Psychological foundations of musical behavior

AU T TI lE A '1'11 )R • Rud olf E, Rado hology of of musi , ami ot h r lnsses P i rtin m t to m us í und musi th ...

Author: Rudolf E. Radocy | J. David Boyle

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AU

T TI lE A '1'11

)R •

Rud olf E, Rado

hology of of musi ,

ami ot h r lnsses P i rtin m t to m us í

und musi th 'ra p al th e

.d u ation

niv ' rsily of Kansas

fo r ~ !l 'ar s; h ' tau gh : music fo r five ea rs in M ichi ran c le m -ntar a nd secondary s ho o ls. In addition lo thr prior editi on ' of thi text, he is ihe o-autho r of Mra urement and

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C OLOGICAL FOU DAT O S O USICAL BEHAVIO

Enaluation o[Musical Experienccs. A Iormer edi-

By

to r 01" rh e fou rual o/Rescare/¡ in Musíc Education a m i co mr ibutor lo vario us p ro fcssion a l j o urna ls, I r. Rad ' ho ld ' de ur fro rn th ' Ohio , tare .niv ersit , th e niversity of 'lichi!ffiI1, • nrl th Pen ns -lvanla late niversitv, ,

RUDOLF E. RADOCY ¡'roJes.or Emeritu: of 'fu. ic Edutation and 1u ic Thrrall l Tite Uniuer. ily (Jf Kansas Laiorence. f((/IWI.l'

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l'rmud in lht Umtrd Slalt5 01Amtrira MM-R·]

Llbrnry of Co n¡.,'1'c ss Cata togt ng in Publicalion Data Il ,,,I. K'Y, Il lI.lulf E. , I" y.'h. ,Io~ ira l Immd al io lls of Illllsk al lK4¡a vior I by Rudo lf L, Rad(K)' '1II11.J. I ),Ivill Uo yl" "" llh ('el. I'.on. Illd nd.'s b ih li••~n' l'h iGI I u 'f.'ro 'IJ("" mili im l,' x. IS n N O-;I!IK n7.IK-I K (h ,m l) ·· IS HN n-:WK·07:IK!i-1l (phk.) l. M II ~ Í\: ·· l'sy rh" I t'VI'ln p lI H' lI l • . . ... , . . , ., ." .. " .,., ., .. • 1D Music in Iltt' \ VOI kpl ' lt l ' .. ,., , SI Ml l.~i c in Il w Mur kr-rpl:u-c , ,.,., S~

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Mus¡c as En tcrt uinmcn r

M w;il" fOl" Ellha ndllg Nanution Tht 'l'a lll'lllk lJSl~ S of Mus¡c M usk- lo l'ucilitatc Nonmusical Lcuming

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Suuuuury

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I'SYCI IO AC O UST ICA L FO UNIlA nO NS l'roductlon nI' M uslcul Souuds Tmusn usslon 01" M uxicu l Sonn ds I{t't'l' p lioll 0 1" Musical SlH llIds

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Fu n ctio ns ofRhy thm in Music

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1"1mu 11lIH'1 Ear In Hruin

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Rh ythnu c Stru cture in M usíc Movc rneut a nd Rhythm Pcrccpüon and Performan ce , Coguíüve Pc rspcc tiv es on Rhythmic Be havior Early Noncogniti vc Theo r les Hcat/T empo l'crcepüon Mete r l'crccpu on Rhyt hm Grou ps Exprcssiv c Timing D cvelopment 01' Rhythm¡c Behaviors D c vcloprncntal Rescarch Experimen ta l Rcscarch

Tcachln g Practlces for Rhyt hm ic Developmen t Evaluatio n 01' Rhythmic Be ha vío rs Sum mary Refcrcncc s

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Exte nded Dcf l niüons Mclod y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Structuru l C hu racrerísücs of Mclody l'crccptua l Organlzatiou 0 1' M elod y Harm ony , Srructurn l C haracrcrisüc s 01' H urrnon y l'crceptua l Orguuizaüuu 0 1" llnrmony "lonallty ,, , Sculcs uud Modos ,,.,,,,.,,., l-uncrtons 01' Sc.i1t'S ,. I ' f lllll .lll g ,SY S l l' l l l ~ " ' •• " • . • • • .• .• .-,Cists' II!I!" Cla ( Ill' s lO.slud)'ing Illllsicallwha vio r, In th e b elief that emphases 0 0 e o gm l " 'l' (hlllt' mloll s. uf IIl1l ska l pl'rce ption a nd prod uetion dUring lh e la tt e r 1';¡ 1I u f lhl' IW('lI lll' lh n 'nl llry 11·«1 lo ne g lec t o f musica l beh a vi o r 's so cia l di llll 'II.-' io IlS, I la rgn 'a ve s am I N ort h (1997) argl lc that a ny aspc ct of m usical 1II' I," IVIIII" un tll 'f s llHly lIl usl c o nsid e r " Ihe so cia l a n d in le rpe rs ona l eonlext in Wllll, h Illll skal .llH'aning is c o ns ll1lcte d " (p . 1). Socia l function s in flllen ci ng f1 IU'iIl'a l Ilt'ha vIOf p urported ly in volve le vel s of Ihe indiv id ual, sma ll a nd !.IIW' ,\ o d a l }.:l"Oll pS, a m I soe ie ty a nd c ult ure a s a w hole (H a rgre a ve s & Nort h J! I! ' ~J . I"

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s... 1' " wilh I'OI'IIl" Y\ ' '' ¡.:;¡.;,'slioll, A" , t1w li" "'h",,ls " 111,,,1111111 "1101 l"" ".¡' ,r ,'"Uin¡.:; mll. i, ~1I, ,, ,, t" " 1 ...,01"'111 1,· ,11 " ildd l>,,,,'d iu l 'h"I'I"l'. H .. nd !l,

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fm lll othe r nnimu ls hy Illilkl lllo: 1'1I'I'Ii"ll' sl' t't'c h a n d a h'lll m l Ihill kill'¡:'. al so i «nubles "s ignifica m non vl'd ml ron un unicauon in IIIt' lonn 111 m us¡c." S lo l)IJd ;1 ( 1!' X5. p, :l/iN) und Dowling ami Harwo od (l 9Nli, pp . :l:Ui- :l:I7) alsc It'('o g lliz(' th at biologi ca l d cvclopnu-n t h as b ccn essent ial to music lx-comlng sud l a vita l pa rt o f socic ty and cu lture , a nd se vc ral essays in rhe reccn t \\'.1I Iil1 . Mcrker, a nd Brown (2000) vo lu me cc ncemi ng cv olu tío uary musit'Ology prevido nddítio nu l sup p o rt fo r this view (c.g., Hrown, 2000; Falk,

2000; Freeman , 2000 ; Me rker, 20( 0). No twithsta ndmg so rne te nuo us a rgu m e n ts th a t b ird so ngs . gibbon so ngs. und whalc su ngs reflect m us ical characteríst ícs (Geissm a n n , 2000; Payn c, 2000; Wh aling, 20( 0 ), most scho la rs agree that m usical be havior is uni que to 1)('0,,11', hui th crc m a y b e Iess co nsen sus regardíng why music exists. \ Vhile ,1.llO.SI philosop lucal ínquiry regardin g the qu esüon e xamin es musie as an art ,/m m wit h ur-sthcüc valué, anthro pologists and ethnomuslcologi sts sugg es t I/lal 1IlII,'¡ I' r-xb ts 11t'(~a ll se !JI' its e nc ul turatio na l functíons [j o hnson, 1985 , p . . 1; NI 'II I. I!IK'i, p , II!)). Mus¡c a lso is re cognized as serving additional fu ne1111\ ~"\ 1 ' 1 1I 1 WIIil' IS

(l-,Io:', Adorno. W7fi; Dowlíng & H a rw o od , 198 6 ; Frith, Iql iX; (: n'gory, W!17; H argreaves & No rth, 19m , 19 99 ; " 1'111 11 , 11 MI'l dOl lll , 1!1(j.j; Nl'It l, 1985 ; Slo b o da . 19 85) p rese n t views · W.. d l ll ~ 11 HI 'Ii. '" hlll lliol1,s, a m I tl1is sl'ction co n sidc rs vi ews from three p e r1,... lh 'I'_: 1 11 111 11 ;1 1 11l111Ilo po lo¡.:;ica l, s(I(: io log ieal, and psyehological. As will .1' "\'1111 '111. 11 11' Im ll tio m il!¡'lItillt' d w ilhin eae h p e rspeeti ve a re n either di s, di' 111 " ,·, 11il11 liv,·.

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111 h i ~ d Illl~!'> for indi vidual pe rfonm-rs, jU,r .ratl l.~J a nd 1o'1" \"I \íOIl pm hrr;ull !'>. and ev r-n [ur prod uct s prometed in ad verüsing J lIIgl~'s ,11 n havt' ;l rc-rtuin sym(¡o lic vahn-, ahhough it is doubrful rhat the sym bolic ll'I'Il "I 'IlI.tliOll in tlu-sc ínsran ccs rcfk-c ts thc profundit y 01' cu ltura l sym bol I ~ II I 1I1il1 Merriam snggests. " 1 11~it" gives rlse lo p!lysical response, and a ll socle ties use musíc intcgrully " llh tt l1l( '1' an d ot hc r rb ythmic activities. l\l usic elíc its. excites, and ch unm-ls 'l lIwtllwha vin r. althoug h th e cu lture shape s the nature a nd ex tc nt 1.11', 1111' lu'lln\'lll l', Ch atllcy (l!J{i.t. P: ( 2) suggcsts th at an im portant part 01' n '!lHI.llll'O 11111 ,11 in prhuiti vc socíctics wa s to d raw thc worshlpcr "o ut 01' him sc-lf 11 1 , 1\ 111 ,' lIim uud , ' , to pu t him in a sta te 01' ecs tasy." Chuillcy ulso SH,L\,I.l, 'lIll' mplal iv,' pr.¡ ~·t·r

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.11 t, vIlr fm t rI!' I'X IJl I '~Slnll 0 1 vnhn-s , ;¡ uu-ans whe re by tht- IlI'a ll u f llll' !,S)' I ~ 1l ~l o8Y o! a r-ultnn- IS l' xl' 0 Nt'd wuhont m allY of th e prcn-cuve 1II('(-!Ia u isllIs .... 1I1( h su rro un d o lh('1 cuhu ral afli vilies.

.M l'lTi;u.1l gOl:S .011 to slIgges l that rnusíc's vel)' ex iste n ce provides a norma l ,mil solid .KIIVlly ' wor Id 1' 5 con un , ,. . .Ihut ussu res a socíc ty's membe that rh elr t1 11l¡'; 11I 1I1L' rig ht dlrectíon. M usic contin ues to serve thi s functio n today S' Iill' WSCh . Am erican ad o Jescen t su bc ulture has had vanious , f' lO~e ' 1 h¡ . . " ro rrns o m uslc WlI 1 W iich lo ldcnüfy, m usic that tecnagers fee l is "th . " . F Ik f 1 " . err mu ste. 'o sOllgs 10m 1 H' old cour urv '' may p ro vid e im m lnra n r an d th ir d 'h , ' 1 . '/ O' '"" crr escen d an ts wn , 1 (11 rur a l link lo th e past. In addítion lo th eír 1" d ' . .' . . h re IglOus a n en ter tai n mcn t 11lI1llIUllS, trndifion a ] C h ristmas and Hannukah so n id ' '1' gs provr e a certam staI l! lIy ; HTO ~ ~ g vn vra üons . PI'lh " aps . musl c's .rnost im . po rtan¡ function from M erriam's • " perspee ti!Ve IS ,us /llII l r /flul /(1f/ l" o JIu mteeration or socias lf no th ing 1 ic d ra ws pe o p 1e b ' 'J 0p e se, m usle ,:,w ,tlll' r: 11 llI V" I~'S, (' lI~:ourages, and in sa me instan ces almost req uires indi\ ¡I I Il IlJ ~ tI),Jlarll('J p'llt' 1Il g ro up activ ity. People who m ighl o lh erwise never 1IIh'1 '1,1 1 wllI work log cl h('r in making music, Farrell's (1 972) stud), of the 11 11'.11I11I'" 0 1 111(' dwra l expc ri(' nce for ad ult a mateur singers a nd Hit ' (./ ' IMO) .s tlld y. 01' hig h sellOlll choca l gnmps both rcvealed tha t so cial i~te~~c~ tlOll W IIS, a lugh/ y lI11'allingflll asp ect o f the cho ra l experi enee. M iIIs's (1988) \ Im ly 01 1111' Illt'allin~ o f Ihe high school band cxperience yi clded sim ilar Ipsu l.h . 111 ShOl'l, III IlSIC ma kin g brings people fro m d ifTering so ciocultural 1l 'lrg.I ~ : lI S.' ll(TlJ Jl:llillllI"('I.(' n l, ami in lo the futuro. Such a n n1l1'0I 1·1111 ' t, 111" , . ' o . .. I icf [ k wlcdgc um iI IUl tI 11011, Kuplun a rb'lll"s, mukcs m usir a Ja SIC orm o no

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Ima l l'vo llllio ll uf Ihal cap,u i l y '~ »urput. Molino CiUllio m Ihal IUlllll a ll'vo lulion ill vol vl~s Il WH ' thnu jU!II Ihe' I)'pt' of bio logica ll'v o lul illll 1I.' !'ro od alt'd with Dnrwinism . ' Ii.(' huo·s (:l()( )()) examination of h uman pred ispos itio ns for processing 1Il1lSIC slIp pn rts tb e no üon of a bí ological basls for severa ! asp ccts of rnu síc pron'ssing. As evidc nce, sbe no tes substantial infan t-adul t similarities in 1I1l 1.~ic perceptlon . Her ex cellc nt review of he r and ot he rs' research indíc ates rlnu both in fant s : lIId ad ults te nd lo focus on relational cues (e.g., p ltch and 1t'1l1!lOral p~Uerll1ng) rath er th an absolute pitches an d d urations whe n pro ("(' SSIllP; a\l{ht~H'y p~t1erns. O n the basis of her findi ngs . Tre h u b pro poses Ihn'I' I.) w.ccssmg universals: "t he p riority of eo ntour o ver ínterval p rocessing; tln- pnomy of tem po ral patterning over specí fic timing eues ; and the rele~lIl1n: nf g.esl.ah !s.icl principles of gro uping" (p . 431). Trehub suggests that the .\ In klll/o; slIllllan lles bctween infaru Iísten ers with m inima l exposure lo m usic alld ,,1111111 hsrcnc rs with extensíve e xposure to m usíc m ak c a co m pelling case 101 lIIill'll'lIl pvrccptuu l biases in relatíon to muste" (p . 4:i6). Sh e goes on lo .UJ.; lll' thal lhl's(' information processing co nstraínts may bave ím plíc ations 1111 11 11 ' ,II'Vl'h lIIIIH'1l1 ofmusica l systems across cu ltur e s and that "one ce nsellll" II' l' ' 11' 11 III sica I ('uliures bUilding o n pereeplua l processing p redisposilion s l lh,11 1')( l'm lllt.' am i train ing o rten lead to progressive im proveme nt in th e \ k l ll~ lha l .11 " .la vo l'l'd by nalure " (p . -l:·Hi). In short, Tr ehub suggests thal 11111\11' ,. r O( I · !'ro s lll~ h' lHh'ncil's and restraints m ay have influenced th e strucIIU ,d u,lllIIl' 0 1'1111' IlHlsics cOllla ined within tb c world 's va rious cultures. . Iu, r'l i ~iuK lil(' { 1 1~cst~o~l " Does man nud music?' Slo bo da (W85. pp. :.t1.IO. :.th H) .1I0 11'S Ihal 1I.1 d lvldu a ls can go \\'i lhoul m usic fo r very lon g per iods o , tlllll' WlI lI o ll t s!low lllg an y nOliceab lc ilI e fTec ts. H e suggests that cultures ~'H l h l' l' l.han illd ivid ua ls !leed m usic and th at th e "need" mig ht be m ore d ircct 11I Jlo uhtl'wle cuh urcs Iha n in today' s comp lex co ntem po rary so cietics. In his words (p. ::!()7), I'rimilivt, cultun's have fe\\' artifacts, and thl' organizatiou of the sociel)" must 1,,· t' xpn's~l'd lo a grealer exlenl Iheough transie nt an ions and Ihe way people lIlh'rOln \\'llh cadl other..\ Iusie, perhaps, provides a unique framework with whll h hUlllans ~¡III t'xpress, by Ihe lemporal organization of sound and geslure. r1 w .~ l l,lI l"1 l1 l'l' 01 lhcir knowledge and social relalions. Sollgs and rhythm ically ~ I r~ ;¡ ll lt': l ' d pm'ms and sayings fonn Ihe major repositor), of human knowlcdge 111 II l1l1 Jilt-rale n dlllre s. :-i lo llClda ~Ilggt'sls Ihat h um an ment al pro cesscs, w hich he views as a pro d ucI 111 ,'vH.lllllo n, hav(' I{od lo a natu ral pro pl'nsity In bc have in ada pl ivl' way s.

IIIdll lflllg a p ropl'llsity lo lISl' lan b'11age a lld mu sic. lit, ma inla ills Iha t l'volulion sllpplied a molivalion fOl" 11m sic, making it " nOl lura l" am i l'njoY'lble for Ilt'Oplt' to inliulKl' in il.

I H II, I If, / 1 , ." r ll ll "" 'II " " ' ~I '

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Advocut tng a simil.u Illl!'ro il Ion. I )l lwl ill~ ami l lurwo. Id ( I~ IHII, 1111. :¿:Ui-::!:17) SIIAAl'sl thut W{' sho ultl l llll\ ic ll'l l'velllllillll in tcrms Ilr 1111' ~rtlf IlIml (JI""m1/¡,\ rutber tha n in term s lit' ItIl/lIJúhwl "' /"Plllti01lJ. Thcy agn'l' that n ue,ic is vuluuble lo h uman b'Tunps und 11011' that as h uma ns c volved ovr-r hundreds uf Iho llsa nc\s u f p 'a rs in small gruu ps, singing and pla ying mu sic scrvcd as a "n llU's io n-facilila ling gn m p uctlvity- un exp resslon uf soci al solidariry" (p . :¿:lIi). They rew gnize IlIU Sir ns n po wcrfu l sym bol of cultura l idcn üty, espe -. da ny .~ i'K C mu sical srylc tends, likc languagc, to n-Iluct a h igbl y stable sct 01 euluuully tra nsmitted sh urcd b ehav lors. Th ey ma inl ain th nt mu slc's v al uc lo hu man soci cties retlccts m usic's bíological adapave ualne: Furth crmore, thc y nunntain that evc n with cha nges in social stru ctures and other developm ents Ihal have co me with ind ustrialized societies. including so rne di visión of labor la-t ween " m usícla n s" and "co nsum c rs," m usíc' s sociocultura l va lúes and the undcrl ying distribution of mu sical abi lities are essenü ally the same as in llllll'l' pn nutive socíeties. Hnully, Bro wn ('2000. pp. 'l9{)-'2!)7). as an outgrowth o f his "m usilan¡,l,llage" modcl of mu slc's origi ns, discusscd latcr in this chap ter, observes th at "1I111sic ma king has aU th e hallma rks of a group ada platio n au d functions as 11 dt 'vi ("(~ for prom o ling g rou p ide ntily, coo rd inalio n, action. cOhrnitio n. and "lIloliona l ex pression.... Music making is done fo r the gro u p. and the co n· ll'xls of musical perfo rm ance. the co nlexts of m usical works, a nd the pertnrlllance e nsem bles of m usical ge nres overwhel mi ngly rell cct a role in )/,IOllp funct ion." T IIl' a nswer lo "" ny m usic?" co ntinues to be in le rm s of Ihe m any im po r· lun! flllll"lio ns lhal music serves in society a nd cultur e. Perhaps incr eased 1I 11t!n stand ing of Ihe role 0 1" biologica l cvo lutio ll, ind ud ing information-pro 1" ~ ,~ i ll g Icn dencies and co nstraints, in the deve!op ment o f human adaptivc IU'!l,lviors will provide al least a parlia l a nsWl~ r as lo "how" music b ecame so lI11po l'l;1Il1 to h uman soc iel}' an d cultur e.

Wh at Mak es Sorn e Sounds Mu sic? S llld il's of Ihe d cvdopmenl of musica l behavior suggesl Ihal d ifTerential 11'\1'"Il SI' to Illusica l suund an d ot he r sound beco lllc s ev idl'1l1 d ur illg in fancy (I lo wling, WH·l ; Moog, 1!)7(); Tre hub, UJ9:1. '20(0). Virlua ll)' ('ver)' child a mi Ud llll "kllo ws" what m usic is-al !l'ast Ihe 1ll ll Sic 0 1' his n I" lH'r sUHullnd ing clIl· 1111 1'. T h( ~ 1'IJ(:ult lll'atioll process aSS lIrt ' S Ihal ca d y in life. ch ild l'ell d eve!op II l O UI "pl 0 1' Illllsic, albe il vag lll', ill ddll ll'd , a mI largel y 1II1VI', hal ized . T hal lw il\'id uals ' t'llllccpls ren {'el ('lIltllra l h ia s is re¡uli ly a pparenl, althoug h mosl ilu ll\'iduals will fel'ogni zl' allull...1 ( 1111 11 11' \ nmsic as mlHir, e\'e n thollg h it 111.1)' "lllIH l • slra ng('.• \" hale'vt'!' 111(' 1"1 11111Jl', Illll\l l 1II \' II I \' t ' ~ a ll urga nizal iu n uf sUlluds ami

• ~ i l l' l H' l ·s . t'lH~tl Ill P;¡ s:li i ll lo4 vmi , "l'\

I'itdll's, loudn ess It·vI·h .

nll of which O(T III" wü b¡n a I h y l h lllil tnum-work. Muste is a tiuu- busr-d art fon n . lis o rgun i/.¡¡tioll il
I k · Ihl 'l' sbn uluuu-uusly wlrh 111 1' d ivl'l'g" lll'l' st..W·, he ('(11I11'IU s'l (',l .' S I. ' " 1"()'I1 so ngs icon¡c n-pu-wn rution. nnd 111 011'\ "1 and I('..ds to SIl( ' 1 1 III1 ~ S .IS ve -rn: , 11\'1 '

uUI \i¡·:ll n a rra lío n . ' .. 11 1 , . IIw sexual srkaien th, fJ'Y bolds th at l'u-v io usly calh-d t he m aung (,1 I u ol") ~ 1'"''''1 form . I . . I rsu. ncts ' lIH 1 11", '1 11, .... '"',, , " 1lI11 \i t··s urigin is roon-d 111 1II1ll¡1II sr-xua 11 .. ' 1', [D arwi n IH7.' 1 . (j5~) . ' l' -xtcnsiou of a manng ca •• 1 01 IIIII SII" W,IS a rorm or lCX e n I I"J - l' " 1'1< I 1' 1' :tH -117; J Il)r.: f n l ')' vevesz • •J ' , • Allhllllg h m a ny (Ne u l, . .) 1, pp. " ~ . ' :' 1 urly theorv whic h m ay ( r: :lf,) :ltiti) highly cn ncrze I le eur .J ' .'i lo hlltla. I.JH.I, p p . l. th e mating calls u f so m l' . , .' f ' I ~ . . and fall e p ropon e n Is e-itc l 1' 111 ir YIS IOIlS o urzan r .' lf . rounds u r so ngs Il\ l'd in " , ( .. 1 , rs th at serv e a scxua uu cnon- so u . utllllla"l.s anr n« S('a.sem ; te so ng ' f es n ote th al (a ) b¡Ir d ss ". smg,." o utsidc of T ' , .. . d (el if th e rboor y we-n_1,11'1tlllg a m a e, rr I (11) musíc-ltkc m atin,g ca!ls .a: e abs,e'nt. ~.m~n~I;;I~e:'I)~:~ponderant ly Jo V(' \ 01 110: \ I t m-, mu s¡c 0 1'todn y s prtnuüve cu turcs s Ol

ll1atill~

e

d a1l'd lo wck ing a mate. h rch 1 ha vo d iSlllis.\l'c1 t11f' ) 'Ei ~) h e vcr a rgues 1 al se o ars ( Mrlh-r p . •..." o W . .' d anim a l m ating ca lla, o r "a n lll\lil' 111m 11011 01 1 nnalogs b etween human a ", t temptuously a mi with loo 1 , " . . h - I 'nns th em "too read 1 )', 00 con , Illm ls IIp as e e '., h , " ~fller suggests Ihat an "d"/,I(I' hlllt · ap p n 'ciatio n of sex~al sele~hon ~ ~o~~xuai sel ec tio n th eor)' of music's 1/tIIJilt tl/,/,Tooch is a usefu exle ns lo n o e I to be a " Ieg it im alc, HIIJ{Í ns. Ile co nsid e rs huma.n ~usic. j usi as ic:n~~g:; les lh al, eyon

" , ." .. t ruclural fealUres that rcl)' on cXIll't'laILoll lu n '.' ;lI" 111l'u use of st: qm ntl tItl ;1 111 t 111'111011 ,11M 0 l'"l''', ,'' ,II)' " Sh t, SIlI" l"l" . I'~ llIIt'U.s¡ly. r Ol\IO lll , 1 lY I ~II , _ . 1 1. ' 11 ," o ri"illS alll l Ihal tilt,)' n ' ll1alll 11.lIsie ;l\UI IIlO\'('IlIt'n l W('l t' 111 '1 ' 11,11'1 , ' Ill l' 11 l"

, '· ' , .1

I \ VI /" '¡0l!,lI a// 'illl lll lll / ;ol/.\ (lj'AfIlJiCflt IIduJllim

inh'Hra lly n -inn-d in IIlm k ul hdlav ior lllda y. And, shc noh 's thu t lxuh moth er-in fam inh'rac tiolls und ruus k- making in prem odern sOelc,tic's a re sha red cndcn vors whcrein conjoiu rucn t, coordinatíon, and un iflca tion are integral aSI" '('IS nI' th c ex pe ru-nr -e [pp. :i9.'-:i 9 H). Flnall y, Dlssunuyak i- sugg csts that the mo th er-Infam in te ractio ns w ith tlH'ir p,altl'rns of.mu ltimodally p rese nted temporal scq uences 01' emoti~nally evoca uve bc haviors, provide th e beginni ngs for human respo nse to th e tern1'01':1 1urts o f dance , m ime, ch an t, and so ngoAs she states, tlll'. hi(ll (JgiGI~ly cndowed sensitivities and co mpe tencíes of mothcr-infant inter-

¡ ~ r l l () I,1 were j(Jund.by cvolvin g human groups to be emotionally affecting and

lllllt'tH Jllally effec tive when used and when fur th er shaped and elaborated in culturnlly crcated ~ereI1lon ial rituals wh ere they serve a similar purpose--ro aHlllll' 01' syuc hro mze , cm o uo na l ly conjoin, and e nculturate rhe panícípants. (p. 'II II)

1t"1,:allllc'ss nf ho.w co nv incing any of the aboye theo ries may be, music ,l" ,nl )' \\"; 1.' iI vc' ry nnportant part 01' early human soc lety and culture. The ,\' ~ ,,~w~ 111 ~llll lHda ( 19K'i, pp. 265-268), Do wling and Harwood (1986, p p. :.t. l. I ;¿, IH) , all d ymwn (2()(.)(), pp. 296-297), di scussed aboye, make a slro ng ¡ 11\1' 1 ~I '1 1 11 111 '11 ' .was a n IIlvaluable 1001 in facilitating gro up ada ptat ion, IIIl lll d l rl~ IIlOlllo tlllg g ro u p identification, !,'TOUP co he sion , and so cial bondIIlH ' Irllplid l, il' 11 01 Sla lc'd directly, in cach thco ry is thc notio o th at mllSic is ji pu wl'l!u l 1 111 c.t' in ¡;lci litat ing positive int crpersonal in teractions, \\'hether lu'IWI" '1 1 l' llt..nllal mal es, Illnthe r and infa nt, 0 1' \vithin grOllpS in a broad er ~Of ¡al tll ~ lI hll ra l s('lling. As H argreav es and No rt h (1999, p. 75) nole, virtu01./1)' ;d l 01 ~ f,I 'ITi;u n'~ rllllclion s a re really social in nature. Kaplan also co nslll,'1s IIlIlSI. J\lc'l"ke;' ' " . le. lll~~.'il . an~'1Jage . ~ode~ of m usic evolulioll. In N. l.. WaIHn, B. " • & S. BlOwn (Lds.J, He oTlgms oJ music (pp. :m-3 ( 0). CaJ b 'd ' '1 A . ~ I 11 " n 'ss. n n ge, 1\ • _'

'.

'

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.

111{ musir (pp. n ( '. , ... '1 ",,) .1 M '. , . s. , !l e oTlgms , ' " . ...,lI11 ll t(gl', : M l l l'ress. ( al(l·lt ·lh., E C & K , d ' IJ R A (ICI C) , 1 ·1) ·'0 U I ,l . . . .U J . Co mp ar:llivl' m usic perc t'I)lion and COI' ,. nt 11111 . n t'ulsch (Ed ) 7n ' 1 o· j) - , CA " . . ., e PSYCflOogy of music ('1nd ed .) (pp. 7'2.5-791 J. San 11 X", . Acadellllc ITes.'>. l :lIaiIJ I'Y'.J· (1%- 1). 4U.()()()Y(tJ rJ llf muJic?(R ~1yers ' Ih ns) N , . \ ' k· '· S & ( liro1t x. ' " • ' . . t \\ or . 'arrar, . Iraus ' (pp. 7 -:¿ ~ 1) . Ne w York : Macmillan . ( ;" i""'imann, T. (2000). G ibb on son gs and human m usic from all t'VOIUlionary persped ive. In :\. L Wallin. n. r...l erker, & S. Brown (Ed s.), Thr ori¡{ins of music (pp. 1O:~ - 1 '14 ) . Cam bridl,re, M A: ~II T Press. C; ll'/{ory, A. H . (1!J97). T he ro le of m usic in sociely: T be ellmo lllllsiro loglc:d persl'ed ive. In n .]. H arl,rrea ves & A. C . Nort h (Ed s.), T"e soá(l/ II~ydwloj!J' I{muúc(pp. I:¿:i-I ·IO}. O xford , U K: O xford Universily Prcss. Il alllm, C ., !'\ettl, B.. & 8 yrnside, R. (F.ds.) ( 1975). Conltmporory music atld ,,,,¡Jir culfilm. Eng lewoo d C liffs, {\J: I'rt'llliu >·H all. I largn 'aves, n.J , & Nor th, A. C . (F.ds.) (l!l!17). T7u Jocial /J.ryclw/oKY ofmilI/e. . ~farl llldale,.J . Il l('(It'I, & G. I\c uw irlh. Tr an s. & Ed s.). In.p.l: Sou llH'nl IIlin ois Universily l 'r('~'i . . . Whali llg, C . (2(X)()). Wh al' s b eh ind a song? T Iw ne ur al basis of song 1('arlll.nK 111 hirds. In N. L Wallin. B. M erk er, & S. Brown (Ed s.). 17u OTIg itU of mllHr {pp. ji.'i- 7fi}. Cambridge, MA : ~f lT Press.

N lluolirl/lfl l AN ,{/lI/I/1I/1\ II/ AlII,I'ir ill C'oult'lII/l/Im ry I .(j l'

1I

, on fonut ry a m i ln n-ract iun . h I a, 't'CllIlpallY duncc, ¡¡lid gl 'lH'lllII }' tn t"Oll lri h ll .I ~'

t..wnrd cult ura l con tinult y uIIlMIl ( U)7,1. p , 129) n otes that music h as fu nctioned m ore co nsis11'1111), a m i pusilivel y in re ligio us ritual th an in any other area o f life in \\"'!'o !l' m d vil iza tio ll. L've n lo Ihe ex ten t th at religiou s m usic eomprises one o f \\h tl'l"Il Illusic's lun gest a nd rich est traditions, Su llivan (1997) re lales th al U V1'1' tlH' {'{'n tur il's, p ('o pl e n ave att em p ted lo h oId music fundamen ta l to t he (T('a lioll u f Ilu.' lIni V erSl~ and h u m anity' s pl ace with in iL MlISic's sp eeifie fu n ctio n in cerem o n ial worsh ip tend s to vary with its p lan ' in 11ll' lT rL'1l10 ny, \Vith in Christian ity, p articu la r music is d esign aled 1'0 1' 1I1t· form a l ~t'c t i o ns u f th e Roman C at ho lic m ass and th e main Anglican se rvin '!'> , as wl'11 as formal Lu th e ra n serviccs . t\l uch J ewish worsh ip practice lIla k(,s exk llsiVl' \lse orI iturb'Y' In both Christian an d Jewish p ractice, liturgi. (' e servkes ;t!'> WI' I\ as m un y «nci n u ' 111 t111110 1 1un 1 p. , l\ \'UIKt' , 11ym n smg ,... . , ' l' . ,' '1 _,tu in \'o lvl' IllI' t'U Il ~n' ¡;a tlU I\ ll¡.!,lit:a1l aiHl l .1I1IH'ran M'IVttl'!'> . 1'1 a t 1Il( 1 w.) in 11 H' serv ice , , ' if t, lbe tt co n tro vers ia l a nd vur yiug in T IH' USt' u f rnusic in lslum 15 SI~'l~1 ~a~ I~ th chant-likt" m usi ca l so uu d in ll al ticc umong Isla m ic cu ltu re s, lec , n~caN'!~ 1~ )')7 1) :l:.W' O ur csi . 1!l!)7, p , I , .ti , is not " muste ( asr, -, , . ,x 1 h l111111c n -1Igl0l1S pnlC tcc u . , ' 1 1 rds h as Importa ncc b cyon c 'J I; 1), While th c so und 01' the Qur an s 10 y Wt~ Sh d _h ( P N r;) notes Ihal , ' 11' · ' t íntended to b e m USIC, l oa -,, , 11", nlt' amng use , u IS n o .1 , l. itlv a nd legal and th eolob'l t'a l p 111l' Q u r'a n d oes not mennon m~slc ehx ~Cl ~:nissible, As with ol lll' r rc li. . 1 . d i .. greed regardmg w at IS a , 1l" lho nt ws lave isa ' . ' thro ugb scusuou s sOlln

I dd·' · nal fun ctin ns, At times, it "'11 11,11 wn rd s, ' ces SL'rves severa a 1 10 , , t>. 111 sk in n ' 1IgaOUS se rvl ' l' lo res!)()lld in a ccltain \vay; , I I ·tim ulate lh e cOIlb rrega Ion , 1 ~ I' I VI' ,S as a sIgna o s I. 1 d " re used lo hclp ('stabll !'o 1 a , . ,t o rgan 0 1' cho ra mter u es a ' ,11 011lt' r IUlles qm c ,' \ \' h. 1 gregation al sing ing serVt'S lo ' 0 1' tranqm ltty I e co n 1 I r 1 tIl lO"l o reverence ' , . . n -ho ·" anth em s m ay 11' ;1( I H' tive p artlclp at lo , e . . , b l· r ld va lul's 'lI1 tl im p lical io m¡ 1m dlll W pl'opl(' to gel 1lCr III ae " i n th e rchgoon s e le s a l ' • wIII!'o lli¡wl"s lo re nec o , 1 . . ¡mo ies sp l'cial rt'llgio ll'l t't'n ' ' r 'd uals Specla m uste acco m 11 "'I1I!'> t' 1ves as I.n( IVI . , I d s l.cia l rcl igious hu lid ays .111' , " . t n l)' wed dmgs fuo era s, an P " '1 1111111 11''1, '-A.'r al ' . d . 'd I o han ce th e on~a sil)lI !'> M ~ 1Il 1 , !fui b ) ' m US$ eSlgne o e 111' " !lo \110 ft ' llleun m ¡;. . ' , h owever a re m U l! ' "p l'l , f lisie in re hg ]( IlIS cel em ony , • l· 1 ,1111 1' , S O Il W U S{~ S o nl , ,, ,' f 1 " lo music' s im po rla lll'p Iu 1'\ ' 1 "cere m o lllal, a lte sllllg u rt lel ~ 1I , 1'" \' 1' •

1 " '1,·",

K Ill l\

,

' r o of music in m aj or wo rld f(' li};io ns exa m m a .10 " IllUsic' s p ersllaslvl' fun ctl0n , ' $

l 'I'lI j,: ( 1!IX5, pp, 1 2 ,~ - 1 3 _

1... 11 "11' '1 p¡lI'liCll larl y

011

'd to Ilt'i . hlt' lI till' desired ('l1\otio nal d fl'(:1 in Ilw ex!Jt'ctt g , 11 ' f 'rtain ~iK'lilicilnl ..... o r
11/11"'10/'11 /1 ' 11 MIl.I;Cin C'o1lumjllJwry

l .ijr

,17

l -cessarily thc SU Il~S /{wa r, L("" so ngs 1II 1111' 111 1 lit ( e , . [ 1, " ' 11 " ( 11' 170) III )!t'S thal S()Il~S o Imll / \", '1 l· ' . 11 -ecd IIlstalll'es o ),1 111 s 01 () H of thc so ld i('rs thcmscl vr's. 1lI',III Y a ~~.. 1, ' ,c l" t!t's cynicul pu rodn-s , .' . I1 ' 1I n l's l'xlsl InUSle.1so 11 Ill",an izalio lls lIl S'~l1"Illgl l ti 1\ 1°, " '.: rmcd troop s h istoricu lly I\(~edl'd J l~SS nI' '1' " lífc Hís cr l'r naJt',~ y s ,1 (1 11111 .u y uc . " l s l. ' I Winstock's worrjs, .1"IIIllSiGlI Ins p lra tion a mi mOR" n i a IlmSICa so Olee. n I

' 11 (

. ... I hr 1 an -on e else. Such so ngs pr ovide 1111' IIIt' soldte r needs -sumng songs ess t tcal Y 1 t i wa r bul the soldíer . , " . I ,.. Ious oude r Ior ph ysíc lI1VO vemen In , (l VI II ' I C OI porat es music Th' " 111 11'1'11 111 kilI" 'IS he 'HI of sta' f , . ' e coronatlOn o f a "real" 1'1 " , e ca IIres muslc Fol k~ · t" I h 'j ' lIsua 11y rely ' on ro es lva IllII I l'l1'lJHlllY in 11 ll.' ritualis' ,' c s cnsc, " s, w 1. C perhap , s Iilll l' II ~ wp l! as Ill'ilrhlen ing ,h bl USIC as a n mlegrati ve . o c memo ra cness of lhe o . h ll lll lhi"l ('ursory review, it is a a rent that , . cC~lon, 1110 .. 1 ll' I¡'lIlflllic's \\' h,'I" hPPh mUSlC IS an Important part of ... rescarc as no t ex am me ' d . ,, cere mo nia l mu sic's dl l'c h I I O Ill a "sl'i(' ntific" pecs p-c,' th f th , ... Ive, e act at mus'c h b d 1111111' ." lu In' a IJart of m ., ' attests to 'tsI f as ' ee n1 an co nos ceremomes l'lI!1alldng Iht, importance and bl 1 unch ona va lue in memora eness of many DCcasions .

h,l l llll, '(' lll11 in~' event c r a Mi ss. \,1'orId (0 b . y, wh eth cr 1' A m en ea or Uni ' "

Com mercial M usic "Co lllllll'rd al" uses of mu sk re fer t ' l1lonl'y fm m Illllsic d in'ct ly or to e h o ubsm~ musie in so rne way to make ' f ' n a nee usmess th ro up"h th 'If") o e use o m usle. o rl Il a nd I la wrea vcs (1997 N " . 1::> •• , p, ¿, Jo suggest tha t eo mm ' ' 1 ' f ' l'llll...lIll1 lt' u m' Ihe I)ri ' I ereJa lIses o muslC ' . ' nClpa sources of o ur ex . posur e to muslc 10 the \.\ c '.~ !I' l'll wo rld ." Thc next ~ew secl10ns ex am ine eomm . I f 1l 1 11 1l ,~ l' VI'l"al 11I.'l"sIJectiv"'... s ,' h'ae'kgl 'Ol llld OlllSIC ' mu s . ' ' crCla uses o m usie 1 " l'llll' l'l ;dnll ll'llt, amI m usÍ(" for 1" '"'" ' ' '. lC lO a( ver tlsmg, musie as . " ti Io n cs pec JaJl)' as a ' f I ' ~ I llry loll! in ,mo tile!' mcdium, ' way o e n 1ancmg a

or

Jl(l('1..g m ll l1d MtL.fir

MlIsic has " C'( ' II a ""'u'k r 1" ~ , lh'\"l'lul' lllt'nl u f l'1('('ln ;"",8',~),I~n(. l' 0 1" VU I1'IOllS a("( ivilit,s fo r n' nl ur it's. T he 1 (01( Ill~ alH n 'ln 1 '1' .. hilt kg ro und nlll~ ic lu IU-l'llll . l ' 11 l ' oc 111 Ion ,' y~lt'm s t'na bled JI 1I,lo; 1)' pn 'va ('ni 1Il ..uti l·' )', \\'llI'llu'¡- as a part

! 'i/ll t/ I /m ll !

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fl/ll.l'l r 111 1,1111/ 1' /1/1 11111 " ) " 'J'

llf ,1 plun ucd a ud io 1'lIviJclllllwnl lll as tlu' n-snlt 01' hap l)('lIstaIH'I'. Th c rcnn oftcn con non-s !'l1l 1l H' IY I'I' 01' " l11ood muste." "easy Iísu-ning," 0 1" "Iwauliflll m nsi c," alt h oll~h uhnost a ny type of m usíc ma y Sl'I"Ve as a b uck ,lo;rnllnd fo r somcthing clse. h111ssIIIman (W7·I , p , !J:{) notes that background 1II11sic is " lnte nded lo be boa rd but n OI activcly o r purposel y listeu ed to ." Slrid l)' speaking, m usic th at captures a perso n's auen tio n ls Iaili ng to fun cdon as trul y "background" m uste. Models and th eori e s mco rp o ratin g deli b t-ra te anennon as essential to an aesthetíc expericnce wi th music or to dctcrnuning m usical prefe rence [see Ch apters 8 and 9) theoreücally do not app ly lo ba ckground rnusic. An unr eso lved q uestion regarding backgro und music co ncem s lo udncss k-vi-l . The lnten t of background music is to be unobtru sive yet sufflcien üy 1011;lI'I'" 1'1 ).

".

Accord ing lo Kt'JT ( I ~ I - I.)) . "I.'\T I •• I "'llrld War 11 era sllItli.'s indicutc rhut mu s¡c n-nded lo ¡uITt'as!' tlu' .uuou nt of produced m aterial Ill(·(·tin g quaiíty

contro l s tan d a rd s. Musir {'spt "('ia lly sccru ed to enhan ce producti vit y in highIy rcpctiüvc work. A I!J7·1 ln -housc M uza k b roc h ure, with no au thor o f record . claimed increused product ivít y and improved e mp loyee atti tude in com pa n les manufacturing electrícal appliances and watc hcs. an electrical

utilit y, und a medic a! cla im pro ce ssing o ffí cc. Wokoun (l!J79) found that I\11l1.a k ap pare n tly re d uced fat igue amo ng au to m o b ile workers, particu larly duríng the añemoon. M usic may no! a lways be the impo rtan! variable in studíes showi ng effects o f backgrou nd music in work seui ngs . M an y variab les ínfluence producti on und m or ulc, bcth o f wh ieh n ced c1ear in díc ation o f ho w the y will b e reeogn izcd in particular experim en tal settings ("operation al" defíniüons). In re laüvely sh o rt-term studíes, the H awth om e effect. where incrccscd perso na l atn-nt lon H'sU ItS in a posítive change in at titu de or productíon, m ay be a faeli l l', Tlu- ty pc of work alsc is a consid era üon: Music aetu ally m ay di stract pea 1'1" l'n¡.:a¡':l'd in rela tivcl y intelle am i thc reb y move peop e . " . ht I w the ¡laCe throuuh a storc ami . F' , I sedaríve m UStC nu g s {) 1:> " al lastcr . ......mversc y. h th .h"' Hlise and it ruígh t C llCO l ln l¡.!,1' br slnu throug e merc " , . ,'u t'Ollras c rn ore I O W 1:> d dri k Pr viders of backgrround I1111Sltr over food an nn s. o , 1 d im-rs to 1mgc r o nge , did 1 rcccivc the mu ste n cgutivclythat cuslo mers I no 1 "'" \lll1 \1 'N ( 1m , - -, 11,,'h, 'lo Mil 1" " O' I,'lH "', " , , " " ~ I"' l m"' n l I'.' ilh lh e.r o w n m nSll,1 , h im nt Ii.'r o f "~,' l li n!l: " ul 1"'l'ul,ll , lIllll'r l H" rI-"n"" r~ 01" , ,, h J¡~ . , 1101"1"'" "' ,'\ ,'" "..

ti,1

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l \ vl"111111/.14 ,JI "'mllt/lllifl1l1 f}.l A fll "~ i{(l 1 Ilrllfl l'i/ll

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cn u-rprisc. C om tu crcia l i tl h' I't ' ~ I ,~ 01 11' 1111 ' Ilvl'llillill,L\" in flucncc in Ih e s c-h-rt io n and pro ruotion 01' popula r mll "~i ( ', wln-r lu-r rhc gou l is to a uract pcople lo a ttcnd live performa nccs. lisie n lo musir U I\ thc radío, vlew musíc videos, bu y C Ds and othcr rccordíngs , or subscribe lo speciñc liste ning formats n o w avai lable in hon u-s am i nutomobíles via sarcllitc am i othcr telecom munication systems. Rcuhenbuhlcr a nd MeCourt (I!)!>:2, pp . 104-1(6) strongly asse rt, and Nort h a mi Hargn-avcs ( I!W7, P: 27!)) reiterare, tha t the primal)"conce rn in sc lectlng music for rad io alrpla y is to attract listcn ers to thc advcrtisem ent breaks. Sch wic h tc n bc rg ( 199 2, pp . 117-1 22) m a kes a strong case th at Ih c prima ry huu-t ion of music videos is to in crcase sales 01' the musícíans' re cordi ngs and inrreuse uue nda nce at theír concerts . Nort h and Hargreaves (1997, p. 279) urguc that anotber goal 01' mu sie videos is similar to th at uf com m ercial rad io: lo a uract spccífic a ndiences a n d k cc p thc sc vicwcrs watching unül the nvxt udvcnising break. Il ot!,.;('s au d Haack (1996, pp . 519-520) note that in fluences ot he r th an 1Illl1l111'ITial are a pa rt uf at least on e scgment 01' the popular m usie indu stry: hl'ó1 v)' IIl l'lal Illusic. Refcrring to (hese influenees as a typ e o f mUJirol mal· /l//u lilt', II1 I'Ycite Stuessey's (1990) conce rns about th e eonte nt and th emes oC 1II ':lv)" lI\1't..l: exlreme rebe llion, extre me \
,

¡ I¡j

l \vl //IJ/II~/f ,¡ I I'll/I lIdl/ 'ifl/l.\ oj' AfuJiml lIr/w l'lfn

M usic th us ma y nun un- In llll d 01 i l \t'Il~ as in progr a m mus¡c. am i it may

vnhunretln- nurration

( ' X I' IP 'I'I 't1

in anotber mcdium.

Nnrruüon thmugh mus¡c is l' H.Ssiblt, in p art becau se music is able lo fu nca langu age lcss spcciflc than any verbal la ngu age. I'orlllo y (19G:{. pp. 1J!J-1(0) s ugg es ts tha t m uste is a la ngu age th al ca n exp ress di ffl' rl'HI ideas sim ulta n eo usly. Farnsworlh (1969, pp. !H-95) belíeves that mus¡c Is a Ianguagu in thc sense that it has a gr am mar a nd synta x that mu slciaus tlSt' jo communicate, but h e feels th at rnusic does not eo nvcy detaile d lIu's.sagt's. Bro wn ( W81) ind icates that Ianguage, unlike mus¡c, is not speclfic lo rnu- sr-use mo dality. H e find s m ore sim ila rity between muslc and sign lan¡{nagt' tban bctween rnusíc and spoken langu age, because signs rep rese nt or SIJAAt'SI thcir meanings while words usually are connccted wi th m eaníngs IIlC1ft' .u h ilrarily. Furthe rm ore, signs can not exist withou t so rne configura lio H. lm'¡llio n, o rie nta tio n , and m ovemen r. just as to nes ca n n ot ex ist with out .\ 0 11 11 ' pitch , londncss, timb re, a nd d ura tlon . As th c auth ors discu ss in la ter t'ha p ll'r'l, ¡'o¡{lli livc psycholobrisls and music tb eorÍsls try to sh o w an o rgani:t:lI tio lla l ~ i 1ll i l ¡¡ ri t y h etween music and languag c d ue to th e cxistence o f an Illlttl,tl yi II ~ "tll't'P" slructu re.

non as lunguage. ulbcu

NUl lalilll1 lhl"l lll¡{h music also is faci lita ted by cu ltura l ste reotypes th at ¡llloHh pa ll icu lar llH'a nings lo m usical efTects. wh ich are p erpetu ate d lh ro ugh 11 " '. Sllt 1I .\ It'n 'llly pl'd expeclancies do n o t require m usica l lraining for d cvel"1'"11'111 ," u l may bl' lh e essence of m u sic as narrdtive. ·' o llill pll' llH'n ls {p iICh , lo udness. tim b re } Icnd th em sclves to stereotyp ica l l\i\1 1aliVl' Illlrlw ya ls. For example, ce rta in narrative sym b o liza tions o r repre,\ I ' l l l a t i o r l_~ lIlay Ill' ..p p ro p tiale for a certain p itch range, in ac cordance wilh l'x lll' lil ' lll"l' .md tradition . Depiction of th e p ixi e-ish character in Richard Sllil ll'l.~ \ lo llt' po cm Eulen.r/Jiegels lustighe Streiche u ses a high p itch leve!. Sll llm ls sllgg l'sling so m e pond erous gi an l o r impen d ing d oom will be lo \\'; .\ ll lllll ls Sugg:l's ting so m e th ing spritely Uf d elicate will b e hig h. Changes in lo udnt'ss ('asily s ugges t so methi ng ap p roach ing or leaving . A particul ar t¡m im' ur fOIl(' n )lo r may signify a p articu lar character or set a particular m ood. Bassoo ll Imll' sib'll ifies th e brooms lick in Dukas ' Soru rt r's Apprtntict; in I' ro kOJil'V's Peta 1l1ld t/u Wo(f, th e c1arinet represenls th e ca t. Low frequen cy tilll!Jn ·s. sl1 ch as Ihose o f lh e bass c1annet, m ay suggcs t a ce rlain sense of lI1 ystl 'ry a m i for dmd ing ; e1ectron ie sou n ds may suggcst "een e" cffccts. S II' I'I'O!YPt'S urisc fmm p crceivcd Uf iOlagi nc d ch aracteristics of lh at whi ch is p OI t rap'd in rl'l alio n lo so nie. qua lities--o nc hardly wou ld d epiet b ird s in lli,L:h l wil h a lu h a o r a lion sla lking ils p rey w iL h a flute. SN lut' n tia ! mu sica l aspecls (m elo dy. rhy lh m , fon n ) aIT¡'I·' music's cha ra c. kl ami h a w' consiclt'rable ro les in m usical narril lill n. A famil ia r melody m ay alO uw pa rticular 1tlt'1Il0ril'S ilm l all l idpatioll ~. ;n l' xl'lllplilil·¡J hy lh t· IIst' of n al ionali slil' Illu sk. sud l ;IS " '';1 I\larsl'i lla is¡'" iU t Olll p.IlI),IIIH 1' IIlli ll g s("('nl'S

na

!'iJlld i(//w /

AJI/,f'III IIfIll \ I{ AfIl,l if ill (;rlll ff tll!Wrtl ry "YI"

. . ' ¡ 1111' cla ssic Amc ncu n fil m (,'(1Jnhltm ca. ¡jllll a dramnüc t:lmfl lllll.ltulll 1I . ia rtic u lar churacrcrs. as 'l'ln-mes (in ("()In p le le I1U '\IIIIII'\) .111,a )' la tTOII1~~~n~li~ 01X'ras ami the use of if d 1- • \ V ' 's 11\1 ' 0 1 I ll' ntmo ~ In . A I'xt' m p h le U) agnl' r . ' . ., . io n situ aü o n com ed ies. -h ar uc tc r s 1Il te evrs f IIn'II11'S lo accom pan y ( . h w ha t h ackn e yed ste re o type o be ! tant: t e so rne nu-lod y' s m ode m ay e IITlI'0r . ' . [ th st he avil y u sed stcreotyp es.u . - , d m inor = sud ISOlle o e mo . '1.. Illa.!or - la p p y an . elo dic lln es h av e o bvíous n arraüv e u u tty. I\.sn ' nd ing a nd descending m i ., nmpllcity. Consonant har.. " . y sugg'e st comp CX I y or SI • I lurmoníc íntrtcacy ma . Le n..t hile di ssona nt harm ont es t t or re solutto n o co n le , w I . h uumie s m ay sugges res h A p o lyphonic textu re, whic lila)' suggest ac tívity, re stlessn ess, or c ~~s' l" s m ay sugges l a con tin u ing mvo lves two re latívcly ín dcpend cnt me lo l e m e , d i\nmrsc o r conm ct. . . 1 . is an obvio us narratíve tool. Tem po It hyth m , which must ex rst m ~I md.us~c, ti b erwecn slim ulative an d se daltica l . b l . ., ís th e mam rstmc Ion ... h a crt nca vana e, 1 I . . la tive íast-p aced act!vlh es . . ,1 , may p ortray su m u a rivt- m usie, whic h re sp ective ) . 11 wben th cy occu r at laxi . itie Strong accen ts, especia y . UI1t 1 slo w re ax m g acnvi ICS. . , . ri can create tensi ón an d eXCltcIlllrl n ally unaccen ted p laces as ID ~~n.copa 10~l, lo gical inten sity. A n inecssa nt llw nl. Rep ct itive rhyth m s ca n b~IJ 111 ~sy c o " loudness as in R av e!' s • · d ' tb con tm uolIs m crease 111 b ~ l. f d r¡ve d elcrmi nal ion, or Ih ythm co m me Wl a /lu/n o. ca n p ro du ce particul arly strong ce mgs o , 11 U'vita b ility. h ~ , not be obvious. Unity am i "ti music has fo on. a lthough t .c. orm[ m,a,},c , m usica l m ateria l m ay sug f ~ rm' rep etlllo n o ea vadety are th e b ase s o o , . r ' ' p robabl}' d iffe rs b etwl'ell l · In narratton lonn s ro e ~l'St il sen se of co m p eh o n. ..' , d. where lo n ge r for m s afe . th e p n nclp a nl e lu m . l1 analion th rou g h muslc as . I ' d b y Illu sic wlll'1't-' . . h t u ·h ano th cr medlUm en lance , H'lllllrt'd , and narratlOn t r) g . l' (l ()f'{ P 1 ~1O) in d ica tcs t hat " d d Cunollsly, ortnoy , 1" . ~ Ilo tl t'r segmen ts ar e n l e e . h ,h ,., wo rk am i d lcs Ilu x ll'Y . I ~ nns lo en ance el II1 lv(,lisls m ay use m uslca o I [ r ( ng p lols in a n¡¡lo gy wilh 1111' ( 1 ~ ':l H , p p. ~,m :{ -29 4) as a n exam p e o com p lca I lIlóln )' vo ices of a f~gue. ,th in of a na rrative naturc is in hcH'nl in ( )Ile may qllestton ".·hether an} gd d b l words. Do lh e so u ne l lev e t .. s i l . . ,·,." ·" ,,,s M lIsic lo dCIIll"\ a .' . , f om l' a r n t~ < .ISSOC . . . hilo{ wh a! tlw y urc h ean ng .trc r 1 M- .' . , I 'I>id ., b utt lc ·:' It ap id Il' ll1 pl ; . ,., 1 ·lc!wd S D tl n ( s. lI SIt. o < l' . , I . 1 111 ~I ' a1il llla . . .OW In . . . ,. I , . ·". Ilt'd sou n d s ami rh yl lll ll I san outpaf t t \".11 11"1)" 01' ' p t·(·ia liz.. tions fo r t' . le n r eatmen t se ttings in el ud e a d " p a Ic nts wl th p a rt O l· 't I! f11l 11l,a.: 1I1,a.: al 'live ra ther Iha n ' b h . ICU a r n e e s. A s a therap y p asSIV(' E' a VIO r . h JI,I'1 "111 lo ' ·ll¡.;a",: t' in "d oin " . h ' . ' mUSIC t e ra p y re q ui res lhe " g m Uslc t rough sm rri , l' . . 1 llllll,a.:, l' .1)'11 1,11; lIIMrun w nls o r mov ' 'f h o: ng, Iste nm g, dlscussing, c reI l ' • mg. e m USICth . Wt .. " IJlfll , ' ,~ s ioll all t'am of, .. h d d b e ra plst usually is a m em" n ea e y a ps J ', . . . l ' l ' , \ \ /1, 1 o tlllllll's lh t, IJarticu la r t' ' h ,ye l l,!trI st Of c lIm ca l direc tor p a len t s t e r ap e r . , ,' 1, ', 1 lIUI\¡¡' Illt' mpy' as tht. part O I d' u IC program. T h e te am may l ' 1" ICU af me lUm o r f If IIt, '¡ lit fil dlilal ing beha v ' ' / h as u ne o seve ra l th e rap e u_ 1" lOra c a nges A ,'1 IIJIII 0 1 111l 'ral >Y is Iha l il r'" , . par lCU a r valll e 01' a n activ ... 1 . " q Ulres a n tn te']>e '1 I ' ' I 11" ';11'1\1 .111a lienl as . 1I l ' ~ona re ati onship between lhe l' ' , " e as re a honsh . h' 1'/0 ,- lo st arting a music lh ' 'p s \Vlt III a group . crap y p rogTam 'lh . , llI USlt' Ilu'I"a l'i ,SI should asscss \ 'h lh . W] any particular cli ent the 1 , I ' \ e e r mUSIC th e ra ' , • . . p y IS polentlaJly beneficia l ') o 'M'IVlllg alld evaluating beh ' , " 1 ' ( aVlors In SIX ca t . ,11 ,H 1'lIl1e o r COh'll itive ) m I ' eg o nes-com m un ica tio n ' 1I '( ) ,) . , o o r, e motlOnal o . . , , (l ,'A ¡~ '. oS , rh e CAM EO S . ' . , rgalllzallOnal a n d so ci a l " . " catego nes 111 tu m b • ' .\ 1 11 1111; IlI'ra p l'U!ie goals (Ea g Je 1982 2 }' 1 ccome appropria le arcas for I I~ d l'lt'rmin ing the sp e ci fic ' m us ic' ~~tiv? . ..alh om.- R~d~y, 2002, p . :1). llJll"' /: 11 1t·n lpi .s l cOllsidl' rs lll any f 't , '¡tles for mdlvldual p a tients the II . 11 · . ae urs lile ud ing lb ' 11. ll' la pt'II IIC It·am. !he palie nt's d ' e re commendations u f O"JI'('livt's fo r Ih e thera l>y a ud lh Isa. I '~I es and behavioral d isorders fh e " 1' \\'1 '1 , e pa t/{'nt s fllUS' · I iJ k ' 1 S s, - - II (' Ih t, th e ra ¡Jisl uny est',b /" . lea ae 'gr o lllld a nd inter. . " IS 1 fllll.';lt'a l l''O'II · ti 11 11 ' 1),' ,¡¡IVlo ra l a lld S()Ci-l¡ 1 b . - 1">' S. H'S(' are st'cn nd a ry to . - . goa s esta 'l sl1('d iJ ' I , IlU nJ e IIll' rapisl m llst 1>1'lt'('1 a('l ivili , . J . .. ,) I.H· I lt'rapt' lll ic lt' alll . T he t S t MI ( .." JlaIIZI· 0/1 lIl11 sic \ .Slill1 l1 la tiv('

"11

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/1 M ll,l Ir in C01lIrmI JtlTII F"Y up

11

«nd .\ oe ia lizil1g s t rc n ~ t hs lo a l tlvel y iuvolvc Ih e patk-ut whih- ~ i ll \1l h a ll l ' o tl ..ly I.If ilil al in g th e d esin-d lx-bavkuu l r-bungcs. Thl' app roach descrilx-d ;IIJOvt· sc mcumcs is considcn-d 1I1II.I;r 11/ l/¡rml'Y. wlu-n-in Ih e mus ic itself is adjlllH"t lo and complcm cuts urlu-r luu-rvcuüons; 1I l' I' lOa d les in w h ich m us te is the maln treatmcr u 1'01' lmprovlng a clicnt's , ' Iu,li lil lll are c o nsid c re d music as iheral'} (Bu lit. 19!'¡, p . 25 M), Obviously, th e lnu- lu-t wecn mu sic in thc rap y a nd music as the rapy is nol dcnmrcat cd as I l-ml y as Bunt suggests, but rccogniticn o f th e two upproach cs so m eüm es is uv-ful. Unkcfer's (1990) taxonomy u f musi c therapy progra m s ami n-ehu¡q llt·s for udults wit h m e n ta l di so rders, w hi ch class ifies activi ties and imcrv-uüun s into s ix m aj or ca tcgo ries, essen tlall y re flects th c rnusic aJ thcrupy ,1!' ¡llo ad 11'111' lirst ca tegory is musíc perftrming; p crforming acüvities may foc us 0 11 1'1 11"'1" product o r p rocess and may in volve elther gro u p or indi vidua l inn-r\ " lllio n s. Group act ívíües emp hasize group cooperatíon a nd res ponsi bility, ~ ' I ' lid in teruc üon. a mI mastery 01' musical m a teria l. Te chniques wilh in d ivid lIu l ~ m a y fo e us on improving a c1ie n t's musical skills (p rod uc t) ur fo stt'ring ;1 ,h"lIl 's scl f-e x p ressiu n an d abUity to in le rae l m us ica lly a nd sud a lly with IIIt' ti "' 1 , l p i .~ 1 or olhers in th e gmllp (p rocess). I Jn kt·fe r' s se cond c a tego ry , music P~)'dlOt/¡ erajJy . in eludes SUp ptJIt iVl' , illlt'r'11 11V1', a lld catalytic Ih erapy processes fo r grnups a n d /or in divi d ua ls , '-up purlive m usic t hc r a py a etivi ties foste r ve rbal int e racli n n , soci a l p art ici l"llion , a m i Ihe p ra c tice 01' h calthy bchaviur pattcrns. ¡ntc racti ve ael ivitie s _,.,,1. lo help c1ients be come a w a re 01' consc io us co n ni ct s ami un hea lthy d, 'If'JI.\t' Illt'chanisms a n d to ga in in sig hts in to b e ha viu r patlerns. C a la lylie 11 ' Ilvi li¡'s st'l'k to c rca le an a wareness 01' s ubc o nscio tis con l1 icts ami enr ollr· ,I!\,' I hilng e by relivi ng a o d rcso lvi ng deep connicts and fc a rs. 111 lJ nkc fe r' s thi rd c a tegory, ther a py using musi, amI movrmtnl may 1H'lp , 1II'IIIs hen llll e aware 01' their bo d y mechanics, in ere ase socia l intt'radioll , 'IU"W t'xprl' ssio ll 01' feelings a nd cmolio o s, an d ¡linease c xcrcisc . 111 ('alt ·,II;0 t ~ t, IlIr, mllsiecomhinrtl willl other txprtJJivr arlJ suc h as drawin g, drama , sr llJp t. lilK, n I' w riti ng prosc ami poetry ol'fer indiv id u a ls in creascd o p pn rt llllilil' s for Ilwl .II" ·lIlit: t' xp n~s si()n 01' fee lings and e m otio n s. Rrcrrali01wl mUJir, Ca lt'Wil"y I I ~ " , I,·al llft ·s .. foc ns on co o perativl' gn m p participat ion . SIl(Tt'SS-IJI"i " llll' ll 1IIIt Ilkal pxpt'rit' IH:t'S. a n d lh e devd opm ent 01' Ic isure-time lll11sit'¡L! skilis , 1.. l/l/Hit" (/1/(1 rr!llxatioll. U nkefer' s six lh catt'go ry . fou r n'('(Jb'lliz¡'t1 !t'(·h · tllo fl ll''' t' m ploy music lo fostt' r rclaxali oll : (a) mus ic IIs('(1 in l:lJllj u llt:tio ll w ill! III I lKJ l ' ~ s i v t ' II1IISt:11' re la xalioll Ira in in g ; (1,) IllIISit: ftJr ..u r fa(:c n' la xal ilm a lUI lo' lIIpOlóll"y resp ile fro l1l an x it·ty/ sllt·..s l"fllld ilions ; (e) lll llSk illl a);t'l"y lo I p lOI l' ami fo slt' r inCft' asl'
7:1

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Documcn ün g lII lI"l, 1 IIl' IU p ~" ~ 1-11" 1h vlu cun-fully con trollcd rc scarch is undcrsta nda bl y diflk ull. "llu - , Iiult a l " I'II1 O:l('h necc ssa ry in maoy m usic thcrupy ac üvitics 1(,lItis ¡'SI,1r 1110 11' lu n iM' stud y re se urch than lo cx perimen tul research. Furth cr , siu cc IIlllsic rhempy is uscd in co nj uncü on wit h o tile !" tlu-mpk- s an d med lcatl o ns. it is difficu lr lo attríb ute un y effccts so lely tu

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I '11111' t'xerd st' .. _ 1 -u uf uue u tlo n un e11or l u s 11\1 \1" 11' n",rti/J tI: lo SI' !"V" as ,1 111 . r Iluidity) (u-ro po, rel lt'til in n, du ra non orccvor .

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~ltl s i e Lislening and Ancsthesia, A na lge sia, a nd / o r Suggt'stion M u.I';r hl1ld ;IJfl: To se rve as an audioanalgesic, a n xio ly tic, or se da tive .

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Ndwiqllc: tvl l1sic Listening/ Participat ion a nd Exercise

I"ES 1"I 'I " St'll ls ,h.' propurt io o of a sl.alld ard dt"\'ía' ioo (a llllil of \'ari ah ility) tha l q uant iri."s tllt" .. ff(·l'ls u f nmlra slinl; cll nd itio os . In Ihis case , 11w Il lt'am of IIH' ~ro ll ]JS n'n' ivi ll~ m usí· ( ,,111'('11111"' 111 Wl"rl' ('u o lrasll'd w ilh lhe grou ps Ihal d id oot . A n E.'i... I.O(l w(luld íml ical.' lhal , a uos.s ,tlll lll' Sllld lt's in lh." I1wla·an alysís, llw ('x p' 'f inll' nla l h'TUUP (nm siu ll ln 'alll"''' I) Mo rt'd 011" sta ndar d .I1)1111S-

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tt ' 014) note the d eve lo pment uf tw o .n.t~W ficld~ II Old¡:,t's and I laack l lJJ h. p".S .. d perf orming arts medicine- M,a l( .. L.I,.d lo l1lusic !he rapy: "'~SIC "'edl.Clne an" n terms o f p hysica l he a\th Iba n . Ive usm g nUISle more I Itllll1 ll" ' llPIlt'ars tn IIlVO . h t foeus as mueh ur more 01\ __ 1 .' . lh erap y wlue see ms o . . 1 1"' 11 h \l ;ulltlOna rnllSlC ~ . L"l een m usie nw t!u:lIW ~IIH nHl S H _ 11 " lth A mainr dlfl er cnec ve w . . ' l' l"a u a . :.r . • . h as '1 1,hYSIU1 )' .. :o.: h l. SIH' ¡H"knowlt'i1w 's thal I1Iml u f th c n-sean-h sllt' rt' vi¡ ' w l 'c1 11'1'1II11'd 11l1"lt iv(' resuhs, b ut she mainnuns that the coucluslons druwn gt'lw ra ll)' u-m nin uu convi nci ng, prim a rily d uc lo "o bvious iuad cquacic s in thc cxpcmucnra l d esigns a nd a1so to the inco m plete and

cquívocnl dcscr iptlon s o f tlu..' ex perimenta thcmsel vcs" (p . 2 1). S he co nc ludes t ha l "defini tivo evidence of thc no nmusical ou tcomes u f musíc cd u eatio n is )'l'l lo be provlded" (p. 21). A m o re re cent review o f th e extra-musical ad va ntage s of music ín stru cü o n a mi pa rüci patío n (C utie lta, H amann, & \ Valkcr, 1995) also ref1ects co nsíder011111· cnutlo n in its clai ms reg ard ing m usic's effec ts 0 11 nonmusica l learning. A n uutcorne of the Future of Musíc Educa ü on Proj ect sp o n so red by U nitcd Musical Instrume nts. U.S.A.. a coalitio n of six m ajor man ufac tu re rs of muslGil instrume nts- A rm strc ng; Artley , Ben ge, Co nn, Kin g; and Sh cry l & Roth, 1111' revicw reponed results of 8 1 studies of th e effccts of m usíc instructio n or purncipuüon o n achievcment in language arts. reading , m ath e m at lcs, o th er nrndr-nucs, and several o the r depen den t measures (crea tivity, d ropo ut rutes, "lllC ll" ul St'l f-l'5h'cm. slud ent social skills, and sllldent perceptual motor skill d" VI 'lopllH'IlI). Wh ile Ihe projeet rev iewed 81 stud ies, o nIy 34 aClua lly co n, I'IU ", 1il('adl'mic ac hievemenl, and ove r ha lf 0 1' Ihese o nly pro vided correlaHlIUlll c1'lla . No l surp risingly, C utietta el al. we re q uite ca uliou s in genera l. I/Ull' IU , Iq "\i1rdillg the e ffects 01' m usic instru cti on on achi evcment. O f th e 34 ..tlldw 'l lt"II'Va nl lo academic achicve menl. o nly six rc ported resul15 th al il1l plil'd n ltlsal dfects from music instru ct ion or parti cipation o n aeadem ic al hil' Vl'lIU' lll. Olhcrs either provide d o nly corrclatio nal dala or yie lded stali..lk ally lIll11 significan l results, In cssence, slud ies revicwe d by C utielta e l al. du\ no l plOvidl' cOllvinci ng data showing posi live effeets of seho o l m usie illS lm l'lio ll o r partici patioo 0 0 academic ach ieve m eot. l\lost co nc1usioos Wl'lt· in ({'l'lIlS 01' po sitive rclalio nsh ips betwee n music pa rticip ation and Ihe va ri' llls IYI)('S llf academie achieveme nl. perhaps llsefu l as po lilical info rmaliol\ bUl nol cllllvin(j ng lo resea rche rs. 1'('l h..ps Ihe Liggest ball yhoo rcgarding th c effe cts of rnllsic o n no nmusiea l ll'amilll-:" has Leen lhal associated w ilh lhe purported "M 01.arl e lfect. " BI"t':Il1 SC il iIlllslralcs taking minimal in formatio n and making it illto so rne· lhill l-:" w.. 11 beyond whal il rcprcsent s. the autho rs have cl eetcd to devote con, illl'm illl' d isclIssio n lo the Mo1.arl elfec l and Ihe atten tion it aroused. m In a 1"I!I' r lo IIU' l'd ilor of Na lUTe, Rau scher . Shaw, a nd Ky (1993) re po rtcd a eo m· I lOl ri SO Il 111' IhH'l' b'TO UPS (lf co llege sludents . o ne of whic h Jistc ned lo !\ fozart's I) majo!' so nala (K t HH). another of which Iistcll ed lo a n ullspecificd reIax · a lio li t ¡I Pl~. ..ud Ihl' o lher 0 1' which sa l in sile nce ror 10 m inu tes prio r lo lak ·

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, I I l "~l 'I 01 I'S WI'f(" ron vertcd lo thv (.¡¡uiva ' lug It"sls 0 1' spatial fl'aSllll ll1 }3,: 11" ', ' " " 11 ' lslruclio ns for IIIl' S{(lujimi" JI' ,. It·S 1Il lit lull ,Illll Wl 111 I II·tK l' n i mil' Igelln" S ( (1 " , & S' ul r ¡tIHIi) Thc gru up th at U;l1r1 jm[e o[lnuUi{!,(1J(( t "hUIIU hk~", 1.1,01);(' 11, '\ '1 ' t:l hc~ ~c:)res 'than ItU' othc rs. . I t M ' ar t showvd . .S1Jo!;1I11rrau y 110 ' I hud 1Islelle ( o oz lu ti le"lr results we re lem po rar y a nt TIH' il1vesligators ea refully GI\llto lw d 1 l.l~ I " . rasks Thl'y callcd for db d th e particllhr spaua re aso nmg . , I llid uot exte n eyon, 11" " I .t 1 . an d not ed th at m usicians uug 1\ lurth cr rcsearch rega rd mg ac ( I~H.lIl.1 slY es opular rned ia , inclm ling hff I tb: nonmUSICJaIlS, j owcver, p h I t"ad (1 erenl y an N · 1 Confercne e ignored t e . . ns f th Mu ele Edncato rs ano na • pllhhcallo O e das tha t m usic co uld m ako a 1)(' 1'' ti s an d promulgal e a sto ry I u-searc Iicrs eau 10 11 " [h"M el e ffect" p henOml' 1l01l. >lI1 "H th begmmng o 1 e oza ..o u -sm art er, cn ce , e f b . d what Rausch er and hcr co l1111' mcd ia blítz m al íollowc d we nt ar c)on

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h-aguc s sugg estcd h h M rt effect m uy be a real plH" , '015 su anest I at t e u oza Subsequcnt axpenme ~ . 1 xpe rime nt (Ra uschvr. Sh.p,..·• . f lIy límitcd sItual10ns, n o ne e . \ 1I0lllenllll 10 care u . "[ I their ubili ry lo íruag uu' I u' n o) h lIege students wcre tes er on · l· & Ky, Hl:-J;J , w ere co . d tti perations the students who IS. f paper fold mg an eu ung o • 1 l· u 'su I15 (1 [ a sen es o " d sludents who t.'it H'r l!'> ' . [ f lhe M ozart sonata ()utsco re ll'llec! to 1It rnmu es o , .\ . l· '1 e lO-mi null' preparali()1l t' m uli o r sat 10 SI e nc e or 1 h'l\('d lo ot h er aura 1 S I th 'm ent {Ra usd 1l"r Sha w, '00 o f five days In ano er expen • \ limes ()\'cr a pen . ' b 1,)n- ) lh ee- and fou r-year-old chil( rl'n . ~I I , r I I ' · hl, n nlllS & Ne weo m I A'vin. \1'ng c . f .' d o·,ce expe rirne nts in p res(~ 100 . ht Ihs o plano an v who undcrwenl e lg m O,n \ . [ h ildren who had nol had t1H' " m bhnJ7 p uzz e pleces o e . w\'I"e sllpe n o r 10 asse o h b \. tha' [Ile)' had show ll ho w l1l\l sK . ' 1' h escare crs e leve ' . . lIH1slcal ex penence, er 'al 1 d elopme nl Evident ly. slllu lat' itive spatl ·tem pora ev ' gno . migh t en hance e [ ·cal proc essin« and spatia l pro· , Ived 10 th e typcs o m usl o . ('o rlicill areas are IO VO . ' N A 'n the investigal ors callt·lI lo.. ' d ' 1 th elr expcn mcnts. s al, . ' 1 n'5smg reqUlre \1 h I phic rccordi ngs 01 t:or IH'¡1 A tudy of eleetroeneep a ogra 1 h !llore rescarc, s ' St ' Rappels1x'rger 1'1' 1" ( 11", . f . , n ad ults (Sam the m. von cm . " . lI'~H )l\ S ro ro sc'" c \ d ec" e[[cel 01' cortica l ¡¡d l\'ll)' ligalo nl dn'.... un d"rl)'llIg 11":u. W " 1 (1'1' 111) Tlw n' ''tk ll'artly invul n 's I"' n "t " t ' " '' 1"11' '11SIII' I" )l1 a p III'erson has a dee p bl'lief and failh iu a parllCllof Ihe uma n m m -1 a I d ' . J , ,1 1 '''e r of m usic 'h r po wer w helher ,h ep.o . . , a healiug me lho d, me . Ile.l ! tte mo1Io ' . ' . tha t erson ma ex pcrience suhstanl ial be neflts. ()~t'vI'r. lt ·, /{) . a Id el,t)'l ' h P dQ.'ires a • examinat iull or, 1Mozares Ill11Sle as ination. In S. ¡'nth (Ld .), (1!188). Top 40 radIO: A ragOleo o 11,II 'IU ,s. K. . ,Vi k P theoo Boo ks. Ff/dllg lh t muslC (pp. S- SO). Nc .... Dr . an , ,..,' and sound stimuli. In Il. A. .) Ph . I . al responses .o mi ~ ... , I\llllll'lt, n . 1.. (19 96 . ySIO ogtc . h lo (2 d d ) (pp 3 43 -:{H6). San Anlolll tl , lI ou gcs (Ed.), lIandbook of muSlC psye o gy n e . .

TX : IMR Prcss. ' ·d · le.'r ning runct'lJ\llal rarts in D S (llJ90) Muslc as an al III .. 1I,IUll', J. B., & Ramsey, . . . . . . '/ F..ducation, 2. 'l'l 1- '1.37, . . ' . , ttr1l ourna "J ' • Ihl' soCial studles Ics-r ,

P( 'I {Of lll all r e 0 1' u 1l10l1 1ll 'lll a lil ul rl' SI.

1171-1175.

l'rr((1'llIlll & Al%

.\'I,-il/J, 90 (3, PI. 2), r

( I ! J ~ II¡ ) . !lIsidr tlt r 11I /1 \/1 /I/lII,, (,y: ( .muu.uv . ' )'ty. / mla ..H ,

I//II!

IlIui"r.u (:.! ncl l'd.). NI'I\"

Ilrn wlI, It (I!IH I). M usic and lallgu aJ.\l'. In R (; . '1 aylof (Ed.), Documentary u port ofthe Ami Arhor symposium (pp. 2:n -2(j;j). Resten, VA: .\1usic Ed uca tors Na tíona l C l l rl fc r l' ll r l' .

York: Schimu-r Hllo ks. 1 . I 1 ,. . ami can infhie nce helpful.. . Fr u-d H.. & Be l" kowir: cowuz, I .. (1,17'1) , . M usl!' 1,11( 1 c~J.lrms OH t1e o[ AP/Jlitd SlIdill éc ieuce, 9. 1" !J' . In R Leppert & S. M eC la ry ) . d llll'tks uf po pu1ar mus te. . . H7 . 'Iow ar .s an al'" . . .. ( Cambrid re UK: Cambridge Umve rsüy Frith, S. (I9MU W,.ds.), J;c in JQ(uty (pp. I.B - 14J). g ,

Ih o wl1. S., Ml'rker, B.. & Wallin, .1\', L (2000). An inlroduction lo evo lutionary m usí. (Co m p. & Seq.], (1997b). 17u FffiC/TI': Musiejo r Childrrn (Vols. J, :l, :1) (e l ) l"l·t'Ord ing SH M 650 1.2). Boulder, CO: Sp ring H iIl .\1usic. ( 'I,a!lIi\, C. ":, Stt'('le, K. ~f., Bella, S. D., Pererz, l., Dunlop , T., D awe, L. A. , I l llI tlpllll')', n. K., Shannon, R. A. , Kirby,j. L.,Jr., O lm slead, C. G., & H.a uscher , ' . 1I ( 1!'~I!I). ''rcl ude or réquiem fo r the "~Iozart eITecl~? Natu re, 400, 826-H28. ( ' OIH ' II , A. .J. (19!J3). A ssociatio nism a nd m usic a l so und tr ack p henom ena f.im lul/¡/fIT(JT} .Hu;;e Rn 'Üw, 9. 163-1 78.

( ~¡¡IIIP"I'IJ,

Mo~rl

I ', ,11/'11, A-. l. ( t!J!J!J). Tln- {unction s o f mus¡c in m ultim ed ia: A cognuíve approac h. In S \r. Y¡ (Ed.) 11uivI'1sil)' I'n'ss., Musir, mind. alld scirou (pp. 52-68). Seoul: Seo ul Na tio nal t '11I11lI'llllIl, 1'. (I!JH !I). 1/0WS(x ü lia rrmt:mkr. Cambridge, U K : Cambridge Vni versity

1', I· ~\ .

(

Hn k, M.

'n~I¡1

( ;iOllli, E. (I!I!J!J). The eITects o{ !.hree )'ears o{ piano ins tru ction on child ren 's 1o~ rlll lv(' dc'veJoplIlellf.j aurnal a/ Re.rearch in Mus;c Educolion. 47, HJ8- 212. ( 'olk l , V. W. (I!J7:i). Effecls of mu sic o n m enlall)' relarded ¡;iris' pe rfo rm an ce of /II¡lIIllal l ¡l.~ ks, CuullciljOr Re.u arch in Musie Educalion, 2 7. 4~-43. C lllil·ll,., It, Il ilmanll, D. L , & Walker , L :\1. (1995). Spin-o.ffi: Tlu extra-musical Il¡!¡ltlllltl¡:r.1 u/ a musical educalion. Elkha rt, IN : United ,,"f usical los tru m eJlts. /) ;I \"i", W. 11., & G fd Jer, K. E. (19 92). C ün icaJ p ract ice in mu sie therapy. In W B. ' I,n'i\ , K E. (;{(% 'r, & .\ 1. H . Tha ut (Eds.J, An inlrodue!ian lo music th" apy: TJu ary 11 1111 jlTtulla (pp. :1- 15). Dubuq ue, l A : ' Vrn. C . BrowII.

IJc'lli\l,'T, It S. (WHti). liImuhrd gold New Bru nswick, 1'\J : Tran saction Boo ks. / )lIkl' , It A. The ot her .'fozarl etTect: AII Ope n le uer to nlUsic ed ucarors. lJ¡J(/lllr, 19 (1 ), 9- Ui.

(~()O(J).

f.it~rl', C . T.,.Jr. ( W71). Ef{ecls o{ ex isting m ood " nd order o{ presellla tion o{ vocal ..ud ill\lrulIll'llIal music o n ra led m o od responses lo Ihal m llsic. Vn publi"he d docll>l'1Il di.~st'l' la lion , Th e Univers ity o{ Kansas.

(J!lH~).

:"IKI.·, C. ·1:• .Ir. MUJ;c Ih"oP}' jor h01/dicafIPrd ifldividualr: An oll1wlalrd ond úulr.lrr! IJihliugmjill)'. Washingl On , D e : Nalio nal A\ sod ali o ll rOl' ,\ f ll.\ ic T herapy. :llIIl\ Wurrh, 1'. It (1% !J). 71/( J()("ial ¡IJ)' fhology a[ ",tllie I'd .). " "11'S, 'A : ' o l\"a Slale () l liv('r.~ i l y l're".\ ,

(~lId

~s. jouTllol

cf Consumer Researdx, 12. 281 • OO, . , 1 , . ' r ul o room for hitting thc nght no te. (;;Irfidd, B. (1988). Too mu ch ad m USH: caves 1 e Adv" tising Age. 59 (1), 46. Lmus on behavíor. Uniuersüy o/ Kansas Guste n, E. T. {195 1/ 5 2}. The .in nuence o mUS1C Huíletin 6. 60-6~ (Ed. ), Music in th"apy (pp. v- vil} . ( ;aston, E. 01Education; T. (l 9 fiHa). For ewor . l U E • T • GJ asten ,

. 1n E.T. Gaste ( .a ' I'\ew ston, York: E. T. Macmillau. (1CJ68b) . . M an and m us 'te. . n (Ed .),

,H USI-C

in lhaapy [pp.

7-:1I). New York: a cmill an . . . f elderly peesons.j o/l mal o/AlII.lir , M . Popular A . e . (1977) mu ste prefcr ences o e

(;1" 1b ons,

71urapll' 14. 180 -HI!). d d TV prDlJTams: Ilo w the y "' . ' ' G r G J (W87). H ap py an sa 0,' . ( ;o ldbe rg. M . E., & . 0 n, ' .' mal otConsuma Ra earcñ, 14, 3H7- .t(H . affccr reactíon s to com merelals. jou~. f n on ' prefere nce and Ihink. K A (1983) The lmp act o se s , ( :olden, L J ~ , &Joh nson, . . 'rt: ' e{{ectiveness. In R. Bago zzi & A. 'l)' boul ¡ng ve rsus (eeling appeals on a ve ISI(I~~I 10) ( . 203-20 H) . An n Arbor, .\11 : (I:.t:Is.), Advancts in conJum" pp

d

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Associalion for Consum er

.

Researe~. .

t ;o m , G . J. (1!J82). T hc e{{ects of m uslc

d e rtising

0 11

cho ice behavior: A d assi .

;;Ja:ke:i ' 46 (I ), !H-lO 1.

ca l cond ilio ning appro ach.journol 01 . ni;he polil;cs a l idrnlity. I'hilildelphi¡l: ( ."r.lcy k. T. (2001). 1 wanna br me: Rod muslC a C'

·Ii.'mple l:niversity Press. . ' a e r " Ca n mu sic reall y ' impru vl" thl' I W (19 98). Respon se lo Katle Overy s p p •

.m \11. . . . , OH- 21O • m ind ?" Psyehologj of MUJ/c, 26, :L. f ' . 1" -¡enees In D. A. lI l)dgcs (h l.), ( l 'IS'l) The beha\'lor o muSlc IS . . _ l' ' LI;Kk, P. A.o/mll.ücpS)'chalogj .. . -lH2) . Lawre ncc , KS: Nati on al ASSOCla llOll o r !lrwd/;ook (p p. l·il < Mu síe Ther apy. . B :\'1 (i 9H4) T he effcd s o{ lIo l1 verhal co m . Il ale)', R. l., Richardson ,j., & Bald..... ,',rAjV"l ising Rararr" , 24 (.t), 11- IH. ' l ·'sio n ad vel1 lslllg . ouma do) ' t' 11 0 11 in lellect na 1 i1 11(I sOCI.a 1 IIII1t1iealio ns 1Il te e\1 ., ' 1 (l .'l"o ' )). Th e effects of arlsh (' tlca 10'1 ji Reu arrh;1I A f ll_\'IC. J' I 'l l ' ~~ . 1I., 'Isu ,. , A., A'1\ 11 I, •. S , &' Nlllwj trlla . ' (01 Y (:lOOO) T ' ' uud I H' !f()rJ l l ;lll l"t. Sl ll ' (' l l , J'm r/lfllII/ &' ,ltll';¡r :\'J;ills (.~llr~J ~J 1);I;,k:~,\nlltnd sound North, A. C ., & I largn ';lvl'S 1) I (JlllJ7) M . ' " , ' j, ¿:l. N IIlll lIO ,

90

11 - ' , ' . ' . ' . . . usrr and consumer bch avior 11 D J ;u ~lt'aVt'S & A. e . NOI. lh W 1,I ] h ./ . I '. ' () ~ el U K ' () , .< s.. r .roao psyeh%g}' uf musir (pp. 26H- 289) x 0 1' . . xford Ull lvl'rsrly Pn-ss . . ()I M'1l , ( ; . [) . (111 ' I1le contrast' : T he influe . 1)(') . ). e rea ung f nl

mu síc nn recail nnd a uribute . } nce o S I erice and background ()w ry K ( Il JCJH) ¡m p.?rta nce . ournalof AdveTtising, 24 (4), 29 -44. , . . . . Iscusslon note: C an m uste reallv ... , .. lb . olMuJir, 26, 97- 99. yvimp r ove e rnind ? Ps)'rhology

n-. _.

l'a n-h-s v.rI (I9R7 ")t, Co , nsumers a re I iti . . . , O ece m b er o . . way. 1'hr Miami Nrws, p. :i C . egJ lInIZmg new-age m ust e III a big

w, & Young' S .~t. .(19R6) . . censum er re sponse lo televisio n e .1 unpact of involvernent and b ac ..,.gr o un d muste . on b d . d omf m ercra s: ./fIllTtlal 01M(Jrkrling Raeanñ 18 11- 2 ' Tan aurtu e ormatio n.

I'a rk, " '1 C.. JI'

I'n lis, A. ( I!IRS). MuJir as pr;pag~nda '~' I I lUUÚ (:II'I'lIwmKi l'ress. . r o pus • art lo control: wesrport. Cf: l 'I · II " , S , (I ~ J H H ) . Ai n 't ll o mou ntaj¡ hi h

h musíc (pp. 5 1_H;)1I~ e~~ugk': ~elbPolitics oC crossov er. In S. Frith . ew or. an eon Books. v, . .... óIClOPPO, J. T.. & Schu mann. D. (1983). Ce ntr . n ~I and pe nphe)ral ro utes , lIdVI 'llisillg effecuvencss:. T Ile m odera era nng ro le of involv I (.lIIlIIIt"fr Rtuarch, to. 13,,-14 6. ement. ouma 01

(1::"'1.), 1'1"1 1 ' H

'ti

I'ilfl"~ thr r e '

l'Olllltl)',.J, (1%: '1). Musie in tht 11ft 01maR. New Y k. 1',, \\ 1,11, ( ', ( I ! I~) 'I luly 11) ,,'h 1. ~r . Ho lr:. Rineha n., and Winston . '. . en wor..e rs wcar \\'alkma th · b / UU'/I('¡, pp. UI-U2. oson eJo . T/u WallSlrttl

It '. 11 . (JI)I)7) · Ihe wo rd : .M usic in the Jife oCIsI . . . e. .->tuln d mg . lb l.). 1·.'lflultlllTlg powm ' Musie in lht /J' 1_ _ ( a m oIn L E. Sulhvan ~ I A : lI a rv¡ml Ullivt'rsit~. 1'''' wur s Ti 'glfmS pp. 263-297). Cam bridge, 1 ¡ Iess. {¡ulo¡,y, R. E. ( W!17). Do n Cam be ll "11 lvl . Mtl~H1 IJJútr"l . KflIuas Musie ~tvit~. 6~e( ~ ) 0;;~3;ffectno (Rc"i e w of Ihe boo k Tht ) Il l,.' ~ i '

Hil:~ ~dll'r,

F. 11. (1!19R). Respo nse lo Kati; O ve "' s ' " . tllt' llIimP " ¡....'choloV'll .r ' [ ' 26 I) paper, Ca n m usle re ally . . ' 4./ N 0./ l ' UJl e, , 197- 199 . . . 1",lllw hl'r, 1,. 11., SlIaw, G I & K ' K N ( « • ¡lIIt'\'. Na/uri, 365, (jI 1. , •. , j , . . l.U 3). .M US1C and spa tiallas k pc rfo rm IIllpro Vt "

Ila llsth . to ~ oz art h , 1 l'r, ¡.: 11., Sha w, G. I.., & Kv . ' K. N. (1"" . . :J-). Li stenmg tia t¡'m lloral l"easoni ng: 'Ibwards a n h , .' . '. en ance s spaIH5, H - .1 7. . ellra p ) slOlogJcal bam . NeuroscienCt f.etla s,

l{ illIsr!ler F• 11• •" SI~ aw, ('' . •., I 1.ev io, 1., \ Vright, E., De nnis \V '1 ' ' ' ,. (J.J.17). ;\1I1 sl(' traltl ing causes long-lt'rm cn h' f ' ., & Ne""co m b, R r It i · ,mc cmeot o pres cho ol child ' ' la ('lI1 ]Jora .r l:'a~ollillg, Neurologiral Research, 19, 2-H. 11:'11 S spa t lllll1'lllm hll'r , 1'. , \\ ., & McCour t T ( IlJlJ2) Ca . . . l'rllt't's"I'S a lHl filclo rs uf illllllell'Ct'" In' " I ;¡1I ~nm c\C1al raello '.lIld popu lar m usle: (:.llld t'd ) (1'1) 101 11r.) N b ." (Lel.), l o/miar I!IIIJ/e amI ClIIlIlII /l lIIáJlilm " " . .J . I' W ur y I',lrk, CA : ,sage , ' ;(1'lll/11 ' IlI. J., vOllSll'i n , A Hap pt'lsh ' " . l' l' . / (lt m'¡\e rt'I", 1 ~ )!I5 , pp . 5Kl i'):), • t · ,, 'I" 11l 1 I 1lIl111 O 'o ,. ... (ion am i n-au- nen W.\ I I I I It , ¡,',ol\t.t.rill,' ¡lsyr hn;ll"C ItIS l( ran , " ) I ti 1 I l ' 111 111 1.,.1 Ilt' Ulsch ( l!Ut !, p . 100 nlll ' ~ 1.1 1, 'IS O1\e to one l}('GlUsl' ,,11 o I t IH' Sl ll ll U s .· suggeslcl1 ,I n 1"00" .'1 t l"• ' I ,'\ t'Oll lllit'X 111111' ,11 r Oll1po nen ts start a m i stop I tl~t'IIlt't.1 " 1I re sTll'd flcd by rhc ir uPIII'r , '1 ' al 1ll lt' I' V iI s usna y a ¡- . A I'I' i\ I{ Ef','" S Ii'.E. i ' US)C.l .' .) . lation lo thclr lower to nes, fo ur th sixth. et c. In re li . h i I lolles' seale dcgrees (t uru, . . I [mi major a ugmc nlt'd. ouum dif ' h y accidenta s IUmor. . , . . snblcct to rno I tcauo n ' . 1 rau O ' each íntcr val In us suu J ' . ciíy th e intervar re-'v 1 ishcd). Another way IS to spe . . . f • e)' relationshil' lwtwt'ell I U' h ractcn suc requen . , plcst üust) forro h as a ca , ner Irequ cncy ís related l o ItS . ' '{ ' ~ An y perfect octav e s " PI' " 1'1)1.'1' and Iowe r tone. upper frcq uellcy IS III ¡¡ , . 2. 1 An y p er f ect filth' 1 s . O h ha racteri slic ranos a re tI): IS ío r a lower frequ ency as IS to . rat io with its Iowcr frcque~cy- t d. 6~' _ Icr a minor third, 5:-1 1'01' a majO! ') 8 For a major sec , .0:> ugm en ted fourth. f):~\ for a 11111101 ' , minor secon d ,.: __ on f f rth ";' or an a . rhl rd 4:3 for a p er fect 0 \1 • • • . th an d 15:8 for a r najor St'\' , . ' th 9' 5 1'0 1' a rru nor scv en , . sixth , 8:5 fo r a mejor stx ' , -' . d . ble dcviation from thc simpl e n llltlS r-nth. In performance pracucc, const lera c. d by dívldlng the od avt' íulo n tem pered sca e. d enve occ urs. In t h e equa y . terv al except Ihe oc tave h as' 1IIt' l'(jually sizcd scm itones (h all' steps)" ~ol m 'ptio n Iiste ner s cao n' cogOI /,t· , . 'h . (Due to catego flea .pcr ee l~haracte ristic rabo. t th e "lme" ralios.) 1 e mos l and d assify interv al s th at .onl~· app~o, x~ma. e' n ce nt s (one ce nl = I / I~Otl of ' d' te physlcal mterva slze I S 1 cxact way to lO Ka , ._ he intervalic ce nts fonnula IS an oc ta ve). T n ~ :>98G,3 1Itog(V f,)j,

u in the art icular inl erval, fJ IS Ihe fn 'qll t'IH")' whe re n is the number 0 1' een s P l'th e lowe r tone (H¡u'ku'i, 1!l77, pp. uf th e up per tone, and fl is the frequen cy o :1·19- :150). 1 h e a e rcep lnal sim ilarity, n'~ardll '-" 'i o t ' 11y llame d'III tc rva s s ar 'h' P I AIl idenlica h ' d ~ in idt'n tiftcatioll all( lIl\l\ '1 oncnts \\ IC al .. . I Iheír parti cular frt.'qucn cy coro P ' t', the cents form ula, "11)' Iwo lll h ' r Vil s .. A an demonstrate W1 1 ( ti , ~ ' I cal tlhhty. s one e . . hvsicall . ide ntical io cc nls l·.g., It , _ shad og th e sam e ratlos \...~ 1I be Pd "'1~ O() ~z are bolh I ~()O ce nts). Il o..... t·\"(·I. octaves 60 ancl30 H z and 3000 an Oh th 1 simp ly categori'l.t'tl, its ..ppón·. ' . l . . evalua te d rat el' al . .... . . ir a SUCCCSSlve IIltCI' a IS Ev',d ence is conOictlllg: J< 111\t . h l' llen cy fange. • I t'nl si1.e m ay vary WlI req V, lk nn & New ma n, W:17) S\l~gl'sls l .lal rcse¡uch (Stevens, 1975; Steve~ls. o n~a • are nt si1.e wíth incrt': di screto lev pis. T his ge nera lly is not du c to limitation s of perform ance m edia. Restri ct ed musical dynumic ra nges a nd sol o passage s equal in loudn ess to full orchestra l passages, characteristíc of f ilms an d televisión, as wc ll as popular m us ic with basi cally two d yn am ie levels, lo ud and eve u lou der, may be partly res po us ible, but the general artistie demand for a wíde range and va riat ion in loudness seems restrieted (Patterso n, 1974). O ur lo ud ness discussion is organized around disringuish ing lou d ness fro m utlu-r propcrt tes. measurement of loud ness an d syste malie relaüo ns the rehum, mnskín g. lou d ness sum m au o n, and dangers lo hearing. 1" lt'tu ity· Lo udn ess Relalionship Illll'llsity and loud ne ss are not intcrchan gca ble tcrms. Intensity is an o bj ec1i \'l" ly 1ll1'i1 SIII't·d p hysica l property, a n am ou nt of po wer_It often is cx pressed III Ililwl'r unils per unit arca., as in watts per squa re m ete r (w/m 1) . LoudntsJ is u ~ ll ll t l't"l iv l' sl'flsa lio n of a sound's magnitu de 01' stre ngt h. h s pereep tion H'IIIdll'S .111 animalc pereeiver (or a m ach ine built to sim ulate on e), So und 11' \'1,1 ll\('ll' rs a lld specl m m analyzers d o no t measure lo ud ness, '1'111' a llllllllll of a so und's inlen sity is the majo r d eterminan t of its loudness, hUI Illl' illlt'llsily-Io ud ne ss relatio nship is not sim ple . A minimal per eeptio n Iillll" ViIIying fm m 10 to 500 msee and beyo nd, is ne ee ssa ry for a sound to hllild lo ils maxima l pe rceived lo udn ess (Seha rf, lD7R, pp , ~ 0 5 -2 06) , and JUlll lllt ,sS lIIay var y furthcr with the time required for a so und lo reaeh its ma xillll llll inlc nsilY (Cj aevenes & Ri mstad, 1972), Pro longed stcady sounds may dimi nish in lo ud ness du e to a ud itury faligu e, w he re the brain ess e ntia lIy d illlinishe s atle nlio n lo a p rol on ged sound be cause of irr elevanee, o r to ba h illliltioll , a l't 'du elio n in stim ulate d neural aetivity (Roederer, WD5, p, 96). Fn'lllll' ncy co nfo unds the inte nsity-Io ud ness rclationshi p ; as diseusscd bel o\..·• 1111' 111ud lll' sS a particular in tensit)' elieits varies \\;th frequene),. The ear's varialio ll in sens itivity \\i lh freq uency is especially im portant fo r music; in W' lll' r:d, lo w('r sounds may be p laye d "louder" than hig her sounds b efore IIlt'y are jud g('d as bci ng too lo ud .

V"lrmtt'. lJen.JUy, Annoyance, and Noisiness ( )the r so und propl' rlics lan ge nliall y I'ela ll'd lo 1011 d lll'SS inc1llde vo lu l1le, dl' llsily, a nllo yulICl', :IIHI IlOi'iiIlCSS, Vo/ulfl r is lllt' ap p:Il't'1I1 Si/,l' tlr l'Xlcllsity of a slIlInll, iIIl1s1ralt·d, fOl I'X:l1l1pll', hy a luha 1IS1l:t1 I)' MllII lllillR " Iarg('r" than a

.

, ," ,." ,

_---

,. ' ..nlllu b more focn scd or pin)'oi l,II,I'11 piccolo- l lowl'v('r, thl ' pll I 010 1l \ \ 1lI 11 ) m-t u' ss ()1' íocus is t¡nuity, 'lit' r 1IIIIi'1I1 1IIIIIp,II I ' l' 1 11 ' 1 rhan th c u rbu: a Mlllllt !l al' , . l' llrll b 197!)) be H'Vl'( tu • , '. S S Sli'\' I'lI\ [1"" ",. ,1, .' , l' eslt'COled ps)'ch oph YSlC lsl , , , ' , ' . , [ 1Ildi ons 0 1' freq llen cy ,IlH jntc-ul ll L! ,tS I ' 1 th wer e basic to na I a 1 llI 1 , . V'Il)' ' 1 , ' .. l\y are psy(:IIO:LCO\l .S"',,, ).0 bi üons 'Iodu" y vnllllllt' alld d l'n Slly sasica suy co m tna •. .' " . IJ , . sities with hule OlllSIGII rt'h'V.lll~(. " d ts of tones elll!>echlt'd III cnn o ~) di 1 sub icc ts JU gmen , . r ance the al' llart'nl irnla H ellm an (19H2, 1mb su r' {1rec1 ' .Jpc.rlies o annoy , lmckground no ise and id~~lll ice I:H\ rit '01' a sound. Aga in, lh ese :11 1' 1l~1 1 tio n of a sound, an d nOlsme~, th c c:h y ggest that peo pl l' who f(l l1\pla lll importanl b aste tonal propertles, but ey ~u t something other mn n excvsabout excessivcly loud music may b e reaetmg o

"'e's

("t

,

sive soun d strength ,

M

remetü oJ Loudness

', 1 a'1
L, = ¿ IEII,) + EIIJ + , . . + E(I.lI· Thc1third case , where thce co mpo nents a re IJ beyon d the cbw, is whe re llll' l ~lta Ioudncss is cquívalent to th 1 d we tirm." e ou cst co m p onent ·, there 15 . no su mmu 111 wri tin g a nd a rra ngi ng . l lU' diffcrcm cases uf loudn:s~s~~~:m~osers an d o rchestrato rs m ay exploh chun l usuully so unds lo udcr th an " 1auon. A fully scored "o pe n spacing" fir- , I

I x-r (lf instru menrs 1 ddi a e ose spací ng" eh or d ,even wíth an iden .tll)' sOUII l! lo uder th an uni.s:na ~tlOn t~ d iffering in timbre, octaves lI S U ' " Xll'lIS.iVt'ly, two \....ell-spaccd fr; ' uc::~ra y: un less the frequen cies di IT(" ' 11I." 1II'H'S q llile near each o ther. q les wI11 sou nd loude r lhan two fn" .1 1111111

("[¡tka l freque ncy diffcre nce lor r 1oudnes olI 111 Ilt11'I1011{" . pn'sentation s vam.s h es un d er co nd'' l''Oll_~, . rI'or car d 'Ifference b

110 "s('v(-'ral tho usa nd" H z, Scharf (1969) s etwee d n th e separa te fre q u e ne .ll'S l' 1'IIIla y loud . Dichotic sum mati . nole thal d ichotic pa irs re ma ill 1I was u f 1\,,' 0 sl'parate loca lized 1: : occurr~d even when the tona l sensatio l1 lou d uess summ es, onef In eachh ear. This is lomea l, O' mv " 11 ,stllllH's I I re lating or dinary , O' Ica lalld width. Dichotic prese ntot" a Ion lo l e basilar membran e's crit· a IOn prevents ph en om ena th at de pe ne1 (JI! IJ](' ("hw. 11

Ill lJl1 t' ure, of hisbased lasl pub!' a l pron'd on I'asbh e d w orks'bSteve ns (1972) ou tlined a co mp utat' . . _ .. ora lory o servaf . C" II l1l ' o , 1 1I00S(~ (Ilvuled into th ' d lo ns, lor the peree ived lo d , l. I " -octave band s B l ' u ness II~('S o (~()Illplex Iones. T he coced . y ana ogy, It may appl y lo m ixthlld p d on me3150 uses H a standard reference ni a o n." 1 -(Jc{ave ba nd ol no,'s e ce nlere t H' 1I00....(.r law for loudncss equ a l I d z, the sone as defined ea rl icr lllal ioll rule ' ou ness co nt ours for noise , a" d tile SUIll-' S, ~ S,. +FIL S - S m)' 10'11" . al! a_~" ' m'_"I U"(-h;¡l\~i ll H'I'lIin' . -. U111' "'I...q..'.....sy ch I " , o ogJca p roperty W (¡ . aVe onu, the p aUem of di s ¡ n I . ' n wave is (imb ' I p ac e d re s C Oses! q uasiparalJe1 physi, IJH,lpt·rt y. A cumplex wavefonn d ' q l1 t'IIt"l('S, tl1(' lIum be r o f com on ' e~en s o n I~le p articular component fre1I1' lI ts , a lld th e re lati h p ents. the relutIve slrengths o f lb f ve p ases among th e com p o\~avt' Ol"ln i.~ a r/yn amic, ch an i n ' e eo mpon en ts (Backus, 197i) A ImH' ' llld OV('rall dvnami c / g ,gBt.'vent; co m pone nt reJationsh ip s v" h . I /' J eVe ( ud er 1C)(l2) \ '"1..' al)' WJt ~ O tl ll l ( tff(, I"t.'ll lly ( " ' ' . ;, . VIIIle rnll sic ¡ " . o a arge ex tent d , d "f a Illstrurn ents II'p n 'St'n la lio ll 0 1' wavefollTl ti C to I ferenli n d t' llv iro lllllt'Il L \Vin ckel's dassic wm k d t'a r· Iy sho ws that attl'm pts to nnnpall' "WII ltl" ¡¡n d "b ad " so u n d s via ,., 1 I u-r uu uition as a m a n c r () t n n " 1 ,.y wit h a It,¡tlllt 'tl 1011,[" nm o f ti storugc III m cn o iue of wuv c fo rm in o nna Ion , . A • ith no rm a l hcuriug lil a )' (' ''Pt'' ,., . . lnfo rmation nyOlll.' w I 1 , I ruupurlso n with p nnr In 11 " ' ) •. ' l' IIOSl''1Il¡S o" "1 ' ritv u f d iVl'rSl' stin lllli, Vot l l' ' . f th l' ton a SIIllI a 1 u l/{;'lIIize subjects ral mg s o . . , sim ila rit ratings n f a mi xhlrl' () 10111 ' '1, U¡\ lIlarl:k (1!)7'l a,b) ana lyzed su bJects " Yn d fOlllld fo m fadOl' s Ih al d I I \'owel segmen s a I lIu isl's, ami slea y-s a e o ' in ratin s. Sha rplll'ss, as in OIH' 1'0 l ' " ' I,lailll'd 91 percent 0 1' the van ab¡J lt~ ' . I h~tor. G n 'y ( I!J77) fo ttlld ']¡\I 'I' l ". n , was lile p rIllClp,¡ 01 a du ll-sh a rp ( oImenslo h ' h , ' biecIs' ralings n r la V¡lnt' ., }. o f ' I a cea longw IC sU :J . l' '1 etn catosI' ltl dlll lt'lISions . ) in " gl'o , mt:'ntal nes cou Id b e' organizt'd : spel:t,.a l t'lll'r!, , 'Y ( ' y" ll1 t'Sll.t'{ IIlstnllll . . o h t an d spect ra l lluclua lllllls, d h · h r nu cnCles In t e onse , 1 ,1 lul 111111 low an 19 re -l o ). t that multid il11l'll siOllOl 111(' I O ( . ) d l'l p (19 H2)m (I Ca e " l' Whd(, Ra sc 1 a n um . I Cm b res 0 11 a ny 11111( 11I1('11 ' . h 's no wa y lo o n er 1 ,) . . "KY i~ l'ssl'n lla l bl'l:al~se t er(~)\lIard 1!)!J9; Po lla rd & Jansso ll, W~:l 11 : • 11 11I11 ~h lllal sl"a le, (lile proc cd u re t . • " 's of sp l'ctra l po rlions 0 1 Ihl' slL n lll . ' he lo ud n ess 1Il so"ne ' 1, ..111 d Itp 'l limhH' b y IISlllg 1 °n ing lh e seco n(), t l11ft ' ) ta l Ihe po rtlon co n al I 1m slI ("h as the lUU ( a mcn , " ' I ,' 1,1)('1" ¡Jarti a ls. Th is IlI'CH't't 111( ', . I I "( ( 11 ( "Olltallll ll g l l'l r 1 Illtll th parl ials, alll t le pOi 1 ) "' [, . lllt'lhod a risl's, in pa n , rUII1 1 11 1J " l' (OaJl '1 trHt",1/I 1\ whit h I'oll ;lr • l ' 'f{T I''\0 M usical u llllexl lll.IY \ \ " 11Iill1! as wd l as IJlll 111' 1" . , ' .lll' ( III '\ WIII ' 1111 1,' t'> :11 . Tom' SOllltT !'e cog 11111

._---

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,

" "' ''1..,111/ l Iallos, 1'. S ,. & SW l 'l'I Il1 ;l Il , R . JI , ( li lb!I). l JiNl ri h llli o ll pa tlt" II" lllllllhlt'IU h Ul lIItlll ics. .IQ/1r11fl1riflhr Aco/l.ltiml ,\iHirly /1 ¡f"'(rim , ,15. ;~7-, 1.'i.

Ucfcrcn ccs Ad,td' i S & V . ,.:' ¡am ada, M. ( l ~ J !}!J) ' . . b' pho n¡c sin~:ing X ···· ". I • Au
1 '\ ~I I/I! III}; I I ,, 1 / -' 1/1/11111 / 1011 1

I ~\ YI/¡II0 t

fll lt /mü'a/ IlrllrlVifIT

!lO!St' {"( uu, ll p l t' x c '~ ¡'U I 1 Ir J lellmnn l' ( il;H ~1 '~I: l' , r ',1"'/11" 1111 .\'fN'irty f1'AmrricQ. 72. (i:l - 7J .

~O:toIlC complexcs: Lou d n ess. A..J. M .• & (;o ld st;.in. , . I ~~ l~r7'~)f,I'.'::;~:~:~~\o(Uty of~mtT;ca. 77" 1497-1 .')0 ·1.

• •..• "11 "1\1" 111 ,1,10\1111\1(1,' illl ll o Yiu l n ' , und 1I0 ISill t. SS. }mu'/Il1111 ,

J Inutsma,

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plc x 1001t' s. J ournal o/ l/u Al /JIII ; Üt'¡ ti K' ", .r t '.m ra l o ngm of the pi tch o f con¡ .I"rg"r. I., & J ero'c r S (1" 71)) '1'" • I tr'J 0J ¡ m alla. 51, 5520- .').')29. . o • . . . " Illpo ral)' I IIT ' 1 11 híf . · .If1/trtml ofSf/{.a/¡ and IItaring Rtsm rdt , 13 2~~~~~. s li t In rock-a nd-roll m usicia ns. Kcndal ll . • l • H. . ' A . (198G) • J . T Ile role of aco usric , signa . ," . 1Ja t¡ . • Musie Perception, 4, 11:1.5- '1. 14 . r mo ns In hstener ca regorízanou

(~~ lIH~SI(:al pl~ra.ses.

Km ,k , .\ \ . 1": (19,1) ). On thc p rincipi e of u ncertaint in ,\ onrty ti America, 7,5/)- '!)H Y sound.J oumal (lfthe Acoustical Knllllh am l, C. L. (19í "<J) Th eu . I reures t 1" r SY__eho 10hT'\ea f . · n m ll'XI., Cugllitive Psychology, 11, 3 46---3 74. r- sen a IOn o m usical pitch in a ton al 1..unl l . ' R., & Cana lis' R . F. (2(x)()). A natomy an d em bry I ' f h . x-rt, l . •11 11 vestibula r sysrems. In R F e al" ' . . an IS & P R La ob Oh') ( or ~ t ) e au d ito r)' m c.us. , .The rar: ( ,utl/prthn uiu o/ology (pp. 17-65). Philadel ' . .: .' I Luud in, Ilo W. (19 47). Toward a cul tural ph¡a: Lippincort, t v tlllams & \\' ilkins. 23, .I.';-,l ~ '. theory of consonance.Journal ofPs)'chology,

,~~

M,ltlll'Wlo, M . (19 99a). The au ditory b rain 1 P: R Co . . I tI"'ll/Ilrr~td sound: An introduclion lo 'ehn . ', ok (Ed .), Musu. cognition, and ~I IT l' n-ss. Psy »acousua (pp. 11- '1.0). Cam bridge , M A : tl. la llll'ws, ~1. (1!J99b). Thc ea r aud ho"" it works. In P R

' . . (l/ul ftl lII/lllleri?:td sOItlld: An inl d . . '. Cook (En .), MUSlC, eogmt\.lA : M [T I'n' ss. ro uctlOn topsyckoacoustlcs (pp. 1- 10). Cambridge. fltm,

tH 1\.11 1\ ,1I11I1'Y, M. F., & Dl'h!utte " , H. (19 .;:Je>' ) . A pOSSl·bIe nellfU h . I ' 1b IHlilvt' l'n large lIle lll crfect Jo l,{" h" _ P YSIO ogtc a asis 01' th e '2 h7!1-:lli n . . urna o) 1 ( Acou.l" tIcal Society uf America, 106,

t\!I'YI'r, M . 28, (1957IX-71!J. 6). 0 11 llIelIlorizing absol uI e plle . Il. J ournal of /kt Acoustical Socit ty of Amrrira, Mo lllllI,.f. A. ( 1!J73). I\ue-Ion e eq ualloud ness conto ~ 1'111 fn 'tplt' nc it's. /'a u p/ion aud I'"'cho h 'si urs or standard to nes o f difTe r~ l otln' n (197 ) . ~~ P J' a , /4 , 1-4. , • . ~' . ' . 4 . Relallon between the crit"cal b d 'd (lIfft'n'IIt"(' lim en j aurnal of/Iu A . 1S . 1 an WI th and the fre que nc)" Mo on., 11. e , (11)H9) A . I ,_ .1 c~ustlca ()(ltly ufAmaial, 55, 359. '. ' . ,. n m ruaucllOn to lhe p dd h . , Ar ;ldl'm ic ('n'ss. .ry o ogy o.r ) torzng (3 rd ed.). Lo nd on :

e ,

MOl!ll' . ' 11 . e , •,. , GI· J as·b erg, 1I. I{.• & Peters , R. \V (19 H) ) .. . . h . . . . Relallve IIn porlance of indi o vullla l parlials in d elermi nin rt ti . . . o le pi te o f comnlex to n J 1 ,r h ,l IImt) ti Amf' rim, 77, IH!i:-\- IH{j (). r es. ouma (!I t e Acoustiral NI'Wl1 Lall , A. N., Slo rpl'l', 1. S., & \Vack 'lIl P , t'iX na nial ne fVe In R F el, ' 1: A. (2000). Cen tra l rcp resen tation o f the lllh ' h ' . . . ana IS & 1'. R l 'un b ' t ('n ) . . . " ... ( r I s. . 17u ear: ( ,II1/1J1u mi/Vf otolugy (p p 141- 156) PI 'I d NOl'(imark J. O (I % H) ~'1 I ' . . 11 a e lphla : Llp plllCOll, W illia ms & W¡lkins ,• . . ., ('e lillllsms o f frt''l lll'lIe)' r " " , .. AmuJtiral SfXiriy ul"Amrrica .14 1- '33 1" ) ( I.SU lI llI ll a I IO Il . j aurnal of /hf ()I l ' I 'J " :l, - . •.1( . 1, '" ~ , & I.ufti, R. A . (~ ()OO) Err · " 111. lIl11loki IlK.JtJumal ufIht Al'f,ullirai ~~~. ~; 1 ," 1.. 1' 1 h,ll ll14 IIl lfi l)' 1m illfllflni llio lla l ,

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II/tT/II/, IOH, ¡ Oh 70~ 1.

tJ "I( iraI 1'¡'lI ndal¡11 /1.1

I'ilth'rso n, u. (1!lí.I), M usical tl y"alllit !l. Sf'iolti]lc Awriul1l, 231 (.')), 7X- tl.'). t'nnerso u. It. (1!17:-\), Tlu- dh'I'at s a nd o tlt'll IS r ally re Occts lhe particular ~oupl1lg tOA harmonic accent cm ph asi"l.t's a l ll'~tl t' nl~ompassl'd \vilhin a d ynam1C ~cc~n ' A wtighl acce nl eXl'rcs~es l' ll lJ~ll ,l olllc hy use of di ssonance al' hann ~ ~g~ , ni d en otes em pha sb u n tl~t· I\I~II sis Ihmugh change in texture , A PIte acce ts occur o n in itial ltHlt.'S 111 n 'I,,'''.1 '. '~t n I' lowesllonc of a. grou~ . Pattt T7l acce~ h asize a b eal by lIsing Illt'lo l1l1' ¡'ti mdodic figu res, l~mbtLllShed a~~lents e t~etti . C re sto n vil'WS il(:H'nl as tlll'. 1'lI\bd lish me nts . e.g., mord ents, t~l . sh 01' ~r b ccolll es 1ll0\l O\ OIl OIl S, pan '.(0 1 .v•.,.y life of rh y'lhm," wilho ul w lI C me b 'c.,mes a nebll lou s ('\ah nr ¡¡ho ll . . d pa l1eTll e ) I . lt'm pu) ha s no sense of mohon, ; n ' \O-:~!i) and Ben ja min (l!ll{.1 a S il 111 0 i ,l'rdahl and ,1 ackcndo lT ~ !ntt , ~'P ' l' f lIldions of a(~cenls, T h('y fOf US 1lI~1I" " itlt' in-depth disCllssio llS I ~I tYI.'('S.' I.IH(.t': IIS in 1{"flllJliflg d ur alio nal eVI')lls wllh · 1111 lile ro le and fUllcliol\ (JI v antlu ~ :1(1'1 I';"y l"al't'flllly dt' lilwah· lwt w('t'll lll lhc lola l m usical sl rUt~l lI n' . 110\\1 v , • II l ill'OI b , 0111l'n IlHI pt'I"!iopl·t 11\ '1" whu h (1111, ' 1- t higul y rh ylhlllk mu..k k lllls lo e l .lIl • es ' 11 llAAI·..ls 1.1 f .. - 1· vauo n Ior 1ll0VCIl1 I ' nl, t''o 'ot'IIII;\ y s . " lvlng two su!tsyslt'l1lS, lllll ' uf 11' u-

• . " IllSI'S I1\VO ' 1 W¡Ih ,.\idl acnJlnpanyin g: mol ol ICsI" ('f' I l'\pping) and the otlu-r as'oot'l:IIt·( I 1 _ '1 ' rapid pt'riodi e phelllJll\l'na (lO • (body SWi\Y nnd who lt, lot Y IIVI ) , 1 .. \.c llloVe01cnls u...., 1 - , . 1 [ess restnc!l'( pell O< I el-ke' vil'WS an:onllllOI a llll ~ 1 .. OWt'r une " {n u .W5- .W6). \ \11ethe r a l 1: s .', >l-' 'oC'l' n, IIIllVClllcnt gen erally) (PI · lb ther psychologtsls n'nlolll\S tu \ f IHllh ¡¡pproaches wiIl be acc~ptet'rcepti o n, (e) perception of rh)1hm gro ups, and (d) ex pressive timin g in llIusk . I'lior lo exam ining curr ent theory and rescarch rcga rdiog COb'llitivl' 1'1 'I!'Ol't'< 'tives o n rhythm ic bc ha vio r, we revlt'w sorne longsta nd ing, a lbe it 1111l1("( lb'llilive, theo ries propusehysiological theo nes. Wlu e te nia u , 1 . I andcyelech an ind ud ing the men struaI c)'c e n's rrceptivity to ITIUSlca stun · , .. , y influene e a perso . . '. flllness and b lOche mlstf), m a d · bl l O explain rhythnllc n'sl l<ms • h m plc x an va n a e llli lhey are loo lcn gt y, co " l. , sical sllm u l . ' r I'S lo rd alivcly shorl-term ~u h thmic beh avio rs dep end 0 11 Ihl' ad lo l,l o T he mo tor lheory holds th at r . y . r db ck as discllssed aho v(', ,lIl d propnocep tlve el' a } ., 1) . \ the vo luntary muse es, J.c ., red Schoen (19-1< , p , ¿, ' . p, ycholo gy con cur . " losl t';:lrly writers on muste , tl'e nature of rhyth llllC I'Xpt . , . ' t' s co nc er n mg , I " olt'S thal nearly aH II1vcslig a Ion .h llpporting 1110101' thco ry :Le: vo ele factor 1 us s 1 ,l ' I k n(~c s fine:! a m otor o r ~us 1 'd' (11)67 p , lOfi) both agrel' t " 11 II 162) and .uo m . , b · 11 ' 1' ' )3(·ale s. !\l ur seU ( 1. /, p . .bl' f the tradi tion al th cories, 111 !lel lt t, 1lI010r theory is lhe mos pla~l ,~ ,le:: '¡rgl lcs Ibat neuro llluselll ar 11l~ )Vt'n,lt'nl ll('('('I>ts il w¡lho llt rcservaliOll" lll se ' 1 . , I,r'li n· ral hl' r, Ill ll si c tUll eltO\l S . . 1" Il'om Ilw 111111 ' '. _ .what -' " wer Ihan sl" llll~' lId,l l'l lIl l' 11\ I' ha -,l' and "

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mi rhc i11ll01l of tinu- toHI'¡'¡'c' IW('t1 to pt'l n 'ivt' " 'mil" t hangv. 1l1 IM'sitll'SBolin g tha l tt'mllo d.'tll'WW ¡"I 'iI"i!'!" lo p ercci v c lhan lI ' llll lll innt'"se, she obscrv cd that signilk illltl" IlI Ul t' tinll' wus nCl·t1etl lo lJl'rn 'lve tt'lUPO ue ,'hauge Ior nn cvcn rh y,lu us tl",u ro> evc n rh ythm, ami [or uu-lod y alo than for mdody with an'ompauim"u!. ller dala also suggest '1", ' dilTer"utial th)'th mic gruupings ma y influ elll"e tempo perception Wa ng and Salzb mg (1!)H'I) exam iued the i"nneo ee of rnu sic trai"ing aod ag" 00 116 string slUd eo " abililie, 'o pe reeive tcmpo eha nge . Subjeets id enüficd whethe r or not a lempo chang e occ urred , and, if so, the dirccüon of , hang". Data reve aled a ,ta'is' ieally signi fieant curvilíneat relationship IK'tween ternpo perception an d muste train ing and b etween ternp o p ercep · üon and age, Subsequent regression analysis indicated that musical style. iniüal tcmpo , and direction of cha nge also contribuled significa ntly to tempo pe reeptio • leadl ng ' he iovesligato" tu concl ude that tempo p .-re"pliou is a n n Jln plex ph en omenon, for wh ich parameters are not yet id entified. n KiIlian (UJ85) investigaled collcge mu sic ma jors' (a) tem po performan ' a,eur aey aeru ," repea ted "iah un der dilTenng feedback coodilioo s. (h) " 'mpo pereepli uo aee uraey after pe rlonning and heanng a recordiog of lhe p,.-rorm ane an d (e) rda'i onship b etween verbal p "reeplio" and 'empo p"re, three feedback conditio ns ind ud ed performance re sults only, formance, The l", rformane plus a p rer"eorded me'ronome " aodard before the oext " ial. and control.e Data revealed no statistica lly sign ificant effects of conditio ll u n lempo perfonnance, but subjeclS receivln g feedback imp rovet! Ihdr lempO aue " and p",eep'ioU p"reeptio aeeuraey, The rdalio nsbip between perlonn n anuracy wa s analyzed by examining frequen cy of agree mc nts hct weell pt'rform ance and perception, and oyeran the re was a low perce nta gl' of ap;n'I'lIll'nt belwcen p erformance and percep tion scoreS (32,5%), ' I" 'Y O other stud ies examine d var ions in iluen ces on lhe pe rcepli uil uf 111''IIl¡'; 1, '111111 1 t han¡.;t's thau nonmusíc majcrs ami that "overall" subje-cts WI'1\' 1Il'I \I'l li t dl'l l't'lill,L\" le mpo ucce leratíon tha n deccl crat lon, a Ilndi ng con trury lo IlI ml ' n -poru-d a bov e. Also, subjects were k-ss clllcicnt in íde ntífying ll'mpo chauge s whou wa tchín g a co nd ucto r whi lc llsrc ning tha n when listcning ulon c or lisu-ning a nd mo ving. In a subseq ue nt study, Shcldon an d Gregory (1!)!)7) fo und that subjects wn h gr ente r ed uca tio na l ex perience we re more adept al deteeting lempo modula üon fbc th inereases and deere ases) rhan le ss experien ced subjects. Furtherrnorc, thei r re sults supp a rt ea rlie r fíndíngs that exper íen ced subjects are ublc lo recogníz e changes in lempo deeeleration more readily and accurntcly thun c hangos in tempo acceleratíon. 'ni sum m nrize. beat/tempo perception is basic to rhyth m ic processtng. Th c pc rccpuon of regularly recu rr ing beats pro vides a cogn itive framewc rk for rhyliun ic perceplion an d performance , Ho wever, perceptual accuracy clot's nol guara ntl'e performance accuracy, Tempo perception an d perfonnann ' ar!' n lllIplex p he norn cna and are influenced by, or al lea st relate d to, a lllllllllt'!' o f slimulus and perceptual va riables, Tempo per se of Iistening .'''lIl1l plt's has 'In infiuen ce on res ponde nts' abi lities to iden tify le mpo 1 h.lllp,t's. 1)eCft:'asing tempi are eas ier to de tect than inc reasing tempi. T he Ih)'llllllk d t'nsily of the prominent melody in a musical exc erp l has a pa rtic· II t ul )' sll't lllg inl1uen ce on child ren 's and no nmusicians' detec tion of tempo I hilllp,es. 'IraiJwd musician s a ppear lo have a pr opensity for tapping both sp ontalIt 'ou ~l )' a mi in synclu o ny with musical excerpts al slower rates th an child re n ¡¡ml lt,ss t'x!ll'!'ien ced m llsicians, apparentIy reflccting ab ility to pcrceive te m pmal rt'b'l.l larily e ve nts in large chunks. They also perceive perlodic rh yl hmic slilllUli inl erms ofa Iim ited range of te mpi, The wo rk of Gerillge r, Duke, and M ad st'n d tll:ulllen ts th e propensity to double o r halve ra tes of pe rlodic stim uli su that th ey faU within fiO to 120 bpm. Th is tenden cy lo group bea ts to 1:111 wilhin a pe ret'ptuall y manageablc range , ho wever, m ay be as muc h a mall t'!' of m e le r pe rct'ption as beaÚlempo pe rception . Ml'ItT l h ct'p tion

Musit:ians, ed uca lors, and psychologists gc nerally agrce th at met er pe r( l'pliOIl inv o lves g ro up ing bcats, usua lly in rc la lio n to 'lO 'lccen tt'd bea to In lraorate mu l . ) dependent e n p sY t~ lO ogH ,1 'hl h nnctnc levcls , are m ore \I'vt'ral p OSSl e ype ' th b 'ed faclorS, I'ad o rs th an notalíon o r m uslC ~ory- as b 'd nd othe rs p sycho\ogi('all y · me muStC theory- ase a . , t Numerous theo nes, so f h 'o ple respond lo nlllS¡aitl'rn S ra ~. , 1 wh ich he varied Ihe acce nts o s ~ . '. . ttcrn s \ Vind so r ohta ml'( . . t " . lo dl'ar llonllletnc pa , , . 11 ' 11 ' ..'rus lo amlnguo us pal 1 1 ns , 1' ' 1 ' is \le rct' ivt.d catt'gnn r .1 y. 1 , e l ,k ''s n lll h' n lltl ll 1 1011 Il H t r . ' , tlala suppnrlmg al t, ' I 1 ,' . 'trin l inh~ rllrl'la lHllI an' IIU y • I . ' . , ("( I' \l l't ~l lI l 1 It 11 llll ,' . . ' I'lmd udt'" tltal (ynal1l1t ,1 l ' l'" ,\! In ' 1 llll'lfi('almlt' rp n 'I.llltlll I ' 1 in llll' 11lI1l1t'1 • , le ro • Inlt' r _ cnlj Il' I 11'0! Y al'p l'a rs to focus u:nce 00 the selection oflevcls Al ;l1l'I/p is, m ore on vIsua l th an On aural .' so, , perceptlUn an d \ I',~l n ll 's 1/1 l'o ry recogm ' h I Izes t at mete ' - d' wo ralt's uf rhythmic m l' h ' r IS pen o le a nd d cpen ds , / 1 1 0 1011 t atmle t i ' on a eas l 1'\"( ' .~ , h' r ll w dfiJ reP7ound rac re a llVe to each o lher -f h ' " I b " , are grou ped b h 1 ' e lastest ¡:, m'l ll(. A ny ill/e l-metliary l / Y t e s OWer motion termed ' h b k . . e Ve s are ea ll d · .U ' e oc. SY:~I ~'1II uf ana lysis al/o ws me /od a lld h e lf11uu'legrounds_ Yesto n's co mp lex 1Il 1l1ltlJ.:' which Illl'l ric leve! i, eo nY d arm o ny lo play a m ajor rol e in deler ( ' S · , . 1I SI ered d o ' J ...\( Il ¡ ~a Y '1n a na lylic loollha t o lli I~ m.a n l. . o~es views the sys lem as lu m o / lIIelt'r, ers o nly hmlted mSlg hl illto ' I " , a Ura percep ( ' O! dOll s liJt'o ry prim - ./ T' UOS il I)( Iivisio ns ca ll"d an' y em p hasizcs bd ' b su Ivisions of the trad,',,' /b • .... mICro ealJ a h o na eat 1.'.';;"'1' 'lIul rhythm , TiJe hierarch y ' w~~ lh ~ p~mary. basis for his hie rarchy (Jf 1 , 1 Y oawd, has Iwu main ca te ' . IC IS I l'o re hca lJy ra ther than em ir -o Ilu' ('alt'gorit-,s d t'p l'lld o n variou~ones, ~sua/ a.n d unusua/; d assifica tio ns ¡n t~ .sYSli'lIl ha.s va lile fi ll' lh os" " / ,gr llOllplIIgs o/ ma(To/lf fl l J and meter benl , 1'/ 1' . .... ..' lO 10 OW G . 1 ' , . -, l e I I~l alld a le willing lo disn' mrd tra . .OH, OHS p.~rlJnJlal illslmctio na / s sIIH /PI'. f\-~a tly 1l1l lsid au s, h ow(~v('r ; _,dl tl()(~.l ~ It'rnll I1l.11oJ.{y a nd (:o nc (' ltS~)f nll'h',. I'nlllari/)' in h'l'Ins uf suh(!' 1,1 .~ IUl WIUlIIg lo ¡llInk u f IIlIplt, a nd Itril>le l · IVIS/o ns uf l/Il' ha ~ i( ' 11l" 11 l' I ilUJ Bl'iuk ( /(Itrl) " , '," '. I ti ll.l' , 11' llu,tn y r. . . , . \.', Ullt'S (J ~IH!;J 1011 ' M'VI 'la l o rh" 1 1" 'n' H'('tiv('s: ils llu'.
(':11 , upparently in an e ffort tu avoid cu ltural bias as reflected in the proclívity u f uuditiona l western music lo be gro uped in twos o r th re cs. .lon es ( 1!JN!i) algUt'S tha l such a theo ry has little value for co nc eptua lízing mctric m usic ami mai ntains that eq uating pulse wi th m eter adds unnecessary scm an t¡c coufusío n to the rcsearch literature. .I0 nes' s synthc sis of his theo re ücal analy scs is tha t "metn c gro upi ngs occur al thc leve l 01' the baslc beat, as we ll as at le vels 01' subdivisío ns a nd m ult íples uf that bea t" (p. 54). H e no tes virtua lly una nim ous agreeme nt about t1H' fn '· q lle nt inconsistcncy of m eter signat urc s wit h meter a nd rhyth m percr-püun a mi pe rform an ce a nd suggests exploring the relationship betwcen lt'l1Ipu an d meter pcrccp tion. Madsen, Duke. a nd Gcringcr (19 N6) ex am ined 100 m usicia ns' 110 lt' pl' pf~ ('ft'nces for exccrp ts of eig ht relativel y famil iar orchestral wo rks in wh k h dIJI" no les, \."hich o rd inari ly are subd ivided into th ree, were p resented a l orig" ina l tem p i a nd at tem pi 12 p er cen t faste r o r 12 percen l slo we r. Excerpts purposd y we re am biguous rega rding w hether a typical lislener like ly wou ld fel'! Ihcm in a fast three o r a slow on e. \ Vhen le m p i we re fasler, su bj ects lt' ndetl lo se lcct the doUed no te a s Ihe beat un it; when te m pi we re slower, th ey te nd· t'd to se lect lhe subd ivisio n o f the d otted note as th e beat un it. T hese results sllggest that tempo is a p rim ary va riab le in deter mini ng beat 1I11i ls ami nlt'l· rk grou pings, At faste r te m pi, listeners te nd to do more gro uping; a t slo w('r I('mp i, lhey tend to respond to smaller me tri c un its. Appare lllly thl' s'lIlH' I)I'rn 'pt ua l phe nomen on obse rved fo r tempo pc rccption operates fur llleh' r 1)1'1 (,('plio n_ Blltle r's (1992) o bservali o lls a bo u! how mu sicians tap pol p h)"l hm i,' 1'011 It'ws sllch as two·again st-t h ree, th ree-aga inst·fou r, o r two -agaill "l fi v(' againsl-sev e n, whic h in e fTect are akin to cro ss-me le r pa tle rn s, rt'I1('1"t .. ~ ¡ lIl ¡ lar pheno menon. H e nole s that when respondents an' fan~d wilh llH IlI' n nn p l (~ x pa uern s, the)" lend to ta p a long w ith Ihe slo wt-'st sln 'alll_ 111' a lso ohse rves thal respondents "are facile at shifting from o ne rhyth mic II'\'('I lo :Inother'" (Butlcr, p, If)() ) , l't'rha ps the work of D rakc alHllwr fo lleilb'1.les, discllssl'd previo llsly, hold.s tllt-, must pro m isl' for lI11 derslan ding- response lo 11I11sic's met l"ic stn u:ltlll', \ Vhilt, Ihey 1" l'(~Ob'1 liz l' lhat 111 0s1 lislPnn s spo nta nl'o w.ly li )C ll S 0 1] tl'm pora lly n 'gula r ('Vt"llts at tia' btOa l ll'vj' l O O ll " ~ 's It'l('rcnt It-' vd), t1w y dClllomtrah'd Ihal rt'spull sl' lo Ilw lrir SlllU IUII' h hil'la rd lica l. \ Vilb inn('a St'ti lIlusir a l l'x¡I('ric Il(" (' a mI so p !lb lk alio lJ, I¡' lr lll't ' h'lId l'd lo fe l('us 011 higlH'r 1('v('I... 01' lllt'lrk . .ln H"luw (JOIH'S\ IOl';t1 a ll" ltd lllK)' '1'111' ItIPo ry n lllsil!('rs n 'spollst'... lo

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/lby/" 111 ir !'iJIIIIIJll tilJ1u 1111

,

IIIt' h igl lt' r Il'V(+'i 'l\ II'lIl'¡ Ull ~ 111 1111 1' Olil 'lllt'd cug n ilive p ro n'sSill¡'; .un l lt ' ~pOll Sl' S a l a k-vr-l Iu-tuw ílu- Idl 'I" 1I1 Il'vl'l (a l s ubdivisions uf the h t'a l) . l' l't'I1t'('l ing un ulyt¡c allp n tlin¡.; , A n 11111'0I1 a ll1 e) cr-

..J lI ~1 a.. u n-nn ul ' 1\1.tyt Irm 1:>erou , " p s, ,' IIMY Olll'~' , .l ll' h lcra rchic al in th nt Ii .. 1•• s ubs u m e "SUfran' ,.stn •( .' tIl ( ' S "KI Ul 1)" It " . • iste ners ( t l p structures." base 1 . .1 ( I IIS till o largcr and b ,,1 durat ion ul a nu-lodlc , s inül arities between th ¡ l¡a . a ," cxtrum usical in fo rrna tíon (T h • a, we a, se ruin al wn rk of reasoníng an d C homsky's ('1957

hamlO~ie 'ex:"~:'1 '.' ' '~h'''''li"m

~/7 1)

" mctu';;,~re s'~ac,

regar~iSngllltd~ eep

erl~l:.~e 1'~J~~c)' ' and Seh e k .

Iln str uct ' , l l .J , \) 0 : . " ! thec reücal system f . m e, m langu age (,, 1 a n un derlying m usical co u, conee,vmg mu sical stru cturcs as out u e" introduc tion 'o und a o, UrlrxL ) Sloboda's (1985) text is ro';lhs

m'~~ o~'.lhe

de'ail:~

basis of abstracted

~:~'::,~:'

of the cogu itive organization

:~

attem pts lo mod el hiíerarchical s . . \\' ' ,lllII}owcll, , t .st, a nd C ross (19" _) . p crccptual structuríng of mu si . fivr- " , . , n,'} p rovide a ¡I . USIC exíst. t gt m r.1I obsc rva tions and o n exe.c e nt revrew, and the .

', : : : ',~~:¡t . olpercciv~d

(p:e~_~ ~:~e) .i~e~fiebP ri nci~¡es dev;I::;':~:

structure fo r ove rvlev.. . of 'h elr o servatiu ns and . . p lnhc l les tll'lIl1 111slra lc n -Ievance t \\- a t su.ch mo dels are trying 'o aee pn TI . o pe reepll on an d .. omp " am i , l,t'll" rirsl obse rvation is tha l anyth . ,cob"hn ltlVe organization of music IIM . mg In t e . m usic thal can be percelVed .. Y IIl lhll'llce perceplUal gro upmgs Ne'th ~1ll.rH',~ gl."llllping and hie rarchical 'r 1,. e~ pltch ,nor rh}t hm alone de terIlIIUl lllóltlull ma y connict a d ' o gamzatlOn; dlfIere nt sorts of ' '."" .S ,,, ' 1 . . n mleraeL Second r I . m",ICal c'lll('rgl' . 11: mu sical encount er. \Vhatever ' 15 ? n ng prior cxperi0 1 Istt'ners must be . o rga mzaho nal com ,..., ,, ,,,,,lIy me.", in 1 l m leTms or " ales, id iom, rh th pone n's 1 1 ,lll

~

en~rs

p:'rCl.fv~. ~;~:~~:'e T~l~~d, ~vC~l)soPllh iStiea¡cd ~ist:~r:n\~il~t~::

illu11lt'cl ilóltt'ly 0 1 1 l'i'{ '( hit'I"'ll"el, . • y, A com pu '(• , dc' assl . a musie ,.n a d e tatled 11 1011 l"C'pC'ó1h'ccifie I" inei le is I . P :111ll )' 1 I ' 1 1 . . ' . " . 'l " '1IlI'lll" \ I!l}llllllll h 'l \ llm . . , bt'l wc en ti\(' pa tltlll S S .II n¡.l, (IIJT I) _I.II\\'I'll ll.al Iwo fami liar lllt' lo tlw s r01' I Il ~ 't In a lat t'r sllldy, J)m 'iiIll¡.l, . ' I ," ,1 " '·" s) ",,'1' illt'lIlifit,d t'aslly . ('" 11' " " ,.\.,.\ 111' " " by altt'l'nal;lIJ; SIllTt'SSIVI· 1 1Il" ' ~ t

171i

1

;I S

l 'l t l /lt '¡/Wl l ll l l llll lld ll l l flll l

1114-' n .'.';III "

, 1 11 1111' udu

or A/u f/" ,l ll ' ' 'J . matnor

11 \'1' I "11 \ \ 11' 11 lh.. lw 1 I lVIII'u " CI 1Il(' O( ¡(-'S ' fn 'IIUl',.ey , 1 I'I IIII ' U I ) ' r ru • I . rang os ( ,O ;¡ lhu ug h /iS!Cll l' rs G III I I 'ul.;, 1 '",' " 1 11 OVt·r1ap. lhe tusk is m ore di JIie,,'! kn 1/ • .1 , Il lll 1;11 1111" I if¡ . • o w H' mdody in , .dvm ll '" AII, , I¡ 111 Y I II IS Prc spectñed Le th..)' n"f g . ue- 1I1 II' S W J • ", .... (':.1 1," quarter no tes all d (Il"l rll'r n 'sh '11'] , ;;rl' ,. u-red lo a rhy th m uf alte r1~;.t·l~ J('a ved~ m~'odil's) wen effcct o p . duded that rh vthmtc groupmg ~ }' h S t·,e wurk Gnossicn7lCl/O. ,J, e l,u kl . ' ,s nnan ces 01 anot el' a · 1"1 ' n " 'on ch angcs tht' lInt (' 1 YI " In aoalysls ofpeno d 1 f how exprcss t t' " . 1I!IX5) sought to crea te a m o .e . o l , 'rform ance of vanolls b('a l Suhl l\ l "t,'llc.turc of b eats. After exa m lll l1~ g t l~ p~ 1,.., ., performam'c by (a) c xp'lIu l· .• h' , ' SSlo n ca n a ~ , 1 r' 1' , ions he co ncluded t al c xprl. I . . (b) ah ering the It'ngt 1 (1 I\lt I s ., . the int ervall wtwt't'lI W.ltSor ing ur n lOtrac tlOg " 's , ' .. " , ', Jl ult . l . . 1 " , )1" l!l famous \lIalUsls pt I V·,d lla\ not es o r gro ups 01 . 11 \ ·t·lIk l ,111 ,1 YSt s , el k ' ,ns that Slllll)t)rt ' H ' 1' S l\ el'I)'s (l!I!IO) statistlt":1 Y I. 1 , l ' l 1 1' \' 1' ,111'1 1 1,.'II" , , I fUl lllilllt·CS uf a Ht'(,tho \'."1\ 11111111 1 111 111 ela la to sllpport a hypo tht 's\1.I·' \\-,tll k . Althoug,h Ht'p p's nlll'll' ,W ll 1I :, 1I1l . v!th'lIIalic altcratio ll in tlil' dm a' " 11 , ,(·tll\· 111\ ' 1 11\ 1114 , 1 ~ "1\I't'thll\'t'l1 pu 1St', :t 1":' .

e

IHI

Ii h l'111m " HUI

lillllS ofthn-e eVt·Il IIUlI lll·l 111 .11 ' _ '11 11 1 er- vr-tu] mlu-r lx-ar su bdivisio ns, his d al a n-vcu lcd IIU lIIul ed )'ill}o; " BI'I'IIIO\I'll pub ('" inth e I!I pianists' pc rfo n n an ces. l low cvcr, thc mosr PI'OlII iI\I' II 1 Ih)'lhlll ir dr-vin uon be o bsc rved was p hrasc k-ugthcning. pnrücula rly 1'1111 /IIJIIliOlU

l' I'XI I'1 pi lLulll in fO llr n 'nd itio l\s o all . , IllI' applOPllt'a t or perform given rh yth m pat te m s. The va riab les in the dífferent :-.llI d il's uro nu rncrous, making it difficu lt to undcrstand c1early th e status of I hytlnuic behuviors at different age or developmen t lcvels. Sorne studics also I'XlI lllillt' I'hytbm ic behaviors in conjtlllCliun with heha viors relaled to p itch ' 11~ ól n i /, a l i( lIl ,

01' infanls' rhythm ic development, ho wever, nccessaril y involve a slralck)' differenl from !he lypes j ust mentioned. 1'he investigato r I1I m1 oh,t 'r ve Ihe infant s' rh ythmic hchaviors, either freely emitled or in 11"1 tomt' lo rh ),thm ic stim uli, ~t' \' t ' l'itl "lud ies (AlIen, Walker, Syme nds, & Marcell, 1977; C ha ng & 'li l'lmb, Im 7; D{'ma ny, McKenzie, & Vurpillot. W77) indica te th at infants 1I'.' I'0 nd lo d ilTeren ces in rh ythm patt ern s, Infants apparently tend lo hahitu alt' lo a r{'{~lIrring paucrn, hut when a change oeeurs, the y respond o O ne sllllly Il st'd e ye Illove me nl as a me asure 01' response to cha nge; the oth er two llst'd Ill'arl rak, l\. loog ( I!lí fi, pp , :i 9-40) obsc lved thal infants begin re sponding to mmic .villl ov{'rt 11l0v 1 Iwl\\'l'{'1l the llit'an S o l' 1I 11 ' Iht' youngcr gro llps' llll'all Ih )'lh lll !It( t l l'~ tlll llO two nld t'st gro llpS, \' c1 i/ l't1 rh y'lh m apl illltit' It'"ls '\ 1- ' . 11 111" U l\ " l " l lt' ~ 1¡ l l1 ( ,n . 1 Exa l\\ini n ~ ('111 I u'n s 11 . 1 I 1 ,\1 t1. 'vl'luplIll 'nl with ól ~t' , n t'n l t'y pl'ovil!t's allolhl'l pI'r Spt'II1 Vt' 011 l 1\' 111

1l/¡ ~ I/¡ Ul I' 1'¡' II'U/tltiIJIIJ __- - -- ......... "J IIl /l.l tf'i1l U rlU/lI;or I

\

( Wlil¡b . p. Ill i) n ' l lI l l l ~ '1 "1,.11 1\

!l'w lopm en tal research do es no! provid c dea r-cut a nswers to all qu eslio ns I'l'ganling lh e devclopme ot of rhythmic be haviors. T he issues ar e con ~ !illl lH led hy variab les in research design , the type of rh yth m ic be haviors stud¡¡·d. ¡lIl d rl'liaLility a nd validity of various m easurcs. At best, we can cond ude that rhythmic be haviors gene ra lly increa se with age, although the y tend to ll'adl a p l;¡ll'aU in old er ehildre o. Howeve r, to unquestioningly be lieve tha! ilU'l"('asl's in rh ythmic abilities are solely a function of age 0 1' de vclopmen tal h'\"('1 disrega rds both the bo dy o f researeh conccming the development of rhythm ic beh avior s through e xperime ntal lea rn ing ex pe rie nces and the I'C UlI"·1\·;ll i" n l1.' f,·rs (n (h.. in\"l,rian, ,· u f a pa rt icula r di m("nsio n " f " lIll' iril-a l O¡' ~·I·'S ('vI'n lhuugh I'h ;lIllt" ''''u ,rs in fJ(h" r d illll' nsírJlls, l'illW'1 partialJ y vi,'ws t:ullt"'pl ¡j" V"¡" l'llll'lll in h' rms (lf H lI,,,,'rfllli" Il. wh i. h i, nUlhinlt IIlI'W Ihlm sla hilil. tlio n u f a llillli ,ul" l " ,m " I" in ;o , !lIM's Ih inki ng 1'.1Il1llWrn\;l'I. 1!lil. l'l" Iti-li ). M" ...· "n I·u n_\t'rvalio ll l' PI "' ;lI~ III ( 'h.. I'Io·' l!l.

"k .. that insln U·tiI o n cau , 1 ' I'S wbo 1l0 W . -, .. .. 1 klllJwll'dgt' 01 1I11ISlI 1,"11 l' · . xanuncs n 'SI'il\Th h\l'r alUII . ., 111• IlI' xl SI'(·\IOn e • . $'t'S l'mp lrll..1 illlpro vc rh ylhlllil~ hd\;I\"I~I1 ~ . 1 ic 1 ;('I~"vi()r through leam ing l'Xpl'nl'1 . . n' gard ing d evel opnlCnt ut I $'t 111\1

Experimental Research

. ( 1" bccanse it sccks lo r . . . "expen men a . h discusscd herclll IS . (\ e dcvc\opnll'llt (l Most rc sea rc ,. . expe nencc 0 0 1 , . , .• . the eíiects of some learnmg \ ks th e rigor ol\S con tro l 111 (tu e d·d t ·nc rease . . ,l " control subjects' scores I no I Ca on e-week role leaduup' pl O \\ l:)~ttemore (19í O) examioed the e~e;.ts ;hythm patt erns on first tlU llnp,l ~ _. oC cha ntiog and d apping me~, IC th 01 att erns. Dittem m c ohst'r:'t'( ~.I .I~: rrade rs' abilities to , ha nt mclodll,,rh:vcls f~r the twO cr iter ion exN l·ISI'S s~x } (d',fleTcn ees a mong th e grade le r (\ (" 'o simp ll'r a ill'r illll patSlb'l\ U'Ca n I 1 not 0 1" \l~ .. . s . volving morc cOlllplex patt ertl l \I .. r dcfmitive cond usions " bon l tram o II~ . . 'he stud 's n aturc nmkl' s < 1 .1\" I.I~~ . ~ll nS·fll . ( . DI' I;"dc \cvd dilTt'U'Il(·('s (hll lt \¡I.h .. . . r in silllnng S()ugs in usnal. IIl g e l e s 1:> ¡ I ,11 '(·h 11 1I ,1I l\lIlg ~ . " I1l'Y'lTmin (IB7'.:!) eUlllpan '( .1 1" I .1 , in sin ring only llsllal l1l1'lI'r Ml llgs 'Xl'ti ' and ul1usuall\wt('rs wllh "il \lll1l ~ d~ 'll\~ill ' nf llldodk rhylh lll 1' ,11' 1111. kill'(h'rgal"tl'\l a mi flrsl-v,nllk I h lld"'I~ ~ d:hullV,t n "Yan n in in sislt,d Ihal on ..., 1'Il '\I ' I\ I I ' \ I II I I \l I I ' " lerUS. No Si ~ l\ lI (·;l1l t ( 1 (

h::

pretcst-p~~~~~~(i~).19)

a.'ra¡~m~ri:~~uyni~l~;l'aSl'd ~lnÍll1

¡..

I

JKH

1'1),,1,'1m',

I 1'. " I I U/1II1111/1/111l li'Jl A/l/l/á,! !"Jf'f/(/l!tfJr . .

11t'('alll l' uu

;l(T('p tl ,¡J !PUI

ld u

j

I

.

M:,:,sTEH IU ' YTI ' ~I l( . S l~: ,';',' I

1lit'

Sl tl c/ jl''>

d lt'd . I

.1 10 \11'

;;',I, ~\I"l ll"iI~ :1;'~,iJ.;¡!)Il" WIJlIll('rcia/ly erAl' " rJI N

~ul'.' '':

.

bcing tcs ted . ( le ( J. _ vcmcn rs th atm uy i ll lnu IHT ,lll l) l .: rs e modc sh o uld nor ,equu e. for uura l-visunl d iscruuinuti on . "' ITIlI' re spon d ent s. Tf thc «)n~( rn ll _1 hui if I IH' rou rr-m IS l or I (',H mg , I 1I I nol Le lIl VO vu ,

" .1 pe-rforma nce s 10 1

tlíkel y will be in volvcd.» 1 , i rh t IIl' I I spunsl' m or e s m g U IIA I SK ' I and Dcihl (1!}(i7) foun d thadt .sl've ra m usica l ubilitics. ll( 1 < 1 nd e rsta n mg Clf e 1 1111' , .., fo r rainín g a c ear 1I . . fortunatcl y ne ver lc ca ';';:,:i;s;/,;;;,,,)' ,J'Ma,,;,"l Concept measu rcs )liS.

~:~~s

(

.~{iidre~'s

rforru an cc mus

Meu",,~;; :h;~,:::'

[verbalund ~:: : ;:',~)I'¡;, ,~vl~~~7::;, :~;it~:;r:~d~~:;U:~;;~~;;" ~:~7:i~:~I~~al:,~::~'~I,:;;~'~ 'es

not~~ ¡,"'t~:~; peiorceptíons on thc busls of n: :"'::"';::::: wcvc•• dala from lo" th ree-yeu r ..

lt ninb.. w ( I!IHI) . t " . arding yo ung childrcn's y _

I',_u,,, ~ " ma1 Il st~dy suggcst,-0101 th at vocal chand t lllg IS . ~ a bl y less di fficulty cha nling subj ccts ha cort sr e, . ,01 Schk-uuhi, t1.~ee- and ~~~:;;;:~allem' through movement. 5,~~:;;~e~::le children's Ihan fe pro lo 'atio ns rOl" kindergarte n am d JiI. S la . un e clapp lng. 0 ' marchi ng. l .

_

m uelo " elle, ,e' po nse n" ,,¡' .

[i

III

rcview o f Iilcralure ld G nes ha he r' s (19H7) , ,

11IH!i) m;¡de s im ilar o se f\i

'.

.

.

11

11

h)"thnllc resp onses, at , '1 'nfo m l auo n, , , dll'n's mu sical tapping y ie lded Sl~ll ~r .. llal m easu remenl is o f pr:l c liGI I ~l,l.\ -' '' . ,.cstio ll 01' gro up versus md lvl~ lo "'hilc ind ividu al tt'sllll~ I

I':valualiuu " f , hY"'mlc behavioes ge nemUy inv o/ve, on e of lh,ee ob,eev.,1.1.. ' '' ''''''i,,,,, (a) di,cciminaling between au'al " lm uJi. (lo) , howlng "'eough rep eoduce an au,ally p , e'U" VO 'U " 'U ' 11... ah dity lo keep time with a local "' ut"du d 'ylluu pallem. and (c) dl,ceim inatins hetween '" a" ociatlng vi, ual s d. y'l u ' ym hol "'1110 aum Uy p,e, ent ed pall em, _Th e ¡avt Calego,y indude, all mOl , k ...·ad ing behavloes. althn ugh one cou ld a'gu e that 'epcod ucins •hyl lu u palie' ", feom uolation con" lIules a fnunh beh avi"'_In addlll • ' ev' ..al , hYlluu le, ,, , equi , e beh avioes "'al al be" re/ate on/y pecipheeaUyonlo Ihe "u ,·,· 1"..,,· typ.., of behavlocs_Th i, dl, cu"ion Is ¡Im lled. howeve, . lo , ome rhyllun tesis ('mploying aspecls uf (he thrce basic be haviors. S" vera l i"ue, a'e iuvo/ved In evalualion of , hylhmk behavio,,_ ane u" "'d P''CViou, 'y "'a, wh elh e, " p cod uetion of p allem, o, steady be a" /egit" oalely i,u/i"'''e, , hythm ie pe, ceptiou. 10011 ;¡ appea" "'al m any re, ea,d..."

.

I ' IU )

(

o[ Rltyihmic BekolJiors

. .. . s wcl l as ils al' llluplial l'Ill" " 1o l' II It' It'hahdll~,: .l~", measuri ng di,t 1¡m illa rio l ,., tlu"( m-cm I _ ucmx

' " ('.-h in a n-st's validuy und

,

l!l\

u q h 01 m usoe leae ecs_ e u¡" ,a nee to bo llo ce' eace "-" an .. _ in le,m, of lime and em l . ' '' '''1' In y be de sirab lc , it 0 1't e n I S prohlblhv~ise although (('rt<J in 1",l"lo nua n{ l 1 , . l' -o m usl st'n.'e as a compro ,

u" 'a,," e, ° te . I lo ' o ""e" ed . . l ' . 1" 1.'; , iluarion, neee" an ly can no e beh avloes in i",latlon '" ",.t uU .' . 1 IVhel he' In evalua le ,hylhm« i conee m nf mu sle " sy, ' u.I," S" s: '. "o ntext has been a lon gsta nd n~l': ,uusr, . • I of speemes. .. wa .c Ihat testing s!to llltl 1lso lolll S,"" h",c's (¡!I:iR) vlew. a l leoey _ nd e, highl y co nte" II"d " 'OH 'IU"'; . ' , - "11 traits U f abiJi tics fo r u h re n('ct ('d th(' lll'Jil'f Illat 1l 1US (1!!:Ji) view. an "om... b", appeoa e a, , ub" a",. h lml ",u" .,,,

ev~lua~()n

S'~:'sdl"

~'~ ";ehavI '"

, hould be

~Ol

eval u ated~: ~~~~~'~~havl ocs

altem pl 1" in"'''i'''' ''.'; '

::;ul ;~:':t' ;';me ,hyth m ie behavio ' . WI'r o r admini\lril . I 1 11 l U' h's 11. ,,;...,¡ .." "....,, " , ,( 1,·It.rl Hlily .,," VII " ':': 1_ in,lj\"iduals. MKh as ~'OUlll( ( I11'1 "'1" ;uMijjoll ,,, lllt' (l · .. h l , l j" m ,,,I" I',.'li,, ,,. I"1 ' 1"" ,11111,' '1' . ,dj',lhlo'd. 1'", d I" ,..f dos "" mllsl HJIl,illr-r l llO' 'W"l ur v,, .... 1111 , "1' 10..,11',,1\\ , ,,,,.11 lO' ,';ormnK 11 ·lin..:l I",r \"n. 'J' ') ,1 "'Il,llwv isllit }" lml" " I H " d"'~'( I ' ¡H l' I 'I' 'J I'I ,1' . l ,,,, ioll. 1'1,'''' '' \0'1 ' Ilo}"I,' ,111
1Jor , Sllllt 11I1l' .1111 ~ 1. Rhyllun givc·s m USII fllITt'.

UI, ~," m il ¡.'¡,ul/llali flIU • • "1

1I uf \ /r rlr/IHf, t\.'\\' YUlk : \ \' i\t·y. ro .P) TII' lIrj, \ '1 /1,,"11'¡"" IJ IIIIlllr (II //f'/ ' .} ' /lf Ji¡r j¡f, ul,ftl/lf, tI,1\1I1111rl, F. 11. (1,1. ),1 . , N ( . (l' UI1). })" " ft¡Jn,," '/ ofa /tI "llq . " '\ ro (l'i :n, T III' i\ lIlln'ws . 1'. ~ .• & I>l'II:I, " ",'/ ' 1IIla/ I/.1 COlllJt'r. Itl ' IKI'. ln] . A. Sloboda {Ed USIC pe~fonnanCl! an d it[ 1" 1 . " "na muSlC. e am b n'd gt', . ". ¡ . I ~' wi,s , A. (; . (l ~ 171) , . -lSlm loo/.; and' ~ l ~ l/I C I(J Il, J. (JlN 5) So ' , smg. n orrislow n 1\'" B . ' ". me examples f ' 'l ' I ver urdef[ IJ Hlc/l'ls of IIIetric erce ti .0 cOIllplex me ters and th eir i : . ' ~ I/I"'U t'I · II¡ggiIlS 1I Pe p on . AfUSll' Pn u ption, 13 5!1-77. m plJCallOns fuI' l' . , . . , & Le e e s (ICJ82) " . ("(/lIUIII, 11, 115-12 H ,. . . . fh e pereeption 01' ' l.ull d, _\ 1. W. (JlH lJ) A ' . mUsIcal rhy lhm. . " . n analym ofthe "Iru h " . \I'n,t liulI, Stilllford Unive rsity ( (at m music. Unp ublished d , Id. 1.lIl1d m, H. \V (1" ' ·7) A " oc o ra IS' . . I . II 00eel' eh I'n 'ss. tlJe psy ology ofmusir (2nd f"d ) 1\' , MiI[R" . - ¡ .' tI , 1111' ,'I/'·t'ls uf Sl'('l'd .,/,,,,. , . .1 " (uare" lfI 11 ' r I • .. a 1011 \ , 1111, ',1 '/111//111I, ,1-1, l/l 1_ 1lO .

ReP

s·,

V1:;(j'~"II, It~~\'II~'::l'I~~h¡&'~J¡(I ~l(I~: 0

i'illi~~t:~ ~:~{~~:'~;sand

:lUI

Mng ncll , E, ( I ~ II ;H). Syslt'lI1 s I'ur 1 " ; lll i l1 ~ rh )'llllllS al sigh!. n/f ¡' " ', ,,mf/l l l/!i ,/, 2.1 (:l), liH- 70. "'lrk : H arper and Row. 1{ SI: (' ¡1Il1

s,(·gregation. }o urnal

,t

~f Acj~~:fT~~" ~f freq uen c)' and leveJ o n a uditor),

oSt'~ R. F: (1989). An analysis of timi~ca . oc~ny oJA merica, 108, I209- 12J.1 . Ul

R /) /J,:r rltJ/I01/ Abslrocls l ntn nalional 5 0 3scf9 A jazz rh)'th m secti on perfor mance lJS('nUUSdl M H & G d " . . • . '. -ar ner D B (19 ' ) rhytl unic paUerns b hi " ' . oH . Reprod uction of d¡ l{urklUick. C . A. Om:-J{;h~l~:~:~i~Ct!Plual ~nJ MOlor SkiliJ. 26, ~u7/~~i;;nd visua l ./fJ IJTlIftI 11 1'sychoI0g)' 24 30 ~ 3 ~9 Incsrhe sls in the pereeption of d lyrJ 'A . Huckllli(·k. C. A. (19.41) rm . mtTUon Al " Z' • ' . e narure oftherh th . S , IJ,\C'~ (rtJd~rrs N o/i onal As.Jodo/ioll 39 r )-H(! y rruc ex peri ellcc. P,oCU dillgJ 01" /h r , . 1( IS. • I'h '-J) v< " L ' , . .. ~ . ' . . l V l) "m and temn l\' , ~d tl' lI l ' lI b [' ru S & H '1'0. ew ) or/.;; \ \~ \\': Ncrton .... .. -vroore, R S. (1985) T ' shorl terrn memo": of rhyth . . . he efTecl of tonaJrh l'thmic Al ' /' / -f rmc and melod¡ f context on _ 1/1/1 ~( Uftl/ioll . 85, 207-2 17. IC sequences. Council jor Restar. . ~ IlI'lIkl'f, 11. (19:11/ 79) n . di UI .\ 1 lJlt'Itll'1 S 1 & Sch'¡ ' tT ftru so/,(, (E, O ster. lra ns 197'1) N v ". ". , euter LJ (I9HS) .• . . ew IOrk' Lon nn JI'I I'IU t'S lo c('rtain rh\'lh . ' . The relali onshi p of grad el ev l" d g a~. /( 1. ' f mle responses of . e an sex d lf· < , 1 r\((m I 11/ A!uJic Educo/ion, 33 2:i - 30 prnnary h'Tade cbil dre n. } ournal .,{" . .. 101 '11, ,\ 1. (19-10) .". " . f!J •. • I f l ( jJsyrholoVII 01' m . 1\, " .wa ,~ I I I !fI ' C F (1ln Hj /> u,rlc. H ew York: Ronald Pr J)cholo[D' 0 1"mus ' 1\, " ess. '-"" a~ IOrt" C. E,. Lewis D L & S ~ . le. I'oew York; M eGra w'HiU , / 11/I r" l~ (r t' vi.~l'dJ . "l\'ew y¡, k , aelvelt.J. G ' ) S toshort, "ltOS • t (J . ,(l'I'J9 . . . 1960. ' ."M'ri.nlll·, M. 1.. (1')75) A a r . Th c PsycholagicaJ Corpora tio um ojmuSl _ lJ I . '. mtosUrt of "lt/ n. ~_ IlJlu ) ri.~ll t'd docloral disser talion U . tT .eonservo/irm, based 0 '1 Pioge/ 's /ht '''''ranlll', M . J (19 , W'lt . " ',lío ru-ó1, p llr h is 1,lsu ill'l" "l'n",.. ,,, .l flOIr " "lud;!'" 1 :. ': ';1\" 111 slUl1 UIr, 11... {' fI" '·1 i. d "'IIO ,mh l ' I ' lI"u'I " 'PI'1; sl ul1u/i, l" pl~ lO lO ." , \. "n· ""1,· lo 1;,1."1' l;m llll l' ," " I1 U",· ";'''h' wjlh 'Jlu, k a'. ""'" 11 1lI "IlI "U "' I M' ~ (l'. :¿.'i:¿).

h ' Ilól i,u'II illd jl'id u;,', \\./

"cutcgc n ca l boundarics." A ~ In ll ¡'; il 'i Ilit" bouuda rics are 1101 PXI'Pt'!lPI!. the listen er pcrcei ves a ton e as ha vin,.; tlU' pitch of that cat cgory . 'I'hc convcntíons ami uudlt lous 0 1' a pa rticular m usical culum- usunlly determ ine the part icular fixed puch es uscd in me lodics. lu mck xlics 0 1' 110 11 \\'('ste rn cultu res, thc musics 01' which o ften a re no t buscd on a n-rtiau ba rmonic framework, the oc tave is d ivided in various wa ys. Sorne cu ltures use microtonic scalcs, dívidíng the octave íntc more puches tbun thc seven \\'('ste rn di a to n ic scal e tones. O thers use fewer th an seve n puches p(~ r octa ve; the ir sca les are macrotonic scales. Most \ Vestern melodícs uülíz e ton es with iu the diatonic scale system and have an implied , if not alwa ys accompunyiug. har moni c Iramework.t Regardless o f the scale systc m uscd in selec üng me lodic pi tch cs or whether th e melody uses slid ing or fixed pit chcs, lite s('quence 01' pitch relationship s contributes lo a given melody's individualu y. As long as a tonal sequencc's rclatlve pítch positions a nd rhythru n-main co ns ta n t, the melody rernain s th c same. Le vítin (H)!)!J, p. :.1 1·1 ) no tes (·i,.;ht melodíc at tributes: pitch, rhythm, lempo, con tour, timbre, loudncss, spuña l location, and environmen tal reverbera tion . One mar tran sfonn a nu-lody in ull of th e a tt ri butes and m ai n ta in its íd c n tlry except for co n to u r. which of n mrse cbanges p itch positions, and rhythm, provided duralional rc1alioll' ships change sufficientI y. Consider lhe song "Am erica" ("God Sav(' lllt' Q uee n"). O ne eo uld pcrfonn it at a higher or lowe r pit ch level, tak e it fastt'l oc slower (withio Iim its), play il 0 0 d iITercn t inSlmm en l:S, make it loude r o r so fter, perforo l it in a difIe rent part ofthe room, and/m p erform it in a m on' oc less re verberant space, and it will remain "Ameriea ." Il ow('vl' r, ch'lIIging either the rela tive pi lch positio ns or lhe rhythm eha nges t h(' mt'lody .l"trur luralLy and m ay or may no t ehange it perceptualLy. T he melocIy lIolalt ,¡f in Figu re G- l has lhe pit eh rcl ationships or "Ameriea" ("Ga d SaVt.' the Qm'I'n"). h ui the changed rhyt hm makes it a n entirely differenl me lod y, Co mpose rs and sorne perfo rrncrs ehange melodic tones for :w slllt'tk 0 1 a rtislic purposes. The degree to which a melody's tonal or rhythmi l: sln ll'ltlll' ('(jJ1 change while still clieiting a response uf "sa meness" natur ally is sllh jl·e·t to ma ny va ria bles. Farn swo rth (W 69, p. 49) be lieves lha l on ce a per so ll !earn s a mel ody, he oc she ca n recognize it through conside ra ble r hall,.;t'll . Il owe ver, Ihe deb'Tee lo \vhkh iI can be ehanged an d still recob.-n iz('d is ól fUllclion of the Iistem'r's fa milia rily witll th(' Ille)lldy, pa rticlllarl y an y de vel · o ped ex/J(:clatiofl.J rl'ga n ling il. Dowlillg's ( 1 !l7:~ ) com parisom 01' Ii s/t'IH' r s ' responses to sim ulta llt'Olls Jl ilÍ l'S 0 1' "illtl'l'lt';¡vl'd" lIle!ot1ies supports tht, UIII ' It'nt ioll reganling ex pet."taliolls. WlwlI sllh jl'l'ts klle w whk h tUlles lo lis/t'11 for, Ihey we n ' ah l(' to l't'UI¡';lIiJI' tlll'llI, hu I wlwll Ihe'y had 110 su d I (~ x p t ' I 'la ' :rlwd v,,·tOIll·, 111" "" rioll, nw lod ,,·, ;LI" " ""t,1I ,t" "_" 1'11"" Su< h n1O' I rica, ~

liolls , n -Cn .. b'lllit ¡ro n was impossibJe

f\h 'Jody may be defined eith ". . ce 10 tcrms o f its 1,t .oJll e 'S fl'Sponse s lo it. Mu sic . I structural charactecistics o c rlll'lo d,it's in tcrm s of struc tural charathe~n~ts tra~itiona1Jy have exarnined lIlon ' lIlh'n'sled in p ea I • ctenstlcs, whíle psycholoo-ists h b I 1 P e s respo nses ro . O' ave een .~ \" I¡¡~ ht'l'/1 exam ine d Irom a hil '" p e reeptlOns of mcl ad)'. Melad . ho ns 01 llld od y allude 'o lb . P osop h¡c¡¡J pcr spe ctiv(' and sorne d f ) e Importan f h .. ' e 101.111 {'''l'lItia / ilUribule Ior mak¡ ce o L e aesthetic mu sical whole" (¡\ ¡,-/lo, I!m.l 1) 17'1) Tb Ing a seq uence of single tone s víabl . :' . " e prcsem d ts. . e as me ody 111I1I 'l : sl ruc l Uf '1") el ·fi e rcep tu a o rganiza tion a l m J d ' . o assl les d e ' ' . e o y lll n.d d l,lr;H"t('rislics as fimna /istic d ~nph~ms o f .m elody in !erm s o f struc~

, a.,

'll¡';~('aJ vari • )',' II'm t·na bles un IIU IVI< 11,11' 1' -ull y sum u ' 'f r ,1lllal 1'llco unlers a new sty IS 1(. . . ' t confurrning lo cxpt'dalltlllS ti :\\~,t's the ncw seque nce as cOll f(ln~l~ng or ~H~ , \ 'xam illt'd it III u-rms of I ' .h he or sbe has lcarned as mclo ). l!lal w uc f I r e pereeplWO la ve c , h Ii ' . 1\1urt' reet'nt accounlS o m e O( 1 , Ir de -d thc burgeoning rese arc \ itera Ill,L\llili"c p rocesses and struc turc s." ~ ~\~ researeh in the licId is tt'l"llIc d , .. syc hology u r muste. IllIl' in "cognthVC P r pitch and melod y. f , il n the per cepuon o l' 1 -r's p'lllern tl tUI'uses pnman y o (. 124 - 1-1-4) de scribe a IS ene • I)owling and Harv..'Oud (1986, pp, 1 di sduma- (Se/u ma/a are "kuowl 1')(' lt'ctatio ns re!,-rarding a melody as _a me o erience with which an observl'l' I'd~t, struetu res." developed ,Irorn pn~:. e:~ ) One 'develops such scht'l1lal~' II I .. IIl1lgrowths of an under Ylng m d i 10 ' g music and lanb'1.¡agt· he l1 ' , _ '7 1 111 ils broadesl sense, han,lHHl} l e ~ 1. , tlw lody. Apel ( l !)(i!I, pp , , ~ d -, \ ' o 'I'llst'd 10 its horizontal pltd~" s~nl:,~I,II~~l)in;lliolls 01' mclodic s, orgallllm"gl'n 1 ",.,riles ils devl'lo pnll'nl. 1.."ly 1 '" ,hree lllc1odie s, b ul as JIlII~ IU l 1l 1 ' ' , 1 ' t W I' t' \1 WO o II l ' l'Iall )' involn'tl paralld l\l,{~t~llI~ 11 , vals IwIWI'I'1l mdo d ics "so und t,( ,)I't ( 1 . " ,~ (\t'velolll'd Iha t n' ll,1I1\ ml t 1 ,." ,. ' \11' re sult anl SOIlIlIIs ni 1I111\t 1l1l " l ' · ' II I ~ I " W' i ' 11 1I¡lI\lIltalH.(}usiy Ihan o t lI'rs. ~ 0111 t I SllI l t' l' lI l h (1 ' 1\ 11\ '1' t1id harmo n), )1'((:1,
, I¡Jiteh T IH' IlUluht'1 OIn,II'.11lit 111.

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l U S , , " -1- ' llln logolls d istind lon bl'l.... t t 11 , 1 1 ",t'llIllt'rs o f Ihe satne plleh ( .(s~' , . ¡ , .1, n lll ~ll ¡'I,'1 I " llutO!l('S 11111dion a\ ('qll iva ('!lIs, ,11 ,', ,1 '11 1 IlIl.'t'llIt'l\t 01' IOIl ('S a ut St . I ¡" , ' c" , ' . t'o n"" {' Il '( • l , Iht, " pc t' '''II ' 111 f Ol1ltllo l\ UStlg " ,l ' I ' 11,.. P" I 11 an ang t ' ll H' 1l IS , ' ,I \\'llhitl lhe oda"e dt'h'nll llll' ~lw l' 1 l' '1 1 \ ' h ¡11I ;l IlW ' l1 w nts for \\ t'Sh'n l l ollol , T ht' tWII pi '" OIl IIlUII' 11 1 .. It, I JI tlU I{ 1t ,

.lIr ImI 1I m us¡c are 111(' majol um l IllillOI

~ t ll l l" , a ll h u u ~ h

mau y co nside r thos e scale s 11Il kally they a re. Following is a dis cu ssíon u f scale funct lon s. sr a lt· tll ll i ll ).; Spi lc' IlI S, major ami minar scal es, and o ther m odal a mi scule strucr ur es . lu be pa rticu lar II I1U I I' ~ , whk h

lI'l

Funrtion of Sea/a Scales provide a sens e a l' m usica l reí c rcnce, which Shepard (1999 , p . 187) fccls is d ue to the asymmetry resulting from uneq ual dívision of thc octave. Scales also provide a mean s 0 1' reducin g the myriad a l' posslbl e puches to a manageabl e number of working pítches; Sethar es (1998, pp. 49-5 0) suggests that ca tegorica l pe rc eptio n may be res ponsíble, as m ay ease 01' wri ting a n d pcr formíng mu sic. Carte rctte and Kendall (W99, p. 780) suggcst that di visi ón 01' the octa ve into sca le steps is a possíblc cross-culrur al musica l "unive rsal." While the tendency to ha ve musical sca les may be a "universal," particu la r mu sical scales are social phe nomcna that allow p eopl c to exploí t tonal n-la tionshíps, as Mursell (1937, p. 107) no tcd lo ng ago. H e rnai ntain s tha t scules are not manifestations 01' so rne mathematical idea l. Neither. he says, un - there natural scales ; if th cre we re , al! cultu res wo uld use the samc scale. I'l'o plc crea re musical systems . As a system deve lo ps, it change s to allow fur hum an fcelings a nd p erceptions ra thcr than to fulfill an y arder of g oo dIIl' SS regardíng freq ue ncy ratios. [ vol ved scale syste ms reflect attcmpts to t udir), ami make the systems available for use by others. If m usic were no t a \Ud ot'ultura l phcnomenon, there wo uld be no need for co nsens ual sca le syskllls; cnch pcrso n co uld dcvelop a prívate scale system . ' I'hc tcm p ered di atonic sca le sys tem probab ly is the worl d's most farn ';lr hing und authoritatívc sta ndardí zatlo n 01' music for social p urposes (M ursell. p. 1(7). Mu sical instrumen ts, notation, and practices of Western cultures are b c und so in tcgrall y to thi s systc m tha t new syste ms which a re incompatible with th e diatonic sca le system ap pear unlikely te gain wid e«p n -ad acccpta nce. Even in e1ectron ic music, the co m pos itions that generalIy mect with grca tes t acceptance usually involve use of so rne traditional instnmu-n ts or timbres and m elodi es and harmonies based on the d iatonic se de, Mu sica l scalcs ulso provide a basis for es tabl is hi ng d efinite ton al relatio n slu ps. 'Ioget hcr with rhythm they pro vide th e co nsistency that peoplc necd to dca l with thc infinite ran ge of so unds Irom whic h music is co m prtsed . Sndt,s enabk- pcople lo crea re and organize [rorn suunds a nd sílcnccs a consuuct {m uste] thal has nesth etíc a nd Iun cüonul vnlnc for sign lflca nt p ropo r· üon s (Jf most cultura l gro ups. \Vithout a pn-dor uinuut sC llt' systc m, rnusic would no t likely huvc lx-com e thc po t('lll f(lITt' it i ~ loda )'.

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.s.. . . J" SI) la [" • lee. as Baekm (I'lTuwered lo . the correet uetave to fi : ' .>, 1" 17.1) desedbe, uoe decive, th , 1, pp, 137-I:l!1) and Roed e,er e scale by tunmg a beatless asc . Illh, a ht'atll'ss dcsccndin ' f ti... ' allle, a sea le tha t hg a be atb, ascending fifth cte. Th end m (secl I"bll' n.!). as eat ess pe rfect fou rths, fifth s, an ' d octavcs e resu

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as melod'IC m uslc . .IS pe rform d ,. h (' \\ It out tra nsposing modular s .u nan s('milonc is a p ro b' l'em ;IOf Y . lagofe an sca lc works \\Iell. 'H nwc vcr m.Jtg, is ,,,t,, ,,d,,d lo i" e1"d" m ak"". Furth e" whPO the .llhót rlllOIltC lemcs, lill'H'by yil'1din {>I ~nlT~tH': tOl~l'S, 11 n '.~ tt lts in tlone(luivalt'nt I"J I . g ( 1 t r¡'nt SIZt'S f . ".,,,'d"!1 f"urth (mil" _ 1.'1) , . . . ti S('lIl tIOlWS. Also SilKC .. l ~nm;I\·, b ' · t'10· 1 liI ' l~. t", . , 1" ' ." 1111' ~ 1'\'l h lIK"r"; 1I1 ",,' a l,' . ' 11 1l.'1 ng 1:!J rom atic Io nes lhe l' tI

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.' I'ythag ,cale must b e forrned in rel. tinn tu a giveo , tarting I",iut, orean 111l'1I1ical letler nam es may ha ve díffcrent frcquencie s in differcnl kcys; e.g ., F will be sJightly differcnt in thc kcys of C , Eb , and A. C lead y, tiuscale is i.nadequate for \Vestcm tonal harmonyd rean }II," illlo lla li, n, according to Barbour (pp . 89, 105), . pparently ovolv.. ve iug the fifleenlh and , ixteenth eentu ries as th eori, t' sought tu impro u" " I''' u e I'yth ag tuniog. J u, ' iol onation ha' sorne . dva nlag ' over I'ythag 'au ,,,u ing m inean ih at it uses mo re simp le ratios between tones an d acco mm o,h.,,,s t huilding trtads Irorn , imple ratios among m ejor and m iour third' ,J us into"a ' ion ls so named beeause its ioleevals eonform to th e , atios betwe"n Ih.. rones of th e ove rtone series ;" l.e., the fifth has a ratio, the Ioun h a ·1:3, 11... mejor third a .\:4, and th e m ino' th ird a ti:.\. Table (i-2 sJiows tb c "" tios

\'yth ago

d,,, '

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lltllong adjacent frcqu en cies an d in relah on te do. Allho ugh Ji. ving th e pu tative adv.ntag e of , imple ratios, wh ir h 1"",1""" tiun I...atle" thirds a' well as fom1h, and fifth" ju, t inlo o. alsu 1" " a munl ..., ,,\ disad vantages, whieh ma ke it practieally usele" in m ust Wes" 'ro ",usice: (a) th e seale h a, twn dilTerent , atiu, ror whol e too "S (!1:8 and ItI :!I), (h) ,1... nlth belween lhe ,ecund an d , ixlh seale degr ees (D-A in rde,," " " 1" ,1 ... k,'y " f C) i, not the , ame a' other fifth, ve"'" ami (e) il d",'s u" , '" ronnnnda le m odu latio n to othec keys_T he farlh er away i'ro '" ,'''' ".¡",. I' m .t' kcy and lh c more use of accidentals, lhe m ore unlcn¡¡blc thc syslt'l1\ I.......mes. .in, ' as l'yth agorean seales, just seale, have to nes ,hal " ''1'' i'" ,¡¡r. ¡,.,..nt fn'qu" neies in dilTe, en t k"ys. In sJim t, it is of Jiltle value for fix..d I'ihh Il\slrllll11'1l1 , which musl arcollu nodalc d uomatidsm alld m o • • 1\1' 1" thun 111(' Inlt'rva l sizes from ~h;'ftb is sligbtly (2/100 of a semltonc~c:~crcd fourth h 111\' ('qual tempere d t Fíftbs: conversely, the equal I l,t"ltless pyth agorean an JUS 1 , d iust fourtbs. , .' 1 la r el' tban the l>ytbagorean an , J dencies in contl'mpnrar)" 111 ' 1 \h~lhl~ : maJ~or di scussions regarding.tunthngdtc~o_mi and the sizc o r the .inlt'r. the m ajor t Ir " , t IS rc c lun n ances center on tun mg ( ~ d do Allhough equal lemperam cn . . ' í

val het""een the lead ing tone ti) an f l~ers insist that triads a re "~Ctll'; . 11; '. . s the standard, sorne p er ( . . . d which has a m nj or t ur ~ U¡1,lll/.cd a . ate lb tun ing of th eJusttna , " . Id I ' \)OSSI< .. 'f he appro xlrn e . third 1his wou )1 than th e a cappe a d many wind instru me nls, Some ( .1\ Y I,le for pe rform ances of . ts f keyb o ar or . 1 'rs telU 1I I \lon nd by th e constram o. 19.IQ) suggcsts th at sln ng p aYl : 1,' I n . h (G ree ne Hl37; N tckerso , " lun·, ng whc n pc rfornul\ K I. H 1l" l'illC ' . pythagorean k l' I udjllst into natio n to(aI9P7P!OX1";~~~ no tes th at musician s ten ;:,: ic \ ( ' ;. 1( , • 1" 1\( '\' 111 ( , I 1 II ~ . '.\ I 11' lonc's J)

gy f ti

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I ' ~. e, A, C. l'cntaton ¡c !ol'al,'" e ul«- Imill 0 11 a ny tone oft hc chrumaüc s( ' V "cplal pa rts. Pen tatonie scales, some \\ihat app roximali ng Ihe a nlhe llli(: IlItl uf the \\·estem pen tatunk . have been used in man y a ncien l n lltm c l:hillesl:-" Pol ynesia n, Afri can, a nd Native American (A pel, I!Hi!I, p. li.'i C hincse music also uses six-to ne (se xalon ic) and sevell-tmlt' (hepla hll 'wal('s, while microtones (inte rvals sma ller tha n a s('lllilo Il C) ('lia r,Uit'1 \c al('s o f Indi a a nd the Middle Eas t. '1'11(' pIlssibilities of m oda l organi zation in mu sk a re in l1n ik , 11111 al'I"1 11 1)' only cte r 4 c xa mined Ihe processm,g 0 I . ~ rclated to p itch stl11l' IlIIl'.' h h lOglca 1 processe" 11' I

litis ., t'l:tiol1 exa mines t e psye, o h has sough t lo e1ucidat e Ihe illtt'l".na II~ 1 il1 /l/usie, M uch th eory and l'e~carc d Lrategies fo r pro ce ssing mll s.le:a l, '1111 11 l'I" Il'vd eognitive reprcsentatlo ns an s, lation lo melodic orgal1lzatlCJII 01 l d hhasbeenmk re , mu 11 1011 . , '1 si th co ry an researe h to rh ),thnuc · II l. n U . . h 'mewor as ex [e ded n I W('slem tona l mUSIC, a hho ug so ' d lo eSla blish exte nded, ( ,101 u J' , , ,. Al -o efforls ha ve been 111,1 e 1I1OIl1 C slruchllCS, s , ,',, 1 ) ' rec lio n, , , I 1' · I I'I"¡rchical mndels 01' m wm .a I ( ,P , ' . cI'g m itive sll"Uchln 's IS ,111 la {' , f ' 1 '1" 'st III m usle s Th e impet lls rOl' Ihis surg(' o III I l . , " -d foclls o n " highe r Il'vl'l, mon' ,th ofa maJ'm shift in ps)'ch o lob,} ~c)\\all 1 11nn 1> ~.m ) anel seveml ulltgrcm . 1 ,' 'Ivio r" (Krulll lallS , . " " ,' .'. I og nitive aspl' 1 of a st.lIld ard Iht' Sl'CO d atterns eo m pnsl' ( lollt', rimen l, subjeets hear p fi I eo m pariso n IOIll', lo the seco nd ~:~i yht inlerpolated tones ~nd a ~naa scmit{l llt~ . Tht'lil llk lulll', rollowed 'h g e as Ihe standard 01' d lffcred Yh ,n\,ari!ion 10111' ·h s t e sam . th tt e cO ' whit'h e ll el' wa 1- 6 scale tbc certa ml Y a \ ' , the st;l\u l;lfd indieale on a , re c ilher ton a . t,t' ., . W ll S lO d rd l nterpol ated tones \ \' 1..' 1 d tones 01" ato llal, ....,' l1lalt'ht'd the stan c:nt~xt suggested by lhe inte~O ale olated ¡unes, In F,t'Il('1 w ;a.. in the ton al d. 'onic in rdation to tbe mterp d I ." " es wlH'1l 1111' d' - sta n af( d 'as non la t\ll' stallt Ial' lA b' IS to remcmber ¡¡¡to OtC l . V-IS t'a sil'r lo , " ier for su Jec , , 1 ted Io nes- " . , 111. 11 was eas " cd b y diatoll\ e mtcrpo a . , Iso W l' n~ 1I0lltha · tones a -e" was caus . lated "inlt'r(t'ren c . . ton es when the IOtCrpo 1 \ tOlles Wl'n' fn'(' l('l\ll'mue l: n~)I\dl~~)~lC.xperinll'nt in which the i\lterp~) a~e(t subjt'('ts jll (-;l l t' tont'!>, I \! lS{' llWl'lllt'f \1 t',1I t 11 , nI I l lI' " 'l l\all\ln~ ( 101 o \ 1 , ('1 t ull"l 11 ,.. .\ '1)' rt' I"IN !'> I\ ) , 1t ' ~ lI ( nsl

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• lJ 1arllH'rli'lllll lllt' ' " . I Vl lll lo: hu g IUIlPShl"Cm ainin li lllll I/l/' C /11 111 11 1111 ' } 1 /.\,,"r~I'c1 grollp ing of th e Ilon d ialon ie eX I I e lon ie triad (c' l' e l" " " e Ut .IV('. IJ othe !" wo rds in a ton a l '1 ' , lit 11 1" ') I ' con· I s COIllpont'nts Iha l is m - " . .1/01 las pl"ITeplu al stm tla . 1 r~'l1la in ing scale Iones (gn .;,~( ,\,1,/'1 ',1OI'lr (JII,I('rsim ila rily. The sim ila; ;:Y among ' /0'" ' , , l . III e 11 1"" ') ' y am ong , omc tones (e.g " lUJ n I ' I 'J O I ISgreate r (han that a vncc with tonal conlex~ J. (~#). I.c:rec'p lual sim ila rilies arising ír mong nOl~ a mdody may e cn hca l in gu idin 11, om expen· . g e Pcrccp rual tm ckín f BUIJe r (WH9, WHOa, 1990b tak . . . g () Ihc'or)', arguing Ihat (he Ih . ) " es ISSUe with Krumhansl's to nal h¡ Iho,~ {' rd ation ships as they ~~Zld ~oe.~ no r descri be h o w listcners I:~ar~h~ ?!',a ll{l Proposes an a hemative the urmg the ~lUSie Iisten ing aet" (I~9~e'vc mes tu tecognize the t . ory as a basls for ex plaioo'n 1' , p. f O lJJe, Bulle . . g IS en ers ' aa,b ·1 o 1IIl' m osr p lausible !onic fo . ~ malOtam s tha r listeners base the ir h . urore intersals( . r a grven m usical exce e Olees nun or seconds and trito -s) . . rpl o n clear stalements of , IlIlII e sllccession lha' th nes wlthm rhe ex cerot "1'1, d ' . ese tempor' J ' . -r- . e omln a nt M" dm racl erislic to ha nn . rd arrangemen ts uf rurc intervals ('"~'ollll,len'd in atonal musi:~I~.C;). en ee s in tonal music, and ar:e~:,~:: 11 IU'/lllllse to Butler's cr.C ' ( l ~ '! " ) c1l'visl'd two slud · '. 'elsm of the lonal hie rarehy lh o / 1111' ¡1.~ n'lIding major ;;i:~·~:i:~~ d aims rea ffi rm th e Prlvilc; : X' ~~~~y l l~': stn'lI&1hening (he' lon al ~~ the ~ore of KrumhansJ's tonarhierar~ H \ ' ( "" bJl'CIs lo j ud e the ' '. lera re y theory. H er first ex . Il ll ll'.~ ¡IS ól lon ie for ~ h t sU1ta? dlty of eaeh of the tweJve ch ro p:-n ment lll~(iur ld acis, IlIth pau:m s me~odle t~st palterns: ascending and :;;:~IC ~c,ale ll' vl'ah'('lhOlt uf Ihe res ' mlnor tnads, and diminished triad en mg ' (">"

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.Hd mlir 1If1l/ lllllllllmir t-aundations tnuuework mosr likcl y wO llld lilld r-itln-r rbe tona l hicrurch y data u r the rare inu-rvnl dala convin cíug wlu-u ronsk lc red in isolatio n from the other; both povitions have an intuitiv o "corroctness" ubout thcm . Th e tona l relutlonships «l Krurn ha nsl's hicrar ch y app('a r congruent with musicía ns' ex pe ncnccs. but tlu- strong d ominan t-tc nic pull evoked by the rare intervals also is co nslste nt wuh musicians' ex p eriences. Undoubtedly, more rese arch an d díscussio n will occu r. \Vh atever subsequent rcsearch is forthcoming relaüv e tu the two posiüons, and the possíblc influence of to na l consonance, th c rcad er m ust u-nn-mb er that both theones deal wíth inferred cognitive proeesscs based on IW1H 'ption s of mu sical cve nts rather than th e m usíc' s actual acoustical struct 1111 ' ,

l c rduhl an d J ackcndofT's (W83) ela bo ra te hlerarchícal m odel of ton al euucture is ba sed mo re 0 0 IhCUTY than on rcsearch. Two of its híerarchkul lllmpo ne nts. tíme-span reduction and prolongatíon reduaíon, concem p ilrl! su uct ures. As the name im p líes, Ihe time-span reduclion hierarchy sl'c'ks to IOlllla lize lh e ,\o·ay in which listen ers pereei ve p itch events at dilTeren t Icvt·l... " I ,"lruc tur a l importance within a give n time-spa n. lt involves examinalio n of I'ih'h within varions levels of the hierarch ica l "trce" for that time-span, sec·k· illg lo dete rmine which p ilch ís most sla ble. T hat pitch is eallcd the "he
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• a cve ucuon cssen 1h lly . ,,'' t a "1lI . ' 1l ' '~t . 1\, I'-ar-l .H U '( l" (e Ja rkc • 1I. 6). J>'10 1o ngatlOIl ' ' • ,I.S S I.l: II .~ l llll 111'\ l ' -, - 1 . l e uf melady and hannony confonn to fundamenta l laws of pe rce p tual m~¡¡lI i za ti o n and (b) the ind ividu al' s previou s e xpcri en ee with the given 1lI1'11II1 il' and harmonic style. As should be apparen! fram previous discusSiOIl, IIwlodics a nd ha nnoni es tha t confonn most c10sely to the ru les and ~r; lI n llla r of " 'e stern tonal harm on ic stm cture gene rally eonfor m to the funda uu.' ntai laws of percep tual orgnn izatiun . The tonal hannonic framcwork provides the stm ctural unity. and the Iisle ne r perceives th e m elody 01' har· ilion )' as a Gestalt or holistic pattern . T he exp ectations a n indi vidu al develops from ex perie nce with me lody and h;tmlOn y a re re lated tu their peraptual redundam:y. \\"hile infonnation Ihl'O ry pe r se holds th at a mcssagc's redundaney is cha raeteristic of the stim Ul 11S alOlll', Meyer (1967, pp. 277- 279) main tains that rcdundan cy in a mu si" n li Ilwssagl' depends both on the extent to whic h struetura l eha raete ristics n lllfnn n to the Iaws o f perceptllal organizalio n (stru clural rl'dundancy) ami 17Th i~

m" y " "{' In IJllu lin¡; if um' I h i n k.~ uf M i nfurmal io n ~ unir a.~ dil riFk alio n u r rq M'liliu ll. In in fur1l1.l1i"n 111t'fJl)'. info rm al i" " i~ Illlnn·dUlldil llt nr '1I'W. In ,1 sllllp l,' v i~lIa l "' ) lll p
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Alrlu(fje (l /l(I I/(/ rl/w ll ie ¡ 'i l/l/Il / lI ( ' 1I1n mclodi c COnIlIUr. Slo boda (1!lH5) Ob"I'1 " 1,11 Ihu l llU' first slriking ch ange in overt musica l be havior after th c firsr hi n hcl,ly (( uru-... al a!J( 111 1 1Mm onth s of age, whcn S[1011" tuneo us so ng bcgi ns. "Thc ruaín cb urucn-rlstlc of spontancous singing is th c use of discrete stable pilehe s {rnthcr than thc mierol onal glid es of the earlíe r 'song babbiíng']" (p. 20:¿j. S uch singi ng usual ly d oes not include words, leading Sloboda lo suggest that musical dcvelo pmen t al this age oecurs along a separale "strearn" frcm speech. Spo nlanc ous singíng at this lcvel does no! appear to reflect efforts lo Imitare par ticular songs, although the singing begins lo include short melodic patterns using intervals thar approximate thc seconds and third s of tonal mu sic. Most ace ounts of child re n's singing during the latrer half of the seco nd year sugges r a gradual changc toward use of m elod ic patterns reflecting to na l, 0 1' culturally "co rrect," structu res in spon raneo us slngi ng. They also note an "emergi ng a bility to selec t me lodic fragments from an incrcasíngly large repert oire [of standard songsl, and lo match lbe se wilh in ereasing aeeu · raey lo the eomponents of stao dard modds" (H argreaves, 19tH;, p . 72). Ap parmtly, ehildren begin to bo rro w eerta in aspects of songs they havl~ Iwanl and assim ilatc them m ore an d m ore into the ir ow n spon taneo us songs, Dllring Ihe third year, ehildren 's spoolaneo us soogs appear to beeome 1 01l ~ l'r an d ren ee! a definite tren d toward use of dia toni e sealc intervals, I);¡ vidson, r\'1cKemon, and Gard ner (1981, p. 305 ) suggest lh at ehildren "PIII'ilf tu dcvelop a set uf song-re lated expectations that in essenc e provide :t "so llg frame'" whieh strueture s the ir vo cal p crfonnanee s. As Sloboda (19M5, p, :lO,I) notes, "by two-an d-a-half, th e child secms to have assimilatcd t1w !Ioti ulI S Ihat m usic is eon strueted aro und a sm all fixed set of p itch interv als, a mi thilt repetition of in tervallic an d rhythmíc patterns is a cornerston c of mu síe.'" Hnwever, lhe ehild as yet seems to laek an)' grasp o f hierar eh ieal slruclllres gov erning gro ups of patterns that might prescri be di rection aud c1osurc. Sloboda ubse rves tha t songs of children of this age usuall)' have an "aim less" quality, with Jittlc or no sense of "fjnishing." ·Hm·ard the cnd of th e thir d year, ehildre n's singing begins to reneet Icss '~ Jl o ll t a ll eO Il S song and more im itation o f songs they hcar in thcir enviro n111t'n l. l\loog's (1!)76) ex tensive study of cbildren 's musical dcvelop mcnt l't'v('alt'd th a! children in lhe car ly p hases of th is slage are abl e to imitalt' l1wlodic eo ntour more easil)" th an they imitate exaet pitch. However, duri ng tht,th ird und fourth years, many ch ild ren's ea pacities lo imitale so ngs devd up grea ll)', to th e po int th at "must ehildren can atTUf1.•111 01 \ ,,1 '

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csse ntíall y t1H' sunn- 11111' 1' ''1''1, wtlh lllt' , h, tIl~,~s oc cu rrin g in a b ass line. Tlu upper volee I"t..-ma ins itll'nlit'a l ltll Imlll 111(' mode l a nd secon d version. Gordon (1m !), W H ~ } d l'VI'lo l" '" llln't' uddlt lona l tests that includ e m easm es of to na l aptuudc. 'I'h c tun ul subn-st o f tbc Pr imary Measures ol Musir Audiation is des ign ed lo asscss thc ubilltles of kindergarten through third grade children to discriminate be tween paírs of two - to fíve-tone au ral partcrns. On e tone in the seco nd of cac h pair is cha ngcd. T hc Intermediatr Measura olMusíc Audiation has a sim ilar test tha t follows the sa me form at, lml is de stgne d for eh ildre n in grades one thro ugh four . Gordon's (198 9) m ore recent Aduanad Measures ol Music Audiation a re dcslgn cd te assess ton al and rhyt hmie aptitude ofhigh sehool and college stud cn ts. Bascd on Go rd o n 's concept of "au di atio n," wh ere a p erson m entall y hears and cornp re he nds musical pa trerns with out im m ediate aural stímulntio n, the Sü-ít em me asure requires students to decide whether "answers" lo m usica l "questions" are th e same as the "ques tions," diffcr tonally, 01' diffcr rhythmically. Tonal diffe rences may ínv olve changes in individual pít ch. mode, ton al center, or combinalions th ercof Rhythm cha nges m ay ínclud e alte n ·d duration, me ter, tempo, 01' sorne co mbi nation thereof. 'j'h,l..... , , of llIelodir. and lempor,11 III ~n t , G ( 1!l~19). T lw pron'ssltlg . I!IV M,H;CRm areh, 28, h7- 7.I., " 11,,11 1,. M. d" t r unifil'd dil1lt'nsion~? !'I/ln~f,{ f1¡N , (51h t.'d.). Engkwood c h lls 1 1" l' (1ItH1). J1lttlTItIO[ t arlllng · Itll lqlt.'n t n o . (T

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in tur n fucilituu- PC01 II '1 11 1l 111 Id 1ll'1\' Ilwllltli.. ~ uud hannouics. \ Vo odru lT (1!J7U) t'a lb 1l1l'l l1111 1I 'll n i pn-vious cxpcrtcuccs cona pts (sce a b o C hup ter 10) and Sllgl{l'!>b 111,11 Iltl')' I'lII vicll' thc ba s¡s for musical behavior. lt egelskl (W75, p. 11 ) t,laIJOrU!l'tl on 111 (' vh-w tbut concepts are gene ra l thougb t tcn dcncies am i suggests tbur tlu-y n-sul r Irorn (a) percepuon a nd cogni tin n of many particu lar person al expr-rlcnccs with th c learning 01' skill lo be m aste rcd, (b) th e transfcr o f ce rtain leaming from particu lar persona l e xpcnences lo othcr particu lar but so mewhat díffe rent situatíon s, a nd (c) a g rad ually evo lvlng tendency loward increased frequenc y uf the parti cu lar m usical beh avior. Expcctatlons, there fore, are basic to conceprualizmg music. Musical co nce pts. rc cognized as cu m ula tive tendcncics to ward respo nse resulting from co gnítive musical organiz atio ns. are the product of m emc ries and clas sifica tio ns 01' previou s ex penences with mu sical stímuli. \Vh ile musical co nce pts invol vc co vert cognítíve actívt ry, they forro the bas¡s fo r both rcccptíve and product íon beh aviors. Rcceptive beh aviors essentíally are percep tua l and thercfore covcrt in natu re: produ cüon beh aviors invol ve m usical produclio n 01' l'l' productio n. HECEI' IWE ll I-:HAVIO RS. Sin ce rec eplive beh a"iors are essen tially coverl, i llV t'.'iti~¡l I OrS musl devise sume overt manifesta tion lO stud y as evi de nce of lI'n 'plioll, '!'h is m ay create add itia nal questions ; investigal o rs do not al ways alJ,l"" H'ga rd ing whe ther particu lar ov ert beh¡¡viors valid ly indicale covcrt IIl'I('('pt ioll or co nceptio n, For example. tasks !ha t investi¡:,ralo rs migh l devise lo .'i ltltly 1llt'lodic perception mighl range from sim ple melod ic recognilion 0 1' lli..ni m ination lo singing o r notating an aurally pres e nted melody. Su me "lIlt'lmlies" used in research are limiled, co ntriv ed tonal seq ue nces thal ma)' tlI' may not represent \\'estero melod ics, \ Vh ile sorne invesliga lo rs define IIlt'ir le rms u perationa lly a nd lim il lheir generalizations, others apply vague lalll'ls lo theír stud ies an d .so me tim e.s ge neralize far beyond wh at the d ata juslify. tht.' rt.' by leaving the reader w¡lh excessive, seem ingly contrad icto ry info rmat io n, In te rm ixing tht.'oretica l co nsidera tions wilh presen talions and c1 i ,~ c ll ss i(l n s 01' e mpirica l dal a may compo und lhe co nfus io n, Unfortuna te ly. 110 Ilt"a t alHl lidy so lutions to suc h problems e xist O n t~ sho uld recognize lhal receptive behaviors are essenliaJIy perceplual am i invo lve rrcognition o/ and discrimination betwem musical stim uli, Bolh I'mt'('sses art' fundamenta l lo me lodic an d harmo nic receplion, \\~h i l e lisie nil1~ In Illusic. :tn indi vidu al. m ua lly witho nt an y pa rlic ular awareness, co nsla nlly Sl'par atcs th e familia r fro m the unfamiliar alld co m pares new pa lle rn s wilh 1Ilt"lllo ries of previously lea rn ed pa ltl' rn s, T ht., hl'tter IIU' new nwl od it.,s a mi harlllollies m;¡l('h Iht., ex pl'cla lio ns bast'::~~~d pauern ls (a) identical to ,l hlt:~l,~ ~' lu- o r sbe m~sl deCid e w iet : r ~) di stinctl y dl ñcren t fro m th e first I S l " , (h) a dc rivauou 01' rhe Iírst, " '¡yluol and I H ~I :~, p . 2). 've musical behavlors are anc " 1 "\" " "dd itional classcs u f recepn 1 " , ion s 01' reco b'Ulhon aIH \\0 a " , iall th ese are ex e l ' .. 1 Esse nlta y' d b ' rccepti ve processes, An a Ytu ,1 II lI rtll~visual discrimi nat lOn, h s beyon aSIC h " - In l ' tliscr imination, but eac gOl' . '\ ea teg ori:t.e melodic and amloll\C ' " n ff rts 10 consClOUS y , , n . vo lves assot 1 Iwhaviors re ecr e o A ral-visual discrimi nabo 1Il ' 1 ' 1 .r; n-ru s into thelr co ostiluent ~alts. le d i and hanno nic patterns, wu 1 I It 11 uung aura] stirnuli, inc1udmg m.e o IC ,., ' '1yu 1b n1ic (nolational) represent~t~~~s'haviors are difficu\t to isol~le e~llll.I I}, r\.s may b e appare n\., re ceptwe e f . performance" eXlsts 111 a l\) , h ' . an ele ment o I ' lO l l. performance be avlOrs. " Al fai\ure to produet.' ( Ol'S 1 l::~:~~1 manifeslation of rec eptivc b.ehav~o:;~eiv:~'A persan may be unablc ~(,) 1\t'cessari1y mean failu re 10 perc~lve o bIero rather lhan a reception 01' p~l ' ~illg beca use of a vocal p roductlOn pro bl ' , re search rdalIl 'ption pro cm. \Vh '} C hapler 7 exammes so mc , 1 l'1U )\)U(.I 'lO~ B E.HAVIORS, ' 1 e " , fb ' sic types of prodll eli otl he l il V 1e l,tl to lTodUclion behaviors. ~n ovco • \'•.: r ~nslrumcntal performan ce. Jcald ,I , I I ,~ ca ulJo lled to co nsid" r ,I, _ _ ! e vt' opment, a nd Iht· n .·td .' ' , , e It'q tlJ l"t~( lask · · . . • I ll ll d li SlO ll S o lliv wilh du" ('(" ,, _/ , . S III ,my g Ive n stud y and 10 dra w I " I( efa Io n of Ih ' ' - k A1I0 tll('r dillicult v in ) .. .' . I' .IS n , • f 'om follm'\i; ng silllp \ C \ 1111 I ' " I '" ,lilw . ~l a n y Ill ll S\( : t't \1( ,11 . 11l ~ I . I ' I ' I W il Y 10 I' ,Il • 11 ,1 0 • "t n . ' S III 1I0t agree reg;'ln hng t \I It " I 'I I I , 1111l 0 11).1,h illstrll1ne ntal explfl {t . maintain that n'ading is Iwsl ';' / I :; ": 111 ,,1.11 , o llluis and Sl' tS of IlI1l Vt ' !tW ll t S, whk h Illl' visll;d sY l1lhClb st;llIl " I "

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Evaluating Melod '

\\" "' JCS an d Harmon ies , .. II ~' an exa m ina tio n of the " r .. II I !'I.~ 0 1 harmon 1. ' g oo d ness of melod r 1 " il aho is ,.eJ('vaJll~:~~ laps IS m o re approp riate in a disco I. ie ap p ro p lillh ' lu'h 'lvi('rs l 'h e Psych olOgica l foundatio r lussl.o n o fJ at'Slllt'llI ' , e present d l ns 0 me odi e h "app rop ria len ess" (rom ISCUSSlo n, h owe vcr, focu ses o n "an(, a r~~ ll llI l' a Perccpr ua ! sta nd p Oint. gO O f nes s Hll' /

What Is "Good" Melody ?

The ' . lilll d am en tal p10b le m 1O

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What Is ~ccepla!Jle" Harm . ...ony.::t "Accep lablcness" of h . ar m on v has recci d ' IIIan (,llher melody o r rn ," crve conside rably less 'I" " " , USI C as a wh I I'll I' . 1" 11 (.me c,lf two basic app roaches: stud ies o~ (") h e Im ited a ~t(.'n fjon is n 'I;II,',1 I" U)~'l1l7.a n t of harmony (e.g., Brid es 19 a _t e age at . wh.lc~ ch ild re n Ill " Ollu fOJ harmony of traditio na l t ,g , 6,')! .and (b) m dlVldua ls' prt'f"Il '11l , • W' h ona corn posnrons (1.0 19 ' illS as a sepa m ro test fo r harmo ng, . 68; Wing, J%j) selec t the "be tter " of two m usical n~. , whereas Long asks ind ivid ua h h, h'~J~}S ,o f 1Il('lody, ha rmony, o r rhyt~e~~'hons a nd te ll whe ther it is hl'lh' 1 III I hl' [a fte r ap p roa ch is art' 1 P I'sM'lllia lly seeks 10 assess in~~~,~rI}; ~elevant to OU f d iscu ssion h t'("lll'!' II ;1I' p rop.rialt' Il('SS fo r given exa m l le~a ~f ~~eferences in terms o f harlll" lIh ' lyl(', 10 lh e e xtent that a n ind o ~d I' es tern to na l m usic in "c1a,si, ,.I (';~ lIy Ira inl'd j udges agree is a I:~ u: s prefe~en~~s confonn to what 11I11 '1 a ot harm on ic style fo r \\es' pp ~ teo the m d l\'ldua l ex hibi ts knowl" tI , e m mUSiC While . h W ',lIt'lIl With the ex perts" ap p roach so~ewh one ~lg t consider the ";1'&'; "" ~IOIl illUde has m erit a nd o ffers at .s~~~blsh. the part icula r ('v"IIl,' man y po ssIbilitieS fo r exam ining vi l'w~ til ac('('p tabl e" harmo ny. U llim,J1ely, the accep tableness o f h . lIlt'lody, IS a n indiVidual malt d c annony, Just as the go Ot/III'" , ,' w II I er a n a !Unction of lndt I I I l.lrIllOIllC styles. The inti . an Itl IVI( ual' s eXI1I'III'11t t , " o rmati on theory f t IISSIOII 0 melodic frood"..ss , ra me wo rk noted in 1111 ' til , I 0'" a so may appl t h y 0 a m lOny, and the 1ll1',IIIiIIM an mr IVldual Jt'cei ves from h ,has dl'vI' II ~Ilt'd for the g Ive n ~~~:.nr IS ~elat~d to th e expecta nClt's Ill ' III ~ l ll ,~ l so IS a n JlJdividu al maHer Ll~ II P,P opnateness o f ha rmon y, thl'w l" .. Imd o" IV,.11 ' J.lIIIIOlltes " ' acceptable' ' le (elpee to wh ich oIrl O tl pS 0 r II Hhvul ' ll'.' relIc cts a cu ltural or subc ultllJal,III I', llullt , , , Evaluation of Melodic and Harmonic Behaviors Iw altJatJO llS Il l' llle iodi C' 'tn," , . ' f ', I, ll IIHJlIlC IJe h'lv' , IIIll n ' 0 .'; ('v('r,,1 h'l.~ic lll'h ol\'illralt JI'S' (. " /{.lIS g elH'ra /ly inv o /vI' till" " I IOllal p,tll('rn s, (h) iJl'h :lvit" s " ,'I YI" " 'II} helhl vlOrs reHpcting J"( 'C(ll'llil il'll ,,' . I ' ('(' /tlf' ( IS ' " ' , ' I"> MIIlt'( ltJllal pallt'lII s ( 'J I I ' 1"> ' UlIl lilldtlll llS bplweell ,1111""111)' I " f It ' l a \'I O I'.~ ; . s .~ odat i ll g ' '" I I ' ' II ' ~1( lf ' I Jl II .. " lht'''~tl' " I'' " ,I " n-acher's or adj ud icatio n panel's perce p tions of w hat is "co rrect" .11111 Mill tu" pe rformance . \\'hile the pitfall s of this are many, the syste m appilr1I1h' works to the satisfactio n o f many m usicia ns ; otherwise . there would 1Jl' t, 'IIt'I d emands fo r re finemen ts in th e syste m, , numbe r o f p ub lished music tests exist, a nd com mon to man y is a Imut! '''"'''¥n -st, of whic h there a re two basic ap p roache s, O ne p rese nts a mo d l,1 11I. lod)' or se ries of to nes. In subseq ue n t hearings, w hich Illay ra ngt' fro m 1 0 10 xix , the testee must ind icate how the mel od y was chungcd . us uall y 1' '' 111 Ill'liom such as key, rhyth m, 0 1' pitch o f so me indivi d ual to m-. T Ill' Ih l f/ ",II;mlity (G asto n, 1957) a nd the Drake Musical Aptitude Tests (Drak e, I!J!i7) II , II Ihis type of to nal memory te st. t Ilt' llll lt' l" type o f to nal memo ry te st ab o p re se n ts a model , h il I in I>u hsl' 1111' III IH'aring s the te stee must in d icat e which tone is cha nged , Th t' l lllllll ll'l' " I ~ lI h ~ t' lI t1 I' n l hearings va ries , usu ally from two to seve n, 'Ies ts lIsin,l{ this ty pl' " I ''' IwI ll1 t'n lOry test included the Seashore A-leam re.\' oj" AIl/sim I 'Iill(ull ," ~ l lll l'l ' , Ll' wi.'; , & Saetvl' it, W:-W, WhO), Standardised '/Csls 0/ MI/.li ml /If''''hf.:r /lf·( (W ing', 1!J/i I), a nd AI('(J.l'll re.\· o/MuJical Abilities (Be n tley, IUI ,/i), I :, ,, do n\ (W/iS, WHH) MI/Jiml Afi/illlrll' l"rojlle al so m l'a sllt"t's ton al I11l'1 11 () ' II , " I lillagt 'r y, a.'; the k sllal ll'ls it, IJy Ill'I'M'Il1ing a Illod elmel luly ;IIUl l h" ll I . ' , o ud II1 t'lo d y that is t'illlt' l' ;111 " llll lt'llisllt' d vt'!"sio n o r thl' m o ch'] o r all ,.1111 ,1), dl fft,l't'nt lllt'l o d y, Tlt h ;' PIIlO;lt h a p pl'ars 10 asst'SS Ill(' J('spondl'III's ~ 1' 1 1 1l )' 111 d isn im illal l' touaI1"lll "ll l II I Ihllt'l l'nl stl'l u:lllra l It'vl'ls, !'> illl l' 11..' I, 1"1' 1I 11 lst d t'h'fmi llt, \'11111'111"1 111,' ~ " , t1t1l lll 11 'lod y wO llld 1)(' lik.' tilt" 1lI llII" I 11 th, ' " l1I bl ' IJi .~ h i nJ.: 10 lu 's W" ll' 11111 1" " \ I'UI l Ilt' "harllltJll)," l' tll lio l1 illvo lvl's

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I'SSl'lli iall y tlu- sunn- \11 01 1'\ \ , wilh tlH' ('hanHl'S occurring in a b ass line. "I til IIpp l'r voice n -m ai ns irh-nthu] 101' both till' mode l am i second version . Cord o n ( 19711, !!IX:.!) c1I ' \'l' lop, 'li thn-(' udd itiunal te sts th at luclude 1lU'1I\ lin's o f to na l upritudc. TIll' tunul sulncs t o f till' Jlrimlfry Measures of M'/Il. Audiaticn is design ed 10 a s.~e s s Iln- ubiliucs of kiudcrgurtcn thro ugh lhil ol grad e child re n to discrlm luat e be tween pairs o f two - to f ive-tone uurul p«r terns. On e tone in th e seco nd o f ea ch pair is changed. T h e / TlJtrmrd JllI Measures ofMusicAudiation has a sim ilar test that fo llows the sa m e Iom uu, 1'111 is d esign ed for ch ildren in grades one through four. Gordon 's (198 9) more rec ent Advanced Measures of Music Audiatian 'II ' design ed to a sse ss to n al an d rhythmic aptitude o f high schoo l a nd wlll'~" ~ t ll den ts. Based o n Gord o n 's concept o f "a udia uon," wh ere a p erso n 11\1'111 ,1 11 hears a nd co mpre hend s m usical patterns without immediate aural ... lilllld ,1 non. the :~ O- i t e m m ea sure requires stud e n ts to d ecid e wh ether " answe-ra" III mu sica l "q uestio n s" are th e sam e as th e "q ues tio ns," di ffer tonall y, Ill' lil t II I rh yt hmi call y. ' loual d iffe rences may involve changes in in d ivi dual IIlIt II morh-, to na l r e nter, or com b in ation s thereof. Rh ythm ch ang es m ay ill( 111.1, uln -red durauou, m eter, tempo, or so m e co m b in atio n thereof. 'I'hark ray ( 1 !l 7:~ , 1976) d e vised several u seful m ea sures o f to n alily and 1i.1I mo nic perception . H is to nality test m easures to n ali ty in melodies a rul II ., [our snhu-sts. Part I includ es modu latio n s in so m e melodies a nd a... ks II ' ~I " 'I I dl ' lIh 10 in d icat e whether th e m e lodies so un d " righ t" o r "wrong ." Part II n , shOll unfumiliar m elodies, so m e of which are diatonic a nd clearly udlu-u- h i numltt y wh ile o thers do not, and asks respo n dents to d et ermin e wl1l'111I 1 1';l('h mel ody is "ord inary" or "p ecu lia r." Pa rt III requires d cte rminutiou III whether the melodies so u n d "finished" Of "n o t fini sh ed ," a nd Part IV 1 1 ~ 1 \\' h('lher Ih e melody' s con clud ing tone is th e sa me as th e b egi ll ll ill ~ tll ill Althuugh t he lest is no t sta nd a rd ized, it ap pears to be poten tia lly WI)' 11 '< Itll I(lf aSSl'ssing child ren's to n ality percep tio ns . Tha('kray' s ha rmonic pe rcep tio n test, also nol sta nd ard il.l'd, h,u till ' paris, Part I in cludes a se ries of so u nd s p layed o n th e piano ; SOillt' al l' '1 111 ,,1 tOiles and so me ar c cho rds . The respo nd e nt indicat es wh ich are eho ll l" 1\ '11 II p rl'sl' llts p a irs o f thn'e - a nd fou r-ton e ham lOni zed melodies; 1111' 11 "11"" lit'lit ind ica tes whic h to n e (if any) in t he seco n d h ea rin g is ha fIll CJl li",, 'd ,hi 1t'll 'llIly, I'art III p resen ts a chord followed b y a p ail sI.' and tlw n a plOW' sio ll of Ih n ' t" fou r, o r five dumls, an d the re sp ond e n t indi ca tes \\' 111'11' II, ,!.: ivl' n rho rd 'Ip pea rs in Iht, p ro~re s si on , Co h\'(,Il' s ( Wli!)- 1!1711) AlIHir Arhirvrmmt UJlJ llleaSllH,' vario ns I...!I,,, 1" 1 u ' late d 10 m d od y a nd ha l lllo ll}', Sllllll' of Ilw IIw asll rl'd hl'ha v im s i111 Iud 1II'tl'l"Ill ining (a) wlw ltll' l ;I 1101111 '111 Ilr ph rase Illo ves scall'wlse o r in 1" '11 "" (II wlH'tlll' 1" d Hln h allli ]lh l ' I S" ~ , ti l ' ill m aj o r o r min o r lIIodl', (1:) w lll'lllI'l 111 ,1,1 I,d 1I11' I0di l'S m a tt h ,11 11 01 11)' 1'II'M'lIt"" IIl1'lo d it's, (d) willi'll ,11110 11/0: lilli '" 1"1 11

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c melody sco re. a t th e cn n clu sion of the rhy th m t.l'sl I Ill' !I,IIIII' recommendations 0 d -h -rs co nc eowd with sclt'r tlltF; Researchers a n teac C I II I1rst I h ,II ' ''''II ap p 1y rcre . l r d harmonic b eh aviu rs S lo ll I ' lid d,'vl'loping measures o f m e o~ I~ a~ -h avio rs th ey wish 10 eVl.llualt' a nd I, '11 'It\IlSt conside r the n ature, 0 \'Ie e developed Indeed rneasun' IIHlSI' . 1 ' m ea sures se ectec or I ., 11,1111 t tat any . r01- the studen t' s lcvet., . . ppropnate I 1I ,1 \, ~ 1l1 ~ 1I\ a In ann er a

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Sum mary , . io ts includ e th e follo wing : \\lo n ' hi g,hly Iltl I h;\pt~r s m~Jor po f " -cstern music is co ns id e rah ly I I h,' vI'rlICal su ucture 0 h t o f other cu ltures. k .1, \,,'1(1)(' 11'11,,11 . I • • .r '''Iif h f • A SIl " II/lfH] 11 tl", \\lU \l oU , li ' " inrormation thtory 10 psyc 0 0!!:l' (PIS'l) AjJp leatlOlIS oJ J' I 1III" n \ I·. . . . . • ". , York:. H enry H o L, (n d cd ) t\•ew \ '()I I.• \\' \ \ ' hods and resu/ is. 1".1.".... I\, . • • •""trllfl." m r . ,ea If< ndations of muslf zn ., W ' 11(77). Tht acousll ou f

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d temperament. East La n sing. • ~1 (\!l sI). Tunl1lg an II" I ,,'W. I ' • ' , ., ' Pn..'" , v k: 0 ",,1)('1' HOllse. I l ll l \ " 'I Sl ) "'~ ' , l biiitus- jcew lor . '(i' l ) 1\ 111 1" v, i\ . ( 1 ~ "i6) , MrOJurts ofmus~ea a Ic:~:ion. In R , Aiello &.\ . A. Siohoda 'J,. !'I. , I I I (1'1" 4). Tonahly an expe r d U nivcn;ity Press. l1l" II IH ii i •. ' . ' "' ( ~ 13-239). New York: Ox or . I ' moni c ~l rnr lll '" 1/" w lll l"r((/JliO~lS pp. ,I C L (1983), The representation of I:I~ I l ·n - I Il :l . I I I & Krumhans , ' . r te xt Cogllltllln, . . I . Ilh ll lll I.L,. ,. ", h" f stability as a function 0 con " , )'rinct'loll. N I: III ll I Ll\l C 11Ll'r;lfC les 0 ,r tcugnizable diatolllC lllmngs, . 1" (lIJH5). 11u slruc/urt OJ r tll t,I ..... flll 1. .. • . f ' nt luu: 1' . 1111 1'11'11 University Prcs."'. ' of 11ldo dic an d tem poral 1I1 ~1I 111:1 I ~1 ( ; , ( 1! 1~ 19}. The pn)('~'ssl1lg .rNoo Mlui f Rm arf!r. 2/1. 117- 7.1., . . , II II . I I . unified di nll·" ..rou ..? .!IJIIT ll fl f oJ . (!lth d ) F n!!.h'wootl Ch{ls. Iwl"l ll'U' ell 0 1. .. " (P IXI). nUl11jr~ uflrarnwg . e . · ' ( ' I I & l h lgard. L.,. · II" ," I , ' , . , " ,' ' ' f OI\ ahilit y 0 1 NI I'll'lliindi all, . I ' 111 1111' h " flI lOllI ( dl,,(Il1l\1lM I 1 ' ,\ (I!Jl iS). An t'XpIO I~l tIllY ~ I u. \ I - , w o ..,,!I'd ed si h oo b tl Jlld lllU \ I Ilt h .... ~. ' . l ' 1 I Lll k t H" " Ill · 2( ' \I 'I ~ 111101,..11 ;11 ki nd l'l'g -270. lJa hlhalls, C. ( I!JHO). ·Iillla lily. In S, Sadie (Ed.), 111, n,w (;rOlI( did iollary (ifnllu i( 111I'/ "IIlJiciaru (filh ed ,. Vol. I ~ I . pp. 5 1- 55), Lo nd o n: Mannil1an. Davidson. L., ~Ir Kl ' rnoll , I'., ,'\: (;an!lH'r , II. (i! IK1). Th " ;It 't lu i ~ iti llll of SO li/:: : A ld"lI. E. E. (1965, 1988). ~flttu. t 1;:~i~g E;lgle~vo{)d curr-, N.I: l'n 'lllin ' ·' L ' (1971). The p' plt , I ~ 11' ( , " ' (A 1 Fllis I,tl, ;tud I' .," I )' 1 m ll S/ ( . .. . , , Ml 'lIl ' ll

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• , • • . (2 d d ) tpp. 441-471 .• an -rf ces of thes,llIIl' " , 1l,~dwlogy of music n e. . f solo and ensemble pcr o~man , , (1949) Inton ation 0 . 21 -9 '~ 59 :) W• l' ~ " I "Oll ,J I'. . ' u I Soden' J of AmtTl , ;'I , . - ' / "( ; h ,I ) Engkwllild al of the ACOIlS lea I wry schao r ;,t l { . · Il,,'lully..Jollr ~ . ( I!JX.'i) . Mll.lic in the t emt1l . , \' , 1\ . .'•.• ~& Nye , V. r. 1 I lCa . 1Almwgfll/ihs, •J'.J , I lil b . NI: Pren tice-H at . I d' lativily o f la nes. J'rye/io og , (\ l)2 Ii) O n the m e 0 i C re I h ll '''II'I\ , t ) . ' . . f clodic slyl,'. I'ra/Hllly I 1', as a de ternu nan t 0 m ," ll l' ,II!", -, .

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I . pectalton In musi . Add ' . . , I JrOU.Hes. Joctoral dissertati on Co 11 . C. tlW l!y of metodtc and n S!:·i1short·, C. E. (1919' ] '1. ' m e Umversiry armflll/' < l ' J. fU psydwloJ'V or . I r, -a:~ IOfl' , C. E. (HUH). Ps cholo ., & Hoche S. (1973) n ep or con cept? h ycnology orMusic. 11 'j I" " r ' . r erceptuaJ sh,"ts' the au dita ~ . f " , - 0, II \·\/IlK 0 young ch 'ld I I III ."i,'IW'i1 111 I> & 'n reno Psychology O/M U.fic, 1 (2) 39-4" ry In ormano n 1" 1. . ' " . laic ier, G. (1974). I mellr re , .' O. , l \ydwlllK) IIj Music, 2 (2), :tl~S7. g nee, social status and m usical L.,. · , ,"il'l Jljll"( 'S, \\'. A (19 11X) 'T! . .' a I li lt ~ S/ . " . lUning, /tlnhrr. so t I. . Il'Jlard. It !\' (IlJH2) S > r«' rum, 5CQ~. London ' S . (Ed.), l1u p;;,noio . Iru~tural represenlations of m usicai ~nnger. ~IH'p1\;tll) ,. '" I~ , \/11 '" ,11" 11, ", 1...11' )0(1111: [ ,,',n0, Imlln'·III;.I1)· , I ' alu 11''' V' , I '. , nlt" 1I1S (I ll'" .11 ,,,'I 1\\.. , U;l1 CUlliN) I . - M..."'" 11\ ( j " ~ . .. II ,'.' ," I" I ', ' r r all "XIM·ri" ,,,,,,,l 1M'" 11"1""11', 1111 ~ \ hll ,k~ "r \"', \1,0 \ '1'11,.", 1"'110 "" """ " " " l"I(,IIIIIolI" h" '11"1"" "

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cal performan ce , EVt'lI I'I'0pl l' who OI l' pt'ar tu pia)' by ea r or improvise "nut urally" have e ngaged ill l' xlt'm l"11 loumiug, a lbe it in most cases informall y through an encuhu ra tio n pn Kl'ss. lmk-cd, guml im provisers lea rn to im p ro vise, but except for jazz musician s and organists, relativel y few m usicians understand mu ch about the pron 'sst's involve d in im p rovisatio n or how to go about lea rn ing to improvise. Pressing (1988, P: 130) notes tha t improvisation , as all music p erfo rmance. in volves a continuing se ries of highly complex instantaneous neurologica l processes, including {a} passing co mplex electrochemical Signa ls am ong tlunervous, endocri ne , and muscle systems; (b) execution of co mplex ph ysical act io ns; [c] rap id monito ring of the actions via visual, tac tile, and proprio ceptlve feed back syste ms; (d) prod ucing m usica l so unds and monito ring them via aud itory feedback; (e) cogniti ve evaluations of these sounds ;IS m usic; and (f) furth er cognitive processing to ge nerate the design of the nex t acti on seque nc e and trigger it. Pressing note s that the last two steps arc more cri tical to the improviser than to musicians performing spe cific co m posed works a nd observes that the given ste ps "are often collapsed into a three com po nent in fo rm atio n-p ro cessing model of human beh avio r whi ch has ready physiological an alogies: input (sense o rgans), proce ssing and decision ma king (ce ntral nervou s system, . .], a nd m oto r output (m uscle sys te ms and gla nds}" (p. 130). An examination of motor control system co m plexities is f:1I be-yond the scope of the present d iscu ssion, and readers are enc ouraged to vx aml ue Pr essing' s succinct and highl y readab le account of the syste m alltl h o w it facilitates e rro r correc tio n and m o to r refi nemen t. BaSt'd 0 11 his exa minatio n of the mo del a nd moto r control system. I'rc sslng speculates that skilled improvise rs develo p through practice "gou cml patterns of neural co n nectio ns specific lo im pro vised motor co ntro l" (p. I:il ) a nd notes that these are ak in to "motor action units, which may be co m blued into long chains to develop more co m p lex m ovements " [p. 13 1). I II summarr , skille d improvisers dev elop a "re pe rtoi re" of neuro logical CO li ru-ctio ns thai may be triggered during th e improvisati o nal process. Becan » proc essing the co nnec tions is so ra p id, the impro viser's performance mOl}' appea r to be "a uto matic" or "natu ra l." The major d ifference s among expert , lIt1t-SO·{.'xpert, and non-skilled improvisers ap pe ars 10 be, at least from aI's}' dHl lleuro iogic a l perspective, (a) the exte nt of the repertoire of ge nera l pa' h'rn s of Ileu ml co nnectio ns specific to im pro visation motor co ntro l and (h) ahili ty tll call them into ac tion auto m atica lly. Ind ividu als who m ust n IH S d o ll,~ ly thin k (Jut subseq uent ste ps in their improvisa tion s obvio usly lack I IlI' I1 m't1(·y, Oll idit y, and Oexibilily of expert improviscrs. Co nco mita nt with d cvcl opmenl of t il(' n 'pt'rt oi n ' of ge nera l patt e rns sp" t"ifk to molor co nlro l is dt'velopnlt'1l1 of thl' moVt'llll'nl pattern s for 0\'1 '1 ' It,.. lil.;:llioll of till' impro visation , Psycho lJlo tur hl'iJaviur s d t'I"' IU! un hu th

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',.vt. I,ror l'ssin g ;1I1t1 1l1 0 lUI S rus. .t I . sufnde nt \Wrftlnn an n ' skir , ,., ' tlH'Y Inllst hive . " I " 1'1 . lillh. is t·sse nt ial f()~' 11111'1 0 \1 '\1 I ~ ,. ,. 1\ in their improvisations., 10 t ' ". t..x .~ l wh at they Wish 10 till 1I11ISJ( .1 Y I uulity of the IInpr o vlsal1tl11 In t I' I • . I ( Wlte t lC q , d ,[ " " ance skills ar c IIHll I' 1 " . I idea is undt'rl\lll\t' , I 1,,1 IlI" 0 • .,' f th e mustca .. ' . llcss of the sOplll st ll~at IU1\ () krlls remains imporlanl In 1 1 ' V. ~11 t c. f erformance s I I lwll'fore, development 0 P l' lUI 'IHvis;:\tio n, (Sloboda 1!)K8) have take n th e It',\( I~ S l I Isoda (19K5) and his colleagu es , . 'I' ,' mpro v isali(lIl and n 1l111l (ISI , ll • . I derpmmngs 0 . f• 'tlHining th e psychologJc~ ~n . and the fo llowin g sectio n IS drtl~\'n. I ~ II~ , d much of th e Olaten al m rhts ' (1')"" ) I ad the balann~ ot tillSSI·t 11, ,11 • •11\ • 51 boda s o:) e • I I '" . ,' ghtful work . FoUo Wll1g 0 . ' ., tion th e n ne that ha s t I'VI' I I,..11 1 ., • ib l o f Improvlsa , , " IInll fo(u ses o n th e m ost Vl e tYIPe improvisa tion : jazz improvisa tltlll , rt a r exec l enc e or h ",,,'.I into tea p

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d i b ks and nwthOth. fo\ . I . bbraries aboun In 00 ' Ma ny music sto~~s a nd musl~ 1 "how to improvise ," and inh'rc~t Ill, SUI • l,ul.'n tial jazz mUSICianS r~gard~ng 'n no t e xamine such so urn's• .pIl son , .', 1 is high . T his d iSCUSSion WI . I .h ld co nsult on e 01 SI'v. I,,1 111,,1. '11.1 s 1 . I ch mate na s s mnu v. . 1'1" 8) ' lists or reviews 0 su 1 1'19 4· P1" e ss ll\ ~, , n l ll\l'l!' sh'( I In I k, 1984 · Greenna ge , " , . _ 1''''l'lIl'l1t ove rviews {D oe rsch u ' ' literature m ight sugg est lhat ~l1lPIOV' I hll'rsd lllk no tes that a survey of exta~t. scales modes, and cxe l"nsl' s, l.1II1 I "lio n skill can b e realize~ by m~m;::~ reflec; only a IimilNI persl~{.' ~ll\'t. II" I Ut'slion s this, noting t at sue s nds th at persons intert'sh'l III iI me \U11>l"OVisatiOn . Doerschuk recam . e the work o f Emil e .Jaq lll's, "II isation ex am m I fo r learning impro vt .' hip in vo lvt·d eurI Iy,I\ 11lin" tlwl Il\1( . ' • roach to mUSlOuns I . . , I ),.lno1.{.·, w hose tnpartlte .a p~ IIn" ~l', an d music improvlsa tIon 'h d an d rese arch on impr(lVlsat lo~I , ,nll ~ (:n'l'nnagel reviews bo~ md . 0 .s n m ethods are based on ;I tra{ill.l ll1la ,I I · th ai " m ost jazz unprovtsauv . ' t rm s of sugg<esh'tl hsll'l\ ,'lIlt III t S . t n' ap pearmg III e ,. " . ch with varta 10 ' I I alo ng p ral"lil " llll'llll'tic] I approa . combination W it 1 p ay' ) I I e1rill o r writing ex ercis es. or m . roaches of Liebman (1!)KK aIH " flo , ' ,V-) H e notes, howe ver, that the app . . • creative aspN~ls than \ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 ', p" , l . h m o r 111 imp ro visatIon s . ' .. I d tl t most n 'se;uTh (Ill J:l / .I . It)i N) focu s m uc more ( , III 1LlOW ( ' a
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d that th e subseq uent Im p .. b th h ere {32 -b ar so ng l munner a n f ·m prov lsatlOn. 0 I , ence but th e "' essence 0 i . ' .. ( 143) Slo boda n ok 's t Iil l moru c seq uence . ' h . dod lc lin e p. ' l. " l i th e 12-bar blues. IS 10 t C Ol i d' d thatJ'a:zz piano came au r, MI( III . ·Iy m e 0 I C an ' " I " • \,11.1. solo p erformance l,S ~ecessar~m and chords an d th e right h and p a) 11\~ th e le ft h and prov1dlOg rh yt , , \ " ' . th e mUSica l Vtll" .1 III tilt' solo, . . . im p rovisatio n IS . I a Jazz , ' th e t)l'es o f melo d IC, rh )'t I \ \ "-U at m akes an imprOVisation ' former d raWS on ro r th e 'lm provlsatlOn nces This voc a b 1\ lr,IIY· \1)' a p er b ild I ger scq u e . ,~, ,I. d h nnon ic devi ces u sed to UI ar h d d rhythmic pau cru s. nne. an a , , o o zed set of scale. c or , an. . d rfon u howeve r, is n otju st a mem " . I to oth er mUSicians an p e , ts d I ped "th ro ugh Ilsternng mtent y . lllS ' . th at books a nd n o ta tlOll It IS eve 0 ) 51 b da m amta tug with th e m" (Slob o d a. Pd' 143 . thO l~many gr eat jazz p erfo rmers co uld not ' ry an no tes a 'Ire n ot real I y necessa ) rend a noll' of music" {p . 143 ' ' II

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d! I b egs the que stion s. , I' m Ole late v '" " . zz p er[ooners , h -sen t The m en tio n of gr eat j3 ' ")" A d mo re speci fic to t e p re nc, . ")" '1', . , " gr eat "Wh at makes a j azz p er [o rman cc h~ ualiry o f a n im p ro v isatt,o n , 1.IS , . "How do es one ev aluate t q . b th e van ab lc s Ih ,il d~scuss~on, rposely ",'ill avoid th e first qu estion ecau se hi gh I)· subjl'd ivc . re m any , co m p lex. I (hscuss1o n P'' ' n l1u e nce jud gments o f gr eatn ess a rf rmance p er se. For eX:'UlIp 1', ::~:J ~ften go b eyond a~ assess~~nt °i~;;i~e i~nuences m any p COpll,' S!u,~ Ig;,"h alo " effect rega rding w h o is per g improvi se d o r o tiwi w 1st , I me , r th perfo rmance. I -itl •• abou t th e quahty 0 I' . ' . tion also arc Irau g \t \\ 1 i l111'n"" \" f an Ilnll rOVlsa . . . to ev aluale th e qu a Ity () .1 bt to d evelo p cn lc na 0 1 Anempl S I · ,I -rs h ave so ug \. r b le m s but SI'Vl'r:.1 H'se;tt< \{ bi ,t' • To th e ('X tent th at ( I ma ny p ro . I . I , P ills I\ H lf( ' 0 1l 'c lVI' , r I ' !llid elin es for m aking SUI" \ ,J IIt ~nl ' " II' an improvisa tio n' s q ua uy, I H g Il II S 1 , . Ig·l'e ,Il l ,1'1'11' '' IS M'sS. Il \lini rcre nt jll( l\ll" '( I · I .k " "'Hab le subj· l·divc ( UlllpOIl\'1I1 '" I t , " 'I li n )' n m trib lltc IOwan 11 M • II '. ) 11 ,1 " 111,111 ' , I l l ' . I· ' I 'S{' po u er ( W!lO, p , ll!) 1101 t ' '1 ," , • t ,,, IllItl llws l' fa("( Ol"s \llt l'n a n ' ( IV t . in g all imp fo vist'd solH ' ~t1otl nl )l. l l 'l ,

FflllIIl!lJlifil/1 11 a nd even rontradirnu )'. So lo.. IIIU )' Ill ' vahu-d for their tec h n ical virtuosi ty, bcu uuful tone qualit y, Ihytlllll il' I hurucu-nstics, no velt y. re str aint and class! cal ba lanc e. lise o f qlllli aliom . a mi I'VI'll "expressive use o f grow ls. honks, sq uea ks. and sp lit to ne s" (p. 1i!1), Whil e l'ottcr is most concerned with anulyscs of im p ro visations. his n-conum-ndauon tha t an a lyses o f im provised jazz "be eclectic, ho listic, using wha tever ap proaches he lp ex plain th e so lo's effec tive ne ss" [p. 69) holds implication s for evalua tion of im p ro visa tions. Pnrtche y' s (1973) ca refully controlled study of ch ildren 's improvisations offers insights both into strategies for evaluating th e qualit y of improvi sation s a nd for devel oping impro visational skills. Sp eci fica lly. the study so ug ht to develop a va lid an d relia ble m ethod of eva luat ing impro visatio n a nd to CO lli pare the e ffects of feed back, m odels, and repetition [i.e., trial a nd error) 0 11 the ability to im provise melodies. Partchey d ivided 86 sixth -grade children into thr ee treatment !,'TOUpS and gave ea ch child th ree individual sessio ns ill which to pract ice respectively improvising blue s, who le-to ne, a nd diaton ic melodies with gi ven taped accompanime nts for ea ch. Pre- and postt reatnwn l ev alua tions invol ved pen tatonic im provisati o ns. C hildren in th e feed back gro up hea rd im med iate record ings of thei r efforts, the models group heard sev era l ex am ples of prerecorded melodic im pro visatio ns, and the rep eti tion ~n ltlJl received no speci fic instructio ns. Children performed their lmprovisu nons on an a lto-te nor xylophone, with specific p itch bars arranged for till' particular sca le designate d for use in the im p rovisatio n. Im pro visatio ns w e recvuluured o n a nine-poi nt scale according to two performance cri teria (p Uh l' al '(' m;l(~ }' a nd rh ythmic clarity) and three creati ve criteria (to na l va r iet y, rh yth mi c va rie ty, and un ity (with subcatego ries of repetition , im ita tio n. p ih h di recti on , and p hrasing )). In tcrjudgc reliability for im p rovisation eva lua tion using Pnrtchey's crit eria ranged fro m .92 to .95 . Each group showe d signif ca nt pre-post gains; the feedback gro up' s gains were signi fica ntly hig he r thuu those of the ot he r two groups. Pre-p ost changes for creative criteria were slu tistkaJly sib'11ificant for the feedback an d models group . but p re-post c ha n~t ' " for performance cri te ria we re not. Gn;l'llnage l's ( W!H) study of predicto rs of j azz voc a l improvisati o n skitl rt'qu ired d pvd o ping an appropriate eva luat ion tool. H is basic evaluativl' ('11 Il'ria , m usicality and te chn ical ap propria te ne ss, so me w ha t paral lt'l"11 Part d w y's two broad ca tegories , but he added two criteria spl'cifica lly a pl" 0 p rial e for ev aluating vo cal im provisa lions over 12-bar blues cho rus l' ~ , Mu sic,a lity refe rs to "'h o w \..'cll the im provisation succeeds in making a IIltl..I ('a l state ment" (p. 40). and techn ica l appro priate ness refers to "how we ll lilt' im pro visatio n fits the chord change s and a nticipa tes those cha nges ; also tillll' ft'l,l" (p . .10). Th e add itio ll:11 cr ill' ria, a rticulation and relati oll sh ip 10 h ill"" , I'dl'r n 'spl'('tivt'i y ttl tlH' liSt' of "' v(J\\'l,1 and Ct lllso lla lli arti nl1a tion 10 vt'rha l i/,I' inh'IHIt't! stllllllls," a nd "how wl,1I tht, illlprllvi'ialion fits the traditioll,d

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' ' . . " "" ..tth ,lt I,vulllll .. ( III II ) ( ; n '('lIna gl' \ s cn ll' n :l SllN"> _ll lll tUf(' o f the Blues PI" ' I 't lc .lllt\ l! t'lll'1lI1 \hlilltl' 01 tl1l' " I .' I Ihtl ' In t 11' type. s Y .' uvr- rrtu-rt a mu st )L .Ipplll i . . ' 1 '\ ' . •ffl clcnt fur t''' IH'I Wlltl·t ,I,ll./. ' " . The inlt'IJ'u tlV," n-lln ntny cot , 11l1I,IOVIS.I Ion. , . .' ...,', ' G " rs lTlll'rla wa s ,0 • • I' t l' ll ~ i d a ll s usmg rcel1lhl ~l : , ,..- , . ~ for Partchc ys an ti t,l't ' I 'tIl 11'1-\,1 ur .unts. . . f I o sltiona l pro toc or, 1 lIn his own highly lIlS1~~t U ~o~p r1 his compositiona l style, w II( ,~. y . wilh se ve r n I co n straints, c uing h particula I Y English C h m .e h" th at ('lllpha 1': ) SI/( huru ctenzed as " twenti et -cen lIT I harmonic framework (p. t:l .• , a n uu-lod , counte rpoint, and a stro ng tona arts and organ . His prot ocol .." ,., th " th;' work shonld be for four Ionshe p osed d uring the P" "'..ss a nd Ih " ,:lIy presents a number s\ e madein ord er to sa tisfy hIS ' .''' I ukmale for and nature o f e e~ISI?n )r makin the wor k as cOheSIV(' ,IU " in ts a nd othe r se lf-im posed cn te n a fc ibl notes that he cvcutuull ' nn . f . g) as POSSI e . . 'I . .. I (aesthetica lly san s y Ill h f d tha i Slopp ing to ft ' ( III tuus rca 50) where e earl' I I ' n-uched a point (about m ea sure hi 10 lose some m omentum , an t SII ) ' 1, hi, tho ughts in word, would cans~'t~":'t int erruption . Il l' mainta in, t:'~" :" ( m-n tly composed 3 5 m easures ~'iI 0 I led measures d iffered From I 1.11 () ,'ompOSitiOnal strategy for provid ed a pro tocol , and "' ;" IIII' previous 50 mca~ures or w ;~:ide a protocol m ay well alte~, """ ( IS I tha t "the requireme nt to P des cri b .. (Sloboda P: 1.1(1). l III ' cs . . trying to es cn e , f I ru Itt u entlrely. the process on~ .ls I sio ns from his ex pe rience 0 , } ISloboda draws three t, despite th e detail 11(' provided ' I f the composrnon. Irs vrding a pru toco or .d ga rd ing the co mpositiona I c IH lin..'s, m.''ldp. I, ;, protocol stili leit much unsa r h re t the process, he ten ded to us t S"n llld, he reported tha t th,ro ug ~Uts for continuati ons, try ing In " " ( ll~ written m ate ria l as sta rttng pom . I F' a lly he sugg ests that "an ""1"'" . . " fi " th e ea r lie r matcna . III , , ,. one's nn-dium -. r outmuntions " " . I kil l is a degree o f t rus t '" '. I I ' h t.uu co mpone nt of com.posltlOna s 'f eneratiun will yie ld man-n a w ll ~

o~qu~st,"ns

H~

~he nn~~\er~~Phad

addltIona.l .concl:~

1".';:"';'

i,

" " ','a inty that th e ha b,tua l !,(oc~~~i ';.;;venheless, Siobodn vi..w, p,ot:",:': I~ rid iption ll'r th an s~~~ rliS~; s;e d"sn as one "a n first es senthl _ p ' in understa nd ing any cOlll p lcx 1II1 II .1 IlInn -ss" (p. 1:i8).

1I"""rliral l'mprrlivl'

.. . the "",sp" a t,,, ,," , ~ t I 1' \ of {' ll c e , th e stim u lus 0 PI ' l'alt ' ,~ 0 11 th e perceivi ng organism , This co ntrasts willi the cognitive a nd the psychomoto r. where th e organ ism o pera tes on till' auuulus. Th is is ev iden t in high qualit y musica l p erformance, where the p e rl' lllll t'r m us t employ cogn itive processes to interpre t a co mposition and p syI ht uuotor processes to pl ay or sing , and yet obtain s a se nse o f p leasure from I Wlll g able to make beautiful so un d s. \ Vilh su fficie n t kno wledge , 0111.-' G ill 1'101I IIt'IItly d escribe the climactic an d lighti ng facto rs in vol ved in a SC Or hil e examm ed fro b h . ., , arc p losophical explan ation s f . ma e avio ral p erspectivl' :> d lapter exa m ines s uch b asic . 0 a.est hetlC ex perie nce sufficien P Th j ~ In

c~an~s .a ndhem~tlOn~

,( '~h:II~.J ('d

to fou r broad topi~s: (a) stu d'. t e proba ble range of affec tive (c1) lllu sica l m ea n ing a n d . . bl y mg affective resp o nses to m usi ' _ I varra es that co n trib u te to .' I . c, a nr m USlca m eanmg . It

d efinitions o f

ccntr;;lu ;;:~s (~) r~ation

h 'I Ht ~rs, (c) So me approach es to

Exten d e d Definitions A'Tt'{·livl.-' responses to . ' m US1C a re large ly 1 'I~tI VI' responses encounter m co.vert, and researchers Shldyin ' any 1I1USll' rognhion 'Ierm d d of th e d Ifficu lties in herent in I d . ~ . s use to escrib fIi ' s U Y lll~ l'?dlOlog ica l Constructs inferred fro e a ecuvo response essent ially re flt'l'I OilS terms and imp lied con I m o bservab le behavio r. Also th e . . s ruc ts Used t d fli , V.II I an' not d iscre te ; d iscu ssions of th u enote a ective response to nUl.\il' 1(I(')i~;~ ~llld indi scrim ina te applicati:: :;~hco nfo Ul.l(Jed further by scem i ll~ ly IIt'l' terms cen tra l to thi s di . e term s. While lhe t{'rm s m ay have a ~~~lISSIO~ are affict, emotion, a nd Qesthetic. I'X'.lllIillt'S.lh em fro m a psychol~ ri~~toph~cal ~asis, . th e present disCIIS,~ illl ; p.~lIlo~opllJc;,d a nd psycholOgical ~ses ~~~pecll ve '. 1 he di stinctio n h ehn 'j'/l 1I ,IIIItlo lla l llsag e recognizes th ei r sub i ': terms IS no t d car·cut , a lthu ll,L: h ( ~llll'r tenu s d e fin ed briefly includ e (Ju~~e~h\': a nd p l.-' rso n al (~OllllOt'lljOll"l, tum, a llt! JrIlJitivity. I u e, t1lterest. taste, preftrm ce, (/1'1,,(0'(1

- If

,I

Affrrl

tIJJ(f/ h)t /ll'luwillf.l tlud AfIl,\ ;C ,""

memory, I ca rnill ~ , !t'Ol MlllillJJ,. uud nction . Therefore. a ny di scussion of affcc live be havior in n-lntiun to 1I11lsk must be de fined in terms more definit ive than j ust whether or 1I0t il lms an affective di mension .

Emotion O ne school of thought regarding music's impo rt is that it conveys or cxpresses emotion , Certainly, perfo rm ers ofte n express particu lar e motions by em ploying va rious expressive cu es such as te mpo and d ynam ic va riatio n (I uslin, 2(XH, pp. ;{21-:i 26). and music may arouse stro ng emotional experten ce s as it interacts with listener aspects such as physical well -being, memories, and pe rsonality, and with situa tio nal aspects suc h as loc ation, acoustic con ditions, and social aspects of an audien ce (G a brie lsso n, 200 1, pp. 443-445), Ho wever, proponents of the emotional co m municatio n pos itio n lend to usc the term emotion in a broader sense than most contem po rary psy chologists, Young (1973, P' 750) defines emotion as a disturbed affective process o r sta te "which originates in the psyduilogical situation and which is rrvraled by marked bodily changes in smooth musdes. glands, and gross behaviors." As th is definition suggests, emotional behavior is a depa rtu re fro m the normal state o f cn m posUfe. Schubert (1996, p. I9) co ncurs, noting that em o tio n describes a " tra nsie n t human conditio n that involves several dimens ions, th e most impo rtant being oalence (positive or nega tive) a nd arousal." Emotio ns a lso involve pe rception and m emory, include an en vironmental facto r-presr-u t 01' past, may be positive or negative , and includ e an arousal dimensio n , Meyer (1956 , pp - 13 - 3 2) lo ng ago theorized ho w music arouses emotion. ' Ceuuu l to Meye r's theory is the view tha t arr est or inhibi tion of a tendency to respon d arouses e motion , An individ ual's tendencies to respo nd to music result from previous ex periences with music of the style to which he or she is listening, .From previo us experience s, an indi vidual develops expectatio ns [ten dencies to re spond) rega rding the types of patterns that might co me next in the mu sic, To the degree th at th e anticipated patte rn s arc no t fort hcoming, i.e. they a rc del ayed o r do not co me at a ll, tension. or emotion. is aroused, Snnw sim ple examples of delay of mu sical expectations includ e the deceptive ra dellce (V 7 - vi, as in a G cho rd to an A cho rd in C major) instead of all ;Illtlll'utk ca dence (V 7 - I, as in G to C) and th e rapid repetitive alteratio n of I - V 7 - I - V 7 - I in a coda sectio n, resulting in a "when will it e nd nd" nl I·Xp"·,.... III 11> " :I'ltl ill lwo di n " 'lio ns: "'t'rli
Allf 'l I II" IIduwlorl (/IIII M IlJ;c 1'.I)'llwluJ: I' ,,, 1-11/1/11/,,1;,1/1,1 (Jf MllJical lJduw jor ing resp on ses tomusic al l' l,d Ol 'Il,'.! a ~ discussion s of mood resjxmse to rn nsn (e.g., Eagle, 1971, pp. :n - Htl; Fmnswouh , l !lI i9, PI' . 79- Hti; Lundin, Wti7, PI' · HiO-I n ). O n the basis o f a n l'xhall"otivt, review o f tradi tional lite nuunregarding study ing affective n 'sp ollSt' 10 m usic via verbal d escriptors, Eagl,' no tes three b as ic method s for gathe ring ver ba l description s: (a) adjective ch ec klists, (b) the se mantic diffe rential, a nd (c) var ious typ es o f rat ing scales , T he adjective checklist is the m ost co m mo nly used o f the th ree met ho ds. A brief ch rono logy and summary of early research using adjec tive checklist s follows . 192 7 Schoen and Gatewood presented 10 mu sical selections to :-l2 fem..l.. subjects on two separate occasions under similar testing cond ition s. Based on a freq uen cy co unt of the adjectives checked for eac h sc k-c tion. the re searchers concluded that "a given musica l se lec tion will arouse a ce rtain definite reaction and will a rou se the sa me reactio n 011 differen t occasions" (Schoe n & Gatewood , 1927, P: Vii ). 192 7 Gatewood (1927) presented a list of 12 adj ective descriptors to :i.'i female su bj ects, who checked the moods elicited by eac h of 10 sek-c lions. The study sough t to exa mine the influence of rhythm, mel ody, harmony, and timbre on stated mood effects. Gatewood concluded that mood effects depend on defin ite m usical clem en ts. /928 Heinlein studied adjectives checked in resp on se to majo r and minor chords b y 30 musically trained and untrained subjects. Two add ition al variables stud ied were intens ity and p itch register. He foun d th.u mood effec ts were more a function o f intensity than the ch or d P l.-·I" M ' , Fur the r, pitch register also m ade a differen ce in which adjectives \ \ '( ' 1 1' checked. H e concluded "a ny fixit y of feeling-tone in rel ation to a givcu mode is dependent upon training to react in a specific manner to ;1 purely intellectu al discriminati on" (Heinlein, 1928, P: 140). /935 Hevner (1935, 1936) developed an adjec tive che cklist which llil serv ed as the basis for much subsequent resear ch on mood respoml ' to m usic, She developed an adjective circle gr ou ping fi7 adjectives int« e igh t clu ste rs, eac h cluste r con tain ing adjectives of approxim ately 1111 ' sa me m ea ning (see f ig. 8- 1). Listen ers were asked to listen to mnsicul exc erp ts and check the adjectives describing th e mood. Th e intent w a\ th at as one progressed around th e circle from du ster one to clusn -r eight the re would be eight mo re or less d iscrete m oods, re p resenting a gene ra l trend of mo od chang e through th e re spective cluste rs. 11 1'1 res ult s revealed a ge ne ral consistency among subjects in the adjt,t:tivl'\ check ed. She co nduc ted a series of follow-up studies to ascertain 1111 ' effects o f va rious d em e nts of m usic (mod ality, rh ythm, te mpo, h,1I IlI O II }' , mel ody, a nd pitch) 0 11 m ood l't' SP OI1 S( ' , From these stud ies , s ill' eond u(h'd tbnt t i ll' m ajor modr- is "hap py, /-{ran'ful, a nd playful"; II II'

•

b1iyhl cheerful

g.y happy joyous

men)'

5

7

delicate fancilul graceful humorouS

ag ital ed dramatic e xciting erllilarated impetu oUS passionate restless sen sational soa ring t riumphant

light playful

quaint sprightly whimsi cal

4 c alm le isu rely lyriCAl qu,et

•

"mphatiC o~8 lti ng

1l111loslic

salisl y;n~

mnrt,al

se rene

ponderous

soothirlfJ

rooust vlQOrous

t,an quil

3 1 ewe -inspiring dign ilied lolly sacred serio us

dre amy

longmg plai ntive ple ading sentimental le nde r

s""''' so lemn

yearning yielding

spiritu al

2

d."

depressing dol eful

lrustreted gloomy h eavy

molAnchO'y Inoum llli pnlh llll C

. nll " " Olt. h ~IIl ' ·

I(

II ' " ' " ,\ .11", 11 \'1' ( 'iu ll', I I

1'1.'dwIIlJi /"" /·/llIllIlal i/m.l

flf AIIIJ,',al l l '

'

matnor

'J

m in or rlln tll' h " ~ I I

Ill . I I" UIII) ', tuu] ~ t' ll l j ll l ' [' 1" f orous a lld dhmili, 'd '" II ' I ' ( 11 .1 ; inn rh ythms afl-' "vicI ("J • OWlI lJ.: I Iy thlll s 'In ' "h. eo nn e It'ndt-'r "; ('o flll"l'x c!j'm m "II"I " " appy. gracl-'{ul, dn."lIlIy or I . 1.1I 1110 1l 1t'S arc "( ",' • Oils, unc indilll'd lo w1I ni " " 1,, . " , ", ~XC I IIlg , "h'1la ted , vig '" ." l'SS ; Sll tl p e h lappy, graceful seren e '1IIe1 I 'rica!" co nsonant armonies an' 11(' • . ...1 h ' •• ) fi ca ; an d d ifTer . I ences III ex p ressiv(" ss ca us ed y rislnu '1Il11
" illi li d o l itIIl J

filA/mi mI /ldtt/vior i l/l l'l l ll lf' !Ir!/f/I'illrl /JII" M UJic

""familiar 1", ,,01 ,'y" " " '. II,, 'Y ", k.'d :1O li"1' ·"" " 1o ratc III;" lenets su Kes 'ewed a, t 'I ' '::,;;:::::. a::thelic, for viewt'd a,t IIW/I II "Ia n J(, Ie'al- Ihe beauuful and the g " , the ,'eali",t" ", 01 10,11I C r him im l talt on wa 1/

'~~ , ~:':,',~l,~e~;;,e:l:':,tl :~~I~~;e;; lr~;/~::,,;;a;,:,::~~e:~~~~~ ;::'~~~~';':d /,, t i," t"

:::':: . ,

IlClllSS(~ir is still a n e me rgm g an eve 1 henom cno n is more in keep lll~ .w li li hil l" fonls on mu sic as a pe rceptua .p 'han th e po sitions of trat htltlllal r> h i · al pe rsua sion s 1'1111.'l1I po rary ps)"c o togic 'htlmophical aesthet ics. d 'n Applied Phn wmen(}I0l!J has ht't'n I ( 'hll oo 's (1983) Mu,~ic as I/ear~: A S\~c~t:on of ph enomenolobrical 'lIlalysis 1l.1 \I/otlli/.ed as the m ost system~~;~I;rPRao m aintains th at Clifton's vi~w 01" hI llIusk al e xpe rie nce (Rao . " : ton \wtwcen a person and real (II' nll.'lg. " t I app ro ach to m USICal . 'rthc outcome of a ve,b I . tl U' psychological ae'tb ' usmg adjective descripto ' a 'atmgs, a nd etocs movemenL l nvestigato "" com,de , ed pa rt "I , ca les: (a) descrlpliv til-'s; (b) evaluativ, " leak s, In reference to stim ulus " tem ploy three classes of f sca es refie r h pa terns' c II . m a" w ing " ,bjcct' : c mg edon ic value' and ( ) . 0 .tove prop" " Psychophysiological m ,eactoons 0 ' mood whiie ex c mlernal stal' scal,... rath " , tha n measu,," ear'",es gene'ally a'e co n,ide, to a stimu'",. t"ll(lllhysinlogica l ,. _s 0h affect, as in much of th C In Icators of aro usal e pre via I ' ' escarc B h . nn "i" H,' mlng lime ' e avonrnl meam, es genc",11 a us y " ted psy(l ,xl lloratury tim ' .." ) or exploratory choice (. Y, re explaratory til/If . Ie val lOusly h b In musIc I" t . of variou' pby' tological rates", dependent m e",ures, and the adjective desedptor apcsp,oacb , particularly ,tudies of dimen sion ality rellected in th e desedpto , b ave , ec eived , eoewed emphasis and di,ection fto m th e theory - metbodology, and 'esea>cb 01 contemporary psycbolob"cal ae,lhetics. The major developments in p , ycbological aes thetiCS, however, see m to be eme,ging through 'esearcb u,ing exp erim ental m etbodolo gy foc using on th e collative pWPCItie' of musical stimuli such as "com plex ity, novclty/ familia' ity, ,edun dan ' cy/uncertain ty, and o, derliness, and va, ious measures of 'aesth etiC' re spousv including liking, inte, e, tin goess, and subjec tiv" fam iliarity lland compleXity" e (H ",g, ea " 19M6, p. \10). T he cnllative va riabl es gen .. y serv e as independent ve va, iable, and tbe va,ious mea""e' of aestheti c ,espo use th" dep eude nt. Relatiom h ips witbio and b etween the twO va,i ablehtclasses obvi· ou,ly arc b ighly com plex, and examioation of tbem is f'au g with m any sem antic, m ea sorement, methodological, an d theoretical problem' and i""es. T he p,esent discu ssion is inten ded to serve as an introduction 10 th e a theo'y aud issues and to p ro vide an overview of , ome of th e ' esearch din'ction ' using exp e'im methodology. Reade" inte,ested in m o'" in[o lm ' ental tion on con te mporary expe'imental aesthetiCS sbould exam ine vesH arg>
I ~\ Yt 1/rIIO}\/i,I! J.fllllldfilioi/l

01 AlIl.li ra! ltrhmnnr

will ht, IlIlatl'l'ctt'tl lJy 11 'l'd ltlu II" (I" :11), l lurg renves' (WHli, 1'1'. I IX J:.! :.l) I'xn ,tll'nl review of lilt' literature 011 re p c'lition uud liking led h illl 10 l'olldlUJ I' rhur "the res ults of approxi mnt ely hall o f the studi es seems 10 SIlI' I' OI'I tht , inVI'l'lc'd Uvsha ped hypo thesis, whilst IIIl' o thl' r half sho w a positivI' Illtlno tollie ' uu-re ex pos ure' relation ship 1..lt'lwc'c'l1 fa mil iar ily and liking" [p. I W), I l l' ;u:know ledges that the contra dictory n '.'i llhs could be tilt' re sult o f d iITI'fl'nces in expe rimen ta l design s and pmC'! ' dures, but he arbrues q uite co nvi nci ng ly tha t they may be d ue to the va ria ' tion s in the ranges o f the famil iarity va riable sa mp led in the ex perimentn 1 stimuli. l ie mainta ins that studies showing linear relationsh ips between rep etitlon a nd p refere nce co uld just be samp ling th e beginn ing or end ing pari o f the inve rted U-sha ped curve, depending on th e initial stimulus co mplexl . ty level fo r the subjec ts. He no tes that this vi ew is in accord with Lundin 's ( Wfi7) ea rlier review o f the repetiti on literature, wh ich slated that popular mu sic ten d ed to attai n a maxima l p leasa ntness level at an early repetitio n, while classical excerp ts, wh ich presumably were m ore co mplex, rea cln-d tllt'ir affective maximum during later repetitions. S mith and C uddy's (I!JHfi) c1i M·ussiuH of the research on repeti tion effects essen tially co ncurs with Il a rg rl'avc's' explanation for the seem ingly co ntradictory results fro m repct l lion studies.

:H7

1111'" t"., It f'h ll /lion lIlIt! AllI.I'ir

' 19l1t'SS OVt,r1 de ll'lIdl'lll ull Vl ,dll ll l,d ll,lJ,\ II ~ llU'a Sll l't's 0 I· IY I · ~ n g:.p l cnsu " :: pn-f . " with lillI" lJ,iV t'l110 the re liability o f _.. , '. , ' ·1 · lexity model all( t 11' (o m · Cortuinly the OISSllI lll,lllIll'l 01 1111 ' oplllll.L -( o mp I' I ' I' I . . . , - I · . , , ' bl s warrant ur tncr G il I' II I ,II' x interrelationships a tllllllH Ihl' co 1.11Ive va na e I , I I . . .. T -it h. b e n a m os so I' y . r-xa nn n ation . The e xa m illat ion o~ 1" 1lI~ ,Iatl\~ f aSH-J~7 2(XH) app licat ion s o f IIf particu la r pieces, whereas l\ eyer s . . :) ,>, , .' discussed in th e ne xt . ' . th a model for meanlllg III rrm s tc, I . information eory as . . . .h I idio m o r rules of musical g ra m ' wc tton . suggest that familiarity " " ; e~e Th e 'ap pa rent relativistic nuuuv mar seems to be of ev en grcaterhlmP?d~~d ' Is as we ll a, grolll)S will di lfc'l ' I ' iabl ggests tattnJVJua, .> .• nl co l auve van a es su . I stimuli: co nseque-ntly, . hc i • ti f and res ponse to musrca " , III t edlr differences in additiodn to b'l·cllIP d illt' l I u-re IS a nee 1° .> hi h h b e n researchers' pri mary concerns to a te. l'IKes,.w I~ a~e e f iti e and a ffecti v e res po nses to m usic g euerully W hIle discussions 0 C? gn l IVa need ex ists for more stu dies, suc h a s Sm ith an' separated fo r co nven.lence. k " both perceptual and C(l~l\ilivl' d C dd ' (1986) wh ich see ' to examine

" 'l'lll~'S l~tC

l ' O I I~itlt 'llll1l1l1

slllchll'lt~l\~S. "'I I,."""

~Irc'atl~

roerr~tcuPdyO;f~ndividual

;:::de';im';n~ ~f adec'ive fbehav:or Finally.~~~:a:~:~~;I:~a;:~:~~:" ::~::;:'

cons ideratio n to the rth ° le ° d e nI cU tu r~tlonaJaonr devel opmen ts in expcrhuvnt..11 . hi h d ta arc ga ere , n Sh O l' ., m III w I~ a . d d in the pas t few dec ades, but refinemen t of at'sthe llhcs is still necessary if psych ologi cal :tc " rcsearc \ a a ki t dcrsta nd t l'n thctics is to pro vide satisfactory answers for those see 'Illg 0 un ..ffecti ve response to music.

,hn~v~l~sc~:r~emt';:d~log)' T

l\lull' n-o-n tly, North and H argreaves ( 1997, pp. 87-92) sought to clarify t ill' sl'('lllingly contradictory find ing of the literature regarding familiari ty ,m el lilt' in verted If-shaped cu rve. Based on a review o f research related to 11I1lsit" ill everyday life {radio plugging, preference-feedback. accuhurattm, a llel familiar ity. a nd co mplexity and tempo), they maintain tha t (a) at a llY ~i\'C' ll tim e therc sho uld be a positive rela tionship be tween liking and fam llia rity. hilt ovt.'r tim e liking sho uld wax and wane as a person chooses to (or nor to) lisn-n to given p ieces o r sty les; (b) throug h acculturation so me mu sic Ix-comcs m o re familiar and predictable. thus less subjectively co mp lex; an d, co nseq ue ntly (c) fo r ce rta in styles {c.g. rock and pop}, liking peaks ea rlie r in till' life cy cle than does liking for classical music. They co nclude that studies of IIlIl.sical pre feren ce in ever yday life seem to supp ort th e inverted U'sha rwd nl !"vc' : "nallmdistit exposure to real m usic is associated with liking for it i ll a way tha t is cOllsistellt with pr efe rence for modera tely arousing stimuli" (I" ! 10), As lIIay be appa rellt, the e xperimental aes thet ics app roach to understand ing- I lll~ afJi..clive response to Ill II S k: has developed a \vorka ble resea rch para. dig-Ill (tht' optima homp lexity model), which has genera ted considera h ll' dat a, Il o wl've r, it also is appa rent that the research paradigm needs reJi llc~. Illl'll ts so tha t more co ns i.sh' nt da ta migh l bl~ fort!J('oming. \Vhile a I1Il m her o f fat"lors lila)' ('olllrih llh' to the illfOlisistent dOlt.., futun' rl'search sho uld sn lltiniZt' .'i o mp of tht, va ria hlc's ....e l)' ca n'fully, TI lt' II',' t'an·h appc'OIrs ttl Ill'

Meaning in Music ' . . be ap parent from th e prcce diIllg d ISCUSSlons, a b ro ad g"'• I) t'xi\l s ma y .c . d s holo 'cal aesthetics. Philosophers kilt! 10 bet ween philoso phical and p ye I S', Is t nd to Lalk to psychol()~ish, lk t hilosophers an psycl10 ogl s e I.. 0 p . • d -ith whethe r music's value and impor t I'lulosophers tend to be conce rne ~ I cholo nsts t.'X.IlIJ 1 lim e fro m within the musi c 01 fro m Its referents, \\hhile P h sy I "~, I vr-t b ,I ' . t f psyc ioop tnc th e affec tive response to mu sic III cr m s 0 n thyslO 0glt.1 with• its ( t1'11, behaviora l respons e 10 mu sic. Howe v er, inform a tion em) , f I ' I ' 'slructs " I cy, ' " rs to offer a viable m eansd I01 )1"II "glng related to red unO .IlH ' I IIy na lll ics g em-rally - II I , ug IllZ('( a s prim a l)' CIInll 'I I ' 1Ilt'1H{I-rc a lit IIJarmon i!' 1lI0 \, I )II 1I1 'jI 10 vue-rev I I h ' 0 / ' )11 01 e r variaL/t,s Slid . ,

IIl ll IlSI1y . O ('C·X(' ll l·IlIl '1l1 VUl i il

1..' , P Ull ' ll l a \ 0 '1/'/' ' " .J()fllc o r the carl)' w k ' , • 'OIl' I 0 cOlllr ib ute (19f 7 \111 Il'ga rd lllg !llood . . . .'. • pp. Jf)()- J77) a nd Fa Ill S\\'o l'lll (1')( 11 I csJ~onsl" as reporh'd by I.lllll/Hl IlHlSlca ! (psychoacollslical) va na bh-, II' ;'. '. P~)· X3 - !W). exa mine d som e Ill tb, g~.. Also, m uch of tIle resea rch ill ':( el ~~Ulg o~'der, com plexi ty, aud 1'1It 'I I! tllg r Pilvc s and his cOllcagll cs (H a _," ~XP,~l lIl1e~ll.t1 aesthe tics revit'wl'l l J ,\ Co /cma n, WS l ; No rt h & H Igleaves, 19S:2, WS't , WS(i; lIa rgn"l v,,~ \, Coleman , WH2) has a direct bea:.;~ea ves, JY~J7; . Sluckin, f-l arg n':I: I"\' - ,~ t'lIt'r&'Y and liking. g on relatIOnshi ps between complex it)' ru

:\,I~M,u llen (WHO, 19H2a, 1996) su ests ' (:e sC~PtHlns of mu sic, traditio na lly gg d that peopl~ s

con notativl' nt/ lal t'.';(·n plu rs, have taken on grea re . 01 0 0 resp onse as mdicated by adjl'c lll , I It' mai ntains that ra ther tha n iu r Import .as reflect ions of m usicalmt"I/lin l'xh' l:nal to lhe m usical stim ulu! t~t ,con notlll~ so me mood or other nlt'allil~ I'~ flv ldt, evidc nce for an inte;Jret~ con nola,hve la bels (adjective e1escri 11 01 11) Illtlll'llsi(Jlla lity Th e Pr d 1 we j)(fratftgm, as indicated by "" ,,' , . ' opose p ar ael' , I ' ( H ' ,\ II ptl 'eloml nanl psychoaco ustical ~f?l1 IS re .ahvislic a nd differs fm lll III" allnhllh.'s ex ternal 10 a d ' d para 19l1l, which considers m usic ' I , . . 1111 II ' n In epende nt ( f h 1lIIIIa.n Illrnd internrer th ese p ro . . 'r ' > urnan ,sub.Jlectivity- 17 "" 'h t'll I III' ,IIII'('IIVl' resp on se be id perues as meantneful onl y th ccnsr ered " {M l\-f lJ 6" , en COlli . 111 .. l\ l cM ullell (' !W6, pp , 3!)2-39 ) c u en , 199 t.i, p , 3 89). Ir'lIIlt'\\' k f I't" ' ' -1- subseq uently ofTe . , or n a uectlve/aesthetic res 0 . " , rs a two -dmll' nsio ll,d ~ 1I "J:l 1 n 'seret,j\'I'II jzo I I I' . II a ( lI11 ensioll of M cMullc e_as IOrms d I) 01 . actioati.ton, As activation (the 1Ill' ' Il l r n s mo e mere s . t ' , op JIlHlITl positive level of ac I ' ~e s 0 a n IIlter m edialt' /1' \ " ' 1 ann'/evaluatio n (~ontin uu m (the :ePrt~n~ed"s aHame d on the rejection-an l'pl ' 'U'liv'.llio fl and evalua tion intera ct ~n ~cea ":,e~sion). In short, he arg-ut'S 1I 01.IlIVt' word As 'na be te rmlll mg the mta ninuofa m . . v appare t. t h ' , ... o·Vt'n t'O/l 1Il\,'('lkd V-shaped cu ~e, Also it 7s c IS.m terac~on may be reflected hy all ( 'a IlIl'aninlT , onSlstent With Meyer's th eory ()f 111 11 \ 1 • 0 ' COIlll'mp(lra r)' research I' ,. I 'I con lIlues to exa ' J ~.I '11I n IUles (,~~ych()'I COllsl ica l variable _ m~~e t le ~1Tl'cts of variolls 111m! 10 11 sly ca lJ('d afl('clive 01 ' s) on listeners r('sllonses \VI,,'I ' emo tIO na l res '" h ' I' "lI' 11 11 ',\ tb nl CO/llrilmte to lhe ac l' " d p om es, I ey es.\enlia lly re/lt'cl '" ,,-,. , . , Iva Ion im " fM • I , I( {'('pIs the p rem ise of a n in teractive ~n,~lOn 0 cMIIl/t'n's model. !f O il " r' ' . p ar .u Igm, mu ch o f th ' 'SlI lC lly ' I,,';.krng, -"sn ho<J" <J uslk a l IS research 1'1111 1. ' I

1.3

'''.11

w

" lIlm ll; lh l')' Ul,·,·jlah l)". (Ed .), llQfulll/luk

/1 111

1/ \ ; (

i\l ...It.... I I. F. (I!lHO). Responses to mu sic.. ~ ti~n~1 Associatio n for Mu s;c Thl 'l'l~PY'

' (pp. 105-140). Lawrence, K.., MIl.t ic l'rTa l" I/III. l(' plio n of emotion 10 muSIC. S) C p .,'\_ 64, " and sound stimuli . In I) . A. ' 7. . . I '. I 'esponses to mUSt . , " . h- D L (1996). Physic ogtca I . d)( 343-3H.1). San ntomu . 11,",','O "l" (f:~) Handbook of music psychology (2nd e . pp . ( ges .u.• T X: IMR Press. . d h hiolog)'. New York : App ll'w n-Ct'n lllry" f (1971). Aes/Jutles an pryc 0 n , 11"1 )' 111', . ,. d Cl"O ft~. , . . the ntW exptrimtfltal oesthetia: ena: SUPI. towaT a ll 11,,11 ne, D . E. {Ed.) (1974). 5./Udles w,. New York: H alsted Press. fI~rctit'e pS)'(hology of atsth!tI~ aPPTtclatl~~ W J. (19R2). Electrocor tical rc~pI,I .IIS II" 'le, I. D,. Cole. H. W.• Cutlctla. R . &e~in r 'affed and familiarity. lu I', I"', Slll k g >, I;' music: An exploratory study co~c th Piwrcils. C. .~1. & fin e H ( }lJ :~ l)) A .\1 u.sic. ' ' " '" psychQlogy ofmusic. C incinn at i. O H: Collt.gl' 01

Dowling, \\: J . & Han-m od 0 1. ( Pr ess.

•.

.

.

1986). M usu cognition. O rlando, J.'L : Acadeuu,

I>rd wr, R. E. (1948). The rela tionshi betwee n v . · response to m usic. American Aycholo~ift 3 'IT _" 7e6rbal reports and galvanic o~ k i ll Eagle C• T-t. Jr. (1'!7) O " , . 1.E ' ffects of ex isting "mood,'. an d ,. d and instrum en tal music on rat d _, o r er of pr esentat ion of V Ol d / ' o' U np u bi·Ished d ill tor a 1 u. .1 lssertatioll The Un i v ~r,e·, mooij f K responses to thai m liSIC. FII' , ~' .... I r a ansas. • rot t, D. J (19!b). Music matteri- A new hiloso h 0 . " . · O xford Umversity Press. P I/J , 1" music educatIOn. I'\ew ' od.:: hlfllSWort h, I). R (J!1.54). A study of the H evn ' . . .

Art Criticism, 12.97- 103 Fa rn swo rth , P. R. (I%!)). Tne social I Jllivl'l"si[y Pr ess.

er adj ecuve IISI.J ournal of Arsthetirs 111111 cholo . Psy lIiY of musIC (211d ed.). Am es, fA : 10 wa S I' llHC Lt, ueatlOn 7l 41': 57 . ,\ 11·J\ fllllpn I' T (iIJH~b) E . . I ' , .1- , . l'r d" . . . . Illpmca aeslhetics: An OVl'l"vil'W In I' F S· k ([' I) IJ("(f m~s 0/ thr Rr:seaTch SYn/l'fJJillm UTI the 1'5 ch I . . .. ~ III . .'( , 'I X-."i5), !.aw rellcl' KS. 'r l U . . ;Y II Ogy and ArouJtlfs 0/ Millie (1'1' 1\-1 I\' •. II' IllversJt)' of Kall ~a s (' IlllIl'Il,I'. T. ( I ~ I~II;), Th l' lIl11sif ,ll l'xlJt'ril'lICl" d· IT , · · , . .Ill a Nt lvt: /al'.~t hl'I IC rt'sl'0 nsl's: A Iht'oft 'lim l framl' work f", , . . . I I IlIpJrlC,1 !"l'st'ardl III I> A II I .) I////lir /J,ly(ht,hJ~ (~ nd I'd.) (I' ll :11'17-.1(0)' S. · ..... .0< gt·s (I'..d ., 1I1II/lllJl!lJJ,; .,/ l\lfM ulll'n I' 'I' " \ II \ . . " ,Ill An lOlllo, I X: 1M R Pn''>,\ . • . . • '" I 1110 1 , , I .. , ' ( Jtl7h) ' n' ~1 a ~ fun r! ion s 01 dl \ . . I'r I' ~l'n 'lIn' al\( I ll1h'

//''' 11I';07.1' and Musir

tribu tio nal n-dund.uu y III Ih\'lh m il SI'!jIll·IICl'S. ) o/lTl/ol I{ Rru Q((h ill ,uu.lic

Fducation, 24, 12- :11 , Ml.Yt'r , L It (I!J5ti). 1~"/II/jlJ/l 1U1I/ lllum ;,,!: in music: C hicago: Uni versity of C hicago l'n-ss. t\11 'yl'r. L. B. (19{j7). MlIJir, tiu arts, and ideas. C h icago: U n iversity Ch icago I'n-ss. :\tt')"t'f, L H. (2001). M usic and emotion : Distinction s and un ce rta inties. In 1'. N. ,1 u\ lill &.1. A. Slobo d a (Ed~.), Music and emotion: Theory and research [pp. :H 1- :{ljO), ( jxfo rd. UK: O xfo rd University Press. t\l illl'r, R. F. (1992). Affective respo nse. In R. CoI",'ell (Ed.), Handbook ofrrsrarch OFI music teaching and teaming {pp. 414-424 ). New York: Schirmer Books. Molt's, A. (W66). Inf ormation theory and a thaic perception O· E. Co hen, Iraus.]. Urbana, I I.: Uni vers ity of Illinois Press. No rlh, A. C ., & Hargreaves, D . J. (19m ). Exp erimental aesthetics and t'vt'r yda y m usic listening. In D . J H ar grea ves & A. C. North [Eds.], The social pryrh"IIJgy 11 IIIll.Iic(pp. H4-103}. O xford, U K: Oxfo rd Uni ve rsity Press. ( h good. C. E., Sud, G . .J., & Tannen baum , P. II . (I!J57). The measurement o/mrfl//illg Urbana, II.: U nivers ity of Illinois Press. 1"'I"I'tz, 1. (200 1). Listen to th e brain : A biol ogi cal perspective on m usica l t'11 101 i() I1 ~. In P. N. Juslin &J A. Slobo da (Ed s.), Music and emotion: Theory and rrsro rrh (1'1" 105- 134). Oxfo rd, L K: Oxfo rd U niversity Press. l'l t'ssllitzer, D., McAdams, S., wtnsberg, S., & Fineb erg,.I . (2000). Perceptio n \,f musi cal ten sion for nontonal o rche stra l tim bres and its relation to psychoacoustic roughness. Percept ion and Psychflphysics, 62.66-8 0. l'rh-e, H . E. (19HIi) . A p rop osed glossary fo r use ill e ffective response Ine raturc in lIlusic.)ournal of Reseatdi in Music Education, 34, 151-159. I ~,ldt'r, M ., &.Jessup, B. (1976). Art and human values. Engle wood Cli ffs, N]: l'rentice

or

I iali. n.ulocy, R. E. (1978). C erebra l dominance and music perception: Stop the fad . In I':. 1'. Asm us, Jr. (Ed .), Proa edings of the Research S)'mposium un the l'sydw/fWJ and ArflllJtia ofMUJic (pp. t W- 130). Lawrence. KS: The U niversity of Ka nSils. It ldoey, R. E. (197!-J) . He mispheric specialization in m usic perception: It all dl' IIt'ml'> . P - 114. . m usic education . In R . (-; . 'I:l ylor ·,c'. ' theory an d _ ( p 3 17- 328) Rcsrou . VA: ~Iu·..r II'II Iker , I',,. 1~ (1981). H edgehog A bor S' mposlU m P . . . " "nul/rulary re/JOrl of th, Ann r » Edllcato rs Nanonal Confere nce. . mel . Some b asic co lln'I'Il" ""d \\'I'hsler P. R. (1979). M usic and bd~am apsr:;o" h7s~cOlld annual Loyola sym/lo,I ' Il m ; , d d 1 In Proete mgs re" 'J . . ' lhoughls rowar a mo e. . O· 1 LA' Loyola U mverSity. uli uI ..tic. f\ ew r ea ns, . , lll IIrmispheTf wter ILJ 01 m..... . d d ) New York: Macrnt ;111. ' " \ \ (. ' ") (1970). P'rob/mu in ae_lthetu.s (2n e \ \. ,, \ (Ed) //o1IdIHmA 1 1'f." " ,,,1 II ,,'\1-, •.. c.u. - ' . d lion I n B. B. 0 man .• ,",,'llig, P. T. (1973). Feeling an l emo d C \'ffs !'U : Prentice-H all. /,.rychl1{l1gy (pp . 74!J-n l ). Eng ewoo I ,

," 'll/taI J'rrji'rfl/t"fJ

Chapter 9

MUSICAL PREFERENCES

P

eople vary in the ir preferences for an " ' . . ~ seosOl Y expenence in whic h 111(') have a choice. Personal P" r . J e il~ lences JOT Ccr ' tai f I ( ~·~o.r, clothing, and mu sic a TC rooted in ind ivid ~I~. oo c,s, pai ntings, h OIl H' ~a mIng, and exp er ience. Preferences arc t J ua ,ologJcal needs, cultures, e modified . \Vhat is p referred i . no a ~ays consistent, an d they ca ll ano the r. n on e Instance IS no t necessarily p referred i ll

Pe~p'le m ay use prefer ence and taste lnterch a rc distingu ished on the basis ( . angeably; occas iona lly the tenus that I t ' , 0 ccrnrrutmc m Abeles (1980 ) . as e Imp ics a re latively long-t I - P. 106 suggests class of objects or events whi c~ va ue for or com mitm ent to a bro 'ul . .''''' hoi ' I e pn.'lerence imp!' ' ' ~Pl' C I Il C c orce with in a se t of ibil , res a mo re Im med ia tc a nd . POSSI I ures O n iah h ~I,IICS. or roma~ tic orc hestra l m usic and ~eC e mig t ~ve a ,taste for whit!, cb ubiis, or partIcu lar works of L ' S P erences for a parti cul ar rhi ne 0 1 ~ 'rl'"ce and taste may be a m: t~s~ t o~ tra uss. ~he differen ce between pn'f rll!''I"Csling, pro bably is of IitlIe aco~s; persp~chve, a~d, while seman tically (' lln - m aking mu sical choice guence in studymg factors which influ Musical preferen ce is an area o flo " llIusic, although in so me w co ngstanding mterest in the psychology , I , ., W h co ays prereren ce may be b d ' I(. ~ , at rectors inOuence rnusi I , . su sume within aestber . t' . sica eva uauon, a d d .. (on mumg concern to com n eCislOnma king a n' 01 p osers, perfonners or h r-rs, l'ntl"rlainers, and others who 'h ' c estra man agers, adverth e Gil Interests. A simp le preferenc;~f o:v a ve~ted interest in people's mu st havt ' llIeaning beyond the mu s'·ca' d " e mpu slca l wo rk over an other mOl). . , ecisro n S ' holo os 1I111SlGI preferen ces to assess pe ,, ' ) C a ogIsts may use exp ressed t.• I 'rso na uy vi d . . ' H II( S rega rdi ng musical choices H If ra eVlatlOns from populatiorl · I' ( 1 •( ) d~ ,' 1 ) Ill( Icated that "aesthet"" . . a . a century. ago , Ca tte II and An dersuu , IC reacuo ns could diff . · · . 1 I',lIa.rlCl H s I'ro m "normals," and alco ho l! . eren uan, psychotics a lld s chot ics. Huhn ( WS4) found that ' d ..dOhcl Wlt~ psychoses from othe r Jl!;Y[x-r SOlla . I'Ily nssc ssm om, C bot III IVI ua mUSIcal cho t 1 < o rces re fl ected d inin l .1 I . o rces a so depen ded I · • V I( un ner-ds for se nsual I" It on aest rene values and ind! 1 easure esearch Ii ll'tWt't'll and amung varillus as )ec' , . e rs 0 l{'11 ('xpJore reJal ion t I' , th.. Bnzilia n Villa. I'!1 lll~ , , ' '11l"llIS all of tho se citatiollS WI' 1/ ' l n I',II , ' . l'xn'll 01 .. • • .

1

3'1'111' Sd lW,lIl ll

" , oi l" _ ti l ,I" •• i, "l llIusil· h}' l"C 'IIII'0M'I' alld tit I,·, r ill' " 'h,

Ii_I" "v ..II"l ' , ,.. , ,~ • •.[ V'"'"". """ I'''''..... I'n lVid,' ~"m,' ,. 1"" " ".1 10 ,oI" h ,l" II" r(';'I ;l I",,~

l i"" alll"l1 "'~ " S'pll' ,,,d,II,..... ,n ""

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Ih"M' IH' \\ "•1' " IAlIstrian I'o m l' '''''n . .

" ",. , , It., II.,

" ""~ 'II ,I"" . ,

"",01"" , I" "" of e stem art mu sic. r.. The app are nt rever en ce for the pa, t observe d In eiltSslr al m", ie b a rd atively new occurrenw In Western m usic history- It probab ly's uunbut able to perpetua'ion of tradition through formal cdu catlon and th e wideo spread avail ability of music from prior eras a' well as radlr al crea'io , hy

:t

"7

no nconform ing contem po rary com posers. Ii. popular music exists in many continually evolving forms; each ha' IlS own cultural orientatio n, sociological base, and mark et. 7. The preferences of m any America n ,chool childr en m ay fo, o, in""'"' ' ingly o n rock or cou ntry music with advanci ng grad e leveh ; a 1'''''' ''' ' "open-eared ness" may wax and wane with age . H. Mo sical preference and ta,te are a function of many variable' . iO"h"h og variables in 'he music. sh ort-term and long-term variable, in th e h,"""'" and variables in the cond, tlons unde r wh lrh th e music Is ex pe rtco...-d . !1. Le Blan c' s hie ra rchlral model of th e soorces of variation in mu, lr al " " ,•. is a com p rehe nsive or ganl,.atlon of musical, enviro nm ental. and Pcr,,'" al variables interacting in preferen ce decisions. 10. Em pirical sopport ex's's f",·thc p artlr olar Import an ce of , omplexity a nd tempo as mu sical variab les inOuendng p reference. I L Mo,ical p •.,.r.."......., m " y b.. "It,·,,·d " nd expanded I'"o..gh ..d.., a" o", e but the results aft ' 110 \ alwa ys pn',!i(·t;lhl .

:IHO

J ~I}' I /I/I/IIX If III FoU,tdtJliOlH orAtlJ~ical l'" 'J

.

Jl'flOVWr

.

.Hf/II I11I/ I,-rj;'m UI J

J{cfc r cncc s Ab eles, II . I': (I!1XO) I{ " Psye/III/0K} (p/>. 10.1'-1 ,( ~!,OIl.W.~ III 1Il1l .\ i c. III O. I\.. Hod n' Adorno, T W (1976) I:I:~' K."i: Nalional Asso~':~li(Ed.~, lIandbook 0[ 11I /ll'li York: Seab ury Pre~ . (I~ Urlum /(1 th{' -rotiolo~ 0/ mus;r (£ Bon or Music Therap\'. 5 Ar chibeque. C. P. (19 n , . . . Asht on, tran s.I, 1\'(.;\

;,.IWllrt.,

T

66

AS:~:. a~~ ~n" M&"'RiCaEducQ~~(Jn.e;;.'~. I:~~~4~. tas te (or conlem porary music. J ournal 't !f, doey, E (1')1)2) l{

ondboo!r oj research ",'" Quantitative anal " Schirmer Books. 01/ muSIC teaching and !{'ort/in ( ys/s, In R , Colwell (Ed,), Barn es, K. (J98B) 1( 'g pp. 141 - 183). New YorkFi. . • op 40 radio· A fi . acmg tlu musk (p 8 5 1\ " . ragmem of the i . . Her lyn e, D. E. (UJ7 fi - OJ. ~ew York: Pa ntheon. magJnalion. In S. Frith (Ed .), Crofts. . Au theua and jJsychobioloV'V "-I V n N ' new rork. A 1 ....a lteH, It H & A d ' pp eton-CCllIllr)' . ., II ersoll J C (19 "3) T lor disord ers b tI l } ... : . . .J . he lIIeasurem e 446-45 4 Y e U :Al m usic preferen ce test ./. nt ~f persona lity and beh av ChancelIor:G. R. (1975). Aesthe ' . ouma ofApplr~d Psychology, fro~n the classic Iiterafur t JC value m mu sic: Implica tions . e .of die field (Doctoral dis ~or m USICeduc' . revi ew J oUrnal ofPo 'mlill .. , . 'l.esearch p I' illid exc itement see kln ' not e: ersoDality and m usic /) o/'ow, L. G. (HJi7) _ 1'11: o~ vp enness to expe rience ? l >ryJ:t erence: ~x travt'nilllt mUsic sele ctio n and e eCI of teacher app roval/d' ogy ofM U$u , 21, 7:~- 77. :t l-,I(). Concert aUenliveness. toum I . rRlsapprovaJ ra tios on sludt' llf J' a f!J. esearch ' U . />lIt'r kSt.'1I G I (19('0) A III mU$lC Education l 10 • stud . "", , cal processe.~ a nd the e1; ' y ~f the, n 'latio nship befwee n th . 12, 1-1'1 . ~ oYIll(nt o f Illllsic. Councllli II e pe rceptIOn of Illus! F/l' 1 or esearch in M . Ed ' I(JIj , ) . J. (HN I)) '/ . ustc /I ((/li/l/l () ~ • " . it USIC matt~rJ" A ' . x ore! Vni\'ersily 'T . Il~W PhilOSoPhy of m ' . J • 1·.)"M.·llCk, II 1 & E ess. ussc euueatzon. !\'ew ' "fJ l k' ' . ., -yse nck H B G . LOlldon : Hodde/and " . . . (19m). Psychot idsm a. . , h U'flSWorfh, 1'. It (19( ( ) SMtou~h ton. fa d ,mn H/on ofp er.f01/flhh AI " , ., . )), uSU:% JU:n~Ap~~r~II~:'A hrd~rh"J!. '}""IY '1'1111111'

980) fln.chologlCa com a l./ \\'alker, E. 1.. (1. ." J Co le . . . 'i Ill' & \'1/. \. ior. ;\l onterey. CA: Broo~ :. I 'nitin n aud tilsll'. In I..J. I I{ ( . g d talldill" fJ r /II d o(ly allll ,h.v/hm pp . , ,,' A (l9!13). Children s muslc~ cOTh Z.ena I , . h I ad musIC e U II (1"S I'> 'J , (f,d) Pry'" 'f!J a ' , Dowh ng s. , _ . Lawrence Erlbaum ASSOCIates. l!'Ir ' n ';JVt'S &

Z '11177.- 19~r ~i~~~~eS.~~997). Mllsical la~e

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C hap ter 10

MUSICAL ABIliTY AND LEARNING

T

rad itio nal areas of the psych ol f " and pn'diction of musical b .l~gy ° d m tls,~ mclud e the m e asurCllll' lll '. " h a Il ly an IlUl SI C learn ' A" d . separate c ap ters to each area in the first two .. mg. I ter ev o (lIllo' lhe a reas for th e th ird d itl I ed itions, th e a u th o rs merg('" e i JOn, argeIy du e t . llIIm~n musical devclopmem and chan es i () emergm g un~erslanding 0/ theories of learning. For this ditl h g s m concepts of mu sica l a bility a m r . I I' e iu on , t e authors retain th .Iil( ( I!;C USS musical ab ility. . I . e merged treatrnenr . 1 . , rnusrc ea rn mg aspects f h ' 0 musrca developmcllt musica l ab nonnalities a d n approac es to a s ' · • • I p lt'f co ncludes with a b . f ("la f . sessmg musical a bility. TIll' . rre se t 0 pra ctica l s . r lI111SIC lea rn ing. uggestJons IOf [a ci litatill,lo;

Extended Definitions Ability suggests being "abl .. t d . is a Lle to perform crea te e 0 ° hsomet hlOg. A p erson with mu sica l abi l . ' . or, per aps a na lyze . if . IlI1II ly . Unfor tunate ly pe 1 . • mu sic I gr ven an 0Plw l" . ' op e mt erchange talent . I. 'Iptllude with ability a nd ' . di ... m usrca It)' , ca pacity and · • Op in io n s iffer rega rd ln th '. ' IIIlerchange. T he definhl fl ' g e permissibh- dezree III' · . o n 0 ca mmg may be m I O' uuguish lea rn ing from other d I ore c ear, but one mu st dis. ev e opmenta l phcnome d 1{'ar/llng is no t an aut om: , ' . om ena, an recogn ize that · a rc co nseq uence of tea hi The f lion s represent the autho ' .. b c lOg. e JOIJowing defini. rs vJews ased 0 th ' . Ability, a broad term d fvi '. n e l f expe rience and study. . I. e ymg p recise definit ion ref to bel Slllll d llll g, regardless of h . . . ' crs 0 e m g able to do ·1 1 ow a p erson acq uired the n.k k .\ I s, a nd ex p e rience Peep! d "er :1 e necessa ry nowlcdg.. " e may mer Wid .Jy . th el , a I llltty, as wel l as in th c f _ " e In er r amoun ts of musin J • c rorm s III wh ich the if h . • I t,r form ing, co mpos ing an I · I . Y m~n_1 est t elf mu sica l a bilit ies. ' a )7.lllg, nne Iml}fOVISlll " I l' lca l : 0 ~e .a tc m Usica l ' ,n l!lic's ill defin ing ne::~a.h~'?! IS largcly IIllsu:cess"'uilJ~_eXrall1l11g Illu.') ica l . IVII) .ldeq ua tely, • , a li y bc.'ca uw of dife n 'al ivil}' m 'l . . "'quln' p rod .' ( Jl..V)7) sfrc.' ssed .) 1/,." ..' lJeh oll o r siml>/ ' n ' I . • (It''lllv' I ./. ) Ja) )(' a I OIlJ.:illalil)·, a ne! ('V'.'I , ;. ) 1 /1)' is Olultifan'h-d w'd fl )ron·ss. G Uilfor d II rl i~t , Hacll'o ' ( /"7 1') 1,1 IV,· 'l('lo rs of p'lfl in d'lf . ' I I II c·/Iey. flc.'xihility .I' ,' UAAI·.' k d II , . '. • Illlp O I!' II I("l' f , " 1.11 c n 'OIhVlf v II l"l v " o r ,I en·a llv,. I • I 'I' III Ih,· I'y l ,.~ a llc I " 0I 11i of ( '1" CII '

t/

tht' beholder: If a ll obse-rver j udge s some product or act as 111' .11\ \ '. ' . 1.11111'1 tha n o rdinary. unmusica l, "wro ng," o r bizarre, it is creative. at 1" u,1 1111 IIIl' obse rver, In their study compa ring hig hly cre a tive with highly illIPIIlW'nl high school students, Getzels and J ackso n (1962) adopted crucrln 1'0 1 I n-ativity that stressed novel and eve n peculiar descriptions and narratives . III O llt · example, a "crea tive" student subm itte d a blank sheet of paper , nlk-gcdly depicting ch ild ren playing in a schoolyard, and indica ted th at th t, children were playi ng d uring a snows torm. Such a stude nt m ay be creat ive , or, p (' f hap s. the student was sarcastic o r simp ly interested in avoiding wurk.' COIl r eivably, a nyone with a sense of humo r and ability to spot absurdities in daily life cou ld be highly creative if creativity is synonymous wi th inve ntiveness. C rea tivity in the sense of in ventiveness may b e hig hly useful in co mposition, impro visation, and arra nging. Yet, inven tiveness, as well as divergent thinking an d biza rre b eh avior , may h inder progress in musical development and lea rn ing ; defying cult ural musical ex pecta tio ns m ay b e consid ered ignoranee rath e r tha n creativity.' C reativity m ay characterize the musica lly able, but witho ut disci pline and d irection, crea tivity is insufficien t to m ake a perso n m usica lly succe ssful.

Intelligence Intellige nce logic ally is an im portant influ ence o n m us ica l ahi lity. A rcla tivcly intelligent p erson oug ht to be a ble to co pe with m usica l problems with more success than a relatively unintelligen t person , if on e dcfim-s illll'lIigt'l\('(' as cop ing with intellectua l demands of the environmen t. As wit h cn-arivit y, definition problems ha ve clo ud ed the re lationship of iun-lhgr-n rr - a nd m usl cal ability. Kaga n (199 l'l, p. I) cautions against geuoralizl ng psyd lologin ll processes, including intelligence, across d iffering contexts. Ili ff('n 'lll 1l11';I S' urement too ls a nd di fferen t co ncep tio ns of inte lligen ce imply diffen-n t 11t·1I ninons. \\'e will co ns ider so me traditional rela tionsh ips, th e pben onu-uon o r the idiot sav a nt, and "m us ical" intellige nce as a pa rt of mu ltip le illh' lIigt·II(·(·ll . Intelligence in th e traditional sense of academi c ab ilities Illa y 1101 Ill' ess en " ]"1](' 1"1' is no shorta,1't'of anecdotes inv olving' t lo·ltt·r ~f l"l·" li ve" I'< 'sl',o n ,,'s to eillH . .. oug uu e Igence IIkel . 'I" diff a llll lll,m if('sliltio ns with va t-vi I . h Y exrs s III nrere nt fO!"lm ,. . ', rymg re a tlons ips a nd ' I " . , I Ill' l'ons lllul'nls of mu sical h .' .t III crucuo ns among thl'llI , . a l l yvary with h( th ' d l'JIIlt'd, a nd measu red So wh I J . n JW ey a re concep tua hzl'd, ' I «('lefnunants of mu sical, a bilit a aoes III uence mustrca I a bilI illy ,, Th t' m aj ol ·1' I I y a re no! yet understood H ' .1I'I lty pro ba bly results fr I " · oweve r, 111""" ".1 ex mte ractio n 0 f auditi hvsi . , in ld ligf'l/ce and experi om a co mp / . l uJII (1I/f1 \ lIWIl, p ry51((11 ((!til ' . ' U lI re, f uemp ts to mea s '" d di 01 IIIlIty ha w' yiellk'd lntvrestln . 1 . ' . . ure an pr e let musk-a! d g ( escn p tlve infor ti OJ rna Ion, an a seq u('lln' II I m usica l develop men t is ap pa re nt. r

1"/111(

Normal Musical Developm ent and Learning

/) ('vt'lo/l llH'nl. d efined abo ve as "the 'T O ' . Iht'l lllgh which Ill'oi lle go .,. I' r g will a nd maturation 1)I'nl'l '~ ~ • s ll'y mov(' Irom a n ' b ' ~)i ll h , ('hiJd houd, a nd adole!ot'(. ' I .d I ( Ill IYUIllC slage, throu,lo; h nct', 0 an a tI I stage " and I ,· ' I " ." 1\ all (J h ~w l" vab lt' dl < ,nge i't I -I.· d , ( 'arnmg, ( t'llIl.,d • )( 1.I Vlor Ill' to eXI) , ' " h· h . Hallll' to a n)·thi lw t'l S( ' " ."." ., n Il " ., W llle( . - 1 I)l'vell (nc. nc(', w lC IS not a!trib , JI" nt'nt may COllllote 1ll00( ' III I Ilillllr:t/ "llilfo id ilw " cl f 'lllil'l' . ' . , . I' I"< • I l L S wil l . 1( va nClI!t ' ·I g t · d 'l I ' lOtI' Ihl' n 'Mllt of dc '/ilwl 'II' ' /.' . . t I , 11 t ' t' a r lJl I1J.;" llIay l'OJI • C ( til . >u t I It') ' ' I f(' I ' ,I· t I · · I ' .'vi,'w SO IIl t' lJa"k 1'''lIllill ' I .' • t.1 l'( mlllllalt' y. \\ 1' shall . lot I It'(Jllt'S and IIH'lI 1'"'\1'111 a dt'vl'lo pltH'lI t,d {"J

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'1l'l}m"nee. Tlu' n ·"dc'l ~ h lJ ll l d u-uu-m lx-r tha i lea rni ng occu rs durin g dcve lopmcnt. alll l lt'a nl ill/-j fllslt'lS dev elopmen t.

Theoretical Bas es O ne trad itional class ification of learning theories is the t.....o-fold ca tegorization int o behaoioral-associationist (or stimulus-response , or trial-and -error) theo ries an d the cognitive-organizational (or cognitive-field , or insightful) thee ncs. Distinctions a re not always clear, but, essentially, behavioral-association ists prefer an emp irical appro ach to studying lea rn ing and view it in term s of beh avioral sequence s, habit acquisition, and trial-and -error. Cogn itive-organ izationa l theorist s, often e m ployi ng a m ore ra tion al appro ach, arc more concern ed with central brain processes, structu ring and restruc tur ing of cognitive fields . and in sightful problem solving (Bowe r & Hilgard, 19 H1, pp, 2 -S). Nnttennan and Drew ry (1!)93) identify seven schools of th ought or "para digms " of learning: fun ctionalism , associa tioni sm, "dialectical-ma te ria list" psychol ogy, behaviori sm, Gestalt psycho logy, Freudian psychoanalysis, and cogni tive psychology. (O ne may l,'TOUp the first four schools into the be havioral -associationist camp and the remaining thr ee into the cogn iuvc-orga nizational.) While one can assume a "good guys vs. ba d guys" posture regarding theoretica l positions and laud one school or theory while excoriat ing others, no on e theory acco unts adequately for all learni ng phenomen a. No theory which survives in the literature co mple tely lacks ut ility, As Lathrop (1970) no ted at a time when music educators we re "discovering " lea rn ing theor y. lea rn ing theory does not offer ins tant explanations of or solutions 10 mu sic learning problems.'! Desp ite the lack of any "winning" theor et ica l position. theoretical frame works arc usefu l in planning inst ruction an d thera py, dc vel oping curricula, and qu estion ing reas ons for particular professiona l pructircs. Th e theories dis cussed b elow rep resent th e two major schoo ls. BEIIAVIORAI.-ASSOCIATIOKIST T HEORIES. E. L. Thorn dike (1!I:t l) vk-wcd lea rn ing as res ulting from the co nnection of stim uli with respoll s("S through loose ly conceived "bonds." Pro pe r use of reward and reinforce me nt would help establish th e bonds, A "sa tisfying sta te of affairs" wo uld stren gthen r-onncctions; establish ed co nn ect ions could be s tre n gt he n (~ d thro ugh rcwa rd I'm practice. The bonds lacked a ny physica l reality, and fe w today se riollsly H Ill sider T horndike's views as a basis on which to b uild lea rn ing e xperil'lu'es; howroeT. h is positions rega rd ing the importa nce of re inforcc ml'nt a nd the

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ll l....III, i" \'lh u·" lo r, (or lIl'" ani m tinns tlll'l"l'of) h islorira lly hiW\' k nd,'1! to ~ d i ,,' ov l' ''~ var io us ll,,'m ;,·, o r lL·\ hlliqllO ''', lind " lIdo r,, ' an a alll' m pl to app ly tlH'm wilh liUI" IJU d " I'SI;lIul in,ll or w hal ll...y ha w d is",,'V" H·d , '11lO' -M.m,n ,' Ir\,\,t ,~ disc'us\l'd in C ha l' lI'! :1, is a ""\'t'm " " HlIlpl,'. ('Ill1 "1",,"" '1", 1. ' ( 11111 1 Ou' /il" ·' .""p " s., and the d iscr et e nature of ste,,, andadb o llt ,the se q ue nce , jL~ '- ' Il' sugg es l ' e ve op m t I ' / W I'S, lilt' Ii ll ,. . s a n ov cra ll pattern , In add '!, en a sl':lg cs, o ' t,.\ n i!llio ll ' (r)\-\-lII g {~lscussi(J1I gl'/lCra lly is bas xi i l Oll 10 the ci h.· d H·fer. . _ s (I Dnwllllg a nd li a r . d . t o n I h (· research 'm el I ,.lIgll " IV(' S J z' \\ 0 0 (JlHH,) G I • . ' , a n ( .1Il1ll W n n a n (J!J!J:!) . '. '. ' a n li e f (HJ9:i) ,II I lid ,slo bo d a ( ItJtu;) \ _ ' as \\-dJ as IlllpO/1anl _ _ " 1 ' ' II t" I I) " " l·ap.~lI ''''~alinJl of the ' Ii01. . :IIIIC l'S 1Il Ilt'lii',L;1' " , III 11101110 11 al'pl" lrs in R , ' a( olT

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A","'y (/f/lI '.fa r1/ i,,~

107

Musica l d l'vt'lo pllll'lll IWRi llS in IIII'm. In ad d itio n 10 ex pcrh-nci ng so unds of th e in te rn al nmn-mul s un uu nd ings . such as heartbea t a nd fluid mo vements . the fe tus G ill ex perience exte rn a l aud itory stim uli. As Le ca u net ( I!)!J/i. p. 2 4) indicat es a fter a careful re view o f pe rtin e nt studies, musica l so unds . as well as o the rs, can stim ula te the emergi ng feta l aud ito ry syste m , which is functional abo ut th ree to four mo n ths befo re birth. C ha ng es in hea rt ra te sug gest consiste n t fetal startle reactions to external so unds during ab o ut the last two months in utero, and p re natal ex pe rience with particula r stim uli m ay sho w in a p ostnatal p refere nce for ce rtain so u nds. incl ud ing a particular vo ice (o ften Mo ther), a p articular to na l or spee ch seq ue nce. a nd a pa rticular language. Le caun et concludes stro ng ly that "p renatal ex perie nce as we ll 1 ' " ''''

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MUl/uJ! Allilif)' IIIItI I ,romi,,!!. ·108

1 ~\)'d/ll loJ.: i{(j 1 I-Jl/l tlflflJimH (I,I tIHicoI IJtllOvi or

Sum marizing vurlous ~ l ll( l i l"~' TII 'JIIlI) ( I ! W :~) n o l l 'S th at infan ts a rc sen sitive

to contour bUI nol ind ividua l pill'll nnd interval cha nges. Interestingly, they occa sionall y ca n di scmuiu uu- a M"l'nd in g from descending two -ton e p attern s.

even thou gh o lder chil dren uud so nic adults lllay have difficulty. Infants sh ow a tendency to h'TOUP rhy thm s, as in hearing XXXOOO (wh ere X an d

a re p re sent contrasting tim b res or loudn esses] as two gro up s o f three . Pau ses

b etween contrasting gro up s lack salience, but pau ses with in gr oups catch infants' attention . 'Irchub (20()()) later notes that sim ila rities in th e perception of mu sical pattern s between infa nts a nd m usically experienced adu lts suggests a bio logical b asis for aspe cts of m usical pro cessing, inclu ding focus on contour a nd rh ythm rat her tha n specific pi tches and duratio ns, remembering unequally sized scale steps better than steps of equa l size, and p lacing m ustcal detai ls into conventio na l rhythmic arra ngem ents. Pattern organi zation is not ju st hap penstance. Around two yea rs of age, children begin to pro du ce sound sequences that contain successive intervals whic h a rc fou nd in their surrounding mu sica l cu lture. Spontaneous song, an ac tive c rea tion of (to the ch ildren) mu sically logical sequences, commo nly occurs du ring p lay an d other periods of auditory ex pression. Mos t ch ildren gradua lly m ix m or e a nd more im ita tions of songs they hear arou nd the m tleamed sonlO into the ir creations; by ap proxim ately four yea rs of age, learned song largely has replaced spo ntaneous song. Curiously. mu sicians may deem com po sition a skill wh ich few possess o r a "kill which requires inten sive a nd lengthy study . Yet, while man y of th eir ereatinn s defy acc urate notation, many ch ildren as a matter of natural developuu-ut pass thro ugh a highl y crea tive musical stage in which the y do co nside rable "com posing" within th e scope of spo ntaneous song. In additio n to reflecting the surrounding mu sical culture th rough th eir songs, childre n lea rn cultural conve ntions and stereotypes by singing. In n study where child re n aged th ree through six yea rs learn ed to d iscriminnn between tona l a nd atona l songs , child ren as young as age th ree could disc ri min ate if the y were a mong th e more competent singers, as d emonstrated by singing " H appy Birthd a y" (Dowling, 1988). Simple songs evidently factiirat e lear ning cultural scale pattern s, even witho ut formal training. O nce lilt' ("hi ld It',a rns the patterns, he or she continue s to use th e m, even whe n the Spt'("jil t I)('havior s tha t led to ac quisition of th e pa tte rns a rc forgotte n. C hild rt'll from culture s e mp loying languages in which pitch level ha s stro ng st'mantic imporl ann ' m ay sing with sonw wha t diffe rent patterns tha ll Englb h-sp('a king child rl'n. In a sm all-samp le stud y {:(lIl1paring singing of four.IO-six'year-o ld Cantonest', So tho (fro m Soulh Africa), and English d lil (!It'll, C IH'Il-lI a ftt'{'k ( I !)!)!)) fO llnd tha i Ihe Ca ntollt'sl' and So tho child n' lI sall1-\ m on ' c1ewdwd IOlll'!> ;11111 \\"t're mo re skillt'd wilh ]afF-I'.. Illusk al inh' rvals.

.· al dl'v('\ol>Oll'nt (If babies Ut' IH"l ' t h c IUUSIC I As with an y l!1'vt'lopl1wuta I !>('(I " ' I , d " me babies ma y SlOW . " ' ry nmsldl'rab y, an so I f a nd young ch lldn·n may V.I d f h ontancous a nd lcanu'c so ng 41 remar kabl e skills. lues' s (1!IH1) st~1 y o t, c s~"' OlploYiog naturalistic inquiry lR Canadian c111·Id ren rern a ins Illustrative. c., . age from seven to ''I".. 'm ethods Ries observed the ch ildren , rangt bleng,ompe rfoml hcforc their pal ' , h e they werc A , months in their home s, W er f ili While exten sive vana nou , h h th cv were arm tar, -nts and others Wit w om , . d .. · 0 a n explessiv(' mannvr , r f d that b abies 0 smg 1 , oun a I Pr I guage babies au' eXI'll'SSIVI' xisted Rjcs gene rally e , I al qu a tty c an I with style, articulatIo n, anc voc H · d I sueaestcd a devdup lllt·n l.1 'fi C -ords er a a ". N'l I vocally even without speCl l 'A. o n th s al11culaho1\ (SI'p.l1 atltlll II sequence of pitch or melody at seve n m , rd vcrv simple Ihythlll'l lluld r ) at cleven months,.IO ·J I I sound s ra ther th an war mg dd d C hildn'n I'lllploy,'t1 l''! \" 11111 nineteen months. wh en words were ad C .\ ed more slowly Ih,1ll ~1'1I11 1 " hI ed song eve op me ter at th irty m ont s .earn 0 th Id childrvu ("( 1lI1t1 sini'l. ' \" 1111" 11' 111 1' n ncous song RICS foun d ~at 3 -mo ~7hcr re sewn h (llowllllJo; ,~ 11 ," \ \ 111 ,, \ , h sonas wit h defi nit e tonality, althoug I b l until ' I U t' [ive- III SI" 1 1 ll' ~' " hll 0 h lit remains uns a c • C' ' II t at tona I y . I sul» llhu ll' ,I ll.! HI" 1lI III " IlII1 ( 86) suuues!s 1. = I knit fam1ly-ccnterel " ' I dr cn were from a close ) m hat v Ig (.hi lth l'Il, I ","l y 1Il llIt1 l1 ' " I " " . \ b h do suggest t a ) om are a ryp icar. ut t ey f her ad vann'd Illll'ic ,.11 u-11 ,1\ Ill! prescho ol, m ay be capable a rat I ) l ll) 'H h killl\l' I ~,' II"lI ("til l II .. t., ~l l ' A s children continue to mat~ r~' a:ll:i1';ll~' n i'n li lt' U II IIl ,tI ~l " ,, ' ~l , 11 11'11 , .. liN. ning of formal schoohng for r na y ,.11 ' "\,,'11 ItI' 111 11\ 1' whll I'll , .,,11 -rI ters are Hun t' s ,I ) t , become longer. rona cen,c I I 10 'Ill)' 1111111" 11 11 11' : 11.\111111 I h, ll ' III 1)' fluctuated widely in th eir re a~lol\s ups wuk-l ' \ III )' h ,~ 1,, 11 ' '1 , til I Ih .,1 l beco me steadier. Eventually, ehildn-n, a I , ) 'llll" wlll\" ol l wlflI I l hll l ~" , " ma y reJlhlln t II S , I I ' ertain musical properties , " tlH' S" lI l1' . ' \,1 '\1 Ih " I\ ~ ' , I' C d melodi . conl n u r I e llM lll ', I l nterv alic stru ctu re an me o rc nd silt'lU"('S n-taiu li lt' 'IUlll1' It' ulI\ ·' song ch anges in its tona l cenle~aOl~: 'I , " ;ord s S('1'111 10 In- " '1I " 'l llIl h' It -I" Y If)' . .."" .,1, HI fl"a ~'l Il"II I S II I W " ' 11:>1 du ra tions even th ough tempo " . 19' earn lllg,, ' !'" van t for children in learOln~ a so; "O ld r-.hcDonahl llad a Fall u") l ll ,' }' JI'" (such as the "E-I-&I·O" section 0 • cede learning pitche s" . ' al rce tion of mu sical ev en ts. ~'il-k ,lIul " mmcnting on children s aur rx:. p Co . ..'Y of Iive-year-v Il I children to llUI SKlil l oll Palmer (W9:{) note the sensltlvt d I d ·es and indiratt' th at llw sail$' . ,t an spose Inc 0 I I our C hildren can rccogOlze r ' I .. ' mlod )'. They po int 0 1111 lOll , r · ' deed ISt lC sam e " . ' ,' " 'mel ody in di fferent tona Itles til b It with im nll'rsulil til 0I1t S I , ' . ' , . ". . , shive tu contour, young infan ts a Iso are sen I · l 'rvals within 111('lo(\ll's \Il(l t ,I S ~llu si{~al cuhurc, sensitivity to ('onlOli r am III I es. '" ' ' .. 1"(' U"I'''I'IlI,llion s of lilliSit' ll \ ..O Ul \( IS Ill '. y' lit' T IH' sllId y' ot duldrt 'll s V IS H .1 I I " , . " r.olt! dlihh C'll, $ ilvulso n I ' f r VI'- th r llll ~h SI'V I'Il yt .1 "I ilhuni n;ltillj:" In a sillt ) 0 I , hi stin lioll in nolal ioll sch t' lllt~) \\I t I < \lIKK) fou nd int"ll'histication ' , . across t e tree ages SUfT" I" 1 n no ta ting so ngs: 00 W'" I

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Haml u'rgt'r (J 9!)J ) p resents e la bora te d escri ti . 1I"!l'lIla lio lls of m usic Child fl P Ion s o f children's pictoria l n 'l' , ,' , . I ren re ect th eir g r '. f .' , V.lIlOlIS .';I m ple m et ric a nd h . oup mg () so me even ts 1Il 11l /el/ IIIUn' com plex pauerns~ rase groupings, which become b uilding blocks In il stud y co m pa ring four- to ei h t . ( :loll1 ko (W!Jcl) found a relau ,g h ' -Y bea r-o ld child ren's inv en ted notation". , ' IOns 'P etwee n rneas f S a lll/ IIIg and port rayed ures 0 m usical IInd('I. Unc!('rsta ndi ng a va ria ble abwardeness o f p itch and rhythmic rela tio nship , ase on racto r analys f th hil ' - I ' ( ,o n o n's (J!J7!J) Primary Mea " ,0 1 ' . , IS O e c I dren 's sco res 01 1 , ,I ", surss oJ J r IJ.SlC Audiation. w. • t Hl Il .1 SOp histica tio n th an to th h 'ld ' . wus more related to n ora . A hl e c I re n s ages s (' lld re n matu re until a bout , ' " la rgt ' ly as a ma tter o f furth er cUI:g~ n, l~e, mU~lCal ~bility tends to in crcilM', I' I" s un d s 0 f the sur 01 111( JIll{ lllWilcal cliltur " I J' lila IIninerSlOn . Jhe so . I ' c. me ur Ulg so unds fro dl plOt un 'd III the ho me b .hi ld m me ra as well as sounds y C I r en parents a nd ibl i b .' Sl mgs, uild music;r1 I'Xpt't'limcies a nd a se nse of 'h I " 'I \\ a IS ap p ro p nat · ' II CIIJ dn-n becom e incre 'lsingly I' 'I' , I c musr ca y and what is 11 01 I' . ' .. am i Jar wit 1 predo ' . I ' ' 1,111110111(" n mv(' n tions a nd t ' " nunant sca es, liIt e rv ill.~ , " ", ' TI C o rga niza tion a nd · b I' , , .1 Spl'( 1 IC f('pel10i re o f m ' me (" , S ll ( IVISIOns, as w('11 as IISIC. ~v en wllhout fonn 'll ' 't ' I 10 11"('("t a!ld s for what tl ' I .. " • ill S m ctlon o r any id ('a of "" I It Y 1(.lr, t le dllldrcll build !I ,' , ' ( II S am d t'v('/0fJ /In'Ii.'H'1 ' • . '/_, I 1( /I IlIlISIC i ll ~ i ll J.: " I'lil xia , Il\d t'('d , H" idt,c1 , 'oea l p.a('lin ' m Ol)' he he lleh ial for mall Y 1ll0l10ltllu's alHl lIt'ar,ltlClllOltllws, r t'l, Ih l'l( ' is till' possihil ity

' I " ' 'd ill!' ab nor of congcmw a llIll Sl," , . lit at le.\st nol a n unpc 0 r S ne,dhtJ;a perhaps is not all ahu(l~ I,na ~l "no rmaL" \ Vhile a ny type 0 YIY alth o ugh the plWllolll el\on I S hhar y esthesia h as add itional wa ys rnaI I • II . so n wit tru e syn to S nesth esia is a multisensor y response ,I amus ia d early is a de ICI~, a per of experiencing the envlronmen~. Y the resp ondent simultaneo us Y , stimulus. In addition to hearing a ton~, such as b y seeing a color or :xpenenees the tone in a no~audlt?ry ",ao~' co nsci oUS sensatio n, n ot m ereTh peri ence IS one sm elling an aroma. e ex , , ' ) , uent relation I verb al aSSOCIatIon . . of synesthesia , a co nstS Y In chromesthesia (the s~und-col~r type nal itch: Bright co lors accom p any ex ists b et ween color bngh tness and, ~~w Pi~chcs. Unlike dual spoken vowelhigh pitches~ dark colors acco;p:~~w often acco mpany - ah" ; whi~e ,~c~:~~ color sensatio ns, whe re red an., (Y , "I t") "ih " (a s in "bit"). and er ( ies - ay (as in " late"}, "ch as III " I.' " "home")' and blue, brown , o r pam , ' "0 (as 10 ' , ' t "b eet")' red and black accomp~)n )t e-color sensations are ra ther Idlosyncrh' , ith " • (as in "boo t • on f an art tea c l' r black go wit 00 d . (1981) describ e a case 0 , (M arks, 1915), H aack and R a oc) . _ r linkages. rc te n ced dr amatic to ne-col or sensa Y h .cian musk reach er, who ex pe nen , 1 h nornene t e m USI , ' I' As with o the r unusual mustca p e , ' th music should l'e ('ogOl/,t' t t at . lherapist or other per son work mg ~I quitt. Iihly is tlt'snihing a mUSIC ' rtin u the synesthetic ex pe nene e the person repo 0 , 'II , " T h e person IS not I ' rea l ex p enenee . I Ahl1lt y nntl 1,I'i\I'llh lM M e asurement and Prediction of Muslc.'1 , _ II I,.,'pl " I 111 11 ,,1' 101 " sure musk al ,l l l1l1ly, ,\ hl ~ ,II \ \ H I There are many ways to mea " .. \ ,1 ihl) al kil ~1 III till' "l llll "l , \ I t 11111 , ,, _ I I< · dicate s n\IIS\t,1 ,I ) achievement eIear Iy m . I' tl. II" l'II 1l'll\I'111 ti l ,I II I \ I' , th e design att'sllIl-AIII'n ( ~ ( }( }( ») sllt)Wt'll Imw orga n sounds var ic'd ill SI'I. ..t di ITt'n' nl !ol'illiollS in an aud itorium, and thl' I t' sultill ~ diffc,lt'lHC'S ill loudness sl'llsalioll WI'II' J.:1t'a tl'l t!lOlIl Ilw S P I ~\

' , I ,' ,1\ the oruan timbreI " "ls van U \\ 1 co I 1 "I • 'esl I-'lIIlh1' IIIIUI I', Iht' ('I JI\ I.as " . r whe ther the St't"unt s UH WO~~~s~:,~ 'lh)'II\l1\ It'sl H' ' gro ll!, lI lt, Seashore, \Ving and G d b ' . , or on atte n es di I It ' a "l ln l l ~ mu sica l atuitude ' t d d are rve rse ap proa che s 10 If 1 ' , In en e to asses bih .h I · 1( ' IIlllsical kno wledge, In order for a s a I ity WIt out req uiring Sp t' 1III ',ISIII t'S with belief in (hei r utilit h p erson to Use these or any oth t'l IIll 'aslI n 's' validity, In addition II ' y, .,t a t pe rson mu st be convinced of rill' ' cor s re m u st belleve . II rat a one-time testing ..s, V;I"I l{ • .

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test's validity refers to how well t ltlt'asur('. 0 11(' m ust no t confus , hd~ tesl.measu res what it is sUppOSt't1 'II I ' I II I' va I Ity WIth T I ' b'li • 1 I W nc I a lest m easures wha t ' , . ' . , e ta I tty, th e COllsisteIlC)' t.l·l itJ,II;11tll,11 dh II . I conseq uences), Pavlov (becom mgbco n . • 'ISSIlt'i'"llPel ,11 11111 ~t l " I ItJ,1 1 1 \\ 111 . ( m ovement eco mmg a» • I re sp on se) , Gu Ihrlt a _ _\ ' '11 111 tl ,.. .. . ,d I .. II' d Sk" (c rniued rt·sptl n ~t·s ~ 1.lpl a stim ulus), an mner . \' ".. • tl) I'XI'I1II II1 I )' 1,,"1.,1\ It" ,II,• •" I' through judicious use of rem o rccrm 1

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tio nistthcories. I 1 ' 1- (11"ll llilltJ, I" ;l lll'tlh ' ..11"" '1 ' l ~ The theories o f the Gestalt psyt" It l O~,I \ talJ,l" ;\1 1' 11" 1ltJ, rom . " . ...1\ ull" '1 Ih ;lII lUll II ma y b e more app m p.na'l'·/HI t Ill , llilll'I"l li ,· l wl",·'·Il \\ h,ll •• I" l rz ky' e o ( 'JroX HlW (rI ,r 1/ " '' ' '' , 17. I' ygots ,~ zon 'J lw m i I I I • II .oiVI'1l ~l\ S I IIl .\l lltl , 111 ,.\ 1II II ' d o an d what Ill' or s It' 1l1l !J, I I II ,., so n can " ' . l al T tl' ·l\ul lt';ll'll ill lJ, . ful in assesslllg rnusrca a n i \ • .. , .\ " l' ) ;J/I11 " , /lll/lI b, lIlI d (,'n/ u ll , \ '1 0 . . t II i 19 ' -l'(" I(' , at vocn t( ,., " 't llid uur : wil \l p,ll II . 11 18 A po rceivtng-ac . , , . dlvid I le t -ct s IllfOrlllalloli III ,II ' po ses th at an in IVI ua u c l' . r " . " t tl "Ill !'> !"t1l1ll 11\1' 1'llvilOIlUlI'lIl li . " r and acts on the III orm unon 0 • ' lar Iml tatlo ns a tl ieh u st'qm' nI Ii: W, \\" Nl >l l" " Kotterm an, J M .• & Drewr y. I I. N. ( 1!1!J:l), I\ fd/ll lll;:'l' IIlId "llIul/um,' "" Jrllld ' //I,I I1I /rl active approaches, Ne w York : I'll'n lHIl I 'n ' ~ s . O'Neill, S. A. (1!ID7). G eud er a nd l11u sic. III 1).. 11L II W I ' ., & l'u lnu-r , C. E ( W ~ U). Development o f IIH' p t'rn' plio J1 o f 111 I1,i, .11 events. In.J. T ig he & W.,J. Dowl ing {Ed s.), l'lydw/ul{Y and music: 171t 111IIIrll'I/I11/11111. ofmrlody and rhy/hm (pp. 1 !l 7 -~ 1:-1). H illsda le. N]: La wn-nee Erlbaum A ~ sol il.I,'. I'lump, It, & Sn-cneken . H. .J. :\1. (I !)7J ). Pla ce dependence of timbre ill 1"( ' \'1'11 ",. " 111 sound field s. Acustica, 28, .sO-59. Radocy, It E. (I !m ). T ho ug hts o n creativi ty. Kansas Music Rt vin v, JJ (5), II i 17, Rndoc y, I{. E. (I!JH1). Ap plying selt'f1ed le arn ing p rinci pl t's to m llsk i ll .~lI lllll "lI Slllllt' prurfica I sugge sliuns. lJIIi/alr, 1 (I l. 11- J:~ . Ruducy, H. E. ( I!I!H) . M usical ab ility. III V. S . Rama cha ndran (Ed.) , J~',wyrl(J/Jr"", "I human hdwvior (Vo l. :i , pp. ~57 -1 li:i) . San Dit'go . CA : Arad e llllr l'n 'ss'Ruiubo w, E. l , (I!J65). A pi lot study 10 inve stig ate the co ns tructs o f I1Il1sil'al 011111111 ,1, jflllrnaL ofRrJrarch in Music Ed ucation, 13. 3- 1·1 . Hl'slilk. R. ~ 1. ( I ~ J H -I) . nit brain: Tor o mo: Basic Boo ks. R i l " ~ ' K I.. I.. ( I !)H ~) . An analysis of rbc characterist ics o f'tnfa m-chtld SillKillK "~ 1'" • silllls. (Doct ora l d isscruuion, Ar izona Slate Un ive rsity. I !' H ~ ) . IhHrr frltill/1A/ll t" ,,/ . IlIl mwlillll(/l, 43, IH71A. (Un ive rsity Microfilms No . filiH) . HlllJill, It ( I ~ J 7:1). Voices ofa proplr: 111r story of Yiddi~!I fiJlksoll{!. (~ lI d -d.}. NI'w Y,,, 1 ~ 11 (; raw · lli ll. St h l'id , 1'.• & Ec d es•.J. C . (1975). :\1usic and speech: Arti stic fun ction s u f 11 10' IIIIIII "H bruin. /'ryrh ology ofMusic, J (I ). ~ I -a,/j. St hbtlg, C; .•.!itllt·ke. L.• Jluilng . Y., & Steinmetz. II . (I !)!)5 ). In vivu {'vidl'lll "Il l ~ I " ll lur al b ra in asy mmetry in m usi cia ns. Seimct, 267,li99 - 701. Sl'asllorl', C . E. ( I ~ J:1 H). J '~ydlfJlogy (if Tl/usic. New Yo rk: rvt c(; raw-ilill, S!'ashore . C, K , Le wis, 1... , & Saelveil,.J. G. (l! lfj O). Sras/wrr III fflJll W I{/Ilwili/l 1It/'1I1l New YOI' k: T h e I'syd lOlog ica l Corporalion. St.·rafim'. M . L. ( WHO). I'iagetian re sea rch in 1lI 11~ i c. Co/weil jilr Rr,lrtlrth ITt .H'lt l, l

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