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Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet Edited by Christine D. White THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS Salt Lake City
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Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet Edited by Christine D. White THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS Salt Lake City
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Disclaimer: This book contains characters with diacritics. When the characters can be represented using the ISO 88591 character set (http://www.w3.org/TR/images/latin1.gif), netLibrary will represent them as they appear in the original text, and most computers will be able to show the full characters correctly. In order to keep the text searchable and readable on most computers, characters with diacritics that are not part of the ISO 88591 list will be represented without their diacritical marks.
© 1999 by The University of Utah Press All rights reserved LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGINGINPUBLICATION DATA Reconstructing ancient Maya diet / edited by Christine D. White. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 087480602X (alk. paper) 1. Mayas—Food. 2. Mayas—Nutrition. 3. Central America— Antiquities. 4. Mexico—Antiquities. I. White, Christine, D., 1951 F1435.3.F7R43 1999 641.3'008997'4152—dc2l 9915542
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To my father, Robert R. White, to whom I owe my curiosity and love of things ancient. I will remember him with all that I write. C.D.W.
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments
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Introduction: Ancient Maya Diet Christine D. White
ix
Part I: Botanical and Faunal Analyses
1. Plant Resources of the Ancient Maya: The Paleoethnobotanical Evidence David L. Lentz
3
2. Classification of Useful Plants by the Northern Petén Maya (Itzaj) Scott Atran
19
3. Continuity and Variability in Postclassic and Colonial Animal Use at Lamanai and Tipu, Belize Kitty F. Emery
61
4. Social and Ecological Aspects of Preclassic Maya Meat Consumption at Colha, Belize Leslie C. Shaw
83
Part II: Paleopathology
103
6. Land Use, Diet, and Their Effects on the Biology of the Prehistoric Maya of Northern Ambergris Cay, Belize David M. Glassman and James F. Garber
119
7. Dietary Change of the Lowland Maya Site of Kichpanha, Belize Ann L. Magennis
133
8. Caries and Antemortem Tooth Loss at Copán: Implications for Commoner Diet Stephen L. Whittington
151
9. Late Classic Nutrition and Skeletal Indicators at Copán, Honduras Rebecca Storey
169
5. Coming Up Short: Stature and Nutrition among the Ancient Maya of the Southern Lowlands Marie Elaine Danforth
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Part III: Bone Chemistry
183
11. The Elements of Maya Diets: Alkaline Earth Baselines and Paleodietary Reconstruction in the Pasión Region Lori E. Wright
197
12. Dietary Carbonate Analysis of Bone and Enamel for Two Sites in Belize Shannon Coyston, Christine D. White, and Henry P. Schwarcz
221
Glossary
245
Contributors
250
Index
251
10. Cuisine from HunNalYe David Millard Reed
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The production of this volume would not have been possible without the work and encouragement of many people, first and foremost the authors, who were punctual, patient, and always cheerful through its many stages. I would also like to thank Kim Law for her invaluable help in preparing the manuscript, and the Department of Anthropology of the University of Western Ontario for its support. And then there are the many Maya archaeologists who not only challenge us to elucidate the character of Maya society and the conditions of ancient life using human biology but also allow us to challenge archaeological theory in the search for an elusive "truth." Last, but not least, I am most grateful to Jeff Grathwohl, editor at the University of Utah Press, for believing that the study of diet has an important role to play in the understanding of a culture. CHRISTINE D. WHITE
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INTRODUCTION ANCIENT MAYA DIET Christine D. White Food is a vital component of both human biology and culture. It is necessity and pleasure, macronutrient and metaphor. It is nature nurturing nature, and it is nature transformed by culture into culture. Just as our dietary evolution characterizes our anatomy, so is the global diversity of foods we consume a reflection of our cultural adaptability. Culture is identified, among other things, by a shared repertoire of food choices, preparation techniques, and ritual and everyday food behaviors that have symbolic meaning. In addition to the broad distinctions that exist between cultures, there are, within cultures, distinct groups (e.g., socioeconomic, religious, occupational, gender, age) that may further express their identity through selective cuisine and food consumption behavior. At the most minute level of variation, there are individuals who have food preferences that serve as an expression of personal identity. Overlying this synchronic complexity in diet and food behavior is the inevitability of change—ideological, environmental, and technological—which produces new sets of food consumption patterns and habits. Because food behavior and the vital necessity of eating articulates with cultural identity and process, the reconstruction of systematic and idiosyncratic diversity from the archaeological record should be a primary objective for those who wish to understand both ancient cultural ideology and the relationship of culture, environment, and biology. Eating constitutes an act of belief transformed into meal, environment transformed into menu, and technology transformed into biology. Reconstructing the diet of any ancient culture, therefore, provides theoretical and methodological means of framing both synchronic snapshots and diachronic process. For these reasons alone, the reconstruction of Maya diet is a worthwhile pursuit. But the way we have come to understand ancient Maya foodways also provides a good demonstration of how both theory and data come to be resituated through processes of natural paradigm shift and new discovery. Initial interest in Maya subsistence can certainly be seen as a reflection of a generalized concern for reconstructing foodways which was rooted in the processual approach to archaeology arising in the 1960s and 1970s. Motivations for reconstructing Maya subsistence were particularly strong, however, because they were concomitantly propelled by the discovery of heavy population densities surrounding Maya ceremonial centers (Haviland 1969, 1970), densities that in many cases appear to have been greater than those existing today (Culbert and Rice 1990). Ethnohistoric accounts described slashandburn
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horticulture as the primary subsistence technique (Landa 1566, in Tozzer 1941; Hellmuth 1977). These, combined with modern analogy, in which the same form of procurement is practiced, led archaeologists to believe that the continuity of procurement observed from the Colonial period to the present would also extend from the Colonial period backward in time. How such large ancient populations provisioned themselves posed two major problems of explanation. First, it was not believed that slashandburn horticulture produced enough food over the long term to support such large numbers of people. Second, how could the fragile tropical ecosystem survive the shifting and destructive nature of an extensive milpabased food economy? Thus, the reconstruction of subsistence practices became critical to understanding processes of development and decline in Maya culture. The emergence of these questions produced a duality in response: the production of theoretical models and a flurry of data collection. The dominant theoretical model of the time (and one that continues to have many adherents) posited an ecological explanation for the collapse of Classic Maya society (Willey and Shimkin 1973; Coe 1980; PodoLedezma 1985; Santley et al. 1986; Culbert 1988; Webster et al. 1992). Although the ecological model is contextualized within the contemporary preoccupation of Mayanists to explain the collapse, it takes its place among other explanatory models (Demarest 1992, 1993; Miller 1993; Suhler and Friedel 1992; Fash 1994). In the most simplistic form of this model the Maya were assumed to have outstripped their environment of sustaining food resources, the consequences of which were social, economic, and demographic decline. Set in the modern context of rising North American environmentalism, this research also took on a relevance to the continued survival of contemporary civilizations. The Maya were to teach us a lesson from the past. Meanwhile, new data on previously unrecognized environmental usage were elucidating alternate processes of Maya food production and changing our understanding of ecological relationships (Bronson 1966; Lange 1971; Wiseman 1972, 1985; Siemens and Puleston 1972; Turner 1974, 1978; Matheny 1976, 1982; Willey 1978; Healy et al. 1980, 1983; Turner and Harrison 1981, 1983; Puleston 1982). The agronomic status of the Maya quickly moved from horticultural to agricultural with the discovery of intensive production techniques such as raised fields, extensive hillside terracing, and water control and storage techniques. These subsistence methods had apparently gone into disuse by the time of the Spanish Conquest, and the technology was essentially lost to modern people in these areas (Hellmuth 1977; Lambert et al. 1984). The existence of intensive agriculture, even without the help of draft animals or plows, concomitantly implied the existence of population pressure (Sanders 1977; Turner et al. 1977). It illustrated an adaptive cultural response and altered the simplistic ecological explanation for the "collapse." Environmental degradation now needed to be contextualized within methods of intensive land use, some of which (e.g., terraces and raised fields) appeared indefinitely sustainable. Furthermore, the nature of the collapse as a geographically uniform experience had been questioned. Although the Maya clearly had the ability to produce
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much more food than previously thought, extensive research now suggests that intensive production techniques varied considerably by region (Pope and Dahlin 1989; Fedick and Ford 1990; Dunning and Beach 1994). This is consistent with the broad ecological diversity that exists in the Maya region. Although much effort has gone into the study of land use, environmental features, and cultural process relating to procurement, relatively less has been accomplished in the actual reconstruction of human diet. Unfortunately, procurement is often equated with consumption, but the leap from procurement methods to ingestion of specific foods is a big one. As useful as it is to reconstruct how the Maya used their land for food production, and the effect this may have had on ecology and political economy, the reality is that procurement studies tell us little about consumption patterns. To examine Maya culture from the inside out, we need to answer the basic questions of what was consumed by whom, when, where, and how. Such knowledge has been inhibited by a number of factors. First, tropical conditions generally result in poor preservation of data sources for diet reconstruction. Maya environments are full of destructive agents, such as heat and moisture that speed the rate of decay, heavy rainfall that flushes away tiny remains and promotes the breakdown of bone, insects and animals that feed on remains, and rapid root growth that breaks up and displaces plant and animal remains. Consequently, plant remains (macro and micro) are relatively rare, and bone remains (animal and human) are generally in poor condition and fragmentary. Second, archaeological research design in the past was largely focused on architecture, ceremonial centers, spatial distribution, and artifacts. Thus it tended to yield relatively little in biological sources for data. In spite of the difficulties in gleaning dietary data from Maya sites, greater effort has been made recently to do so. There are several reasons for movement in this direction. Some reflect the current state of physical anthropology and archaeological fashion in general. Other reasons relate specifically to changes in activity and theory in Maya archaeology. The last 25 years have seen a major shift in focus within skeletal biology which recognizes the importance of bone in reconstructing both life experiences and the effects of culture and environment on biology. Through this change in direction, archaeology has come to place greater value on the contribution of skeletal biology (human and faunal) to the understanding of ancient lifeways and cultural dynamics. For example, in Maya research most skeletal data were traditionally relegated to descriptive sections of site monographs. Where osteological work was used independently, it tended to be typological, emphasizing the description and categorization of cranial deformation and dental decoration or focusing on biological distance and/or epigenetic traits (see Buikstra 1997 for a quantitative historical review of topic trends). Nevertheless, it is significant that in spite of the preservation problems, Maya osteology was at the forefront of the movement away from traditional description and toward the healthrelated bioarchaeology that dominates North American research in skeletal biology. For example, with Haviland's (1967) work on
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stature at Tikal, we witness the emergent use of skeletal populations to reflect cultural change and complexity. In addition, Saul's classic work, The Human Skeletal Remains of Altar de Sacrificios (1972), was one of the earliest osteobiographies produced. More recently, techniques for collecting and analyzing data have become even more sophisticated. Furthermore, attempts have been made to standardize these processes (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), and interpretive theory is developing out of sampling and demographic issues (Wood et al. 1992). Paleodiet and paleopathology should be contextualized within this movement. The academic appeal of these fields is twofold. First, they encompass a diversity of sources and methodologies and thus, through multiple lines of evidence, can have great power of explanation. Second, they articulate with broader issues such as disease etiology, ecological change, demography, social relationships and complexity, and economy, issues that are also of interest to other Maya scholars. Paleodiet has been revitalized by the development of chemical techniques for analyzing bone (Gilbert 1977; DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981; Schoeninger 1979; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). Both isotopic and trace element analysis of bone have several advantages over the more traditional techniques of faunal and floral analysis. They provide data on real rather than potential consumption (i.e., they give us the ''meal" rather than the "menu" [Bumsted 1985]), they obviate the need for individuals to be pathological before dietary assumptions can be made, and they can make use of fragmentary, nondiagnostic material. The lastmentioned is particularly significant for Central American skeletal populations. Although it is obvious that the ultimate goal of most archaeological dietary studies (including plant and animal analyses) is to reconstruct the diets of humans, it is only recently that we have been able to extract data directly from humans themselves. Because of some of the limitations of chemical data (e.g., see Sillen et al. 1989), however, their interpretation is best made in the context of either a priori knowledge of diet or multiple lines of evidence. The need to know diet before it can be reconstructed sets up an intuitively counterproductive "catch22" mode of explanation. Although methodology has an apparent weakness in this respect, the combined use of related methodology can ultimately result in greater depth of understanding. Data from discrete techniques will either be reinforcing or elucidate areas that need further study. Essentially, multiple lines of evidence end up testing one another and can dramatically improve the power of explanation. Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet illustrates this process, in that floral and faunal analyses are integrated with human data from bone chemistry and paleopathology in addressing shared research issues. The nature of research in paleopathology has also changed over the last 15 years. Previously, it was characterized by description that may have been considered esoteric and by the "grocery list" appearance of case studies. As pathology was increasingly employed to address issues in anthropology and archaeology, the goal of using archaeological bone just to reconstruct pathogenic process was displaced, at least in part, by epidemiological and population
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approaches. Significantly, paleopathology also played a key role in the development of a popular model for the Classic Maya collapse, one that continues to color our perceptions of ancient Maya living conditions. The discovery of a high frequency of the bony manifestation of irondeficiency anemia at the Cenote of Sacrifice (Chichén Itzá) spawned the idea that nutritional deficiency may have played a major role in the downfall of the Classic Maya (Hooton 1940). Cases of anemia subsequently found fueled ecological theories of collapse (Wright and White 1996), so that nutritional deficiency became equated with ecological degradation. Motivation increased to gather pathology data that would test the nutritional theory, but poor preservation continues to limit the potential of this avenue of research. In addition to the fact that there is a greater acceptance of the belief that biological data from plants, animals, and humans reflect cultural dynamics and issues, the level of activity in Maya archaeology has also increased in recent years (Buikstra 1997; Danforth et al. 1997). The romance and enigmatic nature of Maya culture has no doubt attracted researchers and created public popularity. However, the rise in productivity for Maya archaeology, and especially skeletal biology, may also coincide with the real and perceived loss of research opportunities associated with repatriation and reburial of native North American skeletal material. Furthermore, the development of Central American tourist industries that feature ancient history has promoted excavation (e.g., Ball 1993; Sheets 1992). Consequently, more material is now available for analysis.
New Paradigms and Paleodiet Fortunately for paleodiet studies, this amelioration of data gathering occurred at the same time that issues of subsistence in Mesoamerican environments became a focus of study. The positioning of these research contexts is further influenced by changes in the way archaeologists are thinking about the relationship between theory and data. During the process of reconstructing Maya culture, research design naturally frames interpretation and model building. There are four perceptual shifts in Maya archaeology to which dietary data, in particular, can make significant contributions. The first is the recognition that spatial variation exists in subsistence practice, demography, and sociopolitical and socioeconomic systems and that it needs to be understood as much as temporal variation does (Culbert and Rice 1990). Too often false analogies and assumptions led to the development of models that were weak or without depth. A case in point is the example of the unidimensional maize dependency model of Maya diet. Although there are some important exceptions that challenge the primacy of maize as the carbohydrate staple (Bronson 1966; Barerra et al. 1977; Puleston 1982; Atran 1993; McKillop 1994), maize is generally considered the foundation, and heart and soul, of Maya diet. But to assume that little variation existed over time and space in the absolute and relative quantities of maize consumed is to lose much definition of the character of Maya society. Maya sites differ enormously in
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their biotic and abiotic environments, their demographic characteristics, their political economies, and consequently their food production, consumption choices and patterns, and resultant health status. This book urges the recognition and celebration of both geographic and temporal dietary variation among the Maya. The second is the move toward understanding cultural dynamics from the bottom up rather than from the top down (Sharer 1996; Fedick 1989; Lentz 1991). The main analytical unit has traditionally been monumental architecture (i.e., the top). While this was the case, perceptions of Maya culture could only be based on elite activities, thus creating a strong bias in our understanding of Maya life. Theoretically, change in food behavior of elites may or may not appear in that of other classes. Therefore, in diachronic perspectives particularly, foodways can constitute a measure of the social depth of cultural change. The movement to use households as analytical units allows a better reconstruction of daily life for what we might assume would constitute the bulk of the population and fits well with dietary measures of how the Maya filled the basic need for food. Thus, reconstructing consumption choices and patterns adds another stage of refinement to a "bottom up" perspective. It adds a different dimension to our understanding of temporal and spatial variability. The third shift is the recognition that social complexity needs to be defined more clearly and reconstructed more precisely for an understanding of the structure and function of Maya politics and economy (Chase and Chase 1992). The traditional view of Maya society as a twotiered system (Haviland 1970; Webster 1985) is now yielding to revisions that emphasize a multiclass culture (Chase and Chase 1992) that may not be distributed in a simple concentric hierarchical fashion around site epicenters. The identification of elites has largely been artifactually or architecturally based, but as Chase and Chase point out, these archaeological identifiers are less than consistent in their associations—for example, luxury goods may be found in burial contexts that do not represent increased energy expenditure. There has been some use of skeletal evidence in the identification of elites. This has been mainly limited to intentional and unintentional morphological alteration such as cranial deformation, dental modification, and stature (Haviland 1967, 1970). Based on the assumptions that status affects access to resources and that valued foods are culturally defined, food consumption is another useful means of determining social differentiation. Chemical analysis of bone, in particular, can directly characterize the diets of individuals and thus has the potential for identifying individuals or groups that have differential access to the most fundamental resources for life. In conjunction with other lines of biological evidence—for example, dental and physical health, faunal and floral remains, and archaeological evidence (e.g., grave goods, grave type, burial location)—dietary assessment can be an invaluable tool. Because of its independence of pathology or cultural alteration, diet has a potential to identify social patterning in a way no other line of evidence can, for example, sorting out status affiliation for multiple burials in elite contexts. The fourth shift is the postprocessual move to connect ideological with
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materialist or economic modes of explanation (e.g., Pyburn 1989). The study of food behavior is well situated to illustrate the integration of this apparent duality because of the association of food with metaphor and the fact that food is an aspect of material culture, often a major part of market and trade economies. The Maya themselves used food as metaphor. The Popul Vuh, a sacred Quiche Maya text, describes maize as the staple food from which humans were created and on which the Maya civilization was built (Béhar 1968). Food appears in Maya iconography, is depicted in art, and was an important part of ritual activity. It is unlikely coincidental that the Maya considered themselves religiously connected to food while the base of their economy was agriculture. Just as food was used by the Maya as a metaphor for their belief system, it can be used by us as a metaphor for understanding their culture. The selection of diet and the patterning of consumption through time, across space, and within populations can greatly extend our understanding of cultural behavior, values, and interactions. In terms of economic systems, the potential contribution of reconstructing foodways is mainly in understanding local and longdistance food distribution systems. Trade patterns have largely been understood through analysis of artifacts less perishable than foodstuffs. Nonetheless, food must have been an integrative aspect of ancient exchange, as it is today. And it may not have just been the material nature of food that moved across the landscape but its ideological representation as well.
Approaches to Maya Diet This book samples the breadth and depth of the contribution paleodiet research has made to Maya archaeology. In three sections—paleobotany and zooarchaeology, paleopathology, and bone chemistry—practical applications of diverse methodologies are used to address shared issues and show how the reconstruction of diet articulates with the new paradigms described above. Each chapter emphasizes its own methodological strengths and weaknesses. Because a primary goal of this book is to demonstrate levels of complexity in cultural behavior through dietary behavior, a deliberate attempt was also made to secure a variety of studies from different temporal and geographical contexts. Four main time periods are represented, periods for which dietrelated or subsistencerelated issues are of concern and for which dietary data exist in some form. They include the Preclassic (pre1000 B.C.A.D. 250), Classic (A.D. 250900), Postclassic (A.D. 9001500), and Historic (post1500) (chronology varies somewhat by site). Paleodiet research makes a contribution to two general concerns throughout this sequence. The first is the identification of trade networks. Chapters 3,4, 6,11, and 12 (Emery, Shaw, Glassman and Garber, Wright, Coyston et al.) deal with evidence of trade in a variety of time periods. The second is the characterization of social organization and complexity. In recognition of the importance of this kind of reconstruction, all the chapters (except one review chapter [Chap. 1, Lentz]) present data that represent degrees of dietary differentiation by socioeconomic status, gender, or age. In addition, each time period is associated with its own specific issues. Data
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from the Preclassic period speak to both the rise of intensive agriculture to meet the demands of population increase, and the emergence and entrenchment of class differentiation. The dominant issues to be addressed by dietary data for the Classic period center on regional variability and the theories of ecological degradation and nutritional deficiency as explanations for the "collapse." Postclassic data provide a means of contrasting the effects of cultural process on diet with environmental interaction, as the political structures and economic bases of Maya culture undergo change. Postclassic populations represent cultural and biological survival and help define the conditions for cultural success. In the succeeding Historic period, issues include the effects of the Spanish presence on agricultural, biological, and cultural systems. Five chapters—3, 4, 7, 11, and 12 (Emery, Shaw, Magennis, Wright, Coyston et al.)—provide sitespecific diachronic comparisons of at least two time periods. Three chapters review data from multiple sites and time periods in an effort to differentiate general from specific patterns of nutrition (Chap. 5, Danforth) and plant use (Chaps. 1 and 2, Lentz, Atran). The sites studied and used for comparison in this text are dominantly located in the Maya Lowlands, that is, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras (Figure I.1). The focus on the Lowlands is simply a reflection of the availability of bioarchaeological data. Although this region of Mesoamerica has a broadly defined tropical environment, within the Maya area more finely defined local environmental diversity exists. The selection of sites representing potential variation in food resources helps us understand the relative importance of panMaya cultural ideology in food consumption patterns versus food behavior on local polity and household levels. Future research will undoubtedly result in the ability to compare similarities and differences in highland and lowland areas as well. The book begins with the most traditional archaeological methods of diet reconstruction: botanical and faunal analyses. Both methods are absolutely fundamental to paleodiet research, creating a portrait of available biological resources. In essence, they provide us with ancient "menus" (Bumsted 1985), forming a comparative base for data derived from methods aimed at reconstructing "meals." It is appropriate that the opening chapter is a muchneeded and longawaited review of plant use among the Maya for more than 3,000 years. Significantly, David Lentz notes that we are now at the point in Maya archaeology where the techniques of paleoethnobotanists and the strategies of archaeologists have been synthesized sufficiently to provide artifactual (botanical) evidence to replace speculation about diet, ecology, and agriculture. While outlining general patterns of plant use, Lentz not only addresses some old issues, such as controversy over defining the staple of Maya diet, and ecological adaptation, but also makes suggestions for future research. His focus is on both agricultural and arboricultural dietary resources but also includes botanical resources that had other cultural uses or that may have been implicated in trade. Extending the use of ethnobotany in a more ideological and metaphoric way, Scott Atran provides us in Chapter 2 with linguistic and cognitive data that
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Figure 1 Sites referred to in the text.
integrate with ethnohistorical and archaeological data on plant use among the Maya of the northern Petén in Guatemala. In a diachronic approach that reaches into modern times, Atran notes that the majority of edible and medicinal species used today were also used at the time of the Conquest and may have had continuity into more ancient times. He provides us with important reference tables of biologically useful plant species, their folk and scientific names, and their cultural uses. The data in this chapter are not only invaluable for their detail and completeness but also particularly important for posterity, as we are warned of loss of this knowledge in the very near future. In contrast, the two faunal chapters are site specific but make significant methodological and substantive contribution to our understanding of Maya diet. In Chapter 4 Leslie Shaw not only emphasizes the need to be aware of
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sampling error in faunal analysis but also notes that analytical methods developed for cultures in temperate climates that have domesticated animals should not be applied to the Maya, who lived in tropical environments and appear to have subsisted on wild species and/or had very few domesticated species (e.g., dog, turkey). She emphasizes the importance of developing interpretive models to suit Maya circumstances. In keeping with the general shift in archaeology to examine culture from the bottom up, Shaw examines how faunal use at the household level reflects the emergence of trade and of social and economic inequality in the Preclassic period at Colha, Belize. With a similar awareness of how the complexity of tropical ecosystems might affect the analysis of faunal material, in Chapter 3 Kitty Emery offers a complex methodological approach using multiple measures that help control for sampling error while creating finer reconstructive detail. She analyzes faunal use diachronically at two related sites in Belize (Lamanai and Tipu), for which rare data spanning the Postclassic to Colonial transition are available. In contrasting the patterning at the two sites, Emery finds both continuity and variability in the use of animals. She analyzes animal use to elucidate the economic strategies of trade networks and the influence of the Spanish on the use of food as ethnic identification. Thus, she is able to connect ideological with economic and material considerations in her interpretation of data. The section on paleopathology is devoted to the reconstruction of diet through measures of physiological response in human skeletal remains. Here we are getting closer to actual food consumption by indirect assessment of nutritional quality of diets. Four out of five chapters in this section include data on dental pathology. The importance of teeth in diet reconstruction should not be underestimated. They are the most basic of all food processors. Everything we eat passes over them, and the evidence of this is left behind in dental disease and morphological alteration. But there is another reason for the dominance of dental analyses in Maya pathology. Because of preservation problems in the Maya area, teeth often provide the most reliable, and largest quantity of, data. Reflecting the methodological improvement in osteological research, each of the pathology chapters attempts to maximize the power of explanation in the data. This has been done by (1) using multiple lines of evidence from both teeth and bones (Chaps. 6 and 9, Glassman, Storey), (2) integrating data from one line of evidence with research done by others at a single site (the work at Copán is a good illustration of this kind of strategy—see Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey), (3) using intersite comparison (Chaps. 5 and 6, Danforth, Glassman and Garber), (4) using intertemporal comparison (Chaps. 5, 6, 7, and 8, Danforth, Glassman and Garber, Magennis, Whittington), and (5) using powerful statistics (Chap. 8, Whittington). Sites appearing in this section vary in location, time period, size, and political importance, thus providing some crosssectional perspective. The longest time sequence for these sites is found at Kichpanha, Belize, stretching from the Protoclassic to the Late/Terminal Classic (250 B.C. to 900 A.D.) (Chap. 7, Magennis). Three Classic period phases are represented at Copán, Honduras (Acbi, Coner, and Late Coner) (Chap. 8, Whittington), and the Late and Termi
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nal Classic periods are represented at Ambergris Cay (Chap. 6, Glassman). Notably, all these sites were abandoned by the end of the Classic period. The data are skewed to periods preceding the Postclassic and Colonial periods because recent research on human skeletal material from these periods is as scarce as excavated samples. Environmental contexts vary from coastal (Ambergris Cay—Chap. 6, Glassman) to inland lacustrine with proximity to wetlands (Kichpanha—Chap. 7, Magennis) to river valley with restricted agricultural land (Copán—Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey). Given the importance of ecological degradation as an explanation for the Classic collapse, a comparison of human biological response to diets derived from diverse physical environments is crucial to understanding cultural processes. Each site is a different size and appears to have a different political structure. Ambergris Cay (which actually includes the two sites of San Juan and Chac Balam) is the smallest of the three areas examined. Its physical structures are distinct from the other two sites, and its sociopolitical structure appears to have been based on trade (Chap. 6, Glassman). Kichpanha (Chap. 7, Magennis) is probably typical in size and political structure of the many mediumsized ceremonial centers of the tropical lowlands. Copán (Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey) is a very large and powerful polity with a highly complex political structure. If we are going to understand similarities and differences in food behavior as they may relate to political structure and economy, we must work with contrasting samples such as these. The paleopathology section starts with a review of Maya stature data (Chap. 5, Danforth). It is fitting to begin with stature, as it historically represents one of the earliest attempts to use biology to illustrate social complexity and the effects of cultural and environmental change (Haviland 1967). Marie Elaine Danforth applies modern concepts concerning genetic and environmental factors involved in growth to stature as a measure of adaptability in the Maya. Using virtually all the published data currently available, she apprises us of areas of weakness in stature data, examines evidence for sexual dimorphism and discusses its implications, and identifies regional variation. Most significantly, Danforth warns us against using existing stature data to make broad generalizations, especially as they pertain to the Classic collapse. In Chapter 6 David Glassman and James Garber provide us with a good methodological model to apply to small samples. They reconstruct health and nutritional status at two closely related sites on Ambergris Cay in northern Belize using multiple lines of evidence that include mainly nonspecific pathology. Because it is not possible to assess chronological trends within their sample, Glassman and Garber compare their data with those of contemporaneous inland sites. They note a difference in the patterning of dental pathology, from which a distinctive diet is inferred. The Ambergris populations are set apart not only by diet, size, and sociopolitical structure but also in patterns of health. It appears that good health was not sufficient to maintain survival in a political economy based on trade, as the cay was abandoned after trade was restructured during the Postclassic.
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In a diachronic study of dental caries and calculus (Chap. 7), Ann Magennis investigates diet change at Kichpanha, Belize. While emphasizing the importance of multiple lines of evidence in improving explanation, she integrates the dental data with a variety of botanical sources of data for the site. Although the frequency of caries and calculus increases over time, patterns here are not completely consistent with those of contemporaneous sites. On the surface, this phenomenon may appear to be due to regional differences, but Magennis aptly warns us of the possible effect of status and/or processing as confounding variables. In Chapters 8 and 9, respectively, Stephen Whittington and Rebecca Storey provide us with complementary studies of paleopathology at the large and complex site of Copán, Honduras, over a sequence of Classic period phases. These chapters reflect the need to know how the different social segments of a population adapt biologically in articulation with a shared culture, as they also document levels of stress from the bottom up. Using dental caries and antemortem tooth loss, Whittington examines the diet of commoners, who would have been closest to the production of food but who, he assumes, would have been less buffered from biological stress because of the structure of political economies. With sophisticated statistical techniques that are applied to a large sample and that factor in variables such as time, residence type and location, tooth class, age, and sex, Whittington shows us that although there is a sex difference in caries, stress was pervasive among commoner households at Copán at the time of the collapse. Notably, the dental data support his previously published demographic data (Whittington 1991). Comparing these data with those of other sites, Whittington emphasizes the existence of dietary heterogeneity by geographic location but asserts that Copán may have been more dependent on maize, which would be consistent with its more restricted environmental context. The crosssectional perspective on social rank at Copán is provided by Storey's analysis of multiple nonspecific health indicators. Here we have a good example of how social complexity is reflected by biological response. It appears that all segments of Copán society were affected by stress but that higherstatus individuals may have survived childhood stress more often. Thus, although even the elite exhibit high levels of morbidity, differential nutrition and living conditions protected them at least somewhat from mortality. Storey's interpretation illustrates well the recent theoretical perspectives of the "osteological paradox" (Wood et al. 1992) and is integrated with supporting data from stable isotope analysis of human bone (Reed, this volume) and botanical analysis (Lentz, 1991; this volume). Differences between status groups seem to be more marked than gender differences, which suggests a good degree of gender equality. However, not only is there is ambiguity in gender data within Copán (see also Whittington and Reed, this volume), which probably reflects the social complexity of the site, but there is also variation in the degree of gender differences between sites. Paleopathological analyses, by definition, rely on biological responses recorded in bone. Although studies of ancient health and disease may be able to
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reveal nutritional deficiencies, in which case they indirectly reconstruct diet, conversely they may indicate normality. Nothing could be said about the specific composition of diet from osteological analysis if nutrition was adequate. Unlike faunal and botanical analyses, both pathology and bone chemistry analyses operate at the level of the individual consumer and eventually build a population perspective. Bone chemistry, however, also moves the level of analysis from menu (botanical and faunal) and biological response to actual consumption. One might ask why we don't simply begin with chemical analysis of bone and dispense with indirect measures. The answer is that the other methods give bone chemistry an interpretive base, potentially provide depth to our understanding of biological responses, and increase the power of explanation. Without pathology, we cannot speak of nutrition; without bone chemistry, it is hard to speak of diet. The studies in the bone chemistry section represent several different regions in the Maya Lowlands. Chapters 11 and 12 (Wright, Coyston et al.) compare diet derived from distinct ecosystems, and Chapter 10 (Reed) provides further contrast. This regional crosssection sheds light on the degree to which local environment can circumscribe food consumption. Chapters 11 and 12 (Wright, Coyston et al.) work with long chronologies. Thus we can examine the degree to which cultural process overlies or interacts with environmental restrictions. Because all the studies encompass the period of the Classic collapse, we now have another means of evaluating ecological models of the collapse. Adding another layer of complexity to this reconstruction, each chapter also examines social status. Socially meaningful patterning is found at each site, some of which is not discernible from artifactual or archaeological data. Although issues of environmental interaction, chronological patterning, and social rank are addressed in each chapter, each study represents a different type of chemical analysis. All take their primary data from human bone. The organic portion of bone (collagen) is analyzed isotopically for Copán (Chap. 10, Reed), the inorganic portion (apatite) is analyzed isotopically for Lamanai and Pacbitun (Chap. 12, Coyston et al.), and the inorganic portion is analyzed elementally for Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal, and Dos Pilas (Chap. 11 Wright). In spite of the fact that slightly different constituents of diet are reconstructed, each method is able to quantify maize consumption. Although restricting bone chemistry studies to a single method would provide the most soundly controlled intersite comparison, there are advantages to using the methodological diversity in this volume. First, a comparison of chapters illustrates the strengths and limitations of each chemical technique. Second, because each technique has its own way of measuring maize consumption, in effect we are still able to make comparisons of relative quantities of foods consumed over time and by intrapopulational variables. Third, within each study there is methodological control or balance. For example, carbon isotopes in collagen are more validly interpreted when combined with nitrogen isotopes. Here we are looking at two different measures of protein consumption (Chap. 10 Reed). Carbon isotopes in apatite give depth to the interpretation of carbon isotopes in collagen (Chap.
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12, Coyston et al.). Here the apatite allows quantification of the proportions of macronutrients (fat, carbohydrates, protein), thus adding depth to the interpretation of collagen data, which reflects only protein consumption. Barium and strontium are both measures of plant versus meat and marine food consumption (Chap. 11 Wright). Reed's analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen at Copán articulates with and supports the pathology research done by Storey and Whittington, particularly in terms of dietary differentiation by socioeconomic status. The isotope data especially lend credence to the etiological explanation that the patterning in nonspecific health indicators is, at least in some part, dietary. But Reed's analysis takes us one step further by finding patterning that has not been detected in any other analyses, specifically rural/urban differences and agespecific gender differences. The isotopic data, therefore, add to our appreciation of social complexity at the large center of Copán. Using a novel approach to chemical analysis, Wright brings out the methodological sophistication and interpretive complexity of elemental analysis in paleodiet interpretation. Human bone data are compared to data for baseline ecosystem components, and the effects of different maize processing techniques are quantified, thus linking biology to technology. Overlying patterns created by postmortem chemical change (diagenesis), Wright finds patterning between three Petén sites—Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal, and Dos Pilas—which has implications for models of agricultural trade. Variation within these sites also reflects chronological trends that address the relationship between diet and agricultural economy from Preclassic to Terminal Classic periods. Again, social rank is dietarily defined. In a study that complements previously published analyses of stable isotope data for bone collagen (White and Schwarcz 1989; White et al. 1994), Coyston et al. isotopically analyze the mineral portion (carbonate) of human bones and teeth. Two sites in Belize, Lamanai and Pacbitun, which had contrasting survival success after the Classic period, are used to compare the relationships between diet and ecology, trade, culture change, social status, and gender. The role of maize versus marine resources in particular is reassessed in light of the macronutrient reconstruction made possible with the use of isotopic analysis of carbonate. Significantly, shifts observed in the faunal data for the Postclassic and Historic periods at Lamanai (Chap. 3, Emery) are supported by the isotopic data and seem to reflect social, economic, or political factors.
What Do We Know about Maya Diets? Although there is a great need for more research, these chapters tell us that although maize was the dominant staple, ancient Maya diets were far from simple. Thus, although there exists a panMaya ideological grounding for dietary regimes, there is little to offer at present in terms of universal dietary patterning within the Maya sphere. The amount of maize consumed and the foods consumed with it varied by location, time period, site size, social status, gender, and age.
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The majority of sites investigated here which represent more than one time period show dietary shifts of some sort (i.e., in plant or terrestrial versus marine animal consumption), but no sound generalizations can be made yet about increasing or decreasing maize consumption, for example, or about the effects of animal exploitation. The extremity and nature of temporal change in diet appears to depend on resource availability created by either local environments or ability to trade. Local ecology probably had a profound effect on food consumption. In fact, this is one of the few areas in which one can make some generalizations. Not surprisingly, coastal sites and those sites with more heterogeneous environments appear to have offered the best nutrition to their inhabitants, whereas areas with more tightly circumscribed environments and less production potential (e.g., Copán) produced more generalized health stress. Environment contributed to the longterm survival and physical wellbeing of Maya populations but did not completely determine it. Socially meaningful patterning in food consumption is found at each site, whether based in status, gender, or age differences. Although status differences in diet exist at all sites, these differences do not take the same form, that is, there is no single apparent'' highstatus diet." In some cases elites eat more maize, and in some they eat less. Therefore, elite diets are probably better defined within the context of local resources than by any strict cultural prescription. By contrast, gender patterning in diet is not found at all sites. Where it does exist, however, it operates like the patterning in diets of socioeconomic status groups, that is, there do not appear to be any rules governing what males eat versus what females eat. Male diets may more closely approximate highstatus diets, however. It is clear from the chapters in this book that Maya diets need to be interpreted first at the household, site, and polity levels before the complexity of Maya foodsystems can be fully understood.
Prospects: Where Do We Go from Here? In recent years archaeologists have improved the quality of our understanding of the Maya by using multidisciplinary approaches, applying new analytical technologies, reconstructing written history, and developing regionspecific models for cultural and environmental phenomena. The level of research activity has also markedly increased. Therefore, there is much reason to be optimistic about the expansion and clarification of our picture of the Maya. Perhaps osteology can now take its turn in contributing to our understanding ancient Maya culture. This volume provides a starting point through the collection and analysis of data on food behavior and the use of food as a metaphor for culture. The chapters in this book have illustrated that diet can be associated with social, political, economic, ecological, and nutritional factors and that Maya foodsystems were complex. They justify paleodiet as a research area with enormous potential to test archaeological hypotheses and to connect biology with culture. Although the lack of universality in Maya foodways which exists in the face of a symbolically based foodsystem may seem distressing at first glance, it
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is precisely the variability that gives definition and meaning to our understanding of Maya life and culture. Quite simply, complex societies (such as that of the Maya) should have complex foodsystems and exhibit considerable dietary diversity (Gummerman 1997). Our current and future challenge is to use this diversity to establish patterns of Maya culture and to try to find reasons for the particular form they take. Methodological advances such as those presented in each section of this volume will aid in this endeavor, but there is still a need to seek and develop new ways of collecting and analyzing data. The ability to address both longstanding and emerging issues in Maya archaeology naturally follows from the move to understand variation. Expansion and integration of archaeological and skeletal data are needed to continue clarification of complex issues currently existing in Maya archaeology, such as the existence of a Late Preclassic collapse, population pressure and the intensification of agriculture, the rise and maintenance of social status, the role of human influence on the environment, sociopolitical restructuring in the Postclassic, and the effect of the Spanish presence. The chapters in this book underscore this need by giving us a glimpse of the potential of integrated paleodiet studies. Dietary data also have a potential to address other issues that are important to archaeologists everywhere, such as gender, the identification of lineages within sites, the identification of foreigners in local populations, the establishment of marriage patterns, the relationship between mortuary treatment and social status, and the relationship among ideology, economics, and material culture. Perhaps more important, paleodiet research has a potential to test hypotheses not defined by archaeologists but useful to them, and to discover inter and intrasite variability that is often not detectable from the archaeological data alone. These chapters are presented as an example of the specific contribution dietary research can make to Maya archaeology, but I hope they will also be used as a model for a different way of addressing common issues for archaeology everywhere.
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Healy, P. F.; van Waarden, C.; and Anderson, J. J. (1980) Nueva evidencia de antiquas terrazas Mayas en Belice. America Indígena 40:733796. Hellmuth, N. M. (1977) CholtiLacandon (Chiapas) and PetenYtza agriculture. In N. Hammond (ed.): Social Process in Maya Prehistory. London: Academic Press, pp. 421428. Hooton, E. A. (1940) Skeletons from the cenote of sacrifice at Chichén Itzá. In C. L. Hay (ed.): The Maya and Their Neighbors. New York: AppletonCentury, pp. 272280. Lambert, J. D. H.; Arnason, J. T.; and Siemens, A. H. (1984) Ancient Maya drained field agriculture: Its possible application today in the New River flood plain, Belize, C.A. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 11:6784. Lange, F. W. (1971) Marine resources: A viable subsistence alternative for the prehistoric lowland Maya. American Anthropologist 73:619639. Lentz, D. L. (1991) Maya diets of the rich and poor: Paleoethnobotanical evidence from Copán. Latin American Antiquity 2:269287. McKillop, H. (1994) Ancient Maya tree cropping: A viable subsistence adaptation for the Island Maya. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:129140. Matheny, R. T. (1976) Maya lowland hydraulic systems. Science 193:639646. Matheny, R. T. (1982) Ancient Lowland and Highland Maya water and soil conservation strategies. In K. V. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 157178. Miller, M. E. (1993) On the eve of the collapse: Maya art of the eighth century. In J. A. Sabloff and J. S. Henderson (eds.): Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 355414. PodoLedezma, L. F. (1985) Enfermedades transmitidas por el agua el colapso de la civilización Maya Clásica. Mesoamérica 10:391410. Pope, K. O., and Dahlin, B. H. (1989) Ancient Maya wetland agriculture: New insights from ecological and remote sensing research. Journal of Field Archaeology 16:87106. Puleston, D. E. (1982) The role of ramon in Maya subsistence. In K. V. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 353367. Pyburn, K.A. (1989) Maya cuisine: Hearths and the Lowland economy. In P. A. McAnany and B. L. Isaac (eds.): Research in Economic Anthropology: Prehistoric Maya Economies of Belize, Supplement 4. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, pp. 325344. Sanders, W. T. (1977) Environmental heterogeneity and the evaluation of the Lowland Maya civilization. In R. E. W. Adams (ed.): The Origins of Maya Civilization. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 287297. Santley, S. R.; Killion, T W.; and Lycett, M. T. (1986) On the Maya collapse. Journal of Anthropological Research 42:123159. Saul, F. P. (1972) The Human Skeletal Remains of Altar de Sacrificios: An Osteobiographic Analysis. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 63, No. 2. Cambridge: Harvard University. Schoeninger, M. J. (1979) Diet and status at Chalkatzingo: Some empirical and technical aspects of strontium analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:295310. Schwarcz, H. P., and Schoeninger, M. J. (1991) Stable isotope analysis in human nutritional ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34:283321. Sharer, R. J. (1996) Daily Life in Maya Civilization. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Sheets, P. D. (1992) The Ceren Site. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Siemens, A. H., and Puleston, D. E. (1972) Ridged fields and associated features in southern Campeche: New perspectives on the Lowland Maya. American Antiquity 37:228239. Sillen, A.; Sealy, J. C.; and van der Merwe, N. J. (1989) Chemistry and paleodietary research: No more easy answers. American Antiquity 54:504512.
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Suhler, C., and Freidel, D. (1992) The Selz Foundation Yaxuna Project: Final Report of the 1992 Field Season. Dallas: Southern Methodist University. Tozzer, A. M. (trans.) (1941) Landa's Relación de los Cosas de Yucatán. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 18. Cambridge: Harvard University. Turner, B. L. II (1974) Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Maya lowlands. Science 185:118124. Turner, B. L. II (1978) The development and demise of the swidden thesis of Maya agriculture. In P. D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II (eds.): PreHispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 1322. Turner, B. L. II; Hanham, R. Q.; and Portararo, A. V. (1977) Population pressure and agricultural intensity. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67:384396. Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, P. D. (1981) Prehistoric raisedfield agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Science 213:399405. Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, P. D. (1983) Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. Austin: University of Texas Press. Webster, D. (1985) Recent settlement survey in the Copán Valley, Honduras. Journal of New World Archaeology 5:3951. Webster, D.; Sanders, W. T.; and van Rossum, P. (1992) A simulation of Copán population history and its implications. Ancient Mesoamerica 3:185197. White, C., and Schwarcz, H. P. (1989) Ancient Maya diet: As inferred from isotopic and elemental analysis of bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:451 474. White, C.; Healy, P. F.; and Schwarcz, H. P. (1994) Intensive agriculture, social status, and diet at Pacbitun, Belize. Journal of Anthropological Research 49:347 375. Whittington, S. L. (1991) Detection of significant demographic differences between subpopulations of Prehispanic Maya from Copán, Honduras, by survival analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 85:167184. Willey, G. R. (1978) PreHispanic Maya agriculture: A contemporary summation. In P. D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II (eds.): PreHispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Willey, G. R., and Shimkin, D. B. (1973) The Maya Collapse: A summary view. In T. P. Culbert (ed.): The Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 457502. Wiseman, F. M. (1972) A model for increased productivity in Lowland milpa agriculture. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Sciences Proceedings 7:14. Wiseman, F. M. (1985) Agriculture and vegetation dynamics of the Maya collapse in Central Peten, Guatemala. In M. Pohl (ed.): Prehistoric Lowland Maya Environment and Subsistence Economy. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 77. Cambridge: Harvard University, pp. 6371. Wood, J. W.; Milner, G. R.; Harpending, H. C.; and Weiss, K. M. (1992) The osteological paradox: Problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples. Current Anthropology 33:343370. Wright, L. E., and White, C. D. (1996) Human biology in the Classic Maya collapse: Evidence from paleopathology and paleodiet. Journal of World Prehistory 10:147198.
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PART I BOTANICAL AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
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Chapter 1 Plant Resources of the Ancient Maya The Paleoethnobotanical Evidence David L. Lentz During the last 15 years there have been tremendous strides in the documentation of the sources of sustenance for the ancient Maya. Many of these advances have been made by combining paleoethnobotanical techniques with archaeological excavation strategies, and the results have been fruitful. Data from across the Maya realm have been generated by paleoethnobotanists working in close cooperation with archaeologists, so that now a discussion can begin based on recovered artifacts rather than speculation concerning the dietary practices, past ecology, and agricultural adaptations of the ancient Maya. This chapter is an effort to summarize the currently available paleoethnobotanical data and synthesize the corpus into a meaningful framework that addresses some old questions and provides some direction for future research. Methodology Most paleoethnobotanical studies are conducted using a methodical collection scheme whereby soils from archaeological units are sampled uniformly to examine the plant remains found within. This generally involves the collection of measured units of soil that can be analyzed for their content of macro and microremains. Macroremains, fragments large enough to be detected with the unaided eye, usually are processed through some type of flotation device that separates carbonized materials that float to the surface of a suspending liquid (water in most cases) from soil particles, rocks, and other debris that sink to the bottom. Sometimes deflocculants are employed to free charred remains from the soil matrix. Many devices and techniques have been devised for flotation, and thorough discussions of the various options can be found elsewhere (Pearsall 1989; Struever 1968; Watson 1976). Soil samples for analysis of microremains (pollen and phytoliths) should be collected along with flotation samples, but these must be processed using chemical extraction techniques and carried out in properly equipped laboratories (Bohrer and Adams 1977; Pearsall 1989). A combination of these data sets can be a powerful tool in the effort to elucidate plant use practices of the past; however, most of the securely identified food remains thus far retrieved from Mesoamerican archaeological sites have been derived from the analysis of macroremains, and that is the focus of the discussion here.
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Ancient Maya Subsistence The earliest archaeological plant remains from the Maya area were found in 3,000yearold deposits in Belize at the Cuello site (Miksicek et al. 1991), followed closely by other sites with Formative components, such as Copán, Pulltrouser Swamp, and Cerros. Accordingly, the discussion of dietary patterns of the ancient Maya, at least for the moment, begins with the Formative period because archaeobotanical data from earlier times are absent. Beginning with the Formative period and extending through the Postclassic, we can observe a more or less fully formed subsistence pattern based on domesticated plants and a host of wild or partially cultivated plants. Paleoethnobotanical remains from several Classic period sites—Cobá, Cerén, Dos Pilas, Wild Cane Cay, Copán, and, to a lesser extent, Tikal and Río Azul—have been examined and can furnish the background for an understanding of the food procurement strategies that took place during the florescence of Mayan culture at civicceremonial centers with large populations. Postclassic sites of Cihuatan and Naco provide insights into the subsistence practices of satellite communities after the Maya collapse. These patterns are described in general terms, yet there certainly were special localized adaptations to diverse habitats, such as the marine environment modification seen at Wild Cane Cay (McKillop 1994). One of the earlier concepts of ancient Maya subsistence, a dietary pattern with heavy reliance on maize, beans, and squash, has indeed been borne out by the paleoethnobotanical record. Evidence for maize utilization was recorded at virtually every site where systematic archaeobotanical surveys were conducted (Table 1.1). Most of the maize fragments identified have a morphological resemblance to the ChapaloteNalTel complex (part of a cluster of races that Benz refers to as the Isthmian Alliance [1986]), and there are few references to other kinds of corn. ChapaloteNalTel is a complex that grows well in warm climates at low elevations and would have been well suited to the Maya Lowland areas. The complex has a wide range of adaptation in terms of soil requirements and matures quickly (Wellhausen et al. 1957). The ears are short, with 814 rows, and have smooth, rounded kernels. This complex of maize races has been described largely from existing land races, but several examples have been identified from designs or impressions on ceramic vessels in Late Classic Monte Albán in Oaxaca, Mexico, and at the Augustin site in Guatemala (Wellhausen et al. 1952). Archaic period examples of archaeological ChapaloteNalTel maize were recovered from La Perra Cave in Tamaulipas, Mexico (Mangelsdorf et al. 1956), and dry caves in Chihuahua and Sonora (Mangelsdorf and Lister 1956). Clearly, maize of this complex was widely propagated throughout ancient Mesoamerica from early times and likewise was grown as a mainstay of the Maya. Other races of maize surely were exploited as well but have yet to be unearthed and described. A pervasive problem in the Maya area is preservation: the ravages of the wet and dry tropics cause many archaeological plant parts to deteriorate rapidly. The result of this depredation is that we do not find whole cobs with the key characteristics needed to determine racial origin in the Maya area as often as in some other regions where conditions are
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more favorable to preservation. Furthermore, information about maize in the highlands is sparse to nonexistent, largely a result of inadequate recovery efforts, so data regarding interregional variability for this valuable food source are lacking. Continued investigations should resolve these difficulties, and eventually sufficient data will accumulate to more adequately elucidate the maize races used by the ancient Maya. A thorough knowledge of early maize races will not only help define the origins of this vital domesticate but direct us to the seed sources and agricultural antecedents of the first Maya farmers as well. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), the second part of the Mesoamerican food triad, originally domesticated in two areas, Middle America and the Andes (Gepts and Debouck 1991), appeared in the Maya area sometime between 945 and 340 B.C. (Miksicek et al. 1991) and probably was introduced much earlier. Bean remains at Lowland Maya sites are not common, largely because they do not preserve well. The parts most often found are the seed cotyledons, which under normal circumstances would be consumed and not discarded, unlike corncobs. An exception to this unfortunate situation was found at the Cerén site in northcentral El Salvador.1 Rapid deposition of volcanic ash resulted in excellent preservation of plant parts at this small farming village, which was inundated sometime around A.D. 600 (Sheets 1994). Much like Pompeii, the site was occupied at the time of a volcanic eruption, so plant parts and other artifacts were preserved in situ, providing us with perhaps one of our best views of agricultural and subsistence practices in Mesoamerica. Large handfuls of beans, both common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and sieva beans (P. lunatus L.) plus some wild relatives, were found in ceramic vessels and other storage units. Because different kinds of beans were mixed together, it appears that the Cerén farmers were not very careful about separating varieties of the cultigen (Lawrence Kaplan, personal communication 1996). Presumably, these mixed collections would be cooked or sown together as well. The Cerén bean collection is perhaps the largest from Mesoamerica and will tell us much about this valuable domesticate. In any case, the combination of beans with maize formed the nucleus of the diet of the ancient Maya and other New World indigenes. The synergistic effects of a diet of corn and beans have been well publicized. When consumed together, they provide all the essential amino acids for human nutrition. Where maize is deficient, as in tryptophan, beans provide an adequate supplement (Kaplan 1973). Corn soaked in limewater provides an essential boost in dietary calcium. Additionally, beans, with the help of their nitrogenfixing Rhizobium spp. symbionts, can produce highquality proteins even when grown in nitrogendeficient soils. This is a real asset in many of the less fertile areas of Mesoamerica, and it undoubtedly helped see the Maya through many plantings on exhausted soils. Squash is the third component of the Mesoamerican food triad. It is a good carbohydrate source and provides substantial quantities of A and B vitamins, niacin, pantothenic acid, calcium, and potassium (Dunne 1990). Squash also works well with maize as a crop because it can be planted between the stalks of 1
There has been a question as to the ethnic affinity of the Cerén inhabitants; they may not have been Maya. In any case, they shared in the Maya lithic and ceramic traditions and undoubtedly their agricultural practices as well (Sheets 1992). The same question may be raised for the occupants of other sites in El Salvador and the Naco site in Honduras. If they were not Maya, at the very least the site occupants were nearest neighbors with the Maya, had active exchange networks with them, and would have shared their floral germplasm.
Page 6 Table 1.1. Plant Remains from Maya Sites. Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Agavaceae
Agave sp.
agave
8,9
5
11
2
10
Aizoaceae
Mollugo verticillata
carpet weed
1
?
1
1
1
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale
cashew
5
1,3
2,14
1,3
2,13
Astronium graveolens
frijolillo
5
2,3
10
2
9
Spondias sp.
hog plum
2,5
13
13,7,9,13,16
1,2
13,6,8,12,15
Metopium brownei
chechem
1?
4?
13
2
12
Annonaceae
Annona sp.
soursop
5
1,2
2,9
1
2,8
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma sp.
malady
5
2,3
11
2
10
Stemmadenia sp.
cojeton
5
2?
2
1
2
Thevetia gaumeri
chilidrón
1
4?
13
2
12
Arecaceae
Acrocomia aculeata
coyol
2
1,7
1,36,8,10,11
1,2
1,35,7,9,10
Attalea cohune
cohune
1,2
1,7
3,4,7,10
2
3,6,9
Bactris major
jaucote palm
5
2,3,7
2,3,4,9
1,2
2,3,8
Bactris sp.
huiscoyol
2
1,7
1,2,10,14
13
1,2,9,13
Crysophilia argentea
escoba palm
5
2,3
2,7
1,2
2,6
Sabal sp.
botan
1,5,8
3
5,7,10
1,2
4,6,9
Asteraceae
sunflowers
3
1?
1,2
1,2
1,2
Baltimora recta
flor amarilla
1
?
14
3
13
Helianthus annus
sunflower
3
1?
16
1
15
Melampodium sp.
flor amarilla
1
?
7
2
6
Tithonia rotundifolia
9
9
11
2
10
Bignoniaceae
Crescentia spp.
calabash
4,5
1,2,6
3,7,9,11,16
1,2
3,6,8,10,15
Cydista diversifolia
?
?
13
2
12
Bombacaceae
Ceiba pentandra
ceiba
5
2,3
16
1
15
Pachira aquatica
provision tree
5
2,3?
9
1
8
Boraginaceae
Cordia sp.
siricote
1,5
13
2,5,7,9,10
1,2
2,4,6,8,9
Brassicaceae
Brassica sp.
mustard
1
1?
1
1,2
1
Burseraceae
Bursera spp.
gumbolimbo
5
24,9
2,7,10,13,16
1,2
2,6,9,12,15
Protium copal
copal
9
4,9
5,9
1
4,8
Caricaceae
Carica papaya
wild papaya
1
1
7
2
6
Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium sp.
goosefoot
1
1
1
1
1
Clusiaceae
Rheedia intermedia
caimito
5
2,3
1,10
2
1,9
Combretaceae
Bucida buceras
bullet tree
1,5
2,3
5,7,9
1,2
4,6,8
Terminalia sp.
nargusta
5
2,3
7,9
1
6,8
(table continued on next page)
Page 7
(table continued from previous page) Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea sp.
morning glory
1
4,9
13,14
2,3
12,13
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita moschata
squash
1
1,7
1,2,6
1,2
1,2,5
Cucurbita sp.
squash
1,4
1
1,2,5,7,9,11,13,14
13
1,2,4,6,8,10,12,13
Lagenaria sp.
gourd
4
6
1,11
2
1,10
Sechium edule
pataste
1
1
1
2
1
Cyperaceae
3
?
2
1
2
Cladium jamaicense
razor grass
1,9
?
2,9
1
2,8
Cyperus canus
sedge
8
9
10
2
9
Scleria sp.
sawgrass
1
?
1,2
1,2
1,2
Dilleniaceae
Curatella americana
sandpaper tree
5
2,3
7
1
6
Ebenaceae
Diospyros sp.
persimmon
1
1
5,13
1,2
4,12
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia sp.
spurge
1
4?
13
2
12
Jatropha gaumeri
pomolché
1?
?
13
2
12
Manihot esculenta
manioc
5,9
1,2,
2,11
1,2
2,10
Sapium sp.
5
2,3?
1
1,2
1
Fabaceae (sensu lato)
Acacia sp.
cockspur
5,9
2,3
2,7,13
1,2
2,6,12
Albizzia sp.
5
2,3
1
1
1
Cassia sp.
1
4?
1
2
1
Crotalaria sp.
chinchin
1
1
2
1
Dalbergia sp.
rosewood
5
2,3
1
2
1
Desmodium sp.
beggar's lice
1
Enterolobium sp.
guanacaste
5
2,3
2,9
1
2,8
Haematoxylon sp.
logwood
5
2,3,9
7
1,2
6,8
Hymenea sp.
guapinol
5
13
1,2
1
1,2
Indigofera suffructicosa
indigo
5
9
2
1
5
Inga sp.
bribri
5
13
2,9
1
2,8
Lysiloma sp.
tsolam
1
4?
13
2
12
Mimosa sp.
sensitive plant
1?
4?
14
3
13
Phaseolus lunatus
sieva bean
1
1
11
2
10
P. vulgaris
common bean
1
1
1,9,11,12
13
1,8,10,11
Phaseolus sp.
bean
1
1
1,2,13,14
1,2
1,2,12,13
Pithecellobium sp.
turtlebone
5
2,3
2,9
1
2,8
Pterocarpus sp.
bloodwood
5
2?
1
2
1
Vigna sp.
frijol
1
1?
1
2
1
Fagaceae
Quercus sp.
oak
5
2,3
1
1,2
1
Flacourtiaceae
Casearia sp.
wild lime
5
2,3
11,13
2
10,12
Muntingia calabura
capulin
1
1
11,16
1,2
10,15
Lauraceae
Nectandra sp.
aguacatillo
5
2,3
10,12
2
9,11
Ocotea sp.
aguacatillo
5
2,3
1
2
1
Persea americana
avocado
2,5
13
13,69,11,16
1,2
13,58,10,15
(table continued on next page)
Page 8
(table continued from previous page) Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Malpighiaceae
Byrsonima crassifolia
nance
2,5
1,2
13,5,6
1,2
15
Malvaceae
Gossypium hirsutum
cotton
1,9
1,5,7
2,5,11,14
13
2,4,10,13
Sida sp.
escobilla
1
9
2,7,14,
1,3
2,6,13
Meliaceae
Cedrela mexicana
Spanish cedar
5
2,3
2,11
1,2
2,10
Menispermaceae
Cissampelos pareira
peteltun
1
4?
5
1
4
Moraceae
Brosimum alicastrum
ramón
1?
1
13
2
12
Cercropia peltata
trumpet tree
5
2
2
1
2
Ficus sp.
wild fig
1,5
1?,2,3,9
2,3,79,11
1,2
2,3,68,10
Pseudolmedia oxyphyllaria
manax, cherry
5
2,3
2
1
2
Trophis racemosa
San Ramón
5
2,3
7
2
6
Myrtaceae
Pimenta diioica
allspice
5
2,3,9
2,7,9
1
2,6,8
Psidium guajava
guava
5
2,3,9
2,11
1
2,10
Nyctaginaceae
Pisonia sp.
uña de gato
1
?
5
1
4
Onagraceae
Oenothera sp.
evening primrose
1
?
12
2
11
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis sp.
wood sorrel
1
?
9
1
8
Passifloraceae
Passiflora sp.
passion flower
1
1
1,2,5
1,2
1,2,4
Phytolacaceae
Rivitia sp.
tropical pokeweed
1
?
2,7
1,2
2,6
Pinaceae
Pinus caribaea
Caribbean pine
5
2,3
2,7
1,2
2,6
P. oocarpa
ocote
5
2,3
10,1
1,2
9,10
Pinus sp.
pine
5
13
1,12,14
13
1,11,13
Piperaceae
Piper sp.
cordoncillo
5
24?
2
1
2
Poaceae
Echinocloa sp.
barnyard grass
1
?
7
2
6
Paspalum sp.
virgin grass
3
?
1,2,7
1,2
1,2,6
Trachypogon
8,9
3
11
2
10
Zea mays
maize
6,7,9
1
114
13
13,613
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophora mangle
red mangrove
5
2,3
9
1
8
Rosaceae
Prunus sp.
cerezo
5
13
11
2
10
Rubiaceae
Randia sp.
tujé
1?
1?
13
2
12
Hamelia patens
redhead
5
2
2,7,16
1
2,6,15
Sapindaceae
Cupania sp.
pava
5
2,3
10
2
9
Talisia oliviformis
kinep
1
?
2,13
1,2
2,12
(table continued on next page)
Page 9
(table continued from previous page) Taxon
Parts Founda
Common Name
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Sapotaceae
5
13
3
2
3
Calocarpum mammosum
mamey
1,5
13
13,5,8,10,16
1,2
14,7,9,15
Chrysophyllum sp.
star apple
1,2
1
2
1
2
Manilkara achras
sapodilla
1,5
1,2
2,69
1,2
2,3,58
Mastichodendron capiri
tsabak
1,5
2,3
1,5
1,2
1,4
Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum
chile pepper
1,9
1
2,10,11
1,2
2,9,10
Capsicum sp.
chile pepper
1
1
5
1
4
Solanum sp.
nightshade
1,5
?
2,7,9
1
2,6,8
Sterculiaceae
Guazuma ulmifolia
wild bay cedar
1,5
2,3
2,7,10
1,2
2,6,9
Melochia sp.
escobilla
1
5?
7
2
6
Theobroma cacao
cacao
1,4,5,9
13
1,2,5,7,11,14,15
13
1,2,4,6,10,13,14
Tiliaceae
Corchorus siliguosus
escobillo
1
?
1
2
2
Typhaceae
Typha sp.
cattail
8
3?
7,9
1,2
6,8
Ulmaceae
Celtis sp.
hackberry
2,5
1
1,2,5,11
1,2
1,2,4,10
Verbenaceae
Cornutia pyramidata
zopilote
5
2?
17
2
6
Vitex sp.
fiddlehead tree
5
2,3
1,10,13
2
1,9,12
Vitaceae
Vitis sp.
wild grape
1
1
1
2
1
a
1 = seed; 2 = pit; 3 = achene; 4 = rind; 5 = charcoal; 6 = kernel; 7 = cupule; 8 = leaf; 9 = other.
b
1 = food; 2 = firewood; 3 = construction; 4 = medicine; 5 = fiber; 6 = container; 7 = oil; 9 = other.
c
1 = Copán; 2 = Cuello; 3 = Wild Cane; 4 = Tiger Mound; 5 = Cerros; 6 = Tikal; 7 = Pulltrouser Swamp; 8 = Colha; 9 = Albion Island; 10 = Dos Pilas; 11 = Cerén; 12 = Naco; 13 = Cobá; 14 = Cihuatán; 15 = Río Azul; 16 = Santa Leticia. d
1 = Preclassic; 2 = Classic; 3 = Postclassic.
e
1 = Lentz 1991a; 2 = Miksicek et al. 1991;3 = McKillop 1994; 4 =Cliff & Crane 1989; 5 = Turner & Miksicek 1984; 6= Miksicek 1983; 7 = Caldwell 1980; 8 = Miksicek 1990; 9 = Lentz 1994; 10 = Lentz et al. 1996; 11 = Lentz 1991b; 12 = Beltrán Frias 1987; 13 = Miksicek 1988; 14 = Hurst et al. 1989; 15 = Miksicek 1986.
Page 10
maize as it is growing. This excellent ground cover fills in areas of exposed soil to help eliminate weedy competitors and reduce erosion at the same time. The intercropping of maize and squash is a common practice among the Paya of Honduras (Lentz 1993) and other contemporary indigenous groups of Central America. Most of the cucurbit remains retrieved from Mesoamerican archaeological sites have been from the rind of the fruit (Table 1.1), a tissue layer that generally cannot be identified to the species level. Peduncles, the stem attachments to the fruit, and seeds are diagnostic parts that are most likely to be recovered. Unfortunately, no peduncles have been found, but several seeds of Cucurbita moschata (Duch.) Duch. ex Poir. have been identified. No other evidence for Cucurbita species has been recorded other than C. pepo L. pollen from Edzna (Turner and Miksicek 1984) and several seeds of the same species from Cerén (Lentz et al. 1996). The Cerén C. pepo seeds may have been modern intrusions and therefore are not included in Table 1.1. Other species of Cucurbita probably were used by the Precolumbian Maya, and additional research in the area should reveal the full complement of squashes eaten in the past. One reason squash seeds are not common at Maya sites is that they were probably targeted as a food source; they are a good source of oil and are delicious when dried, so they are unlikely entrants into the trash pile. It seems reasonable to suggest that maize, beans, and squash were grown in swidden, or shifting cultivation, fields away from the house compounds as is the general practice in Mesoamerica today. Evidence from the Cerén site, however, where a cornfield planted in neat rows was growing directly adjacent to a house compound, indicates that even the most reasonable assumptions can be erroneous, and the ancient Mesoamericans continue to show more complexity in their adaptive patterns than our simple models can accommodate. Additional intensive Maya farming techniques included terracing (Beach and Dunning 1995; Turner 1974), raised fields (Siemens and Puleston 1972; Turner and Harrison 1983), check dams (Turner and Johnson 1979), drained fields (Pohl et al. 1996), and other forms of hydraulic agriculture (Bloom et al. 1983; Matheny 1976; Scarborough 1991). Until recently, cultivated chile peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) have been almost invisible in the paleoethnobotanical record. Perhaps the earliest example of chile came from Phase II (Formative period) deposits at Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991). One seed was found and was of such small size it may have been from a wild variety, C. annuum var. aviculare (Dierb.) D'Arcy & Eshbaugh. Another chile seed was found at Late Formative Cerros (Cliff and Crane 1989), and carbonized peduncles were identified at Late Classic Dos Pilas (Lentz 199b). This meager evidence might lead us to believe that chile peppers were not important to the Precolumbian Maya, but recent studies at the Cerén site present quite a different picture. Carbonized chile seeds, peduncles, and rinds were found in great abundance, especially in storage rooms and a kitchen, where they were hung from the rafters in large clusters (Lentz et al. 1996). Several ceramic vessels contained seeds that possibly were in storage for subsequent planting or consumption. Chiles, with their abundant vitamin con
Page 11
tent, were clearly an important component of the diet at the Cerén site, at least by Middle Classic times. Probably these were grown as house garden plants as is the practice among the Kekchi Maya of Guatemala today. Manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has been hypothesized as a major crop for the ancient Mesoamericans (Bronson 1966), but little documentation for this practice has been found in the Maya area. Some carbonized manioc stems were found in Late Formative deposits at Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991), and manioc root casts were uncovered at Cerén (Lentz et al. 1996) in a house garden near one of the domiciliary structures. The limited evidence for manioc cultivation is at least in part due to the double problem of poor preservation of root crops in seasonally wet areas and the difficulty in identifying the fleshy parts, especially after they have been crushed or carbonized. Also, manioc is usually propagated vegetatively without the use of seeds, so there are few opportunities for seeds to become preserved by usual means. Hather and Hammond (1994) also report manioc from Cuello based on electron micrographs of charred parenchymatous tissue, but secure identification of root organs is complete only with clearly discernible vascular tissue embedded within the parenchyma. In addition to manioc, Bronson hypothesized Maya exploitation of other root crops, such as cocoyam (Xanthosoma sp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam.), and jícama (Pachyrhizus erosus [L.] Urb.), but substantive evidence has yet to be identified. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) may well have been an indigenous crop in the Maya area. Not only was it used as a source of fibers for clothing and other purposes, but the seeds were also used as a source of oil. Confirmation of this was found in a metate trough adjacent to a food storage area at Cerén where 74 cotton seeds were being ground for oil extraction (Lentz et al. 1996). The oil may have been used as a base for paints, as a liniment, or for other purposes, but the archaeological context suggests the seeds were being ground for cooking purposes. If the oil had been used for cooking, it would have added fats to a diet that is in other respects deficient. One drawback to unrefined cottonseed oil, however, is that it contains about 0.36 percent gossypol (Smallwood 1978), a polyphenolic binapthalenedialdehyde. At high concentrations gossypol is toxic. For example, the LD50 (lethal dose in 50 percent of the cases tested) in rats is 2,870 mg/kg (Telek and Martin 1981). In other experiments a 15 percent diet of cotton meal with 1.1 percent gossypol caused growth suppression in baby chickens (Krishnamurthi 1954). If these results can be converted to human equivalents, a child with a diet of 45 percent cottonseed oil would suffer from stunted growth, or a 50kg adult who ingested 40 liters of cottonseed oil in one sitting would receive a lethal dose of gossypol. These possibilities are, at best, highly unlikely. More realistically, individuals probably consumed far less oil. Accordingly, the use of small quantities of cottonseed oil for cooking purposes may have been plausible in Precolumbian times. These calculations, however, do not take into account possible longterm effects of gossypol consumption. Gossypol does have an interesting side effect: it lowers sperm counts and has been used as a reliable male contraceptive in China with only mild side effects (Telek and Martin 1981). One can only wonder at the impact this may have had
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on Precolumbian society. One final note on cotton: because its natural habit is to grow as a shrub, it seems likely that cotton was grown as a perennial at Cerén and elsewhere in Mesoamerica. Another fiber plant, agave (Agave spp.), currently cultivated widely throughout Central America, was grown as a prolific home garden plant at Cerén. Casts of many of these plants define the location of an extensive, carefully tended, infield garden that was directly adjacent to one of the house compounds (Lentz et al. 1996). This garden and others like it were the source of raw material for the many examples of agave fiber twine found at the site. To color textiles and other artifacts, the Maya may have used indigo (Indigofera suffructicosa Mill.) and inkwood (Haematoxylon campechianum L.) as dye plants (Turner and Miksicek 1984). Numerous authors have hypothesized, in various ways, how the ancient Maya relied extensively on tree cropping (Caballero 1989; Dahlin 1979; Folan et al. 1979; GómezPompa et al. 1987, 1990; Lange 1971; Lundell 1938; Miksicek 1990; McBryde 1947; McKillop 1994; Netting 1977; Pérez Romero and Cobos P. 1990; Puleston 1968, 1982; Turner and Miksicek 1984; Wilken 1971; Wiseman 1978), and the paleoethnobotanical data largely support these assertions. The remains of many fully domesticated fruit trees—for example, avocado (Persea americana Mill.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), and cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)— have been found in two or more sites. Other fruitbearing trees that existed somewhere along the continuum of wild tree to completely domesticated crop included such native species as mamey (Calocarpum mammosum Pierre), calabash (Crescentia spp.), guava (Psidium guajava L.), hogplum (Spondias mombin L.), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia [L.] H.B.K.), capulín (Muntingia calabura L.), and papaya (Carica papaya L.). These are fruit trees that could have been gathered from forest stands or may have been grown in dooryard orchards. Once again, for insights as to how this was accomplished in Precolumbian times, we can turn to Cerén, where economically important trees were planted in household courtyards. Branches, leaves, and cotyledons of avocado; abundant casts of whole guava fruits; branches and rinds of calabash; and stems and fruits of nance were arrayed across the activity surfaces of several house compounds. Clearly, the citizens of Cerén grew much of their fruit in infield gardens or orchards directly adjacent to their houses where they could be fertilized with household waste and night soil. One aspect of the ancient Maya subsistence pattern revealed from the archaeobotanical record which was not predicted by early scholars was the widespread use of palms. The most widely used palms were the indigenous coyol (Acrocomia aculeata [Jacq.] Lodd. ex Mart.),2 huiscoyol (Bactris spp.), and cohune (Attalea cohune [Mart.] Henderson) (Lentz 1990). Remains of all these have been recovered from numerous sites throughout the region (Table 1.l), often with more than one species being exploited at any one site. The Maya may have been interested in palm fruits because of their high oil content. Fats are an essential part of the diet; nutritionists recommend that 2030 percent of the caloric intake consist of fats (Dunne 1990). In addition to providing energy, fats 2
Acrocomia aculeata is often listed in botanical and archaeological literature as Acrocomia mexicana.
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act as carriers for the fatsoluble vitamins A, D, E, and K; aid in the absorption of vitamin D; and help convert carotene to vitamin A (Dunne 1990). An examination of Table 1.1 reveals that fat sources from plants, with notable exceptions of mamey, squash seeds, and avocado, were limited for the Precolumbian Maya, a fact that was especially problematic in light of their meager assortment of domesticated animals. Although the Maya domesticated turkeys, Muscovy ducks, and dogs, most of their animal meat came from whitetailed deer, generally regarded as a lean meat source. All the palms listed in Table 1.1 are native to Mesoamerica, are good oil producers, and could have been exploited as wild plants. It seems likely, however, that at least one species, coyol, was cultivated during prehistoric times by peoples of central Mexico (Smith 1967) and the Maya, who were responsible for its introduction to the Copán region (Lentz 1991a). The Copán Maya recognized the value of the palm and cultivated it to enhance their nutritional options. Curiously, there appears to have been no extensive use of palms at Cerén as a food source. The explanation may be that the Cerén inhabitants had no need for palms because they obtained their oil from other sources. In short, each community in the ancient Maya realm needed a good source of fats, and the oil of palm could have filled this dietary need. Of course, when the Spaniards arrived in the sixteenth century, the Mesoamerican diet changed rapidly to a reliance on fats from a new source: the adipose tissues of Old World domesticated animals. In spite of the growing body of paleoethnobotanical data, a number of widely used New World domesticates have not been found at Mayan archaeological sites. Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) have all escaped discovery. Wiseman (1983) claimed to have retrieved amaranth pollen from Pulltrouser Swamp, but his identifications were tentative. This is understandable, because the genera in the Amaranthaceae have morphology that is difficult to distinguish. Moreover, the seeds of amaranth, tomato, and tobacco are tiny and may simply have escaped notice by field collectors. Continued searching with the use of fine screens (mesh size 900 ppm, Fe > 300 ppm, K > 400 ppm, Mn > 100 ppm) and repeated the factor analysis. Elimination of these contaminated samples removed the BaMn correlation at Seibal. At both Dos Pilas and Seibal the alkaline earths load on the first factors, accounting for most variability in these rotated matrices. At Altar Al and Fe contamination remains the first factor but is independent of relationships among dietarily informative elements. In no sample does a BaMn correlation document oxide contamination. Diagenetic change of bone mineral is documented in the Pasión samples, but the worst cases are easily identified by high levels of soil contaminants not normally found in bone. Exclusion of these samples minimizes the role of contamination in structuring the elemental data. Nonetheless, diagenesis remains a possible factor in the ensuing paleodietary interpretation of the alkaline earths in Pasión bones. Paleodiet in the Pasión Figure 11.2 illustrates the alkaline earth composition of human bone from the three sites in comparison with soil samples from each. Strictly speaking, this comparison between soil and bone is not valid because the amount of Sr and Ba leached from soil using the acid extraction protocol does not necessarily correspond to the amount of these elements that would be leached in soil water and therefore available for incorporation into plants. It is evident, however, that intersite patterning in human bone alkaline earth ratios parallels these soil patterns. Like Altar soils, Altar human bone mineral is enriched in Sr and Ba relative to bones at Seibal and Dos Pilas. Since stable isotope ratios indicate very similar diets between Late Classic sites (Wright 1994,1997), the differences in elemental composition of bone between sites are not due to dramatic dietary differences. Instead, they reflect environmental differences that are carried through the foodweb. Moreover, the fact that human bone parallels the soil patterning suggests that that most foodstuffs were consumed near their source of production. The alkaline earth composition of human skeletons from Altar de Sacrificios is illustrated in Figure 11.3. A chronological trend in Ba/Ca ratios is evident. The highest Ba/Ca ratios occur in the Preclassic, and the lowest occur in the Early and Late Classic periods. Terminal Classic Ba/Ca is lower than Preclassic Ba/Ca but appears to show a slight rise over Late Classic values. The Mann Whitney U test finds that only the Preclassic Ba/Ca is statistically different from the Terminal Classic mean (p [(CO3(OH)]0.10.5}3, which is contained within the collagen matrix as thin tablets 33 nm in thickness. The elements lead, sodium, and strontium may substitute for calcium. Fluoride and chloride may substitute for a hydroxyl ion. biomass: The total mass or amount of living organisms found in a particular area. bivalve: A class of molluscs (Bivalvia) with two shells hinged together; includes mussels and clams. bone carbonate: The inorganic component of bones and teeth, it is a calcium phosphate [Ca10(PO4)6(CO3)(OH)2] similar to mineral hydroxyapatite in its organic components and crystalline structure. bottle gourd (Lagenaria sp.): A largeseeded Cucurbitaceae cultivar. The seeds are eaten dried or green, and the shells may be used as bottles, bowls, and fishnet floats. breadnut or ramón (Brosimum alicastrum): A large Neotropical tree (2440 m) having yellow fruits each with a large, edible seed and milky juice that exudes from the bark when cut. C cacao (Theobroma cacao): A small evergreen Neotropical tree (810m) that produces leathery, ellipsoid, tenribbed, stimulating fruits of yellow, green, red, or dark purple color. Cocoa refers to the seed kernel and the beverage prepared from the roasted and ground beans. calabash: A tropical American tree (Crescentia cujete) of the bignonia family which bears large, gourdlike fruit. carbonate: Salt of carbonic acid containing the divalent negative radical CO3. caries: A disease process characterized by focal demineralization of dental hard tissues by organic acids produced by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates. cariogenic: Producing caries. cariostatic: Inhibiting caries production. cassava: See manioc. catchment analysis: Analysis of resources available within a circumscribed area to a particular group. CEJ (cementoenameljunction): The place where the cementum tissue of the root of a tooth meets the enamel tissue of the crown. cervid: See deer. chayote (Sechum edule): A perennial herbaceous vine with thickened roots and slender, branching stems up to 10m long. The pearshaped fruit, stems, young leaves, and tuberized portions of the roots are eaten as a vegetable. chile peppers (Capsicum annuum): The pungent fresh or dried fruit of any of several cultivated varieties of capsicum, used especially as a spicy flavoring in cooking. ciruela (Spondias sp.): Small (37 m) Neotropical fruit tree with edible ellipsoidal drupes with brilliant red epicarps. The pulp has a sweetsour flavor and is prepared fresh, dried, as an atole, mixed with maize flour and sugar, and as chicha (maize liquor). cist: Tomb made of stone slabs or hollowed out of rock. collagen: The fibrous protein constituent of bone,
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cartilage, tendon, and other connective tissue. In paleodietary research collagen refers to Type I, the only one in bone and tendon.
cotyledon: The first single leaf or one of the first pair of leaves produced by the embryo of a flowering plant.
cougar: See puma.
coyol: See palm.
cribra orbitalia: See porotic hyperostosis.
crypt: An underground chamber or vault, as under the floor of place of worship. crystallinity index (CI): Used to characterize the crystal structure of carbonate, it is a measure of the degree of phosphate (PO43) band splitting at wave numbers 565, 595, and 605 in the infrared spectra of a sample of carbonate.
cucurbit: A tendrilbearing plant having fleshy edible fruit with a leathery rind and unisexual flowers. The ripe fruit is eaten as a vegetable. The seeds are eaten whole or ground, roasted or toasted, and have a high oil content. D debitage: The waste created by the manufacture of stone tools. decalcification: Removal of calcium or calcium compounds from bone. deer (Odocoileus virginianus): A whitetailed hoofed ruminant animal of the Cervidae family, common to the Maya area. deflocculant: An agent activating the process by which large particles present in a suspension break up into fine particles. demography: Statistical study of population structure. DEH (dental enamel hypoplasia): A condition of decreased or arrested growth in enamel of teeth that are still in the process of growth or formation which causes enamel defects. dental arcade (arch): The curved row of teeth that is formed in the maxilla or mandible. dental attrition: The wearing down of teeth. dental caries: See caries. diachronic: Changes occurring over a period of time. diagenesis: Alteration of original chemical composition, structure occurring in a material (e.g., bone) after it has been deposited. discriminant function: A statistic that allows one to determine category. dog (Canis familiaris): A carnivorous mammal related to the foxes and wolves and domesticated in a variety of breeds. E eburnation: An abnormal condition of bone or cartilage in which it becomes very dense and smooth, or polished, often caused by wear. ecosystem: A system made up of communities of plants and animals and their relationship to the physical environment. emic: The view of the insider. enamel defect: See DEH. encomienda: A repressive system used by the Spanish to extract labor or tribute from the natives. endosteal: Referring to the connective tissue lining the marrow cavity of bones. et'ok: Literally ''companion." A group of generic species that are related to one another in Itzaj folkbiological taxonomy. Itzaj usually recognize such relationships as intermediate taxa that fall within the same scientific family by virtue of a salient aspect of common morphology and/or use. F flotation: A method of recovery of botanical remains in which they rise to the surface of water and are removed from there. folkbiological taxa: The biological categories that appear in a folkbiological taxonomy, such as che' (tree), put (papaya tree), and putil (forest papaya) in Itzaj Maya. folkbiological taxonomy: A hierarchical system of biological classification whose universal structure is found in all cultures. folk kingdom: The highest level of folkbiological taxonomy. In all cultures there are two folk kingdoms corresponding to the categories "plant" and "animal." Itzaj refer to all and only animals as b'al'~che' but have no single name to refer to the plant kingdom as a whole: nevertheless, Itzaj have a numerical quantifier, teek, that quantifies all and only plants (e.g., jun~teek ixi'im = "oneplant maize," that is, a maize plant). folkspecific: The level of folkbiological taxonomy immediately subordinate to the genericspecies level. Taxa at this level usually occur as categories that contrast with one another along some perceptible dimension that is culturally salient: for example, Itzaj contrast putil[+]k'aax ("forest papaya," Carica mexicanum) with put il[+]kaj ("village papaya," Carica papaya). folkvarietal: The level of folkbiological taxonomy immediately subordinate to the folkspecific level. Taxa at this level usually occur as categories that contrast with one another along some perceptible dimension that is culturally salient: for example, Itzaj contrast ixk'än[[+]]putil[+]kaj (yellow village papaya) with ixsäk[[+]] putil[+]kaj ("white village papaya"). fractionation: The selection for or against one or more isotopes of an element during a chemical reaction which results in a measurable difference in the isotope ratios between a reaction product and its substrate. freshwater snail (Pachychilus crovinus or P. largillierti): An edible mollusc also known as jute, the shell of which can be processed for lime.
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frijolillo (Cassia occidentalis): A legume. G gastropod: Any of a large class of molluscs (Gastropoda) having onepiece, straight, or spiral shells, such as snails, or having no shells or greatly reduced shells, such as slugs. generic species: The fundamental level of classification in folkbiological taxonomy. At this level folk taxa often correspond to scientific genera or species: for example, "dog" and "tomato" in folkbiological classification of ordinary English speakers or, equivalently, pek' and p'ak for Itzaj Maya. germplasm: Hereditary material, often enclosed within a seed. H hackberry (Celtis sp.): Any of various fruit trees or shrubs of the genus Celtis, having inconspicuous flowers and small usually ovoid drupes. Harris' Line: Linear areas of increased density in the ends of long bones which are viewed with xray and created by recovery from a period of growth arrest. HCL: Hydrochloric acid, a clear, colorless, fuming, poisonous, highly acidic aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride. horticulture: Gardening. hydraulic agriculture: Irrigation agriculture. hyperextension: Movement or extension beyond that normally allowed, as in joints of the body. I in situ: Literally "in place." intermediate taxa: The folkbiological taxa that appear between the genericspecies and lifeform levels. Unlike the genericspecies and lifeform levels, intermediate taxa do not fully partition the locally recognized biota, and they are often perceived as related to a prototypical generic species rather than explicitly named: for example, Itzaj recognize uyet'ok b'alum ("companions of the jaguar" = felines), uyet'ok ya' ("companions of the chicle tress" = Sapotaceae family), and uyet'ok xa'an ("companions of the Sabal palm = palms and broadleafed zingiberales). isotope: one of two or more atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. A difference in the number of neutrons in the nuclei of an atom leads to differing atomic mass or atomic weight. Nuclides that transform into different nuclides only through an external agent are considered stable. Radioactive isotopes are nuclides that spontaneously transform into one or more different nuclides. isotope mass spectrometry: a measurement technique that relies on the principle that electrically charged atoms can be separated by their masses based on their masscharge ratio when passed through a magnetic field. Itzaj: The last surviving group of Lowland Maya speakers native to the northern Petén rainforest of Guatemala. J jaguar (Felis onca): A large feline mammal having a tawny coat spotted with black rosettes. L ladino: In Spanish America a person of mixed ancestry. lemma: The outer or lower of the two bracts or scales surrounding the flower of a grass. lesion: Injury, injurious change in texture or action of an organ of the body. life form: The level of folkbiological taxonomy immediately subordinate to the folkkingdom level. In every culture there are a handful of plant and animal life forms that include all, or most, subordinate generic species. For example, Itzaj recognize the life forms che' (tree), pok'~che' (herb/bush), su'uk (grass), ak' (vine), Käy (fish), ch'iich' (bird including bats), b'a'al~che'+kuxi'mal ("walking animal" = mammal), b'a'al~che'+kujiltikub'aj ("slithering animal" = reptile), and mejen+b'a'al~che' ("small animal'' = invertebrate). linear mixing model: A model that predicts (1) that carbon atoms from all the macronutrients ingested as foods are evenly distributed to bone collagen (organic phase) and to bone and enamel carbonate (inorganic phase) and (2) that the isotopic composition of both collagen and carbonate is a product of the isotopic composition of all carbons consumed (i.e., the whole diet). lithic: Of stone. loglinear: Logarithmicbased representation. lyophilize: To freezedry. M macrobotanical: Plant remains observable with the naked eye. macronutrients: The three major nutritional elements in foods: proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. maize (Zea mays): Any of numerous cultivated forms of usually tall annual cereal grassbearing grains or kernels on large ears. malanga (Xanthosoma sp.): A herbaceous Neotropical perennial with edible subterranean tuberous stems comparable in nutritional value to the potato. mandible: The jaw. manioc (Manihot esculenta): Cassava. A shrubby Neotropical plant grown for its edible, large, tuberous, starchy roots. It is eaten after leaching and drying to remove cyanide. Cassava starch is also the source of tapioca. mano and metate: Manos are stones used to grind food against flat stone metates. maxilla: The bony complex that holds the upper teeth. medullary cavity: The hollow portion in the middle of long bones. midden: A refuse heap.
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milpa: A maize field created by slashandburn techniques. mollusc: Any of numerous invertebrates of the phylum Mollusca, typically having a soft unsegmented body, a mantle, and a protective calcareous shell. multivariate statistics: Quantitative analysis involving many variables. mussel: Any of several edible marine or freshwater bivalve molluscs. N NaOH: Sodium hydroxide, an alkaline compound. nance (Byrsonima crassifolia): Small trees or shrubs with edible sweet yellow fruits. nutrient routing model: A model that predicts (1) that carbon atoms from the three macronutrients ingested as foods are differentially distributed to bone collagen and to bone and enamel carbonate; (2) that carbon atoms from proteins are preferentially routed to collagen while carbon from all macronutrients is incorporated into carbonate; and (3) that the isotopic composition of collagen reflects that of proteins consumed whereas the isotopic composition of carbonate reflects that of the whole diet. O optimal foraging: A subsistence pattern in which advantage is taken of available resources without much patterning or advance planning. orbit: The bony structure that encases the eye. osseous: Composed of, containing, or resembling bone. osteobiography: The reconstruction of individual life history through the study of the skeleton. osteology: The study of the skeleton. osteophyte: A bony outgrowth. P paca (Cuniculus paca): A large, nocturnal, burrowing, spotted rodent that lives on plants and fruit and is hunted for its edible flesh. palea: The upper or inner, thin, membranous tract enclosing the flower in grasses. paleodiet: The study of diet in extinct systems. paleoethnobotany: The study of plant remains and their uses in extinct systems. paleonutrition: The study of nutrition in extinct systems. paleopathology: The study of health, disease, and nutrition from skeletal remains. palm or coyol (Acrocomia mexicana): An evergreen tree often used for producing an alcoholic beverage. palmae: Tropical or subtropical monocotyledonous trees or shrubs having a woody, usually unbranched trunk and large evergreen featherlike or fanshaped leaves growing in a bunch at the top. parenchyma (parenchymatous tissue): A soft tissue made up of thinwalled, undifferentiated living cells with air spaces between them, constituting the chief substance of plant leaves and roots, the pulp of fruits, the central portion of stems, etc. patrilineal: Designation of descent, kinship through the father instead of the mother. pathoses: Abnormal conditions. peccary (Tayassu sp.): Any of several piglike hoofed mammals of the family Tayassuidae having long, dark, dense bristles. peduncle: The stalk of a solitary flower. periapical abscess: An abscess, or infection in which pus is produced, that occurs near the tip of a tooth. periodontitis (periodontal disease): Inflammation of the periodontal or gum tissue. periosteal: On the outside surface of bone. periostitis: Inflammation of the periosteum, the layer of tissue that is found on the outside surface of bone. per mil: A unit of onethousandth. perennial: Having a life span of more than two years. photosynthesis: A process by which carbonates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water using light as an energy source, most notably in green plants. phytolith: A small opaline or silicate inclusion in plant cells. piscine: Of fishes. plazuela: A raised quadrangular court with several small square or oblong architectural structures grouped around it. postcranial: Relating to the portion of the skeleton that does not include the head, i.e., the torso and limbs. postmortem: After death. porotic hyperostosis: Skeletal lesions associated with irondeficiency anemia involving the outer table of cranial vault bones and the roof areas of the eye orbits (cribra orbitalia). puma or cougar (Felis concolor): A large, powerful, wild cat found in mountainous regions and having an unmarked, tawny body. R ramón: See breadnut. reducción: A reserve, or area where natives who had been converted to Christianity by the Spanish were placed to live. rhyolite: A finegrained extrusive volcanic rock, similar to granite in composition. ridged fields: A type of selfirrigating agriculture in which earth (usually swampy) is piled into ridges that are planted. rind: A tough outer covering, the skin of some fruits. rostrum: An elevated platform, often beakshaped. S sacroiliac joint: The area in the pelvis where the sacrum articulates with the iliac bone. savanna: Extensive open grassy plain. sea urchin: Any of various echinoderms of the class Echinoidea, having a soft body enclosed in a round, symmetrical, calcareous shell covered with long spines. seriation: A typological arrangement according to series.
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sexual dimorphism: A difference in size or shape that exists between males and females, often involving body height. socioeconomic: Of or involving both social and economic factors. squash (Cucurbita moshata): See cucurbit. stratified: Layered, or in the case of status, differences based on wealth. stratigraphy: The arrangement of rocks, or geological deposits, in layers or strata. subpopulation: A subdivision of a population that has common, distinguishing characteristics. subtrochanteric: An area on the proximal end of the femur below a feature called the trochanter. sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas): A Neotropical vine with roseviolet or pale pink funnelshaped flowers and cultivated for its fleshy, tuberous orangecolored roots, which are eaten cooked as a vegetable. swidden: Slashandburn. symbiont: Dissimilar organisms living together in a close association that may be, but is not necessarily, of benefit to each. synchronic: Occurring at the same time. synergistic: The simultaneous operation of separate agencies, which when taken together create a greater effect than would the sum of their individual effects. T taxa: Units of biological classification, e.g., kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. tranchet bit: A slicing tool. trophic: Of or involving the feeding habits or food relationship of organisms at different levels in the food chain. U ubiquitous: Being or seeming to be everywhere at the same time, omnipresent. V vascular tissue: Characterized by or containing vessels for the transmission or circulation of plant fluids. W wild grape (Vitis sp.): A plant with woody vines bearing clusters of edible berries and widely cultivated in many species and varieties. Y yam (Dioscorea trifida): Any of numerous tropical vines of the genus Dioscorea, many of which have edible starchy, tuberous roots. Z zapote (Pouteria sp.): A tree up to 24 m high with a dense leaf canopy that bears edible, sweet, spherical fruits with a single large seed. zooarchaeology: A branch of archaeology that involves the study of animal remains.
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CONTRIBUTORS Scott Atran Institute for Social Research University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 481061248, USA Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique CREAEcole Polytechnique) Port Vendres, France Shannon Coyston Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, ON L8S 4L9, Canada Marie Elaine Danforth Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, MS 394065074, USA Kitty F. Emery Department of Anthropology State University of New York Potsdam, NY 13676, USA James F. Garber Department of Anthropology Southwest Texas State University San Marcos, TX 78666, USA David Glassman Department of Anthropology Southwest Texas State University San Marcos, TX 78666, USA David L. Lentz New York Botanical Garden Bronx, NY 10458, USA Ann L. Magennis Department of Anthropology Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA David Millard Reed Research Fellow in Biostatistics Department of Anthropology The University of Michigan 1020 LSA, 500 S. State St. Ann Arbor, MI 481091382, USA Henry P. Schwarcz Department of Geology McMaster University Hamilton, ON L8S 4L9, Canada Leslie C. Shaw Department of Sociology/Anthropology Bowden College 7000 College Station Brunswick, ME 04011, USA Rebecca Storey Department of Anthropology University of Houston Houston, TX 77204, USA Edilberto Ucan Ek' Director Herbolaria Maya Uman, Yucatan Christine D. White Department of Anthropology University of Western Ontario London, ON N6A 5C2, Canada Steven L. Whittington Hudson Museum University of Maine, 5746 Maine Center for the Arts Orono, ME 044695746, USA Lori E. Wright Department of Anthropology Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77802, USA
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INDEX A abnormal bone formation due to infectious disease at Ambergris, 128 Abrams and Rue (1988) use pollen cores to associate Copán collapse with environmental degradation, 151 Acbi phase at Copán, 154 achiote, moderately high Ca levels in, 204 Acropolis at Copán had densest recorded population for a Late Classic Maya site, 169 adult stature calculations at Copán, 173 agave grown as prolific home garden plant at Cerén, 12 agricultural trade model implications of Peten sites, xxii Albion Island Colha stone tools at, 86 early selfsufficiency in meat resources acquisition, 97 alkaline earth ratios in human bone at Altar de Sacrificios, 212213 Dos Pilas, 213 Seibal, 212213 alkaline processing of maize calcium content of maize greatly increases with, 206 pellagra could result without, 206 Altar de Sacrificios alkaline earth ratios in human bone at, 212213 Amblema clam unlikely as source of lime at, 212 average stature slightly higher than at Ambergris, 129 description of site of, 199 diagenetic alteration of archeological bone mineral at, 209 differences in elemental composition of bone at, 210212 inorganic portion of bone analyzed elementally for, xxi leg bones longer in Preclassic than in Early Classic, 112 peak in caries frequency at, 163 porotic hyperostosis relatively high rates, 129 reasons for variability in elemental ratios at, 212 Saul (1972) says scurvy present at, 164 Saul's classic osteobiography on, xii scurvy as a cause for loss of teeth, 162 shows predicted increase in sexual dimorphism, 108 soils, 202 stature estimation at, 123 striking decrease in stature among males at, 107 alveolar loss in Ambergris teeth sample, 125126 suggest caution suggested in applying measurements, 125 Amaranth not recovered archaeologically from the Maya area, 13 Ambergris Cay (See also sites of Chac Balam, Ek Luum and San Juan) abnormal bone formation due to infectious disease at, 128 alveolar loss in teeth sample of, 125126 Archaeological Project, 119130 average stature at, 129 carious lesions in teeth sample, 124125 description of, 119 enamel defects at, 127 fish use at. See fish gastropods recovered archaeologically from, 121 infectious disease rate relatively high at, 129 low frequency of porotic hyperostosis at, 129 maize at. See maize males with elite social position among tallest individuals at, 123 porotic hyperostosis at, 127. See also porotic hyperostosis time sequence at, xviiixix Amblema clam unlikely as source of lime at Altar de Sacrificios, 212 Ambrose (1993), review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 animal use change patterns in Postclassic and transition to Colonial, 62, 73 antemortem tooth loss, causes of, 152 aquatic resources increasing importance, 75 armadillos have Ba/Calike herbivores but are somewhat Sr enriched, 206 arux (wood fairies) as guardians of breadnut and chicozapote trees, 55 Atran, Scott. On extending the use of ethnobotany, xvixvii Augustin site in Guatemala ChapaloteNalTel complex, 4 avocado (Persea americana) presence at Copán, 185 B Barium (Ba) extremely low natural abundance hinders paleodietary reconstruction, 214215 peccary (Tayassu sp.) eat some foods not eaten by true herbivores that are deficient in, 205206 squash seeds from Altar de Sacrificios very high in, 204 Ba/Ca (Barium/Calcium) animal foods have lower values than plant foods, 206 armadillos somewhat Sr enriched although Ba/Calike herbivores, 206 Bajo de Santa Fe at Tikal, 206
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Bajo la Justa geointensive production systems, 20 Barton Ramie females not more susceptible than males to caries, 162 shows decrease in sexual dimorphism, 108 while males becoming taller the females become shorter, 112 Willey (1965) suggests increasingly meager nutrition at, 106 bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 biointensive economy of central Petén, 20 "biopurification" principle as basis of postulated use of alkaline earths as trophic indicators, 198 black maize processing from near San Juan Comalapa, 207 Bogin (1995) on Maya average increase in stature when living in United States, 105 Bogin and colleagues (1992) discovered Guatemalan sexual maturation less delayed in girls than in boys, 105 bone chemistry studies, xxixxii, chapters 10, 11, 12 bones counts as a method for the quantification of faunal data, 85 elemental analysis for, 201 isotropic analysis for, chapters 10, 12 paleopathology for, chapters 5, 6, 9 botanical and faunal analyses absolutely fundamental to paleodiet research, xvi bottle gourd (Lagenaria sp.) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 bow and arrow technology importation, 75 breadnut for Itzaj (See also ramon) as plant species most deserving respect and protection, 55 have no doubt that ancestors tended and used, 55 Bronson hypothesis of Maya use of root crops, 11 C C3 plants are most other than maize consumed by the Maya, 184 C4based diets at Copán of dogs, pacas, and peccaries, 187 Cahal Pech, 83 marine fish remains at, 91, 93 calcium (Ca) content of maize greatly increases with alkaline processing, 206 fish and snail values reflect water composition not dietary behavior, 206 importance of, 198 moderately high levels of, 204 mollusc consumption could provide a measurable contribution of, 206 Pasión soils high in soluble Ca, 202 rich plants, 204 calculus increase over time at Kichpanha, 142 scored according to a fourpoint scale, 140 Calvin (C3based) terrestrial plants categorized by carbon isotope composition and photosynthetic type, 184 camote, Itzaj use of, 21 carbon isotope collagen studies used to assess maize importance, 224 caries (archaeological). See also dental caries; caries lesions Copán frequency of, 156157 frequency increase during terminal occupation at Kichpanha, 142 study at Kichpanha of, 141 caries lesions in Ambergris teeth sample, 124125 modifying factors that can affect the site and speed of, 134 Cerén agave grown as prolific home garden plant at, 12 bean remains preservation at, 5 chile peppers present at, 1011 Classic period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 cotton use at, 11 fruit trees grown in household courtyards at, 12 manioc presence at, 11 oil extracted from cotton seeds at, 11 sieva beans at, 5 Cerros, 83 Colha stone tools at, 86 Formative period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 presence of chile peppers, 10 rapid growth as port in Late Preclassic, 95 Chac Balam on Ambergris Cay. See also Ambergris Cay burials at, 122 description of, 120 molluscs recovered from site of, 121 Chalcatzingo systematic differences in strontium content of skeletons, 197 ChapaloteNalTel complex (Isthmian Alliance) most maize fragments of, 4 characterization of social organization and complexity paleodiet research contribution to, xv charcoal records provide documentation of wood changes over time, 14 chaya Carich plant, 204 chayote (Sechium edule) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 chemical techniques for analyzing bone revitalized paleodiet, xii Chichen Itza, relatively high rates of porotic hyperostosis at, 129 chicken, Itzaj did not classify as bird, 50 Chihuahua and Sonora dry caves, ChapaloteNalTel complex at, 4 children remains sicker and in poorer health than the living population, 171 chile peppers Cuello earliest example of, 10 moderately high Ca levels in, 204 Chimaltenango, processing of maize from, 207 chipilin, Carich plant, 204 Cihuatan Maya archaeological plant remains, 4 ciruela (Spondias sp.), evidence for presence at Copán, 185 Cittarium pica, 121 Clarke and Hirsch (1991) suggest caution in applying alveolar loss measurements, 125
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Cobá, Classic period Maya archaeological plant remains from, 4 Cobweb Swamp, evidence for wetland agriculture in, 92 Colha, 83 deer use at, 94 dog use at, 94 limitations regarding contextual data faunal information, 85 marine fish remains at, 91 marine reef fish remains in late Middle Preclassic, 93 mass producer of stone tools in Late Preclassic, 95 meat resources selfsufficiency of early settlers, 97 Preclassic vertebrate faunal assemblage, 8788 shift to use of mammals in Late and Terminal Preclassic, 93 site of, 8688 stone tools production at, 86 turtles at, 94 collagen carbon 13 values underestimate energy portion of the diet, 225 preservation and preparation techniques, 187 collapse of Classic Maya society ecological explanation, x colonial changes in animal usage have Postclassic roots, 62 Lamanai utilization of species in, 72 Tipu utilization of species in, 72 common bean in Maya area, 5 Copán, animals of C4based diets of dogs, pacas, and peccaries at, 187 deer at. See deer dogs at. See dog freshwater snail. See Pachychilus freshwater snail jaguar (Felis onca) identified at, 186 pacas (Cuniculus paca) at. See pacas (Cuniculus paca) Pachychilus freshwater snail at, 186 peccary (Tayassu sp.) C4based diets at, 187 puma or cougar (Felis concolor) identified at, 186 Copán, disease at different disease incidence among status groups, 175176 multiple hypoplasias at, 176 nutrient deficiency associated with demise of Classic at, xiii, 20 periodontal disease present in 88.2 percent of adult skulls, 162 porotic hyperostosis at, 129, 175 scurvy at, 162, 164 study of paleopathology at, xx Copán, people of adult stature calculations at, 173 average stature lower than at Ambergris, 129 collapse associated with environmental degradation, 151 densest Late Classic Maya site population at Acropolis of, 169 Early Classic people bigger than Late Classic counterparts, 106 environmental degradation associated with collapse at, 151 females at. See females at Copán human bone specimens description, 186187 Late/Terminal Classic generalized nutritional stress, 178 males associated with the absence of caries, 159 nutrient generalized stress experienced by society of, 178 organic portion of bone analyzed isotopically for, xxi physiological stress among subpopulations of, 186 sexing and aging human remains at, 154155 study of commoners at, 151 Copán, plants of avocado (Persea americana) presence at, 185 bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) evidence for presence at, 185 bottle gourd (Lagenaria sp.) evidence for presence at, 185 charcoal documents wood changes through time, 14 ciruela (Spondias sp.), evidence for presence at, 185 Classic period Maya archaeological plant remains from, 4 complementary studies of paleopathology at, xx coyol palm (Acrocomia mexicana) at, 13, 170, 185 Formative period Maya archaeological plant remains from, 4 frijolillo (Crassia occidentalis) present at, 185 grape (wild) evidence for presence at, 185 maize very important for low status diet, 159160. See also maize nance (Byrsonima crassifolia) presence at, 185 pollen core interpretation of collapse, 151 zapote (Pouteria sp.) at, 185 Copán, site of Acbi phase at, 154 Acropolis at, 169 description and history of occupation of site of, 183184 early Coner phase at, 154, 159 House of the Bacabs, 171172 new class of site at, 153 stable isotope data, criticism of previous interpretation of, 162 time sequence at, xviii Type I through Type IV residential sites at, 153 type of sites at, 153 Copán, teeth of caries frequency at, 156157, 159, 163. See also caries (archaeological); dental caries horticulture associated with presence of caries at, 159 males associated with the absence of caries, 159 methods used to study teeth at, 155156 recording of caries at, 154 Cotton use in the Maya area, 1112 Cowgill and Hutchinson (1963) documented differential leaching of Sr relative to Ba, 206 coyol palm (Acrocomia mexicana) archaeobotanical evidence for presence at Copán, 185 cultivated in prehistoric times, 13 introduced by Maya into Copán, 13 one of most common remains in Late Classic Copán, 170 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) terrestrial plants categorized by
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carbon isotope composition and photosynthetic type, 184 Cretaceous Pee Dee belemnite formation (PDB) carbon reference for stable isotope ratio, 184 Cuello, 83 charcoal records document wood changes through time, 14 chile peppers earliest example at, 10 Colha stone tools at, 86 fish use increases during late Middle Preclassic at, 93 hydrological peak in water table levels at, 93 manioc presence at, 11 marine fish remains at, 91 marine reef fish remains in late Middle Preclassic, 93 meat acquisition selfsufficiency of early settlers, 97 plant remains of Mayan Formative period earliest from, 4 sample size overwhelms data from smaller sites, 113 cultural dynamics understanding from the bottom up, move towards, xiv cultural process overlapping with environmental restrictions, xxi curassow at Pacbitun, 223 D Danforth, Marie Elaine growth compared to stature as a measure of adaptability, xix deer Colha use at, 94 Copán archaeological identification, 186 Copán C3based diets, 188 Copán irregular and minimal use during Coner phase, 191 Pacbitun presence, 223 deforestation associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, 20 since 1962, 20 deformation both cranial and dental common at Ambergris, 123 degenerative joint disease at Ambergris, 128 demineralization, dental caries as, 135 DeNiro (1987) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 dental calculus recovery of food particles from, 136137 useful for making inferences abou dietary consistency, 136 dental caries. See also caries (archaeological) essential factors in the occurrence of, 134 infectious, transmissible disease, 152 inverse relationship with calculus, 143 three principal factors involved in promotion of, 134 dental enamel hypoplasias, 172173 dental plaque deposits formation, 135 dentition value for study, 134 diagenesis alteration of archaeological bone mineral possibility, 209 more dependent on burial context than sample age, 230 dietary patterning in nonspecific health indicators, xxii dietary baseline data importance, 198 dietary inferences must be made on sitespecific basis, 202 dietary protein, isotopic composition of collagen may largely reflect carbon isotope ratio of, 221 disease burden part of many Maya Late Classic decline models, 107 diversity of each zooarchaeological community methods used to quantify, 65 Dobney and Bothwell (1987), calculus scored according to a fourpoint scale of, 140 dog (Canis familiaris) Colha use, 94 Copán archeological presence, 186 Copán C4based diets, 187 Pacbitun presence, 223 Petén Preclassic and Postclassic importance, 94 Dos Pilas agricultural trade model implications, xxii alkaline earth ratios in human bone at, 213 bone elemental composition differences with Seibal reflect environmental differences, 210 bone inorganic portion analyzed elementally for, xxi chile peppers at, 10 consumption variation of plant among social groups, 213214 diagenetic alteration of archaeological bone mineral at, 209210 plant collection at, 204 site description, 200 soils, 202 E earliest Maya archaeological plant remains from Cuello, 4 early Coner phase at Copán, 154 teeth associated with absence of caries, 159 early Middle Preclassic, 9192 garden hunting in, 88 ecological explanation for collapse of Classic Maya society, x economic infrastructure collapse associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, 20 ecosystem, basis of accurate analysis of, 65 Ek Luum (Ambergris). See also Ambergris Cay analysis of faunal materials, 121 reliance on shallow water and reef waters environment at, 122 Elias et al. (1982) Sr/Ca in alpine stream water higher than in soil moisture, 206 elite males taller than commoners at Tikal and Copán, 176 El Posito, Colha stone tools at, 86 Emery, Kitty. how complexity of tropical ecosystems might affect the analysis of faunal material, xviii enamel defects at Ambergris, 127 environmental degradation, Copán collapse associated with, 151 environmental factors significant in causing change in stature, 104 environmental restrictions, cultural process overlapping with, xxi environment determining adult Maya stature, 105106 epazote, Carich plant, 204
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Evans (1973) found caries mean frequency peak during Tayasal area Middle Classic, 163 F fats may reduce caries, 135 faunal studies at Postclassic and Colonial lowland Maya sites, reasons for, 62 females at Copán caries associated with, 159 maize eaten less with increasing age, 192 Petén or Yucatan more susceptible than males to caries, 162 fish Ca values reflect water composition not dietary behavior, 206 increasing Preclassic use of small, 9293 largest sample of faunal material from Ambergris sites, 121 seasonal high densities in river flood plains wetlands, 9293 flotation use in sampling plant remains, 3 folkbiological taxonomies most stable, widely distributed and conservative cognitive structures in any culture, 47 folkspecifics, foreign organisms often initially assimilated to generic species as, 48 foreign organisms, assimilation of, 48 Formative period Maya archaeological plant remains, 4 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 228 freshwater snail. See also Pachychilus freshwater snail identified archaeologically at Copán, 186 frijolillo (Crassia occidentalis) present at Copán, 185 fructose intolerance people are essentially caries free, 135 fruit trees grown in household courtyards at Cerén, 12 functional and social contexts importance in study of archaeological faunal material, 8485 G Garber, James and David Glassman provide methodological model to apply to small samples, xix garden hunting in early Middle Preclassic, 88, 9192 Garson (1980) on seasonally high densities of small fish, 9293 gastropods recovered archaeologically from Ambergris sites, 121 generic species not isomorphic with scientific species or genera, 48 where relationships between organisms maximally covary, 4748 Genovés formula, 107, 173 Gleser formula for stature estimation, 123 Gossypol as male contraceptive, 11 grape (wild) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 Guatemalan Pacific coast, processing of maize from, 207 Guatemalan sexual maturation less delayed in girls than in boys, 105 H hackberry (Celtis sp.) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 Harris lines, 126127 HatchSlack (C4based) terrestrial plants categorized by carbon isotope composition and photosynthetic type, 184 Haviland (1967) found statistically significant decrease in stature at Tikal, 106107 work on stature at Tikal, xixii health agriculture consequences explain reduction in stature, 107 not sufficient for survival, xix herpetofauna as a "residual" Itzaj life form that lacks a conceptually distinctive role, 50 hill slope terraces at Seibal, 212 Hillson (1986) increase in diet protein associated with decrease in acidproducing bacteria, 135 Hodges (1985) found periodontal disease present in 88.2 percent of adult Copán skulls, 162 horticulture associated with presence of caries at Copán, 159 House of the Bacabs provided most of Copán skeletal sample, 171172 human bone specimens from Copán description, 186187 human diet in Maya lowlands reconstruction problems, xi I ideological with materialist economic modes of explanation postprocessual move to connect, xivxv infectious disease at Ambergris, abnormal bone formation due to, 128 infectious lesions on bone, 172 infrared spectroscopy, rigorous protocol for the use of, 230 intensive agriculture with environmental degradation as explanation for Classic Maya collapse, x intermediate taxa functioning, 5051 irondeficiency anemia, xiii Itzaj data base for study of useful plants of, 19 FolkGeneric Species subordinate taxa, 49 lack of knowledge of prehispanic culture, claims for, 21 prophecies as negotiating ploy, 21 J jaguar (Felis onca) identified archaeologically at Copán, 186 junco palm enriched in Sr/Ca relative to other flora, 204 jute at Pacbitun, 223. See also Pachychilus freshwater snail K Kate's Lagoon, 137 Katzenberg (1992) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Keegan (1989) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Kichpanha calculus increase over time at, 142 caries frequency increase during terminal occupation, 142 Classic importance of maize as percentage of the diet at, 138 Colha stone tools at, 86 description of site of, 137 dietary change at the Lowland Maya site of, 133146 investigates diet change at, xx longest time sequence at, xviii
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maize did not constitute the overwhelming percentage of the diet, 138 methods used to study bones and teeth, 140 Preclassic maize not overwhelming percentage of the diet, 138 kwashiorkor presence in Guatemala, 104 L Lacandon Maya use of snail shells as source of lime, 207. See also Pachychilus freshwater snail Laguna Petexbatún. See Petexbatún, Laguna Lamanai, xviii, 222 burial sample size, 225 caries frequency peak at, 163 caries reports at, 143144 Colonial era, reasons for changes, 77 diagenesis testing at, 228230 elemental analyses attempted at, 197 females significantly more susceptible than males to caries, 162 heterogeneity changes are more dramatic than Tipu over time, 66 importance of work at, 61 increasing use of reef resources during Postclassic and Historic, 232 inorganic portion of bone analyzed isotopically for, xxi isotopic analysis of mineral portion of human bones and teeth, xxii limeencrusted colander pots, 207 maize and maritime increase with population increase, 239240 phytate removal from maize effective beginning in Postclassic, 145 status differences based upon land animal consumed by elite, 236 survival rationale of, 221 Lamanai, plant and animal species at avian Late Postclassic importance at, 69 backdoor gardens or multispecies horticulture at, 144 Colonial utilization of species at, 72 importance of pristine canopy forest species at, 67 Late Postclassic utilization of species at, 6970, 72 Middle Postclassic utilization of species at, 6667 La Perra Cave in Tamaulipas ChapaloteNalTel complex, 4 Larsen et al. (1991) essential factors in the occurrence of caries, 134 Late and Terminal Preclassic shift to use of mammals at Colha, 93 Late Classic decline in stature not ubiquitous homogeneous phenomenon, 112 late Coner phase at Copán, 154 teeth associated with presence of caries, 159 Late Postclassic utilization of species at Lamanai and Tipu, 6970, 72 Lentz, David. review of plant use among the Maya, xvi lichens not classified as Itzaj plants, 49 life forms may differ from culture to culture, 47 Linares (1976) gives primary reason for leaving the residential area, 83 linear mixing model to describe uniform distribution of carbon, 224 local ecology had a profound effect on food consumption, xxiii local meats of high prestige as elite markers, 240 Longyear (1952) noted Early Classic individuals bigger than Late Classic counterparts at Copán, 106 Lovejoy (1985), dental attribution evaluated using system of, 124 lower status males of Late Classic similar in stature to modern Maya, 113114 M macal root enriched in Sr/Ca relative to other flora, 204 Itzaj use of, 21 Macal river system, 64 Magennis, Ann. investigates diet change at Kichpanha, xx maize Copán archaeobotanical evidence for presence, 185 C4 plant, 184 unlike other plants and so not included with other plants, 50 Ambergris importation of, 121 Pacbitun consumption reached peak during Classic, 139 caries promotes, 144 not overwhelming percentage of the diet at Kichpanha, 138 domesticates fed maize more accessible to elite at Pacbitun, 239 low status diet importance at Copán, 159160 processing technique change as promoted caries, 145 staple diet at Copán indicated by carbon values, 187 variations in Maya Lowland use, 139 marine resources comparison with, xxii males at Copán associated with the absence of caries, 159 preference not seen in analysis of childhood health indicators, 113114 with elite social position among tallest individuals at Ambergris, 123 malnutrition part of many models for the fall of the Late Classic Maya, 107 mamey fruit use by Itzaj, 21 manioc Itzaj use of, 21 presence of, 11 as promoting caries, 144 use of, 138 MannWhitney tests, 108, 202 manos and metates ubiquitous throughout the Copán Valley, 185 marine fish remains at Belize sites, 91 marine reef fish remains identified at Cuello, Cahal Pech and Colha in late Middle Preclassic, 93 market in Preclassic Maya communities, 95 Márquez Morfín (1984) systematically studied stature patterns in fifteen prehistoric populations over time, 107 Maya average increase in stature when living in United States, 105
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Biosphere Reserve, 20 collapse shortening given far more emphasis than is warranted, 114 diet reconstruction a worthwhile pursuit, ix modern diet meeting young children protein requirements, 104 past bigger than their modern descendants, support for, 108 stature decrease as folklore of archaeologists, 103 stature reports of modern rural Guatemalan, 108 today among shortest populations in the world, 103 Melongena melongena, 121 Middle Postclassic utilization of species at Lamanai and Tipu, 6667 Miksicek (1991) identified hydrological peak in Cuello water table level, 93 mineral grit from grinding stones can affect bone ratios, 208209 minimum number of individual estimations (MNI) , 64 mollusc consumption could provide a measurable Ca contribution, 206 Monte Albán in Oaxaca ChapaloteNalTel complex, 4 morphological indicators of stress in Ambergris population, 126 mosses and liverworts not classified as Itzaj plants, 50 multiple hypoplasias, status group 2 males at Copán have highest percent, 176 mushrooms not classified as Itzaj plants, 50 N Naco, Postclassic period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 nance (Byrsonima crassifolia) presence at Copán, 185 Newbrun (1982) fructose intolerance people are essentially caries free, 135 three principal factors involved in promotion of dental caries, 134 New River Lagoon system, 64 Nickens (1976) health consequences associated with agriculture explain reduction in stature over time, 107 NISP (number of identified specimens), 85 nitrogen isotopes composition of collagen used to identify source of dietary protein, 224 distinguish between marine animals and terrestrial plants, 184185 nitrogen reference for stable isotope ratio ambient air (AIR), 184 ''nixtamal" methods for tortillas and tamales, 207 Nohmul, Colha stone tools at, 86 nomenclature used alone to indicate taxonomic status can be misleading, 51 nopal contains much more Ca than most plants, 204 Norr (1995) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 nutrient deficiency associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, xiii, 20 generalized stress, Copán society experiencing, 178 O Odum's richness measure, 65 Ontario populations of horticulturists, caries comparison with Copán, 161 outside sources for changes in animal use practices, 74 P pacas (Cuniculus paca) archaeologically identified at Copán, 186 C4based diets at Copán of, 187 pacaya palm Carich plant, 204 Pacbitun abandonment rationale, 221 burial sample size, 226 curassow at, 223 deer at, 223 description of site of, 222223 diagenesis testing at, 228230 diet was relatively uniform in carbon isotopic composition, 238 dog remains at, 223 inorganic portion of bone analyzed isotopically for, xxi isotopic analysis of mineral portion of bones and teeth, xxii jute at, 223. See also Pachychilus freshwater snail maize consumption reached peak during Classic at, 139 maizefed domesticates more accessible to elite at, 239 maize increasing dependence until Terminal Classic, 236 maize production increase with population growth, 239240 post occupation internment with substantially more C3 foods, 236 rabbit at, 223 turkey at, 223 Pachychilus freshwater snail Copán archaeological presence, 186 Lacandon use as source of lime, 207 Pacbitun jute, 223 paleodietary reconstruction with alkaline earths hindered by extremely low natural abundance of Ba and Sr in this ecosystem, 214215 paleodiet revitalized by chemical techniques for analyzing bone, xii paleolimnological analysis of sediments in central lakes region of Petén, 20 paleopathological indicators as indirect reflection of diet and nutrition, 170171 research changes, xiixiii palms nuts moderately high Ca levels in, 204 widespread use of, 1213 papaya high Ca may be result of small green state of sampled fruit, 204 parrotfish remains found at Colha, 91 Pasión soils high in soluble Ca, 202 Pate (1994) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Patterson (1984) worldwide sample of caries frequencies, 159 peak in caries frequency at various Mayan sites, 163 peccary (Tayassu sp.) C4based diets at Copán of, 187
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eat some Badeficient foods not eaten by true herbivores, 205206 at Pacbitun, 223 pellagra could result without alkaline processing of maize, 206 Peña(1985) Preclassic peak in mean percentage of caries, 163 periapical abscesses around the teeth, 172 periodontal disease present in 88.2 percent of adult skulls from Copán, 162 periosteal reactions on surface of long bones, 172 Petén trend in Preclassic and Postclassic, importance of dog remains in, 94 Petexbatún, Laguna waterlily contains the most Sr of all sampled plants, 204 physiological stress among subpopulations of Copán, 186 pine where it does not now grow suggests longdistance transport, 15 piñuela contain much more Ca than most plants, 204 enriched in Sr/Ca relative to other flora, 204 plantains, Itzaj use of, 21 plants ash as a possible source of lime, 208 mutually exclusive life form groupings of, 49 plant samples elemental analysis for, 201 Pohl (1976) identified Petén trend in Preclassic and Postclassic importance of dog remains, 94 Pomacea snail shells as source of lime, 207 Popol Vuh connection of ideological with materialist, xv population growth associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, 20 porotic hyperostosis, 172173 at Ambergris, 127 at Copán statistically significant distribution, 175 posole, Yucatec method for preparation of, 207 postprocessual move to connect ideological with materialist economic modes of explanation, xivxv primary goal of book, xv protein proportion in diet increase associated with decrease in acidproducing bacteria, 135 provisioning of ancient Maya populations, problems in understanding, x Pulltrouser Swamp Colha stone tools at, 86 Formative period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 puma or cougar (Felis concolor) identified archaeologically at Copán, 186 R rabbit at Pacbitun, 223 ramon (See also breadnut for Itzaj) Itzaj use of, 21 little archaeological evidence for use as food, 1314 moderately high Ca levels in, 204 Rio Azalea Classic period Mayan archaeological plant remains, 4 Rio Honda wetlands proposed pattern of agricultural use, 92 Owe (1975) on modifying factors that can affect the site and speed of carious lesion development, 134 Rue (1987) interpretation of pollen core evidence that environmental degradation associated with collapse at Copán, 151 RugGnu (1981) suggest change in maize processing technique change increases caries, 145 Russell (1976) didn't find expected Maya pattern of sexual dimorphism, 105 S San Juan on Ambergris Cay. See also Ambergris Cay burials at, 122 description of, 120 molluscs recovered from site of, 121 San Juan Comalapa, processing of maize from, 207 sapote. See zapote. Sarteneja females as susceptible to caries as males, 162 Saul (1972) classic osteobiography on Altar de Sacrificios, xii decrease in stature among males at Altar de Sacrificios, 107 scurvy present at Altar de Sacrificios, 164 Saul and Saul (1989) small size as a successful adaptation among the Maya, 104 Schoeninger (1979a, 1979b) documents systematic differences in strontium content of skeletons, 197 Schoeninger (1998) criticism of previous interpretation of stable isotope data for Copán by, 162 Schoeninger and Moore (1992) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Schwarcz and Schoeninger (1991) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Scott (1979) methodology and scoring system evaluated dental attribution, 124 scurvy at Copán as a cause for loss of teeth, 162 unlikely to be present, 164 Seagraves (1974) emphasized environmental generalization advantages in preserving cultural stability in times of stress, 78 Sealy and Sillen (1988) trophic differences most marked for specific predatorprey relationships, 205 Seibal alkaline earth ratios in human bone at, 212213 description of site, 199200 diagenetic alteration of archaeological bone mineral at, 209210 environmental differences with Dos Pilas reflected in elemental composition of bone, 210 hill slope terraces at, 212 inorganic portion of bone analyzed elementally, xxi males becoming taller while females become shorter, 112 soils, 202 sexual dimorphism growth patterns need careful interpretation, 105
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Shaw, Leslie temperate climate analytic methods don't apply to Maya, xviixviii (1995) analysis of Ek Luum Ambergris faunal materials, 121 shell (modern) samples, elemental analysis for, 201 sieva beans at Cerén, 5 Simpson index of diversity, 65 slight infections, highest status have highest incidence, 175 small size as a successful adaptation among the Maya, 104 why would not be a successful adaptation among the Maya, 105 Smith (1984) methodology and scoring system used in dental attribution evaluation, 124 snails Ca values reflect water composition instead of dietary behavior, 206 snakes have "hidden" feet that only the speechless can see, 50 Sobolik (1994): paleonutrition understanding involves contributions from variety of data, 170 social complexity of Maya needs better definition and reconstructed more precisely, xiv soil samples elemental analysis, 201202 Spanish over reliance on cereal forced Itzaj over extention of maize cropping, 21 spatial variation in subsistence practice, demography and sociopolitical and socioeconomic systems, xiii Spearman's correlation coefficient tests of sample correlation, 65 tests of zooarchaeological community correlation, 66 squash growing in Maya area, 5, 10 squash (Cucurbita moschata) evidence for presence at Copán, 185 squash seeds from Altar de Sacrificios very high Ba and Sr of, 204 Strontium (Sr) extremely low natural abundance hinders paleodietary reconstruction, 214215 relative to Ba, documented differential leaching of, 206 squash seeds from Altar de Sacrificios very high in, 204 waterlily of Laguna Petexbatún contains the most Sr, 204 Sr/Ca (Strontium/Calcium) animal foods have lower values than plant foods, 206 in alpine stream water higher than in soil moisture, 206 plants enriched relative to other flora in, 204 stable isotope analysis of Copán bones indicates maize made up a large proportion of low status diet, 159160 stable isotopes in paleodietary research, 184185 stature patterns analysis in southern lowlands have scanty skeletal sample, 113 over time in fifteen northern Maya prehistoric populations, 107 status differences based upon type of land animal consumed by elite, 237 Steggerda (1932) reports of modern rural Guatemalan Maya stature, 108 Stewart (1949) earliest suggestion of Maya populations mean stature decline, 106 observation that ancient Maya bigger than their modern descendants supported by preliminary analysis, 108 Storey, Rebecca study of paleopathology at Copán, xx (1992): physiological stress among subpopulations of Copán, 186 Student ttests at Copán, 188191 Sullivan and Krueger (1981) chemical pretreatment procedures similar to those of, 226 T Tanner and colleagues (1982) trend toward greater stature related to increase in leg length, 105 tapir at Pacbitun, 223 Tayasal area, peak in caries frequency at, 163 teeth, study of, xviii temporal context of a faunal assemblage should not be the only contextual variable addressed, 84 terraces at Seibal, 212 Tikal average stature lower than at Ambergris, 129 Bajo de Santa Fe, 206 overwhelms data from smaller sites, 113 Classic period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 Colonel Modesto Méndez discovery of, 21 Haviland (1967) work on stature at, xixii, 106107 nontomb males of Late Classic similar in stature to modern Maya, 113 shows predicted increase in sexual dimorphism, 108 stature estimation at, 123 while males becoming shorter the females gain in height, 112 Tikal and Copán elite males significantly taller than commoners, 176 time periods represented in book, xv Tipu, xviii Colonial utilization of species at, 72 elemental analyses attempted at, 197 generalized stability over time in overall diversity of species used, 66 importance of work at, 61 Middle Postclassic utilization of species at, 6667 reasons for Colonial era stability, 7778 secondary concentration on armadillo at, 67 tobacco not recovered archaeologically from the Maya area, 13 tomato not recovered archaeologically from the Maya area, 13 trade networks identification, paleodiet research contribution to, xv transport and communication links disintegration associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, 20
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trend toward greater stature related to increase in leg length, 105 trophic differences most marked when specific predatorprey relationships are considered, 205 Trotter formula for stature estimation, 123 turkey at Pacbitun, 223 turtles use at Colha, 94 Tykot and coworkers (1996): maize did not constitute the overwhelming percentage of the diet at Kichpanha, 138 U Ursua y Aresmendi, Don Martin de. reflections on prehispanic culture, 2122 V van der Merwe (1982) review of stable isotope paleodietary research, 184 Villagutierre, errors in account of, 21 W warfare associated with demise of Classic Maya civilization, 20 waterlily collected in the Laguna Petexbatún contains the most Sr of all sampled plants, 204 Waterlow and Payne (1975): modern Maya diet meets over 95 percent of protein requirements for young children, 104 water table levels at Cuello hydrological peak, 93 Webster and Freter (1990) new class of site at Copán, 153 White (1988, 1994) determination of mean percentage of caries frequencies, 163 reports on caries at Lamanai, 143144 White and coworkers (1993) suggest maize consumption reached peak during Classic Pacbitun, 139 White and Schwarcz (1989) backdoor gardens or multispecies horticulture at Lamanai, 144 Lamanai limeencrusted colander pots, 207 suggest effective phytate removal from maize beginning in Postclassic Lamanai, 145 white maize processing, 207 Whittington, Stephen study of paleopathology at Copán, xx (1989, 1992) physiological stress among Copán subpopulations, 186 wild animals, rise of civilization using gives new perspective, 96 Wild Cane Cay Classic period Mayan archaeological plant remains from, 4 marine environment modification seen at, 4 Willey (1965) suggests increasingly meager nutrition responsibility for less rugged skeletons at Barton Ramie, 106 Willey and Leventhal (1979) Type I through Type IV residential sites at Copán, 153 Wing and Scudder (1991) increase in fish use during Cuello late Middle Preclassic, 93 "Woman of Cancuen," 214 worldwide sample of caries frequencies, 159 Wright (1994) raw elemental data presented by, 202 discussion of diagenetic alteration of archeological bone mineral, 209 Wright and Schwarcz (1996) rigorous protocol for the use of infrared spectroscopy, 230 Wright and White (1996) note diet trends that can be observed in the Maya Lowlands, 139 Y yellow maize of Chimaltenango processing, 207 Yucatan and Petén sites peak in caries frequency, 163 Yucatec method for preparation of posole, 207 Z zapote (Pouteria sp.) at Copán, 185 fruit, Itzaj use of, 21