a distinguished writer, went to Vienna to observe events and wrote a day-by-day account. Frankl, Ludwig August. Erinnerungen. Ed. Stefan Hock, Prague, 1910. Not valuable, except for interesting bits about the Reading

Auerbach, Berthold.

Club.

Anton. Memorien vom Marz 1848

Fiister,

1850. 2 vol.

The chaplain

of the

bis Juli

1849. Frankfurt,

Academic Legion.

Hartig, Count Franz de Paula von. Genesis: or Details of the Late Austrian Revolution, by an Officer of State. London, 1853. Interran. From a conesting analysis of how the Austrian machine servative

Helfert, J.

official.

A. von. Die Wiener Journalistik im Jahre 1848. Vienna,

1877. .

Der Wiener Parnass im Jahre 1848. Vienna, 1882. These two

books quote extensively from the daily press of 1848 in Vienna. The second gives a poem for every day of the year. Hiibner, Count Joseph Alexander von. Une annee de ma vie. Paris, 1891. A gay young Austrian diplomat, lively, intelligent, but not critical.

Baron Carl von. "Story of the Escape of Prince Metternich." Volume i of National Review, London, 1883. Kudlich, Hans. RiickblicJce und Erinnerungen. Vienna, 1873. Hiigel,

Pichler, Adolf.

Aus den Marz-und~OJctobertagen zu Wien. Innsbruck,

1850. Pillersdorf,

The

Baron Franz

1848 and 1849. London, 1850. indictment of his predecessors and suchard to figure out what he means.

von. Austria in

first liberal minister's

cessors

is

so

vague

it is

Schutte, Anton. Die Wiener October-Revolution. des Dr. Schutte. Prague, 1848.

Schuselka, Franz. Das Revolutions jahr 1850. Relatively uninformative.

Aus dem Tagebuche

Marz 1848-Marz 1849.

Vienna,

William H. Austria in 1848-49. New York, 1852. 2 vol. The American Charge d' Affaires at Vienna wrote the longest and most careful contemporary history. He covers the whole empire, Hungary and Lombardy as well as Vienna. Honest, careful, impartial.

Stiles,

Wiesner, Adolph. DenkwurdigJceiten der osterreichischen Zensur, Stuttgart, 1847. Wiesner was thrown into prison with thieves on ac-

count of dramatic works criticizing Austrian policy. This

appeal for better conditions. See also the work by Vitzthum, listed under Prussia.

436

is

an

BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS BY MODERN HISTORIANS CONCERNING THE AUSTRIAN REVOLUTION AND ITS PERSONAGES Bibl, Viktor. Metternich, der

Damon

Osterreichs. Leipzig, 1936.

Die Niederosterreichischen Stande im Vormarz. Vienna, 1911. Jerome. Noble Landowners and Agriculture in Austria, 1815Blum, 1848: A Study in the Origins of the Peasant Emancipation of .

1848. Baltimore, 1948.

"Transportation and Industry in Austria, 1815-1848," JMH, March, 1943. Briigel, Ludwig. Geschichte der Oesterreichischen Sozialdemokratie. .

Vienna, 1922. Tedious compilation of sources without generalization.

Algernon. Metternich, 1773-1859: a Study of his Period and Personality. New York, 1933. Admiring. Charmatz, R. Adolf Fischhof. Stuttgart and Berlin, 1910. de Coudray, Helene. Metternich. London, 1935. Friedjung, H. Oesterreich 'von 1848 bis 1860. Stuttgart and Berlin, 1908-1912. A standard work. Pro-Austrian, anti-Hungarian. Goldmark, Josephine. Pilgrims of '48: One Man's Part in the Austrian Cecil,

Revolution of 1848 and a Family Migration to America. New Haven, 1930. Charming and scholarly account of the author's grandfather's part in the revolution.

Eduard. Mitt eleuro pa's Vorkampfer: Furst Felix zu Schwarzenberg. Vienna, 1933. Defends Schwarzenberg's policy as one that

Heller,

might reasonably have saved Central Europe in 1918. Jaszi, Oscar.

The Dissolution

of the

Hapsburg Monarchy. Chicago,

1929.

Kann, Robert A. The Multinational Empire: Nationalism and Reform in the Hapsburg Monarchy, 1848-1918. New York, 1950. Rriebel, Hermann. Feldmarschall Furst Windisch-Graetz, 1787-186. Vienna, 1929: A pamphlet issued by the Windischgratz family. Maurice, C. E. The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-1849 in Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany. London, 1887. Stuffy and often inaccurate about details. But one of the first books to give the Slav

problem prominence.

Mayr, Josef Karl. Metternichs geheimer Briefdienst; Postlagen und PostJcurse. Vienna, 1935.

Molisch, Paul. "Die Wiener Akademische Legion und ihr Anteil an den Verfassungskampfen des Jahres 1848," Archiv -fur osterreichische Geschichte. 1924.

Oberhummer, Hermann. Die Wienerpolizei im Revolutions jahr 1848 Vienna, 1928.

43

7

9

BIBLIOGRAPHY Presland, John. Vae Victis.

The Life

of

Ludwig von

BenedeJc.

London,

excellent biography. Even though General Benedek's chief fame came in 1866, this life is so careful and so understanddeal of light on the 1848 period, as that it throws a

1934 mit-

vom

getheilt

Paget, John.

Filrsten Metternich. (n.p., n.d.)

Hungary and Transylvania,

dition, Social, Political

tions of every phase of lightful sketches.

Quin, Michael J.

with remarks on their Con-

and Economical. London, 1839. Descriplife seen by a traveler, adorned with de-

A Steam Voyage down

the Danube. Paris, 1836.

Smith, J. Toulmin. Parallels between the Constitution

and Constitu-

tional History of England and Hungary. Boston, 1850. Tkalac, E. L von. Jugenderinnerungen aus Kroatien. Leipzig, 1894.

THE HUNGARIAN WAR

AS

TOLD AT THE TIME

Beck, Baroness Wilhelmine von. Personal Adventures during the Late War of Independence in Hungary. London, 1850. Adventures of a spy on the Hungarian side who impersonated a baroness but was exposed as a lady's maid.

Brace, Charles Loring.

Hungary

in 1851.

43

8

New

York, 1852. The

first

BIBLIOGRAPHY in Hungary after the war, who went to study the condition of the lower classes, was imprisoned for his curiosity. Chasles, Philarete. Scenes des camps et bivouacs hongrois, 1848-1849.

American allowed

Paris, 1879. Jellacic,

An

and

imaginary but graphic account of an

officer

under

his female aide-de-camp.

Correspondence relative to the Affairs of Hungary 181fl-181$. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by order of Her Majesty. The British ambassador at Vienna was unfavorable to Hungary, and besides could get little news from behind the lines. Contains

important proclamations and speeches otherwise unavailable

in

English.

Correspondence respecting the Refugees from Hungary within the Turkish Dominions. London, 1851. Czetz, Johann. Bern's Feldzug in Siebenbilrgen. Hamburg, 1850. Gorgei, Arthur. My Life and Acts in Hungary in the Years 1848-1849. London, 185. 2 vol. de la Iranyi, Daniel, and Charles-Louis Chassin. Histoire politique revolution de Hongroie, 1847-1849. Paris, 1859. Iranyi was a revolutionary. This 8-volume work the best near-

Hungarian contemporary history. Klapka, George. Memoirs of the

War

of Independence in

Hungary.

London, 1850.

A

Refutation of some of the Principal Misstatements in Gorgei's "Life and Actions in Hungary in the Years 18481849." London. Kossuth, Ludwig. Die Katastrophe in Ungarn. Leipzig, 1849. Kossuth's arrival in Turkey. first, angry, reaction, just after his and Journal (1848-1849) Letters The Leiningen-Westerburg, Charles. in the Hunof Count Charles Leiningen-Westerburg, General 1911. garian Army. Ed. by Henry Marczali, London, Adventures Personal and Kossuth Land; or, Charles. Pridham, Magyar

Kmety, George.

1851. This Times correduring the War in Hungary. London, to so took Hungary that the war was over long getting spondent before his arrival. 1881. The HunPulszky, Franz. Meine Zeit, mein Leben. Pressburg, the important Hungarians and garian envoy to London. Knew all

was present at many historic conversations,

all

faithfully

re-

corded.

A

1850. Pulszky, Trezsi. Memoirs of a Hungarian Lady. London, in estate the Hungary, and of Pulszky charming story of life on the part of the author's husband in the war.

439

BIBLIOGRAPHY Scenes of the Civil

War in Hungary in 18^8 and 1849

Max. The War

Schlesinger,

John Edward

with the Personal

1850. Translated by 1848-1849. Hungary, and Colorful 1850. London, fervidly proTaylor.

Adventures of an Austrian

Officer. Philadelphia,

in

Hungarian. Anton. Ungarn und der ungarische Unabhangigkeitskrieg. Dresden, 1850, 2 vol. Lively and interesting. More scholarly than

Schiitte, Dr.

Schlesinger.

Szemere, Bartholemew. Hungary from 1848-1860. London, 1860. Letters to Cobden about Hungary's rebirth, by the ex-leader of the

pure republicans in 1848. TeleM, Ladislas. De ^Intervention russe. Paris, 1849.

A

Brief Explanatory Report as to the Termination of the Hungarian Struggle. New York, 1850. Wiesner, A. C. Ungarns Fall und Gorgey's Verrath. Zurich, 1849.

Ujhazy, Ladislaus.

MODERN WORKS BEARING ON THE HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION Angyal, D. "Le comte Etienne Szechenyi," Revue des etudes hongroises et finno-ougriennes. Vol. vi, 19#6.

Hartley, M.

Baron

The Man Who Saved

Austria.

The

Life and Times of

London, 191$. Favorable, written to please the Jellacic family. Worse than that, unperceptive. Knatchball-Hugessen, C. M., Lord Brabourne. The Political Evolution of the Hungarian Nation. London, 1908. % vol. Documented Jellacic.

history of the Hungarian constitution. Janossy, Dionys V. "Die russische Intervention in

Ungarn im Jahre

1849," Jahrbuch des Wiener ungarischen historischen

Instituts.

Budapest, 1931. Kerchnawe, Hugo. Feldmarschall Filrst Windisch-Gratz und die Rus1848. Innsbruck, 1930. The Prince's grandson is eager to that the Fieldmarshal was not instrumental in calling for prove senhilfe,

Russian aid. Schiemann, Theodor. Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I. Berlin, 1909-1919. 4 vol. Sproxton, Charles. P aimer st on and the Hungarian Revolution. Cambridge, England, 1919. Zarek, Otto. Kossuth. Translated by Lynton Hudson. London, 1937. Strongly prejudiced in Kossuth's favor.

VI

ITALY

MEMOIRS AND ACCOUNTS WRITTEN BY CONTEMPORARIES d'Azeglio, Constance. Souvenirs historiques. Turin, 1884.

440

BIBLIOGRAPHY d'Azeglio, Massimo. Austrian Assassinations in

Lombardy. London,

1848.

1847 a 1865: correspondence politique. Paris, 1867. by Count Maffei. London, 1868. These recollections unfortunately go up only to 1846. Cattaneo, Carlo. L'Insurrection de Milan en 1848. Paris, 1848. Colomb, P. H. Memoires of Admiral the right honorable Sir Astley Cooper Key. London, 1898. Key was in charge of a British warship at Civita Vecchia during the siege of Rome. .

.

L'ltalie de

Recollections. Translated

Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Italy. British Parliamentary papers, including the communications between the Foreign Office and the consuls and British diplomats in Italy. Four volumes cover the period from 1846 to March 1849, and there is a separate volume for the Affairs of Rome. Dandolo, Emilio. The Italian Volunteers and the Lombard Rifle

Brigade. London, 1851. Eliot, Frances. Roman Gossip. London, 1896.

daughter of Lord Minto,

tells

many

A

British lady, the good anecdotes and gives a

what Rome looted like. Ellesmere, Francis Egerton Lord (translator). Military Events in the German Italy, 1848-1849. London, 1851. Translated from of a Swiss mercenary, William Meyer Ott. Ott was careless of He was strongly political fact, but gave good views of military life. colorful picture of

pro-Austria and pro-Pope, although Ellesmere disclaims bias on his part.

The Roman State from 1815 to 1850. Translated Gladstone. London, 1851-1854, 4 vol. Farini was one of the by who occupied various official posts under Pius* men bright young liberal administration. Ferrero, Gabriel Maximilien. Journal d'un officier de la Brigade de

Farini, Luigi Carlo.

Savoie sur la campagne de Lombardie. Turin, 1848. Garibaldi, Guiseppe. Memoirs. Edited by Alexandre Dumas. Translated and with introduction by R. S. Garnett. New York, 1931. One of several variant editions of the Memoirs.

A Bygones Worth Remembering. New York, 1905. exile. in friend of Mazzini gives a few sidelights on Mazzini's life Honan, Michael B. The Personal Adventures of "Our Own CorreTimes reporter spondent" in Italy. New York, 1852. The London his colors in the who covered story with sex and Italy campaigns His modern adventure like many report is more injournalists.

Holyoake, G.

J.

teresting for the story of

how newspapers operated

44

1

in those days

BIBLIOGRAPHY than for the ground he covered, for he tried to leave out material that he had previously printed in the Times. James, Henry. William Wetmore Story and His Friends. Edinburgh, vol. Includes about 30 pages of a diary kept during the 1903, of Rome siege by Story, a Boston aristocrat. de. Ma mission a Rome. Paris, 1849. Ferdinand Lesseps, et au Conseil d'Etat. Paris, 1849. Ministere au Reponse .

Recollections of Forty Years. London, 1887. Lesseps could never get beyond rehashing the documentary evidence concerning his mission to Rome and his mistreatment by his superiors. .

Mailand und der Lombardische Aufstand, mdrz 1848. Frankfurt, 1856. Probably written by Helfert. A very pro-Austrian account. Mazzini, Guiseppe. Life and Writings. London, 1891, 6 vol. Minghetti, Marco. Miei ricordi. Turin, 1889. 3 vol. Minghetti was Minister of Public Works under Pius in early 1848. He was in constant correspondence with men like d'Azeglio and quotes most of their letters.

Morozzo

della

Rocca, Enrico. The Autobiography of a Veteran, 1807New York, 1898. A friend of

1893. Translated by Janet Ross, Charles Albert.

Memoirs and Adventures Written by Himself. Transby George Carbonel, Edinburg, 1857. Orsini was a revolutionist who ended his life by trying to bomb Napoleon III. Has interesting documents unearthed by the Roman Republic con-

Orsini, Felice.

lated

cerning the papal government. Margaret Fuller. Memoirs, Boston,

Ossoli,

185.

Count Guiseppe. Memoirs. Compiled by his son, translated by Lady Dalhousie. London, 1885. A young layman who knew Pope Pius IX well before his elevation, and who was one of his trusted advisers during the months before the flight to Gaeta.

Pasolini,

Pellico, Silvio.

My

9

Ten Years Imprisonment. Translated by Thomas

Roscoe. London, 1886. Radetzky, Joseph Wenzel. Briefe an seine Tochter Friederike, 18471857. Vienna, 1892. Richards, E. F. MazzinVs Letters to an English Family, 1844-1854London, 190. Mazzini's letters to the Ashurst family give a

charming picture of

his

humor, variety of

interest, affection,

political opinions.

See also the work by

Hubner

referred to under Austria.

442

and

BIBLIOGRAPHY MODERN WORKS DEALING WITH EVENTS AND FIGURES OF 1848 IN ITALY Arno, Wolf-Schneider von. Der Feldherr Radetzky. Vienna, 1933.

A

glorification of the old empire. Agresti, Olivia Rosetti. Giovanni Costa:

His Life, Work and Times. London, 1904. One chapter on Costa's part in the Roman revolution.

Barr, Stringfellow. Mazzini, Portrait of an Exile. New York, 1935. Not a full-length study, but psychologically interesting, full of Mazzini's letters. Belluzzi, Raffaele.

La

retirata di Garibaldi da

Roma

nel 1849.

Rome,

1899. Berkeley, G. F.-H. and J. Italy in the Making, 1815-1846. Cambridge, England, 1932. .

Italy in the Making, June 1846 to

January 1848. Cambridge,

1936. Italy in the Making, January 1848 to November 1848. Cambridge, England, 1940. These three volumes are in immense detail, based on everything there is to read, including archives. The .

books are interesting, the battle descriptions admirable. But the evils of the nineteenth century were deeper than the authors saw, perhaps because of their pro-Catholic bias, and they also seem to misunderstand the twentieth century, however in a work of history.

Bourgeois, Emile and E. Clermont. 1907. Standard and admirable.

Rome

et

much that counts

Napoleon

III.

Paris,

Ciasca, Raffaelle. L'origine del "Programma per I'opinione nazionale italiana" del 1847-1848. Milan, 1916. The author traces the

evolution of the idea of those reforms which would require a united Italy, culminating in a kind of common program for all liberals

worked out by d'Azeglio. Costa de Beauregard, Marie Charles Albert. Les dernieres annees du roi Charles- Albert. Paris, 1890. An interesting, detailed, subtle psychological study

by a devoted

courtier.

Curatulo, G. E. II dessidio tra Mazzini e Garibaldi. Milan, 19&8.

Demarco, Domenico. Una rivoluzione sociale: la repubblica romana del 1849. Naples, 1944. A fine and much needed study of the social aspects of the Roman republic. Frischauer, Paul. Garibaldi: the Man and the Nation. London, 1935.

Well written,

clever, sensational.

Giovagnoli, R. Ciceruacchio

e

Don

Pirlone.

443

Rome, 1894. Misleadingly

BIBLIOGRAPHY the comic paper, "Don promises to be a study of Cieeruacchio and the Rome under in issued republic. Pirlone," in the RisorgiGreenfield, Kent Roberts. Economics and Liberalism 1934. Baltimore, in Nationalism a mento: Lombardy. of

Study The author feels,

and "exasperated quite correctly, that Mazzini, in factors as making Italy. He idealism" have been overrated studies economic motives very intelligently, though his unspoken is that nationalism would always be on the side of

assumption economic interest, which was not uniformly the case in 1848. Griffith, Gwilym 0. Mazxim: Prophet of Modern Europe. London, 1932. Admirably written biography.

Memorie di Ugo Bassi. Bologna, 1861. Stuck Osterreich. Leipzig, Hoettinger, Franz Ferdinand. Radetzky: ein Gualtieri, Luigi.

A

shameless glorification. 1934. Johnston, R. M. The Roman Theocracy and the Republic 1846-1849. London, 1901. Anti-papal. Well documented. a Biography. London, 1934. Larg, David Glass. Giuseppe Garibaldi: inaccurate. Entertaining, possibly 1870. Maguire, John Francis. Pontificate of Pius the Ninth. London,

The

clerical position.

the Age of UniMartinengo-Cesaresco, Evelyn. Italian Characters in most of the knew countess This ed. new 1901. ? fication. London, figures she writes about. 9

Masi, Ernesto. Nell ottocento. Milan, 1905. Matter, Paul. Cavour et Vunite italienne. Paris, 1926. Monti, Antonio. Un dramma fra gli esuli. Milan, 1921. Mazzini's re-

Milan in April 1848. The Kristian. Fredrik Nielsen, History of the Papacy in the XlXth % New York, 1906, vol. The work of a Danish Protestant. Century. Sound. Omodeo, Adolfo. L'eta del risorgimento italiano. Messina, 1931. Pailleron, M. L. "Une ennemie de PAutriche." Revue des deux mondes, lations with Cattaneo in

1915. About Princess Belgiojoso. Prato, Guiseppe. Fatti e dottrine alia vigilia del 184-8. Turin, Study of the Piedmont Agricultural Society, with ramifications vol.

6,

19L

in every branch of public life. Salvemini, Gaetano. Mazzini. Florence,

opinions on

all subjects,

with

195. Analysis of Mazzini's much quotation, and comparison

of his actions with his words.

Taylor, A. J. P. The Italian Problem in European Diplomacy, ISJfl1849. Manchester, 19S4, Using archives at Paris, Vienna and

444

BIBLIOGRAPHY London, the author shows the nature of the interest of other powers in the fate of Italy. Trevelyan, G. M. Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic. London, 1907. Vidal, Cesar. Charles- Albert et le risorgimento italien. Paris, 19S7. Whitehouse, H. Remsen. A Revolutionary Princess: Christina Belgio-

Her Life and Times. 1808-1871. London, 1906. Arthur James B. The Early Life and Letters of Cavour. 1810Whyte, joso-Trivulzio,

1848. Oxford, 1925. ,

The

Political Life

and Letters of Cavour, 1848-1861. London,

1930.

BOOKS ON VENICE IN 1848

A guidebook, with an excellent map. Debrunner, Jean. Memoires. Zurich, 1850. The captain of the Swiss volunteer regiment at Venice. Also published in German. Flagg, Edmund. Venice, the City of the Sea -from the Invasion by Binzer, Augustin von. Venedig im Jahre 1844- Pest, 1845.

Napoleon in 1797 to the Capitulation of Radetzky in 1849. New vol. Flagg, the American consul at Venice, wrote, York, 1853, says Manin's editor, "with that mixture of calm and enthusiasm peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon race." Manin, who oddly enough did not know him at Venice, called his book the best and most exact account he had seen. Helfert, Joseph Alexander von. Aus Boehmen nach Italien, marz 1848.

La

Frankfurt. 1862. Detailed, lively account of the author's journey from Prague, to Vienna, to Venice. Forge, Anatole de. Histoire de la republique de Venise sous Manin.

vol. Paris, 1853. et pieces authentiques laisses par Daniel Documents Daniele. Manin, Manin. Edited by F. Planat de la Faye. Paris, 1860, 2 vol. In-

and annotated selection of official documents and Manin. by papers Trevelyan, G. M. Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848. London, telligently chosen left

1923.

VII*-

THE BRITISH ISLES

CONTEMPORARY WRITERS ON GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND IN 1848 Cavour, Camillo. Thoughts on Ireland. London, 1868. First published in 1844. Cavour argued strongly for the union with Great Britain, mainly on economic grounds.

445

BIBLIOGRAPHY Doheny, Michael. The Felon's Track, or History of the Attempted Outbreak in Ireland. Dublin, 1920. Doheny was one of the men engaged in the abortive uprising of July 1848. Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan. Four Years of Irish History. London, 1883. Young Ireland. London, 1880. These two ponderous volumes tell more than anyone would want to know about the activities, conversations, differences of the Young Ireland group between 1840 .

and 1848. Engels, Frederick. The Condition of the Working Class in England in work in which Engels developed his theory 1844- London, 1892. of the proletariat "in embryo" as he says.

A

Fontane, Theodore. Journeys to England in Victoria's Early Days, 1844-1869. London, 1939. A delightfully observant German. Lamartine, Alphonse de. England in 1850. New York, 1851.

Meagher, Thomas Francis. Meagher of the Sword. Dublin, 1939. Speeches by the most glamorous of the Young Ireland party, before and during his various trials for sedition. Mitchel, John. Jail Journal.

New York,

1854.

of Ireland (Perhaps). New York, 1878. The second of these books deals with the events of 1848, the first with MitchePs trip in a prison ship to Tasmania. .

The Last Conquest

Speeches from the Dock. Edited by Sean ua Ceallaigh. Dublin, 1945. The courtroom oratory of the victims of British justice in Ireland

from 1798

on.

MODERN WORKS ON GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND This

list

of books on Britain

IN 1848

makes no pretense at completeness. For

Ireland, where materials are scarce, this bibliography shows the important sources for the 1848 uprising, such as it was. But the enormous literature about Chartism is outside the scope of this list here are a few titles have the that for given only special purposes of helped this history.

Aldington, Richard. The Duke. New York, 1943. Bell, H. C. F. Life of P aimer st on. 1936, 2 vol. Cecil,

A life

of Wellington.

Algernon. British Foreign Secretaries. New York, 197. W. The Decline of the Chartist Movement. New York, 1916.

Slossen, P.

West, Julius.

A

History of the Chartist Movement. London, 19#0.

IRELAND Connolly, James. Labour in Ireland. Dublin, 1917. Socialist history a socialist "martyr," of 1916.

446

by

BIBLIOGRAPHY vol. Dillon, William. Life of John Mitchel. London, 1888, Fogarty, L. James Finton Lalor. Dublin, 1918. Laughton, J. K. Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of Henry Reeve. 1898. % vol. Reeve was the editor of the London Times. Letters to him from Lord Clarendon, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, are interesting, from the government point of view.

Mansergh, Nicholas. Ireland in the Age of Re-form and Revolution. London, 19&0. Based on views of continentals Mazzini, Marz, Cavour tries to show how Ireland was tied up with the continent. Ryan, Desmond. The Phoenix Flame. London, 1937. This study of Fenianism has an introduction on the heritage of 1848. White, Terence de Vere. The Road of Excess. Dublin, 1946. A life of Isaac Butt, whose chief fame came later, but whose apprenticeship in 1848 was instructive and is here well presented.

447

Index abdication, Louis Phillipe, 37-38; Ferdinand I, 253; Charles Albert, 358; Ludwig I, 181

against people, 159. Baden: resist republican propaganda, 170; in third uprising, 175-178. Saxony: 184. Austria: used against people, 212-214; evacu-

Abel, Karl von, Prime Minister of Bavaria, 180-181

ated, 225; quartering of troops, 234, 274; reinforce Jellac'ic', 237; recruiting, 246, 252, 260-261, 343; on military frontier, 280-281, 290, 298, 299; in Hungary, 292; discipline, 302-303, 356; organization, 333-335; in Milan tobacco riots,

Academic

Legion, 160; formed, 217; uniforms, 219; organization described, 220-221; threatened and defended, 225; professors abandon, 226; popularity of, 226; patrol city, 228; Kudlich and, 240; in fall uprising, 243 Affre, Denis Auguste, Archbishop of Paris, 93, 94 Agram, 276; Diet of, 275, 279; demands of, 282 Agricultural Society, Piedmont, 313-314; 418 Aguyar, 377 Albert, Archduke of Austria, 213, 219

Albert 417;

(surname Martin), worker, 58, included in provisional govern-

338; in Venetia, 387; ordered out, 389. 283-284, 289-290; loyalty, 287, 292 ; surrenders, 301 ; pun-

Hungary: organized,

ishment, 303. Russia: 298. Italy: Piedmont, 324, 352, 354, 356, 357; reorganized, 328; papal troops, 347; Roman

Republic, 370; Garibaldi's Legion, 372374, 376-379; Venice, 394-397. Great Britain: 405; in Ireland, 409. Arndt, Moritz, German poet, 108, 149, 156n., 163, 224n.

ment, 44; in Assembly, 78 Albert, Prince Consort, 136

Arnim, Bettina von, 109

Algeria, 91, 96 Allgemeine Zeitung, 199 American observers, 7. See also William

tacked, 240; Venice, 381, 395; captured by Manin, 388-389 art, fostered by Second Republic, 54, 55;

H. Stiles; Richard Rush; Andrew Jackson Donelson. Arad, 313 Arago, Emmanuel, commissioner at Lyons, 52 Arago, Etienne, head of French post

Kinkel, 179; "Wagner, 182; Mazzini, 315; d'Azeglio, 319 artillery, used in Hungary, 285; used

office, 41,

arsenal, Berlin, attacked, 134; Vienna, at-

42

61,86

Arago, Francois, French astronomer, 40, 42, 44; youth, 52; accomplishments in provisional government, 52; on executive

against Venice, 398-399 assembly, right of, under Louis Phillipe, 15, 21; under provisional government,

commission, 79;

at

June barri-

cades, 92

army, France: 16; policing Paris, 29, 30; Ministry of Foreign Affairs' massacre, 33; commanded by Bugeaud, 34; built up by Lamartine, 48, 51; put under Arago, 51-52; removal from Paris demanded, 60; Lamartine on, 79; reviewed at Feast of Concord, 83; enlist workshop members, 88; expeditionary

France, 93, 94; Frankfurt, 159; 299, 304; Italy, 299, 344 Auerswald, General Hans von, murdered, 159 Augusta, Crown Princess of Prussia, 114, 130, 133, 134 Aula, 207, 209, 215, 220, 221, 243 Austria, expectancy of revolution, 3; conatrocities,

Hungary,

dition before 1848, 4; relation to rest of 109, 162-163; non-German subjects, 143; dominates confederation, 144; ignores Archduke John, 155; idea of unification, 204n., 210 ; relations with

Germany,

force, 361, 371-373. Prussia: 110, 112; in Berlin, used against civilians, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120; ordered to retire,

121; morale, 121n., 126; return to Ber126; ordered to support constitution, 130 ; officers, 135 ; recalled to Berlin, 136, 138. German Empire : increased

lin,

by Frankfurt Assembly,

Italy, 311, 353, 363, 379, 381; administration of Lombardy, 319, 335, 387;

army, 333-335; Radetzky's services, 360, administration of Venetia, 381-385 Austrian Ministry, before 1848, 191; after

155-156; used

449

March, 1848, frames constitution, 223; relations with Hungary, 270, 281

INDEX Azeglio, d' 5 Marchioness Constance, 313,

Bismarck,

Azeglio, d', Marquis Massimo, 327, 347, 382; youth, 311; attitude toward women, 312; tours Italy, 1845, 318-322; hatred of Austria, 319; views, 323, 339;

on Turin, 325; organizes procession, 330; on war, 357; serves under Victor Emmanuel, 359, 360; on freedom, 414415 Azeglio,

d',

Marquis Robert, 328

Alexander,

Bach,

Austrian

Minister,

253n., 256, 273

Baden, Grand Duchy of, 168-180 Baden, Grand Duke of. See Leopold. Bakunin, Michael, Russian revolutionary, 182-184

Balbo, Cesare, Italian writer, 327, 330 balloons, used in war, 343, 399 Balzac, Honore* de, 30 Bandiera brothers, 318, 326

Bank

Otto

Prince

145, 166, 412, 418; in

357

Augusta appeals

344, 355.

Rome, 373

Bar rot,

Odilon, French politician, in banquet campaign, 24-28, 32 ; on revolution, 33; in ministry, 34, 36; on provisional government, 44 ; in Assembly, 78 ; under Napoleon, 102 Bassi, Ugo, Garibaldi's chaplain, 378, 379

Batthyanyi, Count Louis, heads Hungarian Ministry, 272; refused audience, 273; on Croats, 277; fails to hold military frontier, 281; meets Jellac'ic', 282; meets Ferdinand, 282; forms second cabinet, 284; enlists in army, 286; executed, 304 Bavaria, Kingdom of, 180-181

Belgiojoso, Princess Christina, 313; at Milan, 347-348; at Rome, 375-376 Bern, Joseph, Polish officer, 242 ; in charge of Viennese defense, 242-243; escapes, 249, 249n.; in Transylvanian campaign, 291-292, 293; flees to Turkey, 305

115,

Blanc, Louis, 14, 16, 39, 40, 280, 312, 391, 412, 413, 416; early life, 19; Organization of Work, 19-20; at first session of provisional government, 43-45; heads wing of provisional government, 47, 48; frightened by workers' march, 60; Luxembourg Commission, 67-69; feared, 77; in Assembly, 78; voted out of office, 79; on May 15, 82; endorses Napoleon, 84; in England, 406; character, 418 Blanqui, Adolphe, French economist, 86left

87, 96 Blanqui, Auguste, French radical leader, 14-15, 22, 74; opposed to provisional government, 47; organizes March 17th demonstration, 60; sets up Central Re-

publican Society, 61; appearance, 61; doctrine, 61-62; hurt by Taschereau

Banquets, campaign of, 24; Lamartine's, 11; Paris, 25-28, 39

barricades, Paris: February, 31, 33, 34; June, 89, 92. Berlin: 118-120. Dresden: 184. Vienna: 225. Milan: 340-341, 343,

84,

erick William, 137

of France, 66

Barbes, Armand, French radical leader, 22, 62; Club of the Revolution, 62; attacks Blanqui, 63; on April 16, 74-75; in Assembly, 78; on May 15, 80, 81, 82; imprisoned, 83

to,

von,

United Diet, 127; 134; advises Fred-

scandal, 63; on

May

15, 81;

imprisoned,

83

Blum, Robert, German radical leader, 182, 312, 412, 419; early life, 150; popularity, 151 ; in Frankfurt Assembly, 154; on Archduke John, 155 on war, 156 on Malmo, 158; goes to Vienna, 160, 244, ;

;

245; execution, 161, 249, 250, 255 Bodelschwingh, E. von, Minister of the Interior, 118, 121, 124

Boerner, Paul, Berlin student, 115, 178

Bohemia, Kingdom

of, 4, 193, 262.

See also

Czechs.

Bonaparte family, 56 Born, Stephan, German worker, 134, 144; youth and opinions, 131 ; organizes Berlin workers, 132, 418; in Saxon revolution, 183, 185

Boston Tea Party, inspires Milanese, 338 Bourbon, House of, restoration, 12 Brandenburg, Count von, 137 Br6a, General, French officer, 92 bread riots, Berlin, 112 Brentano, Lorenz, 175, 176

German

lawyer, 174,

bridge, at Buda-Pest, 265, 291; at Venice, 381, 395, 397

Brinton, Crane, on Lamartine, 75 British diplomacy, reaction to Second

Berlin, description before 1848, 110-112; in March, 1848, 116-119; in October, 1848, 136-137

ston.

450

Re-

public, 51; reaction to Schleswig-Holstein war, 158. See also Lord Palmer-

INDEX Buchez, Joseph, president of French Assembly, 78, 81 Buda, siege of, 295 Bugeaud, Marshal, Duke of Isly, 34, 36, 39 Bulletins of the Republic, 53; on elections, 53-54; on land tax, 66 Bunsen, Baron von, friend of Frederick William, 108, 127, 165-166 bureaucracy, Prussian, 113; Austrian, 194 business, under French provisional government, 65, 68; conditions of in Germany, 110, 145-146; in Austrian Em-

296; in Piedmont, 314, 322, 325; British, of mail, 317 ; in Lombardy, 335 Central Republican Society, 61, 63, 81

Chambord, Count

Champ de

view with d'Azeglio, 320-322; relations with Mazzini, 324, 349, 352, 370; prepares for war, 324, 325, 329, 330 ; relations with Metternich, 320, 325 ; charac-

Cabet, Etienne, French socialist, 51 camarilla, Prussian, 136, 165-166

325; grants constitution, 328-330; to, 345; marches to Milan, 346, 347, 349; relations with Garibaldi, 351; accepts crown of Lombardy, ter,

Milan appeals

Camphausen, Ludolf, Prussian prime minister, 127, 129; resigns,

130

Canino, Prince of, 367, 383 Canning, Sir Stratford, 417 Carlyle, Thomas, on Mazzini, 316, 368 Carnot, Hippolyte, French Minister of Education, 55

Count Gabriel, mayor of Milan,

340, 342, 349, 352

Casino, Pest, 264, 268 Catholic church, France: religious orders dissolved in Lyon, 52. Austria: danger of secession, 207n., 362. Rome: conflict with politics, 362 confiscation, 368, 369, ;

370, 375

France attitude toward educain Assembly, 78, 87 write education law of 1850, 97. Ireland, 409

Catholics, tion, 55

352; relations with Austria, 353; abandons Milan, 354-356; beaten at Custozza, 354; prepares for new attack, 356357; beaten at Novara, 358; abdicates, 358; compared with Victor Emmanuel, 359; and Pope, 362, 365; relations with Venice, 392 Charles X, King of France, 12 Chartists, 132, 405

Chateaubriand, French author, 37n. Chateau d'Eau, 35, 36 chauvinism, 416; French: 13, 16; under Second Republic, 50; Napoleon exploits, 100.

:

;

Mars, 46, 71

charity, 87, 124, 196, 406; in Hungary, 263; in Italy, 313, 348, 383; in England, 406; in Ireland, 407-408 Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, inter-

pire, 194-196

Casati,

French Pretender,

of,

276

;

Cattaneo, Carlo, Milanese republican, 342343; differs with Mazzini, 349, 349n. Caussidiere, Maro, 47, 74, 80, 92, 97, 183; as head of Paris police, 41-42, 56-59; protects Blanc, 60 ; elected to Assembly, 76; on May 15, 82; on dissolution of national workshops, 88; in England, 406

General Eugene, 89, 375; youth and character, 90-91; defeats workers in June, 89-94; given dictato-

Cavaignac,

power, 93, 94, 96; runs for president, 98-99, 101-102; and Pope, 365 Cavour, Count Camillo, 311, 324, 412, rial

in Frankfurt

As-

;

guard, Rome: demanded, 327; formed, 328; mutinous, 363. Milan: formed, 340. Venice: formed, 387, 389; captures arsenal, 388-390; during siege, 392, 400 Civita Vecchia, 371, 372, 373 Clarendon, Lord, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 409

civic

class consciousness, 5-6, 7, 44, 97, 124, 417;

France: under Second Republic, 46; national guard, 59.

413; organizes Agricultural Society, 313-314; compared with Szechenyi, 314; views, 323, 417; forces Piedmont constitution, 329; urges war, 346, 357 censorship, 144, 178; under German Confederation, 117, 145; in Austrian Empire, 198-201; abolition petitioned, 206, 317, 319; abolished in Pest, 269; in

German:

sembly, 155 child labor, France, 18 Prussia, 111 ; Austria, 228 cholera, 381, 399, 401 Christian VIII, King of Denmark, 157 Ciceruacchio, 362, 364, 376, 378, 379

in Frankfurt Assembly, 153, Austrian Empire: 193-194,

among

in

Germany: 146-147; 155, 179. 196,

students in Vienna, 226.

212;

Hun-

gary: 263. Italy: 311, 345, 347, 357, 365, 382 class, theories on: idea of conciliation,

Croatia before 1848, 276; in Russia,

451

412; pre-1848 socialism, 5-6; Blanc, 1920; Mazzini, 367; in England, 406;

INDEX Marxian socialism,

venes, 230-236; pacifies mob, 238-240; petitions for amnesty, 240-241 ; prepares for defense of city, 242; dissolved, 242; during siege of Vienna, 246; national

defeat of 6, 416; idea of conciliation, 7, 77, 412-415 Clichy cooperative, 69 Club of the Revolution, 62, 81 clubs, Paris: 47, 61-63, 81; national workshop, 73; woman's, 76; march on Assembly, May 15, 80; ordered closed, 86; German Democratic Society, 171. Berlin: "Worker's Club, 111, 132, 418; The Democratic Club, 125, 136; Democratic Woman's Club, 133; "Linden Clubs," 136; closed, 139; Baden, 174, 175. Vi-

enna:

Reading Club, 196, 223, 224; printers', 197, 226. Italy: Agricultural Society, 313-314; Scientific Congresses, 323,383, 418; Rome, 363 Cobden, Richard, 113, 313

Cologne, 174, 179 Committee of Safety, in Vienna, 228, 230 Communist League, 22, 61, 131, 132, 179 Communist Manifesto, 6, 14 Concord, Feast of, 83 Confederation, German. See

German Con-

federation.

congregations, Lombard, 337; Venetian, 384 Congress of Vienna. See Treaty of 1815. Constance, 170 constitution, France: first draft, 97; de-

bate on presidential election, 98; ratified, 99. Germany: demanded for Prus-

divisions of, 255; draft Kremsier constitution, 255, 256; dissolved, 257. Italy:

see

Piedmont Assembly and Roman As-

sembly. See also diets and Estates. Corvin, Otto von, Commandant at Rastatt, 177, 178 cost of living, Paris, 71n.; Hungary, 259 Council of State, in Rome, 327 Courtais, General, 80, 82 Cracow, Republic of, 201 Crmieux, Isaac, French Minister of Justice, 42 Crimean War, 299 Croatia, Kingdom of, relations with Hungary, 7, 222, 283; description and history, 263, 274-277; chooses Jellac'ic', 279; military frontier, 280-281; conditions after 1848, 307

Croat soldiers, siege of Vienna, 247-249; in Italy, 340, 342, 344

Crown

of St. Stephen, 260, 305 Custozza, 354, 360 Czechs, 7, 203; students, 222; in Austrian Assembly, 231-232, 232n., 239, 255; Fiister on, 232n.

sia,

Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph, German historian, 142, 224n.; early life and views, 152-153; on Malmo, 158, 159, 163-

and German, 139; Prussian promulgated, 139; in Baden, before 1848, 168; Frankfurt, see Frankfurt Constitution.

Danube, navigation, Danzig, 155

Austria: clash between Austrian and

Dea"k, Francis,

110; drafted, 129; army's loyalty discussed, 130; clash between Prussian

German,

163, 210n., 257;

;

national workshops, 87, 88; Napoleon takes seat, 98; debate on presidential election, 99. Prussia: petition for, 113; election for, 127; meets, 128-129; king ignores, 130; petition king, 137; work on constitution, 137; urges nonpayment of is

dissolved, 138 ; reopened at

140; achievements of, 419; Frankfurt, see Frankfurt Assembly. Austria: 284; demanded, 223; con-

Brandenburg,

265, 286

Hungarian statesman, 268, 412; Minister of Justice, 273; resigns, 286; on Kossuth, 294; hopes, 307

demanded, 210;

promised, 218; first drafted, 232; of Kremsier, 255-256, 279, 418 Schwartzenberg's, 257-258; effect on Hungary, 292. Hungary: ancient, 210, 258, 260; Kossuth demands for Austria and Hungary, 268. Italy: Piedmont, 325, 328330; Papal States, 328 Constitutional Assembly, France: opened, 77; invaded by workers, 80; debate on

taxes and

164, 201

Debreczen, 290, 292 Delahodde, Lucien, police agent, 28, 36; discovered as spy, 58-59; on Barbes, 62 Delessert, Chief of Paris police, 32

Dembinski, General, Hungarian officer, 295 democracy, 416-419; democratic party in Italy, 314 Denmark, war with Germany, 157 depression of 1846-8, France, 17, 18, 25, 65; Austria, 196, 197-198, 228; Venice, 384; Ireland, 407-408

Deputies, Chamber of, 24, 39; debate on speech from throne, 25; dismissal of Guizot, 31-32; establishes provisional government, 40, 42 diets, Prussia: provincial, 110, 113; Unit-

452

ed Diet, 113, 114, 116, 127. Hungary:

INDEX traditional rights of Diet, 260-262; Kossuth edits debates, 266; Diet of 1847 (Pressburg) 267, 268, 270, 271, 277; Diet of 1848 (Pest) 283, 300; Declaration of Independence, 291-293, 307.

Croatia: 275, 279. See also Constitutional Assembly and Estates. disarmament, 51, 416 Dissenting Society, 28, 29 Doblhoff, Baron, 196, 236, 417

Donelson, Andrew Jackson, American Consul at Berlin, 7, 417 Dresden, 182-184 dress, France: members of provisional government, 46 uniforms provided, 59 ; ;

national workshops, 71 bers, 80.

Germany:

;

Assembly mem-

Berlin, 124; in Prus-

128; German Legion, Austria: Academic Legion, 219; Croat soldiers, 249, 281; after revolution, 250. Hungary: in Diet, 267, 283; sian Assembly,

172.

army, 289. Illyrian: 276. Italy: 329, 330, 338, 339, 385; in Garibaldi's legion, in

351, 372 Dublin, 409

DuCamp, Maxime, 88 Dumas, Alexandre, 21, 39,

29, 31,

33,

Roman

Assembly, 365; in Republic of Venice, 391 electoral reform, agitation for in France, 15, 23,

Queen of Prussia, 122, 124 Ellenborough, Lady Jane, 251 Engels, Friedrich, Communist Manifesto, 14, 22; views on June Days, 97; views on Berlin uprising, 121, 125 ; friendship with Stephan Born, 131; on Robert Blum,

nau

education, France: under Second Republic, 55; Catholics try to control, 78, 87, 97. Prussia: school children, 111; work-

education, 111-112; in Frankfurt Constitution, 161; after 1850, 178-179. Austria: 233, 233n.; controlled by Jesers'

uits, 218n.

335.

Croatia: 275-276.

Roman Republic:

223; in

Hungary before

in

Aus-

1848, 262;

during 1848, 273; after 1848, 306 France: under Second Repub-

elections,

47; Bulletin of the Republic on, 53; posters, 56; demand for postponement, lic,

60; for Constitutional Assembly, 75-77, 83; presidential, 98-100. Prussia: to Prussian Constitutional Assembly, 127-

360; description, 405-407; MazLamartine on, 406; Engels

88; decides to abolish national workshops, 85; abolished, 93

Falloux (du Coudray), Vicomte de Fre"d&ric Pierre, runs for Constitutional Assembly, 76, 78; leads debate on workshops, 87, 88

Feast of Concord, 83 Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria, 336; character, 189-191; accepts petition, 208; calls troops, 213-214; dismisses Metternich, 215; popularity, 217; gives in to demands, 218, 221, 222; flees to Innsbruck, 223-224; returns to Vienna, 235; double dealing with Constitutional

Lombardy:

Frankfurt Constitution, 162; tria,

in,

on, 406; exiles to, 406 Ense, Rahel von, 110 Ense, Varnhagen von, 120 Eotvos, Baron Jozsef, Hungarian patriot and novelist, 261 Estates, in Austria, 195, 206, 208-211, 234; of lower Austria, 196. See also Diets. Esterhazy, Prince, 267 Executive Commission, French, 79, 82, 87,

369. Venice: 391

election laws, France, 15, 75, 103; universal suffrage, 102. Prussia, after 1848, 140; for Frankfurt Assembly, 148; in

174; on Austria, 235; on

zini on, 405;

37n. 5

1'Eure, French republican, 40, 42; heads provisional government, 48

151,

English middle class, 406 England, sympathy for Hungary, 296; help for refugees, 305-306; Mazzini in, 316, 317; relations with Italy, 356; Hay-

54

Dupont de

24

Elizabeth,

Assembly, 241-242, 244;

flees to

Mora-

241; abdication, 253; opens Hungarian Diet, 267; relations with Hungarian administration, 270, 271, 273, 284, 287; meets Batthyanyi, 282; relation with Czar, 296 Ferrara, 331 feudal dues, in Germany, 110, 173; in Ausvia,

233-234, 235n., in 270, 271-272

tria,

Hungary, 263,

France: under provisional gov66. Germany: under Frederick William IV, 108; under Imperial Administrator, 156, 156n., Baden, under

finance,

128; of January, 1849, 140. Germany: to Frankfurt Assembly, 148-149; Baden, 175. Austria: to Constitutional Assembly, 231. Hungary: 261; for Diet, 1848, 270, 274. Italy: Piedmont, 356-357; to

453

ernment,

Revolutionary government, 175. Austria: 195n., 206, 236, 282, 298.

Hungary:

INDEX taxation

270-271, 272-273; during 290, 293, 296. Russia: 298. Italy: under Roman Republic, 369370; under Republic of Venice, 393-394,

Assembly, 149, 151 invites Assembly to

of,

war with Austria,

395, 400

Fischhof, Adolf, 312; addresses crowd, 209; character and youth, 210n., chairman of Committee of Safety, 228, 229; in Assembly, 231 ; imprisoned, 257

Flocon, Ferdinand, French republican, 40, 43, 74, 171-172, 183 Florence, 367 flour mill, Venice, 382 Fourier, F. C. M., French socialist, 18 I, Emperor of Austria (17681835), 189-190, 195, 296, 331, 332, 336 Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 192, 218n., 222n., 224; accedes to throne, 253; character, 254, 304; promulgates con-

Francis

;

peditionary force, 361, 371, 372-373; relations with Pope, 365; administration of Rome, 379-380 French ideas, in Rhineland, 113; reach Berlin, 115; reach Austria, 204, 204n., in Vienna, 227; reach Hungary, 268; reach Piedmont, 330 Froebel, Friedrich, German educator, 178 Fromm, Erich, 414 Fuller, Margaret. See Ossoli. Fiister, Anton, 207 chaplain of Academic ;

Legion, 220-221, 243; leads fight, May, 225 ; addresses workers, 227 ; in Assem-

toward naHungary,

stitution, 257-258; attitude

tionalism, 278

;

Cologne, 157; Malmo armistice, 158; offered crown, 164-166; Nicholas' attitude toward, 297; compared with Mazzini, 367 French diplomacy, Lamartine, 49-51; relations with Piedmont, 356, 360-361 ; ex-

relations with

bly, 231, 232n., 236; escapes,

257

291, 292; meets Czar, 298; leads army,

Gagern, Friedrich von, German general,

299

Frankfurt Assembly, 144, 381 attitude toward Berlin Assembly, 139; summoned, 147; membership, 149-153; opens, 153; war with Denmark, 157-160; on Malmo

149; views, 147, 150, 164, 204; dies in

;

battle, 170

troops, Prussia, 164-166; expires, 167, 172, 224n.; Austrian elections for, 231n.; attitude to-

Gagern, Heinrich von, German statesman, 412; views, 147, 204; at Preliminary Parliament, 148; elected president of Assembly, 149, 154; work in Frankfurt Assembly, 154; on German union, 163; on imperial crown, 164-165

ward Hungarian independence, 278;

Galicia, 193, 231

armistice, 158-159; 159; offers crown to

summons King of

congratulates Radetzky, 356 Frankfurt Constitution, 161-164; fight for in Rhineland, 174-180; fight for in Saxony, 182-185 153 ; Frankfurt-on-Main, Preliminary Parliament, 148; against Malmo, 158160. See also Frankfurt Assembly. Frankfurt Parliament. See Frankfurt As-

sembly. Frederick Augustus II, King of Saxony, 182, 184 Frederick William III, King of Prussia (1770-1840), 108, 114 Frederick William IV, 50, 182, 415, 417;

toward subcompared to Louis

character, 107-108 ; attitude jects, 108-109, 113;

Napoleon, 108; popularity wanes, 113; opens Diet, 114; liberalizes press laws, 114; plans for German unity, 115, 117, 123; attitude toward March revolution, 118-123; flees to Potsdam, 123; ambivalence, 126, 127;

Garde Mobile, 59 Garibaldi, Anita, 312, 350, 376, 378-379 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 3, 312, 418 ; relations with Mazzini, 317; youth and character, 349-351; arrives in Milan, 349; appeals to Pius, 350; relations with Charles Albert, 351; brands king a traitor, 355; elected to Roman Assembly, 366, 36tf; in Siege of Rome, 372, 374, 376-377; march to Adriatic, 378-379; goes to

United States, 379 Garnier-Pages, Louis Antoine, 42, 43; French Minister of Finance under provisional government, 66-67; on executive commission, 79; supports Napoleon, 99

Gavazzi, Father, 393

Genoa, 315 Gerlach, Leopold von, Prussian statesman, 250, 251

German

opens Prussian Assem-

Confederation,

bly, 129; leads reaction, 135-136;

sum-

scribed, 143-144; diet, elections to assembly,

mons Brandenburg,

1848,

155,

141,

144;

attitude

137;

after

toward Frankfurt

454

117; de144; influences 114,

148; dissolved, 176; reopens, 1850, 178; reintroduces press censorship, 178

INDEX German Democratic Society, Paris, 171 German Empire, hoped for, 142, 143; set up by Frankfurt Assembly, 154; army and navy, 156

German Legion of Paris, 171-173 German princes, 144, 146-147, 164, German Republic, 170, 171, 173 Germans,

in

11 On.; on Struve, 169; on Russia, 296; on Pius IX, 327 Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Prinz Kraft zu, 119, 126, 155 Holstein, 144

166, 278

Holy Roman Empire, Hotel de

Assembly, 255; revolution

327

Goethe, Wolfgang, 134, 140n. Goldmark, Dr. Joseph, 239 Gorgey, Arthur, Hungarian general, youth and character, 287-289; defies Kossuth, 292, 293, 294, 295; conquers Buda, 295; surrenders, 300-301, 302, 303 Gottingen professors, 152

Gregory XVI, Pope (1765-1846),

318, 322,

parade of National Guard to, 59; workers march 60; against, Luxembourg workers

against, 74 housing, France, projected, 69, 72; Berlin, 111, 132; Rome, 368 Huber, Aloysius, French rabble rouser, 81

Hiibner, Count Alexander, Austrian diplomat, 417; in Milanese uprising, 341342, 344

Hugo, Victor,

16, 49, 363; on war, 17; on work, 18, 412, 417; during banquet campaign, 24, 25, 26; dismissal, 31-32; in England, 406 Guyon, Richard, Hungarian general, 302,

on

293, 306

tions with

Germany, 111

Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume, Prime Minister under Louis Phillipe, 13, 15,

rela-

282 ; appeal to king, 284; relations with Austria, 270, 281 Hungarians, 6, 143, 193, 203, 221; relations with besieged Vienna, 246-247, 287; interest in politics, 261; rights of, 262-263; public spirit, 263-264, 290, 295 Jellac'ic',

Hungary, Kingdom

of, 4, 103, 193, 412; Kossuth's speech on, 210 described, 259 ; history, 260; constitution, 260; economic condition, 265; Diet of 1847, 267-270; separate administration, 270-271; Croa-

305

;

habeas corpus, suspended, 410 Hanover, Kingdom of, 152 Hauptmann, Gerhardt, German dramatist,

22, 38, 40, 55, 92;

Hungarian language, 264, 274 Hungarian Ministry, formed, 272;

philologist, 149, 461

guerrillas, 347, 351, 418

guilds,

8,

Blanqui, 62; on economic crisis, 65; on vote against workshops, 87 Humboldt, Alexander von, 38, 108, 149 Hungarian Declaration of Independence,

325

Grimm, Jacob,

pro-

visional government, 43-46;

expected by, 3-4; patriotism of, 6 Gioberti, Vincenzo, Italian philosopher, Girardin, Delphine de, French poet, 59 Girardin, Emile de, French newspaperman, 37, 37n.; for disarmament, 51; runs for Assembly, 76; supports Napoleon, 99; advises Napoleon, 101

115, 143, 193 Ville, 37; first session of

tian discontent, 274-278; invaded, 286;

llln.

Haynau, Julius Jacob, Austrian general, 299, 304, 333, 360, 396

208, 209,

214

Hecker, Friedrich, 147, 149, 168; appearance and character, 169; declares German Republic, 170, 172 Heidelberg, 147-148 Heine, Heinrich, German poet, 20, 35, 100, 145, 178, 375; on Louis Phillipe, 3 Friedrich Wilhelm Alexander, Held, rabble rouser, 131, 136, 137, 418; youth and appearance, 132; popularity, 133

Herwegh, Emma, 171-173, 312 Herwegh, Georg, German poet,

punishment, 304, 306, 307

Hye, Professor at Vienna, 201,

108, 145,

183, 312; German Legion, 171-173 Herzen, Alexander, Russian socialist, 413 ; as observer, 8; on June revolt, 94, 95-

96 ; on universal suffrage, 103 ; on Paris,

Illyrian Party, 276 income tax. See taxation. indemnity, to Austrian landlords, 235,

235n.; to

Hungarian landlords, 270-271,

306 industrialism, France, 13,

Empire,

17; Austrian

191, 194-195

Innsbruck, 223, 224, 252 intellectuals, relations with workers, 6; France, 17 5 21; German, 145, 147, 149, 179; Leipzig, 181; Vienna, 194, 196 internationalism, 6

Ireland, 4,

455

6,

199n., 306, 407-411

INDEX conscripts army, 289-290; character, 294, 391, 418; compared with Mazzini, 294; resigns, 300; flees to Turkey, 305;

Italians, patriotism of, 7, 322-323, 386-387; Austrian attitude toward, 203, 204n.;

Kossuth's attitude toward, 284; habits and attitudes, 311, 335; women, 311; universities, 313; democracy, 314; support Milan, 347-348 ; support Rome, 371 Italy, revolution expected, 3-4; divisions of, 311; conditions of, 319, 322-323; hatred of Austrians, 320, 344; independence, 360, 386-387

Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, German patriot, 108; in Assembly, 149, 158, 202 James, Henry, 375

Baron Joseph, 224, 274, 307; receives supplies from La tour, 237, 238; at siege of Vienna, 241, 244, 246-247,

Jellac'ic',

249; appearance and character, 279280; serves under Radetzky, 280; in Vienna, 281-282; meets Batthyanyi, 282; suspended, 282; fails to dissolve Diet, 282; prepares revolt, 283, 288; invades Hungary, 285 ; named governor of Hungary, 287 Jesuits, 200-201; control Austrian education,

218n.;

in

Piedmont,

314;

visits

England,

nance, 243-244, 253n. Kremsier, parliament convenes at, 253255, 256; parliament dissolved, 257 Kremsier constitution. See constitution.

Kudlich, Hans, 202, 204, 218n., 240, 245; in Assembly, 232-235; escapes, 257; on army, 334 labor arbitration, France-, under Caussidiere, 57; by Luxembourg Commission, 67-69; after June revolt, 97. Germany, in Berlin, 131-132. Austria: 217;

handled by students, 226. Italy. Milan, Mazzini tries, 348-349 La Lanterne du Quartier Latin, 29 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 14, 22, 37n., 312, 412, 413, 416; banquet, 11; History of the Oirondins, 11, 49; in campaign of banquets, 24, 27; in revolution, 29, 31, 39; supports republic, 40, 42; at first session of provisional government, 43-

in

46, 47; early life, 48; character, 49; as

Minister of Foreign Affairs, 48-51, 59; calls for extra troops, 60; talks with Blanqui, 63; on national guard, 72; quells April 16 revolt, 74-75; distrusted,

;

Joseph,

in

Kraus, Baron, Austrian Minister of Fi-

Rome, 369 Jews, in Frankfurt, 153; in Baden, 169; in Vienna 210n., 221 in Hungary, 269, 274, 289, 291, 300, 304; in Venice, 391 John, Archduke of Austria, chosen ImFrank-

perial Administrator, 154; in furt Assembly, 155, 157, 159

United States, 306;

406

77; in Assembly, 78-80; on executive

Holy Roman Emperor

commission, 79, 81, 89, 92; opposes Louis Napoleon, 83, 84; for universal suffrage, 99; runs for president, 102;

(1741-

1790), 218n., 233, 260 jury packing, 409-410

defeated, 102; refuses Napoleon's faon England, 406 Lamberg, Count, 286

Karolyi, Countess, 307 Katzenmusik, 137 Kiel, 157, 158

vors, 102;

Kinkel, Gottfried, art professor, 170, 179180, 406

Klapka, George, Hungarian general, 302 Kolowrat, Count Francis, Austrian Minister of the Interior, 191, 276

Komorn, 301-302 Kossuth, Louis, 199n., 312, 412, 417 speech on Hungary, 210 ; comes to Vienna, 218 ; at siege of Vienna, 248, 287; youth, ;

261, 266; elected to Diet, 267; speech of March 3, 268; views on minorities, 269; on taxation, 270; frees peasants,

Lamennais, Abbe", 96, 267 Lamoriciere, General, 94 languages, in Hungary, 264, 274, 277, 307; in Croatia, 275, 276 ; in Hungarian Diet, 277; Irish, 408

La

Presse, 37, 37n., 99

L'Atelier, Paris workers' paper, 418

21, 78,

Latour, Count, Austrian Minister of War, 236; sends supplies to Jellac'ic', 237, 246, 283, 285;

ments to

murder

271; made Finance Minister, 272; attitude toward Croats, 277, 283; atti-

L'Avant-Garde,

tude toward Italy, 284, 334; made chairman of Committee of Defense, 286; relations with Gorgey, 288, 292-296;

Le

29,

of,

238-240; reinforce-

Italy, 353

Paris

students'

paper,

33

Chiffonier, 54

Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste, French

456

republican, views, 17, 47; banquet

cam-

INDEX in

forming provisionpaign, 24, 25; part al government, 39-42; as Minister of the Interior, 44, 52-54, 62; encourages Taschereau, 63; calls out national guard, 74; on executive commission, opposes Napoleon, 84; in June Days, 90; opposes Roman expedition, 371, 377; in England, 406 Leiningen, Count Charles, 271, 303 181-185 Leipzig, 150, 199, 200; uprising, Lemaitre, Frde"ric, French actor, 54 Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, 175, 177, 79;

178 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 374, 375 Le Voleur, 37n. Lichnowsky, Prince, 122, 153; murdered, 159-160 Liguorian monks, 218, 2l8n.

Locomotive, 133

Lombardy,

4,

204n.,

337; relations with Piedmont, 346, 351, 352, 356; relations with Austrian cabinet, 353; relations with Ventions,"

ice, 391-392 Lorrach, 173

Archduke of Austria,

214, 215, 216

Louis Napoleon, Prince, (Bonaparte) 20, on land tax, 46, 48, 324, 405, 415, 416; *

66; runs for Constitutional Assembly, 76, 83; declines to sit, 84, 97; ideas, 84; elected to Assembly, 98; runs for presito dent, 99-101; elected, 102; compared Frederick "William IV, 108; sends exforce to Rome, 361, 371,

peditionary 375 379; sends Lesseps to Rome, 374, Louis Phillipe, King of the French, 11; youth, 12; regime, 13, 22; opposition to, from 15, 24; love of peace, 16-17; speech 27throne, 25, 39; part in revolution, sum30, 36; dismisses Guizot, 31-32; mons Thiers, 34; abdication, 37-38 180-181 I, King of Bavaria,

Ludwig Luxembourg Commission,

67-69

;

organizes

sends out April 16 demonstration, 74;

Lamartine on, 79; endorses Louis Napoleon, 84; joins with national workshops, 86, 88; president punished, 96 Lyons, 52 electioneers, 75, 76, 77;

343, 347;

Manifesto to Europe, 50 Manin, Daniel, 312, 313; petition on cholera, 381; at scientific congress, 382-383; for reforms, 384; in prison,

petitions 385 ; released, 386

demands civic guard, ; 387; urges republic, 389; takes power, 390; social reforms, 391; resigns and is recalled, 392; relations with France, 392; in siege of Venice, 393, 397, 399; surrenders, 400; flees to Paris, 401; character, 418 Manin, Signora Theresa, 385, 401 Mannheim, 176 Manzoni, Alessandro, 319

Maria

Theresa,

Empress

of

Austria

(1717-1780), 233

311; Austrian ad-

ministration of, 193, 207, 224, 232, 319, 331; in war, 252; after 1849, 298, 360; expulsion of Austrians hoped for, 314; description of, 335-336; "congrega-

Louis,

Malghera, Fort, 395, 396

Malmo, armistice of, 158-159 Manara, Lucius, in Lombardy, in Rome, 371, 374, 377

Marie, Alexandre Thomas, French Minister of Public Works, 42, 70; talks to Thomas, 72; on executive commission, 79; interviewed by Pujol, 88 Marie Amelie, Queen of the French, 12, 38, 39

Marinovich, Colonel, murdered, 388 Marrast, Armand, 27, 28, 40; included in as mayor provisional government, 44; of Paris, 59; on May 15, 82 Marseilles, national workshops, 71 martial law, Paris, 96; Berlin, 139; Vienna, 250 Martin, Albert. See Albert (surname Martin). Marx, Karl, 6; Communist Manifesto, 14, 22, 97, 115, 419; Communist League, 61; on provisional government, 67, 74; on national workshops, 72; on uni-

versal suffrage, 102; 113, 156;

Zeitung,

Neue Rnemische friendship

with

on Stephan Born, 131; on war, 155; Schleswig-Holstein war, 158, 179, 197; on Vienna, 250; on Slavs, 278; comin Engpared with Mazzini, 366-367; land, 406; on nationalism and class struggle, 416 massacre, at Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 32-33, 39

Mathy, Carl, 168

Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 192 Mazzini, Joseph, 7, 200, 412, 415; compared with Kossuth, 294; youth, 311, 315, 316; attitude toward women, 312;

417 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, destruction of, 35. France: machinery, Vienna: 197; destruction of, 216-217

457

317, reputation, 314; on working class, 366, 413; popularity, 318, 320, 382; aims for Italy, 323, 366; relations with

INDEX Charles Albert, 324, 349, 352, 354, 370; relations with Pius IX, 326; arrives in Milan, 348-349, 355; relations with Garibaldi, 348-351; fights with Cat-

military service, France, 156; Austria, 216

ligion, 370; relations

with France, 372-

tional

Messenhauser, commander of Viennese National Guard, 241; defends Vienna, 247-248; execution, 249-250 Metternich, Prince Clemens, 3, 112, 244; views on secret societies, 21; views on crisis, 50, 114, 413; views on universal military training, 156n. ; class conscious-

with

Ferdinand, 189; character and views, 191, 192; on 181;

ness,

relations

censorship, 199, 202, 276, 417; dismissal demanded, 211; quits, 215-216; and Schwartzenberg, 251; relations with Charles Albert, 320, 325; views on Italy,

Mole", Count L. M., 31, 32 monarchists, France, 24 Monceaux, Pavilion, 70, 86

Moniteur 35 Montagnards, 57, 58, 82 Montalembert, Vicomte de Charles Forbes 9

Renee, 87 Montez, Lola, 180-181, 313 municipal guards, 36 murders, Lichnowsky and Auerswald, 159; Latour, 238-240; Lamberg, 286; Rossi, 364; Marinovich, 388 311; fighting, 339, 385; withdraws from war, 352, 394; Pope * flees to, 365 40 32, National, 27, national guard, France: 25, 27, 28; or-

Naples, 251,

Second Republic, 59; marches on H6tel de Ville, 59-60; election of officers, 60; Barbes, colonel of, 62; uniforms, 69;

Ger-

national workshop members join, 72; supports provisional government on April 16, 74; defends Assembly, 77, 81-82; stays mobilized, 86, 89; in June battle, 90. Austria: in March insurrec-

108-109, 146; needs of, 110-113; position in Prussia, 110; attitude toward revolution, 126; after close of

many:

revolution, 406, 412

140.

Italy:

357.

England:

Mieroslawski, General, 175, 176 Milan, 252, 271; d'Azeglio in, 319; street life, 329, 335, 337, 338; tobacco riots, 207, 308, 338, 385; in March, 1848, 339; uprising, March 13, 339-345; Italians flock to, 347-349; falls to Radetzky, 354-356; after 1849, 360 militarism, France: 13, 17; under Second Republic, 50; relation to social progress, 50n. German: 224n. military frontier of Austrian 280-281

of, 4, 251,

constitution,

of, 30; demoralized, 31; insurrection, 34, 37, 39 ; expanded under

The People, 21 class, 4, 415; France-. 12, 15.

Kingdom

373-374;

ganization

322, 326, 331, 337, 341; in England, 406 Michelet, Jules, French historian, 16-17;

middle

civic guard.

en assembly, 130; in October, 137. Frankfurt: murder Lichnowsky and Auerswald, 159. Vienna: 210-211; run wild, 216; murder Latour, 238-240. Rome: 327-328, 364, 365

McCormick, Widow, 410 medical school, Vienna, 202, 214, 226 medical service, of national workshops,

400

guard; Italy, see

Mitchel, John, Irish newspaperman, 409, 410 mobs, Paris: burst in on provisional government, 43-45. Berlin: 116, 121; threat-

374-375, 379; on Chartists, 405406; in England, 406; on Ireland, 408

Menard, Louis, 96

Germany:

to

fails

373,

73; insurance, 93; in siege of Rattstat, 177; by Viennese students, 202, 214, 226; quarantine, 280, 381; in Hungarian army, 289; in Piedmontese army, 354; Rome, 374, 375-376; Venice, 397, 399-

Germany,

116, 116n., 124, 125; protect assembly, 138; disbanded, 139; Leipzig, 182-184. France, see national guard; Austria, see na-

Militia,

taneo, 349, 349n.; arrives in Rome, 361, 367; elected to Roman Assembly, 366;

compared with Marx, 366-367; compared with Frederick William, 367; heads Republic, 367-380; character and views, 368, 377, 380, 391, 418; on re-

15;

tion, 212, 212n., 214, 217; in rising, 225; cooperate in city

May

ment, 228-230; in October 237-238, 242, 248 (see also

uprising,

upgovern-

Academic

Legion). Hungary: organized, 269-270; part in war, 285, 289. Italy, see civic guard. Germany, see militia. nationalism,

Empire.

203, 206;

ian

458

5,

416; idealization of, 6-7;

France: 17. Germany: 115, 142, 157. Austrian Empire: 189; German in, 202in,

Hungarian

203;

in, 203,

Slavic, 203;

259; Ital-

among

stu-

INDEX dents,

221-222;

Schuselka

274;

on,

compared with Germany, 278; used by Hapsburgs, 279. Italy 331, 349n. Maz:

;

views on, 366, 367. Ireland: 408 nationality, 411; of Poles, protected by France, 50; of Italians, protected by France, 50; repression of, in Austria, 255 national workshops, 69-74, 84; social serv-

Margaret Fuller, on Mazzini, 368; Rome, 375-376 Oudinot, General Charles (Duke of RegOssoli,

at siege of

gio), 373

zini's

distribute election lists, ice, 73; hated, 77; dissolution planned,

75;

85; joined with Luxembourg workers, 86; debate on, in Assembly, 88; members protest dissolution, 88; compared to Vienna, 228-229 nations, compared, 296n. navigation, on Danube, 265, 286; on Po, 322; in Venice, 381 navy, French, Second Republic, 51-52;

pacifism, Louis Phillipe, 17; in 156, 224n.

Palacky, Francis, Czech historian, 232 Palatinate, Bavarian, 174, 176 Palffy, Count, governor of Venice, 383, 386, 387, 389-390

Palmerston, Lord Henry John Temple, 38; offers help to Lamartine, 51; opinion on Germany, 156; opinion on Hungary, 296, 306, 407; opinion on Italy, 204n.

pan-Germanism, divisions of sovereignty, confederation, 143-144; after 166; conflict with Slavs, 232; Radetzky's views on, 331. See also uni-

33; La Lanterne du Quartier Latin, 29; Moniteur, 35; La Presse, 37, 37n., 99; Le Voleur, 37n.; Rtforme, 28, 40, 41; Napoleonic papers, 83; Rheinische Zeitung, 113; Locomotive, 133; Neue Rheinische Zeilung, 156, 174; Grenzboten, 199; Allgemeine Zeitung, 199; in Vienna, 222; Gazette, 222; Student Courier, 223n.; Kossuth's work, 266-

267; in Agram, 276; London Times, 312; Cavour's, 329; Belgiojoso's, 348 Nicholas I, Czar of Russia, 50, 156n., 296; character, 297; intervenes in Hungary,

in

143;

1848,

German, commissioned by Frankfurt Assembly, 156; Venetian, 388, 390, 395; Austrian, blockades Venice, 393 Nazari, Giambattista, 337, 384 Nemours, Duke of, 38 Neue Rheinische Zeitung, 156, 174 newspapers, L' Atelier, 21, 78, 418; National, 27, 32, 40; L' A v ant-Garde, 29,

Germany,

fication.

pan-Slavism, 274-277, 297

Papal States, 311; under Pius, 327, 328, 362-365

Parade of the dead, Paris, 33; Berlin, 122

under Second Republic, Feast of Concord, 83; 95 Herzen on, llOn.

Paris, 3, 18, 26; 46,

54, 56, 65;

June

revolt,

;

Commune

of 1871, 63, 89 Paris, Count of, 37, 38, 40 Parliament, British, 408, 410, 417

Paris

Frankfurt. See Frankfurt Assembly. peasants, France: antagonism against revolution, 66; support government in June revolt, 90 ; support Napoleon, 100. Parliament,

Germany:

109, 110,

113,

135, 234;

in

Prussian Assembly, 128; burn castles, 169, 169n., 170; in Dresden revolution, 184. Austrian Empire: 194, 279; in

298-299, 304; attitude toward Frederick

William, 297

Constitutional Assembly, 231; emancipation of, 232-235; fail to support Vienna revolution, 245; in Hungary, 263, 306; defend Pest, 285. Italy: 332; under Roman Republic, 368. Irish: 407-

nobility, Prussian*. 108, 110, 113, 135, 146. Austrian: 194, 218. Hungarian: 259,

285; taxation, 262, 262n., 265, 270, 271, 272, 285. Italian: solidarity with lower class, 339

408

Normanby, Lord, British Ambassador, 26, 28; on Assembly, 78 Novara, 358, 360, 370

O'Brien, Smith, Irish agitator, 409, 411 O'Connell, Daniel, Irish agitator, 408 Olmiitz, 253 19

Organization of Work, Orleans, Duchess of, 37, 38, 40 Orleans, Duke of, 37, 38

Pellico, Silvio, Italian poet, 336

People's Charter, 412

Pepe, General Guglielmo, 394 Persigny, Fialin de, friend of Louis

Na-

poleon, 98, 99 Pest, 199n., 219; Casino, 264; revolution

269; defended against Jelac'ic', 285; captured, 291; bombarded, 295 Petarwardein, 301 in,

459

INDEX petitions, Prussia: 113, 117. Vienna: business, 206; student, 206, 208; "storm petition," 223; right of, 258. Lombardy:

Baden, 1831, 168; censorship after 1850, 178. Austria: before 1848, 198-200; free-

dom demanded, 210; declared, 217, 222; under Austrian Constitution, 258. Hungary freedom voted by Diet, 270. Italy freedom of under Roman Republic, 369. See also newspapers.

Nazari's, 337. Venice: Manin's, 381, 384. England: Chartists', 405. Ireland,

:

408 Pfuehl, Ernst von, governor of 116, 130, 136

Piedmont, Kingdom

of,

311,

ditions in, 314, 318, 320;

Berlin,

365;

con-

Mazzini ex-

pelled, 315; censorship, 322, 325; constitution granted, 328-330; relations

with Lombardy, 352, 356 ; refugees, 355 Assembly, 357, 360; under Victor Emmanuel, 359, 360; relations with Roman Republic, 370 Pius IX, Pope, 102, 207n.; rule before ;

1848, 325-328; character, 327; public opinion of, 343, 371; blesses troops, 347; recalls troops, 352; compared with Charles Albert, 362; refuses to wage war, 362; appoints Rossi, 363; flees to Gaeta, 364, 365; relations with France, 370; returns to Rome, 379 Pola, 388, 390

Poland, 154n., 175-176, 209; symbol of oppression, 4, 16, 50, 80, 82, 201; Prussian administration, 232 Poles, in Prussian Assembly, 128; German attitude toward, 143; Austrian attitude toward, 204n., 221 ; as prisoners in Hungarian war, 299 police, France: Paris, 29; Caussidiere takes over, 41-42, 56-59; Montagnards, 57, 58, 82; secret, 58; Garde Mobile, 59; in June revolt, 93. Germany: Berlin, 111, 112. Russia: secret, 297. Austria:

314; Vienna, 202; secret, 196, 200-201, 206; abolished, 228; after 1848, 250 Polk, James K., 51 post office, Paris, 41 postal reform, 41n. Potsdam, King flees to, 123

poverty, in France, 13, 17; in Germany, 111, llln.; in Austria, 197-198; in Ireland, 407-408

Prague, 199n., 203, 219, 224, 271 Preliminary Parliament, 148. See also Frankfurt-on-Main. press, France: under Louis Phillipe, 13, 15; under Second Republic, 55; after June revolt, 96-97. Germany: under

Frederick William IV, 109, 114; free-

dom

of demanded, 116, 117; in March, freedom abolished, 139; unGerman confederation, 144-145;

1848, 125;

der

under

Frankfurt

Constitution,

:

Pressburg, 262, 268-269 price control, France, under Second Republic, 56; Rome, 370; Venice, 397 Prince of Prussia. See William. prisoners, political, released under Second Republic, 57 prisons, France, under Second Republic, 57, 68, 69; Roman Republic, 369 Prittwitz, General von, 118, 119, 121 prostitution, control of, France, 53, 56;

Germany, 112 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, French socialist, 20, 54, 98, 280; analyzes Louis Blanc, 60; on Ledru-Rollin, 75; in Assembly, 78 ; vote against workshops, 87 ; helps families of insurgents, 96, 97; on universal suffrage, 102, 156n.

government, France: 38; provisional voted, 40, 42 ; first session, 43 ; membership, 47-55; finances, 66; establishes national workshops, 69; voted out of office, 79 ; attempt to replace by Barbes, 82.

Germany: established by Frankfurt

Assembly,

Lombardy,

154; Dresden, 351, 352

184.

Italy:

4, 298; government, 107-108; provinces, 110, 114, 140; non-German subjects, 143, 232; position in Germany, 147, 163-167; ignores Archduke John, 155 ; war with Denmark, 157-158 ; and Baden revolutionaries, 175, 177180; helps King of Saxony, 182-184 public works, Berlin, 125; Vienna, 228-

Prussia,

235, 252, 353; Rome, 365, 369; France, see national workshops. Pujol, Louis, French mob leader, 88-89 Pulszky, Baroness Trezsi, 263 Pulsky, Baron Francis, 246, 247; goes to England, 296 230,

Pyat, Felix, French playwright, 54 racial

divisions, Austrian Empire: 193, 278, 279; in Constitutional Assembly, 231-232, 246. Hungary: 269, 306

Radetzky, Count Josef, Austrian Field Marshal, 223, 224, 232n., 280, 416; supplied by Latour, 237; defending northern Italy, 252; helps JeHadiS, 283, dis-

161;

460

cipline of army, 290, 333-335; prepares for war, 328, 337; views, 331, 332;

INDEX youth, 332-333; provokes trouble, 338; in siege of Milan, 340-344; in retreat, 347, 352; reconquers Lombardy, 352356, 392; treats with Piedmont, 357; meets Victor Emmanuel, 358-359; punishment of Italy, 360; besieges Venice, 396, 398-399; enters Venice, 400

Radowitz, Joseph Maria von, Prussian Statesman, 84, 108, 144, 158; early life, 151; elected to Frankfurt Assem151-152; work in Frankfurt Assembly, 153-154; on Archduke John, 154; on war, 155; on German union, 163; on Viennese revolu-

bly,

tion,

views,

151;

218

France: 13, 15, 23, 40; tracks destroyed, 35; in June revolt, 90. Prussia: 113, 114. Germany: 146; track de-

railroads,

stroyed, 184. Austrian Empire: under Francis, 191; under Ferdinand, 197; in revolution, 217; Vienna-Gloggnitz, 217, 225; tracks destroyed, 237. Italy: 322, 365; Venice, 381 Rainier, Archduke, viceroy of Lombardy and Venetia, 387 Rastatt, fortress, 174, 176-178 reaction, Germany, 178-179; Austria, 250

Reading Club,

196, 224, 412

France, refused by provisional government, 45-46 Reform Bill, 15, 405 Re forme, 28 meeting to choose provisional government, 40, 41, 43 refugees, Hungarian, 305-306 Republic, German. See German Republic. Republic, Second (France), declared, 45 Republic, Third, 412 red

flag,

constitution, 97. Germany: 162. Austria: 227. Italy: Mazzini, on, 368 robot, 234. See also feudal dues.

Roman Roman

Assembly, elected, 365; meets, 367; treats with French, 374-377 Roman Republic, declared, 367; Mazzini heads, 367; social reforms, 368-370; defends Rome, 372, 373-374; popularity of, 373,

views, 315, 366. Venice: 387-388, 392 republican parties, 24, 44, 361; France: in provisional government, 47-48; in elections for Assembly, 76; in Assembly, 78. Germany: 147, 148, 168, 170, 173. Italy: before 1848, 318, 323; Milan, 345, 346, 352, 355; Mazzini and Cat-

taneo,

Rome,

348, 349; Piedmont, 365, 373; Venice, 392

356-357;

Rheinische Zeitung, 113 Rhineland, 113, 174, 416 "right to work," 20; France: demanded and promised, 45; promise betrayed, 47-48; established in Lyons, 52; national

workshops established, 69;

in

374

Rome, 326; d'Azeglio in, 318-319; amnesty, papal, 326; news of Milan battle, 347; French expeditionary force, 361; reaction to Pope, 362-365; Easter celebration, 370; siege of, 372-380; hospitals, during siege, 375-376 Rossi, Count Pellegrino, prime minister

of Papal States, 363; murdered, 364 Rothschild, House of, 50, 114; France, averts panic, 66-67; Vienna, 216, 220, 244, 337 Ruge, Arnold, German writer, 156 Rush, Richard, American minister to Paris, 7, 13, 17, 51, 65 Russell, Lord John, British prime minister, 405 Russia, 109; reaction to Schleswig-Holstein war, 158; Sophia appeals to, 219; Latour in touch with, 237; military aid

to

292; condition of, 296; 296; secret police, 296; 297-298; treats with Gorgey,

Austria,

Herzen policy, 300, 303

;

Republic of Venice, 389; assembly, 391, 392, 393 republicanism, France: 23, 44; in connection with militarism, 50; in Assembly, 78. Austria: 223n. Italy: Mazzinfs

expedition, 101

on,

Sainte-Beuve, French St.

63

critic,

Mark's square, 382, 386, 387, 388, 398

Paul's Church, Frankfurt, 153, 154, 159 St. Peter's Cathedral, 370

St.

Saint-Simon, Comte de, French

socialist,

18 St.

Stephen's

Cathedral,

Vienna,

221,

238, 243, 248, 249

Sand, George, 21, 74, 313; on Lamartine, 49; edits Bulletins of the Republic, 53; on working classes, 53; friend of Barbes, 62; proposed for Constitutional Assembly, 76; meets Tocqueville, 86 Sandor, Rosza, Hungarian general, 201 San Marino, Republic of, 379 Savoy, Province of, 16, 324, 416 Saxony, Kingdom of, 181-185 Schleswig, 154n., 416

Schleswig-Holstein, 172 Schutte, Dr. Anton,

461

war

over,

German

157-158,

agitator, 224

INDEX Schurz,

Carl,

113,

115n.,

consciousness, 146, Kinkel, 179-180

138;

174,

on

178;

class

frees

state of siege. See martial law. steamboats, on Danube, 265-266, 286 Stein,

Schuselka, Franz, Austrian pamphleteer, 200; on Austrian Empire, 204n., 221; in Constitutional Assembly, 241; on nationalism, 274 Schwarzenberg, Prince Felix zu, 7, 161; youth and character, 251; arrives at Vienna, 252; becomes prime minister, 253; abolishes Assembly, 254, 256-257; policies, 255; promulgates constitution,

257-258; policy toward Hungary, 291, 304, 306, 307, 407; appeals to Russia, 298-299; helps Radetzky, 353; policy

toward Italy, 359, 360, 393 science, democratic spirit of, 52, 156-157, 202; in Italy, 323 Second Democratic Congress, Berlin, 137 Second Republic, declared, 45 secret societies, France: 21-23, 28; Delahodde's spying on, 58. Italy: 314, 316; Young Italy, 316

Senard, Antoine Marie Jules, president of French Assembly, 79, 92, 93 Senior, Nassau, English writer, 277 Serbs, 222 Sidoli, Giuditta, 312, 313, 316, 367

Stein, Lorenz von, German historian, 109 Stephen, Archduke, Palantine of Hungary, 268, 271; resigns, 286 Stern, Daniel (Countess d'Agoult), 36

178;

Parliament, 148; character and appearance, 169; declares German Republic,

71,

second

German

73.

Germany:

Berlin,

3,

115-116,

Bonn, Carl Schurz on, 115n., 138; Wartburg Festival, 145; Munich, 180-181. Austrian Empire: Vienna, 194, 201-202; academic legion, 160; and working classes, 202, 208, 217, 220, 221, 223, 226-227, 229, 230; petition, 206; meeting, 207; march to Estates, 209, 212; demand arms, 213, 214; receive arms, 215; restrain workers, 215; attack monks, 218; in revolution, 220; internationalism, 221; demands of, 222, 223; maligned, 236; incite against Latour, 237, 238; in siege of Vienna, 248, 249; punished, 250. Hungary: Pest, in

;

253n.; ordered to dissolve parliament, 256, 257

declares

119, 124;

23 connection with national workshops,

Society of Friends, 407 Society of the Season, 22, 28, 41, 58 Sophia, Archduchess of Austria, 192, 193, 273; bitterness toward revolution, 219, 224; and Jellac'ic', 274, 281, 283; appeals to Czar, 298 Stadion, Count, Austrian administrator, 222n., 231; in Schwarzenberg's cabinet,

170;

Republic, 173; imprisoned, 174; freed, 175; views, 176 Student Courier, 223n. students, France: organized for fight, 29, 33; officers of national workshops, 70,

in Hungary, 262, 274 Sobrier, Marie-Joseph, 32, 81, 82 socialism, 5; France: before 1848, 18-21,

415

American

sculptor, 373, 375 Strauss, David Friedrich, writer, 135 Struve, Amalie von, 169, 174 Struve, Gustav von, 147; at Preliminary

143, 163; in Austrian Empire, 240n.; in Constitutional Assembly, 246;

social reforms,

7,

and Schwartzenberg, 393 William Wetmore,

Slavs,

social security, France, 13, 17 social service, of national workshops, 73

American

in Vienna,

Story,

241,

'72; Louis Napoleon's leanings, 84. Germany : first rumors of, 109 ; feared, 126. Italy: Mazzini's views on, 366

H.,

Charge" 115; on Austria, 192, 197, 236; and Kossuth, 296; d' Affaires

Mannheim, 176; Vienna,

William

Stiles,

Rattstat, 176287; Buda, 295; Komorn, 301, 302; Milan, 342-344; Rome, 372-380; Venice, 391-400 Sigel, General, German Republican, 177 Silesia, llln., 128 slavery, abolished in French colonies, 52 sieges,

Baron vom, Prussian statesman,

113, 140n.

revolution,

285,

296.

Italy:

Milanese

uprising, 341, 343 Suez Canal, 322, 374 Sultan of Turkey, 296, 305-306

Switzerland, 144, 394-395 Sz^chenyi, Count Stephan, character and views, 264-266; in Diet of 1847, 267; made Minister of Public Works, 273 Szegedin, 299

Austrian Empire, 195; between Austria and Hungary, 273; in Italy, 322

tariff, in

German, 145-146 Taschereau, French scandal monger, tariff union,

462

81

63,

INDEX taxation, France: 53,

Prussia: 113; income tax demanded, 132; non-payment of taxes voted by assembly, 138, 415; taxes paid, 139. 173.

unemployment, France, under Louis Phillip, 18; under provisional govern-

260-261, 270, 271, 272-273; exemption of nobles, 262, 265, 335. Croatia: 275.

unification,

66.

171; national workshops, 69, 111, 136; Vienna, 227228; Venice, 384

ment,

Germany. Austrian Empire: taxation of Hungary,

85;

Tipperary, 410 Tkalac, Dr. E,

I. von, Croatian writer, 262-263, 264; his education, 275-276

tobacco

scientist,

14,

32,

warns of revolution, 1344; on Lamartine, 49; on 90;

Blanqui, 61 in Assembly, 78 ; on George Sand, 86; on Louis Napoleon, 101; under Napoleon, 102 ;

Toffoli,

Angelo,

Venetian

385;

tailor,

compared with Albert, 390 Tommaseo, Niccol6, Venetian poet, 392

Trevelyan, George Macaulay, 412 tricolor, French, standard of Second Republic, 46; German, black, red, gold,

nature of problem of, 142Radowitz on, 152; debate in Frankfurt Assembly, 162-166; Russian attitude toward, 297-298. Austria: idea

295; Radetzky on, hoped for, 315, 320; Cattaneo demands, 343; demanded by Romans, 365; Mazzini's views on, 366; 331. Italy: 5, 412;

Manin's faith

in, 389. See also panGermanism. United States, 8, 414, 415n.; recognizes Second Republic, 51; opposes German

war, 156; sympathy for Hungary, 296, 306; Kossuth visits, 306; Gari-

305,

379; immigrants: 406; Hecker, 170; Brentano, 176; Schurz, 180; Montez, 180-181; Kudlich, 235; Goldmark, 239; Komorn soldiers, 302 universal military service, 156n.; in Vienna, 242 in Hungary, 289 universal suffrage. See election law. baldi,

;

179, 418; Munich: 180-181. 201-202; professors support revolt, 207-208; in revolution, 208, 214215; new courses given, 225; closed, 226; reopened, 250. Italy: 313. See also students and intellectuals.

universities,

Aus-

Unruh, Hans Viktor von, president of Prussian Constitutional Assembly, 127, 128, 137, 138, 140

uprisings, Paris : February 22, 27 ; February 23, 30; February 24, 34-42; March 16, National Guard, 59; March workers led by Blanqui, 62; April

gold,

Tuileries, 28, 30, 31, 37;

17, 16,

workers, 74; May 15, Barbes' workers, 80; June, 1848, 89-95; June, 1849, 371, 406, 415. Berlin: May 133; attack on arsenal, June 14, 134.

Luxembourg

invaded by mob,

39

Frankfurt: after Malmo, 158-161. Baden: February, 1848, 168; September, 1848, 173; April, 1849, 174. Saxony: April, 1849, 182-184. Vienna: March 13,

Turin, 313, 330, 359; d'Azeglio in, 319; d'Azeglio on, 325; news from Milan, 346; refugees, 355 Turkey, border fighting, 247; conditions of border, 275, 280; Sultan of, 296,

208-217, 234; May, 225; October, 224n., 238-240. Milan: March 18, 339-345

305-306; receives Hungarian refugees, 305-306

Tuscany, 322 twelfth arrondissement, 25, 26 28, 31

139;

of, 204n., 255, 257,

256; Illyrian, red, white, blue, 276 ; Italian, red, white, green, 340, 342, 350, 385, 386, 387 Trieste, 155, 386, 389, 390 red,

257,

Vienna:

50; German settlement, 143, 279; Italian settlement, 331, 381

122, 123, 126, 135, 144, 172, 221;

114-115,

144, 147;

Transylvania, 202, 249n., 291-292, 300 Treaty of 1815, 4; renounced by France,

trian, white,

5,

122, 123, 126, 135, 144, 172, 221; hopes for,

riots, in

Milan, 207, 308, 338, 385 Tocqueville, Alexis de, French political

Germany:

412; Frederick William's plans for, 115, 117, 360; black, red, gold colors of,

Italy: Lombardy, 351; Piedmont, 356 telegraph, 363; semaphore, 13, 92; electric, 164

Temesvar, 299, 304 Thiers, Louis Adolphe, French statesman, 23, 34, 37, 63, 89, 412; supports Napoleon, 99-100 Thomas, Emile, organizes national workshops, 70-74; helps with elections, 75; endorses Napoleon, 84; dismissed and sent to Bordeaux, 85 Times, London, 312, 329

65,

Germany,

Venetia, 232, 311, 331, 343, 352; reconquered, 353

463

INDEX Austrian administration of, Venice, 336, 381-385; importance, 353; republic declared, 390; relations with Lombardy, 391-392; besieged, 391-400; hospitals in, 397, 399-400; after 1849, 401 Victor Emmanuel, King of Piedmont, 330, 349, 379, 401; at Custozza, 354; becomes king, 358; compared with Charles Albert, 359

women, France: rights advocated, 56; club, 61; in Luxembourg Commission, 68 ; in June revolt, 95. Germany equality demanded, 132; Democratic Wo:

man's Club, 133. Austria: 244; Croat, 249, 280, 281. Hungary*, in army, 289. Italy: 312-313, 375

324,

Victoria, Queen, 51, 54, 407 Vienna, 4, 268, 334, 417; atmosphere, 194, 2125 334; poverty, 197; Blum in,

German feeling of, 203; March uprising, 225; tensions, 235; after siege of, 241, 248-249, 285; after 1848, 250 Vienna-Gloggnitz railroad, 217, 225 160;

ViMgos, 301 Vincke, Georg von, Rhenish

Workers' Congress, Berlin, 132 workers* education. See education. working classes, moral problem of, 4-6, 7, 413, 417; TocqueviUe on, 14; England, Nantes, 17n.; 17, 407; France: 17; idealization of, 21; Paris, see working

trolled ert

by

Blum5

Frederick

protects, 108-109; confederation, 144; led by Rob150; Radowitz on, 152; at-

toward

titude

industrialist,

Germany:

IV

William

Frankfurt

Assembly,

162; and military service, 156n.; Frankfurt uprising, 158-160; Berlin, see working classes, Berlin. Austria,

121

153,

"Viva San Marco," 387, 388, 389 Vogt, Karl, German biologist, on disarmament, 156, 416; on brutality, 413

Wagner, Richard, 181-185, 294 wall placards, Paris, 55, 56, 75, 76, 77; Napoleonic, 83; Berlin, 136; Vienna, 241, 248 war, Karl

Marx

on, 155;

see working classes, Vienna. Italy: 311, 323; Mazzini on 317; Milan, 338, 339, 349; under Roman Republic, 368, 373; Manin and, 387, 391, 393; at Venice

arsenal, 388 classes, Berlin, conditions of, 111; protest, 118; organization, 118, 181-132; March, 1848, 119; fear of, 125; left powerless, 139

working

attitudes to-

ward

in Frankfurt Assembly, 155-156; Schleswig-Holstein, 157-158 ; Prussia declares, 175; Austro-Italian, recruit-

working

ing for, 229; supported by Germans, 232, 232n.; Schwarzenberg in, 251, 252; Austro-Hungarian, 290-307; Mazzmi's wish for, 324; Piedmontese-Austrian, 353-355, 357-358; Pius withdraws from, 362 warehouses, public, 67

Warrens, Edward, American newspaperman, 222n. Warsaw, 298

Weimar

Republic, 130 Wellington, Duke of, 405 Whigs, 409-411 William, Prince of Prussia, 121, 178; in Prussian Assembly, 128; in England, 133, 134, 406; after 1848, 141 furt Assembly, 166

;

on Frank-

Windischgratz, Prince Alfred von, Ausmachinations trian Field Marshal, against revolution, 219, 223, 224, 236; at siege of Vienna, 241, 242, 244, 245, 247, 249, 255, 287; views, 253, 254; relations with Gdrgey, 287; Hungarian campaign, 290-291, 292, 295

woman

Paris.

classes,

suffrage, 61

35,

classes, Paris, 20-21, 25, 28, 32, demand right to work, 45;

37;

on, 53; march on Hdtel de Ville, 60; Luxembourg Commission formed, 67-69 ; attitude toward national workshops, 72-73; elections in Assem-

George Sand

bly, 76-77;

May

uprising, 80; left lead-

June battle, 86-95; punishment of June insurgents, 96; Napoleon erless, 83;

appeals

to,

100

Vienna, 194, 197-198; students and, 202, 208, 217, 220, 221, 223, 226-227, 229, 230; part in uprising, 212, 213, 215; destroy machinery, 216217; in May uprising, 225; discontented, 235; provoked, 236; in October uprising, 238, 244, 248 workshops. See national workshops. Wrangel, Count von, military governor of Berlin, 136, 138, 139

working

Young Young

464

Ireland, 408, 409, 410 Italy, 316, 318

Count Ferdinand, ernor of Venice, 389

Zichy,

.

classes,

military

gov-