Religion Past and Present. Encyclopedia of Theology and Religion, Volume 1 (A-Bhu)

Religion Past & Present

VOLUME A − Bhu

I

Religion Past & Present Encyclopedia of Theology and Religion

EDITED BY

Hans Dieter Betz Don S. Browning Bernd Janowski Eberhard Jüngel

VOLUME A − Bhu

I

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007

© Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Bill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Bill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishres, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.

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Originally published in German as Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Handwörterbuch für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft. Vierte, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage. Herausgegeben von Hans Dieter Betz, Don S. Browning, Bernd Janowski und Eberhard Jüngel. Copyright © Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany. 1998–2005.

Despite our efforts we have not been able to trace all rights holders to some copyrighted material. The publisher welcomes communications from copyright holders, so that the appropriate acknowledgements can be made in future editions, and to settle other permission matters.

ISBN 10 (volume) 9004 13980 X ISBN 13 (volume) 978 90 04 13980 0 ISBN 10 (set) 9004 14666 0 ISBN 13 (set) 978 90 04 14666 2

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Preface to the Fourth Edition As the fourth edition is published, the RGG has almost reached the century mark in its history. Both in their entirety and as individual articles, the four editions together reflect the 19th and 20th centuries in a way unmatched by virtually any other document in the history of religious and theological scholarship. Alongside the evident differences between the editions, it is not difficult to see the points of agreement. The planning for the first edition (1909–1913) in 1904–1906 already linked its intent to summarize the state of research of the 19th century with an extension of perspective beyond the traditional primary disciplines, listed as the history of extra-Christian religion, art and music, education, the social sciences, church law and church politics, as well as contemporary Christianity. This basic concept continued to apply in the subsequent editions, though the overall perspective and the attention given to individual subject areas were necessarily subject to change as appropriate. The preparations for the second edition (1927–1932), which began shortly after the end of the First World War, amounted almost to a complete revision. The 1927 Preface lists its aims as consideration of the new general situation in theology, an increased emphasis on non-Christian religions and the interplay between religion and culture (art, literature, philosophy, the social sciences) as well as an account of the results of scholarly endeavor thus far, in view of the “dynamism and abundance of present-day religious and theological life,” as it cautiously puts it. The third edition (1957–1965) emerged at the time of European reconstruction after the catastrophe of the Second World War. It was a result of the new orientation in the church and theology in view of the collapse that occurred at the end of the war, a collapse that had left nothing but ruins in the fields of religion, theology, and the church. A feature of this edition was the seriousness with which the “Protestant” Christian faith was now regarded as well as its deliberate location in the increasingly significant ecumenical movement among the churches. From these points of view, established wisdom and the recently added reservoir of knowledge was sifted and set out in accessible order. The fact that this edition was tailored largely to the prevailing circumstances in the German-speaking world contributed, paradoxically enough, to its abiding importance. It is appropriate here, finally, to point out a further point of agreement between the editions up to now. All three editions would never have been possible without the initiative, risk-accepting courage and resolute commitment of the publishing house of Mohr Siebeck. The new fourth edition also stands in this tradition. The developments of the last 50 years in the areas of science and technology have not left the world of religions untouched. For one thing the general economic upturn and the global expansion of scholarly research in old and new subject areas have led to an accumulation of knowledge that would scarcely have been conceivable in earlier times. Not only this, but on the basis of new knowledge, methods and perspectives scholarly thinking has itself undergone radical change, though the extent of these changes and their effects on the fields of theology and religious studies are not yet clear. In addition a new ecumenical appreciation of the problems has established itself. So what does “completely revised” mean in relation to the fourth edition? Completely revised, first of all, are the list of subject areas and the list of entries, though the tracking down of gaps and overlaps by careful comparison with earlier editions was only the beginning. The lists of subjects and lemmata then had to be adjusted to the new scholarly circumstances. New too is the international perspective in the commissioning of area editors and authors, extending beyond Europe. For the editors too, this expansion made the preparatory work a voyage of discovery in less familiar fields. The journey was longer than expected, and on the way we learned to appreciate our traveling companions, the area editors, authors, editors and the publisher. For our part we now invite readers to discoveries in the variety of articles in the new RGG.

Preface to the Fourth Edition

vi

The articles take their orientation by the following guidelines: 1. The fourth edition of RGG, too, sees itself as a continuation of the aim that began with the first edition to provide a reference dictionary for theology and religious studies that would give an account of the essential phenomena of religious and ecclesiastical life and of the theological reflection pertaining to this life. Despite all the necessary changes, the traditional framework of the division of subjects has been largely maintained. The title, however, has dropped its former definite article, which was open to misunderstanding. The dictionary is now called “Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart”. 2. In dealing with the evangelic heart of the Christian faith, Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart is to be so presented that readers are informed in the best way possible in the available space and that they are given the wherewithal to form a balanced view in relation to other and alien religious realities as well as their own. The RGG is not committed to any particular theological tendency or school. 3. The articles should offer a snapshot of the current state of knowledge, present the relevant methodological issues and draw attention to open questions and tasks for future research. 4. Regarding the problem of how to refer to the Jewish Scriptures and the Christian Old Testament in articles and article headings, a rule was established that should ensure the cooperation of all authors. Following a number of discussions aimed at facilitating Christian-Jewish cooperation on biblical texts, an international compromise solution has emerged which has in the meantime been acknowledged by all sides and has established itself. In accordance with this, both Old Testament and Hebrew Bible are used as standard terms. Authors are free to use either of these terms. 5. In order to avoid imbalance in the compilation or an arbitrary selection, the fourth edition of RGG has refrained from including articles on persons who are still alive. Significant figures in contemporary history may be found in the corresponding specialized articles via the index. 6. The bibliographical information in RGG has been kept brief in view of the many possibilities of access to detailed bibliographies in modern databases. Mention is made of standard works, text editions, biographies, and special monographs essential for scholarly work, important journal articles, as well as references to complete bibliographies in other publications. No bibliographies are given for the history of interpretation of biblical books, since these are now available in up-to-date commentaries and electronic media. 7. Although the home of RGG is in Germany, from the first edition on, it has been a feature of the work to take in a perspective beyond the national boundaries. This orientation will be reinforced in the fourth edition, so that the dictionary will in future have an even stronger international profile and also be able to serve as a source of information for countries beyond Europe. November 1998

Hans Dieter Betz Don Browning Bernd Janowski Eberhard Jüngel

Preface to the English Edition Brill is proud to introduce Religion Past and Present (RPP), a translation and adaptation of the fourth edition of Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). This work provides the reader with a depth and breadth of information unmatched by any comparable theological reference work in the English language. In its comprehensiveness and through its systematic presentation of the material, RPP offers a coherent theological vision rooted in the tradition of modern Protestantism without, however, being bound to any particular theological school or program. In doing so, it recalls the tradition of the universal encyclopedia, providing a compendium of material extending across a wide and diverse range of disciplines. It covers not only all the major theological disciplines (biblical studies, church history, systematic theology, ethics, church law and practical theology) but also allied fields such as history, philosophy, sociology, psychology, science, law and economics. In addition, there are a substantial number of entries on topics in literature, music and the arts. Naturally, the entire field of religious studies is represented, as is the range of religious experience found in traditions other than Christianity. But in addition to its aim of comprehensiveness, RPP strives to be both international and contemporary, providing the reader with summary of the state of each discipline at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Although its language is terse and compact, befitting an encyclopedia, RPP will appeal to a wide range of readers. For the sake of readability, abbreviations in the text have been minimized, and RPP’s style follows current academic convention in following, where appropriate, that of the Society of Biblical Literature. In short, this is a reference work that embodies the highest standards of contemporary scholarship without sacrificing clarity and accessibility. In the interest of mediating the full depth and scope of the German work, we have been selective and conservative about making changes. We are convinced that readers will benefit from learning how topics are approached from perspectives which may stand at variance with their own habits and styles of thought. At the same time, the work has been selectively adapted to bring out the international character and intent of the original. This has been done in the first place by omitting a number of minor articles that were written primarily for the (esp. German) situation of the original audience. We have also lightly edited some articles in order to meet the needs of the international reader. In adapting the work we were guided by the principle: as little as possible, but as much as necessary. We have, however, been able to add a small number of new articles, including biographical ones on figures such as Gerhard Ebeling, Paul Ricoeur, Hans-Georg Gadamer, John Paul II, who have died since the publication of the German work. In addition, we have tried to aid the reader by providing information about existing English editions where available and accessible, including originally English items which RGG cites only in German translation. At the same time, we have resisted any temptation to equate international scholarship with works written in or translated into English, and the bibliographies contain references to works in all major European and many non-European languages. We are grateful for the assistance of a highly skilled team of translators and editors for their work on this and forthcoming volumes. Without their help this tremendous undertaking would not have been possible. We would also like to thank the general editors, particularly Professors Hans Dieter Betz and Don Browning, for their interest in and commitment to this project. Our thanks also go to the RGG area editors for their willingness to contribute their expert advice and help and to the publisher of RGG, Georg Siebeck, and the publishing house Mohr Siebeck, for their assistance and cooperation. We would also like to thank Fem Eggers, Brill’s project manager for this work, her predecessor Anita Roodnat, and Jean-Louis Ruijters for his work with the lemma list. We would like to thank Robert Meyer, Bas van der Mije and Ernest Suyver for their hard work and commitment in the final editing stages of this volume. We would like to acknowledge the helpful advice of Dr. David Green on specific issues of form and style. Finally, we would like to thank Dr. Michael G. Parker, and Dr. David E. Orton, the editor-in-chief, to whom we owe a double debt of gratitude in his role as both translator and editor. Leiden, October 2006

Brill

RPP Editorial and Translation Team Volume I Managing Editor Michel G. Parker Assistant Editors David E. Green Ingrid Rosa Kitzberger Robert M. Meyer Sebastiaan R. van der Mije Edgar J. Smith Ernest Suyver Translators Jennifer H. Adams-Maßmann Mark E. Biddle O.C. Dean David E. Green Brian McNeil Charlotte Methuen David E. Orton Joanne Orton Doug W. Stott

Editor-in-Chief David E. Orton

Subject Areas and Area Editors Biblical and Christian Archaeology Hermann Michael Niemann, Rostock, in cooperation with Guntram Koch, Marburg Church History: Asia, Africa, Latin America Klaus Koschorke, Munich, in cooperation with Johannes Meier, Mainz, Kevin Ward, Leeds, England, and Martin N. Dreher, São Leopoldo, Brazil Church History: Early Church Christoph Markschies, Berlin (preparation until 1995: Barbara Aland, Münster)

Ecumenism: Orthodox Church Karl Christian Felmy, Erlangen Ecumenism: Reformed Churches Mark A. Noll, Wheaton, IL (until vol. I: Glenn Hinson, Richmond, VA) Dogmatics Christoph Schwöbel, Tübingen Ethics and Related Social Sciences Eilert Herms, Tübingen

Church History: Middle Ages and Reformation Ulrich Köpf, Tübingen

Fundamental Theology Christoph Schwöbel, Tübingen

Church History: Europe in Modern Times I Albrecht Beutel, Münster (until vol. II: Johannes Wallman, Bochum)

History of Religion: Prehistory to the Ancient Near East Manfred Hutter, Bonn (until vol. IV: Firtz Stolz, Zürich, Switzerland)

Church History: Europe in Modern Times II Friedrich Wilhelm Graf, Munich (until vol. II: Joachim Mehlhausen, Tübingen)

History of Religion: Greco-Roman Antiquity Hubert Cancik, Tübingen

Church History: North America, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand Mark A. Noll, Wheaton, IL (until vol. I: Martin E. Marty, Chicago, IL)

History of Religion: Pre-Islamic Religions, Islam and Arab Christianity Josef van Ess, Tübingen

Church Music and Liturgy Franz Karl Praßl, Graz, Austria, in cooperation with Anthony William Ruff, Collegeville, MN (until vol. III: Don E. Saliers, Atlanta, GA, in cooperation with Robin A. Leaver, Princeton, NJ; vol. IV: J. Neil Alexander, Atlanta, GA)

History of Religion: Other Religions Lawrence Sullivan, Notre Dame, IN

Church Law Christoph Link, Erlangen Culture, Art, Media, and Religion Enno Rudolph, Lucerne, Switzerland, in cooperation with Thomas Schmidt, Göttingen, Reinhard SchmidtRost, Bonn, and Peter Burke, Cambridge, England (until vol. I: Frank Burch Brown, Indianapolis, IL, in cooperation with Rainer Volp, Mainz, and Graham Howes, Cambridge, England) Ecumenism: Catholicism Peter Neuner, Munich (preparation until 1995: Werner G. Jeanrond, Lund, Sweden)

History of Religion: South, Central and East Asia Hubert Seiwert, Leipzig

Judaism: Early Judaism Peter Schäfer, Berlin and Princeton, NJ, in cooperation with Klaus Herrmann, Berlin Judaism: Middle Ages and Modern Times Michael Brenner, Munich (until vol. II: Joseph Dan, Jerusalem, Israel and Berlin) New Testament Hans-Josef Klauck, Chicago, IL Old Testament/Hebrew Bible Eckart Otto, Munich and Pretoria, South Africa

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Subject Areas and Area Editors

Philosophy Günter Figal, Freiburg i.Br. Philosophy of Religion Christoph Schwöbel, Tübingen Practical Theology and Related Social Sciences, Education Christian Grethlein, Münster (until vol. I: Friedrich Schweitzer, Tübingen in cooperation with Richard R. Osmer, Princeton, NJ, and Volker Drehsen, Tübingen)

Religion and Science Ted Peters, Berkeley, CA (until vol. III: Philip Hefner, Chicago, IL) Religious Studies Manfred Hutter, Bonn (until vol. IV: Fritz Stolz, Zürich, Switzerland) Religious Studies and Missiology Werner Ustorf, Birmingham, England

Authors and Contributors Abramowski, Luise, Tübingen, Germany Adogame, Afe, Bayreuth, Germany Ahme, Michael, Kiel, Germany Ahrens, Theodor, Hamburg, Germany Aleaz, K.P., Calcutta, India Alexander, J. Neil, Sewanee, TN, USA Alles, Gregory D., Westminster, MD, USA Allison, Christopher FitzSimons, Georgetown, SC, USA Andelson, Jonathan, IA, USA Anderson, Gary A., Cambridge, MA, USA Apostolos-Cappadona, Diane, Washington, DC, USA Arffman, Kaarlo, Helsinki, Finland Assel, Heinrich, Bonn, Germany Astley, Ian, Edinburgh, Scotland Attridge, Harold W., New Haven, CT, USA Aubenque, Pierre, Paris, France Auch, Eva-Maria, Göttingen, Germany Auffarth, Christoph, Tübingen, Germany Avemarie, Friedrich, Marburg, Germany Avis, Paul, London, England Axmacher, Elke, Bielefeld, Germany Axt-Piscalar, Christine, Basel, Switzerland Bader, Günter, Bonn, Germany Badry, Roswitha, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Balch, David L., Fort Worth, TX, USA Balz, Heinrich, Berlin, Germany Balzer, Jette K. B., Tübingen, Germany Bangs, Carl O.(†) Banning, Joop H.A. van, Innsbruch, Austria Baral, Karl, Rutesheim, Germany Barbour, John D., Northfield, MN, USA Barone, Giulia, Rome, Italy Barrucand, Marianne, Paris, France Bartelmus, Rüdiger, Kiel, Germany Bassi, Hasko von, Berlin, Germany Bauckham, Richard, St. Andrews, Scotland Baudy, Gerhard, Konstanz, Germany Bayer, Oswald, Tübingen, Germany Becker, Dieter, Neuendettelsau, Germany Becker, Hans-Jürgen, Göttingen, Germany Becking, Bob, Utrecht, Netherlands Beckwith, Francis J., Waco, TX, USA Beintker, Michael, Münster, Germany Beltz, Walter, Berlin, Germany Bendlin, Andreas, Oxford, England Bendroth, Margaret L., Cambridge, MA, USA Benrath, Gustav Adolf, Mainz, Germany Beozzo, José Oscar, São Paulo, Brasil Berger, Klaus, Heidelberg, Germany

Bergman, Jan(†) Bergmann, Sigurd, Lund, Sweden Berner, Hans-Ulrich, Hannover, Germany Bethge, Hans-Gebhard, Berlin, Germany Betz, Hans Dieter, Chicago, IL, USA Beutel, Albrecht, Münster, Germany Beyer, Michael, Leipzig, Germany Bieberstein, Klaus, Bamberg, Germany Bienert, Wolfgang A., Marburg, Germany Bieritz, Karl-Heinrich, Rostock, Germany Binder, Hans-Otto, Tübingen, Germany Binder, Gerhard, Bochum, Germany Bischoff, Georges, Strasbourg, France Bizer, Christoph, Göttingen, Germany Bloedhorn, Hanswulf, Tübingen, Germany Blum, Erhard, Augsburg, Germany Blumhofer, Edith, Chicago, IL, USA Bochinger, Christoph, Bayreuth, Germany Bollée, Willem, Heidelberg, Germany Boring, M. Eugene, Forth Worth, Texas, TX, USA Bouchard, Larry D., Charlottesville, VA, USA Bovon, François, Cambridge, MA, USA Bowden, Henry Warner, New Brunswick, NY, USA Bozeman, Theodore Dwight, Iowa City, IA, USA Brackney, William H., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Brague, Rémi, Paris, France Brakelmann, Günter, Bochum, Germany Brändle, Werner, Hildesheim, Germany Brauneder, Wilhelm, Vienna, Austria Brecht, Martin, Münster, Germany Brenne, Stefan, Tübingen, Germany Brennecke, Hanns Christof, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Breuer, Dieter, Aachen, Germany Breward, Ian, Melbourne, Australia Breytenbach, Cilliers, Berlin, Germany Bridges, Linda McKinnish, Richmond, VA, USA Broek, Roelof van den, Utrecht, Netherlands Broer, Ingo, Siegen, Germany Brooten, Bernadette J., Waltham, MA, USA Browning, Don S., Chicago, IL, USA Bruns, Peter, Bochum, Germany Brüske, Martin, Munich, Germany Bryner, Erich, Zürich, Switzerland Burger, Christoph, Amsterdam, Netherlands Bürki, Bruno, Neuchâtel and Fribourg, Switzerland Burch Brown, Frank, Indianapolis, IN, USA Buttler, Gottfried, Darmstadt, Germany Byrne, Peter, London, England Byrnes, Joseph F., Stillwater, OK, USA

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Authors and Contributors

Cameron, James K., St. Andrews, Scotland Campenhausen, Axel von, Göttingen, Germany Cancik, Hubert, Tübingen, Germany Caplan, Kimmy, Ramat-Gan, Israel Careri, Giovanni, Paris, France Carrasco, David, Princeton, NJ, USA Carrington, Don, Sydney, Australia Cesa, Claudio, Pisa, Italy Clark, Christopher, Cambridge, England Clayton, John(†) Cohen, Mark R., Princeton, NJ, USA Collins, Adela Yarbro, Chicago, IL, USA Conrad, Joachim, Püttlingen/Saar, Germany Cook, Michael, Princeton, NJ, USA Cooke, Paul, Leicester, England Copeland, Kirsti, Redlands, CA, USA Cornwall, Robert D., Santa Barbara, CA, USA Costen, Melva Wilson, Atlanta, GA, USA d’Aquili, Eugene, Philadelphia, PA, USA Daiber, Karl-Fritz, Marburg, Germany Dan, Joseph, Berlin, Germany and Jerusalem, Israel Danz, Christian, Vienna, Austria Dash Moore, Deborah, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA de Groot, Aart, Utrecht, Netherlands de Wall, Heinrich, Erlangen, Germany Dekar, Paul R., Memphis, TN, USA Dellsperger, Rudolf, Bern, Switzerland Demandt, Alexander, Berlin, Germany den Hollander, August, Amsterdam, Netherlands Derlien, Jochen, Tübingen, Germany Dietz, Walter R., Mainz, Germany Dingel, Irene, Mainz, Germany Dober, Hans Martin, Tübingen, Germany Dogniez, Cécile, Paris, France Dohmen, Christoph, Osnabrück, Germany Dohna, Yvonne, Rome, Italy Domínguez Reboiras, Fernando, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Döpmann, Hans-Dieter, Berlin, Germany Dörfler-Dierken, Angelika, Heidelberg, Germany Dormeyer, Detlev, Dortmund, Germany Douglass, William A., Reno, NV, USA Drees, Willem B., Enschede and Amsterdam, Netherlands Dreher, Martin N., São Leopoldo, Brasil Drehsen, Volker, Tübingen, Germany Drijvers, Han J. W., Groningen, Netherlands Dufour, Alain, Geneva, Switzerland Dummer, Jürgen, Jena, Germany Dunkel, Daniela, Tübingen, Germany Dürkop, Martina, Berlin, Germany Ebner, Martin, Münster, Germany Edwards, Mark Julian, Oxford, England Egelhaaf-Gaiser, Ulrike, Tübingen, Germany Eggensperger, Thomas, Düsseldorf, Germany

Ehmer, Hermann, Stuttgart, Germany Ehrenschwendtner, Marie-Luise, Munich, Germany Eire, Carlos, New Haven, CT, USA Ellwood, Robert S., Los Angeles, CA, USA Elm, Susanna, Berkeley, CA, USA Endres, Johannes, Trier, Germany Endreß, Gerhard, Bochum, Germany Engelbert, Pius, Rome, Italy Engels, Eve-Marie, Tübingen, Germany Engfer, Jürgen, Leipzig, Germany Enskat, Rainer, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany Erbe, Michael, Mannheim, Germany Esbroeck, Michel van, Munich, Germany Ess, Josef van, Tübingen, Germany Evans, Gillian R., Cambridge, England Evers, Dirk, Tübingen, Germany Fackre, Gabriel, Newton, MA, USA Farrow, Douglas B., Montreal, Canada Faupel-Drevs, Kirstin, Hamburg, Germany Fechner, Jörg-Ulrich, Bochum, Germany Felmy, Karl Christian, Erlangen, Germany Fichte, Jörg O., Tübingen, Germany Figal, Günter, Tübingen, Germany Figl, Johann, Vienna, Austria Fincke, Andreas, Berlin, Germany Fine, Steven, Baltimore, MD, USA Fischer, Georg, Innsbruck, Austria Flynn, William, Atlanta, GA, USA Foerst, Anne, Cambridge, MA, USA Fraas, Hans-Jürgen, Munich, Germany Frankfurter, David, Durham, NH, USA Franklin, R. William, New York, NY, USA Franzen, Beatriz Vasconcelos, São Leopoldo, Brasil Freiday, Dean, Manasquan, NJ, USA Frenschkowski, Marco, Hofheim am Taunus, Germany Frey, Christofer, Bochum, Germany Frey, Jörg, Munich, Germany Friedlander, Albert H.(†) Friedmann, Yohanan, Jerusalem, Israel Frieling, Reinhard, Bensheim, Germany Fritz, Volkmar, Gießen, Germany Gäbler, Ulrich, Basel, Switzerland Gabriel, Karl, Osnabrück/Vechta, Germany Gahbauer, Ferdinand R., Ettal, Germany Galleni, Lodovico, Pisa, Italy Ganz, David, Münster, Germany Gärtner, Claudia, Münster, Germany Geerlings, Wilhelm, Bochum, Germany Geldbach, Erich, Bochum, Germany Gensichen, Hans-Werner(†) George, Martin, Bern, Switzerland Geringer, Karl-Theodor, Munich, Germany Germann, Michael, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Gern, Wolfgang, Mainz, Germany Gerö, Stephen, Tübingen, Germany

Authors and Contributors Gertz, Jan Christian, Mainz, Germany Geyer, Iris, Munich, Germany Gibson, Robert D., Sidmouth, England Gill, Robin, Canterbury, England Gilley, Sheridan W., Durham, England Gilliot, Claude, Aix-en-Provence, France Gladigow, Burkhard, Tübingen, Germany Gnoli, Gherardo, Rome, Italy Goertz, Hans-Jürgen, Hamburg, Germany Gogolok, Osmar, Mettingen, Germany Goldberg, Gisela, Munich, Germany Görg, Manfred, Munich, Germany Graetz, Michael, Heidelberg, Germany Graham, William A., Cambrigde, MA, USA Grätzel, Stephan, Mainz, Germany Graumann, Thomas, Bochum, Germany Graves, Thomas H., Richmond, VA, USA Grethlein, Christian, Münster, Germany Griffith, Sydney H., Washington, D.C., USA Grim, John A., Lewisburg, PA, USA Grohs, Gerhard, Munich, Germany Grözinger, Albrecht, Basel, Switzerland Grube, Dirk-Martin, Groningen, Netherlands Grundmann, Friedhelm, Hamburg, Germany Gyanfosu, Samuel, Cape Coast, Ghana Hadot, Ilsetraut, Paris, France Hage, Wolfgang, Marburg, Germany Hagel, Doris, Weilburg/Lahn, Germany Hagemeister, Michael, Bochum, Germany Hahn, Ferdinand, Munich, Germany Haile, Getatchew, Collegeville, MN, USA Hainthaler, Theresia, Frankfurt/M., Germany Halbrooks, G. Thomas, Richmond, VA, USA Halfwassen, Jens, Cologne, Germany Halm, Heinz, Tübingen, Germany Hampe, Michael, Kassel, Germany Hannick, Christian, Würzburg, Germany Harich-Schwarzbauer, Henriette, Graz, Austria Härle, Wilfried, Heidelberg, Germany Harsch, Helmut, Ober-Mörlen, Germany Härtel, Hans-Joachim, Munich, Germany Hartmann, Wilfried, Tübingen, Germany Hastings, Adrian(†) Haunerland, Winfried, Würzburg, Germany Hauptmann, Peter, Münster, Germany Hauschild, Wolf-Dieter, Münster, Germany Haussherr, Reiner, Berlin, Germany Häußling, Angelus A., Maria Laach, Germany Haynes, Deborah J., Boulder, CO, USA Heckel, Martin, Tübingen, Germany Hecker, Karl, Münster, Germany Hefner, Philip, Chicago, IL, USA Hehl, Ulrich von, Leipzig, Germany Heim, Manfred, Munich, Germany Heimbrock, Hans-Günter, Frankfurt/M., Germany Heine, Peter, Berlin, Germany

Heininger, Bernhard, Würzburg, Germany Hellholm, David, Oslo, Norway Henkys, Jürgen, Berlin, Germany Henze, Barbara, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Henze, Dagmar, Göttingen, Germany Herbers, Klaus, Tübingen, Germany Hermle, Siegfried, Tübingen, Germany Herms, Eilert, Tübingen, Germany Herrmann, Klaus, Berlin, Germany Herzog, Ze’ev, Tel Aviv, Israel Heyden, Ulrich van der, Berlin, Germany Heyer, Friedrich(†) Hezser, Catherine, Berlin, Germany Hiddleston, J. A., Oxford, England Hilsch, Peter, Tübingen, Germany Himmelfarb, Martha, Princeton, NJ, USA Hinson, E. Glenn, Richmond, VA, USA Hodges, John O., Knoxville, TN, USA Hoedemaker, Bert, Groningen, Netherlands Hoeps, Reinhard, Münster, Germany Hoffmann, Gizella, Szeged, Hungary Hoffmann-Richter, Andreas, Kyoto, Japan Hollerbach, Alexander, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Holm, Nils G., Åbo, Finland Holmes, Stephan R., London, England Honneth, Axel, Frankfurt/M., Germany Hoornaert, Eduardo, Salvador, Brasil Hopkins, David C., Washington, D.C., USA Hornig, Gotffried, Bochum, Germany Horst, Pieter W. van der, Utrecht, Netherlands Horstmann, Monika (Boehm-Tettelbach, Monika), Heidelberg, Germany Hossenfelder, Malte, Graz, Austria Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, Bonn, Germany Hostetler, Beulah S., Goshen, IN, USA Houtman, Cornelis, Kampen, Netherlands Hübner, Michael, Erlangen, Germany Hübner, Ulrich, Kiel, Germany Hübner, Wolfgang, Münster, Germany Hühn, Lore, Berlin, Germany Hultkrantz, Åke, Stockholm, Sweden Hüttel, Richard, Trier, Germany Hutter, Manfred, Graz, Austria Imbach, Ruedi, Fribourg, Switzerland Imorde, Joseph, Münster, Germany Irons, William, Evanston, IL, USA Ivanov, Vladimir, Munich, Germany Jackson, Timothy P., Atlanta, GA, USA Jacobs, Martin, Berlin, Germany Jakubowski-Tiessen, Manfred, Göttingen, Germany Janowski, Bernd, Tübingen, Germany Janowski, J. Christine, Bern, Switzerland Jeanrond, Werner G., Lund, Sweden Jecker, Hanspeter, Liestal, Switzerland Jeffery, Robert, Oxford, England Jenkins, Paul, Basel, Switzerland

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Authors and Contributors

Jenny, Beat Rudolf, Basel, Switzerland Jeremias, Jörg, Marburg, Germany Jericke, Detlef, Tübingen, Germany Jödicke, Ansgar, Zürich, Switzerland Jones, Ivor H., Cambridge, England Jongeneel, Jan A.B., Utrecht, Netherlands Jouët, Philippe, Paris, France Juckel, Andreas, Münster, Germany Jung, Martin H., Basel, Switzerland Jürgensmeier, Friedhelm, Osnabrück, Germany Kaczynski, Reiner, Munich, Germany Kadelbach, Ada, Lübeck, Germany Kaestli, Jean-Daniel, Lausanne, Switzerland Kalb, Herbert, Linz, Austria Kallmeyer, Lothar, Münster, Germany Kalu, Ogbu, Nsukka, Nigeria Kannengießer, Charles, Montreal, Canada Karrer, Martin, Wuppertal, Germany Kattan, Assaad, Marburg, Germany Kaufhold, Hubert, Munich, Germany Kaufmann, Thomas, Munich, Germany Keserü, Bálint, Szeged, Hungary Khoury, Adel-Theodor, Heidelberg, Germany Kiener, Ronald C., Hartford, CT, USA Kinzig, Wolfram, Bonn, Germany Kirk, James, Glasgow, Scotland Klauck, Hans-Josef, Munich, Germany Klein, Wolf Peter, Berlin, Germany Klein, Aloys(†) Klengel, Horst, Berlin, Germany Klengel-Brandt, Evelyn, Berlin, Germany Kligman, Mark L., New York, NY, USA Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim(†) Klingebiel, Thomas, Göttingen, Germany Kloos, John, Lisle, IL, USA Kloppenburg, Wim, Hilversum, Netherlands Knauf, Ernst Axel, Bern, Switzerland Knight, George R., Berrien Springs, MI, USA Koch, Ernst, Leipzig, Germany Koch, Günter, Würzburg, Germany Koch, Guntram, Marburg, Germany Koch, Klaus, Hamburg, Germany Kodalle, Klaus-M., Jena, Germany Konersmann, Ralf, Kiel, Germany Köpf, Eva(†) Köpf, Ulrich, Tübingen, Germany Körntgen, Ludger, Tübingen, Germany Körtner, Ulrich H.J., Vienna, Austria Koschorke, Klaus, Munich, Germany Köster, Beate, Münster, Germany Kraatz, Martin, Marburg, Germany Kraft, Ekkehard, Dossenheim, Germany Krahwinkler, Harald, Klagenfurt, Austria Kramer, Ferdinand, Eichstätt, Germany Kranemann, Benedikt, Erfurt, Germany Kratz, Reinhard G., Göttingen, Germany

Kraus, Birgitta M., Bonn, Germany Kraus, Georg, Bamberg, Germany Kraut, Benny, Cincinnati, OH, USA Krech, Volkhard, Heidelberg, Germany Kreimendahl, Lothar, Mannheim, Germany Kreiner, Josef, Bonn, Germany Kreiser, Klaus, Bamberg, Germany Kreuzer, Siegfried, Wuppertal, Germany Krieg, Robert A., Notre Dame, IN, USA Kronauer, Ulrich, Heidelberg, Germany Krötke, Wolf, Berlin, Germany Krüger, Hartmut(†) Kruk, Remke, Leiden, Netherlands Kubovy, Miri, Cambridge, MA, USA Kühlmann, Wilhelm, Heidelberg, Germany Kuhn, Thomas K., Basel, Switzerland Künne, Wolfgang, Hamburg, Germany Küster, Volker, Heidelberg, Germany Lachmann, Rainer, Bamberg, Germany Ladányi, Sándor, Budapest, Hungary Lai, Pan Chiu, Hong Kong, China Lampe, Armando, Chetumal, Mexico Lampe, Peter, Kiel, Germany Landau, Peter, Munich, Germany Landfester, Manfred, Gießen, Germany Lange, Dietz, Göttingen, Germany Lanwerd, Susanne, Berlin, Germany Lapsley, James N., Princeton, NJ, USA Larson-Miller, Lizette, Berkeley, CA, USA Lathrop, Gordon W., Philadelphia, PA, USA Lawo, Mathias, Berlin, Germany Leaver, Robin A., Sommerset, NJ, USA Lehmann, Gunnar, Beer-Sheva, Israel Lehmann, Hartmut, Göttingen, Germany Leinkauf, Thomas, Münster, Germany Lentes, Thomas, Münster, Germany Leonard, Bill J., Winston-Salem, NC, USA Leppin, Volker, Heidelberg, Germany Lermen, Birgit, Cologne, Germany Lewis, Kevin, Columbia, SC, USA Lienhardt, Conrad, Linz, Austria Liessmann, Konrad Paul, Vienna, Austria Lindemann, Andreas, Bielefeld, Germany Lindner, Thomas, Riedenburg, Germany Link, Christoph, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Lipiński, Edward, Leuven, Belgium Listl, Joseph, Augsburg, Germany Liverani, Mario, Rome, Italy Loder, James E.(†) Lohberg, Gabriele, Trier, Germany Löhr, Winrich A., Cambridge, England Löhr, Gebhard, Göttingen, Germany Lorenz, Sönke, Tübingen, Germany Lößl, Josef, London, England Lotz, Denton, Washington, D.C., USA Lüdemann, Gerd, Göttingen, Germany

Authors and Contributors Lührmann, Dieter, Marburg, Germany Lütcke, Karl-Heinrich, Berlin, Germany Luth, Jan R., Groningen, Netherlands Lütt, Jürgen, Berlin, Germany Macdonald, Hugh, St. Louis, MO, USA MacEoin, Denis, Durham, England Mahlmann, Theodor, Marburg, Germany Malik, Jamal, Derby, England Mallimaci, Fortunato, Buenos Aires, Argentinia Manley, Kenneth R., Parkville, Australia Markschies, Christoph, Jena, Germany Marquardt, Manfred, Reutlingen, Germany Marshall, Bruce D., Northfield, MN, USA Marti, Andreas, Bern, Switzerland Mathys, Hans-Peter, Basel, Switzerland Matthias, Markus, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany Maul, Stefan Mario, Heidelberg, Germany May, Georg, Mainz, Germany May, Gerhard, Mainz, Germany May, John, Dublin, Ireland Mazar, Amihai, Jerusalem, Israel McCafferty, John, Dublin, Ireland McCann, Dennis P., Chicago, IL, USA McClelland, William L., New Concord, OH, USA McKim, Donald K., Memphis, TN, USA McKinley, Edward H., Wilmore, KY, USA McLean, Margaret R., Santa Clara, CA, USA McLeod, W. Hew, Dunedin, New Zealand Mehlhausen, Joachim(†) Meier, Dominicus, Meschede, Germany Meijering, Eginhard Peter, Leiden, Netherlands Meixner, Uwe, Regensburg, Germany Mélèze Modrzejewski, Joseph, Paris, France Mell, Ulrich, Hohenheim, Germany Mennekes, Friedhelm, Cologne, Germany Merk, Otto, Erlangen, Germany Merle, Jean-Christophe, Tübingen, Germany Mertens, Dieter, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Meßner, Reinhard, Innsbruck, Austria Metzger, Marcel, Strasbourg, France Metzinger, Jörg, Saarbrücken, Germany Meurer, Siegfried(†) Meyer zur Capellen, Jürg, Münster, Germany Meyer, Dietrich, Düsseldorf, Germany Meyer-Abich, Klaus Michael, Essen, Germany Michaels, Axel, Heidelberg, Germany Mikuda-Hüttel, Barbara, Trier, Germany Mills Sr., Frederick V., LaGrange, GA, USA Moore, James F., Valparaiso, IN, USA Mosig, Jörg, Durham, England Most, Glenn Warren, Heidelberg, Germany Motta, Roberto, Recife, Brasil Mühlenberg, Ekkehard, Göttingen, Germany Mühling, Andreas, Bonn, Germany Mühling-Schlapkohl, Markus, Heidelberg, Germany Müller, Gerhard, Erlangen, Germany

Müller, Christine-Ruth, Berlin, Germany Müller, Ludger, Bamberg, Germany Müller, Hans-Peter, Münster, Germany Müller, Rainer A.(†) Müller, Walter W., Marburg, Germany Müller, Hans Martin, Tübingen, Germany Mullin, Robert Bruce, Raleigh, NC, USA Mürmel, Heinz, Leipzig, Germany Murphy, Frederick J., Worcester, MA, USA Nagel, Tilman, Göttingen, Germany Nagy, László, Budapest, Hungary Neijenhuis, Jörg, Schönau bei Heidelberg, Germany Neufeld, Karl H., Innsbruck, Austria Neuner, Peter, Munich, Germany Neuser, Wilhelm H., Münster, Germany Newbigin, Lesslie(†) Nicolaisen, Carsten, Munich, Germany Niederwimmer, Kurt, Vienna, Austria Niemann, Hartwig A.W., Wolfenbüttel, Germany Niemann, Hermann Michael, Rostock, Germany Niewöhner, Friedrich, Wolfenbüttel, Germany Nikolaou, Theodor, Munich, Germany Nikolasch, Franz, Salzburg, Austria Nipkow, Karl Ernst, Tübingen, Germany Nischan, Bodo(†) Nissen, Hans J., Berlin, Germany Noll, Mark A., Wheaton, IL, USA Norden, Günther van, Wuppertal, Germany Noth, Albrecht(†) Nüchtern, Michael, Karlsruhe, Germany Obst, Helmut, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany O’Connor, Daniel, Edinburgh, Scotland Oeming, Manfred, Heidelberg, Germany Ofer, Avi, Ma’anit, Israel Ohme, Heinz, Berlin, Germany Ohst, Martin, Jena, Germany Oppenheimer, Arahon, Tel Aviv, Israel Osiek, Carolyn, Chicago, IL, USA Oswalt, Julia, Frankfurt/M., Germany Otto, Eckart, Munich, Germany Padberg, Lutz E. von, Everswinkel, Germany Panaino, Antonio, Bologna, Italy Parker, G. Keith, Brevard, NC, USA Parratt, John K., Birmingham, England Patte, Daniel, Nashville, TN, USA Peacocke, Arthur R., Oxford, England Pearson, Birger A., Santa Barbara, CA, USA Peter, Niklaus, Riehen bei Basel, Switzerland Peters, Ulrike, Bonn, Germany Peters, Christian, Münster, Germany Petzoldt, Martin, Würzburg, Germany Pfefferl, Horst, Marburg, Germany Pfeifer, Michaela, Mönchhof, Austria Pfleiderer, Georg, Basel, Switzerland

xvi

xvii

Authors and Contributors

Pirson, Dietrich, Munich, Germany Plank, Peter, Würzburg, Germany Plümacher, Eckhard, Berlin, Germany Podella, Thomas, Lübeck, Germany Podskalsky, Gerhard, Frankfurt/M., Germany Pollmann, Karla, St. Andrews, Scotland Poscharsky, Peter, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Post, Stephen G., Cleveland, OH, USA Powell, Paul R., Princeton, NJ, USA Praßl, Franz Karl, Graz, Austria Prenner, Karl, Graz, Austria Pretorius, Hennie L., Wellington, South Africa Prickett, Stephen, Glasgow, Scotland Puza, Richard, Tübingen, Germany Queen, Edward L., II, Indianapolis, IN, USA Radler, Aleksander, Burträsk, Sweden Raeder, Siegfried, Tübingen, Germany Raguse, Hartmut, Basel, Switzerland Ramstein-Roth, Christoph, Lausen, Switzerland Rasch, Christian Willm, Tübingen, Germany Rasche, Ulrich, Jena, Germany Raschzok, Klaus, Jena, Germany Ratzmann, Wolfgang, Leipzig, Germany Raupp, Werner, Göppingen, Germany Recki, Birgit, Hamburg, Germany Reed, David Benson, Louisville, KY, USA Rees, Wilhelm, Innsbruck, Austria Regn, Gerhard, Munich, Germany Reichert, Klaus, Frankfurt/M., Germany Reinhardt, Rudolf, Tübingen, Germany Reiter, Johannes, Mainz, Germany Rejwan, Nissim, Jerusalem, Israel Rese, Friederike, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Restle, Marcell, Munich, Germany Richey, Russell E., Durham, NC, USA Riede, Peter, Tübingen, Germany Rieger, Reinold, Tübingen, Germany Riehm, Heinrich, Heidelberg, Germany Ries, Julien, Louvain-la Neuve, Belgium Riethmüller, Albrecht, Berlin, Germany Ringleben, Joachim, Göttingen, Germany Ritter, Adolf Martin, Heidelberg, Germany Robertson, Edwin H., London, England Robinson, David M., Corvallis, OR, USA Robinson, Martin, Birmingham, England Röcke, Werner, Berlin, Germany Rodrigues, Manuel Augusto, Coimbra, Portugal Rohr, John R. von, Walnut Creek, CA, USA Roloff, Jürgen(†) Rombold, Gunter, Linz, Austria Root, Michael, Columbus, OH, USA Rösel, Hartmut N., Haifa, Israel Rosenau, Hartmut, Duisburg, Germany Rothermund, Dietmar, Heidelberg, Germany Rowland, Christopher, Oxford, England

Rubenson, Samuel, Lund, Sweden Rudolph, Kurt, Marburg, Germany Rudolph, Enno, Heidelberg, Germany Rudolph, Ulrich, Göttingen, Germany Ruff, Anthony William, Collegeville, MN, USA Rüpke, Jörg, Potsdam, Germany Russell, Robert John, Berkeley, CA, USA Ruster, Thomas, Dortmund, Germany Rutgers, Leonard Victor, Utrecht, Netherlands Rydbeck, Lars, Lund, Sweden Sachs, William L., Wilton, CT, USA Saliers, Don E., Atlanta, GA, USA Sallmann, Martin, Basel, Switzerland Sandkaulen, Birgit, Jena, Germany Sarot, Marcel, Utrecht, Netherlands Satran, David, Jerusalem, Israel Sauer, Thomas, Jena, Germany Sauter, Gerhard, Bonn, Germany Sautter, Hermann, Göttingen, Germany Savage, Sara B., Cambrigde, England Schäfer, Klaus, Hamburg, Germany Schäfer, Peter, Berlin, Germany and Princeton, NJ, USA Schäferdiek, Knut, Bonn, Germany Schäfer-Lichtenberger, Christa H., Bielefeld, Germany Schaik, Ton H.M. van, Utrecht, Netherlands Schaller, Berndt, Göttingen, Germany Schaper, Joachim, Munich, Germany Schatz, Andrea, Berlin, Germany Scheible, Heinz, Heidelberg, Germany Scheid, John, Paris, France Schelbert, Georg, Fribourg, Switzerland Schenke, Hans-Martin(†) Schenker, Adrian, Fribourg, Switzerland Schenkluhn, Angela, Mössingen, Germany Schetelich, Maria, Leipzig, Germany Schieder, Rolf, Koblenz-Landau, Germany Schilson, Arno(†) Schiwy, Günther, Munich, Germany Schjørring, Jens Holger, Aarhus, Denmark Schloemann, Martin, Wuppertal, Germany Schlögl, Hermann A., Fribourg, Switzerland Schlosser, Jacques, Strasbourg, France SchmelIer, Thomas, Dresden, Germany Schmend, Rudolf, Göttingen, Germany Schmid, Anne, Hemmingen, Germany Schmidt, Tilmann, Rostock, Germany Schmidt-Lauber, Hans-Christoph, Vienna, Austria Schmidt-Rost, Reinhard, Kiel, Germany Schmitt, Armin, Regensburg, Germany Schmitz, Heribert, Munich, Germany Schmucki, Oktavian, Lüzern, Switzerland Schneider, Johann, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Schneider, Bernd Christian, Tübingen, Germany Schneider, Hans, Marburg, Germany Schnelle, Udo, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany

Authors and Contributors Schoberth, Ingrid, Wuppertal, Germany Schoberth, Wolfgang, Bayreuth, Germany Schöck, Cornelia, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Schöllgen, Georg, Bonn, Germany Schottroff, Luise, Kassel, Germany Schreiner, Peter, Cologne, Germany Schröer, Henning(†) Schröter, Christoph, Quedlinburg, Germany Schuler, Christof, Tübingen, Germany Schulz, Heiko, Wuppertal, Germany Schulz, Günther, Münster, Germany Schulz, Hermann, Bremen, Germany Schulz-Flügel, Eva, Beuron, Germany Schumann, Olaf, Hamburg, Germany Schwartz, Daniel R., Jerusalem, Israel Schweitzer, Friedrich, Tübingen, Germany Schwemer, Daniel, Würzburg, Germany Schwöbel, Christoph, Kiel, Germany Seckler, Max, Tübingen, Germany Sed-Rajna, Gabrielle, Paris, France Seebass, Horst, Bonn, Germany Seibel, Wolfgang, Munich, Germany Seiwert, Hubert, Leipzig, Germany Selge, Kurt-Victor, Berlin, Germany Sellin, Gerhard, Hamburg, Germany Sernett, Milton C., Syracuse, NY, USA. Seybold, Klaus, Basel, Switzerland Sfameni Gasparro, Giulia, Messina, Italy Shenk, Wilbert R., Pasadena, CA, USA Sieben, Hermann Josef, Frankfurt/M., Germany Sievernich, Michael, Frankfurt/M., Germany Simon, Gerhard, Cologne, Germany Skarsaune, Oskar, Oslo, Norway Smit, Dirk J., Cape Town, South Africa Smolinsky, Heribert, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Smylie, James H., Richmond, VA, USA Sommer, Deborah, Gettysburg, PA, USA Sørensen, Per K., Leipzig, Germany Spanke, Daniel, Emmen, Germany Sparn, Walter, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Spelthahn, Dieter, Essen, Germany Sperlich, Diether, Tübingen, Germany Spiegler, Michael D., Providence, RI, USA Spindler, Marc, Talence, France Sporbeck, Gudrun, Cologne, Germany Stackhouse Jr., John G., Winnipeg, Canada Stanley, Brian, Cambridge, England Steck, Wolfgang, Munich, Germany Steiger, Johann Anselm, Hamburg, Germany Stella, Aldo, Padua, Italy Stephan, Achim, Osnabrück, Germany Stock, Alex, Cologne, Germany Stock, Konrad, Bonn, Germany Stolz, Jörg, Zürich, Switzerland Stolz, Fritz (†) Stolzenberg, Jürgen, Göttingen, Germany Sträter, Udo, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany

xviii

Strohm, Stefan, Stuttgart, Germany Strohm, Christoph, Bochum, Germany Strohmaier-Wiederanders, Gerlinde, Berlin, Germany Stubbe, Ellen, Zürich, Switzerland Suermann, Harald, Bonn, Germany Sugirtharajah, R.S., Birmingham, England Suntrup, Rudolf, Münster, Germany Süss, Paolo Günter, São Paolo, Brasil Szasz, Ferenc, Albuquerque, NM, USA Takenaka, Masao, Kyoto, Japan Teixeira, Faustino, Juiz de Fora, Brasil Temporini, Hildegard(†) Thiede, Werner, Bayreuth, Germany Thiel, Josef F., Frankfurt/M., Germany Thiele, Christoph, Kassel, Germany Thierfelder, Jörg, Heidelberg, Germany Thomas, Günter, Bochum, Germany Thornton, Sybil Anne, Tempe, AZ, USA Thümmel, Hans Georg, Greifswald, Germany Tietmeyer, Hans, Frankfurt/M., Germany Timm, Stefan, Hamburg, Germany Trompf, Garry Winston, Sydney, Australia Tuckett, Christopher M., Oxford, England Turner, Harold W.(†) Uehlinger, Christoph, Fribourg, Switzerland Ullmann, Manfred, Tübingen, Germany Urban, Josef, Bamberg, Germany Ursinus, Michael, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Usarski, Frank, São Paolo, Brasil Ustorf, Werner, Birmingham, England Uthemann, Karl-Heinz, Amsterdam, Netherlands Vaggione, Richard P., Berkeley, CA, USA Valeri, Mark, Richmond, VA, USA Veltri, Guiseppe, Halle-Würtenberg, Germany Ven, Johannes van der, Nijmegen, Netherlands Vielberg, Meinolf, Jena, Germany Vincent, Jean Marcel, Paris, France Vinzent, Jutta, Cambridge, England Vinzent, Markus, Cambridge, England Vogel, Werner, Berlin, Germany Volk, Robert, Scheyern, Germany Volp, Rainer(†) Vondung, Klaus, Siegen, Germany Vrints, Lutgard, Sint-Joost-ten-Node, Belgium Wacht, Manfred, Regensburg, Germany Wainwright, Geoffrey, Durham, NC, USA Walde, Christine, Basel, Switzerland Waldstein, Michael, Gaming, Austria Walf, Knut, Nijmegen, Netherlands Wallace Jr., Dewey D., Washington, D.C., USA Wallmann, Johannes, Witten-Buchholz, Germany Wallraff, Martin, Jena, Germany Walls, Andrew F., Edinburgh and Aberdeen, Scotland

Authors and Contributors Wandrey, Irina, Berlin, Germany Ward, Benedicta, Oxford, England Ward, Kevin, Leeds, England Watson, Francis B., London, England Weaver, Douglas, Mount Vernon, GA, USA Weaver, Rebecca, Richmond, VA, USA Weber, Petra, Munich, Germany Weber, Gregor, Eichstätt, Germany Wedderburn, Alexander J.M., Munich, Germany Weder, Hans, Zürich, Switzerland Wegenast, Klaus, Bern, Switzerland Wehnert, Jürgen, Göttingen, Germany Weiner, Sheila L., Cambridge, MA, USA Weingartner, Paul, Salzburg, Austria Weinhardt, Joachim, Hechingen, Germany Weismayer, Josef, Vienna, Austria Weiß, Otto, Rome, Italy Weitlauff, Manfred, Munich, Germany Welker, Michael, Heidelberg, Germany Welte, Michael, Münster, Germany Wendt, Reinhard, Freiburg i. Br., Germany Wennemuth, Udo, Heidelberg, Germany Werbeck, Wilfrid, Tübingen, Germany Wessels, Anton, Amsterdam, Netherlands Westerlund, David, Uppsala, Sweden Whaling, Frank, Edinburgh, Scotland White, James F.(†) Wieland, Georg, Tübingen, Germany Wieland, Wolfgang, Heidelberg, Germany Willaschek, Marcus, Münster, Germany Williams, Rowan D., Newport, Wales

Willi-Plein, Ina, Hamburg, Germany Wilson, H. Clyde, Columbia, MO, USA Wingate, Andrew, Birmingham, England Winkler, Gabriele, Tübingen, Germany Winnekes, Katharina, Cologne, Germany Winter, Jörg, Karlsruhe, Germany Wischmeyer, Oda, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany Wischmeyer, Wolfgang, Vienna, Austria Wißmann, Hans, Mainz, Germany Wohlmut, Josef, Bonn, Germany Wohlrapp, Harald, Hamburg, Germany Wolf, Hubert, Frankfurt/M., Germany Woschitz, Karl Matthäus, Graz, Austria Xella, Paolo, Rome, Italy Yarnold, Edward John(†) Yates, Timothy Edward, Derbyshire, England Zaepernick, Gertraud, Berlin, Germany Zasche, Gregor, Schäftlarn, Germany Zeller, Dieter, Mainz, Germany Zelzer, Michaela, Vienna, Austria Zenkert, Georg, Heidelberg, Germany Zinser, Hartmut, Berlin, Germany Zorn, Jean-François, Montpellier, France Zorzin, Alejandro, Buenos Aires, Argentinia Zschoch, Hellmut, Wuppertal, Germany Zumkeller, Adolar, Würzburg, Germany Życiński, Józef, Lublin, Poland

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Notes for Users Alphabetical Order. The lemmas are ordered alphabetically, with ä, å, ø, and ü treated as a, o, and u. Ae, æ, oe, œ and ue on the other hand are placed after ad, od or ud, according to pronunciation, and ß is to be found under ss. Biblical names are given in the form customary in English usage. Persons who died before 1500 are generally listed under the (first) name by which they are known; later persons are generally given by their surname (family name). In names of a romance origin, articles are taken into account in the alphabetization: La Faye, Antoine de. Families are generally given in chronological order. References. Cross-references (symbol: →) to another article indicate that the subject-matter in question is dealt with there, or supplementary information is to be found there. References are given to God, Bible, Church, the great Reformers etc. only when the reference is to a particular subsection. Where confusion is unlikely, the lemma to which reference is made is shortened: → Arius (instead of → Arius/Arianism). For personal names, the forename is abbreviated in the reference: H. → Gruber; first names of persons without an article of their own are given in full where possible. Abbreviations. For ease of use, the lemma is generally given in full when mentioned in the text. The abbreviations used are set out in the Abbreviations lists below. Transliteration. Words from alphabets with foreign scripts are given in transliteration, unless the English spelling has become well established (so as, for example, to be the preferred spelling in the Encyclopedia Britannica). Ancient Greek: α a, αι ai, αυ au, β b, γ g (before γ, κ, ξ, χ: n), δ d, ε e, ει ei, ευ eu, ζ z, η ē, ηυ ēu, ϑ th, ι i, κ k, λ l, μ m, ν n, ξ x, ο o, ου ou, π p, ρ r (at the beginning of a word: rh, when doubled: rrh), σ s, τ t, υ y, ϕ ph, χ ch, ψ ps, ω ō, a h. Accents are given uniformly with an acute accent. Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic: Consonants:  h,  b,  g,  d,  h,  w,  z, ˙, (†),  y, k, l,  m,  n,  s,  a,  p,  ß,  q,  r,  ś,  š,  t. Dāgeš lene is not taken into account, dāgeš forte is expressed by the doubling of the consonant. Vowels:  ā (Qāmæß ˙ā(†)ûp å),  a,  æ,  e,  i,  o,  u; with mater lectionis:   æˆ,   ê,   î,   âw, ! ô, " û; as Óā(†)ep-sound: # a∏ , $ a, % æ; & (mobile) e ;  furtivum: a. Postbiblical Hebrew: Consonants:  within a word ’, not given at the beginning and end of a word,  v, ' b (doubled within a word),  a (not given at the end of a

word),  w,  z, ch, t,  y, kh, ( k (doubled within a word),  s (doubled within a word),  ` (not given at the end of a word),  f, ) p (doubled within a word),  ts,  q,  s,  sh,  t. Vowels:  ,  e,  ,  a, & (mobile) e, other vowels as pronounced (sefardic). However, titles of rabbinic works follow SBL style (see the lists of abbreviations). Arabic and Palestinian place-names: The system used by the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft is followed. Indian languages: The transliteration system in general scholarly use is used: cf. K. Mylius, Wörterbuch Sanskrit - Deutsch, Leipzig 41992. Chinese: The Pinyin system, the official system in the People’s Republic of China, is used; where necessary the older Wade-Giles system in added in parentheses; cf. K. Kaden, Die wichtigsten Transkriptionssysteme für die chinesische Sprache, Leipzig 21983. Japanese: Transliteration follows J.C. Hepburn (Hebonshiki-rōmaji); cf. B. Levin, Abriß der japanischen Grammatik, Wiesbaden 31990, 32f. Korean: The McCune-Reischauer system is used; cf. “Tables of the McCune-Reischauer System for the Romanization of Korean,” Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 37, 1961, 121–128. Vietnamese: The transliteration of the so-called National language (quoc ngu) is used; cf. W. Boscher, Wörterbuch Vietnamesisch – Deutsch, Leipzig 51989, 9. Tibetan: Transcription follows the simplified system of R.A. Stein, Die Kultur Tibets, Berlin 1993; where necessary the scholarly transliteration according to the system followed by German libraries is added in parentheses. Otherwise the guidelines of the Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, vol. I, Wiesbaden 1994, xvii–l, are followed. Bibliographies. Sources and, in biographical articles, the works of the persons concerned are given at the beginning of the bibliography. Otherwise bibliographic items are given in chronological order, in some cases in parallel with the article or structured in accordance with the material. The lemma of dictionary articles cited is only indicated when it differs from that of RPP. The note (bibl.) draws attention to the fact that further bibliography is to be found in the cited work. Authorship. The articles are signed with the name of the author. The author’s situation is given in the list of contributors.

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Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations

I. Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations 1. Old Testament Gen Ex Lev Num Deut Josh Judg 1 Sam 2 Sam 1 Kgs 2 Kgs Isa Jer Ezek Hos Joel Amos Obad Jonah Mic Nah Hab Zeph Hag Zech Mal Ps(s) Prov Job Song Ruth Lam Qoh Esth Dan Ezra Neh 1 Chr 2 Chr

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges 1 Samuel 2 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Kings Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Psalm(s) Proverbs Job Song of Songs Ruth Lamentations Ecclesiastes (or Qohelet) Esther Daniel Ezra Nehemiah Chronicles Chronicles

The following selection of writings takes its lead from the most recent text edition in German: Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit, ed. W.G. Kümmel and H. Lichtenberger, vols. I and V, Gütersloh 1973ff. Cf. also E. Kauzch, Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments, vols. I and II, Darmstadt 41975. Further texts in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. J.d. Charlesworth, vols. I and II, Garden City, NY, 1983/1985ff.; La Bible. Écrits Intertestamentaires, ed. A. Dupont-Sommer and M. Philonenko, Paris 1987ff.; Los Apocrifos del Antiguo Testamento, ed. A. Diez-Macho, vols. I and V, Madrid, 1982–1987. 2. OT Apocrypha & Pseudepigrapha Add Dan Add Esth Ahiq

Additions to Daniel Additions to Esther A˙iqar

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations Apoc. Ab. Apoc. El. Apoc. Ezra Apoc. Mos. Apoc. Sedr. Apoc. Zeph. Apocr. Ezek. Let. Aris. Aris. Ex. Aristob. Artap. Asenc. Isa. As. Mos. Bar 2 Bar. 3 Bar. 4 Bar. Cl. Mal. Dem. Ep Jer Eup. Ezek. Trag. 1 En. 2 En. 3 En. Jdt Jos. Asen. Jub L.A.B. 1 Macc 2 Macc 3 Macc. 4 Macc. Mart. Isa. Pr. Man. Par. Jer. Ph. E. Poet Pss. Sol. Ps.-Eup. Ps.-Hec. Ps.-Orph. Ps.-Philo Ps.-Phoc. Wis Sib. Or. Sir 5 Apoc. Syr. Pss. T. Ab. T. Adam T. Job T. Isaac T. Jac. T. Mos. T. 12 Patr. T. Reu. T. Sim. T. Levi

Apocalypse of Abraham Apocalypse of Elijah Apocalypse of Ezra (also 4Ezra) Apocalypse of Moses (also VitAd) Apocalypse of Sedrach Apocalypse of Zephaniah Apocryphon of Ezekiel Letter of Aristeas Aristeas the Exegete Aristobulos Artapanos Ascension of Isaiah Assumption of Moses (1) Baruch 2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse) 3 Baruch (Greek Apocalypse) 4 Baruch (Paraleipomena Jeremiou) Cleodemus Malchus Demetrius (the Chronographer) Epistle of Jeremiah Eupolemos Ezekiel the Tragedian 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Apocalypse) 2 Enoch (Slavonic Apocalypse) 3 Enoch (Hebrew Apocalypse) Judith Joseph and Aseneth Jubilees Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (Pseudo-Philo) 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Martyrdom of Isaiah (in Mart. Ascen. Isa.) Prayer of Manasseh Paraleipomena Jeremiou (= 4 Bar.) Philo the Epic Poet Psalms of Solomon Pseudo-Eupolemos Pseudo-Hecataeus Pseudo-Orpheus L.A.B. Pseudo-Phocylides Wisdom of Solomon Sibylline Oracles Sirach/Ecclesiasticus Five Apocryphal Syriac Psalms Testament of Abraham Testament of Adam Testament of Job Testament of Isaac Testament of Jacob Testament Moses (= As. Mos.) Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: Testament of Reuben Testament of Simeon Testament of Levi

xxii

xxiii T. Jud. T. Iss. T. Zeb. T. Dan T. Naph. T. Gad T. Ash. T. Jos. T. Benj. Tob L.A.E. Liv. Pro.

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations Testament of Judah Testament of Issachar Testament of Zebulun Testament of Dan Testament of Naphtali Testament of Gad Testament of Asher Testament of Joseph Testament of Benjamin Tobit Life of Adam and Eve (= Apoc. Mos.) Lives of the Prophets

3. Qumran Manuscripts not mentioned in the following list of abbreviations are cited by manuscript number only (see below). Catalogues and indexes of manuscripts: E. Tov, et al., eds., The Text from the Judaean Desert. Indices and an Introduction to the Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Series (DJD 39, 2002); E. Tov, Companion Volume to the Dead Sea Scrolls Microfiche Edition, 21995; idem, “Appendix F: Texts from the Judean Desert,” in: P.H. Alexander et al., eds., The SBL Handbook of Style, Peabody MA, 1999, 176–233; S.A. Reed, The Dead Sea Scrolls Catalogue (SBL Resources for Biblical Study 32, 1994). Fragments and lines are indicated by Arabic numerals, columns by Roman numerals. The individual references are cited according to the scheme: manuscript, fragment, column, and line (e.g. 4QMMTa 8 III 7), column and line (e.g. 1QS III 15), or fragment and line (e.g. 4QMMT a 9 1). Editions: Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, 1, 1955ff. ◆ M. Burrows et al., eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark’s Monastery, New Haven CT I–II, 1950–1951 ◆ J.H. Charlesworth, ed., The Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project, Tübingen/Louisville 1, 1994ff. ◆ M.P. Horgan, Pesharim, CBQ.MS 8, 1979 ◆ E.L. Sukenik, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1955 ◆ B.Z. Wacholder & M.G. Abegg, A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls, Washington, DC I–IV, 1991–1996 ◆ K. Beyer, Die aramäischen Texte vom Toten Meer, Göttingen I–II, 1984/1994 ◆ F. García Martínez & E.J.C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition, Leiden I–II, 1997–1998 ◆ E. Lohse, Die Texte aus Qumran, Darmstadt 41986 ◆ J. Maier, Die Qumran Essener. Die Texte vom Toten Meer, Munich I–III, 1995–1996. Some manuscripts are only provisional, not yet (or not fully) published in series. Their places of publication are given, where possible, following the explanation of the abbreviations. For manuscripts and publications of individual fragments not mentioned in the list of abbreviations see the manuscript catalogues. ALD

apGen

apocrDan apocrJer apocrJosh apocrJoseph apocrLevi apocrMos apocrPent A–B ApPs Barki Nafshi

Aramaic Levi Document: CTLevi Cam.Bod (ALD-manuscript from the Cairo Geniza in Cambridge and Oxford; R.H. Charles, The Greek Versions of the Twelve Patriarchs, 1908); 1QLevi ar (1Q21); 4QLevia–f ar (4Q213, 213a, 213b, 214, 214a, 214b; for the whole of the ALD see R.A. Kugler, From Patriarch to Priest, SBL Early Judaism and Its Literature 9, Atlanta 1996) Genesis Apocryphon: 1QapGen ar (1Q20; N. Avigad & Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon, 1956; J.C. Greenfield & E. Qimron, in: T. Muraoka [ed.], Studies in Qumran Aramaic, Abr-nahrain Supplement 3, Leuven 1992, 70–77; M. Morgenstern et al., Abrnahrain 33, 1995, 30–54) Apocryphon of Daniel: 4QapocrDan ar (4Q246) Apocryphon of Jeremiah: 4QapocrJer A (4Q383); 4Qpap apocrJer B? (4Q384); 4QapocrJer Ca–f (4Q385a, 387, 388a, 389–390, 387a) Apocryphon of Joshua: 4QapocrJosha, b (4Q378–379); Mas apocrJosh (Mas1l; S. Talmon, JJS 47, 1996, 128–139) Apocryphon of Joseph → NPC Apocryphon of Levi: 4QapocrLeva–b? ar (4Q540–541) Apocryphon of Moses: 1QDM (apocr Mosesa?; 1Q22); 1QLit. of 3 Tongues of Fire (1QapocrMosesb?; 1Q29); 4Qapocr Mosesa, b?, c? (4Q375, 376, 408) Apocryphal Pentateuch A–B (4Q368, 377; DJD 28, 131–149; 205–217) Apocryphal Psalms: 11QApPsa (11Q11) Barkî Napšî: 4QBark Nafa–e (4Q434, 435–438)

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations Ber BibPar Cat A CalDoc A–G

CalDoc/Mish CD

CommGen CTLevi DibHam DM EnGiants

Flor H Inst Melch MidrEschat

Misc. Rul. Mish A–J MLM MMT MSM Myst NJ NPC Ord Ordo PrNab Otot PB pergCfr pGen pHab pHos pIsa pMi pNah pPs pZeph PP prEsther

xxiv

Berakhot: 4QBera–e (4Q286–290); 11QBer? (11Q14) Biblical Paraphrase → RP Catena A → MidrEschat Calendrical Document A–G: 4QpapCalDoc A? (4Q324b); 4QcryptA CalDoc B (4Q313c); 4QCalDoc C (4Q326); 4QCalDoc D (4Q394 1–2); 4QCalDoc E? (4Q3337); 4QcryptA CalDoc F?–G? (4Q324g – 324h); → Mish A–J Calendrical Document/Mismàrôt A–D: 4QCalDoc/Mish A–D (4Q320-321, 321a, 325); → Mish A–J Damascus Document: CD (mss. A and B from the Cairo Geniza; S. Schechter, Fragments of a Zadokite Work, ed. J.A. Fitzmyer, New York 1970; M. Broshi, ed., The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem 1992); 4QDa–h (4Q266–273); 5QD (5Q12); 6QD (6Q15); pergCfr (possibly a further D-fragment from the Cairo Geniza; J.A. Fitzmyer, ed., op. cit., 14) Commentary on Genesis: 4QCommGen A–D (4Q252–253, 254, 254a) → ALD dibrê hamme’ôrôt: 4QDibHama–c (4Q504–506) Words of Moses (dibrê mosh ․æh): ApocrMos Book of Giants: 1QEnGiants a, b ar (1Q23, 24); 2QEnGiants ar (2Q26); 4QEnGiantsa–d ar (4Q203, 530–532; J.T. Milik, Books of Enoch, 1976; J.C. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichaean Cosmogony, MHUC 14, Cincinnati 1992; L.T. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants from Qumran, TSAJ 63, Tübingen 1997) Florilegium → MidrEschat Hôdāyôt: 1QHa, b (1Q no number, 1Q35; H. Stegemann, “Rekonstruktion der Hodajot,” diss., Heidelberg 1963; É. Puech, JJS 39, 1988, 38–55); 4QH a–f (4Q427–432) Instruction → MLM Melkißedeq Pesher: 11QMelch (11Q13) Midrash on Eschatology: 4QMidrEschata, b (4Q174, 177; A. Steudel, Der Midrasch zur Eschatologie aus der Qumrangemeinde [4QMidrEschata.b], StTDJ 13, Leiden/New York/ Cologne 1994) Miscellaneous Rules (4Q265) Mišmārôt A-J: 4QMish A–I (4Q322–324, 324a, 324c, 328–329, 329a, 330); 4QcryptA Mish J (4Q324i); → CalDoc A–G; CalDoc/Mish A–D mûsār lemebîn (“Discipline for an Instructor”): 4QInstructiona-e, f ?, g (1Q26; 4Q415–418, 418a, 418c, 423) miqßat maaa≤ê hattôrāh (“Some precepts of the Law”): 4QMMTa–f (4Q394–399); 4QcryptA MMTg ? (4Q313) Midrash Sefer Moshe: 4Qpap cryptA Midrash Sefer Moshe (4Q249) Book of Mysteries: 1QMyst (1Q27); 4QMysta–c (4Q299–301) New Jerusalem: 1QNJ ar (1Q32); 2QNJ ar (2Q24); 4QNJa–c ar (4Q554, 554a, 555; DJD 3,184–193); 5QNJ ar (5Q15); 11QNJ ar (11Q18) Narrative and Poetic Composition: 4QNPCa–c (4Q371–373; DJD 28, 151–204) Ordinances: 4QOrda–c (4Q159, 513, 514) Ordo: 4QOrdo (4Q334) Prayer of Nabonidus: 4QPrNab ar (4Q242) Otot (calendrical text at the end of 4QSe): 4QOtot (4Q319 olim 4Q260B) Patriarchal Blessings → CommGen → CD Pesher on Genesis → CommGen Pesher Habakkuk: 1QpHab (1Q no number) Pesher Hosea: 4QpHosa, b (4Q166, 167) Pesher Isaiah: 4QpJesa–e (4Q161–165) Pesher Micah: 1QpMi (1Q14); 4QpMi → (4Q168) Pesher Nahum: 4QpNah (4Q169) Pesher Psalms: 1QpPs (1Q16); 4QpPsa, b (4Q171, 173) Pesher Zephaniah: 1QpZeph (1Q15); 4QpZeph (4Q170) Pentateuchal Paraphrase → RP Proto-Esther: 4QPrEsthera–f ar (4Q550, 550a–e; J.T. Milik, RdQ 15, 1991–1992, 321–406)

xxv psDan PsJosh psEzek psMos RP S

Sa Sb Sap Work A SD Shir ShirShabb SM T Test tg Job TLevi TQahat VisAmram 1QIsa,b 1QJuba,b 1QLevi 2QJuba,b 3QJub 4QEna–g 4QEnastra–d 4QJuba,b 4QLevia–f ar 4QpaleoExodm 4QToba–d ar 4QTobe 11QJub 11QpaleoLev 11QPsa 8ÓevXII

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations Pseudo-Daniel: 4QpsDana–b, c ar (4Q243–244, 245) Psalms of Joshua → apocrJosh Pseudo-Ezekiel: 4QpsEzeka–e (4Q385, 386, 385b, 388, 391) Pseudo-Moses: → apocrJer Reworked Pentateuch: 4QRPa–e (4Q158, 364, 365, 366, 367) a–j Community Rule (særæk hayyah ․ad): 1QS (1Q28); 4QS (4Q255–264; S. Metso, The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule, StTDJ 21, Leiden/New York/ Cologne 1997); 5QS (5Q11): 11QS? (11Q29) Rule of the Congregation (særæk haaedāh): 1QSa (1Q28a); 4Qpap cryptA Serekh haaEdaha–i? (4Q249a–i) Rule of the Blessings (dibrê habberākôt): 1QSb (1Q28b) Sapiential Work A → MLM særæk damæšæq → Misc. Rul. Songs of the maśkîl: 4QShira,b (4Q510, 511) Sabbath Songs (šîrôt aôlat haššabbat): 4QShirShabba–h (4Q400–407); 11QShirShabb (11Q17); MasShirShabb (Mas1k; DJD 11, 239–252) særæk hammilh ․āmāh/sefær hammilh ․āmāh: 4QSM (4Q285); 11QSM (11Q14) Temple Scroll: 4QT? (4Q365a; DJD 13, 319–333); 4QT (4Q524; DJD 25, 85–114); 11QTa, b, c? (11Q19, 20, 21; Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, I–III, Jerusalem 1983) Testimonia: 4QTest (4Q175) Targum of Job: 4Qtg Job ar (4Q157); 11Qtg Job ar (11Q10) Testament of Levi: → apocrLevi Testament of Qahat: 4QTQahat ar (4Q542) Vision of Amram: 4QVisAmrama-f, g? ar (4Q543–549) Isaiah mss. from Cave 1 (1Q no number, 1Q8; D.W. Parry & E. Qimron, The Great Isaiah Scroll [1QIsa a], StTDJ 32, Leiden/New York/Cologne 1999) Jubilees mss. from Cave 1 (1Q17, 18) → ALD Jubilees mss. from Cave 2 (2Q19, 20) Jubilees mss. from Cave 3 (3Q5) Enoch mss. with 1 Enoch texts from Cave 4 (4Q201, 202, 204–207, 212; J.T. Milik, Books of Enoch, Oxford 1976) mss. of 1 Enoch 72–82 (4Q208–211; J.T. Milik, Books of Enoch, Oxford 1976) Jubilees mss. from Cave 4 (4Q216–224) → ALD ms. in palaeo-Hebrew from Cave 4 (4Q22) Tobit mss. from Cave 4 (4Q196–200) Jubilees ms. from Cave 11 (11Q12) Leviticus ms. in palaeo-Hebrew from Cave 11 (11Q1; D.N. Freedman & K.A. Matthews, The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll [11QpaleoLev], Winona Lake 1985) Psalms Scroll from Cave 11 (11Q5; J. Sanders, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll, 1967; DJD 4; Frgm. E.F. = DJD 23, 29–36) Greek scroll of the Twelve Prophets from Na˙al Óever (8Óev1)

4. New Testament Matt Mark Luke John Acts Rom 1 Cor 2 Cor Gal Eph

Matthew Mark Luke John Acts of the Apostles Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations Phil Col 1 Thess 2 Thess 1 Tim 2 Tim Tit Pastoral Epistles Phlm Heb Jas 1 Pet 2 Pet 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Rev

xxvi

Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Pastoral Epistles Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Revelation

5. NT Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha and Early Christian Literature Editions: Die Apostolischen Väter. Griechisch-deutsche Parallelausgabe, ed. A. Lindemann, H. Paulsen, Tübingen 1992 ◆ Schriften des Urchristentums. Griechisch und deutsch, vol. I: Die apostolischen Väter, ed. J.A. Fischer. Darmstadt 91986; vol. II Didache (Apostellehre). Barnabasbrief. Zweiter Klemensbrief. Schrift an Diognet, ed. K. Wengst, Darmstadt 1984; vol. III Papiasfragmente. Hirt des Hermas, ed. U.H.J. Körtner et al., Darmstadt 1998 ◆ Neutestamentliche Apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung, ed. W. Schneemelcher, vol. I: Evangelien, Tübingen 61990; vol. II: Apostolisches, Apokalypsen und Verwandtes, Tübingen 61997. Acts Andr. Acts John Acts Paul Acts Pet. Acts Phil. Acts Pil. Acts Thom. Apoc. Pet. (Gk) Apoc. Paul Apoc. Thom. Barn. 1 Clem. 2 Clem. Apos. Con. Desc. Chr. Did Diogn. Ep. Apos. Ep. Paul Sen. Ep. Tit. Gos. Eb. Gos. Eg. (Gk) Gos. Heb. Inf. Gos. Thom. Gos. Naz. Gos. Nic. Gos. Pet. Gos. Phil. Gos. Thom. 5 Ezra

Acts of Andrew Acts of John Acts of Paul Acts of Peter (not identical to Acts Pet. 12 Apos., NHC VI, 1) Acts of Pilate Acts of Philip Acts of Thomas (Greek) Apocalypse of Peter (not identical to NHC VII, 3) (Greek) Apocalypse of Paul (= Vision of Paul) Apocalypse of Thomas Barnabas 1 Clement 2 Clement Apostolic Constitutions and Canons Descent of Christ Didache Diognetus Epistle to the Apostles Epistles of Paul and Seneca Pseudo-Titus Gospel of the Ebionites Gospel of the Egyptians (Greek; not the same as the Coptic Gos. Eg. NHC III, 2; IV, 2) Gospel of the Hebrews Infancy Gospel of Thomas Gospel of the Nazarenes Gospel of Nicodemus Gospel of Peter Gospel of Philip (= NHC II, 3) Gospel of Thomas (= NHC II, 2) 5 Ezra

xxvii 6 Ezra Herm. Herm. Mand. Herm. Sim. Herm. Vis. Ign. Eph. Ign. Magn. Ign. Phld. Ign. Pol. Ign. Rom. Ign. Smyrn. Ign. Trall. Pre. Pet. 3 Cor. Ep. Lao. Mart. Pol. Odes Sol. Pap. Pol. Phil. Prot. Jas. Ps.-Clem. H Ps.-Clem. R Sib. UBG Vis. Paul

Biblical and Extrabiblical Abbreviations 6 Ezra Shepherd of Hermas Shepherd of Hermas, Mandate Shepherd of Hermas, Similitude Shepherd of Hermas, Vision Ignatius, To the Ephesians Ignatius, To the Magnesians Ignatius, To the Philadelphians Ignatius, To Polycarp Ignatius, To the Romans Ignatius, To the Smyrnians Ignatius, To the Trallians Preaching of Peter 3 Corinthians Epistle to the Laodiceans Martyrdom of Polycarp Odes of Solomon Fragments of Papias Polycarp, To the Philippians Protevangelium of James Pseudo-Clementines Homilia Pseudo-Clementines Recognitiones Sibyllines Unknown Berlin Gospel Vision of Paul (= Apoc. Paul [Greek])

Rabbinic Literature

II. Rabbinic Literature 1. Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud tractates aAbod. Zar. hAbot aArak. B. Bat. B. Meßi‘a Bek. Ber. Beßah Bik. Demai ‘Erub. ‘Ed. Gi(†). Óag. Óal. Hor. Óul Kelim Ker. Ketub Kil. Ma‘aś. Š. Ma‘aś. Mak. Makš. Meg. Me‘il. Mena˙. Mid. Miqw. Mo’ed Mo’ed Qa(†). Naš. Naz. Ned. Nez. Nid. ’Ohal. ‘Or. Parah Pe’ah Pesa˙. Qinnim Qidd. Qod. Roš Haš. Sanh. Šabb. Šeb. Šebu. Seder Šeqal. So(†)ah

aAbodah Zarah hAbot aArakin Baba Batra Baba Meßi‘a Bekhorot Bekharot Beßah (= Yom ˇob) Bikkurim Demai ‘Erubin ‘Eduyyot Gi(†)(†)in Óagigah Óallah Horayot Óullin Kelim Kerithot Ketubbot Kil’ayim Ma‘aśer Šeni Ma‘aśerot Makkot Makširin Megillah Mei‘lah Mena˙ot Middot Miqwa’ot Mo’ed Mo’ed Qa(†)an Našir Nazir Nedarim Neziqin Niddah ’Ohalot ‘Orlah Parah Pe’ah Pesa˙im Qinnim Qiddušin Qodašim Roš Haššanah Sanhedrin Šabbat Šebi‘it Šebu‘ot Seder Šeqalim So(†)ah

xxviii

xxix Sukkah Ta‘an. Tamid Tem. Ter. ˇehar. ˇ. Yom. ‘Uq. Yad. Yebam. Yoma Zabim Zeba˙ Zera.

Rabbinic Literature Sukkah Ta’anit Tamid Temurah Terumot ˇeharot ˇebul Yom ‘Uqßin Yadayim Yebamot Yoma (= Kippurim) Zabim Zeba˙im Zera‘im

2. Midrashim, Targumim, Collections Ag. Ag.

Ag. Ber. Ag. Esth. Ag. Shir. ARN b.

Bat. M. BHM DER DEZ Deut. R. Esth. R. Ebel Rabbati Exod. R. Frg. Tg. Gen. R.

Gen. Rab. Gen. Z. ISG

Kalla Lam. Rab.

Aggadat Aggadot. C.M. Horowitz ed., Aggadat Aggadot. Qovez Midrashim Qetanim. Sammlung kleiner Midraschim. vols. I–III, Berlin and Frankfurt/M. 1881–82, repr. Jerusalem 1967 Aggadat Bereshit. S. Buber, ed., Aggadat Bereshit, Cracow 1903, repr. Jerusalem 1973 Aggadat Esther. S. Buber, ed., Aggadat Esther. Agadische Abhandlungen zum Buche Esther, Cracow 1897, repr. Jerusalem 1982 Aggadat Shir HaShirim. S. Schechter, ed., Aggadath Shir HaShirim, JQR 6, Philadelphia 1894, 672–697 Abot deRabbi Nathan. Recensions A and B. S. Schechter, ed., Aboth de Rabbi Nathan, Vienna 1887, repr. Hildesheim 1979 Talmud Bavli, Romm edition, Vilna 1880–1886, several printings ◆ L. Goldschmidt, ed. and trans., Der babylonische Talmud, The Hague 1933–1935 ◆ I. Epstein, ed., The Babylonian Talmud. Translated into English, London 1935–1952 ◆ A. Steinsaltz, Talmud Babli. Meboar meturgam umenuqqad, Jerusalem 1967ff. Bate Midrashot. A.J. Wertheimer, ed., Bate Midraschot, 25 rabbinische Midraschim, vols. I–II, Jerusalem 21954, repr. 1980 Beth Ha-Midrash. A. Jellinek, ed., Bet ha-Midrasch. Sammlung kleiner Midraschim, vols. I–II, Leipzig and Vienna 1853–1877, 31967 Derek Erez Rabba. M. Higger, ed., The Treatises Derek Erez. Masseket Derek Erez, Pirke Ben Azzai, Tosefta Derek Erez, vols. I–II, New York 1935, repr. Jerusalem 1970 Derek Erez Zuta. D. Sperber, ed., Masechet Derech Eretz Zutta and Perek Ha-Shalom, Jerusalem 1994 Deuteronomy Rabba. S. Liebermann, ed., Midrash Debarim Rabbah, Jerusalem 1940, 2 1964, repr. 1992 (see also Midrash Rabbah) Esther Rabba (see Midrash Rabba) → Sem (Semahot) Shemot Rabba (see Midrash Rabba) Fragmentary Targum (Targum Yerushalmi II). M.L. Klein, ed., The Fragment-Targum of the Pentateuch, vols. I–II, AnBib 76, Rome 1980 Genesis Rabba. (= Bereshit Rabba) J. Theodor & C. Albeck, ed., Bereschit Rabba, mit kritischem Apparat und Kommentar, vols. I–III, Berlin 1912–1936, Jerusalem 21965, repr. 1996 (see also Midrash Rabba) Genesis Rabbati. C. Albek, ed., Midras Beresit Rabbati, Jerusalem 1940, repr. 1967 Bereshit Zutah. M. Ha-Kohen, ed., Midrash Bereshit Zuta, Jerusalem 1962 Iggeret Rab Sherira Ga’on. B.M. Lewin, ed., Iggeret Rav Scherira Ga’on, Haifa 1921, repr. Jerusalem 1972 ◆ M. Schlüter, Auf welche Weise wurde die Mischna geschrieben? TSMJ 9, Tübingen 1993 Kalla. M. Higger, ed., Massekhtot Kalla, New York 1936, repr. Jerusalem 1970 Lamentations Rabbati. S. Buber, ed., Midrasch Echa Rabbati, Vilna 1899, repr. Hildesheim 1967 (see also Midrash Rabba)

Rabbinic Literature Lam. Z. Leq. T.

Lev. R. m

Meg. Ta ‘an. Mek.

Mek. SbY Midr. Deut. Midr. Exod. Midr. Gen. Midr. Lev. Midr. Mishle Midr. Num. Midr. Rab.

Midr. Sam. Midr. Song Midr. Tann. Midr. Teh. Num. R. OzM Pesiqta Sutarta Pesiq. Rab. Pesiq. Rab Kah. Pirqe R. El. Qoh. R. Qoh. Z. Ruth R. Ruth Z. S. Eli. Rab. S. Eli. Zut. S. Olam Rab.

S. Olam Z. S. Tan. Am. SAME Shocher Tov

xxx

Lamentations Zuta (see Midrash Zuta) Lekah Tov. S. Buber, ed., Lekach-Tob (Pesikta Sutarta), Ein agadischer Commentar zum ersten und zweiten Buche Mosis, Vilna 1880, repr. n.p., n.d. ◆ J.M. Padwa, ed., Midrash Leqah Tov . . . al Hamisha Humshe Tora (Wajjiqra, Bemidbar, Devarim), Vilna 1880, repr. n.p., n.d. Wayyiqra Rabba. M. Marguilies, ed., Midrash Wayyikra Rabba, vols. I–V, Jerusalem 1953– 60, repr. New York 1993 (see also Midrash Rabba) Mishnah. C. Albeck, ed., Shisha Sidre Mishna, vols. I–VI, Jerusalem 1952–1958, several printings ◆ Die Mischna. Text, Übersetzung und ausführliche Erklärung, begründet von G. Beer & O. Holtzmann, Gießen, Berlin & New York 1912 ff. Megillat Ta ‘anit. H. Lichtenstein, ed., Die Fastenrolle, HUCA 8–9, Cincinnati 1931–32, 257–351) Mekhilta deRabbi Ishma‘el. H.S. Horovitz & I.A. Rabin, eds., Mechilta d’Rabbi Ismael, Frankfurt/M. 1931, repr. Jerusalem 1970 ◆ J.Z. Lauterbach, ed. and trans., Mekilta deRabbi Ismael, vols. I–III, Philadelphia 1933–1935 Mekilta d’Rabbi Shim‘on ben Yohai. J.N. Epstein & E.Z. Melamed, eds., Mekhilta d’Rabbi Shim‘on b. Jochai, 1955, 2nd ed., n.d. Deuteronomy Rabbah. S. Fisch, ed., Midrash Haggadol. Deuteronomy, Jerusalem 1972 Exodus Rabba. M. Margulies, ed., Midrash Haggadol. Exodus, Jerusalem 1956, repr. 1967 Genesis Rabba. M. Margulies, ed., Midrash Haggadol. Genesis, vols. I–II, Jerusalem 1947, repr. 1967 Leviticus Rabba. A. Steinsaltz, ed., Midrash HaGadol. Sefer Wayyiqra, Jerusalem 1975 Midrash Mishle. B.L. Visotzky, ed., Midrash Mishle, New York 1990 Numbers Rabbah. Z.M. Rabinowitz, ed., Midrash Haggadol. Numbers, Jerusalem 1957, repr. 1967 Midrash Rabba. → Gen. R., Exod. R., Lev. R., Num. R., Deut. R., Esth. R., Qoh. R., Ruth R., Songs R. Midrash Rabba al Hamisha Humshe Tora, Romm ed., Vilna 1887, several printings. Midrash Shemu’el S. Buber, ed., Midrasch Samuel, Cracow 1893, repr. Jerusalem 1965 Midrash Shir HaShirim (see Song R. [Shir HaShirim Rabba]) Midrash Tanna’im. D. Hoffmann, ed., Midrasch Tannaïm zum Deuteronomium, Berlin 1908/09, repr. n.p. n.d. Midrash Tehillim S. Buber, ed., Midrasch Tehillim (Schocher Tob), Vilna 1891, repr. Jerusalem 1966 Numbers Rabbah (see Midrash Rabba) Ozar Midrashim. J.D. Eisenstein, ed., Ozar Midrashim. A Library of Two Hundred Minor Midrashim, vols. I–II, New York 1928 → LeqT (Leqach Tob) Pesiqta Rabbati. M. Friedmann, ed., Pesiqta Rabbati, Vienna 1880, repr. n.p., n.d. Pesiqta deRab Kahana. B. Mandelbaum, ed., Pesikta deRav Kahana, vols. I–II, New York 1962, 21987 Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer. Sefer Pirqe Rabbi Eli‘eser, Warsaw 1852, repr. New York 1946 Qohelet Rabba (see Midrash Rabba) Qohelet Zuta (see Midrash Zutta) Ruth Rabba (see Midrash Rabba) Ruth Zutta (see Midrash Zuta) Seder Eliyahu Rabba. M. Friedmann, Seder Eliahu rabba und Seder Eliahu zuta (Tanna d’be Eliahu), Vienna 1902, Jerusalem 21960 Seder Eliyahu Zuta (see on S. Eli. Rab.) Seder Olam Rabba. B. Ratner, ed., Seder Olam Rabba. Die grosse Weltchronik, Vilna 1897, repr. Jerusalem 1988 ◆ C.J. Milikowsky, ed., “Seder Olam. A Rabbinic Chronography,” diss., Yale 1981 Seder Olam Zuta. M.J. Weinstock, ed., Seder Olam Zuta HaShalem, Jerusalem 1957 Seder Tanna’im we Amora’im. M. Grosberg, ed., Seder Olam zuta and Complete Seder Tannaim v ’Amoraim, London 1910, repr. Tel Aviv and Jerusalem 1970 Sifre deAggadta Megillat Esther. S. Buber, ed., Sammlung agadischer Commentare zum Buche Esther, Vilna 1886, repr. n.p., n.d. → Midr. Teh (Midrash Tehillim).

xxxi Sek. T. Sem. Siddur Sifra Sifre Deut. Sifre Num. Sifre Z. Sof. Song R. Song Z. t Tan˙. Tan˙. B. Tanna d’be Eliyahu Tg. Yer. I Tg. Yer. II Tg. Jon. Tg. Onq. Tg. Ps.-J. y

Yalq.

Yalq. M.

Rabbinic Literature Sekhel Tov. S. Buber, ed., Sechel Tob. Commentar zum ersten und zweiten Buch Mosis, Berlin 1901, repr. Tel Aviv n.d. Semahot (Evel Rabbati). D. Zlotnick, The Tractate “Mourning” YJS 17, New Haven & London 1966 Sidur Sefat Emet, with German translation by S. Bamberger, repr. Basel 1993 ◆ Siddur R. Saadja Gaon, ed. I. Davidson & S. Assaf & B.I. Joel, Jerusalem 1963 Sifra. I.H. Weiss, ed., Sifra deVe Rav, Vienna 1862 ◆ L. Finkelstein, ed., Sifra on Leviticus, New York 1983ff. Sifre Devarim. L. Finkelstein, ed., Siphre ad Deuteronomium, Berlin 1939, New York and Jerusalem 31993 Sifre Bemidbar. H.S. Horovitz, ed., Siphre ad Numeros adjecto Siphre zutta, Leipzig 1917, repr. Jerusalem 1992 Sifre Zuta (see Sifre Num) Soferim. M. Higger, ed., Masseket Soferim, New York 1937, repr. Jerusalem 1970 Shir HaShirim Rabba (see Midrash Rabba) Shir HaShirim Zuta (see Midrash Zutta) Tosefta. M.S. Zuckermandel, ed., Tosephta, Pasewalk 1880, Jerusalem 21937, repr. 1970 ◆ S. Lieberman, ed., The Tosefta, 1955ff. ◆ K.H. Rengstorf (co-founder), Rabbinische Texte. Series 1: Die Tosefta, 1953ff. Tan˙uma. Midrash Tanchuma, Jerusalem edition 1960 Tan˙uma (Buber). S. Buber, ed., Midrasch Tanchuma, Vilna 1885, repr. n.p., n.d. → S. Eli. Rab., S. Eli. Z. (Seder Eliyahu Rabba/Zuta) Targum Yerushalmi I (see Tg. Ps.-J.) Targum Yerushalmi II (see Frg. Tg.) Targum Jonathan. A. Sperber, ed., The Bible in Aramaic, vols. II–III, Leiden 1959–1962, repr. 1992 Targum Onqelos. A. Sperber, ed., The Bible in Aramaic, vol. I, Leiden 1959, repr. 1992 Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (Targum Yerushalmi I). E.G. Clarke, ed., Targum PseudoJonathan of the Pentateuch, Hoboken 1984 Talmud Yerushalmi, Krotoschin edition 1866, several printings ◆ P. Schäfer & H.J. Becker, eds., Übersetzung des Talmud Yerushalmi, Tübingen 1975ff. ◆ M. Hengel, H.-P. Rüger & P. Schäfer, eds., Synopse zum Talmud Yerushalmi, Tübingen 1975ff. Yalqut Sim‘oni. Yalqut Shim‘oni, Jerusalem edition, vols. I–II, 1952 ◆ A. Hyman, D.N. Lerrer & J. Shiloni, eds., Yalqut Shim‘oni al HaTora LeRabbenu Shim‘on HaDarshan, Jerusalem 1973 ff. Yalqut Makiri. J. Spira, ed., The Yalkut on Isaiah of Machir ben Abba Mari, Berlin 1894, repr. Jerusalem 1964 ◆ A.W. Greenup, ed., Jalqut HaMakhiri al Tre Asar, vols. I–II, London 1909–1913, repr. Jerusalem 1967 ◆ S. Buber, ed., Jalkut Machiri . . . zu den 150 Psalmen, Berdyczew 1899, repr. Jerusalem 1964 ◆ E.L. Grünhur, ed., Jalqut HaMakhiri al Mishle, Frankfurt/M. 1902, repr. Jerusalem 1964

Nag Hammadi

xxxii

III. Nag Hammadi Text editions: The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices, published under the auspices of the Department of Antiquities of the Arab Republic of Egypt in conjunction with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), introduced by J.M. Robinson, 15 vols., Leiden 1972–1984. NHS NHMS

BCNH.T

TU

Nag Hammadi Studies, Leiden 1971ff. From 1991 continued as Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies NHMS 33, 1995; NHS 2, 1972; NHS 22/23, 1985; NHS 20/21, 1989; NHS 4, 1975; NHMS 27, 1991; NHS 26, 1984; NHS 11, 1979; NHMS 30, 1996; NHMS 31, 1991; NHS 15, 1981; NHS 28, 1990 Bibliothèque copte de Nag Hammadi. Section textes, Quebec 1977ff. BCNH.T 18,1987; 12,1983; 5,1980; 9, 1983; 16,1986; 17,1986; 15,1985; 3, 1978; 2,1977; 11,1983; 3,1978; 7,1982; 6,1982; 13,1983; 8,1983; 1,1977; 5,1980; 14,1985; 11,1983; 4,1978 Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Berlin 1882ff. TU 60, 21972 (including BG [Berolinensis Gnosticus] 1–4); 136,1989; 101,1967; 143,1997; 138,1989; 119,1976; 141,1997; 142,1996; 132,1984 Pistis Sophia/Berlin Codex: NHS 9, 1978; NHS 13, 1978; BCNH.T 10, 1983; TU 8, 1892; TU 60, 1972.

Complete translation: The Nag Hammadi Library in English, translated and introduced by Members of the Coptic Gnostic Library Project of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, ed. J.M. Robinson, Leiden etc. 31988 (German translation 1999 as GCS [Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte], KoptischGnostische Schriften II, ed. H.-M. Schenke). Bibliographies in: D.M. Scholer, Nag Hammadi Bibliography 1948–1969 (NHS 1, Leiden 1971); 1970–1994 (NHMS 32, Leiden 1997) ◆ A. Böhlig & C. Markschies, Gnosis und Manichäismus (BZNW 72, Berlin 1994) Act Pet. Acts Pet. 12 Apos. Allog Ap. Jas. Ap. John Apoc. Adam 1 Apoc. Jas. 2 Apoc. Jas. Apoc. Pet. Apoc. Paul Ascl. Auth. Teach. Dial. Sav. Disc. 8–9 Ep. Pet. Phil. Eugnostos Exeg. Soul Gos. Eg. Gos. Mary Gos. Phil. Gos. Thom.

Act of Peter; BG 4 (TU 60, 21972, 296–319; W.C. Till & H.M. Schenke) Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles; NHC VI, 1 (NHS 11, 1979, 197–229; R.McL. Wilson & D.M. Parrott) Allogenes; NHC XI, 3 (NHS 28, 1990, 173–267; A.C. Wire, J.D. Turner & O.S. Wintermute) Apocryphon of James; NHC I, 2 (TU 136, 1989; D. Kirchner) Apocryphon of John; BG 2; NHC II, 1; III, 1; IV, 1 (NHS 33, 1995; M. Waldstein & F. Wisse) Apocalypse of Adam; NHC V, 5 (NHS 11, 1979, 151–195; G.W. MacRae) (First) Apocalypse of James; NHC V, 3 (NHS 11, 1979, 65–103; W.R. Schoedel) (Second) Apocalypse of James; NHC V, 4 (NHS 11, 1979, 105–149; C.W. Hedrick) Apocalypse of Peter; NHC VII, 3 (NHMS 30, 1996, 201–247; M. Desjardins & J. Brashler) Apocalypse of Paul; NHC V, 2 (NHS 11, 1979, 47–63; W.R. Murdock & G.W. MacRae) Asclepius 21–29; NHC VI, 8 (NHS 11, 1979, 395–451; P.A. Dirkse & D.M. Parrott) Authoritative Teaching; NHC VI, 3 (NHS 11, 1979, 257–289; G.W. MacRae) Dialogue of the Savior; NHC III, 5 (NHS 26, 1984, 1–17.19–127; H. Koester, E.H. Pagels & S. Emmel) Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth; NHC VI, 6 (NHS 11, 1979, 341–373; P.A. Dirkse, J. Brahsler & D.M. Parrott) Letter of Peter to Philip; NHC VIII, 2 (TU 141, 1997; H.-G. Bethge) Eugnostos the Blessed; NHC III, 3; V, 1 (NHS 27, 1991; D.M. Parrott) Exegesis of the Soul (Exegesis de anima); NHC II, 6 (NHC 21, 1989, 136–169. 248–264; W.C. Robinson Jr., B. Layton & S. Emmel) Gospel of the Egyptians (actually: Egyptian Gospel); NHC III, 2; IV, 2 (NHS 4, 1975; A. Böhlig, F. Wisse & P. Labib) Gospel of Mary; BG 1 (NHS 11, 1979, 1–45; R.McL. Wilson & G.W. MacRae) Gospel of Philip; NHC II, 3 (TU 143, 1997; H.-M. Schenke) Gospel of Thomas; NHC II, 2 (NHS 20, 1989; H. Koester, B. Layton, T.O. Lambdin, H.W. Attridge & S. Emmel)

xxxiii Gos. Truth Great Pow. Hyp. Arch. Hypsiph. Interp. Know. Jeû Marsanes Melchizedek NHC VI,5 Norea On Anointing Orig. World Paraph. Shem Pist. Soph. Pr. Thanks. Pr. Paul Teach. Silv. Testim. Truth Thom. Cont. Thund. Treat. Res. Treat. Seth Trim. Prot. Tri. Trac. Sent. Sextus Soph. Jes. Chr. Steles Seth Val. Exp. Zost.

Nag Hammadi Gospel of Truth; NHC I, 3; XII, 2 (NHS 22, 1985, 55–117; NHS 23, 1985, 39–135; NHS 22, 1985, 119–122; H.W. Attridge, G.W. MacRae & F. Wisse) The Concept of our Great Power; NHC VI, 4 (NHS 11, 1979, 291–323; F. Wisse & F.E. Williams) Hypostasis of the Archons; NHC II, 4 (NHS 20, 1989, 220–259. 321–336; R.A. Bullard, B. Layton & S. Emmel) Hypsiphrone; NHC XI, 4 (NHS 28, 1990, 269–279; J.D. Turner) Interpretation of Knowledge; NHC XI, 1 (TU 142, 1996; U.K. Plisch) The Books of Jeû Marsanes; NHC X (NHS 15, 1981, 229–250. 252–347; B.A. Pearson) Melchizedek; NHC IX, 1 (NHS 15, 1981, 87–99; B.A. Pearson & S. Giversen) Plato, Republic 588B–589B; NHC VI, 5 (NHS 11, 1979, 325–339; J. Brashler) Thought of Norea; NHC IX, 2 (NHS 15, 1981, 87–99; B.A. Pearson & S. Giversen) On the Anointing; NHC XI, 2A (NHS 28, 1990, 142f.; J.D. Turner) On the Origin of the World; NHC II, 5 (NHS 21, 1989, 12–134. 210–247; H.-G. Bethge, B. Layton & S. Emmel) Paraphrase of Shem; NHC VII, 1 (NHMS 30, 1995, 15–127; F. Wisse) Pistis Sophia Prayer of Thanksgiving; NHC VI, 7 (NHS 11, 1979, 375–387; P.A. Dirkse & J. Brashler) Prayer of the Apostle Paul; NHC I, 1 (NHS 22, 1985, 5–11; NHS 23, 1985, 1–5; D. Müller) Teachings of Silvanus; NHC VII, 4 (NHS 30, 1995, 249–369; M.L. Peel & J. Zandee) Testimony of Truth; NHC IX, 3 (NHS 15, 1991, 101–203; B.A. Pearson & S. Giversen) Book of Thomas the Contender; NHC II, 7 (TU 138, 1989; H.-M. Schenke) Perfect Mind; NHC VI, 2 (NHS 11, 1979, 231–255; G.W. MacRae) Treatise on the Resurrection; NHC I, 4 (NHS 22, 1985, 123–157; NHS 23, 1985, 137– 215; M.L. Peel) Second Treatise of the Great Seth; NHC VII, 2 (NHMS 30, 1995, 129–199; G. Riley) Trimorphic Protennoia; NHC XIII (NHS 28, 1990, 371–454; J.D. Turner) Tripartite Tractate; NHC I, 5 (NHS 22, 1985, 159–337; NHS 23, 1985, 217–497; H.W. Attridge & E.H. Pagels) Sentences of Sextus; NHC XII, 1 (NHS 28, 1990, 295–327; F. Wisse) Sophia of Jesus Christ; BG 3; NHC III, 4 (NHS 27, 1991; D.M. Parrott) Three Steles of Seth; NHC VII, 5 (NHMS 30, 1995, 371–421; J.E. Goehring & J.M. Robinson) A Valentinian Exposition; NHC XI, 2 (NHS 28, 1990, 89–141. 153–171; E. Pagels & J.D. Turner) Zostrianos; NHC VIII, 1 (NHS 31, 1991, 7–225; B. Layton & J. Sieber)

Ancient authors and works

xxxiv

IV. Ancient authors and works The present list of frequently cited ancient authors comprises, in alphabetical order, Greek and Latin names of Christian as well as non-Christian provenience. As a rule the ancient authors are cited in Latinized form and in accordance with the critical editions, in particular the following (with abbreviations) 1. Sources for works of ancient authors ACO ActaSS BiTeu CChr.SG CChr.SL CMG CSCO CSEL GCS LCL OCT OECT PG PL PO PTS SC SCBO TU

Acta conciliorum oecomenicorum, Berlin 1914ff. Acta sanctorum, Antwerpen 1668–1701, Paris 1863ff. Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, Leipzig, Berlin 1849ff. Corpus Christianorum (series graeca), Turnhout 1977ff. Corpus Christianorum (series latina), Turnhout 1982ff. Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, Leipzig 1982ff. Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium, Rome 1903ff. Corpus scriptorumecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna 1866ff. Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten Jahrhunderte, Berlin 1897ff. Loeb Classical Libray, London/Cambridge (MA) 1912ff. (repr. 1961ff.) Oxford Classical Texts, Oxford 1969ff. Oxford Early Christian Texts, Oxford 1971ff. Patrologiae cursus completus (series graeca), Paris 1857ff. Patrologiae cursus completus (series latina), Paris 1844ff. Patroliga orientalis, Paris 1907ff. Praktische Texte und Studien, Berlin 1964ff. Sources chrétiennes, Paris 1941ff. Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca Oxoniensis, Oxford Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Berlin 1882ff.

2. Ancient authors Aesch. Aesch. Ag. Aesch. Cho. Afric. Afric. Chron. Alb.(Alc.) Alex. Aphr. Alex.Aphr. fat. Ambr. Ambr. Epist. Ambr. Fid. Ambr. Hymn Ambr. Off. Ambr. Spir. Apophth. Patr. Apul. Apul. Apol. Arist. Arist. An. post. Arist. An. pr. Arist. Ath. Pol. Arist. Cael. Arist. Cat. Arist. Eth. eud. Arist. Eth. Nic.

Aeschylus Aeschylus, Agamemnon Aeschylus, Choephoroi Iulius Africanus Iulius Africanus, Chronographia Albinus (Alcinous) Alexander of Aphrodisias Alexander of Aphrodisias, De Fato Ambrose (Ambrosius) Ambrose, Epistulae Ambrose, De fide Ambrose, Hymni Ambrose, De officiis ministrorum Ambrose, De spiritu sancto Apophthegmata Patrum Apuleius Apuleius, Apologia Aristotle (Aristoteles) Aristotle, Analitica posteriora Aristotle, Analitica priora Aristotle, Athenaion politeia Aristotle, De caelo Aristotle, Categoriae Aristotle, Ethica eudemia Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea

xxxv Arist. Frag. Arist. Metaph. Arist. Phys. Arist. Poet. Arist. Pol. Arist. Top. Aristides Apol. Aristoph. Aristoph. Lys. Athan. Athan. Apol. Const. Athan. Apol. sec. Athan. Ar. Athan. Ep. Epict. Athan. Ep. fest. Athan. Gent. Athan. Hist. Ar. Athan. Inc. Athan. Syn. Athan. Virg. Aug. Aug. Catech. Aug. Civ. Aug. Conf. Aug. Doctr. chr. Aug. Ep. Aug. Gen. lit. Aug. Nat. et grat. Aug. Serm. Aug. Simpl. Aug. Spir. et lit. Aug. Trin. Bas. Bas. Ep. Bas. Hex. Bas. Hom. Bas. Reg. Bas. Spir. Boethius Boethius Categ. Boethius Cons. Boethius. Porph. Caes. Caes. Civ. Cass. Cass. Inst. Chrys. Chrys. Hom. Chrys. Jud. Chrys. Laud. Paul. Chrys. Laz. Chrys. Virg. Cic. Cic. Acad. Cic. Hort. Cic. Nat. d. Cic. Off. Cic. Rep.

Ancient authors and works Aristotle, Fragmenta Aristotle, Metaphysica Aristotle, Physica Aristotle, Poetica Aristotle, Politica Aristotle, Topica Aristides, Apologia Aristophanes Aristophanes, Lysistrata Athanasius Athanasius, Apologia ad Constantium Athanasius, Apologia secunda contra Arianos Athanasius, Apologia contra Arianos Athanasius, Epistula ad Epictetum Athanasius, Epistulae festivales Athanasius, Contra gentes Athanasius, Historia Arianum ad monachos Athanasius, De incarnatione Athanasius, Epistola de synodis Armini et Seleuciae Athanasius, De virginitate Augustine (Augistinus) Augustine, De catechizandis rudibus Augustine, De civitate Dei Augustine, Confessiones Augustine, De doctrina Christiana Augustine, Epistulae Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram Augustine, De natura et gratia Augustine, Sermones Augustine, De diversis quaestionibus ad Simplicianum Augustine, De spiritu et littera Augustine, De trinitate Basil of Caesarea Basil of Caesarea, Epistulae Basil of Caesarea, Homiliae hexaemeron Basil of Caesarea, Homiliae Basil of Caesarea, Regulae Basil of Caesarea, De Spiritu Sancto Boethius Boethius, In categorias aristotelis Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae Boethius, In isagogem Porphyrii comenta Caesar Caesar, De bello civili Ioannes Cassianus Ioannes Cassianus, De institutis coenobiorum John Chrysostom (Ioannes Chrysotomus) John Chrysostom, Homiliae John Chrysostom, Adversus Judaeos John Chrysostom, Delaudibus Pauli John Chrysostom, In Lazarum John Chrysostom, De virginitate Cicero Cicero, Academia Cicero, Hortensius Cicero, De natura deorum Cicero, De officiis Cicero, De re publica

Ancient authors and works Cod. Iust. Cod. Theod. Cyp. Cyp. Dom. orat. Cyp. Ep. Cyp. Laps. Cyp. Unit. Eccl. D.L. Dam. Dam. Fid. Dam. Haer. Dam. Hom. Dam. Parall. Dion. Ar. Dion. Ar. Cael. hier. Dion. Ar. Div. nom. Dion. Ar. Eccl. hier. Dion. Ar. Ep. Dion. Ar. Myst. Epic. Epic. Frag. Epict. Epict. Ench. Epict. Frag. Epict. Gnom. Epiph. Epiph. Anc. Epiph. Haer. Eurip. Eus. Eus. Dem. ev. Eus. Eccl. theol. Eus. Hist. eccl. Eus. Laud. Const. Eus. Praep. Eus. Vita Const. Gennad. Gennad. Vir. ill. Greg. Cypr. Greg. M. Greg. M. Dial. Greg. M. Ep. Greg. M. Mor. Greg. M. Past. Greg. Naz. Greg. Naz. Carm. Greg. Naz. Ep. Greg. Naz. Or. Greg. Nyss. Greg. Nyss. An. Greg. Nyss. Ep. Greg. Nyss. Or. catech. magna Greg. T. Greg. T. Hist. Hdt. Heraclit Hes. Hes. Theog.

Codex Iustinianus Codex Theodosianus Cyprian (Cyprianus) Cyprian, De dominica oratione Cyprian, Epistulae Cyprian, De lapsis Cyprian, De unitate ecclesiae Diogenes Laertius, Vitae John of Damascus ( Joannes Damascenus) John of Damascus, De fide John of Damascus, Liber de haeresibus John of Damascus, Homiliae John of Damascus, Sacra parallela Dionysius Areopagita Dionysius Areopagita, De caelesti hierarchica Dionysius Areopagita, De divinis nominibus Dionysius Areopagita, De ecclesiastica hierarchica Dionysius Areopagita, Epistulae Dionysius Areopagita, De mystica theologica Epicurus Epirurus, Fragmenta Epictetus Epictetus, Enchiridion Epictetus, Fragmenta Epictetus, Gnomologium Epiphanius of Salamis Epiphanius of Salamis, Anacephalaiosis Epiphanius of Salamis, Liber de haeresibus Euripides Eusebius of Caesarea (Eusebius Caesareanus) Eusebius of Caesarea, Demonstratio evangelica Eusebius of Caesarea, De ecclesiastica theologica Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica Eusebius of Caesarea, De laudibus Constantini Eusebius of Caesarea, Praeparatio, Evangelica Eusebius of Caesarea, De vita Constantini Gennadius Gennadius, De viris illustribus Gregory of Cyprus (Gregorius Cyprius) Gregory the Great (Gregorius Magnus) Gregory the Great, Dialogi Gregory the Great, Epistulae Gregory the Great, De mortuis Gregory the Great, Regula pastoralis Gregory of Nazianzus (Gregorius Nazianzenus) Gregory of Nazianzus, Carmina Gregory of Nazianzus, Epistulae Gregory of Nazianzus, Orationes Gregory of Nyssa (Gregorius Nyssenus) Gregory of Nyssa, De anima Gregory of Nyssa, Epistulae Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio catechetica magna Gregorius of Tours Gregorius of Tours, Historiae Herodotus, Historiae Heraclitus Hesiod (Hesiodus) Hesiod, Theogonia

xxxvi

xxxvii Hilary Hilary Trin. Hipp. Hipp. Haer. Hom. Hom. Hym. Hom. Il. Hom. Od. Hor. Hor. Carm. Hor. Ep. Hor. Saec. Iamb. Iamb. Myst. Iamb. Protr. Iamb. Vita Pyth. Iren. Iren. Haer. Isid. Isid. Vir. ill. Jerome Jer. Chron. Jer. Comm. Jer. Ep. Jer. Hist. eccl. Jer. Vir. ill. Jer. Vita Hil. Jos. Jos. Ant. Jos. Apion. Jos. Bell. Jul. Jul. Ath. Jul. Ep. Jul. Gal. Jul. Mis. Just. Just. 1 / 2 Apol. Just. Dial. Lact. Lact. Inst. Lact. Ira Leo M. Leo M. Ep. Leo M. Serm. Lib. Lib. Decl. Lib. Ep. Lib. Or. Lib. Ref. Livy Luc. Macr. Macr. Sat. Mar. Vict. Mar. Vict. Ar. Mart. Perp. Or.

Ancient authors and works Hilary (Hilarius) Hilary, De trinitate Hippolytus Hippolytus, Refutatio omnium haeresium Homer (Homerus) Hymni Homerici Homer, Ilias Homer, Odysseia Horace (Horatius) Horace, Carmina Horace, Epistulae Horace, Carminae saeculare Iamblichus Iamblichus, De mysteriis Iamblichus, Protrepticus in philosophiam Iamblichus, De vita Pythagorica Irenaeus Irenaeus, Adversus haereses Isidorus of Sevilla Isidorus of Sevilla, De viris illustribus Jerome (Hieronymus) Jerome, Chronicon Jerome, Commentarii Jerome, Epistulae Jerome, Historia ecclesiastica Jerome, De viribus illustribus Jerome, Vita S. Hilarionis eremitae Flavius Josephus Flavius Josephus, Antiquitatae Judaicae Flavius Josephus, Contra Apionem Flavius Josephus, Bellum Judaicum Julian (Iulianus, Imperator) Julian, Epistula ad Atheniensis Julian, Epistulae Julian, Contra Galileos Julian, Misopogon Justin Martyr (Iustinianus) Justin Martyr, Apologiae Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judaeo Lactantius Lactantius, Divinae institutiones Lactantius, De ira dei Leo the Great (Leo Magnus) Leo the Great, Epistulae Leo the Great, Sermones Libianus Libianus, Declamationes Libianus, Epistulae Libianus, Orationes Libianus, Refutationes Livy (Livius), Ab urbe condita Lucian (Lucianus) Macrobius Macrobius, Saturnalia Marius Vicotirus Marius Vicotirus, Adversus Arium Martyrium vel Passio Perpetuae et Felicitatis Origen (Origenes)

Ancient authors and works Or. Cels. Or. Comm. Or. Hom. Or. Or. Or. Philoc. Or. Princ. Orph. Orph. Hym. Ovid Ovid, Am. Ovid, Ep. Ovid, Met. Pass. Philo Philo Abr. Philo Aet. Philo Agr. Philo Anim. Philo Apol. Philo Cher. Philo Conf. Philo Congr. Philo Cont. Philo Decal. Philo Det. Philo Deus Philo Ebr. Philo Flacc. Philo Gig. Philo Her. Philo Jos. Philo Leg. All. Philo Legat. Philo Migr. Philo Mos. Philo Mut. Philo Opif. Philo Plant. Philo Post. Philo Praem. Philo Prob. Philo Prov. Philo Quaest. Ex. Philo Quaest. Gen. Philo Sacr. Philo Sobr. Philo Somn. Philo Spec. Philo Virt. Philost. Hist. eccl. Philostr. Philostr. Vita ap. Philostr. Vita soph. Phot. Bibl. Plato Alc. Plato Apol. Plato Def.

Origen, Contra Celsum Origen, Commentarii Origen, Homiliae Origen, De oratione Origen, Philocalia Origen, De principiis Orpheus Orpheus, Hymni Ovid (Ovidius) Ovid, Amores Ovid, Epistulae Ovid, Metamorphoses Passiones Philo of Alexandria Philo, De Abrahamo Philo, De aeternitate mundi Philo, De agricultura Philo, De animalibus Philo, Apologia pro Judaeis Philo, De Cherubim Philo, De confusione linguarum Philo, De congres eruditionis gratia Philo, De vita contemplativa Philo, De decalogo Philo, Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat Philo, Quod Deus sit immutabilis Philo, De ebrietate Philo, In Flaccum Philo, De gigantibus Philo, Quis rerum divinarum heres sit Philo, De Josepho Philo, Legum allegoriae, Book I, III Philo, Legatio ad Gaium Philo, De migratione Abrahami Philo, De vita Mosis, Book I, II Philo, De mutatione nominum Philo, De opificio mundi Philo, De plantatione Philo, De posteritate Caini Philo, De praemiis et poenis Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit Philo, De providentia, Book I, II Philo, Quaestiones in Exodum, Book I, II Philo, Quaestiones in Genesim Philo, De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini Philo, De sobrietate Philo, De somniis, Book I, II Philo, De specialibus legibus, Book I, II Philo, De virtutibus Philostrogius, Historia ecclesiastica Philostratus Philostratus, Vita apollonii Philostratus, Vitae sophistarum Photius, Bibliotheca Plato, Alcibiades Plato, Apologia Plato, Definitiones

xxxviii

xxxix Plato Epist. Plato Gorg. Plato Krit. Plato Parm. Plato Phaid. Plato Phaidr. Plato Polit. Plato Prot. Plato Rep. Plato Soph. Plato Tim. Plot. Plut. Plut. Morph. Porph. Porph. Abst. Porph. Antr. Porph. Chr. Porph. In cat. Porph. Vita Plot. Porph. Vita Pyth. Ps.-. . . . Sen. Sen. Apoc. Sen. Dial. Sen. Ep. Socr. Hist. eccl. Sophoc. Sophoc. Ant. Sophoc. El. Sophoc. Oed. R. Sophoc. Phil. Soz. Hist. eccl. Stob. Strabo Suet. Suet. Aug. Suet. Cal. Suet. Cl. Suet. Dom. Tert. Tert. An. Tert. Apol. Tert. Bapt. Tert. Carn. chr. Tert. Cor. Tert. Herm. Tert. Marc. Tert. Nat. Tert. Praesc. Tert. Prax. Tert. Res. Tert. Val. Thdt. Thdt. Affect Thdt. Comm. In Thdt. Ep.

Ancient authors and works Plato, Epistulae Plato, Gorgias Plato, Criton Plato, Parmenides Plato, Phaido Plato, Phaidrus Plato, Politicus Plato, Protagoras Plato, De re publica Plato, Sophista Plato, Timaeus Plotinus Plutarch (Plutarchus) Plutarch, Moralia Porphyry (Porphyrius) Porphyry, De abstinentia Porphyry, De antro nympharum Porphyrius, Contra Christianos Porphyry, In Aristotelis categorias commentarius Porphyry, Vita Plotini Porphyry, Vita Phythagorae Pseudo- . . . Seneca Seneca, Divi Claudii apocolocyntosis Seneca, Dialogi Seneca, Epistulae morales at Lucilium Socrates, Historia ecclesiastica Sophocles Sophocles, Antigone Sophocles, Electra Sophocles, Oedipus Rex Sophocles, Philoctetes Sozomen, Historia ecclesiastica Stobaeus Julius Caesar Strabo Suetonius Suetonius, Divus Augustus Suetonius, Caligula Suetonius, Divus Claudius Suetonius, Domitianus Tertullian (Tertullianus) Tertullian, De anima Tertullian, Apologeticum Tertullian, De baptismo Tertullian, De carne Christi Tertullian, De corona Tertullian, Adversus Hermogenem Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem Tertullian, Ad nationes Tertullian, De praescriptione haereticorum Tertullian, Adversus Praxean Tertullian, De resurrectione mortuorum Tertullian, Adversus Valentianos Theodoret of Cyrus (Theodoretus Cyrius) Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentarii Theodoret of Cyrus, Historia religiosa Theodoret of Cyrus, Graecarum affectionum curatio

Ancient authors and works Thdt. Hist. eccl. Thdt. Hist. rel. Thuc. Var. Var. An. Verg. Verg. Aen. Verg. Ecl. Verg. Georg.

Theodoret of Cyrus, Epistulae Theodoret of Cyrus, Historia ecclesiastica Thucydides, Historiae Terentius Varro Terentius Varro, Annales Vergil (Vergilius) Vergil, Aeneis Vergil, Eclogae Vergil, Georgica

xl

xli

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals

V. Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals AA AAAbo AAAbo.H AAAp AACCB AAE AAH AAS AAS.S AASF

AASF.DHL AAST ÄAT AAug AAWG AAWG.PH AAWLM AAWLM.G AB ABAW ABAW.PH ABAW.PP ABAW.PPH ABD ABG ABI ABlEKD ABlVELKD ABSt AcAr ACar AcAs ACC ACER ACi ACJD ACO

ACO.I AcOr ACORP ActaSS ACW ADAJ

Archäologischer Anzeiger, Berlin 1849ff. Acta Academiae Aboensis, Åbo – Series A: Humaniora 1,1920ff. Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, post Constantin Tischendorf ed. R.A. Lipsius & M. Bonnet, Leipzig 1–2.2, 1891–1903; repr. 1959; 1972; 1990 All-Africa Conference of Churches Bulletin, Nairobi etc. 1,1963/64–11,1982 Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Copenhagen 1,1990ff. Acta antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest 1,1951ff. Acta apostolicae sedis Commentarium officiale, Rome 1,1909ff. – Supplemento per le leggi e disposizioni . . . 1,1929ff. Annales Academiae scientiarum fennicae, Helsinki – Series A: 1,1909ff. – Series B: 1,1909ff. – Dissertationes humanarum litterarum 1,1973ff. Atti dell’(a R.)Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, Turin 1,1865–62,1926/27; from 69,1933/34ff.: Acta R. Academiae Scientiarum Taurinensis Ägypten und Altes Testament, Wiesbaden 1,1979ff. Analecta Augustiniana, Rome 1,1905/06ff. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Göttingen – Philologisch-historische Klasse, Göttingen, 3rd series 27,1942ff. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz, Mainz – Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftliche Klasse 1950ff. Assyriologische Bibliothek, Leipzig 1,1881–26,1927; NS 1–2,1933 Abhandlungen der (Königlich-)Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munich – Philosophisch-historische Abteilung, NS 1,1929ff. – Philosophisch-philologische Klasse 1,1835–24,1906/09 – Philosophisch-philologische und historische Klasse 25,1909–34,1928 Anchor Bible Dictionary, New York etc. 1,1992ff. Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte, Bonn 1,1955ff. Accademie e biblioteche d’Italia, Rome 1,1927ff. Amtsblatt der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland, Berlin 1,1947ff. Amtsblatt der Vereinigten Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche Deutschlands, publ. Lutherisches Kirchenamt der VELKD Hannover, Hamburg 1954ff. Archaeology and Biblical Studies, Atlanta, GA, 1,1988ff. Acta archaeologica, Copenhagen 1,1930ff. Analecta Cartusiana, Berlin etc. 1,1970–129,1988; NS 1,1989ff. Acta Asiatica, Tokio 1,1960ff. Alcuin Club Collections, London etc. 1,1899ff. Annales du Centre d’Étude des Religions, Brüssel 1,1962–3,1969 Analecta Cisterciensia, Rome 21,1965ff. Abhandlungen zum christlich-jüdischen Dialog, Munich 1,1967ff. Acta conciliorum oecumenicorum, ed. E. Schwartz , Berlin 1914ff. – 1. Concilium universale Ephesenum 1922ff. – 2. Concilium universale Chalcedonense 1,1932–6,1938 – 3. Collectio Sabbaitica contra Acephalos et Origeniastas destinata 1940 – 4. Concilium universale Constantinopolitanum sub Iustiniano habitum 1,1914– 3,1984 – Index generalis tomorum 1–4, 1,1974ff. Acta orientalia, Societates Orientales Batava, Danica, Norvegica, Svecica, Leiden 1,1923ff. American Center of Oriental Research Publications, Amman 1,1993ff. Acta sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland / G. Henschen, Antwerpen etc. 1,1643ff. (70,1944); Venice, 2nd ed. 1,1734–43,1770; Paris etc., 3rd ed. 1,1863–60,1870 Ancient Christian Writers, Westminster, MD etc. 1,1946ff. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, Amman 1,1951ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Adamantius ADB ADEB ADipl ADPV AE AEAl Aeg. AEI aej aej.M aej.SB aej.ST AELKZ AEM AEPHE AEPHE.R AES AEvKR Aevum AEWK AFER AFH AFMF AfO AfO.B AFP Afranc Africa AfS AFS AGB AGBELL AGJU AGK AGK.E AGLB AGP AGPh AGTL AGU AGWG AGWG.PH

xlii

Adamantius Notiziario del Gruppo Italiano di Ricerca su «Origene e la Tradizione Alessandrina», Pisa 1,1995ff. Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Leipzig 1,1875–56,1912; 2nd ed. 1967–1971 The Australian Dictionary of Evangelical Biography, ed. B. Dickey, Sydney, 1994 Archiv für Diplomatik, Schriftgeschichte, Siegel- und Wappenkunde, Cologne etc. 1,1955ff. Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Wiesbaden 1969ff. L’année Épigraphique, Paris 1888ff. Archives de l’Église d’Alsace, Strasbourg etc. 17,1946ff. Aegyptus. Rivista italiana di egittologia e di papirologia, Mailand 1,1920ff. Avhandlinger utgitt av Egede Instituttet Studies of the Egede-Institute, Oslo 1,1947ff. Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Evangelischen Jugend in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Berlin West e.V. – Materialien, Stuttgart 1980ff. – Studienbände Beiträge zur evangelischen Jugendarbeit, Stuttgart 1980ff. – Studientext, Stuttgart 1980–1986 (continued by Studientexte. Zeitschrift für Konzeption und Geschichte evangelischer Jugendarbeit) Allgemeine evangelisch-lutherische Kirchenzeitung. Organ der Allgemeinen EvangelischLutherischen Konferenz, Leipzig 1,1868–74,1941 Anuario de estudios medievales, Barcelona 1,1964ff. Annuaire de l’École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris 1,1893ff. – Section des Sciences Religieuses 1,1893ff. Archives européennes de sociologie, Paris 1,1960ff. Archiv für Evangelisches Kirchenrecht. Allgemeines Kirchenblatt für das evangelische Deutschland und das Deutsche Pfarrarchiv, Berlin 1,1937–5,1941 Aevum. Rassegna di scienze storiche, linguistiche e filologiche, Milan 1,1927ff. Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste, ed. J.S. Ersch & J.G. Gruber, Leipzig 1818–1889 Africanae fraternae ephemerides Romanae, A.F.E.R, Rome 1,1932ff. Archivum Franciscanum Historicum, Florence 1,1908ff. Arbeiten zur Frühmittelalterforschung. Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Frühmittelalterforschung der Universität Münster, Berlin etc. (1,1981); 2,1967ff. Archiv für Orientforschung Internationale Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft vom Vorderen Orient, Graz etc. 3,1926ff. – Beiheft 1,1933ff. Archivum fratrum praedicatorum, Rome 1,1930ff. Analecta Franciscana, Quaracchi etc. 1,1885ff. Africa. Journal of the International African Institute, ed. D. Westermann, Edinburgh 1,1928ff. African Studies, Johannesburg 1,1942ff. Asian Folklore Studies, publ. by the Society for Asian Folklore, Tokio 22,1963ff. Archiv für die Geschichte des Buchwesens, publ. Historische Kommission des Börsenvereins des Deutschen Buchhandels, Frankfurt/M. 1,1956–91,1972 Arbeiten zur Geschichte der Braunschweigischen Evangelisch-Lutherischen Landeskirche im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Büddenstedt 1,1982ff. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums, Leiden 1970ff. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Kirchenkampfes, Göttingen 1,1958–30,1984 and index volume 1984 – Ergänzungsreihe (suppl. series) 1,1964–14,1986 Aus der Geschichte der lateinischen Bibel, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1957ff. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus, Witten 1,1967ff. Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, Berlin 1,1888ff. Arbeiten zur Geschichte und Theologie des Luthertums, Berlin 1,1955–26,1972; NS 1,1981ff. Archief voor de geschiedenis van het Aartsbisdom Utrecht, Utrecht 1,1875–75,1957 Abhandlungen der (Königlichen) Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Göttingen 1,1838/41–40,1894/95 – Philologisch-historische Klasse, NS 1,1896/97–25,1930/31; 3rd series 1,1932–26,1940

xliii AHAW AHAW.PH AHC AHDL AHG AHP AHR AHSJ AHVNRh AHw

AIHI AION AION.FG AIPh AIS AJA AJAH AJP AJPs AJS AJS Review AJTh AKathKR AKG AKGH AKIZ AKIZ.A AKIZ.B AKM AKThG AKuG AKVB AKVK ALASP Alei Sefer ALGHJ Allbus Allpanchis Altaner ALW AM

AmA Americas

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Heidelberg – Philosophisch-historische Klasse 1,1913–10,1935; 1950ff. Annuarium historiae conciliorum, Paderborn etc. 1,1969ff. Archives d’histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge, Paris 1,1926/27–10/11,1935/36; 21,1946ff. Archiv für hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, Darmstadt 1,1836–15,1884; NS 1,1894ff. Archivum historiae pontificae, Rome 1,1963ff. American Historical Review, New York etc. 1,1895ff. Archivum historicum Societatis Jesu. Periodicum semestre, Rome 1,1932ff. Annalen des Historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein, insbesondere die Alte Erzdiözese Köln, Cologne 1,1855ff. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Unter Benutzung des lexikalischen Nachlasses von Bruno Meissner (1866–1947), bearbeitet von W. v. Soden, 3 vols., Wiesbaden 1,1965–3,1981; Vol. 1 21985 Archives internationales d’histoire des idées. International Archives of the History of Ideas, The Hague 1,1963ff. Annali dell’Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, Naples 1,1929ff. – Sezione Germanica: filologia germanica 1,1958–16,1973; NS 1,1991ff. Annuaire de L’Institut de Philologie et d’Histoire Orientales (from 4,1936:) et Slaves, Brussels 1,1932/33–3,1935; 4,1936–27,1985 Annales Instituti Slavici, Cologne etc. 1.1,1964ff. American Journal of Archaeology (1st series:) and of the History of Fine Arts, Princeton, NJ, etc. 1,1885–11,1896; 2nd series 1,1897ff. Anglo-Jewish Art and History, London 1,1966ff. American Journal of Philology, Baltimore, MD, 1,1880ff. The American Journal of Psychology, Champaign, IL, 1,1887ff. American Journal of Sociology, Chicago, IL, 1,1895/96ff. Association for Jewish Studies Review, Cambridge, MA, 1,1976ff. The Asia Journal of Theology, Singapore 1,1987ff. Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht, Mainz etc. 1,1857ff. Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte, Berlin etc. 1,1915ff. Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte Hamburgs, Hamburg 1,1958ff. Arbeiten zur kirchlichen Zeitgeschichte, Göttingen – Series A: Quellen 1984ff. – Series B: Darstellungen 1,1975ff. Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, publ. Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Leipzig etc. 1.1,1857ff. Arbeiten zur Kirchen- und Theologiegeschichte, Weimar 1,1996ff. Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Berlin etc. 1,1903ff; Beiheft = BAKG Altkatholisches Volksblatt, Baden-Baden 1,1887–36.12,1922; 53.13,1922–72,1941; NS 1,1949–8,1956 Altkatholischer Volkskalender, Baden-Baden 1,1891–30,1920 Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palästinas, Münster 1,1988ff. Alei Sefer. A Journal of Hebrew Bibliography and Booklore, ed. S.Z. Havlin, Ramat-Gan 1,1975ff. Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen Judentums, Leiden 1,1968ff. Allgemeine Bevölkerungsumfrage der Sozialwissenschaften, Cologne 1,1984ff. Allpanchis. Revista anual, organo del Instituto Pastoral Andina, Cuzco 1,1969ff. B. Altaner. Patrologie. Leben, Schriften und Lehre der Kirchenväter; from the 7th ed.: A. Stuiber, Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1931; 2,1950; 9,1980 Archiv für Liturgiewissenschaft, Regensburg 1,1950ff. Asia Major, publ. Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica, Taiwan, Taipeh [1922/23]; 1,1924–10, 1934/35; NS 1,1944 [?]; NS 1,1949/50–19, 1975; 3rd series 1,1987/88ff. American Anthropologist, Menasha, WI, 1,1888–11,1898; NS 1,1899ff. The Americas. A Quarterly Review of Inter-American Cultural History, Washington, DC, 1,1944ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals AMI AmPs AMRG AMRhKG AmUSt AmUSt.H AmUSt.TR AMZ AnAl AnBib AnBib AnBoll AncB ANEP ANET ANETS ANL AnPont ANRW

AnSt Antaios AntClass Anthr. ANTT ANTZ AO AOAT AOB AoF AÖR AOT APARA

APAT APAW APAW.PH APF APG

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xlv APh APKG Apocrypha Apocryphes ApolCA Apoll. APOT APraem APTh APuZ AQDGMA AQDGNZ Arabica ARCEG ARelG ARG ARGU ARID ARID.S Ariel ArOr ArPh ArPh.SB ArsOr ARSP ArtAs ArtB ArTe ArtQ ARTS ARW ARWAW ARWG AS ASAE Aschkenas ASCL ASCOV ASEs ASGW ASGW.PH ASKG ASoc ASOC ASOSB

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Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals ASR ASS ASSR ASTI AStRev ATD ATD.A AThANT AThD ÄthF AThR aAtiqot aAtiqot(H) ATLA ATLA.BS ATM ATSAT ATSl ATTM AU AÜ AuA AuC AUF Aufklärung

Aug. Aug(L) AugL AugSt AUSS AUU AUU.SSU AVTRW AW AWA AWEAT AWH.PH AWR AWR.AT AWR.B AWR.L AWR.N AWR.PG AWR.PT AWR.RG

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xlvii AWR.RP AWR.RW AZP AzTh BA BABKG BAGB BaghM BAH BAI BaJ BAKG BalS BAR BAR BASOR BASPap BASPap.S BAug BAW.AO BB BBA BBAur BBB BBBW BBG BBGG BBGW BBKG BBKL BBKR BBL BBN bbRf

BBS BBVO BC BCAr BCH BCJ BCNH.T BDG BDLG BE BEAT

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals – Religionsphilosophische Reihe 1,1926–3,1930[?] – Religionswissenschaftliche Reihe 1,1930; 2,1924–25,1936; NS 1,1940–3,1940[?] Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Philosophie, Stuttgart 1,1976ff. Arbeiten zur Theologie, Stuttgart etc., 1st series 1,1960ff.; 2nd series 1,1962–15,1969 Biblical Archaeologist, publ. American Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven, CT, 1,1938–60,1997 Beiträge zur altbayerischen Kirchengeschichte, ed. Verein für Diözesangeschichte von München und Freising, Munich 14.1–2/3, 1929/33; 15,1936ff. Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, Paris 1,1923–67, 1939/40; NS 1, 1946–12, 1950; 1951ff. Baghdader Mitteilungen. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Baghdad, Berlin 1,1960ff. Bibliothèque archéologique et historique. Institut Français d’Archéologie de Beyrouth, Paris 1,1921ff. Bulletin of the Asia Institute, Bloomfield Hills, MI, 1,1987ff. Basler Jahrbuch, Basel 1,1879ff. Beiheft zum Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Marburg 1,1951ff. Balkan Studies, Thessaloniki 1,1960ff. Bonner akademische Reden, Bonn 1,1929–28,1939; NS 1,1949ff. Biblical Archaeology Review, Washington, DC, 1,1975ff. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Jerusalem etc. 1,1919ff. Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists, New Haven, CT, 1,1963/64 (1965) ff. Supplement 1,1978ff. Bibliothèque augustinienne, Paris 1,1936ff. Bibliothek der Alten Welt, series: Der Alte Orient, Zürich etc. 1,1950ff. Badische Biographien, ed. F. v. Weech, Heidelberg 1,1875–6,1901; NS ed. B. Ottnad, Stuttgart 1,1982 Berliner byzantinistische Arbeiten, Berlin 1,1956ff. Bibliotheca bibliographica Aureliana, Baden-Baden 1,1959ff. Bonner biblische Beiträge, Bonn 1,1950ff. Beiträge zum Buch- und Bibliothekswesen, Wiesbaden 1,1954ff. Beiträge zur baltischen Geschichte, Hannover 1,1973ff. Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata, Grottaferrata 1, 1929/30–14, 1943; NS 1, 1947ff. Basler Beiträge zur Geschichtswissenschaft, Basel 1,1938ff. Beiträge zur bayerischen Kirchengeschichte, ed. T. Kolde, Erlangen 1,1894–32,1925 Biographisch-bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, ed. F.W. Bautz, Hamm 1,1975ff. Beiträge zu den Bau- und Kunstdenkmälern im Rheinland, Düsseldorf 22,1978ff. Bulletin de la Bible latine. Bulletin d’ancienne littérature chrétienne latine, Maredsous 1955/73ff. Bibliotheca bibliographica Neerlandica, Nieuwkoop 4,1974ff. Bayreuther Beiträge zur Religionsforschung. Eine Schriftenreihe der Facheinheit Religion an der Kulturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Bayreuth, ed. C. Bochinger, E. Nestler & W. Schoberth et al., Bayreuth 1, 2000ff. Berliner byzantinistische Studien, Frankfurt/M. etc. 1,1994ff. Berliner Beiträge zum Vorderen Orient, Berlin 1,1982ff. Biblischer Commentar über das Alte Testament, ed. C.F. Keil, Leipzig, 1861ff. Bibliothèque des Cahiers archéologiques, Paris 1,1966ff. Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, École Française d’Athènes, Paris etc. 1,1877ff. Bibliothèque de la Companie de Jésus, ed. C. Sommervogel, Brussels 1,1890–12,1930; 3rd ed. 1,1960–12,1961 Bibliothèque copte de Nag Hammadi. Section textes, Quebec 1,1977ff. Bibliographie zur deutschen Geschichte im Zeitalter der Glaubensspaltung 1517–1585, ed. K. Schottenloher, vol. 7 ed. K. Thürauf, Leipzig 1,1933–6,1940; 2nd ed. 1,1956–7,1966 Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte, ed. G.W. Sante et al., Göttingen 83,1936/37ff. Biblische Enzyklopädie, ed. W. Dietrich & W. Stegemann, Stuttgart etc. 1,1996ff. Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums, Frankfurt/ M. etc. 1,1984ff.

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xlix BIFAO BIHBR Bijdr. BIJS BiKi BiKon BiLi Bill. BiOr BIRS BISI BiToTe BJDN BJRL BJVK

BK BKGP BKP BKV BLGNP BM.OP BMF BMGS BMHG BMKG BMus BN BNP BNTC BoBKG BOCV BoJ BoJ.B Boreas BOTK BoTr BPat BPfKG BPhC BPhM BPr BPTF BR BrAR BRGA

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l

Bremisches Jahrbuch, Bremen 1,1864ff. K. Galling, Biblisches Reallexikon, Tübingen 1937; 2,1977 Bibliotheca sacra. A Theological Quarterly, Dallas, TX, etc. 21,1864ff. Bulletin de la Société d’Archéologie Copte. Magallat Gam-aiyat al-Atar al-Qibtiya, Cairo 4,1938ff. Bulletin of the Society for African Church History, Abingdon 1,1963ff. Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung. Bulletin de la Société Suisse d’Etudes Juives, Zürich 1,1992ff. Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche, ed. A. Hahn et al. , Breslau 1842; 3 1897 = 1962 Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, Leipzig etc. 1849ff. Bulletin de la Société de l’Histoire du Protestantisme Français, Paris 1,1852ff. Basler und Berner Studien zur historischen und systematischen Theologie, Bern 23,1975ff. Beiträge zur sächsischen Kirchengeschichte, Dresden etc. 1,1882–47,1942 Bekenntnisschriften und Kirchenordnungen der nach Gottes Wort reformierten Kirche, ed. W. Niesel, Zollikon etc. 3,1938 Bekenntnisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, publ. Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenausschuss, Göttingen 1930; 2,1952; 3,1956; 10,1986; 12,1998 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London 10,1940/42ff. Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten Kirche, ed. E.F.K. Müller, Leipzig 1903 Bibliotheca sactorum Istituto Giovanni XXIII., Rome 1,1961–12,1969; Index 1970; Appendices 1,1987–2,1999 Biblische Studien, Neukirchen 1,1951–65,1975 The Bible Translator, London 1,1950–22,1971 Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Wiesbaden – Series A: Naturwissenschaften 1,1977ff. – Series B: Geisteswissenschaften 1,1972ff. Biblical Theology Bulletin, New York 1,1971ff. Beiträge zur theologischen Bachforschung, Neuhausen-Stuttgart 1,1983ff. Biblisch-theologische Studien, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1,1977ff. Berliner theologische Zeitschrift, Berlin 1,1984ff. Beiruter Texte und Studien, publ. Orient-Institut der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Wiesbaden 1,1964ff. Biblische Untersuchungen, Regensburg 1,1967ff. Buddhist Christian Studies, Honolulu 1,1981ff. Bundesverfassungsgericht: Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts, publ. members of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, Tübingen 1,1952ff. Bundesverwaltungsgericht: Entscheidungen des Bundesverwaltungsgerichts, publ. members of the Supreme Administrative Court of Germany, Berlin 1,1955ff. Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig – Philologisch-Historische Klasse 71,1919–106,1962 – Philologisch-historische Klasse 1,1849–70,1918 Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament, Stuttgart etc. 1926ff. Baden-Württembergische Biographien, ed. B. Ottnad, Stuttgart 1,1994ff. Beiträge zur westfälischen Kirchengeschichte, Witten etc. 1,1974ff. Blätter für württembergische Kirchengeschichte, Stuttgart 1,1886–10,1895; NS 1,1897– 47,1943; (3rd series:) 48,1948ff. Biographisch woordenboek van protestantsche godgeleerden in Nederland, The Hague 1919ff. W. Schmieder, Thematisch-systematisches Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke von J.S. Bach. Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, Leipzig 1950; 21958 Byzantinisches Archiv, Leipzig etc. 1,1898–9,1927; 10,1959ff. (= supplement to ByZ) Byzantinische Forschungen, Amsterdam 1,1966ff. Byzantina Neerlandica, Leiden – Series B: Studia 1,1970ff.

li ByN.T BySl BySl.S ByZ Byz. BZ BzA BZAR BZAW BZGAK BzH BZNW CA CAF CAH CAH3 CANE CAr Carmelus CAsJ Cass. Cass.S CAT Cath(M) Cath. Cathedra CAVC CB CB.NT CB.OT CBCo CBCR CBET CBM CBQ CBQ.MS CByrsa CČt CCAR CCAR.YB CCath CCen CCEO CChr CChr.CM CChr.SA CChr.SG CChr.SL CCL CCMéd

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Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals CCMon CConf CCSSM CEFR CeS CF CFan CFHB CFHB.B CFM CFM.S CFr CGG CH CHB ChFe ChH CHIQ Chiron CHM CHR Chrêsis ChUP ChW CIC CIG CII CIJ CIL CIMAH CIS CistSQ CistSS CISy CivCatt CJud CLA CLSt CMC CMCS CMG CMH CNEB CNT CNT(N) COD Cod.Theod. Cognoscere

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Corpus consuetudinum monasticarum, Siegburg 1,1963ff. Corpus confessionum. Die Bekenntnisse der Christenheit. Sammlung grundlegender Urkunden aus allen Kirchen der Gegenwart, ed. C. Fabricius, Berlin 1928–1944 Convegni del Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualità Medievale, Todi 1,1957ff. Collection de l’École Française de Rome, Rome 8,1972ff. Civilisations et Sociétés, Paris 1,1965ff. Collectanea Friburgensia, Freiburg, Switzerland 1,1894–9,1900; 10 (= NS 1),1901–37 (= NS 28),1940; 29,1942ff. Cahiers de Fanjeaux, Fanjeaux etc. 1,1966ff. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae, Washington, DC, 1,1967ff. – Series Berolinensis Corpus fontium Manichaeorum, Turnhout 1,1996ff. – Subsidia 1,1997ff. Collectanea Franciscana, Rome etc. 1,1931ff.; Supplement = BgF Christlicher Glaube in moderner Gesellschaft. Enzyklopädische Bibliothek in 30 Themenbänden und 7 Quellenbänden, ed. F. Böckle, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1981–37,1984 Cahiers d’histoire, Lyon etc. (1),1956; 2,1957ff. Cambridge History of the Bible, Cambridge 1,1963–3,1970 Ching Feng. Quarterly Notes on Christianity and Chinese Religion and Culture, Hong Kong 1,1957ff. Church History. American Society of Church History, Chicago, IL, etc. 1,1932ff. Concordia Historical Institute Quarterly. A Journal for the History of Lutheranism in America, St. Louis, MO, 1,1928/29ff. Chiron. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Munich 1,1971ff. Cahiers d’histoire mondiale, Paris 1,1953–14,1972 The Catholic Historical Review, Washington, DC, 1,1915/16ff. Chrêsis. Die Methoden der Kirchenväter im Umgang mit der antiken Kultur, Basel 1,1984; 2,1993ff. Chartularium universitatis Parisiensis, ed. H. Denifle et al., Paris 1,1889–4,1897 Christliche Welt, Gotha 1,1886; 1,1887–55,1941 Codex Iuris Canonici, Rome 1917; 1983 (= AAS 75,2) Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum, Berlin 1,1828–6,1877 Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum, Benares 1,1961ff. Corpus inscriptionum Judaicarum. Corpus of Jewish Inscriptions, Vatican City 1,1936ff. Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin 1,1862ff. Corpus inscriptionum medii aevi Helvetiae, Freiburg, Switzerland 1,1977ff. Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum, Paris 1,1881ff. Cisterian Studies Quarterly. An International Review of Monastic and Contemplative Spirituality, Vina, CA, 27,1992ff. Cistercian Studies Series, Shannon 1,1969ff. Cahiers internationaux de symbolisme, Geneva etc. 1,1963ff. Civiltà cattolica, Rome 1,1850–18,1903; 55,1904ff. Conservative Judaism, New York 1,1945ff. Codices Latini antiquiores, ed. E.A. Lowe, Oxford 1,1934–11,1969 Canon Law Studies, Washington, DC, 1,1916ff. Collana Magistero conciliare, Turin 1,1967ff. Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies, Cambridge 1,1981–25,1993 Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, Leipzig etc. 1908ff. Cambridge Medieval History, Cambridge, 2nd ed. 1924–1936; individual vols. in some cases later The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible, Cambridge 1963ff. Coniectanea neotestamentica, Uppsala 1,1936–20,1964 Commentaire du Nouveau Testament, ed. F. Bovon, Neuchâtel etc. 1949ff. Conciliorum oecumenicorum decreta, ed. H. Jedin, Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1962; 2,1962; 3,1973 Codex Theodosianus, ed. T. Mommsen, Berlin 1–2,1905; 21954; 41971 Cognoscere: erkennen – entdecken – verstehen, Berlin 1,1993ff.

liii Comitatus Comm. Comptes rendus

ComSoc Conc(D) Conceptus ContEras Contubernium CoptGnL COst COT CP CPF CPG CPJ CPL CPS CPS.L CQ CQR CR CRAI CRB CRBS CRI Critique CRM CRP CrSt CRThPh CSA CSASE CSCO CSCO.Ae CSCO.Ar CSCO.S CSCO.Sub CSCP CSCT CSEL CSHB CSMLT CSoc CStS CT

CTA

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DZGW DZKR EA EAEHL EAZ EBrit EC ECC EcclLJ ED EdF EDG EdM EE EEBS EEC EETS EETS.ES EETS.SS EGTSK EHK EHP EHS EHS.G

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lvii EHS.R EHS.T EI EI 2 EI(D) EichM EIr EJ EJ(D) EK EKD EKD.D EKD.T EKGB EKK EKKd EkklAl EKL EKO EkTh EKZ EL Elephantine

ELKZ EMISJ EMM EMML

EMZ

EnAC EncBud EncDSS EncIt EncPh EncR EncRel (E) EO EOMJA EOr Eos EpdD EpGF

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals – Series 2: Rechtswissenschaft 1,1967ff. – Series 23: Theologie 1,1970ff. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. M.T. Houtsma, Leiden 1,1913–4,1934; Supplement 1938 The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New ed. by C.E. Bosworth etc., Leiden 1,1960ff.; Supplement 1980ff. Enzyklopädie des Islam, ed. M.T. Houtsma, Leiden 1,1913–4,1934; Supplement 1938 Eichstätter Materialien, Regensburg 1,1984ff. Encyclopaedia Iranica, ed. E. Yarshater, London 1,1982ff. Encyclopaedia Judaica, Jerusalem 1–16,1971; 17,1982ff. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Das Judentum in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Berlin 1,1928– 10,1934 Evangelische Kommentare, Stuttgart 1,1968ff. Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland – Die Denkschriften der EKD, Gütersloh 1,1978ff. – Texte, Hannover 2,1982ff. Einzelarbeiten aus der Kirchengeschichte Bayerns, Nürnberg 1,1925ff. Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, Neukirchen 1975ff. Evangelische Kirchenkunde, Tübingen etc. 1,1902–7,1919 Ekklēsiastikē alētheia, Constantinople 1,1880/81–43,1923 Evangelisches Kirchenlexikon, Göttingen 1,1956–4,1961; 2nd ed. 1,1961–4,1962; 3rd ed. 1,1986ff. Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des XVI. Jahrhunderts, ed. E. Sehling, Leipzig etc. 1,1902–15,1977 Ekklēsia kai theologia. Church and Theology, London 1,1980ff. Evangelische Kirchenzeitung. Organ der Evangelisch-Lutherischen innerhalb der Preußischen Landeskirche, Berlin 1,1827–104,1930 Ephemerides liturgicae, Vatican City 1,1887ff. Elephantine. Grabungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo in Zusammenarbeit mit dem schweizerischen Institut für ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde Kairo, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Berlin, Mainz 1980ff. Evangelisch-lutherische Kirchenzeitung, Munich 1,1947–15,1961 Estudios y monografias. Institución San Jeronimo para la Investigacion Biblica, Madrid 1,1977ff. Evangelisches Missions-Magazin, Basel, NS 1,1857–118,1974 G. Haile & W. Macomber, eds., A Catalogue of Ethiopian Manuscripts Microfilmed for the Ethopian Manuscript Microfilm Library, Addis Ababa, and for the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library, Collegeville, MN, 1975ff. Evangelische Missionszeitschrift. Monatsblatt für Missionswissenschaft und evangelische Religionskunde, Stuttgart 1,1940–5,1944; NS 6,1949–31,1974; (6,1949–15,1958 entitled: Evangelische Missionszeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und evangelische Religionskunde) Entretiens sur l’antiquité classique. Fondation Hardt pour l’Etude de l’Antiquité Classique, Geneva 1,1954ff. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, ed. G.P. Malalasekera et al., Colombo 1,1961ff. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L.H. Schiffman, 2 vols., Oxford 2002 Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, Rome 1,1929–36,1939; Appendices [37],1937ff. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. P. Edward et al., New York etc. 1–8,1967 The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, ed. H.J. Hillerbrand, New York 1996 The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade, New York 1–16,1987 Ecclesia orans. Periodica de scientiis liturgicis, Rome 1,1984ff. Ecclesiae occidentalis monumenta iuris antiquissima: canonum et conciliorum graecorum interpretationes latinae, ed. C.H. Turner, Oxford 1.1,1899–3,1939 Échos d’Orient, Bucharest etc. 1,1897/98–39/40,1940/42 Eos. Commentarii Societatis Philologae Polonorum, Wroclaw etc. 1,1894ff. Evangelischer Pressedienst. Dokumentation: ein Informationsdienst, Frankfurt/M., 1968– 1993; Epd-Dokumentation, 1994ff. Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, ed. M. Davies, Göttingen 1988

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals EPH EphMar EPhW EpigrAnat EPRO ER Eranos ERE ErIs ErJb EScR ESI ESL EspSag ESt EstB EStL ET EtB EtCl EtGr Ethica EThL Ethnog. EThSt ETR Études EU EuA EuG Euphorion EuS EvDia EvErz EvJ EvMis EvQ EvSoz EvTh EWNT EWP Exchange

FaCh FAT FBESG

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Études de philologie et d’histoire, Geneva 1,1967ff. Ephemerides Mariologicae. Commentaria de re Mariali a Superioribus Scholis C.M.F. exarata, Madrid 1,1951ff. Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie, ed. J. Mittelstrass, Mannheim 1,1980ff. Epigraphica Anatolica. Zeitschrift für Epigraphik und historische Geographie Anatoliens, Bonn 1,1983ff. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’empire romain, Leiden 1,1961ff. Ecumenical Review. World Council of Churches, Geneva 1,1948/49ff. Eranos. Yearbook, Leiden 39,1970ff. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. J. Hastings, Edinburgh 1,1908–13,1926 Ereß-Yiśrā’ēl. Eretz-Israel, Jerusalem 1,1951ff. Eranos-Jahrbuch, Zürich 1,1933–38,1969 Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses, ed. F. Lichtenberger, Paris 1,1877–13,1882 Excavations and Surveys in Israel, ed. I. Pommerantz, Jerusalem 1,1982ff. Evangelisches Soziallexikon, Stuttgart 1954; 21956; 31958; 41963; 51965; 61969; 71980; new ed. 2001 España sagrada. Theatro geographico-historico de la Iglesia de España, Madrid 1,1754– 56,1957 Eichstätter Studien, Eichstätt etc. 1,1937–8,1962; NS 1,1968ff. Estudios bíblicos, Madrid 1,1929–8,1936 (= No. 1–24/25); 2nd series 1,1941/42ff. Evangelisches Staatslexikon, Stuttgart 1966; 2 1975; 3rd ed. 1–2,1987 The Expository Times, Edinburgh etc. 1,1889/90ff. Études bibliques, Paris 1903ff.; NS 1,1983ff. Les Études classiques, Namur 1,1932ff. Études grégoriennes, Solesmes 1,1954ff. Ethica. Wissenschaft und Verantwortung, Innsbruck 1,1993ff. Ephemerides theologicae Lovanienses, Leuven etc. 1,1924ff. L’Ethnographie, Paris 1913/14ff. Erfurter theologische Studien, Leipzig 1,1956ff. Études théologiques et religieuses, Montpellier 1,1926ff. Études. Revue catholique d’intérêt général, ed. Pères de la Compagnie de Jésus, Paris 34,1897ff. Evangelische Unterweisung, Dortmund 1,1946–25,1970 Erbe und Auftrag. Benediktinische Monatschrift, Beuron 35,1959ff. Erkenntnis und Glaube. Schriften der Evangelischen Forschungsakademie Ilsenburg, Berlin 1,1950ff. Euphorion. Zeitschrift für Literaturgeschichte, Heidelberg 1,1894ff. Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften. Streitforum für Erwägungskultur, Opladen 1,1990ff. Die Evangelische Diaspora. Jahrbuch des Gustav-Adolf-Werkes, Leipzig 2,1920/21ff. Der evangelische Erzieher, Frankfurt/M. 1,1949ff. Evangelische Jahresbriefe, publ. for the Evangelische Michaelsbruderschaft, Kassel 6,1936/37–16,1951/52 Evangelische Mission. Jahrbuch, publ. Verband Evangelischer Missionskonferenz, Hamburg 1,1969–17,1985. Evangelical Quarterly, London etc. 1,1929ff. Evangelisch-sozial. Mitteilungen des Evangelisch-Sozialen Kongresses. Vierteljahresschrift für die sozialkirchliche Arbeit, Göttingen 1904–1943 Evangelische Theologie, Munich 1,1934/35–5,1938; 6,1946/47ff. Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament, ed. H.R. Balz & G. Schneider, 3 vols., Stuttgart 1980–1983; 2 1992 Erziehung in Wissenschaft und Praxis, Munich 1,1967ff. Exchange. Bulletin de la littérature des églises du Tiers Monde. Bulletin of Third World Christian Literature. Interuniversitair Instituut voor Missiologie en Oekumenica, Leiden 1,1972ff. Fathers of the Church, Washington, DC, 1,1932ff. Forschungen zum Alten Testament, Tübingen 1,1991ff. Forschungen und Berichte der Evangelischen Studiengemeinschaft, Witten etc. 16,1959ff.

lix FBPG FBPG.NF.B FBPG.NS FC FCCO FChr FDA FEB FGH FGIL FGLP FGNK FHG FJB FKDG FKGG FKRG FKRW FKTh FMAG FMSt FOP FOTL FPDR FPT FQKGO Francia Francia.B FrFor FRKG FRLANT FrPr FrS FS FS.B FSATS FSÖTh FSThR FTF FThL FThSt FTS FuGB FuH FV FVK

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Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals fzb FzB FZPhTh G&R GAGS GAKGS GAT GBDHV GBNTL GCh GCS GCS.NF GD GDK GeGe GeJu GeLe Genava GermBen GermSac

Gesenius Gesenius 18 GFd GFd.B GGA GGB GK GKT GlLern GLOK Gn. GNO GNT GÖB

GOF GOF.H GOF.I GOF.S

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lxi GöK GOTR GPM GrB GRBS GRel GRM GrTS GSL.AT GSL.NT GT GT.P GT.S GTA GTBS GThW GuL GuV GVUL

GWU Gymnasium HAE HAHR HALAT HAT HATS HAW HB HbEG HbKL HBO HBOT HBS HbSS HBSt HCE HCO HCOT HdbEG HDEKM HDG

HDIEO

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Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals HdJb HDR HDRG HDSW HDtG HDThG HDThG2 HdWW HEG Heimbucher HEKG HelSac HEM

HEO Hephaistos HerChr Hereditas HerKorr Hermeneia Hermes HeTe HeyJ HeyM HFTh HGIAL HGM HispJud Hist. Hist.E Hist.S HistJ HistJud HistMun HJ HJLG HK HKAW HKG HKG(J) HKi

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Heidelberger Jahrbücher, Heidelberg etc. 1,1957ff. Harvard Dissertations in Religion, Missoula, MT 1,1975ff. Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte, ed. A. Erler et al., Berlin 1,1971ff. Handwörterbuch der Sozialwissenschaften, ed. E. v. Beckerath, Stuttgart etc. 1,1956– 12,1965; list of contributors and index of names, 1966; Index vol., 1968 Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte, ed. B. Gebhardt et al., Stuttgart etc. 9th ed. 1,1970– 4,1976 Handbuch der Dogmen- und Theologiegeschichte, ed. C. Andresen, Göttingen 1,1982– 3,1984 Handbuch der Dogmen- und Theologiegeschichte, 2nd revised and extended ed. by C. Andresen & A.M. Ritter, Göttingen 1988 Handwörterbuch der Wirtschaftswissenschaften, ed. W. Albers et al., Stuttgart etc. 1,1977– 9,1982; Index vol. 1983 Handbuch der europäischen Geschichte, Stuttgart 1968ff. M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, Paderborn 5 1987 Handbuch zum Evangelischen Kirchengesangbuch, ed. C. Mahrenholz & O. Söhngen, Göttingen 1.1,1953–3.2,1990 Helvetia sacra, St. Gallen 1,1972ff. A History of the Ecumenical Movement, ed. R. Rouse & S.C. Neill, Philadelphia, PA, etc. (for German ed. see GÖB) – 1517–1948 (= HEM 1), 1954; 2,1967; 3,1986; 4,1993 – The Ecumenical Advance, ed. H.E. Fey (= HEM 2), 1970; 2,1986; 3,1993 Hautes études orientales (= Publications du Centre de Recherches d’Histoire et de Philologie de la IVe Section de l’Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes), Geneva 1,1968ff. Hephaistos. New Approaches in Classical Archeology and Related Fields, Kissing et al. 1,1979ff. Herbergen der Christenheit. Jahrbuch für deutsche Kirchengeschichte, Leipzig 1957ff. Hereditas. Studien zur alten Kirchengeschichte, Bonn 1,1987ff. Herder-Korrespondenz. Orbis catholicus, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1946/47ff. Hermeneia. A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible, Philadelphia, PA 1971ff. Hermes. Zeitschrift für klassische Philologie, Wiesbaden 1,1866ff. Herrenalber Texte, Stuttgart 1,1978ff. Heythrop Journal. A Quarterly Review of Philosophy and Theology, Oxford etc. 1,1960ff. Heythrop Monographs, London 1,1976ff. Handbuch der Fundamentaltheologie, ed. W. Kern, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1985–4,1988; 22000 Historia general de la Iglesia en América latina, ed. E.D. Dussel, Salamanca 1981ff. Historici Graeci Minores, ed. L.A. Dindorf, Leipzig 1–2,1870/71 Hispania Judaica, Jerusalem 1,1978ff. Historia. Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, Wiesbaden etc. 1,1950ff. – Einzelschriften 1,1956ff. Historia, publ. Universidad Católica de Chile, Instituto de Historia, Santiago de Chile 1,1961ff. Historical Journal, Cambridge etc. 1,1958ff. Historia Judaica, New York 1,1938–23,1961 Historia mundi, Munich etc. 1,1952–10,1961 Historisches Jahrbuch der Görresgesellschaft, Munich etc. 1,1880–61,1941; 62/69,1949; 70,1951ff. Hessisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, Marburg 1,1951ff. Handkommentar zum Alten Testament, Göttingen 1892ff. Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Munich etc. 1885ff. Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte für Studierende, ed. G. Krüger, Tübingen 1,1909–4,1913; 2 1923–1931 Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, ed. H. Jedin, Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1,1962–7,1979; Supplement 1970 Die Hochkirche. Monatsschrift der Hochkirchlichen Vereinigung, Munich 1,1919–15,1933

lxiii HKKR HKKR2 HL HlD HLL HLV HMK HMT HNT HNTA HO HÖ HOK HoLiCo HoRe HosEc HPB HPBl HPhG HPs HPTh HPTh(G) HR HRG HRGem HRPG HRWG HS HSCP HSCP.S HSK HSKR HSM HST HTh HTh Theme Issue HThK HThK.S HThKAT HThR HThS HTS HUCA HUTh

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Handbuch des katholischen Kirchenrechts, ed. J. Listl, H. Müller & H. Schmitz, Regensburg 1983 Handbuch des katholischen Kirchenrechts, 2nd rev. ed., ed. J. Listl & H. Schmitz, Regensburg 1999 Humanistica Lovaniensia, Leuven 1,1928ff. Heiliger Dienst, publ. Liturgischer Institut, Erzabtei St. Peter, Salzburg, Salzburg 1, 1947ff. Handbuch der Lateinischen Literatur der Antike (= Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, Abt. 8), ed. R. Herzog & P.L. Schmidt, Munich 5,1989; 4,1997; 1,2002ff. Hans-Lietzmann-Vorlesungen, Berlin 1,1996ff. Hefte zur Missionskunde, Herrnhut 1,1907–31,1935 Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, looseleaf ed., 5 vols., ed. H.H. Eggebrecht, Stuttgart 1972ff. Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, Tübingen 1907ff.; new ed. 1925ff. Handbuch zu den neutestamentlichen Apokryphen, ed. E. Hennecke, Tübingen 1904 Handbuch der Orientalistik, Leiden etc. 1948ff. Handbuch der Ökumenik, ed. H.J. Urban et al., Paderborn 1,1985–3,1987 Handbuch der Ostkirchenkunde, ed. E.V. Ivánka et al., Düsseldorf 1971; rev. ed., ed. W. Nyssen 1,1984–3,1997 Homiletisch-Liturgisches Korrespondenzblatt, Nürnberg etc. 1,1825–14,1838; NS 1,1983/84ff. Homo religiosus, Louvain-la-Neuve 1,1978ff. Hospitium ecclesiae. Forschungen zur bremischen Kirchengeschichte, Bremen 1,1954ff. Hessisches Pfarrerblatt, publ. Evangelische Pfarrvereinen in Hessen und Nassau, sowie Kurhessen-Waldeck, Frankfurt 1971–1990 Historisch-politische Blätter für das katholische Deutschland, Munich 1,1838–171,1923 Handbuch philosophischer Grundbegriffe, ed. H. Krings et al., Munich 1,1973–6,1974 Handbuch der Psychologie, ed. K. Gottschaldt, 12 vols., Göttingen 1959–1983 Handbuch der Pastoraltheologie. Praktische Theologie der Kirche in ihrer Gegenwart, ed. F.X. Arnold et al., Freiburg i.Br. 1,1964–5,1972; 2nd ed. 1,1970–3,1972 Handbuch der praktischen Theologie, ed. P.C. Bloth et al., Gütersloh 2,1981–4,1987 History of Religions, Chicago, IL, 1,1961/62ff. Handbuch der Religionsgeschichte, ed. J.P. Asmussen, Göttingen 1,1971–3,1975 Handbuch Religiöse Gemeinschaften, ed. H. Reller, Gütersloh 1978; 2 1979; 3 1985 Handbuch religionspädagogischer Grundbegriffe, ed. G. Bitter, Munich 1–2,1986 Handbuch religionswissenschaftlicher Grundbegriffe, ed. H. Cancik et al., Stuttgart etc. 1,1988ff. Historische Studien, ed. E. Ebering, Berlin 1,1896ff. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Cambridge, MA, 1,1890ff. – Supplement 1,1940ff. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, co-founded by G. Ungeheur, ed. H. Steger et al., Berlin 1.1,1982ff. Handbuch des Staatskirchenrechts der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, ed. E. Friesenhahn 1,1974–2,1975; 2nd ed., ed. J. Listl & D. Pirson 1,1994–2,1995 Harvard Semitic Monographs, Cambridge, MA, 1,1968ff. Handbuch systematischer Theologie, ed. C.H. Ratschow, Gütersloh 1979ff. History and Theory. Studies in the Philosophy of History, Middletown, CT, 1,1960/61ff. – Theme Issue 33,1994ff. Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, Freiburg i.Br. 1953ff. – Supplement 1,1986ff. Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament, Freiburg i.Br. 1999ff. Harvard Theological Review, Cambridge, MA, 1,1908ff. Harvard Theological Studies, Cambridge, MA, etc. 1,1916ff. Hervormde teologiese studies, Pretoria 9,1952/53ff. Hebrew Union College Annual, Cincinnati, OH, 1,1924ff. Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie, Tübingen 1,1962ff.

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Heidelberger Untersuchungen zu Widerstand, Judenverfolgung und Kirchenkampf im Dritten Reich, Munich 1,1989ff. Historische Vierteljahrschrift. Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft und für lateinische Philologie des Mittelalters, Leipzig etc. 1,1898–31,1937/39 Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens, ed. H. Bächtold-Stäubli, Berlin 1,1927– 10,1942 Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie, ed. J. Ritter, Basel etc. 1,1971ff. Historisches Wörterbuch der Rhetorik, ed. G. Ueding, Tübingen etc. 1,1992ff. Hypomnemata. Untersuchungen zur Antike und zu ihrem Nachleben, Göttingen 1,1962ff. Historische Zeitschrift, Munich etc. 1,1859ff. Internationales Asien-Forum, Munich 1,1970ff. IAH Bulletin. Publikation der Internationalen Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Hymnologie/ Instituut voor Liturgiewetenschap, Groningen 1,1974ff. International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Ventnor, NJ, 5,1981ff. Irish Biblical Studies, London 1,1979ff. Islamic Culture, Hyderabad 1,1927ff. International Critical Commentary of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, Edinburgh 1895ff. International Statistical Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems, publ. WHO, 1992ff. Indian Church History Review, Calcutta 1,1967ff. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, Birmingham etc. 1,1990ff. Inscriptiones Christianae urbis Romae septimo saeculo antiquiores, ed. J. Baptista de Rossi et al., Rom 1,1862–2,1888; Supplement 1,1915; NS 1,1922–4,1956 The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. G.A. Buttrick, New York etc. 1–4,1962; Supplement 1976 Impulse der Forschung, Darmstadt 1,1969ff. Israel Exploration Journal, Jerusalem 1,1950/51ff. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, New York 1–17,1968 Inscriptiones Graecae, Berlin 1,1873ff. Indogermanische Forschungen, Berlin etc. 1,1891ff. Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie, Paris 1,1929ff. International History Review, ed. E. Ingram & I. Mugridge, Downsview, Ontario etc. 1,1979ff. Indo-Iranian Journal, The Hague 1,1957ff. International Journal of American Linguistics, New York etc. 1,1917/20ff. International Journal of Middle East Studies, Cambridge 1,1970ff. International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, The Hague 1,1970ff. International Journal of Practical Theology, Berlin 1,1997ff. Indian Journal of Theology, Serampore etc. 1,1952ff. Inschriften griechischer Städte in Kleinasien, Bonn 1,1972ff. Internationale katholische Zeitschrift, Frankfurt/M. 1,1972ff. Internationaler Kongreß für Papyrologie. International Congress of Papyrologists 3,1933ff. Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift. Revue internationale ecclésiastique. International Church Review, Bern 19,1911ff. Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae veteres, ed. E. Diehl , Berlin 1,1925–3,1931; 2nd ed. 1–4,1967 = Dublin 1970 Islam-Lexikon, ed. A.T. Khoury, L. Hagemann & P. Heine, 3 vols., Freiburg 1991; repr. 1996; new rev. ed. 1999 Iliff Review, Denver, CO 1,1944ff. Im Lichte der Reformation. Jahrbuch des Evangelischen Bundes, Göttingen 1,1958ff. Inscriptiones Latinae selectae, ed. H. Dessau, Berlin 1,1892–3,1916; 2nd ed. 1954–1955 and Supplement; 3 1962 = Dublin 1974 Imago. Zeitschrift für Anwendung der Psychoanalyse auf die Geisteswissenschaften, ed. S. Freud, Leipzig etc. 1,1912–23,1934 Israel Numismatic Journal, Jerusalem 1,1963ff.

lxv Inst. Int. Interp. IOS IP IPQ Iran Iraq Irén. IRM Islam IslSt Ist. ITC IThS IusEcc JA JAAR JAAS JaC JAC JAMS JAOS JapRel JAR JARCE JARG JArL JArS JAUK JAWG JAWL JbAC JbAC.E JBAW JBBKG JbDEI JBK JBL JBLG JbM JBQ JBrKG JbSalSt JBTh JChS JCOI JCS JCSW JDAI

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lxvii JPTh JQR JR JRA JRAI JRAr JRAr.S JRAS JRH JRP JRS JRT JS JSAf JSAI JSAm JSFWU JSFWU.B JSHRZ JSJ JSKG JSNT JSNT.S JSOT JSOT/ASOR JSP JSQ JSS JSSR JSSt JSSt.M JSTM JThS Jud. JudChr Jura Jurist JuS JusEcc JVABG JVEB

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KGMG KGQS KGS KH KHÅ KHC KHL KHS(K) KIG KiHiSt KiKonf KilR KiSo KiZ KJ KKK KKTS Kl. Kleos

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Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, ed. H. Donner et al., Wiesbaden 1,1962– 3,1964; 2nd ed. 1,1967–3,1969 Kairos. Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft und Theologie, Salzburg 1,1959–10,1968; NS 11,1969ff. Kanon. Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft für das Recht der Ostkirchen, Vienna etc. 1,1971 (1973)ff. Kanonika. Facultas Iuris Canonici, Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, Rome 1,1992ff. Kanonisches Recht. Lehrbuch aufgrund des Codex Iuris Canonici, founded by E. Eichmann, continued by K. Mörsdorf, revised by W. Aymans, Paderborn etc., 13th ed. 1,1991–2,1997 Kant-Studien. Philosophische Zeitschrift der Kant-Gesellschaft, Berlin etc. 1,1897ff. Kommentar zum Alten Testament, Leipzig etc. 1,1913ff. Katechetische Blätter, Munich etc. 1,1875ff. Kommentar zu den apostolischen Vätern, Göttingen 1,1989ff. (= KEK supplement series) Kommentare und Beiträge zum Alten und Neuen Testament, Düsseldorf 1968ff. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, ed. L. Köhler & W. Baumgartner, Leiden 1953; Supplement 1958 K. Barth, Die kirchliche Dogmatik, Zürich I/1,1932–IV/4,1967; ET: Church Dogmatics, 1975ff., repr. 2004 Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament, founded by H.A.W. Meyer, Göttingen 1832ff. Kennzeichen. Studien und Problemberichte aus dem Projekt «Frauen als Innovationsgruppen» des Dt. Nationalkomitees des Luth. Weltbundes, Offenbach 1,1977ff. Keos. Results of Excavations Conducted by the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 1,1977ff. Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten, ed. N. Brox, Freiburg i.Br. etc., 2001ff. Kirchengeschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin – 1. Alte Kirche und frühes Mittelalter 1,1985ff. – 2. Spätes Mittelalter und Reformation 1983ff. – 3. Neuzeit 1989ff. Kirchengeschichte als Missionsgeschichte, Munich 1,1974ff. Kirchengeschichtliche Quellen und Studien, St. Ottilien, 1,1950ff. Kirchengeschichtliche Studien, Münster 1,1891–6,1903 Kirchliches Handbuch ( für das katholische Deutschland), publ. Amtliche Zentralstelle für Kirchliche Statistik des Katholischen Deutschland, Cologne 1,1907/08ff. Kyrkohistorisk årsskrift, Uppsala 1,1900ff. Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, Tübingen etc. 1,1897–20,1904 Kirchliches Handlexikon, ed. M. Buchberger, Munich 1,1907–2,1912 Kirkehistoriske studier, Copenhagen, 2nd series 3,1958ff. Die Kirche in ihrer Geschichte. Ein Handbuch, founded by K.D. Schmidt, ed. B. Möller, Göttingen 1961ff. Kieler historische Studien, Stuttgart 1,1966ff. Kirche und Konfession, Göttingen 1,1962ff. Kirche im ländlichen Raum. Arbeitsgemeinschaft für den Dienst auf dem Lande, EKD, Altenkirchen 30,1979ff. Kirche im Sozialismus. Materialien zu Entwicklungen in der DDR, publ. Berliner Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kirchliche Publizistik, Berlin 1973–1990 Kirche in der Zeit. Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, Düsseldorf 5,1950–22,1967 Kirchliches Jahrbuch für die evangelischen Landeskirchen Deutschlands, Gütersloh 27,1900ff. Ecclesia Catholica. Katechismus der Katholischen Kirche, Munich etc. 1993 Konfessionskundliche und kontroverstheologische Studien, Paderborn 1,1959ff. Kleronomia. Patriarchal Institute for Patristic Studies, Thessaloniki 1,1969ff. Kleos. Estemporaneo di studi e testi sulla fortuna dell’antico, Bari 1,1994ff.

lxix Klio Klio.B KLK KLL KlProt KlT KlTh KM KMJ KNLL KO KO.B KO.M KonChal Kos KP KPS KR KRA KSGW KSL KSMS KSMS KStT KStTh KTA KThR KTU KUB KuD KuI KuKi KulturPoetik KuM KuOr KU-Praxis KuR KuS KVR KVS KW

KWCO Kyrios KZfSS KZfSS.S KZG LÄ LACL

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, Berlin 1,1901ff. – Beiheft 1,1903–14 (= NS 1),1923–49 (= NS 36),1944 Katholisches Leben und Kämpfen. Kirchenreform im Zeitalter der Glaubensspaltung, Münster 1,1927ff. Kindlers Literaturlexikon, Zürich 1,1965–7,1972; Supplement 8,1974 Klassiker des Protestantismus, ed. C.M. Schröder, 8 vols., 1962–1967 Kleine Texte für Vorlesungen und Übungen, Berlin etc. 1,1902–192,1978 Klassiker der Theologie, ed. H. Fries, Munich 1,1981–2,1983 Die Katholischen Missionen, Bonn etc. 1,1873ff. Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch, Regensburg 1,1886ff. Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon, ed. W. Jens, 1988–1992 Kirche im Osten, Stuttgart etc. 1,1958ff. – Beiheft 1,1959–3,1962 – Monograph series 4,1962ff. Das Konzil von Chalkedon, Würzburg 1–3,1952–1954 Kos. Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen und Forschungen, Archäologisches Institut des Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1,1932ff. Der Kleine Pauly. Lexikon der Antike, Stuttgart 1,1962–5,1975 Klassisch-philologische Studien, Wiesbaden 1,1927–38,1971 Kirche und Recht. Zeitschrift für die kirchliche und staatliche Praxis, Neuwied 1, 1995ff. Kirchenrechtliche Abhandlungen, Stuttgart 1,1902–118,1938 Kritische Studien zur Geschichtswissenschaft, Göttingen 1,1972ff. Katholisches Soziallexikon, ed. A. Klose, Innsbruck etc. 1964; 2 1980 Kierkegaard Studies. Monograph Series, Berlin etc. 1,1996ff. Kierkegaard Studies. Yearbook, Berlin etc. 1,1996ff. Kanonistische Studien und Texte, Amsterdam etc. 1,1928ff. Kohlhammer Studienbücher Theologie, Stuttgart 1991ff. Kröners Taschenausgabe, Stuttgart etc. 1,1926ff. Konstanzer theologische Reden, Constance 1,1985ff. Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit, Kevelaer 1976 (= AOAT 24,1) Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi, Berlin 1,1921ff. Kerygma und Dogma, Göttingen 1,1955ff. Kirche und Israel. Neukirchener theologische Zeitschrift, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1,1986ff. Kunst und Kirche, Darmstadt 1,1924/25ff. KulturPoetik. Zeitschrift für kulturgeschichtliche Literaturwissenschaft, Göttingen 1,2001ff. Kerygma und Mythos, Hamburg 1,1948ff. Kunst des Orients, Wiesbaden 1,1950ff. KU-Praxis. Eine Schriftenreihe für die Arbeit mit Konfirmanden, Gütersloh 1,1973ff. Kirche und Recht, Vienna 1,1962ff. Kirche und Synagoge. Handbuch zur Geschichte von Christen und Juden, ed. K.H. Rengstorf, Stuttgart 1–2,1968–1970 Kleine Vandenhoeck-Reihe, Göttingen 1954ff. Kölner Vierteljahrshefte für Soziologie, Munich etc. 3,1923–12,1933 Die Kirchen der Welt, Stuttgart – Series A: Selbstdarstellungen 1,1959/60ff. – Series B: Ergänzungsbände 1,1960ff. Kleines Wörterbuch des christlichen Orients, ed. J. Assfalg, Wiesbaden 1975 Kyrios. Vierteljahresschrift für Kirchen- und Geistesgeschichte Osteuropas, Berlin etc. 1,1936–6,1943; NS 1,1960–14,1974 Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Cologne etc. 7,1955ff. – Sonderheft 1,1956ff. Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte. Internationale Halbjahresschrift für Theologie und Geschichtswissenschaft, Göttingen 1,1988ff. Lexikon der Ägyptologie, ed. W. Helck, Wiesbaden 1,1972–6,1986 Lexikon der antiken christlichen Literatur, ed. S. Döpp et al., Freiburg i.Br. 1998; 3rd, revised and extended ed. 2002

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals LACT LäS LASBF LAW LCC LChrJ LCI LCPM Lectures LeDiv LeDiv.Comm. Leit. Leit.NF Lev. Levant LexBioeth LexCap LexRP l’homme Lias Liddell/Scott LIMC LitWo LIW LJ LK LKGG LKStKR LKW Llex LM LMA LMed LMG LO LouvSt LP LPäd(F) LPäd(R) LPs LQF LR LRG LRS LThK

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Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology, Oxford 1,1841–32,1863 Leipziger ägyptologische Studien, Glückstadt 1,1935–11,1939 Liber annuus. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 30,1980ff. Lexikon der Alten Welt, ed. C. Andresen, Zürich etc. 1965 Library of Christian Classics, London 1,1953ff. Lernprozeß Christen Juden, Düsseldorf 1,1980ff. Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie, ed. E. Kirschbaum, Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1,1968–8,1976 = 1990 Letture cristiane del primo millennio, Milan 2,1987ff. Lectures of the British Academy, London 1909ff. Lectio divina, Paris 1,1946ff. – Commentaires, Paris 1,1993ff. Leiturgia. Handbuch des evangelischen Gottesdienstes, Kassel 1,1954–5,1970 – new ed., Hanover 1,1991ff. Levante. Rivista trimestrale del Centro per le Relazioni Italo-Arabe, Rome 1,1953ff. Levant. Journal of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, London 1,1969ff. Lexikon der Bioethik, ed. W. Korff et al., Gütersloh 1–3,1998 Lexicon Capuccinum. Promptuarium historico-bibliographicum Ordinis Fratrum Minorum Capuccinorum (1525–1950), Rome 1951 Lexikon der Religionspädagogik, ed. N. Mette & F. Rickers, Neukirchen-Vluyn 2001 Cahiers de l’homme: ethnologie, géographie, linguistique, publ. Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris NS 1,1961ff. Lias. Sources and Documents Relating to the Early Modern History of Ideas, Amsterdam 1,1974ff. A Greek-English Lexicon, Compiled by H.G. Liddell & R. Scott, rev. ed., Oxford 1968 Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae, ed. J. Boardman et al., Zürich 1,1981ff. Liturgisch woordenboek, ed. L. Brinkhoff et al., Roermond 1,1958–2,1968; 3rd Supplement 1970 Lexikon der islamischen Welt, ed. K. Kreiser, Stuttgart etc. 1–3,1974; 21992 Liturgisches Jahrbuch, Münster 1,1951ff. Lexikon der Kunst, ed. H. Olbrich, Leipzig 1,1987ff. Die Lutherische Kirche, Geschichte und Gestalten, Gütersloh 1,1976ff. Lexikon für Kirchen- und Staatskirchenrecht, ed. A. v. Campenhausen, J. RiedelSpangenberger & R. Sebott, Paderborn etc. 1–3,2000 Lutherische Kirche in der Welt. Jahrbuch des Martin-Luther-Bundes, Neuendettelsau 18,1971ff. Literaturlexikon. Autoren und Werke deutscher Sprache, ed. W. Killy, Gütersloh 1,1988ff. Lutherische Monatshefte, Hamburg 1,1962ff. Lexikon des Mittelalters, Munich etc. 1,1980ff. Lexikon Medizin, Ethik, Recht, ed. E. Eser et al., Freiburg i.Br. 1989 Lexikon missionstheologischer Grundbegriffe, ed. K. Müller, Berlin 1987 Lex orandi, Paris 1,1944ff. Louvain Studies, publ. Faculty of Theology of the Catholic University of Louvain, Leuven 1,1966/67ff. Le Liber pontificalis. Texte, introduction et commentaire, ed. L. Duchesne, Paris 1,1886– 2,1892 (= 1–2,1955; repr. 1981); 3,1957 Lexikon der Pädagogik, ed. H. Rombach/Deutsches Institut für Wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, Münster etc. 1,1952–4,1955; Supplement 1964; new ed. 1,1970–4,1971 Lexikon der Pädagogik, ed. E.M. Roloff, Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1,1913–5,1917 Lexikon der Psychologie, Gütersloh 1995 Liturgiegeschichtliche Quellen und Forschungen, Münster 23,1928–31,1939 Lutherische Rundschau. Zeitschrift des Lutherischen Weltbundes, Stuttgart etc. 1,1951– 27,1977 Lexikon religiöser Grundbegriffe. Judentum, Christentum, Islam, ed. A.T. Khoury, Graz etc. 1987, special ed. 1996 Living Religions Series, London 1971ff. Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche, ed. M. Buchberger et al., Freiburg i.Br. – 1,1930–10,1938; 2nd ed. 1,1957–10,1965 and index vol. 1967

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LThK 3 LuJ Luth. Luther Luthertum LuThK

LuthQ LV(L) LWB LWB.D LWB.R LWQF M.d.R.

MAES MAGW Man.NS ManS ManS.N Mansi MAR MARG MarL MäSt MBTh MChA MCom MCSM MD MDAI MDAI.A MDAI.K MDAI.R MDF MDF.S MdKI MDOG Medieval Encounters MEFR MEFRA MEFRM MEKGR MennQR MESJ METG MethH

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals – 12–14: Das Zweite Vatikanische Konzil. Konstitutionen, Dekrete und Erklärungen 1,1966–3,1968; 2nd ed. 1–3,1986 – Atlas zur Kirchengeschichte. Die Kirchen in Geschichte und Gegenwart 1970 Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche, founded by M. Buchberger, ed. W. Kasper, Freiburg i.Br. 3rd ed. 1,1993ff. Luther-Jahrbuch. Jahrbuch der Luther-Gesellschaft, Leipzig 1,1919ff. Luthertum, Erlangen etc. 45,1934–55,1944 Luther. Zeitschrift der Luthergesellschaft, ed. T. Knolle, Göttingen 1,1919ff. Luthertum. Eine Schriftenreihe, Berlin 1,1951–28,1967 Lutherische Theologie und Kirche. Vierteljahreszeitschrift für schriftgemäße und bekenntnisgebundene kirchliche Theologie, publ. Fakultät der Lutherischen Theologischen Hochschule in Oberursel, Oberursel 1,1977ff. Lutheran Quarterly, Gettysburg, PA, NS 8,1878–57,1927; 3rd series 1,1949–29,1977; NS 1,1987ff. Lumière et vie. Revue de formation et de réflexion théologiques, Lyon 1,1951ff. Lutherischer Weltbund – Dokumentation, Geneva 1,1978ff. – Report, Stuttgart etc. 1/2,1978–28/29,1990 Liturgiewissenschaftliche Quellen und Forschungen, Münster 32,1957ff. Die Reichstagsabgeordneten der Weimarer Republik in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Politische Verfolgung, Emigration und Ausbürgerung 1933–1945, ed. M. Schuhmacher, Düsseldorf, 2nd ed. 1992; 3rd extended ed. 1994 Monographs of the American Ethnological Society, Seattle, WA, 3,1940–46,1973 Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Vienna 1,1871ff. Man. A Monthly Record of Anthropological Science, London, NS 1,1966ff. Manichaean Studies, Leuven 1,1991ff. Manichaean Studies Newsletter, Turnhout 1,1988ff. J.D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, 53 vols., Florence etc. 1759–1827; repr. and continued ed. L. Petit & J.B. Martin in 60 vols., Paris 1899–1927 The Mythology of all Races, ed. L.H. Gray, New York 1–13,1964 Mitteilungen für Anthropologie und Religionsgeschichte, Münster 6,1991ff. Marienlexikon, ed. Bäumer, St. Ottilien 1,1988–6,1994 Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Berlin 1,1962ff. Münsterische Beiträge zur Theologie, Münster 1,1923ff. Mitteilungen zur christlichen Archäologie, Vienna 1,1995ff. Miscelánea Comillas, Comillas 1,1943 Miscellanea del Centro di Studi Medioevali, Milan 1,1956ff. La Maison-Dieu. Cahiers de pastorale liturgique, Paris 1,1945ff. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Berlin etc. 1,1948–6,1953 – Athenische Abteilung 1,1876ff. – Abteilung Kairo, 14,1956–46,1990 – Römische Abteilung 1,1886ff. Mitteldeutsche Forschungen, Cologne etc. 1,1954ff. – Sonderreihe: Quellen und Darstellungen in Nachdrucken 1,1983ff. Materialdienst des Konfessionskundlichen Instituts, Bensheim 1,1950ff. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin, Berlin 1,1898/99ff. Medieval Encounters. Jewish, Christian and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue, Leiden etc., 1995ff. Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome – Série Antiquité, Paris 83,1971ff. – Série Moyen âge, temps modernes, Rome 83,1971–100,1988 Monatshefte für evangelische Kirchengeschichte des Rheinlandes, Düsseldorf 1,1952ff. Mennonite Quarterly Review, Goshen, IN, 1,1927ff. Missiologian ja Ekumeniikan Seuran Julkaisuja. Annals of the Finnish Society for Missiology and Ecumenics, Helsinki 1,1957ff. Mitteilungen der Ernst-Troeltsch-Gesellschaft, Augsburg 1,1986ff. Methodist History. American Association of Methodist Historical Societies, Lake Junaluska, NC, 1,1962/63ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals MEW MFCL MGD

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K. Marx & F. Engels, Werke, Berlin 1,1956–42,1983 Mémoires et travaux publiés par des professeurs des Facultés Catholiques de Lille, Lille 1,1905ff. Musik und Gottesdienst. Zeitschrift für evangelische Kirchenmusik, publ. Schweizerischer Kirchengesangsbund and the Reformierten Organistenverbände der Deutschsprachigen Schweiz, Zürich 1,1949ff. Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, ed. F. Blume, Kassel etc. 1,1949–17,1986 Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, founded by F. Blume, 2nd rev. ed. by L. Finscher, Kassel etc. 1,1994ff. MGG Prisma, Kassel etc. 2001ff. Monumenta Germaniae historica inde ab a. C. 500 usque ad a. 1500, Hanover etc. 1826ff. – Auctores antiquissimi 1,1877–15,1919 – Briefe der deutschen Kaiserzeit 1,1949ff. – Capitularia regum Francorum, 1, 1883–2, 1897; NS 1, 1996ff. – Concilia 1,1893ff. – Constitutiones et acta publica imperatorum et regum 1,1893ff. – Diplomata – Epistolae 1,1887ff. – Epistolae selectae 1,1916ff. – Fontes iuris Germanici antiqui 1869ff.; NS 1,1933ff. – Hilfsmittel 1,1975ff. – Leges (in folio) 1,1835–5,1875/89 – Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI et XII conscripti 1,1891–3,1897 – Poetae Latinae medii aevi 1,1880ff. – Quellen zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters 1,1955ff. – Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum . . . 1,1826–32,1913; NS 1,1922ff. – Schriften des Reichsinstituts für ältere Deutsche Geschichtskunde 1,1938ff. – Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum 1,1884–7,1920 – Scriptores 1,1826–32,1934 Mitteilungen des Grabmann-Instituts, Munich 1,1958–13,1966 Monatsschrift für Gottesdienst und kirchliche Kunst, Göttingen 1,1896–46,1941 Monographien zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, Stuttgart 1,1970ff. Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica, Berlin 1,1886–62,1938 Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde, Salzburg 1,1860ff. – Supplement 1,1960ff. Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, Breslau etc. 1,1851– 83,1939 Museum Helveticum. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für klassische Altertumswissenschaft, Basel etc. 1,1944ff. Miscellanea historiae pontificiae, Rome 1.1,1939ff. Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu, Rome 1,1894ff. Monumenta humanistica Belgica, Nieuwkoop 1,1966ff. Monumenta iuris canonici, Rome – Series B: Corpus collectionum 1,1973ff. – Series A: Corpus glossatorum 1.1,1969ff. – Series C: Subsidia 1,1965ff. Michmanim. Bulletin of the Reuben and Edith Hecht Museum, University of Haifa, Haifa 1,1985ff. Mid-Stream. An Ecumenical Journal, Indianapolis, IN, 1,1961/62ff. Mind. A Quarterly Review of Psychology and Philosophy, ed. G.E. Moore et al., Edinburgh 1,1876–16,1891; NS 1,1892ff. Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, Vienna 1,1880ff. Die Mischna. Text, Übersetzung und ausführliche Erklärung, ed. G. Beer /(1956ff.:) K.H. Rengstorf, Gießen etc. 1.1,1912–6.12,1967 Missiology. American Society of Missiology, South Pasadena, CA, etc. 1,1973ff. Le Missioni cattoliche. Bulletino settimanale illustrato dell’Opera di Propagazione della Fede, Milan 1,1872–97,1968

lxxiii Mission Missionalia MisSt MJBK MJTh MKCIC

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MNDPV MNHIR MNTC MoBi MOFPH MonHas MÖSA MoslR MoTh MPARA MPF MPh MPL MPTh MRKG MRTS MS MSAK MSC MSer

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Mission. Nordisk missions tidsskrift, Copenhagen 82,1971ff. Missionalia. Journal of the South African Missiological Society, Pretoria 1,1973ff. Mission Studies, Leiden 1,1984ff. Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, Munich 1,1906–13,1923; NS 1,1924– 13,1938/39; 3rd series 1,1950ff. Marburger Jahrbuch Theologie, Marburg 1,1987ff. Münsterischer Kommentar zum Codex Iuris Canonici unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Rechtslage in Deutschland, Österreich und in der Schweiz, ed. K. Lüdicke, loose-leaf collection, Essen 1985ff. Monatsschrift für die kirchliche Praxis, Tübingen, NS 1,1901–6,1906 Museum Lessianum, Brüssel – Section historique 1,1940ff. Mediaevalia Lovaniensia, Leuven – Series 1: Studia 1,1972ff. Metzler Lexikon Religion. Gegenwart – Alltag – Medien, ed. C. Auffarth, J. Bernard & H. Mohr, 4 vols., Stuttgart 1999–2002 Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch. Internationale Zeitschrift für Mediävistik, Stuttgart 1,1964ff. Modern Language Review, Cambridge etc. 1905ff. Miscellanea mediaevalia, Berlin etc. 1,1962ff. Monuments et mémoires, publ. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris 1,1894ff. Münstersche Mittelalterschriften, Munich 1,1970ff. Münchener Monographien zur historischen und systematischen Theologie, Munich 1,1977–11,1986 Monumenta monodica medii aevi, Kassel 1,1956ff. Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft, Dettelbach 1/2,1952; 3,1953ff. Mnemosyne. Bibliotheca Classica/Philologica Batava, Leiden 1,1852–11,1862; NS 1,1873– 60,1933; 3rd series 1,1934–13,1947; 4th series 1,1948ff. – Supplement 1,1938ff. Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde, Amsterdam 1,1856–52,1920; 53,1922–84,1937; divided by topic: – Series A: Letteren, wijsbegeerte, godgeleerdheed (odd numbers) – Series B: Geschiedenis, volkenkunde, rechtswetenschap (even numbers) – NS 1,1938ff. Mitteilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Leipzig 1,1895–18,1912 Mededelingen van het Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome, The Hague 1,1921– 35,1971 The Moffatt New Testament Commentary, London 1928ff. Le monde de la Bible, Geneva 1,1971ff. Monumenta Ordinis Fratrum Praedicatorum historica, Rome etc. 1,1896ff. Monographia Hassiae. Evangelische Kirche von Kurhessen-Waldeck, Kassel 1,1972ff. Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs, Vienna 1,1948ff. Moslemische Revue, Leipzig etc. 1,1924–16,1940 Modern Theology, Oxford 1,1984/85ff. Memorie della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia, Rome 3rd series 1,1923/24ff. Monographien zur philosophischen Forschung, Reutlingen etc. 1,1947ff. Modern Philology, Chicago, IL, 1,1903ff. Monumenta polyphoniae liturgicae sanctae ecclesiae Romanae, Rome etc., 1st series 1,1948ff.; 2nd series 1,1947ff. Monatsschrift für Pastoraltheologie (1,1904/05–52,1963:) zur Vertiefung des gesamten pfarramtlichen Wirkens, Göttingen 1,1904/05–54,1965 Monatshefte für rheinische Kirchengeschichte, Cologne etc. 1,1907–37,1943 Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, Binghamton, NY, 1,1981ff. Mediaeval Studies. Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto etc. 1,1939ff. Mitteilungen aus dem Stadtarchiv von Köln, Cologne 1,1882/83ff. Maîtres de la spiritualité chrétienne, Paris 1,1942ff. Monumenta Serica. Journal of Oriental Studies, Tokio 1,1935/36ff.

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MWF MWF(L) MyGG MySal MZ NA

NAKG NAMZ NAWG NAWG.PH NBD

NBL NBST NBW NC NCB NCB.NT NCB.OT NCBC NCE NDB NDIEC

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lxxv NDL NEA NEAEHL NEB NEB.AT NEB.NT NEB.Themen NedThT NELKB Neotest. Nestle-Aland Neue Sammlung New Grove NGAU NGWG NGWG.PH NH NHC NHL NHMS NHP NHQ NHS NHThG NIC.NT NIC.OT Nietzsche-Studien NJW NKD NKZ NLA NND Not. NRTh NSchol NSJ

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Schneemelcher, Tübingen 1904; 21924; from the 3rd ed. two vols.: – Vol. I: Evangelien 31959; 41968; 51987; 61990 – Vol. II: Apostolisches, Apokalypsen und Verwandtes 31964; 41971; 51989; 61997 Das Neue Testament Deutsch. Neues Göttinger Bibelwerk, Göttingen 1932ff.; Supplementary series: GNT Norsk tidsskrift for misjon, Oslo 2,1948ff. Novum testamentum et orbis antiquus, Freiburg, Switzerland etc. 1,1986ff. New Testament Studies. An International Journal Published under the Auspices of Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas, Cambridge etc. 1,1954/55–19,1972/73; 20,1974ff. Nordisk tidsskrift for sprogvidenskap, Oslo 1,1928–25,1971 New Testament Tools and Studies, Leiden etc. 1,1960ff. Nubica (from 1999: et Aethiopica). Internationales Jahrbuch für äthiopische, meroitische und nubische Studien (from 1999: Internationales Jahrbuch für koptische, meroitischnubische, äthiopische und verwandte Studien), Warsaw etc. 1/2,1987/88ff. Numen. International Review for the History of Religions, Leiden 1,1954ff. Nova et vetera. Revue trimestrielle, Geneva 1,1926ff. Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht, vereinigt mit Verwaltungsrechtsprechung, ed. in cooperation with the Neue Juristische Wochenschrift, Frankfurt/M. etc. 1,1982ff. Neue Zeitschrift für Wehrrecht, Neuwied etc. 1,1959ff. Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft. Nouvelle revue de science missionaire, Beckenried 1,1945ff. – Supplementa 1,1950ff. Neue Zeitschrift für systematische Theologie und Religionsphilosophie, Berlin 1,1959ff. Österreichisches Archiv für Kirchenrecht, Vienna 1,1950ff. Orientalia biblica et christiana, Glückstadt 1,1991ff. Ökumenische Beihefte zur Freiburger Zeitschrift für Philosophie und Theologie, Freiburg, Switzerland 1,1968ff. Österreichisches biographisches Lexikon: 1815–1950, publ. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften directed by L. Santifaller, Graz etc. 1,1957 Orbis biblicus et orientalis, Freiburg, Switzerland etc. 1,1973ff. – Series archaeologica 1,1980ff. Österreichische biblische Studien, Klosterneuburg 1,1979ff. Das östliche Christentum, ed. G. Wunderle, Würzburg 1,1936–12/13,1941; NS 1,1947ff. Orientalia Christiana analecta, Rome 101,1935ff. Orientalia Christiana periodica, Rome 1,1935ff. Oxford Classical Texts, Oxford 1,1894ff. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, ed. A.P. Kazhdan, New York 1–3,1991 Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. F.L. Cross, London 1957; 21974; 31997 Ökumenische Einheit. Archiv für ökumenisches und soziales Christentum, Munich 1,1948/50–3,1952 The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, New York/Oxford 1–5,1997 Oxford Early Christian Texts, Oxford 1971 Oekumenisches Forum: Grazer Hefte für konkrete Ökumene, publ. Institut für Dogmengeschichte und ökumenische Theologie der Theologischen Fakultät Graz/ Interkonfessioneller Arbeitskreis Ökumene in der Steiermark, Graz 1,1977 Ökumenische Existenz heute, Munich 1,1986ff. Orientierungen und Berichte. Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen, Stuttgart 1,1974ff. Ons geestelijk erf, Anvers etc. 1,1927ff. Oikonomia. Quellen und Studien zur orthodoxen Theologie, Erlangen 1979ff. Oriental Institute Publications, Chicago, IL 1,1924ff. Orden der Kirche, Freiburg, Switzerland 1,1955ff. Ökumenische Studienhefte, Göttingen 1,1993ff. Ökumene-Lexikon, ed. H. Krüger et al., Frankfurt/M. 1983; 2 1987 Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta, Leuven 1,1975ff. O. Keel & M. Küchler, Orte und Landschaften der Bibel, Zürich et al. 1,1984; 2,1982

lxxvii OLoP OLP OLP.S OLZ OR ÖR OR(D) Or. ÖR.B OrChr

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RPR.GP RQ RQ.S RR RRef RRelRes RS RSCHS RSCI RSCr RSE RSEt RSFen RSLR RSoO RSPhTh RSR RSSS RStB RSTh RSV RSWV RT RThAM RThom RThPC RThPh RTL ru RV

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Spicilegium historicum Congregationis Sanctissimi Redemptoris, Rome 1,1953ff. Studies in the History of Christian Thought, Leiden 1,1966ff. Subsidia hagiographica, Brussels 1,1886ff. Supplementa humanistica Lovaniensia, Leuven 1,1978ff. Studies in the History of Medieval Religion, Woodbridge 1,1989ff. Studies in the History of Religions, Leiden 1,1954ff. (= Supplement to: Numen) Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, Stockholm 1,1967ff. Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum, ed. W. Dittenberger, Leipzig 1–2,1883; 2nd ed. 1,1898–4,1901; 3rd ed. 1,1915–4,1923 = 1960 Studien zur interkulturellen Geschichte des Christentums, Frankfurt/M. etc. 1,1975ff. Schriften des Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum, Münster etc. NS 1954ff.; NS Göttingen 1993ff. Studia Instituti Missiologici Societatis Verbi Divini, St. Augustin et al. 1,1962ff. Siyyōn. Rivōn le-heqer tōledōt Yisra’el. Zion. A Quarterly for Research in Jewish History, Jerusalem 1,1925–6,1933/34; NS 1,1935ff. Studia Judaica. Forschungen zur Wissenschaft des Judentums, Berlin 1,1961ff. Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für Kirchenrecht. Annuaire suisse de droit ecclésial, Bern 1,1976ff. Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, Leiden 1,1973ff. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Oslo 1987ff. Salzburger Jahrbuch für Philosophie (1,1957–3,1959:) und Psychologie, Salzburg etc. 1,1957ff. The Scottish Journal of Religious Studies, Stirling 1,1980ff. Scottish Journal of Theology, Edinburgh 1,1948ff. Schriften der Königsberger Gelehrten Gesellschaft, Halle/S. – Geisteswissenschaftliche Klasse 1,1924–18,1944 Studien zur Kirchengeschichte Niedersachsens, Göttingen 1,1919ff. Studien zu Kirche und Israel, Berlin 10,1987ff. Schriften zur Kirchen- und Rechtsgeschichte, Tübingen 1,1956ff. Schweizerische Kirchenzeitung. Fragen der Theologie und Seelsorge, Lucerne etc. 1,1832ff. Studien der Luther-Akademie <Sondershausen>, Gütersloh etc. 1,1932–17,1949; NS 1,1953–7,1959 Schriften der Luther-Agricola-Gesellschaft (in Finnland), Helsinki etc. 1,1941–14,1967; Series A: 15,1972ff. Schwäbische Lebensbilder, Stuttgart 1,1940ff. Supplementum Lyricis Graecis. Poetarum lyricorum Graecorum fragmenta quae recens innotuerunt, ed. D. Page, Oxford 1974 Sammlung Horizonte, Einsiedeln 1,1956–10,1965; NS 3,1971ff. Scriptores Latini Hiberniae, Dublin 1,1955ff. Sacramentum mundi. Theologisches Lexikon für die Praxis, ed. K. Rahner et al., Freiburg i.Br. etc. 1,1967–4,1969 Spätmittelalter und frühe Neuzeit. Tübinger Beiträge zur Geschichtsforschung, Stuttgart 1,1978ff. Serie monografica di «Benedictina». Monographische Reihe von «Benedictina». Monographic series of «Benedictina». Série monographique de «Benedictina», Rome – Sezione biblico ecumenica. Biblical Ecumenical Section. Biblisch-ökumenische Abteilung. Section biblico-oecuménique 1,1976ff. Studies in Medieval Cistercian History, Kalamazoo, MI, 1,1971ff. Studien und Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des Benediktinerordens und seiner Zweige, Munich 32,1911ff. Schriften der Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Stuttgart 10,1950ff. Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought, Leiden 1,1966ff. Studi e materiali di storia delle religioni, L’Aquila 1,1925–40,1969; NS 7,1983ff. Sylloge nummorum Graecorum – The Royal Collection of Coins and Medals, Danish National Museum, Copenhagen etc. 1.1,1942ff. – Israel, London 1,1988 Monograph Series. Society for New Testament Studies, Cambridge 1,1965ff.

lxxxvii SNTU SNTU.A SNTU.B SNVAO SNVAO.HF SO SO.S SÖAW SÖAW.PH Sob.

SOC Soc. SOC.Ae SocComp Societas SOPMA SOr SOrth SPA SPAW SPAW.PH SPB SPCK SPCK.LP Spec. SpicCas SPMed SPT SPTh SQS

SQWFG SR SROC SRP SSAC SSAM SSAW SSAW.PH SSCR SSHKG SSL SSN SSRel StA STA Staat

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Studien zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt, Linz – Series A: 1,1976ff. – Series B: 2,1978ff. Skrifter utgitt av det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo, Oslo – Historisk-Filosofisk Klasse, 1925(1926)–1960(1961); NS 1,1962ff. Symbolae Osloenses, Societas Graeco-Latina, Oslo 2,1923ff. – Fasciculus suppletionis 1,1925ff. Sitzungsberichte. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna – Philosophisch-Historische Klasse 225,1947ff. Sobornost. The Journal of the Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius, London, NS 1,1935– 3rd series 24,1959; 4th series 1,1959–12,1965; 5th series 1,1965–10,1970; 6th series 1,1970–10,1974; 7th series 1,1975–7,1978; 8th series 1,1979ff. Studia orientalia Christiana, publ. Centro Francescano di Studi Orientali Christiani, Cairo Sociologus. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Soziologie, Leipzig 8,1932–9,1933; NS 1,1951ff. – Aegyptiaca 10,1958ff. Social compass. Revue des études socio-religieuses, The Hague etc. 1,1953ff. Societas. A Review of Social History, Oshkosh, WI, 1,1971–8,1978 T. Kaeppeli, Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum medii aevi, Rome 1,1970ff. Sources orientales, Paris 1,1959ff. Stimme der Orthodoxie. Golos pravoslavija, Berlin 1961ff. Studien der Patristischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Leuven 1,1990ff. Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1882–1921 – Philosophisch Historische Klasse 1922–1938 Studia patristica et Byzantina, Ettal 1,1953–11,1965 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge – SPCK Large Paperbacks, London 5,1970ff. Speculum. A Journal of Mediaeval Studies, Cambridge, MA, 1,1926ff. Spicilegium Casinense complectens analecta sacra et profana e codd. Casinensibus . . ., Monte Cassino 1, 1888–4,1936 Studia patristica Mediolanensia, Milan 1,1974ff. (= subseries of PUCSC) Studies in Patristic Thought, New York 2,1967ff. Studien zur Praktischen Theologie, Munich 1,1963ff. Sammlung ausgewählter kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlicher Quellenschriften, ed. G. Krüger, Tübingen – Series 1: 1,1891–12,1896 – Series 2: 1,1901–9,1911 – NS 1,1924–6,1933 Studien und Quellen zur westfälischen Geschichte, Paderborn 1,1957ff. Studies in Religion. Revue canadienne. Sciences religieuses, Toronto 1,1971/72–6,1976/77; 7,1978ff. Studi e ricerche sull’Oriente cristiano, Rome 1,1978ff. Scriptores rerum Prussicarum, Leipzig 1,1861ff. Sussidi allo studio delle antichità cristiane, Rome 1,1936ff. Settimana di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo, Spoleto 1,1953ff. Sitzungsberichte der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften – Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Berlin etc. 107.1,1962ff. Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion, Stockholm 1,1961ff. Studien zur schleswig-holsteinischen Kunstgeschichte, Neumünster etc. 1,1935ff. Spicilegium sacrum Lovaniense, Leuven 1, 1922ff. Studia semitica Neerlandica, Assen etc. 1,1955ff. Studi storico-religiosi, L’Aquila etc. 1,1977–6,1982 Ph. Melanchthon, Werke in Auswahl, study ed., ed. R. Stupperich, Gütersloh 1,1951– 7,1975 Studia et testimonia antiqua, Munich 1,1966ff. Der Staat. Zeitschrift für Staatslehre, öffentliches Recht und Verfassungsgeschichte, Berlin 1,1962ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals STAC StAlb StAns StANT StCan StD STG StGen STGMA StGra StGS SThGG StHib SThKAB StHU SThZ StII StIr StIren StIsl StL STL StLi StMed StMiss StML StMon StNT STö STö.H STö.T Stolberg StOR StPatr StPB STPIMS STPS Strieder StStor StT STT StTDJ StTh StTr Studia Archaeologica StudMed StudPhil(B) StudPhil(P)

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Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum, Tübingen 1,1998ff. Studia Albornotiana, Bologna etc. 6,1966ff. Studia Anselmiana. Philosophica, theologica, Rome 1,1933ff. Studien zum Alten und Neuen Testament, Munich 1,1960–41,1975 Studia canonica, Ottawa 1,1967ff. Studies and Documents, London etc. 1,1934ff. Studien zur Theologie und Geschichte, St. Ottilien 1,1989ff. Studium generale, Berlin etc. 1,1947/48–24,1971 Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, Leiden 1,1950ff. Studia Gratiana. Post octava Decreti saecularia autore consilio commemorationi Gratianae instruendae edita, Bonn 1,1953ff. Studien zur Germania sacra, Göttingen 1,1967ff. Studien zur Theologie und Geistesgeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, Göttingen 1,1972ff. Studia Hibernica/Coláiste Phádraig, Baile Atha Cliath 1,1961ff. Schriften des Theologischen Konvents Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses, Berlin 1,1951– 9,1955 Studies in the Humanities. Literature, Politics, Society, New York etc. 1,1967ff. Schweizerische theologische Zeitschrift, Zürich 16,1898–37,1920 Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, Reinbek 1,1975ff. Studia Iranica, Paris 1,1972ff. Studia Irenica, Hildesheim etc. 12,1972ff. Studia Islamica, Paris 1,1953ff. Staatslexikon. Recht, Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft, publ. Görresgesellschaft, Freiburg i.Br., 6th ed. 1,1957ff.; 7th ed. 1,1985ff. Studia theologica Lundensia, Lund 1,1952ff. Studia Liturgica. An International Ecumenical Quarterly for Liturgical Research and Renewal, Rotterdam etc. 1,1962ff. Studi medievali, Spoleto 1,1904–4,1912/13; NS 1,1928–18,1952; 3rd series 1,1960ff. Studia missionalia, Rome 1,1943ff. Stimmen aus Maria Laach, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1871–44,1914 Studia monastica, Barcelona 1,1951ff. Studien zum Neuen Testament, Gütersloh 1,1969ff. Sammlung Töpelmann, Berlin – Series 2: Theologische Hilfsbücher 1,1935ff. – Series 1: Die Theologie im Abriß 1,1932ff. S.E. zu Stolberg-Stolberg, Katalog der fürstlich Stolberg-Stolberg’schen LeichenpredigtenSammlung, ed. W.K. v. Arnswaldt, Leipzig 1,1927– 4/2,1935 Studies in Oriental Religions, Wiesbaden 1,1976ff. Studia patristica. Papers Presented to . . . the International Conference of Patristic Studies held at Christ Church, Oxford, ed. K. Aland, Berlin 1,1957ff. Studia post-biblica, Leiden 1,1959ff. Studies and Texts. Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto 1,1955ff. Studien zur Theologie und Praxis der Seelsorge, Würzburg 1,1989ff. F.W. Strieder, Grundlage zu einer hessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftstellergeschichte, Göttingen 1,1781–21,1861; repr. 1983 Studi Storici. Rivista trimestrale, Rome 1,1959ff. Studi e testi. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City 1,1900ff. Semitic Texts with Translations, Assen 1,1964ff. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Leiden 1,1957ff. Studia theologica. Scandinavian Journal of Theology, Lund etc. 1,1947ff. Studia Transylvanica, Cologne 1,1968ff. Studia Archaeologica, Rome 1,1961ff. Studia Mediterranea, Pavia 1,1979ff. Studia philosophica . Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Philosophischen Gesellschaft, Bern etc. 6,1946ff.; Supplement 3,1946ff. Studia philosophica. Commentarii Societatis Philosophicae Polonorum, Cracoviae 1,1935ff.

lxxxix StUNT stw StZ SubMed SUC Sulamith SuR SVF SVigChr SVRG SVRKG SVSHKG SVSHKG.B SVSHKG.S SVSL SVSQ SVTP SVTQ SWBAS SWI SWJA SWK Syr. SZG TAM TAMS TANZ TAPhA Tarb. TARWPV TaS TAVO TAzB TB TBAW TBLNT TBT TC TCS TD TD.P TD.T

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments, Göttingen 1,1962ff. Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Wissenschaft, Frankfurt/M. 1,1973ff. Stimmen der Zeit. (Katholische) Monatsschrift für das Geistesleben der Gegenwart, Freiburg i.Br. 1914ff. Subsidia mediaevalia, Toronto 1,1972ff. Schriften des Urchristentums, Darmstadt 1,1956ff. Sulamith. Eine Zeitschrift zur Beförderung der Cultur und Humanität unter den Israeliten, ed. D. Fränkel, Dessau etc. 1,1806/1808–8,1837; NS 1=9,1845/1848 Spätmittelalter und Reformation. Texte und Untersuchungen, Berlin 1,1977ff.; NS Tübingen, 1,1990ff. Stoicorum veterum fragmenta, ed. H. v. Arnim, Stuttgart 1,1903–4,1924; 2 1999 Supplements. Vigiliae Christianae. Review of Early Christian Life and Language, Leiden 1,1987ff. Schriften des Vereins für Reformationsgeschichte, Gütersloh etc. 1.1,1883ff. Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische Kirchengeschichte, Düsseldorf etc. 3,1956ff. Schriften des Vereins für Schleswig-Holsteinische Kirchengeschichte, Flensburg etc. 1,1899ff. – Beiträge und Mitteilungen 1,1897/1900ff. – Sonderheft 1,1922ff. Skrifter utgivna av Vetenskaps-Societeten i Lund. Publications of the New Society of Letters at Lund, Lund 1,1921ff. St. Vladimir’s Seminary Quarterly, New York 1,1952–4,1956; NS 1,1957–12,1968 Studia in veteris testamenti pseudepigrapha, Leiden 1,1970ff. St. Vladimir’s Theological Quarterly, Crestwood, NY 13,1969ff. The Social World of Biblical Antiquity Series, Sheffield 1,1983ff. Studies of the Warburg Institute, London 1,1936ff. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Albuquerque, NM 1,1945–28,1972 Stimmen der Weltkirche, publ. DBK, Bonn 1,1977ff. Syria. Revue d’art oriental et d’archéologie, publ. Institut Français d’Archéologie de Beyrouth, Paris 1,1920ff. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte. Revue suisse d’histoire. Storica svizzera, Basel 1,1951ff. Tituli Asial Minoris, Vienna 1901ff. Tel Aviv Monograph Series, Tel Aviv University, S. and M. Nadler Institute of Archaeology, ed. ham-Makôn le-Arkê’ôlôgya, Tel Aviv 1,1991ff. Texte und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, Tübingen 1,1989ff. Transactions of the American Philological Association, New York 1,1869ff. Tarbiz. A Quarterly Review of the Humanities, Jerusalem 1,1929ff. Theologische Arbeiten aus dem Rheinischen Wissenschaftlichen Predigerverein, Stuttgart 1,1872–12,1892; NS 1,1897–19,1922; 3rd series 1,1934–2,1947 Texts and Studies. Contributions to Biblical and Patristic Literature, Cambridge etc. 1,1891–10,1952; NS 1,1954ff. Tübinger Atlas zum Vorderen Orient, ed. Sonderforschungsbereich 19 der Universität Tübingen, Wiesbaden 1,1977–26,1993 Texte und Arbeiten zur Bibel, Bielefeld 1,1984ff. Theologische Bücherei. Neudrucke und Berichte aus dem 20. Jahrhundert, Munich 1,1953ff. Tübinger Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft, Stuttgart 1,1927ff. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament, ed. L. Coenen, Wuppertal 1,1967– 2.2,1971; rev. ed. 1,1997ff. Theologische Bibliothek Töpelmann, Berlin 1,1952ff. Traditio Christiana. Texte und Kommentare zur patristischen Theologie, Zürich 1,1969ff. Texts from Cuneiform Sources, Locust Valley, NY, 1,1966ff. Textus et documenta in usum exercitationum et praelectionum academicarum, Rome – Series philosophica 1,1932–17,1960 – Series theologica 1932–30,1955

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals TDL TDL.T TDW TEE TEF TEF.SG TEG TEH Tel Aviv Tem. TF TFUF TGA TGI TGP

ThA THAT ThBeitr ThBer Theol(A) Theol(P) Théologiques Theoph. These ThFen ThFr ThG ThG(B) ThGl ThH ThHK ThIK ThJb ThLZ Thom. ThPh ThPM ThPQ ThPr

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xci ThQ ThR THR ThRev ThRv ThSt(B) ThStKr ThT ThTh ThV ThViat ThW ThWAT ThWNT ThZ ThZ.S TIB TJT TK TKTG TM TMCB TMLT TOTC TPAPA TPL TPS TPT Tr. Trad. Trajecta Trans-euphratène TRE TRG TrGF Tribus TrZ TS TSAJ TSFH TSMAO TSMJ TSSI TSTP

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Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals TThSt TThZ TTK TTM TTS TU TUAT Tusculum-Lexikon TutzT TVELKD TVGMS Tyche TzF TzT TzT.D TzT.F TzT.M TZTh UALG UB UBL UCOP UCPCP Ueberweg UeberwegAntF Ueberweg Philos 17 UF UIGSK UKG UMM UMS UMS.H UMSS UnCo UnFr UNHAII UnSa UPT US USQR UTB UUÅ VAFLNW VAFLNW.G VApS VarAnat VB

xcii

Trierer theologische Studien, Trier 1,1941ff. Trierer theologische Zeitschrift, Trier 56,1947ff. Tidsskrift for teologi og kirke, Oslo 1,1930ff. J. Maier, Die Qumran-Essener. Die Texte vom Toten Meer, Munich 1–3,1995/96 Tübinger Theologische Studien, Mainz 1,1973–34,1990 Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Berlin etc. 1,1882ff. Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, Gütersloh 1,1982ff. Tusculum-Lexikon griechischer und lateinischer Autoren des Altertums und des Mittelalters, ed. W. Buchwald, A. Hohlweg & O. Prinz, Munich 31982 Tutzinger Texte. Evangelische Akademie, Munich 1968ff. Texte aus der VELKD, publ. Vereinigte Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche Deutschlands, Hanover 1,1978ff. Theologische Verlagsgemeinschaft (TVG-) Monographien und Studienbücher, Wuppertal etc. 1981ff. Tyche. Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Vienna 1,1968ff. Texte zur Forschung, Darmstadt 1,1971ff. Texte zur Theologie, ed. W. Beinert, Graz 1988ff. – Abteilung Dogmatik, 1988ff. – Abteilung Fundamentaltheologie, 1990ff. – Moraltheologie, 1999ff. Tübinger Zeitschrift für Theologie, Tübingen 1,1828/29–11,1840 Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte, Berlin 1,1968ff. Urban-(Taschen-)Bücher, Stuttgart etc. [1],1953ff. Ugaritisch-biblische Literatur, Altenberge 1,1984ff. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications, Cambridge 1,1956ff. University of California Publications in Classical Philology, Berkeley, CA, 1,1904– 20,1964 Grundriß der Geschichte der Philosophie, founded by F. Ueberweg, new, completely rev. ed., Basel etc. – Die Philosophie der Antike, by K. Döring, ed. H. Flashar, 1994ff. Die Philosophie des 17. Jahrhunderts, ed. J.-P. Schobinger, 1988ff. Ugarit-Forschungen, Neukirchen etc. 1,1969ff. Untersuchungen zur indogermanischen Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft, Strassburg 1,1910–10,1942; NS Berlin etc. 1,1985ff. Untersuchungen zur Kirchengeschichte, Witten 1,1965ff. University Museum Monographs. The University Museum of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 1949ff. University of Michigan Studies, Ann Arbor, MI – Humanistic Series 1,1904–50,1951 University Museum Symposium Series/Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , Philadelphia, PA, 1,1988ff. Unio und confessio, Witten 1,1956ff. Unitas Fratrum, Hamburg 1,1977ff. Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, Istanbul 1,1956ff. Unam sanctam, Paris 1937ff. Untersuchungen zur Praktischen Theologie, ed. A. Exeler, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1972ff. Una Sancta. Rundbriefe für interkonfessionelle Begegnung, Meitingen 6,1951ff. Union Seminary Quarterly Review, New York 1,1945/46ff. Uni-Taschenbücher, Heidelberg etc. 1,1971ff. Uppsala Universitets årsskrift, Uppsala 1877ff.; see TFUF and FTF [Veröffentlichungen der] Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung des Landes NordrheinWestfalen, Cologne – Geisteswissenschaften 1,1953–175,1971 Verlautbarungen des Apostolischen Stuhles, Bonn 1,1976ff. Varia Anatolica, Istanbul 1,1988ff. Vestigia bibliae. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Bibel-Archivs, Hamburg 2,1980ff.

xciii VC VD16

VD17

VDWI Verbum VerLex Vestnik RStChD VF VGG VGI VHK VHKH VHKM VHKM VHKW VHVOPf

Viator VIEG VIEG.B VigChr VIöG ViSa VisRel Vivant Univers VKAMAG VKZG VKZG.F VL VLAR VM VMNBT VMNBT.M VMPIG VMStA

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Verbum caro. Revue théologique et ecclésiastique oecuménique, Taizé etc. 1/1,1947– 23/92,1969 Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienen Drucke des XVI. Jahrhunderts, publ. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich in association with the Herzog-August-Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel, revised by I. Bezzel, Stuttgart 1,1983ff. Das Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des XVII. Jahrhunderts, ed. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich, 1996ff., available only via internet Veröffentlichungen des Diakoniewissenschaftlichen Instituts an der Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg 1,1989ff. Verbum. Tijdschrift voor geloofsonderricht, Nijmegen 1,1930ff. Deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, ed. W. Stammler & K. Langosch, Berlin etc. 1,1933–5,1955; 2nd ed. 1,1978ff. Vestnik Russkogo Christianskogo Dvizenija, Paris 1928; 1935,12/1936,1/2; 1953– 1996/97,1–2 Verkündigung und Forschung, Munich 1,1940ff. Vereinsschrift der Görres-Gesellschaft zur Pflege der Wissenschaft im Katholischen Deutschland, Cologne 1876–1940 Veröffentlichungen des Grabmann-Instituts zur Erforschung der Mittelalterlichen Theologie und Philosophie, Munich etc. NS 1,1967ff. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission. Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Berlin 1,1955ff. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Hessen und Waldeck, Marburg 1,1901ff. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Mecklenburg, Rostock – Series B: Schriften zur mecklenburgischen Geschichte, Kultur und Landeskunde 8,1995ff. Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission Westfalens, Münster 1,1898ff. Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für Oberpfalz und Regensburg (1,1831– 4,1837/1839: Verhandlungen des Historischen Vereins für den Regenkreis), Regensburg 4.2–3,1837–8,1944; 9 (= NS 1),1845–66 (= NS 58),1916; 68,1918–114,1974 Viator. Medieval and Renaissance Studies, publ. Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, Turnhout 1,1970ff. Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte, Mainz, Wiesbaden etc. 1,1952ff. – Beiheft 1,1975ff. Vigiliae Christianae. Review of Early Christian Life and Language, Amsterdam 1,1947ff.; Supplements = SVigChr Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung, Vienna 3,1947; 4,1946ff. Vite dei Santi, Verona 1,1974ff. Visible Religion. Annual for Religious Iconography, Leiden 1,1982ff. Vivant univers – vivante Afrique. Revue de la promotion humaine et chrétienne en Afrique et dans le monde, Namur 260,1969ff. Vorträge und Forschungen. Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für Mittelalterliche Geschichte, Konstanz 1,1955ff. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Zeitgeschichte bei der Katholischen Akademie in Bayern, Mainz – Series B: Forschungen 1,1965ff. Vetus Latina. Die Reste der altlateinischen Bibel, Freiburg i.Br. 1,1949ff. Veröffentlichungen der Luther-Akadmie e.V. Ratzeburg, Erlangen 1,1990ff. Vita monastica. Trimestrale di spiritualita. Storia e problemi monastici, Rome 9,1955ff. Verzameling van middelnederlandse bijbelteksten. Corpus sacrae scripturae Neerlandicae medii aevi, Leiden – Miscellanea 1,1977ff. Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Instituts für Geschichte, Göttingen 1,1972ff. Veröffentlichungen des Missionspriesterseminars St. Augustin, St. Augustin etc. 1,1957ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals VSB VT VT.S VVAW VVAW.L VVDStRL VVKGB VVPfKG VWGTh WA WA.Br WA.DB WA.TR WAAFLNW WBC WBS WCC WCE WdC WdF WDGB WdL Westfalen WF WI WiWei WJP WLB WM WMANT WMH WMyst WO Word WPKG WRJ WSA WSB WSB.AT WSB.NT WSFT WSt WTJ WUB WuD WuG

xciv

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xcv WUNT WZ(G) WZ(G).G WZ(G).GS WZ(H) WZ(H).GS WZ(J) WZ( J).GS WZKM WZKSA WZKSO WzM YJS YLBI YOS YOS.B YOS.R YPR ZA ZAA ZAC ZAH ZAM ZAR ZAS ZäS ZAW ZBGV ZBK ZBK.AT ZBK.NT ZBKG ZBLG ZBRG ZDA ZDMG ZDMG.S ZDPV ZDS ZDT ZDVKW ZDW ZdZ ZE

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, Tübingen 1,1950ff.; 2nd series 1,1976ff. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Greifswald – Gesellschaftswissenschaftliche Reihe 33.1,1984–39.3,1990 – Gesellschafts- und sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe 1,1951/52–32,1983 Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle/ S.1,1951/52–2,1952/53 – Gesellschafts- und sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe 3,1952/54ff. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena – Gesellschafts- und sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe 1,1952/52–32,1983 Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vienna 1,1887ff. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens und Archiv für indische Philosophie, Vienna etc. 14,1970ff. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Süd- und Ostasiens und Archiv für indische Philosophie, Vienna etc. 1,1957– 12/13,1968/69 Wege zum Menschen. Monatsschrift für Arzt und Seelsorger, Erzieher, Psychologen und soziale Berufe, Göttingen 6,1954ff. Yale Judaica Series, New Haven, CT, 1,1948ff. Yearbook of the Leo Baeck Institute of Jews from Germany = Publications of the Leo Baeck Institute of Jews from Germany, London 1,1956ff. Yale Oriental Series, New Haven, CT, etc. – Babylonian Texts 1,1915ff. – Researches 1,1912ff. Yale Publications in Religions, New Haven, CT, etc. 1,1960ff. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie (1,1886–44,1938: und verwandte Gebiete) und vorderasiatische Archäologie, Leipzig etc. 1,1886ff. Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie, Frankfurt/M. 1,1953ff. Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum. Journal of Ancient Christianity, Berlin etc. 1,1997ff. Zeitschrift für Althebraistik, Stuttgart 1,1988ff. Zeitschrift für Aszese und Mystik. Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, Würzburg 1,1925/26–19,1944 Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte, Wiesbaden 1,1995ff. (supplement series see BZAR) Zentralasiatische Studien des Seminars für Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens der Universität Bonn, ed. W. Heissig, Wiesbaden 1,1967ff. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, Berlin etc. 1,1863–78,1943; 79,1954ff. Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Berlin 1,1881ff. Zeitschrift des Bergischen Geschichtsvereins, Neustadt/Aisch 1,1863ff. Zürcher Bibelkommentare, Zürich etc. 1960ff. – Altes Testament 1,1976ff. – Neues Testament 1972ff. Zeitschrift für bayerische Kirchengeschichte, Munich etc. 1,1926ff. Zeitschrift für bayerische Landesgeschichte, Munich 1,1928ff. Zürcher Beiträge zur Reformationsgeschichte, Zürich 1,1970ff. Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur, Wiesbaden etc. 1,1841ff. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Wiesbaden etc. 1,1847ff. – Supplement 1,1969ff. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Wiesbaden etc. 1,1878–67,1945; 69,1953ff. Zeitschrift für deutsche Sprache, Berlin 20,1964–27,1971 Zeitschrift für dialektische Theologie, Kampen 1.1,1985ff. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Vereins für Kunstwissenschaft, Berlin 1,1934–10,1943; 17,1963ff. Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung, Berlin 1,1900/01–15,1914; 16,1960–19,1963 Die Zeichen der Zeit. Evangelische Monatsschrift für Mitarbeiter der Kirche, Berlin 1,1947ff. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Braunschweig etc. 1,1869ff.

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals ZEE Zet. ZEvKR ZfB ZfdPh ZfKG ZfR ZfS ZFSL ZGDP ZGEU ZGNKG ZGO ZGSHG ZHB ZHF ZHF.B ZHTh ZKG ZKR ZKR.E ZKTh ZLB ZLThK ZM ZME ZMiss ŽMP ZMR ZMRW ZNR ZNT ZNThG/JHMTh ZNW ZOF ZP ZP.B ZPE ZpH ZPhF ZPK ZPrTh ZPs ZRG ZRGG ZRGG.B ZSHG ZSKG

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Zeitschrift für evangelische Ethik, Gütersloh 1,1957ff. Zetemata. Monographien zur klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Munich 1,1951ff. Zeitschrift für evangelisches Kirchenrecht, Tübingen 1,1951/52ff. Zentralblatt für Bibliothekswesen, Leipzig 1,1884–104,1990 Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, Berlin 1,1869–69,1944/45; 70,1948/49ff. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, Munich etc. 1,1932ff. Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft, Marburg 1,1993ff. Zeitschrift für Soziologie, Stuttgart 1,1972ff. Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, Wiesbaden etc. 11,1889ff. Zeitschrift für Gottesdienst und Predigt, Gütersloh 1,1983ff. Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, Berlin 1,1911–28,1938 Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für niedersächsische Kirchengeschichte, ed. K. Kayser, Braunschweig 1,1896–45,1940 Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins, publ. Kommission für Geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart 1,1850ff. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte, Neumünster etc. 1,1870ff. Zeitschrift für hebräische Bibliographie, Berlin 1,1896–23,1920 Zeitschrift für historische Forschung. Vierteljahresschrift zur Erforschung des Spätmittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit, Berlin 1,1974ff. – Beiheft 1,1985ff. Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie, Leipzig 1,1832–6,1836; NS 1,1837–39,1875 Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte, Stuttgart etc. 1,1877ff. Zeitschrift für Kirchenrecht, Berlin etc. 1,1861–22,1889 – Supplement vol. 1865–1876 Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, Vienna etc. 1,1877ff. Zeitgeschichte in Lebensbildern, Mainz 1,1973–6,1984 Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche, Leipzig 1,1840–39,1878 Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft, Münster 1,1911–27,1939 Zeitschrift für medizinische Ethik. Wissenschaft, Kultur, Religion, Ostfildern 39,1993ff. Zeitschrift für Mission, Stuttgart 1,1975ff. Žurnal Moskovskoy Patriarchii, Moscow 1931–1935; 1943ff. Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft, Münster 18,1928–25,1935; 34,1950ff. Zeitschrift für Missionskunde und Religionswissenschaft, Berlin 1,1886–54,1939 Zeitschrift für neuere Rechtsgeschichte, Vienna 1979ff. Zeitschrift für Neues Testament, Tübingen etc. 1,1988ff. Zeitschrift für neuere Theologiegeschichte = Journal for the History of Modern Theology, Berlin 1,1994ff. Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche, Berlin etc. 1,1900ff. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, Marburg 1,1952ff. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik. Zweimonatsschrift, Weinheim etc. 1,1955ff. – Beiheft 1,1959ff. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bonn 1967ff. Zeitschrift für pädagogische Historiographie (1995–2000: Neue Pestalozzi-Blätter), Zürich 7,2001ff. Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung, Meisenheim etc. 1,1946ff. Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und Kirche, Erlangen 1,1838–5,1840; NS 1,1841– 72,1876 Zeitschrift für praktische Theologie, Tübingen 1,1879–22,1900 Zeitschrift für Psychologie. Mit Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie, Leipzig 41,1906ff. Zeitschrift für Rechtsgeschichte, Weimar 1,1861–13,1878 Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte, Cologne etc. 1,1948ff. – Beihefte 1,1953ff. Zeitschrift für saarländische Heimatgeschichte, Saarbrücken 1,1951–5,1955 Zeitschrift für schweizerische Kirchengeschichte. Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique suisse, publ. Vereinigung für Schweizerische Kirchengeschichte, Freiburg, Switzerland 1,1907ff.

xcvii ZSRG ZSRG.G ZSRG.K ZSRG.R ZSTh ZSV ZThK ZThK.B ZVGA ZVHaG ZVHG ZVHG.S ZVK ZVPS ZVRW ZW Zwing. ZWLG ZWTh Zygon ZZ

Lexicons, Primary Sources, Series, Journals Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Weimar – Germanistische Abteilung 1,1880ff. – Kanonistische Abteilung 1,1911ff. – Romanistische Abteilung 1,1880ff. Zeitschrift für systematische Theologie, Berlin etc. 1,1923–24,1955 Zeugnisse der Schwabenväter, Metzingen 1,1961ff. Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche, Tübingen 1,1891ff. – Beiheft 1,1959ff. Zeitschrift für vaterländische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, Münster 1,1838–86,1929 Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, Hamburg 1,1841ff. Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hessische Geschichte und Landeskunde, Kassel 1,1837ff. – Supplement 1,1840–10,1865; NS 1,1866ff. Zeitschrift für Volkskunde. Halbjahresschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde, Münster etc. 39,1929/30ff. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Soziologie, Berlin 1,1925–7,1931 (from 1932 = Soc.) Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft (einschließlich der ethnologischen Rechtsforschung), Stuttgart 1,1878ff. Zeitwende. Die neue Furche, Hamburg 1,1925ff. Zwingliana. Mitteilungen/Beiträge zur Geschichte Zwinglis, der Reformation und des Protestantismus in der Schweiz, Zürich 1,1897/1904ff. Zeitschrift für württembergische Landesgeschichte, Stuttgart 1,1937ff. Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie, Jena etc. 1,1858–55,1913/14 Zygon. Journal of Religion and Science, Chicago, IL, 1,1966ff. Zwischen den Zeiten, Munich 1,1923–11,1933

Vatican II Documents

xcviii

Vatican II Documents AA AG CD DH DV GE GS IM LG NA OE OT PC PO SC UR

Apostolicam actuositatem. Decree of 18.11.1965 on the apostolate of the laity Ad gentes. Decree of 7.12.1965 on the mission activity of the Church Christus Dominus. Decree of 28.10.1965 on the pastoral office of bishops in the Church Dignitatis humanae. Declaration of 7.12.1965 on religious freedom Dei verbum. Dogmatic constitution on divine revelation, 18.11.1965 Gravissimum educationis. Declaration of 28.10.1965 on Christian education Gaudium et spes. Pastoral constitution on the Church in the modern world, 7.12.1965 Inter mirifica. Decree of 4.12.1963 on the media of social communications Lumen gentium. Dogmatic constitution on the Church, 21.11.1964 Nostra aetate. Declaration of 28.10.1965 on the relation of the Church to non-Christian religions Orientalium Ecclesiarum. Decree of 21.11.1964 on the Catholic churches of the eastern rite Optatam totius. Decree of 28.10.1965 on priestly training Perfectae Caritatis. Decree of 28.10.1965 on the adaptation and renewal of religious life Presbyterorum Ordinis. Decree of 7.12.1965 on the ministry and life of priests Sacrosanctum Concilium. Constitution of 4.12.1963 on the sacred liturgy Unitatis redintegratio. Decree of 21.11.1964 on ecumenism

xcix

General Abbreviations

VI. General Abbreviations acc. adj. Akkad. Ammonite Amorite ANE ANE app. approx. Arab. Aram. art. Ass. b. Bab. BCE bibl. bibl. bill. biogr. Byz. c. c(c) Cath. CE cent. cf. ch. CIS cit. col. coll. Comm. comm. compl. ed. crit. cuneif. CW d. dat. DBK (Deutsche Bischofs-Konferenz) DEK (Deutsche Evangelische Kirche) Deut. Deut.-Isa. DeutHist diff. diss. (typescr.) dist. Dtr. dtr. EBA ed. edn Edom.

accusative adjective Akkadian Ammonite Amorite ancient Near East ancient Near Eastern apparatus approximately Arabic Aramaic article/essay Assyrian born Babylonian Before the Common Era, Before Christ biblical bibliographic, bibliograpy billion biography/biographic Byzantine circa canon(s) Catholic Common Era/Anno Domini century confer/compare chapter Commonwealth of Independent States cited column collected Commentary commentated complete edition critical cuneiform complete works died dative German Bishops Conference German Evangelical Church Deuteronomic Deutero-Isaiah/Second Isaiah Deuteronomistic History different from dissertation (typescript) distinctio Deuteronomist Deuteronomic, Deuteronomistic Early Bronze Age edition, edidit, edited by, editor edition/printing Edomite

General Abbreviations EG Egyp. EKD EKG EKU Elohist emd. Engl. ep. esp. Eth. etym. EU f(f ). fem. fig. fol. Fr. FRG frgm. FS GDR gen. Ger. Germ. Gk Gt. Habil. Hasm. HB Heb. hell. HG hierogl. Hist. eccl. Hitt. Hung. IA ibid. idem illus. in Isr. Isrl. Ital. J Je Joh. Jr. l. Lat. Latin. LBA LF lit. Luth. LXX

Evangelisches Gesangbuch (Hymnal of the Evangelical Church in Germany) Egyptian Evangelical Church in Germany Evangelisches Kirchengesangbuch (Hymnal of the Evangelical Church) Evangelische Kirche der Union Elohist emendation English epistula(ae) especially Ethiopic etymology/etymological European Union following feminine figure folio French Federal Republic of Germany fragment, fragmentary Festschrift German Democratic Republic genitive German Germanic Greek the Great Habilitation (typescript) Hasmonean Hebrew Bible Hebrew hellenistic High German hieroglyphic Historia ecclesiastica Hittite Hungarian Iron Age ibidem idem illustration in (the year) Israeli Israelite Italian Yahwist Jehovist Johannine Junior line Latin Latinized Late Bronze Age long form literal, literary, literature Lutheran Septuagint

c

ci m. m. MA masc. Masor. MBA med. med. MHG mill. MkR ms./mss. MT n. n./nn. n.d. n.p. Nab. neut. no. nom. NS NT obj. OHG or orig. OT P p./pp. par./parr. para. Pers. Phoen. pl. PN Port. poss. pr. Prof. prop. Proto-Isa. Ps.ps.publ. Q q. R r. rabb. re. Ref. repr. rev. Russ. s.v. sc.

General Abbreviations meter(s) million Middle Ages masculine Masoretic Middle Bronze Age medical medieval Middle High German millennium Markan Redactor manuscript(s) Masoretic Text noun note(s) no date no place Nabatean neuter number nominative new series New Testament object Old High German or/respectively original(ly) Old Testament Priestly Document page(s) and parallel(s) paragraph Persian Phoenician plural personal name Portuguese possible/possibly printed Professor propositio Proto-Isaiah Pseudopseudopublication, published (by) Logia/Sayings Source Q quaestio Redactor responsio rabbinic regarding Reformed reprint revised by, revisor Russian sub voce scilicet

General Abbreviations sem. SF sg. Slav. Span. St. subj. Sumer. suppl. Syr. trans. Trito-Isa. Ug. UN v./vv. var. VELKD (United Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Germany) vol./vols. WCC WHO

semitic short form singular Slavonic Spanish Saint subject Sumerian supplement, supplementary issue, supplemented Syriac/Syrian translated (by), translator Trito-Isaiah Ugaritic United Nations verse/verses variant(s) United Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Germany volume(s) World Council of Churches World Health Organization

States of the USA AK AL AR AZ CA CO CT DC DE FL GA HI IA ID IL IN KS KY LA MA MD ME MI MN MO MS MT NC ND

Alaska Alabama Arkansas Arizona California Colorado Connecticut District of Columbia Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Iowa Idaho Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Massachusetts Maryland Maine Michigan Minnesota Missouri Mississippi Montana North Carolina North Dakota

cii

ciii NE NH NJ NM NV NY OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VA VT WA WI WV WY

General Abbreviations Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Nevada New York Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Vermont Washington Wisconsin West Virginia Wyoming

A A cappella (Italian: in the manner of a chapel) historically refers to choral music accompanied by instruments colla parte; today to unaccompanied choral music of any genre (sacred or secular). The practice of unaccompanied singing stems from ancient prohibition of musical instruments in church. Via reforms of the Council of Trent (1545–1564). The choral singing in the Sistine Chapel became the model of choral music for worship. Especially the Cecilian reform of the 19th century revived idealized notions of appropriate church music requiring stylistic features similar to those recommended at Trent: few dissonances, intelligible textures, and unaccompanied singing. B. Janz, MGG I, 1994, 1123.

William Flynn

A priori / a posteriori I. The distinction between a priori (“from the former”) and a posteriori (“from the latter”) is used by philosophy on various levels. 1. Fundamental is the epistemological distinction between two kinds of epistemic (i.e. cognitive) justifications (e.g. grounds or proofs). A justification is a priori if it is not based on experience; otherwise it is a posteriori. The result is an important distinction between two kinds of knowledge: a true conviction involves a priori knowledge when it can be justified a priori (i.e., independent of experience), otherwise a posteriori knowledge. The latter is also called empirical knowledge. 2. When applied to concepts, the distinction between a priori and a posteriori has two meanings: A concept is a priori in the genetic sense when it can be employed before anyone finds applications for it in actual experience; it is a priori in the epistemological sense when it is employed in a priori knowledge. Ideas other than concepts can be treated analogously. II. Historically, the present-day distinction goes back to → Aristotle, who noted that what is naturally prior is often epistemologically later (as when a cause is inferred from its effects). In the Middle Ages, the Latin expressions a priori and a posteriori became standard in this context, usually combined with the view that one can determine a posteriori (from consequences or effects) that something is the case, but that one can only explain a priori why something is the case. Later G.W. → Leibniz

identified the a priori/a posteriori distinction with the distinction between (necessary) “truths of reason” and (accidental) “truths of fact.” The present-day importance of the distinction is due to I. → Kant. Although it has been customary since Kant to view independence from experience as the hallmark of the a priori, the precise line of demarcation between a priori and a posteriori is still disputed. The discussion involves three primary questions: 1. What exactly is meant by “experience”? Depending on whether “experience” refers only to outward sensory perceptions or includes psychic, religious, or even extrasensory perceptions, the concept of the a priori will be narrower or broader. 2. What is the relationship of the distinction between a priori and a posteriori and that between analytic and synthetic statements or judgments? (A statement is analytic if its truth or falsity can be determined solely by the rules of logic and the meaning of the terms it contains.) While empiricists generally hold the view that only analytic statements can be the object of a priori knowledge, Kant in particular defended the possibility of “synthetic judgments a priori.” 3. What is the relationship of the distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge and that between necessary and contingent (accidental) statements? According to Leibniz and Kant, the two distinctions are coincident: what is necessarily true can only be known a priori, and vice versa. Recently, however, some philosophers have espoused the view that the truth and necessity of necessarily true statements can be the object of empirical knowledge. Aristotle An. Post. 71b/72a ◆ G.W. Leibniz, Nouveaux Essais, VI.2 ◆ I. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft (B), Introduction ◆ R. Eisler, H. Schepers & G. Tonelli, HWP I, 1971, 462–474 ◆ A. Casullo, “‘A priori/a posteriori’ and ‘a priori Knowledge,’” in: Companion to Epistemology, ed. J. Dancy & E. Sosa, 1992, 1–8. Marcus Willaschek

A priori, Religious. The concept of religious a priori was shaped, in analogy to the terminology of I. → Kant, by E. → Troeltsch in 1904. He attempted, by means of the insights of consciousness theory, to ascertain the value of religion according to the goals of objective conceptions of religion. This attempt involved a point of contact with Kant’s doctrine, but also a profound difference from it. As Kant understood it, a priori are those structures of consciousness that form the basis equally for the categorical conceptualization of spatial-temporal

A priori, Religious experience, for the moral self-determination of rational subjects, and for assent to aesthetic judgments. From this concept, the expression “religious a priori” adopts the claim of a structural necessity of religion for consciousness. To be sure, this contention includes a broad modification of Kant’s starting point. For, while for Kant it is precisely those structures that belong to any consciousness as such that make it possible to justify the validity of assessments of experience of the world, of morality, or of aesthetics, for Troeltsch, the religious a priori refers to the unifying function of the transcendent and empirical subject. The theory of religious a priori maintains that, as a structural task of all consciousness, it must relate to one another the questions of transcendental validity and the empirical constitution of itself in the modality of an always pre-existent, although with degrees of clarity of consciousness, becoming unity. This a priori unifying function of religion can only be perceived empirically, i.e. historically, and cannot be deduced from the transcendental structures of consciousness. In this way, a relationship of religious formation of unity with other objective cultural structures becomes apparent. The uniqueness of religion lies in the fact that in it the accomplishment of unity as such (an “absolute relationship of substance” as Troeltsch says) is thematic. With this unifying function, the religious a priori assumes a higher, integrative level in relation to the mere transcendental concept of a priori. It refers to that structure of consciousness which is always only perceptible as such in historical manifestation, but which is always already realized. Accordingly, the religious a priori serves as the determination of the place of religion in the consciousness. This place, however, can only be possessed by historical religions that, for their part, lay a claim – even if unnoted and unidentified – to ultimate certainty. Consequently, the theory of the religious a priori can also endorse religious consciousness itself as a conceptual articulation of its claim to validity. Thus, it can also be utilized as a methodical center of organization for the study of religion. Through the religious a priori, history becomes the theme of an interpretation of the consciousness overall. Through it the status of the transcendental structures of consciousness are altered. For their part, regardless of their function for claims of validity, they are historically affixed. Troeltsch came to this concept of religious a priori on a path that did not proceed directly from Kant. Instead, psychological analyses of religion forced him to questions concerning a non-psychological foundation for the validity of religion. Similarly, the expansion of Kant’s concepts in southwest German neo-Kantianism (Heinrich Rickert, Wilhelm Windelband) contributed to the history of the formation of the concept. Of course, Troeltsch’s explicit interpretation of Kant in 1904 (“The

2 Historical in Kant’s Philosophy of Religion”), in which the question of the historicity of transcendental structures already appeared, bundled these strands together. The fact that he did not himself bring final clarity to the term has to do with this genesis of the concept and with Troeltsch’s unexecuted plan for a philosophy of religion. R. → Otto represented another variant of the concept. Following the extension of Kant’s doctrine by J.F. → Fries, Otto understood the religious a priori as the equivalent of a unifying function belonging to consciousness itself that shifts the relationship between transcendental and empirical subject into the realm of a “penalty” or “faith.” Thereby, however, in contrast to Troeltsch’s concept, a general unity of consciousness, manifest psychologically, is taken into account for which religion offers only the most advantageous and psychologically profound illustrative material. “The holy,” then, presents the religious a priori to the extent that it encompasses the attractive and repellent emotions brought upon the person through confrontation with the pre-existent unity of his or her self and of reality as a whole. In this manner, indeed, the religious a priori is transformed from a practicalhistorical concept into a theoretical-speculative concept. Associated with this is a religious claim to universality in relation to culture which Troeltsch’s stricter understanding of the concept in terms of the theory of consciousness excludes as a possibility. In the subsequent debate, which has extended over 30 years and has been conducted with greatest controversy, these two versions of a religious a priori have sometimes been played against one another and sometimes both have been rejected (though for different reasons). Sometimes, the attempt has also been made to form alternatives to both (Dunkmann, A. → Nygren). None of these conceptualizations has endured. At the same time, one can conclude from the current critical revision of the discussion that the concept of a religious a priori may be considered an indication of the necessity of a symbolic representation of the unifying function of the empiricalpsychological and transcendental-intelligible subject that signifies the constant necessity of a historical manifestation of the consciousness in the medium of religion. Furthermore, it stresses the question of the historicity of the transcendental. To this extent, the concept has not been surpassed as an indicator of the problem. E. Troeltsch, “Die Selbständigkeit der Religion,” ZThK 5, 1895, 261–436; ZThK 6, 1896, 71–110, 167–218 ◆ idem, Das Historische in Kants Religionsphilosophie, 1904 ◆ idem, Psychologie und Erkenntnistheorie in der Religionswissenschaft, 1905 ◆ idem, “Wesen der Religion und der Religionswissenschaft,” (1909), Gesammelte Schriften 2, 452–499 ◆ R. Otto, Kantisch-Fries’sche Religionsphilosophie und ihre Anwendung auf die Theologie, 1909 ◆ K. Dunkmann, Das religiöses A priori und die Geschichte, 1910 ◆ R. Otto, Das Heilige, 1917 ◆ R. Köhler, Der Begriff a priori in der modernen Religionsphilosophie, 1920 ◆ A. Nygren, Die Gültigkeit der religiösen Erfahrung, 1922 ◆ A. Paus, Religiöser Erkenntnisgrund:

3 Herkunft und Wesen der Aprioritheorie Rudolf Ottos, 1966 ◆ H. Bräunlich, “Das Verhältnis von Religion und Theologie bei E. Troeltsch und R. Otto,” Diss., 1978 ◆ F.W. Veauthier, “Das religiöse A priori: Zur Ambivalenz von E. Troeltschs Analyse des Vernunftmomentes in der Religion,” KantSt 78, 1987, 42–63 ◆ M.D. Chapman, “Apologetics and the Religious A Priori: The Use and the Abuse of Kant in German Theology 1900–1920,” JTS NS 43, 1992, 470–510. Dietrich Korsch

Aachen, since the 1st century ce a Roman settlement (Lat. Aquis, Aquisgrani) with thermal baths (hot springs). In the Frankish Period, the town became a royal possession. After king Pippin spent the winter of 765/66 there, it became a palatinate and was expanded by → Charlemagne, who resided there more often and longer as he grew older. He also convoked imperial assemblies and church synods there. Immediately next to the palace, he built the Collegiate Church of St. Mary and its monastery. Here he was entombed on Jan 28, 814. A commercial center connected with the Aachen financial complex supplied the palace; merchants and craftspeople settled nearby. Beginning with → Otto I, most of the German kings were crowned at Aachen. In 1165, → Frederick I had Charlemagne declared a saint; in 1166, he declared Aachen the capital of the empire and granted the city privileges to promote its economic life. In 1171–1175 a wall was built, and after about 1200 we find ministeriales et burgenses recognized as an universitas. Toward the end of the 13th century, in a conflict with Jülich, the commune secured its independence and succeeded in becoming a free imperial city. Beginning in 1349, the “relics” from the treasury of Charlemagne (the tunic of the Virgin Mary, the swaddling-clothes and loincloth of Jesus, etc.) were exhibited every seven years, making Aachen one of the most important pilgrimage centers of Germany. The Reformation, which was implemented in Aachen in 1530, was effectively suppressed after 1614. In 1930, the diocese of Aachen was erected from portions of the dioceses of Cologne and Münster. H. Schiffers, Die Aachener Heiligtumsfahrt, 1937 ◆ B. Poll, ed., Geschichte Aachens in Daten, 21965 ◆ D. Wynands, Kleine Geschichte Aachens, 21986. Sönke Lorenz

Aalto, Alvar (Hugo Alvar Henrik; Feb 3, 1898 Kuortane, Finland – May 11, 1976, Helsinki), architect. After studying at the Helsinki University of Technology, from 1923 he practiced as a free-lance architect. From 1946 to 1948 he was a visiting professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, and from 1963 to 1968 he served as president of the Finnish Academy. His international projects include residential and office buildings, city centers, hospitals, theaters, museums, churches, and university buildings. He designed Vuoksenniska Church, near Imatra, built

Aaron in 1946, one of the most significant modern churches in Europe. Here Aalto overlays functionalistic forms with expressionistic forms. Six other churches followed, including Wolfsburg (1962), Detmerode (1968), and Riola di Vergato (1978). Aalto’s buildings are characterized by diverse stylistic periods, which go beyond puristic and rational roots. His work features collage-like additions and contrasting forms, sensitive engagement with the natural environment, and refined details (bentwood furniture). Here he joins the ranks of Finnish “romantic nationalism” (including Eliel Saarinen in architecture, Gallén-Kallela in painting, and Jean Sibelius in music), which became a symbol of the will for political freedom of Finland, which had been independent since 1917. Aalto’s significance for international architecture and church architecture transcends his own period, because he enriches the contemporary utilitarian sytle with elements of artistic play. P.D. Pearson, Alvar Aalto and the International Style, 1978 ◆ M. Quantrill, Alvar Aalto, 1983 ◆ K. Fleig, Alvar Aalto, 21984 ◆ G. Schildt, Alvar Aalto: Complete Catalogue of Architecture, 4 vols., 1984–94 ◆ In Berührung mit Alvar Aalto, pub. by the Alvar Aalto Museum Jyväskylä, 1992 (exhibition catalogue). Lothar Kallmeyer

Aaron I. Old Testament – II. Early Judaism

I. Old Testament The origin of the name is uncertain. In the Old Testament Aaron is the brother of → Moses and his spokesman (Exod 4:14f.). He was reputed to be a “Levite” (priest; Exod 4:14), and the traveling companion and deputy of Moses (Exod 7:1–7), a miracle-worker (Exod 8:1f.), a charismatic leader (Exod 17:10–12; 24:14) and the progenitor of the legitimate, Levitical-Aaronic priesthood of Israel (Exod 28f.; Lev 8–10; Num 3:5–4:49; 8:5–26; 16–18). At the same time, however, he was responsible for the establishment of the illegitimate cult of the golden bull (Exod 32). Here it may be a matter of a negatively directed etiology of the sanctuary at Bethel (Beyerlin), whose priests probably saw in Aaron their progenitor. Num 12 portrays Aaron as an adversary of his brother: along with his sister → Miriam he questioned Moses’ claim to exclusive leadership. Nevertheless, the heaviest penalty did not fall on him, but Miriam. All this together makes clear that several strands of tradition have influenced one another. At the most, the pre-priestly source lying behind the tradition of Aaron as a charismatic leader might prove to be a historical recollection. The historical Aaron appears to have come from the southern tribes: the oldest traditions associated with him (Exod 15:29; 17:8–16; 18:12) come from south Judah (Noth). The traditions that portray Aaron as the brother of Moses, prophet, wonder-worker or ancestor of the priesthood

Aaronic Blessing are later. Eventually, these traditions were written down in P, whose Aaronic genealogy was the result of postexilic compromises among priestly groups (→ Zadokites, “→ Levites,” Abiatharides) fighting for predominance. Since then the whole priesthood has traced itself back to Aaron as its common ancestor (1 Chr 5:27–41). J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, 1878, 61905, 135–137 ◆ M. Noth, Überlieferungsgeschichte des Pentateuch, 1948, 31966, 195–199 ◆ W. Beyerlin, Herkunft und Geschichte der ältesten Sinaitraditionen, 1961, 144–163 ◆ A.H.J. Gunneweg, Leviten und Priester, FRLANT 89, 1965 ◆ A. Cody, “Aaron, Aaronitisches Priestertum” I, TRE I, 1977, 1–5 ◆ H. Valentin, Aaron, OBO 18, 1978 ◆ N. Allen, “The Identity of the Jerusalem Priesthood during the Exile”, Hey J 23, 1982, 259–269 ◆ S.L. Cook, “Innerbiblical Interpretation in Ezekiel 44 and the History of Israel’s Priesthood”, JBL 114, 1995, 193–208. Joachim Schaper

II. Early Judaism → Philo gave prominence to the understanding of Aaron as the spokesman of the word of God, in which role he is nevertheless ranked below Moses, and Philo designated Aaron as the “expressed word” (λόγος προϕορικός/ lógos prophorikós; migr. 78; det. 39.126). In a few writings from → Qumran there appears the expectation of a Messiah from the lineage of Aaron, who is conceived of as the priestly partner of the Davidic Messiah (1QS 9.11; cf. CD 13.1). In rabbinic literature one encounters the struggle for reconciliation as the characteristic feature of Aaron (m.Avoth 1.12). Because he is the prototype of the High Priest, rabbinic exegesis leaned toward minimizing his responsibility for the affair with the golden calf (Lev.R. 10.3). By contrast they emphasize Aaron’s strength in the face of the death of his sons Nadab and Abihu, for which various explanations were sought. L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, vol. III, 1911 ◆ L. Smolar & M. Aberbach, “The Golden Calf Episode in Postbiblical Literature,” HUCA 39, 1968, 91–116 ◆ G.J. Brooke, “The Messiah of Aaron in the Damascus Document”, RQ 15, 1991, 215–230. Martin Jacobs

Aaronic Blessing I. Old Testament – II. Early Judaism – III. Liturgy

I. Old Testament The priestly Blessing, transmitted within the framework of the so-called Priestly Source (→ Pentateuch) in Num 6:23–26, which is also attested in some inscriptions (e.g. in Ketef Hinnom near Jerusalem), consist of traditional blessing formulae, linked together in three stair-stepped lines. Each line begins similarly with two jussive wishes with equivalent beginnings and the tetragrammaton in second position. The delay in invoking the divine name creates a semantic impetus, which strengthens the hortatory character of the blessing. With its formulaic expressions, it promotes the wish for a divine blessing,

4 consisting of protection (Num 6:24), gracious favor (25), and continuing presence (26), and mediates a personal offer of salvation. It is interpreted in v. 27. For later references see Ps 67; 1QS 2.1–10. K. Seybold, Der aaronitischer Segen, 1977 (bibl.) ◆ G. Barkay, “The Priestly Benediction on Silver Plaques from Ketef Hinnon in Jerusalem,” Tel Aviv 19, 1992, 139–194 (bibl.) Klaus Seybold

II. Early Judaism In Qumran a Midrashic expansion of the Aaronic Blessing appears in 1QS 2.2–4, which among other things draws out of Num 6:25 the promise of knowledge. This blessing formula, which antithetically follows a curse, may have had liturgical functions. In rabbinic Judaism, during synagogue worship, the priests gave the Aaronic Blessing in the context of the → Shemone Esre (m.Ber. 5.4). Furthermore, the verb (˙anan) from Num 6:25b was combined (in a way similar to Qumran) in the fourth blessing of this prayer with the request for knowledge (m.Ber. 5.2). I. Elbogen, Der jüdische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung, 31931 ◆ G.J. Brooke, Exegesis at Qumran, 1985, 295ff. Martin Jacobs

III. Liturgy The history of the development of Num 6:24–26 in the sphere of piety and liturgy is long. In the late Middle Ages the Aaronic Benediction was spoken, but was not part of the liturgical directions in the Missal. It was integrated into the closing benediction on Sundays by most Reformation churches. Luther recommended the Aaronic Benediction in various forms in his writing Formulae missae (1523) and as a biblical text in the Deutsche Messe (1525/26). In 1535 Zwingli introduced a dialogical form. In Forme des prières (1542) Calvin assigned the speaking of the Benediction to the preacher. The Benediction was also used in free churches and was introduced by → Vatican II as one of the five possible forms of the final blessing, to which the congregation responded with “Amen” after the sign of the cross. W. Düring, “Der Entlassungssegen in der Meßfeier,” LJ 19, 1969, 205–218. Don. E. Saliers

Abba represents the Greek transliteration (ἀββά) of the Aramaic address to God as Father in three bilingual invocations, Mark 14:36, Gal 4:6, and Rom 8:15. Since J. → Jeremias explained it in 1953 as a unique, diminutive address to God in the language of small children, it has been attributed particular theological and christological significance as an expression of Jesus’ unique understanding of God. Though Jeremias withdrew his derivation and interpretation of the term as babble, this withdrawal has remained without effect on theological and homiletical literature. Even if a Greek were to have

5 been reminded of his own childish term πάππα ( páppa, vocative), as we of “Daddy,” the translation in all three passages with “πατήρ” (pat¶r, Father) shows the expression to be the equivalent for the normal term, “Father.” The NT passages are the earliest witnesses to the pronunciation of '*(habbā’), which the later pointed targum texts also exhibit. The unusual lengthening of the '* can be explained as an assimilation to + *  (himmā’ = mother, not “Mamma”!). Nonetheless, the simple address of God as '*, is not attested in the rare Aramaic prayers from the Jewish environment. Yet, Targum Mal 2:10 and Ps 89:27 render - (hāb = Father) with “abba.” Pious Aramaic-speaking Jews may have had no reservations about using “Abba” in their personal prayers when they wanted to address God as “Father” or “my Father.” The evidence for the uniqueness of Jesus’ relationship to God is to be found in his proclamation as a whole. J. Jeremias, “ABBA,” in Abba: Studien zur neutestamentlichen Theologie und Zeitgeschichte, 1966, 15–67 ◆ idem, Neutestamentliche Theologie, vol. I, 1971, 45, 67–73, 175–196 ◆ G. Schelbert, “Abba, Vater!” FZPT 40, 1993, 259–281; 41, 1994, 528–531 (bibl.). Georg Schelbert

Abbadie, Jacques (1656, Nay, Béarn – Nov 25, 1727, London). Educated in Huguenot academies (→ Huguenots), Abbadie was an important leader of the refugee community in Berlin from 1680 to 1689. As a field chaplain, he participated in the Ireland campaign of William III of England, and lived thereafter on benefices of the → Anglican Church (beginning in 1699, he was Dean of the cathedral of Killaloe, Ireland). In intraHuguenot conflicts, he represented the trend of accommodation to the Anglican state church. Abbadie was a widely read author of theology, moral philosophy, and politics. His anti-Deistic apologetics (→ Deism) were especially valued. Works include: Traité de la vérité de la religion chrétienne, 1684 ◆ L’art de se connoître soy-même, 1692 ◆ Défense de la nation britannique, 1692 ◆ Bibl.: G. Heinz, Divinam christianae religionis originem probare, 1984 ◆ R. Whelan, “Between Two Worlds,” Lias 14, 1987, 101–117, 143–156 ◆ idem, “From Christian Apologetics to Enlightened Deism,” MLR 87, 1992, 32–40. Martin Ohst

Abbey. From the 7th century, the word abbatia originally designated the office of the → abbot/abbess of a cloister or a non-monastic → basilica. From the 9th century onward, it often referred to the cloister’s property as a → benefice. Additionally, it acquired the connotations of monastery and coenobium as the designation for the buildings and the living space of a community. They ere usually established by founders (bishops, kings, nobles) who regarded the abbey as their own monastery. Monastic reform movements sought to obtain the independence of abbeys from worldly influences by incorporating the abbeys in unions of cloisters. In church law, the abbey is an independently governed monastery

Abbot/Abbess or convent of monks, choristers, or nuns headed by an abbot/bbess. In order to establish one, the statutes of the orders foresee at least twelve members under vows. From the Middle Ages until CIC 1983, the establishment of abbeys was reserved for the Holy See; it now falls to the authorities within an order (General Chapter). Similarly, the discontinuation of an abbey, subject to the rights of the local bishop, lies in the hands of the orders (c. 616 §3). The independent legal status of the abbey finds expression in the right to its own novitiate and in the binding of monks or nuns to the cloister where they took vows, for reasons of stability. The abbatia territorialis circumscribes a regional entity similar to a diocese led by an abbot in the fashion of a diocesan bishop (cc. 368, 370). P. Hofmeister, “Gefreite Abteien und Prälaturen,” ZSRG. K, 81, 1964, 127–248 ◆ J. Wollasch, Mönchtum des Mittelalters zwischen Kirche und Welt, 1973 ◆ F.J. Felten, Äbte und Laienäbte in Frankreich, 1980. Dominicus Meier

Abbo of Fleury (940/45 – Nov 13, 1004) was from 965 on the head of the school and the abbot from 988 on of the monastery of → Fleury (St.-Benoît-sur-Loire, east of Orléans). Abbo authored, inter alia, lives of saints and a collection of canons, as well as works of grammar and chronology whose major significance for the scholarship of his time only became evident through the recently published critical editions. In church politics, Abbo came to the fore as an opponent of papal primacy and as a champion of church reform as suggested by → Cluny. While visiting a prior from his monastery, he was murdered in Gascony. M. Mostert, The Political Theology of Abbo of Fleury, 1987. Wilfried Hartmann

Abbot/Abbess. The head of an independent monastery or nunnery under the → Benedictine Rule, sometimes, also, of other communities, in the East of almost all monasteries. Abbás (Gk ἀββάς; Aram. abba, Copt. apa) originally designated the experienced monk as a spiritual father, although → Pachomius was already also a superior. At first charismatic in character (still so in → Basil the Great), the abbot concept became ever more juridical in the major communities of Late Antiquity. The abbot was not necessarily a cleric, but if he was, he was subject to episcopal jurisdiction (Chalcedon, c. 8). In the Eastern Church, the terms “hegúmenos” or “archimandrite” were customary, while the West preferred the term “abbas.” The Regula Benedicti definitively shaped the Western abbot concept. The abbots of the major monasteries of Franconia undertook state tasks, in the 9th century occasionally as “lay abbots” (nobles who were not monks); such political aspirations of abbots continued to be frequent on into the 12th century.

Abbot, George The monastic reform movement (esp. → Cistercians) returned to the abbot’s office its spiritual character. In the late Middle Ages, the office was undermined by “commendatory abbots”: clerics without profession or residential cloister, who lived on the incomes of their abbeys (in France until the French Revolution). The monastic restoration of the 19th century saw the abbots, as do the Eastern Churches to this day, primarily as spiritual fathers. Justinian I (530/546) already regulated the election of abbots. According to the Regula Benedicti (64.1), the choice should be unanimous or by the pars sanior. Today, the Catholic Church practices election by majority for life or for a limited period. An abbot consecration is attested as early as the 6th century in the Sacramentarium Gregorianum; according to the Pontificale Romano-germanicum (10th cent.), the local bishop performs it and it involves the conferral of rule and staff as well as laying-on-of-hands, according to the Ordo of 1973, usually without laying-on-of-hands. The office of abbess (Gk. ἡγουμένη/heguménē, Lat. abbatissa) developed in analogy to male monasteries. First attested in 514 for S. Agnese in Rome, the title is already presumed to be common by → Caesarius of Arles. Today’s regulations are similar to those for male cloisters, apart from legal governance, which is reserved to the priesthood. The Lutheran church has in some cases retained the abbot title (→ Loccum, → Bursfelde) and the office of abbess (women’s seminaries). B. Hegglin, Der benediktinische Abt in rechtsgeschichtlicher Entwicklung und geltendem Kirchenrecht, 1961 ◆ P. Salmon, L’abbé dans la tradition monastique, 1962 ◆ I. Kotsouis, ῾Ηγούμενος, TEE VI, 1965, 5–7 ◆ F.J. Felten, Äbte und Laienäbte im Frankenreich, 1980. Pius Engelbert

Abbot, George (Oct 10, 1562, Guildford – Aug 4, 1633, Croydon), from 1611 Archbishop of → Canterbury, Abbot played a leading role in the translation of the Authorized Version of the (King James) Bible, convinced the Scottish Church (→ Church of Scotland) to adopt the office of bishop and sent a delegation to the Synod of → Dort (1618). His critical attitude toward the party of W. → Laud, his refusal to yield to one of the king’s favorites in the so-called Essex nullity suit (1616), and the accidental shooting of a warden during a hunt robbed him of his influence. P.A. Welsby, George Abbot, the Unwanted Archbishop, 1962 ◆ R.A. Christophers, George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1966 (bibl.). Christopher FitzSimons Allison

Abbott, Edwin (Dec 20, 1838, London – Dec 10, 1926, Hampstead), teacher and scholar. He studied at St. John’s College in Cambridge (1857–1861), became Fellow in St. John’s in 1862, resigning the office, however, when he married in 1863. Ordained a deacon in

6 the → Church of England in 1862 and a priest in 1863, he dedicated his life, however, primarily to education, especially as the head of the City of London School (1865–1889). The reforms in teaching methods and curriculum that he introduced led to the far-reaching reputation of the institution. His most outstanding theological works are New Testament studies. In his more general theological writings, he represented the viewpoint of the “broad church.” L.R. Farnell, DNB I, 1922, 1–2.

Glenn Hinson

Abbott, Lyman (Dec 18, 1825, Roxbury, MA – Oct 22, 1922, New York) was a Congregationalist pastor (→ Congregational Christian Churches) and perhaps America’s most influential proponent of liberal Protestantism. The lawyer who had not studied theology at university continually downplayed religious and confessional differences in order to seek fellowship with all who were engaged for a better society. Works include: The Theology of an Evolutionist, 1897 ◆ Reminiscences, 1923 ◆ Bibl.: I. Brown, Lyman Abbott, 1949. Ferenc Szasz

Abbreviations I. Medieval Abbreviations – II. Catholic Orders

I. Medieval Abbreviations Medieval abbreviations are based on the principles of suspension and contraction developed in antiquity (epigraphical, juridical-administrative abbreviations, sacred names). In the 6th–7th/9th centuries, the book scripts that developed variously by region (→ Printing and Publishing ) developed different traditions in the use of abbreviations. The Carolingian minuscule that gradually gained predominance abandoned many abbreviations and leveled many differences. Because of the rapid development of academic publishing at the universities, the number and methods of abbreviations are again on the increase. L. Traube, Nomina Sacra, 1907 ◆ W.M. Lindsay, Notae Latinae, Latin 1915, repr. 1965 ◆ N. Giovè Marchioli, Alle origini delle abbreviature latine, Ricerca Papirologica 2, 1993. Anne Schmid

II. Catholic Orders Abbreviations for order designations appear (nonuniformly) from the late Middle Ages onwards. The following selection explains the standard abbreviations: B.M.V.=Beata Maria Virgo; C.=Congregatio; Can.=Canonicus; Cl.=Clerici; I.=Institutum; Miss.= Missionarius; O.=Ordo; Reg.=Regularis; S.=Sanctus; Soc.=Societas. AA (C. Augustinianorum ab Assumptione): → Assumptionists; C(an)R(eg): → Canons Regular; CCF (C. Caritatis Fratrum): → Mercy, Brothers and Sisters of ; CFA (C. Fratrum Alexianorum): → Alexians; CMF

7 (Cordis Mariae Filii): → Claretians; CMM (C. Miss. de Mariannhill): Missionaries of → Mariannhill ; CP (C. Passionis Iesu Christi): → Passionists; CR (O.Cl.Reg. vulgo Theatinorum): → Theatines; C(R)SA (Can.Reg. S. Augustini): → Canons Regular of St. Augustine ; CRSP (C.Cl.Reg. S. Pauli Decollati): → Barnabites; CSsR (C. Sanctissimi Redemptoris): → Redemptorists; CVUOSB (C. Vallis Umbrosae O.S. Benedicti): → Vallombrosans; FMA (Filiae Mariae Auxiliatricis): Sons of Mary, Help of Christians, → Salesian Sisters; FMS (I. Fratrum Maristarum a Scholis): → Marists FSC (I. Fratrum Scholarum Christianarum): → Brothers of the Christian Schools; IBMV: → English Ladies; MAfr (Miss. Africae, Patres Albi): → White Fathers; MI (O.Cl.Reg. Ministrantium Infirmis): → Camillians; OAD (O. Augustiniensium Discalceatorum): Augustinians-Discalced ; OAnnM (O. de Annuntiatione B.M.V.): → Annunciates; OC/OCarm (O. Fratrum B.M.V. de Monte Carmelo): → Camillians; OCart (O. Cartusiensis): → Carthusians; OCD (O. Fratrum Discalceatorum B.M.V. de Monte Carmelo): Discalced Carmelites; Ocist (O. Cisterciensis): → Cistercians; OCR/OCSO (O. Cisterciensium [Reformatorum seu] Strictioris Observantiae): → Trappists; OdeM (O.B.M.V. de Mercede): Mercedarians; OFM/ OFMCap/OFMConv (O. Fratrum Minorum] Capuccinorum/Conventualium-): → Franciscans/ → Capuchins/ → Minorites; OH (O. Hospitalarius S. Joannis de Deo): Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God; OM (O. Minimorum): Paulists (→ Minims); OP (O. Praedicatorum): → Dominicans; OPraem (Candidus et Can.O. Praemonstratensis): → Premonstratensians; Or (I. Oratorii S. Philippi Nerii): → Oratorians; OSA (O. Fratrum S. Augustini): Augustinians (until 1969 → Augustinian Hermits [OESA]); OSB (O.S. Benedicti): → Benedictines; OSC (O.S. Crucis): Fathers and Brothers of the Holy Cross; OSCl (O.S. Clarae): → Clarists; OSM (O. Servorum Mariae): → Servites; OSPPE (O. Fratrum S. Pauli Primi Eremitae): → Pauline Fathers; OSSalv (O. Sanctissimi Salvatoris): → Bridgettines; OSST (O. Sanctissimae Trinitatis): → Trinitarians; OSU (O.S. Ursulae): → Ursulines; OT (O. Fratrum Domus Hospitalis S. Mariae Teutonicorum in Jerusalem): → Teutonic Order (Priests of the Teutonic Order); PSS (Soc. Presbyterorum a S. Sulpitio): Sulpicians; RSM (Religious Sisters of Mercy, Sorores a Misericordia): SAC (Soc. Apostolatus Catholici): Pallottini: SCVO (Sorores Caritatis S. Vincentii a Paul): → Vincentians; SDB (Soc. S. Francisci Salesii): Salesians; SDS (Soc. Divini Salvatoris): → Salvatorians; SI/SJ (Soc. Iesu/Jesu): Society of Jesus, → Jesuits; SM (Soc. Mariae): → Marianists; S(ch)P (O.Cl.Reg. Pauperum Matris Dei Scholarum Piarum): → Piarists; SSND (C. Pauperum Sororum Scholarum Nostrae Dominae): → School Sisters

Abelard, Peter of Notre Dame ; SSS (C. Presbyterorum a Sanctissimo Sacramento): → Eucharistines; SVD (Soc. Verbi Divini): → Steyler Missionaries. H. Ooms, Repertorium universale siglorum Ordinum et Institutum religiosorum in Ecclesia catholica, 1958 ◆ G. Schwaiger, ed., Mönchtum, Orden, Klöster, 21994, 476f. ◆ AnPont 1996. Manfred Heim

Abel → Cain and Abel Abelard, Peter (Abailardus, Baiolardus; “Peripateticus Palatinus”) was born in 1079 in Le Pallet near Nantes, and died on Apr 21, 1142 in St-Marcel near Chalon-sur-Saône. In order to devote himself to scholarship, he renounced his rights as firstborn in his equestrian family. From 1095 to 1102, he studied logic under → Roscelin of Compiègne and under → William of Champeaux in Paris. From 1102 to 1105, he taught in Corbeil and Melun. After spending some time in his home town, he studied rhetoric in 1108/1109 under William in Paris, but clashed with him over the question of → universals. From 1109 to 1112, he taught in Melun and on Mont Ste-Geneviève outside Paris; during this period, William was his enemy. In 1113, Abelard wanted to study theology under → Anselm of Laon, but it was he himself who held the lectures on Ezekiel in 1113/1114. From 1114 to 1116, he was a canon in Paris and taught logic and theology at Notre-Dame. His love affair with his pupil Heloise ended when both entered religious communities (in Argenteuil and St-Denis). He was able to resume teaching c. 1120. In 1121, the synod of Soissons condemned Abelard’s first draft of a theology. After a brief imprisonment in St-Médard and conflicts in St-Denis, he founded an oratory (the Paracletus) in Quincy in 1122, and many students followed him there. In 1127, he became abbot of St-Gildas-le-Rhuys, where he endeavored in vain to restore monastic discipline. In 1129, the nuns under Heloise’s leadership were expelled from Argenteuil, and settled in Paracletus. In 1132/1133, Abelard fled from his monastery and began teaching for a second time in Ste- Geneviève; in 1137, he began teaching in Paris itself. On Jun 2, 1140, the Synod of Sens condemned a list of alleged errors of Abelard which had been drawn up by → William of St-Thierry, Thomas of Morigny, and → Bernard of Clairvaux. On his journey to Rome to appeal against this verdict, Abelard was welcomed as a guest in → Cluny by → Peter the Venerable. Abelard was active in many scholarly fields. He began as a logician and wrote glosses and commentaries on → Porphyry, → Aristotle (Cat.; De Interpretatione), and → Boethius. He summarized his logic in the Dialectica, which reveal no knowledge of the other writings of

Abercius, Inscription of Aristotle on logic, which were beginning to be available in western Europe at that period. Abelard distinguishes between the intensio and the extensio of concepts (→ Extension/Intension), analyzes the affirmative proposition as a predication in two parts, and considers the modalities not from a statistical perspective, but with an intention which goes against or beyond the de facto situation. He attempts to trace ontological questions back to linguistic-logical questions, and this is why he treats the universals as terms which form potential predicates rather than as things; nor does he treat them as mere “sounds,” because they have a point of contact with things in that they denote these things in their status. In his ethics (Scito te ipsum, 1138/1139), he understands sin not as a deed, but as the assent given to an evil will, as the intention to do evil. This accentuates the subjective dimension of ethics. In 1119/1120, Abelard wrote the first tractate of his theology (Theologia summi boni), which is directed primarily against Roscelin’s teaching on the three trinitarian substances. Abelard sees an anticipation of trinitarian doctrine in Moses, the prophets, and pagan thinkers, where he finds the divine mysteries hidden (involucrum, integumentum) in resemblances, images, and parables. This makes it possible to construct a relationship between the teachings of pagan philosophers and Christianity. Against the attacks of the “hyper-dialecticians,” Abelard employs dialectic itself, in order to meet them on their own ground. This is why his theology does not claim to offer a proof of religious truth, but only to respond to dialectical objections by showing that religious truth does not contradict reason. This rational-analytic character of Abelard’s theology, which is retained in the later versions too (Theologia christiana and Theologia scholarium), met with opposition on the part of monastic theologians like Bernard of Clairvaux, who saw it as a threat to the affective character of Christian teaching. In his collection of mutually contradictory affirmations by the Church Fathers (Sic et non, 1121–1126), Abelard shows clearly that a mere appeal to theological authorities will not do; at the same time, however, he indicates how these contradictions might be overcome. In exegesis too (commentaries on the Hexameron and Romans, 1133–1137), he insists on the rhetoricaldialectical perspective. For the Paracletus monastery, Abelard wrote hymns and set these to music. He is also said to have composed love poetry. The authenticity of his correspondence with Heloise has been disputed up to the present day. Abelard had many pupils who were also productive writers, e.g. in collections of Sentences (Sententiae Florianenses, Sententiae Hermanni, Sententiae Parisienses). His pupils included Berengar of Poitiers, Roland Bandinelli (→ Alexander III), → Peter Lombard,

8 → John of Salisbury, → Robert of Melun, and → Arnold of Brescia. Fumagalli, The Logic of Abelard, 1969 ◆ M.T. BeonioBrocchieri & J. Jolivet, Arts du langage et théologie chez Abélard, 1969 ◆ P.E. Luscombe, The School of Peter Abelard, 1969 ◆ E.M. Buytaert, ed., Peter Abelard, 1974 ◆ J. Jolivet & R. Louis, eds., Pierre Abélard – Pierre le Vénérable, 1975 ◆ M. Tweedale, Peter Abelard on Universals, 1976 ◆ R. Thomas, ed., Peter Abelard, 1980 ◆ J. Verger & J. Jolivet, Bernard – Abélard, 1982 ◆ D.F. Blackwell, Non-ontological Constructs, 1988 ◆ P.H. Jussila, Peter Abelard on Imagery, 1995 ◆ J. Jolivet, La théologie d’Abélard, 1997 ◆ M.T. Clanchy, Abelard: A Medieval Life, 1997 ◆ Bibl.: CChr. CM 11, 1969, xxix–xxxviii; CChr. CM 13, 1987, 23–37. Reinhold Rieger

Abercius, Inscription of. In 1883, two fragments of an altar slab with portions of a lengthy Greek epitaph of a certain Abercius were discovered at Hieropolis on the Glaucus, near Synnada in Phrygia (western Turkey). The fragments were given to Pope → Leo XIII by Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1888 and are now in the Museo Pio Cristiano in the Vatican, with a reconstruction of the altar. The inscription comprises 18 incomplete lines, with 9 verses (7–15). The entire inscription (a distich and 20 hexameters) is preserved in the legendary Life of a Bishop Abercius, which may go back to the 4th century; it appears in a 10th-century text by Simeon → Metaphrastes. Its author had probably seen the altar tomb. Portions are used in the epitaph of an otherwise unknown Alexander, also from Hieropolis, dated in the year 216 (now in the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul); the Abercius inscription must therefore be earlier. – The text has been the subject of much discussion. It has been asked whether the inscription derives from Greek mystery religion – specifically the cult of → Cybele and Attis –, is syncretistic, or can be interpreted in a Christian sense. In the first person, Abercius (who never refers to himself as a bishop!) records that he erected a memorial (i.e. the altar tomb) for himself in his 72nd year; he calls himself a “disciple of the chaste shepherd” (Christ), who taught him the Holy Scriptures; he has been in Rome and Syria, “having Paul as a companion”; everywhere he has found fellow believers; everywhere the faith has preceded him and fed him with a fish (ἰχθύς/ichthýs = Christ), mighty and pure, caught by a virgin. As is common in pagan epitaphs, the text ends with a warning not to bury anyone else in the tomb, threatening an unusually high fine. The inscription must be Christian, but its language and form still adhere to the tradition of pagan epitaphs, specifically those of Phrygia. The “queen of Christian inscriptions” is thus an extremely important witness to early Christianity in Asia Minor. Bishop(?) Abercius probably was active in the late 2nd century and died c. 200 ce.

9

Abortion

H. Strathmann & T. Klauser, RAC I, 1950, 12–17 ◆ W. Wischmeyer, “Die Aberciusinschrift als Grabepigramm,” JAC 23, 1980, 22–47 ◆ G.F. Snyder, Ante Pacem, 1985, 139f, plate 48. Guntram Koch

Aberhart, William (Dec 30, 1878, Kippen, Ontario – May 23, 1943, Vancouver), fundamentalist minister, radio preacher, and politician. Having established a reputation in Calgary, Alberta, as a representative of Darbyite evangelical theology (→ Plymouth Brethren), he shifted to politics during the depression of the 1930s. He supported the “social credit” program of Clifford Hugh Douglas (1879–1952) as a means of redistributing wealth. As leader of the Social Credit Party, Aberhart was twice elected (1935, 1940) Prime Minister of the province of Alberta. D.R. Elliott & I. Miller, Bible Bill, 1987.

Mark A. Noll

Abjuration designates in canon law renunciation in cases of apostasy (→ Apostate), → heresy and → schism (c. 2314 CIC/1917), as well as the conversion of a nonCatholic Christian (→ Church Membership). Today, reconciliation in offences of the faith, leaving the church, and conversion, as regulated by local church law (cc. 751 and 1364 CIC), requires the deposition of a confession of faith. W. Rees, “Die Strafgewalt der Kirche,” KStT 41, 1993, 88–96, 228f., 426–429. Wilhelm Rees

Ablutions → Purification

Ablutions, Ritual → Clean and Unclean Åbo (Finnish Turku). Åbo lies at the mouth of the Aura River, on the southwest coast of Finland. The ancient commercial center took on increased importance in the 13th century, when it became the religious and political center of → Finland (Swedish Eastland). Until 1554, the Diocese of Åbo encompassed all of Finland. The cathedral, the burial site of Bishop Henrik, martyred c. 1155, was expanded into a Gothic structure of brick. After the Reformation, a university was established at Åbo. In 1812, how ever, Helsinki became the capital of the new Grand Duchy of Finland, and soon afterward the university was moved there. Åbo, however, remained the ecclesiastical center (an archiepiscopal see since 1817). Today the Swedish-speaking university (Åbo Akademi) includes a theological faculty that trains theologians primarily for the Swedish-speaking diocese of Borgå Kaarlo Arffman (Porvoo).

Abolitionism, the movement to abolish slavery in the USA, derived its power from its emphasis on the equality of all people before the law, which was a heritage of the Enlightenment, and the high regard for moral perfectibility typical of 19th-century evangelicalism. While some religious groups, primarily the → Quakers and → Methodists, had attacked slavery as early as the 18th century, the actual movement to abolish slavery began in 1831 with the appearance of W.L. → Garrison’s newspaper The Liberator. The movement to free the slaves, sparked by Garrison and his allies (T.D. → Weld, Sarah and Angelina Grimké, Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and Frederick Douglas), led in 1833 to the establishment of the American Anti-Slavery Society. The society’s opposition to slavery together with its advocacy of equal rights for blacks and women made it the target of many attacks, often violent. In 1837 one of these attacks targeted Elijah P. Lovejoy, an editor and Presbyterian minister, who was killed by a mob in Alton, Illinois. In the 1840s, the conflict over slavery led to divisions among the Methodists and Baptists. The abolitionist argument, which proclaimed that Christianity was incompatible with slavery, intensified the conflicts within Presbyterianism (→ Presbyterians) and contributed to the schism of 1837. Within abolitionism itself there was a division between those who championed political action and those who, like Garrison, believed in the power of moral suasion alone. When the Civil War ended in 1865, many thought the time had come to dissolve the movement; others, who saw a commitment to securing the legal rights of the emancipated slaves as part of the crusade, continued the organization until ratification of the 15th amendment to the constitution, which granted blacks the right to vote. Then the organization disbanded: its work was done. B. Quarles, The Black Abolitionists, 1969 ◆ T.L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform, 1980. Edward L. Queen II

Abortion I. The Unborn and Personhood – II. Bodily Rights – III. Legal Arguments

The procured or spontaneous premature termination of → pregnancy. Unlike spontaneous abortion (or miscarriage), procured abortion is intended to terminate a pregnancy. Its moral and legal permissibility depends on the nature of the unborn, the mother’s bodily rights, and/or how the law ought to address controversial matters of life and death. I. The Unborn and Personhood The dominant view is that abortion’s permissibility depends on the nature of the unborn: if and only if the unborn is a person, then abortion is almost always

Abrabanel unjustified. There is, however, disagreement as to when the unborn, becomes a → person. Some argue that this occurs at conception, since all human beings are persons by nature (Lee 1996). Not using personhood language, Marquis (1989) nevertheless contends that the unborn has a right to life early in pregnancy (if not at conception) because it has a “future like ours” (FLO). Boonin (2002) accepts the FLO idea but rejects Marquis’s account of it. Boonin maintains that the unborn does not have a FLO until organized cortical brain activity (OCBA) arises between 25 and 32 weeks post-conception. For this is when the brain acquires the infrastructure to have conscious experience and thus desires, conditions without which a human being does not have a FLO. Disputing this account, Lee (1996) and Beckwith (2004) argue that a being may have a right to life without these conditions. Brody (1973) argues for personhood at the presence of brain waves (40–42 days post-conception), while Sumner (1981) contends that the unborn is a person at sentience (13 to 15 weeks post-conception). Tooley (1983) claims that a person exists when an organism is aware of itself as a continuous locus of experiences and mental states over time, suggesting that a human being is not a person until after birth. Personhood, however, is not always decisive for those who oppose abortion throughout most of pregnancy. They concede that abortion may be procured when pregnancy is a certain and imminent threat to the mother’s life (Brody 1975, Lee 1996). Because this typically occurs early in pregnancy, abortion is the only means to avoid death of both mother and child. Thus, its purpose is to save a life, despite the unfortunate, though foreseeable, consequence of another’s death. II. Bodily Rights Thomson (1971) and Boonin (2002) argue that abortion’s permissibility is based on the pregnant woman’s bodily rights even if the unborn is a person. They maintain that consent to sex does not entail consent to pregnancy, a condition that requires that the woman’s body provide the unborn with shelter and sustenance. Just as an adult does not have the right to another’s body part (e.g. kidney) for continued life even if it is the only means by which he can remain alive, the unborn is not entitled to the use of its mother’s body without her consent. Critics contend that this position fails to take into consideration pregnancy’s uniqueness, parental obligation to children, the responsibility one has when one’s action results in producing a needy being, and/or its implications for justifying child support laws that require fathers to provide for offspring to which they did not consent (Beckwith 1992, Lee 1996). Given these criticisms, some maintain that the argu-

10 ment applies only to rape-caused pregnancy. Others reject this exception because the harm to the woman carrying the child is less than the harm done to the innocent unborn by abortion (Lee 1996). III. Legal Arguments Dworkin (1993) and Thomson (1995) argue that the law should permit abortion because it should remain neutral on metaphysical questions over which there is reasonable disagreement. Beckwith (2004) and Finnis (1998) maintain that the law necessarily takes sides on the metaphysical issue of personhood even when it claims to be “neutral.” For example, if the law permits abortion throughout pregnancy with virtually no restrictions, then the law is saying that the unborn are beings unworthy of legal protection. Beckwith (2004) contends that reasonable disagreement over the unborn’s personhood is a good reason to prohibit abortion: if it is not unreasonable to believe that abortion results in the death of innocent life, society ought to err on the side of life and prohibit most abortions. J.J. Thomson, “A Defense of Abortion,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1, 1971 ◆ D. Marquis, “Why Abortion is Immoral,” Journal of Philosophy 86, 1989 ◆ F. Beckwith, “Personal Bodily Rights, Abortion, and Unplugging the Violinist: A Critical Analysis,” International Philosophical Quarterly 32 (March), 1992 ◆ R. Dworkin, Life’s Dominion: An Argument about Abortion, Euthanasia, and Individual Freedom, 1993 ◆ P. Lee, Abortion and Unborn Human Life, 1995 ◆ L.W. Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory, 1995 ◆ J.J. Thomson, “Abortion: Whose Right?,” Boston Review 20.3, 1995 ◆ M. Tooley, “In Defense of Abortion and Infanticide,” in The Abortion Controversy 25 Years after Roe v. Wade, ed. L. Pojman & F. Beckwith, 21998 ◆ J. Finnis, “Public Reason, Abortion, and Cloning,” Valparaiso University Law Review 32, 1998 ◆ B. Brody, Abortion and the Sanctity of Human Life: A Philosophical View, 2002 ◆ D. Boonin, A Defense of Abortion, 2002 ◆ idem, “Thomson’s ‘Equal Reasonableness’ Argument for Abortion Rights: A Critique,” American Journal of Jurisprudence 49, 2004. Francis J. Beckwith, for RPP

Abrabanel 1. Isaac ben Judah (1437, Lisbon – 1508, Venice) was an important Jewish leader, diplomat, exegete and philosopher in the period before and after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). Abrabanel was from a prominent family who were reputed to stem from the house of David. He was a financial advisor to King Alfonso V of Portugal, although he was forced to leave the country because of charges that he participated in a conspiracy against Alfonso’s successor, Joao II. Thereupon, he settled in Castille and became a diplomat and advisor in the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Here he attempted to hinder the decree expelling the Jews, although without success. As the most influential leader of the exiles, he first settled in Naples and later in Venice. His writings include detailed, comprehensive commentaries on most books in the Hebrew Bible as well as a Messianic Trilogy

11

Abraham

in which he proposed that the distress of his time symbolized the imminence of the Messianic redemption whose realization he expected even in his lifetime. Influenced by the humanism of the Renaissance, he maintained contact with contemporary Christian scholars and often applied their views in his commentaries, some of which were translated into Latin and had a degree of influence in Italy. His fundamental attitude was rationalist, but he insisted that religious tradition is the ultimate source of truth. His son Judah was also a philosopher. A.J. Heschel, Don Jizchak Abravanel, 1937 ◆ J.S. Minkin, Abravanel and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, 1938 ◆ B. Netanyahu, Don Isaac Abravanel, 1968. Joseph Dan

2. Judah (Leone Ebreo, Leo Hebraeus; 1460, Lisbon – 1523, Naples) was one of the most important philosophers in the Italian → Renaissance, the author of the Dialoghi d’Amore, a masterpiece of Platonic philosophy that exerted significant influence in the 16th and 17th centuries. Abrabanel was the oldest son of 1, who was an important leading personality among Spanish Jews at the time of the expulsion of Jews from Spain (1492). The origins of the family were traced back to David. After the expulsion, the family settled in Naples, where Abrabanel was active as a physician, the Dialoghi were also apparently written there. Abrabanel maintained contact with the Florentine Platonists, esp. G. → Pico della Mirandola. His work is incomplete (the fourth dialogue may never have been written) and structurally and conceptually multi-layered. The three preserved dialogues contain discussions between Sophia and Philone, bound by Platonic love, concerning the nature of love and its relationship to wisdom. Love is a living, essential power that unites God, the creation and humanity in beauty and wisdom. The highest goal is the attainment of unity with God through the love of beauty and of wisdom in all things and entry into the “circle of love” that holds together the entire cosmos. The work contains many poetic discussions of all the philosophical and scientific themes of its time. The work was first printed in Rome in 1525, and 25 editions were published between 1535 and 1607, half of which were translations into Spanish, Latin, French and Hebrew. His influence is perceptible, for example, in the works of G. → Bruno and B. → Spinoza. H. Pflaum, Die Idee der Liebe, 1926 ◆ M. Dorman, Dialoghi d’Amore, 1983. Joseph Dan

Abraham I. Old Testament – II. New Testament – III. Judaism – IV. Qur’ān

I. Old Testament 1. Name. The name .**&,/’abrāhām is a by-form of .*&,/’abrām or .*$/’abîrām (Num 16:1, etc.). With the meaning “Father (= God) is exalted,” it corresponds

to a widely dispersed West-Semitic name pattern and, as a praise or confessional name, belongs in the realm of personal piety. The otherwise unattested extended form is interpreted in Gen 17:4f. in a popular etymology as “Father (-/’āb) of a multitude (/0/hāmôn) of nations” – in an entirely programmatic manner as signaled by the association of the alteration of “Abram” into “Abraham” (parallel: “Sarai” into “→ Sarah”; 17:15) and the covenant with God: Abraham as a new beginning in the history of humankind (see below). 2. The Abraham Tradition as the History of Israel’s Origins. In biblical tradition, Abraham and his wife Sarah are Israel’s first ancestors. Additionally, Arab tribes in the south and east of Canaan descended from Abraham, the eponymous ancestor of the Ishmaelites (and his descendants, Gen 25:13ff.) by → Hagar, Sarah’s slave (16; 21), and other groups by Keturah (25:1ff.). Abraham’s own genealogy in 11:10ff. contains names (Serug, Nahor, Terah) that point to Aramaic city-states in northern Mesopotamia. Furthermore, the Abraham narrative (11:27–25:10) as a whole involves an ethnogenesis, which provides the Israelite addressees with aids to basic orientation and identification: among other things, foundations are given for the names and territorial relationships of peoples (e.g. for Israel, → Ishmael, Ammon, [→ Ammonites] → Moab), particular lifestyles (Ishmael), legal claims (21:25ff.; 23), but also distinctions which are relevant to identity. Thus, the → Philistines are not considered as related to Abraham (20), nor are the other elements of Canaan’s population (14; 23). Thus, in its traditional form, the Abraham narrative appears as an etiological history of the origins of Israel and its environment. This “popular historical” horizon already shapes the oldest substance of the text, whether it be in etiological tendencies (e.g. 16; 18:1–16, an allusion to “Isaac”!; 19) or in paradigmatic elements (12:10ff., see below). At any rate, the content and intention of individual episodes are not entirely devoted to this horizon: they deal simultaneously with the essential experiences of small family groups, especially of women (rape, childlessness, rivalry, etc.), of distress and deliverance, of danger and protection; the larger compositions, in particular, are concerned (e.g. in the programmatic promise texts) with basic questions in the history of YHWH with his people. 3. The Question of Historical Background. The Abraham texts – reflecting their basic etiological structure – take “Israel” as a given. Their historical substratum is, consequently, to be sought primarily in the historical reality of the addressees. Whether the narrative material permits one to draw any conclusions regarding an early era or even a pre-Israelite “patriarchal period” seems dubious, despite massive efforts in research (Westermann, EdF). Three approaches have been followed with particular intensity: (a) The

Abraham so-called “tribal history interpretation” of earlier research read the narratives as novelistically “couched” accounts of earlier historical phenomena (union/separation, wanderings, etc. of groups). The notion of a tribal history behind texts to be decoded, however, corresponds neither to their self-conception nor to their etiological inclination. (b) The so-called “archaeological approach” of W.F. → Albright et al. relies on archaeologically obtained “external evidence” (names, legal customs, etc. in the ancient Near East) to locate Abraham historically in a “patriarchal period” in the second millennium bce. Initially widely received, its diverse reconstructions have not been able to withstand the critical examination of evidence and method (Thompson, Van Seters). (c) A. → Alt’s hypothesis of a nomadic patriarchal religion identified Abraham and the other “patriarchs” as “founders of cults and recipients of revelation,” whose traditions (especially promises of land and descendants) were nurtured in pre-Israelite clans and later integrated into Yahwism. This subtly developed thesis, which long shaped research and stimulated more extensive hypotheses, has, however, found firm opposition more recently (Köckert, etc.). The critique draws attention, for instance, to the late, compositional character of the promise speeches and to the fact that Alt’s characterization of a “nomadic” type of religion (the term “God of my Father/personal name,” etc.) belongs to the more general phenomena of family piety; they reflect, therefore, the specific narrative world of Genesis in which Israel’s history and family history coincide. If, accordingly, the figure of Abraham remains inaccessible historically, it must necessarily originate in Judean tribal tradition. → Hebron/Mamre may have been an early locus of the tradition, if the hieros logos material in Gen 18 that deals with a visit of a divine triad with Abraham, the → theoxeny, was not developed entirely from the Sodom story and corresponding motifs (cf. 2 Kgs 4:8ff.; Ovid Met. VIII, 611ff.). To the extent that tribal genealogies mirror existing constellations, the association of Abraham with the northern Israelite → Jacob in the triad Abraham-Isaac-Jacob can be envisioned shortly before → David, but not much later. 4. The History of Transmission and a Profile of the Content of the Abraham Texts in Genesis. The markedly episodic arrangement of the Abraham narrative evokes in a particular manner H. → Gunkel’s view of Genesis as a “collection of legends.” In fact, many of his characteristics of the genre “legend” are evident here, especially its “poetic tone,” the “laws” of folk narrative, recurrent materials, and etiological elements. At the same time, this permits no direct inference regarding a history of oral transmission of the text. The Abraham narratives are literature. Along with the fixing of oral materials in writing, we should think also of pure compositions,

12 including among other instances cases of “doublets.” Thus, the ancestress episode in Gen 20 assumes the reader’s knowledge of the parallel in 12:10–20 and (with 21:22ff.) is simultaneously oriented toward the Isaac chapter, 26. The Ishmael episode in 21 may be based on an independent narrative variant of the material, but at the same time it is now shaped with a view to the literary context (with 16, see below). Even where oral models may be suspected, their reconstruction seems no longer possible (e.g. in 12:10ff.; 16; 18; 22). The Abraham-Lot cycle in 13*; 18:1–16, 20–22a; 19 (*21:1–7 is over-layered with P – Gunkel) is beyond question a literary-compositional framework. Along with the exposition in 13 and the continuation between the Mamre and Sodom episodes and their parallel execution (theoxeny; the unusual birth of descendants; 18:1–5//19:1–3), it comprises a tight macro-narrative of the genesis of the peoples of Israel, Ammon, Moab, and the harsh ecological conditions in the environs of the Dead Sea. In contrast to Lot (13:8ff.), Abraham lives out an ethos of solidarity there, not guided by “having,” and the eventual gift of the miraculous birth of a son corresponds to this. Within the tradition of “JE” materials, connecting links thus stretch out a more extensive pathway for Abraham which reveals the divine demand to abandon the land of his family in favor of promises of becoming a great nation and an exemplary blessing (12:1–3), and culminates in the “binding of Isaac” (22). Gen 13:14– 16, where Abraham is shown the Promised Land as a symbolic taking of possession (13:14//12:1), already marks a first destination after the departure from Harran. In between lies the excursion to Egypt that puts everything at risk (with Abraham’s abandonment of Sarah) and includes a prefigured exodus (plagues, dismissal with property). Also shaped by exodus echoes (with reversed roles: the Egyptian oppressed, expelled/in-flight, heard by God), the Hagar-Ishmael episodes in 16 (with v. 9) and 21 focus on the still open problem of Abraham’s descendants and introduce a countermovement at the same time as their “solution”: including the annunciation of Isaac and his miraculous birth (18–19; 21*), they expound the question of the inheritance of the promise. The harsh answer, the expulsion of Hagar and her son (with the promise of a great nation, 12:2, also for Ishmael, 21:13, 18!), turns out, then, even in its wording (21:14, 17, 19//22:3, 11f., 13), to be a prelude to an even greater drama: in close correspondence with the first order to depart (12:1//22:2; cf. Gen.R. 55:7), Abraham is commanded to offer up his beloved son, the negation of his entire pathway. He stands the test of faith because in his behavior he acknowledges the deity’s right to the son (cf. Exod 13:2) while, during the pilgrimage he endured (vv. 4–8), he trusted in the “providing” God

13 (8a, 12b, 14). In the end, then, Abraham has reached the “Mountain, where YHWH allows himself to be seen” (v. 14b), i.e. Zion (with Abraham’s only sacrifice)! The great promise speeches in 12:1–3; 13:14ff. have lasting significance for the context indicated. At the same time, its horizon extends further: in terms of composition, at least a “patriarchal narrative” is in view here (28:13–14). The promises of the land and of becoming a people/multiplying offer theological answers to experiences that call them into question (so runs the widely held recent view). In Abraham’s external and internal pathway between Mesopotamia, Egypt and Moriah/Zion, the concern is with Israel’s future – but after 587/6 bce evidently in response to an apparently revoked history of salvation. Younger, post-exilic extrapolations elevate the promises to divine oaths as in Gen 15* (with a staged promise of descendants and of the land as a solemn berît [→ Covenant]); 22:15–18; 24:7 (cf. 26:3–5). New here too is the establishment of the territorially expanded promise of the land on Abraham’s faith reckoned to him as “righteousness” (ß edāqāh, 15:16), and the oaths concerning descendants and blessing on the strength of his obedience (22:15ff.). The struggle for inviolability, sustainable even in deepest crisis (Exod 32:13; Gen 22:16f.), is perceptible. In terms of the history of tradition, these texts are heirs to Deuteronomy’s tradition; in terms of the history of literature, they belong in the horizon of the forming → Pentateuch. The P tradition exhibits little narrative substance in relation to Abraham (as is also true generally of Gen 12– 50). The report of the purchase of the cave in Machpelah as a burial site for Sarah (23) constitutes an exception. It aims to demonstrate the commercially obtained property rights to the ancestral graves in Hebron and can, thus, be situated in the post-exilic era when the city was no longer Judean. P shapes the Abraham image of the final text through its comprehensive chronology (16:3, 16; 17:1; 21:5, etc.), especially, however, through the great “covenant text,” Gen 17. Here we no longer encounter only descendants and land as berît promises, but now also YHWH’s intention to be Israel’s God (17:7f.), with → circumcision as the corresponding covenant obligation and covenant sign. Thereby, in the alignment of Gen 1 and 9 (Noah covenant), indeed a new beginning in the history of creation is marked: the partial restitution of the good creation realized in the dwelling of the holy God with Israel. To be sure, this can unfold only in accordance with the genesis of God’s people (cf. Exod 6:2ff.; 29:42ff.; Lev 26:6–13//Gen 17:1b, 6–9), but it is already inherent in the berît with Abraham. Finally, diverse late interpolations introduce additional matters. Thus, the acquisition of a bride for Isaac (24) deals with the post-exilic conflict between (legitimate) marriage among (Mesopotamian) relatives and

Abraham remaining in the land (24:3ff.). The intercession for Sodom (18:17–19, 23–33) and the Abraham-Abimelech narrative (Gen 20 + 21:22ff.) show Abraham for the first time as a prophet (20:7; 18:17) and “didactically” treat questions of God’s righteousness on the example of non-Israelites – with a significant relationship to Jonah. The insertion of Gen 14 with the Melchizedek scene and a somewhat related redaction in Gen 15 (e.g. vv. 1f., 13–16) are also probably late post-exilic. 5. Abraham Elsewhere in the Old Testament. Among the 42 references to Abraham outside Genesis, none is unequivocally pre-exilic. Usually, Abraham appears in the patriarchal triad within a divine designation or as a promise-bearer (e.g. Exod 3:6; Lev 26:42; Deut 1:8; 2 Kgs 13:23), as well as in summary receptions of Pentateuchal narratives (Ps 105:6, 9, 42; Neh 9:7; in Josh 24:2f. with the new motif of the patriarchs’ idolatry up until Abraham). Significant are the prophetic texts which attest how Abraham was apparently newly discovered as a figure with whom one could identify in Judah’s time of crisis. Ezek 33:24 cites the argumentation of non-exiled Judeans who appealed to Abraham who, as an individual, “inherited the land, and we are many.” Isa 51:1f. encouragingly points (returnees?) to the call, blessing, and fertility (Gen 12:1–3!) of the ancestors (see also Isa 41:8; 63:16). According to Ps 47:10 (MT), in contrast, the “nobles of the peoples” assemble in veneration of the universal king, YHWH, as “people of the God of Abraham” – as it were a final intensification of the multiplication of the father of nations. Commentaries on Genesis : A. Alt, “Der Gott der Väter,” Kleine Schriften I, 1929, 1–78 ◆ M. Noth, Überlieferungsgeschichte des Pentateuch, 1948 ◆ H. Gunkel, RGG 2 I, 1927, 65–68 ◆ R. de Vaux, Die Patriarchenerzählungen und die Geschichte, SBS 3, 1965 ◆ R.E. Clements, ThWAT I, 1973, 53–62 ◆ T.L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives, BZAW 133, 1974 ◆ J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition, 1975 ◆ C. Westermann, Genesis 12–50, EdF 48, 1975 (bibl.) ◆ idem, Die Verheißungen an die Väter, FRLANT 116, 1976 ◆ R. MartinAchard, TRE I, 1977, 364–372 (bibl.) ◆ E. Blum, Die Komposition der Vätergeschichte WMANT 57, 1984 ◆ M. Köckert, Vätergott und Väterverheißung, FRLANT 142, 1988. Erhard Blum

II. New Testament John the Baptist contrasts Abraham with contemporary Israelites (Matt 3:8–9; Luke 3:8). Like Jesus, Abraham and the patriarchs will be in the kingdom of God, in contrast to his contemporaries (Matt 8:11; Luke 13:28). Abraham’s bosom receives the deceased (Luke 16:22–25), but Abraham cannot intercede for his descendants (Luke 16:28–30). Jesus defends the reality of the resurrection on the basis of the epithet “God of Abraham” (Matt 22:32; Mark 12:26–27; Luke 20:37). Matthew (Matt 1:1, 2, 17), as well as Luke (Luke 1:55, 73; 3:34), anchors Jesus in Israel’s history by means of Abraham. Luke characterizes Jesus as

Abraham the one upon whom the needy daughter (Luke 13:16) and the remorseful son (Luke 19:9) of Abraham call. He portrays how Peter (Acts 3:13) and Stephen see in Abraham the beginning of salvation history (Acts 7:2) and the recipient of God’s promise (Acts 3:25; 7:16–17, 32). John 8:30–59 vigorously rejects Jewish claims in the dispute over the status of “Abraham’s descendants.” For Paul, himself “of Abraham’s tribe” (Rom 11:1; 2 Cor 11:22), Abraham stands for the faith that receives justification through grace (Gal 3:6–14; Rom 4:1–12), while Abraham’s place in salvation history relativizes the law (Gal 13:15–18). As father of the faithful (Rom 4:16), Abraham fulfills God’s promise (Gen 12:3) that he will be a blessing to the nations (Gal 3:8–9). His true children are not physical descendants, but those who accept the promise (Gal 4:21–31; Rom 4:13–25; 9:6–9). James 2:21–24 uses Abraham to criticize Paul; Abraham’s works, especially his sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22), justified him. In Heb 7:1–10, Abraham’s gift of the tithe to → Melchizedek demonstrates the superiority of the priesthood according to the order of Melchizedek over the Levites. Abraham is also an example (Heb 6:13–17) of the humble acceptance of the promise sworn by God (Gen 22:17). In Heb 11:8–19, Abraham embodies faithfulness since he left his homeland for a heavenly home and was prepared to sacrifice his son at God’s command. F.E. Wieser, Die Abrahamvorstellungen im Neuen Testament, 1987. Harold W. Attridge

III. Judaism 1. Antiquity. Several elements of the Abraham cycle had a great influence on post-biblical Judaism: the call to leave Babylon and to migrate westward to the land of Canaan, the covenant of circumcision, and Abraham’s preparedness to sacrifice Isaac (Aqeda, binding). The biblical text narrates the call of Abraham in the briefest conceivable form. After Gen 11 concludes with a list of the 10 generations after Noah, Gen 12 begins with a rather unexpected scene in which God speaks directly to Abraham and commands him to leave friends and relatives and to journey to the land of Canaan in order become a great people. This election produces in Abraham a reaction of unconditional obedience, which defines his character in almost all Jewish sources. The unexpected character of this call set the exegetes to work, and already in the book of Jubilees (2nd cent. bce), Jewish interpreters of the Bible had filled the gaps in the biblical narrative and found a reason for Abraham’s selection as well as a motivation for his migration to Canaan. By and large, all Jewish interpreters represent the opinion that Abraham had recognized the errors of Mesopotamian religion. As a consequence of this dramatic “conversion,” Abraham came into conflict with family and neighbors (and some-

14 times with king Nimrod) and was forced to abandon Babylon in order to save his life. Abraham was otherwise famed for his willingness to offer his only son Isaac, a biblical narrative (Gen 22) which often served as a motif for early Jewish and Christian imagery. Antiquity would have viewed this act, which seems so barbaric to modern readers, as the highest expression of piety. In fact, Philo (Abr. 183) had to defend against pagan slanderers who maintained that the act was not so uniquely praiseworthy since others in the ancient world had acted similarly. So important was this moment that the ram offered in Isaac’s place had already been prepared on the day of creation. Isaac’s blood was often equated with the redemptive blood of the Passover lamb at the time of the exodus (Mek. 7). The Aqeda was also seen as Abraham’s highest test of faith. In the context of this concept, a tradition arose that Abraham was tested 10 times and the Aqeda was the last test. In all these tests Abraham proved faithful and he bequeathed the profits of his faith to all Israel. G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism, 1961 ◆ G. Nickelsburg, ed., Studies on the Testament of Abraham, 1976 ◆ J. Levenson, The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son, 1993. Gary A. Anderson

2. Middle Ages. In addition to the traditions from antiquity, the chief aspects of the appearance of Abraham in medieval Jewish culture are: (a) as “author” of the Sefer → Yetzirah; (b) in biblical exegesis and rationalistic philosophy; (c) in medieval Jewish mysticism; (d) in medieval Hebrew narrative literature. a. The final section in the ancient cosmogony-cosmology, the Sefer Yetzirah, a major work of esoteric knowledge in the Middle Ages concerning which innumerable commentaries were written by philosophers, scientists, esoterics, and mystics, described Abraham as the only one who understood the teachings of this work and who was therefore beloved by God. Medieval tradition relied on this passage to characterize Abraham as an author and, consequently, as the highest authority in matters related to the origin of the universe in the letters of the Hebrew language and to all other themes derived from this work. The belief that the Sefer Yetzirah contained instructions for creating an artificial person, → Golem, found in a few such commentaries, led to the appearance of the account that Abraham together with Shem, Noah’s son, created such a being. b. Medieval exegetes belonging to various ideological schools integrated Abraham into their theological systems in various ways. One example of this is the rationalist Rabbi Jakob → Anatoli, who at the court of Emperor → Frederick II, the Great in Naples, wrote a book of sermons, Malemad ha-Talmidim. He interpreted Abraham and his wife Sarah as an expression of the Aristotelian duality of material and form; similar allegories also appear in other works. c. The medieval Kabbalists (→ Kabbalah)

15 associated Abraham with one of the 10 divine powers (→ Sefirot) in their system; he was usually identified with the element of grace in the divine world, while in contrast to him, Isaac stands for the strictness of divine justice (→ Bahir, Sefer ha-Bahir, Scholem’s translation, §§92– 94). The → Zohar and numerous other sources described him as God’s right hand who distributes benevolence and love to the universe. d. Ancient accounts of Abraham and the sacrifice of Isaac were expanded in medieval narratives, and a few of them gained central importance in Jewish martyr literature. According to a few centralEuropean traditions, Abraham sacrificed Isaac on the altar and later God revived the son. J. Dan, The Hebrew Story in the Middle Ages, 1974 (Heb.). Joseph Dan

IV. Qur’ān Abraham appears in the Mecca sura as one of God’s emissaries, who, like → Mu˙ammad, were commissioned to warn their people and to call to monotheistic faith. He recognized that neither sun, moon, nor stars deserve divine worship since they execute their course according to the determination of the one creator God (see also → Astrology). This story (sura 6:74–84) reflects Mu˙ammed’s manner of argumentation in relation to the unbelieving citizens of Mecca. Since Abraham was led to knowledge of the one Creator through observation of nature directed by God, he established with the creator the face-to-face relationship that guarantees salvation (sura 6:79). He became, as it is said, a ˙anīf, a monotheist, and this even before Moses and Jesus. This is the basis of the Islamic claim that it preserves the pure form of → monotheism (cf. sura 2:135), free of the supposed distortions of later Jewish or Christian tradition. Thus, through Mu˙ammad’s efforts in the Medina period, Abraham became an identity-giving figure by whom the new faith community could differentiate itself from others. This understanding of the figure of Abraham finds its clearest expression in sura 2:124–134, which discusses the construction of the Kaaba, the most important cultic structure in Islam, by Abraham and → Ishmael. H. Speyer, Die biblischen Erzählungen im Qoran, 1931, 31988, 120–186 ◆ E. Beck, “Die Gestalt des Abraham am Wendepunkt der Entwicklung Mu˙ammads,” Muséon 65, 1952, 73–94. Tilman Nagel

Abraham a Sancta Clara, Catholic preacher and writer (Aug 2, 1644, Kreenheinstetten, Swabia – Dec 1, 1709, Vienna; secular name Johann Ulrich Megerle). The son of a tavern keeper, he received a thorough humanistic education in Ingolstadt and Salzburg. In 1662, at the monastery of Mariabrunn near Vienna, he joined the order of → Augustinian Hermits and

Abraham Ecchellensis took Abraham a Sancta Clara as his religious name. After studying in Vienna, Prague, and Ferrara, he was ordained to the priesthood in Vienna in 1668 and served as preacher at the pilgrimage shrine of Taxa, near Augsburg; after 1672, he preached on Sundays and feast days in and around Vienna. His preaching is the basis of his 60 or so literary works, which had appeared in 353 editions by the year 1785. His ingenious ability to hold his listeners’ amused attention by means of far-fetched witticisms and unexpected spiritual applications made him one of the most successful writers of the Baroque period. His best-known works included Mercks Wien (Vienna 1680, Tübingen 1983), a description of the Vienna plague of 1679; Auff, auff ihr Christen (1683), a stirring exhortation against the Turks; Reim Dich, Oder Ich liß Dich (1684), a collection of sermons; and Judas der Ertz-Schelm (4 vols., 1686–1695), an entertaining moral satire. After his death, ten additional works, some in several volumes, were ascribed to him. Other works: Grammatica Religiosa, Lat. 1691, Germ. 1699 ◆ Neu-eröffnete Welt Galleria, 1703 ◆ Heilsames Gemisch Gemasch, 1704 ◆ Huy! und Pfuy! der Welt, 1707 ◆ Geistlicher Kramerladen, 1710 ◆ On Abraham a Sancta Clara: T.G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta Clara, 1867 ◆ F. Eybl, Abraham a Sancta Clara: Vom Prediger zum Schriftsteller, 1992. Dieter Breuer

Abraham Abulafia → Abulafia, Abraham Abraham ben Azriel was one of the major authors belonging to the → Kalonymus circle of 13th-century Rhineland esoterics and mystics; he was among the third generation of scholars produced by this school. He came to Speyer from Bohemia to study with Rabbi Judah the Pious (d. 1217) and especially with Rabbi → Eleazar ben Judah of Worms, whom he referred to as his immediate teacher. He is the author of Arugat ha-bosem (“Bed of Spices”: Song 5:13), completed in 1234, an exhaustive commentary on the piyuttim of the Jewish prayer book. Its encyclopedic compass makes Arugat ha-bosem unique among the works written by Central European Jews during the Middle Ages. Besides presenting his own esoteric worldview, Abraham conscientiously cites the views of hundreds of other authors, turning his book into an impressive anthology. E. Urbach, ed., Sefer Arugat ha-bosem le Rabbi Abraham, 4 vols., 1939–1964. Joseph Dan

Abraham Ecchellensis (Feb 18, 1605, Óāqil – Jul 15, 1664, Rome). The name is Latinized from the Arabic (al-)Óāqilānī (“from Óāqil” in Lebanon). A → Maronite, he studied in Rome, was deacon, teacher of Syriac and Arabic in Rome, Pisa, and Paris, a collaborator in the Parisian Polyglot Bible, and from 1660 scriptor in the Vatican Library. Through editions and translations, he acquainted Europe with many Arabic and Syriac works.

Abraham I of Aghbatan G. Graf, Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur, vol. III, 1949, 354–359 ◆ N. Gemayel, Les échanges culturels entre les Maronites et l’Europe, vol. I, 1984, 387–400. Hubert Kaufhold

Abraham I of Aghbatan was Armenian Catholicos from 607 to 610. His time saw the schism of the Georgian church from unity with the other Caucasian churches, the Armenian and the Albanian. While the Georgian Catholicos, Kyrion, joined with the Chalcedonians (→ Chalcedonian Definition), Abraham insisted on the positions of → monophysitism. F. Tournebize, DHGE I, 1912, 163 ◆ E. Boshof, ed., Bischöfe, Mönche und Kaiser, vol. IV, 1994 ◆ R.W. Thomson, A Bibliography of Classical Armenian Literature to 1500 AD, 1995. Christian Hannick

Abraham Maimuni (Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon; 1186, Cairo – 1237, Cairo), son of M. → Maimonides, inherited the position of his father as the leader of the Jewish community in Egypt (→ Egypt: III, 3, b); he extended the philosophical work of his father. When the great controversy over the rationalistic work of Maimonides arose in 1232–1235 in northern Spain and the provinces, Abraham responded with “The War of the Lord” (Milchamot ha-Shem), an apology for the rationalistic style of writing of his father; he defended vigorously the allegorical interpretation and Talmudic explanations of biblical verses. His own theological views were contained above all in his Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God (Arabic Kifayat alAbidin). He maintained in essence the rationalism of his father and was inclined to adopt the mystical approach of the Islamic Sufis (→ Islam: II, 5), whose teachings he believed were derived from Jewish biblical sources. He saw the prophet Elijah as the most important model for the Sufi way of life. The ultimate goal of religious life is union with God attained through minimizing association with worldly things and obedience to strict, ascetic forms of behavior. S. Eppenstein, Abraham Maimuni, 1914 ◆ S. Rosenblatt, The Highways to Perfection of Abraham Maimuni, 2 vols., 1927, 1938. Joseph Dan

Abrahamic Religions are not the Abrahamists (according to Sozomen [5th cent.], known at least in Gaza: cf. Crone), and not the Abrahamites of Bohemia (18th cent.). Abrahamic religions are the monotheistic religions that trace themselves to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These religions argued over him (cf. John 8:30–47; Gal 3:7–10; 4:22–31; Qur’ān 2:135–141; 3:67–68), but he could still form a bridge between them. P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, 1987, 190–191, n. 4 ◆ H.J. Kuschel, Streit um Abraham, 1994. Adel-Theodor Khoury

16 Abrahamic Writings I. Apocalypse of Abraham – II. Testament of Abraham

I. Apocalypse of Abraham The Apocalypse of Abraham is one of several → apocalypses written in reaction to the destruction of the second temple. The text begins with a description of → Abraham’s rejection of idol worship while assisting his father in the fabrication of idols. God then dispatches the angel Iaoel to fetch Abraham. With the help of Iaoel, Abraham rises to the divine chariot throne in the seventh heaven, where he sings a song in praise of God with Iaoel and the creatures surrounding the throne. Many elements of this heavenly journey, including the song, have parallels in the → Hekhalot Literature. God then shows Abraham a vision of the course of history, including the destruction of the temple and its place in the plan of salvation. The Apocalypse of Abraham is one of the few apocalypses that combine a heavenly journey with a vision of history. The vision contains a difficult passage, which appears to be a Christian addition, though its meaning remains unclear. The Apocalypse of Abraham is extant only in the Slavic language, and was presumably translated from Greek. The original language was probably Hebrew, which suggests Palestine as its place of origin. The concern with the destruction of the Temple points to a date of origin in the late first or early second century ce. B. Philonenko-Sayar & M. Philonenko, L’apocalypse d’Abraham. Introduction, texte slave, traduction et notes, Sem. 31, 1981, 1–117 (bibl.) ◆ R. Rubinkiewicz, “Apocalypse of Abraham,” in: J.H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. I, 1983 ◆ M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, 1993, 6–71 Martha Himmelfarb

II. Testament of Abraham The Testament of Abraham is an entertaining account of Abraham’s death with a few seemingly comical elements. When the angel Michael comes to him to announce his impending death, Abraham insists on undertaking a journey around the whole world before departing from life. In the course of this journey, the sinless Abraham witnesses how humans sin in various ways and threatens them with terrible punishment. In order to preserve humanity from total annihilation, God puts an end to the journey and shows Abraham the judgment of the souls after death. Instead of proclaiming the doom of the sinners, Abraham now prays for a soul whose good and evil deeds were of equal weight, thereby showing that he has learned the value of compassion. God then sends death unto Abraham. With considerable difficulty, death finally succeeds in wresting away Abraham’s soul. The Testament of Abraham is preserved in two different Greek versions. The summary above is based on the longer version, which is usually considered to

17

Absolute, The

be closer to the original, although its language is often later than the shorter version. There is a scholarly consensus that the Testament of Abraham is a Jewish work from Egypt, probably from the first century ce. Both versions, however, contain Christian elements, which is why some scholars are of the opinion that the text is a Christian work. E. Janssen, “Testament Abrahams,” JSHRZ 3,2, 1975 ◆ M.E. Stone, The Testament of Abraham, SBL.PS 2, 1972 ◆ G.W.E. Nickelsburg, Studies on the Testament of Abraham, SBL.SCSt 6, 1976 (bibl.) Martha Himmelfarb

itself as “absolute spirit” in relation to what is other than itself. Against Hegel, J.G. → Fichte’s late work maintains the difference between the absolute and introspective knowledge, which he understands as an image of the absolute. In the 20th century, following up on theories of ultimate causation in late Neo-Kantianism (P. → Natorp, Richard Hönigswald), W. → Cramer once again sketched a theory of the absolute that seeks to account for the emergence of the many from the one. W. Cramer, HPhG 1, 1973, 1–20 ◆ P. Reisinger, “Modelle des Absoluten,” in: ΟΚΕΙΩΣΙΣ, FS R. Spaemann, ed. R. Löw, 1987, 225–249. Jürgen Stolzenberg

Absolute, The I. Philosophy – II. Philosophy of Religion

I. Philosophy Etymologically, the word “absolute” means something separate from and independent of everything that is only relative. In this sense, the absolute can be understood ontologically as → substance, logically as → principle. If the absolute is taken as a singulare tantum, then it refers to something apart from which there is nothing that exists independently. This raises the question of how to conceive the relationship to the absolute of what is only relative. This is the fundamental question of Western metaphysics. The first theoretically considered answer appears in → Plato’s theory of ideas. In this theory, the idea of the good is the unconditional absolute; everything that exists relatively relates to it through the mode of participation. In the metaphysics of → Aristotle, the equivalent of the absolute is the concept of the primary eternal unmoved mover, thinking of itself, which is the source of all motion and thus the unifying principle of all natural phenomena. Both conceptions, which came to dominate the thought of the Christian West, are radically contrary to the metaphysics of the absolute propounded by → Spinoza. With the thesis that “Everything that exists, exists in God” (Ethica I), Spinoza rejects the transcendence of the absolute with respect to the relative and the many, which he understands as modes of the attributes “extension” and “thought”; these attributes express all that humans can know of the nature of the one, infinite substance. Following upon → Kant’s critique of metaphysics and in reaction to the so-called “pantheism controversy” initiated by F.H. → Jacobi, German idealism made the notion of the absolute a fundamental concept of modern philosophical theory. The rapid development of various schematic systems, each seeking to outbid its predecessors, led to a variety of different theories of the absolute. While → Schelling understands the absolute as reason, indifferent to all difference – or, in his late work, as pure unpremeditatable being –, according to → Hegel, the absolute should be thought of simply as a process in which the absolute understands

II. Philosophy of Religion The concept of the absolute has a double structure: on the one hand, it is independent and unconditional; on the other, it relates to other things as their ground and principle. Therefore philosophical theology – especially in the fusion of Christian and (neo-)Platonic thought common since Late Antiquity – found it natural to identify the absolute with God or the divine (implicitly in → Anselm of Canterbury, Monologion I, 29, 31; I, 46; II, 9, 24, 31; explicitly first in → Nicholas of Cusa, De docta ignorantia I, 2, 5; I, 5, 14; in the 20th cent. above all in P. → Tillich, My Search for Absolutes), especially to justify philosophically the Christian doctrine of God and creation. But such attempts at identification have not gone unchallenged, both theologically and philosophically. With regard to the absolute, the common dichotomy between the “God of the philosophers” and the “God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,” which goes back to B. → Pascal, reflects the fluctuating and strained relationship between philosophy and theology, more particularly the opportunities for and limits of a (Christian) philosophy of religion. In the name of God’s personal nature and freedom, theology has warned particularly against the pan(en)theistic implications of a religio-philosophical conception of the absolute (→ Pantheism; → Dialectical Theology); with reference to the debate over ultimate causes and proofs of the → existence of God, philosophy has pointed out the epistemological problems involved in trying to speak meaningfully of the absolute (critical philosophy, positivism, critical rationalism, philosophy of language, analytic philosophy). Such objections can foster discrimination in religiophilosophical discussion of the absolute. Recourse to the philosophical discussion of the absolute is unavoidable – as a framework for explication, if not as a foundation – if one is to speak responsibly of God as the “all-determining reality” (Bultmann), above all to emphasize the categorial difference between being and things that be, reality and things that are real, between God and the world. The metaphysical tradition might, for example, make it possible to reclaim the absolute at least as a limiting

Absolute Necessity concept for epistemology and the transcendental self-sufficiency of “I think” (cf. the self-limitation of the ego as an “image” of the absolute in Fichte’s late philosophy), or to discuss it as a horizon both enticing and forbidding for existential phenomena, successful or abortive (borrowing and extending the → existential theology of S. → Kierkegaard). In contrast to both the ancient and the scholastic tradition, however, we must remember that to be plausible today religio-philosophical talk of God as the absolute must have less to do with the doctrine of God and creation in the narrower sense than with soteriological and eschatological questions, which must in turn be grounded in a philosophico-theological anthropology. R. Kuhlen, “Absolut, das Absolute,” HWP I, 1971, 12–31 (bibl.) ◆ F. Wagner, “ ‘Vernunft ist die Bedingung der Offenbarung’: Zur theologischen Bedeutung von Wolfgang Cramers Theorie des Absoluten,” in: D. Korsch & H. Ruddies, Wahrheit und Versöhnung, 1989, 98–121 ◆ W. Janke, Vom Bild des Absoluten: Grundzüge der Phänomenologie Fichtes, 1993. Hartmut Rosenau

Absolute Necessity I. Philosophy of Religion – II. Philosophy

I. Philosophy of Religion The German word das Unbedingte (literally, “the unconditional”) is first found in philosophical texts from the last third of the 18th century, as a translation of the Latin absolutum. It was I. → Kant (see II below) who gave this concept its specific connotation, which had a long-lasting influence on subsequent theology and the philosophy of religion. The absolute necessity is the ultimate → principle, which is not conditioned by anything else, and in which the plurality finds the basis of its unity. In this methodological justificatory function, the idea of absolute necessity is the core of the philosophical idea of God (→ God: IV). For Kant, absolute necessity is an idea of the reason with a regulative function, in that it introduces an intellectually necessary notion of conclusion in the process of reflection. Kant’s transcendental-philosophical idea of God challenges reason to go beyond each individual conditional datum by taking the totality of conditions into account. This view of absolute necessity was taken up in various ways in German → Idealism and further specified with the help of the Spinozist idea of God (→ Spinoza) as an a priori synthesis. In his practical philosophy, Kant provides a new definition of the idea of absolute necessity, in which it is not the concluding thought, but rather the starting point. The practical → self-consciousness is a consciousness of freedom (→ Freedom: V, VI) which exemplifies the ethical requirement of religion in its own characteristics form. Absolute necessity has been a fundamental concept of the philosophy of religion since the 1920s. The

18 various approaches all transpose absolute necessity into the religious act itself, and define it as faith or religion. P. → Tillich identifies absolute necessity with the concepts of meaning and of truth, and interprets religion as a relating of consciousness to something unconditional. In this relation, the → consciousness becomes transparent to itself, thus enabling it to understand the specific data of its life as historically mutable forms in which unconditional meaning finds expression. P. Tillich, Die Frage nach dem Unbedingten, in: idem, Gesammelte Werke, V, 1964, 21978; ET: My Search for Absolutes ◆ N. Hinske, “Kants Rede vom Unbedingten und ihre philosophischen Motive,” in: H.-M. Baumgartner & W.G. Jacobs, eds., Philosophie der Subjektivität?, I, 1963, 265–281 ◆ U. Barth, “Was ist Religion?,” ZThK 93, 1996, 538–560. Christian Danz

II. Philosophy With Kant, “absolute necessity” becomes an independent goal of post-critical → metaphysics. As a regulatory limitative concept, its usage in the Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781, 21787; ET: Critique of Pure Reason) expresses reason’s need for unity, as evidenced by Kant’s efforts to establish a correspondence between the conditional insights of rationality and a fixed point in which the totality of conditions converge, the latter being represented by the → soul (II), the → world (II), freedom, and God as ideas accessible through thought. In the Kritik der praktischen Vernunft (1788; ET: Critique of Practical Reason), this “problematic” option is complemented by the practical interest of the reason, which aspires, on the basis of the law of → morality, to define absolute necessity in the sense of a reconciliation of morality and → happiness/bliss, while now being permitted to postulate the reality of the ideas generated by reason. A different view was introduced by the Kant-critic F.H. → Jacobi (Über die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an den Herrn Moses Mendelsohn, 21789), who argued that it is absurd to search for absolute necessity from the vantage point of the conditional and claimed that the exact contrary was in fact the case, namely that the conditional actually presupposes the notion of absolute necessity, the unconditional. The finalizing function of a limitive concept is thus inverted into the expression of an unquestionable point of origin which necessarily eludes systematic cognizance in the chain of conditional conditions, while its reality can only be envisioned in the original → certainty (I) deriving from the experience of action. With the formulation of this argument, Jacobi provided an initial stimulus for the development of German Idealism, which, on the basis of the assumption of that absolute point of departure, transformed the ideas and postulates of Kant’s metaphysics into a speculative systemmetaphysics, thereby also contradicting Jacobi’s reservations regarding the inaccessibility of absolute necessity. Following J.G. → Fichte’s declaration that the absolutely fundamental, truly unconditional principle of knowledge

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Absolution

is to be taken as the expression of the absolutely “characteristic accomplishment” of the self (Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre, 1794/95), it was above all F.W.J. → Schelling who based his own system on the principle of the absolute necessity (Vom Ich als Prinzip der Philosophie oder über das Unbedingte im menschlichen Wissen, 1795), the objectification of which is simply impossible. By way of logical reflection on the nature of the point of origin, G.W.F. → Hegel, finally, came to the conclusion that the unity of condition and causality is the truly determining factor of absolute necessity (Wissenschaft der Logik: Die Lehre vom Wesen, 1813). In the wake of → historicism and → pragmatism, the notion of absolute necessity eventually forteited its status as a basic philosophical concept. Whether it has become utterly obsolete, however, may appear doubtful in the light of current debates about our naturalistic “conditioning”. B. Sandkaulen, Ausgang vom Unbedingten. Über den Anfang in der Philosophie Schellings, 1990 ◆ G. Schönrich, Bei Gelegenheit Diskurs, 1994. Birgit Sandkaulen

Absolution I. Dogmatics – II. Practical Theology

I. Dogmatics Absolution is the assurance, in the context of → confession (II, III), that sins have been forgiven. The history of absolution traces back to Matt 16:19; 18:18; John 20:22f. Drawing on → Thomas Aquinas (Summa theologiae III, q. 84), the Councils of → Florence (DH, 1323) and → Trent (DH, 1673) defined absolution as the form of the sacrament of penance or → repentance (IV), which has as its matter the actions of the penitent (→ Penitence, confession, satisfaction). The relationship of absolution to the full reality of penance was discussed at length between the 12th and 16th centuries. → Peter Lombard (Sententiae IV, d. 18) supported the view that absolution expresses divine forgiveness already received by a truly contrite penitent. → Gratian (PL 187, 1519–1563), however, taught that forgiveness is not received until absolution has been pronounced (→ Sin/Guilt and Forgiveness). By using the categories of → form and → matter, Thomas sought to integrate absolution and contrition: the grace received in absolution also serves to perfect imperfect contrition. According to Lombard, in an exigency a lay person could pronounce absolution; Thomas permitted this, but considered the sacrament defective in such cases (although Christ as high priest rectifies the defect). Luther (e.g. WA 2, 714–722) emphasized absolution as the forgiving word of God spoken to the penitent, either in the setting of a liturgical general confession or in the context of private confession. The combination of confession and absolution constitutes penance. Luther withdrew the whole question from the legal domain, refusing

to interpret absolution as a legal action associated with the office of the keys, entrusted solely to the clergy (DH, 1685), as Trent later asserted. In its declaration that absolution bestows not only God’s forgiveness but also → reconciliation (VI) with the church, → Vatican II sought to overcome the overly individualistic understanding of absolution that had emerged from its association with private confession. H. Vorgrimler, Buße und Krankensalbung, HDG 4/3, 1978 ◆ J. Dallen, The Reconciling Community, 1986 ◆ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 21997, §§1422–1498. Michael Root

II. Practical Theology Catholics hold that absolution, as an essential element of sacramental penance, is the effectual declaration of forgiveness of sins in God’s name, through the priest who administers the sacrament. It is dependent on a proper confession of sins (contrition, confession) and satisfaction performed by the penitent; today (at least in the case of mortal sin) it is understood once more as reconciliation with the church. In this context, absolution is both a pastoral and a jurisdictional expression of the church’s pastoral office. Today in the Latin church, absolution is pronounced in the indicative (Ego te absolvo, “I forgive you”); in the Orthodox churches, the optative form (“God forgive you”) has also remained in use. In the Reformers’ understanding of penance, renewed by the witness of scripture and the gospel of justification, absolution is “most highly prized” as the declaration of forgiveness, “being the voice of God and pronounced by God’s command” (CA 25); it sets the penitent free for → sanctification (III, IV). In the Lutheran churches, the indicative form is preferred because of its kerygmatic character and pastoral aim (increase of faith). The dialectic of faith and God’s word is bolstered in the Lutheran liturgy “by the optative: ‘According to your faith let it be done to you’” (Volp, 1218). In this sense, Calvin urged conditional absolution, because → certainty (III) of absolution must not be subject “to the will of an earthly judge” (Inst. III, 4, 18). Therefore he emphasizes the kerygmatic form of absolution and understands its conditional nature not jurisdictionally but in the sense of Matt 8:13; 9:19 (Inst. III, 4, 22). The Protestant churches have renewed “public confession” as a collective confession of sin by the congregation assembled for worship and have thus also given a fixed liturgical form to the → general absolution (esp. before the Lord’s Supper). J.A. Jungmann, Die lateinischen Bußriten, vol. I, 1932 ◆ P. Brunner, “Zur Lehre vom Gottesdienst der im Namen Jesu versammelten Gemeinde,” Leit. 1, 1954, 83–361, esp. 199f. ◆ E. Weismann, “Der Predigtgottesdienst und die verwandten Formen,” Leit. 3, 1956, 1–97, esp. 20f. ◆ R. Browning & R. Reed, The Sacraments in Religious Education and Liturgy, 1985 ◆ R. Volp, Liturgik, vol. II, 1994, esp. 1216–1230 ◆ See also → Repentance: IV, 5. Hans-Martin Müller

Absolutism Absolutism. From the middle of the 16th century to the last third of the 18th, when absolutism was the dominant form of government in Europe, the term itself was not used. Not until the 1790s, when absolutism was fundamentally challenged by the outbreak of the French Revolution, did people in France begin to use the term “absolutisme” to describe the notion of sovereignty that dominated the preceding period. In the 1830s and 40s, when the influence of absolutism was also waning in central Europe, the term was translated into English and German. Decades later, historians began to discuss the extent and significance of absolutism. At the same time, they replaced the pejorative connotations that had burdened the term with a positive assessment and sought to distinguish the age of absolutism from earlier and later periods. Wilhelm Roscher distinguished the “confessional” absolutism of Philip II and Ferdinand II, the “court” absolutism of Louis IV, and “enlightened” absolutism. Reinhold Koser, Otto Hintze, Friedrich Meinecke, and Fritz Hartung, and since 1950 Kurt von Raumer, Gerhard Oestreich, Rudolf Vierhaus, and Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin have criticized this categorization. The understanding of absolutism has been differentiated and made more precise. To the present day, scholars have used the term “absolutism” to describe the unique form of political sovereignty and political ambition dominant in Europe from the Reformation to the French Revolution. It denotes both the theory and the practice employed by princes to free themselves from ancient rights and traditional limitations and ground their politics and policies on the sovereignty they exercised through the grace of God. Certain elements of the absolutist program are especially significant: expansionist foreign policy, a legal system based on the sovereignty of the prince, boosting of the economy through mercantilism and intentional expansion of the population, and above all the transformation of capital cities into centers of courtly culture and symbols of power. In many countries, the estates could not be fully suppressed. On the other hand, even where absolutism did not prevail (England), the state came to play a major role. The idea of → freedom of religion and conscience (→ Freedom of Belief ) arose out of conflict with absolutism. Recent studies emphasize that absolutism and the Enlightenment are antithetical and propose replacing the expression “enlightened absolutism” with “reform absolutism.” The worlds inhabited by the middle and lower classes, however, were influenced only partially by the decrees of the princes. Noteworthy, finally, is the association of absolutism with the “crisis of the 17th century.” On the one hand, absolutist government with its exaggerated political ambitions at home and its foreign adventurism triggered wars and civil wars. On the other, princes ruling with

20 absolute power claimed to be able to deal with the consequences of the “crisis” better than other political entities (the estates, parliaments). In many European countries, therefore, absolutism both aggravated the “crisis of the 17th century” and used it for political gain. R. Vierhaus, “Absolutismus,” in: Sowjetsystem und Demokratische Gesellschaft, ed. C.D. Kernig, vol. I, 1966, 18–35 ◆ F. Wagner, ed., Europa im Zeitalter des Absolutismus und der Aufklärung, HEG 4, 1968 ◆ G. Oestreich, Geist und Gestalt des frühmodernen Staates, 1969 ◆ J. Freiherr von Kruedener, Die Rolle des Hofes im Absolutismus, 1973 ◆ D. Gerhard, ed., Ständische Vertretungen in Europa im 17. und im 18. Jahrhundert, 21974 ◆ W. Hubatsch, Das Zeitalter des Absolutismus, 41975 ◆ T. Rabb, The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe, 1975 ◆ H. Lehmann, Das Zeitalter des Absolutismus, 1980 ◆ P. Anderson, Die Entstehung des absolutistischen Staates, 21984 ◆ R. Vierhaus, Deutschland im Zeitalter des Absolutismus, 21984 ◆ J. Kunisch, Absolutismus, 1986 ◆ B. Stollberg-Rilinger, Der Staat als Maschine, 1986 ◆ W. Hubatsch, ed., Absolutismus, 21988 ◆ J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power, 1989 ◆ H. Duchhardt, Das Zeitalter des Absolutismus, 1989, 21992 ◆ N. Elias, Die höfische Gesellschaft, 71994 ◆ M. Stolleis, ed., Staatsdenker in der Frühen Neuzeit, 31995 ◆ G. Vogler, Absolutistische Herrschaft und ständische Gesellschaft, 1996. Hartmut Lehmann

Abstinence → Asceticism Abstract Expressionism is the internationally acknowledged American art movement of the 1940s/ 1950s, which developed mainly independently of Europe and which is of singular importance since it signals the shift of the Western art center from Europe to the United States. Abstract expressionism is also known by the names “New York School,” stressing its geographical location, and “Action Painting,” to take account of one of the styles of abstract expressionism. Abstract expressionism, which was first used as a term in 1929 in connection with the work of W. → Kandinsky, is shaped by individualism in terms of theme and style. Similarities are evident with regard to the fundamental concern with abstraction through which the essence of human experience can be expressed, and with regard to physical attention to color and the matching alienation from American society. At the same time abstract expressionism is directed against conventional religions. Accordingly, Jackson Pollock’s life-long pantheism is influenced by → theosophy, fashionable in his home country, and by the thought of Krishnamurtis. The roots of abstract expressionism lie in 1920s and 1930s America, shaped especially by regionalism and abstract art. The latter experienced a growth due to the exhibition of Cubism and Abstract Art (1936, New York, Museum of Modern Art) and the founding of the American Abstract Artists in 1936. The style of Arshile Gorky of these years is traditionally abstract (e.g. “Organization,” 1933–1936, Washington DC, National Gallery of Art); Pollock’s style shows the influence of the rural American West, the area of steel production, oil production, and

21 coal mining (e.g. “Camp with Oil Rig,” c. 1930–1933, private collection). Many future abstract expressionists worked for the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Art Project (WPA/FAP), which opened up the opportunity for using larger formats and trying out techniques. Towards the end of the 1930s, American European influences were added: 1. From → surrealism, which had taken hold in North America owing to the exhibition of Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism (1936/1937, New York, Museum of Modern Art) and owing to emigrations from Paris (e.g. André Breton, André Masson, and Max Ernst), “automatism” was adopted, which, however, rejects surrealist irrationalism. 2. The interest of abstract expressionists, such as Robert Motherwell and Pollock, in fundamental human experiences is fed by C.G. → Jung ’s concept of myth. Myths, also termed by Jung as archetypes, lend expression to such experiences. They also appear mainly in primitive art, which is a source for abstract expressionism (e.g. Pollock, “Guardians of the Secret,” 1943, San Francisco, Museum of Modern Art). Since the actual significance of such myths appears obscure because of their simple illustration, abstract expressionism takes up abstract forms and symbols. Such images were displayed in the exhibition Ideographic Picture organized by Barnett Newman in 1947 (Betty Parsons Gallery, New York). In order to achieve an absolute intensity beyond a mythical approach, however, artists turned from graphic symbols, which continue to describe events and forms, to color and form, as well as malact. Paint running over a painting achieves the impression of an unusually complex space (e.g. Gorky, “Water of the Flowery Mill,” 1944, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art). Hans Hofman was one of the first to splatter color and to let it drip onto the canvas. Pollock refined this technique, which is also known as “dripping,” by giving up the limitations of the paintbrush and the vertical position of the easel in 1947 and, working directly on the floor, by dripping paint from the tin (e.g. “Number 2,” 1949, Utica, New York, Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute). The term “all-over” is sometimes also used to describe the restlessness in the composition, which falls into fragments. The unconventional way of using paint is to affect the direct experience of the observer, psychologically and physically (hence large-sized paintings). Besides this, the artist himself is also aware of this directness, whereby the spiritual circumstances are directly – and free of formal methods – transformed into painting by the “automatic” process, so that the act of painting becomes a “selfoccurrence.” Such products, also described as “action painting,” of course give rise to the question of when a work is considered completed. The concentration on the essential led in the early 50s to the so-called “Color Field Paintings,” large-sized color fields, which minimalize the internal relation-

Absurd, The ships within the painting and seem to point to infinity through their seeming framelessness (e.g. Mark Rothko, “Orange and Yellow,” 1956, Buffalo, Albright-Knox Art Gallery collection). It is its goal to guide the observer beyond observation to a metaphysical experience of the painting. As the “Color Field Paintings” extend, as regards their minimalization of the painting space, even beyond the reduction that cubism accomplished, they were favored by one of the first critics of abstract expressionism, Clement Greenberg. Also in the early 50s, Willem de Kooning returned with his paintings of women to the figurative (e.g. “Woman I,” 1950–1952, New York, Museum of Modern Art); Franz Kline, however, eliminated the individual in his black-and-white abstractions (e.g. “Wotan,” 1950/1951, Houston, Texas, Museum of Fine Arts). Both artists clarify the heterogeneity within abstract expressionism, whose common denominator in the 1950s was the intensified debate with the world of art, which became necessary owing to increasing national recognition. During the Cold War, the USA used abstract expressionism as a banner to propagate freedom of opinion and expression, a pigeon-holing against which the artists defended themselves. Abstract expressionism came to an end in the 1950s. Pollock, one of the main representatives, died unexpectedly in 1956. Moreover, a new generation of artists such as Helen Frankenthaler and Joan Mitchell established itself, artists who translated the demand of abstract expressionism for the existential essential into a more lyrical and decorative language (e.g. Frankenthaler, “Mountains and Sea,” 1952, artist’s collection, lent to Washington DC, National Gallery of Art). C. Greenberg, Art and Culture, 1961 ◆ H. Rosenberg, The Tradition of the New, 1961 ◆ W.C. Seitz, Abstract Expressionist Painting in America, 1983 (1955) ◆ D. & C. Shapiro, eds., Abstract Expressionism: A Critical Record, 1989 ◆ D. Anfam, Abstract Expressionism, 1990 ◆ A.E. Gibson, Abstract Expressionism. Other Politics, 1997. Jutta Vinzent

Absurd, The. Absurd (Lat. “dull-sounding”) is widely understood as “ridiculous,” cf. “reductio ad absurdum”. In literary contexts the term Absurd has been in great demand since existentialism. 20th-century literature frequently testifies (often in a grotesque way) to the experience of the Absurd; cf. F. → Kafka, Eugène Ionesco, S. → Beckett, Harold Pinter, Luigi Pirandello, Thomas Bernhard, Elfriede Jelinek and others. In the 19th century, S. → Kierkegaard is the respected thinker of the Absurd (partly synonymous with “paradox”): it is nonsensical for finite reflection to try to grasp eternally perfect existence as temporally historical. The gospel’s challenge is precisely to get passionately involved in this boundary of reflection: the God-in-time – a reality which is unattainable through reflection. The paradox of

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Abū Rāhi†a faith appears to outsiders as the Absurd. – Kierkegaard also influenced L. → Wittgenstein. His attempt strictly to determine the boundaries of what can be said rationally, resulted in the fact that overwhelming experiences regarding the meaning of life can only be expressed as an absurd collision with the boundaries of language. – It is in exactly this border area that the philosophy of J.P. → Sartre lies very close to that of A. → Camus. According to Sartre, existence is ontologically meaningless and coincidental; all efforts to become a part of the perfecting of existence are futile. Camus develops an ethics of heroic endurance of the Absurd. Whoever does not attempt to avoid the Absurd and rejects promises of comfort, will discover a new solidarity with his neighbor. A. Camus, L’Homme révolté, 1951; ET: The Rebel ◆ idem, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, 1955; ET: The Myth of Sisyphus ◆ S. Kierkegaard, “Abschließende unwissenschaftliche Nachschrift,” GW, ed. E. Hirsch et al., section XVI, 1958, 195 ◆ L. Wittgenstein, “Vorlesung über Ethik” (1930), in: Geheime Tagebücher. 1914–1916, ed. W. Baum, 1991, 73–82 ◆ J.P. Sartre, L’Être et le rien, 1943; ET: Being and Nothingness, 1993. Klaus-M. Kodalle

Abū Rāhi†a, Óabīb ibn ›idma (d. after 828), often called at-Takrītī on account of his association with the Mesopotamian city of Takrit. He was active in the first half of the 9th century as a scholar and teacher of the Syrian Orthodox Church ( Jacobites, → Syria). Many modern scholars believe he may even have been a bishop. Abū Rāhi†a was one of the first Christians living in the Islamic world who wrote a steady stream of theological and apologetic works in Arabic. He wrote against such opponents as the → Melkites and Nestorians (→ Syria) as well as Muslim apologists and polemicists. Eleven separate Arabic works from his pen are extant, including some of the earliest texts of the Muslim-Christian dialogue on the doctrines of the → Trinity and the →Incarnation. G. Graf, Die Schriften des Jacobiten Óabīb ibn ›idma Abū Ra hi†a, 1951 ◆ J.-M. Fiey, “Óabīb Abī Rāhi†a,” in: K. Samir, ed., Actes du deuxième congrès international d’études arabes chrétiennes, 1986. Sydney H. Griffith

Abu Íāli˙, historian. Armenian by birth, he wrote a description of the churches and monasteries of Egypt in Arabic around 1300. His ties with the Coptic Church explain his interest in this church and the language he used. His work is a rich source of information about the demography and economy of the Copts as well as ecclesiastical and monastic life in Christian Egypt. Works: The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and Some Neighbouring Countries, trans. B.T.A. Evetts, 1895 ◆ On Abu Íāli˙: G. Graf, Geschichte der christlich-arabischen Literatur, vol. II, 1946 ◆ A. Kapoīan-Kouymjian, L’Egypte vue par les Arméniens, 1988. Christian Hannick

Abulafia, Abraham (1240, Saragossa – 1291, Italy). Abulafia, one of the most important mystics among the medieval Kabbalists, created a highly individual form of mystic contemplation, based on a mystical interpretation of language. Leaving Spain, he journeyed through many lands until reaching → Akko in 1260; he lived and taught in Sicily, Greece, and Italy. G. → Scholem characterized his work as “ecstatic” or “prophetic” → Kabbalah, and Abulafia occasionally described himself as a prophet. He rejected the Kabbalistic symbols of the ten divine attributes, the → sefirot, and developed mystical techniques for attaining an awareness of the divine that included bodily exercises, a rare phenomenon among Jewish mystics. Although Abulafia was well-versed in rationalistic philosophy, his commentary Sitrei Torah (“Mysteries of the Torah”) on M. → Maimonides’ philosophical work Moreh Neukhim (“Guide for the Perplexed”) led many to ascribe Kabbalistic ideas to him. He wrote a great number of treatises, including a commentary on the divine name comprising 72 letters (Sefer ha-Shem, “Book of the Name”), commentaries on the Sefer → Yetzirah (“Book of Creation”), and polemics. In 1280 Rome condemned Abulafia to death after he attempted to meet Pope → Nicholas III. The Pope’s death saved him. The meeting was thought to be an eschatological event, since Abulafia had increasingly combined messianic expectations with his prophetical claims. In his last years, messianic elements dominated his activities. Abulafia’s writings influenced Christian Kabbalists like → Pico della Mirandola and J. → Reuchlin. Some of the 16th-century → Safed Kabbalists made use of his work, and several later Jewish mystics took their ideas from him. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1954 ◆ M. Idel, Mystical Experiences of Abraham Abulafia, 1988 ◆ idem, Language, Torah and Hermeneutics in Abraham Abulafia, 1989. Joseph Dan

Abuna. The title “abuna” (“our father”), given to hierarchs of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and also used as a form of address, expresses trust and confidence. Formerly it was associated particularly with the Coptic metropolitan for Ethiopa and after the granting of → autocephaly with the five patriarchs Baselyos (1959– 1970), Tewoflos (1971–1975; murdered in 1992), Täkla Haymanot (1976–1988), Marqorewos (1988– 1992; deposed), and Paulos (1992–). Monastic saints are also given the title. F. Heyer, Die Kirche Äthiopiens, 1971, 2–15.

Friedrich Heyer

Acacius of Beroea (c. 330 – c. 433), originally a monk, was consecrated bishop of Beroea (= Aleppo) in 378. He first came to prominence in church politics as an adherent of → Meletius of Antioch (also as a participant in the Council of → Constantinople in 381),

23

Academy

he was to be found later among the opponents of John → Chrysostom (probably because of his rigorism). He sought to mediate in the → Nestorian Controversy, as is attested in five of his letters, still preserved (PG 77.99– 102; 84.647f.; ACO I.1.1,7). He also participated in the preparations for the 433 Formula of Union before he died at an advanced age. His chorepiscopus, the Syrian poet Balai (→ Syrian Christian Literature), dedicated five hymns to him (Ger. BKV2 6. 71,78–89).

the church without disavowing Chalcedon. Not in the first instance because of the Henotikon, but because of the recognition of → Petrus Mongus as Patriarch of Alexandria, Pope → Felix II terminated relations with Constantinople in 484 (the so-called Acacian Schism). The schism lasted until 519, when, under new political conditions, Pope → Hormisdas (514–23) and Emperor Justin (518–27) sought a new compromise in church policy.

CPG 3, 6477–6481 ◆ G. Bardy, “Acace de Bérée et son rôle dans la controverse nestorienne,” RevSR 18, 1938, 20–44 ◆ A. Grillmeier, Jesus der Christus im Glauben der Kirche, I, 1979, 31990 (index). Adolf Martin Ritter

Sources: CPG 3, 5590–5594 ◆ CSEL 35, 1/2, 1895/98. On Acacius: E. Schwartz, Codex Vaticanus gr. 1431, ABAW.PPH 32, 1927 ◆ idem, Publizistische Sammlungen zum acacianischen Schisma, ABAW.PH NS 10, 1934 ◆ W.H.C. Frend, “Eastern Attitudes to Rome during the Acacian Schisma,” in The Orthodox Churches and the West, ed. D. Baker, 1976, 69–81 ◆ H.C. Brennecke, “Chalkedonense und Henotikon,” in Chalkedon, ed. J. van Ort & J. Roldanus, 1997, 24–53. Hanns Christof Brennecke

Acacius of Caesarea (d. c. 366) was a student and then, after c. 340, the successor of → Eusebius of Caesarea as bishop; he was one of the outstanding theologians and church politicians leading the Eastern theologians under the reign of Emperor → Constantius II who were critical of Nicea in the tradition of Origen. He was a participant in the Synod of Antioch (341); in Sardica (342, → Arius and Arianism) the Western Synod condemned him as the leader of the Orientals. After the Synod of Seleucia (359) he was the leading representative of the Eastern → homoeans, whose confession traced back to him, and the resolute opponent of → Aetius and → Eunomius, outstanding representatives of the ecclesial policy of Constantius II. His supposed conversion during the reign of Emperor → Jovinian (363/64) to the → Nicene creed (to be interpreted in homoousian fashion) rests on a confusion; the Synod of the → Homoiousians at Lampsakus (364/65) condemned him anew. The catena tradition and fragments against Marcellus in Epiph. (Haer. 72.6–10) preserve only fragments of his writings; his vita of Eusebius has been lost. Sources: CPG 2, 3510–3515. On Acacius: J.M. Leroux, “Acace, évèque de Césarée de Palestine,” TU 93, 1966, 82–85 ◆ H.C. Brennecke, Studien zur Geschichte der Homöer, BHTh 73, 1988 ◆ J.T. Lienhard, “Acacius of Caesarea, Contra Marcellum,” CrSt 10, 1989, 1–22. Hanns Christof Brennecke

Acacius of Melitene, Saint (before 431 Bishop of Melitene in lesser Armenia, d. before 439) was lector in Melitene around 384 (educated Euthymius, who was later abbot), a dedicated follower of → Cyril of Alexandria , and at the Council of → Ephesus (431) a determined opponent of → Nestorius (ACO I/2, 40, 44, 52f.; cf. his homily, also in the Ethiopic Qērellos). His struggle after 433, together with → Rabbula of Edessa, against the distribution of the works of → Theodore of Mopsuestia in Armenia (letter to Catholicos Sahak and to the princes) belongs to the pre-history of the → Three Chapters Controversy. He is venerated as a saint (Apr 17). Sources: CPG 3, 5792–5795, cf. 5340, 5368, 5369 ◆ B.M. Weischer, Qērellos IV 1, 1979, 37f., 68–81 ◆ A.-J. Festugière, Moines d’Orient, vol. III/1, 1962. On Acacius: V. Inglisian, “Die Beziehungen des Patriarchen Proklos von Konstantinopel und des Bischofs Akakios von Melitene zu Armenien,” OrChr 41, 1957, 35–50 ◆ G. Winkler, “Die spätere Überarbeitung der armenischen Quellen zu den Ereignissen der Jahre vor bis nach dem Ephesinum,” OrChr 70, 1986, 143–180. Theresia Hainthaler

Academy I. General – II. Academies of the Arts and Sciences

Acacius of Constantinople/Acacian Schism. Acacius of Constantinople (d. 489) was Patriarch of Constantinople (471–489); from 474, he guided the church policy of Emperor Zenon (471–91), and in 475/ 6 opposed the anti-Chalcedonian measures (→ Chalcedonian Definition) of the usurper Basiliscus. In 482, on Zenon’s commission and in the context of the policy of compromise in relation to anti-Chalcedonian Egypt, he authored the “→ Henotikon” as a typical imperial formula of compromise, which relies theologically on the 433 Formula of Union that was influenced more by → Cyril of Alexandria, in order to preserve the unity of

I. General 1. Term, Platonic Academy. The word “academy,” employed in almost all European languages with only minor variants, derives from the Greek term ἀκαδήμεια, ἀκαδημία (akadēmeia, akadēmia); it designates, first, a park-like, walled, sacred precinct probably primarily dedicated to Akademos, a local Athenian god and heros, then also to Athena. In this enclosed precinct there was a → gymnasium in addition to a sanctuary. The central connotation in current use – in addition to the miscomprehension involving the association with institutions such as the university, research centers, etc.

Academy rooted in 19th century Plato interpretation – signifying a separate, intellectually independent discussion site has preserved material continuity with the reference of the Greek expression after it moved from its reference to a sanctuary and its environs before the northwestern Dipylon Gate of Athens to reference to a school led by → Plato. Presumably, from c. 387 bce, Plato taught both in the gymnasium of the Academy (courses for beginners) and also in his own garden (discussions with his closer students). Expressions such as “Plato teaches” or the students are “in the academy” in which the topographical designation transformed into a metaphorical usage soon became common. The founding of the Academy is to be understood in the context of similar educational institutions; through these schools, rapidly gaining in reputation, and the contemporary nomothetics in the poleis, the dominance of the competitive and of martial agonalia that characterized older Greek tradition was overcome, except for a structure of cooperation that shapes the academy idea to this day, as the → agon was played out in the freedom of lecture and dialogue. 2. Instruction. Instruction took place in various forms: in dialogues, in the form of disputations, through lectures or seminar exercises. In addition to the respective head of the school chosen by secret ballot – for the Older Academy (see below) initially Plato (387–348/ 47), then Speusippos (348/48–339/38), then Xenocrates (339/38–314/13), Polemon (314/13–276/75) and Crates (276/75–274/73) – the Academy also included other researchers, such as → Aristotle, Eudoxus of Knidos, Heracleides Ponticus or Philip of Opus. Because of their involvement, the Academy in its original form resembles a center of philosophical and scientific research which, to be sure, exhibited certain focal points, following Plato (mathematics [geometry], astronomy), but also dealt with almost all areas of knowledge at the time in a critically, and especially, methodologically sharpened form (dialectical method): natural philosophy, astronomy, psychology, rhetoric, politics. 3. Life. The reality of the Academy did not just consist of its philosophical and scientific activity, but it encompassed, especially, the whole of life and thus extended from a very conscious attention to external matters with a sensitivity to urbanity via the cultivation of the divine (celebrations on the festivals of the deities) to the rhythm of feasts and gatherings defined by moderation. Soon after Plato’s death, the dates of birth and death of → Socrates and Plato became festivals. 4. Periods. The periodization in the history of the Academy, which is usually divided into early, middle, later and neoplatonic Academy, is Hellenistic in origin and takes its lead from the orthodox and dogmatic fundamental position of → Antiochus of Ascalon (between 140/125 and 68 bce), one of → Cicero’s teachers:

24 According to it, the period of Speusippus, the direct successor of Plato, until Crates is to be understood, not only in a chronological, but especially in a programmatic sense, as the “old” Academy that traces back to Plato; the – from Antiochus’s perspective – schismatic tradition between Arcesilaus and → Philo, by contrast, is to be understood as the “new” Academy, which follows a fundamentally skeptical approach. For Cicero, however, the Antiochene position is conversely the “new” Academy, and the skeptical school was quite generally designated that of the academici or academia. The tripartite division into “old,” “middle” and “new” Academy, unknown to Cicero, appears first in Philodemus’s (?) Academicorum Index (XXI 37–42) and then later (Numenius of Apameia [in → Eusebius of Ceasarea]) in an expansion to five periods: from Plato or Speusippus = old; since Arcesilaus = middle; since Carneades = new; since Philo = fourth and since Antiochus = fifth Academy. The notion derived from this tradition and still current that the Academy existed continually on into the time of → Neoplatonism, indeed, even until the closing of all pagan schools under Justinian in 529 ce, is no longer tenable: between Plato’s Academy and the “school” founded later by → Plutarch from Athens, which was aware of a regular succession of scholarchs, stand 500 years in which there was no Academy. → Platonism, as an increasingly systematized philosophical option, found continuation, however, in Alexandria through Eudorus c. 50 bce; this continuation cannot, however, be interpreted as a “school” in the sense of the Academy. The “school” led by Plotinus in Rome can be no more considered an official “Platonic Academy” than can Proclus’s Institute. 5. Academy in Florence. The Academy as an intellectual and scientific lifestyle experienced an emphatic resumption in the 15th century through the Platonic Academy at Florence (Academia Florentina, Academia Ficiniana, Academia Careggiana, Academia Cosimesca) founded by Marsilio → Ficino (1433–1499) under the protection of Cosimo de → Medici and the subsequent cultivation of Lorenzo. The foundation for this were, on the one hand, instructional sites such as the Convent of Santo Spirito with Luigi Marsigli and the free teaching assemblies held after the Council of Florence by the Greek exiles (Cardinal → Bessarion, John Argyropoulos, etc.) in a few Italian cities which they described as “Academies.” On the other hand, however, Ficino, who, because of his early engagement with Plato and Platonism, which far exceeded what was common in early humanism, wanted to connect directly with the Academy tradition in life and study (not an actual founding, but a “faire renaître”). Florence was considered the “new Athens,” Ficino was the “old Plato,” a villa in Chareggi (near Florence), given by Cosimo de Medici (1462), the Academy or gymnasium. The Florentine Academy

25 represented a circle around the person of Ficino and around the charisma of his Christian interpretation of Plato in which, however, the individual diversity of capabilities and the freedom of positions remained protected (Angelo Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, G. → Pico della Mirandola). The “Florentina” was initially supposed to form a regular school, entirely in character with the Old Academy; its Speusippus, i.e. the direct student and successor of Ficino, was Francesco da Diacceto (1466–1522), who assumed a position of concordance between Plato and Aristotle, a position related to Neoplatonism and widespread in the 15th century. The Academy moved now, however, from Careggi in the “Orti Oricellari” into Florence itself, ideal and financial support shifted from the Medici to the Ruccellai – Bernardo Ruccellai made his house and the “Orti” available – and the designation changed to “Platonica seconda” or “Academia degli Orti Oricellari.” The center of thought and focus of the academic discussions under Diacceto’s leadership was, however, a theory of love inspired by Ficino. With Diacceto and the scandal concerning the conspiracy against Giulio de Medici in 1522, in which the Academy was implicated, ended the period of the Florentine Academy prematurely. The numerous simultaneous or subsequent establishments of academies in Florence and the other centers of humanistic culture in Italy never claimed this exclusive connection to Plato’s original Academy. C. Wachsmuth, “Akademia,” RE I/1, 1893, 1132–1134 ◆ A. della Torre, Storia dell’ academia platonica di Firenze, 1902 ◆ M. Maylaender, Storia delle Accademie d’Italia, vol. IV, 1929, 294–315 ◆ P.O. Kristeller, “The Platonic Academy of Florence,” Renaissance News, 14, 1961, 147–159 ◆ H. Cherniss, Die ältere Akademie, 1966 ◆ P. Merlan, “The Old Academy,” in: The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, ed. A.H. Armstrong, 1967, 14–38 ◆ J. Glucker, “Antiochus and the Late Academy,” Hyp. 56, 1978, 233–235 ◆ H.J. Krämer, “Die ältere Akademie,” in: Ueberweg: Grundriß der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. III, 1983 ◆ W. Görler, “Älterer Pyrrhonismus: Jüngere Akademie Antiochos von Askalon,” in Ueberweg: Grundriß der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. IV, 1994 ◆ K. Trampedach, Platon, die Akademie und die zeitgenössische Politik, 1994. Thomas Leinkauf

II. Academies of the Arts and Sciences 1. Academies of the Sciences: Function and Organization. Academies of the sciences are associations or societies of scholars established to cultivate the sciences through interdisciplinary discussion of their own research and that of others and to increase scientific knowledge by encouraging, carrying out, and supporting scientific projects. They differ from educational institutions in considering themselves to be devoted solely to research, as institutions where the elite of all fields of scientific endeavor convene. This elitism is reflected in their limited membership and the strict requirements for the election of new members as well as their involvement in scientific

Academy policy and the belief that through their knowledge they assist in solving the scientific and social problems of their time. Most academies of science are organized nationally, although in Germany, for instance, they developed territorially or regionally (an exception being the “Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina” in Halle). In most cases this focus on basic research excludes the more “applied” or “practical” sciences from the canon of disciplines represented by the academy, inasmuch as some of their representatives do not engage solely in pure research. This holds true for fields like theology, law, and economics unless studied philosophically, philologically, or historically, and such domains of the natural sciences as clinical medicine and engineering or technology when the interest in theoretical science is not primary. The tension between the claim to represent the theoretical sciences in their totality and the need for specialized discussion of the results of research has led to the organization of different divisions within the academies of the sciences. As a rule the result has been a division into two equal sections, one for the humanities and one for the natural sciences, although there have also been attempts at further differentiation. The scholarly profile of the academies is defined by their regular members, eminent scholars elected because their research has contributed substantially to the extension of knowledge in their fields. Through the device of “corresponding members” – originally actually expected to present their research to the regular members through correspondence – the academy relates to major scholars throughout the world. Round-table conferences constitute the traditional nucleus of the academy’s work; attendance of the regular members is compulsory. These sessions embody the ideal of “integrated science” through interdisciplinary exchange of ideas and initiatives, in an attempt to preserve at least in principle the unity of the sciences despite the differentiation and almost unimaginable multiplicity of specialized disciplines in this “republic of scholars.” The results of this intellectual exchange are generally published in lecture form in the transactions of the academy. In the 18th century, the prizes awarded by an academy were an important tool for stimulating and guiding scholarly research; today the academies bestow numerous prizes and honors on both scholars of distinction and the coming generation of researchers. Since the end of the 19th century, the academies themselves have become involved in major research projects, often lasting for decades, which can expect ongoing progress over the years only under the aegis of an academy or are so complex that they require the attention of experts from a variety of fields. The German academies are institutions of public law responsible to the states in which they are located, whose

Academy support they receive. The seven German academies are members of the Konferenz der Deutschen Akademien der Wissenschaften headquartered in Mainz, which thus continues the tradition of the “cartel” of the academies established in 1893. It is the function of the conference to coordinate the efforts of the individual academies and oversee common projects, to decide whether to include a proposed project in the program of the academies, and to represent the interests of the academies to the federal government and to the states (especially with regard to common financing). In international representation of the sciences, the conference substitutes to some extent for the nonexistent national academy of Germany. 2. History. The history of the modern scientific academies begins in Renaissance Italy in the 15th century, in centers like Florence, Rome, and Naples. The loose circles of Humanists and scholarly communities that grew up around eminent individual scholars, initially interested primarily in dialogue with classical authors and texts, often enjoyed the support of a princely patron. Here at the beginning of the academy movement we already find a pedagogical interest in scholarly associations as universal educational institutions benefiting “society as a whole.” The first German scholarly society of this sort was the Sodalitas litteraria Rhenania founded by C. → Celtis in Heidelberg in 1495. The first generation of these academies, products of the spirit of → Humanism, came to an end in the polarization created by the religious unrest and intellectual chaos around 1520. The second generation of such academies also originated in Italy; they became the model for the European academy movement in the 17th and 18th centuries. We may single out the Accademia della Crusca founded in Florence in 1584 and the Accademia dei Lincei founded in Rome in 1603, which represent the two basic types of academy: the philological academy or society and the society of natural scientists. The general trend toward institutionalization of the academies under state sponsorship (privilege) was already clear by the second half of the 16th century. Besides an edition of Dante, a central concern of the Accademia della Crusca was publication of an Italian dictionary, which has gone through many editions to the present day. Both projects were intended to refine and purify the mother tongue. With this charge to cultivate the language, perceived as a patriotic national duty, the Florentine academy served as a model for the philological societies of the 17th century, from the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft founded in Weimar in 1617 to the Académie Française. The importance of the Roman academy lay primarily in the systematic introduction of the experimental method (e.g. by → Galileo) into scientific discussion. In Germany cultivation of the natural sciences first became a function of a scholarly society with the establishment of the Societas Ereunetica by J.

26 → Jungius in Rostock in 1622. Not until 1652, however, was there a lasting and effective scientific academy: the Academia Naturae Curiosorum, which received imperial recognition in 1672/1677 and was granted official status as the imperial academy Leopoldina in 1687. In 1670 the Leopoldina made a special contribution to international scientific communication by beginning to publish a periodical, the Miscellanea curiosa sive Ephemerides medico-physicae, the oldest scholarly journal in the world devoted to medicine and the natural sciences. In the 17th century, the future of the academy movement was being pioneered in France and England. In the France of Richelieu and Louis XIV, the Italian model reached full flower. Here around 1635 Marin Mersenne had already proposed an international and interdisciplinary exchange of research results. Instead, through the influence of Richelieu, the Académie Française emerged in 1635 from the circle of literary men around Valentin Conrart; it was devoted totally to promoting absolutist cultural policies. Its scope was exclusively linguistic and literary: to produce a French dictionary and to promote and regulate the national language (e.g. through normative literary criticism). The aura surrounding its 40 members drawn from cultural and political circles, the “immortals,” has made it the most respected and influential scholarly body in France to the present day. Under the direct influence of Colbert were founded the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (1661), responsible for archaeology and history, and the Académie des Sciences (1666), a society for natural scientists. By including foreign members, the latter realized something of the idea of international cooperation among the sciences. Since academies were also created for the arts, under Louis XIV almost all the arts and sciences in Paris were organized in academies. In 1795 the scientific academies in Paris were brought under a common roof in the Institut de France, which later came to include the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, founded in 1832. In England F. → Bacon had established the importance of the inductive method for the study of nature. In 1660 one of the important scientific academies of Europe, the Royal Society, was founded as the College for the Promoting of Physicomathematical Experimental Learning. The experiments conducted by its members and by others and their (theoretical) study and explanation were the focus of the Royal Society, although for a short period it also dealt with questions of cultivating and regulating language in England. I. → Newton became a member in 1672. Not until 1901 was a British Academy established in Great Britain, with an eye on the association of the academies. Leibniz was primarily responsible for bringing to Germany the model of the French and English acad-

27 emies, which he also characteristically altered. Leibniz rejected the notion that the work of the academies should be devoted “to simple curiosity or hunger for knowledge and barren experiments”; instead he emphasized the usefulness of the sciences in their combination of theory and practice. The work of the societies combined absolutist and mercantilist ideas with moralistic pedagogical expectations. Leibniz’s significance for the history of the German academies consists primarily in his adoption of the encyclopedic scope of the earlier academies, thus establishing the internal structure of the German academies as societies divided into sections for a variety of specialized subjects, a structure that has endured to this day. The continued existence of the Prussian academy, founded in 1700, was not assured until 1744/1746, when it was reformed after the French model by → Frederick II. During the second half of the 18th century, academies were established in various territories of the empire: the Göttinger Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1751) in the electorate of Hanover; the Kurmainzische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1754) in Erfurt; the Kurbayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1759) in Munich; the Kurpfälzische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1763) in Mannheim; and finally a Böhmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1770/1784) in Prague. Alongside the “universal” academies with their divisions for the natural sciences and for historical and philological disciplines there also emerged, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, many societies of a more private and bourgeois cut for individual fields of study. The academies constituted the vanguard of the entire 18th-century evolution of societies. Characteristically the academies – with the exception of Göttingen – were near the seats of rulers. The sciences, like the arts, were incorporated into the program by which the baroque court presented its public face. The academies associated with the court could often develop into important centers of shared scientific research. The scholars enjoyed a substantial measure of academic freedom; in intellectual debate, barriers of class and confession were overcome. The functions of the academies were determined by the needs of the court or the government: study of the past and publication of historical sources in the service of dynastic historiography, study of the natural world to advance agriculture, trade, industry, mining, and hygiene. In spite of these practical goals, however, not rarely was the research performed by the academies innovative for the sciences. The academies were provided with institutes to further their work: libraries, collections (“cabinets”), laboratories, observatories, meteorological stations, etc. In the course of the 18th century, the academy movement spread throughout Europe and reached America. National scientific academies emerged in Bologna (1711), Madrid (1713/1714), St. Petersburg (1724).

Academy Stockholm (1739), Copenhagen (1742), Turin (1757), Brussels (1772), Lisbon (1779), and Dublin (1786). In the United States, Great Britain, Canada, and other English-speaking countries, academies remained a matter for private initiative. The first learned society in what would become the United States was founded by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia in 1743 and was called the American Philosophical Society. The rival American Academy of Arts and Sciences was proposed by John Adams in 1779 and founded in Boston a year later and the National Academy of Sciences was founded in Washington, DC, in 1863. In Europe, the end of the ancien régime was also an existential crisis for the academies; many folded (e.g. Mannheim) or temporarily shut their doors. Fundamental reforms based on the Paris model (e.g. Munich in 1807) were needed to keep the academies viable as scientific institutions. In Germany the reorganization of the Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften between 1812 and 1838, under the leadership of such figures as W. and A. von → Humboldt, Barthold Georg Niebuhr, and F. → Schleiermacher, pointed the way. The academies took on a new identity as places of pure scientific research (“the last and highest sanctuary of the sciences and the corporate body most independent of the state”), alongside and in cooperation with the universities, which were more focused on the needs of the state. The academies were forced to accept a diminution of their importance as research centers when they had to entrust most of their institutes to the care of the universities. The viability of the academy idea was demonstrated by the establishment of a whole series of new academies, e.g. Leipzig (1846) and Vienna (1847), where all 18th-century attempts to establish an academy had failed. In the Wilhelminian era, which put great faith in science and progress, yet another academy was founded at Heidelberg (1909). Internationally the network was strengthened by the foundation of many new national or regional academies – in Amsterdam (1808), Geneva (1815), Budapest (1825), Rome (Pontifical Academy 1847), Washington (1863), Agram (Zagreb) (1866), Wellington (1867), Cracow (1872), Buenos Aires (1874), Cape Town (1877), Tokyo (1879), and Belgrade (1886) –, but Europe remained the center of the academy movement. In the 19th century, massive editorial projects became increasingly important. The organization of this largescale research led to the establishment of national (1893) and international (1899) associations of academies. At the same time, though, many national scientific associations were organized, as well as large-scale research institutes for the various natural sciences and technologies, separate and independent of the academies, whose importance and scope they diminished. Thus the importance

Academy of the academies in shaping scientific policy shifted to a (mediating) role in the development of transregional and international cooperation in the sciences and to largescale projects in the humanities. The outbreak of World War I destroyed the international perspective of scientific cooperation, since the academies, especially in Germany and France, were in the forefront of scholarship contributing to the war effort. At the end of World War II, when international scientific relations were restored, the mistakes of 1919 were not repeated. Nevertheless development proceeded along different lines in East and West Germany. New forms of cooperation between the academies developed especially in Spanish-speaking and socialist countries. In South America and the Philippines 20 language academies had arisen by 1931, and in 1952 they joined together in Mexico in the “Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española”. As the highest scholarly institutions in their countries, since 1962 the Academies of Science in the socialist countries have developed special forms of international cooperation so as to be able to research fundamental problems in the natural and social sciences together and to work towards “socialist reconstruction.” In the United States, in the National Academy of Sciences, for instance, the structure according to class was relinquished in favor of a section-based division. Other institutions are closely associated with the Academy, such as the National Academy of Engineering (1964) and the Institute of Medicine (1970). The National Research Council, founded by the Academy as early as 1916, has developed as the most important working instrument of the Academy. 3. Academies of the Arts. The history of the academies of the arts since the 17th century runs parallel to that of the academies of the sciences. Often the two types were combined, for until the end of the 18th century little fundamental distinction was made between writers, artists, and scientists. On the French model, the belles-lettres were often integrated into the structure of the academies of the sciences. The academies of the arts owe their existence to the need of princes for self-presentation through art. But the princely sponsors also placed great store in the academies’ immediate value (not least economic) as training schools for the next generation of artists and the development of norms. The academies of the arts also thought of themselves as institutions bringing together the elites of their various forms – music, literature, the fine arts, architecture. Even today we occasionally still find hybrid academies of the arts and sciences such as the Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux Arts in Brussels and the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz. In the Institut de France, the fine arts constitute an academy on an equal footing with the scientific institutions.

28 The end of the ancien régime necessarily also spelled the end of the art academies oriented to meet the needs of court and aristocracy. During the 19th century, sections for music were integrated into many academies; at the same time many academies evolved into colleges (academies of art and music). In the 20th century a change began, entailing in some instances a loss of importance for Academies of the Arts, in particular as centers of artistic education. The educational courses of the Paris École des Beaux-Arts were reformed only after the violent student protests of 1968. A conservative character was also evident in some academies in their attitudes to modern art, as in the case of Sir Alfred Munnings, President of the Royal Academy in London, in 1949. Many academies of art are now making their name by means of their archives and collections as well as their exhibitions. A. von Harnack, Geschichte der Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 3 vols., 1900 ◆ W. His, Zur Vorgeschichte des deutschen Kartells und der internationalen Association der Akademien, 1902 ◆ A. von Harnack, “Vom Großbetrieb der Wissenschaft,” PrJ 119, 1905, 193–201 ◆ A. von Harnack, “Die Akademien der Wissenschaften,” in: Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft, F. Milkau, ed., vol. I, 1931, 850–876 ◆ R. Meister, Geschichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien 1847–1947, 1947 ◆ A. Kraus, Vernunft und Geschichte: die Bedeutung der deutschen Akademien für die Entwicklung der Geschichtswissenschaft im späten 18. Jahrhundert, 1963 ◆ B. Schroeder-Gudehus, Deutsche Wissenschaft und internationale Zusammenarbeit 1914–1928, 1966 ◆ M. Purver, The Royal Society, 1967 ◆ R. Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: the Paris Academy of Science 1666–1803, 1971 ◆ N. Pevsner, Academies of Art, Past and Present, 21973 ◆ Die Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften in der Zeit des Imperialismus, 3 vols., 1975–1979 ◆ Wissenschaftspolitik in Mittel- und Osteuropa: Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaften, Akademien und Hochschulen im 18. und beginnenden 19. Jahrhundert, ed. E. Amburger et al., 1976 ◆ Der Akademiegedanke im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert., ed. F. Hartmann et al., 1977 ◆ R. Landrock, Die Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1945–1971: ihre Umwandlung zur sozialistischen Forschungsakademie, 3 vols., 1977 ◆ U. Imhof, Das gesellige Jahrhundert: Gesellschaft und Gesellschaften im Zeitalter der Aufklärung, 1982 ◆ L. Hammermayer, Geschichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1759–1807, 2 vols., 1983 ◆ B. von Brocke, “Wissenschaft und Militarismus: der Aufruf der 93 ‘An die Kulturwelt!’ und der Zusammenbruch der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik im Ersten Weltkrieg,” in: Wilamowitz nach 50 Jahren, ed. W.M. Calder et al., 1985, 649– 719 ◆ L. Hammermayer, M. Stoermer & F. Letzelter, StL7 1985, 66–72 ◆ J.-P. Caput, L’Académie Française, 1986 ◆ R. von Dülmen, Die Gesellschaft der Aufklärer, 1986; ET: The Society of the Enlightenment, 1992 ◆ G. Kanthak, Der Akademiegedanke zwischen utopischem Entwurf und barocker Projektmacherei, 1987 ◆ C. Grau, Berühmte Wissenschaftsakademien, 1988 ◆ Forschung im Spannungsfeld von Politik und Gesellschaft: Geschichte und Struktur der Kaiser-Wilhelm-/Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, ed. R. Vierhaus et al., 1990 ◆ R. Vierhaus, “Akademie und Universität,” JAWG 1989, 1990, 90–101 ◆ L. Hammermayer, “Freie Gelehrtenassoziation oder Staatsanstalt? Zur Geschichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in der Zeit der Spätaufklärung und Reform (1787–1807),” ZBLG 54, 1991, 159–202 ◆ C. Grau, Die Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1993 ◆ R. Mayntz & H.-G. Wolf, Deutsche Forschung im Einigungsprozeß, 1994 ◆ B. Parthier, Die Leopoldina, 1994 ◆ U. Wennemuth, Wissenschaftsorganisation und Wissenschaftsförderung in Baden: die Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften 1909–1949, 1994 ◆ Die

29

Accommodation

Elite der Nation im Dritten Reich: das Verhältnis von Akademien und ihrem wissenschaftlichen Umfeld zum Nationalsozialismus, 1995 ◆ Europäische Sozietätsbewegung und demokratische Tradition, ed. K. Garber et al., 2 vols., 1996 ◆ E. Lea & G. Wiemers, Planung und Entstehung der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig 1704–1846, 1996 ◆ “Die Kunst hat nie ein Mensch allein besessen”: dreihundert Jahre Akademie der Künste und Hochschule der Künste, 1996 ◆ Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung, Das Akademieprogramm, 1996 ◆ A. Schindling, Bildung und Wissenschaft in der frühen Neuzeit 1650–1800, 21999. Udo Wennemuth

Accident → Substance and Accident Acclamation. A liturgical term used to refer to (sometimes spontaneous) responses of people in the congregation to an announcement, a reading or a prayer. These include such occasions as acclaiming candidates for ordination as “worthy,” ratifying the election of a bishop, and permitting the consecration of an abbot, or the coronation of a pope. In recent years, the term has referred especially to congregational responses during the Eucharistic prayer. Such refrains, which have a long tradition, punctuate the Eucharistic prayer with phrases such as “Remember, Lord . . .” A variety of such acclamations are used in recent liturgical texts besides the ancient → Sanctus. Perhaps most widely used ecumenically is the memorial of Christ: “Christ has died, Christ is risen, Christ will come again.” A. Hänggi & I. Pahl, eds., Prex Eucharistica, 1968 (bibl.) ◆ R.C. Jasper & G.J. Cuming, eds., Prayers of the Eucharist, 1987. James F. White

Accommodation I. Dogmatics, Fundamental Theology – II. Missiology

I. Dogmatics, Fundamental Theology The term “accommodation” (from Latin accommodatio, “accommodation, adaptation”) originated in classical → rhetoric (I); it denotes the adaptation of an object to its environment – in → rhetoric (II), the adaptation of linguistic expression to its subject matter, purpose, and audience. In Christian rhetoric, it took on a deeper theological meaning. → Augustine interprets the analogies of the Creator in nature as divine eloquence (CSEL 34, 184f ). → Hilary of Poitiers had already spoken previously of God’s accommodation to the weakness of the human intellect (CCL 62, 91). From here we may trace a connection with the theories of accommodation developed in the theological controversies of the 16th through 19th centuries. Matthias → Flacius calls God’s use of human language as a medium of revelation an instance of divine accommodation. J.A. → Quenstedt explains the grammatical and stylistic differences between the books of the Bible as an accommodation of the Holy Spirit to the language and style of the individual authors. For exponents

of the burgeoning natural sciences like J. → Kepler and → Galileo, however, it was the biblical authors themselves who employed accommodation (anthropomorphisms, etc.). The notion of accommodation reached full flower in J.S. → Semler, a theologian of the Enlightenment who maintained that the biblical authors used accommodation as a “condescension to the toleration of erroneous ideas held by ignorant Christians” (Versuch einer biblischen Dämonologie, 1776, 346), which the advance of education would make unnecessary. The resulting controversy over accommodation peaked toward the end of the 18th century. Between Protestant orthodoxy and rationalistic biblical criticism stood the accommodation theory of J.G. → Hamann; drawing on incarnational theology, it interprets the growth of the Bible as an indulgence on the part of God and uses “accommodation” synonymously with “condescension.” Lutheran theology of the 19th century used the related concept of kenosis. The discussion of accommodation by Enlightenment theologians, however, continued on in the debate over demythologization initiated by R. → Bultmann. F. Blanke, Hamann-Studien, SDGSTh 10, 1956 ◆ K. Gründer, Figur und Geschichte, 1958 ◆ G. Hornig, Die Anfänge der historischkritischen Theologie, FSThR 8, 1961 ◆ K. Scholder, Ursprünge und Probleme der Bibelkritik im 17. Jahrhundert, FGLP 10/33, 1966 ◆ H. Lausberg, Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik, 31990; ET: Handbook of Literary Rhetoric, 1998. Ulrich H.J. Körtner

II. Missiology In the theology of missions, “accommodation” means adjustment (and adaptation) of the gospel to the particular culture in which it is proclaimed. The gospel is likened to the kernel of a nut, which can be ensheathed in a new culture once the old cultural shell has been removed. Metaphors of clothing and vegetation are also common: the gospel is clothed in new garments or planted in new soil. The basic problem goes back to the beginnings of the Christian faith. Jesus, born a Jew, was the founder of a renewal movement within Judaism. As it spread, the gospel moved beyond the cultural boundaries of the Greek, Roman, and Germanic world. In the modern era, attendant on → colonialism and imperialism, Christianity became globalized. Accommodation was a missionary necessity, debated, for example, in the → rites or accommodation controversy. Missiological theory first began in the 20th century. Catholic theology in particular employed the term “accommodation,” which received its classic expression in the work of T. → Ohm in the triad “accommodation – assimilation – transformation.” Like the preferred Protestant term “→ indigenization,” “accommodation” implies a static view of the relationship between gospel and culture. With → Vatican II, a dynamic understanding of cultural contact began to prevail, which found expression in the model of → inculturation. Within

Acculturation

30

the sphere of the → World Council of Churches, the parallel concept of contextualization (→ Contextual Theology: II) was developed, which provides a common term covering the inculturation and liberation theologies of the socalled Third World. Evangelical circles prefer translation models (Kraft), a modern variant of accommodation. In the Christian art of the third world, accommodation can denote the representation of Christian subject matter in a traditional style; inculturated or contextual art, on the other hand, represents iconological innovation. In missionary history, accommodation has usually marked the beginnings of cultural contact; as the story continues, the gospel, which can be mediated only in a particular cultural setting, takes on a new contextual form. C.H. Kraft, Christianity in Culture, 1979 ◆ F. Kollbrunner, “Die klassische Theorie: Akkommodation,” NZM.S 37, 1990, 133– 141 (bibl.) ◆ V. Küster, “Theologie im Kontext,” SIM 62, 1995, 18–52 ◆ idem, “Images of Christ from Africa and Asia,” MisSt 12, 1995, 95–112. Volker Küster

Acculturation → Inculturation Acedia (Gk. ἀκηδία/akēdia) originally meant “indifference, apathy.” From the fourth century on, monastic spirituality used the term to denote the fundamental temptation of a monk: spiritual surfeit that finds expression in melancholy and inward desolation. → Athanasius was the first to associate acedia with the “noonday demon” (Ps 91:6). The classic description of acedia is that of → Evagrius Ponticus, who lists it among the eight evil “thoughts” (logismoi). → Cassian transmitted to western spirituality Evagrius’s schema of eight vices and hence the characterization of acedia as a vitium. → Gregory I, who counts only seven vitia principalia, subsumes acedia under tristitia (sorrow). → Hugo of St. Victor and → Peter Lombard restored acedia to the catalog of vices. In the Middle Ages, the spiritual experience of acedia was interpreted as tristitia de spirituali bono (→ Thomas Aquinas); from the 13th century on, moral instruction also understood it as laziness and sloth. In the late Middle Ages, acedia was also interpreted as melancholy (F → Petrarca). G. Bunge, Akedia, 41995.

Josef Weismayer

Achelis 1. Ernst Christian ( Jan 13, 1838, Bremen – Apr 10, 1912, Marburg). Studied theology in Heidelberg (1857–1859) and Halle (1860); served as a Reformed curate in Arsten and pastor in Hastedt (1862) and Wuppertal-Unterbarmen (1875); 1882–1911 as professor of practical theology at Marburg. Achelis first made his mark as a biblical homiletician and as an advocate of a moderate accommodation of historical Christianity to modern culture. His magnificent encyclopedic treatment of practical theology laid a

foundation that to this day remains unsurpassed “in historical comprehensiveness and pedagogical consistency” (Doerne 401). He believed that a historical approach to practical theology provided the basis for theological discrimination that could effectively restrain the appetite for arbitrary subjectivity. Achelis understood practical theology as “the study of how the church must work for its own edification . . . using the means provided by God in his Word and his Spirit” (Praktische Theologie, 25), a theological discipline more analytic and critical than programmatic. Works include: Praktische Theologie, 2 vols., 1890/91 (3 vols., 31911) ◆ Grundriss der Praktischen Theologie, 1893, 61912 ◆ On Achelis: M. Doerne, “Zum gegenwärtigen Stand der praktischen Theologie,” in G. Krause, ed., Praktische Theologie, 1972, 400–417 ◆ G. Krause, TRE I, 1977, 399–402. Volker Drehsen

2. Hans (Mar 13, 1865, Hastedt – Feb 25, 1937, Leipzig), son of 1.; church historian and archaeologist. Following his doctorate (1887) and habilitation (1893), he served as professor at Königsberg (1901), Halle (1907), and Bonn (1913); in 1918, he succeeded A. → Hauck at Leipzig. Introduced to the study of early church history by A. → Harnack, he studied the manifestations of the church’s life in the cult of the saints, ecclesiastical law, the penitential system, and above all in Christian art, especially in the catacombs of Rome and Naples. A. Alt, “Nachruf auf Hans Achelis,” BVSAW.PH 90, 1938; 3, 1939 ◆ E. Schäfer, NDB I, 29f. Christoph Bizer

Achievement I. Ethics – II. Education – III. Practical Theology

I. Ethics With regard to processes in general, “achievement” refers to their efficacy. Ethics, however, speaks of achievement only with regard to actions (→ Action: III) – and not actions in general, but only actions that are ethically justified. This is possible only when two conditions are met. First: It must be possible to distinguish the ethically justified actions from others. A criterion is required for the moral quality of actions. This means: actions are moral when they do not go against the predetermined purpose of the individual but contribute to its attainment. This criterion is applicable only to the extent that it is generally and publicly accepted. Second: There must be a sufficiently clear and sophisticated criterion for the technical goodness of an action whose performance turns a morally justified action into an achievement. Put in general terms: the action achieves its intended end by means whose quality is determined in advance. But this criterion can be applicable only if it takes into account the difference of various types of end inherent in the nature of the situation and the systematic variability of the qualities required of the means. Ends are either prod-

31 ucts (to be achieved through poiesis) or situations (to be achieved through praxis [→ Praxis and Poiesis]), and they can be determined by sufficiency (e.g. a dam) or simply necessity (e.g. a Christian congregation). The prescribed nature of the means can be minimized with respect to the definition of the end (“Achieve this end, no matter how”), the end can be downplayed with respect to the nature of the means (“Use these means, regardless of the outcome”), or certain conditions can be imposed on the means leading to the end (e.g. “Achieve this end at minimal cost”); a prescription of this latter kind presupposes in turn a definition of the term “cost.” This technical criterion of goodness, too, can be used publicly only when it has been generally agreed to. Ethics will work toward situations in which the given conditions for judging morally justified actions to be “achievements” are possible. If these conditions are not fulfilled, however, ethics can judge the assessment of actions as “achievements” only as a mode of acting that cannot be justified ethically per se, because it cultivates an approach to action that does not respect its nature. – The ethical → judgment (II) that an action is an “achievement” belongs to the theory of goods (→ Goods, Ethics of ). This judgment must be distinguished from judgment concerning the capability of the actants, which belongs to the theory of virtue (→ Virtues). An actant is said to be capable in the broader sense if s/he is able to effect a particular achievement, in the narrower sense if s/he is both able and willing to effect it continually. Only capability in the narrower sense may be considered a virtue. It presupposes participation in the public agreement concerning the explicit moral and technical criteria of the good used in judging actions and their acceptance by the actants. A. Gehlen et al., Sinn und Unsinn des Leistungsprinzips, 1974 ◆ W. Blankenburg, “Leistungsprinzip,” HWP 5, 1980, 220–225 ◆ B. Joerges, ibid., 215–220 ◆ E. Herms, “ ‘Leistung’ in Kirche und Diakonie,” in: Arbeitskreis Evangelischer Unternehmer in Deutschland, ed., Personalführung und Personalentwicklung in Wirtschaft, Kirche und Diakonie, 1997, 43–73. Eilert Herms

II. Education Achievement has an anthropological root in the human need and ability to learn: children and adults enjoy acquiring new competencies (→ Competence). “Reinforcement” is therefore the most important pedagogical function (F. → Schleiermacher). Encouragement must precede accountability. In addition, the principle of achievement embodies the modern ideal of → equality. “Each according to his achievement: in a social world still largely defined by boundaries of class and guild, that had to be a liberating, indeed a revolutionary demand” (Dreitzel, 34). This aspect, too, is still fundamentally valid. On the downside, achievement has become subject to the constraints

Achievement of efficiency and social advancement. Society based on achievement has replaced society based on class. The unification of the criteria for academic promotion since the 19th century (Furck) and the linkage of the educational system with the employment system are the most striking (and ambivalent) effects. The measurement of achievement that makes the most pedagogical sense would be “individual,” measuring an individual’s effort and personal academic progress relative to prior achievement. The principle of equality, however, demands “criterial” measurement according to standards that are the same for all. Unfortunately even today we still find “collective measurement,” which takes as its criterion the changing average achievement of a group in comparison with others. It does the most to fuel competitive jealousy and means that some are always losers. It can be argued that school must prepare students realistically for the competitive world. Educators, however, point out that children do not cease to be persons in their role as students. Children with learning disabilities furnish an especially telling example. Education must tame and restrict the unbridled ideal of achievement, inculcating → solidarity with and → responsibility toward others. C.-L. Furck, Das Problem der Leistung in der Schule, 1961, 51975 ◆ H.-P. Dreitzel, “Soziologische Reflexionen über das Elend des Leistungsprinzips,” in: Sinn und Unsinn des Leistungsprinzips, mit Beiträgen von A. Gehlen et al., 1974, 31–53 ◆ H.-K. Beckmann, ed., Leistung in der Schule, 1978 ◆ K. Ingenkamp, “Leistungsbeurteilung – Leistungsversagen,” Enzyklopädie Erziehungswissenschaft, ed. D. Lenzen, vol. VIII, 1995, 495–500. Karl Ernst Nipkow

III. Practical Theology Practical theology deals with the nature and work of the actual church and, overlapping with Christian ethics (see I above), the ethically responsible conduct of Christians in society. Ecclesiastical practice is guided by theological analysis. Endowments and abilities necessary for achievement are interpreted as “gifts of God.” What God has entrusted to the individual is to be used responsibly for the benefit of others. There are no Christian grounds for a fundamental rejection of achievement. The interpretive framework just cited places God at the center and relativizes human purposes. This fundamental complementary self-limitation of individuals and their “works” with respect to their “salvation” (cf. the doctrine of → justification) includes their achievements as well. Christianity also prohibits idolizing achievement. In practice, the two principles taken together define an ecclesiastical praxis that must constantly scrutinize demands for achievement to determine which are justified and which are not. Praxis cannot be regulated a priori by abstract → norms. Christian faith must be demonstrated in a → love for God’s creation that acts in a way that is situationally appropriate, thoughtful, and creative. “→ Good

Achzib works” are the grateful response to what one has received from God – an expression of salvation, not its condition. In the history of the church, the dynamic of love has created a culture of → mercy. Today, contemporaries find Christian service in imitation of Christ to be the most convincing form of ecclesiastical praxis that is not dominated by the principle of achievement but nevertheless does not reject individual effort and achievement (see II above on “effort-oriented” achievement). As a social institution and an employer, the church is involved in the achievement-oriented conventions of society. In the educational system, this is manifested in a grading system for religious instruction that emphasizes promotion, as well as in all the church’s training programs and employment practices. It is good if the church can succeed in preserving its own self-understanding under the same social conditions that apply to others (Nipkow). At the same time, the church must advocate spheres of life that are fundamentally free of the need to achieve. A fulfilled life does not depend on achievement. → Meaning must be received before it can be achieved (Gollwitzer). H. Gollwitzer, Krummes Holz – aufrechter Gang: Zur Frage nach dem Sinn des Lebens, 1970 ◆ K.E. Nipkow, Religionsunterricht in der Leistungsschule, 1979. Karl Ernst Nipkow

Achzib, called Casal Imbert by the Crusaders, is situated on the Mediterranean coast 9 miles (14 km) north of → Akko. As a strategically located city on the Way of the Sea, it controlled access to the so-called Ladder of Tyre. Achzib was settled from the Middle Bronze period (c. 2000 bce) to the time of the Crusades. The characteristic “Sea People” pottery and weapons from around 1150 bce are probably associated with the destruction of the fortifications at the end of the Late Bronze period. Achzib, which the Israelite tribe of Asher (→ Tribes of Israel) failed to capture ( Judg 1:31; cf. Josh 19:29), was a Phoenician city during its prime, from the 11th to the 6th century. Local proper names like “Adoni-Milk” and “Zakar-Milk” reflect the Tyrian cult of the divine “king” Milk. In the talmudic period, Achzib had a Jewish community and a synagogue (t.Ter. 2, 13). M. Avi-Yonah, EJ II, 1971, 313–314 ◆ B. Delavault & A. Lemaire, RSF 7, 1979, 3–5 ◆ M.W. Prausnitz & E. Mazar, NEAEHL I, 1993, 32–36 ◆ E. Mazar, “. . .   1 ” Qad 27, 1994, 29–34. E. Lipiński

Acknowledgement and Recognition I. Philosophy – II. Dogmatics and Ethics

I. Philosophy The concept of “acknowledgment” (German: Anerkennung) has always played an essential role in practical philosophy. Thus, in ancient ethics the conviction pre-

32 vailed that a good life could be led only by those persons whose behavior could find social esteem in the polis. The Scottish moral philosophers took their lead from the idea that public acknowledgment or disapproval represents the social mechanism by which the individual is held to the attainment of the desired virtues. For → Kant the categorical imperative is tied to the requirement to treat every other person only as a purpose in his or her own right, and thus to acknowledge him or her. Yet, → Hegel first gave the concept systematic application and made it the normative central category of his practical philosophy by linking to → Fichte’s considerations in his famed Foundations of Natural Law, though he accorded them an essentially greater significance. While Fichte started from the idea that the individual subject’s consciousness of law was due to the experience of acknowledgment by a counterpart, Hegel generalized this thesis into the claim that the constitution of self-consciousness as a whole is attributed to the experience of various forms of acknowledgment. There are three kinds of knowledge that Hegel begins to distinguish in this way very early on, and that he even maintains when, in his later legal philosophy, the theoretical framework of his argument is significantly altered. Love, as well as legal relationships, and finally relationships of citizens with one another should be understood as various forms of reciprocal acknowledgement corresponding to various types of moral duties. This gives rise to a series of impulses which can again be fruitful today for a moral theory that takes its point of departure from the normative conditions of human inter-subjectivity. L. Siep, Anerkennung als Prinzip der praktischen Philosophie, 1979 ◆ A. Honneth, Kampf um Anerkennung, 1992; ET: The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts, 1996. Axel Honneth

II. Dogmatics and Ethics In dogmatics, acknowledgment belongs to the concept of faith → Thomas Aquinas described as follows: “movetur . . . intellectus ad assentiendum his quae sunt fidei, ex imperio voluntatis” (Summa Theologiae I–II q.56 a.3). Thereby, faith becomes voluntary acknowledgment of true propositions; in relation, the moment of trust remains subordinate. In contrast, Luther identified fide with fiducia in order to limit an intellectualization of faith and an understanding of it as a human effort, and to describe it as a pure reception of divine grace. In principle, Melanchthon held to this position, but, in response to Catholic objections, integrated the moments of recognition and agreement into the concept of faith, although in relation at first to God’s promises, not to doctrinal propositions (Loci 1535, CR 21,422). Later, he approached the Catholic concept of faith

33 when he defined it as “Fiducia est motus in voluntate, necessario respondens assensione,” and he included in acknowledgment “omnium articulorum notitia” (Loci 1559, CR 21,751). Even though, as with Calvin (Inst. 1559, III 2.6, cf. 2.5), defense against the fides implicita is primarily in view, he had nonetheless thereby prepared for the orthodox concept of faith. While the FC still defined faith as fiducia atque agnitio divinae gratiae (SD IV, BSLK 941,12) and had previously described it as donum Dei (SD III, BSLK 917f. 11), all of orthodoxy placed within the concept of faith the intellectual moments of notitia and assenus before fiducia as its precondition (e.g. J. → Gerhard, Loci XVI, 67, ed. Frank, 1885, vol. III, 350). – After the difficulties in this concept of faith had become self-evident in the Enlightenment, → Schleiermacher differentiated religion or faith from every form of knowledge and volition and defined it as participation, imparted by grace, in Jesus’ consciousness of God (The Christian Faith, ET new ed. 1999, §108; cf. §3). With this, he defined all of free Protestant theology in the 19th century. Thus, A. → Ritschl expressly contrasted faith as confidence with the “acknowledgment of the correctness of communicated facts” and the “acceptance of truth propositions” (Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versöhnung, 31888, 97), and W. → Herrmann saw in the concept of faith as acknowledgement of doctrinal propositions an intellectual legalism (“Die Lage und Aufgabe der evangelischen Dogmatik,” in ThB 36/II, 16). In his return to the “objectivity” of faith, K. → Barth defined it as “acknowledgment, recognition, and confession” (KD IV/1, 839, 847) in relationship to the lordship of Jesus Christ (849f.). Acknowledgment is a person’s free obedience. Others, such as Gerhard Ebeling, insist, following Luther and Schleiermacher, on a more stringent distinction between faith as the gift of relationship with God and reflection about faith (Dogmatik des christlichen Glaubens, 1979, vol. I, 80–89, 106f.). In ethics one can distinguish between heteronomous commandment ethics, which requires obedience, and autonomous or theonomous deontological ethics, in which the issue is the acknowledgment of duties or also of norms or values; in the case of norms as variable entities, acknowledgment itself establishes their factual validity (Honecker, 219, 222). The precondition of a deontological ethics is the acknowledgment of the equality of all people before the ethical requirement. W. Korff, Norm und Sittlichkeit (1973) 1985 ◆ E. Gössmann & R. Slenczka, “Glaube V/VI,” TRE XIII, 1984, 308–365 ◆ M. Honecker, Einführung in die theologische Ethik, 1990. Dietz Lange

Acoemetae (Gk. ἀκοίμητοι, “the sleepless”) was the designation of a Byzantine monastic community

Acontius, Jacobus in Late Antiquity consisting of Greeks, Romans, and Syrians (originally also Copts), which came after 404 with its founder, Alexander (355–430), from Syria to Constantinople and lived, until its condemnation as → Messalian in 426/27, in the monastery of St. Menas. With the assistance of Patriarch Hypatios, the community continued to exist nonetheless, finally to experience its zenith under Marcellus (c. 448–484) in the Eirenaion monastery on the Bosporus; their good fortunes ended with renewed condemnation as Nestorians (→ Nestorian Controversy) in 534. Until c. 1204, only individual Acoemetae are known. The uniqueness of the Acoemetae was that choirs alternated in praising God in three languages, day and night. Despite their enormous influence on their contemporaries, their spiritual significance can only be appreciated indirectly, for example via the → Studites. Callinicos, Vie d’Hypatios, ed. G.J.M. Bartelink, SC 177, 1971 ◆ G. Dagron, “Les Moines et la ville,” TMCB 4, 1970, 229–276, esp. 235–237 ◆ A. Vööbus, History of Asceticism in the Syrian Orient II, 1960, 185–192. Susanna Elm

Acolyte. Section 65 of the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (41975) describes the primary function of an acolyte (Gk. ἀκολουθέω/akoloutheō, “accompany”; original function to accompany the bishop): “The acolyte is instituted to serve at the altar and to assist the priest and deacon.” “In particular it is for him. . . as a special minister of the eucharist, to give communion to the faithful.” Paragraph 70 emphasizes that “laymen, even if they have not received institution as ministers, may perform all the functions below those reserved to deacons.” The motu proprio Ministeria quaedam (May 15, 1972) emphasizes that the ministry of acolytes is based on the common priesthood of all the baptized. Institution of acolytes in the setting of a liturgical observance is provided for but not required. The presence of an acolyte is particularly important when the chalice is administered (→ Eucharist/Communion). F. Nikolasch, “Die Neuordnung der kirchlichen Dienste,” LJ 22, 1972, 169–182 ◆ G. Duffrer, “Ein geglücktes Experiment,” Gottesdienst 7, 1973, 137–140. Franz Nikolasch

Acontius, Jacobus (Giacomo; before 1515, Ossana, Val di Sole, or Trient – 1566/67, presumably London). After studying law and a period as notary (attested 1540 in Ossana and 1548 in Trient), Acontius entered the service of Count Giovanni Francesco Landriano and Cardinal C. → Madruzzo from 1549 to 1557. Because of his Protestant convictions, he fled in 1557 to Basel and Zurich, where he made the acquaintance of B. → Ochino, C.S. → Curione, and perhaps S. → Castellio. Thereafter, he moved to Strasbourg and in 1559 on to England, where he was active as a fortification engineer. Here Acontius

Acosta, José de was a proponent of tolerance toward the → Baptists, for example, which brought him an only partially effective excommunication by bishop E. → Grindal. Acontius, whose writings have not all been preserved, composed – in addition to a logical method, an introduction to reading histories, and a treatise concerning city fortifications – many religious tractates, of which the “Satanae Stratagemata” (Basel 1565) was the most important. In it, with the aid of a biblically-based reduction of dogma, he grounded toleration for religiously divergent groups on a few fundamental articles essential for salvation and the plea for tolerance toward those who do not violate these dogmas, and warned against the execution of heretics by the secular authorities. His ideas, important for the history of → tolerance and intolerance, were influential primarily in England and the Netherlands. D. Cantimori, DBI I, 1960, 154–159 ◆ E. Hassinger, TRE I, 1977, 402–407 ◆ VD16 1, 1983, 27–28 ◆ L. Girard, “L’itinéraire intellectuel de Giacomo Aconcio,” RSPhTh 67, 1983, 531–552 ◆ D. Gutzen, Die deutsche Literatur. Biographisches und bibliographisches Lexikon II, 1, 1991, 99–110 ◆ A.G. Kinder, “Jacobus Acontius,” BiDi 16, 1994, 55–117. Heribert Smolinsky

Acosta, José de (Oct 9, 1540, Medina del Campo – Feb 5, 1600, Salamanca) entered the order of the → Jesuits in 1552, and went as a missionary to → Peru, in 1572 was provincial there (1576–1581), and participated as theologian in the 3rd Council of Lima in 1582 (→ Lima, Provincial Councils); he was the co-author of a trilingual catechism. In 1587, he returned to Spain via Mexico, was active there and in Rome in diplomacy and writing, and died as rector of the college of Salamanca. His accomplishments include the organization of the mission in Peru, an influential theory of mission (De procuranda Indorum salute, 1588, in 2 vols. 1984/87), as well as a description of America’s natural and cultural history (Historia natural y moral de las Indias, 1591, repr. 1979). Works include: Obras, ed. F. Mateos, 1954 ◆ Bibl.: L. Lopetegui, El Padre José de Acosta y las misiones, 1942 ◆ M. Sievernich, “Vision und Mission der Neuen Welt Amerika bei José de Acosta,” in Ignatianisch, ed. M. Sievernich & G. Switek, 1990, 293–313. Michael Sievernich

Acquoy, Johannes Gerhardus Rijk ( Jan 3, 1829, Amsterdam – Dec 15, 1896, Leiden). Theological studies in Amsterdam 1850; doctorate Leiden, 1857. Teacher of Hebrew at Amsterdam grammar school, 1854–1857. Pastor in Eerbeek, Koog aan de Zaan, and Zaltbommel. Church professor of church history and practical theology at Leiden from 1878. University professor of church history and historical theology, 1881–1896. Acquoy is important not only for church history but also for hymnology. His publications dealt with medieval sacred song, the melodies of the Geneva Psalter, and the discovery of five important 16th-century Dutch hym-

34 nals. He was one of the most significant defenders of the introduction of rhythm in congregational singing. Works include: “Gerardi Magni epistolae XIV,” diss., 1857 ◆ Het klooster te Windesheim en zijne invloed, 1875–1880. Jan R. Luth

Acrostic. Word, name, clause, or alphabet consisting of the initial letters (syllables, words) of sequential verses or strophes of a poem. Acrostics have Eastern roots (for instance Hymnos Akathistos, including the alphabetic acrostics in the OT and in Latin hymns). They originally had magical, mnemonic and protective significance. They were a literary art form in the Middle Ages and in the Baroque period, also in hymns; for example, EG 523 (names of authors), 525 (commemorative names), 70, 147, 367 (dedicatory initials), 242, 361, 402 (proverb, motto). A. Kadelbach, “Das Akrostichon im Kirchenlied: Typologie und Deutungsansätze,” JLH 36, 1996/97, 175–207. Ada Kadelbach

Act and Potency I. Philosophy – II. Philosophy of Religion

I. Philosophy Act and potency (actus, realization, reality – potentia, predisposition, possibility), one of the pairs of concepts introduced by → Aristotle. It is intended to do justice to the circumstance that not only that which actually exists belongs to the category of being as a whole, but also the sphere of tendencies, dispositions, and capacities that relate to something which is itself not or not yet a reality, but which may become one. The distinction between what is real and what is only potential and thus the assumption of a region lying between being and non-being belongs to the irreducible constants of human orientation in the world; many, perhaps all, of the natural languages take it into account, often through modal auxiliary verbs and structural elements such as conjunctives and optatives, but also through adverbs, verbal adjectives, and particles. The concept-pair actuality and potentiality (A&P) permits the thematization of such structures; at the same time, it offers a framework for the conceptual comprehension of movements, changes, and actions that one usually experiences as irreversible in the everyday human world and therefore interprets in a teleonomous way, i.e. from the perspective of their results. The logical concept of possibility does not fall under the semantic range of the A&P concept pair; it applies to anything that is unobjectionably conceivable. Aristotle developed the doctrine of A&P in the Metaphysics (Book IX). The concept of potentiality in the broader sense designates a natural or acquired capacity to produce or experience alterations. It effects

35 the transition to action when it becomes active or when a corresponding activity affects it. Unreasonable potentialities always operate in one direction only, as does the fire which can only warm but never cool; rational potentialities are assigned alternatives such as, for example, the art of healing which can bring about health, but, in principle, also illness. – A narrower sense of A&P does not relate to activities and changes, but to modes of being; it permits the distinction between what really is and what is potential: At first, the real statue potentially exists in the block of marble from which it is carved. Both in a logical and a chronological perspective, that which really exists takes presedence over that which potentially exists, as only the direct observation of an act allows one to determine what something may potentially become, and because there must already exist something real in order to transform potential existence into reality. In this sense, the contrast between A&P determines everything which is finite and subject to movement. Because the material of an object is potentially what can be made from it, the concepts of form and material are analogous to the conceptual pair A&P. At first, the Aristotelian doctrine of A&P had rather modest consequences in the philosophy of antiquity. → Neoplatonism was the first to take it up again, albeit in an altered form. → Plotinus dedicated a monograph (Enneade II 5) to the concept-pair. He gave precedence to potentiality by characterizing oneness as the highest principle in terms of a pure potentiality that represents the origin and possibility of everything. Its realization, by contrast, was attributed by him to the secondary level of the spirit. A long-enduring effective history is associated with the doctrine of A&P following the reception of Aristotelian philosophy by the scholasticism of the High Middle Ages. In the modern era, the significance of the concepts of A&P has declined in proportion to the extent in which philosophy as well as the upcoming natural sciences, have distanced themselves from teleonomous explanation models. Meanwhile, they are present, often under other names, wherever direct (G.W. → Leibniz, → F.W. Schelling, G.W.F. → Hegel, M. → Heidegger) or indirect (A.N. → Whitehead → Neo-Thomism) references to Aristotelian philosophy are made. L. Fuetscher, Akt und Potenz, 1933 ◆ J. Stallmach, Dynamis und Energeia: Untersuchungen am Werk des Aristoteles zur Problemgeschichte von Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit, MPF 21, 1959 ◆ H. Deku, “Possibile Logicum,” in: idem, Wahrheit und Unwahrheit der Tradition, W. Beierwaltes, ed., 1986, 27–46 ◆ M. Heidegger, “Aristoteles, Metaphysik,” Θ 1–3, in: Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. XXXIII, 21990 ◆ O. Schwemmer, EPhW I, 1995, 59–61 (bibl.) ◆ C. Rapp, ed., Aristoteles, Metaphysik: Die Substanzbücher (Z, H, Θ), Klassiker auslegen, vol. IV, 1996. Wolfgang Wieland

Act and Potency II. Philosophy of Religion The Aristotelian concepts of A&P played a significant role in western philosophy and theology. → Scholasticism employed them in discussions concerning God and nature as well as in those concerning the soul and its capacities, with the reservation that they neither formally nor substantially represent an adequate theory of possibility. A related field for theological usage of the concepts of A&P is the question regarding human capacities and their natural or supernatural activation in the formation of the theological → virtues; → Thomas Aquinas found a locus for miracles in Aristotelian natural philosophy, namely on the basis of the postulate that all creatures have the passive potentiality to be moved by a particular supernatural influence (potentia oboediantialis). There are no unrealized potentialities in the Aristotelian deity. Because the → unmoved mover is immutable, they would only ever exist as mere potentialities, a situation which Aristotle considered to be impossible (Metaph. XII 7). His argument for the necessity of ever-existent being which is based on this conception was used by Thomas Aquinas in his third proof of God. The scholastic doctrine of God as pure actuality (actus purus) without the least determinability further developed the Aristotelian and neoplatonic notion of the first being as the highest actuality, a position that was also widely adopted in modern theology and theistic philosophy (→Theism). Not only the pantheists and panentheists (→ Pantheism; → Panentheism), but also several conservative theologians have criticized the idea as an inappropriate philosophical abstraction. According to Aristotle, the potentialities realized in nature and the separate substances represent all the forms in which being may appear. This was the dominant way of thinking in the philosophy of antiquity. According to Christian theology, God created the world and time from nothing. → Augustine emphasized that God freely chose the world and that it could also have been otherwise. Only the principle of contradiction limits divine omnipotence and the possibilities that it may bring to realization. These originally theological ideas contributed to the formation of the new modal semantics that were worked out in the late Middle Ages and in which the concept of logical possibility was primary. Since divine omnipotence was understood as a realizing potentiality, it became possible to ask whether the realizable possibilities had an ontological basis in the divine being (e.g. Thomas Aquinas), whether they were preconditions of being which were independent of God ( J. → Duns Scotus; William of → Occam), or whether even the possibilities were devised by God (R. → Descartes). These are the chief alternatives of theistic modal metaphysics.

Action J. Aertsen, Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas’ Way of Thought, 1988 ◆ L. Honnefelder, Scientia transcendens, 1990 ◆ S. Knuuttila, Modalities in Medieval Philosophy, 1993. Simo Knuuttila

Action I. Philosophy – II. Theology – III. Ethics – IV. Practical Theology

I. Philosophy The concept of action is of central importance for philosophical ethics and anthropology. It is closely related to the concept of → person, since persons are the subjects of action and cognition (the latter always itself an action, since it necessarily involves judgment). We may distinguish several forms of action: external and internal, autonomous and heteronomous, free and unfree. Common usage, however, suggests that we understand “action” as referring only to action that is external, autonomous, and free. Of course we also speak of action under duress, which is neither free nor autonomous. But the essential connotation of “action” is that of a sovereign intervention in the course of the external world. Action was already a philosophical topic in classical Greek philosophy; as an active shaping of society, history, and the natural world, it also came to play an important role in the philosophy of the modern era, insofar as this philosophy adopts the sovereign subject as a premise. But the philosophical significance of action becomes increasingly peripheral when this premise becomes increasingly problematic, as has been the case from the middle of the 19th century to the present. Finally, should the naturalization of the human person succeed – a project being pursued by many scientists and philosophers – there would be no place for action in the traditional sense, since there would no longer be a place for sovereign subjects of action. It is still not clear, however, whether it is possible to describe human persons strictly from the perspective of natural science. I. Thalberg, Enigmas of Agency: Studies in the Philosophy of Human Action, 1972 ◆ E. Runggaldier, Was sind Handlungen?, 1996 ◆ U. Meixner, “Die Ersetzung der Substanzontologie durch die Ereignisontologie und deren Folgen für das Selbstverständnis des Menschen,” in: R. Hüntelmann, ed., Wirklichkeit und Sinnerfahrung, 1998, 87–103. Uwe Meixner

II. Theology Clarification of how → God’s action and human action differ and how they are related is the task of theological analysis of the concept of action. Action can be defined by saying that persons A as a necessary condition bring about an event B on the basis of knowledge C according to certain rules D for a particular goal E. Human action is a fundamental anthropological concept, since personality can be defined by the concept of action if events

36 are traced to intentions, thus distinguishing action from behavior resulting from stimulus-response mechanisms and effects based on causality. The concept of intention is characterized by a relative → freedom in the choice of goals, both restricted and at the same time enabled by factors constitutive of the concept of action but not directly under the control of the agent: the affective disposition and cultural background of the person A. the event structure of the world B that precedes the action; the knowledge C available to the person, comprising empirical factual knowledge as well as ideological and religious certainties; the norms and values subsumed under the rules D; and the realistic future possibilities from which the goal E may be chosen. All these elements derive ultimately from the action of God; here the structure of ideological certainties, of → faith as trust (→ Fiducia), plays a special role, since faith is the locus where the other elements come together. Faith, generated outwardly by proclamation of the word and inwardly by the action of the Holy Sprit (the internal witness), is a gift to the actor, enabling him to act. The actor is enabled to choose realistic goals on the basis of an appropriate affective impetus and a correct grasp of the situation, as well as suitable values and norms. Thus the differences and similarities between the action of God and human action, as comprehended in the doctrine of → justification, correspond to the relationship between faith and works. This ability to act, established through faith by the action of God, does not guarantee that the intended outcome will come to pass, since human action in faith is a necessary but not sufficient condition for an event to occur. The thematization of a specific personal constitution, of norms and values, and of a correct choice of goals are objects of ethical analysis in a doctrine of virtues, duties, and goods. A deeper theological analysis can subsume both human and divine action univocally under a single uniform concept of action. W. Härle & R. Preul, eds., Vom Handeln Gottes, MJTh 1, 1987 ◆ C. Schwöbel, God: Action and Revelation, 1992. Markus Mühling-Schlapkohl

III. Ethics “Action” denotes the behavior of persons in contrast to that of nonpersonal individuals. All such behavior takes place in the ongoing intramundane present of an individual as a selective translation of one possibility of that individual’s potential future into the sphere of his actual past, which is increasingly determined by this behavior. Action is involved when a choice is made not only for the behaving individual but also by him. This is possible only when this individual’s present is accessible to him as the present of the initiator of all possible choices open to him. This accessibility precedes every personal choice made by the individual. It constitutes the actional

37 present of the choice and is therefore manifest as the immediate, actual, inescapable, and (for the particular choice!) absolute → certainty that action is required. All the effects of the action enter into the duration of this certainty. Consequently a relative certainty arises secondarily on the foundation of the absolute certainty. Action is therefore always grounded in the absolute and relative self-certainty of the actor. It is self-consciously free (an exercise of “causality arising from freedom” [I. → Kant; → Causality]) and is responsible for all choice that is required by virtue of the actional present, in the eyes of all the authorities to which the actor is responsible in the actional present. 1. Demands for action arise from future possibilities, among which the initiator of the action must choose in the actional present. Action chooses (always simultaneously): (a) – directly and inclusively – possibilities open to the initiator of the action, including (b) whether or not to recognize the absolutely predetermined certainty of the duration of the actional present, which outlives all implicit becoming, (c) discerning reflection on or formative intervention in it, (d) in either case a goal (of knowledge or formation), (e) rules of choice (rules of action) necessary for achieving the goal, (f ) predictable intermediate goals and their interrelationship (plans of action), (g) continuation, alteration, or termination of the pursuit of a plan, and (h) individual actions, consistent with the rules and plan, that are directed toward the goal. The actional present makes action possible, but at the same time subjects it to predetermined conditions, restrictions. These include the increasing empirical particularity of a person’s actional present and its ongoing particularities: (a) the physical, psychological (affective and mental), and social situation of the actor (conditions that have come to be out of individual becoming), (b) the ethos and technical power of the social environment (conditions that have come to be out of collective becoming), (c) the state of the world (conditions that have come to be out of becoming in the world), (d) the ongoing transmundane conditions of the ongoing world in its transcendental particularity, predetermined for everything that takes place within it. These restrictions imply that action can choose only among possibilities that associate the actor with like actors, can only be inter-action. This shared action is made possible by implicit agreement, based on shared existence, concerning (a) the kinds of choices to be made and (b) the possibility and necessity of seeking and maintaining explicit agreement concerning them. It constitutes social systems which can only figuratively be said to act but nevertheless condition the action of all individuals. Thus restricted, action displays three aspects, all

Action equally primary: → consequence, obligation, and manifestation of the actor’s competence (virtue). Action is also responsible for the knowledge and observance of its restrictions. 2. The tribunals to which action is responsible are also determined by the constitution of the actional present. Action is responsible to the actor, other actors, and the transmundane ground of the intramundane actional present (God). This presupposes criteria of preferability: (a) preferable in the eyes of God is action that accords with the original determination of life in the personal actional present; (b) preferable in the eyes of the actor is action that makes the most important contribution to achieving his avowed life goal; and (c) preferable in the eyes of others is action that accords with the commonly recognized goals and rules of life together. Only (a) is predetermined for all action; therefore the criterion of preferability is also predetermined for the personal (b) and social (c) norms that are themselves grounded in action (individual choice). In the social context, of course, these norms are initially controversial and can be applied only after and on the basis of ongoing efforts to reach agreement. Insofar as such an agreement is reached, action also takes place as interaction within an → ethos. The constitution of the actional present also means that action includes reflection on its responsibility within its ethos. This reflection in the form of systematic theorization is what we call → ethics. It thematizes action in each of its aspects grounded in the constitution of the actional present. T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action, 2 vols., 1937 ◆ A.R. White, ed., The Philosophy of Action, 1968 ◆ R. Bubner, Handlung, Sprache und Vernunft, 1976 ◆ G. Meggle & A. Beckermann, eds., Analytische Handlungstheorie, 2 vols., 1977 ◆ H. Lenk, ed., Handlungstheorien interdisziplinär, 4 vols., 1977– 1984 ◆ J. Habermas, Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, 2 vols., 1981 ◆ N. Luhmann, Soziologische Aufklärung, vol. III, 1981 ◆ C. Taylor, “What is Human Agency?” in: idem, Philosophical Papers, vol. I, 1985, 15–44 ◆ E. Herms, Gesellschaft gestalten, 1991. Eilert Herms

IV. Practical Theology The concept of action has played an important role in the theory of practical theology since its appearance as an academic discipline at the beginning of the 19th century. The types of action identified on a theoretical level by F. → Schleiermacher in his Christliche Sitte (effective action, purgative or restorative, and representative action) have remained influential to the present day. He uses these types to categorize situations and realms of action. Church action is one of the fields in which the ethical action of the individual Christian must prove its worth. More recently, the types proposed by Habermas – goaloriented, teleological, strategic action versus understanding-oriented, communicative action, have found a place

Action, Philosophy of in comprehensive treatises on practical theology as well as in individual monographs. Theories of practical theology as a discipline concerned with action arose at the end of the 1960s; they use the term in the sense of a sociological theory of action or without further definition. Recently there have been renewed attempts to address the concept of action from a theoretical perspective. F. Schleiermacher, Die christliche Sitte, ed. L. Jonas, 1843, 30– 81 ◆ J. Habermas, Vorstudien und Ergänzungen zur Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, 1984, 571–606 ◆ D. Browning, A Fundamental Practical Theology, 1991 ◆ G. Heitink, Praktische Theologie, 1993; ET: Practical Theology, 1999 ◆ H. Haslinger, “Die wissenschaftstheoretische Frage nach der Praxis,” in: Handbuch praktischer Theologie, ed. H. Haslinger & C. BundschuhSchramm, vol. I, 1999, 102–122. Karl-Fritz Daiber

Action, Philosophy of. Several empirical disciplines (especially psychology and sociology) deal in different ways with the theory of action. Their approaches often do not distinguish sharply between mere behavior and action in the strict sense. The philosophy of action, on the other hand, is concerned to explicate the concept of action particularly in contrast to mere behavior. The following basic principles apply: (1) actions are intentional behaviors on the part of a → person ; (2) actions are behaviors that the person could have refrained from doing; (3) actions are behaviors that the person causes independently. These three basic principles of the philosophy of action are independent of each other: none of the three principles implies or excludes either of the others. This independence allows what is probably the most satisfactory solution, framing a maximal concept of action by combining the three principles: actions are intentional behaviors of a person that the person independently causes and could have refrained from producing. Common to all three principles is the notion that only behaviors of persons count as actions; they differ in that (1) and (3) yield a compatibilist concept of action, whereas (2) yields an incompatibilist concept. In other words, (1) and (3) allow that there could be actions even if the world were ruled by consistent determinism (if everything that takes place were to take place by → necessity); determinism contradicts (2), which states that actions are eo ipso optional. Because (1) and (3) allow the existence of actions to be compatible with determinism, they represent interpretations of the concept of action that are metaphysically more neutral than (2), according to which the mere existence of actions implies the existence of freedom in the sense of freedom of choice, liberum arbitrium (→ Free Will). But at present concepts of action that include (2) as a defining criterion are still dominant in our society (e.g. in jurisprudence). There are other themes for the philosophy of action to address: Are there explanations for actions? What is the ontological status of actions? (Actions are

38 events, but how should events be categorized ontologically?) Can the actions of a group be reduced to the actions of its members or do they represent a distinct category? A.R. White, ed., The Philosophy of Action, 1968 ◆ C.J. Moya, The Philosophy of Action, 1990 ◆ E. Runggaldier, Was sind Handlungen? 1996. Uwe Meixner

Action, Science of (Handlungswissenschaft) I. Terminology – II. Social Sciences – III. Practical Theology

I. Terminology From the 18th century on, the German term Handlungswissenschaft denoted the study of → trade (Handel). It thus came to represent one of the precursors of modern economics. Nowadays it has this meaning only in historical contexts. Its present-day usage refers to the disciplines that deal with action in the broadest sense, from trade through → pedagogy to → psychology, → sociology, and → political science. Its new usage emerged from discussion of the mission of the German → universities in the 1960s and the related debate over the reform of academic study. H. → Schelsky pointed out problems in the traditional division of academic study into the → natural sciences and the → humanities and proposed a new third field of study, which he called “social sciences.” At the same time, he pointed out that the humanities had evolved into the historical study of culture (210–214). This classification, however, has not gained general acceptance. II. Social Sciences As a rule, the term is employed to characterize some of the social sciences. Often this usage is not scientifically precise. Precision is best achieved by a more restrictive qualification of “action science”: in psychology to distinguish it from behavioristic concepts, in sociology in the sense of structural functionalism in the manner of T. → Parsons, combining → action philosphy and → system theory, or by reverting to → critical theory or the theory of communicative action in the sense of Jürgen Habermas. A theoretical perspective limited to a single position shifts the focus away from scientific “action research.” III. Practical Theology “Social action research” first became a topic of theological discussion in the early 1960s, in the context of debate over curriculum reform. This discussion sought primarily to increase the openness of → theology to the → social sciences. The demands of that period were set amid a variety of efforts to address the current situation, especially in → homiletics, → pastoral theology, and catechetics (→ catechesis). G. → Krause and H. Schröer made an initial attempt to understand → practical theology as action research. The theoretical underpinnings were established

39 later, mostly after the mid-1970s, through the efforts of both Catholic and Protestant practical theologians. Despite dissenting voices, the concept of action research achieved a relatively broad consensus within the discipline. The primary impetus was emphasis on the autonomy of practical theology vis-à-vis systematic theology, coupled with an inductive and situational approach to problem solving. The practical theologians also realized that understanding social and individual reality required interdisciplinary cooperation with the social sciences. Finally, there was hope of reinforcing the functions of theology in general as a guide to action. The role of action research in criticizing current church practice was emphasized. The movement for → church reform of the 60s and early 70s also stood in the background of the discussion. Scholars working in the field of action research often approach it differently. Zerfass is particularly interested in the theoretical relationship between theology and action research and follows the lead of the American theologian S. → Hiltner. Otto approaches action research from the perspective of critical theory. Daiber operates on the basis of → critical rationalism. The majority of science-of-action approaches are devoted to the interests of pastoral work within the church. The vagueness of the boundary between action research and pastoral theology has led to criticism of the concepts of action research. Theoretical approaches focusing on the subject have attempted to overcome this weakness. A second source of criticism has to do with the distance between action research and classical concerns, especially on the part of systematic theology. One particular variant of the science of action has been developed in the context of → social welfare theory and expanded to include ecclesiastical leadership ( Jäger). Last but not least, it is clear that action research seeks to make it possible to ground theological praxis in reality. On I and II: J.M. Leuchs, Allgemeine Darstellung der Handlungswissenschaft, 1791, repr. 1979 ◆ H. Schelsky, Einsamkeit und Freiheit, 1963, 21971 ◆ M. Dechmann, Soziologie als Handlungswissenschaft, 1976 ◆ H. Steinmann, Betriebswirtschaftslehre als normative Handlungswissenschaft, 1978 ◆ R. Fuchs, Psychologie als Handlungswissenschaft, 1995 ◆ A. Balog & M. Gabriel, eds., Soziologische Handlungstheorie: Einheit oder Vielfalt, ÖZS Suppl. vol. IV, 1998 ◆ III: W. Hermann & G. Lautner, Theologiestudium: Entwurf einer Reform, 1965 ◆ G. Krause, “Probleme der praktischen Theologie im Rahmen der Studienreform, 1967,” in: idem, ed., Praktische Theologie, 1972, 418–444 ◆ H. Schröer, “Inventur der Praktischen Theologie 1969, with suppl. 1970,” in: ibid., 445–459 ◆ R. Zerfass, “Praktischen Theologie als Handlungswissenschaft,” in: F. Klostermann & R. Zerfass, eds., Praktische Theologie heute, 1974, 164–177 ◆ Praktischtheologisches Handbuch, ed. G. Otto, 21975 ◆ H. Peukert, Wissenschaftstheorie, Handlungstheorie, Fundamentale Theologie, 1976; ET: Science, Action and Fundamental Theology, 1986 ◆ K.-F. Daiber, Grundriß der Praktischen Theologie als Handlungswissenschaft, 1977 ◆ N. Mette, Theorie der Praxis, 1978 ◆ A. Jäger, Diakonie als christliches Unternehmen, 1986, 41993 ◆ G. Otto, Grundlegung der Praktischen Theologie, 1986 ◆ J. van der Ven & B. Schultz, Entwurf einer empirischen Theologie, 1990;

Action, Types of ET: Practical Theology: an Empirical Approach, 1993 ◆ A. Jäger, Konzepte der Kirchenleitung für die Zukunft: wirtschaftsethische Analysen und theologische Perspektiven, 1993 ◆ K.-F. Daiber, Religion in Kirche und Gesellschaft, 1997 ◆ H. Schröer, “Praktische Theologie,” TRE XXVII, 1997, 190–220 ◆ C. Grethlein & M. Meyer-Blanck, eds., Geschichte der Praktischen Theologie, 1999 ◆ G. Heitink, Practical Theology, 1999 ◆ Handbuch Praktische Theologie, ed. H. Haslinger & C. Bundschuh-Schramm, 2 vols., 1999–2000. Karl-Fritz Daiber

Action, Types of. In his Philosophical Ethics, F. → Schleiermacher distinguished between “symbolizing action” and “organizing action”; in his Christliche Sitte, he further distinguished “representative” and “effective” action, as well as “purgative” and “broadening action.” Habermas, in his recent Theory of Communicative Action, uses analogous language to indicate the difference between teleological, strategic, norm-based, dramaturgical, and communicative action. Both authors point – independently – to the same basic phenomenon: The possibility condition of → action – in the actional present of persons, constituted through self-disclosure – establishes not only the viewpoints for distinguishing the various types of objects of choice open to action (tasks), the systematic cluster of its restrictions, of its constitutive aspects (actualization of its author’s potential [virtue], following rules [duty], and determination of a consequential effect [of a good]), but also the viewpoint for distinguishing types of action themselves. This difference concerns the various possible ways in which action intentionally perceives its relationship to the world in which it stands by virtue of the actional present that both enables and requires it, namely – with “world” understood in each instance as the sphere of ongoing common conditions for a multiplicity of different event complexes – its relationship to the world of its personal life within the social world of its common life with others in a specific “we,” within the cosmic universe in which all possible “we”s coexist. Every instance of action focuses intentionally on various aspects of this complex relationship to the world. What Schleiermacher calls “effective action” intends its effect within the world, “organizing action” intends effectively to appropriate the world, “symbolizing action” intends to acquire a personal and common set of instruments to describe the world, “representative action” intends a mutual presentation of how the members of a community relate to each other, “broadening action” intends expansion of the community, and “purgative action” intends the elimination of whatever disrupts the community. Habermas’s “teleological” action also intends its effect within the world, “strategic” action intends its effect in the common world, “norm-based” action intends fulfillment of justified expectations within a socially accepted set of rules, “dramaturgical” action intends the representation of how individuals relate to each other, and “communicative” action

Activity and Passivity intends the establishment and continuation of understanding. In each instance, the different intentions shape the claim, the achievement, and the fulfillment conditions of the action differently, but they do not divorce it from the overall context of its relationship to the world. Unintended aspects of the action’s relationship to the world are also present: “organizing” action is implicitly “symbolizing,” “communicative” implicitly “teleological,” etc. The difference between action types makes possible the functional differentiation of interaction orders. F.D.E. Schleiermacher, Entwürfe zu einem System der Sittenlehre, in: O. Braun & J. Bauer, eds., F.D.E. Schleiermacher, Werke: Auswahl in vier Bänden, vol. II, 1913 ◆ idem, Die christliche Sitte, Sämtliche Werke, vol. I/12, 1843 ◆ J. Habermas, Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, 2 vols., 1981; ET: The Theory of Communicative Action, repr. 1985. Eilert Herms

Activity and Passivity I. Philosophy of Religion and Fundamental Theology – II. Dogmatics

I. Philosophy of Religion and Fundamental Theology From the perspective of fundamental theology, the relationship between activity and passivity thematizes the constitution of the christian certainty of Dasein. Its theoretical description in terms of consciousness or personhood must be examined for its ontological presuppositions and understood within their framework. Only in the framework of an ontological understanding of activity and passivity (1) does this theoretical understanding of personhood find its true place (2). 1. Activity is the attribute of entities at work in → processes (I) where it is the sufficient condition for individual events to occur and/or regularities to appear (for the act of selective realization of a particular event and/or a regularity of events from the epitome of all that are equally possible), which determine the situation within the process and thus all entities participating in this situation as well. Passivity is the corresponding attribute of entities determined by the appearance of events and/or regularities, whose sufficient condition it and/or other entities may be. Activity and passivity always appear together. They are inherent in all entities at work in processes: impersonal and personal, entities with a finite and an infinite range of possibilities. To personal entities the epitome of the voluntary acts they can carry out is apparent (present) as the epitome of the selections they must carry out in the light of this appearance, and are therefore all intentional. Because they are so constituted, personal entities realize not only individual events – as do impersonal entities – but also rules governing multiple events and potential total situations of their Dasein. – An infinite range of selection char-

40 acterizes an entity whose domain of possible autonomous choices is determined solely by its own acts of selection, quantitatively inexhaustible and qualitatively unlimited; they befit only a personal entity, and only the creator (→ Creation: VI) (WA 18, 616, 2–5). The creator also possesses both activity and passivity. But his passivity – including passivity with respect to the created world (→ Creatureliness) – is determined exclusively by his own activity. Impersonal creatures are also characterized by both activity and activity. But their activity is determined solely by their passivity with respect to other impersonal and finite personal entities, and ultimately with respect to the creator. In the case of finite persons, the first truth is that their activity is determined and limited by their passivity, originally with respect to the activity of the creator – and thus implicitly with respect to the activity of other finite persons and impersonal entities. But in this context it is also true that their passivity is determined by their own activity, inasmuch as it helps determine the range of possibilities of their passivity with respect to the activity of other finite persons and impersonal entities. – For finite persons, then, the creator, created impersonal entities, and the persons themselves and their equals are all present from the outset in the process of creation, but distinguished by the systematic difference of the relationship between activity and passivity. 2. The being of finite persons (as being determined to self-determination and determination of the world) is defined as the relationship (c) of two relationships of their activity: on the one hand their passivity with respect to the activity of the creator (a), on the other their passivity with respect to finite entities (themselves and the world they inhabit) (b). a. The first is radical and constitutive of personhood; it institutes the domain of activity of finite persons, including all their conditioned possibilities, and thus also the immediate self-presence of finite persons, which determines their self-determination and determination of the world. With respect to it, the activity of persons is limited to representational acts. b. The second is implicit in the first. It constitutes the epitome of the restrictions that limit and define the activity of finite persons that presents (and thus realizes) their total scope; it is thus universal, but only relative. c. Because the relative passivity of finite persons is established by their radical passivity, their activity, by relating to their relative passivity, is necessarily related to their radical passivity, and their activity can relate to their radical passivity only by relating to their relative passivity. How the activity of finite persons relates to their radical passivity in its relationship to their relative passivity depends on how the self-presence of the persons is determined at any given moment, grounded in their radical passivity, which sublates all the effects of their activity grounded in their relative passivity.

41 M. Luther, De servo arbitrio, 1525 (WA 18, 1908, repr. 1964, 600–787) ◆ F.D.E. Schleiermacher, Der christliche Glaube, vol. I, 21830, new ed. 71960, 3–6 ◆ L. Landgrebe, “Das Problem der passiven Konstitution,” in: idem, Faktizität und Individuation, 1982, 71–87 ◆ E. Herms, “Meine Zeit in Gottes Händen,” in: K. Stock, ed., Zeit und Schöpfung, 1997, 67–90 ◆ idem, “Prozeß und Zeit,” in: M. Laarmann & T. Trappe, eds., Erfahrung – Geschichte – Identität, FS R. Schäffler, 1997, 281–306. Eilert Herms

II. Dogmatics The approach of dogmatics to activity and passivity involves the Christian understanding of God, human beings, and the impersonal created world – in themselves and in their mutual relationship – in all aspects where activity or passivity plays a role. Therefore the theological question of activity/passivity cannot be limited to an isolated domain of dogmatics; it is an aspect of the Christian understanding of reality that permeates the whole of dogmatics. Nevertheless there are areas where the relationship between activity and passivity is concentrated and controversial. These include: the relationship between creator and creature in the process of creating and preserving the world; divine and human activity and passivity with regard to the reality of → sin (VII); the ability of human beings to accept or reject → salvation (III); the role of human passivity or activity in hearing the → proclamation (II) of God’s word and receiving the → sacrament (II); and the relationship between human and divine activity and passivity in the context of → prayer (VIII). The fundamental dilemma may be stated as follows: Either human beings are accorded activity independent of God, which appears to call God’s divinity into question, or human beings are declared purely passive in relationship to God, which calls into question human personhood (and hence human → responsibility). Both errors – → synergism (I) and → determinism (II) – can be avoided if “activity” and “passivity” are understood as “determining” and “determined,” and if the following principles, put forward under I, are taken as the basis for defining their relationship. 1. Activity and passivity always appear together. 2. They are inherent in all entities, finite and non-finite, impersonal and personal. 3. The passivity of God is determined solely by God’s own activity. 4. The activity of the creature (like its passivity) is limited and determined by the activity of God. It follows that the activity of God directly includes God’s passivity (as selfdetermination), that as self-determination of the creator it indirectly includes the creator’s passivity in relationship to creatures, and thus as self-determination of the creator of personal creatures indirectly includes the creator’s passivity in relationship to acts of choice on the part of personal creatures. In each of these forms, nevertheless, God’s passivity is grounded entirely in God’s activity. These statements hold true equally in

Acton, Lord John Emerich Edward Dalberg relationship to the constitution of creaturely existence, the interruption of the power of sin, and the knowledge of reality that awakens faith because it brings assurance. An essential concern of the Christian faith, with regard to activity and passivity, is that creation, redemption, and sanctification are grounded solely in the activity of God and thus do not take place ex nihilo, but also that God’s activity simultaneously imputes activity to creatures and thus opens to them a domain in which to shape their lives (with individual responsibility). M. Luther, Von den guten Werken, 1520 (WA 6, 1888, repr. 1966, 204–276) ◆ Handeln Gottes, MJTh 1, 1987 ◆ Vorsehung und Handeln Gottes, QD 115, 1988, esp. 116–167 ◆ Glaube, MJTh 4, 1992 ◆ C. Schwöbel, God, 1992 ◆ W. Härle, Dogmatik, 1995, esp. 282–302 ◆ M. Seils, Glaube, HST 13, 1996. Wilfried Härle

Acton , Lord John Emerich Edward Dalberg ( Jan 10, 1834, Naples – Jun 19, 1902, Tegernsee), Roman Catholic layperson and historian. His openness to the world led him to Munich to study for six years with J.J.I.v. → Döllinger. From Döllinger he adopted a liberal attitude and a critical yet development-capable view of history. He learned to see Christianity, not as a collection of dogmas and institutions, but as a historical process whose claims are subject to change and which gradually reveals its true nature. He was of the opinion that historical experiences slowly bring institutions of all kinds closer to authentic expressions of their own character. The necessary condition for such a process is freedom to engage in critical investigation. By proposing progressive ideas he wanted to encourage the Catholic Church to open up to new intellectual streams. A brief parliamentary career (1859–1865) resulted in Acton’s close friendship with W.E. → Gladstone. But he first drew public attention with articles for English liberal Catholic journals. In 1858, he became co-owner of the monthly, Rambler, which appeared until 1862. When → Vatican I made the → infallibility of the Pope a dogma, he raised vigorous protest. When Gladstone’s The Vatican Decrees appeared in 1874, Acton differed, however, from his friend’s position. Gladstone saw in Roman Catholicism a danger to the English state, a view Acton rejected. Affirming his opposition to Rome’s views, Acton emphasized that the Catholic Church should not be identified with its hierarchy. As an idealist, Acton saw true Catholicism as the pledge of the institution of this church and its goal. He battled absolutism and dogma, but also fought for what he considered the essence of Catholicism. Although his position alienated him from the leadership of the English Catholic Church, Acton never wavered in his own sense of loyalty, nor was he excommunicated. Through his great erudition and his research, Acton gained reputation as a historian. In 1886, he sponsored

Acts of Andrew the famed English Historical Review. Furthermore, he was the first publisher of the Cambridge Modern History, although he did not contribute to it. In 1895, he was named the Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge. His inaugural lecture dealt with the themes of freedom and progressive development. Acton saw the modern world as liberated from its past and dependent on its critical capacities. Yet, he saw in divine influence the key for distinguishing between good and evil in social experience. G. Himmelfarb, Lord Acton, 1952 ◆ L. Kochan, Acton on History, 1954 ◆ J.L. Altholz, The Conscience of Lord Acton, 1970 ◆ R. Mill, Lord Acton, 2000. William L. Sachs

Acts of Andrew (Acts And.). The Acts of Andrew recounts the missionary journeys of the apostle → Andrew from Pontus to Achaia. The theme of his preaching, which is accompanied by healings and exorcisms, is a world-denying and ascetic form of Christianity. His conversion of Maximilla, the wife of the Roman governor Aegeas, enrages the latter. Facing crucifixion at Patras, he sings the praises of the cross. The last paragraph shows the initiatory character of the work, the first part of which is lost (but see the recent reconstructions). Many versions of the martyrdom are extant. The work is first mentioned in Manichaean hymns and the early fathers (→ Eusebius of Caesarea, → Epiphanius of Salamis, Philastrius of Brescia, etc.). NTApo II, 51989, 93–137 ◆ J.-M. Prieur, Acta Andreae, 2 vols., CChr.SA 5–6, 1989 ◆ D. MacDonald, The Acts of Andrew and the Acts of Andrew and Matthias in the City of the Cannibals, SBL. CA 1, 1990 ◆ J.-M. Prieur, Actes de l’apôtre André, Apocryphes 7, 1995. François Bovon

Acts of John → John, Acts of Acts of Paul (Acts Paul ). As with most → apocryphal acts of the apostles, the text of the Acts Paul is also only preserved in fragments. Its content, → Paul’s missionary activity, depicted in the form of only a single journey from Damascus via numerous intermediate stations in Asia Minor, Macedonia and Greece, etc. to Rome accompanied by equally numerous miracles, can be reconstructed primarily with the aid of two papyri, a Greek (PH) and a Coptic (PHeid), although significant lacunae remain (NTApo II, 198–211). Only three texts (already independently transmitted quite early on) are better transmitted: in addition to the Martyrdom of the Apostle (Mart. Paul), these include the Acta Pauli et Theclae (Acts Paul Thecla) and the correspondence between the Corinthian community and Paul (3 Cor). The Acts of Paul and Thecla, a self-contained composition set primarily in Iconium and Pisidian Antioch, deals with the conversion, fate (including two martyrdoms

42 which she survived) and violent death of the Encratite (→ Encratites) → Thecla, who baptized (ch. 34) and, at the behest of Paul also taught the Word of God (ch. 41, 43), may be based on older (already documentary) material. In the context of Acts Paul, they stand out since in them Thecla, not Paul, stands at the center of the narrative’s interest; furthermore, motifs borrowed from pagan (love) novella occur in Acts Paul Thecla with unusual frequency and the miracles (ch. 22, 35) are, as in the pagan novel, but in contrast to Acts Paul otherwise, not drastic → miracles but rationally explainable πλάσματα/plasmata. Originally not part of Acts Paul, but only later integrated into them, 3 Cor fights against a dualistic → Gnosis (1:9–15), emphasizing against this Gnosis the unity of creator God and redeemer, as well as his saving activity already on Israel’s behalf (3:9f ), Christ’s incarnation (3:12–18), and the resurrection of the body (3:24– 32). In comparison to this, Paul’s sermon in the genuine Acts Paul is supremely simple; in essence, it consists of the appeal to sexual abstinence and the proclamation of the resurrection hope (Acts Paul Thecla 5), in which regard the first sometimes appears as even necessary for salvation (Acts Paul Thecla 12) and even illuminates the lion baptized by Paul (NTApo II, 242). The Acts Paul, which does not always deal with legendary local traditions in a seamless fashion, is already attested shortly after 200 in → Hippolytus’s commentary on Daniel (III 29) and in → Tertullian, who adduces it as an example of women teaching and performing the sacrament, of which he disapproved, and cites as its author an anonymous presbyter from Asia Minor who compiled (construxit) it for love of Paul and who lost his office because of this forgery (acta . . . perperam scripta; Bapt. 17) but was apparently not excommunicated by the church. As a result, Acts Paul, probably composed toward the end of the 2nd century with a thorough knowledge of Luke’s Acts, was not initially considered heretical in the area where it originated, despite its crude Encratite tendencies. R.A. Lipsius & M. Bonnet, Acta apostolorum apocrypha, vol. I, 1891, repr. 1959, 104–117, 235–272 (Greek text of the Martyrdom of Paul and Acts of Paul and Thecla) ◆ C. Schmidt, Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger koptischen Papyrushandschrift no. 1, 1904, repr. 1965 (text and German trans. of and comm. on PHeid) ◆ idem, Acta Pauli: Nach dem Papyrus der Hamburger Staats- und Universitäts-Bibliothek, 1936 (text and German trans. of and comm. on PH) ◆ M. Testuz, Papyrus Bodmer 10–12, 1959, 1–45 (Greek text of 3 Cor) ◆ E. Plümacher, PRE. S 15, 1978, 24–30, 51f., 59–61 ◆ W. Schneemelcher, NTApo II, 51989, 193–241 (German trans. and comm.) ◆ W. Rordorf, Lex orandi, lex credendi, 1993, 368–496 ◆ J.N. Bremmer, ed., The Apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla, 1996 (bibl.). Eckhard Plümacher

Acts of Peter (Acts Pet.). Only a few fragments of Acts Pet., first attested (and rejected as non-canonical)

43 with certainty by → Eusebius of Caesarea (Hist. eccl. III 3.2), are preserved. Among these, a Latin translation, the so-called Actus Vercellenses, which originated in the 3rd/4th century and adheres rather closely to the original Greek version of the Acts, represents the most important fragment offering about two-thirds of the original account of the Acts Pet. The Martyrdom of → Peter (Mart. Pet.) is chiefly transmitted in Greek. A text dealing with his daughter (Papyrus Berolinensis Gnosticus [BG] 8502.4), which must have appeared in the now lost beginning portion of the Acts, stems from the Coptic tradition. The effort to rediscover it in NCH VI, 1, a writing titled Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles stemming from the 2nd/3rd century (Acts Pet. 12 Apos.), fails because of its somewhat muddled content. The narrative of Acts Pet., in which the motif of the itinerant apostle – characteristic of the → Apocryphal Acts – plays a subordinate role, is dominated by the elaborate depiction of a dispute between Peter and → Simon Magus, which begins in Jerusalem and continues in Rome and is manifested in particular in a miracle competition. (→ Miracle) between the two antagonists, containing the very crassest of miracles. The author of the Acts does not harbor anti-Gnostic intentions: apart from ch. 31, where Simon announces his ascension to heaven, which later fails as a result of Peter’s prayer, in Gnostic terminology and thereby at least alludes to a Gnostic myth (→ Gnosis), Simon is portrayed merely as a deceptive magician in the service of Satan (ch. 17; → Devil). The issue is the struggle between God and the devil, not between heresy and orthodox belief. Acts Pet. gains uniqueness, however, through a strict Encratitism (→ Encratites) which teaches rigorous sexual restraint (see ch. 33; BG 8502.4). Its proclamation by the apostle found resonance especially among the women of the Roman social elite (chs. 33f.), which then became the trigger for the martyrdom of Peter (→ Martyrs: II), which he suffered in the form of (not uncommon, see Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 20.3) inverted crucifixion. In the account of the martyrdom, one finds the sole text in the Acts that stems with certainty from the tradition: Peter’s speech in chs. 37–39, whose Gnostic origin results among other things from the interpretation of Peter’s crucifixion, which is based on anti-cosmic Gnostic speculation. With regard to the time of composition of Acts Pet., a date in the last two decades of the 2nd century has the best support. Rome or Asia Minor are possible places of origin; the author’s apparent unfamiliarity with the Vatican’s Tropaion of Peter argues against Rome (Lampe 99). R.A. Lipsius & M. Bonnet, Acta apostolorum apocrypha, vol. I, 1891, repr. 1959, 45–103 (Greek and Latin text) ◆ J. Brashler & D.M. Parrott, The Acts of Peter, NHS 11, 1979, 473–493 (Coptic text and English transl. of BG 8502:4) ◆ G. Poupon, “Les Actes de Pierre et leur remaniement,” ANRW II 25/26, 1988, 4363–

Acts of the Apostle 4383 ◆ H.-M. Schenke, NTApo II, 51989, 368–380 (German transl. of and comm. on Acts Pet.) ◆ W. Schneemelcher, op. cit., 243–289 (German trans. and comm.) ◆ P. Lampe, Die stadtrömischen Christen in den ersten beiden Jahrhunderten, 21989, 99–103 ◆ J.N. Bremmer, ed., The Apocryphal Acts of Peter, 1998 (bibl.). Eckhard Plümacher

Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles (NHC VI,1; Acts Pet. 12 Apos.) → Apocrypha/ Pseudepigrapha Acts of Pilate → Nicodemus, Gospel of Acts of the Apostles I. Introductory Issues – II. Genre – III. Structure and Purpose – IV. Content – V. Rhetorical and Narrative Criticism

I. Introductory Issues 1. Author and date. Acts is the second part of a twovolume work, the first of which is the Gospel of → Luke. Neither of the two prologues names the author, although Luke 1:1–3; Acts 1:1 use the first person pronoun, which also occurs in the “we” travel narrative of Acts (16:10–17; 20:5–8, 13–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). Luke 1:2 distinguishes the author from “eye-witnesses,” but tradition (→ Irenaeus, → Muratorian Canon) identified him as Luke, → Paul’s companion (cf. Phlm 24; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11). The Gospel of Mark (→ Mark, Gospel of ) is probably one Lukan source, so that the date is post-70, which is indicated also by Luke 19:43; 21:20. The irenic view of Roman rule and the author’s failure to cite Paul’s epistles, which were available by the early second century, indicate a first-century date. The books were probably written in the 80s, but an origin as early as the 70s or as late as the 90s cannot be excluded. 2. Text transmission. Recent commentaries assume that the Alexandrian text is closer to the original than the “Western” text. Blass proposed that both texts are from the original author, a thesis supported by Boismard. The critique has been that one “Western” text never existed, that it is a modern construct combining several mss. from diverse places and centuries. Some mss. omit the reference to Christ’s ascension in Luke 24:51 (on Easter night), perhaps because it is in tension with Acts 1:3–11 (which dates it 40 days later). Such inconsistencies are characteristic of this author, but a few scholars argue that the ascension is an interpolation made either when the second volume was composed or when it was separated from the first. 3. Sources. Many scholars doubt there was an extended source for the first half of Acts, but some posit an Antiochene source (→ Antioch) and/or a collection of stories about → Peter. More probably, Luke imitated the LXX in Luke 1–2 and Acts 1–12, as contemporary authors (Arrian, → Lucian of Samosata) imitated Attic Greek. Many assume an itinerary as the source for the “we”

Acts of the Apostle sections. Some think the speeches are summaries of actual speeches; most conclude that they are Lukan creations, with the exception of Stephen’s speech (→ Stephen [the First Martyr]), observing that their style and theology are consistently the author’s. II. Genre Acts is biography, novel, or history-writing, genres that overlap. Talbert argues that Luke is the biography of a founder and that Acts focuses on legitimate succession, the primary parallel being → Diogenes Laertius (Lives of Eminent Philosophers). However, (1) only six of Laertius’s biographies have the threefold pattern of life, successors, teaching; (2) Laertius does not legitimate successors, but only lists those who claimed to be followers; and (3) these lists are not narratives and hence are unlike Acts. Further, speeches are typical of historiography, not biography. Pervo urges that Acts, unlike Luke, is an adventure novel, observing that action-packed stories (persecution, arrests, trials, escapes, riots, with a shipwreck as a climax) make it entertaining. But Acts is not a novel, nor is the discussion exclusively literary. Unlike novels, Acts does not have a love and/or sex theme, and in novels the goal of the narrative is not arrival in Rome. Nor is Luke–Acts focused on the character of individuals as are the genres of biography and novel. The genre of Acts is more closely related to historiography, though whether this is to Deuteronomic or Greco-Roman history is disputed by Conzelmann, van Unnik, Dupont, Plümacher, Hengel, Sterling, and Cancik. Luke’s Bible includes 2 Maccabees, a work which reflects both forms. Hengel argues for the historical accuracy of Luke–Acts in modern terms, but this differs from affirming their generic closeness to ancient historiography. Van Unnik compares especially Lucian and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antiquitates Romanae, AR). Unlike → Josephus, Luke was not directly dependent on Dionysius, but these three authors share a common ideology. Dionysius first narrates the ancestors’ origins (AR I 9–70). Second, the key, central epoch of history is the monarchy, the “biographies” of seven kings (AR I 71–IV 85). Third are the successors, the annual consuls (books V–XX). These three epochs correspond to Luke’s three stages of salvation history: Israel (Luke 3:23–38 [genealogy]; Acts 7:1–53 and 13:16–41, 46–47 [ancestors]), Jesus – the central epoch – and third, the church. Previous histories of Israel had not focused on Jewish experience outside Israel, so at this major transition, Luke inserts Stephen’s speech, which reviews the history of Israel in the form of an invective ψόγος/psógos (cf. the speech of Brutus, AR VI 74–75, 80). Both Dionysius and Luke date their founders, both heroes are born of God (AR I 77.1–3; cf. IV 2.2–4) and so are sons of God (AR II 3.3; Luke 1:35); both teachers give paradigmatic

44 speeches (AR II 3–29; Luke 4:16–30; Acts 2:14–36); the sun is eclipsed at both their deaths (AR II 56.6; Luke 23:45), and both appear in physical bodies after their death, but “disappear” again and ascend to heaven (AR II 63.3–4; Livy 1.16; Luke 24:13–35, 51; Acts 1:3, 9). However, Romulus works no miracles (Numa does, AR II 60), and Jesus fights no military battles. In the third epoch of history, their successors pursue their political programs. Plümacher shows that the mission speeches in Acts 10 and 13 are causative of epoch-making events, as in the historian Dionysius. Luke typically includes a christological kerygma, witness by disciples, and scripture citations explaining Jesus’ death and enthronement and the offer of salvation for all nations, and finally an exhortation to repentance. The speeches in chs. 7, 14, and 17 have a different structure. As Dionysius criticized Thucydides, so Luke criticizes Mark for not being “accurate,” that is not “complete,” for not presenting these epoch-making speeches (cf. AR VII 66.1–3, 5; XI 1.3–5; Thuc 15.1; 2 Macc 2:28; Luke 1:3). The sea storm and shipwreck in ch. 27 do not demonstrate that Acts is a novel, but rather that Paul was not being divinely punished, but was innocent, and was saved to carry the gospel to Rome in accordance with God’s plan. III. Structure and Purpose Acts begins with Jesus’ ascension to heaven (Acts 1:3–11), the event that closed the gospel (Luke 24:44–53). After this, Acts is difficult to outline; various authors divide it into two or into as many as six sections. Acts 1:8 supplies a theological/geographical outline of the mission to Jerusalem (1:9–8:3), Judea and Samaria (8:4–11:18), and Rome (11:19ff.; cf. 19:21). The author divides not only geographically, however, but chronologically; the apostolic period (2:1–15:35) differs from post-apostolic times represented by Paul (15:36–28:31). Therefore, after the introduction the phase between Easter and Pentecost is narrated (ch. 1), in two main sections. The first main section narrates the growth of the Word in three phases, from Jerusalem and Judea (2:1–8:3), through Samaria and the coastal regions (8:4–11:18), to the formation of the first Gentile churches, including Antioch, outside Palestine (11:19–15:35). The second main section (15:36–28:31) narrates the proclamation of the Word by Paul in post-apostolic times through Europe and Asia (15:36–19:20) to Rome, a proclamation that Luke apologetically describes as “unhindered” by the state (the final word of the two volumes). In addition, Talbert sees elaborate architectural patterns between Luke and Acts and within Acts. Acts has been understood as political apologetic directed to the Roman authorities, but Nock (829) has expressed doubt that a pagan, unless already half-converted, would have understood it. Many see a theological purpose: to substitute salvation history for

45 the imminent parousia (now indefinitely postponed). But a primary purpose is to legitimate the (mission to the) Gentile church, stressing its ancient Mosaic and Davidic origins. This focus is seen in the preface (“events that have been fulfilled among us,” 1:1), which anticipates the mission account, e.g. the “we” sections of Acts. Jesus’ programmatic sermon in Luke 4 (vv. 24–27) anticipates the acceptance of Gentile believers (Acts 10ff.). The conclusion in Luke 24:47–49 explicitly looks forward to Acts 1–2. And Paul’s interpretation of Isa 49:6 as a prophecy of his Gentile mission (Acts 13:47; cf. 28:28) is an echo of Simeon’s canticle (Luke 2:32). IV. Content 1. Delay of the Parousia and Salvation History. According to Conzelmann, Luke substitutes salvation history for the imminent parousia. Jesus’ and John’s births are synchronized with Roman history (Luke 2:1; 3:1), for “this was not done in a corner” (Acts 26:26). Believers are no longer survivors of the destruction of Jerusalem soon to be gathered by the Son of Man in the clouds of heaven (Mark 13:14, 26–27), an image Luke omits in 22:69 (cf. Mark 14:62); the church is rather a preordained institution with a purpose in world history. The imminent parousia is false teaching (Luke 21:8; Acts 1:6–8), which rejects Jesus’ proclamation in Mark (1:15); persecution (21:12–19) and the prophetic event of Jerusalem’s fall (21:20–25) are past. The prophecy of the end (21:25– 28) locates crucial events on earth, but vv. 28 and 31–32 do affirm the coming of the eschatological “kingdom of God” (cf. Luke 10:9, 11). There is a mixed eschatological picture in the gospel, perhaps because Luke focuses on a spatial, “growing” world mission, displacing chronological, imminent eschatology from the center (e.g. Acts 1:6–8), as in Colossians and especially Ephesians. For Luke–Acts Jesus begins salvation history; his appearance is not the single eschatological event, but rather a phase. The final period is the “times of the Gentiles” (Luke 21:24; cf. Acts 2:17). Acts transforms (Mark’s) → apocalypticism into Hellenistic historiography. The history and mission of the church continue the proclamation of the “kingdom.” The “beginning” was both Jesus’ time (Luke 1:2) and Pentecost (Acts 11:15). The kingdom of God does not “come” as eschatological event (Mark 9:1), but the reverse: through tribulations one enters the kingdom (Acts 14:22), and Paul “persuades” his hearers of it through catechesis (19:8). To proclaim Christ is identical to proclaiming the kingdom (Acts 8:4, 5, 12). Luke makes the → ascension of Christ an antetype of the parousia (1:11, “thus he will come”). As the ascension ends the central epoch of Jesus, so the parousia will end the epoch of the church in mission. The Spirit does not bring the eschaton, but enables apostolic witness. The individual gains or loses life at death (Luke 12:20; Acts 7:59).

Acts of the Apostle 2. Jews and Gentiles. (→ Jewish Christians; → Gentile Christians). Luke–Acts takes biblical prophecy as relating not only Christ’s suffering and resurrection (Luke 24:46; cf. Mark 8:31), but also as indicating that “repentance and forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations, beginning with Jerusalem” (24:47). Dupont argues persuasively that this second prophecy is the reason Luke wrote the second volume, Acts. The “reception” of foreigners is also a theme in contemporary historiography. Dionysius narrates histories of the groups who emigrated to found archaic Rome and were “received” (ὑποδέχεσϑαι/[hypo]déchesthai; AR I 57.4; 60.3; 63.2; 66.2; 89.3). He gives a list of the nations received: Aborigines, Pelasgians, Pallantians, Epeans, Phemeats, and Trojans (AR I 60.3; cf. I 89.2–3; III 10. 4–5). When Dionysius later outlines Romulus’s constitution, he observes that a practice that made Rome great was to welcome fugitives from cities governed by tyrannies, a “growth” that generated “envy” among the neighbors (I 59.5; cf. II 32.2 and 62.5). This cluster of ideas is reflected in the prophecies and in the narrative of Luke–Acts. After the Pentecost speech, those who received (οἱ ἀποδεξάμενοι/hoi apodexámenoi) the word were baptized, and 3000 souls were added (προσετέϑησαν/prosetéthēsan; Acts 2:41). The verb δέχεϑαι/déchesthai (cf. Acts 11:1) differs in meaning, but προστίϑημι/prostíthēmi is strikingly similar to AR II 16.3 (cf. Acts 2:47; 5:14; 11:24; also 6:1, 7; 9:31; 11:20–21; 12:24; 14:1; 16:5; 19:20). And these “additions” lead to “growth” (Acts 6:7; 12:24; 19:20). As Dionysius does, Acts 2:9–11 lists the nations added. It may not be coincidental that both Rome and the church begin with (only) 3000 persons. In both Dionysius and Acts, the addition of ἀλλόφυλοι/allóphuloi stimulates debate (AR III 10.5; Acts 10:28), so must be treated apologetically, that is, the authors answer criticisms of the policy of reception (AR III 10–11; Acts 6:13–14; 21:21; 28–29) and claim the founder(s) instituted it (AR II 15–17; Luke 2:31–32; 3:6; 4:23–27; 24:47; Acts 2:21; 13:47; 26:16–18). All nations are received, which is incompatible with some exegetes’ interpretation of the conclusion, who claim it narrates the cessation of the mission to Jews. The two-volume work concludes by observing that “[Paul] received all (ἀπεδέχετο πάντας/apedécheto pántas) who came to him” (28:30), which is correctly interpreted by the scribes of mss. 614, 2147, vg, sy, who add “both Jews and Greeks.” 3. Reversal (Poor and Rich). The poor/rich theme belongs to the gospel, not Acts, but it is part of a larger bipolar reversal theme reflected also in Acts. This reversal theme occurs in the Magnificat (Luke 1:52–53) and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19–31; cf. 6:20–26), as well as in Greco-Roman historiography. In conflict between patricians and plebeians, Brutus

Acts of the Martyrs voices these themes (AR VI 72–80). Brutus, himself one of the “humbled,” addresses the “proud” (οἱ ὑπερήφανοι/ hoi hyper¶phanoi; VI 72.3). Christians confessed that Christ “humbled” himself, and God “highly exalted” him (Phil 2:8–9). The rich man in Luke 16 lifted his eyes from Hades and saw Lazarus in Abraham’s bosom. Peter proclaims that Christ was not abandoned in Hades (Acts 2:27, 31), but “exalted” to God’s right hand (v. 33). Readers of Greco-Roman historiography would recognize this reversal theme in the Magnificat, applied ethically in the parable to the rich man and Lazarus, and christologically in the Pentecost sermon. V. Rhetorical and Narrative Criticism Scholars have analyzed the rhetoric of the speeches, noting that some of them are only loosely connected to the narrative, for instance the history of Israel in ch. 7 does not answer the charges against Stephen in 6:11, 13–14. The defense speeches of Paul respond to the charges brought against him (Acts 21:21, 38; 24:5–8) by arguing that the main issue is the → resurrection of Jesus (23:6; 24:21; 26:6–7), which agrees with a doctrine of the → Pharisees (23:6–9), which the author has the tribune Claudius interpret in a fictional letter to governor Felix as “questions of their law, but . . . nothing deserving death or imprisonment” (23:29; cf. 25:8, 18–19, 25; 26:3, 31; 28:19), so that Paul may preach even in Rome “unhindered” (ἀϰωλύτως/akōlÿtōs), the final word of the two volumes (28:31). Recent narrative criticism argues that the narrator of Acts is reliable and communicates necessary information to the reader, for example, differences between Pharisees and → Sadducees (23:8, similar to the late first-century description by Josephus, War II, 162–65; Ant. XVIII, 14.16). Tannehill observes that major characters are often introduced first as minor ones, e.g. Philip, Saul/Paul, and James. There are a number of “round” characters, whose literary roles change and develop, a technique which is not common in contemporary biography or historiography. The faults of Jesus’ disciples in the Gospel are overcome in Acts: Peter’s denial is replaced by his bold confession before the Sanhedrin (4:8–12, 19–20; 5:29–32). Tannehill points to the order in which the reader learns of events, noting the “reviews” and “previews” in Paul’s speech in 20:17–38. The author repeats the stories of Paul’s conversion, Peter’s encounter with Cornelius, and the apostolic decree. Conflict in the story occurs within Judaism too, not exclusively between Jews and Christians. There is considerable disagreement about the concluding episode of Acts, whether it is meant to be triumphant, ironic (Tyson), or tragic (Tannehill). The book is not a biography of Peter or Paul, but a story of the “growth of the word,” and the apologetic ending narrates that Paul was able to “receive all who came to him.”

46 F. Blass, Philology of the Gospels, 1898, repr. 1969 ◆ W.C. van Unnik, “First Century A.D. Literary Culture and Early Christian Literature,” NedTT 25, 1971, 28–43 ◆ H. Conzelmann, Die Apostelgeschichte, 21972 ◆ A.D. Nock, “The Book of Acts,” in: idem, Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, ed. Z. Stewart, vol. II, 1972, 821–832 ◆ M.-É. Boismard & A. Lamouille, Le texte occidental des Actes des Apôtres, 2 vols., 1984 ◆ M. Hengel, Zur urchristlichen Geschichtsschreibung, 21984 ◆ J. Dupont, Études sur les Actes des Apôtres, 1967 ◆ idem, Nouvelles études sur les Actes, 1984 ◆ J.B. Tyson, The Death of Jesus in LukeActs, 1986 ◆ G. Lüdemann, Das frühe Christentum nach den Traditionen der Apostelgeschichte, 1987 ◆ R.I. Pervo, Profit with Delight, 1987 ◆ R.C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, vol. II, 1990 ◆ G.E. Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition, 1992 ◆ C.H. Talbert, art. “Biography,” ABD I, 1992, 745–749 ◆ E. Plümacher, “Die Missionsreden der Apostelgeschichte und Dionys von Halikarnass,” NTS 39, 1993, 161–177 ◆ B.W. Winter, ed., The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting, 5 vols., 1993–1996 ◆ D. Marguerat, “Juden und Christen im lukanischen Doppelwerk,” EvTh 54, 1994, 241–264 ◆ M.L. Soards, The Speeches in Acts, 1994 ◆ J. Zmijewski, Die Apostelgeschichte, 1994 ◆ D.L. Balch, “Rich and Poor, Proud and Humble in Luke-Acts,” in: L.M. White & R.L. Yarbrough, eds., The Social World of the First Christians, 1995, 214–233 ◆ idem, “Paul in Acts: You teach all the Jews . . . (Act 21,21),” in: Panchaia, FS K. Thraede, JbAC.E 22, 1995, 11–23 ◆ C.H. Talbert & J.H. Hayes, A Theology of Sea Storms in LukeActs, SBL.SP 1995, 321–336 ◆ H. Cancik, “The History of Culture, Religion, and Institutions in Ancient Historiography,” JBL 116, 1997, 681–703. David L. Balch

Acts of the Martyrs. In his new edition of the Martyrologium Romanum (1583–; cf. esp. the appended “De martyrologio Romano praecapitulatio dicendorum”), C. → Baronius borrowed the expression acta martyrum from Pontius’s Vita Cypriani 11 (cf. Cyprian Epis. 77, 2), understanding the martyr literature handed down in protocol form as original trial transcripts or as protocols recorded by ecclesiastical notarii (combining Cyprian Epis. 12, 2, 1 with LP 1, 148) to serve as documentation for liturgical commemoration. In 1643 the Acta sanctorum of the → Bollandists marked the beginning of hagiographic (→ hagiography) publishing, a project still being actively pursued (AnBoll, 1882–; SHG, 1886–). Although it focuses primarily on martyr literature (Delehaye), its interests are broader. In response to mounting historical criticism, especially of the number of → martyrs and the graphic exaggeration of their agonies, there developed the notion of the so-called Acta sincera, an expression used by Theodor Ruinart in 1689 in his dispute with H. → Dodwell (Dissertatio Cyprianica 11: De paucitate martyrum, 1680). Later, questions raised by various disciplines (ancient history, religious studies, literary criticism) led to close study, often critical, of the texts and their archaeological, historical, and cultural setting. After vigorous debate, modern scholarship has achieved a synthesis that emphasizes the literary character of the acts of the martyrs (Berschin): they were utilitarian texts of popular religious literature serving diverse functions: liturgical, pastoral, recreational, and

47 pedagogical. Ronchey stresses the great reduction in the number of texts that can be considered authentic. The variety of literary forms – e.g. pastoral letters (beginning with the Martyrdom of → Polycarp and the Martyrdom of the Martyrs of → Lyon and Vienne) and protocols (the Passion of the → Scillitan Martyrs, the oldest Christian document in Latin) – and the multiplicity of traditional designations – e.g. passio, martyrium, acta, occasionally disputatio – make it difficult to identify their literary genre, since in fact we are always dealing with hybrid forms, as the complex Martyrdom of Perpetua illustrates. The texts seek to restage the trial, sentencing, and execution of the martyr, describing the torments and tortures accompanying the whole process, ending in death. They borrow from a great variety of contemporary literary forms – first protocols and letters, but soon many other forms (letter, commentary, biography, vision narrative [→ Vision/Vision Account], philosophical dialogue, encomium, funeral oration, sermon, novel, satire, dramaturgy). Short theological tracts also appear (usually in prologues: the Martyrdom of Perpetua and the Passion of Agape, Chione, and Irene of Thessalonica, dating from 304). All are employed and reshaped for the purpose at hand (→ parenesis, → edification, instruction, reading material, liturgical celebration, private enjoyment). The texts of this utilitarian literature are “fluid” in two senses: in them several genres identified by modern form criticism flow together, and the texts, originally firmly shaped and constructed, are expanded in the course of transmission by the inclusion of new elements. A good illustration is so apparently simple a text as the so-called Acta proconsularia of → Cyprian of Carthage (257 and 258 ce), the composition and motifs (Reitzenstein) of which became a kind of model for Latin martyr literature. Often, as is typical of utilitarian texts, only late recensions have been preserved. A genuine distinguishing characteristic of the acts of the martyrs – besides a wealth of biblical allusions and particularly strong echoes of the passion of Jesus in the gospels – is the adaptation of earlier acts. For example, the Passion of Agape, itself a combination of three protocol-like sources, was later incorporated into the Acta Anastasiae. In addition, certain literary elements frequently recur: consular dating (often erroneous from the outset, even given the uncertainty of the textual tradition), terminology for municipal or state authorities that is often anachronistic or otherwise ambiguous, and urban or architectural local color, sometimes very precise (Martyrdom of → Pionius; cf. Robert). In short, the extant martyr literature must be viewed less as an authentic historical snapshot of Christians during the persecutions than as a witness to the mentality of its anonymous authors and the Christians who received and used this literature in their congregations

Acts of Thomas and devotions (including individual readers). “A variety of creative elements were used to idealize or heroize types of individual Christians” (Seeliger, 413), establishing a chain of continuity with the holy men of the past, who were thus linked with those of the present but also with other spiritual figures like the bishop or abbot. The martyr literature thus expresses the ecclesiological consciousness of the Christian communities in which it arose and provides a critical framework for the world in which they lived. Later martyr literature outside the Roman Empire (e.g. the so-called Acts of the Persian Martyrs and documents concerning the persecution of the Christians in → Najrān) was modeled after the earlier literature. Sources: C. Baronius, Martyrologium Romanum, ed. H. Rosweydus, 1613 ◆ T. Ruinart, Acta primorum martyrum sincera, 1689 = Acta martyrum, 31859 ◆ O. von Gebhardt, Acta martyrum selecta, 1902 ◆ R. Knopf, G. Krüger & G. Ruhbach, Ausgewählte Märtyrerakte, 1965 ◆ H. Musurillo, The Acts of the Christian Martyrs, 1972, repr. 2000 ◆ A.A.R. Bastiaensen et al., Atti e passioni dei martiri, Scrittori greci e latini, 1987 ◆ On the Acts: E. Lucius, Die Anfänge des Heiligenkultes in der christlichen Kirche, ed. G. Anrich, 1904 ◆ R. Reitzenstein, “Ein Stück hellenistischer Kleinliteratur,” NGWG 1904, 309–332 ◆ J. Geffcken, “Die christlichen Martyrien,” Hermes 45, 1910, 481–505 ◆ A. Harnack, “Das ursprüngliche Motiv der Abfassung von Märtyrer- und Heilungsakten in der Kirche,” SPAW.PH 7, 1910, 1, 106–125 ◆ R. Reitzenstein, Die Nachrichten über den Tod Cyprians, SHAW.PH 14, 1913 ◆ idem, “Bemerkungen zur Märtyrerliteratur 2,” NGWG.PH 1919, 177–219 ◆ H. Delehaye, Les Passions des martyrs et les genres littéraires, SHG 13b, 1921, 21966 ◆ G. Lazzati, Gli sviluppi della letteratura sui martiri nei primi quattro secoli, 1956 ◆ A.-J. Festugière, “Lieux communs littéraires et thèmes de folklore dans l’hagiographie primitive,” WSt 73, 1960, 123–152 = his Études de religion grecque et hellenistique, 1972, 271–301 ◆ G. Lanata, Gli atti dei martiri come documenti processuali, 1973; 2nd ed.: Processi contro cristiani negli atti dei martiri, 1989 ◆ W. Berschin, Biographie und Epochenstil im lateinischen Mittelalter, vol. I, 1986 ◆ V. Saxer, Bible et hagiographie, 1986 ◆ G.A. Bisbee, Pre-Decian Acts of Martyrs and Commentarii, HDR 22, 1988 ◆ J. Fontaine, HLL V, 1989, §§593– 598 ◆ B. Dehandschutter, “The Martyrium Polycarpi,” ANRW II.27/1, 1993, 485–522 ◆ S. Ronchey, “Gli atti dei martiri tra politica e letteratura,” Storia di Roma III/2, 1993, 781–825 ◆ B.D. Shaw, “The Passion of Perpetua,” PaP 139, 1993, 3–45 ◆ L. Robert, G.W. Bowersock, C.P. Jones & A. Vaillant, Le martyre de Pionius prêtre de Smyrne, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection 10, 1994 ◆ A. Wlosok, HLL IV, 1997, §§472.1–9 ◆ H.R. Seeliger, LACL, 1998, 411–419. Wolfgang Wischmeyer

Acts of Thomas (Acts Thom.). The Acts Thom. report the missionary journeys of → Thomas Didymus toward and in India. The complete text is preserved in two manuscripts, one Syriac from the 10th century and one Greek from the 12th century. Abbreviated forms exist in the Greek, Syriac, Latin, Armenian, Coptic and Arabic languages. The Syriacisms in the Greek indicate a Syriac original; at any rate, the Greek manuscripts preserve a more original and less “orthodox” version of the text than the still existing Syriac version. The oldest witness of textual remnant is a Syriac palimpsest from the

Actualism 5th century; the first witnesses in other writings appear at the end of the 4th century in Epiphanius (Panarion, 47.1; 60.1.5), Augustine (De sermone Domini in monte, I 20,65; Contra Adimantium, 17; Contra Faustum Manichaeum, 14), and the Manichaean Pss. Or. hom. 3 in Gen and Eus. Hist. Eccl. III 1 report the activity of Thomas in Parthia, not in India. Thus, Thomas narratives already existed in the 3rd century, although the extant version of the text dates to the late 3rd or early 4th century. Some parts, such as the famed Pearl Hymn, are certainly redactional additions. The first six acts (chs. 1–61) consist of individual accounts, the first of which describes how his “twin brother” Jesus sold the defiant apostle to Indian slave traders. On the way to the East, Thomas participated in a royal marriage at the court of King Gundafor. The apostle persuaded bride and bridegroom to refrain from consumating the marriage, an indication of the ascetic character of the text. The subsequent chapters report various healings and exorcisms, an awakening from the dead, and an encounter with a talking donkey. The subsequent six acts (chs. 62–149) consist of a self-contained novella concerning Thomas’s activity at the court of King Mizdai. The conclusion depicts his martyrdom (chs. 150–171). The narrative also mentions baptism and Eucharist and contains liturgical prayers (chs. 27, 51). Two symbolic poems, the Bridal Hymn (chs. 6f.) and the Pearl Hymn (chs. 108–113) are to be read as cosmic and soteriological allegories. G. Bornkamm, Mythos und Legende in den apokryphen ThomasAkten, FRLANT 49, 1933 ◆ H.J.W. Drijvers, NTApo II, 51989, 289–367 ◆ J.N. Bremmer, ed., The Apocryphal Acts of Thomas, 2001 ◆ A.J.F. Klijn, The Acts of Thomas, NT.S 5, 108, 22003. Harold Attridge

Actualism (→ Grace, Doctrine of , → Act and Potency). The concept of actualism originated with Gentile. Theology treats the proper order of → nature and grace under the heading actualism, with the tendency to allow nature as an independent and pre-existent entity to merge where possible into the constantly creative and active gracious behavior of God. K. → Barth expounded a thoroughgoing actualism. To the extent that anthropological structures are permitted and only an objectifying scholastic metaphysics is excluded, one can speak of moderate actualism. G. Gentile, Der aktuale Idealismus, 1931 ◆ W. Joest, Ontologie der Person bei Luther, 1967. Gregor Zasche

Adalbert of Bremen (c. 1000 – Mar 16, 1072) was a member of the family of the count of Goseck. From 1032 on, he was cathedral provost in → Halberstadt and was elevated to archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in 1043 by Henry III (→ Hamburg : I, → Bremen).

48 He was responsible for the expansion of sovereign rule in his diocese. From 1062 to 1066, he was influential on imperial policy as a member of the regency of → Henry IV. Above all, Adalbert was important as the initiator of the Scandinavian mission. There, as papal legate (from 1053), he ordained a series of bishops and founded (c. 1052) the dioceses of → Ratzeburg and → Mecklenburg in the Slavic region east of the Elbe. His plan to establish a patriarchate of the north and to affiliate the Scandinavian bishoprics with his seat failed, and the Slavic rebellion of 1066 destroyed his attempts at an ecclesial organization in the land of the Abodrites. P. Johanek, “Die Erzbischöfe von Hamburg-Bremen und ihre Kirche im Reich der Salierzeit,” in Die Reichskirche in der Salierzeit, ed. S. Weinfurter, = Die Salier und das Reich, II, 1991, 79–112. Wilfried Hartmann

Adalbert of Prague (Vojtîch; c. 956 – 997) was the second bishop of Prague. Adalbert, who was educated in the cathedral school in Magdeburg, was elevated to bishop in 983. Rigorously, but unsuccessfully, he tried to gain acceptance for church norms among the still half-pagan population of Bohemia, yet he succeeded in founding the first monastery at Břevnov. His limited success and the political rivalry between his Slavnikide family and the Přemyslide count forced him to depart his bishopric twice (c. 989, c. 994). In Rome, he entered the Greco-Latin Bonifatius-Alexius monastery, an educational center for the clergy of western Slavic lands. With his friend emperor Otto III, he discussed far-reaching missionary plans. On the commission of the Polish count Boleslaw Chrobry, Adalbert went on a mission to the pagans in Prussia in 997, where he suffered martyrdom. Buried in Gnesen, he was immediately venerated as a saint. His missionary and church work in Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary showed him to be a central figure of early east-central European church history. H.G. Voigt, Adalbert von Prag, 1898 ◆ P. Hilsch, “Der heilige Adalbert in der neueren deutschen Historiographie,” in: J. Hofmann, ed., Tausend Jahre Benediktiner in den Klöstern B®evnov, Braunau und Rohr, 1993, 147–156. Peter Hilsch

Adam and Christ I. New Testament – II. Dogmatics

I. New Testament In 1 Cor 15:21f., 45–49 and Rom 5:12–21, Paul draws a contrast between Adam as the primal, earthly-material human being and Christ as his eschatological, heavenlyspiritual counterpart. 1 Cor 15:45f. indicates that Paul reached this conclusion by performing – within the context of an apocalyptic concept of time and body – an eschatological inversion of an originally protological conception of a “first” (spiritual) and a “second”

49 (earthly) primal man, as held by the disclaimers of → resurrection in Corinth (1 Cor 15:12). The entire AdamChrist schema can therefore not be traced back to a single tradition within the history of religion; rather, the protological doctrine of the primal man (Corinthians) and Paul’s eschatological correction have different roots. The search, in Judaism or Gnosticism, for an Adam conception that would encompass both “the fall” and redemption is thus futile. Adam and Christ relate to each other only inasmuch as they stand out as representatives of their own respective categories of human beings. This is to be seen against the background of the archetype of the dual creation of humanity, as formulated in → Philo of Alexandria’s Allegorical Commentary (Leg. All. I, 31–42) on the basis of Gen 1:27 and 2:7. In Rom 5:12–21, Paul employs this schema in the context of his doctrine of → justification (II), giving it an (un-)redemptive interpretation through which it acquires the sense of a “deed”: because of Adam’s transgression, sin came into the world, and “because all have sinned,” “death came to all people” (5:12). Though a doctrine of → original sin cannot be derived from this, Adam’s deed nonetheless sets the pattern for the inevitability and accountability of sinful action for every human being. An innovation with respect to 1 Cor 15 is the integration of the salvation-historical function of the law (however, cf. already 1 Cor 15:56). As a whole, Rom 5:12–21 belongs to the context of Pauline texts that seek to establish a correspondence to the primal image (1 Thess 1:6f.; 2:14; 1 Cor 4:16; 11:1; Phil 3:17). It may well be that Mark 1:13 implies an interpretation of Jesus as the eschatological countertype to Adam (restoration of paradisaical peace in the animal world). R. Bultmann, “Adam and Christus according to Rom 5,” in: W. Klassen & G.F. Snyder, eds., Current Issues in New Testament Interpretation, 1962, 143–165 ◆ J. de Fraine, Adam und seine Nachkommen, 1962 (French original 1959) ◆ E. Brandenburger, Adam und Christus, WMANT 7, 1962 ◆ R. Scroggs, The Last Adam, 1966 ◆ U. Wilckens, “Christus, der ‘letzte Adam’, und der Menschensohn,” in: R. Pesch & R. Schnackenburg, eds., Jesus und der Menschensohn: FS A. Vögtle, 1975, 387–403 ◆ G. Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten, FRLANT 138, 1986. Gerhard Sellin

II. Dogmatics A primary task of theological discourse on the relationship between Adam and Christ is to clarify the relationship between → anthropology and → Christology. Indeed, the symbolic figure of “Adam” denotes (even beyond its “mythological” use) the humanity of the → human being (VII) as a creature of God, as well as human life in the actual commission of → sin (VII). In this sense, it stands for humanity. Jesus Christ, however, is the human being through whom God entered human history and led the → creatureliness of the human being to its fulfillment in truth. This means: He is the human

Adam and Eve being who came entirely from God and exists entirely from God. This happened by virtue of God’s oneness with him, which proved effective in his → resurrection (II) from the dead as the eschatological fulfillment of his humanity. This event establishes the difference between Jesus’ true humanity and the sinful humanity subsumed under the name “Adam,” but also its fundamental relationship to it. Since divine openness to humanity and human openness to God correlate clearly in Jesus Christ, he is the “image of God” (cf. 2 Cor 4:4) in which all human beings are created (cf. Gen 1:27; → Image: III). By partaking of the faith in his “being,” which marks the difference from sin, the realization of true humanity in the midst of Adam’s humanity and in the hope of its eschatological fulfillment thus also becomes possible. From this position, the assumption that humanity in general finds its fulfillment in Jesus Christ and that Christian theology should therefore understand it as coming only from him (Barth) is comprehensible. This stands in contrast to the objection that human openness to God must first be explained from the realities of being human and of human history in order to make Jesus Christ comprehensible as the one who brings about the fulfillment of that which is most human. This view has its justification, inasmuch as sinful humanity cannot, in fact, entirely deny that it owes its existence to God and lives it in the presence of the creator. No human being is “godless.” As a creature of God, he is structurally open to his creator and always the object of God’s thoughtful attention. Yet, the signs of true humanity discernable in the overwhelmingly sinful history of humankind are, in Christian theology, only recognizable as such under the assumption of the true humanity that reaches its fulfillment in Jesus Christ. No path leads from the reality of sinful existence to the perception and fulfillment of the true humanity coming from the acceptance of God’s salvation. This is the enduring truth of the Pauline parallel between Adam and Christ. In the encounter of humankind “in Adam” with Christ, however, it becomes clear that the truth inherent in all humanity is none other than its destiny to relate to God, a destiny that is supported by God himself and which not even sin can invalidate. K. Barth, Christus und Adam nach Röm, V, 21952 ◆ A. Peters, Der Mensch, HST 8, 1979 ◆ E. Jüngel, “Der Gott entsprechende Mensch,” in: Entsprechungen, BEvTh 88, 1980, 290–317 ◆ W. Pannenberg, Anthropologie in theologischer Perspektive, 1983; ET: Anthropology in Theological Perspective, 1999. Wolf Krötke

Adam and Eve I. Ancient Judaism – II. Art

I. Ancient Judaism According to Gen 1–5, Adam and Eve were the first human couple. Although the two figures play a major

Adam, Books of role in ancient Judaism, their importance is often overrated. The tendency to see a widespread myth of Adam in Second Temple sources is connected with the pivotal role of Adam in the Pauline epistles (Rom 5; 1 Cor 15). The fall of Adam and Eve does not play a role in all schools of ancient Judaism. One significant strand of tradition, represented by Jubilees, 1 Enoch, and the Dead Sea Scrolls (cf. CD 2.14–21), emphasizes instead the myth of the fall of the Watchers. In this tradition, the intercourse of angels with the daughters of humans (Gen 6:1–4) was the primal sin. In other Palestinian sources, Adam and the fall play a larger role. According to 2 Esd 7:10–12, the world was created for the sake of Israel, but “when Adam transgressed my statutes, what had been made was judged.” As a result, the entrances to this world were made “narrow and sorrowful and toilsome,” and the world they led to became “full of dangers and involved in great hardships.” The author of 2 Baruch (54:15) underscores the universal consequences of Adam’s sin, but also takes the position that the sin of each individual demands punishment. → Philo of Alexandria is known for his doctrine of double creation. In the first creation (Opif. 68 on Gen 1:26), God fashions a heavenly human as God’s true likeness, without any perishable, earthly being; in the second creation (Opif. 134 on Gen 2:7), God creates an earthly human out of clay, subject to change and mortality. The fall itself he interprets allegorically. Adam represents reason, Eve sensuality, the serpent pleasure. As long as reason’s vision of God remains unclouded, life is pure bliss; but the temptations of sensuality (Eve, mediated through the serpent) bring about the fall (Opif. 157). It is often claimed that post-biblical documents favor a reading of Gen 2–3 that burdens Eve with greater guilt (Philo; 1 Tim 2:14; L.A.E. 3:2). Rabbinic sources do not support this claim. One tradition records that Adam surrounded the law with a high “fence” when he gave it to Eve and therefore bore total responsibility for her transgression (’Abot R. Nat. 1). Adam’s fall had cosmic consequences. According to Gen. R. 12:6, there were three changes in Adam’s person: his luminous glory vanished, he forfeited his immortality, and his gigantic size dwindled. As to Adam’s bringing sin into the world, the Rabbinic sources do not present a uniform picture. One tradition totally denies the significance of Adam’s sin for the coming of death; instead, God ordained death for all human beings in proleptic reaction to the hubris of Hiram and → Nebuchadnezzar, who considered themselves “gods” (Gen. R. 9:5). P. Schäfer, “Adam in der jüdischen Überlieferung,” in: Vom alten zum neuen Adam, ed. W. Strolz, 1986, 69–93 ◆ J.R. Levison, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism from Sirach to 2 Baruch, 1988 ◆ G. Anderson, “The Penitence Narrative in the Life of Adam and Eve,” HUCA 63, 1992, 1–38 ◆ M.E. Stone, A History of the Literature of Adam and Eve, 1994. Gary A. Anderson

50 II. Art Textual and pictorial representations of Adam and Eve have helped define religious and cultural attitudes toward gender, sexuality, and the relationship between man and woman. The story of Adam and Eve is a common subject of Christian art, portrayed in a variety of narrative and didactic representations: the creation of Adam (Gen 2:7), Adam’s taxonomy (2:20), the creation of Eve (2:21–23), the marriage of Adam and Eve (Golden Legend), temptation and fall (Gen 3:1–7), expulsion from paradise (3:8–24), Adam’s toil (3:23), birth of Cain and Abel (4:1–2), birth of Seth (4:25), first Adam/second Adam, first Eve/second Eve (Rom 5:14; 1 Cor 15:35; → Adam and Christ: I), and the Anastasis (Gos. Nic.). Adam has usually been represented as a young Greek god, cleanshaven, handsome, and naked, Eve as a beautiful young woman with long hair. The creation of Eve was interpreted as prefiguring the birth of the church: just as Eve came forth from Adam’s side, so the church came forth from the wound in the side of the crucified Jesus. The commonest motif was that of creation and fall: The serpent – in the late Middle Ages sometimes represented with the head and torso of a woman and associated with Lilith – tempted Eve, who in turn tempted Adam by offering him the forbidden fruit, usually represented as an apple. In the Middle Ages, Eve alone was blamed for the entry of sin into the world; she became a visual metaphor for dissipated sexuality, temptation, and guilt. The expulsion from paradise was depicted either by a representation of Adam protesting his innocence while Eve blames the serpent or by the figure of the archangel Michael expelling the two from paradise. The common medieval motif of Adam tilling the soil with a pregnant Eve sitting nearby symbolizes the frailty of human beings and their subjection to God’s authority. The Byzantine iconography of the Anastasis combines the resurrection of Jesus Christ with his descent into hell: as the firstborn of those redeemed from damnation, a white-bearded, aged Adam and a white-haired, matronly Eve are led by the risen Christ into the kingdom of heaven. D. Apostolos-Cappadona, Dictionary of Women in Religious Art, 1996, 126, 130 ◆ P. & L. Murray, The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture, 1996, 3f. ◆ D. ApostolosCappadona, Dictionary of Christian Art, 21997, 14–16, 129– 131. Diane Apostolos-Cappadona

Adam, Books of. The Books of Adam are a group of apocryphal sources which portray the life of Adam and Eve after their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. They have been preserved in six different languages: Greek (Apoc. Adam), Latin (Vita Adam), Armenian, Georgian, Slavonic, and Coptic. The date and origin of these texts are difficult to determine. There are indications of Christian authorship between 100 and 600

51 ce. The Latin text begins with the history of the repentance of Adam and Eve immediately after the expulsion. During her penance Eve was tempted a second time by Satan; then the famous story of the primordial fall of Satan is told. The Greek text begins with the history of Cain and Abel, and leads then to Adam’s deathbed and Eve’s detailed review of the Fall. The Greek and the Latin texts both end with a lengthy report of the burial rites for Adam and Eve. Important indicators suggest that the Armenian and Georgian versions preserve the more original form of the documents. M.P. Johnson, “Life of Adam and Eve,” OTP II, 1985, 249–295 ◆ M. de Jonge & J. Tromp, The Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature, 1997. Gary A. Anderson

Adam Kadmon (Qadmon; / ., literally: primordial man). In 13th-century → Kabbalah and later as well, Adam Kadmon articulated in anthropomorphic terminology the idea of the highest, concealed nature of the totality of divine powers, namely, of the pl¶roma (Gk. πλήρωμα). The antithetical concept is that of shihur qoma in → Hekhalot mysticism (with which it belongs together in the Kabbalah). In the → Zohar and in the Lurianic myth of the late 16th century, in which it represents the first → emanation of the eternal divine light, Adam Kadmon is a creative mystical symbol. In connection with cosmogony, it often represents the highest stage of the divine hierarchy, demonstrating that the kabbalists understood the divine powers as members of an enormous mystical, anthropomorphic unity. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1954 ◆ idem Kabbalah, 1974. Joseph Dan

Adam, Karl (Oct 22, 1876, Pursruck, Oberpfalz – Apr 1, 1966, Tübingen) became a priest in 1900, received his doctorate in 1904, and was habilitated as professor of Latin patristics in 1908 at the University of Munich; he was professor of Catholic dogmatics at Tübingen 1919–1949. Adam revived the theology of the perception of faith with a phenomenological method close to that of M. → Scheler. Influenced by the Catholic Tübingen School, he placed the idea of the Church as the body of Christ at the center of his ecclesiology. In all, Adam created a “theology of life” that contributed significantly to the rediscovery of the humanity of Jesus Christ in Catholic Christology and opened the path to → Vatican II. After the War, he formulated important impulses for ecumenical theology. Works include: Das Wesen des Katholizismus, 1924, 121949; ET: The Spirit of Catholicism, 1997 ◆ Christus, unser Bruder, 1929, 91960 ◆ Jesus Christus, 1933, 81949 ◆ Una sancta in katholischer Sicht, 1948 ◆ On Adam: H. Kreidler, Eine Theologie des Lebens, 1988 ◆ R. Krieg, Karl Adam, 1992. Robert A. Krieg

Adam Scotus Adam of Bremen (d. Oct 12 before 1085). Educated at the cathedral school of Bamberg, he worked in Bremen from 1066/67 (become cathedral scholar in 1069); in 1067/68, he was at the Danish royal court, where he took instruction on conditions in the nordic countries. This information was recorded in the fourth volume of his Church History, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, which was the first thorough report in the Middle Ages concerning Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland. The first two volumes of the work deal with the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen up to 1043; volume III is dedicated to → Adalbert of Bremen. In these sections, too, mission work in the north stands in the foreground. This history sets a high standard by virtue of its treatment of documents and historiographic sources. Adam later revised the work, which had originally been completed in 1075/76. With over 20 preserved manuscripts, it was clearly widely copied. F.-J. Schmale, VerLex2 I, 1978, 50–54 ◆ G. Theuerkauf, “Die Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte Adams von Bremen,” in: Historiographia Mediaevalis. FS F.-J. Schmale, 1988, 118–137. Wilfried Hartmann

Adam of St. Victor (apparently d. Jan 14, at the latest in 1146) was the author of hymn-like sequences (“later style”). His background, biographical data, and works attributed to him are disputed. While earlier scholarship (LMA I, 1990, 110f.) equated him with Adam Brito mentioned in the necrology of St. Victor – who, according to later sources, died in 1192 –, Fassler sees him as the canon Adam attested as the “praecentor” of the cathedral chapter of Notre-Dame (Paris) from 1107 to 1133, who withdrew to St. Victor around 1133. M.E. Fassler, “Who Was Adam of St. Victor?” JAMS 37, 1984, 233–269. Mathias Lawo

Adam Scotus (Adam of Dryburgh; 1127/40 – 1212) was abbot-coadjutor in Dryburgh (OPraem) from 1184. In 1188/89, he moved to the Carthusian monastery in Witham, where, like other representatives of the reform orders of his time, he considered life as a hermit to be the highest form of religious life. In his writings, which were primarily devoted to questions of monastic life, contemplation, and asceticism, there is evidence of deep familiarity with the Bible and tradition (esp. → Augustine), as well as the influence of the → Victorines. A. Wilmart, “Maître Adam,” APraem 9, 1933, 209–232 (Vita) ◆ J. Bulloch, Adam of Dryburgh, 1958 ◆ M.J. Hamilton, Adam of Dryburgh, ACar 16, 1974. Marie-Luise Ehrenschwendtner

Adam Wodham

52

Adam Wodham (Woodham, Godham, Goddamus; c. 1298–1358), OFM, was an important student of William of → Occam. He was educated in the order’s school in London, c. 1325–1329 in Oxford; he lectured on the Sentences in 1330 in Norwich, until 1333 in Oxford, also in London; until 1339, when he journeyed to Basel, he was the director of studies for the OFM in Oxford. His doctrine of grace was attacked in Oxford and Paris as semi-Pelagian (→ Pelagius, Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians). W.J. Courtenay, Adam Wodham, 1978.

Christoph Burger

Adamantius, Dialogue of. Adamantius (“Man of Steel”) is the name of the orthodox principal speaker in a Greek dialogue (subtitled De recta in deum fide) that attacks → Marcionites, Bardesanites (→ Bardesanes), and Valentinians (→ Valentinianism). It was composed some time after 325 ce in Asia Minor or Syria. As early as the 4th century, Adamantius was identified with Origen and considered the author of the dialogue (cf. the Latin translation by → Rufinus). The work is dependent on → Methodius. Its value as a source of information concerning the heresies attacked is disputed. CPG 1, 1726 ◆ Der Dialog des Adamantius, ed. W.H. van de Sande Bakhuyzen, GCS, 1901 ◆ Tyrannii Rufini librorum Adamantii Origenis adversus haereticos interpretatio, ed. V. Buchheit, STA 1, 1966. Gerhard May

Adamites (Adamians). A type of heretic encountered in Early Church authors that corresponds to no historically identifiable persons. Since Epiphanius, it refers primarily to nude worship in subterranean cult sites called “Paradise.” The primal purity presumably sought after had ascetic significance, also certain eschatological elements, but was understood, especially in the Middle Ages, as an immoral orgy, then also as an alliance with the devil. Adamites are mentioned in the early 14th century, sometimes along with other terms (e.g. Luciferians, Brooders), in Austria, Bohemia, and Cologne. In 1421, a group of Taborites were defamed and expelled as Adamites. Adamite nudity is attested in Amsterdam in 1535; c. 1580, Anabaptists were again called Adamites there. The accusation of Adamitism continued as a quite rare cliché on into the 19th century. H. Haupt, RE3 I, 1896, 164–166 ◆ B. Töpfer, “Hoffnungen auf Erneuerung des paradiesischen Zustandes,” in Eschatologie und Hussitismus, ed. A. Patschovsky & F. Šmahel, 1996. Kurt-Victor Selge

Adamnan (Adomnán; c. 624–704), associated with → Columba (Columcille). Adamnan, a learned Irish monk, was the ninth abbot of → Iona (679–704). Around 686/87 he was sent on a diplomatic mission

to ransom Irish prisoners of war from King Aldfrith of Northumbria. He was the author of a law, passed at the synod of Birr in 697, forbidding the war-time killing of women, children, and clergy (Cáin Adomnáin). He also urged acceptance of the Roman date for Easter (→ Paschal/Easter Calendrical Controversies). His major works are De locis sanctis, an itinerary through the Holy Land based on an account by the Frankish bishop Arculf, which Adamnan revised with the aid of earlier scholarly sources ( Josephus, Jerome, et al.), and the Vita Columbae (c. 692), a masterpiece of early Irish → hagiography and a first-rate source for the history of early Irish → monasticism. The Fís Adomnáin (“Vision of Adamnan”), a Middle Irish visionary narrative, probably dates from the 10th or 11th century. Adomnán’s Life of Columba, ed. A.O. Anderson & M.O. Anderson, 1991 ◆ F. Brunhölzl, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, I, 1975, 173–178. Eva Köpf

Adams, Ansel (Feb 20, 1902, San Francisco – Apr 22, 1984 Carmel, CA), photographer, best known for his impeccably printed black-and-white photographs of the American wilderness. These technically accomplished but nevertheless poetic images, mainly of landscapes in western America, display incredible beauty in tone, texture, and detail, while inspiring an appreciation of nature’s simple grandeur. Though Adams did not confess to being religious, he was an ardent conservationist. His work, which has often been reproduced and sold in large numbers, has helped to create a new spiritual consciousness of nature and of human responsibility for its preservation. Works include: This is the American Earth, 1960 ◆ The American Wilderness, ed. A. Stillman, 1990 ◆ On Adams: M.S. Alinder & A.G. Stillman, eds., Ansel Adams, 1988. Frank Burch Brown

Adams, Henry (Feb 16, 1838, Boston, MA – Mar 27, 1918, Washington DC), descendant of the great family of American statesmen. Towards the end of his life he was deeply preoccupied with the religious origins of his family. The medieval French imaginaire of the Virgin Mary was an aesthetic replacement for his own agnosticism and an aesthetic way of coming to terms with his wife’s suicide. If Adams’s highly stylized autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams (1906), was a meditation on his intellectual and public life, the visionary Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (1904) was partly a meditation on his religious and private life. R. Mane, Henry Adams on the Road to Chartres, 1971 ◆ J.F. Byrnes, The Virgin of Chartres, 1981. Joseph F. Byrnes

Adamson , Patrick (Mar 15, 1537, Perth – Feb 19, 1592), Scottish clergyman and archbishop of St.

53 Andrews. He studied at St. Mary’s College in the University of St. Andrews (M.A. 1558) and supported the Reformation. In 1560 he was appointed by the General Assembly (the supreme court of the Scottish Reformed church) for service in the church and for education. In 1564 he wrote a number of Latin poems attacking the Roman Catholics of Aberdeen. In 1566 he went abroad as a private tutor, visiting Paris, Padua, and Geneva for theology and Bourges for civil law. In 1576 he became archbishop of St. Andrews at a point when the Presbyterians had gained ascendancy in the church under A. → Melville’s leadership. With royal support he launched a counteroffensive as an apologist for episcopacy in 1583, denouncing the Presbyterian program of the Second Book of Discipline of 1578. He received little support from the English church and government, or from the French church in London, or from Zürich or Geneva. Excommunicated by the Synod of Fife in 1586, he was obliged to confess his errors in defying the courts of the church and he appealed for help to his old adversary Melville. He died still excommunicated. G. Donaldson, Scottish Church History, 1985 ◆ J. Kirk, Patterns of Reform, 1989. James Kirk

Adaptation. The fact that all living creatures are almost perfectly adapted to their environment in their form, physiology, sensorium, and behavior is explained by the natural sciences as the result of an evolutionary process extending over millions of years (→ Evolution: I). According to C. → Darwin, natural → selection may be considered a primary agent of evolutionary adaptation: in the event of surplus production, individuals whose function and performance achieve the greatest effectiveness under given environmental conditions can produce more offspring than others. Since differences in the effectiveness of function and performance (Dar winian “fitness”) are generally hereditary, there is a constant process of adaptation whose dynamic makes organisms continue to develop. The reality of this basic hypothesis has been demonstrated by observations in the natural world, successful breeding, and experiments in population genetics. When complex events are reduced to the effects of a few hereditary traits, the principles of these adaptive processes can be described and analyzed by theoretical mathematical models. Not infrequently the principle of biological adaptation has been applied to human social systems (so-called social Dar winism): the hereditary, adaptive ability of coexisting individuals of a population is looked upon as the basis of a natural scale of value (→ Darwinism). Today the natural sciences are still concerned with the question of whether and to what extent Darwinian theories are applicable to human behavior and where the results might lead. An extensive scholarly literature has grown

Adat up around this question. This is an important albeit highly controversial area, where the natural sciences, philosophy, and theology all converge (→ Ethnology: IV, → Evolutionary Ethics). C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species, 2 vols., 1859 ◆ T. Dobzhansky, Vererbung und Menschenbild, 1966 ◆ R.D. Alexander, Darwinism and Human Affairs, 1979 ◆ I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Die Biologie des menschlichen Verhaltens, 1984 ◆ C. Vogel, “Evolution und Moral,” in: H. Maier-Leibnitz, ed., Zeugen des Wissens, 1986, 467–507 ◆ D. Sperlich, Populationsgenetik, 1988 ◆ P. Hefner, The Human Factor, 1993. Diether Sperlich

Adat. “Adat” derives from Arab. hāda, “the constantly recurring,” custom, tradition, customary law. The term spread with Islam; in its Persian form, hādat, it came to designate pre-Islamic legal traditions, as well as cultural and even religious traditions, especially in Southeast Asia. In other Islamic areas, the equivalent term is hurf. Adat is rooted in the original worldview of the peoples of the Malayo-Polynesian cultural sphere, including the mountain peoples of Taiwan. Thus it embraces all domains of human life – personal, social, and thus religious. Adat is intimately associated with ancestor worship. In practice, all actions are performed in the presence of the ancestors and within the framework of the cosmic order that ultimately governs even the gods, in which the adat of all beings and phenomena is grounded. The habitat of the adat community is the “village of the fathers,” more broadly the territory of the tribe. Realized here is the unity between the genealogically defined ethnic group and the territory inherited from the ancestors, which provides the community its sustenance. The efforts of modern Islamic legal scholars to develop a uniform Islamic legal system throughout Indonesia that also incorporates adat as an autochthonous legal tradition constantly run up against the problem that adat is unique to each tribe, even among the Islamic tribes, and thus resists the establishment of a uniform (Islamic) law code. For people who live by adat, both Islamic and Western law suffer from a fundamental weakness, since both are introduced from without into the territory governed by adat. Furthermore, since Sharīha derives from a God who himself stands outside the order that governs the cosmos (that he established this order from without is also not clear), it has an element of alienness, unlike the familiarity of adat. The alienness of the Christian idea of God and the teaching that human beings are alienated from their God have also placed great difficulties in the way of an acculturation of Christianity. Attempts to understand adat simply as custom or tradition and thus deny its religious character have usually failed, at least as long as traditional popular religiosity holds sway. As a result, the missionaries and usually also the first Christians as a rule

Addams, Jane totally rejected everything connected with adat, including its cultural expressions. It would seem that a positive relationship between adat and Christianity will be possible only if Christian theology can grant the ancestors a place of honor in an ongoing communion of the living and the dead. C.S. Hurgronje, The Achehnese, 1906 ◆ C. van Vollenhoven, Het Adatrecht van Nederlandsch-Indië, 3 vols., 1918–1933 ◆ V.E. Korn, Het Adatrecht van Bali, 21932 ◆ H. Schärer, Die Gottesidee der Ngadju-Dajak in Süd-Borneo, 1946 ◆ B. ter Haar, Adat Law in Indonesia, 1948 ◆ J. Prins, Adatrecht en islamitische Plichtenleer in Indonesië, 1948 ◆ C. Geertz, The Religion of Java, 1960 ◆ R.O. Winstedt, The Malays, 61961 ◆ F.L. Cooley, Ambonese Adat, 1962 ◆ L. Schreiner, Adat und Evangelium, 1972 ◆ J.E. Garang, Adat und Gesellschaft, 1974 ◆ J.F. Holleman, Van Vollenhoven on Indonesian Adat Law, 1981 ◆ W. Kraus, Zwischen Reform und Rebellion, 1984 ◆ M. Woodward, Islam in Java, 1990. Olaf Schumann

Addams, Jane (Sep 6, 1860, Cedarville, IL – May 21, 1935, Chicago), social reformer, humanist, and leader of the → peace movement. With the opening of Hull House in Chicago in 1889 Addams founded the Settlement House Movement, an initiative to establish social centers in the big cities. She campaigned for women’s voting rights and worked in the pacifistic women’s movement. Addams wrote many works on social ethics and set up a campaign for the legislative reform of factory labor laws. In 1931 she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Works include: Twenty Years at Hull House, 1910. Margaret Lamberts Bendroth

Addiction → Drug and Alcohol Addiction Adelard of Bath. This English translator and natural philosopher was a → Benedictine, who lived between 1070 and 1160 and was probably from Bath, to which he returned in 1130; he studied in Tours, probably taught in Laon, and undertook extensive journeys in the Mediterranean region, where he became acquainted with Arab science. His chief merit consists in his mediation of ancient and Arab natural philosophy of Antiquity to the → West. He translated Euclid’s Elements, the introduction to astrology by Abu Mashar, and the astronomical tables of al-Khwarizmi from the Arabic into Latin. In his own writings, such as De eodem et diverso, he presented the foundations of his metaphysics that sought to accommodate → Plato with → Aristotle on the question of universals, and in the Quaestiones naturales he presented his natural philosophy. Thus, he gave impetus to the development of scientific thought in England. C. Burnett, Adelard of Bath, 1987 ◆ L. Cochrane, Adelard of Bath: The First English Scientist, 1994. Reinhold Rieger

Ādi Granth. This Ādi Granth is the holy scripture of the Sikhs (→ Sikhism), also called Gurū-Granth.

54 The standard version (see below) is titled Ādi Srī Gurū Granth Sāhibjī, “The guru in first position in the form of the book.” He was appointed by the 10th and final guru, Gobind Singh (period of office: 1675–1708), to continue the human succession of gurus since its founder, Nānak (1469–1539) and as the ultimate authority of the office. Based on material already collected by the third guru (2nd half of 16th cent.), Arjan, the fifth guru, ordered the first version, which was completed in 1604 and used in the ritual at the main sanctuary in → Amritsar. The standard version (Damdamā version), recognized as authoritative today, was produced by the ninth guru (2nd half of 17th cent.), who added additional material. A third version, the “Banno version,” is considered invalid. The standard text has 1430 pages and its language is a combination of variants of Western Hindi and Punjābi in the Gurmukhi-script. The texts represent hymnic and lyric poetry. Apart from the liturgical beginning (1–13) and the section of short articles (1353–1430) it is divided into chapters according to rāgas, “tonal pitch,” and follows a consistent arrangement within the chapters. The Ādi Granth contains works of gurus 1–5 and 9, as well as texts of the so-called Bhagats, i.e. → Bhakti writers of the pre-Nānak era and of the Sufi master Shaikh Farīd ud-Dīn. The Ādi Granth attracts religious respect just like a living guru. The entire cult takes place in its presence. Ādi Srī Gurū Granth Sāhibjī, Amritsar, n.d. ◆ W.O. Cole & P.S. Sambhi, The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 41978 ◆ W.H. McLeod, transl. and ed., Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism, 1984 ◆ Sri Guru-Granth Sahib; ET: Gopal Singh, 4 vols., 1984 ◆ Sri Guru-Granth Sahib; ET: Gurbachan Sigh Talib, 4 vols., 1984–1990. Monika Horstmann

Adiaphora I. Philosophy – II. Theology – III. Social Ethics

The expression (Gk ἀδιάϕορα; semantic equivalents: intermediates, Gk μέση, mesē-, that which is permitted) designates phenomena of human life that are neither positive (good, bonum) nor negative (evil, malum) in the ethical realm (i.e. with regard to the attainment of human destiny). In the strict sense, then, adiaphora occur only in ethical systems whose guiding understanding of humanity knows phenomena that are external to human essence and destiny. This is evident in the classical discourse of philosophy, theology, and today in social ethics. I. Philosophy Owing to their concept of humanity, the → Stoics were the first to pose the question of adiaphora: the nature of a human being is self-control in rational behavior, his or her destiny is that kind of eudaimonia (→ Eudaemonism) that appears as the self-sufficiency of rational self-control (→ Autarchy). Animal nature does not belong to the

55 nature and destiny of a human being. All the goods and ills of this realm are adiaphora. Acts of rational choice are oriented only toward moral goods. Those things that are physically preferable are recognized and chosen by moral perception and inclination. Disadvantages of this position include: life is no longer unified, reason no longer the sole designer of life. These consequences are avoided when the rational choice of the moral good includes the decision concerning the moral use of the physical good/ill. From Chrysippus on, all middle and later Stoics argued thus. Then, the relationship of the rational life to the physical good/ill becomes the central theme; and especially the relationship of reason, as a moral norm, to animal nature: the control of the former over the latter. The following leads to the immoral reversal of this relationship: the predominance of the senses and the influence of public opinion on the as yet uneducated person. They are to be overcome by an education that strengthens the Logos. → Boethius transmitted this problem on to the ethics of a later period. I. → Kant maintained, in view of the exclusivity of the alternative between the moral and the immoral relationship between the dictates of reason and particular willing, that no life phenomenon can be an adiaphoron. In fact, however, he only showed that no life phenomenon can fall in a morally indifferent place, but he did not show that, in the moral or immoral spheres, several acts cannot be equally good or bad. This could only be excluded if the moral requirement pertained to the content of the individual act. The related anthropological assumption is that, in a certain respect, human physicality no longer counts as morally relevant, but in other respects is set aside. Only a view of personhood that includes physis and logos as equally original and essential can help solve the problem. II. Theology Such a concept of humanity is essential for Christian faith. Its fundamental ontological distinction regarding persons is not physis/logos, but opus Dei/opus hominum – the distinction between the freedom of the creator (the gracious objective toward which his will and work lead the world and humanity) and the freedom of the human being (the objectives that one’s free will and work pursue). This distinction does not fall in the human life, but encompasses it as the totality of the free life of corporeal persons. Therefore, the NT does not discuss life phenomena that are not determined by God’s objectives, his will and work, as “adiaphora,” but as realms and manifestations of creaturely freedom which lives either in the darkness of its absence, or in the light of knowledge (disclosed through the revelation in Christ) of the creator’s will and his demands on human beings. Its orientation with respect to the inner norm of true understanding – distorted by blindness or disclosed by revelation – of existence determines the moral goodness/badness of

Adiaphora a behavior, not its external conformity with external norms and their casuistry. The NT objection to the casuistry of individual rules (e.g. Mark 2:18–3:12; Matt 23; Rom 14:17–21) does not express consciousness of “adiaphoria,” but consciousness of the freedom of faith grounded in its inner ties with certainty-through-revelation. If and to the degree that this inner orientation of faith by ontological certainty concerning God’s will and demand is replaced with external orientation by external norms, the concept of adiaphora, of what is permitted, together with the ensuing problems, become apparent again: in the Early Church in → Tertullian (cf. Cor. 2), → Clement of Alexandria (e.g. Stromata IV 26,164,4), → Origen (Cels. V 36; Comm. in Ep. ad Rom. IV 9; Hom. in Num. XVI 7; Comm. in Ioann. XX 55.220), → Lactantius (Inst.), → Basil the Great, → Ambrose, and John → Cassian. Indeed, → Augustine was aware of the exclusivity of the alternative of a behavior in the state of sin or in the state of grace (Ep. 82.13), but within the state of grace, on the other hand, adiaphora are not excluded. The Scholastic distinction between praecepta and consilia (→ Counsels of Perfection) also presumes this, as does the doctrine of the opera supererogatoria. In contrast, Luther returned to the NT understanding of the morality of faith as an inner motivation and as the orientation of the exercise of freedom exclusively by the certainty of faith concerning God’s will and commandment. There is no evidence that this left open a realm for adiaphora for the individual in Luther’s eyes. The requirement “To praise God and help one’s neighbor” covered behavior in individual cases. All historical arrangements of communal life and their norms are, for Luther, human products and variable, but as such they are not adiaphora. They are required by the morality of faith and are to be evaluated with respect to their utility in light of its motivating and orienting certainty. The order of the church and that of worship are free to be shaped by faith in inner orientation to its certainty, but they are not adiaphora. The first generation after Luther already misunderstood this: in the “first → Adiaphorist Controversy” proponents and opponents of the → Augsburg Interim started from the assumption that, in the realm of the external arrangement of worship, there are always adiaphora and – in the Stoic tradition – that the criterion of their moral treatment is the meaning that the pertinent custom has for the individual by virtue of intention and that it can acquire for a third party by virtue of contextual incorporation. The basis of Christian ethics – i.e. its understanding of human existence, the freedom of faith, and of its fundamental norm – impacted, then, the “second Adiaphorist Controversy” conducted from 1682 (the criticism of the opera by the chief pastors of Hamburg) until the first decades of the 18th century. Here, the issue was the goods (pleasures, enjoyments) of cor-

Adiaphorist Controversy poral life, society and art in the salvation-oriented course of a Christian’s life. The conceptual framework was the opinion, established following the first Adiaphorist Controversy, that there are realms of behavior that are per se neither good nor evil, but always become so in individual cases on the basis of intention and/or circumstances (e.g. B. → Meisner, Philosophia sobria I 5.2 c. 4). On this basis – and under the influence of Calvinist “precision” – representatives of → Pietism, i.e. Joachim → Lange (Antibarbarus orthodoxiae), but also P. J. → Spener (Theologische Bedenken II, 484) argued that the pursuit of such corporal, social, esthetic goods could only be sin. For God’s will requires exclusive devotion to God, and encompases the entirety of faith in the manner of direct commandments for individual cases. Consequently, every act not intended directly to honor God or to further one’s piety or the piety of another is sin. The orthodox defense, by V.E. → Löscher (Timotheus Verinus, ch. 8), for example, objected against this view that there is no explicit divine prohibition against such behavior. The concept of existence of both sides, therefore, knew of realms of life to which per se no meaning for the attainment of human destiny can be assigned, and both sides conceived of the external regulation of the life of faith; beyond this, the Halle side also conceived of the inner restriction by direct divine commandment for the individual case. The distance from the biblical and Reformation understanding of the morality of faith based on inner restrictions is obvious. – Only F. → Schleiermacher (“Über den Begriff des Erlaubten,” Sämtliche Werke III/2, 418–445) radically destroyed the concept of the adiaphora as a failure of the principle doctrine of ethics, namely its understanding of humanity. He, too, started from the exclusivity of the alternatives between moral and immoral in the total makeup of the human being in the hierarchical relationship between “lower” and “higher nature.” He defined this difference, however, no longer as that between physis and logos, but between relationship to the world (a sphere of relative freedom and dependence) and relationship to God (a sphere of outright dependence). Immoral is the relationship of the dominance of the relationship to the world over the relationship to God; the reverse is moral. Because the relationship to the world and the relationship to God were originally combined in the relationship to self, there is no realm of existence that per se falls outside life under the ethical alternatives; and by virtue of the always unique coexistence of world- and God-relationship, every act stands for every individual under the exclusive alternative of corresponding to one’s individual destiny or not. – This radical critique had effect in Protestant theology. Without regard to schools – into the 20th century, even in K. → Barth (KD IV/1, 533) – the concept of adiaphora is rejected. The only topics still under discussion are how the awareness of the inner binding will

56 of God is constituted, the extent to which, in individual instances, knowledge of one’s individual destiny reaches, and whether rest also stands under the ethical alternative (W. → Herrmann, Gottschick). III. Social Ethics After the individual ethical destruction of adiaphora, structurally equivalent claims concerning indifference returned at the end of the 19th century with the thesis of the “autonomy” either of the entire social realm or of some of its arenas (e.g. business, science). The anthropological assumption was the (neo-Kantian) failure to recognize that the Christian understanding of the essence and destiny of human beings includes sociality. Two forms of the claim of indifference occur: (a) The human being is not responsible for the development of the social order, but only for leading one’s own life. It can be objected that the regulation of communal life is also the consequence of interaction. Its moral – in the Christian case: oriented by certainty concerning the will and commandment of God – performance is, in all realms, the first and necessary condition for beneficial development of relationships. (b) The relationships achieved – the results of interaction – did not themselves decide what use individuals made of them. Nevertheless, the exercise of human freedom always takes place under social conditions that hamper or encourage its morality. The results of all interaction stand under these alternatives, even in business and science. J. Gottschick, RE3 I, 1896, 168–179 ◆ M. Pohlenz, Die Stoa, 2 vols., 1948f. ◆ W. Trillhaas, “Adiaphora,” ThLZ 79, 1954, 457–462 ◆ J. Habermas, Wissenschaft und Technik als Ideologie, 1968 ◆ idem, Erkenntnis und Interesse, 1971; ET: Knowledge and Human Interests, 1971 ◆ G. Maurach, HWP I, 1971, 83–85 ◆ M. Honecker, Einführung in die Theologische Ethik, 1990, 314– 326 ◆ D. Lange, Ethik in evangelischer Perspektive, 1992, 90, 112, 374. Eilert Herms

Adiaphorist Controversy. Adiaphoron (ἀδιάϕορον), in the context of the Adiaphorist Controversy, indicates the assessment of the requirements laid upon the Protestants after their defeat in the Schmalkaldic War by the → Augsburg Interim of 1548: the reintroduction of organizational elements from liturgy and church law that had fallen by the wayside or come under suspicion with the Reformation, to be instituted as a means of anti-Reformation religious policy. The problem of these organizational elements had already occupied Saxon-Albertine theology since 1543. The conflict that resulted in the Adiaphorist Controversy took on essential elements of a dispute concerning political ethics and dealt with the question of whether the requirements were irrelevant. With a view to the situation in the state, Melanchthon and several of his friends in Albertine Saxony aimed at a compromise, while

57 seeking to avoid conceding anything in the Confession. M. → Flacius along with some of the younger generation of theologians, followed the principle: “nihil est adiaphoron in casu confessionis et scandali,” which also found a hearing among Albertine theologians. The Adiaphorist Controversy was the cause of the conflict between → Gnesio-Lutheran and Philippists that dominated the three subsequent decades among adherents to the → Augsburg Confession. The Formula of → Concord affirmed the theological principle of Flacius. W. Trillhaas, “Adiaphoron: Erneute Erwägung eines alten Begriffs,” ThLZ 79, 1954, 457–462 ◆ G. Wartenberg, “Philipp Melanchthon und die sächsisch-albertinische Interimspolitik,” LuJ 55, 1988, 60–82. Ernst Koch

Adler, Alfred (Feb 7, 1870, Vienna – May 28, 1937, Aberdeen), of Jewish parentage, converted to Protestantism in 1904; physician, psychotherapist, social educationalist, and professor of clinical psychology; beside C.G. → Jung , one of the most important students of S. → Freud, who, with his (socio-psychologically and socio-medically oriented) “individual psychology” formed a depth psychology school independent from psychoanalysis. He did not interpret neuroses causally and in the framework of Freudian libido theory, but characterologically in the context of individual “lifestyle” and finally as an expression of the “feeling of inferiority”; he saw the goal of therapy in the development of a “feeling of community.” The status as psychological science of Adler’s theory, which was created consciously as a generally understandable “knowledge of humankind” is still disputed today. Adler’s attention to religion occurred late and remained marginal. Reception of his work among theologians led in particular to the pastoral care movement in the USA after World War II. Works include: Studie über Minderwertigkeit von Organen, 1907; ET: A Study of Organ Inferiority, 1917 ◆ Über den nervösen Charakter, 1912 ◆ Praxis und Theorie der Individualpsychologie, 1920; ET: The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology, 1927 ◆ On Adler: E. John & A. Adler, Religion und Individualpsychologie, 1933, repr. 1975 ◆ R. Dreikurs, Grundbegriffe der Individualpsychologie, 1969; ET: Fundamentals of Adlerian Psychology, 1985 ◆ P. Bottome, Alfred Adler: A Portrait from Life, 1957 ◆ H. & R. Ansbacher, The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, 1964 ◆ J. Ellerbrock, Alfred Adlers Psychologie als Interpretament christlicher Überlieferung, 1985 ◆ J. Rattner, Tiefenpsychologie und Religion, 1987 ◆ H. Mosak, A Primer of Adlerian Psychology, 1999. Hans-Günter Heimbrock

Adler, Felix (Aug 13, 1851, Alzey – Apr 24, 1933, New York), social and educational reformer who also worked for religious reform. After earning his doctorate at Heidelberg in 1873, Adler rejected theism and in 1876 founded in America the “New York Society for Ethical Culture,” in which he sought to develop an ethi-

Administration cal philosophy that would serve as a foundation for concrete social reforms. He became a professor of political and social ethics at Columbia University. F. Adler, An Ethical Philosophy of Life, 1918 ◆ On Adler: B. Kraut, From Reform Judaism to Ethical Culture, 1979. Benny Kraut

Adler, Jakob Georg Christian (Dec 8, 1756, Arnis, Schleswig – Aug 22, 1834, Giekau, Holstein), studied theology and Middle Eastern languages in Kiel, Bützow, Rostock, and Copenhagen. In 1780–1782 he began text-critical research on Greek and Middle Eastern manuscripts of the Bible in European libraries, including Rome. In 1783 he became professor of Syriac, in 1788 of theology, in 1789 the German court chaplain in Copenhagen, in 1792 the general superintendent of Schleswig and in 1806 also of Holstein. In 1797 Adler, a moderate philosopher of the Enlightenment who was open to reform, introduced a uniform, rationalistic agenda against the resistance of the churches. Adler’s reform of the school system and his efforts to professionalize teaching were more successful. List of works in: H. Ehrencron-Müller, Forfatterlexikon omfattende Danmark, Norge og Island, 1, 1924, 64–67 ◆ On Adler: G. Bickell, ADB I, 1875, 85–86 ◆ H. Striedl, NDB I, 1953, 70 ◆ W. Göbell, “Jakob Georg Christian Adler,” ZGSHG 82, 1958, 268–276 ◆ D. Reichert, “Untersuchungen zur Adlerschen Agende von 1798,” SSHKG 2/36, 1980, 27–60 ◆ J. Alwast, “Die Aufklärungszeit,” Schleswig-Holsteinische Kirchengeschichte 5, 1989, 28f., 39–42 ◆ W. Göbell, Biographisches Lexikon für Schleswig-Holstein, V, 1989, 15–20. Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen

Administration I. Bible – II. History – III. Law – IV. Church Administration – V. Ethics

I. Bible 1. In Israel and Judah. From the 10th into the 8th century bce, only a rudimentary administration can be assumed in Israel and Judah in comparison to → Egypt and → Mesopotamia. State income was basically produced by the royal demesne, which at the time of → Hezekiah supplied provisions for fortresses (royal seal). The royal demesne was under the control of a major-domo or steward (’šr al hbyt; 1 Kgs 4:6, passim; epigraphic evidence in ReRö II, 113f.; in a private household: Gen 43:16, passim). The designation of the official as a “servant” (‘bd, “slave”) of the king reveals that these functionaries were members of his oíkos. Taxes were levied through corvée or compulsory labor, for which the corvée steward was responsible (’šr ‘l hms; 2 Sam 20:24, passim; epigraphic evidence in ReRö II, 114). The military administration included the fortress governor (´sr h‘r; 2 Kgs 10:5, passim; ReRö II, 114) and the officers of the standing army (a commander-in-chief is attested only for the early

Administration period for the states of Israel and Judah, 2 Sam 20:23; 1 Kgs 4:4). The “herald” (mzkr; 1 Kgs 4:3, passim) occupied an office at the court; the “governors” of → Solomon (1 Kgs 4:7–19) were not officials in the technical sense. → “Scribes,” i.e. administrative officials, could be found not only at the court and in municipal (self-) administration (Gezer Calendar, early 9th cent. bce), but soon also in the service of magnates, as attested by the 8th-century Samaritan Ostraca (delivery receipts to the nobility residing at court from their estates). On seals, these “private officials” are designated not as ‘bd PN (“slave of PN”), but as n‘r, “squire” of PN (ReRö II, 113). In the 7th century bce, a scribe is also assigned to a relatively small contingent of Judean forced laborers at the Egyptian-controlled coast (MĕÂsad Óăšavyāhū Ostracon), while another is stationed in → Arad (with a garrison of 50 men at most). Fiscal stamps now regularly attest tithes or dues (mks) of the local community to the state (ReRö II, 417–422). The expanding centralization and bureaucratization of → Judah can now be discerned in the sharp rise in the number of preserved written witnesses. 2. Persian and Hellenistic Period. A “governor” (Aram. pē˙ā, Gk [Persian] satrápēs) can be the governor of Babylon and the trans-Euphrates as well as a governor of → Samaria, Yehud, Idumea (Edom), Dedan, or Tema. Dues were paid into the local “treasury” (bēt ginzē malkā), from which primarily the local administration was remunerated (cf. Ezra 6:4; 7:20; Neh 5:14–18). Coins were also struck locally during the 4th century bce (in Samaria, Yehud, → Ashkelon, → Ashdod, and → Gaza). The military administration granted “archer-,” “horse-,” and “chariot-fiefs” (whence presumably the place names Beth-Marcaboth and Hazar-Susah; Josh 19:5). The head tax (Neh 5:4) prevented subsistence farming. The Ptolemies (→ Ptolemaic Dynasty) based the → economy (III, 3) completely on money (as late as the 4th cent. bce, the smallest coin was the approximate equivalent of 20 euros [2005 value]) and increased the tax burden to over 60% of agricultural income through head, property, consumer, and special taxes. To make tax collection more cost-efficient, tax tenancy was introduced through which generally a local tax collector (Gk telōnē s) provided the advance for the tax income for a relatively large area and was then at great liberty to take advantage of taxpayers. The → Seleucids generously granted cities the status of a pólis, i.e. the right to self-administration by the local upper class according to the Greek model and simultaneously also jurisdiction over the surrounding area. Sophisticated exploitation of local rivalries filled the state’s coffers with money from bribery. 3. Roman Period. By adopting the Seleucid system, the Romans were able to get by with sending out only a mini-

58 mum of administrative officials. The patrician Quirinius (→ Quirinius, Publius Sulpicius) (Luke 2:2), proconsul (NRSV: governor) of Syria in 6/7 ce, had authority over “free” cities such as those of the → Decapolis (selfadministered, including the right to strike copper coins), the remaining Herodian and Nabatean vassal states (with their own coinage, legal jurisdiction, and military/police, cf. Matt 8:5), and finally Judea (→ Palestine) under a procurator from the estate of princes (Matt 27; Luke 3:1; Acts 3:13; 23:24–24:27; 24:27–26:32). The New Testament distinguishes between tetrarchs, vassal princes (Matt 14:1, passim), and vassal kings (Matt 2:1; 14:9, passim), though not between legates/proconsuls and procurators/prefects – both of whom are called hegemōn. On 1.: H.M. Niemann, Herrschaft, Königtum und Staat, FAT 6, 1993 ◆ idem, “Megiddo und Solomon,” Tel Aviv 27, 2000, 61–74 ◆ N. Sacher Fox, In the Service of the King. Officialdom in Ancient Israel and Judah, MHUC 23, 2000 ◆ On 2.: K.G. Hoglund, Achaemenid Imperial Administration in Syria-Palestine and the Missions of Ezra and Nehemiah, SBL.DS 125, 1992 ◆ R. Albertz, “Zur Wirtschaftspolitik des Perserreiches,” in: idem, Geschichte und Theologie, BZAW 326, 2003, 335–357 ◆ On 3.: B. Isaac, “Roman Administration and Urbanization,” in: A. Kasher, U. Rappaport, U. Fuks, ed., Greece and Rome in Eretz Israel, 1990, 151–159 ◆ A.K. Bowman, “Provincial Administration and Taxation,” CAH 10, 21996, 344–370 ◆ E. Badian, Zöllner und Sünder. Unternehmer im Dienst der römischen Republik, 1997. Ernst Axel Knauf

II. History 1. Developmentally, administration in the broad sense represents a specific form of activity that focuses on the ongoing, planned execution of goal-oriented, purposive tasks within a given organizational framework. “Administration” applies to such entities as the empire, country, → city, manorial estate, → guild, → university, and church (see IV below), but also to legal unions such as the → family, → house, and company. The transition between such entities and private administration, by a lord, etc. can be fluid, e.g. between the house of a prince and the territorial administration or between the patrician company and the city administration. Whereas especially after the separation of private and public law the forms of nonprofessional administration were absorbed in institutions provided by private law such as → marriage, guardianship, (commercial) companies, those of professional administration developed into a separate, independent legal institution focused on comprehensive responsibility for public tasks. Essential components for these forms include the “→ office” with responsibilities shaped either by specific tasks and/or locale, entities for written record keeping (chancellery), a legal foundation, and increasingly also jurists as legally trained officials. During the Middle Ages, this foundation constitutes the difference between the office (officium) and the kind of generalpersonal service associated with princes (servitum); as

59 inchoate as the latter was, it was not really part of administration. Just as judges, municipal scribes, tax collectors, and even the territorial prince were viewed as offices, the administration proper encompassed “adjudication,” the keeping of municipal records, and legislation “by virtue of the princely office.” From a different perspective: the means employed by this comprehensive administration included legislation, justice, and other activities on behalf of the polity. This understanding in concurrence with the diverse offices brought about the depersonalization of → dominion (III) on the way toward understanding the polity or community itself as an institution. As early as the late Middle Ages, regional and local offices of the territorial prince or even of the landed estates were already divorced from personal service at the royal or princely court itself for the purposes, e.g. of tax levying. The development came about most enduringly with the administrative reforms at the beginning of modernity in the empire and particularly in the territories. The establishment of such (overall) administration in the empire was also aided by its character as an electoral monarchy. The imperial supreme court – far from the royal court itself – and later the imperial diet directory, which was also separate from the court, and the imperial chancellery and imperial council together formed the self-assured imperial bureaucracy. In the territories themselves, these institutions were reflected in the corresponding court advisory council, chancellery, courts and chambers, and military council. Even though these authorities brought about a further differentiation within the (overall) administration – visible, for instance, in the imperial supreme court as a judicial authority or in the court financial administration – this development did not yet actualize the later notion of a balance of power (→ Powers, Separation of ), since the court councils and regional councils were still authorities associated with fiefs, the court, and (in the narrower sense) administration; regional government, for instance of the Habsburg monarchy (→ Habsburgs), functioned both as court and (in the narrower sense) as administrative authorities, and the court military council in Vienna was in part also responsible for foreign policy. The expansion of state services resulted in an expansion of the concept of administration as well; alongside the “administration of the worldly government” one also finds that “of the spiritual government” (Seckendorff, Teutscher Fürsten Staat, 1656, 71737, 75, 301), while → Frederick II, the Great spoke, among other things, of the “administration de la justice,” “des domains,” and “des finances.” This expansion concurs with the early-modern concept of the “police” as the comprehensive service provided to the “polity” by the authorities. 2. It was precisely the reforms of enlightened → absolutism, however, that altered the concept of administration. Although from the 16th century “courts and law,” i.e.

Administration legal jurisdiction and legislation, had emerged as specific means of maintaining the law, they were still viewed as an instrument of general administration. Johann Joachim Becher’s (1635–1682) five uppermost “collegia” not only made distinctions with regard to different service areas, but in addition to various other administrative departments also included a “judicium.” The influence of → natural rights and the → Enlightenment, however, prompted a differentiation according to specific fields of activity. Because → natural law and state law constituted the foundations of the various activities carried out by professional authorities, a sphere of legislation was separated from those activities, particularly the monopoly of the monarch. The same took place with the assignment of private (→ Civil Law) and penal law (→ Penal Code) to courts with their particular freedom of directive. The “state administration,” in this new understanding, was now restricted to the third sphere of activity, the administration of law by authorities subject to instructions from above. The spheres of legal jurisdiction and administration were further differentiated by the nature of the → law in question: on the one hand, the laws of justice deriving from the great codices with claims to eternal validity; on the other hand, the almost limitless mass of changing political laws. These were the subject of the two scholarly branches of polity legal studies as carried out by → legal positivism and polity studies with a focus on political law. 3. In the constitutions of the constitutional monarchies beginning in the period of the Confederation of the Rhine, legislation, administration, and legal jurisdiction constituted the elements of the balance of power through which the exercise of state power by monarch and people was organized. Although the administration was viewed as a power subject only to the monarch, within the framework of the realization of the idea of the → rule of law its hierarchy of officials and official channels, its dependence on the law (principle of legality), and finally also its administrative jurisdiction imposed an element of independence on it facilitating the later transition to Republican systems. Through interaction with the administration associated with the rule of law within the state, from 1850 an independent legal discipline of administrative law emerged alongside civil and penal law, as did a corresponding systematic scholarly discipline of administrative law, which replaced polity legal studies and polity studies as such. The scholarly and conceptual organization of administrative studies, however, was made more difficult by the enormous variety of specialized spheres involved. In any event, a distinction should be made between the spheres of higher administration and service administration. 4. Alongside the state administration proper, during the early 19th century from within city and estate rule, but

Administration also from within guilds and universities, various forms of self-administration developed in which the earlier, more comprehensive understanding of administration lives on to the extent that it encompasses not only normative tasks (legislation in the material sense), for instance through local ordinances, but also their implementation and enforcement. K.G. Jeserich, H. Pohl & G.-C. v. Unruh, eds., Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte, 6 vols., 1983–1988 ◆ M. Stolleis, Geschichte des öffentlichen Rechts in Deutschland, 3 vols., 1988–1999 ◆ R. Koselleck et al., GGB VII, 1992, 1–96 ◆ W. Brauneder, Studien, vol. I: Entwicklung des öffentlichen Rechts, 1994 ◆ T. Simon, LMA VIII, 1997, 1594–1596 ◆ G. Dilcher, “Verwaltung II: Städte,” HDRG V, 1998, 871–875 ◆ D. Willoweit, “Verwaltung I: Reich und Territorien,” ibid., 864–871. Wilhelm Brauneder

III. Law 1. The Legal concept. Legal terminology uses the term “public administration” in the material sense to refer to a specific part of the fulfillment of public services, then also in the organizational sense to refer to all organizational entities established for the sake of providing such services, and finally in the formal sense to refer to all administrative activities associated with the organizational sense. The legal definition of the term “administration” in the material sense involves various normative and descriptive elements. Normative elements include the differentiation from the state functions of → legislation and adjudication in the legal scheme of a division of powers (→ Powers, Separation of ). It is described negatively as state activity apart from legislation and adjudication, and positively as “the implementation of the affairs of the community and its members as such, implementation which is multifarious, conditionally determined or merely purposeoriented, and to that extent heteronomous, in the form of planning within a partial focus, and of executive and creative decisions, by functionaries of the community being appointed for that purpose” (Wolff & Bachof, vol. I, §2, marginal no. 19). 2. Organization. The proper subject of state administration is borne by the state as juridical person; besides this, there is indirect state administration with the right of selfadministration exercised by the bodies, institutions, and foundations incorporated under public law, especially local communities (→ Communities: IX ). The smallest organizational unit is the → office (VIII). Organizational principles include bureaucracy (for rationalism in the administration) and hierarchy (for legitimation). 3. Forms of action. An administration acts primarily in the forms of public law by means of the administrative act (authoritative regulation of an individual case directed at having an immediate external legal effect), administrative contracts, informal acts, and – in the form of parliamentary ordinances and statutes – by executive legislation on

60 the basis of parliamentary authorization. An administration can also act in the form of private civil law. 4. Legality. The activities of an administration are bound to the principle of law and to → laws and legislation (V). They are subject to the authority of the law. Any intervention in the law on the part of an administration requires parliamentary authorization (prerogative of the law). The legal exemption once granted to administrative action is no longer recognized; this applies not only to measures affecting citizens (external legal relationships) but also to internal procedures (internal legal relationships). Where the law allows for more than one option, the administration is empowered to use its own discretion, within the limits set by law and in accordance with its mandate. The legality of an administrative act is subject to judicial checks; anyone who can show that his/her rights have been infringed by the administration is entitled to → legal protection by the court. 5. Democratic legitimation. In a → democracy, the executive authority of the administration ultimately derives from the people. In a parlimentary system of government an administration derives its legitimation from the elected representatives of the people: in terms of personnel, through an unbroken chain of responsibility from the lower echelons to the parliamentary government itself; in terms of policy, mainly through the subordination of administrative decisions to the precedence and restrictions of parliamentary law, but also through the executive hierarchy installed by the government, which is again answerable to parliament. H.J. Wolff, O. Bachof et al., Verwaltungsrecht, vol. I, 111999; vol. II, 62000; vol. III, 52004. Michael Germann

IV. Church Administration 1. History. The history of church administration is part of the history of → church polity. What is included in the modern concept of administration and what is distinguished from other ecclesiastical functions was historically subsumed under the more comprehensive notions of → ecclesiastical authority, and → church governance. If one traces back to the early church that particular sphere of ecclesiastical activity covered today by “administration,” one will likely end up at the office of the → diaconate with its tasks associated with assistance in worship services and charitable tasks. Under a monepiscopate, church administration is the sphere of episcopal → jurisdiction. At the same time, it is also subject to the jurisdictional primacy of the pope and its implementation by the officials of the → Roman Curia. Over the course of the Middle Ages, the administrative unit of the bishopric or diocese became differentiated in various ways. The decentralization of church estates into → parishes, → cathedral chapters, and → monasteries (II) resulted in a corresponding decentralization of the

61 concomitant administrative tasks. Up to the 13th century, bishops lost important jurisdictional authority to → archdeacons, who exercised such jurisdiction in their stead, but were usually appointed by the → chapter. The medieval view of administrative authority as monetary privilege permitted such authority to be transferred to secular territorial rulers as well. Beginning in the 13th century, bishops with the help of their own officials, especially their vicars, → vicar generals and → judicial vicars, were able to regain some of their authority. The Reformation could have continued the assignment of ecclesiastical administrative power to the bishop, albeit on a fundamentally different basis, namely, that of the ius humanum. Because the bishops declined, however, the Protestant territorial rulers incorporated into their own sphere the responsibility for the vacant episcopal jurisdiction, including ecclesiastical administration. To this end, they established → consistories as special authorities within their territorial ecclesiastical authority consisting of canonists and theologians. In their relationship with the general administration associated with the emergent modern state, these consistories initially enjoyed a fair measure of independence, a situation reflecting a consciousness of the special status and limitations of the authority of the territorial ruler (→ Three Estates Doctrine, → Episcopalism : I). Soon, however, the absolutistic understanding of the state in the sense of → territorialism made it necessary to view the ecclesiastical administration and the consistories as organs of the administrative state apparatus. → Collegialism, with its renewed distinction between the → ius in sacra and the ius circa sacra, then introduced a theoretical distinction between collegial selfadministration of the church and the administration of the state. In the 19th century, the status of consistories was fundamentally altered. Until that time, they had gradually forfeited virtually all their authority to the general state administration. In some states – notably → Prussia in 1809 – they were even temporarily suspended. After being revivified, reshaped or reconstituted later, they became the central officials of ecclesiastical selfadministration (→ Church authorities). There is some justification in seeing here the beginning of the history of modern Protestant church administration (Maurer). The consistories gradually became independent from the state administration and ultimately were subject directly to the territorial ruler in his status – from the perspective of ecclesiastical law and separate from his status with the state at large – as the summepiscopate (→ Summepiscopate of the territorial ruler). It remained characteristic of the → state church that consistory officials were also state officials. → Synods joined the consistories as deliberative organs of the ecclesiastical self-administration, and

Administration shared especially, through synodal committees, responsibility for ecclesiastical administration. The constitutions of the → regional churches, which after 1919 were formally released from ecclesiastical state status and allowed self-determination, distinguished more sharply between ecclesiastical administration and church leadership. It was now primarily the synods that rose in status to become those responsible for church leadership. The consistories, now frequently called “regional church offices” or something similar, embodied the continuity, professionalism, and legal integrity of the ecclesiastical administration. When in 1933 the → Deutsche Christen, who had National Socialist leanings, managed to become part of the church leadership in most of the Protestant regional churches, they were able to exploit the “church-policy neutrality” of these church administrations to their own purposes. The experiences of the Kirchenkampf (→ National Socialism: I) continued to echo in the frightening image of a “church led by jurists” and after 1945 prompted the development of several church constitutions that tried, with theologically motivated rigor, to subordinate the ecclesiastical administration to synodal and episcopal church leadership. In contrast, the principle was soon implemented according to which the legal and spiritual leadership and administration in the church is to be conducted in “inalienable unity” (thus, e.g. article 89.2 of the “Grundordnung der Evangelischen Kirche von Kurhessen-Waldeck,” 1967). R. Smend, “Die Konsistorien in Geschichte und heutiger Bewertung,” ZEvKR 10, 1963/64, 134–143 ◆ W. Maurer, “Verwaltung und Kirchenleitung,” in: FS E. Ruppel, ed. H. Brunotte, K. Müller & R. Smend, 1968, 105–128, = in: idem, Die Kirche und ihr Recht, ed. G. Müller, G. Seebass, 1976, 526–553 ◆ H.E. Feine, Kirchliche Rechtsgeschichte: die katholische Kirche, 51972 ◆ W. Reinhard, “Die Verwaltung der Kirche,” in K.G.A. Jeserich, H. Pohl & G.-C. v. Unruh, eds., Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte, vol. I, 1983, 143–176 ◆ D. Willoweit, “Das landesherrliche Kirchenregiment,” in: ibid., 361–369 ◆ C. Link, “Die Entwicklung des Verhältnisses von Staat und Kirche,” in: ibid., vol. III, 1984, 527–559, = idem, Staat und Kirche in der neueren deutschen Geschichte, 2000, 49–97 ◆ A. v. Campenhausen, “Kirchenleitung,” ZEvKR 29, 1984, 11–34, = in: idem, GS, ed. J.E. Christoph et al., JusEcc 50, 1995, 27– 49 ◆ T. Barth, Elemente und Typen landeskirchlicher Leitung, JusEcc 53, 1995 (bibl.) ◆ H. de Wall, “Die Verselbständigung der evangelischen Konsistorien in Preußen und Bayern im 19. Jahrhundert als Schritt zu kirchlicher Unabhängigkeit,” in: Staat und Kirchen in Westeuropa in verwaltungshistorischer Perspektive (19./20.Jh.), ed. J.C.N. Raadschelders, Jahrbuch für Europäische Verwaltungsgeschichte, 14, 2002, 151–169. Michael Germann

2. Practical Theology. Church administration is the subject of practical theology under the rubric of → cybernetics (III), demonstrating that administration is to be viewed as being closely related to community and church leadership. This relationship should not,

Administration however, obscure the primary task of church administration, namely, to fulfill the church’s own proclamatory commission. This central task of administrative church action coincides with the current view that administrative church offices are also service providers. Church constitutions generally assign responsibility for church administration to the leading organs of the church organization level in question, with the local church council bearing responsibility for the orderly administration, e.g. of all matters relating to personnel, finance, and construction. Responsibility for the administration of a church district, → parish/diocese, or superintendency resides with the primary council at this particular ecclesiastical mid-level that oversees the respective administrative office. The highest administrative authorities of the regional churches or member churches of the EKD are the church offices, regional church offices, consistories, or senior church counsels. These bodies are generally constituted as collegial authorities or offices that participate in the activities of church leadership to the extent that they provide stimuli and prepare and implement the resolutions of the church leaders or synods. Some church constitutions (e.g. that of the Evangelical Church of Westphalia) regulated the membership of church leadership so that members of the church office elected by the synod also belong to that leadership. In other member churches, the person bearing the primary spiritual office is also head of the highest church office. Such close connection between leadership committees, on the one hand, which by nature meet only sporadically, and the highest administrative authorities, on the other hand, whose activities are ongoing, minimizes communication problems and provides for shared responsibility. Other church constitutions stipulate that the highest administrative authority is not also an organ of leadership (as in the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of North Elbe). The activities of church administration are carried out according to the regulations presented by synods or by the church leadership proper. The organizational structure of administrative church offices resembles those of the authorities of the respective district, state, or federation, with whom the church offices are related through various cooperative channels (e.g. in questions of → monuments, protection of ). The German pattern for the Evangelical Church is not followed everywhere. Administrative church activities, like church law, acquire a special character insofar as they must have theological legitimacy; therefore, it is quite natural to find canonists and theologians (and even construction specialists) working together in the highest administrative church offices (among other places). It is up to them to ensure that within the framework of the concrete implementation of the church’s legal life, exercise of the rights of church communities and individual

62 members of the church is not perceived as a restriction of the freedom of the gospel. A. Jäger, Konzepte der Kirchenleitung für die Zukunft, 1993 ◆ A. v. Campenhausen, Kirchenrecht – Religionswissenschaft, 1994 ◆ R. Preul, Kirchentheorie, 1997 ◆ D. Kraus, ed., Evangelische Kirchenverfassungen in Deutschland, 2001 ◆ E. v. Vietinghoff, “Zwei Professionen – ein Auftrag,” in: Im Dienste der Sache. FS J. Gaertner, ed. R. Dill, 2003 ◆ G. Wegner, “Leiden als Bedingung der Freiheit. Kirchliche Organisation und geistliche Entscheidung,” PTh 92, 2003, 403–417 ◆ N. Doe, The Legal Framework of the Church of England, 1996. Michael Ahme

3. Church Law. a. In a manner similar to state or national law (see III above), → canon law/church law (II) distinguishes the church activities of administration from those of legislation and adjudication, though in this case such distinctions derive from basic pragmatic considerations rather than from any attempt to ensure a balance in the distribution of power. This is especially discernible in Roman Catholic church law, where administration is ultimately, alongside legislation and adjudication, one form of action within the larger authoritative unit of the jurisdiction of the bishop (potestas exsecutiva, c. 135 § 1, cc. 136–44 CIC/1983). Recent Protestant church constitutions increasingly understand administration explicitly as part of the “inalienable unity” of spiritual and legal leadership, and understand church administration specifically as part of the division of labor and mutual responsibility of church organs as such. Thus church administration is not limited to being a vehicle of merely technical implementation and execution. Instead, its activities within the Protestant church can be related to the communal understanding about what can be reviewed as spirituality indicated, as manifested in its legal obligations and ties and in the relegation of assessment powers. b. The organizational center of administration in the Roman Catholic Church is the diocesan administration (→ Diocese). The bishop oversees auxiliary organs which constitute the diocesan curia (469–494 CIC/1983). The papal administration is organized within the offices of the Roman Curia (cc. 360f. CIC/ 1983, apostolic constitution “Pastor Bonus” of 1988). Financial administration is overseen by the head of the responsible body which is aided by an administrative council (cc. 1279f.), applying especially to the diocesan and parish finance administrative councils (cc. 492, 537 CIC/1983). It is especially in this sphere that laypersons also participate in administration. c. At the level of the local parish/community, → clergy and → presbyteries work together not only within church leadership but also in the administration. Protestant churches that have their origin in the state church typically make their administration subject to a supreme church authority, inherited, for instance, from the former consistory – a name still used in some cases (see above, 1.). It is customarily led by a committee of theolo-

63 gians and lawyers, which may in turn be incorporated in various ways into the institutional church leadership. d. In state law, church administration is protected in principle by corporative freedom of religion. W. Busch, Die Vermögensverwaltung und das Stiftungsrecht im Bereich der katholischen Kirche, HSKR 1, 21994, 947–1008 ◆ C. Meyer, Die Vermögensverwaltung und das Stiftungsrecht im Bereich der evangelischen Kirche, ibid., 907–946 ◆ T. Barth, Elemente und Typen landeskirchlicher Leitung, JusEcc 53, 1995 (bibl.) ◆ H. de Wall, “Die Bindung der Kirchen an das Rechtsstaatsprinzip – Zur Bedeutung von Vorrang und Vorbehalt des Gesetzes für die kirchliche Verwaltung,” ZEvKR 43, 1998, 441–460 ◆ H. Pree, “Die Ausübung der Leitungsvollmacht,” HKKR2, 1999, 157–175 ◆ R. Puza, “Die Verwaltung des Kirchenvermögens,” ibid., 1093–1102 ◆ L. Schick, “Die Diözesankurie,” ibid., 463– 474 ◆ For additional bibliography, see → Administrative Act, → Church ; → Jurisdiction, Administrative. Michael Germann

V. Ethics Administrative ethics reflects on the conditions and standards contributing toward ethically “good” administration. The many aspects of such reflection include: the legality and purposive nature of administrative actions; the official ethos of those who act on behalf of the administration, who are obligated to maintain loyalty to the employer, political neutrality, neutrality over against particularized preconceptions, impartiality toward particularized interests, and a focus on service to the → common good ; moreover, such persons must also be dedicated to service in a fashion transcending “service according to the letter” and always considering unwritten needs as well, while guarding against arbitrariness. More recent developments include attempts to tie the service nature of administration more closely to economic criteria as a way to increase the efficiency of the use of resources, become more consumer-oriented, and enhance the internal and external presentation of “corporate identity.” More broadly conceived initiatives are attempting to describe the maxims of administrative activities within the framework of an “administrative culture.” The rationality of action is served by the organizational principle of bureaucracy, its mode of efficiency by the employment of so-called new steering models (new public management), the transparency of ethically complex administrative decisions by the inclusion of ethics commissions composed of specialists, and finally the institutionalization of administrative ethics itself by professional officials. The same factors ensuring ethically “good” administration, however, also reveal several risk areas. One (albeit obviously significant) part of such concerns is subsumed under the global initiatives – focusing on “ethical conduct” – to prevent corruption in public service. M. Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Grundriß der verstehenden Soziologie, 1921/1922, 51972, 551–579 ◆ R.A. Chapman, ed., Ethics in Public Service, 1993 ◆ H.G. Frederickson, ed., Ethics

Administrative Union and Public Administration, 1993 ◆ H. Hattenhauer, Geschichte des deutschen Beamtentums, 21993 ◆ R. Mayntz, Soziologie der öffentlichen Verwaltung, 41997 ◆ P. du Gay, In Praise of Bureaucracy: Weber, Organization, Ethics, 2000 ◆ OECD, ed., Trust in Government. Ethics Measures in OECD Countries, 2000 ◆ W. Kluth, ed., Verwaltungskultur, 2001 (bibl.) ◆ K.-P. Sommermann, “Ethisierung des öffentlichen Diskurses und Verstaatlichung der Ethik,” ARSP 89, 2003, 75–86 ◆ N. Behnke, Ethik in Politik und Verwaltung. Entstehung und Funktion ethischer Normen in Deutschland und den USA, 2004. Michael Germann

Administrative Act, Church I. In keeping with the vocabulary of civil law, ecclesiastical administrative acts can be described as decisions which an ecclesiastical body takes to regulate a specific case in ecclesiastical law. By definition, such decisions are only treated as administrative acts under civil law to the extent that in the applicable church-state system they have a share in the sovereignty of the state. II. The 1983 Roman Catholic Code of Canon Law gives detailed regulations in c. 35–93 for the presuppositions, forms, and effects of “singular administrative acts,” and distinguishes between “singular decrees and precepts,” → rescripts, → privileges, and → dispensations. Normally, every holder of jurisdiction can posit an administrative act within the area of his own competence, without any need for special authorization. An administrative act which contradicts the law is null and void (c. 38 CIC/1983). One who feels that his or her rights have been infringed by means of an administrative act can lodge a complaint with the hierarchical superior of the one who posited this act (c. 1732, 1737 CIC/1983). Legal protection by courts with respect to administrative acts applies only to those posited by the dicasteries of the → Roman Curia. III. Protestant ecclesiastical law knows no such codification of ecclesiastical administrative acts. However, the concept and the term play a role in its regulations on legal protection by ecclesiastical administrative courts. The binding of ecclesiastical administrative acts to ecclesiastical law implements their responsibility within the ecclesiastical communion. H. Kalb, “Verwaltungsakte und Verwaltungsverfahren,” HKKR 21999, 118–135 ◆ H.J. Wolff, O. Bachof, et al., Verwaltungsrecht II, 102000, § 45 ◆ R. Mainusch, Rechtsprobleme des kirchlichen Verwaltungsverfahrens ZEvKR 50, 2005, 16–45. Michael Germann

Administrative Union. This concept has its origin in the efforts to overcome the confessional schism of German → Protestantism at the beginning of the 19th century. The aspired union (→ Unions, Church) between the Lutheran and the Reformed confessional churches was realized in various ways, either in the form of a confessional (“consensus”) union under one single,

Administrator

64

united confessional position in the regional church (e.g. in Baden from 1821 onward), or in the form of an administrative union that abstained from reaching a doctrinal consensus on the level of the regional church, but united the confessionally distinct parishes under the same synodal constitution and a common ecclesiastical administration. An administrative union was the simplest possible form of union, and did not encroach upon the religious life of the parishes. A prominent example is the Protestant church of the → Old Prussian Union, which was founded in 1817. In the preamble to its constitutional charter of 1922, this church affirms that the confessional positions of the church provinces and parishes are to remain unaffected by the external order laid down in the constitution, so that “the parishes and their members may continue to use, in addition to the general appellation ‘evangelisch,’ ‘Protestant,’ the specific designations ‘ProtestantLutheran,’ ‘Protestant-Reformed,’ or ‘United’” (Huber and Huber, 545). However, the Prussian Union is more than a purely administrative union, since it prescribes community in worship and in the Eucharist. This is why it can also be cited as an example of the federative type of church union. G. Lüttgert, Verfassungsurkunde für die Evangelische Kirche der altpreußischen Union, 1920 ◆ G. Holstein, Die Grundlagen des evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 1928, 243–259 ◆ J.F.G. Goeters, “Evangelische Kirche der Union,” EstL I, 31987, 810–816 ◆ E.R. Hubert & W. Huber, Staat und Kirche im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, IV, 1988, 544–587 ◆ J.F.G. Goeters & J. Rogge, eds., Die Geschichte der EKU, I, 1992; II, 1993; III, 1999. Jörg Winter

Administrator. In the Roman Catholic Church, the administrator, as apostolic administrator, is leader of a church entity similar to a diocese and is called apostolic administrator. In the law, he is equal to the diocesan bishop (c. 381 2 CIC/1983) and is usually a titular bishop (→ Episcopal Titles). He exercises his office as a representative of the pope (c. 371 2 CIC/1983). The diocesan administrator was formerly called chapter vicar. He leads a vacant diocese. In this regard, the principle sede vacante nihil innovetur pertains. Other administrators include the pastoral administrator, as well as persons given responsibility for managing church property. HKKR, 1983, 335, 347f., 409f.

Richard Puza

Admission to Church Membership → Church Membership Admission Admonition to Parliament, The (1572). A Puritan manifesto, demanding a non-episcopal constitution for the Church of England. It condemned the → Book of Common Prayer both in general and on specific points as “papist”. It called for the abolition of the entire leader-

ship of the → Church of England with its non-residences, pluralities, episcopal hierarchy, and power. It also called for its replacement by a Presbyterian government of ministers, elders, and deacons. The authors justified the reorganization as a restoration of the church to its pristine purity. A Second Admonition was necessary to describe the process involved in facilitating the reorganization. D.J. McGinn, The Admonition Controversy, 1949 ◆ W.H. Frere & C.E. Douglas, eds., Puritan Manifestos (text), 1954. Glenn Hinson

Adolescence → Youth/Adolescence Adonai is a Hebrew title for God (*$ /hadonay) which appears frequently – 217 times in Ezekiel alone – in combination with the name  (Yahweh), which it gradually supplanted in early Judaism (cf. e.g. Exod 15:11 with 1QH 7.28). The latter phenomenon appears above all in the qere perpetuum of the divine name in the Masoretic manuscripts of the OT (→ Masoretes), in which – except in the double construction mentioned above – the consonants of  were combined with the vowel points of *$ (leading in Christian circles to the erroneous reading “Jehovah” well into the 19th cent.). The grammatical interpretation of this unique form of the Hebrew substantive /2- (hādōn, “lord”; antonym “servant”), from the Northwest Semitic nominal root /, is disputed; as an appellative, it is usually considered a fossilized plural of majesty with the first person singular suffix (see most recently Gesenius18). The Masoretes lengthened the normal connecting vowel a to distinguish the term for God from the secular expression “my lord.” The LXX translates *$ with κύριος (kýrios), the Vulgate with dominus. English versions almost invariably use “Lord.” At least when used as an appellative, hadōnāy did not originally characterize the nature of God as sovereign but was simply a title of honor – a phenomenon also found elsewhere when a person of lower rank addresses one of higher rank ( Jenni). The expression “my lord” is also used as a polite form of address in conversations between family members (cf. Gen 18:3; 31:35; etc.). The situation is different in the seventy or so passages where hadōnāy is not an appellative but simply means “the Lord” (cf. Deut 10:17; Ps 136:2f.). Whether here hadōnāy is a secondary substitution for yahweh or all these passages represent late formulations is disputed, as is the question whether yahweh is secondary in the passages where hadōnāy appears (cf. for example W. Zimmerli, BKAT 13, 1250– 1258, 1265). Since divine names in the ancient Near East often appear conjoined with the epithet “Lord,” there is some reason to conclude that the construction hadōnāy yahweh is ancient; if so, the absolute use of hadōnāy could possibly (but not necessarily) be secondary.

65 W.W. Graf Baudissin, Kyrios als Gottesname im Judentum und seine Stelle in der Religionsgeschichte, 4 vols., 1929 ◆ “hâdōnāy” in Gesenius18, I, 1987, 17 ◆ HALAT, 31995, 12f ◆ E. Jenni, TLOT I, 41997, 23–29 ◆ O. Eissfeldt, TDOT I, 1974, 62–72. Rüdiger Bartelmus

Adonis (West Semitic “lord”), a young male god worshiped by the Greeks – attested from the 6th century bce onward – and borrowed by the Phoenicians. In the Greek myth, Adonis was begotten in Phoenicia in an incestuous father-daughter relationship. The goddesses Persephone and → Aphrodite quarreled over the newborn Adonis, who became Aphrodite’s lover as a young shepherd. The jealous Ares killed him during a wild game hunt. The death of Adonis plunged the entire natural world into sympathetic mourning. Aphrodite’s lamentation for her young lover furnished the aition for annual lamentation litanies, which Greek women and girls intoned during the Adonia festivals (around Jul 20). In the Greek homeland, the Adonis cult was practiced privately. It allowed the female family members to work through their grief over the loss of their sons and brothers in a substitutionary ceremony. For the younger girls taking part in the cult, Adonis – representing the ephebes just reaching sexual maturity – was a surrogate for their future husbands. Literary innuendos about premarital sex at the Adonis festival reflect prenuptial rites. At the Adonia, which marked the conclusion of the grain harvest, women placed so-called “Adonis gardens,” vessels containing the germinating seeds of grain and vegetables, in the sun on their flat roofs, where the seedlings rapidly withered: an ancient precursor of the modern technique of proofing seeds. The seedlings thus tested for viability suggested the transformation of the dead shepherd into edible plants. When they were displayed at the festival, the ritual lamentation was transformed into rejoicing over the resurrection of the dead Adonis. In addition, these miniature gardens contained likenesses of Adonis, probably representing the god – as in the analogous cult of Erichthonius and Osiris – as both a phallus and a newborn infant. This made it possible to give the young girls sex instruction through ritual anticipation of procreation and birth. The rapid withering of the seedlings reenacted the premature death of Adonis. On the morning after the festival, the women bade him a sad farewell by throwing the “Adonis gardens” into a river or the sea. Thus the cult of Adonis both gave license to procreation and promoted a minimal agricultural competence needed by every adult smallholder. W.W. Baudissin, Adonis und Esmun, 1911 ◆ G.J. Baudy, Adonisgärten, BKP 176, 1986 ◆ H. Tuzet, Mort et résurrection d’Adonis, 1987 ◆ G.J. Baudy, “Der Heros in der Kiste,” AA 38, 1992, 1–47. Gerhard Baudy

Adoptionism Adoption. There is no endorsement, or even explicit mention, of adoption as an ongoing practice in Old Testament law. There are, in effect, three references to acts of adoption – of Moses (Ex 2:10), Genubath (1 Kgs 11:20), and Esther (Esth 2:7, 15) – but, as is often noted, these all take place outside of Palestine and thus in contexts foreign to Jewish rule and custom. Torah tradition as such simply does not admit that someone who is not one’s biological child can be rendered one’s son or daughter by legal fiction. It was St. Paul who first introduced the notion of adoption into Judeo-Christian theology. The New Testament Greek word translated by the NRSV as “adoption” is huiothesia, from huios (“son”) and tithemi (“to put or place”). The term appears five times in Paul’s epistles (Rom 8:15; 8:23; 9:4; Gal 4:5; Eph 1:5), but not once in the Gospels. Construed literally, huiothesia is gendered and connotes a legal placing or taking in of someone as a male heir who is not one’s biological son. One can readily see why Paul – that liminal figure at the dividing line between the historical Jesus and the Holy Spirit, Judaism and Christianity, Rome and barbarism – would have been attracted to adoption metaphors. Paul knew himself to have been an outsider graciously allowed in, and he saw in his personal experiences a model of God’s salvific way with the wider world: “When the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law, in order to redeem those who were under the law, so that we might receive the adoption of children” (Gal 4:4–5). Paul’s influence is no doubt partly responsible for the fact that there are between five and six million adoptees in the United States today, and that in 1998 approximately 10,000 US adoptions crossed racial or cultural lines. “Adoption,” in: M.F. Unger & W. White, Jr., eds., Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, 1996, 13f ◆ Aquinas, St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, IIIa, q. 23, art. 1 ◆ Dowd, Nancy E., In Defense of Single-parent Families 1997 ◆ Pertman, Adam, Adoption Nation: How the Adoption Revolution is Transforming America, 2000 ◆ Solinger, Rickie, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States, 2001. Timothy P. Jackson

Adoptionism Adoptionism is the conventional term for a Christological conception that denies Christ’s preexistence and generation before all time, maintaining instead that God adopted the human Jesus as Son. I. Two theologians from Asia Minor are mentioned as exponents of Adoptionism in early Christianity: Theodotus the Money-Changer (or Banker) and → Theodotus the Tanner (or Theodotus of Byzantium). As heads of schools in Rome in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries, they formulated a Christology that

Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund considers Jesus Christ an outstandingly devout human being, begotten of the Virgin by the Holy Spirit, who was inspired by the Spirit when he was baptized in the Jordan (Hipp. Haer. VII, 35). In attacking the Monarchian theology (→ Monarchianism) of the school of → Noetus of Smyrna and → Callistus I, the Bishop of Rome, the Theodotians supported their position with a dossier of testimonia (Epiph. Haer. 54, 1–6). There is no explicit mention of adoption. During the episcopate of Victor (189?–199?), the Theodotians were marginalized and ostracised. In the 3rd century, a “Christology from below” is also represented by the Roman theologian Artemon (Eus. Hist. eccl. V, 28) and the Antiochene bishop → Paul of Samosata. The latter was condemned by two Antiochene synods in 264 and 268, on the grounds that he taught that Christ was a “human being from below.” From the 4th century on, a heresiological cliché of “Adoptionism” associated with the name “Theodotus” was constructed and attacked. II. The term “Adoptionist Controversy” refers to a conflict within the Spanish church at the end of the 8th century, in which the bishops Elipandus of Toledo and → Felix of Urgel denied the simple identification of Christ’s Davidic and divine sonship, maintaining that Christ was a natural son as to his divine nature, and an adopted son as to his human nature. Here they appealed onesidedly to the traditional formularies of the Western chuch and especially the → Mozarabic liturgy. Since Felix of Urgel was a bishop within the Carolingian Empire, several synods (792 Regensburg, 794 Frankfurt, 796 Friuli, 799 Rome, 800 Aachen) debated his theological position. He was forced to recant, and Adoptionism was condemned. Confronted by the church of the newlyformed Carolingian Empire, Spanish Adoptionism was unable to gain universal acceptance for its polemical position, which emerged from a partisan reading of Western theological traditions. H. de Riedmatten, Les Actes de Paul de Samosate, Par. 6, 1952 ◆ K. Schäferdiek, “Der adoptianische Streit im Rahmen der spanischen Kirchengeschichte,” ZKG 80, 1969, 291–311; 81, 1970, 1–16 ◆ G.C. Stead, “Marcel Richard on Malchion and Paul of Samosata,” in: H.C. Brennecke et al., eds., Logos, FS L. Abramowski, 1993, 140–150 ◆ W.A. Löhr, “Theodotus der Lederarbeiter und Theodotus der Bankier,” ZNW 87, 1996, 101–125. Winrich A. Löhr

Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund (Sep 11, 1893, Frankfurt am Main – Aug 6, 1969, Visp, Canton Wallis) is along with M. → Horkheimer the most significant representative of the first generation of → Critical Theory. The focus of his thought is a radical critique of the rationalism that was then manifesting itself academically, technically and socially. Adorno studied in Frankfurt am Main and, after receiving his PhD in philosophy in 1924, he studied composition under Alban

66 Berg in Vienna. In 1930 he gained his Habilitation with a thesis on S. → Kierkegaard in Frankfurt am Main. In 1934 he emigrated first to England and then in 1938 to the USA where, together with M. Horkheimer, he wrote his first major philosophical work, the Dialektik der Aufklärung. In 1949 Adorno returned to Germany and taught as a professor in Frankfurt am Main until his death. Adorno made his name as the author of numerous essays on the philosophy of art and on issues of sociology and diagnostics of the present. Besides his Negative Dialektik Adorno’s Ästhetische Theorie, a penetrating philosophical discussion of modern art, which was published posthumously, may be considered his most significant book. Adorno’s work is to be read in the context of a post-Hegelian criticism, developed especially by Kierkegaard and F. → Nietzsche, of rationalism’s claim to universality. His work is influenced by the opinions of cultural critics such as G. → Simmel and L. → Klages and by S. → Freud’s psychoanalysis. It adheres to the tradition of undogmatic → Marxism. According to Adorno’s diagnosis reason (or rationalism) has always meant the mastery of nature. It has emancipated itself from the context of nature and has made itself autonomous. With the rationalization of the world that reaches its height in modern times a universal constraint has been established that is in no respect inferior to the constraints imposed by nature’s unlimited rule. Adorno believes that an end to this situation can only be found within an → eschatology understood in negative theological terms. Modern art allows such a perspective to remain open by nevertheless making rationalism’s relationship to power transparent with rational methods. Main works: Kierkegaard. Konstruktion des Ästhetischen, 1930; ET: Kierkegaard: Construction of the Aesthetic, 1989 ◆ Dialektik der Aufklärung (with M. Horkheimer), 1947; ET: Dialectic of Enlightenment, 2002 ◆ Philosophie der neuen Musik, 1949 ◆ Minima Moralia, 1951; ET: 2006 ◆ Versuch über Wagner, 1952 ◆ Zur Metakritik der Erkenntnistheorie, 1956 ◆ Noten zur Literatur I–IV, 1958–1974 ◆ Mahler, 1960; ET: 1988 ◆ Negative Dialektik, 1966; ET: Negative Dialectics, 1973 ◆ Ästhetische Theorie, 1970; ET: Aesthetic Theory, 1998 ◆ Gesammelte Schriften, 20 vols., 1970ff ◆ On Adorno: G. Figal, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, 1977 ◆ H. Mörchen, Adorno und Heidegger, 1981 ◆ H.L. Arnold, ed., Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, 1983 ◆ W. Brändle, Rettung des Hoffnungslosen: Die theologischen Implikationen der Philosophie Theodor Wiesengrund Adornos, 1984 ◆ L. von Friedeburg & J. Habermas, eds., Adorno-Konferenz 1983, 1985 ◆ B. Lindner & M. Lüdke, eds., Materialien zur ästhetischen Theorie Theodor Wiesengrund Adornos, 1985 ◆ J. Früchtl, Mimesis, 1986 ◆ R. Wiggershaus, Die Frankfurter Schule, 1986 ◆ W.V. Reijen & G. Schmid-Noerr, Vierzig Jahre Flaschenpost, “Dialektik der Aufklärung 1947–1987”, 1987 ◆ B. Recki, Aura und Autonomie, 1988 ◆ H. Scheible, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, 1989 ◆ H. Brunkhorst, Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno, 1990 ◆ A. García Düttmann, Das Gedächtnis des Denkens. Versuch über Heidegger und Adorno, 1991 ◆ G. Schweppenhäuser, Ethik nach Auschwitz, 1993 ◆ G. Seubold, Das Ende der Kunst und der Paradigmenwechsel in der Ästhetik, 1997 ◆ H. Brunkhorst, Adorno and Critical Theory, 1999 ◆ B. O’Connor, ed., The Adorno Reader, 2000 ◆

67

Advent

T. Huhn, The Cambridge Companion to Adorno, 2004 ◆ S. MullerDoohm & R. Livingstone, Adorno: A Biography, 2005. Günter Figal

Adriani, Nicolaus, (Sep 15, 1865, Oud-Loosdrecht, The Netherlands – May 1, 1926, Poso, Indonesia), defended his dissertation in 1893 and worked for the Netherlands Bible Society in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, from 1895 to 1926. He wrote a book on church growth in Central Sulawesi as well as a grammar and dictionary of the Bare’e language. He also translated a large part of the New Testament into this language. Adriani’s principle was that christianization should precede Bible translation. Many, but not all, missionaries and Bible translators in Indonesia agreed with this new principle. Works: Verzamelde werken, 1932 ◆ On Adriani: H. Kraemer, Dr. Nicolaus Adriani, 1930 (biogr.). Jan A.B. Jongeneel

Adso (c. 910–992), reforming abbot of Montier-enDer (from 967/68) and St. Bénigne (c. 982–985). Adso composed lives of various saints and (between 949 and 954) an influential summary of the Antichrist tradition in biographical form. In it, Adso categorized the West Frankish → Carolingians (to whom his patron Gerberga was related by marriage) as the heirs of Rome in God’s plan of salvation. CCCM 45, 1976 ◆ R. Konrad, De ortu et tempore Antichristi, 1964. Volker Leppin

Adult Education → Education of Adults Adveniat. In 1961, at the request of the German Bishops’ Conference, the first Christmas collection for the church in Latin America was taken up. In 1962, under the title Adveniat, it was continued for a second year and then established permanently. It was first put in place by bishop Franz Hengsbach, with the support of the Joseph Teusch, the vicar-general of Cologne (among others). The Diocese of Essen has since been responsible for administering the program. The purpose and mandate of the Episcopal Action Adveniat are defined in the statute of Sep 21, 1993. Adveniat promotes the pastoral work of the Catholic Church in Latin America and the Caribbean. In Germany, Adveniat provides ongoing information concerning the ecclesial and social realities of Latin America and appeals for action in solidarity. Every Catholic institution in Latin America can apply directly to Adveniat. Since 1961, in excess of 3.1 billion DM (1.5 billion euro) has been collected to support more than 150,000 projects. L. Watzal, Die Entwicklungspolitik der katholischen Kirche in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1985, 191–218. Dieter Spelthahn

Advent I. Origin of the Liturgical Season – II. Liturgical Meaning of Advent

Adventus (Lat.), παρουσία (parousia) and ἐπιϕάνια (epiphania, Gk) form a complex of related terms in pagan and Christian usage. The terms were generally employed cultically and referred to the coming of the deities amongst their worshipers. Adventus became the standard term for the coming of Christ both historically and eschatologically. I. Origin of the Liturgical Season In the 4th century the liturgical season of Advent was peculiar to the western rites. It first developed outside Rome. The earliest reference to Advent appears in Hilary’s Liber Officiorum (Tractatus Mysteriorum; SC 19). Philastrius of Brixia (CChr. SL IX 312) knew of a fast before Christmas. A caution in the Canons of the Council of Saragossa, 380 (PL 85.66) urges believers to persist in prayer between Dec 17 and Jan 6. Some believe this three-week period to be a preparatory fast before Epiphany baptism. Others explain the caution with respect to the pagan feasts in midwinter, which were followed by the Natale solis invicti and the Kalends of January. A letter from Pope Siricius to Himerius, bishop of Tarragona (Mansi, III. 656B) suggests that Dec 25 was also kept as a baptismal day in addition to Epiphany and furthermore that baptisms occurred on one or more occasions between Dec 25 and Jan 6. The theory that the preparatory fasts before Epiphany baptism were a contributing factor in the development of Advent is no longer a secure one. Advent first appears in the liturgical books of Rome in the late 6th and early 7th centuries. In the Gelasian and Gregorian sacramentaries the prayers for Advent are placed after the Common of Saints. In the Comes of Würzburg, an early 7th-century list of epistles and gospels, those assigned for Advent are found at the end. The lists begin with the feast of the Nativity indicating that, at that time, Christmas was the beginning of the liturgical year. In the 8th and 9th century prayers and readings for Advent were placed in the texts at the beginning of the annual cycle. In early liturgical books the remnants of six Sundays of Advent at Rome can be seen, a custom maintained by the Ambrosian Rite at Milan. However, the number of Sundays was eventually to be limited to four. Lutherans, Anglicans and other Protestant churches that follow the liturgical year share the essential shape of Advent with the Roman Church. The Orthodox churches do not follow Advent with prescribed prayers, scripture readings, and liturgical adaptations. The Byzantine rite keeps a 40-day fast before the Nativity without interrupting the regular

Adventists pattern of scripture reading already underway toward the Divine Liturgy. The Syrian rite follows a sequence of four to five “annunciation” Sundays in anticipation of the Nativity. II. Liturgical Meaning of Advent The early sources from outside Rome suggest a strongly penitential character with an emphasis on fasting and ascetic discipline. The scripture readings were understood as texts of terror. In Rome, by contrast, the shift of the readings and prayers from the end to the beginning of the annual cycle made it possible for the church to hear the same texts filled with eschatological promise. In this way Advent at Rome acquired the character of a festive preparation based around the themes of longing, hope and expectation. The coming of the Redeemer in the flesh and the second coming of the Redeemer at the end of the age are themes constantly interwoven in the liturgical texts. These two themes continue in the liturgical texts, hymns and observance of the season to the present. Recent reforms retain the first two Sundays of Advent in thematic continuity with the last Sundays after Pentecost culminating in the proclamation of the Second Advent. The third and fourth Sundays turn to the anticipation of Christmas, the fourth Sunday being devoted to the Annunciation. T.J. Talley, The Origins of the Liturgical Year, 1986, 147–155 ◆ J.N. Alexander, Waiting for the Coming, 1993, 7–27. ◆ J. McKinnon, The Advent project, 2000. J. Neil Alexander

Adventists I. Emergence, History, Dissemination and Doctrines – II. Missions

I. Emergence, History, Dissemination and Doctrines 1. Emergence. Modern Adventism traces its direct roots back to the movement begun by William Miller (1782–1849, Baptist minister from New York State) which predicted the return of Jesus in 1843 and 1844. Following what became known as the “Great Disappointment” of Oct 22, 1844, the Millerite Adventist movement split into several divisions. The dominant remaining division of Millerism is the Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) which was approaching a worldwide membership of ten million in 1997. Between 1844 and 1848 members of the SDA developed several distinctive beliefs, including the perpetuity of the seventh-day Sabbath, Christ’s ministry in the second apartment of the heavenly sanctuary, conditional immortality and annihilationism, and the prophetic ministry of Ellen G. → White. Under the leadership of Joseph Bates and James and Ellen White, the Sabbatarian Adventist movement began, in 1848, to form around its distinctive doctrines and the mis-

68 sion of the third angel of Rev 14:9–12. The following year J. White published the movement’s first periodical Present Truth. The movement’s publishing work grew rapidly throughout the 1850 and was largely responsible for giving the Sabbatarians a sense of cohesion. Those publications also continued to bring new members into Sabbatarian Adventism’s sphere of influence. The formal organization of the SDA denomination began in 1861 with the formation of the first local conference (the Michigan Conference) of SDA churches. Other local conferences were soon established. In May 1863 the various local conferences united to form the General Conference of SDA. At that point the new denomination’s 3,500 members all resided in the United States. 2. History. The early 1860s found the young denomination with an established conference system and publishing work, but that would merely be a foretaste of the denomination’s institutional development. In 1863 Adventism became part of the contemporary health reform movement of the larger culture. That emphasis not only encouraged individual SDAs to become health reformers, but it also led to the establishment of the Western Health Reform Institute. The Institute would soon be renamed as Battle Creek Sanitarium, which under the leadership of John Harvey Kellogg would become the model health institution for a system that would span the globe by the end of the century. In the 1870s two further SDA hallmarks came into existence. The first was its educational work, begun in 1874 with the founding of Battle Creek College. The second was the beginning of SDA foreign missions. In 1874 the denomination sent J.N. Andrews to Switzerland as its first official overseas missionary. The 1880s found the rapidly developing denomination faced with the necessity of theological reformation. That reformation began to take place at the 1888 General Conference session at Minneapolis, Minnesota. The session made many SDA leaders aware of the need for the church to become more evangelical as this contexted its distinctive beliefs within a more adequate soteriology. During the 1890s Adventism spread throughout the world, including the non-Protestant countries of Latin America and Africa. The spread of SDA missions (see below II) also dictated the spread of the denomination’s publishing, health, and educational institutions. In 1901 Adventism reorganized its administrative structure in order to facilitate its international work more efficiently. During the first half of the 20th century the SDA Church continued to build on the institutional and international foundation that had been laid in the 19th century. A milestone was reached in the 1920s when the SDA population outside of North America came to exceed that inside of the country. The latter

69 half of the 20th century found a maturing denomination. Not only did Adventism move in the eyes of many from the status of cult to that of church, but it also began to establish universities that would eventually offer doctoral degrees in what a few years before had been regarded as rather primitive “mission fields.” In the second half of the century the church also internationalized its denominational leadership and transformed the very concept of mission. By the 1990s the concept of “interdivisional worker” had replaced that of “missionary” as the Adventist global village adopted the motto of “from everywhere to everywhere.” 3. Dissemination and doctrines. As of January 1997 the SDA church had 9,296,127 members, 42,220 churches, and 20,063 ministers in its various world divisions. In addition, the denomination owned and operated 87 universities and colleges, 5,356 secondary and elementary schools, 587 health-care institutions, 55 publishing houses, and 28 food industries. Beyond these institutions, SDAs supported an extensive welfare work under the auspices of the Adventist Development and Relief Agency International (ADRA). The SDA church is unified worldwide under the General Conference of SDAs and its 13 regional divisions. These divisions, as of January 1997, were composed of 90 union conferences and missions which, in turn, were made up of 474 local conferences and missions. Undergirding those administrative structures were more than 42,000 local congregations. Whereas the church developed in North America, by 1997 the majority of its membership lived in Africa and Latin America with only about 10% residing in North America. SDAs issued publications in 238 languages and used 725 languages in their oral and publishing work. The denomination had established work in 204 of the 230 nations recognized by the United Nations. The growth pattern of the SDA church has been relatively consistent, with membership just about doubling each decade. Although the SDA Church technically has no officially adopted creed or confession, it has developed several statements of doctrinal beliefs. The most recent of these is the statement of 27 fundamental beliefs, adopted at the 1980 General Conference session. Adventism’s doctrinal beliefs may be divided into two sections. The first include those evangelical beliefs that Adventists share with other Christians. Within this category are those beliefs relating to the authority of scripture, the Godhead, human nature, the experience of salvation by grace through faith, the ordinances, and the role of the church. The second section includes those beliefs that tend to make SDAs unique. Within this category are the observance of the seventh-day Sabbath, annihilationism and conditionalism, the two-phase ministry of Jesus in the heavenly sanctuary, the prophetic role of E.G. White, and the premillennial return of Jesus.

Adventists The SDA role in history is generally viewed in terms of the three angels’ messages in Rev 14:6–12. SDAs regard themselves as a people with a last-day message to preach to the entire world. In addition to these doctrinal beliefs, SDAs also have strong views on several life-style issues. Prominent among these are the importance of attending to one’s health, conservatism in entertainment and dress, and a preference for non-combatant participation in the military. II. Missions Although Adventists understand themselves as an “international family,” in practice the organization remained essentially American. They taught their converts a western life-style that isolated them from their indigenous communities. Their extensive evangelistic, educational, medical and welfare work was largely funded from grants raised in the USA. After the two world wars, however, the church underwent rapid transformation numerically, structurally and theologically with far-reaching implications for its future mission. Adventists themselves have spoken of an “identity crisis” that has been interpreted either as a danger of cultural and religious fragmentation or as an enrichment through increasing diversity. What exactly has made Adventist missions so attractive to Africa and Latin America despite its Western package of Christianity? The following factors may provide an answer: 1. The interpretation of the gospel as “Present Truth” and its emphasis on justification by faith alone as propounded by E.G. White. 2. The adoption of Adventism as a life-style which translates into healthcare, nutrition, education and improved standards of living. 3. Adventism as a lay-movement that does not distinguish between evangelism and social care. 4. The belief in the imminent return of Christ, who will turn the evil on earth into eternal salvation. In the face of sectarian tendencies, individualistically conceived ethics and a spiritually understood mission, Adventists from the Two-Thirds-World, who constitute the majority, have demanded a renewal of the Church from biblical and reformed origins, a contextualization of its theology, the teaching of the Sabbath as a sign of God’s creation and salvation, and a dedication to the cause against racism and social injustice. In comparison, the special Adventist doctrines play a subordinate role. Despite the apparently democratic structure of the Church, the financial and administrative center of power lies in Washington, DC. For a long time, the highly centralized structure jeopardized a fair representation of ethnic minorities and non-white members. The 70s and 80s, however, witnessed protest movements by Black Adventists which resulted in increasing participation of national churches in the running of the Church,

Advocatus Dei/diaboli

70

the appointment of indigenous leadership replacing expatriate missionaries, and also the appointment of Latin-Americans and Africans to leading positions in Washington. In 1990 the General Conference adopted a global mission program, which, in view of the year 2000, divided the world population into 5,000 ethnolinguistic and ethnographic segments of one million each, in order to focus on regions that have had little or no contact with the Gospel. It remains to be seen whether this strategy will shape the “Christian character” which according to Adventist beliefs will hasten Christ’s rule on earth and promote unity within its cultural, ethnic and theological diversity. The internationalization of the Church will necessitate a revaluation of certain positions such as regards the role of the founder, the interpretation of the Bible, the significance of the 27 basic doctrines, formulated exclusively in the North, and the ordination of women. R.W. Schwarz, Light Bearers to the Remnant, 1979 ◆ G. Land, ed., Adventism in America, 1986 ◆ Ministerial Association, Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 1988 ◆ G.R. Knight, Anticipating the Advent: A Brief History of Seventh-day Adventists, 1993 ◆ G.R. Knight, Millennial Fever and the End of the World: A Study of Millerite Adventism, 1993 ◆ D.R. Neufeld, ed., Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia, 2 vols., 21996. George R. Knight

Advocatus Dei/diaboli. Until the reorganization of the beatification and canonization procedures in 1983, the written exchange of arguments pro and contra between the candidate’s advocate and the Promotor fidei at the Congregation of Rites (today known as the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints) played a central role. The one who presented the favorable arguments was popularly known as “God’s advocate,” while the one who put forward the arguments against the candidate was popularly known as “the devil’s advocate.” M. Sieger, Die Heiligsprechung, 1995.

Herbert Kalb

Advowson Church. This concept refers to the legal situation whereby in the early Middle Ages churches belonged as ecclesiae propriae to individual persons or to a monastery, who therefore possessed extensive rights over these buildings and their use. U. → Stutz held that the root of this praxis lay in the pre-Christian Germanic custom of having domestic priests in private temples, and saw this as the most important evidence of Germanic legal traditions in canon law. Subsequent research has, however, concluded that the genesis of advowson is connected with the development of property rights in Late Antiquity. It came into being where private churches were founded; these are attested in the late Roman Empire in the countryside from c. 400 onward. The property of these private churches was exempt from the administrative authority of the bishop.

The usufruct of the founders of the churches went so far that from the 8th century onward, the parochial law entitled the holder of the advowson to employ the revenues of the church for himself; his only obligation was to care for the maintenance of the church and the livelihood of the priest. The priests who served in advowson churches were chosen by the lord, and were often serfs. In the 9th century, the concept of dominium tended to be employed to describe the legal position of the possessors of the churches, e.g. in a treatise of Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims devoted specifically to advowson. Councils of the → Carolingian period explicitly acknowledged the legal situation of advowson churches. This praxis became established above all in France and Anglo-Saxon England, as well as in parts of Italy, so that it is probable that most rural churches in the early medieval period were advowson churches. This gave the laity a power in the church which lasted until the 12th century. In the → Investiture Controversy, a number of authors (Deusdedit, Placid of Nonantula) rejected the idea that churches could be the property of laymen; councils under → Urban II decreed that the laity must relinquish the possession of advowson. In the → canon law of the early 12th century, there was a tendency to reject outright the lay dominium over churches. In his decretals (→ Corpus Iuris Canonici), → Gratian took a mediating position: he accepted lay dominium over churches, but limited the rights of the holder of the advowson to the presentation of a priest and to a claim to material help in situations of need. This reduced legal position has been known as → patronage since the canonist Rufinus (c. 1164). In later treatises on canon law, advowson rights of ecclesiastical persons (bishops and monasteries) were no longer accepted; these were interpreted as instances of patronage held by clerics. Hincmar of Rheims, Collectio de ecclesiis et capellis, MGH. F 14, 1990 ◆ U. Stutz, “Das Eigenkirchenvermögen,” in: FS O. Gierke, 1911, 1187–1268 ◆ idem, Die Eigenkirche als Element des mittelalterlich-germanischen Kirchenrechts, 1895 (1955) ◆ idem, Geschichte des kirchlichen Benefizialwesens, 1895 (21961) ◆ P. Landau, Ius Patronatus. Studien zur Entwicklung des Patronats im Dekretalenrecht und der Kanonistik des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts, FRKG 12, 1975 ◆ M. Hartmann, “Der rechtliche Zustand der Kirchen auf dem Lande: Die Eigenkirche in der fränkischen Gesetzgebung des 7. und 9. Jahrhunderts,” SSAM 28, 1982, 397–444 ◆ P. Landau, “Eigenkirchenwesen,” TRE IX, 1982, 399–404 ◆ K. Schäferdiek, “Das Heilige in Laienhand. Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der fränkischen Eigenkirche,” in: FS G. Krause, 1982, 122–140 ◆ R. Schieffer, “Eigenkirche, Eigenkirchenwesen I. Allgemein,” LMA III, 1986, 1705–1708 ◆ M. Stefánsson, “Eigenkirche II. Besondere Entwicklungen in Skandinavien,” LMA III, 1986, 1708–1710 ◆ P. Landau, “Das ‘Dominium’ der Laien an Kirchen im Decretum Gratiani und in vorgratianischen Kanonessamlungen der Reformzeit,” ZSRG.K 83, 1997, 209–222. Peter Landau

Adwa. A hamlet in Tigray, northern → Ethiopia. The settlement earned its fame as the site of the first defeat

71

Aegean/Minoan/Mycenaean Religions

of a European colonial power by an African nation. On Mar 1, 1896, the Ethiopian army, led by Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913), won a decisive victory over the Italian army, led by General Oreste Baratieri, frustrating the Italians’ attempt to make Ethiopia an Italian colony. Adwa became an important date of reference for political nationalism and the → Ethiopian Movement in Africa. O. Baratieri, Memorie d’Africa (1892–1896), 1898 ◆ G.F.-H. Berkeley, The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik, 21935 ◆ R. Battaglia, La Prima Guerra d’Africa, 1956 ◆ S. Rubenson, “Adwa 1896,” in: Protest and Power in Black Africa, R.I. Rotberg & A.A. Mazrui, eds., 1970, 113–142. Getatchew Haile

Aegean/Minoan/Mycenaean Religions I. In the Context of the East – II. Historical and Regional Differentiation – III. Religion and Cults

I. In the Context of the East All around the Aegean in the 2nd millennium bce cultures emerged with an orientation toward the East, borrowing eastern systems, such as the economic, military, high-societal, religious centrality of cities with sophisticated palaces, the archive system with clay tablets and the technique of writing, seafaring techniques, the use of battle chariots, iconography and especially also types of religious systems of signs. In the opposite direction too religious wealth from the Greek culture was adopted in the East (e.g. the new excavations at Tel ab Daba in the Nile delta), albeit to a smaller extent. The linking of the Greek cultures to the Eastern ones came in phases. After the Bronze Age, with a distinct break around 1200, when the seafaring peoples made voyages impossible, the Greek polis-culture emerged in renewed association with Euboia/Boeotia. It reached a peak in the “epoch of orientalization” (7th/6th cent.), then again in → Hellenism (e.g. Alexandria) until the late imperial period and early Byzantium. Throughout this era there were Eastern cultural patterns present in Greek culture which were imported, imitated and acculturated, understood as foreign or native, or defamiliarized again and eclipsed. Alongside the direct exchange of cultural artifacts, which appear in importations in archeological finds, there is imitation and independent further development by the local culture. To what extent identical signs are also filled with identical meanings, can only be assessed by means of developed literary sources. From the scales in Mycenaean tombs it is hardly possible to infer already in the Bronze Age the adoption of the “judgment of the dead” and developed Egyptian conceptions of the world to come. II. Historical and Regional Differentiation The earliest palaces appeared on Crete (Knossos, Mallia, Zakros, Ajia Triadha, Phaestos, Chania), then somewhat later the Cycladic culture (Thera/Santorin) which,

destroyed by the eruption of the volcano c. 1645 bce, only became important again on the island of Melos in the late phase. Finally there are the palaces in the Peloponnese (Mycene/Tiryns, Pylos), Attica (Athens), Boiotia (Gla) and, on the coast of Asia Minor (Miletus). Egyptian and Hittite sources suggest amalgamations (leagues of cities or formation of states), which may be based on the Greeks’ self-designations as “Achaioi” and “Danaoi.” (see map of Aegean Religions). III. Religion and Cults The Minoan Cretans led processions to cult places in the palace or in caves, rarely to special temples, marked by stones (baityla), double axe and birds, in order to experience the appearance of the goddess and to participate in daring bull-riding. During the procession, fruits as well as animals were brought to the altar as a blood sacrifice. In terms of iconography the Mycenaeans are part of the Minoan religious tradition, though they differ in the ritual forms. In the late phase there is evidence of a clear differentiation of idols (occasionally male as well), and now also clay idols and a number of relics. Contemporary archival documentation also verifies a plurality of deities named after Greek gods; hence this points to a distinct expression of polytheism which cannot be derived from the cult of a female palace deity. There is little information to be gained from the lists of the economy and imported iconography about the relations of the deities; nevertheless there is a well-developed pantheon with a prominent female ruler called Pótnia, family structures and departmental deities. Likewise in the phase of Minoan religion the forms of the cult are already too diversified to be traced back to a cult of a single Eastern fertility goddess with her dying and rising prince, as J.G. → Frazer and A.J. → Evans have argued. More likely this expresses a principle of polytheistic religion which, despite the plurality of gods, entrusts everything to the local deity, including areas that elsewhere are attributed to other and more specific gods. Myths from the ancient east conveying models of such dynamics as palace revolutions against the “kingdom in heaven,” the origin and end of the world, the city as cosmos, the assembly of the gods, as well as such rituals as hepatoscopy, initiation sacrifice, → purifications and harmful magic seem to have been adopted only after the Bronze Age. This presupposes a lengthy period of tradition and processing of Hittite and Ugaritic knowledge of ritual following their demise, as appears to have been possible in Cyprus and Phoenicia. A.J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos, 4 vols., 1921–1936 ◆ M.P. Nilsson, The Minoan-Micenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion, 21950 ◆ F. Matz & I. Pini, Corpus der Minoischen und Mykenischen Siegel, 13 vols. and supplements, 1966–1996 ◆ M. Gérard-Roussea, Les mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycéniennes, 1968 ◆ C. Long, The Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus, 1974 ◆ E. Vermeule, Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and

a-

Tiryns

T

modern name

Source: Brill's New Pauly, ed. H. Cancik & H. Schneider, vol. I, Leiden 2002.

historical name

Pylos

Melos

Finds of Aegean imports (possibly local imitations; selection)

Finds of archives in linear B or archives of Hittite clay tablets

Other settlements of historical importance (archaeological and/or literary evidence)

Main town (archaeological and/or literary evidence)

Assyrian Empire and sphere of Assyrian influence

Hittite Empire and sphere of Hittite influence

New Kingdom and sphere of Egyptian influence

a o Melos

Knos(s)os

Thera/Santorini

Gödelesin

Heliopolis Memphis

Hattusa

Tarsos

Tyana

Bogazköy

Ascalon

hwt w rt Tall ab-Dab a

Kypros

Cape Uluburun (Wreck) Cape Gelidonya (Wreck)

ijawa

Crete

ju D a n

i?

Smyrna Sardeis

Milawa(n)da Miletos

Samos

Thermi

Troja/Ilios

Ahh

Expansion and spheres of influence c. 1400–1200 BCE

na -

Messene

Mykenai

Gla Thebes

Lesbos

Wilusa

Lemnos

ai

Pylos

Ephyra

Dodona

Thasos

h Ac

? oi

Aegean Religions

Korkyra

Kastanas

Aegean/Minoan/Mycenaean Religions 72

73

Aequitas canonica

Poetry, 1979 ◆ R. Hägg & N. Marinatos, eds., Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age, 1981 ◆ O. Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age, 1994, 257–294 ◆ W. Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution, 1992 ◆ N. Marinatos, Art and Religion in Ancient Thera, 1984, 1988 ◆ C. Renfrew, The Archaeology of Cult: The Sanctuary of Phylakopi, 1985 ◆ M. Bernal, Black Athena, 1987 21992 ◆ J.L. Crowley, The Aegean and the East, 1989 ◆ J.G. Griffiths, “The Divine Verdict: A Study of Divine Judgment in the Ancient Religions,” SHR 52, 1991, see also Auffarth, WO 24, 1993, 147–149 ◆ C. Auffarth, Der drohende Untergang: Schöpfung und Ritual und Mythos im Alten Orient und in Griechenland, RGVV 39, 1991 ◆ J. and E. Sakellarakis, Archanes, 1991 ◆ O. Dickinson, The Aegean Bronze Age, 1994, 257–294 ◆ N. Marinatos, Minoan Religion, 1995 ◆ D.R. West, Some Cults of Greek Goddesses of Oriental Origin, AOAT 233, 1995 ◆ C. Auffarth, Hera und ihre Stadt Argos, 1995 ◆ M. Lefkowitz, ed., Black Athena Revisited, 1996 ◆ W.-D. Niemeier & S. Deger-Jalkotzy, BNP (Antiquity) vol. I. Christoph Auffarth

Aelfric (c. 955–1020) was the son of a West Saxon aristocratic family; as a → Benedictine, he was educated in Winchester under St. Aethelwold; from 1005, he was abbot of Eynsham near Oxford. Because of his literary activity, Aelfric became one of the foremost personalities in the Benedictine reform movement in England. Especially important are his many vernacular sermons (two collections of Sermones Catholici and a collection of legends of the saints) and translations (including Bede’s De temporibus anni and the first seven books of the OT). Aelfric also made a name for himself as a grammarian with his Grammar and his Colloquy, a textbook for Latin instruction. J.E. Cross, Aelfric and the Mediaeval Homiliary, 1963 ◆ J. Hurt, Aelfric, 1972 ◆ M.McC. Gatch, Preaching and Theology in AngloSaxon England: Aelfric and Wulfstan, 1977 ◆ P.E. Szarmach & B.F. Huppé, eds., The Old English Homily and Its Backgrounds, 1978. Jörg O. Fichte

Aelia Capitolina → Bar Kokhba Revolt, → Jerusalem Aelred of Rievaulx, Saint (Ailred, Ethelred etc.; 1110, Hexham – 1167, Rievaulx), Cistercian abbot (→ Cistercians), author, and historian. From 1124 to 1134, he received his education and served as an economist at the Scottish court of David I; he entered Rievaulx in 1134, became master of novices in 1142, the founding abbot of Revesby in 1143, and from 1147 the abbot of Rievaulx, which he led to its greatest prosperity. Aelrid is the abbot par excellence for English monasticism to this day and one of the four “Evangelists of Cîteaux” that influenced the original charisma for the Cistercian order. In addition to the emotional quality and the rich imagery of his language, psychological sensitivity and human warmth characterize his monastic theology. He interpreted the relationships between monk and monastery community as (granted or refused) social grace; at the same time, through the transformation of the ancient ideal of friendship into a Christian ideal, he founded a theology of dialogical mysticism; his guidance concern-

ing the methodical examination of the life of Jesus continued to be influential until → Ignatius of Loyola. W. Daniel, Vita Aelredi, ed. F.M. Powicke, 1950 ◆ G. Fösges, Das Menschenbild bei Aelred von Rievaulx, 1994 (bibl.). Michaela Pfeifer

Aeneas of Gaza (2nd half of 5th cent. ce), Christian (probably → Monophysite), as a rhetorician belonged to the school of rhetoric in Gaza. Extant are a collection of 25 letters (ed. Massa Positano, 21962) and a dialogue “Theophrastus” (ed. M. Colonna, 1958), a writing dated between 485 and 490. It consists of a debate of the Christians Aegyptus and Euxitheos – the latter calls himself a student of the Neoplatonist → Hierocles – with → Theophrastus, a neoplatonic Athenian philosopher who had recently arrived in → Alexandria. CPG 3, 7450–7451 ◆ M. Wacht, Aeneas als Apologet, Theoph. 21, 1969 ◆ E. Gallicet, “Per una rilettura del Teofrasto di Enea di Gaza e dell’ Ammonio di Zacaria Scolastico,” AAST 112, 1978, 117–135, 137–167 ◆ A. Segonds, art. “Ainéas de Gaza,” DPA I, 1989, 82–87. Ilsetraut Hadot

Aepinus, Johannes (Hoeck) (1499, Ziesar – May 13, 1553, Hamburg). In 1517 Aepinus was premonstratensian in Belbuck (near Treptow on the Rega). He studied in Wittenberg from 1518 to 1520, after which he taught in Ziesar, was imprisoned and fled, taught in Greifswald, and in 1524 in Stralsund, where he composed a church order on the commission of the Council in 1525. In 1529, he became pastor at St. Petri in Hamburg; he was pastor and lector at the cathedral and Superintendent from 1532 to 1553. He received the Dr. theol. in Wittenberg in 1533. He was an emissary to England in 1534. In 1537 he was at the Bundestag in Schmalkalden. In 1544 he authored the church order for Bergedorf and the Vierlande, in 1552 for Buxtehude. In his teaching at the cathedral, Aepinus interpreted Christ’s → Descent into Hell on the basis of Ps 16 as his deepest humiliation, in contrast to the typical understanding as the beginning of his elevation. The church in Hamburg in which Aepinus initially had the upper hand was divided over this issue for years. Formula Concordiae IX rejects such speculation. EKO IV, 1911, 540–545; 5, 1913, 386–390 ◆ VD 16, 1, 1, 1983, 68–72 A354–390 ◆ H. Düfel, TRE I, 1977, 535–544 Heinz Scheible

Aequalitas exacta mutuaque → Parity Aequitas canonica. This principle of Catholic canon law is rooted in the aequitas (“equity”) of Roman law, in biblical thinking, and in → Aristotle’s theory of epikeia (→ Epiky). The aim of the aequitas canonica (unlike that of epikeia) is to achieve a harmony between already codified law and the legal judgment required in a specific situation.

Aeschylus The effect is a moderation of existing law; on occasion, however, the law may also be tightened (oikonomia). E. Wohlhaupter, Aequitas canonica, 1931 ◆ G. Wingren, art. ◆ “Billigkeit” TRE VI, 1980, 642–645 ◆ A. Hollerbach, art. “Billigkeit,” StL7, I, 1985, 809–813 ◆ W. Aymans & K. Mörsdorf, Kanonisches Recht I, 131991, 187–189. Wilhelm Rees

Aeschylus (c. 525/24 – 456/55 bce), Athenian dramatist. Of the approx. 70–90 tragedies and satirical plays attributed to Aeschylus the following are preserved: Persians (472 bce), Seven against Thebes (467), Hiketides (461?), as well as Agamemnon, Choephoroi and Eumenides (458) and the so-called Oresteia. Others are preserved in fragmentary form. By means of the trilogy Aeschylus was able to present connected plots spanning extended periods of time. These plots and the resultant misfortune are over-determined: for Aeschylus’s tragic characters they are a part of divine action; human behavior and its consequences, however, are not simply given in advance by the gods but are always determined in part by the actors themselves as well. Even if the vengeance of the gods affects not only those directly involved but also subsequent generations, divine intervention always correlates with human freedom of action and responsibility. The predications of Zeus, by means of which Aeschylus’s characters portray the omnipotence of the deity, are not preliminary stages of Christian → monotheism but henotheistic patterns of interpretation in the framework of ancient polytheism. As the almighty father of gods and humans Zeus, too, follows a sociomorphic model, whereby reality can be conceptualized at least, if not explained. This does not result in a transcendent conception of God, nor does the critique of divine action expressed by the tragic characters lead directly to the problem of → theodicy. The gods are not subject to the standards of human morality; instead their central theme is the incompatibility of divine and human patterns of behavior. In the Oresteia this ultimately leads to the transformation of the representatives of divine vengeance, the Erinyes, into benevolent deities. This harmony between gods and humans, belonging to the mythic-historical past in Athens, expresses a theological optimism which Aeschylus formulates at the apex of Athenian power. Later Athenian dramatists were no longer able to muster such optimism. A. Wartelle, Bibliographie historique et critique d’Eschyle 1518– 1974, 1978 ◆ A.H. Sommerstein, Aeschylean Tragedy, 1996. Andreas Bendlin

Aesthetics I. Philosophy – II. Theology

I. Philosophy Aesthetics is the discipline concerned with reflective perception, feelings, and the beautiful in nature and

74 art. The discussion of “aesthetics” has used this term, however, only in the modern era. In the context of → metaphysics and → ontology, epistemology and practical → philosophy, poetics and → rhetoric, however, the questions of aesthetics have accompanied thought since Antiquity. In fact, the history of aesthetics began with → Plato, who designated the beautiful as the goal of human endeavor in the Symposion and underscored the transcendental significance of earthly → beauty in the Phaidros. Earthly beauty reminds the soul of the divine sphere where, before its earthly existence, it viewed beauty’s pure prototype; we feel, as it were, inspired to come close again to the heavenly state. Beauty produces goodness. – In his Politeia, Plato sought to situate aesthetic appearance explicitly under rational control according to the standards of the reasonable ethicopolitical order, and by this very statement referred critically to the power of art. → Aristotle, in contrast, wanted to lay claim positively to this power. In the Poetics, he lauded tragedy for its therapeutic effect of a sublimated expression of the emotions. Antiquity generally emphasized the unity of the good, the true, and the beautiful. It was not until the 18th century that aesthetic questions in the true sense came to consciousness. The themes were sense perception, the productive imagination, the refined judgment of taste, the works of genius, the perfection of form, and reflective sensibilities. A. → Baumgarten defined the term for the new discipline with his Aesthetica (1750/1752), in which he assigned sensory perception its status in comparison to reason. I. → Kant marked a new epoch in the context of his critique of reason in his Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790; ET Critique of Judgment) by establishing its essence: as an act of judgment, aesthetic judgment concerning beauty and the sublime has its principle in a feeling, springing from reflection, of desire for the mere form of things. To this aesthetic feeling, Kant linked the highest speculative expectations: the experience of beauty permits one to become conscious, in the inner harmony of passionate contemplation, that one also fits harmoniously into nature – conceived of in teleological terms. In this state, one feels free and finds oneself therefore also oriented toward one’s moralpractical freedom: the beautiful is the symbol of the morally good. It is not by chance that this independence of aesthetics with respect to subject matter and method took place in the → Enlightenment: the determination of the achievements and limits of reason systematically provoked interest in the status of sensory perception and feeling. This Enlightenment stands in interplay with the movement in which the arts find such autonomy that they become exemplary for the self-consciousness of the modern individual. G.W.F. → Hegel followed this after 1820 with his in-depth reflections on art as a

75 form of the living “human as well as divine” spirit. Art, here, is conceived as a manifestation of the divine in the form of human freedom. It achieves the portrayal of the absolute in the medium of perceptible appearance. In relation to the ideal of the correspondence of absolute idea and perceptible form, it goes through the three phases of symbolic, classical, and romantic art, which Hegel interpreted, with a view to art from Antiquity to his own time, as the aspiration for, the attainment of, and the surpassing of this ideal. According to this historico-philosophical model, art ceased to be the appropriate form of expression of the human spirit with the romantic art of the Christian Middle Ages; at first, religion took over this function, and finally, philosophy. According to A. → Schopenhauer’s assessment of music as the complement of a pessimistic worldview and S. → Kierkegaard’s critique of the hedonism of everything aesthetic, F. → Nietzsche declared aesthetic productivity to be the principle of reality in his “artists’ metaphysics.” While, in the 20th century, G. → Simmel concerned himself with the combination of ethics and aesthetics in the concept of individuality, E. → Cassirer emphasized its liberating effects as well in his symbol theory of culture with its epistemic role for art. For T. → Adorno, an uncontrollable principle of experience is at work in the autonomy of aesthetic form in art; the work of art thereby becomes the subject of opposition to a society marred by domination. While here there is again an unsurpassable speculative estimation of great art, the currently dominant theoretical approaches to aesthetic experience are pushing the boundaries of the subject. A.G. Baumgarten, Aesthetica, 1750/1752 ◆ I. Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790 ◆ G.W.F. Hegel, Vorlesungen zur Ästhetik, 1823 ◆ A. Schopenhauer, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, Book 3, 1819 ◆ S. Kierkegaard, Entweder – Oder, 1843 ◆ F. Nietzsche, Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geist der Musik, 1872 ◆ S. Simmel, Das individuelle Gesetz, 1918 ◆ E. Cassirer, Philosophie der symbolischen Formen, 1923–1929; ET: The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. Volume One: Language, 1955; Volume Two: Mythical Thought, 1955; Volume Three: The Phenomenology of knowledge, 1957 ◆ idem, Die Philosophie der Aufklärung, ch. 7, 1932 ◆ T.W. Adorno, Ästhetische Theorie, 1970; ET: Aesthetic Theory, 1997 ◆ W. Tatarkiewicz, Geschichte der Ästhetik, 3 vols., 1979/1980, 1987 ◆ P. Perpeet, Antike Ästhetik, 21988 ◆ A. Gethmann-Siefert, Einführung in die Ästhetik, 1995 ◆ B. Scheer, Einführung in die philosophische Ästhetik, 1997. Birgit Recki

II. Theology Despite attention to aesthetics in recent years and despite the importance of religious literature and art, as well as music, for the life of the church, a theological aesthetics continues to be rather a desideratum than an established discipline; therefore, only its tasks can be described. Constitutive for the genuinely modern discipline of aesthetics is the association of the three themes of beauty, art, and sensory perception; all three are of immediate theological significance.

Aesthetics 1. In the theological tradition, the subject of aesthetics appears primarily in reflection concerning beauty. In this respect, classical metaphysical thought, following (neo-)Platonic tendencies, conceived of beauty not principally as beauty in appearance, but, above all, as the beauty of the invisible world in God. Visible beauty leads the human spirit to perceive the beauty of God; this understanding shaped all medieval art. Beauty is not, therefore, related to the receptive subject, but is a transcendental condition of reality itself; God is conceived of as the epitome of beauty. As the highest beauty, God is simultaneously the highest good and the greatest truth; thus, in God, beauty, goodness, and truth coincide. As conditions of reality, beauty and goodness, especially, are linked. The collapse of the classical form of metaphysics brought the loss of the transcendental basis of beauty; it ceased to appear as the basic definition of reality and became a subjective category of “pleasure.” As a concept of taste, it also lost its function as a central aesthetic category and has been replaced, since F. → Schiller, by the concept of → truth. This has theological consequences: while beauty can be regarded as the sensory presentation of the ordered cosmos, the concept of truth refers also to the brokenness of the world. Beauty, therefore, can only be conceived in the unredeemed world as an eschatological category. This very usage, however, can once again express what was conceived in the pre-modern era as the transcendental character of beauty. The theological task of the (sensory) disclosure of the world as creation points, therefore, to aesthetics; it finds in H.U. v. → Balthasar’s monumental work, which sought to uncover, in a fashion critical of the Enlightenment, the world’s transparency to God’s “glory,” an indispensable, but not unproblematic, point of reference. In this work, both speculative and mystical, aesthetics is the starting point for experiencing the self-revelation of God in its proper mystery and beauty, without reducing it to the customary categories of reason. Such an aesthetics shatters the common schemata by defining the cross of Christ as the locus through which all other true perception of the world and of humanity becomes possible. Thus, v. Balthasar not only reintegrated the three themes of the aesthetic theology of revelation, but also expressed the unity of the transcendental: the One reveals himself in his beauty, proves to be good, and thereby demonstrates his truth. 2. With the loss of the transcendental significance of beauty, the development of art has proceeded such that one can actually speak of art, in the contemporary sense, only in the modern era. By loosening itself from its theological context, art increasingly conceived of itself not only as autonomous, but also as the heir of and substitute for religion or as the true religion: art should express the unity of the finite subject with the infinite and the uncon-

Aetheria ditional, a unity that no longer seems perceptible in religion. At the same time, art is supposed to expand reason to include what is excluded from it: the romantic interest in the dark and “irrational” is a clear protest against the rationalistic restriction of life. Alongside this stands the claim that art can elevate morals: “for truth, beauty, and goodness” becomes the slogan of civil art in which genius is supposed to unify what has disintegrated in thought. The excessive philosophical and religious demands on art required by bourgeois aesthetics leads to a deep systematic conflict between → art and religion, the moment of truth for Kierkegaard’s consequential differentiation between ethical and aesthetic which was understood as a dichotomy, and seems to legitimate the theological alienation of contemporary art. The aesthetic modern age denies the religious claims of absolute art and expresses the ambivalence of the world; thus, it overcomes the tendency, implicit in absolute art, toward → theodicy or cosmodicy. The modern aesthete also makes concessions toward faith even where no religious implications are apparent. Theological aesthetics emphasizes together with modern aesthetics (most explicitly in Adorno, see above, I) the biblical → prohibition of images: the reconciled world is, indeed, beyond representation; instead, it is reserved for God’s future. 3. As a theory of sensory perception, theological aesthetics is, though only rudimentarily developed, of particular urgency. The central task of theological aesthetics is guidance for experiencing the reality of God in encountering the world “with reason and all the senses.” As aesthetics shatters the illusion of an autonomous subject and brings the irreducible receptivity of life to experience, it is indispensable for a contemporary articulation of the doctrine of creation. The necessity for a theological aesthetics is, consequently, not only based on the importance of aesthetics as a cultural phenomenon, but indispensable for the selfawareness of faith. Current aesthetic discourse needs the articulation of the Christian tradition; aesthetic modernity finds facticity guilty of the existence of its conventionality and puts pressure on the authentic expression of individual life. This is especially true in view of a postmodern aestheticism that wishes to separate itself from the question of truth as a culture dominated by stereotypical images: theological aesthetics is a task of critical perception. H.U. v. Balthasar, Herrlichkeit, 1961–1969; ET: The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, 1982–1991 ◆ A. Grözinger, Praktische Theologie und Ästhetik, 1987 ◆ G. Picht, Kunst und Mythos, 21987 ◆ P. Fuller, Theoria: Art, and the Absence of Grace, 1988 ◆ F. Burch Brown, Religious Aesthetics, 1989 ◆ J.S. Begbie, Voicing Creation’s Praise: Towards a Theology of the Arts, 1991 ◆ W. Lesch, ed., Theologie und ästhetische Erfahrung, 1994 ◆ W. Schoberth, Geschöpflichkeit in der Dialektik der Aufklärung, 1994 ◆ R. Viladesau, Theological Aesthetics: God in Imagination, Beauty, and Art, 1999 ◆ J.W. de Gruchy, Christianity, Art, and

76 Transformation, 2001 ◆ D.B. Hart, The Beauty of the Infinite, 2003. Wolfgang Schoberth

Aetheria → Egeria Aetiology I. Greco-Roman – II. Old Testament

I. Greco-Roman The word is formed from the Greek αἴτιον/aition (reason, ground) and λόγος/lógos (doctrine). → Aristotle (Metaph. 982b–983a) sees the first steps toward a “scientific” explanation of the world in the curious astonishment to which one feels compelled in the face of the phenomenal world before one’s eyes. The question concerning the why, the aetion, that gives rise to the aetiology encompasses all aspects of life, from the appearance of the plants to the search for the cause (or causal principle) of the cosmos. The need for explanation produced the effort, in mythology, to interpret the origin of the world surrounding humanity “rationalistically.” Aetiology may be regarded as an instrument for justifying the development of a social order. Preferably, gods are linked with the origin of aetia (e.g. as the punitive authority). Aetiology is recorded in literature, in nearly all literary genres (e.g. the aetiological conclusions of Euripedes’ dramas) in → Hellenism, which, motivated by an antiquarian compulsion, produced collections of aetia (Callimachus; Apollonius Rhodius); later, for Ovid, aetia became characteristic of a genre. Aetiology relates to the most widely varied aspects of life, so that it is nearly impossible to systematize. The most important aetia include: 1. Nature aetia, which explain natural phenomena. The astral aetia (constellations and their names) constitute a favored group. They are regularly explained by catasterism (immortalization in the stars) and often result from the metamorphosis of persons or objects. 2. Culture aetia explain the origin of important cultural phenomena (farming, viniculture). A sub-group includes the attribution of human achievements to an inventor. 3. Cult aetia interpret rites as the historical translation of a mythical event. Festival customs fall into this category as well as divine attributes and practices. Living beings and objects associated with the cult are also interpreted in this manner. 4. Name aetia arise through the establishment of etymological relationships. 5. Places are associated with and named after mythical events. M.P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, vol. I, 31967, 27–35 ◆ P.M. Forbes Irving, Metamorphosis in Greek Myths, 1990. Henriette Harich-Schwarzbauer

II. Old Testament Aetiologies often appear in the OT in formal elements such as name etymologies, paronomasia, naming formu-

77 lae (e.g. Gen 11:9; 25:30; Exod 2:22; 15:23), and references to transtemporal validity or efficacy (“until this day,” e.g. Judg 1:26; 2 Sam 6:8), and are present especially as narrative elements. Often, a text contains more than one aetiology (e.g. Gen 11:1–9 – confusion of languages, dispersal over the earth, explanation of a name). Some circumstances have more than one aetiology; e.g. Beersheba = “well of the oath” (Gen 21:23f., 31; 26:31) and “well of seven” (Gen 21:28ff.; 26:32f.). The aetiologies in Gen 1–11 relate to human existence, the distance between God and humanity, human mortality (Gen 1–3), the relationship between the sexes (Gen 2:24), etc.; the aetiologies in Gen 12ff. relate to the history of Israel and its ancestors. Aetiologies may be divided according to themes: personal names (e.g. Gen 38:29f.; Judg 6:32), often of patriarchs (e.g. Gen 29:31–30:24), places (e.g. Gen 32:3, 31; Judg 18:12), wells (e.g. Exod 17:7; Judg 15:19), the fall of cities (e.g. Gen 19:1–28), or the disappearance of populations (e.g. Josh 11:21f.), population lists (e.g. Judg 1:27–35), the subjugation of population groups (e.g. Josh 9:21, 27), feasts (e.g. Exod 13:2–16) and customs (e.g. Gen 32:33; Exod 4:26), regulations and institutions (e.g. 1 Sam 30:25), proverbs (e.g. 1 Sam 10:11f.), stone monuments or the like (e.g. Gen 19:26; 35:19f.; Josh 8:29; 24:26f.; 1 Sam 7:10ff.), etc. The historical content of aetiologies was a point of contention between the Alt/Noth and Albright schools (A. → Alt; M. → Noth; W.F. → Albright). According to current opinion, the existence of an aetiology does not automatically imply that a tradition is unhistorical. The dispute concerns whether the early period of Israel was when the aetiologies originated and whether the term aetiology is also applicable to literary layers and larger tradition complexes. In the current text of the OT, the aetiologies predominantly serve a rhetorical and theological function. The formula “until this day” emphasizes the reliability of what has been recounted, legitimizes property claims, etc. The hieros logos in Gen 28:10–22 elucidates YHWH’s presence with Jacob; the explanation of Moses’ name (Exod 2:10) offers a preview of the future; the aetiology of Mara (Exod 15:22–26) is in the service of the temptation theme, etc. F. Golka, “Zur Erforschung der Ätiologie im Alten Testament,” VT 20, 1970, 90–98 ◆ idem, “The Aetiologies in the Old Testament,” VT 26, 1976, 410–428; 27, 1977, 36–47 ◆ P.J. van Dyk, “The Function of the So-called Etiological Elements in Narratives,” ZAW 102, 1990, 19–33 ◆ B.S. Childs, “Retrospective Reading of the Old Testament Prophets,” ZAW 108, 1996, 362–377. Cornelis Houtman

Aetius (d. 365 ce), leader of the Anomoeans (→ Neo-Arianism) of → Antioch. Probably a convert to Christianity, most of his teachers were disciples of → Lucian of Antioch. He later studied medicine at Alexandria, and like Lucian served the poor. His vocation

Affect as dialectician and defender of doctrine was confirmed by a vision. He had both male and female disciples. He was ordained deacon in 344 but was removed from his position again after much opposition. Rejecting both ὁμοούσιος (homoousios) and ὁμοιούσιος (homoiousios) he said the Son was ἀνόμοιος κατ᾽ οὐσίαν (anhomoios kat’ ousian, unlike the Father in essence), and thus founded the Anomoean party. An associate of Emperor Gallus, he was favored by Julian. Often condemned, his followers named him “bishop at large.” Almost executed by Valens for supporting the usurper Procopius, he died in bed and was buried by his disciple → Eunomius. His works survive in fragments (CPG 2, 3445–3451). L.R. Wickham, “The Syntagmation of Aëtius the Anomoean,” JTS 19, 1968, 532–569. Richard P. Vaggione

Afanasev, Nikolai (Sep 4 or 16, 1893, Odessa – Dec 4, 1966, Paris) was a Russian Orthodox theologian, forced from his homeland with the White Army, who studied theology in Belgrade from 1921 to 1925 and immigrated to Paris in 1929, where, beginning in 1932, he taught at the Orthodox Theological Institute of St. Serge. He was ordained as a priest in 1940; he led a community in Tunis from 1941–1947, then returned to St. Serge where he was named professor of canonistics in 1950. His main achievement was the rediscovery of the original ecclesiology (→ church) which, in view of the equation of both the Communion bread (1 Cor 10:16f.) and the congregation (1 Cor 12:27) with the body of Christ, he called the Eucharistic and contrasted with the universalistic view which he traced to → Cyprian: the local congregation gathered for the Eucharist, linked with others in reception and care, is the church in the full sense and not merely a part of the same. P. Plank, Die Eucharistieversammlung als Kirche, 1980 ◆ K.C. Felmy, Die Orthodoxe Theologie der Gegenwart, 1990. Peter Hauptmann

Affect I. Philosophy of Religion and Ethics – II. Practical Theology

I. Philosophy of Religion and Ethics I. The term affect (Gk: πάθος/páthos) originates from the Greek and Latin tradition rather than the biblical (here: “heart”). The term, however, became very popular in the history of Christian theology and piety. While, unlike ἦθος (ēthos), the term denotes the unregulated passion and suddenness of emotion, πάθη are experienced and described as the forceful essence of divine power. In mythical texts, therefore, Φόβος (Phobos), ᾽Ελπίς (Elpis) are for example found as the – even transparent – names of gods. In this way affects already formed part of theology before becoming a Christian term. In postmythical philosophy, on the other hand, the term – disregarding

Affectio papalis playful remythicization and poeticizing – reflects inner psychological phenomena (ϕόβος, ἐλπίς), which, though these are more or less strong instabilities, are, in principle, meant to be controlled. It is only after regarding the theological significance of affects that their strictly ethical significance can be contemplated. A certain doctrine of affects can now develop, i.e. the attempt to systematize what cannot be systematized by distinguishing between primary and secondary affects or through the fluid parameters of pleasant/unpleasant and present/future, from which the classic four affects (joy/suffering, desire/fear) arise. For the Christian reception of the term, the difference between the Aristotelian and Augustinian concepts of affect is of importance. It is understood that → Aristotle regarded affects as irrational, emotive strivings which can be controlled by reason, whereas → Augustine, while adopting Platonic motives, regarded affects also as expressions of rational potential. A distinction should be made between the belief that affects are controllable by something other than affects, e.g. by reason, and the belief that they can be controlled by affects alone. Aristotle presented the latter belief in his theory of the effects of tragedy (κάθαρσις παθημάτων/katharsis pathēmatōn, cleansing of passions), which returns in the early works of Melanchthon in the variation “affectus affectu vincitur.” The image thus resembles the “pugna affectuum,” which can be associated with elements of experiential theology. G. Metzger, Gelebter Glaube, 1964 ◆ I. Cramer-Ruegenberg, ed., Pathos Affekt Gefühl, 1981 ◆ G.J.P. O’Daly & A. Zumkeller, art. “Affectus,” AugL I, 1986/94, 166–180 ◆ L. Wisse, Ethos and Pathos from Aristotle to Cicero, 1989 ◆ K.-H. zur Mühlen, “Die Affektlehre im Spät-Mittelalter und in der Reformationszeit,” ABG 35, 1992, 93–114 ◆ A. Zierl, Affekte in der Tragödie: Orestie, Oidipus Tyrannos und die Poetik des Aritoteles, 1994 ◆ G. Bader, Psalterium affectuum palaestra: Prolegomena zu einer Theologie des Psalters, 1996 ◆ K.-H. zur Mühlen, “Melanchthons Auffassung vom Affekt in den Loci communes von 1521,” in: M. Beyer & G. Wartenberg, eds., Humanismus und Wittenberger Reformation, 1996, 327–336. Günter Bader

II. Practical Theology The affective life fills the interiority of an individual and can be thought of as primarily positive or negative. Negative affect is experienced in determinative forms of alienation, such as depression, guilt, or shame; positive affect expresses a satisfying feeling of wholeness as in elation, trust, or joy. Most common synonyms are mood, feeling, and emotion, all of which are distinguished from sensation. Sensation has a given object for its content, but affect is the impression made on an individual by the object. In contrast to feeling, mood or emotion, the term affect is most accurately used as a quality of observable behavior. F. → Schleiermacher, the father of practical theology in the modern era, made the unique feeling of the unity of “immediate self-consciousness” the experiential foundation of all religion. As Pannenberg puts it,

78 this was based on the grounds that feeling was understood as receptivity to the whole of the finite world. To affectively grasp the totality of the finite is already to have transcended it, so a comprehensive self-consciousness already implies the infinite. This is the → intrinsic religious significance of affect, but for Pannenberg this can be understood as such only in the cognitive domain. Most contemporary psychological studies of affect tend to focus on one affect or another, such as studies of guilt, anger, ecstasy, or pleasure, but do not grasp the significance of affect as a totality. Thus, such affects tend to appear diffuse in comparison to cognitive states. A typical issue in dealing with specific affects concerns guilt: is the guilt in question based on a determinative objective transgression of a norm, or is it part of a neurotic condition? Real guilt and guilt feelings do not necessarily go together, but both are powerful determinants of behavior. W. Pannenberg, Anthropologie in theologischer Perspektive, 1983; ET: Anthropology in Theological Perspective, 1995, ch. 6 ◆ J.M. Jones, Affect as Process, 1995. James E. Loder

Affectio papalis. Since the pope possesses immediate and plenary jurisdiction in the church (c. 331 CIC), he may exercise his ius evocandi to reserve to himself any matter of administration (cf. c. 595 § 1) or any judicial case (c. 1405 § 1 n. 4), thus bypassing the person or body to which responsibility for this issue has been delegated. Every member of the faithful is entitled to bring his cause (c. 1417) directly to the pope (ius reclamandi). The affectio papalis came into existence in the High Middle Ages, especially in law relating to the appointment to ecclesiastical offices; this law has lost its relevance today. J. Haring, “Die Affectio papalis,” AKathKR 109, 1929, 127– 177. Karl-Theodor Geringer

Affiliation. In Catholic canon law, similar to the secular realm, “affiliation” (Lat. affiliare: “adopt”) denotes a special relationship of association; more specifically it is used in terms of aggregation (laws of religious orders and associations), incorporation or incardination and, in the context of the law code governing higher education, the affiliation of a university with a faculty. On the basis of papal privilege, letters of affiliation granted participation in the good works of a religious association. E. Magnin, DCC I, 1935, 263f.

Wilhelm Rees

Afghanistan I. History of Religions – II. History of Christianity

I. History of Religions 1. Pre-Islam. The geographical term Afghanistan occurs first in 10th-century Arabic and Persian sources.

79 The political boundaries of Afghanistan were established in the 2nd half of the 19th century by the colonial powers of England and Russia. Although the realm of modern Afghanistan tends to be described as a buffer zone between the Indian, central Asian and Iranian world, it is nevertheless a geographical and cultural unity. At the same time, however, Afghanistan always was a realm through which armies and commercial travelers passed, as well as intellectual trends and religious ideas. The earliest literary sources are from the 7th century and point to major Iranian influence in the western part of contemporary Afghanistan and thus to considerable significance of the Sassanid state religion, namely Zoroastrianism (→ Zarathustra), which drove out → Buddhism. In the eastern and northeastern part of modern Afghanistan Buddhism was able to assert itself. The monumental Greco-Buddhist relief statues of Bamian (destroyed by the Taliban in 2001) are just one example of the remarkable syncretism and the impressive cultural symbiosis of ancient western and Indian ideas. The most important source for the pre-Islamic situation is the travelogue of Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang), the Chinese pilgrim who visited the Kabul valley and numerous important cities around 644. He observed that alongside Buddhism other religious practices of Indian origin were observed. There is also evidence for the existence of Nestorian Christianity. As late as the 12th century there was a Nestorian church in a location called Zarang, which the Indian troops of Mahmud, the ruler of Ghaznavid, destroyed. There were also Jewish communities in existence. Islamic sources report on a Jewish residential area in Balkh where the prophet → Ezekiel is supposed to have lived. Numerous tombstones with Jewish-Persian, as well as with Hebrew and other inscriptions, which can be dated back to 752 ce, bear witness to Jewish life. Even in the early 1980s there was a Jewish community in the town of Maimana. 2. Islam. During the second half of the 7th century Islamic armies advanced into modern Afghanistan. Initial tolerance gave way to suppression and persecution of Zoroastrian priests and the destruction of the temple of fire. The political leaders of the local population objected that in the Qur’ān Zoroastrianism, along with Judaism and Christianity, had been recognized as a religion of the book and therefore as a religious community to be protected. The Islamic authorities concurred. The subsequent transition towards Islam proceeded slowly and by peaceful means. By 1000 ce the Islamization of the country can be considered to have been complete. Until 1896 the Kafirs (pagans), whose religion was described as a blend of polytheism and animism, were able to maintain themselves in modern Nuristan. Today Afghanistan is an Islamic state in which 99% of the population is Muslim, 85% of whom are → Sunnis. The

Afghanistan remaining 15% are Shiaites, most of them being adherents of the Twelve Šīaa (Shiaa) (→ Islam: II). E. Bosworth, “The Coming of Islam to Afghanistan,” in Y. Friedmann, Islam in Asia, vol. I, 1984, 1–22 ◆ P. Heine, “Das Verbreitungsgebiet der islamischen Religion,” in W. Ende & U. Steinbach, eds., Der Islam in der Gegenwart IV, 1996, esp. 129–148. Peter Heine

II. History of Christianity The presence of Christians in Afghanistan is traced back to the Nestorians (→ Nestorius; → Nestorianism; → Syria: V) who had been engaged in mission work in central Asia already in the early 5th century. By 424 the city of Herat was a diocesan seat and as such was also linked with the council of Seleucia; around 560 it became a metropolitan city (→ Metropolitan: I). The order of the names of the Nestorian bishops in Herat is known only until 1065. In the larger towns there were numerous Nestorian Christian communities; no detailed knowledge is available about their size, hierarchical organization and social structure. It is likely that the Nestorians initially turned to the lower strata of the population. Already around 498 Hun tribes of the Hephthalites are said to have been converted and in 549 requested the sending of a bishop. According to an ancient tradition even the apostles Thomas and Barnabas were supposed to have proclaimed the Gospel in Afghanistan. There is no unambiguous scholarly support for Balkh having been a diocesan seat. In the first half of the 7th century an archbishopric is supposed to have been established in this town for the bishop of Tocharestan. Balkh developed into a significant missions center which sent 636 missionaries to → China (III, V) on the → Silk road. After the Christian communities had finally disappeared by the late 14th century, under Tamerlane (1360–1405), Armenian traders (Armenia: II) in the 17th century established trade centers in Kabul, Herat, Jalalabad and Kandahar. In Kabul the colony of Armenian (→ Armenia: II) traders experienced their heyday around 1670 and 1707, when they enjoyed the special privileges under the rulers of the Moguls at that time, such as complete freedom of movement, exemption from dress regulations and tax reductions. In 1737 Nadis Shah Afshar (1688–1747) settled several hundred families in Kabul in order to promote IndianPersian trade. During this time the Armenians may have established the first church in Afghanistan, which was destroyed during the second Anglo-Afghanistan war (1878). In the 19th century the number of Armenians and their importance steadily decreased. On account of professional and social restrictions many Armenians left the country. On the order of Abdur Rahman Khans (1880–1901) the remaining Armenians were expelled from the country.

Afonso I Currently the only Christians in Afghanistan are expatriates who reside there because of their professional engagement, e.g. the Brethren of the Fellowship of → Christ-Bearers or the → Brothers/Sisters of Jesus, but also engineers and employees of various aid organizations. J.-M. Fiey, Assyrie chrétienne, n.d. ◆ B. Spuler, Die morgenländischen Kirchen, HO 8/2, 1964 ◆ V. Gregorian, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan, 1969 ◆ H.W. Haussig, Die Geschichte Zentralasiens und der Seidenstrasse in vorislamischer Zeit, 1983, repr. 1988. Birgitta Kraus

Afonso I (1465 [?] – 1543), Mvemba Nzinga, son of Nzinga Nkuvu, who was king of the Congo (→ Kongo Kingdom) when the Portuguese first arrived there in the 1480s. At the time Congo was a considerable and prosperous state. Nzinga Nkuvu was baptized in 1491 like many other African kings on encountering the Portuguese. He received the name of João I. His son, at the time governor of the province of Nsundi, was baptized a month later, receiving the name of Afonso. While the king abandoned Christianity soon after, Afonso refused to do so, and when his father died in 1506, he marched on the capital, Mbanza Congo, and defeated his non-Christian brother who had been chosen by the great chiefs as king. In this he received Portuguese assistance. He ruled the Congo from then until his death in 1543. During his long reign Afonso established the publicly Catholic character of his kingdom in a way which was maintained by all his successors for 300 years. The remarkable series of his letters is unique for any African king of the period. In them he appealed to the king of Portugal for educational and technical assistance while criticizing Portuguese behavior and their slave trade. He appears as both an evangelizer and a modernizer. His son Henry was sent to Lisbon for education, was made a bishop there in 1521 and returned to the Congo, where he died before 1530. Henry was the only Catholic African bishop before the 20th century. In his pursuit of foreign assistance, Afonso finally sent his brother Manuel in 1539 on a mission to the pope but the Portuguese never allowed him to proceed beyond Lisbon, where he remained until Afonso died. Afonso’s memory remained uniquely strong in the Congo. He stands out both in his Christian activism and political achievement from all other African kings of his period. A. Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 2 vols., 1952/3 ◆ C.-M. de Witte, “Heride Congo, évêque titulaire d’Utique, d’après les documents romains,” ED 21, 1968, 587–599 ◆ L. Jadin & M. Dicorato, Correspondence de Dom Afonso, roi du Congo 1506–1543, 1974 ◆ J. Thornton, “Early KongoPortuguese Relations,” History in Africa 8, 1981, 183–204. Adrian Hastings

80 Afra of Augsburg (Saint) (martyr, d. c. 304). The earliest witnesses to Afra’s veneration are Venantius → Fortunatus (c. 560) and the Martyrologium Hieronymianum (Bern Codex, c. 600). The author of an early medieval Afra Passion (7th cent.?) portrayed Afra as a converted prostitute (meretrix), who, because of her Christian confession, was condemned to be burned at the stake. The extent to which an authentic tradition underlies this Afra Passion is difficult to determine. A Roman sarcophagus found in 1064 has since been considered Afra’s burial site (opened once again in 1804). The remains removed at that time rest in the crypt (constructed in 1962) of the Church of St. Ulrich and Afra in Augsburg. Afra is the second patroness of the city and bishopric of Augsburg (feast day Aug 7; her veneration is widespread throughout the bishopric of Augsburg). W. Berschin, “Die älteste erreichbare Textgestalt der Passio S. Afrae,” Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter 46, 1981, 217–224 ◆ F. Prinz, “Die heilige Afra,” Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter 46, 1981, 211–215 ◆ idem, “Am Grab der heiligen Afra,” JVABG 16, 1983, 108–121 ◆ W. Gessel, LThK 3 I, 1993, 192f. Manfred Weitlauff

Afrahat. There are 23 Syriac expositions traditionally ascribed to “Afrahat (Aphraates), the Persian sage.” Gennadius Vir. ill. 1 (= 136) and the Armenian tradition mistakenly identify the author with the renowned → Jacob of Edessa (from Nisibis), who as bishop of → Edessa took part in the Council of → Nicea . Little is known of Afrahat’s life and person. He describes himself as a celibate ascetic, one of the so-called “sons of the covenant” (18, 1, 12); he was active in the western region of the Sassanid Empire (10, 9). His literary corpus is divided into two sections (10, 9): the first (expositions 1–10) dates from the year 337 and treats ascetic and practical questions; the twelve expositions (11–22) of the second section, dating from the year 344 (22, 25), display a marked anti-Jewish attitude and discuss the validity of Jewish rituals, the election of the church, the divine sonship of the Messiah, and eschatological themes. Afrahat is a significant literary figure: he can be called the first major witness to an independent Syriac literature that does not owe its existence to translation from the Greek. His skill as a writer rests in his imaginative reproduction and assimilation of traditional materials, especially from the OT and Jewish sources. His major theological sources are the OT and the gospel, which he knew only in the form of the → Diatessaron. Citing the OT and later rabbinic traditions, Afrahat vigorously defends the divinity of the Messiah, the superiority of celibacy to marriage, and Christian freedom from the Jewish ceremonial law. Works: J. Parisot, ed., PS 1–2, 1894–1907; text & Lat. trans. ◆ G. Lafontaine, ed., CSCO.Ar 7–12, 1977–1980; Armenian

81

Africa

text & Lat. trans. ◆ P. Bruns, ed., FChr 5/1–2, 1991; Ger. trans. ◆ On Afrahat: P. Bruns, Das Christusbild Afrahats, 1990 ◆ D. Juhl, Die Askese im Liber graduum und bei Afrahat, 1996. Peter Bruns

Africa

“international welfare case” and take its place as a full partner in the society of nations. V. Jamal & J. Weeds, Africa Misunderstood, or, Whatever Happened to the Rural-Urban Gap? 1993 ◆ C. Ake, Democracy and Development in Africa, 1996 ◆ S. Ellis, ed., Africa Now: People, Policies and Institutions, 1996. Hermann Sautter

I. Geopolitical Survey – II. History of Religion – III. Christianity

I. Geopolitical Survey Africa presents a troubled, contradictory picture. Its population is growing faster than that of any other continent. Civil wars and repeated periods of drought force millions to flee. An aggressive Islamism is unsettling the fragile equilibrium of multireligious societies. Political borders drawn by the colonial powers, which often sunder peoples and tribes, are a constant occasion for regional conflicts. But at the same time, Africa has succeeded in defusing one of its greatest conflicts: by its own efforts, the Republic of South Africa suppressed its → apartheid regime and thus forged new possibilities for domestic and international cooperation. With its increased moral influence, the African country with the strongest economy has taken on a mediating role in the internal and international conflicts of its neighbors. In the context of international politics, conditions for development in Africa have improved since the end of the 1980s. During the East-West conflict, Africa was the scene of so-called surrogate wars. For strategic reasons, the West armed rebels to destabilize regimes with socialist leanings and gave political support to pro-Western regimes less interested in the welfare of their countries than in consolidating their own power. The end of this East-West rivalry has increased Africa’s chances of finding a way to stable autonomous development. The tasks facing Africa are immense. Above all, it must spur its economic development. Exploitation of natural resources, which today still constitutes a significant part of the gross national product of African nations, will not by itself support the growing population. The continent must diversify the range of goods it produces, increase its productivity in both the industrial and the service sector, and thus in foreign trade transcend its traditional role as an exporter of raw materials and an importer of manufactured goods. The requirements for an economic development that would benefit the entire population include protection of political and social → human rights, participation of the population in the processes promoting informed political opinion, improvement of educational and health care, and economic policies that encourage private initiative and provide for it a reliable legal framework. The chances are not bad. During the 1990s, several countries set political and economic reforms in motion. If Africa pursues this course consistently, it can shed the odium of being an

II. History of Religion 1. Indigenous African Religions. Scientific research into indigenous African religions is strongly multidisciplinary, although most studies have been conducted by scholars of religion, anthropologists, or historians. The lack of sources often poses a serious problem for the study of Africa’s traditional religious heritage, especially from a historical perspective. As a rule, written descriptions do not appear until the period of modern colonialism (19th and 20th cents.). These early accounts by travelers, missionaries, and others were usually of poor quality. Oral sources are an important supplement, but they encompass only a very limited period. The rock paintings dating from the Stone Age and later, found primarily in southern Africa, are an important example of archaeological evidence. Many of them are graphic representations of a therapeutic dance that is still a central element in the religion of the “San” and “Bushmen.” The San from Southern Africa and the → Pygmies from Central Africa are the best known of those few peoples whose economic system is still based to some extent on hunting and gathering. In the therapeutic dance, which represents a type of → shamanism, three kinds of ambivalent spirits are believed to be present: God the creator, who is essentially good, an inferior deity, whose evil or destructive side predominates, and the spirits of the departed. All these spirits are associated with the heavenly realm; they bestow good things like health and food as well as diseases and other misfortunes. Especially severe visitations are caused by the lesser deity and the spirits of the departed. The ambivalent superhuman power activated by healing shamans in the dance comes from God the creator, who thus ultimately becomes the source of health and disease, life and death. Among pastoralist peoples, belief in and worship of a creator God are often the predominant aspect of the indigenous religion. The Nuer in southern Sudan are one of those pastoralist groups who believe in a rich spirit world, in which the spirits, as it were, are God (kwoth) in various forms. Thus God is both one and many. Another well-known pastoral people with a more clearly monotheistic religion are the Massai in → Kenya and → Tanzania. Worship customarily involves prayers and offerings, from simple libations of milk to elaborate sacrifices of cattle. A Massai myth tells how God (enkAi) gave the Massai people cattle, which are therefore extremely important in their culture and religion. Cattle are sacrificed by the

Africa

82

Algiers

Tunis Kairouan

Tunisia

Rabat

Casablanca

Alexandria

Tripoli

Morocco

Cairo

Algeria

Libya

El-Aaiun

Egypt

West Sahara

Mauritania

Mali

Nouakchott

Conakry Freetown

Bamko

Chad

Ivory-Coast Accra

Abidjan

G

Gondar

Malabo Sao Tome

Equatorial Guinea

Djibouti (city)

Yaoundé

Uganda

Kigali Kampala Rwanda

Libreville

Gabon Congo

Democratic

Brazzaville Kinshasa Republic of Bujumbura

Nairobi

Dodoma

Tanzania

Lusaka

Z

a m bia

Moroni

Lilongwe Harare

Mozambique

Zimbabwe

Namibia Windhoek

Dar es Salaam

Comoros

Malawi

Angola

Mogadishu

Kenya

Burundi

Luanda

Africa – Religions

Somalia

Ethiopia

Central African Cameroon Bangui Republic

the Congo

Antananarivo

Madagascar

Botswana Gaborone

Pretoria Mbabane Bloemfontein Maseru

Islam (Sunnis) Indigenous/Traditional Religion The hachures indicate which religious community is the largest in each respective country. If two groups are equally large, this is indicated by a half hachure.

Aksum

Addis Ababa

Abuja

Ibadan Porto Novo Lomé

Christianity Catholic churches Protestant churches Orthodox and Eastern churches

Asmera

Sudan

N’Djamena

Nigeria

Eritrea

Khartoum

Niamey

Burkina Faso Ouagadougou

ha

e S i e r ra Leon Monrovia Liberia

Niger

Togo B e nin

Guine a-B is

Senegal Gambia Bissau sau Guinea

na

Dakar Banjul

South Africa

Maputo

Swaziland Lesotho

Cape Town

elders, who wield strong religious and secular power, or by special religious leaders. The Massai religion generally does not involve belief in a life after death; formerly, at least, the dead were not buried but were left outside the villages to be devoured by wild animals. In many agricultural areas with sedentary populations and decentralized indigenous socio-political systems, the ancestor cult or worship of the spirits of → ancestors is still the most important aspect of religion, even though its importance has gradually been declining. The living may turn regularly to the ancestors of the last four or five generations, whose names are remembered. Among peoples who had powerful chiefs and kings in the pre-colonial and colonial period, like the Ganda in

southern → Uganda, even chiefs and kings who died long ago can play a leading role in the cult. Sacred rulers, both living and dead, can influence the health and prosperity of all the people in their territory. Ordinary ancestors, by contrast, can only influence the lives of their own descendants. In religions in which the ancestor cult is predominant, the ancestors can play a major role as guardians of morality. They can punish offenses against the social norms with various kinds of misfortune – usually not especially serious. To avoid such misfortune, it is important to pray regularly to the ancestors and make offering to them. For a few agrarian peoples, especially in parts of Central and West Africa, the so-called fetish cult

83 (→ Fetishism) is more important than the ancestor cult or ancestor worship. The original Kongo people (bakongo) from the Republic of the Congo (→ Congo, Republic of ), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (→ Congo Democratic Republic of ), and → Angola are an example of a group in which certain spirits associated with sacred objects (minkisi or fetishes), usually in the form of bundles or sculptures, were of particular importance, at least prior to the 20th century. Most of these spirits were erstwhile human beings, for example founders of a clan. Like other spirits (and deities as well), the fetish spirits of indigenous African religions are ambivalent. For example, they can both cause and heal diseases. The spirits are highly specialized, as are the healers associated with the various spirit cults. Several peoples with their own highly hierarchical socio-political systems – such as the → Yoruba in → Nigeria and the Akan in → Ghana – have a great number of specialized gods and goddesses with their own shrines, priests and priestesses, and a rich oral literature of myths and other genres. The Yoruba pantheon comprises hundreds of deities (orisha), who are associated both with nature and with the human world. For example, a deity may be a river god as well as a deified king and protector of a city. Some deities are worshiped by specific occupational groups. For example, smiths and hunters may belong to a cultic association that worships Ogun, the god of iron and war. The Yoruba share with certain other African peoples the notion of a mother-earth deity (Onile) who, like the heavenly father (Olorun), belongs to a special category of divinity distinct from the deities (orisha). Like other peoples of West Africa, the Yoruba also believe in → reincarnation, which – unlike certain religious traditions of Asia – they look on as something positive. Although there are substantial differences between the various African religions as well as within them, there are also significant similarities. Among other things, the conceptions of God as the eternal and omniscient creator are highly congruent. Mythologically, God occupies a central position even in religions in which he is hardly or not at all the (direct) subject of the cult. Myths of the divine origin of life and the source of suffering, disease, and death in some unhappy accident or act of disobedience appear in practically all the tribal religions of Africa. Notions of the evil machinations of “witches” and “sorcerers” – which, depending on one’s definition of religion, may or may not be included in a description of these religions – are likewise of great importance in almost parts of Africa, though they are most common in agrarian societies where social status is earned rather than ascribed. While the importance of ancestors, “fetish” spirits, and deities has decreased markedly since the 19th century, problems with witchcraft have actually increased. This phenomenon may reflect in part the

Africa growth of socio-economic competition. A universal feature of African tribal religions is their emphasis on this life. Therefore they focus on addressing human concerns here and now more than salvation in a life after death. 2. Islam. Although today in practically all African countries only a minority are officially followers of an African tribal religion, it must be noted that much of the religious heritage of the tribal religions survives in Islam (as well as Christianity). The early Muslim history of North Africa (→ Egypt and the Maghrib) is well documented in writings by Arabs. The major sources for the study of the early history of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa are likewise the works of Arab authors. From the 16th century on, works in Arabic written by African Muslims became particularly important. Oral traditions also contribute to these African perspectives. Archival material, especially from the modern period of colonialism, is available in Europe. There is now also a significant amount of scholarly literature about Islam in Africa – especially North Africa, but also the predominantly Muslim regions further south, from Somalia in the east to countries like Senegal in the west. In East Africa, particular attention has been devoted to the coastal regions. There are few studies, however, of Muslims as minorities in Central and southern Africa. In North Africa, Islam has a long history and is therefore deeply rooted. The Islamic conquest of this part of the continent began during the 7th century, shortly after the death of the prophet → Mu˙ammad. Islam expanded more rapidly than did the Arabic language. In the early history of the Muslims in North Africa, besides the Sunnis, first the Kharijites and later the Shiaites acquired unusually great influence. The Šīaa missionary impact culminated during the 10th century in the establishment of the Fatimid caliphate, which founded Cairo. Further divisions arose in the subsequent dynasties of the Almoravids and Almohads. In addition, Sufism gradually grew very strong, and its expansion continued under Ottoman rule. From the middle of the 19th century on, however, there was an appreciable increase in the influence of orthodox or reformist schools of Islam, which were strongly opposed to Sufism and Western colonialism. Especially important was the Salafiya movement, one of whose leaders was the Egyptian Mu˙ammad aAbduh. At least as early as the 8th century, Arab and Berber traders from North Africa began to influence subSaharan Africa. By the 11th century, these traders had settled in the capitals of African states in the Sahel, e.g. the kingdom of Ghana. But Islam penetrated only slowly, and was limited primarily to people engaged in commerce. In the gigantic, multiethnic empire of → Mali, which flourished in the 14th century, the presence of Islam was of greater importance (e.g. in the form of mosques and Muslim scholars), but even there only

Africa a small minority converted to Islam. On the whole, in the great West African empires like Mali and Songhia the influence of Islam was limited to urban centers and social elites. Not until the 17th and 18th centuries did Muslims begin to penetrate deeper into the interior and gain followers among the peasants and others. The new religion incorporated many pre-Islamic beliefs and practices, and the influence of Islamic law was very limited. A series of reform movements, including jihad (→ Holy war), began in the late 17th century, both to “purify” the mixed Islam of Africans and to achieve political ends. To some extent these movements were influenced by similar developments in North Africa and other parts of the Muslim world. The most famous example of reform in West Africa is the → Fulani (Fulbe) jihad, launched by Usman dan Fodio, which led to the establishment of the Sokoto caliphate in the early 19th century. Several Hausa kingdoms in modern northern Nigeria were conquered, and serious but only partially successful attempts were made to introduce Islamic law. During the first centuries of Islam, the new religion also advanced south of Egypt along the Nile valley as far as the Sudan, and in → Ethiopia Muslims soon extended their influence to regions that were not under the control of the Christian kingdom. Somali traditions claim that the founders of their clans were Muslim Arabs who entered into mixed marriages with native women from the coast. Further south in East Africa, Arabs and other Muslims from Asia likewise contracted mixed marriages and settled there during the first centuries of Islam. This development proceeded along the coast as far as the Swahili culture and language, a combination primarily of → Bantu-African and Arabic elements. In the interior of East Africa, as in other parts of the continent, Muslims engaged in trade, including slaves. But it was not until the modern period of European colonialism that a substantial number of Africans from this interior part of the continent became followers of Islam. During this period, Islam also spread very rapidly in other regions south of the Sahara. Improved communication, urbanization, and the inclusion of literate Muslims in local government were among the factors that promoted the spread of Islam – and Christianity. In some instances, Islam became a religion of anticolonial resistance and independence. The prevalence of local leadership and an often highly flexible accommodation to local circumstances reinforced this position. But there were also examples of cooperation between Muslim leaders and colonial administrations, e.g. the emirs in northern Nigeria and the Sufi sheikhs or marabouts in Senegal. Massive missionary efforts were particularly characteristic of the Sufi orders or turuq (Syr. tariqa). While Sufism in North Africa has been somewhat weakened by modern reform movements, it is the predominant

84 form of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa. Sufism was primarily responsible for “africanizing” Islam and adapting it to a rural population. The Sufi orders have a “mystical” approach to religion, but most of them are also deeply involved in social, economic, and political questions. A good example of the engagement of Sufis in economic and political affairs is Muridiyya in → Senegal, founded in the 19th century by Ahamad Bamba. According to Bamba and his successors, not only obedience to the marabout but also work in the field is a religious duty. The most influential Sufi order in West Africa is Tijaniyya, founded by Ahmad al Tijani in the 18th century, along with its reformed offshoot Niassiya, founded by Ibrahim Niass (1900–1975). In East Africa, the ancient and markedly international Qadiriyya with its various subgroups constitutes the dominant order. The great majority of African Muslims in the north as well as in the sub-Saharan countries are Sunnis. The small Shiaite groups in East and Southern Africa are primarily descendants of South Asian immigrants, while many Shiaites in West Africa are of West Asian origin. The → A˙madīya sect has never been numerically strong, but it plays a major role in the production and distribution of Muslim literature. In West Africa, as in the Maghrib and the → Sudan, the Maliki is the predominant Islamic school, while in Egypt and East Africa the Shafii school is the most important. Except in the Sudan, where the political role of Islam was strengthened in the 1980s, the status of Islamic law has been politically weak in sub-Saharan Africa. As the African states achieved independence, generally c. 1960, the new regimes adopted policies of secularization and modernization. Since the 1970s, however, so-called fundamentalist or Islamist movements and organizations have become increasingly influential as opposition groups, especially in North Africa. The Islamists react strongly to Western values and dominance, as well as to the “degenerate” forms of Sufi Islam. Although they reject a few → Enlightenment values that support modernism of secular modernity, they are (Muslim) modernizers who have as their goal an Islamization of modernity. Islamism is in part a reaction to (perceived) failings on the part of secularistic regimes. Factors such as urbanization, a strong organizational bent on the part of Islamistic groups, and their efforts on behalf of development have nevertheless contributed to the growing importance of these groups. Of the minority religions in Africa, the → Bahāhī faith, → Hinduism, and → Judaism probably have the most followers. The Bahāhī faith is particularly well represented in East and Central Africa. Its followers are often very active missionaries. The Hindus, of whom the great majority are descendants of immigrants from the Indian subcontinent, live mostly in urban centers of East Africa and southern Africa. Jews are found mostly

85 in Ethiopia, where the Falasha have a long history, and in Southern Africa. Formerly there was also a significant Jewish minority in North Africa. In addition, various areas south of the Sahara have a very limited number of Buddhists, Sikhs, Parsis, Jains, and followers of Chinese religions, as well as an apparently growing number of people interested in New Age movements. An interesting example of a new religion originating in Africa is Godianism, founded in Nigeria in 1948 by Chief Onyioha. It reflects the influence of both Islam and Christianity on indigenous African religiosity. E. Dammann, Die Religionen Afrikas, RM 6, 1966 ◆ J.S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 1969 ◆ T. Ranger & I. Kimambo, The Historical Study of African Religion, 1972 ◆ V. Mulago, La religion traditionelle des Bantu et leur vision du monde, 21980 ◆ M. Hiskett, The Development of Islam in West Africa, 1984 ◆ E.T. Lawson, Religions of Africa, 1984 ◆ R.L. Pouwels, Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900, AfS, 53, 1987 ◆ L. Brenner, Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1993 ◆ M. Hiskett, The Course of Islam in Africa, 1994 ◆ J. Platvoet, J. Cox & J. Olupona, eds., The Study of Religions in Africa: Past, Present and Prospect, Religions of Africa 1, 1996. David Westerlund

III. Christianity The beginnings of Christianity in Africa presumably go back to → Alexandria. Situated on the Mediterranean, it was basically a Greek city with a large Jewish community. Its Christian church developed within the creative tension between Jewish tradition and Greek civilization. By virtue of its trade with Asia, the city was exposed to a multiplicity of cults. In this environment, Christianity produced an impressive series of theologians, from → Clement of Alexandria to → Athanasius, as well as a dazzling variety of Gnostic teachers, including → Basilides and → Valentinus, active in the 2nd quarter of the 2nd century. Initially “Orthodox” and “Gnostic” Christianity in Egypt spoke Greek, but it did not take long for both to spread among the rural inland populations, who spoke Coptic. Undoubtedly the Bible was translated into Coptic around the middle of the 3rd century, as well as a host of Gnostic documents like the collection of codices discovered in 1945/46 at → Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt. It would be fair to say that African Christianity, in contrast to the Christianity of the Greek- and Latinspeaking Mediterranean, began with this development of a Coptic church rooted in rural and village life. In this totally new environment, where the proclamation of the gospel went forward independently of the GrecoLatin world, there arose one of the great Christian religious movements: → monasticism. Around 269 ce, → Anthony, a young Copt who spoke no Greek, felt called to give away all his possessions and withdraw to a solitary life of extreme asceticism in the desert. Many other hermits followed in Anthony’s footsteps; but c. 320

Africa → Pachomius, a Copt from Upper Egypt, founded a monastery in Tabennisi, wrote for it the first monastic rule, and transformed the entire movement from eremitic to cenobitic. Only later was monasticism adopted by the Greek and Latin churches. Anthony and Pachomius became disciples of Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, and supported him in the conflict with Arianism (→ Arius). From this perspective, Athanasius represented a healthy fusion of Greek and Coptic, strengthening the Egyptian church. The growing identification of the Greek church with → Constantinople, now both the residence of the emperor and a domineering patriarchate, a century later undermined this alliance, alienated Egyptian Christianity from the Greek world, and paved the way for acceptance of Arabo-Muslim rule from the early 7th century on. The Coptic Church survived as the original form of the church in Africa, but was subsequently to play only a peripheral role in the mainstream of Christian history. The history of the church west of Egypt in the Roman province called Africa (modern Tunisia and Algeria) is similar in many ways. Here Latin largely supplanted the local languages, which, unlike Coptic, never developed well-defined written forms. The church that arose in the 2nd century used Latin exclusively. From this church came → Tertullian and → Cyprian of Carthage, the first major Christian theologians to write in Latin. It developed early on a highly distinctive tradition, which especially glorified martyrdom. It also cultivated a sectarian spirit that was not open to compromise and mistrusted the power of the Empire and non-African influences. The result was → Donatism, Africa’s first schism. Soon after → Constantine came to power, this schism spread, playing off the Cyprianic tradition against communion with Rome. Initially it was centered in Cyprian’s → Carthage, but its domain shifted to the less Latinized population of Numidia. → Augustine, the most important of the African theologians and church fathers, attempted as bishop of Hippo to end the schism, first by theological arguments and later by using state coercion. While he was partially successful, the conflict – coupled with the invasion of North Africa by the Arian Vandals and the fall of the Western Roman Empire – weakened North African Christianity, so that two centuries later the Arab conquest and the flight of many Christians across the Mediterranean caused a further loss of direction. Until the 12th century, remnants of a dying church survived around Carthage; but here, as in Egypt, there was tension between a Christianity rooted primarily in African society and a Christianity associated with a cosmopolitan culture still centered in Rome. This tension reappeared throughout Africa in the 20th century. South of Egypt, Christianity expanded during the 4th and 5th centuries to the Horn of Africa, in the

Africa coastal kingdom of → Axum, which gradually became → Ethiopia, and then up the Nile to the small kingdom of Nubia. The conversion of Aksum and its king Ezana was initially the work of → Frumentius, a Syrian whom Athanasius had consecrated bishop. While the early history of Christianity in Ethiopia remains obscure, it is clear that the Bible had been translated into Ethiopic before the end of the 5th century. In this period a group of monks called the “Nine Saints,” probably from Syria, came and built several monasteries, including → Dabra Dāmo, which still exists. In the same period, various other works of Christian literature were translated, mostly writings of the Alexandrian school (→ Alexandrian Theology), including the Rules of Pachomius and the Life of Anthony; an understanding was reached that the bishop of Ethiopia must always be an Egyptian, consecrated and sent by Alexandria. When the Coptic Church rejected the Council of → Chalcedon and became in the traditional sense “Monophysite” (→ Monophysites) by maintaining its own theological tradition, the Church of Ethiopia followed suit. But there are no grounds for assuming – apart from technical theological terminology that was hardly translatable into Ethiopic – that there were any crucial differences in christology separating Ethiopia, Constantinople, and Rome. The origin of the church in Nubia is still obscure. Christianity must have spread there from Upper Egypt long before Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora dispatched missionaries to the region in 543. From then on there were several Christian kingdoms along the Upper Nile, including a northern state around Dongola and a southern state with its capital at Sūbah, near modern Khartoum. In contrast to Ethiopia, they appear to have had several bishops, at least some of whom were indigenous, but whether the Bible was ever translated into Nubian is uncertain. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the 7th century hindered communication between Ethiopia and Nubia and the rest of the Christian world; but ties with the Coptic Church remained of crucial importance. Nevertheless, Christian Nubia later flourished, especially from the 8th to the 12th century. Monasteries and cathedrals were built and decorated with wonderful paintings. Only gradually did pressure from an increasingly Muslim Egypt and the advance of Islam among neighboring peoples lead to an increase in the Muslim population in the Nubian kingdoms and finally, around the 15th century, to the ruin of their churches. Despite its isolation, Christian Ethiopia also had its period of growth and florescence. Strangely, there is little evidence of ties between Nubia and Ethiopia. In the very period of Nubia’s disintegration, the church in Ethiopia, reinforced by new monastic movements and a strong monarchy, reached its apogee under kings such as

86 Amda Tseyon in the early 14th century and Zara Yakob and Baeda Margaym in the late 15th century. Over the centuries, the coastal Semitic state of Aksum was transformed into an unambiguously African kingdom centered on the inland provinces of Amhara and Shewa. Round churches replaced the rectangular churches of the early period, the musical tradition became the center of church life, monasticism acquired an idiosyncratic local form, and → circumcision and observance of the → sabbath alongside → Sunday became distinctive marks of identity. The Ethiopian Church viewed itself as the successor to the Israel of Solomon, but it combined this Hebrew identity with the import and translation of an ever-increasing body of medieval Western European literature, especially Marian material. The Ethiopian monastery in Jerusalem and the patriarchate of Alexandria were bridges helping to maintain communication with the rest of the Christian world. In 1529 A˙mad Grāñ, from the Muslim state of Adal, launched a jihad against Ethiopia. Within ten years, the Christian kingdom was almost totally vanquished; Grāñ was recognized as king, the churches and monasteries were looted, and a great many Christians were forced to convert. Ethiopia would have been lost as a Christian state and very probably as a church had a Portuguese expedition not arrived in 1541 and defeated Grāñ. During the next century, the Portuguese, Rome, and the Jesuits endeavored to build on this development by catholicizing the → Ethiopian Orthodox Church. When Emperor Susenyos, inspired by P. → Paez, an influential Spanish Jesuit, professed his adherence to the Catholic faith in 1622, it seemed that this would actually come about. But when the “patriarch” Alphonsus Mendes, who had been dispatched by the pope in 1625, insisted on doing away with many Ethiopian practices, including circumcision, he soon aroused general resistance that finally led to Susenyos’s abdication. As a consequence, although the Ethiopian Church did survive, it was isolated, suspicious of Western Christians, and incapable of serving as a kind of bridgehead to the rest of Africa. Its history, like that of Nubia, Egypt, and North Africa, shows how markedly the fate of African Christianity has been determined by Islam, but also by the often seemingly irreconcilable demands of the indigenous culture on the one hand and the Catholic Church on the other. From the 15th until the late 18th century, the Portuguese generally dominated the history of African Christianity. The mission left a lasting impression in many coastal areas – especially → Sierra Leone and Warri on the west coast, in the → Kongo Kingdom, on the east coast from the mouth of the Zambezi to Mombasa, and even deep in the interior as in the empire of the Mwene Matapa. Several kings from these regions were baptized.

87 Furthermore, in the two most important Portuguese colonies established after the end of the 16th century – around Luanda in the west and the Zambezi valley in the east – quasi-ecclesiastical societies were maintained. Their members were mostly mulattos. The few Jesuit, Dominican, and Franciscan priests – who were also involved in the slave-based economic system typical of the Portuguese Empire – had hardly any missionary effect. The spiritual needs of the colonial ruling class came first. In → Angola, however, there developed a tradition of local priests, usually mulattos, who helped preserve a little church activity when the European missionary orders were forced to leave the country. In → Mozambique, from the early colonial period down to the modern period no church remained, nor in any other previously mentioned part of Africa, with the minor exception of the Kongo. The Kongo had a unique Christian history. The first king to be baptized (1491), Nzinga Nkuwa, had converted to Christianity without much change of mind, like many other minor African kings who became Christians to please the Portuguese in hopes of getting weapons and engaging in profitable trade. But his son → Afonso I, who succeeded him in 1506, had much stronger ties to Christianity. He remained king until his death in 1543. During this time he founded a kind of church, demanding that all Kongolese kings belong to it, a requirement that survived into the 19th century. There were few missionaries and only a handful of local priests – almost all mulattos – were ever ordained. The Catholicism of the Kongo Kingdom was integrated into the belief structure of its traditional religion, although from 1645 on the vigorous efforts of Italian Capuchins clearly marked a different approach. At the end of the 16th century the capital, Mbanza Kongo (renamed São Salvador), became a diocese; but the see was soon moved de facto to the Portuguese colony in Luanda. Kongo was recognized as an independent kingdom outside the Portuguese Empire, but its ties to the Catholic Church were totally dependent on the goodwill of the Portuguese; in practice, they allowed neither Rome nor non-Portuguese missionary societies to provide the support necessary. In the 1620s a Jesuit, M. → Cardoso, wrote and published a catechism in Kikongo; otherwise, however, very little indigenous literature was produced, although several Capuchins wrote a series of manuscripts in Kikongo. Without its own priests or books, the church survived through the spiritual leadership of a group of maestri, who functioned simultaneously as catechists, teachers, and translators, as well as through the determination of the kings to maintain their Christian tradition. From the 1720s on there were few missionaries, and there were always lengthy periods when not a single missionary visited the country. Nevertheless there was still a certain sense of Christian

Africa identity around São Salvador when Baptist missionaries arrived there in 1878. Toward the end of the 18th century, the map of Christian Africa suddenly began to change – a result of the missionary zeal of Pietists in Germany, Evangelicals in England, and converted or former slaves in England and America. The Evangelical campaign to end the slave trade led to the establishment of a colony of former slaves in Freetown; it also encouraged the establishment of new missionary societies – first Protestant, then Catholic – which soon dispatched their members to various coastal regions of Africa: first of all Cape Town and its hinterland, then the West African coast from Liberia south, and, a little later, the East African Coast. While the original settlement at Freetown in 1787 was unsuccessful, 1792 in fact marked the beginning of a very Christianized colony of former slaves from America. In the subsequent decades, their numbers were augmented by thousands rescued from slave ships by the British navy. They were not Christians and had never known a form of society other than that of their coastal homelands. Among them it was especially the Yoruba who generally converted, having settled in villages around Freetown as members of an expressly Christian society. They preserved the knowledge of their own language but also learned English. When they began to return to their homes, taking Christianity with them, they were ideal bridge-builders for their new faith. The classic example is S. A. → Crowther. As a Yoruba youth named Adjai he landed in Freetown in 1922; in 1843 he became an Anglican priest and missionary in Nigeria and translated the Bible into Yoruba. In 1864 he was appointed bishop of Nigeria. At the same time, missionaries from many parts entered Africa. Two things proved to be primarily important for their work: translation of the Bible and translation of other elementary texts, especially catechisms and hymns, into many indigenous languages with no prior written literature. Johann Christaller of the → Basel Mission worked with Akan and Twi, Jacob Friedrich Schön with Hausa and Igbo, Westlund with Kikongo, John Moffat with Tswana, and V. Eugene Johnson with Chinanga. Many other linguists explored and created the linguistic and social map of modern Africa by creating a literary medium for communicating the nature of Christian life, comparable to what had come into being in ancient Ethiopia, the like of which was not seen again until the 19th century. Since their books were cheaply printed and sold and found a wide market, they became unexpectedly influential. This was made possible by the other side of the missionary enterprise: its influence on groups that were often quite small – catechists, teachers, servants, occupants of a mission station adopted the new teaching, took the Christian literature with them when

Africa they moved, and thus became the self-appointed mediators of Christian life and Christian formation. Some of them founded independent churches; others, like W.W. → Harris, who evangelized large portions of the southern Ivory Coast and the Gold Coast in 1915, succeeded in converting whole population groups without help from any foreign missionaries. The message of these people was rather simple. It often struck a strongly chiliastic note found in both the Bible and their preaching, but basically it concentrated on the power of God, the futility of traditional religious practices, the importance of entering into a new life symbolized by the Bible, observance of Sunday, and the singing of certain hymns. The evangelization of Africa was in part an almost spontaneous phenomenon. There were places where missionaries stayed for years and almost nothing happened; in other places, Christianity spread almost like wildfire. Certain places and situations seemed to trigger this kind of explosion. Freetown was such a place in West Africa, Buganda in East Africa. The Anglican → Church Missionary Society (CMS) reached Buganda in 1877; the Catholic White Fathers followed in 1879. In the 15 years that followed, there began a process of Christianization that was unique in its significance but was nevertheless comparable to small endeavors elsewhere. Mutesa, the king of Buganda, forced both missionary groups to stay in the vicinity of his residence. The result was competition, but they were also able to give many people around the royal court a feeling for spiritual and intellectual questions. They began to “read,” and “read” soon meant “believe” – in Luganda, the word for “read” has also conveyed the other meaning ever since. In a few years, ties of friendship and family produced groups of believers in places no missionary had ever visited. Mutesa’s son and successor Mwanga tried to put a stop to what he viewed as a shift of loyalty from him to other authorities, visible or invisible: in 1885/86, he began a persecution in which several hundred Christians were executed. The result, however, was an increase in conversions. His incompetence led to a civil war in which his Christian and Muslim subjects first joined together to drive him from the throne and then attacked each other. The Muslims seized power and forced the Christians into exile, but the Christians recovered their strength and drove out the Muslims, only to be divided into Catholic and Protestant camps. At this point the English took control of the country and put an end to the worst social conflicts that had resulted from religious conversions. While they secured political victory for the Protestants, they also guaranteed freedom of expression for all parties. In the 1890s there followed a mass campaign of evangelism, in which hundreds of quickly trained Ganda catechists, both Protestant and Catholic, set to work

88 not only in their own country but also among neighboring peoples. This very broad African missionary initiative paralleled the later “Ganda subimperialism” in the political sphere: the new Christian Buganda exported its identify and was soon viewed as a model by its neighbors, even as they tried to oppose its subimperialistic political expansion. Soon all the kings of the region converted to Christianity. They viewed it as the religion of the new colonial order, its status reinforced by the power of the Europeans – by weapons and railroads, by reading and writing. But they also considered it a hierarchical religion: both Anglicanism and Catholicism were well adapted to the hierarchical character of the lacustrine Bantu monarchies but not to the other peoples, who did not live under a centralized monarchy. The power of the Buganda model of Christianity was also made clear by the rapid translation of the Bible and many other works into Luganda, as well as by the rapid development of an African clergy, both Protestant and Catholic. By 1893 Bishop Tucker of the CMS had already ordained six deacons, followed down to 1900 by a significant number of priests. Perhaps even more surprising was the ordination of the first Catholic priest by Bishop Streicher in 1913, the first of a long line. For centuries the Catholic Church had tried in vain to create an African clergy. Here, too, the breakthrough was accomplished by the White Fathers in Buganda; other places took them as a model, and in 1939 the first African diocesan bishop was appointed, J. → Kiwanuka of Masaka. Nowhere else was there a conversion movement so rapid, extensive, and complete as in Buganda; but comparable advances were made in Ijeshaland and among the Igbos in Nigeria, as well as among the Manyika in east Zimbabwe, the Sotho and other Tswana in southern Africa, the Chaga of Kilimanjaro, and somewhat later in → Ruanda and → Burundi. In most cases the result was a kind of popular Christianity, whether or not deliberately intended by missionaries, as in the conversion of Chaga to the Lutheran Church, which was shaped by the strategy of B. → Gutmann of the → Leipzig Mission. But all these strategies naturally proved to be overly simplistic: they concentrated on bringing together African tradition and Christianity while ignoring the pervasive forces of modernization, which profited and also supported the advance of Christianity. Among most of the African peoples there was no such tendency toward wholesale conversion; but in the first half of the 20th century almost everywhere south of a line delimiting the area with an Islamic majority, the often very diverse Christian churches became an integral part of African life on two levels. One was the villages, where the result was a Christianity represented by a catechist, a church with a grass roof, and a simple bush school. Catechists were generally neither well educated

89 nor well paid; but in the innumerable rural churches visited only rarely by ordained clergy, whether missionaries or indigenous priests, they provided the indispensable ongoing presence of the clerical office. Here the process of → indigenization, which included an unspoken acceptance of many traditional belief and practices, proceeded rapidly. In the course of the 20th century, many parts of the continent – especially South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya – witnessed the appearance of more and more “independent” churches (“Ethiopian,” “Zion,” “Apostolic,” etc.). When catechists began to preach frank millenarianism, heal the sick, utter ecstatic prophecies, or perform unauthorized mass baptisms, they were generally excommunicated by the missionaries. But it would be wrong to view the influence of prophets and Pentecostal evangelists – including Daniel Nkonyane and I. → Shembe in Zululand, Ignatius Lekhanyane in Transvaal, and Samuel Mutendi in Rhodesia, as well as Harris (see above) in the Ivory Coast, S. → Kimbangu in the Congo, and the large group of → Aladura followers in Nigeria during the 1920s, including Joseph Babalola and Josiah Ashitelu – from the perspective of their relationship to the missionaries. Essentially, what was happening here was a deep-rooted appropriation of the Christian faith and the missionary program on the part of African Christians – more an extension of the missionaries’ work than a negative reaction to it. The setting was almost always a mission station of the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, or Low Church Anglicans, very rarely of the Catholics or Lutherans; but the development of the Protestant churches that emerged from the processes of appropriation moved more in the direction of catholicizing ritual and a corresponding church order. In their sermons they attacked the practices of traditional African religion more vigorously than most of the missionary churches did, but at the same time they were able to adopt many aspects of the indigenous culture, which in a few cases could lead to approval of polygamy. A striking feature of many prophetic churches was the founding of a holy city, a new Jerusalem, dwelling place of the prophet – and, in time, the site of his tomb. Holy cities like Shembe’s Ekuphakameni, Kimbangu’s Nkamba, and Lenshina’s Zioni in Kasomo multiplied throughout Africa as centers of a highly imaginative new liturgy and places of healing. But this practice was far from universal; it was rare in the case of the “Ethiopian” or “Apostolic” groups like the widespread Christ Apostolic Church in West Nigeria, led by Babalola and Isaac Akinyele. Some churches were particularly popular with the very poor. This was particularly true in South Africa, where they were also the most numerous. African Christians generally felt very alienated in the missionary churches, which maintained ties with a racist regime.

Africa Nevertheless, for many segments of the population the churches popular with the poor performed a function similar to that of the mission stations. The latter, however, had no competition in the education of a new elite through a network of boarding schools for higher education, teachers colleges, and technical schools. To the end of the Second World War, the colleges of the missionary churches educated surprisingly few clergy, but from them emerged secular leaders who were to dominate politics in most countries from the 1950s to the 1970s. In the 1960s, as political independence approached for more and more countries (coming first to Ghana in 1957), there were two major forms of Christianity: a multitude of rural churches under the leadership of catechists on the hand and a small but very significant educated lay elite on the other. Christianity’s strength lay in the combination of the two, despite the fact that in most countries only a relatively small percentage of the population could be counted officially as church members. Family ties and the prestige of a church connection made sure that many more people claimed somehow to be Christians than had ever been baptized. Although many outside observers were increasingly inclined to dispute the strength of the churches and to claim that with the coming of political independence they would largely disappear when the support of the colonial powers dried up, what took place was exactly the opposite. Once Africa became independent, all public prestige enjoyed by the traditional religion quickly vanished, whereas in medicine and education the major churches proved as useful for the new regimes as they had for the old, and the great majority of the population increasingly established some kind of official ecclesiastical ties. The number of ordained African clergy likewise increased sharply. When Pope → Pius XII died in 1958, there were some 20 indigenous bishops in the whole continent of Africa. In the same year there were 300 African Catholic priests in the Congo, but there was still only one African bishop, and he was not a diocesan. In 1957 the Anglican Universities Mission to Central Africa celebrated its centennial without batting an eye at the total absence of African bishops in the countries where it served. All this changed very quickly in the ’60s. The change was triggered both by political independence and by → Vatican II, which explicitly promoted indigenization of the local church and its clergy, translation of the liturgy into the vernacular, and the fostering of cultural pluralism. By the end of the ’70s, the great majority of leaders in all denominations were natives, not missionaries. One consequence was a reduction of the antithesis between “historical” churches under missionary leadership and “independent” churches under African leadership. All the churches were now under African leadership, and they all took seriously the need for → inculturation. The

Africa inculturation program necessarily led to increased theoretical discussion. There came into being in Africa innumerable new universities with departments of religious studies and theology. From the mid-’60s on, a substantial body of “African theology” – previously expressed only in practice – began to appear in print. Harry Sawyerr in Sierra Leone, Bolaji Idowu in Nigera, Engelbert Mveng in Cameroon, Vincenet Mulago in Congo/Zaire, and John Mbiti in Kenya and Uganda were among the first wave of academically trained theologians, followed by Desmond Tutu and many others in South Africa, John Pobee and Kwame Bediako in Ghana, and Jean-Marc Éla in Cameroon. More and more theologians studied the relationship between traditional African religion and Christianity, the reformulation of Christianity in the cultural language of Africa, the political and ethical demands imposed on the church by an independent Africa, and many other themes. It is possible that Christianity has never experienced so great a quantitative expansion as in Africa between 1960 and the end of the 20th century. This expansion was furthered by a great natural population increase, by the loss of legitimacy of most traditional African institutions – a loss paradoxically manifested more clearly under independent regimes than in the colonial period –, and by the great political and economic instability of most countries. This instability undermined the credibility of other social institutions, including the political parties, strengthening as a result the moral authority of the major churches. In the ’60s, with the influence of Vatican II, religious renewal rested substantially in the hands of the Catholic Church; in the ’90s it emerged instead from one or another form of the → Pentecostal movement, usually inspired by American models when it came from without, but often indigenous as well. There is still an enormous variety of churches. In most countries, the Roman Catholic Church, now under the leadership of many cardinal archbishops, is the largest denomination, both in membership and in the number of institutions; but in the course of the 20th century in Africa almost every significant Christian tradition, from Lutheranism to the Quakers, has experienced enormous growth. While the northern portion of the continent is overwhelmingly Muslim, the southern half is explicitly Christian in virtually the same measure. In between lies a band of countries – including the Sudan, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania – where both religions are heavily represented and tensions can even lead to civil war. In Tanzania, though, as in many other places, Christian-Muslim relations are good and are part of a pluralism that is the foundation of modern Africa. When this pluralism suffers an extreme breakdown ending in genocide, as in Rwanda, both sides may even be nominally Christian and even belong to the

90 same denomination (in Rwanda the Roman Catholic Church). Africa faces enormous problems at the start of the 3rd millennium. It is still the most under-developed continent, economically, politically, and educationally. It would be naïve to believe that the churches can assume responsibility for the majority of the problems or find a solution for them. They must simply live with them. But outstanding church figures have repeatedly led the way as good examples, denouncing the rule of violence and demanding more democracy. The churches are constantly present everywhere and are in fact often the only relief organizations on the spot. Nowhere else in the world today do they play so important a role, both in evangelism and in service to society – humanitarian, political, and economic. U. Monneret de Villard, Storia della Nubia cristiana, 1938 ◆ B. Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South Africa, 1948, repr. 1961 ◆ C.P. Groves, The Planting of Christianity in Africa, 4 vols., 1948– 1958 ◆ J. Taylor, The Growth of the Church in Buganda, 1958 ◆ K. Schlosser, Eingeborenenkirchen in Süd- und Südwestafrika, 1958 ◆ M. Cramer, Das Christlich-koptische Ägypten einst und heute, 1959 ◆ M. Brandel-Syrier, Black Woman in Search of God, 1962 ◆ F. Bartels, The Roots of Ghana Methodism, 1965 ◆ J. Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1965 ◆ E. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria 1842–1914, 1966 ◆ G. Coldham, A Bibliography of Scriptures in African Languages, 1966 ◆ K. Michalowski, Faras: Centre artistique de la Nubie chrétienne, 1966 ◆ H. Turner, History of an African Independent Church, 2 vols., 1967 ◆ C. Baeta, ed., Christianity in Tropical Africa, 1968 ◆ E. Ayandele, Holy Johnson: Pioneer of African Nationalism 1837–1917, 1970 ◆ R. Rotberg & A. Mazrui, eds., Protest and Power in Black Africa, 1970 ◆ M. Daneel, Old and New in Southern Shona Independent Churches, 3 vols., 1971, 1974, 1988 ◆ V. Salvadorini, Le missioni a Benin e Warri nel XVII secolo, 1972 ◆ J. Sales, Mission Stations and the Coloured Communities of the Eastern Cape 1800–1852, 1975 ◆ T. Ranger & J. Weller, eds., Themes in the Christian History of Central Africa, 1975 ◆ W. Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative: Das aktive Leiden des Propheten Simon Kimbangu, 1975 ◆ E. Kamphausen, Anfänge der kirchlichen Unabhängigkeitsbewegung in Südafrika: Geschichte und Theologie der äthiopischen Bewegung 1872–1912, 1976 ◆ D. Williams, Umfundisi: A Biography of Tiyo Soga 1829–1871, 1978 ◆ E. Fasholé-Luke et al., eds., Christianity in Independent Africa, 1978 ◆ L. Pirouet, Black Evangelists: The Spread of Christianity in Uganda 1891–1914, 1978 ◆ R. Strayer, The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya 1875–1935, 1978 ◆ T. Filesi & I. de Villapadierna, La “Missio Antiqua” dei Cappucini nel Congo 1645–1835: Studio preliminare e guida delle fonti, 1978 ◆ A. Hastings, A History of African Christianity 1950–1975, 1979 ◆ N. Etherington, Preachers, Peasants and Politics in Southeast Africa 1835–1880, 1979 ◆ J. Thornton, The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition 1641–1718, 1983 ◆ S. Kaplan, The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia, 1984 ◆ A. Hilton, The Kingdom of Kongo, 1985 ◆ J. Waliggo, A History of African Priests, 1988 ◆ A. Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450–1950, 1994 ◆ D. Shank, Prophet Harris, the “Black Elijah” of West Africa, 1994 ◆ H. Hinfelaar, Bemba-Speaking Women of Zambia in a Century of Religious Change (1892–1992), 1994 ◆ P. Gifford, The Christian Churches and the Democratization of Africa, 1995 ◆ L. Sanneh, West African Chirstianity. The Religious Impact, 1983 ◆ E. Isichel, A History of Christianity in Africa. From Antiquity to the Present, 1995 ◆ B. Sundkler & C. Steed, A History of the Church

91 in Africa, 2000 ◆ A.H. Anderson, African Reformation. African Initiated Christianity in the 20th Century, 2001 ◆ F. Ludwig & A. Adogame, European Traditions in the Study of Religion in Africa, 2004 ◆ O.U. Kalu, African Christianity: An African Story, 2005 ◆ K. Koschorke, ed., African Identities and World Christianity in the Twentieth Century, 2005 ◆ K. Koschorke, F. Ludwig & M. Delgado, eds., History of Christianity in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1450–1990, forthcoming 2007. Adrian Hastings

African Independent Churches I. Since the 18th century there has been a massive invasion of Black, sub-Saharan Africa by European peoples and Western culture. During this period the modern missionary movement from the West has planted its churches so extensively and firmly that the sub-continent is now predominantly Christian. Following this initial response to missions, there has been an equally broad, independent response from the indigenous peoples themselves in the form of a great number of new religious movements that represent various forms of interaction with the new faith. Some five groups may be distinguished: Neo-primal movements seek to strengthen the indigenous tradition by adopting new features such as one universal divinity, preaching or baptism, and by rejecting → magic. Synthetist movements consciously combine elements from each tradition to form a new religion for Africans with a Christian component. Deviationist movements depart from indigenous traditions by adopting Christian content, but still rejecting some of the central Christian elements. Africanized movements intend to be Christian but concentrate more on spiritual power than on Christian orthodoxies. In → Nigeria these are called → Aladura churches, in West Africa and other areas “spiritual” churches, and in southern and central Africa → “Zionist” or more generally, “prophet-healing” churches. Orthodox movements, known in southern Africa as Ethiopian (→ Ethiopian Movement), aim to be fully Christian under African leadership, independent of missionary control. The majority of movements are contained within the last two groups, usually defined as African independent or indigenous churches. Owing to a lack of established traditions and institutions, and while still working out new forms, there may be considerable mobility in belief and practice, although a Christian intention remains. Despite discrepancies and fluid boundaries the following characteristics can be summarized: The founder, with some Christian background, has a mystical experience of a new revelation from the spirit world. This is often described as dying, visiting heaven, and then returning to earth to start the new religion with a new way, not as a man-made invention but with divine authority. The divinity is now seen as a personal, supreme being with ultimate power and who will help people if they obey him. The founder is accepted as an authentic African prophet, called by

African Independent Churches God, occasionally as a new messiah. Contrary to the traditional authorities the founder is often young and sometimes a woman. Selected elements of local culture are rejected or retained. Magic, divination and the occult are discouraged, but revelatory dreams and visions, polygamy, drums and dancing, food taboos, color and other symbolisms may be retained and reshaped. Considerable creativity is shown in new forms of worship. There are new hymns, vestments, styles of architecture, and new major festivals, often a new holy mountain or community center with a biblical name. The new blessing or salvation offered includes healing, divine guidance, and the support of a new and disciplined community as a place to belong. These blessings depend on following the new rituals and the new ethic, which generally emphasizes love, discipline and diligence but bans luxury, alcohol and tobacco. Expansion by missionary activity, sometimes transcending tribe and nation, is a major innovation. This is based on the new universal deity and his revelation, and on the church being a new open and voluntary society in distinction from societies traditionally defined according to age or race and from secret societies. The contribution to modernization and development may be substantial. The new worldview replaces magical control of power by rational and scientific methods, expressed in the economic implementation of new, low technology and improved farming, coupled with a new work ethic; their own past story and future hopes introduce the dimension of history into a culture dominated by myth; the traditional closed, sacral, integrated society is replaced by the new open, desacralized, pluralist forms implied by these movements; and evil is internalized, implying responsibility for one’s misfortunes rather than blaming them on external evil powers. Psychologically and culturally there is a break with the past and an openness to an innovative future. Theologically they are pragmatic rather than dogmatic, pneumatological rather than christological, emphasizing baptism rather than the Eucharist and atonement, but with signs of development in these directions. II. The African Independent Churches seek to appropriate the power of the Christian Gospel to renew African society after its traumatic experience of Western culture. They provide a home where traditional society disintegrates, and access to spiritual power for guidance and prosperity, and above all for healing when new illnesses abound and modern treatments are not readily available. While the concerns are pragmatic the solutions are highly spiritual. They regard themselves both as Christian in the authentic biblical tradition and as Africans applying this to Africans in African ways to meet African needs. At the same time there is decreasing antipathy to the Western and older missionrelated churches, and a great desire to raise the standards

African Independent Churches Association (AICA) of their own leadership and to be accepted as churches in ecumenical bodies. III. The first African movements probably arose under Portuguese influence in the → Kongo Kingdom in the late 17th century. The best known is the Antonian sect of prophetess Béatrice which sought to become the Kongo national church until her martyrdom in 1706. Missions and white settlement in South Africa in the early 19th century led to the Xhosa millennial movements of → Ntsikana and Nxele, and to the Ndhlambe tribes’ near extinction in the millennial movement of 1857. Such early native, anti-white and millenarian features were gradually dissolved until the movements that have proliferated in the 20th century were less politically orientated but rather more church-like and Christian. Since 1970, when the → Kimbangu Church was admitted to the → World Council of Churches, there have been further such admissions, also to local Christian councils. This marks a reversal of the earlier hostility of missions and the older churches, and a growing interest in the independent churches as pioneers of indigenization. These movements have not developed to the same extent in all areas of Black Africa. They are commonest where Christianity has been established longest, as in → Ghana and → Nigeria, in → South Africa and in the → Congo (Democratic Republic), and where the Scriptures have been translated early and widely distributed. This explains why certain tribes and some areas, such as → Cameroon and → Tanzania, have produced few movements of this kind. The total number of distinct movements may be as high as 20,000. Some, however, are very small, with perhaps no more than twenty members. Others have several million members, e.g. the Kimbangu Church in Congo and central Africa, begun in 1921. The Zion Christian church in southern Africa is reported to have several million assemble at its Easter festival at Zion City Moriah in Transvaal. Figures for South Africa report perhaps 30% of all blacks, about 6 million members, in that one country. IV. These movements represent a new, broad, religious development in Africa as a result of interaction with the Christian faith in the context of Western culture. This unplanned and indirect consequence of Christian missions has achieved a greater degree of indigenization than found in the older churches. Their chief problems may lie in disputes over leadership succession and in their tendency to schism. Their relation to the main Christian churches and their public acceptance are likely to increase without destroying their independence or their expansion. They now occupy a new and permanent category in the history of Christianity.

92 B.G.M. Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South Africa, 21961 ◆ H.W. Turner, African Independent Church, 2 vols., 1967 ◆ D.B. Barrett, Schism and Renewal in Africa, 1968 ◆ M.L. Daneel, Quest for Belonging, 1987 ◆ P. Gifford, ed., New Dimensions in African Christianity, 1992 ◆ O.U. Kalu, ed., African Christianity: An African Story, 2005. Harold W. Turner

African Independent Churches Association (AICA). The tendency of the African indigenous churches (cf. → African Independent Churches) in → South Africa towards divisions is countered by efforts to cooperate. AICA is connected to these initiatives, which go back to 1915. AICA was founded in 1965 as a voluntary association of over 400 churches which, while retaining their individual autonomy, cooperated at the same time to ensure an adequate theological training for the church leaders. The membership was drawn from the poorer, black part of society, both rural and urban, and represented a variety of languages. The member churches covered a wide spectrum of indigenous churches, including Ethiopians and Zionists, the major group. Initially the financial situation presented the main hindrance to further theological education. A breakthrough came in 1965 when the Christian Institute (CI) of South Africa, led by Christiaan Frederick Beyers Naudé, sought to provide assistance with overseas support. For some years AICA achieved its aim through theological refresher courses, a small college and an ambitious correspondence course. A successful Women’s Association ran parallel to AICA. Incessant leadership struggles caused fragmentation in 1973. Its financial standing and the assistance offered by the CI became at once AICA’s largest asset and its greatest problem. Currently there is no ecumenical body (or person) coordinating all the indigenous churches. M. West, Bishops and Prophets in a Black City, 1975, esp. 142– 170 ◆ B. Sundkler, Zulu Zion and some Swazi Zionists, 1976, esp. 288–303 ◆ H.-J. Becken, Wo der Glaube noch jung ist, 1985, esp. 212–227. Hennie L. Pretorius

African Methodist Episcopal Church. This Church was founded in 1816 in the Bethel Church of Philadelphia, PA, under the leadership of its first bishop, Richard → Allen, after a Methodist Episcopal congregation refused entry to some free blacks as early as 1787. The AMEC developed a Book of Discipline and a statement on the “Mission and Purpose of the Church,” which emphasized the “preaching of the gospel” and social service. A General Conference, meeting every four years, legislates for the body, while a Council of Bishops serves as the executive branch of the church. Church work focuses mainly on education (in the 19th cent. the AMEC founded several colleges and two theological seminaries) and on mission in the USA, Africa and the Caribbean. The oldest known journal by blacks, the A.M.E. Review, has been published since 1881. Since 1948 women have

93

African Theologies

been ordained to the position of elder. The AMEC is the largest black Methodist community with 3.3 million adherents in 7,200 churches (1995). H.D. Gregg, History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1980. James Smylie

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. In the 1790s tensions arose between whites and free blacks in the Methodist Episcopal Church in New York City. As a result, blacks founded a Zion Church and a denomination of black Methodists in 1820. James Varick became the first superintendent or bishop. Disagreements with the → African Methodist Episcopal Church resulted in the addition of the word Zion. The congregations follow the rules of the Doctrines and Disciplines. A General Conference is the supreme lawmaking body and meets every four years. A Connectional Council sets the budget. A Board of Bishops supervises the church between the sessions of the General Conference. Through historical members such as Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman, and F. → Douglass the church became known as the “Freedom Church.” The church was first among Methodist denominations to support women’s ordination. It sponsors colleges, a theological seminary and mission work in South America, Africa and the West Indies. In 1995 the AMEZC had around 1.2 million members in 3,000 churches. W.J. Walls, The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, 1974. James Smylie

African Theologies I. Development – II. Leading Representatives

This article will not deal with the North African Latin fathers or the Orthodox churches. Modern movements in → Ethiopia and → Sudan which have emerged from recent conflicts, are mainly represented at present by oral vernacular theology. For the purposes of this article African theology may be defined as Christian theology produced by Africans domiciled on the African continent. It emerged in the mid-1950s, mainly as a reaction to mission Christianity, which seemed too western to serve the needs of the African church. The movements for political independence throughout the continent, ideologies such as “Négritude” (a return of the Africans to their own culture), “African Personality,” “African Socialism,” and “Black Consciousness,” and the emergence of the → African Independent Churches, were also important factors. Western Christianity however suffered from the flaw of having ties with colonial powers and of denigrating African culture. I. Development In the early debate about African theology three broad trends may be identified: 1. A number of African

Catholics (especially in francophone Africa) focussed on the need for a philosophical approach to theology, which would first analyze the religious worldview of traditional Africa and then use these insights to inform certain aspects of Christian doctrine. This approach was partly influenced by P. → Tempels (Bantu Philosophy, 1945, 1969). It was pioneered, among others, by Alexis Kagame, Vincent Mulago and Tharcisse Tshibangu. More recent exponents include Charles Nyamiti and Bénézet Bujo. 2. The Protestant anglophone approach was more empirical, and was especially concerned to relate aspects of African culture to the Bible. It emerged mainly from West Africa and produced the important symposium Biblical Revelation and African Belief (ed. K.A. Dickson & P. Ellingworth, 1950, 1972). At the forefront of this movement were Harry Sawyerr, Kwesi A. Dickson and Eman Bolaji Idowu. John S. Pobee, John S. Mbiti and Edward Fasholé-Luke are also included in the same tradition. 3. The first coherent political theologies emerged in East Africa in dialogue with the African Socialism of Julius Nyerere and Kenneth Kaunda, and were largely supportive of governmental policy. By contrast the South African Black Theology strongly opposed → Apartheid. Deeply influenced by the philosophy of Black Consciousness developed by Steve Biko, it began in the University Christian Movement in the late 1960s. Among its first spokesmen were Manas Buthelezi, Allan Boesak, Boganjalo Goba and Desmond Tutu. In a second phase the South African Black Theology proved to be heavily influenced by Marxism and enjoyed a brief popularity in the 1980s (see e.g. Itumeleng Mosala’s Biblical Hermeneutics and Black Theology, 1989). More recently Christian political protests against one-party states and corrupt governments have emerged elsewhere in the continent, though little coherent theology has yet resulted from this. – At present differences between these early theological trends are less sharply defined. The distinction between “African Theology” and “Black Theology” was never absolute and both cultural and political interests now influence the great bulk of theology in Africa. Political theology draws upon cultural symbols, and cultural theology is also seen as liberation theology. A growing feminist theology is now emerging in the work of Mercy Oduyoye (Hearing and Knowing, 1993), Tessa Okure, Nyambura Njoroge and others. II. Leading Representatives The Zairean Bénézet Bujo may be cited as a leading example of francophone Catholic theology. His African Theology in its Social Context (1986) begins by examining African society. This he understands as a basic unity, concerned with human wholeness, both material and spiritual, and which is mediated through the ancestors. To honor the ancestors is to honor God. Ancestorship

African-American Music in Christian Worship is the key to christology and ecclesiology. Jesus is the “Proto-Ancestor,” who fulfills all the virtues of the ideal ancestor, but at the same time transcends them by his resurrection. The church constitutes his “descendants,” through whom his life flows out to humanity. Ghanaian Kwesi A. Dickson, in his Theology in Africa (1983) defends the theory that there are two focuses in African theology. The first is the Bible, which is “re-lived” in the experience of African Christians. The second is culture, which is intimately bound up with African religions. Cultural aspects, which can inform theology, include the concept of the community, and concern for justice and sharing. Dickson emphasizes the need to formulate theological categories, which are genuinely African. Manas Buthelezi, a South African Lutheran bishop, explores the theological meaning of the existence of blacks under the conditions of Apartheid (see esp. “Ansätze Afrikanischer Theologie von Kirche,” in: Theologie im Konfliktfeld Südafrika, ed. I. Tödt, 1976, 33–132). African life was one of human wholeness, but was nevertheless brutally disrupted by European impact and missions. Buthelezi seeks to answer the question of how blacks trapped in an economy of poverty can be liberated to become their authentic selves and enjoy the wholeness of God’s creation. Recent concerns of African theologians have included the role and use of “oral theology,” African history and contemporary culture as theological sources, and rapid social and political change. The “third wave” of Christianity on the continent in the form of neo- → Pentecostalism (following the Mission and the Independent churches) will also probably have an impact upon mainstream theology in Africa. A.A. Boesak, Black Theology, Black Power, 1978 ◆ J. Pobee, Toward an African Theology, 1979 ◆ J.-M. Ela, African Cry, 1986 ◆ I. Mosala & B. Thlagale, The Unquestionable Right to be Free, 1986 ◆ J. Schreiter, ed., Faces of Jesus in Africa, 1992 ◆ E. Martey, African Theology, 1993 ◆ J. Parratt, Reinventing Christianity, 1995 ◆ H. Sawyerr, The Practice of Presence, 1995 ◆ J. Parratt, ed., A Reader in African Christian Theology, 21997. John Parratt

African-American Music in Christian Worship is, first and foremost, a mosaic of religious and artistic forms for expressing belief in God. Despite common historical and cultural roots, → music in worship is and has always been very multifaceted. The musical spectrum extends from extreme solemnity to “boundless enthusiasm.” The circumstances under which the encounter with Christianity occurred determine the music’s forms and styles. Under the oppression of slavery, special texts, forms, and modes of expression emerged which reflect the slaves’ longing for freedom. The migration into the urban centers brought other forms and styles of worship and music to the fore. Among the incipient creations of the slave community are hymns, labor songs, calls for liberation and songs of celebration. As they were heavily

94 dependent on oral tradition, Afro-American songs were composed spontaneously and improvised on well-known melodies. In this way the first songs mainly had a social function for Africans in the New World, who had to settle into their new lives and harmonize their religious beliefs with the Christianity of the slave-owners. The dialogical essence of → worship and the tendency of many Afro-Americans to form communities make communication through music and movement a central element of worship. Music is thoroughly connected with community and has its roots in emotions. As before, differences between the various denominations influence the choice and style of worship music. Some congregations have adopted traditional Afro-American spirituals into their repertoire alongside classical hymns, traditional and new Gospels alongside Euro-American songs, psalms, → anthems as well as old and new forms of “praise songs.” Hymn books are often used, and the singing is enthusiastic and responsive, so that it expresses a unified, meaningful, and joyous response to the God of love. M. Costen, African American Christian Worship, 1993. Melva Costen

African-American Religion I. Central and South America – II. North America

I. Central and South America 1. Movements and Denominations. The millions of African slaves brought to the Americas and the Caribbean found in their religion the deepest and most enduring mode of cultural resistance, enabling them to survive slavery and recover their identities. The African deities, uprooted and under attack, were forced in exile to adapt to the new social and political conditions as well as to conflict with other gods. The models of African organization and their religious ideas were better able to survive in a few communities of runaway slaves, who throughout America established a multitude of quilombos, palenques, or maroon societies. These quilombo communities normally included blacks of diverse ethnic origin and religion; because women were scarce, there was also intermarriage with Indian groups, resulting in mutual cultural exchange: along the Oyapock River, which forms the boundary between Brazil and French Guiana, the Karipuna and Galibi-Marworno Indians ultimately adopted Creole, the language of the runaway slaves. On the Caribbean coast of Central America from Yucatan to La Mosquitia in Nicaragua, the black Caribbeans developed their own civilization and language – Garifon, a blend of English, Indian, and African languages. As a result of these encounters, black religious rites began to incorporate Indian beliefs, myths, and deities, e.g. among the Candomblés of the caboclos in Brazil.

95 Baptized after little if any catechesis, the African slaves were forced to convert to Catholicism (LusoHispanic and French America) or Protestantism (USA; English, Dutch and Danish islands of the Caribbean; Belize; Surinam; Guiana). The mixture of ethnic groups and cultures was already present in the embarcation ports of Africa and increased in the American diaspora. The slaves and later the free blacks, as a consequence of working in the cities, organized themselves as “nations.” Alternatively, in the context of the dominant Catholic religion they organized as cabildos (“brotherhoods”), or, drawing on their African religious heritage, in secret cultic societies. The general result was a → syncretism identifying the African deities with the saints of the Catholic Church. The features of African religiosity originating in different cultures were redistributed and assigned to the major African traditions: Fanti-Ashanti (Minas blacks) from the Gold Coast; Dahomean (Gon, Gege) from Dahomey; → Yoruba (Nago, Ketu, Ewe) from Nigeria; Muslim blacks (Hausa, Fulbe, Mande) from the fringe between black Africa and the Sahara; and → Bantu from the large territory extending from the Congo basin (Zaire) to Cabinda, Angola, and Mozambique on the Indian Ocean. On the African-American religious map, the FantiAshanti traditions are dominant among the Bosh of Guyana and the Anglo-Saxon Antilles; the Dahomean traditions appear in Haitian voodoo, in Cuba and the Dominican Republic, and in the Casa das Minas in Maranhão (Brazil); the Yoruba heritage appears in Cuban → Santería, the Shangó cult of Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, and Pernambuco (Brazil), the → Candomblé of Bahia (Brazil), and the Batuque of Porto Alegre (Brazil); African Islam manifests itself in the religion of the Alufas in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and the Malis in Bahia (Brazil). The latter practically vanished in Brazil after the slave revolts of the 19th century, which were followed by executions and deportations. On Cuba, the islamized Malinke, Wolof, and Fulani groups mingled with the Yoruba. The Bantu, used to cults of ancestors and nature spirits, joined with Indian cults in the caboclo Candomblés, with the Yoruba world in the Congo and Angola Candomblés, and with Christian beliefs, dancing their Congadas and Moçambiques for Our Lady of the Rosary of the Blacks (Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Pretos) and for the (black) St. Benedict, as well as with Kardecist Spiritism by finding ties between reincarnation and their ancestor cult. The primary roots of the → Macumba of Rio de Janeiro are Bantu. The religious traditions of the Bantu are also represented in the most widespread new religion in the cities of Brazil, → Umbanda (cf. → Afro-Brazilian Movements). Socially, since the 1920s, the African American cults have emerged from the shadows and become part of

African-American Religion the national cultural identify of many countries of the continent. There were other contributing factors: the emergence of black sociopolitical, cultural, and religious movements; political developments that tended toward the separation of church and state and the guarantee of freedom and equality for all churches and religions; and the end of large-scale European immigration with its ideology of “whitening” and improving the race. But many African-American cults are still persecuted as dangers to public order, e.g. on account of night-time drumming or illegal medical practices. Among the political movements of the 1920s was the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), founded by the Jamaican Marcus Garvey. It campaigned for “Africa for Africans – at home and abroad” and called for a mass exodus to Africa and a struggle on the part of blacks, impoverished and discriminated against, for dignity and liberation in the countries of exile. The movement spread to the Caribbean, the USA, and South America, but also to Africa and even Australia. In the religious sphere, with Garvey as pioneer, there arose in the 1930s the → Rastafarian movement, with the following beliefs: the blacks are the reincarnation of the ancient Israelites, exiled to the East Indies; Jamaica is hell, Ethiopia paradise; Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia is the living God, who will shortly lead the blacks out of exile and bring them back to their homeland; in the near future, the blacks will have their revenge and the whites will be forced to serve them. As a result of improved hygienic conditions and access to public institutions in the cities, infant mortality dropped after the Second World War, and the black population grew faster than the population of European origin. The blacks and mulattos soon predominated, especially in the popular movements. In the ’60s, the independence of the black countries and the civil rights movement in the USA led to the formation of similar movements in Brazil. Alongside a real explosion of African American cults, especially in the large cities, there arose a parallel movement within the Christian churches, which sought the African roots of black Christians and nurtured African-American features in pastoral care, liturgy, and theology. Today there is a significant African-American diaspora, thanks to the return of former North American slaves to Africa, where they founded Freetown in Sierra Leone (1787) and Liberia (1847), and the return of former Brazilian and Cuban slaves in the second half of the 19th century, forming retornado communities in the port cities of Togo, Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria. The Brazilian Quarter of Lagos in Nigeria is famous. As a consequence of political and economic changes, in the 20th century there developed an active emigration to Canada, the USA, and Europe. These emigrants brought their own customs with them, but especially their religious beliefs

African-American Religion and a multiplicity of African-Caribbean cults, alongside their inculturated Catholicism or Protestantism. 2. Theology. The classical concept of theology as an academic discipline is not applicable to AfricanAmerican religions. They are initiation religions, their tradition is oral, and religious knowledge is conscientiously preserved by the elders within their “houses,” to be handed on in stages only to those who have been initiated and proved. At present, however, books are being published that are written not only by anthropologists but also by fathers and mothers of the holy one (pais e mãis de santo); they deal with portions of the rites, myths, and African-American theology. Their theology is mixed with narratives and myths about the orisha or ancestors. It is linked to the language of worship, to music, dancing, the natural elements, the colors of costume and necklaces, and even to foods. It is revealed in the wisdom of its yalorisha (mothers of the holy one in Yoruba tradition) and babalorisha (fathers of the holy one), the old female and male blacks of the Bantu tradition. In many traditions, the female element, the mothers and daughters of the holy one, are the dominant leaders of the cult. The long process of ethnic and cultural mixing in the African-American world and in its relationships to Indian traditions of the continent, the cultures and religions of the colonizers, and the European and Eastern immigrants paints an ever-changing interactive religious picture. Two contrary attitudes appear side by side, sometimes in conflict: preservation of the African heritage on American soil and acceptance and incorporation of elements belonging to the new context. The first is dominant in the traditional Yoruba cults. The second, present to some degree in all African-American cults, is more emphasized in the cults of the Bantu tradition; in the case of a new urban religion like Umbanda, it becomes extreme. The character of this cultural exchange with its process of amalgamation and fusion is commonly referred to as “syncretism.” Many scholars reject the term for its derogatory connotation. Others understand it a descriptive and interpretive term for a process inherent in all religious traditions that are transplanted into a different cultural environment, especially when they are subject to a violent imposition of a dominant culture and religion, as in the relationship between Christianity as represented by the churches of the colonizers and slave owners and the African religions of the enslaved in the Americas. This approach to mutual cultural interpenetration, to conflict, to the survival and evolution of the African cultures in America makes use of other terminology (cultural resistance, interethnic and cultural friction, preservation, adaptation, assimilation, acculturation, counter-acculturation, inculturation); it also compares the variables of class, ethnicity, and gender with cultural variants.

96 Despite the great differences between the cultural and religious world of the Fon, Gege, and Nago in West Africa and the world of the Bantu in Central and southern Africa, they share common elements: the initiatory and enthusiastic nature of the cult; production of trances by means of rhythmic dancing accompanied by drums (atabaques); dramatization of the novice’s ritual death in a passage resembling burial; the initiate’s search for the ashé (vital force) present in water, stones, and forests; the depilation and body painting of the new convert; presentation of copious offerings during initiation; imposition of daily purification rites and an initiatory vow of silence and mystical norms under oath; dramatization of the initiate’s “resurrection” during a great festival; bestowal of a new name on the initiate; and a calendar based for the most part on the saints’ days of Catholicism. In addition, a supreme being is worshiped, though without a distinctive cult: Olorun by the Yoruba, Zambi by the Bantu, the “good God” in Haitian voodoo or the Avievodum of Maranhão. In the religion of the Yoruba in America, the cult of the deities is no longer associated with the ancestors, as in Nigeria, but with brotherhoods of initiates who enter into a trance when possessed by their orisha. This orisha is owed respect and commitment. Every orisha has its own day of the week, its own ritual dance, food, and clothing. The orisha receive sacrifices such as animals or fowl and offerings such as food, flowers, aromatics, candles, cigars, or beverages. Every individual has a tutelary orisha, although only a few will develop a mystical relationship with their orisha and thus become sons or daughters of the “holy one.” In addition, they must be initiated and “prepare a head,” through which the orisha enters to take possession of them while they are in a trance. Obtaining oracles from Ifa, the deity of fate and prophecy, by means of buzios (mussel shells) or magical rites for good or evil is an important part of this relationship to the world and the orisha. The foundation of Bantu religion is the ancestor cult, but slavery and exile have dispersed the generations and make it hard to practice. They have transformed it into a cult that is no longer the cult of the family but of the ancestors of the enslaved black race, invoked as Pai João (Papa John), Pai Joaquim (Papa Joachim), and Maria Congo. Bantu theology is dominated by the vision of a universe permeated by the divine and its vital force, ashé, without finding any antithesis between the sacred and the profane. It integrates and harmonizes diverse perspectives and contributions rather than finding them mutually exclusive. A new phenomenon of the most recent decades is the appearance of a black Christian theology based on the pioneering work of James Cone in the USA with his book God of the Oppressed; today this theology has spread through several countries in the Antilles and black America.

97 R. Bastide, Les religions africaines au Brésil, 1960 ◆ idem, Les Amériques noires, 1967 ◆ H. Fichte, Die afroamerikanischen Religionen. vol. I, 1976; vol. II, 1980 ◆ M. Moreno Fraginals, ed., África en América Latina, 1977 ◆ A. Ramos, As culturas negras no novo mundo, 31979 ◆ G.E. Simpson, Religious Cults of the Caribbean: Trinidad, Jamaica, and Haiti, 1980 ◆ E.L. Nascimento, Pan-Africanismo na América do Sul – Emergência de uma Rebelião Negra, 1981 ◆ Celam-Demis, Los Grupos afroamericanos: Fuentes documentales y bibliográficas, 1985 ◆ Q. Duncan et al., Cultura negra y teologia: Consulta Ecumenica sobre Cultura Negra y Teologia en América Latina, 1986 ◆ A. Pollack-Eltz, Trommel und Trance: Die afroamerikanischen Religionen, 1995 ◆ A.A. Silva, ed., Existe um pensar teológico negro?, 1998. José Oscar Beozzo

II. North America Religious movements among African-Americans in North America do not differ from other North American religions and schools of religious thought primarily in fundamental internal features that can be understood as being ethnically or racially conditioned. The differences derive instead from constructions of African-American group consciousness in response to the stigmatization of their ethnic and racial characteristics in the history of America. To identify and classify the African-American religious movements, one must therefore look for the configurations of African-Americanism represented by specific groups, both with regard to their origin as a reaction to racism and with regard to the religious ideas, symbols, and philosophies that they have produced or incorporated. The first major form of African-Americanism emerged from slavery. Religious movements representing this consciousness were motivated either by resistance or by accommodation to legally sanctioned bondage. As a rule resistance movements worked in secret. There were few public, religiously motivated revolts like the movement led by the slave preacher Nat Turner in 1831. Accommodation movements were public movements with a certain degree of institutionalization. Usually they were organized as “churches,” like the Silver Bluff Baptist Church, which came into being c. 1773 near Augusta, Georgia. But this label is to some extent misleading, since these movements were organized with the approval of the slave owners. Although the list of “African” churches from the 1750s down to the abolition of slavery is extensive, it must not be supposed that they possessed real independence. But it would also be wrong to overestimate the extent of their accommodation. One of these churches, the African Methodist Church in Charleston, South Carolina, was viewed as the breeding-ground of large-scale but unsuccessful rebellions like the Denmark Vesey revolt in 1822. The second form of African-Americanism arose from the efforts of free and emancipated AfricanAmericans to achieve social and political equality. The historical “black church” grew out of this mindset. The institutionalization of this consciousness – and hence

African-American Religion the predecessors of the black church – can be found in the mutual aid societies that formed in the large cities of the northeast in the second half of the 18th century, e.g. the African Union Society in Newport, Rhode Island, founded in 1780. From one of these self-help groups, the Free African Society of Philadelphia (founded in 1787), two of the first independent African-American churches emerged in 1794: St. Thomas African Episcopal Church (led by A. → Jones) and the Bethel Church (led by R. → Allen). As a movement, the black church is permeated with a subliminal sense of separatism, i.e. efforts to resist racist stigmatization by joining together to fight spiritual and social afflictions. Two forms of church order encouraged a separatist tendency in the black churches. The first, episcopal church constitution, has the longest history. Each of the African-American Methodist episcopates – the → African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME, 1816), the → African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AMEZ, 1820), and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (CME, 1870) – grew out of efforts to establish independent bishoprics with the concomitant authority to ordain and to administer the sacraments. The ecclesiastical bodies that emerged played a decisive role on account of their well-developed leadership structure. An equally influential group of episcopates grew out of → Pentecostalism. Its roots in the Azusa Street revival in Los Angeles (1906–1909), which included people of various races, gave these churches a stronger tendency toward spiritual independence than toward social involvement. But the adjective “otherworldly” hardly describes the activity of the African-American Pentecostal churches or the related Holiness movements such as the → Church of God in Christ (1907) and the Apostolic Overcoming Holy Church of God (1917). These churches represented the most rapidly growing Christian religious movements among AfricanAmericans, not least on account of their social work in the hotspots of urban society. The second form of church government was congregationalist (→ Congregationalism). Here the black church played a crucial role in emancipation. The authority granted the individual congregations in the congregational denominations enabled many of the sanctuaries for fugitive slaves to be turned into public churches. For this very reason, the African-Baptist churches represent the largest group among the denominations in the black church. Their national organizations, of which the National Baptist Convention USA Inc. (1895) and the National Primitive Baptist Convention (1907) are the largest, did more than any other AfricanAmerican institutions to coordinate the struggle of African-Americans for civil rights. From them emerged many political leaders, above all the pastors Adam Clayton Powell and Martin Luther King Jr.

Afro-America The third form of African-Americanism accompanied the efforts of the African-Americans to define themselves as something other than “Negroes,” in the sense of implied inferiority as construed by the “scientific” racism of the 19th century. Religious movements that cultivated this form of African-American consciousness – like the → Nation of Islam in the 1930s and various African-Jewish groups (e.g. Beth B’nai Abraham [1924-]) – developed a confessional stance that totally rejects thinking of African-Americans as Negroes. The most radical movement to embrace this approach was the Divine Peace Mission Movement (c. 1919), which fundamentally rejects the racial perspective and stands for harmony among races. The fourth and most recent form of AfricanAmericanism grew out of the Black Consciousness movement at the end of the 1960s. It manifests itself in movements that stress a religious African identity, emphasizing the central importance of both the black experience and African origin in the intellectual and ritual dimensions of African-American religion. It is represented by such diverse expressions as “Black Theology,” first enunciated by James H. Cone (1969), and the Imani Temple, the home of the African-American Catholic Congregation (c. 1990), founded by the ex-bishop George Stallings. A.J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South, 1979 ◆ C.E. Lincoln & L.H. Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience, 1990 ◆ H.A. Baer & M. Singer, African-American Religion in the Twentieth Century, 1992 ◆ L.G. Murphy, J.G. Melton & G.L. Ward, eds., Encyclopedia of African American Religions, 1993. Michael W. Harris

Afro-America. The time from the arrival of the first African slaves in the Antilles in 1502 to the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888, witnessed the development – in addition to the Indo-America of Indian peoples and the Euro-America of the great immigrations of the 19th century – of an Afro-America of approx. 11 m. slaves abducted from Africa. Today’s 750 m. inhabitants in the Americas include approx. 150 m. Afro-Americans. The Afro-American cultures exercise a deep influence on linguistic, religious (Haitian [→ Voodoo], Cuban → Santería, Xango in Trinidad-Tobago and Colombia; → Candomblé, → Macumba , → Umbanda in Brazil, → Rastafari in Jamaica), and musical areas such as celebration and cultural expression. In almost the whole continent Afro-Americans suffer from poverty, social exclusion, discrimination, and racism; at the same time, however, black movements fight for civil rights, equality in law and opportunity, recovery of their cultural and religious identity, and an inculturated form of Christianity. R. Bastide, Les Améríques noires, 1967 ◆ H. Klein, The Middle Passage. Comparative Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1978 ◆ E. Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, 1980. José Oscar Beozzo

98 Afro-Brazilian Movements I. Beliefs: The Orixás – II. Sacrifice and Trance – III. Innerworldly Religion – IV. Organization – V. The “Churchification” of Candomblé

I. Beliefs: The Orixás The Afro-Brazilian religions, such as represented by the best-known and normative variety, the → Candomblé, consist essentially in the worship of certain supernatural beings, the Orixás, of West African (mainly → Yoruba) origin. The believers are identified as the sons or daughters of their “santo” as the Orixás are also known under the influence of popular Catholicism. Once one’s saint has been ascertained through → divination performed by a qualified priest, one is obliged to give the saint food (“obrigação”) and to make efforts to be accepted into a religious community (“terreiro”). Afro-Brazilian theology comprises a symbolic mapping of personalities, attitudes, events and things according to the character of the Orixás. Exu, a male deity, must always be the first to be mentioned, greeted and given sacrifice on every ritual occasion. He is a trickster, the controller of both untoward accidents and of sudden strokes of luck. Other major deities are: Ogum, the protector of craftsmen, car drivers and soldiers. Oxóssi, the patron of hunters, is said to have a special relationship with American Indian spirits. Oxum is the female patron of beauty and love and helps in financial gain. She is worshiped in rivers, streams and waterfalls, where devotees go in procession on her festivals. Iemanjá is chaste and motherly, and despite her role as Great Mother, she is as unfathomable as the ocean – her element and her abode – in which she is fond of receiving sacrifices. Xangô is wild, lively, ebullient, unpredictable, and enrages his consort Iansã with his many love affairs. As king among the Orixás, he receives homage from the other saints, excepting Iemanjá and Oxalá, who, being his parents, are superior. The cult of the city Recife and environs bears his name. Iansã is proud, active, fearless, present in lightning and thunder, and the only one amongst the Orixás who drives away ghosts. Oxalá, male, fatherly and elderly, is Lord of Whiteness and the only one among the male saints of this list to be offered female animals. Two other deities with special functions in the cult are Ossanhe, the lord of vegetation, who owns the herbs and leaves and who plays a crucial role in the rites of initiation and healing; and Orumilá, also called Ifá, the lord of divination, through which he himself or other saints communicate with believers. The Afro-Brazilians believe in the existence of a supreme God (Deus or Olorum), but this belief has no ritual consequence, for their devotion is restricted to the Orixás, who are regarded not as mediators, but rather as independent powers. They are believed to interfere in matters of practical concern such as health, love, sex, employment and the like. The cult proposes no abstract

99 moral rules for believers. Abstract faith (such as expressed in creeds or dogmatic statements) is equally unimportant in the Afro-Brazilian context. Whether Orixás are African gods or heroes of olden times, or whether they are the translation of some Roman Catholic devotions to African language and life-style, or whether, as Frenchinfluenced Spiritualists are prone to suggest, they represent disembodied spirits of a given rank, are theoretical questions that can be answered in a number of ways, although, being matters of individual persuasion, they do not impinge on ritual practice. II. Sacrifice and Trance The essential ritual feature in Afro-Brazilian religion is the offer of sacrifices, especially of animals, which is still practiced today and which has even gained in importance in the last decades of the 20th century. The sacrifice is divided into “axé” – blood and certain organs that are only given to the gods – and “eran” – mainly red meat, which is eaten by the congregation, even outside the ritual context. The sacrifice has symbolic and religious functions on the one hand, and, on the other, economical and nutritional functions. Body, mind, movements and actions of the devotees are also part of the sacrifice. Candomblé is a religion that is danced and acted rather than thought in terms of theology, philosophy or social sciences. → Dance, enthusiasm, trance and sacrifice are of the same origin and follow the same logic in AfroBrazilian cult. The power and the very life of the gods depend on the flesh and blood of the sacrificial animals. Similarly, they need the bodies and the movements of their children, their dances and their trances, in order to manifest themselves, that is, in order to exist, just as the existence of the believers is only affirmed by their being perceived by the Orixás. Trance is the continuation of the sacrifice by other means. Trance, for the Afro-Brazilians, means far more than the presence of a new personality to replace the ordinary personality of the believers. It is an eminently ecstatic experience (→ Ecstasy), in which an excess of intuition and identity saturates the cognitive and affective faculties of devotees and, while it lasts, prevents them from functioning conventionally. Ecstatic rapture appears as a solution for the opposition between the apparently unlimited breadth of symbol and spiritual connection on the one hand and, on the other, the constraints of an individual’s ability to handle them. The believers are so full of, and overwhelmed by, their god and the enthusiasm they share with their religious community, that they are unable to express their emotions in a rational and easily comprehensive way. III. Inner-worldly Religion Candomblé is not an ascetic, but very much an innerworldly religion, essentially oriented toward the relief

Afro-Brazilian Movements in this world of the afflictions of this world. Holiness (“axé”) merges with health and wholesomeness. The Afro-Brazilians do not reject the contemporary world for religious reasons. According to the deep-seated beliefs of both the priests and the believers, the world and society will remain the same despite any change. Devotees admit that there will always be the rich and the poor, the powerful and the powerless, but they believe that individuals, with the help of saints, can change their social and economic situation. Death appears to them as the ultimate form of loss and humiliation. Funeral rites are conceived by the Afro-Brazilians as an undoing of initiation. The holiness, the “axé,” which resided in the body, mainly the head, of the believer, must be withdrawn before burial. The gods are not gods of the dead, but of the living. Though cultists pay little attention to what may occur after death in terms of reward and punishment, they admit the survival of the “egun,” the ghost that haunts the places in which he used to live. “Eguns” receive sacrifices in the ritual of “axexê” about 30 days after the death of an initiate, and at the beginning of all major festivals. IV. Organization Candomblé is a strong priestly religion. The holy fathers and mothers are vested with religious authority, also affirmed with the liturgical Yoruba expressions “babaorixá” and “ialorixá.” They alone can practice divination and preside over sacrifices and other ceremonies. Devotees refer to them as “my father” and “my mother.” This is a personalized relationship, as devotees are not viewed as the children of all priests and priestesses but as the children of a concrete man and a concrete woman. The link between the devotee and his or her priest and/ or priestess is fundamental to the entire organizational structure of the cult. Candomblé follows a “congregational” model, as each cult house (“terreiro”) is, at least potentially, independent from outer hierarchical control, though there are still some loose federations and alliances. Priestesses preside over some terreiros (among them the best-known ones of Salvador da Bahia) while others (as is often the case in Rio de Janeiro and Recife) are led by priests and still others feature both a “father” and a “mother.” In this case, it is possible for the same priest to be responsible for many terreiros simultaneously, each of them entrusted to the daily care of a specific priestess. Initiation, whereby “the holy” is transferred from the heads of fathers and mothers to those of sons and daughters, is a complex, lengthy and expensive process, where the blood of both animals and neophytes is shed, as, through incisions in their heads, they are offered to their gods, whose characters, attitudes and behavior they are to adopt.

Aga Khan V. The “Churchification” of Candomblé The survival of the Afro-Brazilian religion in a historical context dominated by the Roman Catholic Church (→ Brazil) can be largely understood as a syncretistic fusion (→ Syncretism) whereby the African deities merge with Catholic saints according to some analogies in their characteristics or iconic presentation. The ceremonies of Candomblé and similar cults were seen both by their own believers and by the church itself as equivalents of the rites of popular Catholicism, centered on the cult of patron saints. For the last 50 years, in which the church has lost its religious monopoly over Brazilian society, the Afro-Brazilian religious movements have undergone a process of churchification. They passed from the status of mere brotherhoods, which, despite some peculiarities, regarded themselves as part of a larger church, whose authority and superiority they recognized, to the status of completely independent churches with standardized corpora of doctrine and ritual and with their own priesthood, appointed or ordained according to certain rules of transmission of charisma. Various conflicting tendencies can be observed in this process. Thus, in the 1940s and 1950s, the → Umbanda movement attempted to give legitimacy to the Africanderived cults by superimposing upon them a theology largely derived from European (mainly French) spiritism. An opposite tendency became increasingly strong in the last quarter of the 20th century, as a movement of African fundamentalism, stemming from the more traditional terreiros in Recife and Bahia. It gained ground throughout the whole country. Yet, this symbolic return to Africa is not in any way linked to Black movements of a more political character. Africanhood is relieved of its original ethnic context and is presented to an anonymous religious “market,” which is largely composed of Whites from the large cities of south-eastern Brazil. Without breaking its links with the priestly families of Salvador or Recife, Candomblé turns from a traditional into a universalistic religion, appealing to all Brazilians, mainly to all men. There are no precise figures for the membership in Afro-Brazilian congregations, as these, other than Catholicism and eventually Spiritism, have seldom been recognized as independent religions in Brazilian censuses. Researchers presume, however, that the total membership is at least 20 to 30 million. The religion, which was originally considered to be “primitive,” is paradoxically becoming a modern or “postmodern” religion. P. Verger, Notes sur Le Culte des Orisa et des Vodoun, 1957 ◆ R. Bastide, Le Candomblé de Bahia, 1958 ◆ S. Leacock & R. Leacock, Spirits of the Deep, 1972 ◆ J. Elbein dos Santos, Os Nagô e a Morte, 1976 ◆ V. da Costa Lima, A Familia de Santo nos Candomblés Jeje-Nagô da Bahia, 1977 ◆ R. Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil, 1978 ◆ R. Ortiz, A Morte Branca do Reiticeiro Negro, 1978 ◆ R. Ribeiro, Cultos Afro-Brasileiros do Recife, 1978

100 ◆ R. Prandi, Os Candomblés de São Paulo, 1991 ◆ R. Motta, “Ethnicité, Nationalité et Syncrétisme,” Social Compass 41, 1994, 67–78. Roberto Motta

Aga Khan, Turko-Persian title (“lord prince”). In 1848 the Shah of Persia bestowed the title on his son-in-law, the 46th imam of the Shi‘ite sect of the Isma‘ilites. The title has been borne ever since by the → imams of the sect, who are considered direct descendants and legitimate successors of the prophet → Mu˙ammad. The 48th imam, Sir Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III, b. 1887 in Karachi and enthroned as imam in 1885 in Bombay, contributed greatly to the centralization and modernization of the Isma‘ilite communities, residing originally in India, Pakistan, Yemen, and Syria, but dispersed throughout the world (esp. eastern Africa) by emigration. After 1932 he represented India in the League of Nations, of which he was president in 1937. He was one of the founding fathers of the state of Pakistan (1947). When he died in 1947 in Versoiz, near Geneva, his grandson Shah Karim Aga Khan IV (b. 1936 in Geneva), succeeded him as the 49th imam. H. Halm, Die Schia, 1987 ◆ F. Daftary, The Ismāaīlīs, Their History and Doctrines, 1990. Heinz Halm

Agape → Eros → Love, → Love-Feast Agape, Chione and Irene → Acts of the Martyrs Agatha, Saint, a Christian from a prominent family in Catania, where she is still venerated as the patron of the city. She suffered martyrdom, probably in the persecution under → Decius (251?). The Eparch Quintian wanted to alienate her from her faith and committed her for this purpose to a brothel-keeper named Aphrodisias; Agatha remained firm. After they cut off her breasts, Peter appeared to her in the night in the form of an old man and healed her. She died following further torture on the next day (including being placed on glowing coals and shards). An attempt to answer the question of historicity can only be made after first working through the rich hagiographical tradition in the Greek (it may be that an older version of the martyrdom should be sought here) and Latin transmission. Agatha is considered a helper in needs related to breast ailments and the dangers of fire, as well as being the patron saint of miners and smelters. Her feast day is Feb 5 in both West and East (where it is also sometimes observed on Feb 4). BHG 36–38 ◆ BHL 133–140 ◆ H. Dörrie, RAC I, 1950, 179–184. Jürgen Dummer

Agathangelos is the compiler of an Armenian biography of St. Gregory the Illuminator, written in

101 the second half of the 5th century, as well as of a legend about the conversion of → Armenia. This historical work emphasizes the independence of the Armenian Church over against the Byzantine Church; it points out both Syrian and Greek influence. Ēúmiacin is hailed as the center of Christian culture in Armenia. The Armenian text, cited as early as the late 5th century, was translated into Greek in the 6th century and then into Arabic. F. Tournebize, art. “Agathange,” DHGE I, 1912, 906–907 ◆ G. Garitte, Documents pour l’étude du livre d’Agathange, 1946 ◆ R.W. Thomson, A Bibliography of Classical Armenian Literature to 1500 AD, 1995. Christian Hannick

Agathonice → Carpus, Papylus and Agathonice Agbebi, Mojola (Apr 10, 1860, Ilesha, Nigeria – May 17, 1917, Lagar, Nigeria) was born David Brown Vincent. His English name attests to the Western cultural influence which characterized his father’s generation of “Black Englishmen.” His adoption of an African name should be considered with regard to the upheavals within the African Church in the late 19th century. In the → Ethiopian Movement Agbebi stood with famous contemporaries such as J. → Johnson and E.W. → Blyden . When, in 1888, the Native Baptist Church seceded from Baptist Church that had been founded in South America, Agbebi came into the limelight as its founding father. Schisms rapidly led to an increasing number of African churches. This was caused by a growing African consciousness – also called for by Agbebi – that opposed white dominance in church and cultural policy. Agbebi engaged in an Africanization policy over names, clothing, education, church music, liturgy, and in research of African primal religion, ministerial formation, socio-economic revolution, legitimate trade, political engagement, rural evangelism and cultural policy (e.g. → Polygamy). He retained traditional church doctrine, theology and part of the liturgy and ethics. At the same time, though, he led vigorous campaigns for the black Christian cause, rejecting all Western support. He became a prolific writer and advocate of non-missionary Christianity in Africa. However, this total immersion in African culture and rejection of Western life-style was not acceptable to the majority of his generation. Works include: Africa and the Gospel, 1889 ◆ “Inaugural Sermon,” in: J.A. Langley, ed., Ideologies in Black Africa 1856–1970, 1979, 72–77 ◆ On Agbebi: A. Akiwowo, “The Place of Agbebi in the African Nationalist Movements 1890–1917,” Phylon 26, 1965, 122–139 ◆ E.A. Ayandele, Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria 1842–1914, 1966 ◆ idem, A Visionary of the African Church, 1971 ◆ H. King, “Cooperation and Contextualization,” JRA 16, 1986, 2–21. Ogbu Kalu

Agendenstreit (Liturgical Dispute). The call for unity issued by king → Frederick William III of Prussia

Agendenstreit (Liturgical Dispute) in 1817 aimed at effecting a liturgical union between Lutherans and Reformed Protestants: Under the influence of Enlightenment (“a better spirit”), “inessentials” were to be set aside, as only “external differences” continued to divide the two confessions. This was a misevaluation, for the old doctrinal controversies awakened in opposition to the union. In the Agenda Dispute, the work of unity was put to its first test of endurance. The king had already ordered liturgical reforms: in 1818 the introduction of robes (1817 in the West), in 1816 an order for a memorial service for the fallen, in 1816 the introduction of the → Sunday in Commemoration of the Dead. In 1815/16, he issued a liturgy that still followed the form of the sermon-centered worship service and imposed it on the court and garrison congregations in Potsdam as well as on the garrison church in Berlin. He personally drafted the disputed Unity Agenda in 1821/22 and had it printed. In the meantime, however, he had adopted a new liturgical orientation. The model was now the Brandenburgian Church Order of 1540 that was interspersed with Catholic elements. The new “Berlin Agenda” exhibited high-church characteristics: the presence of a choir, a number of liturgical elements, the sermon only at the end of the service. The “liturgy” for the cathedral at Berlin (1821) was introduced despite the protest of the Reformed cathedral clergy; the Lutheran Petrus congregation that shared the cathedral accepted the liturgy. Initially, the acceptance of the Agenda was voluntary, though changes were prohibited. A survey in 1822 revealed that only a few pastors wanted to introduce it. The king attempted to push the agenda through by means of rewards and pressure: The placement of pastors became dependent on their acceptance of the Agenda, and it was forbidden to abandon it. In 1824, two-thirds of the pastors agreed, yet its rejection was common. In 1824, the Berlin Magistrate required the agreement of the congregation for acceptance of the Agenda, since Prussian law accorded the city a ius liturgicum passivum (a right of approval). The king replied that the order of the Reformation period was simply being reinstituted. Another thesis was that the king, as a ruler, had a ius liturgicum positivum if he acted in agreement with the “entire congregation of the country.” The Agenda Dispute intensified when F. → Schleiermacher published the essay “Concerning the Liturgical Rights of Protestant Princes” in 1824 under the pseudonym Pacificus Sincerus, in which he challenged this right. The king defended himself in 1827 with the anonymous, hardly convincing essay “Luther in Relation to the Prussian Church Agenda.” It ignited a literary dispute. Schleiermacher responded anonymously in 1827: “A Conversation between Two Self-Reflective Protestant Christians Concerning the Essay: Luther in Reference to the Prussian Agenda.” A change in the agenda policy led to the end of the

Aggada

102

Agenda Dispute. At first, Pomerania was permitted its own appendix to the Agenda; the other provinces followed (the last being Rheinland and Westphalia in 1834). The appearance of a unified agenda was preserved. Unquestionably, through the Berlin Agenda, the king effected a reorientation of liturgical thought and gave Lutheran congregations a unified order influenced by the mass. J. Kampmann, Die Einführung der Berliner Agende in Westfalen, BWFKG 8, 1991 ◆ W.H. Neuser, “Agende, Agendenstreit und Provinzialagenden,” in: J.F.G. Goeters & R. Mau, eds., Die Geschichte der Evangelischen Kirche der Union, I, 1992, 134–159. Wilhelm H. Neuser

Aggada → Haggadah Aggiornamento (Ital.: “updating”) was used by Pope John XXIII. Closely associated with → Vatican II, the term means the recognition of the historicity of the church and the church’s adaptation to the modern world with a view to presenting its expressions and practices in a new way. This entailed adopting these formulations and practices in contemporary contexts. The process of aggiornamento had its greatest impact in the fields of liturgical practices, canon law, doctrinal formulations, as well as ecumenical dialogue. R. Marlé, Études 315, 1962, 21–29.

William Flynn

Aggression, since the 1960s a central social theme (violence against women, children, aliens, etc.), is as old as humankind (Cain and Abel, “conflict, the father of all things” in Heraclitus, the dualistic system of love and strife in Empedocles). Aggression is understood as purposefully destructive behavior that threatens harm or actually does harm to others, the delivery of noxious stimuli to an organism (Dollard); whether aggression necessarily entails intention is disputed. Aggression may be classified as affective (relieving tensions), hostile (resulting from hate), or instrumental (e.g. serving a criminal purpose). Aggressiveness is accordingly an ongoing disposition toward aggressive conduct. Usage of the term is often somewhat loose. Aggression can be overt or covert, realized or fantasized, physical or verbal. It is associated with force and violence. When the legitimacy of using force or the abuse of force is an issue, the ethical dimension of aggression comes to the fore. In this regard, some insist that aggression is inherently destructive; but there is also the commonly accepted theory of Konrad Lorenz, who considers aggression an important element in the repertoire of human behavior, with the positive function of balancing competing interests in a natural way. The extent to which aggression is genetic or a product of socialization is a controversial issue. The study of aggression distinguishes three major theoretical explanatory models: instinct, frustration, and learning.

1. → Ethology (Lorenz) considers aggression to be genetically determined by aggressive instincts, a constant flow of energy that must be diverted or sublimated if the pentup energy is not to lead to uncontrollable eruptions or self-destructive behavior, even suicide. A counterpoise is provided by repression mechanisms and rituals that permit controlled aggression to survive in appropriate activities or convert it into constructive actions. According to J.P. Scott, only the tendency toward aggression is innate; its realization is conditioned by the environment. For a brief time in the 1960s, Lorenz was extremely popular. There is no hard evidence to support his theory, however, and the existence of an independent physiological basis of aggression has not been confirmed by other studies. The ethological hypothesis that all drives follow the same pattern may not be tenable; it is preferable to follow W. Wickler in assuming that the element of aggression arose repeatedly and independently in the course of evolution. Closely related to behavioral psychology are the depth psychology theories of A. → Adler, S. → Freud, and A. Mitscherlich. In 1920, Freud described the aggression or destruction drive as a death drive (thanatos), the antagonist of eros, ascribing it to a similarly endogenous source. From the perspective of both ethological and instinctual theory, the purpose of civilization is to channel the energy of aggression into substitute acts and sublimations, in a search for rational solutions (as suggested by Dollard et al.), or into introjection, which leads to the development of conscience in the sense of Freud’s superego. Avoidance is impossible. Mitscherlich in particular espouses comprehensive social and affective education. 2. The Yale school (Dollard et al.) explains aggression as the product of frustration, the inhibition of a purposive activity (cf. aggressive driving). Aggression is not a necessary result, but depends on how the individual has learned to deal with frustrations. The likelihood of aggression is also conditioned by outward events and inward disposition. Avoidance of frustration provides a counterbalance. But exaggerated indulgence can also trigger aggressive behavior, as developmental psychology points out in the case of children who grow up without well-defined limits on their behavior. It is helpful to offer attractive alternatives and avoid rewarding aggression in any way. But the simple theory that all aggression is a product of frustration and that all frustration leads to aggression cannot be maintained. The notion that observation of aggression by itself mitigates aggressive tendencies in the observer (the catharsis hypothesis, which goes back to Aristotle and is used to justify media violence) may be considered empirically disproved. According to the frustration theory, avoidance of aggression requires avoidance of frustrations and is thus wishful thinking. Neo-Marxism (Herbert Marcuse et al.), appealing to both Freud and

103 Marx, considers aggression to be the result of repression, a social form of frustration Aggression is therefore overcome through social emancipation. 3. The social learning theory (Bandura) explains aggression as the product of imitation. It is based on learning by success (behaviorism) and learning by imitation. Aggression can be avoided by avoiding models (depiction of violence in visual media) and by refusing to reinforce aggressive behavior (success, reward); but this theory does not imply that there are no innate determinants of behavior. At present, there is no single conceptual theory. There is no monocausal explanation of aggression. It appears to arise from several different psychological and psychosocial mechanisms, so that it can be employed in various life situations. As a basis for discussion, Bandura’s socio-cognitive approach chimes best with the present state of our knowledge and offers the best hope for mitigating aggression. A. Adler, “Der Aggressions-Trieb im Leben und in der Neurose,” Fortschritte der Medizin 26, 1908, 577–584 ◆ S. Freud, Jenseits des Lustprinzips, Gesammelte Werke 13, 1920 ◆ idem, Civilisation and its Discontents, 1930 ◆ J. Dollard et al., Frustration and Aggression, 1939 ◆ K. Lorenz, Das sogenannte Böse, 1963; ET: On Agression, 1966 ◆ A. & M. Mitscherlich, Die Unfähigkeit zu trauern, 1967 ◆ A. Bandura, Aggression, 1973 ◆ H. Selg et al., Psychologie der Aggressivität, 1988 ◆ W. Wickler, Die Biologie der zehn Gebote, 1991. Hans-Jürgen Fraas

Aglipay, Gregorio (May 5, 1860, Batac, Philippines – Sep 1, 1940, Manila) studied theology, was consecrated to the priesthood in 1889, took part in the Filipino struggle for liberation (from 1896 against Spain, 1898–1901 against the USA), fought for the political independence of the country and at the same time for the indigenization of the Catholic Church. This led to the break with Rome in 1902 and to the founding of the → Iglesia Filipina Independiente (IFI) or the “Aglipayan Church,” which Aglipay directed until his death. In the unsuccessful rebellion Aglipay was a member of the Congress and the commander of the guerrillas. From 1898 he called for religious emancipation and, following the withdrawal of the Spaniards, filled the vacant ecclesiastical offices with Filipinos. The rebels appointed him as vicar general of the military and the imprisoned Spanish bishop of the diocese of Nuera Segovia appointed him as their administrator; on these grounds Aglipay considered himself legitimated for these offices but was hoping for Papal ratification. In 1899 he was excommunicated. When new foreign clerics entered the country after 1900, native clergymen threatened with separation from Rome; they found their leader in Aglipay. On Aug 3, 1902, the labor union leader Isabelo de los Reyes proclaimed the IFI and nominated Aglipay as Obispo Máximo (highest bishop), which the latter accepted with some reluctance. 50 of the 825

Agnes, Sisters of priests and 25% of the Catholic constituency joined him. Nationalism, but also other teachings, formulated mostly by de los Reyes (e.g. rejection of celibacy, infallibility of the Pope, veneration of saints and the Trinity; science and reason as the only sources of truth), separated the IFI from Catholicism. Under Aglipay it turned to Unitarianism (→ Unitarians); after his death, however, the → Trinitarians asserted themselves. Aglipay continues to be surrounded by controversy today; however, his significance for the country’s recent history is uncontested. I.R. Rodríguez, Gregorio Aglipay y los Orígenes de la IFI, 2 vols., 1960 ◆ P.S. de Achútegui & M.A. Bernard, Religious Revolution in the Philippines, 2 vols., 1961/66 ◆ P.A. Rodell, “The Founding of the IFI,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 16, 1988, 210–234. Reinhard Wendt

Agnes, Saint, was a Roman martyr (western feast day Jan 21, eastern Jul 5). According to 4th-century tradition (Depositio Martyrum of 354), the Roman martyr – spared from the flames – was stabbed or beheaded under → Diocletian (or Valerian?). The name and legend of Agnes, who suffered dual martyrdom for the sake of decency and religion (Ambr., Virg. I 2.9), could have developed in Rome (as well as in Trier) from the Greek virtue ἁγνός (hagnos). Since late Constantinian times, her cult has been localized in the via Nomentana in the vicinity of the circular basilica (with mausoleum) erected by Constantine. Since the 8th century, this site has been joined by the inner city cult de cripta Agonis in the stadiumDomitiani, today Piazza Navona. Her attribute is the lamb (pallium). BHL 156 ◆ BHG 45f. ◆ E. Schäfer, RAC I, 1950, 184–186 ◆ A.P. Frutaz, Il complesso monumentale di S. Agnese, 1960 ◆ G. Emer, La fabricca di S. Agnese in Navona, 1970. Wolfgang Wischmeyer

Agnes, Sisters of. Communities of the order: 1. Augustinian Sisters, of Dordrecht. Founded according to tradition in 1326, they belonged from 1427 onward to the → Windesheim Congregation (regulated Augustinian choristers) and, from the end of the 15th century, called themselves “Sisters of St. Agnes” after their church, dedicated to St. → Agnes; they were disbanded in 1572. 2. Sisters of St. Agnes: The Sœurs de St. Agnès, founded in 1645 in Arras by Jeanne Biscot to rear and educate orphans, are spiritually influenced by Sts. → Vincent de Paul and → Francis de Sales; they joined with a larger Franciscan congregation in 1972; Sisters of St. Agnes (Agnesians) were founded in 1870 in the diocese of Milwaukee (USA) to do educational work and to care for the sick. 3. The Sisters of Mother Agnes of the Third Order of St. Dominicus were founded in 1634 in Le Puy by “Mother Agnes.”

Agnetenberg W. Kohl, et al., eds., Monasticon Windeshemense, III, 1980, 615– 621 ◆ Heimbucher I, 31987, 566; II, 51987 ◆ DIP VIII, 1988, 632–634 ◆ AnPont 1996, 1627. Manfred Heim

Agnetenberg (St. Agnietenberg, Mons S. Agnetis) is one of the most important and influential monasteries of the Windesheim → Canons Regular of St. Augustine, near Zwolle (Netherlands). In 1384, Brethren of the Common Life assembled there; they resettled on Nemelerberg; their founding document dates to 1395. Their house became a monastery in 1398; it was abolished in 1561 and disbanded in 1581. → Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471) was chronicler and occasional subprior of Agnetenberg; Wessel Gansfort (d. 1489) was closely linked to Agnetenberg. Jan Mombaer (d. 1501) entered c. 1480. W. Kohl, E. Persoons & A.G. Weiler, eds., Monasticon Windeshemense, Part 3: Niederlande, 1980, 15–49. Christoph Burger

Agnon (Czaczkes), Samuel Josef ( Jul 17, 1888, Buczacz, Poland – Feb 2, 1970, Jerusalem), the greatest novelist in modern Hebrew literature. Agnon immigrated to Jerusalem in 1907 and spent the years 1913–1924 in Germany, mostly in Berlin, where he was in touch with M. → Buber, Gershom Schocken and Zalman Schocken; he finally settled in Talpiot, Jerusalem in 1924. Agnon developed an original style, based on the homiletical Hebrew of the 17th and 18th centuries, which resonated in the entirety of literary Hebrew traditions. His narratives satirize all Jewish ideologies, from → Hasidism to → Zionism, while dealing in a delicate and subtle way with human relationships and the impact of history on individual lives. Agnon grew up in a strict orthodox community; during most of his life he lived as an orthodox and observant Jew; his writings, however, do not carry an explicitly religious message. Works: Collected Works, 1955 ◆ On Agnon: A. Band, Nostalgia and Nightmare, 1968 ◆ A.G. Hoffman, Between Exile and Return, 1991. Miri Kubovy

Agnosticism I. History of Religions – II. Philosophy of Religion – III. Practical Theology – IV. Missiology

I. History of Religions The term “agnosticism” originally referred to the impossibility of attaining certain metaphysical knowledge or, with reference to transcendent questions, to gain grounded judgments. The term stems from T.H. → Huxley (1869; see also II). While for Huxley, agnosticism was epistemologically justified, the use of the term today is usually motivated in a variety of ways. The Sophist → Protagoras of Abdera (On the Gods, DK 80B4), who bases the uncertainty of knowledge concern-

104 ing the gods not only epistemologically, but also on the brevity of life, provides a standard example of Western agnosticism. From the history of Indian religions, the → Buddha, who denied information concerning metaphysical questions (existence of a soul, continued existence of the redeemed after death) because of the danger of error, the unfathomability of objects, and their irrelevance for salvation, is usually adduced. From China, → Confucius is mentioned, who rejected engagement with metaphysical questions (death, souls of the ancestors) in favor of concentrating on the practical conduct of life. – Based on the various patterns of justification, agnosticism is used in the history of religions not only for the (epistemological) impossibility of transcendent knowledge (→ Skepticism: II), but also for the refusal to be concerned with such or to discuss it. For a few authors, agnosticism also refers generally to lack of faith (→ Positivism), but the term is also often restricted to the reservation of judgment on the God question (→ Indifference). L. de la Vallée Poussin, “Agnosticism: Buddhist,” ERE I, 1955, 220–225 ◆ W. Nestle, Vom Mythos zum Logos, 21975 ◆ J. Thrower, The Alternative Tradition, RS 18, 1980 ◆ G. Stein, ed., An Anthology of Atheism and Rationalism, 1980 ◆ L.C. Wu, Fundamentals of Chinese Philosophy, 1986. Gebhard Löhr

II. Philosophy of Religion The term agnosticism has both a general and a special sense in the philosophy of religion. In its general meaning, it refers to any notion according to which our knowledge of the divine being is subject to strict limitations. Philosophical theists and theologians in all the major religions represent agnosticism in this form. The doctrine that the divine nature is hidden from us appears in → Plato (Tim.), → Plotinus (Enneaden) and runs throughout → Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologiae. Thinkers in this broad tradition consider agnosticism to be reconcilable with faith in a divine ἀρχή (arch¶, “beginning, origin”) since it defines the divine by means of negative or relational concepts. Thus, according to Aquinas, the primary meaning of “God” consists in referring to the fact that the source of all is, is above all, and is different from all (Summa Theologiae Ia 13, 8 ad 2). Thomas is convinced that such an ἀρχή exists. – In the late 19th century, a special meaning was attributed to the term. Agnosticism was now located between → theism (II) and → atheism (III) and defined by the claim that we neither could know that God exists nor that he does not exist. Huxley represented this notion; his agnosticism is a form of religious skepticism with an epistemological justification (developed under the primacy of the natural sciences and under the influence of D. → Hume and I. → Kant). Other important 19th and 20th-century thinkers such as H. → Spencer, Leslie Stephen and B. → Russell follow him.

105 T.H. Huxley, Collected Essays, vol. V, 1894, repr. 1970 ◆ L. Stephen, An Agnostic’s Apology, 1893, repr. 1991 ◆ B. Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian, 1927. Peter Byrne

III. Practical Theology For practical theology, agnosticism is relevant, not because of its epistemological, but its existential aspects, to the extent that it points to the widespread timerity or incapacity to give definitive answers to the fundamental questions of life. These questions that relate to the meaning of life, suffering, death, life after death, the existence of a transcendent reality, good and evil, determinism and freedom, freedom, guilt and fate have their roots in the tragic structure of human existence: aporetic agnosticism (Schlette). Religious agnosticism is to be seen against this background: cultural-religious agnosticism rejects the (certainty of the) traditional statements of faith concerning God based on an existential → doubt (Campiche). Structural-religious agnosticism rejects the claims of religious organizations leading to ecclesial nihilism (Tamney et al.). Agnosticism does not include the rejection of religious meaning. Rather, it is, itself, to be understood as an intention to offer such meaning. It can even be understood as a constitutive dimension of religious meaning to the extent that seeking and questioning characterize religious faith, too. H.R. Schlette, ed., Der moderne Agnostizismus, 1979 ◆ J.B. Tamney, et al., “Innovation Theory and Religious Nones,” JSSR 28, 1989, 216–229 ◆ R.J. Campiche, “Individualisation du croire et recomposition de la religion,” ASSR 81, 1993, 117–131 ◆ J.A. van der Ven, “Death,” JET 7, 1994, 35–57. Johannes van der Ven

IV. Missiology On its course through history, Christianity, especially in the non-Western world, has found ever new forms and thereby demonstrated dynamism and opennness. The concept of missionary agnosticism attempts to capture this experience. The insight into the theological and ecclesiological complexity of world Christianity and the conviction that God’s Spirit is present in Christian innovation stem from missionary work itself. The “World Studies of Churches in Mission” (ed. V.E.W. Hayward, 1958ff.) had the objective of finding ecumenical commonalities in church and theology in a post-hegemonial world. Instead, all 15 individual studies confirm major differences. Mackie summarizes this finding with the concept of agnosticism. The psychologist and evangelist Leslie D. Weatherhead (1893–1976) proposed: (1) that Christianity is not a doctrinal system but “a way of life” – response to the experience of God’s love, but not intellectual assent to a canon of theological knowledge, (2) that the understanding and form of Christian discipleship always rests on acknowledging culture and becomes “inauthentic” if it relates to foreign or past cultures. Price extrapolated this approach into the thesis

Agnus Dei that missionary agnosticism is one of the conditions for a new → contextuality of the gospel in western culture. S.G. Mackie, ed., Can Churches Be Compared?, 1970 ◆ L.D. Weatherhead, The Christian Agnostic, 1989 ◆ L. Price, Faithful Uncertainty, 1996. Werner Ustorf

Agnostos Theos. In Acts 17:23, Luke relates how Paul chose the altar inscription “to an unknown God” (ἀγνώστῳ θεῷ/agnØstō theØ) as the starting point for his → Areopagus Speech in Athens. This is the earliest testimony to a cult of “unknown gods” and the only testimony for the cult of an “unknown god” in the singular. Pagan and Christian authors from the 2nd to the 4th centuries (including Paus. I 1.4; V 14.8; Diog. Laert. I 110; Philostr. Vita ap. VI 3; Tert. Marc. I 9; Nat. II 9.4; Jer. Comm. Tit. I 12; Ep. 70) mentioned altars for unkown gods in Olympia, Athens, and elsewhere, and also the very sparse epigraphical material has, until now, only produced altar dedications in the plural. Consequently, it is not improbable that Luke altered the apostle’s original plural into the singular because only by this means could he attain the desired point of contact for his proclamation of the one God and his Son, as Jerome had already observed. The background for such cults lies in antiquity’s common fear of failing to call upon the proper divine helpers or to worship them with sacrifices and thus to forfeit the needed help. One endeavored to avoid this danger through the most comprehensive consideration of the deities possible, even those whose names one did not know. E. Norden, Agnostos Theos, 21923 ◆ O. Weinreich, “De dis ignotis observationes selectae,” ARW 18, 1915, 1–52 ◆ P.W. van der Horst, “The Altar of the ‘Unknown God’ in Athens (Acts 17:23) and the Cult of ‘Unknown Gods’ in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods,” ANRW II 18/2, 1989, 1426–1456. Pieter W. van der Horst

Agnus Dei I. Liturgy – II. Music

I. Liturgy Already at an early stage the Eastern Church describes the Eucharistic → Bread as Amnos (Lamb) and signifies the breaking of bread as Christ’s sacrifice ( John 1:29; Rev 5:6f.). The Syrian pope Sergius I (died 701) introduced the Agnus Dei – known from the → Gloria and → Litany – as a frequently repeated chant for the breaking of bread. With the introduction of eucharistic wafers its use lapsed; the now three-fold acclamation changes to the Peace and closes with the petition “give us your peace.” J.A. Jungmann, Missarum sollemnia, vol. II, 51962, 413–422. Hans-Christoph Schmidt-Lauber

II. Music The changing of the liturgical function of the Agnus Dei between the 10th and 12th centuries can be traced

Agobard of Lyon in its earliest musical settings. Like other mass ordinary songs these appear in soloists’ books such as the cantatorium, or troper. All but three early settings include tropes which replace some or all of the text up to the words “miserere nobis” (ab, bb, cb, etc.) while the music for each repetition stays the same (ab, ab, ab, etc.). Such a structure is reminiscent of a litany, and need not imply a three-fold repetition of the melody. During the 11th century, the Agnus Dei becomes more strongly connected to other choral chants and begins to appear in the gradual (although generally in separate fascicles). Moreover, the musical form of the newer settings (a, b, a) strongly suggests a limit of three repetitions of the text. Later sources adapt earlier chants to this form, often by borrowing the melody of another setting for the ‘b’-section. During the same period, the third repetition often contains the words “dona nobis pacem” (or in the requiem mass until 1970 “dona eis requiem”) instead of the words “miserere nobis.” M. Schildbach, Das einstimmige Agnus Dei und seine handschriftliche Überlieferung vom 10. bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, 1967 ◆ Corpus Troporum IV, Tropes de l’Agnus Dei, 1980. William Flynn

Agobard of Lyon (c. 769 – Jun 6, 840). A Visigoth from Septimania who belonged to the circle of → Benedict of Aniane. He became archbishop of Lyon in 816; he was deposed as archbishop in 835 after the restoration of Emperor → Louis I, the Pious whom Abogard had helped to depose in 833. A single manuscript preserves a series of tractates that show Abogard to be an original thinker and superior stylist who expressed himself concerning the heresy of adoptionism, questions of ecclesiology, superstition and divine judgment. Louis the Pious attacked his anti-Jewish writing because it allegedly favored the Jews. Works: L. van Acker, CChr.CM 52, 1981. On Agobard: E. Boshof, Erzbischof Abogard von Lyon, 1969. Wilfried Hartmann

Agon. Ἀγών (→ contest), (a) a gathering (etym. ἀγω), a gathering-place and arena (b) chiefly for contests held for a prize; (c) multi-faceted metaphorical usage. – 1. Originally local contests accompanying funerals, agons developed into pan-Hellenic feasts (Olympia, Nemea [Zeus]; Pythia [Apollo]; Isthmia [Poseidon]). Almost anything, physical exercise, beauty, crafts, art, theater, singing, poetry and speaking, can become an agon according to the aristocratic principle of αἰὲν ἀριστεύειν καὶ ὑπείροχον ἔμμεναι ἄλλων (“always be the best, superior to the others”; Homer, Iliad 6.208). The classical division into gymnastic, hippic and musical agons (Plato, Menexenos 249b; Nomoi 658a; 947e) is only a rough outline. – 2. In order to distinguish Greek sports from the

106 “ludus,” the Latin knows the loan-word “agon” in addition to its own “certamen.” Thus in the Latin NT: 2 Tim 4:7 [it]; 1 Cor 9:25; 2 Tim 2:5 [vg]. – 3. It was in use as a common metaphor for the Christian’s struggle and victory since → Paul (1 Cor 9:25; etc., adopted in 1 Tim 4:8–10; 6:12; 2 Tim 4:7; Heb 12:1). Later, it designated the status of the baptized, the martyr or the monk, in particular. In the case of martyrdom, the agon metaphor was literally associated with the location of the event: S. Agnese in Agone, Rome (Piazza Navona, the site of the Domitian stadium, in which St. → Agnes died as a martyr in 259 or 304). – 4. It received an effective stimulus in J. → Burckhardt’s discussion of “agonal” people (Werke [Stähelin] VIII, 277f.; XI, 61ff.), in reference, among others, to F. → Nietzsche (KGW III/2, 277ff.; and already in II/1, 341ff.), Johan Huizinga, Homo ludens. V.C. Pfitzner, Paul and the Agon Motif, 1967 ◆ R. Merkelbach, “Der griechische Wortschatz und die Christen,” ZPE 18, 1975, 101–148 ◆ A. Zumkeller, “(De) Agone christiano,” AugL 1, 1986/94, 221–227 ◆ M.B. Poliakoff, Kampfsport in der Antike, 1990. Günter Bader

Agrapha (Scattered Dominical Sayings). The Greek loanword (literally “unwritten,” pl.) is a term with only limited usefulness in modern Jesus research. In contrast to “written” and requiring specification by a noun (“logia” in the sense of “dominical sayings”), it does indeed allude to early church diction, but is now used as a collective term for dominical sayings not contained in the canonical Gospels. These are to be found in ancient literature of Christian, but also of Jewish and Islamic provenience, while the term does not presume a chronological limitation or an evaluation of the sources. Worthy of mention are sayings of Jesus cited by Paul (1 Cor 7:10f. or Acts 20:35), as well as secondary variant readings of canonical Gospels (Luke 6:4 D) or New Testament apocrypha, among which recently the Gospel of Thomas (→ Thomas, Gospel of ) has received the most attention. It is a collection of sayings of Jesus introduced in a thoroughly stereotypical manner and only rarely framed in brief scenes. Numerous additional freestanding sayings of Jesus, however, can also be found in the → Apostolic Fathers and in the later church fathers, and a few in the → Talmud. In individual cases, it is difficult to determine the path of transmission behind a version. Resch continues to offer the most comprehensive collection, and it will scarcely be possible to collect all of the new material that has become known in the meantime. Important material can be found in the available synopses as listed alongside the canonical parallels (to be accessed via the indexes). Jeremias, and following him Hofius, discussed the possible authenticity of the Agrapha and were able to draw positive conclusions with regard to a limited number of

107 them. For each of the form-critical classifications of the synoptic tradition proposed by R. → Bultmann, Stroker listed examples from the apocryphal tradition. In his Qsynopsis, Kloppenborg printed Agrapha parallel to the units of the Logia source. On the whole, more recent literature on Jesus displays only a limited interest in the Agrapha, while, on the other hand, the hope of “another Jesus” is always associated with them. The term itself is defined wholly negatively; but only written sources can be attained; oral traditions are no longer accessible. A. Resch, Agrapha 21906, repr. 1967 ◆ J. Jeremias, Unbekannte Jesusworte, 1948, 31963 (in collaboration with O. Hofius) ◆ H. Köster, Synoptische Überlieferung bei den Apostolischen Vätern, 1957 ◆ idem, “Die außerkanonischen Herrenworte als Produkte der christlichen Gemeinde,” ZNW 48, 1957, 220–237 ◆ A.J. Bellinzoni, The Sayings of Jesus in the Writings of Justin Martyr, 1967 ◆ O. Hofius, TRE II, 1978, 103–110 ◆ idem, “Versprengte Herrenworte,” NTApo I, 51987, 76–79 ◆ J.S. Kloppenborg, Q Parallels, 1988 ◆ W.D. Stroker, Extracanonical Sayings of Jesus, 1989. Dieter Lührmann

Agrarian Mission → Mission Societies/Mission Work Agricola, Johann (Schneyder, Sneider, Schnitter) (Apr 20, 1492 or 1494 or 1495, Eisleben – Sep 22, 1566, Berlin). He attended school in Braunschweig, matriculated in Leipzig in 1509, in Wittenberg in 1550; there, he attained his Magister on Feb 11, 1518, and Baccalaureus biblicus on Sep 19, 1519. Close personal relations with Luther in the years from 1516 were decisive in his turning to the Reformation. There were ties of friendship with Melanchthon. Between 1521 and 1523, Agricola practiced medicine. Additionally, he participated in academic lectures as well as in the instruction of children in the Wittenberg parish church. Between August 1525 and December 1536, with interruptions (among other things, attendance on the Elector of Saxony as court preacher), Agricola was active as director of the Latin school in Eisleben and preacher at St. Nicolai’s. In this period, theological tensions with Melanchthon arose over the doctrine of the law, which, after Agricola’s return to Wittenberg, also affected his relationship with Luther (→ Antinomian Controversy) and led, in the summer of 1540, to Agricola’s hasty departure from Wittenberg to the court of Kurbrandenburg. The roots of the differences with the Wittenbergians apparently lay in Agricola’s adherence to Luther’s early theological positions. Agricola was known among his contemporaries for his collaboration as adviser and translator on the → Augsburg Interim of 1548. His participation in the introduction of the interim aided Kurbrandenburg to overcome its isolation from the other Lutheran Imperial estates. Agricola belonged to the circle of those who led the country on the path to the Lutheranism of the Formula of Concord.

Agricola, Stephan J. Rogge, TRE II, 1978, 110–118 ◆ E. Koch, “Johann Agricola neben Martin Luther,” in: G. Hammer & K.-H. zur Mühlen, eds., Lutheriana, AWA 5, 1984, 131–150. Ernst Koch

Agricola, Michael, b. c. 1510 in Pernå (Pernaya) on the southern coast of Finland, d. 1557 returning from the Swedish-Russian peace conference in Moscow. After attending school in Wiborg, Agricola became secretary to bishop Martin Skytte, who was open to new theological ideas, in → Åbo (Turku). He studied in Wittenberg (1536–1539) and was active thereafter as Rector of the cathedral school in Åbo, as assistant to the already ageing bishop Skytte, and, after his death (1550), as bishop (from 1554). Agricola was a humanistically inclined Lutheran scholar. He had lasting significance as a reformer in → Finland and as the founder of the language of Scripture in Finnish (Finnish NT, 1548). J. Gummerus, Michael Agricola, SLAG 2, 1941 ◆ S. Heininen, Die finnischen Studenten in Wittenberg 1531–1552, SLAG A19, 1980 ◆ Mikael Agricolan teokset 1–3, 21987. Kaarlo Arffman

Agricola, Rudolf (Huisman) (Feb 17, 1444, Baflo – Oct 27, 1487, Heidelberg) was schooled in Groningen and undertook studies in Erfurt, Cologne, Louvain, Pavia and Ferrara (Huisman). He translated rhetorical and dialectical works from Greek. In 1480 he was a lawyer for the city of Groningen. In 1484 he taught in Heidelberg and maintained frequent contact with humanists and journeyed to Rome. His writings, published posthumously, have had enduring influence. Works include: Opuscula Orationes Epistolae, 1539, repr. 1975 ◆ De inventione dialectica libri tres, critical ed., translation and comments by L. Mundt, 1992 (bibl.) ◆ On Agricola: G.C. Huisman, R. Agricola. A Bibliography of Printed Works and Translations, BBN 20, 1985 ◆ W. Kühlmann, ed., R. Agricola, 1444–1485, Protagonist des nordeuropäischen Humanismus, zum 550. Geburtstag, 1994. Heinz Scheible

Agricola, Stephan (Kastenbauer) (1491?, Abensberg – Apr 10, 1547, Eisleben) studied in Vienna from 1513, became an Augustinian hermit here in 1515, was awarded a doctorate in theology in 1519 and then became a monastic lector in Regensburg and Rattenberg. In 1522 he was imprisoned in Mühldorf (Inn) on account of his evangelical doctrine and fled in May 1524. In 1525 he became a Lutheran minister in Augsburg, 1531 in Hof, 1543 in Sulzbach and 1545 in Eisleben. He was one of the signatories of the Marburg Article of 1529 (→ Disputations, Religious: I) and of the Schmalkaldic Article of 1537 (→ Schmalkaldic Articles). H. Wiedemann, Augsburger Pfarrerbuch, EKGB 38, 1962 ◆ VD 16, 1, 4, 1985, 72 C1485–1489 ◆ H.-J. Köhler, Bibliographie der Flugschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts, vol. I, 1, 1991, 28f. Heinz Scheible

Agriculture and Stock-farming Agriculture and Stock-farming I. History of Religion – II. Palestine – III. In Literature

I. History of Religion 1. The forms of economy consisting of agriculture and stock-farming do not influence the formation of systems of religious symbols in such a way as to constitute a consistent pattern for specific historical religions. Nonetheless, systems of religious symbols in all societies not structured according to functional categories (thus, in all except modern Western societies) reflect economic circumstances. In traditional cultures (that do not distinguish religion as an independent communication system), these concerns play a constitutive role; in historical religions (“religions of revelation”), economic realities are more secondary (and appear then, for example, as an aspect of “popular religion,” as in the form of the blessing of the shepherds in the Alps). 2. From the perspective of cultural evolution, agriculture and stock-farming as productive forms of economic activity succeed foraging methods of hunting and gathering. The transition from foraging to productive techniques assumes many forms. In the Near East, where archaeology has been able to document this transition with a degree of clarity (the “Neolithic revolution,” a process of several thousand years), parallel developments in the systematic cultivation of plants and in the domestication of animals, as well as in technological innovations (ceramics, the plow, metallurgy, fortifications) are evident. Gradually, cultures developed with various chief forms of agriculture (cultivation dependent on rainfall, cultivation through irrigation, semi-nomadism with emphasis on small animal herding) and corresponding social structures (city centers with high concentrations of population and social stratification, marginal areas with fragmentary organization). The domestication of the camel led to a new type of animal husbandry and made possible the life-style of raiding nomads. All of these shifts will have left traces in the formation of the system of religious symbols, although to a great extent they can only be hypothesized (often, far-fetched conclusions are drawn from pre-historical artifacts such as female figurines). Clear data concerning specific religious realms (the religion of the elites in the urban centers) first becomes available for the historical period. The religion of the non-elites and of the non-sedentary can be reconstructed to an extent. In other religions, entirely different cultural developments can be discerned in which distinctions in the importance of the use of plants and domesticated animals, in the type of crop (grain, rice, maize, tubers, etc.), and in agricultural technology (digging stick, hoe, plow) play a great role. Insights into the religious use of these forms of agriculture are due, for the most part, to modern ethnographic observations.

108 3. One cannot speak of a law of religious, cultural, and social → evolution. Yet, more complex forms presuppose simpler ones, and the various spheres of society and their symbolic representation exert mutual influence. Agricultural concerns are incorporated in the system of religious symbols along with the realities of the natural environment (geography, climate) and social circumstances (kinship, solidarity arrangements, distribution of power), utilizing the various possibilities for encoding (linguistic, ritual, imagery, etc.) in different ways. 4. The cycle of the → seasons is a common theme in the formation of systems of religious symbols. The work and festival calendars correspond to one another. The course of the year structures the farmers’ work; the individual phases of the work (sowing or planting, cultivation of the field during growth, harvest) are marked ritually. A variety of key factors are involved: elements of the weather are represented (especially rain in arid regions); the growth of the harvest is attended, pests are warded off, often with a combination of “rational” and “magical” (or better: effect- and communication-oriented) measures. The gathering of the harvest was especially suited for seeking communication with the life-determining powers that were granted certain property rights: first and final produce was set aside (→ Firstlings) and left for these powers. The manner of this transmission ranges from free-form to elaborate sacrificial ritual. Keepers of livestock frequently mark the course of the year by seasonally-determined changes of pasture. The higher powers also have rights to animal produce; here, too, sacrifice of the firstling is common. As a rule, a portion of the year (usually the harvest) receives special emphasis at the New Year’s festival; the rhythm of the year begins anew then. Often, cosmological themes are included, in which case the renewal of the yearly cycle signifies a cosmic renewal on grand scale. The “interim” between end and beginning is characterized by the absence of order, which is often manifested in ritual practices (suspension of the social order, unregulated sexuality, etc.) and corresponding mythical themes. Important, then, is the “identification” of the basis of agriculture. Often, planting and farming are interpreted anthropomorphically (in mythic conception and ritual activity). The process involving the seed-pod is then conceived as an example of the process involving a person who, killed, dismembered, and buried, is thereby transformed into a plant (the “Hainuwele-theme” after the best-known ethnographic example; → Dema Deities). Another widespread concept applies a parental relationship to a cultivated plant and a higher being so that one can speak of “mother corn,” “father rice,” etc. The earth, too, can assume this maternal function. Finally, the process of planting and cultivating is seen in analogy to human sexuality. The most elemental human experiences (dying/

109 killing, parent-child relationship, sexuality) find expression in the work of cultivation. Herding cultures often conceive of “partnerships” of various forms between humans and domesticated animals. The (nutritionally necessary) consumption of meat is treated with extreme restrictions; the slaughter of a domesticated animal is virtually always a ritually regulated procedure. The sacrificial animal opens an exchange of gifts with a realm “beyond” and thus establishes communication between the sacrificial community and the higher beings. In addition, the idea occasionally surfaces that the sacrificial animal functions as a representative for human beings. The idea of communion is also realized through table fellowship between humans and gods, which is often linked with the sacrifice. 5. With increasing social stratification (→ Society) and in the realm of religions with a marked historical character, in the system of religious symbols agricultural themes give way to social, political, and historical themes. Often new explanations transform rituals that are at home in farming or herding (as, for example, in the Jewish feasts of Passover or Booths). A. Dieterich, Mutter Erde, 31925, repr. 1967 ◆ B. Malinowski, Korallengärten und ihre Magie, 1935, repr. 1981 ◆ M. Eliade, Kosmos und Geschichte, 1953, repr. 1994 ◆ H. Baumann, Das doppelte Geschlecht, 1955, repr. 1985 ◆ E. Evans-Pritchard, Kinship and Marriage among the Nuer, 1956, repr. 1990 ◆ T.H. Gaster, Thespis, 21961 ◆ A.E. Jensen, Die getötete Gottheit. Weltbild einer frühen Kultur, 31966 ◆ V. Lanternari, La grande festa, Bari, 21976 ◆ B. Lincoln, Priests, Warriors, and Cattle, 1981 ◆ A. LeroiGourhan, Hand und Wort, 1988. Fritz Stolz

II. Palestine In Palestine, agriculture-based subsistence has nearly always included a component of pastoralism. The agricultural village was well established on the basis of cultivating cereals and herding sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle by about 6000 bce. The Chalcolithic period (5000–3500 bce) witnessed the addition of fruit tree cultivation. The emergence of full-fledged Mediterranean agriculture and pastoralism coincided with the Early Bronze Age. The changed regime included increasingly productive grain fields, expanding investment in horticulture, intensified production of selected crops, local industry, and advancing trade: in sum, intensified agriculture yielding a greatly augmented product. The period also witnessed the first widespread appearance of the ox and its companion, the by-this-time thousand-year-old scratch plow (ard). The basic structure of this system rested on the region’s sharp climatic bi-seasonality. Five months of rainless summer preceded a concentrated wet season in which generally amply above the 200mm level necessary for dry farming but notoriously erratic precipitation fell intensely. This frustrating rainfall regime elicited a variety of coping strategies, especially risk-spreading by which farmers

Agriculture and Stock-farming attempted to diversify their productive base so as not to depend too greatly upon any one variable productive pursuit. Tree and vine crops (notably olive, grape, fig, and almond) joined pastoralism as the chief avenues of diversification. Pastoralism and horticulture both complemented rain-fed grain cultivation and offered storable, transportable, and dietetically essential products. Pastoralism focused primarily on combined herds of sheep and goats. Horses, asses, camels, cattle, and pigs were present, but none approached the ubiquity of sheep and goats. An average holding among nomads reached between fifty and a hundred animals; settled villagers possessed herds of ten to twenty. The herds produced milk, wool and hair, hides, bone and horn, meat, manure, and young animals for trade or sale, plus a voluminous catalog of secondary products: bone tools and implements, wool clothing, blankets and rugs, a huge assortment of dairy products (yoghurt, butter, and storable cheese), as well as the goat-hair black tent itself. Pastoralists adjusted the balance of sheep and goats in their herds with an eye to goals of production. The most telling characteristic of the sheep and goat herds is their potential for explosive growth and their susceptibility to precipitous decline, with concomitant fluctuations in pasturage requirements and labor needs. This underlying economic seesaw contrasts with agricultural productivity, which tends to be inelastic. These contrary productive tendencies create a pastoralagricultural continuum. Thus, settled cultivators turn to pastoral pursuits to add buoyancy to their subsistence. Pastoral nomadic households seek stability when making investments in arable land. One end of this spectrum is marked by periods of high-intensity agriculture and market-oriented pastoral pursuits, the classical Mediterranean mixed economy. At the other end, periods of diminished yield in cultivation produce lowintensity farming dominated by subsistence-oriented nomadic pastoralists. Many factors are involved in movement along this continuum. Agricultural intensification is propelled by growth of population, centralization, expanding markets and international trade, bureaucratic direction, and innovation. Abatement is connected to environmental degradation, decline of population, loss of trading opportunities, political disintegration, and military defeat. The building, dismantling, and rebuilding of the Mediterranean mixed economy has marked the ebb and flow of Levantine civilization from the Early Bronze Age to the modern industrial period. D.C. Hopkins, The Highlands of Canaan, SWBAS 3, 1985 ◆ O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel, 1987 ◆ P. Halstead & J. O’Shea, Bad Year Economics, 1989 ◆ Ø.S. LaBianca, Sedentarization and Nomadization, 1990. David C. Hopkins

Agrippa I III. In Literature The literary heritage of the ancient Palestinian world related specifically to agriculture is astonishingly meager. Of course, the non-agricultural literature preserved from ancient Palestine is peppered with isolated references to agriculture and pastoralism, as one would expect of an agrarian society. This is especially prominent in poetic similes (e.g. Prov 24:30–34; Hos 10:11–12, 13; Ps 65:9– 13) and in “cases” and stipulations of the legal literature (e.g. Ex 22:5–6; 23:10–11; Deut 22:9–10; Lev 19:9–10, 23–25). A few places in the Hebrew Bible and in the OT develop agricultural metaphors in a more or less detailed way, though these passages are not intended to describe the agriculture of the time or reflect on its dynamics for their own sake. The most outstanding concentrations of agricultural and pastoral motifs occur in the familiar texts of Ruth (set at harvest time), Isa 5:1–7 (the Song of the Vineyard), Isa 28:23–29 (appropriate field operations), Ps 23 (the Lord as shepherd), and in the parables of the sower (Matt 13:3–9) and of the seed growing secretly (Mark 4:26–69). The Talmud preserves many helpful indicators of the conduct of agriculture in Roman times, but, again, these writings offer neither a practical handbook nor a systematic treatment of agricultural practice. None of this literature offers more than glimpses of rural life. Archaeologists have unearthed a strictly limited inventory of agriculture-related administrative, commercial and miscellaneous documents that do not fit readily under the rubric of “literary.” These derive mostly from the administration rather than the conduct of agriculture. Epigraphical finds include the famous → Gezer “calendar” (10th cent. bce), the → Nessana papyri (5th–7th cents. ce), the → Petra papyri (6th cent. ce), the ostraca and barley letter from Samaria (8th cent. bce), incised bowls from Tel Sera’ (12th cent. bce), and the → Arad ostraca (7th and 5th cents. bce). The Gezer “calendar” develops a brief, quasi-poetic list that charts the course of the agricultural year and manifests the diversity of endeavors characteristic of village agriculture by its allusion to activities involving olives, wheat, barley, grapes and summer fruit. It reads: “two months of [olive] harvest; two months of sowing; two months of late sowing; a month of hoeing weeds; a month of harvesting barley; a month of harvesting and [measure]ing; two months of cutting [grapes]; a month of [collecting] summer fruits.” The list probably served as a scribal writing exercise that sought to inculcate the agricultural year among those who administered the taxation of its produce. The images of the ideal vineyard in Isaiah’s “Song of the Vineyard” have been sharpened by archaeological research in the rural zone. Surveyors have documented terraced vineyards with walls, vats, towers, and rock-cut wine-presses, many of which date to Isaiah’s late 8thcentury context. Thus, it appears that Isaiah’s poem por-

110 trayed a realistic viticultural development. The poetic description of agricultural operations in Isa 28 also presents a portrait that would have been intelligible to an ancient audience. Yet, such meticulous care as the poem suggests is more appropriate to the home garden than the preponderance of grain and vegetable fields. Like most classical literature, Isaiah probably addressed an aristocratic audience that had minimal contact with the daily routines of farming. The Levant’s first truly literary presentation of the agricultural world is “Works and Days,” the 7th-century poem of → Hesiod. Though the poem offers a selective portrait (e.g. there is no mention of olive orchards, sheep and goats, and there is no discussion of the physical context of farming, i.e. the farm itself and its buildings), it was composed by a farmer who worked the land in eastern Greece and lamented the changing political circumstances of his endeavors. While other Greek literature of the era relied upon pastoral and agricultural images, e.g. facets of rural life that occur in the Homeric poems, Hesiod’s “Almanac,” in particular, is a singular work that stands alone for three centuries until → Xenophon’s “Oikonomikos” (domestic manager). Both Hesiod and Xenophon turn their sketches of rural life towards moral instruction. S. Isager & J.E. Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture, 1992 ◆ D.W. Tandy & W.C. Neale, Hesiod’s Works and Days, 1996. David C. Hopkins

Agrippa I (c. 7 bce – 43/44 ce) and Agrippa II (27/28 ce – 100?), father and son, the last Herodian kings. The brief reign of Agrippa I, grandson of Herod, is a hiatus in the progressive Roman annexation of all of Palestine. He is best known for his persecution of the Church (Acts 12). After his death imperial governors again ruled Palestine. Small sections in the north and north-east were granted first to Agrippa I’s brother and then to Agrippa II, who eventually acquired some territories in Galilee and also Peraea, maintaining his position until the 90s. He attempted to dissuade the Jews of Jerusalem from rebellion ( Josephus, War II, 345–404) and cooperated with Rome in putting it down. Besides this, he is best known for his role in Paul’s trial (Acts 25–26) and for his sister Berenice’s affair with Titus. D.R. Schwartz, Agrippa I, 1990.

Daniel R. Schwartz

Agrippa Castor → Heresy Agrippa of Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius (Sep 14, 1486, Cologne – Feb 18, 1535, Grenoble). Following his studies at the Faculty of Arts in Cologne (1499– 1502) and in Paris, Agrippa worked as a lecturer, physician, syndic and historiographer. At times he also served emperor → Maximilian I, among other places in Burgundy, Pavia, England, Metz, Geneva, Fribourg,

111 Lyon, Antwerp and Mecheln and had numerous conflicts with the Inquisition or with representatives of scholastic theology. In his principal work, De occulta philosophia (in printed form since 1531), under the influence of J. → Reuchlin and the → Kabbalah, Agrippa linked the Neoplatonic-Hermetic tradition with elements of numerology and astrology. The skepticism of his second major work, Declamatio de incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum (printed in 1530), warmly received especially by such critical philosophers as S. → Franck, was aimed at the uncertainty and triviality of human knowledge and cognition that is not focused on God and his Word. These and other writings of his were important for the epistemology of the Renaissance and were still used by G.W. → Leibniz and J.W. von → Goethe. Agrippa was in contact with such leading humanists and reformers as → Erasmus, P. → Melanchthon, and J. → Lefèvre d’Étaples, though he did not turn to the Reformation himself. Works: Opera omnia, 2 vols., repr. 1970 ◆ De occulta philosophia, ed. V. Perro ne Compagni, SHCT 48, 1992 ◆ On Agrippa: H.F.W. Kuhlow, Die Imitatio Christi und ihre kosmologische Überfremdung, 1967 (bibl.) ◆ P. Zambelli, “Magic and Radical Reformation in Agrippa,” JWCI 39, 1976, 69–103 ◆ K. Goldammer, TRE II, 1978, 118–123 (bibl.). Horst Pfefferl

Ahab (“the [divine] brother is the father”), in the OT the name of (1.) a king of Israel and (2.) an exile. 1. Working together with others, “Ahab, the Israelite” was temporarily able to stop the expansion of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 bce. In this context he is the first king of Israel named in an extra-biblical text, demonstrating his opponents’ recognition of his greatness (A.K. Grayson, 102, 2). Without mentioning him by name, Mescha of → Moab also recognized Ahab’s importance as the son and heir of → Omri (KAI 181: 4–9). The OT references to Ahab in 1 and 2 Kings (→ Deuteronomic History, cf. 2 Chr 18:21–22) are silent about Ahab’s successes; instead they paint a black picture of the king on account of his marriage to → Jezebel and the privileging of her god. 1 Kgs 17–19 and 21 are generally taken to be pre-Deuteronomic and to date fairly close to the events they recount. In the absence of further historical evidence, it is difficult to gain a clear historical image of the king. Even the earliest accounts of Ahab (1 Kgs 17–18) have been influenced by the → Elisha tradition; the texts include characteristically Deuteronomic formulations and post-Deuteronomic accounts have been introduced into the framework of the story of Ahab (1 Kgs 20; 22; for 1 Kgs 21* cf. Rofé). Ahab’s dispossession of Naboth receives several different mentions (1 Kgs 21:1–16, 17–20; 2 Kgs 6:21, 25–26) and may therefore be historical (→ Jezreel). Given the strong Phoenician influence on Israel and Judea in the first half of the 9th century bce (archaeologically and epigraphically docu-

Ahasuerus mented), the Deuteronomic note (1 Kgs 16:31–33) that Ahab married a daughter of Ethbaal, king of → Sidon (Timm, 229–231) and that he privileged and worshiped her god may also be taken to be historically credible. There is, however, no consensus as to the identity of Jezebel’s god (→ Baal). The situation is confused by the fact that both Jezebel’s followers and the worshipers of YHWH seem to have addressed their god as “Baal” (1 Kgs 18:19; 2 Kgs 10:19). If Ahab did indeed establish an altar in the “house of god” in → Samaria (1 Kgs 16:32 LXX; Timm, 32–33), this could indicate that at that time the capital city had a temple dedicated to YHWH in which both divinities were worshiped (cf. later Phoenician KAI 19.4; → Monotheism). → Jehu destroyed the temple in Samaria (2 Kgs 10:18–28) and, at the same time eliminated (cf. →Asherah, → Cult Sites) the symbol which, according to Hebrew Bible tradition, had shaped the religious politics of the house of Ahab (Mic 6:16) (→ Ahaziah, Jehoram). 2. Ahab (cf. → Zedekiah), Jewish deportee who incited unrest amongst the exiles and was put to the flames by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar ( Jer 29:21–23; shorter LXX). S. Timm, Die Dynastie Omri, FRLANT 124, 1982 ◆ G. Hentschel, “Elija und der Kult des Baal,” in: E. Haag, ed., Gott der einzige, QD 104, 1985, 54–90 ◆ R. Smend, “The Deuteronomistic Elijah,” OTE 4, 1986, 229–243 ◆ A. Rofé, “The Vineyard of Naboth,” VT 38, 1988, 89–104 ◆ E. Würthwein, “Tradition und theologische Redaktion in I Reg 17–18,” in: idem, Studien zum deuteronomistischen Geschichtswerk, BZAW 227, 1994, 102–117 ◆ W. Thiel, “Zu Ursprung und Entfaltung der Elia-Tradition,” in: K. Grünwaldt & H. Schroeter, eds., Was suchst du hier Elia? Hermeneutica 4, 1995, 27–39 ◆ A.K. Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC II (858– 745 BC), 1997. Stefan Timm

Ahad Ha’am → Ginsberg , Asher Ahasuerus. “Ahasuerus” is the standard equivalent in English versions of the Bible for the name of the Persian king Ahashverosh (Gk Xerxes). The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther is thus Xerxes I (486–465 bce). In character, the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther combines folly and cruelty. Esther is Ahasuerus’s second wife, who dissuades him from slaughtering all the Jews in his kingdom. In Judaism, Ahasuerus has always been viewed as evil. In the Baroque period, by contrast, “Ahasuerus” was used as a Christian baptismal name. In popular legend, “Ahasuerus” is the name of the “wandering Jew,” condemned to wander eternally, who is restored to the age of 30 every 100 years. The legend combines motifs from several sources, including the son of Elijah, the immortal John (cf. John 21:23), the slave Malchus (cf. John 18:4–10), and the officer who struck Jesus (cf. John 18:22). The legend first appears in writing in the 13th century: in the Ignoti Monachi

Ahaziah Cisterciensis Sanctae Mariae de Ferarria Chronica of 1223 and the Historia maior of Matthew Paris of 1240. In this account, the Gentile Cartaphilus strikes Christ as he is carrying his cross and spurs him on. Christ’s answer (“I will stop and rest, but you will go on until the last day”) condemns him to wander until Christ’s return. In the 16th century, this legend spread through the entire western Mediterranean region. Beginning in 1602, there appeared the Kurtze Beschreibung und Erzehlung von einem Juden mit Namen Ahasverus, with many fictitious imprints (Leyden, Bautzen, Reval, Danzig). The book purports to be based on an account of Paul of Eitzen concerning an encounter in Hamburg in 1542 with the wandering Jew. Ahasuerus, who later was baptized by Ananias, is thus a living witness to the facticity of Christ’s crucifixion. In the 17th century, this material was incorporated in an oft-reprinted booklet and in many popular tales; in the Sturm und Drang period (→ Sentimentalism), it became a common subject for poetry. The latest eyewitness account goes back to a Mormon named O’Grady (1868). The legendary figure of the wandering Jew symbolizes the damnation of the Jews for rejecting the Savior. It is an image of suffering and of acknowledged guilt, a symbol of Judaism, but also of world-weariness and, finally, of deliverance (from a Christian perspective). Dissertatio historica de Judaeo non mortali quam publ. argum fecit Schultz, 1689 ◆ Dissertatio, in qua lepidam fabulam de Judaeo immortali examinat Carolus Antonius, 1755 ◆ F. Helbig, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden, ihre poetische Wandlung und Fortbildung, 1874 ◆ L. Neubaur, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden, 1884, 31912 ◆ idem, “Bibliographie der Sage vom ewigen Juden,” ZfB 10, 1893, 250–267 ◆ J. Minor, Goethes Fragmente vom ewigen Juden und vom wiederkehrenden Heiland, 1904 ◆ J. Prost, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden in der neueren deutschen Literatur, 1905 ◆ A. Soergel, Ahasver-dichtungen seit Goethe, 1905 ◆ E. König, Ahasver “der ewige Jude”, 1907 ◆ W. Zirus, Ahasverus, der ewige Jude, 1930 ◆ J. Gaer, The Legend of the Wandering Jew, 1961 ◆ G.K. Anderson, The Legend of the Wandering Jew, 1965 ◆ M. Körte & R. Stockhammer, eds., Ahasvers Spur, 1995. Jörg-Ulrich Fechner

Ahaziah (“Yahweh has grasped [the child to protect it]”; 2 Kgs 1:2, 18 etc.), also with verb and subject transposed, Jehoahaz (2 Chr 21:16–17): 1. a king of Israel; 2. a king of Judah. 1. Ahaziah the son of → Ahab and grandson of → Omri reigned for just two years (1 Kgs 22:52; 2 Kgs 1:17aβ – |18). He was succeeded by his brother Jehoram. Noteworthy is Ahaziah’s inquiry of Baal-zebul whether he would recover from an injury, which was thwarted by → Elijah’s intervention (2 Kgs 1:2–17aα). The historical credibility of the account in its present form does not hinge on the name “Ahaziah” (MT vs. LXX; cf. Stipp) or its post-Deuteronomic origin (Rofé), but on whether it accurately reflects the religious situation of the period (→ monotheism). 2. Ahaziah the son of Jehoram reigned for one year. His

112 mother was Athaliah (2 Kgs 8:24, 25–26). The friendly relationship that Omri and Ahab had established with Judah was the basis of Ahaziah’s sojourn with his Israelite kinsman Jehoram. One tradition describes his presence there as a military alliance with the Samarian king (2 Kgs 8:28), another as a visit to his wounded royal colleague in → Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29; 9,16), a third even as a campaign against Hazael, while → Jehu conspired against Jehoram (2 Kgs 10:36 LXX-Lucian; cf. Trebolle Barrera). In any event, Azariah also lost his life in Jehu’s revolution (2 Kgs 9:21–29). His son Joash became king after Athaliah. J.C. Trebolle Barrera, “Jehú y Joás,” EMISJ 17, 1984, 110–125, 185–189 ◆ H.-J. Stipp, Elischa – Propheten – Gottesmänner, ATSAT 24, 1987, 96–102 (bibl.) ◆ A. Rofé, The Prophetical Stories, 1988, 13–26, 35–40 (bibl.) ◆ S.L. McKenzie, The Trouble with Kings, VT.S 42, 1991, 93–103 (bibl.). Stefan Timm

Ahiásā. The ethical requirement of ahiásā (fem.; lit. “noninjury [of living things]”) is common to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Based on an early Indian criticism of animal sacrifice and the idea of reincarnation, it began to emerge c. 500 bce, initially as an ideal of ascetic living, later as a general virtue of the upper castes. Above all, ahiásā forbids the killing of animals, especially cattle, for food (one result being widespread vegetarianism). M. → Gandhi transformed ahiásā into a commandment of political → non-violence and religious love for all living beings. L. Alsdorf, Beiträge zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinderverehrung in Indien, 1962 ◆ H.-P. Schmidt, “The Origins of Ahimsa,” in: Mélanges d’Indianisme à la mémoire de Louis Renou, publ. Institut de Civilisation Indienne, 1968, 625–655 ◆ C. Chappel, Non-Violence to Animals. Earth and Self in Asian Traditions, 1993 ◆ A. Wezler, ed., Die indische Idee der gewaltlosen Beziehung zwischen Mensch und Natur, forthcoming. Axel Michaels

A˙madīya. Founded in 1889 in the Indian province of Punjāb by Ġulām A˙mad (1835–1908), A˙madīya became one of the most controversial movements in contemporary Islam (→ Islam: I, 3). Claiming for its founder messianic and prophetic status, the A˙madīya aroused fierce opposition from the Sunni Muslims and was accused of rejecting the Muslim dogma asserting the finality of → Mu˙ammad’s prophethood. Under British rule, the controversy was merely a doctrinal dispute. When in 1947 most A˙madīs moved to the professedly Islamic state of → Pakistan, the issue was transformed into a major constitutional problem. The Sunni Muslim mainstream (→ Islam: II, 1) demanded the formal exclusion of the A˙madīya. In 1974 the Pakistani parliament adopted a constitutional amendment declaring them non-Muslims. Ġulām A˙mad considered himself a mu