Reconsidering Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World: Meeting Students' Learning Needs

Reconsidering Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World

The Open University in the UK has been very successful; and its model of open and distance learning has been widely and closely replicated by other open universities. However, this book argues that the elite higher education systems cater to UKOU students, and subsequently do not meet the different learning needs and characteristics of students from developing countries. Reconsidering Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World presents evidence that students in the developing world are often ill-prepared for a mode of learning which requires a high degree of self-direction and the ability to learn, in most instances, without the presence of a teacher or fellow students. This is suggested as a major contributor to the low retention rates of most open universities in developing countries. This book: • • • •

looks at the characteristics, needs and learning approaches of students; reconsiders suitability and success of established modes of distance learning for current contexts in the developing world; explores alternative models, making greater use of flexible learning; examines what adaptations are necessary to suit shifting needs, including the move from elite to mass higher education and the effects of technical and societal changes.

Drawing upon research into students’ conceptions of, and approaches to, learning, this critical analysis of the state of open and flexible learning explores reasons for the very low graduation rates from open universities in developing countries. It is essential reading for researchers and educational developers, policy-makers, managers and administrators in open and flexible learning, as well as for students of distance education. David Kember is Professor of Learning Enhancement at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He has previously held academic positions in Hong Kong, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Fiji and the UK. His research interests are in student learning, adult education and lifelong learning.

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Open and Flexible Learning Series Series Editors: Fred Lockwood, A.W. (Tony) Bates and Som Naidu

Activities in Self-Instructional Texts Fred Lockwood Assessing Open and Distance Learners Chris Morgan and Meg O’Reilly Changing University Teaching Terry Evans and Daryl Nation Contemporary Perspectives in E-Learning Research: Themes, Methods and Impact on Practice Gráinne Conole and Martin Oliver The Costs and Economics of Open and Distance Learning Greville Rumble

Exploring Open and Distance Learning Derek Rowntree Flexible Learning in a Digital World Betty Collis and Jef Moonen Improving Your Students’ Learning Alistair Morgan Innovation in Open and Distance Learning Fred Lockwood and Anne Gooley

Delivering Digitally Alistair Inglis, Peter Ling and Vera Joosten

Integrated E-Learning: Implications for Pedagogy, Technology and Organization Wim Jochems, Jeroen van Merriënboer and Rob Koper

Delivering Learning on the Net: The Why, What and How of Online Education Martin Weller

Interactions in Online Education: Implications for Theory and Practice Charles Juwah

The Design and Production of SelfInstructional Materials Fred Lockwood

Key Terms and Issues in Open and Distance Learning Barbara Hodgson

Designing Video and Multimedia for Open and Flexible Learning Jack Koumi

The Knowledge Web: Learning and Collaborating on the Net Marc Eisenstadt and Tom Vincent

Developing Innovation in Online Learning: An Action Research Framework Maggie McPherson and Miguel Baptista Nunes

Leadership for 21st Century Learning: Global Perspectives from International Experts Donald Hanna and Colin Latchem

Learning and Teaching with Technology: Principles and Practices Som Naidu Learning and Teaching in Distance Education Edited by Som Naidu Making Materials-Based Learning Work Derek Rowntree Managing Open Systems Richard Freeman Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media John S Daniel Mobile Learning: A handbook for educators and trainers Edited by Agnes Kukulska-Hulme and John Traxler Objectives, Competencies and Learning Outcomes Reginald F Melton The Open Classroom: Distance Learning In and Out of Schools Edited by Jo Bradley Online Education Using Learning Objects Edited by Rory McGreal Open and Distance Learning: Case Studies from Education, Industry and Commerce Stephen Brown Open and Flexible Learning in Vocational Education and Training Judith Calder and Ann McCollum Planning and Development in Open and Distance Learning Reg Malton Planning and Management in Distance Education Santosh Panda

Preparing Materials for Open, Distance and Flexible Learning Derek Rowntree Programme Evaluation and Quality Judith Calder Reconsidering Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World David Kember Reforming Open and Distance Learning Terry Evans and Daryl Nation Reusing Online Resources Alison Littlejohn Student Retention in Online, Open and Distance Learning Ormond Simpson Supporting Students in Online, Open and Distance Learning 2nd Edition, Ormond Simpson Teaching with Audio in Open and Distance Learning Derek Rowntree Teaching Through Projects Jane Henry Towards More Effective Open and Distance Learning Perc Marland Understanding Learners in Open and Distance Education Terry Evans Using Communications Media in Open and Flexible Learning Robin Mason The Virtual University Steve Ryan, Bernard Scott, Howard Freeman and Daxa Patel

Reconsidering Open and Distance Learning in the Developing World

Meeting students’ learning needs

David Kember

First published 2007 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor and Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2007 David Kember, except Chapter 3 © Alan Woodley, and Chapter 12 © Carmel McNaught. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kember, David. Reconsidering open and distance learning in the developing world : meeting students’ learning needs / David Kember. p. cm. — (The open and flexible learning series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–415–40139–9 (hardback) — ISBN 0–415–40140–2 (pbk.) 1. Distance education—Developing countries. 2. Open learning— Developing countries. I. Title. LC5808.D48K46 2007 371.3′5′091724—dc22 2006100818

ISBN 0-203-96654-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–40139–9 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–40140–2 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–96654–6 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–40139–5 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–40140–1 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–96654–9 (ebk)

Contents

List of illustrations Author and contributor biographies

xiii xv

PART I

Introduction 1 Modes of learning in post-secondary education

1 3

Scope of the book 3 Issues addressed 3 Adult education 4 Distance education 5 Open learning 6 Distance and open learning are not synonymous 7 Flexible learning 8 E-learning 8 Generalisation 9 Summary 9 2 Major themes in student learning Research literature 11 Persistence project 11 Part-time project 12 Approaches to learning 15 Models of retention 17 Students’ beliefs about teaching, learning and knowledge 19 Nature of teaching and approaches to learning 21 Summary 25

11

viii Contents PART II

Open learning 3 The Open University of the United Kingdom – a British eccentricity or a model for the world?

27

29

ALAN WOODLEY

Introduction 29 An institution of its time 29 The growth of education in the UK 30 The growth of higher education in the UK 31 The education of adults 32 The conception of the Open University 35 From conception to reality 40 The Planning Committee 42 Reasons for success 48 The launch of the Open University 50 Early survival 52 The growth period 56 The future 57 Discussion 58 Postscript 60 4 Need for open entry in developing countries

61

Mass and elite higher education 61 Educational systems in developing countries 62 Open universities in developing countries 62 Open education in Hong Kong 64 Students enrolling in open universities 68 Cost of distance education 70 Summary 73 5 Other elements of openness Open learning 74 Freedom of time 74 Freedom of place 76 Freedom of choice of courses 78 Summary 79

74

Contents ix PART III

Adult learning 6 Pedagogy and andragogy

81 83

Adult learning 83 Andragogy and pedagogy 84 Andragogy as a set of continua 86 Self-determination in learning 86 Summary 89 7 Open universities expect andragogy

90

Adapting to distance education 90 Initial problems in adapting to study at a distance 90 Beliefs about teaching and learning 91 Beliefs about knowledge 93 Normative congruence 94 Compatibility between modes of teaching and learning 95 Goals of self-determination 97 Teaching incompatible with self-determining students 98 Didactic teaching to reproductive learners 98 Accepting the status quo? 100 Recognition of need for independent learners 101 Alternatives to didactic tutorials 102 Reorienting beliefs about teaching and learning 102 Summary 106 PART IV

Distance education 8 Appropriateness of the UKOU model for developing countries Students graduating from open universities 111 Interpretation of graduation rates 113 Demand for graduates 114 Demand for graduates in Hong Kong 115 Outsourcing 117 Summary 119

109 111

x Contents

9 Dual-mode universities

120

New England model 120 Flexibility of the dual-mode system 121 Summary 122 10 North American model of distance education

124

Five generations of distance education 124 Communication technologies 127 Research into the effect of media 128 Conclusion 130 11 The loneliness of the distance learner

131

Benefits of group learning 131 Integration and persistence 134 The place of human contact in distance education 135 Do distance learners want contact? 137 Collective affiliation 140 Belonging to class group 142 Tutor–student interaction 145 Sense of belonging to university 147 Freedom of course choice 148 Individualism and collectivism 150 Achievement motivation in Confucian-heritage societies 151 Conclusion 152 PART V

Flexible and e-learning 12 E-learning

155 157

CARMEL MCNAUGHT

Focus of the chapter 157 Models for distance education programmes and providers 158 A focus on technology and learning designs 162 Bridging the bandwidth divide with wireless systems 164 Summary 165 13 Flexible learning: but how flexible? Flexible learning 167

167

Contents xi

Open universities lack parents of flexible learning 168 Industrial systems 169 Examples of flexible learning 170 University of the South Pacific 170 University of Papua New Guinea 172 Hong Kong – student guidance 173 Deakin – Hong Kong – education 174 China 175 An OUHK tutor 177 Conclusion 179 14 Conclusion

181

Difficulty of adapting to distance education 182 Easing the transition 183 Towards flexible learning? 183 Blending in more face-to-face contact 184 Adapting existing structures 184 Evaluation and research 185 Helping students adapt to study at a distance 185 References Index

187 199

Illustrations

Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 8.1

Contrasting conceptions of good teaching Teachers’ beliefs about teaching Approaches to teaching Relationship between conceptions and approaches to teaching Didactic teaching The percentage of the age-group entering higher education Pedagogy and andragogy as continua Categories of self-determination Compatibility between teaching and beliefs The beliefs quadrant as a model for change Enrolments compared to graduates for the OUHK

20 22 22 23 24 31 87 88 97 103 112

Tables 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 6.1 12.1 13.1

Programmes examined in the Hong Kong sub-project Groups of students in the part-time sample Contrasting beliefs of novice and sophisticated students Relationship between conceptions of teaching and approaches to learning Higher education student numbers (1962–3) Enrolment of mature students by type of institution Enquiries, applications and admitted students (1971–5) Entry qualifications for the first five intakes Educational participation in developing regions Pedagogy versus andragogy Communication infrastructure in four southern African countries, the US and UK Summary of observation of the tutorials

13 14 20 23 32 34 51 51 69 85 164 178

Author and contributor biographies

David Kember My initial involvement with distance education was in my first academic position as a chemistry lecturer at the University of the South Pacific. From there I went to the University of Papua New Guinea, where I developed and taught the science component of an open entry programme preparing adult students for entry to undergraduate degrees. The next step in my journey round the world was a position at the Tasmanian College of Advanced Education as an instructional designer for external courses. Then came another similar position, also in Australia, at the Capricornia Institute of Advanced Education. I next moved to what was then the Hong Kong Polytechnic. The initial work was advising on the design of study packages for programmes offered by distance education and part-time study. Educational priorities in Hong Kong changed, so I became more involved in general educational development work. For five years I ran an interinstitutional initiative known as the Action Learning Project, which offered grants and support for academics to engage in action research projects concerned with innovations in courses they taught. I am currently a professor of Learning Enhancement at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Although I am no longer actively involved with distance education, I have maintained my interest in researching into adult, distance education and part-time students. This has focused particularly on student learning, student progress, approaches to learning and the Chinese learner. Carmel McNaught In my meanderings around the globe I spent fifteen years in Zimbabwe and southern Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. During this time much of my work was with teachers and community groups in rural areas, and we used many distance education strategies – many of which needed to be robust enough to work during times of war. When I returned to Australia in the early 1990s, multimedia and the internet were beginning to impact on higher education, and I have been involved in e-learning ever since, including my current work in Hong Kong. A first degree in science and higher degrees in the social sciences have served me well in this broad career across communities, disciplines and learning technologies.

xvi Author and contribuor biographies

Alan Woodley Back in 1970 I was a young sociology graduate, fresh from the student barricades of 1968 and eager to change the world. The new Open University, with its open access policy, seemed to be a good place to start. I began as a research assistant and one of my first jobs was to evaluate whether the OU was suitable for school-leavers. I am still at the OU. Now I am a senior research fellow in the Centre for Institutional Research, and my next research project is to look at how OU courses are being used in schools to help students get into conventional universities.

Part I

Introduction

Chapter 1

Modes of learning in post-secondary education

Scope of the book This book deals with post-secondary or higher education, which leads to the award of a formal qualification, normally a degree or diploma. Less formal courses which do not lead to degrees are outside the ambit. This excludes courses, like adult education ones, undertaken purely out of interest or pleasure. It does not deal with what is often called conventional higher education, taught principally through face-to-face classes. I do not feel particularly comfortable with the term ‘conventional’, as higher education has been through such turbulent times recently that it is hard to see any form of it as stable or conventional. However, I am sure readers will understand what is implied; so I will use the term for convenience.

Issues addressed My initial involvement with modes of post-secondary education, other than the conventional form, was at the University of the South Pacific, where it was known as extension studies. Since that time I have been through external studies, distance education, open learning, flexible learning and e-learning. Other terms have also been used. The transition through the titles is partly fashion and partly a response to technological developments. Hopefully, it should also reflect a development in practice, as knowledge of how to provide an education outside the classroom has been built up. There should also be evidence of a transition to suit changes in society over time. The more significant modes of adult, distance and open learning have each produced a substantial body of literature which defines the mode and provides a rationale or philosophy explaining its contribution to society. The literature associated with the other modes, such as flexible or e-learning, has been rather more descriptive, with less philosophical discussion of the potential impact on society. There has, though, been considerable speculation about the potential contribution which technological advances can contribute to post-secondary education.

4 Chapter 1

The aim of this book is to make a critical appraisal of whether these modes of education have fulfilled their charters. Each has started with distinct aims and specified a type of student for whom the mode was suited. Adult and open education promised to contribute to fundamental changes in society. Have these modes of education delivered these promises? Are the needs still relevant in view of changes in society since the charters were unveiled? Each of the modes of education originated in the West and their defining literature was mainly developed by Western scholars. The number of students in developing countries taking open and distance education courses must have overtaken the numbers in the original developed societies. The issues which gave rise to these modes of education in the West are not necessarily manifest in the same form in developing societies. The characteristics of typical students can also differ. How do these Western models of education suit the needs of developing countries and their students? Have adaptations in format been made to Western models the better to suit the developing context? As there have been changes in post-secondary education heralded by changes of title, societies have also been changing. This raises the pertinent question of whether the modes of education have adapted to shifting needs. This question is relevant because economic and societal developments have impinged on the original rationale for adult and open education. Before dealing with these challenging questions, it is necessary to examine the most significant modes of post-secondary education. How were they characterised? Why was the new mode seen as an advance on what had gone before? What promises were made and what outcomes were anticipated? Here the introduction is brief – sufficient simply to define and characterise the mode. In-depth examination of the questions above is left to subsequent chapters. The sequence is historical.

Adult education Formal definitions of adult education define it simply in terms of a minimum age. The Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), for example, defines an adult student as one aged twenty-five or over on entry to a course (1987, p. 29). The only point which might be discussed is the cut-off age. The CERI definition is reasonable for Western countries with mass higher education. However, in developing countries, with limited entry to conventional higher education, students denied entry to the latter years of secondary school or university tend to seek entry to other forms of post-secondary education at an earlier age. Whether they should be classified as adult students is open to debate. Beyond the rather bland definition there is a voluminous literature documenting a rich history of the movement and its aspirations for social and political change. The adult education movement developed in the train of the Industrial Revolution in the West. The labour movement believed that emancipation of the working classes could be achieved by providing a fuller education than the state was willing to give.

Post-secondary education modes of learning 5

These philosophical and political foundations of adult education were a major influence on the formation of the Open University in the United Kingdom (UKOU) and on the literature on open learning, as will be discussed in Chapter 3. The adult learning literature, and particularly the concept of andragogy, has impacted upon the literature associated with other forms of post-secondary education. This will be elaborated upon in Chapter 6.

Distance education The simplest definition of distance education I could find was from Perraton (1982, p. 4). He describes it as ‘an educational process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in space and/or time from the learner’. This serves well to determine what is distance education and what is not, but does not give much idea about its nature. The definition of distance education which has probably been most widely quoted, particularly in the early literature, comes from Keegan (1986, p. 49). He lists the main elements as: •

•

• •

•

the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional, face-to-face education; the influence of an educational organisation both in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of student support services; this distinguishes it from private study and teach-yourself programmes; the use of technical media – print, audio, video or computer – to unite teacher and learner and carry the content of the course; the provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue; this distinguishes it from other uses of technology in education; the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialisation purposes.

Given the diversity of courses offered at a distance, it has not been hard to point out courses which do not fit neatly within this definition. The most contentious point is possibly the fourth. Two-way communication is an ideal which many distance education courses fail to achieve. The problem is not confined to distance education, though, as far too many university courses that are taught face-to-face lack a meaningful two-way dialogue. The final element is also worth noting. It is almost certainly true that the majority of distance education students do learn as individuals. It is one of the central theses of this book, though, that distance education could make more use of off-campus

6 Chapter 1

group work than is currently the case. I also argue that there has been insufficient exploration of flexible learning modes combining distance education with face-toface learning and/or learning in groups.

Open learning Rather than attempting succinct definitions of open learning, the literature consists of a listing of aspects of openness against which courses or programmes can be assessed. Fay (1988, p. 3) puts it less kindly, describing open learning as ‘a ragbag or portmanteau term’. The list which seems to be quoted or cited most often is by Lewis and Spencer (1986). They proposed that courses be assessed on a spectrum from closed to open for each of a number of facets. The list below obviously shows the open or more desirable end of the spectrum: • • • • • • • • •

open entry; study anywhere; start any time; tutors on demand; attendance at any time; flexible sequence; negotiated objectives and content; negotiated learning method; negotiated assessment.

In Kember and Murphy (1990) we pointed out the problem with this list by showing that the progressive primary-school class, attended by David Murphy’s son, displayed far more of the aspects of openness than typical university distance education courses, which used the term open. The proponents of open universities would, no doubt, be taken aback to learn that they were lagging behind primaryschool classrooms in degrees of openness, which suggests problems with the definition. The first problem is that the final four elements in Lewis and Spencer’s (1986) list subsumes in open learning elements of student-centred learning. Studentcentred learning initiatives result from educational models or philosophies, so strive to increase freedom and student initiative within classrooms. Open learning has largely resulted from political and social pressures, so has concentrated on removing participation barriers. The two are therefore quite distinct. The second problem is that the list is over-idealistic. The first part of the list can be attributed to open learning, but practical and economic constraints mean that providing courses with all of these elements towards the open end of the spectrum is unrealistic. A more useful guide to open learning would result by pruning the list to elements of openness that are practicable and associated with removing barriers to participation, so are reasonably common. Within this book I will restrict discussion to the following four elements:

Post-secondary education modes of learning 7

• • • •

open entry; study anywhere; freedom to study at a time chosen by the student within a specified semester; a high degree of openness over the choice of courses to make up a degree programme.

At the time of the formation of the UKOU, open entry was an educational revolution. It meant that students could enrol for a degree without having the A-levels needed for conventional universities, or having results high enough to get in ahead of the rest to obtain one of the restricted number of places at university. The transition from elite to mass higher education has reduced the impact of open entry policies in the West, but they are still the major rationale for open universities in developing countries. The next two elements of openness provide the freedom to study at a time and place convenient to the student. This is important for those in full-time employment or with family-care responsibilities. Notice that I have placed conditions on the degree of openness associated with time. I am aware of a few correspondence courses which offered students the chance to start and finish at any time they wanted, but in higher education this has usually been seen as unrealistic. The final degree of openness is derived from one of the principles of adult learning or andragogy. This recognises that self-directing adult learners are capable of deciding their own learning needs. This implies that they should have a major input into designing their own courses. Individual negotiation of objectives and content, implied by Lewis and Spencer’s visualisation of open learning (1986), has not normally been seen as realistic by open universities. Instead, it has been common to offer considerable flexibility over choice and sequence of courses to make up a degree programme. There are often few restrictions on combinations of courses which can be taken, so course selection resembles a smorgasbord. It is also worth commenting on whether more openness is necessarily better. The rallying cry for open learning and the lists of elements of openness seem to imply that the more elements there are towards the open end of the spectrum, the better the course. This is not necessarily the case, though, as can be illustrated by openness to study where the student chooses. Complete openness would imply no meetings of any sort, which rules out the development of a sense of belonging and types of learning activity such as laboratory work and group discussion. It could, therefore, be argued that a compromise position often benefits the students more than full openness.

Distance and open learning are not synonymous Daniel (1999, p. 292) noted that the European Commission has introduced the term ‘open distance learning’ and that others commonly make use of the sister term ‘open and distance learning’. He believed that combining the terms had led to endemic ‘conceptual fuzziness’ in the fields.

8 Chapter 1

There has certainly been disagreement in the literature. As Daniel has noted, some people use the terms open and distance learning loosely or interchangeably or in combination, so presumably equate the two. Manwaring (1986, p. 3) and Thorpe and Grugeon (1987, p. 2) believe that distance learning is a subset of open learning. Lewis and Spencer (1986, p. 17) believe it is a misconception to equate open and distance learning and give examples of forms of education which clearly fail to meet the definition of distance education yet are widely accepted as being open in nature. My own position has been made clear by the heading to this section. I agree with Daniel (1999) and Lewis and Spencer (1986) that there is not a symbiotic relationship between distance education and open entry, the most significant of the elements of openness. Making a commitment to open entry does not oblige an institution to adopt distance education. Most adult education and continuing studies providers have open entry policies for courses taught face-to-face. Nor does distance education imply open entry in every case. Many distance teaching universities have a range of entry policies for the different types of programme they offer. These might range from completely open entry for basic courses, through minimum-age requirements or professional experience, to having a highclass undergraduate degree for entry to postgraduate degrees.

Flexible learning Moran and Myringer (1999, p. 60) define flexible learning as ‘approaches to teaching and learning which are learner-centred, free up the time, place and methods of learning and teaching, and use appropriate technologies in a networked environment’. Like the early definitions of open learning, it is akin to an advertising pitch for an educational ideal. Perhaps more useful in characterising flexible learning is the recognition that it had three parents: face-to-face teaching, distance education and technology. Flexible learning then becomes an educational system which makes appropriate use of the teaching methods enabled by the three parents to meet student needs and aims towards the ideal in the above definition. Given the three parents, it is not surprising that the greatest use of the term flexible learning has been in dual-mode institutions, which have traditionally offered parallel courses by face-to-face and distance teaching. Conventional faceto-face universities and single-mode distance teaching universities have lacked one of the parents, so have tended to use other terminology.

E-learning The term e-learning seems to have been applied to just about any form of learning which makes use of a computer. More recently the term has mainly been applied to the use of networked computers and the internet. This, of course, covers a multitude of modes of education and types of teaching.

Post-secondary education modes of learning 9

Most of the major forms of teaching and learning can be enabled or facilitated in some way by computers and the internet. Besides e-learning, there are a range of associated terms, such as: computerassisted learning, computer-enhanced learning, networked learning, virtual university, web-based learning, distributed learning, and so on. Usage depends to some extent on fashion and to some extent on factors like: • • •

if the internet is used; whether other modes of teaching are involved besides the computer; if the computers are networked.

Generalisation Formulating definitions which adequately delineate a mode of study has not been easy. Most of the modes of post-secondary education discussed in this chapter have definitions competing with those given here. Most have articles disagreeing with a particular definition and casting doubt on it by pointing out exceptions which do not neatly fit. I see no point in contributing to, or continuing, this discussion, but the existence of it is instructive. It means that there is a significant variation in forms in which the various forms of post-secondary education are offered. For distance education and open learning, my judgement is that the majority of courses conform to a similar pattern, but there are a reasonable number of outliers. It seems to me that generalisation is, therefore, reasonable and often useful. However, when generalisations are made it will always be possible to find exceptions. Finding a few exceptions to a generalisation, though, does not negate the generalisation if it applies to the majority of cases and leads to useful conclusions. With flexible learning and e-learning, the terms seem to be applied to a very diverse range of courses. This makes generalisation more difficult.

Summary This book is concerned with modes of post-secondary education, leading to degrees or diplomas, which do not require full-time attendance at a college or university. Over the years these modes of education have been addressed by a series of labels. For the purposes of this book the following characteristics are the most important. •

•

Adult education is normally defined in terms of age on entry, but more important than the definition is the philosophical literature (discussed in Chapters 6 and 7). Open learning is described as a number of facets of openness, of which the following are the most crucial:

10 Chapter 1

• • • •

•

•

open entry; study anywhere; freedom to study at a time chosen by the student within a specified semester; a high degree of openness over the choice of courses to make up a degree programme.

Distance education is most simply defined by the high degree of separation between the teacher and the students. In most cases there is also separation between learners for most of the time. Open and distance learning are not the same thing. Flexible learning consists of a mix of face-to-face and distance learning with extensive use of information and communication technologies. In the ideal, the blend is chosen to optimise student learning.

Chapter 2

Major themes in student learning

Research literature This chapter introduces a number of important concepts and findings in student learning. The book draws upon the student learning literature to make a critical analysis of current issues and practice in distance and open learning. At this stage the concepts are introduced and key findings briefly discussed. When the concepts are drawn upon in subsequent chapters, there is an expanded account of relevant findings. Student learning has not been a major topic for research in distance education. Lee, Driscoll and Nelson (2004) analysed articles published in the four most prominent distance education journals in the period 1997 to 2002. One of their classification fields was the research topic, which they analysed into six categories. Surprisingly, student learning did not even feature as a subsidiary category, let alone a main one. The main sources of information in this book are two of my own projects. Both of these gathered most of the data from developing countries; so the information is relevant to the main theme of the book. Some research drawn upon is from conventional higher education. This is far from unique to this book. Given the dearth of research specific to student learning in distance education, it is not surprising that the more general higher education literature has been widely cited in distance education journals.

Persistence project The first of the projects I draw upon was a series of studies investigating models of student persistence in distance education. Whenever anything from this series of studies is reported it is referred to as the persistence project. There are four subprojects subsumed within this. The first was an interview study with students undertaking a Matriculation Studies course at the University of Papua New Guinea. Entry to the course was restricted to those aged twenty-one or more, and who had worked for at least two years. The course was designed for adults who did not have the normal level of qualifications for university entry and it operated by a

12 Chapter 2

combination of distance education and intensive summer school courses. (More information about the course is given in Chapter 13.) The research project has been previously described (Kember, 1981). Students were interviewed, mostly face-toface, but a few by telephone. The interviews started with broad questions associated with the way in which students coped with part-time study at a distance and any difficulties encountered. Issues raised by the students were explored by more specific questions. The interviews were therefore not tightly structured so as to allow the students to raise the concerns which were important to them. Extracts from these case studies are cited in the following chapters as ‘(PNG student)’. The second sub-project was at the Tasmanian CAE in Launceston, Australia, which is now part of the University of Tasmania. The project examined the reasons cited by students for their withdrawal from distance education courses. It has been reported by Osborne, Kilpatrick and Kember (1987). The courses used multi-media study packages, and most also had tutorials and/or weekend schools. For four semesters, during the period 1983 to 1985, students who withdrew from a distance education course were sent a questionnaire who included a number of Likert scale responses related to potential reasons for withdrawal. Two open-ended questions enquired about reasons for withdrawal and about potential improvements to courses or services. Quotations are taken from responses to these open-ended questions and are cited as ‘(University of Tasmania)’. The largest of the sub-projects investigated seven distance education programmes in Hong Kong. All were available only to adult students, with three having open entry policies. The programmes all used a media package for the delivery of instruction. Print was the predominant medium, but a variety of other media, including audio and video cassettes and direct broadcast television, were also utilised. Each programme was supported by face-to-face tutorials for groups of students. In addition, four of the programmes offered telephone counselling services to answer individual student queries. One programme offered a similar service by fax. A summary of the programmes is given in Table 2.1. The offerings of the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong (OLIHK) were treated as one programme, despite the fact that data was gathered on courses in the arts, business and science, because at that time the institution offered all courses in a similar academic format. Quotations from this sub-project are indicated by ‘(Hong Kong – programme)’. Examples are ‘(Hong Kong – Student Guidance)’ and ‘(Hong Kong – OLIHK)’. In my book on the persistence study (Kember, 1995) I also drew upon work by Kennedy and Powell (1976), who presented cases taken from case notes by student counsellors from the UKOU. The students were all enrolled in degree courses offered by the UKOU. Cases from this source are referenced to the original paper.

Part-time project The second project was conducted in Hong Kong and investigated a number of issues concerning part-time students. The aim was to conduct a holistic exploration

Institutions

Hong Kong Polytechnic

Warwick University/HK Management Association

Hong Kong Polytechnic/ Taxation Institute

Hong Kong Polytechnic

Open Learning Institute of HK

ACCA/ Hong Kong Polytechnic

Deakin University/ Chinese University

Subject

Textiles

Management

Taxation

Student Guidance

Business/ Science/Arts

Law

Education

Bachelor’s degree

4 months

Open

Teaching qualification

2.5 years

4 months

6 years

Bachelor’s 1.5 years degree, must be practising student counsellor

Open

ACCA qualifying Open

Bachelor’s degree

Postgraduate diploma

Certificate

4 years

HKCEE or above 3 years 25 years of age

Entry qualification Normal duration

Master’s degree First degree or 4 years’ management experience

Certificate

Level

Table 2.1 Programmes examined in the Hong Kong sub-project

Colloquia, workshops and tutorials about every 2 weeks

4 times for 2 hours each

Tutorial every 3 weeks

Print, audio Tutorial every tapes, videotapes 4 weeks

Print

Telephone counselling

Other support

‘Group of 5’ study group

Fax service for queries – response by phone

Telephone counselling

Informal contact

Telephone counselling

A 4.5-hour Telephone session for each counselling subject

Tutorial every 4 weeks

Tutorial support

Print, direct Tutorial every broadcast TV, 2 weeks plus other media

Print

Print

Print

Print, video cassettes, practical kits

Media package

14 Chapter 2

of the student experience of part-time students. Outcomes from this project will refer to the part-time project. The sample consisted of two main groups of part-time students: novices and experienced students. The thirty-five novice interviewees were in their first year of part-time study. Another eighteen interviewees were postgraduate returners who had previously completed undergraduate degrees by full-time study. They had at least one year of part-time study experience. The interview sample contained sixteen novice and two experienced students enrolled with the Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK). The OUHK had an open entry policy for undergraduate courses. Most of the undergraduate students admitted would not have qualified for the very selective entry for conventional universities in Hong Kong and might have had no formal education beyond the period of compulsory schooling. At the time the OUHK operated as a conventional distance teaching university. Students were supplied with a study package containing materials in print and usually other media, too. The students were expected to work through these materials on their own. Voluntary tutorials, lasting about two hours, were held twice a month. Most of the remainder of the students were enrolled in courses taught through classroom teaching. Classes were held in the evening or at weekends and typically lasted two to three hours. Most courses had either one or two classes a week. There were also seven part-time research students in the sample of experienced students. Table 2.2 shows the number of interviewees by type of course and level of experience. Interview schedules were designed to ask for the views and feelings related to a wide range of factors impinging upon the experience of part-time study. The data were collected through conducting semi-structured face-to-face interviews with the fifty-three part-time students in the sample. The interviewees were free to choose the language used for the interviews, and most of them opted to use Cantonese. The interviews were transcribed and translated into English. The raw data were then coded with the use of NUD·IST software (Richards and Richards, 1991; QSR NUD·IST, 1997). The step allowed responses from similar questions to be grouped for further inter- and intra-analysis. Quotations from the interviews are shown as ‘(part-time – novice/experienced – institution)’. Table 2.2 Groups of students in the part-time sample

Distance education (OUHK) Conventional courses

Novice students

Experienced students

16 19

2 16 (of which 7 were research students)

Major themes in student learning 15

Approaches to learning The first student learning theme is that of students’ approaches to learning (SAL). This is a convenient starting point because outside North America there has been such a large volume of research on the topic and it has been very influential to the extent that SAL has become the dominant paradigm for research into student learning in higher education. This paradigm is the principal one followed in this book because the most useful findings about student learning in the distance education literature have come from the SAL perspective. It is notable that the few books about student learning in distance education (Evans, 1994; Morgan, 1993) have been consistent with the SAL approach. The majority of research into approaches to learning has been conducted with students in conventional higher education. It is necessary to draw upon some of the more important findings from this work. In each case, though, justification will be given for application across modes. Approaches to learning were originally characterised into dichotomous deep and surface approaches (Marton and Säljö, 1976). Since this time, intermediate approaches have been shown to operate, so contemporary characterisation is towards a spectrum with deep and surface poles (Kember, 1996, 2000). For the purpose of this book, portraying approaches to learning in terms of the poles of the continuum will be adequate. The characteristics of the deep and surface approach poles are described below. Deep approach • • •

•

A deep approach is adopted when the student is interested in the topic or the academic task. As a result there is an attempt to understand key concepts or the underlying meaning of an article. An attempt is made to relate together the concepts to make a coherent whole. A piece of writing will be logically related with an introduction and conclusion. New knowledge will be related to previous knowledge and to personal experiences.

Surface approach •

• •

An activity or assignment is undertaken because it is a set task and the course cannot be passed unless the assignment is completed. The task does not arouse interest. As a result the minimum possible time and effort are devoted to the task. There is no attempt to reach understanding of key concepts; instead, reliance is placed upon memorisation of model answers or key facts perceived as likely to appear in tests or examinations.

16 Chapter 2

• •

Coherence of the topic is not sought, so material is seen as a set of unrelated facts. Concepts are not related to personal experience, so remain as abstract theory. As a result what has been memorised is normally quickly forgotten.

Contextual influences on approaches to learning Many students have a preferred or predominant approach to learning. Approaches to learning also have a relational element (Ramsden, 1987), which means that students choose the approach seen as most appropriate for a particular assessment task, or according to their perception of the prevailing teaching and learning environment. Assessment is particularly important in influencing approach to learning as students tend to be assessment driven (Biggs, 1999; Thomas and Bain, 1984). It is therefore important that assessment is consistent with the aims of a course. Highlevel intellectual capabilities will be practised only if demanded by the form of assessment. Assessment which tests students’ ability to recall information will encourage a surface approach. Gibbs (1992, p. 9) lists the following characteristics of teaching and learning environments which tend to encourage a surface approach. • • • • • •

a heavy workload relatively high-class contact hours an excessive amount of course material a lack of opportunity to pursue subjects in depth a lack of choice over subjects and a lack of choice over the method of study a threatening and anxiety-provoking assessment system.

Biggs (1999, p. 73) identifies the following four factors as likely to encourage a deep approach. • • • •

a well-structured knowledge base an appropriate motivational context learner activity interaction with others.

Maturity and approaches to learning The relationship between age or maturity and approaches to learning is of relevance as students in open learning courses, particularly in the West, tend to be older than undergraduates in conventional universities. Harper and Kember (1986) compared approaches to learning of matched groups of internal and distance education students. Once age, gender and discipline had been controlled for, there were no significant differences by mode of study. There were, though, differences by age.

Major themes in student learning 17

Older students were more inclined to use a deep approach, display intrinsic motivation and relate ideas to personal experience. Richardson (1994) conducted a review of research into approaches to learning of mature students and found that there was consistent evidence of them being more likely to use a deep approach than younger students. He suggested three possible explanations. 1 2 3

Younger students develop a tendency to use a surface approach in the latter years at secondary school. Mature students are more inclined to be intrinsically motivated. The prior life experience of mature students encourages the use of a deep approach.

Models of retention Drop-out rates have commonly been used as an indicator of outcomes in higher education. This is particularly so in distance education, as drop-out rates are normally higher than those in conventional higher education. Chapter 4 presents evidence that drop-out rates are often particularly high in distance education courses in developing countries. In this book these high drop-out rates are interpreted as a problematic symptom. One of the major themes of the book is attempting to provide an explanation for the problem and suggesting ways in which persistence and graduation rates might be boosted. This aspect of student learning is therefore important to the themes addressed here. The most widely cited model of student attrition or retention is that of Tinto (1975, 1987). Following the work of Spady (1970, 1971), Tinto compared dropping out to suicide, drawing upon Durkheim’s (1961) theory of suicide to explain attrition. Durkheim noted that egotistical suicide could occur if individuals became isolated from society’s communities because of an inability to integrate and establish membership. The first form of integration was social integration, which occurred through interaction with other members of society and led to the formation of personal affiliations. The second was value or intellectual integration, which resulted when there was commonality in values and beliefs with those of the relevant community. Spady (1971) and subsequently Tinto (1975) saw an analogy between Durkheim’s theory of suicide and drop-out from college society. They postulated that drop-out was more likely to occur among students who differed from the prevailing values and intellectual norms of the college or were unable to establish membership of the college’s social community. Rites of passage Another sociological theory drawn upon by Tinto (1987) was Van Gannep’s theory of rites of passage (1960), which envisaged an individual’s life as a series of

18 Chapter 2

passages marked by changes in group membership or the individual’s status. He believed that rituals and ceremonies provided a mechanism to introduce the new group and assist the newcomers to become established within it. Tinto (1987) saw a parallel between Van Gannep’s stages in rites of passage and the movement of students from the high-school community to college or university. Tinto saw that the students’ ability to overcome the problems of adjustment and become incorporated into the new college community would have a major influence on whether they persisted as a member of college society. The second type of transition requires students to adapt to the conventions of college life and establish themselves within the social and intellectual community of the college. Clearly those with a conception of academic study which does not match the expectations of academia will find this transition difficult (Perry, 1970, 1988). Adaptation to distance education Tinto himself (1982) cautioned that his model had been developed with full-time on-campus study in mind. In other situations the model would need to be modified. Careful consideration is needed if the model is to be adapted for use in distance education as it suggests that contact between instructors and students, and interrelationships between students, can be valuable mechanisms for promoting integration. However, by definition, the amount of contact in distance education is considerably less than in face-to-face teaching, and in many cases there is no direct contact. The first implication is that a principal mechanism for promoting integration and persistence is normally minimised in distance education. It is not, therefore, surprising that completion rates tend to be lower than in conventional higher education. If drop-out rates are to be addressed, though, there is a need to try to establish integration or a sense of belonging for the distance learners. (This issue is addressed at length in Chapter 11.) A weaker form of social integration featured in a version of Tinto’s model reformulated for use in distance education (Kember, 1995). This envisages social integration as the extent to which distance education students are able to integrate study requirements with their commitments to work, family and social lives. Subsequent developments have shown how students make these adaptations through the three mechanisms of sacrifice, support and the negotiation of arrangements (Kember, 1999; Kember et al., 2005; Kember and Leung, 2004; Yum, Kember and Siaw, 2005). Academic integration is achieved if new students’ beliefs and values about learning are compatible with those required by the distance higher education system of instruction. In terms of Van Gannep’s stages in rites of passage, integration depends on whether students are able to make the transition from the learning culture of secondary school to those of distance and higher education. The reformulation of Tinto’s model of attrition into a model of student progress, suitable for distance education, was tested in what is referred to in this book as the

Major themes in student learning 19

student progress project. The findings of the project are synthesised in Kember (1995). (The topic of drop-out and persistence is developed further in Chapters 4, 7, 8, 11 and 13.)

Students’ beliefs about teaching, learning and knowledge This section presents findings which suggest that making a rite of passage into distance education might be a major problem for many students new to the mode of study. Analysis of the interviews from the part-time project revealed insights into the students’ beliefs about teaching, learning and knowledge and showed that this trilogy of beliefs had a marked impact on the students’ ability to adapt to parttime study (Kember, 2001). The large majority of the novice students held a trio of beliefs labelled ‘didactic/ reproductive’. They believed that the role of the teacher was to transmit or teach a body of knowledge. Their role as students was to absorb the knowledge decided as appropriate by the teacher or the examination authority. The outcome of the process of teaching and learning was judged by whether the students are able to reproduce the body of knowledge for the examinations and other assessment. They believed that knowledge is defined by an authority, and so is either right or wrong. Where multiple opinions exist, an authority will eventually decide which is correct. The three belief components are logically consistent. If knowledge is defined by an authority, it makes sense to ask an authority figure to pass on that knowledge. Learning then becomes a role of successfully absorbing what has been delivered. The more experienced and sophisticated students usually held a different trio of beliefs called ‘facilitative/ transformative’. Several could remember making the transition from the more naïve set of beliefs during their undergraduate degrees. The two belief sets are contrasted in Table 2.3. Good teaching An interesting and highly significant consequence of the contrasting belief sets is that they resulted in very different conceptions of what constitutes good teaching (Kember, Jenkins and Ng, 2003). Those holding the naïve belief set preferred teacher-centred forms of teaching. They wanted a lecture in which knowledge was transmitted, so they preferred didactic teaching. By contrast, those with the facilitative/transformative set of beliefs thought that didactic teaching was poor teaching. Their conception of good teaching was more student-centred. They wanted the teacher to act as a facilitator to assist them in their learning. The outcome is that the conceptions of good and poor teaching are diametrically opposite. Those with the naïve beliefs think that didactic teaching is good and student-centred teaching poor. Those with the more sophisticated beliefs think the opposite.

20 Chapter 2 Table 2.3 Contrasting beliefs of novice and sophisticated students

Teaching

Learning

Knowledge

Didactic/reproductive

Facilitative/transformative

A didactic process of transmitting knowledge

Teaching is a process of facilitating learning

The teacher is responsible for ensuring that learning takes place

The student is responsible for learning independently with guidance from the teacher

The role of the students is to absorb the material defined by the teacher

The role of the students is to reach an understanding of relevant concepts

Outcomes are judged by the students’ ability to reproduce material

The outcome is the student transforming knowledge for own purposes and context

Defined by an authority

Transformed or constructed by the individual

Knowledge and theories are right or wrong

Judgements have to be made about alternative theories based upon evidence and analysis

The beliefs held by the novice part-time students had a marked impact on how well they coped with study. The novice students at the OUHK believed that good teaching was didactic or transmissive in nature. This was radically different to the

Students’ conceptions of learning Selfdetermining

Didactic teaching

Facilitating teaching requiring active learning

Poor teaching

Good teaching Teaching requiring active learning

Didactic teaching

Reproductive

Figure 2.1 Contrasting conceptions of good teaching

Students’ perception of the quality of teaching

Major themes in student learning 21

distance education mode of study in which a teacher is not present for most of the time study takes place. (This mismatch between beliefs and mode of learning will be explored further in Chapter 7.)

Nature of teaching and approaches to learning An important influence on learning approaches is the nature of teaching. This is demonstrated time and time again in courses for new teaching assistants (TAs) at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). Participants are asked to complete the revised version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) (Biggs, Kember and Leung, 2001), which measures the extent to which students use a deep or a surface approach. The new TAs complete the R-SPQ twice: once for their current mode of study as a research student and once for their learning approach in the undergraduate course they disliked most. Each student ends up with four scores: deep and surface approach scores for current study and deep and surface approach scores in the most hated course. Each student writes their four scores on a whiteboard. While there are individual variations, the overall pattern invariably provides a convincing demonstration that the nature of a course and the teaching in it make a dramatic difference to students’ approaches to learning. In the current study mode deep approach scores tend to be high and surface approach scores lower. However, in the most disliked course the deep approach scores fall and the surface approach scores rise, often markedly. Teachers’ beliefs about teaching More formal research-based evidence of the effect of teaching on approaches to learning – and a probable explanation for the underlying reason – comes from research into university teachers’ beliefs about teaching. There have been a number of studies which produced category schemes for conceptions of teaching. Kember (1997) reviewed thirteen studies of this nature, to produce the synthesised categorisation scheme shown in Figure 2.2. The categorisation scheme has two broad orientations, each with two subcategories of conception. Those with teacher-centred/content-oriented beliefs concentrate on transmitting a defined body of content. The other orientation is more student-centred and the teachers believe in facilitating student learning. There is an intermediate conception labelled student–teacher interaction. The five categories are portrayed as a continuum with distinct borders. This is meant to imply that a shifting in beliefs is possible and does happen in some cases. The transition between the teacher- and student-centred orientations is not an easy one to make.

22 Chapter 2

Teacher-centred/ content-oriented

Imparting information

Student-centred/ learning-oriented

Transmitting structured knowledge

Student– teacher interaction

Facilitating understanding

Intellectual development

Figure 2.2 Teachers’ beliefs about teaching

Beliefs and approaches to teaching Conceptions of teaching are important because there is a strong relationship between conceptions of teaching and approaches to teaching. Beliefs about teaching govern the way teaching takes place. Kember and Kwan (2000) characterised teaching approaches as a set of continua with content- and learning-centred poles. A simplified version is shown in Figure 2.3 below, which has one motivation and three strategy components. The characterisation of approaches to teaching came from the analysis of interviews with seventeen lecturers. The interviewees gave sufficient information to identify their teaching approach. Most were positioned towards the content- or learning-centred poles for the majority of the elements, so the lecturers were classified by their use of a predominant teaching approach.

TEACHING APPROACH CONTENT-CENTRED Emphasis on extrinsic motivators

LEARNING-CENTRED MOTIVATION

Motivator STRATEGY

Lecturer supplying notes, examples, handouts, library references, etc.

Instruction

More towards the whole class

Focus

Frequent tests and quizzes

Assessment

Figure 2.3 Approaches to teaching

Recognising that motivating students is part of the teaching role Lecturer encouraging students to discover knowledge Conscious attempt to deal with individual students More flexible assessment often with choices

Major themes in student learning 23

Conceptions of teaching

Approaches to teaching

Students’ approaches to learning

Figure 2.4 Relationship between conceptions and approaches to teaching

The interviewees were also asked about conceptions of teaching, and their answers made it possible to allocate them to either the teacher- or student-centred orientations above. The conceptions of teaching and approaches to teaching were then cross-classified. With just two exceptions, those holding teacher-centred beliefs employed content-centred teaching approaches, while those with studentcentred beliefs used learning-centred approaches. It is therefore possible to claim that conceptions of teaching strongly influence the approach to teaching. Figure 2.4 also includes approaches to teaching influencing students’ approaches to learning, as this part of the causal chain will be established in the following section. Effects of beliefs on approaches to learning The relationship between conceptions of teaching and approaches to learning was investigated by developing a questionnaire which gave a measure of the two belief orientations (Gow and Kember, 1993). Mean scores were computed for teachers in sixteen departments in two universities. These scores were then correlated with scores from the SPQ for students in these departments. The SPQ data was available by year of study. It was therefore possible to examine correlations between conceptions of teaching and final deep and surface approach scores. Correlations were also computed with the change in approach scores from enrolment to completion of the final year. Correlations are shown in Table 2.4 (Kember and Gow, 1994). The SPQ had been completed by several thousand students, but, as the conceptions of teaching data were only available by department, the N for the study was sixteen. This meant that only high correlation coefficients would be significant. In spite of this constraint, a clear relationship was established.

Table 2.4 Relationship between conceptions of teaching and approaches to learning Final surface approach

Change in Final deep surface approach approach

Learning oriented

– 0.61*

–0.13

0.39

0.23

Teacher centred

0.09

0.31

–0.74*

–0.79*

Note: * p