Professional Education Using E-Simulations: Benefits of Blended Learning Design

Professional Education Using E-Simulations: Benefits of Blended Learning Design Dale Holt Deakin University, Australia ...

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Professional Education Using E-Simulations: Benefits of Blended Learning Design Dale Holt Deakin University, Australia Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia Jacob L. Cybulski Deakin University, Australia

Senior Editorial Director: Director of Book Publications: Editorial Director: Acquisitions Editor: Development Editor: Production Editor: Typesetters: Print Coordinator: Cover Design:

Kristin Klinger Julia Mosemann Lindsay Johnston Erika Carter Michael Killian Sean Woznicki Jennifer Romanchak, Lisandro Gonzalez Jamie Snavely Nick Newcomer

Published in the United States of America by Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2012 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Professional education using e-simulations: benefits of blended learning design / Dale Holt, Stephen Segrave and Jacob L. Cybulski, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book disseminates current research and best practice for diffusion of e-Simulations in professional education, providing both theoretical frameworks and case-based evidence to assist the target readership to build their own capacity for developing and/or using e-Simulations”--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-61350-189-4 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-190-0 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-191-7 (print & perpetual access) 1. Professional education--Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Blended learning. I. Holt, Dale, 1957- II. Segrave, Stephen, 1954- III. Cybulski, Jacob L., 1958LC1059.P755 2012 371.33’4--dc22 2011009282

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

Editorial Advisory Board Malcolm Brown, EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, USA Brian Corbitt, RMIT University, Australia John Hedberg, Millennium Innovations & Macquarie University, Australia Mike Keppell, Charles Sturt University & ASCILITE, Australia Jan H. G. Klabbers, International Simulation and Gaming Association, The Netherlands Piet Kommers, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands Michelle Lamberson, University of British Columbia, Canada Elyssebeth Leigh, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Som Naidu, Charles Sturt University, Australia Rod Sims, University of New England, Australia Christine Spratt, Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE, Australia

List of Reviewers Colin Mason, Deakin University, Australia Lemai Nguyen, Deakin University, Australia Charlotte Brack, Monash University, Australia Ben Bradley, Charles Sturt University, Australia Alastair Reed, Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE, Australia

Table of Contents

Foreword..............................................................................................................................................viii Preface..................................................................................................................................................... x Acknowledgment...............................................................................................................................xviii Chapter 1 E-Simulations for Educating the Professions in Blended Learning Environments................................. 1 Dale Holt, Deakin University, Australia Stephen Segrave, Deakin University, Australia Jacob Cybulski, Deakin University, Australia Section 1 Theorising the Nature of Design for Authentic Learning and E-Simulations Chapter 2 Reappraising Design Practice................................................................................................................ 25 Roderick C. Sims, University of New England, Australia Chapter 3 Real Experiences with Virtual Worlds................................................................................................... 41 Andrew Cram, Macquarie University, Australia John G. Hedberg, Macquarie University, Australia Chapter 4 Design of an Authentic E-Learning Environment................................................................................. 57 Theo J. Bastiaens, Fernuniversität in Hagen, Germany

Section 2 E-Simulation Learning Designs in Action Chapter 5 E-Simulations for the Purpose of Training Forensic (Investigative) Interviewers................................ 71 Belinda Guadagno, Deakin University, Australia Martine Powell, Deakin University, Australia Chapter 6 Professional Midwifery Education: Blended Teaching and Learning Approaches............................... 87 Diane Phillips, Deakin University, Australia Chapter 7 Evaluating the Impact of a Virtual Emergency Room Simulation for Learning................................. 100 Luke Rogers, University of Ballarat, Australia Charlynn Miller, University of Ballarat, Australia Sally Firmin, University of Ballarat, Australia Chapter 8 Designing Simulations for Professional Skill Development in Distance Education: A Holistic Approach for Blended Learning.......................................................................................................... 121 Deborah Murdoch, Charles Sturt University, Australia Chris Bushell, Charles Sturt University, Australia Stephanie Johnson, Charles Sturt University, Australia Chapter 9 Simulating Difficult Nurse Patient Relationships: Meeting the Online Continuing Professional Development Needs of Clinical Nurses with Low Cost Multimedia E-Simulations........................... 141 Peter Kandlbinder, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Scott Brunero, Prince of Wales Hospital, Australia Chapter 10 Blended Learning Designs Facilitated by New Media Technologies Including E-Simulations for Pharmacy and Other Health Sciences.................................................................................................. 157 Gregory Duncan, Monash University, Australia Ian Larson, Monash University, Australia Chapter 11 Integrating E-Simulations in Teaching Business Information Systems............................................... 174 Jacob Cybulski, Deakin University, Australia Lemai Nguyen, Deakin University, Australia

Chapter 12 Developing Professional Competence in Project Management Using E-Simulation on Campus....... 198 Ian Searle, RMIT University, Australia Hossein Zadeh, RMIT University, Australia Chapter 13 Using E-Simulations in Retail Sales Training: Benefits of Blended Learning Design........................ 215 Virpi Slotte, AAC Global, Finland Anne Herbert, Aalto Universtiy School of Economics, Finland Chapter 14 The SUPL Approach: A Conceptual Framework for the Design of 3D E-Simulations Based on Gaming Technology within a Problem-Based Learning Pedagogy..................................... 233 Michael Garrett, Edith Cowan University, Australia Mark McMahon, Edith Cowan University, Australia Chapter 15 Media Effects: E-Simulations and Authentic “Blended” Learning..................................................... 255 Kristin Demetrious, Deakin University, Australia Chapter 16 Through the Looking Glass: Immersive Interfaces for Participant Engagement in Blended E-Learning Environments................................................................................................. 271 Janette Grenfell, Deakin University, Australia Ian Warren, Deakin University, Australia Section 3 Developing Knowledge and Building Capacities for E-Simulations Chapter 17 A Framework for Designing Mainstream Educational E-Simulations................................................ 293 Jacob Cybulski, Deakin University, Australia Chapter 18 Supporting the Design of Interactive Scenarios in a University Environment: Techniques, Issues and Constraints...................................................................................................... 316 T. M. Stewart, Massey University, New Zealand Chapter 19 Scenario-Based Learning: Experiences in the Development and Application of a Generic Teaching Software Tool................................................................................................... 346 Audrey Jinks, The University of Queensland, Australia Geoff Norton, The University of Queensland, Australia Matt Taylor, The University of Queensland, Australia Terry Stewart, Massey University, New Zealand

Chapter 20 Future Developments in E-Simulations for Learning Soft Skills in the Health Professions............... 370 Piet Kommers, University of Twente, The Netherlands Chapter 21 The Challenge of Investigating the Value of E-Simulations in Blended Learning Environments: A Case for Design-Based Research.............................................................. 394 Stephen Segrave, Deakin University, Australia Mary Rice, Educational Consultant, Australia Afterword............................................................................................................................................ 415 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 423 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 431

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Foreword

The success of any media depends on the ease of cutting and pasting. How easily can your work borrow from my work? First, there is the raison d’être. Does it make sense for someone to create a type of experience and does it make sense for a group to consume it? This was initially true of so much we take for granted today. The case had to be made, often by courageous fanatics, for plays, opera, novels, and Facebook. As a result of preceding work, Stephen Spielberg did not have to say, “Wouldn’t it be great if a lot of people would pay to sit in a dark room looking at moving pictures and sound?” Then, media expands when techniques and processes are shared. Professionals need to know about the successful practices of the people who came before us. For example, over the years, various innovators have developed and refined such scaffolding as chapters in books, laugh tracks in sitcoms, and titles and credits for movies. Finally, there comes the democratising inflection point in the success of media when actual raw content can be swapped around. Today for example, almost anyone can use a word processor to cut and paste text and photographs and formatting. Lawyers use boilerplate passages all of the time. Meanwhile a high schooler may use a pop-music track for laying out a music video, while an amateur movie director may use footage from another movie to work out pacing issues. Which brings us to e-simulations, and the book you have in front of you. There is the very burning question, where are we now? First, there is the good news. Because of the work of the fanatics who came before us, we know that simulations are necessary for the effectiveness of eLearning (and therefore distance learning), and increasingly all education. We have crossed that threshold, even if some haven’t noticed it yet. The methodology to support the most life-and-death applications of education, necessarily driving competence, conviction, and comfort in students aiming to be doctors and pilots, have long demanded and evolved the use of sims. But now almost all new programs in any discipline are employing e-simulations at different levels of sophistication. But the bad news is that we aren’t yet at the moment that you can cut and paste from someone else’s work. The creation of e-simulations has not been democratised. We can’t easily play around with someone else’s sim. We can’t make a few changes, and then a few more, until we have something of our own. There is no multi-genre sim equivalent of a word processor. This places us right in the middle. Leading professionals are, well, leading. They are pioneering new approaches, almost inevitably the hard way. And it is up to the rest of us members of the education field to learn everything we can from them. We must absorb techniques and research and genuine lessons. It is too hard and inefficient to start from scratch each time, and it is irresponsible to ignore progress all together.

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And that’s where Holt’s, Segrave’s, and Cybulski’s “Professional Education Using e-Simulations: Benefits of Blended Learning Design” comes in. This book is state of the art. And I don’t mean Star Trek style holodecks (which are coming) or Matrix style knowledge-downloads (good luck with that). Rather, this is where the pioneers of the industry really are. The papers gathered here honestly and thoroughly show today’s risk taking, brainstorming, and realistic compromises. Here are the processes that others will be following shortly, and likely the techniques that will get formalised in the authoring tools of the future. There is a final and critically important best practice to consider, however. We focus on the roles and scale of the individual and design teams. Their actions are critical and are the foundation of the value delivered. But the more strategic and thus perhaps even more important process to emulate is Deakin University’s approach to the sim space. We are at a time when there are three major innovations shaping higher ed.: Virtual/non-face-to-face engagement, social networking, and sims. But as powerful as the first two innovations are, they are akin to retail organisations outsourcing the manufacturing process offshore, or newspapers replacing staff reporters with AP or other centralised news feeds. These approaches are useful in the short term to scale up and boost the bottom line. But if the two are the sole foci, they also lead to non-differentiation and even disintermediation in the long term. It may well be that the hard, innovative work of sim design, construction, and deployment remains the area of highest, real, and even differentiating value. This means that other universities have a choice. They can follow this strategic path to higher value today, or risk irrelevance within the decade. Clark Aldrich Clark Aldrich Designs, USA

Clark Aldrich is a global education thought leader, labeled a guru by Fortune Magazine. As well as being an award-winning analyst and speaker, Clark Aldrich has designed simulations that have been patent winning, generated millions in revenues, are market leaders in their categories, have been rigorously proven to drive long term desired changes in behavior, and have been translated and deployed in dozens of countries and languages. Aldrich is also the author of five books, including his new book Unschooling Rules. Clark Aldrich founded and serves as the Managing Partner of Clark Aldrich Designs, which works with corporate, military, government, and academic organizations balancing both board-level and hands-on work. Aldrich’s work has been featured in hundreds of sources, including CBS, ABC, The New York Times, Wall Street Journal, CNN, NPR, CNET, Business 2.0, BusinessWeek, U.S. News and World Reports. Previously, Aldrich was the founder and former director of research for Gartner’s e-learning coverage. He graduated from Brown University with a degree in Cognitive Science, and earlier in his career worked on special projects for Xerox’ executive team.

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Preface

The genesis of this project lies in the Editors leading a major national Australian project, ‘Building academic staff capacity for using e-Simulations in professional education for experience transfer’, over the period 2008-2010 funded under the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) Competitive Grants Scheme. Certain chapters in this book reflect developments undertaken through this national project. The Editors would like to give due acknowledgement to the ALTC and the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) in providing the opportunity to undertake this project which in turn provided the stimulus to make contact with other people actively involved in developing and using e-simulations in higher education and the workplace for educating the professions, and the training of other related occupations. These contacts were located across Australia and other parts of the world; the interests in e-simulations covered both 2D and 3D immersive environments for education and training. Our investigations have revealed a major gap and therefore opportunity to foreground the use and value of these types of e-simulations in the interrelated fields of online, distance and flexible education. We have, however, chosen to situate e-simulation developments squarely in the domain of blended learning theorising and action, as it is currently receiving much attention in both so-called traditional on-campus institutions and more flexibly-based distance education providers. Increasingly, tertiary institutions seem to be evolving both sets of characteristics coalescing around commitments to blended aspects of both organisational worlds. Moreover, we are focusing primarily on the deployment of e-simulations in contributing to the education of the professions and by extension the training of other workplace occupations. A striking theme in the book is how a range of disciplines across a variety of institutions conceptualise their learning designs for local blended learning environments, and have built the necessary capacities for developing and delivering their own e-simulation frameworks. The use of digital, Webbased simulations for education and training in the professions is a significant, emerging technology innovation requiring immediate attention. A convergence of new educational needs, theories of learning and role-based simulation technologies, point to the educators’ readiness for e-simulations as a serious teaching endeavour. As modern e-simulations aim at integration into blended learning environments, they promote rich experiential, constructivist learning. As such they are and will continue to rapidly gain mainstream acceptance. This book contains a broad range of theoretical perspectives on, and practical illustrations of, the field of e-simulations for educating the professions in blended learning environments. Readers will see authors articulate various views on the nature of professions and professionalism, the nature and roles that various types of e-simulations play in contributing to developing an array of professional capabilities, and various viewpoints on how e-simulations as an integral component of blended learning envi-

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ronments can be conceived, enacted, evaluated and researched. A broad range of professions and allied occupational groupings are considered through the chapters in this book covering: the Health professions (nursing, midwifery, psychology, occupational therapy, pharmacy, forensic interviewing, counselling, medicine); the Business and Law professions (business studies, project management, business Information Systems, financial planning, law, ethics); Arts professions (criminology, public relations, police studies, journalism); the Education profession; the Engineering and Science professions (environmental sciences, veterinary science, agriculture); the Social and Behavioural Science professions; and Workplace training (sales, mining fire evacuation). Moreover, a special contribution to the book is an emphasis on effective leadership and management to ensure e-simulations can be developed and sustained as a key strategy in institutions’ online teaching and learning plans. Of overriding importance though is the focus on effective learning designs of both e-simulations and the overall learning environments in which simulations are embedded. These learning designs are highly contingent on context, the student audience and an organisation’s technical capabilities. This demands that academic teachers play the defining role in shaping the designs and operation of their e-simulations in their learning environments for the benefit of their students’ learning. Let us step back for a moment from this book and its contents and briefly chart the evolutionary course of e-simulations. For more than 50 years researchers have reported the benefits of simulations, but leaders with a long history of publishing and practice in the field, such as Dr. Jan Klabbers (General secretary of the International Simulation and Gaming Association from 1976 to 2004), Dr. Hugh Cannon (Dean of Fellows, Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning) and more recently innovators such as Clark Aldrich (co-founder of SimuLearn, independent consultant and practitioner working on educational simulations for professional skills training) recount that designing and researching simulations remains a problem, in part because ‘scientific’ methods rely on shared understandings, terminology and classification when dealing with simulation concepts, principles, rules, theories and models. Such understandings are struggling to keep pace with the advancing technologies and the reflexive practices of teachers. This situation will only become more problematic with the advent of networked and mobile simulations and games. In respect to the explosion of technologies for educational purposes, while the 1990s was the decade of the ‘e’ in eLearning and other ‘e’ activities, the past decade has seen the emergence of the ‘i’ with many products made famous by Apple Pty. Ltd. - iPod, iTunes, iPhone and iPad. For digital simulations the ‘eSim’ term has persisted and has not been critiqued here. It could be suggested that the ‘e’ denoting ‘electronic’, might carry more appropriate connotations along the lines of experiential, emotional and engaging. These terms are at the heart of many of the chapters in the book. As indicated, the field of simulations and games is represented by a diverse literature continuing to struggle with terminology, ontology, typology, and taxonomy. Narrowing the field to digital simulations, ‘e-simulations’ (Web-based, digital simulations) used in the service of education, hardly simplifies the challenge of identifying and organising their characteristics and attributes in a taxonomy. One way of describing e-simulations is through a typology that foregrounds the characteristics or traits they have in common. The book advocates a typology based on e-simulations used in blended learning designs in the service of higher education in the professions. It also advocates a design-based research (DBR) approach to progressing e-simulations agendas and programs. A DBR approach is illuminative of relations in the whole rather than just focusing on classifying the parts, is consistent with a constructivist epistemology, celebrates cases rather than categories, foregrounds themes rather than hierarchies of atomistic elements, and is synthetic and emergent rather than analytic and reductive.

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When defining simulations, it is important to distinguish between form and function. To illustrate; while games often ‘simulate’ a system of relationships and events found in real or imagined settings, in the process of modelling these, games exhibit characteristics and attributes (e.g. winning) that nongame simulations may not. Clearly, many simulations do not function as games, but it is not unusual for goal-based, role-based simulations to contain attributes of games (e.g. rules, chance and feedback); in fact it can be argued that it is important to retain such characteristics. Equally importantly is the need to grapple with the territory which is defined as blended learning. We can see it simply at one level as the fusion of both physical and virtual environments in ways which contribute to quality learning experiences and outcomes, and which usually embody a mix of learning methods. As Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) suggest, blended learning is as much an old as it is a new phenomenon, but it is being strongly invigorated by the affordances of the new digital and online technologies: Blended is an art that has been practised by inspirational teachers for centuries. It centres on the integration of different types of resources and activities within a range of learning environments where learners can interact and build ideas. Over the past few decades, blended learning has extended learning methodologies, opening up opportunities for open and distance learning as well as challenging more traditional methods. Most recently the term ‘blend’ has been attached to e-learning, and this blending of e-learning with traditional methods is attracting the interest of many teachers in further and higher education. This contrasts with the relatively poor take-up of predominantly or exclusively e-learning methods, particularly where e-learning has been expected to offer an unproblematic cost-saving replication of traditional teaching methods. (p.1) Beyond its relatively simple and straightforward definition, the book aims to probe and deepen understanding of blended learning as the artfulness of the intentionality (wilfulness) of designing nuanced conceptualisations of comprehensively integrated learning environments. This sees teachers as agents working in reflexive ways, performing the art of influencing the way the learning environment functions. This perhaps represents a more mature notion than a simplistic description of blending being a fusion of online, face-to-face and other methods of learning. In this book, we explicitly pay homage to the pioneers of educational simulation and their efforts to theorise the field of simulations and games; and to those who have conceptualised the field of blended learning illustrating it with a rich range of cases in action. Their work is cited through the book. We aim though to bring the message of the value of e-simulations into the realm of the practising teacher who wishes to make a difference to the learning of their students, and yet who may not wish to engage directly, and contribute actively to the body of relevant knowledge, or, indeed, wish to master complex technologies in creating valuable learning resources. They need to see approaches that work, which can be done within reasonable timeframes and with reasonable resources, and which fit with their educational values, beliefs and practices. They need to see evidence of an effective student learning experience. They need fundamentally to have an astute sense of the changing demands of professional practice, and the appropriate combination of means to prepare and enhance their students’ capacities as competent and ethical professionals in times of rapid and unpredictable change. Many of these potential users do not have the time to be taken away from their ongoing academic and training worlds to engage with grander forms of theorising and elaborate processes of design and development. We see progress as much in terms of the expansion of practical developments of high utility as we do in the refinement of theoretical frames of reference.

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Thus, the target readership audience is framed by the book’s aim to develop the capacities for educational institutions to design, develop, implement, evaluate and research the impacts of e-simulations as an integral part of their educational strategies. Hence, the book has the following range of key audiences: academic teachers who wish to adopt value adding e-learning strategies to enhance the education of their students in professional fields and disciplines offered in a range of different contexts; instructional designers who wish to learn new methodologies for the cost-effective development of e-simulations; media producers interested in the skills and technologies involved in developing and delivering various types of role-based e-simulations; institutional leaders and managers wishing to make sound investments in learning, teaching and technologies; evaluators and researchers wishing to assess the impact on learning and teaching of e-simulations; professional bodies and industry experts wishing to see e-learning technologies applied in ways which will better prepare students for professional practice; and professional and corporate trainers wishing to use e-Simulation as a major method for the ongoing training and development of employees. The book begins by setting the scene for the development of e-simulations for educating the professions in blended learning environments in Chapter 1. Holt, Segrave and Cybulski chart the field covering changing needs and circumstances, and relevant learning theories and definitions of e-simulations and blended learning. The chapter highlights a way of framing the alignment of design elements when designing for the e-simulation learning experience in a blended learning environment. Chapters 2-4 in Section 1: Theorising the Nature of Design for Authentic Learning and E-Simulations, provide various theoretical underpinnings and consequent practical illustrative advice on designing digitally-supported authentic learning and e-simulation environments. Rod Sims in Chapter 2 draws on a life-time of instructional design experience and scholarship in conceiving a design model more attuned to the affordances of progressive pedagogy and digital media. The chapter presents an enhanced version of Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) and applies it to the design of a fictitious e-simulation relating to the global financial crisis. Chapter 3 by Andrew Cram and John Hedberg extends the design challenge into three-dimensional virtual worlds for learning. The chapter also identifies a range of narrative types and supportive modifiers which can be deployed in designing virtual worlds. Underlying the chapter is social constructivism as a strong point of theorising about the design and operation of these worlds for student learning. Specifically, four representation opportunities for simulation designers are examined, namely; space, time, place and avatars Theo Bastiaens in Chapter 4 sets out another instructional design model based on cognitive learning theory and used in responding to life-long learning needs, namely: the Four-Component Instructional Design Model (4C/ID model). The model demands attention to learning tasks, supportive information, just-in-time information and part-task practice. The application of this model relates to teacher educators and their development needs in using interactive whiteboards in classroom teaching. The section exemplifies the diversity of theorising on approaches to designing authentic and e-simulation environments in the contexts of educating the professions and workforce training needs. Two approaches in Section 1 are strongly shaped by pre-existing theories of learning, while the other is strongly grounded in extensive instructional design practice. Such approaches and models require further practical application and testing of their efficacy in various simulated environments. There is strength in their versatility of use, and yet careful thought needs to be given to the application of any instructional design model when considering the development of simulations, both virtual and as played out in physical settings, and in their design into more broadly conceived blended learning environments drawing on other pedagogies and media.

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Chapters 5-16 in Section 2: E-Simulation Learning Designs in Action, present various e-simulation designs in action serving the needs of learners in a number of disciplines and professional fields. Each one provides insight into the design rationale, the use of the e-simulation in blended learning settings, and the evaluation of impacts on the student learning experience. The reader’s attention is drawn to two fundamental considerations shaping these designs in action. First is how the e-simulation is conceived to address the development of desired capabilities or competencies of the profession in question. These rationales increasingly need to take account of growing pressures on teaching and physical resources, and greater demands from a range of parties on acceptable professional standards. The second consideration is how the contribution of the e-simulation is defined in relation to other aspects of the blended learning environment. The former provides a range of e-simulation design actions from the development of well specified professional attributes (as usually defined by externally accrediting professional bodies) to those which help critique and open up new domains of professional capability in the fields in question. The latter consideration opens up various permutations and combinations of pedagogy, media and assessment incorporating e-simulations in complex, holistically conceived learning environments. The studies of designs in action illuminate the highly contingent and creative task of designing and successfully delivering e-simulations. Their resonance (relevance and value) is to be judged primarily by the reader in relation to their own commitments, challenges and contexts of use. Chapters 5-10 cover broadly the health-case, health science and pharmacy professions. The feature of Chapter 5 by Belinda Guadagno and Martine Powell is the strong disciplinary-based research underpinning more effective forms of forensic interviewing as encapsulated in their e-simulation aimed at developing such communicative skills in the demanding and highly sensitive area relating to the potential sexual abuse of a child. Diane Phillips examines the value of an e-simulation in the preparation of mid-wives as used in diverse blended learning regional and rural settings. The skills developed respond to external accreditation requirements of the relevant professional body. In Chapter 7, Rogers, Miller and Firmin move the focus of nursing education into the three-dimensional environment of Second Life with their well designed and evaluated virtual emergency room simulation. The authors locate the benefits of their simulation within a broader examination of the worth of simulations and educational technologies within nursing education. Working in an institution with a strong profile in online, distance and professional education, Murdoch, Bushell and Johnson focus on the design of simulations in mental health and policing using a disciplined approach to their planning and delivery in Chapter 8. The Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE) approach to instructional design, and the constructive alignment framework and SOLO (Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome) taxonomy, were used to ensure the most cost-effective development of the e-simulations as integrated into the relevant curricula and assessment. The theme of developing low-cost multimedia simulations for dealing with difficult nurse-patient relationships and in doing so adopting a user-centred design approach is taken up by Peter Kandlbinder and Scott Brunero in Chapter 9. The authoring of this chapter represents a strong working relationship between the academic designer and the hospital-based professional practitioner. This type of partnership highlights the need for e-simulations to be well grounded in significant concerns of professional practice. Finally, in this cluster of chapters, Gregory Duncan and Ian Larson use a Pedagogy>Space>Technology framework to present their cases of differently conceived e-simulations in pharmacy and other health sciences. They articulate strong background factors and drivers shaping the need to consider different types of e-simulations both from the vantage point of pressures in educating the professions in higher education, and from the perspective of the changing and ever-increasing

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expectations of the profession. Fittingly, the chapter concludes with a proposed inter-professional esimulation learning environment for medical and pharmacy students. The possibility of inter-disciplinary teams designing inter-professional e-simulations in contributing to broader experiences in educating the professions is seen as an emerging field of great potential, and is returned to in the Afterword. Chapters 11-14 cover the business Information System and project management, and customer and mine evacuation training domains. They fall generally in the area of business, management and Information Technology. Jacob Cybulski and Lemai Nguyen begin the discussion with Chapter 11 which looks at the highly strategic and targeted use of e-simulation in a very large, complex unit in first year business Information Systems. The development and deployment of the e-simulation was part of a major renewal of the entire subject, and one which is taught over campuses, regions and different modes of study (onand off-campus) and to students of enormous diversity. Once again the e-simulation was underpinned by an astute and reasonable understanding of professional practice requirements at the first year level. More profoundly, the e-simulation and its deployment required the honest acknowledgement and critical dismantlement of ‘educational dogmas’ in order to achieve evaluated benefits. The authors remind us that e-simulations require a far broader and deeper critical re-examination of curricular, pedagogical and assessment concerns to achieve full student learning value. Moreover, the blends of media and technologies are more sophisticated and subtle than a simple substitution of one method or technology for another. Ian Searle and Hossein Zadeh take us into the use of e-simulation in a quite different type of blended learning environment with a predominately single on-campus learning experience. The authors methodically work through the professional competence requirements of the field of project management as related to managing business Information Systems projects. The project management methodologies of relevant professional associations are articulated as necessary background to their e-simulation. The feature though is the way in which the whole subject is taught through a simulation with its blending of resources and activities located in virtual and physical worlds. In Chapter 13, Virpi Slotte and Anne Herbert shift the focus into workplace-based learning in organisational contexts relating to retail sales training. In the e-simulation training programs developed the blend focuses on socially situated interaction in the workplace with the simulation itself. This blended approach had a deliberate and well researched instructional design. Chapter 14 by Michael Garrett and Mark McMahon takes us further into the world of both workplace learning and the benefits of learning in three-dimensional e-simulations. Their work is informed by the design of 3D e-simulations based on gaming technology and within a problem-based learning pedagogy. The simulation is based on the design of an occupational health and safety training platform, the Fires in Underground Mines Evacuation Simulator (FUMES). The environment developed and evaluated showcases the affordances of 3D technology for the type of learning required. Chapters 15 and 16 deal with the fields of public relations (one of the media communication professions) and art education. These design cases in Chapter 16 augment the teacher education cases used as illustrative examples in chapters 3 and 4. In Chapter 15, Kristin Demetrious engages critically with the current state of public relations as a professional occupation. This critical re-engagement of the field in turn leads to a re-conceptualisation of the PR curriculum and the novel design intent of the e-simulation scenarios developed. While other design cases in action draw on generally accepted views held by both teachers and their professional associations on what constitutes good professional practice, Demetrious challenges us and her colleagues to rethink both the domains of ethical and constructive PR practice, and the requisite capabilities to excel in such domains. Such a fundamental critique and repositioning sees e-simulations blended into radically new curricula and pedagogies. Jenny Grenfell and Ian Warren

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also adopt a more far-reaching conceptualisation of operating within and across virtual 3D and physical worlds in support again of inter-professional learning in art education and another area of public relations. Their work highlights the mutually beneficial immersion and active participation of teachers and students, or teachers and students as co-learners and co-producers of digital resources in such virtual worlds. This design case in action reveals a richness of learning and complexity of learning environments as to challenge us to think yet again about the blends of learning that might be imagined in shaping the future education of the professions as learning community. Further cases relating to the sciences and other professional fields are illustrated in chapters 18 and 19, while chapter 20 focuses on general e-simulation systems development as related to medical and allied health-care professions. The final chapter 21 on design-based research cites as examples developments from psychology, journalism, law, accounting and financial planning. While section 2 highlights cases of e-simulations in depth, clearly other chapters in section 1 and 3, respectively, use further illustrative examples from other professional fields to build the overall view on the breadth and diversity of e-simulation developments. E-simulations will continue to contribute to online learning and teaching the world over. What is at stake is the quality and scope of e-simulation developments, i.e. realising the potential of the strong alignments between simulation, as worthy pedagogy, and their electronic construction and delivery, as a worthy and substantial contribution to blended learning for educating the professions. Five chapters in Section 3: Developing Knowledge and Building Capacities for E-Simulations, are devoted to examining various aspects of developing knowledge and building capacities for e-simulations. Chapter 17 by Jacob Cybulski begins this investigation by identifying the key elements that need to be considered in delivering a successful e-simulation program for mainstreaming purposes. The elements are drawn together into a framework covering scope, experience, mechanics and deployment. These elements encompass more than the educational rationale and local requirements. The successful mainstreaming of e-simulations is an educational, technical and organisational challenge which needs a well and comprehensively conceived basis for success. One such element in achieving mainstreaming of e-simulations is to adopt a wellinformed approach to their conception and story boarding, and then to their effective deployment. These matters are considered in detail in Chapter 18 by Terry Stewart, who introduces a particular authoring tool which has been developed to facilitate the development process, with extensive illustrations. The mechanics and functioning of this tool is further examined in chapter 19 by Jinks, Norton, Taylor and Stewart, with additional illustrative and showcase examples. Compellingly, this tool has been jointly developed by universities in New Zealand and Australia, and used in the United Kingdom. These crossinstitutional, cross-country collaborative endeavours reveal the potential of expanding knowledge and capacity for greater and better action. In Chapter 20, Piet Kommers maps out the components for developing a major research-driven system for e-simulations for developing soft skills in the medical and health-care professions. The scope of this research and development initiative is based on projects funded by the European Union (EU) including contributions from several countries in the region. Finally, Stephen Segrave and Mary Rice in Chapter 21 propose the case for design-based research in progressing e-simulation enhancements over time, and as evidenced by the use of this approach in one major institutional context. Design-based research can involve and meet the needs of various stakeholders by focusing on the value of e-simulations, and as embedded in various blended learning environments, and their development as a strategic agenda of action. The institutional setting presented reveals the potential for strong internal organisational partner-

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ing as a basis for national inter-institutional partnering to build and share knowledge in the service of enhancing the profile of e-simulations in the world of blended learning for professional and workplace education. Stephen Segrave concludes the book in an Afterword exploring developments in e-simulations for educating the professions in blended learning settings in prospect. The best prospects will see more complex and sophisticated settings for the blended design and use of e-simulations, accompanied by more inter-disciplinary, inter-institutional and inter-regional collaborations. Dale Holt Deakin University, Australia Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia Jacob L. Cybulski Deakin University, Australia

REFERENCES Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for blended e-learning. London, UK: Routledge.1

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Acknowledgment

Support for this publication has been provided by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council Ltd, an initiative of the Australian Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Learning and Teaching Council. Dale Holt Deakin University, Australia Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia Jacob L. Cybulski Deakin University, Australia

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Chapter 1

E-Simulations for Educating the Professions in Blended Learning Environments Dale Holt Deakin University, Australia Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia Jacob Cybulski Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter introduces digital, role-based simulations as an emerging and powerful educational approach for the professions and for broader workforce development purposes. It is acknowledged that simulations used for education, professional development, and training, have a long history of development and use. The focus is on digital simulations (e-simulations) situated in blended learning environments and the improved affordances of the newer digital media used via the web to enhance the value of their contribution to learning and teaching in professional and vocationally-oriented fields. This is an area which has received less attention in the whole “e-learning” literature compared with the voluminous body of knowledge and practice on computer-mediated communication, online community building, social networking, and various forms of online (usually automated) assessment. A framework of blended e-simulation design is outlined. The chapter concludes by examining what the future might hold for simulations in further and higher education, and ongoing work-based learning.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch001

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

E-Simulations for Educating the Professions in Blended Learning Environments

INTRODUCTION The cornerstone of frameworks for providing open, distance and flexible education, is associated with online and recent pervasive technologies. Advances in networked media technologies drive new forms of blended learning and teaching practices. There is an extraordinary volume and richness of literature relating to educational technologies emanating from, and applying to, these various intersecting fields of educational and training practice. From this publisher’s more recent series alone, online education can be seen as being informed by the rich heritage of adult learning theories and practices (Kidd, 2010; Kidd & Keengwe, 2010), while information and communication technologies (ICT) are foregrounded in developments in blended learning practices (Stacey & Gerbic, 2009), to include ICT support for evidence-based assessment practices (Spratt & Lajbcygier, 2009). While these publications draw on contributors from across the world and from an enormous variety of national and institutional settings, the totality of reported works represents only a small amount of the large body of literature relating to research, scholarship, practice, and policy making surrounding educational technologies globally. The world of educational technologies is rapidly expanding, and its boundaries are dynamic to continually include new stakeholders, to span novel problems, and to embrace new scope and concerns. For the new researcher, practitioner and policy maker, it must seem like a bewilderingly complex and confusing world to navigate and achieve well evidenced outcomes. While acknowledging the broad sweep of the literature, our concern in this book is to focus on one area of online education, which offers great potential for enhancing teaching and learning experiences in contemporary settings. More specifically, we examine the design, implementation, and evaluation of e-simulations to enhance the education of those in professional and vocational fields. This chapter maps some of the key territory for the 2

development and use of e-simulations, including their theoretical foundations, nature, characteristics and benefits. We highlight the value of centring role-based e-simulations in the blended design of contemporary learning environments. The field of e-simulations has its own diversity of perspectives and practices. These are acknowledged and explained throughout this publication. However, we see e-simulations as a reasonably well-defined and understandable educational technology that can add significant value to mature and nuanced blended learning designs and, ultimately, students’ learning experiences.

THE CHANGING CONTEXTS OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING In the 21st century, higher education must meet a number of new (and continuing) challenges. External pressures have forced institutions to focus strongly on vocational courses at the expense of more scholarly classical studies. Reduced finances available from governments have led to the constant need to find alternative funding arrangements. Extra demands are placed on academic staff to do more with less in respect to their teaching and research. The nature of student cohorts has changed quite considerably, with respect to diversity in ability, cultural background, learning preferences, technology experience, levels of motivation, and the time they are able or willing to spend on their study (Biggs, 2003). The following are typical observations made by teachers of the newer generation of students: • • • • •

They have less time for everything. They pay less attention (often to authority). They demonstrate less persistence and endurance. They see less need for deep knowledge. They have somewhat less fear of failure and are open to pursuing alternatives and new options.


•

• •

They see their new wealth as buying results and act like pragmatic customers or consumers of (educational) services. They undertake a critical rating of benefit for the effort they expend. They consistently value friends and networks.

What implications do such observations have for fostering student learning? In relation to higher education, Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) discussed the needs and characteristics of the ‘Net generation’ (or Generation Y, those born on or after 1982) and highlighted their learning preferences as including: •

•

•

•

A desire to be strongly team and peer-topeer based, that is, they seek out help from their friends and gravitate towards team approaches; A demand for engagement and experience, that is, they like to learn by discovery and doing things; A strong preference for visual and kinesthetic, that is, they are visual communicators and like to be physically immersed in their work; and A desire to learn things that matter, that is, they switch off quickly from things that don’t interest them and that don’t seem relevant to their world.

What clues do these observations give us about designing and operating contemporary blended teaching and learning environments? If, as Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) argue, the Net generation wish learning experiences to be digital (while still valuing highly effective forms of interpersonal, face-to-face communication), connected, experiential, immediate, and socially based, what are the implications for the appropriate development and use of technologies in higher education?

A further challenge for higher education has been the advent of sophisticated e-teaching that has seen a range of new technologies available for new educational designs and new performances of teaching. It has become such a firmly entrenched element in many higher education courses that online environments are used in some form or another across almost all institutions, and in almost all discipline areas. Through a process of gradual development over several years, institutions have been implementing various types of digital environments that provide access to study materials and resources, and facilitate electronic communications. Concurrent with this shift has been greater emphases on the need for more effective teaching approaches to cater for the various ways students learn, and the various preferences they have for bringing about their own learning in respect to both content and media. For decades, much university teaching has been based on “transmission” models in which academics had the discipline knowledge and were responsible for imparting or transmitting it to their students using various teaching methods, some of which involved various media technologies. With the expansion of more powerful technologies over the years, and more particularly the use of knowledge creation and collaboration tools for online learning, the expectation was that teaching and learning processes could be transformed. Digital multi-media and communication technologies have the potential to bring to life much of the abstract learning in university contexts. It was thought that online communities of inquiry would lead to more academic learning. However, as Garrison and Anderson (2003) argue, these advances have not led most students “to approach learning in a critical manner and process information in a deep and meaningful way” (p.5). Indeed, a number of authors have argued (Aldrich, 2009; Laurillard, 2003; Ramsden, 2003) that in spite of new technologies, recognisable linear transmission models still comprise the dominant teaching paradigm in many courses that include online learning, because

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of the tendency to simply move existing courses online rather than reconceptualise the design of teaching, learning, and assessment to maximise the potential offered by networked, digital technologies. (See, for example, Biggs, 2003; Garrison & Anderson, 2003; Laurillard, 2003.) These same authors advocate change, using approaches that apply research evidence to teaching practices, that is, “evidence based teaching”. In particular, because teaching is personal, Biggs (2003, pp.5-7) argues for the use of a “scholarship of teaching” brought about through reflection on teaching actions in a particular context. This need for change has prompted a great deal of rethinking about university approaches to teaching and learning with technology, and has led to the publication of a number of seminal texts that argue the case for change and provide suitable frameworks or blueprints for doing so. (See Bates & Poole, 2003; Biggs, 2003; Garrison & Anderson, 2003; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; Laurillard, 2003; Ramsden, 2003.) These texts and other key papers present a clear consensus about what constitutes effective teaching and learning with technology. We argue that e-simulations are best understood as one constructive response to the challenges outlined above. They can be well grounded both theoretically and practically. Broadly conceived, they represent a valuable and potentially transformative field contributing to the education of professionals, with the capacity to enact more valuable forms of online learning environments.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Nature of Knowledge Whether articulated or not, all teaching reflects some particular theory of the nature of knowledge in a specific field, and how students may learn and use that knowledge. Bates and Poole (2003,

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p.27) note that the predominant epistemologies in higher education today are objectivism and constructivism. Objectivists believe there exists a set of objective facts that have been discovered over the years, and that the truth and meaning of these facts “exists outside the human mind”. This claim has led to the predominant transmission approach in higher education, wherein the process of effectively transmitting knowledge becomes the central goal of teaching. On the other hand, constructivists argue that knowledge is socially constructed by individual learners as they experience the world. There is no objective truth to be discovered, only conventions, which themselves have been constructed and agreed upon by people over time. Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999, p.3) contend, “individuals make sense of their world by constructing their own representations or models of their experiences”. Therefore, there are multiple perspectives about phenomena in the world. These authors argue that “knowledge is embedded in activity” and “anchored in the context in which the activity takes place” (p.3). They also emphasise the importance of meaning making in the knowledge-building process and suggest that meaning making comes about when there is “a dissonance between what is known and what is observed in the world” (p.5). Vygotsky (1978) argued that learning is, first and foremost, a social collaborative activity, and that is where meaning is built. With respect to this, Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999) note that contrary to opinion, not all knowledge constructed by individuals is valid. It has to be viable, that is, make sense in terms of the evidence, community standards, and mores. In describing the nature of academic learning, Laurillard (2003) argues that university teaching is more than imparting decontextualised or abstract knowledge, and even more than creating opportunities for situated cognition, whereby students learn as they engage in activities that occur in natural environments. For Laurillard, academic learning “represents a second-order experience of


the world”. It is “known through exposition, argument, interpretation” and “through reflection on experience” (p.21), the type of goal-based, mediated experience provided through e-simulations. It includes the learning of precepts or general rules, as well as the learning of percepts developed as a consequence of perception. Therefore, “teaching is essentially a rhetorical activity” that seeks “to persuade students to change the way they experience the world through an understanding of the insights of others” (p.23). She believes students need to learn the agreed conventions in a discipline through a process of mediation.

The Acquisition of Knowledge The question of how students learn has long been of interest to academics. Ramsden (2003) points out that approaches to learning vary from one person to another so there is no one right way to affect learning. Yet, in examining the essential differences between school learning and university learning, Laurillard (2003) suggests while course descriptions are content driven, and while academic teachers are purportedly more interested in the way students handle knowledge than in the acquisition of knowledge, lectures, textbooks and other “linear” methods are still prevalent in academic settings. This doesn’t take into account the nature of knowledge or the variety of ways in which students learn. From the constructivist perspective, Jonassen, Peck, and Wilson (1999), discussed five interdependent attributes they believe are necessary for meaningful learning. For them, learning must be: •

•

Active. Learners “interact with their environment, manipulate objects in that environment”, observe the effects of their interventions, and construct their own interpretations of what has occurred (p.8). Constructive. “Learners must reflect on their activities and observations to learn the lessons that their activity has to teach”

•

•

•

(p.9). The relationship between the active and constructive attributes is “symbiotic”, for they each rely on the other to bring about meaning. Intentional. Students “think and learn more when they are fulfilling an intention”. Having goals and articulating those intentions “are essential for meaningful learning” (p.9). Authentic. Learning must reflect the complexity of the real world. The meaning of particular ideas depends on the contexts in which they occur, so to simplify and remove knowledge from its authentic context is to distort meaning. Cooperative. Humans live and work in knowledge-building communities where problems are solved and tasks are completed through collaboration and conversation. This process involves social negotiation to reach common understandings and attain goals, and learners come to appreciate multiple viewpoints and multiple ways of solving problems.

Biggs (2003), Garrison and Anderson (2003), and Laurillard (2003) all describe surface-level and deep-level approaches to processing and understanding new knowledge, These were first identified by Marton and Saljo (1976). A surface approach (in the case of reading a text) refers to skimming the surface of the text and remembering a series of “disjointed facts” rather than truly understanding the point being made. Laurillard (2003) refers to this as an “atomistic” approach that distorts the original structure, and therefore distorts meaning. It arises when low-level cognitive activities are used and the learner just wants to complete the task as quickly as possible. Deep learning involves an understanding of the bigger picture by going below the surface of the text and making sense of (constructing the meaning from) what the author is saying. Laurillard (2003) sees this as a “holistic” approach that preserves the

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original structure and meaning. Biggs (2003, p.12) notes these terms “describe ways of learning”, not “characteristics of students”. He suggests the goal of university teaching is to use activities and assessment approaches that encourage deep learning. Biggs (2003) concerns himself with the way students learn, and promotes the premise that it’s what the student does that matters. This is based on Marton’s (1981) notion of “phenomenography”, which contends it is the student perspective that determines what is learned, not the teacher’s intentions. Therefore, Biggs (2003, p.12) suggests, “teaching is a matter of changing the learner’s perspective, the way the learner sees the world”. Laurillard (2003, p.70) explains its empirical base is derived “from discovery rather than hypothesis testing”, so it is the nature of the action between learner and subject matter that is of interest, rather than what the teacher does to the learner. From the ontological standpoint, Biggs (2003) considers phenomenography to be consistent with, (though not the same as), a constructivist view of learning. This has led Biggs (2003) to argue that the most appropriate way of helping students construct learning is by “aligning teaching”. He refers to this as “constructive alignment”, whereby all the components in the learning environment are closely aligned. Apart from learners and teachers, these include: • • • • •

The curriculum we teach. The methods we use to teach. The assessment procedures and the methods for reporting results. The climate we create in our interactions with students. The institutional climate, the rules and procedures we have to follow (p.26).

Biggs (2003) says the notion of constructive alignment brings together a constructivist view of learning, and an “aligned design for teaching” (p.27). This means students do the work, while the teacher “acts as broker between the student

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and a learning environment that supports learning activities” (p.27). In considering how students learn, Laurillard (2003) acknowledges “it is not easy to penetrate the private world of someone coming to an understanding of an idea” (p.41). She discussed “mathemagenic” activities, defined as “activities that give birth to learning” (p.41). These include: apprehending the “structure of discourse” to discern the coherent meaning; interpreting the “forms of representation” of the discourse; acting on and manipulating “descriptions of the world” to give rise to further descriptions; using both intrinsic and extrinsic feedback to adjust actions and descriptions; and reflecting on the cycle that relates feedback to the purpose of the discourse (pp.60-61). Reflection on action is an important element for deep learning. These ideas are consistent with constructivism and underpin the theoretical frameworks and design approaches used in e-simulations and games. There are clear congruencies between the attributes discussed by Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999), Bigg’s (2003) constructive alignment, the notions of student-centred mathemagenic activities, and approaches that encourage deep learning. They point to a particular way of conceiving teaching that is most likely to result in desired learning. Focusing on the future of simulations in adult (and by implication professional) education shaped more by constructivism, Magee (2006) critiques the objectivist approach by stating: The knowledge economy that is currently evolving requires an understanding of more than just how to produce information. It also requires workers to comprehend how to filter it, find meaning in it and then finally apply it in an ambiguous and ever-changing environment. One consequence of the more traditional educational approaches has been the neglect of the development of judgment skills, critical thinking skills, and creativity in adult learners. All of these skills will be necessary in order to succeed in the knowledge economy. (p.2)


E-simulations excel in addressing these skills in ways that often retain key complexities from real life.

Authentic Assessment of Learning In higher education recently, authentic assessment has been discussed in the context of broadening assessment approaches in ways that ensure they are aligned with expected learning outcomes. The emphasis on higher order “workplace competencies” in the training sector also reflects this. As will become evident from the following discussion, technology, and simulations in particular, can provide powerful mechanisms for designing and implementing authentic assessment. Much of the literature on authenticity relates to the nature of particular tasks, whether or not they are used for formal assessment purposes. Consistent with ideas on the nature of authenticity espoused by Herrington, Oliver and Reeves (2003), Gulikers, Bastiaens, and Kirschner (2004, p.69) acknowledge there are differences of opinion about what constitutes authenticity because of varying emphases on task and context as opposed to performance. They distinguish between authentic and performance assessment by arguing “every authentic assessment is performance, but not vice versa” (p.69). They further contend that the degree of fidelity of the task and the conditions under which performance takes place, is greater in authentic assessment than in performance assessment. Therefore, they define authentic assessment as: an assessment requiring students to use the same competencies, or combinations of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that they need to apply in the criterion situation in professional life” (Gulikers et al., 2004, p.69). Khaira and Yambo (2005) concur with this, arguing that authentic tasks should be real-life tasks with multiple solutions for learners. Similarly, Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999) say environments should be created that “present learners with problems that are naturally complex and embedded in a real world context” (p.229). The

tasks should also require higher-order thinking. Mueller (2006) suggests the rationale for using authentic assessment usually springs from the idea that graduates should be capable of performing the tasks they encounter after they graduate, therefore their assessment should replicate real world challenges. Clearly, authentic assessment has to do with students demonstrating they know a body of knowledge, have developed a set of skills, can apply them in a ‘real-life’ situation, and can solve real-life problems. Role-playing e-simulations are an obvious method for inviting learners to demonstrate their level of mastery of integrated knowledge and skills through authentic assessment requiring performance.

DEFINING E-SIMULATIONS What is a Simulation? Simulations have become commonly used tools in contemporary society, e.g. in studying natural phenomena, physical processes, in engineering design, or in media production, to name just a few. Many are now computer-based and networked to take advantage of the sophisticated tools available in online environments (Klein & Herskovitcz, 2005). In higher education, e-simulations are increasingly being used for teaching and learning purposes. As Aldrich (2003, p. 8) points out, in fields such as medicine, nursing, pilot, or military training, simulation use is critical for practising skills before being required to do the real thing. The simulations by their very nature are complex and people from different professions and technology backgrounds define them quite differently. The general Wikipedia definition is: “Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected physical or abstract system”. In more simple terms, Prensky (2004, p. 1) suggests “simulation

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is, by definition, pretending. All simulations are tools that give you ersatz (as opposed to real) experience”. Aldrich (2004, p.52) says simulations “model reality”, and more specifically, “they can rigorously but selectively represent objects or situations” as well as “user interactions”. Prensky (2004, p.2) stressed, “The one universal truth about any simulation is that at its centre lies a model”, and they are often, though not always, computation models. Feinstein and Parks (2002) note simulations duplicate the characteristics of “a real business or management system through an iconic or symbolic model”, and “can be further defined by describing its underlying model as a discrete event, a continuous event, or a combined event” (p.397). Aldrich (2009, p.52) further refined his descriptions of the concept, structure, and function of simulations, saying they not only “capture and model some part of reality and the role of someone in it”, but the elements in simulations “describe what actions are available, how the actions influence relevant systems, (and) how those systems produce feedback and results”. Further, he proposes four major “knowledge constructs” that he calls simulation “sweet spots” emerging from experiencing simulations: situational awareness, dead reckoning, understanding of actions and awareness of patterns. Some aspects of what is at work in simulations appear to be well understood. These definitions suggest the key characteristics of a simulation are that it is based on a model, it represents some aspect of reality without itself being real, and it involves inputs, manipulations, and resultant outputs depending on its purpose. Notwithstanding these commonalities, Jones (1998, p.1) contends “definitions restricted to systems, rules, imitations, payoffs, and representations are inappropriate and inadequate in the field of interactive events…because they ignore human behaviour” and “fail to distinguish between the real and the fake”. For him, the main criterion for defining a simulation is “human behaviour—what actually happens’ (p.1). To support his argument,

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he claims that, for example, no definition of a game includes a duty to win, and yet, without that element he suggests it is not a game. He argues further, “if everyone in an event referred to it as a game, but behaved as if it were a simulation, then it would be a simulation, not a game” (p.4). Brozik and Zapalska (2002) tend to use the terms “simulation” and “games” interchangeably. They believe the combination of “simulation to represent elements of reality and gaming to stimulate interaction” can bring about “powerful learning constructs” (p.7) and provide a strong rationale and purpose for using simulations in education. As far as educational simulations are concerned, there is an added dimension. Aldrich (2004b) argues a simulation should only be regarded as educational when it has specific learning elements in it that expose the learner to essential concepts relating to the environment being simulated. Similarly, Hertel and Millis (2002) note educational simulations usually “place students in true-to-life roles”, but in line with Aldrich, they also acknowledged that while the “simulated activities are ‘real world’, modifications occur for learning purposes” (p.16). Importantly, educational simulations are generally goal-based scenarios (Schank, 1997) and help learners to focus on particular elements in systems or situations that occur in the real environments they model. Aldrich (2004a) identified six criteria that are critical in educational simulations. Three describe content elements, “linear, systems, and cyclical”, and three describe delivery elements, “simulation, game, and pedagogy” (p.1). In elaborating on these elements, Aldrich (2004a) suggested linear content involves sequencing, or step-by-step procedures; systems content includes “the components of the system and how those components impact each other” (p. 1); and cyclical content relates to “activities that can be infinitely combined to create an outcome” (p. 2). In respect to delivery, he believes simulation elements “enable discovery, experimentation, concrete examples, practice, and active construction” of the three content elements


(p.6). Game elements can “increase the enjoyment” of, and engagement with, the experience, which means learners give more of their time and attention, resulting in increased learning. On the other hand, too many game elements “distracts from, or waters down, the learning” (p.7). Pedagogical elements help to focus students’ attention on how to be productive, though too many of those elements can leave learners feeling as though they are using an instruction manual or “mindlessly following directions” (p.8). Aldrich (2004a) claims it is only through attending to all six elements that we obtain results that actually change people. In further describing the nature of simulations, Prensky (2004, p.9) identified the connections between the model and the users as being the “inputs”, information incorporated into the model, and the “outputs” or feedback from the model. Both inputs and outputs of simulations vary “along a continuum from abstraction to realism”, although he suggests educational simulations are more likely to have realistic outputs presented in “life-like conditions” (p.9). In relation to this, he raises the issue of fidelity, which is important in simulations for learning in the professions. Fidelity pertains not only to inputs and outputs but also to the simulation model. Stoffregen, Bardy, Smart, and Pagulayan (2003) say the essence of simulation fidelity has to do with whether adaptive behaviours can be executed or not, and if so, on the basis of what information. In considering the concept of presence in simulations, Stoffregen et al. (2003) distinguish between realism and reality by equating the “perception of realism with perceptions of the simulation, and perceptions of reality with perception of that which is simulated” (p.121). The critical question posed by Prensky (2004, p.9) is: “How close to life does the simulation have to be to do its job?” He suggested the higher the fidelity, the higher the cost of producing the simulation, so the degree of fidelity required for success should correlate closely with its purpose. In learning or training for the professions, he suggests fidelity

requirements “are more complicated and varied” (p.10), therefore low fidelity simulation should be used “for learning concepts”, and “higher fidelity simulation for learning about things” (p.10). Aldrich (2004b, p.102) contends simulations will become increasingly realistic but “will never perfectly replicate reality”. Indeed, he believes the environments provided by simulations may be better for learning than real-life situations because they can remove distractions and focus attention on essential concepts associated with the teaching and learning goals. Due to the complexity of simulations, Aldrich (2004b, p.14) suggested the only way to understand them is “to become familiar with today’s computer games because they introduce many of the structures, standards and techniques built into simulations today”.

What is an E-Simulation? Our focus is on e-simulations used for education in the professions and enacted in blended learning designs; that is, digital simulations integrated with various other media on digital networks and in the physical environment. Students can experience e-simulations via a web browser for use in any location, including by individuals studying at a distance and by groups of students studying together on-campus. In many cases, the students are invited to adopt a character role in a scenario that has been designed with specific educational goals and detailed objectives in mind to support the unit of study as a whole. In broad terms, these e-simulations tend to be: • • • • •

Single-person (student); Role-based (participant immersion); Goal-based scenarios, used in Blended learning designs, that are Assessment driven.

While advocating the use of learning designs that carefully integrate digital simulations as a form of e-learning in blended learning environments,

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one should not underestimate the role of the Web platform as a “network”. Mobilising the power of networks (physical and digital), will see the emergence of new networked e-simulations that “time-shift” and “place-shift” in conjunction with peers and other communities aspiring to develop new skills in professional practice. E-simulations are not a singular and static concept. Design-based research struggles (as other research approaches do) to investigate and explain the emerging expressions of e-simulations.

•

•

Purposes of Digital Simulations Klabbers (2003; 2009) distinguished between two closely connected design levels: design-inthe-large (DIL) and design-in-the-small (DIS). Approaches to these and linkages between the two make any such design effort a “science of design” in Klabbers’ view. DIL refers to the design of “courses of action aimed at changing existing systems into preferred ones” while DIS is design of an artifact—a simulation for example. It is argued that educational and training systems need to be innovative, yet relevant and responsive to the changing needs of students, staff, and professional bodies. Such systems need further development, as a DIL challenge, and, with this goal in mind, e-simulations represent at least one constructive response, with each such e-simulation representing a DIS addressing the following needs. •

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Need for work-related events in a range of professions: e.g., by providing digitally simulated experiential learning activities. Professional education and provision of internships that place students in real work environments have often been problematic due mainly to logistics of placement, availability of appropriate businesses or practices, the demands it places on busy professionals, and variability in the quality of the experience provided for students.

•

•

Need for authentic, engaging learning experiences that motivate students: e.g., create an enhanced method for moving students to action in completing written tasks requiring high-level cognitive processing of complex, integrated, professional problems. Such challenges will inevitably require students to draw on multiple information sources in a scenario that requires professional judgement. Need for flexibility for equity groups: e.g., equity of experience for off-campus and remote students with activities that they otherwise would not have, and equity of access for people with disabilities. Need for contemporary, valid, workrelated assessment practices: e.g., students have expressed the need for assessment that is relevant to the work they will be required to perform in their chosen profession. Need to link students with the professions and industry in ways that are not place specific (or parochial): e.g., internships may have required students to be physically present in a workplace. While e-simulations do not take the place of realtime work placements, they can augment such experiences by providing opportunities for familiarisation and practice before confronting the risks in real workplaces.

SITUATING E-SIMULATIONS IN E-LEARNING AND BLENDED LEARNING Distance education has a long history of rationally selecting and integrating elements of analogue media and, over time, integrating such elements with emerging digital media and, more recently, a growing number of networked or e-learning technologies. Frameworks for making media choices have been researched and reported by distance education theorists and scholars (see


Bates, 2005; Laurillard, 2003), with a trailing history of attention to “media classification and selection” models and algorithms stretching back to the 1950’s in the literature of “instructional systems design” and “educational technology”. Concurrently, the best classroom-based educators have long used a variety of approaches and techniques to stimulate student learning, incorporating a variety of media to achieve their purposes. One could ask the question posed by Jay Cross in the Foreword to Bonk and Graham’s (2006) “Handbook of Blended Learning”, about why the need for treatment of blended learning, when he could not envisage a situation where unblended learning would ever occur (xvii). So why would any educator ever not blend? Blended is a transitory term. In time it will join programmed instruction and transactional analysis in the dustbin of has-beens. In the meantime, blended is a stepping-stone on the way to the future. It reminds us to look at learning challenges from any directions. It makes computer-only training look ridiculous. It drives us to pick the right tools to get the job done (Jay Cross in Bonk & Graham, 2006, p. xxiii).

The Meaning of Blended Learning As mentioned earlier, for the purposes of simplicity and clarity, we have adopted the definition of blended learning enunciated by Graham (2006). Blended learning systems combine face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction. The working definition...reflects the idea that BL is the combination of instruction from two historically separate models of teaching and learning: traditional face-to-face learning systems and distributed learning systems. It also emphasises the central role of computer-based technologies in blended learning. (p.5)

We broadly agree with Graham’s (2006, pp.810) list of purported benefits of blended learning encompassing the improvement of pedagogy, increased access and flexibility, and increased cost-effectiveness, while Garrison and Vaughan (2008, p.4) observe, “The need to provide more engaged learning experiences is at the core of the interest in blended learning”. Garrison and Vaughan (2008, pp.4-5) further argue that “the time has come to reject the dualistic thinking that seems to demand choosing between conventional face-to-face and online learning, a dualism that is no longer tenable, theoretically or practically”. Indeed, communication and knowledge media already permeate contemporary, physical learning environments. New forms of engagement are required. In relation to Graham’s (2006, p.13) three general categories of blends—enabling, enhancing and transforming—we see e-simulations serving purposes in all three, yet with the potential to create transforming potential by “for example, a change from a model where learners are just receivers of information to a model where learners actively construct knowledge through dynamic interactions. These types of blends enable intellectual activity that was not practically possible without the technology” (p.13). The relationships between face-to-face and elearning modes are a pivotal area of investigation, and one where blended learning design solutions will be highly contextualised. The goal is to adopt “a new educational paradigm that integrates the strengths of face-to-face and online learning. Blended learning—a design approach whereby both face-to-face and online learning are made better by the presence of the other—offers the possibility of recapturing the traditional values of higher education, while meeting the demands and needs of the twenty-first century” (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008, p.5). In presenting a Student Survey Questionnaire (See chapter 11, Appendix A) for blended learning, Garrison and Vaughan (2008, p.193) illuminate how student perceptions

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of the strength and value of relationships between classroom and online learning can be conceived and evaluated in four significant degrees from more to less positive where: • • • •

Online and in-class work enhanced each other; Online and in-class work were relevant to each other; The connection between the two was not always clear; and There was little or no connection between the two.

These degrees of integration and value are given more precise formulation in the “blended learning design alignment” template introduced below for use with e-simulations. It provides equal emphasis on activities occurring within the simulation and those occurring outside, with congruency required between the two domains of activity.

proaches provide instructors with many affordances and opportunities for creating engaging and supportive settings. …It is the capability of blended learning to draw the maximum benefit from the technology affordances while retaining the best features of face-to-face teaching that make it ideal for supporting authentic activities within larger learning designs. (p.505) An important stance taken in the conceptualisation, design, and use of e-simulations relates to how they are situated in blended learning. For e-simulations, this means the simulation has been created for use in a teaching and learning context involving a range of other critical activities in the wider learning environment. For example: •

• •

The Meaning of E-Simulations in Blended Learning

•

In relation to the explosion in e-learning developments and possibilities globally, “more educators and trainers need to understand what they can accomplish in these environments. They are seeking guidance, stories, and examples of what works or might work” (Bonk, 2009, p.112). This observation has particular significance in examining the e-simulations in blended learning settings. As e-simulation emerges strongly, it deserves greater prominence in research and practice. This book provides frameworks and cases documenting claims about what works in e-learning and blended learning settings. Oliver, Herrington and Reeves (2006) note:

•

Blended learning appears to offer strong supports for instructors looking to create learning settings based on authentic tasks. Blended learning ap-

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•

•

Classroom introduction to the simulation involving orientation to the task (especially if it involves assessment). Practice on the task in a group. Rationale for the challenges in the simulation. Explanations of independent/individual learning applications such as for preparation for internships or exams. Debriefings and feedback about the roles and tasks undertaken by the student in the simulation. Collaborative work and discussions between students who have used the simulation. Individual feedback on any assessable component in the simulation.

The variety of teachers’ educational intentions in using simulations is evident, for example, in the timing of their use during the teaching period. This reflects the “embedded” and “contextual” nature of usage in the curriculum and assessment of units. Further indications of ways to respond to the contextual demands of using e-simulations in educational institutions are as follows:


•

•

•

•

•

Via a combination of delivery and support platforms: Stand-alone using CD only; combination of CD and a simulation website; combination of CD, simulation website and learning management system (LMS); combination of CD, simulation website and social software environment. (Each depends on student access to broadband Internet.) For different student groups: Pre-service undergraduate students; internship preparation by students; in-service and preservice postgraduate students; mid-career employees; workplace trainees. In different physical locations: At home; at work; in student residences; in student computer labs on-campus. In different human relationships: Alone unsupervised by teachers; with fellow students unsupervised by teachers; with fellow students in tutorials/computer-laboratories supervised by teachers; with work colleagues in the workplace. In relation to actual workplace learning: In preparation for workplace learning; as a partial substitute for workplace learning; as a full substitute for workplace learning; as a form of reinforcement after workplace learning.

These provide a snapshot of conservative settings and needs to which e-simulations respond.

A TYPOLOGY FOR DESIGNING E-SIMULATIONS Our attempt to classify e-simulations for educating the professions is strongly guided by the following observation of Jones (1998), a creator and researcher of simulations and games for more than thirty years:

My concern about categories is not about semantics. It is not about words as such, it is about behavior. In interactive events, behavior should determine the category. If everyone in an event referred to it as a game but behaved as if it were a simulation, then it would be a simulation, not a game. The actions, skills, motives, thoughts, and emotions are what matter in determining categories of human behavior. It is important, particularly for professionals, to describe clearly and/or define carefully what they are trying to communicate. In any field involving behavior, descriptions and examples are safer than definitions. Clear categories are important. (pp.316-317) With this in mind, we propose a “typology” of e-simulations determined by design variables that exert an impact on learner experience and behaviour inside and outside the e-simulation; that is, the teacher/designer’s intentions for using the e-simulation in a blended learning environment. The e-simulation types vary in their individual experience design including the students’ experience more broadly of a congruent blend in a unit of study, where e-learning is expressed in a blended learning design. The range of e-simulations reported in this book varies in ways associated with the fidelity of the screen representations and modes of interactivity simulating human interaction. These and other design elements determine the “representational validity” (Feinstein & Cannon, 2002) of the e-simulation. Representational Validity is evident when the simulation of a chosen phenomenon in professional practice is seen as a valid representation of the phenomenon for the defined educational purposes; valid in its concepts and constructs rather than being a high fidelity replica of reality. This contrasts with the validity of the e-simulation’s learning design, or “educational validity” when considered in the context of the overall educational goals, objectives, and strategies used in a unit of study. Educational validity is evident when the students’ experience of learning and

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assessment inside and outside the e-simulation is seen to be in valid alignment; that is, supporting the defined educational purposes (Feinstein & Cannon, 2002, pp.432-434). This involves attending to the constructive alignments in the blended learning design for the unit as a whole. For the e-simulation to achieve satisfactory educational validity (Feinstein & Cannon, 2002), it must contribute to the constructive alignments. The constructive alignment of design elements, both inside and outside an e-simulation is a core feature of the type of e-simulation designed for blended learning (See Table 3).

Figure 1. Closed cycle of alignments

Constructive Alignment of Design Elements for E-Simulations In considering the constructive alignment of design elements for e-simulations, we draw on the aforementioned work of Biggs (2003) relating to acquisition of knowledge. His work suggests e-simulations ought to represent a commitment to constructive alignment of key elements in an educational design. Table 1 demonstrates the key design alignments we propose, while Figure 1 shows five resulting segments as a closed cycle of alignments. Segment (v) in the closed cycle represents the domain containing both assessment and evaluation. It aims to provide evidence of the extent to which the e-simulation delivers on its promise to develop in the learner expected forms of integrated professional capability (outcomes evaluations). Assessment (A) of this form of student

learning reflects a stage on the road to integrated expertise in professional practice that the profession and employers need (N): graduate attributes. To achieve this, e-simulations should have both representational and educational validity. These are two key goals when completing an effective e-simulation “learning design” that properly integrates an e-simulation into the intended design of broader learning environments and learning experiences. The alignment of representational and educational validities ensures congruency of the academic goals with the professional capability of the employee. Representational Validity is present when the chosen real-world phenomenon, as simulated, is seen as a valid representation (of concepts and constructs) for the defined educational purposes (see Figure 2). This means the e-simulation facili-

Table 1. Alignment of elements in an educational design i

Profession/discipline Needs with the Curriculum goals;

N&C

ii

The Curriculum with “kinds” of Learning (categories of learned capabilities);

C&L

iii

Kinds of Learning withTeaching strategies (kinds of teaching);

L&T

iv

Teaching strategies (and all of the above) with the Assessment strategies (methods of measuring the learning for which evidence is provided);

T&A

v

Assessment (evidence of learning) with the identified Needs of the profession/discipline.

A&N

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tates the “transfer” of professional experience in the real world, to the student learning experiences in a university setting, (i.e., transfer from the profession to the: Curriculum, Teaching, Learning and Assessment in the unit as shown in segments i-iv in Figure 1). To achieve the desired level of representational validity of the professional practice, four clusters of complexity in the practice need to be addressed. They are central to the design of a simulated professional experience with representational validity and are detailed in Table 3. Educational Validity is present when students’ learning experiences via e-simulation in the educational setting encourage the appropriate ‘transfer’ of learned professional experience and capabilities to the real world (see Figure 3). This is to ensure that graduates’ achievements transfer from the university program to the profession/employer as shown in segment v, Figure 1. When designing an e-simulation to achieve the desired level of ‘educational validity’; meeting the requirements for a constructivist, active, participative and socially situated learning environment, the four clusters of engagement shown in Figure 3 need to be addressed. The clusters are valuable points of connection between the student and other learners, their teachers or practitioners. They are essential in any design of a simulated professional experience

with educational validity. These four clusters of “intentional activities” designed by teachers typify the designs of e-simulations. Table 2 provides examples for each cluster. These four clusters of activity typically occur both inside and outside the e-simulation to a large extent. This reflects the manner in which they are embedded in a blended learning design rather than taking an “off-the-shelf” commercial simulation.

Addressing E-Simulations in Blended Learning Environments It is important that the achievement of “blended learning environments” is the result of proactive–reflexive design of teaching by the teacher as “agent for learning”. It is therefore essential that the enacted educational design is learner– centred, that is, the ultimate learner performance in the learning events (both inside and outside the e-simulations) remains the responsibility of the learner. Only the learner can truly choose to engage and participate actively in any learning environment, playing their role, making use of the learning resources and the learning interactions. Only the learner can choose to engage, perform, and achieve the praxis that is possible. So while the teacher is the agent of learning, ultimate power for learning resides with the student. There is concern about potential imbalances in this

Table 2. Examples of “intentional activities” designed by teachers Intentional elements in the design:

Examples:

Participation in learning and practice of situated capabilities

Role-play on interviewing skills inside and outside the e-simulation.

Teacher guidance and feedback

Light interventions by the teacher during the role experience, in order to guide and provide evaluative feedback inside and outside the e-simulation.

Connections with significant others in “blended learning” contexts

Embedding the individual role experience from the e-simulation into the social contexts of the unit (course), such as online discussion spaces provided in a Learning Management System or social software.

Formative and summative assessment

Using the e-simulation for formative practice and assessment with a small weighting for the final grade in the unit (course).

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Figure 2. Elements of “representational validity” designed by the teacher for students to experience as valid phenomena selected from the professional workplace

relationship, particularly in light of heightened emphasis on individual learner experiences in the educational environment. The teacher as broker, orchestrator, and agent is critical for the success of e-simulations in a blended learning environment. Therefore, when considering the total learning design of any e-simulation, attention should be given to the design of relevant experiences outside as well as inside the e-simulation. Quality blended learning designs rate highly in regard to “conceptual validity” and “construct validity”, being educationally mature designs to achieve the intended learning outcomes. The previous clusters in representational validity and educational validity converge in the conceptualisation in Figure 4

of what constitutes the students’ blended learning experiences inside and outside the e-simulation. Achieving quality, blended learning using esimulations occurs by aligning the representational and educational validity clusters of design elements that reflect the teacher’s educational intentions. The roles of students and teachers, as they actively engage with each other, and the resources and tasks in stories and scenarios, comprise the blended learning environment of a contemporary e-simulation. The quality of this experience of relationships seriously influences the quality of the learning.

Figure 3. Elements of “educational validity” designed by the teacher for students to experience as valid experiences aligned to support the defined educational purposes.

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Table 3. Alignment of design elements when designing for the student experience in a blended learning environment Designing for the Student Experience in a Blended Learning Environment Title of the e-simulation: Name of the teacher/designers: Elements

Description / Example

Learner profile

Key characteristics and attributes of learners that impact on the design of the e-simulation in the blended learning approach. E.g. maturity, experience, course level, study mode, cohort size.

Teacher’s main aim

This is a ‘high level’ statement of the teacher’s intentions or purposes in creating the esimulation as a treatment for educating in specific areas of a specific profession (teacher’s perspective).

Teaching goals and strategy

This is a “second order” statement of the teacher’s intentions. It points to the expectations the teacher has for the student’s final learning outcome and indicates the key strategy/method for reaching it.

Blended Learning architecture(Preordinate design structure)

This is a “high level” description of the main elements in the designed (pre-planned) methods for achieving the blended learning. This includes elements in the digital e-simulation that link with other virtual/online elements as much as with those in the physical classroom, home, or workplace environments.

Teaching strategies for using the esimulation in the curriculum

The ultimate “performance” of teaching as a reflexive, interactive process may be promoted in the pre-planned design and use of the e-simulation. For example, are there unresolved professional issues and practices that the e-simulation raises for varied treatments when teaching?

Role(s) assumed by students

This may be more than first expected. Consider the student’s roles both inside and outside the e-simulation. Some e-simulations allow students to play different roles.

Key objectives for the learners

Highlight the most important learned capabilities in the profession that students learn from the e-simulation, either alone or in conjunction with other elements of the blended design.

Challenge / Difficulty

Highlight the selected elements from the real world that are being set as a “challenge” in the simulation. The type of challenge/difficulty portrays how well the e-simulation meets the demands that occur at the intersection of representational validity and educational validity of the e-simulation.

Methods and Sequences

INSIDE the e-simulation

OUTSIDE the e-simulation

Invitationto engage

In what way, in the e-simulation, do users receive a motivational welcome and invitation to engage in the experiences offered?

Through what other means do students receive an invitation and rationale for participating in the approaches and activities both in the e-simulation and what surrounds it?

Briefing(on roles and purposes)

State where and how this occurs in the sequence of e-simulation screens.

State if and how this occurs before the esimulation via other means online or in class.

Supportfrom teacher (assistance, guidance and feedback)

List key screens or interaction events that support the student learning in the e-simulation. It may be important for these to be absent on occasions. Note the approach/timing.

State if this occurs before/during/after the esimulation via other means online or in class. Only mention the key strategy for supporting students individually and/or as a group.

Resources/tools(for taking action simulated, virtual and real)

Identify the means by which students do the productive work; the active, participative “learning” work for which the e-simulation provides the experiential framework.

Identify any other means online or in class, by which students receive the resources/tool for enacting the role in a productive manner for practice/assessment.

Tasks(work actively completed by students)

State task(s) completed in the e-simulation, whether assessed or not. Include key elements of a task that might occur during the esimulation, with other elements done before, during, or after the e-simulation using another method outside the e-simulation. Emphasise tasks completed, not activities that support the scenario experience.

A major task in a unit that is connected with the work completed in the e-simulation. It is often formally assessed and results in a mark that contributes to an overall grade for the unit. Describe any tasks outside the esimulation that represent a “blended approach to the assessment”.

continued on following page

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Table 3. Continued Designing for the Student Experience in a Blended Learning Environment Time(structure and pressure)

Indicate key methods for creating structured/ pressured time on e-simulation users. Is time clocked and reported to the user? Do users control e-simulation time structure and pace?

Name relevant elements or tools in the broader e-learning environment or the physical environment that may determine the timing of exposure to all or parts of the e-simulation.

Reflection(individual/group)

Indicate opportunities for students to reflect on the meaning of the experience and their performance, prompted or otherwise.

Indicate planned opportunities for reflecting and discussing progress with learning.

Debriefing

When/how do students receive feedback on the meaning of the e-simulation experience and their performance?

When/how do students receive analytical and explanatory feedback individually and as a class/group as needed?

Results(Formative/ summative assessment by the teacher/assessor)

Does the e-simulation facilitate assessable work generated by the student? Does it involve minor formative results or a major learning result to be assessed?

Does the e-simulation contribute to a more substantial piece of assessable work external to the e-simulation?

Unit Outcomes(measured by the teacher/evaluator)

What evidence would you seek outside the e-simulation and perhaps outside the unit, that professional performances learned using the e-simulation contribute to graduate attributes transferable to (or transferred to) actual professional practice, therefore addressing needs of the profession?

Figure 4. Five spheres that affect the learning relationships both inside and outside the e-simulation

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Figure 5. Example of students’ experiences inside the e-simulation

Student Experience Inside the E-Simulation Several factors play key roles in the successful performance of any educational e-simulation. Some examples of these are shown in Figure 5. Each element represented in Figure 5 is present in the structure and functions of an educational e-simulation. Indeed, most play key roles in a wide range of educational designs. They are detailed in the Design Table (see Table 3). When conceptualising the meaning and use of an esimulation for education in the professions, the significance of blended learning means every student (regardless of their location) will have specific learning needs associated with the embedding of the e-simulation as a congruent part of the outside learning environment. The Design Table (see Table 3) details elements integral to the learner experience both inside and outside the e-simulation. They include “engagement” methods and sequences such as the • • • •

Invitation to engage; Briefing (on roles and purposes); Support from teacher (assistance, guidance and feedback); Resources/tools (for taking action simulated, virtual and real);

• • • • •

Tasks (work actively completed by students); Time (structure and pressure); Reflection (individual/group); Debriefing; and Results (Formative/ summative assessment by the teacher/assessor).

Profiles of e-simulations developed by teacherdesigners using the Design Table (See Table 3) assist in creating a congruent, blended learning environment incorporating the e-simulation. The goal is to address the needs of students and the professions in developing the capabilities inherent in complex professional expertise. (See Figure 1, The N-C-L-T-A Cycle.) To achieve congruent, integrated learning designs using e-simulations of the kind advocated in this typology and prompted by Table 3, other design expertise is necessary such as scenario design, interface design, interaction design and experience design. Approaches to each of these design imperatives determine simulation characteristics, such as fidelity and the various domains of validity (e.g., face validity, content validity, construct validity, and educational validity). Considerable expertise infuses digital e-simulations and this is extended when learning design necessarily includes their use in blended learning environments.

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FUTURE OF E-SIMULATIONS In recent years, authentic learning, participatory learning, experiential learning, and immersive learning have been keywords in contemporary educational practice. Media artifacts described as simulations and games are being re-examined for their potential for mainstream education and training as a result of the massive convergence of media, and information and communication technologies to the digital platform. Furthermore, digital simulations and games are being used in conjunction with networked computer devices and central databases in order to create educational artifacts and integrated teaching and learning environments that: •

•

•

Customise learning experiences: adaptations allowing teachers to meet broadly anticipated curriculum, teaching and learning needs and purposes; Personalise learning experiences: adaptations to meet certain personal preferences when interacting with an educational artifact or environment; the manner in which a learning resource/environment presents itself and addresses the learner; and Individualise learning experiences: adaptations to the behaviour and content of a learning resource/environment based on students taking greater control to meet their own learning needs.

Beyond what are narrowly understood to be “simulations”, Bonk (2009, p.8) identifies “Alternative Reality Learning” as one of the 10 major technological trends which is opening the world to a revolution in education. Commenting on the benefits of this technological trend, Bonk (2009) observes: It seems that everyone wants a dose of reality these days. We all crave to experience or do the real thing rather than listen to someone tell us about

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the supposed real thing. Most people realize that they perform best when learning by doping in the real world. Whenever possible and available, they want to do it now – not some time much later. And, of course, it must be fun. What’s more, millions of people are willing to take on a different persona, sometimes multiple ones, in order to experience alternative versions of reality that are different from what they tend to experience each day. (p.27) New digital tools and approaches such as “augmented reality” and “trans-media” narratives, are challenging our concepts of blending in alternative reality experiences. Designs that blend for teaching and learning for the professions will increasingly use powerful virtual reality via e-simulations, because they support active experiences for deep learning. The emerging designs and benefits of e-simulations in the service of teaching and learning, clearly build upon a long history of simulations and games, yet Bonk (2009) adds a note of caution: The degree of authenticity and believability keeps growing in online scenarios, simulations and virtual worlds. We are entering a time that continues to push the envelope of what is possible. But these same envelopes have been pushed before. Will this lead to higher levels of expertise in shorter bursts? Will simulations or alternative worlds created in one culture be readily transferred to another? How authentic must a virtual world be for educational payoff of some kind? And just who will determine the payoff? (p.290) For education in the professions to benefit from rapidly changing technology developments, significant, new organisational and staff capacitybuilding initiatives are required nationally and internationally. Future potential will only be realised through proactive leadership in the strategic and operational spheres of organisations in the education sector. Simulation technologies will continue to advance, with richer and smarter im-


mersive experiences provided for learners through synthetic characters and environments. Currently, educational institutions, for example, lag well behind breaking technology developments in the commercial world, and arguably, well behind contemporary game theories in the service of learning. Moreover, with the extended opportunities provided by networked simulations, educational institutions will be challenged to examine their development and use on mobile devices. Various capacities will be required within, and possibly shared between, institutions to deliver fully on e-simulations’ potentials. Institutions’ resources are limited and there are many competing claims on budgets for various sorts of teaching and learning developments in general, and educational technology systems and applications in particular. E-simulations will need to compete for institutional attention and prove they can be delivered cost-effectively and make a real difference to the quality of the student learning experience. We believe this can occur.

CONCLUSION In this chapter we have identified the central concerns of e-simulations for the education of students in professional and vocational fields. Various aspects of e-simulations, as valued and high potential educational technologies, have been canvassed, including what they are, what they can do, and how they can be integrated effectively into blended learning environments. We emphasise that pure educational value may not be enough to enable the uptake of this type of technology unless supported by appropriate organisational capacities and effective strategic and operational leadership. Quality educational technology must be matched by quality institutional leadership. This is the case for all novel and emerging educational technologies which hold promise for contemporary educational systems.

REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2003). A field guide to educational simulations. American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). Retrieved from http:// www.simulearn.net/pdf/astd.pdf ] Aldrich, C. (2004a). Six criteria of an educational simulation. Learning circuits, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.learningcircuits.org/NR/rdonlyres/F2ED000A-7A59-4108-A6CB-1BE4F4CC1CA5/4719/clark_e2.pdf Aldrich, C. (2004b). Simulations and the future of e-learning: An innovative (and perhaps revolutionary) approach to e-learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, (an imprint of Wiley). Aldrich, C. (2009). The complete guide to simulations and serious games: How the most valuable content will be created in the age beyond Gutenberg to Google. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer (an imprint of Wiley). Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, e-learning, and distance education. New York, NY: Routledge Falmer. Bates, A. W., & Poole, G. (2003). Effective teaching with technology in higher education: Foundations for success. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does (2nd ed.). Berkshire, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education: Open University Press. Biggs, J. B. (1987). Student approaches to learning and studying. Hawthorn, Victoria: Australian Council for Educational Research. Bonk, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How Web technology is revolutionizing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.). (2006). The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

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Brozik, D., & Zapalska, A. (2005). Developing simulations and games: Serious play. In S. Narasimhan & R. Teach (Eds.), Paper presented at the 36th Annual Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA), Atlanta, GA, USA. Feinstein,A. H., & Cannon, H. M. (2002). Constructs of simulation evaluation. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 425–440. doi:10.1177/1046878102238606 Feinstein, A. H., & Parks, S. J. (2002). The use of simulation in hospitality as an analytic tool and instructional system: A review of the literature. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research (Washington, D.C.), 26(4), 396–421. doi:10.1177/109634802237486 Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). [st century: A framework for research and practice. London, UK: RoutledgeFalmer.]. E-learning, 21. Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3–21). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Gulikers, J., Bastiaens, T., & Kirschner, P. (2004). A five-dimensional framework for authentic assessment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(3), 67–85. doi:10.1007/ BF02504676 Herrington, J., Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59–71. Hertel, J. P., & Millis, B. J. (2002). Why simulations further educational goals. Using simulations to promote learning in higher education: An introduction. Stylus Publishing.

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Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Jones, K. (1998). What are we talking about? Simulation & Gaming, 29(3), 314–317. doi:10.1177/1046878198293006 Kidd, T. T. (Ed.). (2010). Online education and adult learning: New frontiers for teaching practices. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Kidd, T. T., & Keengwe, J. (Eds.). (2010). Adult learning in the digital age: Perspectives on online technologies and outcomes. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Klabbers, J. H. G. (2003). Simulation and gaming: Introduction to the art and science of design. [Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.]. Simulation & Gaming, 34(4), 448–494. doi:10.1177/1046878103258195 Klabbers, J. H. G. (2009). The magic circle: Principles of gaming & simulation (3rd and revised ed.). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Klein, E. E., & Herskovitz, P. J. (2005). Philosophical foundations of computer simulation validation. [Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.]. Simulation & Gaming, 36(3), 303–329. doi:10.1177/1046878104273437 Laurillard, D. (2003). Rethinking university teaching: A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies (2nd ed.). London, UK: RoutledgeFalmer. Magee, M. (2006). State of the field review: Simulation in education (final report). Retrieved from http://www.ccl-cca.ca/NR/rdonlyres/C8CB4C08F7D3-4915–BDAA-C41250A43516/0/SFRSimulationinEducationJul06REV.pdf] Marton, F. (1981). Phenomenography: Describing conceptions of the world around us. Instructional Science, 10, 177–200. doi:10.1007/BF00132516


Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning, 1: Outcome and process. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4–11. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x Mueller, J. (2006). Authentic assessment toolbox. Retrieved from http://jonathan.mueller.faculty. noctrl.edu/toolbox/whatisit.htm#looklike Oblinger, D., & Oblinger, J. (2005). Is it age or IT: First steps toward understanding the Net Generation. In Educating the Net Generation, EDUCAUSE e-book. Retrieved from http://net. educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/pub7101b.pdf Oliver, R., Herrington, J., & Reeves, T. C. (2006). Creating authentic learning environments through blended learning approaches. In Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 502–515). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Prensky, M. (2004). Interactive pretending: An overview of simulation. Retrieved from http:// www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky-Interactive_Pretending.pdf

Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to teach in higher education (2nd ed.). London, UK: RoutledgeFalmer. Spratt, C., & Lajbcygier, P. (Eds.). (2009). ELearning technologies and evidence-based assessment approaches. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-410-1 Stacey, E., & Gerbic, P. (Eds.). (2009). Effective blended learning practices: Evidence-based perspectives in ICT-facilitated education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-296-1 Stoffregen, T., Bardy, B., Smart, L. J., & Pagulayan, R. (2003). On the nature and evaluation of fidelity in virtual environments. In Hettinger, L. J., & Haas, M. W. (Eds.), Virtual and adaptive environments: Applications, implications, and human performance issues (pp. 111–128). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi:10.1201/9781410608888.ch6 Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Simulation. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Simulation.

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Section 1

Theorising the Nature of Design for Authentic Learning and E-Simulations

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Chapter 2

Reappraising Design Practice Roderick C. Sims University of New England, Australia

ABSTRACT Since the emergence of computer-based applications to support teaching and learning in the early 1970s, the practices of those responsible for the design and development of those applications have received considerable attention. The underpinning tradition for those designers and developers has been the practice of Instructional Design, a series of guiding principles to define and create artefacts and/or strategies to facilitate learning. However, as computer technology has evolved over the past 40 years, the successful application of that technology to education and training has not been consistently achieved. It is therefore timely to revisit and reappraise design practices to assess the alignment of these ‘traditional’ approaches with contemporary technology and pedagogy. This chapter argues that to design and develop learning and teaching environments that support an emergent, learner-centred pedagogy, especially in terms of the role and value of simulations, requires an alternative design mindset. To this end, the chapter elaborates an enhanced version of Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) and its application to e-simulations as a set of principles that enable technology and pedagogy to align, through the synergy of both the attributes of networked, online technology and contemporary approaches to learning. By applying PD4L in association with an outcomes-based ethos, more effective learning through e-simulations will emerge.

INTRODUCTION Underlying the arguments presented in this chapter is a philosophical perspective that the traditions of Instructional Design, while well-established and researched (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009), do not effectively or consistently align with either the expectations of the contemporary learner or the attri-

butes of online teaching and learning environments, such as interaction, collaboration, communication and content creation. Consequently practitioners (designers, developers) require re-conceptualised tools, processes and practices to effectively create the motivating and engaging learning experiences demanded and expected by learners. Rather than taking a ‘rear-view mirror’ approach to inform de

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch002


Reappraising Design Practice

sign practice, this chapter presents a perspective on the thinking designers, developers, teachers, and learners need to adopt: philosophically, pedagogically, and practically. For the purposes of this discussion and from the human perspective, the term design denotes the analysis, discussion, and effort put into both the conceptualisation and production of educational resources. From the technology perspective, the term e-learning is used to represent the range of options available for implementing computer-based technologies into environments where the focus is on learning through interaction, collaboration, and knowledge construction. And given the focus of this publication, the term blended is used to represent those educational contexts that embrace a combination of delivery and access options. However, blended, in the current environment, is more complex than a case of “face-to-face and online”; rather blended can also refer to a combination of access, resources, and strategies that enable a coherent learning experience from a diverse and distributed student cohort. To provide a context for the arguments presented, the chapter initially reflects on the design traditions that have influenced the field of computers, teaching, and learning. While the term e-learning is currently well established in the educational discourse, its predecessors (computerbased learning, hypermedia, multimedia) and its probable successors remain subject to the work of designers, and the pedagogies that inform and influence their work. Given these traditions, the following section presents a case for what is termed emergent design, a set of inter-related principles that are contextualised within the Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) model. Using this set of guiding principles, the third section of the chapter explores the value of applying outcomesbased strategies, in combination with PD4L, to maximise the effectiveness of e-simulations. Through a synthesis of these ideas, the chapter presents a framework for successful e-learning and e-simulations within blended teaching and learning environments. 26

DESIGN TRADITIONS In 1976, when I first encountered the possibility of using computers in a teaching and learning context, the relationship was crystal clear. The designer would use fundamental computer programming structures (variables, loops, conditions, indexes, arrays) to create applications that would be accessed by the learner, and which would allow that learner to interact based on the instructions within the program code. The applications which emerged in those early days of our field were pedagogically sound, graphically accurate, and enabled complex interaction between the learner and the subject matter. The design principles supporting the development of these computer-based learning tools were predicated on the fundamental principles of Instructional Design (O’Neil, 1979) and design strategies for specific applications, such as the simulation, were given explicit treatment (e.g. Alessi & Trollip, 1985). In addition, the competencies required to successfully undertake a development project were embedded in a subject-matter expert, an instructional designer, and a programmer. The design, development, and implementation of computer-based resources and environments aimed to enhance and/or facilitate the teaching and learning process were not only the result of pedagogical competencies, but also those associated with software development and the human-computer interface. Over the past 35 years, while there have been many instances of excellent e-learning productions, there has been a trend to leave the creation of e-learning resources and environments to groups who manifest only a subset of these competencies; for example, the independent subject-matter expert or a content specialist supported by an educational developer, but without a background in computer programming and operations. As a result, many resources which have been developed lack the depth and complexity which program code enables. At the same time, especially in today’s higher education institutions, the learning management systems deployed allow participants to access a range of


tools, such as threaded discussions, blogs, wikis, chat-rooms, assessments and assignments. In some cases these are supplemented with audio-visual resources such as podcasts and lecture slides. Together these tools allow participants to engage in mediated, asynchronous discussions, synchronous collaborations, self-assessment, and review. However, rarely do these environments evidence the additional computational power available to support participant interactions with content – adapted to the context and situation of individual learners. As a result, current online learning environments have lost, to a large extent, the very affordances that enable them to function comprehensively in a teaching and learning role.

Instructional Design Instructional Design is not a single approach to conceptualising, creating and implementing learning resources, but rather a strategy founded on a range of different theoretical frameworks that allow flexibility and choice for the designer (Reigeluth & Carr-Chelmann, 2009). At the very core of Instructional Design is the ADDIE structure, that the process of designing and developing educational resources which follow an iterative and recursive sequence of Analysis (A), Design (D), Development (D), Implementation (I) and Evaluation (E). But it is not so much the process or sequence that is problematic, but its interpretation and application. Despite a range of models that have attempted to enhance the basic principles or understanding of ADDIE (e.g. R2D2 from Willis, 1995), the outputs from the practice of “instructional design” are often manifested as quality representations of subject matter without the additional alignment to assessment, learning activities, and learning outcomes. Consequently, there is a lack of continuity between what online environments should do and how they are being implemented. The design of e-learning must take into account not only the essential components of instructional design and the associated learning theories, but also the

complexity of attributes and functionality the current technology enables. Rather than the design process being the “problem”, it is more the case that we have forgotten how to effectively enable the interaction, engagement, and motivation that is the foundation of digital learning technology.

Advocating Change Given this background, and argument that alternative models are required for contemporary learning environments, it is important to reflect on the most effective and efficient processes that will enable the implementation of meaningful computer-mediated environments. One of the key areas that I have worked in, and continue to challenge, is the notion of instructional design. The more time I spend in the field, the more I find competing drivers challenging and confronting the traditions. There are well-established instructional design theories and models which assume that without formal design processes in place learning cannot be effective and efficient (for example, Gagne, 1985; Merrill, 1994; Regeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009). However, the reality for many educators and institutions is that the course designs resulting from such formal processes are content-focused, unfriendly to the learner, and manifest an information transmission approach, where little regard is paid to the appearance or usability of the resources provided to students. For this discussion, the emphasis is on the design of learning environments and artefacts that align with the generation and construction of knowledge rather than its presentation. There are however perspectives other than those embedded in instructional design which present the relationships between knowing, learning and teaching, and the implications for design, quite differently. As an example, Davis, Sumara, and Luce-Kapler (2008, p. 7) contend that “humans are not self-contained, insulated, or isolated beings, but are situated in grander social, cultural, and ecological systems” which 27


contrasts the more rigid tenets of Instructional Design which focus on classifying those about to be instructed. Education and training need not be seen as learning environments about certain topics, but “in terms of the individual-and-thecollective and the biological-and-the-cultural” (Davis et al, 2008, p. 13). Concepts such as these not only use a different language to that of the Instructional Design tradition, but also present a far greater inter- and intra-relationship between teacher, learner, and knowledge, which align far more with the affordances (such as interaction, collaboration, and connection) of the online milieu (Siemens, 2004). Working towards the success of e-learning means adopting mind-sets and vocabulary that are consistent with the technology being applied, as more recently highlighted by Webb (2009) who identified components such as scalable metaforums, guild formats, cloud services, and co-agent agency as essential for educational design. The rise of the networked and co-constructed internet has changed the very world in which education and training will take place, and new models are therefore required to enable effective design in these “new worlds”.

Embracing Simulation An alternative can be seen in the re-construction of designer competencies and in the empowerment of the student. The designer’s role can no longer be one of “instructional designer” and all the traditions and processes that entails, but one of enabler, defining spaces in which students and teachers can explore the origins of their field, the currency of their field, and the myriad of futures open to that field. This is the space where emergent design and emergent outcomes become critical. No longer can designers focus on students achieving pre-defined, textbook-based objectives but rather create activities where the available resources are employed for the analysis of the present and the

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results of that interactional analysis targeted to predict and prepare for the future. In the context of this book, these ideas are closely linked to the importance of simulated environments as that “enabling space”. However these ideas are not without their critics; “who would want their brain surgeon trained by a computer”? Such responses however miss the point, and do not reflect the realities or expectations held within our field. I would never claim that a computer could independently, even with today’s capabilities, teach a surgeon or pilot to perform competently and consistently. However, when used appropriately, and in combination with other educational strategies, computer-based applications should be playing a significant role in these and all other educational endeavours, subject of course to the economic capabilities of the delivery context. Designers need to be open to opportunities which enable learning to emerge from the known. The simulator allows a surgeon, a pilot, or a manager to work through situations of varying complexity and fidelity to achieve competence and experience, and that of course is critical for accreditation of that competence and their ongoing work to heal, to fly, or to supervise. However, a simulator (which is controlled by a set of computer instructions), can also be set up to allow experimentation and testing. What if the surgeon wants to explore a different sequence in the operating procedure based on insights gained over years of real-life experiences? What if the pilot wants to test different ways to resolve an engine failure based on flying experience and intuition? What if the manager has ideas to improve productivity that is not “by the book”? Where are the environments to test these hypotheses, if not the simulator? It is the simulator that can provide that vehicle for exploration and testing. To ‘boldly go to new places’ without risk, but with the potential through communication and collaboration to emerge with new concepts, processes or procedures.


Embracing this approach also requires a rethinking of student capabilities. I continually read that students entering university need and want to be just given the facts to complete the assessments. But these are the same students who can vote, drive, drink and travel independently. Why then are they portrayed as being incapable of independent thought? Students have intelligent, active minds that we are engaging with – and a shift is required in what it means to be in a learning institution and what learning actually means. Learning is not necessarily best represented by an examination mark, but rather by curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge. And while the use of games and simulations has been part of the e-learning discourse, the implementation has been varied, despite the growth of complex simulations and gaming community (Webb & Sims, 2006).

A Personal Experience The driver for these ideas came in the early 1990s, when I was asked to develop a computer-based training package on a corporate email system and which resulted in changes to my philosophy towards the design of educational artefacts. The first shift was a realisation that the printed reference materials for the product (available as a manual) bore no relationship to its operation or functionality. For example, to determine how to send an email meant turning to three or four sections of the manual. The second shift was that if I approached the original brief literally, which was to produce an “Introduction to Email” training course, then it would need to reflect the respective chapters of the manual. Curiously little has changed. Recently, when I reviewed the manual for a sophisticated copier/ scanner, the focus was on what the machine did, not how to use it. The initial pages revealed the various displays, but not how to copy a page. And this design is sadly reflected in many of the e-learning applications in place today; they are more about the subject matter (the copier or email system) and

not what the user is meant to do with that subject matter. Such mismatches between content and application may well be the very reason that many students become disengaged with their learning, not because of different learning preferences but because the material lacks meaning and relevance. From that initial experience with the email manual, where the underlying purpose was to encourage employees to use the system, an outcomes-based, functional approach was adopted whereby employees worked through a simulated sequence of activities (receiving mail, replying to mail, sending mail with attachments) under a revised course title “Have You Read Your Mail Today?” This project resulted in the creation of a time-based simulation of working with email, and from this design experience I have since applied an outcomes-based approach to both my writing and practice as a designer, especially in the field of online teaching and learning. Such potential of the simulation for learning has long been recognised in the application of computers to education, especially as an application for e-learning. Alessi and Trollip (1985, p. 161) noted that the “simulation is a powerful technique that teaches about some aspect of the world by imitating or replicating it. Students are not only motivated by simulations but also learn by interacting with them”. More recently, Allen (2007, p. xii) proclaimed that “simulations, gaming, and scenario-based e-learning courses are the most powerful learning experiences... designing this level of e-learning solutions requires a combination of well-educated and experienced e-learning designers”. However, there are less enthusiastic responses to the use of simulations, such as Clark and Mayer (2007) who articulate a different set of principles for simulation design and implementation from those proposed by Alessi and Trollip (1985) some 20 years earlier. According to Alessi and Trollip (1985, 2001) simulations can be either about something (physical or iterative simulations) or how to do something (procedural or situational simulations). This compares to Clark and Mayer’s

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(2007, p. 350) determination that simulations are either operational (teaching procedural skills) or conceptual (“learning domain-specific strategic knowledge and skills”). However, what seems more important is the actual perspective of the designer, given the current complexity of both social and educational communications. Underpinning the frameworks posed by Clark and Mayer (2007) is a perspective that the simulation will be undertaken and then an assessment provided to confirm learning; however, as will be argued later in the chapter, the simulation itself can also act as the assessment, with completion of the simulated activities or processes being a demonstration of learning. Rather than it being a simulation to teach, it becomes a simulation to enable learning. While beyond the scope of this chapter, these latter comments reinforce the importance of the philosophical and epistemological views of the designer; in brief, the arguments proposed in this chapter align with rationalism (the mind activity constructs knowledge) and interpretivism (reality is assumed to be constructed by the knower) and the accompanying socio-constructivist learning theories (Driscoll, 2005, p. 12).

Emergent Design For those involved in the design and development of online resources and environments for teaching and learning, an extensive variety of models and processes have been proposed, and guide those efforts, ranging from the conservative (Merrill, 1994) to the practical (Alessi & Trollip, 1985; 2001; Jonassen, 1988) to the pragmatic (Clark & Mayer, 2008; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008) to the contentious (Allen, 2007). Allen’s (2007) admonition (and the subtitle of his text) is to “forget what you know about instructional design and do something different”, and his background is similar to my own, both having early experience with the PLATO computer-based training system. It is from these original foundations and ongoing interactions as a developer,

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teacher, and writer that the concept of Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) emerged, integrating earlier work in the evaluation of online learning environments (Proactive Evaluation, Sims, Dobbs, & Hand, 2002), as well as strategies to effectively align online development with the iterative and continual improvement process associated with practice in higher education (Three Phase Design, Sims & Jones, 2003). An initial version of Proactive Design for Learning was presented by Sims (2009) and the enhancements elaborated in this chapter not only reflect revisions to better position the model within the contemporary educational climate but also provides an important design ethos for the focus of this text, e-simulations within blended learning environments. The purpose of PD4L is to provide the designer with an integrated framework of guidelines and principles that go beyond the prescriptive traditions of instructional design while enabling quality of engagement, effectiveness of learning and efficiencies in development. The overall Proactive Design for Learning model (PD4L) is represented in Figure 1, where the central three-phased development paradigm is supported by six essential factors that contribute to the creation of online learning events. To provide a context for PD4L, a hypothetical simulation will be discussed such that the enhancements to the original model can be elaborated through their specific relationship to the creation of e-simulations.

A SIMULATION SCENARIO The preceding discussion has suggested that the simulation is a key model for enhancing learning and that the traditional instructional design methods may not align with the potential of esimulations, where collaboration and interaction between participants in a simulation becomes a significant design variable. For example, and based on encounters I have experienced with teachers, if we were to take the recent global financial


Figure 1. The enhanced Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) model

emergent outcomes. The example also enables the essential elements of a blended environment to be utilised – virtual communications and presence, computer-based tools, real-time data access such as RSS feeds as well as the opportunity for participants to meet face-to-face. In the following elaboration of the PD4L components, their relationship to the design and development of this second emergent simulation is provided, referred to as the GFC Simulation.

A Context for the PD4L Components

crisis, a teacher may determine that students should understand (learn?) that Model X is the preferred approach to maintaining future global financial security and consequently implements a simulation that is predicated on presentation of existing facts, choices that are predetermined, and prescriptive of a desired outcome (Model X), and which is based on external, historical (text-book) knowledge. An alternative approach, and one which aligns with the PD4L strategy, is where a teacher presents students with a set of known variables, factors, and tools and then creates an environment where those tools/variables/factors can be explored and tested in such a way that students propose one or more models that would maintain future global financial security. While the outcome in both cases is a model, in this second option the outcome is emergent, generational, and dependent on the interactions between and knowledge of the individual participants. Such an environment is then more than simulating certain economic conditions to test outcomes; rather the environment embraces and integrates simulation with interaction to allow

With any educational resource, it is essential to focus on initially building a functional rather than an elaborate product; the former is more likely to result in learning, the latter in short-term impressions. In developing the Three-Phase Design process (represented in Figure 2), Sims and Jones (2003) argued that function is more important than form, especially in the early stages of development, and that a resource which works educationally can be implemented functionally. For example, a black and white line drawing might effectively represent a landscape just as well as an illustrious oil painting. As course participants (designers, teachers, learners) work through a resource (such as a simulation or game), observations of their interactions coupled with evaluative feedback can be used to enhance the original functional structure. This approach is consistent with the observations of both Koehler and Mishra (2004) and Mishra, Koehler and Kereluik (2009) who advocate “teacher-as-designer” frameworks. In terms of the GFC Simulation, the initial structure might limit the number of variables and tools and focus on collaborative interactions to enable emergent outcomes, and then use observations of those interactions to identify appropriate enhancements, such as economic modelling tools. Over the longer term, major enhancements become less significant and the simulation enters a maintenance phase, although open to integrating

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Figure 2. Three-Phase Design, the core of PD4L

new paradigms of learning. The maintain process continues until the resource either becomes redundant; for example, in this case financial conditions might change so radically that any emergent model ceases to have relevance to the real world. Aligned with the three-phase process are a set of theoretical positions which are represented through the primary outcomes that reflect the application of interconnecting learning theories (as represented in Figure 3). The first outcome is connection, not only in terms of the connectivist approach to learning (Siemens, 2004) and the importance of learning through social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978), but also in terms of learning being meaningful (Ausubel, 1968), and connections being made both internally with a course of study and to the broader, external environment. Utilising these theoretical foundations, in conjunction with a contextual or situated cognition perspective (Clancey, 1997), and more recent interpretations such as authentic learning (Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2007), provides the foundation for establishing teaching and learning environments where relevant, meaningful knowl-

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edge is constructed by the participants and which can then be internalised by individual learners. In the case of the GFC Simulation, each of the theoretical constructs represented in Figure 3 become integral to the creation of the space into which the participants interact. Through interacting within that space through available information, experimentation, and communica-

Figure 3. Learning theories informing PD4L


tions, learners will (ideally) construct knowledge, understanding, and subsequent skills and abilities. A strong theoretical foundation, in conjunction with explicit design strategies, ensures the integrity of the online teaching and learning environment. Underpinning this theoretical element are the proactive approaches initially proposed by Sims et al. (2002) and which aim to capture the essential features of e-simulation environments, such as the networking and cloud elements proposed by Webb (2009). Identifying factors such as the strategic intent of the unit—the need, the participants, the outcomes—will enable the creation of optimal teaching strategies, associated learning activities (including assessment) and the context in which those activities will take place to ensure the outcomes are met (as discussed later in this chapter). Through this approach, participants take responsibility for accessing and identifying relevant content, and teachers provide the strategies and/or resources by which learners will make sense of that content. Because the underpinning technology is computer-based, a third element the designer must address is the interface; today’s learning management systems have clear but relatively inflexible interfaces, and therefore designs have to be created which give participants an impression they are “part of an overarching narrative where each task they complete is related to working through that narrative sequence” (Sims, 2009, p. 388). Understanding the informing learning theories and accepted principles of design for computerbased environments provides the framework for applying the other components of PD4L to the design of e-learning resources. Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) is predicated on a team-based approach, focusing on the importance of a collaborative ethos between the key stakeholders and the way that their interactions can establish and maintain a shared vision and understanding of the overall design process and outcome (as represented in Figure 4). Thus there is a blurring between the design of an educational resource, its delivery and its subsequent enhancement.

By focusing on the roles of those who will participate in the process, and in recognition of Laurel (1993) who elaborated on the concept of computers as theatre, the model sees the collaboration and vision being enabled and maintained by writers, builders, actors, and viewers. The writers (educational developers, instructional designers) need input from the actors (teachers, learners) who will provide insights as to key subject-matter, learning outcomes, and learner expectations. Once a script (specification) has been created, it is then up to the builders (graphic designers, web-developers, programmers, network specialists) who will create the vision for the viewers (the administrators, community, and government, as well as the actors, writers and builders) to evaluate how that vision was achieved. Through a combination of three-phased driven development initiatives, a strong theoretical framework, and collaboration focusing on continuous improvement, the emergence of a community of practice (Wenger, 1998) would establish an environment where all stakeholders actively contribute and participate. This opens up the potential for simulations to embrace virtual worlds Figure 4. Players in the design performance

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such as Second Life where interaction between participants is as much part of the simulated experiences as the resources within those virtual worlds. Applying these concepts to the GFC Simulation means that the simulation is under constant scrutiny. The initial design aimed to allow participants to collaborate and interact in such a way that models that might ensure financial security would emerge. With any educational resource, it is only through evaluation of that resource in operation that its functionality can be determined, and this component of PD4L emphasises the importance of a continuous interplay between design and delivery. Throughout this chapter, and the PD4L model itself, is a plea for designers to embrace the enabling factors of e-learning and e-simulation (interactions, collaboration, connection, networking), and to ensure those factors are not lost through application of traditional design models, which have traditions in teaching and learning that pre-date digital technology. The importance of innovation is therefore critical, in that it can result in new concepts and paradigms for the way education is designed, developed, and accessed. For example, a common tradition in the distance education institution is the preparation of extensive printed books of readings and unit guides through which the individual learner works, and responds by submitting assessments and undertaking examinations. These learners often study independently, only meeting other students if there is a residential, intensive set of activities, and workshops. Modifying this delivery model to reduce (physically and visually) the content and rather privilege learning activities over content, will provide an environment where students can experience deeper and more contextual learning interactions. By reflecting on the three factors of innovation identified in Figure 5, news ways of thinking can be established. The first of these factors, research, refers to the crucial step of knowing what other

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research is reporting – and the conflicts and debates resulting from those findings. The second is challenge, which encourages designers to examine structural and operational parameters within the institution to assess ways in which they may be enhancing or inhibiting innovation. The third factor involves hypothesising, testing, and assessing the value and potential usability of different options. Being open to change, and willing to test ideas and explore new avenues of experiencing the teaching-learning dynamic creates an ethos of research and exploration and, potentially, excitement at discovering new or different means to achieve learning outcomes. An approach to enabling outcomes, even unpredictable outcomes, is through emergence, a concept that Johnson (2001) suggests is what happens when the whole is smarter than the sum of its parts, and occurs from the bottom-up of an environment without any explicit control (see Figure 6 for a representation of the key components of this concept). Applied to the GFC Simulation, emergence is based on a strategy that the very interactions between participants will result in the generation or emergence of knowledge, in this Figure 5. PD4L as an enabler of new ideas


case models to ensure financial stability. Rather than assume that existing models are correct, the process of interaction and connection may generate alternative models or confirm existing models. However, the overall process and design strategies are quite different from those that look to ‘teach the model’. If this simulation were extrapolated to a virtual world, the subject-matter would then become part of that world, while encounters between learners and the resultant interactions within that world enable the potential emergence of new understandings about that world. No longer is the teacher or the textbook the knowledge source, but rather that source is the world (virtual and physical) in which we live. In the e-learning environment where collaboration and communities of practice are considered desirable because of the social learning outcomes, emergence has particular relevance because it allows the designer to focus on the participants being able to take advantage of the dynamic nature of the environment through contributing content and knowledge based on prior-experience, rather than relying on teacher-prescribed materials (Irlbeck et al, 2006).

Sims (2009) indicated that empowering students to challenge and question existing theories and principles was an essential component of PD4L and so it remains, with designers who may have aligned with a traditional approach needing to focus more on designing for others to use. The e-learning milieu is complex, flexible, organic, and dynamic; designing and creating contexts from which different perspectives on the subject matter can emerge provides a more engaging experience for learners, especially if they have the opportunity to encounter informal participants in the formal delivery of a unit of study. The discussion of the preceding PD4L components has emphasised the importance of the interaction among participants, as well as with other content resources, and is important to warrant a specific discussion. The reason for this is that it is crucial to discuss, “what makes a learning experience interactive?” The designer has a responsibility to show what learning activities and teaching strategies are active at any point in a course, with each purposeful and directed towards completion of the overall learning outcomes. To create content-based applications means creating interactions where the learner must apply their

Figure 6. Components of an emergent design

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knowledge to progress (Allen, 2007; Clark & Mayer, 2008). However, I have tested a number of self-paced courses where a learner could gain “mastery” by closing their eyes and pressing the Enter key repeatedly. As illustrated in Figure 7, to be relevant an interaction must provide each participant with a context and a domain of knowledge in which to engage in some cognitive activity, such as adjusting variables (experimenting), testing assumptions (hypothesising), introducing content (modifying), constructing solutions (manipulating), or situating the learning within their own experience and environment (contextualising). Interaction is about doing, being actively engaged with either unit participants or unit content, not just on occasion but throughout the whole educational experience. A mantra used to reinforce the importance of interaction is “learners as producers, not consumers; learners as creators, not watchers”. Thus with the GFC Simulation, participants would be producing and creating models, testing those models using economic modelling tools and collaborating with peers on the outcomes of that modelling. Making education relevant for the individual learner has been a quest for computer-based applications, through strategies such as individualisation (addressing the learner by name) or adaptation (changing material based on individual performance). In light of this, the initial PD4L model identified personalisation as a key component; that is, ensuring factors of relevance to the individual learner (such as culture, context, or learning preferences) are catered for in the design process. However, on reflection, it is more appropriate to examine this in terms of contextual factors, through adopting a problembased foundation to the learning environment, as represented in Figure 8. Through this strategy, and especially with respect to the creation of simulations, the focus is on the learners being able to process and interpret the course content (subject matter) within their own personal context; their culture, their

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Figure 7. Interaction, the key to success

global needs, their situation, the need for authenticity, the ability to experience, and through that the achievement of personal outcomes. Thus the role of the designer shifts from assessing the characteristics of the learner (such as through the traditional target audience analysis) to focusing on creating an environment where the learner is

Figure 8. Making learning relevant


able to apply individual traits such as their prior knowledge, specific context and situation, preferred learning style, cultural framework, and media preferences. So it is not a case of “how do I design for a learner with characteristic X?” but rather “how do I design an environment such that learners with any characteristic can make the encounters contextual and meaningful”? When considered in terms of the GFC Simulation, the design would assume that models may emerge that had relevance in different financial environments. For example, many institutions cater for diverse student cohorts from many parts of the world; rather than requiring each of those students to study just one model, the designer is obliged (based on this analysis) to allow and encourage the focus (modelling financial market security) to be applied both globally and locally. Will a model that appears successful in China be applicable in India and Australia?

PD4L FOR DESIGN PRACTICE As has been discussed, Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) is an integrated set of concepts and ideas, built on a specific three-phased design approach, that identifies the key factors which should be considered by designers of e-learning applications. In the following section, the implementation of a proactive design approach is discussed in terms of the importance of addressing outcomes as the driver of learning design, especially in the area of simulation. Ultimately for the designer the question becomes “so what do I do when asked to design a unit of study”? Based on the premises of PD4L, for a unit that requires both formative and summative assessment and examination, the process represented in Figure 9 has proved successful. The first step in the process is to establish the desired learning outcomes for the unit, which can be expressed as statements of what the student will be able to do/apply on completion of the unit

Figure 9. An outcomes-based design process

and within their own context and perspective. Often outcomes are expressed as very specific learning objectives, such as “Given two sides of a triangle, calculate the length of the third side”, or much broader achievements such as “Understanding of the Australian Constitution”. An outcomes-based design approach places the focus on a student’s ability (for example) to explain, debate, or apply the key subject-related principles within a specific context. In the case of the GFC Simulation, the participating students would be expected to have prior knowledge of economic modelling and apply that knowledge to the emergence of new or adapted economic models. The second step places the designer’s attention on assessment, with each outcome then used to determine the nature of the assessment items. For example, given the current situation in Australian politics, an outcome of “Explain the role of the Australian Constitution on the resolution of a hung parliament”, a corresponding assessment might be “Taking on the role of an advocate for change, argue a case for applying specific principles of the Australian Constitution to resolve a hung parliament”.

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Once the assessment items have been derived from the outcomes, the focus shifts to both the teacher and student roles within the unit of study. From the teacher’s perspective, the designer must determine what the teacher will do to introduce and engage students with subject-matter and to align and link each of these strategies to one or more outcomes and associated assessments. For example, a strategy given the above outcome and assessment might be a series of debates between students on constitutional/election issues. From the student’s perspective, the debates (in this case) become the activities in which they participate in order to have sufficient information to complete the assessment, in order to achieve all or part of an outcome. The crux of this design process is that, within a unit of study, every element of the subject matter, every student activity, and every underlying strategy are tied to an outcome/assessment pairing.

A Model for Simulation Design When this design strategy is applied to a simulation environment, there are different dynamics at play which require a change to the components and representation of the O-A-S-A model (Figure 9). With the simulation, the importance of the outcome remains: what should the student be able to do once the simulation task has been completed? However, unlike the previous model where the outcome was directly linked to an assessment, for the simulation, the key is to link the outcome to the strategy or category—physical, procedural, situational or process-driven (Alessi & Trollip, 1985)—such as a problem-solving simulation. Given the strategy, a series of inter-related and decision-based problems might be presented to the student, expressed both practically and contextually. Conceptually, the student will encounter these problems or decisions as they progress through the simulation. As represented in Figure 10, the most important aspect of the simulation is resolution, whether successful or unsuccessful. Unlike the

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broader outcomes-based model, where assessment was seen as related to, but independent from, the strategy and activity, in this model there is no identifiable assessment. Instead, to be able to solve the problem or choose a decision in itself are manifestations of knowledge application and thus completion or resolution of the simulation is acknowledgement of success, and of learning. In the case of the GFC Simulation, the identification, explanation and justification of a model, created through simulation, would acknowledge the learning that had taken place.

CONCLUSION Theory, context, interaction, innovation, collaboration, and emergence are the major components of the Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) model elaborated in this chapter. From both an historical and experience-based perspective, it has been argued that the paradigms associated with traditional instructional design practices are inconsistent with the affordances of e-learning, and that new approaches to design, which challenge those traditions, are critical for e-learning Figure 10. The simulation structure


success. Employing emergent design practice, through the use of strategies embedded within a Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) model and employing an outcome-strategy-resolution design framework not only integrate the affordances of e-learning but also maximise the potential for learner engagement and interaction. And it is through the simulation that these elements can best be achieved; environments where the learner is active, experimentation and problem-solving are the drivers, and learning is a manifestation of knowledge application and emergent outcomes.

REFERENCES Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (1985). Computerbased instruction: Methods and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Allen, M. (2007). Designing successful e-learning: Forget what you know about instructional design and do something different. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York, NY: Hoilt, Rinehart & Winston. Clancey, W. J. (1997). Situated cognition: On human knowledge and computer representations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Clark, R. M., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Davis, B., Sumara, D., & Luce-Kapler, R. (2008). Engaging minds: Changing teaching in complex times (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., & Oliver, R. (2007). Realism and online authentic learning. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 19(1), 65–84. doi:10.1007/BF03033421 Irlbeck, S., Kays, E., Jones, D., & Sims, R. (2006). The pheonix rising: Emergent models of instructional design. Distance Education, 27(2). doi:10.1080/01587910600789514 Johnson, C. (2001). Emergence: The connected lives of ants, brains, cities, and software. ISBN13: 9780684868752 Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.). (1988). Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2004). Learning course design by design. Distance Education Report, 8(18), 8. Laurel, B. (1993). Computers as theatre. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Merrill, M. D. (1994). Instruction design theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Kereluik, K. (2009). The song remains the same: Looking back to the future of educational technology. TechTrends, 53(5), 48–53. doi:10.1007/s11528-009-0325-3 O’Neil, H. F. (Ed.). (1979). Procedures for instructional systems development. New York, NY: Academic Press. Reigeluth, C. M., & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (Eds.). (2009). Instruction-design theories and models: Building a comon knowledge base (Vol. III). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Rothwell, W. J., & Kazanas, H. C. (2008). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved from http:// www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm. Sims, R. (2009). From three-phase to proactive learning design: Creating effective online teaching and learning environments. In Willis, J. (Ed.), Constructivist Instructional Design (C-ID): Foundations, models, and practical examples (pp. 379–391). Information Age. Sims, R., Dobbs, G., & Hand, T. (2002). Enhancing quality in online learning: Scaffolding design and planning through proactive evaluation. Distance Education, 23(2), 135–148. doi:10.1080/0158791022000009169 Sims, R., & Jones, D. (2003). Where practice informs theory: Reshaping instructional design for academic communities of practice in online teaching and learning. Information Technology. Education et Sociétés, 4(1), 3–20. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Webb, R., & Sims, R. (2006). Online gaming and online gaming communities: 10 reasons why they matter, In A. Treloar & A. Ellis (Eds.), Making a difference with Web technologies. Proceedings of AusWeb06, the 12th Australian World Wide Web Conference. Noosa Heads, QLD: Southern Cross University. Retrieved from http://ausweb.scu.edu. au/aw06/papers/refereed/webb/index.html Webb, R. L. (2009). The online game modding community: A connectivist instructional design for online learning? PhD Dissertation, Capella Univeristy, Minneapolis, MN. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com.library.capella.edu/pqd web?did=1663053261&sid=2&Fmt=2&clientI d=62763&RQT=309&VName=PQD Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system. Retrieved from http://www.co-i-l.com/coil/knowledge-garden/ cop/lss.shtml Willis, J. (1995). A recursive, reflective instructional design model based on constructivistinterpretist theory. Educational Technology, 35(6), 5–23.

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Chapter 3

Real Experiences with Virtual Worlds Andrew Cram Macquarie University, Australia John G. Hedberg Macquarie University, Australia

ABSTRACT The virtual world provides a useful experimental space in which learners can experience the design parameters of a real world task. The importance of the simulated space is that it enables the learner to explore their solution to a design task. This chapter explores some educational opportunities offered by virtual world simulations, and presents a conceptual framework to guide their design and implementation. The framework is illustrated by exploring three contrasting simulation examples. In particular, the examples explain how simulations within virtual worlds can be linked to real world performances and provide an efficient way of developing difficult concepts. The examples outline different types of simulations: an exploratory simulation for learning socio-scientific inquiry; a role play simulation involving an ethically toned situation; and a design simulation in which learners test and refine their ideas for subsequent creation using concrete materials.

SIMULATIONS AND VIRTUAL WORLDS The virtual learning is out of this world. It gives you a totally different view of education. (Learner, Student-Constructed Artwork simulation) Virtual worlds offer unique opportunities for educational simulations. As users control an animated character (avatar) within a threedimensional environment, virtual worlds offer

a space in which a range of social phenomena may be simulated within a variety of conceptual contexts. Virtual worlds are essentially places to blend learners’ understandings of the real world with challenging and exploratory simulations. The blend ensures learners can explore concepts and ideas in safe and scaffolded learning contexts that in turn, provide experiences to inform everyday practice.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch003


Real Experiences with Virtual Worlds

Simulations have been described as “a simplified and contrived situation that contains enough verisimilitude, or illusion of reality, to induce real world-like responses by those participating in the exercise” (Keys & Wolfe, 1990, p. 308). An important learning goal of virtual world simulations is to provide learners with an experience that can be transferred to activities that occur outside that simulation. Another potential goal is to engage the learner in verisimilar assessment, in which the learner’s responses within the simulation are as close as possible to responses to decisions in everyday contexts. Thus the virtual world enables observation and evaluation of a learner’s response in terms of actions and choices made during the exercise, which otherwise may be difficult to assess. Real-world contexts require flexible, nonlinear narratives with uncertain outcomes. Virtual worlds can require learners to make choices through active decision making, and provide a diverse set of opportunities for engagement, with different parts of the context being simulated. The verisimilitude of the simulation will partly determine how closely the learning experience within the simulation generates a similar experience outside the simulation. Within an educational simulation, verisimilitude facilitates transfer of understandings constructed within the simulation to the achievement of goals and resolution of problems outside the simulation, and impacts both the choice of representation and how learners interact with objects. Several researchers have assisted designers by describing how the affordances of virtual worlds can be used to benefit learners. These include: extended or rich interactions, visualisation and contextualisation, authentic content and culture, identity play, immersion, simulation, community presence, content production (Warburton, 2009) and spatial knowledge representation, experiential learning, engagement, contextual learning, and collaborative learning (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010).

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In a similar fashion, Bell, Kanar, and Kozlowski (2008, p. 9) describe how certain features (relating to content, immersion, interactivity and communication) of technology-based simulations produce potential learning benefits including the enablement of emotional arousal, knowledge integration, real-time interactions, and use of characters and agents. While these authors have given us a solid basis for the design of simulations that will help mimic real-world learning activities, this chapter seeks to extend understanding of those activities to include not only the features and affordances of the technology but also to suggest strategies that will help learners meaningfully interpret the objects and events in the simulated world. Further we explore some modifications of each element that will modulate and improve learners’ transfer of their experiences into real world contexts (Figure 1). Representational opportunities are enabled by virtual worlds beyond those available within traditional representations such as text, images, and digital movies. These representational opportunities utilise the relatively high degree of representational fidelity offered by virtual worlds, (for a list of the characteristics that determine representational fidelity of virtual worlds, see Dalgarno & Lee, 2010). Schultze, Hiltz, Nardi, Rennecker, and Stucky (2008) argue that the key affordances of virtual worlds relate to presence, placement, perspective, and place. In essence, these describe how learners can experience spatial, cultural, and interpersonal relationships within virtual worlds. Additionally, virtual worlds support changes over time, or temporal relationships. Underlying these is a set of four representation (see Table 1) opportunities that may be utilised by simulation designers. Strategies for meaningful interpretations are ways of structuring activities and choices within the world that enable users to progress through the world and interact with it. The strategies make


Figure 1. Conceptualising options for a virtual world simulation

use of the representational opportunities listed above, as well as interactional opportunities between the user, the virtual world, and other users. Dalgarno and Lee (2010) have described four characteristics of virtual worlds that afford learner interaction: embodied actions including view control, navigation, and object manipulation; embodied verbal and non-verbal communication; control of environmental attributes and behaviour; and construction of objects and scripting of object behaviours. Learners will actively utilise these characteristics in their engagements with a dynamic virtual world. It is the role of designers to create the learner activities in ways that assist learners to make meaningful interpretations of their experiences and that guide the learners towards the learning outcomes. The narrative strategies in Table 2 may be intertwined to struc-

ture the learning trajectory with one or more present in the same simulation. Supportive modifiers (Table 3) can be applied to combinations of the elements in Table 2 to modulate the learning trajectory of users as they progress through the e-simulation. Varying the modifiers allows educators to provide appropriate guidance and support for individual learners. Learner experience is modulated by the choices made within three areas of design options: representational opportunities, strategies for meaningful interpretations, and supportive modifiers. A successful outcome is achieved when the elements of space, time, place, and user representation are combined with strategies that in effect define the types of possible interactions available to the user.

Table 1. The four representation opportunities that may be utilised by simulation designers Space

Relationships between points and the reasons why they are linked or related. A three dimensional environment may be designed with certain physical relationships between objects and data within that environment.

Time

The space represented within a 3D virtual environment may be transformed over time, to simulate physical relationships in four dimensions. Multiple perspectives of a representation can be obtained through different viewpoints in time and space.

Place

An area in space that has cultural and other meaningful attributes that situate the thinking and action. This may be useful to represent specific cultural and historical aspects, or situate rare or potentially dangerous activities.

Avatars and representations of users

Each user can be represented by an animated character, through which embodied actions such as traversing through space and non-verbal communication may be performed. Having avatars within a place allows the enactment of complex social practices, such as ceremonies and protests, which involve culturally influenced relationships between the position and appearance of objects, the environment and the avatars (Taylor, 2002).

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Table 2. Exploratory narratives

Simulated contexts may offer different forms of interactions with different informational content, and these may also vary over time. Learners are generally given tasks that guide their trajectory through the exploratory narrative. Exploratory narratives are to some extent non-linear, in that students have some flexibility to actively select the context and interaction with which they will engage. The Quest Atlantis Taiga Park simulation described in the first case below is an example of an exploratory narrative.

Role play narratives

Users assume roles, take positions and perspectives, and interpret the situations they encounter from a particular point of view. These may be used to provide learners with opportunities to practice skills and to provide experiences that highlight particular aspects of the learning outcomes for later reflection. The Ethical Dilemma simulation described in the second case below is an example of a role play narrative.

Design narratives

Learners use the simulation to design an artefact. Learners are required to make decisions about how to meaningfully engage with, and organise, the representational opportunities offered by the virtual world to achieve their design goals. The Student-Constructed Artworks simulation described in the third case below is an example of a design narrative.

Table 3. Types of goal

Changes to the goal can refocus the range of options to include multiple solutions, one “correct” solution, or a solution dependent on personal values and interests. Other factors also define the forms of assessment used to evaluate learner performance and structure the feedback. Goal variations will have a significant impact on the meanings that the learner draws from their experience. Simulations that guide learners through a single trajectory may be useful for assisting the learners to a specific understanding of a concept or skill (such as microworlds). However, virtual worlds may also support flexible, non-linear and even student-constructed trajectories. These have the potential to assist learners to construct deep, personally meaningful understandings of how the concepts and skills can be used to achieve goals.

Game elements

These build extrinsic motivational goals, by rewarding certain forms of activity to encourage particular learner behaviour. Common game elements include points, awards, and special bonuses. Task- or quest-based approaches provide students with specific sequences of goals, and assign rewards for learners who satisfactorily complete those goals.

Scaffolding

Suggesting processes or specific information provides learners with a conceptual framework that offers a structure for the learners’ understandings and actions. Scaffolding can be embedded within the simulation or delivered by a facilitator through other means. In Quest Atlantis Taiga Park, for example, learners are supported by their classroom teacher as well as scaffolding that is embedded within the simulation (Hickey, Ingram-Goble, & Jameson, 2009).

Collaborative options

Suggest the importance of other users and their skill sets or interests to jointly achieve a goal. Collaboration may occur through the virtual world, be mediated by another communication technology, or be face-to-face.

Expectations of user contribution

In many contexts, users might have extensive control over interactions, construction, and design of the elements that lead to an end goal, in others users are constrained by the simulation designer’s or teacher’s expectations manifest in the interaction options with objects, contexts and other users. The type of rule set used to govern interactions within the simulation has a significant impact on opportunities for user contribution. Algorithmic rule sets constrain users to the activities and interactions that are defined within the algorithm. The consequences of each of the learner’s actions are also pre-determined. In contrast, a choreographic rule set provides a loose structure for the learner’s activity (for example by defining learners’ roles), while providing greater flexibility for each learner to explore their own trajectory through the simulation. A simulation might combine algorithms with choreography to pre-determine some of the situations, interactions, data and roles, while still enabling learners to design and add some or all of these elements. Allowing learners to design elements of the simulation provides further opportunities to form meaningful interpretations compared with simulations that are completely pre-determined, despite being more cognitively demanding.

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CASE EXAMPLES The conceptualisation of the virtual world experience and its influence on the real world outcome for each learner is demonstrated in three cases that follow. The range of learner ages within the cases highlight that professional skill development can be applied to school children as well as in higher education and beyond. With appropriate adjustment of the supportive modifiers, the simulation techniques used in the cases would be equally applicable for educating professionals in higher education in a range of disciplines. University educators of trainee school teachers will find particular significance in the first and third cases as demonstrations of how these environments may be implemented by the trainee teachers within their future classrooms. Each example presents an overview of the virtual world simulation, followed by a discussion and analysis of the particular simulation based on the conceptual framework of Figure 1. The discussion includes both a description of the design elements of the simulation, and the transfer of engagement from the virtual world simulations to real world tasks. The contrasting examples demonstrate the

three narrative techniques available for simulation designers using virtual worlds.

Case 1: Quest Atlantis — Taiga Park Environment Quest Atlantis is a collection of educational virtual worlds in which younger learners (9-16 years) explore the worlds and complete quests to assist a fictional race of beings, the Atlantians (Quest Atlantis, 2010). The learners have opportunities to achieve a diverse set of learning outcomes, in domains such as science, literature, environmental studies, and mathematics. Guided by the quests and supported by their classroom teachers, the learners participate in activities within the virtual worlds that provide experience of what it is like to conduct meaningful inquiries in that particular domain, providing a context for the development of vocabulary, skills, and understandings. This case focuses on one virtual world in Quest Atlantis: Taiga Park. The Quest Atlantis Taiga Park environment simulation (Figure 2) involves an exploratory narrative, in which students collect and use information throughout the virtual world to help

Table 4. Learning outcomes

Are dependent on the learners’ ability to meaningfully interpret the experience within the simulation to achieve goals and resolve challenges. Users learn and solve problems by reflecting on their previous embodied experiences, while using the resources that are situated within their current experienced context (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Gee, 2003; Lave, 1993). Within the situated learning perspective, users accumulate experiences and come to recognise and understand the value of conceptual and physical tools for the achievement of goals (Barab, Zuiker et al., 2007; Gee, 2003). Learning is not simply about better articulation of concepts and their interrelationships (although it is one possible outcome); it is more about being able to successfully engage in practices in order to achieve meaningful goals (Lave, 1993).

Identity formation

Occurs through the goals formed and choices made by a learner. It relates both to the simulation design as well as the context-of-use (for example, part of a course). Some simulations aim for learners to take on specific identities. For example, in both Quest Atlantis and River City, students are encouraged to take on identities as scientists involved in significant research (Barab, Zuiker et al,, 2007; Dede, Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, & Bowman, 2004). To succeed in these virtual worlds, learners need to think and act like scientists – analysing data, forming hypotheses, and conducting experiments.

Motivation and engagement

Influences the extent to which learners focus their efforts towards the intended goals or problems within the simulation. This motivation can be encouraged through extrinsic, game-like rewards. Intrinsic motivation, through meaningful learning experiences, customisable avatars, and opportunities for free play also plays a significant role (Barab, Dodge, Thomas, Jackson, & Tuzun, 2007; Clarke & Dede, 2005). Another important factor is to provide an appropriate level of scaffolding so that learners will see the challenges as difficult but achievable.

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compose responses to a series of quests (Hickey, Ingram-Goble, & Jameson, 2009). Over a 15-hour curriculum blended with classroom discussions and activities, learners are required to develop and evaluate hypotheses, consider alternative reasons, make recommendations, and observe consequences. The learning activities, or quests, in Taiga Park form a socio-scientific investigation aiming to

resolve a problem relating to declining fish numbers; the fishing company is threatening to move their operations from the park, in which case the park would lose a vital source of revenue. The Taiga Park simulation involves four quests for learners (Barab, Sadler, Heiselt, Hickey, & Zuiker, 2007; Hickey, Ingram-Goble, & Jameson, 2009). Quest 1 involves learners defining the problem by interviewing characters with different perspec-

Figure 2. Quest Atlantis Taiga Park simulation description

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tives on the problem. In Quest 2, learners collect and analyse data to develop a hypothesis, and Quest 3 has learners proposing a resolution that implicates one of the stakeholders. Quest 4 starts by showing learners the consequences of a nonconsensual solution (the closure of the park), then requires learners to propose an alternate solution that considered all stakeholders. At the end of Quest 4, learners are again shown the future so that they can see the more beneficial consequences of the consensual solution.

Learner Experience Many research studies have reported learners’ experiences within Quest Atlantis, and Taiga Park in particular. Several iterations of evaluation and design refinements of Taiga Park have been completed. These modifications lead to significant changes in learner experience, and highlight the options available for educators to modify virtual world simulations. The analysis discussed below focuses on modifying the simulation, rather than the classroom teachers’ practice, to maximise the portability of the simulation for use in other classrooms. Nonetheless, the classroom teachers played an important role in blending students’ learning through the simulation with classroom discussions and activities. One evaluation, reported by Barab and his colleagues (Barab, Zuiker et al., 2007), indicated that the learners tended to overly simplify the situation when initially defining the problem, and many were not successfully enlisting the intended concepts to meaningfully interpret the context. In response to the first issue (a tendency to oversimplify the problem), additional narrative complexity was created, along with scaffolds within the narrative that suggested that multiple stakeholders were contributing to the problem. The second issue identified in the evaluation (insufficient enlistment of the intended concepts to meaningfully interpret the context) led to several refinements to the simulation. The underlying rule

set driving the narrative was modified to require more choices by learners. This created additional points in the narrative at which the learners needed to make intentional decisions in order to progress, guiding the learners towards a meaningful interpretation of the context. Additional game elements were embedded into the simulation, aiming to motivate learners to engage with the context by allowing them to uncover “mystery” files and unlock simulation functionalities which would allow the use of new tools. Finally, new scenarios were added to the simulation, to provide learners with opportunities to generalise and abstract the intended conceptual understandings (for example, an optional activity which posed a challenge for learners that involved a separate context rather than taking place within Taiga Park). It was argued that students engaging with the concepts in other scenarios would more successfully employ the concepts to respond to challenges in Taiga Park context as well as other scenarios. Learners using the refined Taiga Park simulation were indeed able to successfully enlist the intended concepts to make meaningful interpretations, and also to generalise these interpretations to successfully resolve challenges in other contexts. The study reports that on randomly selected standardised test items linked to the intended curriculum learning outcomes, the class’s mean score was significantly better on the post test (Barab, Zuiker et al., 2007). The test items differed in both context and content representation between the scenarios, demonstrating the learners’ ability to transfer their meaningful interpretations from Quest Atlantis to other contexts. In a subsequent evaluation (Hickey, IngramGoble, & Jameson, 2009), efforts were made to improve learners engagement with the formative feedback provided for learners’ submissions to Quest 2 (selected for its crucial role in the learning trajectory). It was noticed that many learners were not making significant improvements to their quest resubmissions. To provide additional scaffolding, a formative feedback proforma was

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developed for the class teacher (who marked the Quest submissions) to customise for each learner. Part of this proforma was an instruction for the learner to go and talk to the Lab Technician within the simulation. The rule set for the Lab Technician was expanded, giving learners the option of intentionally accessing additional information that elaborated the formative feedback. The additional formative feedback assisted learners; however the gains were limited because relatively few learners were intentionally accessing all of the additional information available. In response, the design team considered adding game elements to provide extrinsic motivators for learners to engage with the formative feedback. This highlights how the supportive modifiers combine to influence learner

Figure 3. Ethical Dilemma simulation description

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experiences; in this case, changes are required to both the scaffolding and game elements within the simulation, to motivate learners to engage with the additional supports and improve their learning outcomes.

Case 2: Ethical Dilemma Simulation The Ethical Dilemma simulation (Figure 3) places learners within a situation in which they are required to respond to a problem involving ethical concerns. The learner takes on the role of an Operational Health and Safety (OH&S) manager within a manufacturing company and, as the role-play unfolds, a problem develops as to whether to initiate the temporary closure of the


plant for a safety audit. This would help improve the safety conditions for the employees, but would also place most employees on half pay for the duration of the safety audit. The objective of this simulation is to conduct verisimilar assessment of each learner’s response to this situation. The simulation has been designed to provide an experience that is as close as possible to a potential real-world ethical dilemma for an OH&S manager. This would allow the learner to discover and reflect on how they would respond in this scenario, as well as present an observable action response for assessment. This simulation differs from Quest Atlantis Taiga Park by having a much more loosely defined rule set (in this case, a choreographed role play script) to define interactional possibilities between the learner and other people in the simulation. In the Ethical Dilemma simulation, learners’ choices may lead to encountering different sets of events and information, while in Quest Atlantis Taiga Park, learners progress through a pre-defined set of events and gain access to similar information. Some aspects of the Ethical Dilemma simulation are intended to be invariant across learners to ensure that each learner is required to consider the implications of a safety audit, however flexibility is also desired so that each learner may interpret and respond to the situation employing their personal ethical values. The Ethical Dilemma simulation involves the learner interacting with two actors, who assume the roles of Operations Manager (Sarah) and one of the Directors (Tim) of the same company. The scenario is designed to be approximately 20 minutes in length. The simulation takes place in a four level office building, surrounded by a landscaped outdoor area. The learner travels through different locations within the building, with each location offering different information and interactional possibilities. Learners may interact with the actors through voice chat, as well as non-verbal communication through relative positioning of the avatar within the office space,

and use of gestures such as waving. Voice chat allows a greater feeling of social presence within the world (Sallnäs, 2002), facilitating a greater degree of natural communication between the learner and the actors.

Learner Experience A research study involving 9 volunteer learners has been conducted on the Ethical Dilemma simulation. The learners were experienced workers, who had varying experience and confidence with virtual worlds and problem solving. Each of the learners went through a one-hour group training session, consisting of three group activities designed to allow the learners to practice the skills that would be required in the scenario. A background information sheet was provided prior to the start of the scenario, to orient the learner with the role and context. A debrief session was conducted with each learner after participation within the simulation. The scenario provided learners with an opportunity to assume the identity of an OH&S manager. After an initial orientation and discussion of the facility’s recent history and the safety initiatives planned for the near future, the learner is informed of an accident that has just occurred and has injured four employees. The news of the accident turns attention to the implications of a safety audit, and specifically, how to inform the Director of the incident. Finally, the learner has a meeting with the Director and either may or may not inform him of the incident. Figure 4 depicts the intended pathways for learners within the simulation. Figure 5 summarises each learners’ trajectory through the Ethical Dilemma simulation, from the scenario orientation to the final meeting with the Director. Each learner had a similar trajectory while progressing through the orientation, discussing the current situation, and during the event of the accident. After this, the learners’ trajectories could be differentiated according to

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Figure 4. Intended pathways for the Ethical Dilemma simulation

perceived ethical considerations, decisions, and actions within the final meeting with the Director. When reflecting after the scenario, all learners could perceive ethical issues within their experience, and five of the learners perceived two or more ethical issues. Two of the ethical considerations that were experienced, but were not intended within the scenario design, are the potential implications to the company’s public perception and job retention and the need for transparency with the Director. For the simulation to be considered a success, the learners need to have acted in response to the ethical dilemma, and be able to reflect and share their thoughts and feelings about that experience. By their response, the participants indicate several outcomes: first, the issues within the situation were considered by the participant to be ethically meaningful; second, enacting a response to the ethical dilemma illustrates a specific stance towards those ethical issues, and this stance can inform their self-reflection or assessment. 50

Six of the learners were sensitive to the ethical considerations while participating in the scenario, and used these considerations to guide their response to the situation. These learners were able to reflect on and share how they responded to an ethically toned situation. The other three learners did not enact a response to an ethical dilemma. One was overwhelmed by the amount of information within the simulation, and did not recognise the ethical issues until reflecting after the scenario. Of the remaining two learners, one proceeded to the meeting without making a choice of whether she would inform the Director immediately or not, while the other leaner did not feel any responsibility regarding the safety audit and did not consider the decision meaningful. These learners were able to reflect on the existence of ethical issues within their experience, but had not yet been required to make a decision that indicated a particular stance on the issues. The learners were also able to interpret their experiences in terms of emotions and feeling.


Figure 5. Actual pathways taken in the Ethical Dilemma simulation

For example, one learner was nervous about the meeting with the Director, as she had decided not to tell him about the incident and was unsure of how the other actor would react. Two other learners felt emotionally blackmailed by one of the actors, and felt resentment towards that actor. These experiences confirm the need for appropriate debriefing at the end of this type of scenario. The simulation provided a situation that facilitated differentiation between learners on the basis of the ethical considerations they perceived within the scenario. For the six learners who perceived and responded to an ethical dilemma within the scenario, the simulation also provided an opportunity to observe how these learners may respond

to a similar ethical dilemma within an everyday situation. When blended with other learning opportunities within a professional learning context, this simulation would provide learners with a comparable experience, in which their individual perceptions and responses could be discussed and contrasted. The simulation also facilitates self, peer, and teacher assessment of the learner’s responses to a situation that is a relatively rare occurrence in everyday activity.

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Case 3: StudentConstructed Artworks The Student-Constructed Artworks simulation (Figure 6) provides learners with a supportive environment to develop understandings of spatial awareness, and then model their ideas for a site-specific artwork. The virtual world includes replications of the physical spaces in which the site-specific artworks would be eventually constructed, and thus enables learners to test and refine their ideas in a space that is verisimilar to the physical location. Through this process, the learners experience what it is like to be an artist,

and gain a vocabulary, conceptual understandings, and skills that can assist their artistic efforts. Learners start by completing three developmental activities within the virtual world. Activities 1 and 2 are aimed at orienting learners within the virtual environment while cultivating skills in using the virtual world construction tools. Activity 3 introduces learners to concepts of spatial awareness, encouraging learners to consider how to use different forms to generate relationships between an artwork (positive space) and the surrounding space (negative space). The fourth activity is more blended, with students initially conducting a photographic survey

Figure 6. Student Constructed Artworks simulation description

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Figure 7. One student’s sculpture design idea in Activity 2

of the physical design site, developing initial ideas within their Visual Arts Process Diary, testing and refining their ideas within the virtual world simulation space, and finally physically constructing their artworks within the installation site. The final artwork may be constructed in groups of 2-4. In this case, students individually test and refine their ideas within the simulation, then as a group integrate these ideas into the final physical artwork.

Learner Experience

Figure 8. The virtual world space for Activity 3

Figure 9. One student’s design response to Activity 3

An evaluation of the Student-Constructed Artwork simulation has been completed with 15 Year 9 students over 10 weeks. All learners successfully completed the activities, and participated in the construction of a group artwork at a selected site within their school. The simulation both supported the learners’ development of spatial awareness and provided an efficient tool to model design ideas. Although the first two activities were intended as opportunities for students to develop virtual object construction skills, the representation of learners as avatars within the virtual world prompted consideration of the relationship of person and artwork. For example, when designing the sculpture in Activity 2, one student noted that “avatars can fly through” a hole in the middle of the sculpture (Figure 7). In Activity 3, students had an opportunity to focus on the development of their spatial awareness. Each student was given an identical virtual space (Figure 8), which contained relatively basic spatial elements. Figure 9 shows one learner’s design, demonstrating an effective resolution of the design space through use of lines, colours, and repetition. Figure 9 shows one student’s design process in Activity 4 – from initial idea, to virtual model, to physical construction within the actual site within the school. The progression of the idea can be seen through the different design forms. Initially, the idea is represented using a black and white sketch. Even at this early design stage, the

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learner is approaching the artwork design as an artist would, considering both the audience and the environment. Audience participation is to be encouraged by allowing viewers to add new pieces of origami to the artwork. The environment is considered by using the coloured paper to contrast with the colour of the tree. Based on the initial design idea, the learner was able to explore different ways that this idea may be executed by modelling the idea within the virtual world. After completing their virtual models, the learners worked in groups of 2-4 to construct the physical site-specific artworks. In the example shown in Figure 10, the physical construction of the artwork is very similar to the virtual model, with some additional elements that were drawn from models of the other learners. Not all learners were able to contribute their virtual model ideas to the final physical artwork. Some of the learners’ virtual models could not be physically constructed, partly because the learners were not aware of which physical materials would be available to construct their models. The virtual world construction tools were particularly suited to allowing learners to efficiently test and refine their artwork ideas. The learners reported that modelling and refining their ideas within the virtual world assisted them to improve their artworks, by identifying the forms, colours and feel of the artwork that would work within that space. Through this process, the learners came to appreciate how to apply spatial awareness to develop site-specific artworks. Students were highly motivated throughout the study. When asked, the students reported the sources of their motivation as learning about artworks and mastering virtual construction skills, avatar customisation, play and exploration of the space and technological capabilities, the opportunity for creativity, and socialisation.

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Figure 10. One student’s process for artwork design in Activity 4. Clockwise from top left: initial sketch of idea, virtual model of idea, physical artwork at night, physical artwork during the day.

CONCLUSION The design framework and its use in the development of virtual world contexts has shown that it is possible to ensure that simulations in a virtual world can be constructed to generate real world learning outcomes. In comparison to many learning designs, the effective employment of the virtual world can scaffold the skill set of the learners to create differential performance in complex real world scenarios. The cases chosen each contained very open elements that required learners to progress through judgment and intentional choices, thus facilitating higher order learning outcomes. The cases also illustrate that creative outcomes are achievable in scientific problem-solving, the assessment of ethical decision-making actions and in the use of the space to develop not only a creative product but more importantly an understanding of the artistic object and the participant.


In each example, the links between the virtual experience and the user’s ability to apply the learning outcomes in the real world have shown it is possible to employ the concept of cross functional teams and negotiated tasks within a virtual context that can transfer into a real world scenario. These examples, from both well designed research studies and smaller case studies, all point to valuable outcomes for learning how complex tasks can be undertaken in the real world. This in itself contributes to a literature that is limited at this point. Thus the cases illustrate some of the possible uses of a simulation that is flexible and dynamically responds to the vagaries of real people making choices. The exploratory narrative of Taiga Park provides a simulation of an ecological domain in which real data processing and real scientific understanding are required to find a solution. Learners gain understandings of scientific concepts and their relationships, as well as the process of scientific inquiry. The choice of the Ethical Dilemma case was to illustrate the beginning of possible assessment approaches for the attitudinal objectives often omitted in testing as they are rather poorly tested with traditional paper and pencil. It can provide a context that is closer to the real world and yet still remains very open-ended as the number of different responses and learning trajectories illustrate. The point being made is that in the effort to attain authentic learning environments, the particular strength of virtual worlds is that they can support real-world transfer through the use of verisimilar assessment activities. In particular, they enable less scripted scenarios while generating real emotions about the relationship between the learner and the other people within the situation. The virtual world mediates learner interactions, but there are some limitations on the interactions that are supported. For example, there are limits to social cues, especially physiological cues being noticed by roughly rendered avatars.

The Student Constructed Artworks simulation supports planning in a simulated site that mimics the real world but enables the user to construct and explore a variety of design responses more efficiently than concrete materials would allow. Although the time to learn the tools might take a while, the gains in design refinement, once mastered, still resulted in more exploration than other learners using real world models. The dimensionality and the ability to squeeze through gaps in the sculpture were unexpected gains for the students’ development of spatial awareness. The cases and discussion demonstrate some opportunities to blend virtual worlds with other technologies and face-to-face learning. Explorations of further opportunities for blending are currently underway in several research sites. Overall, the challenge is always the alignment of learning outcomes to activities that can be supported by virtual worlds; secondary challenges include supporting students to master the construction tools in reasonable time, as well as providing sufficient support to allow students to manage the complexity involved in designing and constructing solutions to problems. Most important, ongoing tweaking of the activity structures ensures transfer of skills and knowledge utilised in the virtual world to applications within the “real” world.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank the team from the Macquarie ICT Innovations Centre who contributed to the thinking in this chapter, Katy Lumkin, Janette Eade, Roger Buck and Deborah Evans. The assistance and suggestions provided by Dr. Maree Gosper, Dr. Geoff Dick, and the review team were also greatly appreciated.

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REFERENCES Barab, S., Dodge, T., Thomas, M., Jackson, C., & Tuzun, H. (2007). Our designs and the social agendas they carry. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(2), 263–305. doi:10.1080/10508400701193713 Barab, S., Zuiker, S., Warren, S., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E.-J., & Herring, S. C. (2007). Situationally embodied curriculum: Relating formalisms and contexts. Science Education, 91(5), 750–782. doi:10.1002/sce.20217 Barab, S. A., Sadler, T. D., Heiselt, C., Hickey, D., & Zuiker, S. (2007). Relating narrative, inquiry, and inscriptions: Supporting consequential play. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16(1), 59–82. doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9033-3 Bell, B. S., Kanar, A. M., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Current issues and future directions in simulation-based training. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Centre for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS). Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42. Clarke, J., & Dede, C. (2005). Making learning meaningful: An exploratory study of using MultiUser Virtual Environments (MUVEs) in middle school science. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada. Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 10–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x Dede, C., Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D. J., Clarke, J., & Bowman, C. (2004). Design-based research strategies for studying situated learning in a multiuser virtual environment. Paper presented at the International Conference on Learning Sciences, Mahweh, New Jersey. 56

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Hickey, D. T., Ingram-Goble, A. A., & Jameson, E. M. (2009). Designing assessments and assessing designs in virtual educational environments. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18(2), 187–208. doi:10.1007/s10956-008-9143-1 Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in education and research. Journal of Management, 16(2), 307. doi:10.1177/014920639001600205 Lave, J. (1993). The practice of learning. In Chaiklin, S., & Lave, J. (Eds.), Understanding practice: Perspectives on activity and context (pp. 3–32). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511625510.002 Quest Atlantis. (2010). Quest Atlantis. Retrieved from http://atlantis.crlt.indiana.edu/ Sallnäs, E. L. (2002). Collaboration in multi-modal virtual worlds: Comparing touch, text, voice, and video. In Schroeder, R. (Ed.), The social life of avatars: Presence and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 172–187). London, UK: Springer-Verlag London Limited. Schultze, U., Hiltz, S. R., Nardi, B., Rennecker, J., & Stucky, S. (2008). Using synthetic worlds for work and learning. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 22, 351–370. Taylor, T. L. (2002). Living digitally: Embodiment in virtual worlds. In Schroeder, R. (Ed.), The social life of avatars: Presence and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 40–62). London, UK: Springer-Verlag London Limited. Warburton, S. (2009). Second Life in higher education: Assessing the potential for and the barriers to deploying virtual worlds in learning and teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 414–426. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00952.x

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Chapter 4

Design of an Authentic E-Learning Environment Theo J. Bastiaens Fernuniversität in Hagen, Germany

ABSTRACT The increasing necessity of a lifelong learning attitude has its influence on the ageing population in Western societies. Employees nowadays cannot rely on their skills once learned in school. Most, also older, employees have to keep up by learning new insights, new skills, and new knowledge. A lot of money is invested in training and further education. New technology can play an important role here. This chapter will give an insight into the development of an authentic multimedia learning environment to support lifelong learners. More specifically, it has been developed in order to improve learning materials in terms of giving the right amount of scaffolding at the time when it is needed to increase the motivation and the performance of the (older) learner. A design that adapts cognitive load theory to minimise cognitive overload was embedded in an authentic context that, as a result, provided a fruitful basis for authentic and simulated learning environments addressing both younger and older adults.

INTRODUCTION In the beginning of the new technology era, faith was put in the fact that only the use of new technology could genuinely improve learners’ motivation, learning approach, and their learning results. The educational technology community DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch004

learned the lesson the hard way, that the mere usage of new technology alone would not improve anything. New technology can be seen as just another medium that can be used, as one can also use a teacher, books, or other educational media. From the author’s point of view, it is of foremost importance that new technology is embedded in a systematic instructional design that makes sense. However, there are many instructional design (ID)


Design of an Authentic E-Learning Environment

models from which to choose. Some ID models are grounded in learning psychology fundamentals like behaviorism or cognitivism. Others are more prescriptive like, for example, the ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation) model. Another category is the phenomenological ID model which takes, for example, situated learning theory or the theory of andragogy as its starting point. In general, all ID models try to translate theoretical assumptions to practical and applicable steps to be taken when developing learning situations, learning materials, or new technologies. The only dilemma and question to be resolved is which ID model to adopt? This is of great importance in designing digitally-supported, authentic, and simulated learning environments for adult and lifelong learning. In the project reported in this chapter, the question was answered by combining ground rules from different theories. That combination finally led to one ID model (The Four-Component Instructional Design Model) that fitted very well with the particular requirements of the project, and also has applicability to undertaking other authentic e-learning designs.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES FROM ADULT AND LIFELONG LEARNING In the project featured in this chapter, a multimedia environment for older learners was developed. Knowles (1975) developed a theory of andragogy to understand and support adult learning. It emphasises that adults are self-directed and do expect to take responsibility for their decisions. Moreover, the theory of self-regulated learning emphasises that students are more effective when they take a purposeful role in their own learning. Multimedia learning environments should therefore not only state why learners need to learn the content, and how the knowledge will be immediately applicable, but these environments should also facilitate a self directed learning process in 58

which the learner can utilise his/her life experience (Knowles, 1975). On the other hand, with age comes the tendency to become less explorative but to turn into a more hands-on, more reflective, and observant learner instead. Minimal guidance, and the very often used discovery learning where learners must construct essential information, might therefore be challenging. As learning research, in general, reveals the importance of providing learners with an authentic context to support learning, and andragogy finds this especially poignant, the concept of situated learning can be considered as a possible framework. Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989) developed the theory of situated learning to increase the knowledge transfer from classroom instruction to real-life applications (Park & Hannafin, 1993; Young, 1993). Taking further findings of research on lifelong learning into account, for example, that adults prefer learning materials that relate to their pre-existing knowledge and experiences, therefore makes it even more plausible that adult learners prefer authentic tasks above conventional ones. So, a possible ID framework has to offer learners a structure where they can direct their own learning and apply their learning strategies to move at their own pace through the materials.

DESIGNING AUTHENTIC LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS In integrating the theory of situated learning, Herrington and Oliver (2000) suggest nine design recommendations for authentic learning environments: • • • • •

Provide authentic contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be used in real life. Provide authentic activities. Provide access to expert performances and the modelling of processes. Provide multiple roles and perspectives. Support collaborative construction of knowledge.


• • •

•

Promote reflection to enable abstractions to be formed. Promote articulation to enable tacit knowledge to be made explicit. Provide coaching by the teacher at critical times, and scaffolding and fading of teacher support. Provide for integrated assessment of learning within the tasks.

As mentioned before, an authentic learning environment provides a context that reflects the way knowledge and skills will be used in real life. This includes a physical or virtual environment that resembles the real world, with real-world complexity and limitations, and provides options and possibilities that are also present in real life (Herrington & Oliver, 2000). An authentic environment is not the same as an authentic task, which resembles a task performed in a non-educational setting and requires students to apply a broad range of knowledge and skills (Roth, 1995). Authentic environments provide a realistic context for authentic learning tasks. In Europe in the last decade, the emphasis in education has changed from focusing on the memorisation of knowledge, to the development of an integrative whole of knowledge, skills and attitudes. This integration of three key values in education is often referred to as the development of a competency (Stoof, Martens, van Merriënboer, & Bastiaens, 2002).The function of both an authentic learning environment and an authentic learning task is to show students relevance and stimulate them to develop those competencies that are relevant for their future professional and/or daily life (Gulikers, Bastiaens, & Martens, 2005). For example, students need to be able to handle problems that they will be confronted with in the workplace. Companies often argue that students know a lot of “facts” but are not competent to solve a real world problem (Bastiaens & Martens, 2000). It is contended that they are simply not trained to do so in school. On the other hand, in schools, and even more at universities, students

complain that they cannot see the relevance of a certain subject that is taught. It seems as if the kind of learning that occurs in schools does not fit with what companies call ‘competent’ employees. Authentic learning is thought to provide an answer to these complaints. For that, we need to provide students with an authentic learning task in an authentic learning environment. It is almost impossible to separate these two. Some authors as Petraglia (1998) and Uhlenbeck (2002) argue that it is impossible to provide students with an authentic task without providing an authentic context. In this project we developed a multimedia environment in which students worked on authentic tasks in a simulated authentic environment. To summarise, it was determined that our multimedia learning environment should be characterised by real world relevance where learning is embedded in social practice. The tasks should be authentic and have a diversity of possible outcomes, and there should be authentic assessment that is seamlessly integrated with these tasks. In the multimedia learning environment opportunities for students to examine content and tasks from a variety of perspectives and to collaborate, articulate, and reflect on their knowledge should be provided. Herrington and Oliver’s (2000) nine aspects are conceived as a guideline for the design of multimedia-based environments that incorporate the characteristics of authentic learning. However, the nine aspects proposed raise the need for a systematic design model to accommodate complex learning.

THE FOUR-COMPONENT INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL Modern instructional design models assume that realistic and rich learning tasks are the driving force for learning (Merril, 2002). Well-designed learning tasks stimulate learners to integrate and coordinate required skills, knowledge, and attitudes. This finally leads to a rich knowledge base 59


that allows for transfer to daily life and future work settings (van Merriënboer, Bastiaens, & Hoogveld, 2004). These developments put forward the need for a design model to accommodate complex learning (van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002). However, such design methodologies or models are rare, so designers often have to fall back on their own ideas and intuition, thereby often neglecting systematic analysis, design and evaluation (van Merriënboer & Martens, 2002). Moreover, constructivist learning approaches almost always have an implicit or explicit combination of both cognitive and motivational effects through the learning materials. This makes it even more complicated to design constructivist learning environments and to predict and understand their effects. The Four-Component Instructional Design Model (4C/ID) of van Merriënboer (1997) offers design guidelines in response to this challenge. It supports the development of complex tasks for learning that are often used in higher education. The model distinguishes between non-recurrent aspects of learning and performance, which differ from problem to problem situation, and recurrent aspects, which are identical from one problem situation to another. The model in general exists in four interrelated blueprint components. The backbone of the model is formed by learning tasks which are defined as concrete, authentic, and meaningful whole task experiences. They are sequenced in simple-to-complex task classes. Ideally, they confront learners with all aspects of a professional competency. The second component is called supportive information. This is information that is supportive to the learning and performance of non-recurrent aspects of learning tasks, (e.g. problem solving and reasoning), within the same task class. It helps to develop mental models and cognitive strategies. Just-in-time information is the third component and is a prerequisite to the learning and performance of recurrent aspects of learning tasks. It is relevant to the performance of routine

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aspects of the learning tasks. In general, these are small information units and presented to learners just-in-time while working on the learning tasks. The last component is called part task practice. These are in fact additional exercises for recurrent aspects of learning tasks for which a very high level of automation is required after instruction. Figure 1 provides a schematic overview of the four components: (1) learning tasks, organised in task classes and with scaffolding within each task class, (2) supportive information, (3) just-in-time (JIT) information, and (4) part-task practice. The sequence of learning tasks, represented as circles, serves as a backbone. Equivalent learning tasks belong to the same task class (the dotted rectangles around the set of learning tasks in Figure 1). The equivalency means that they can be performed on the basis of the same body of knowledge. Each new task class is more difficult than the previous task class. Learners receive a great deal of guidance and support for their work on the first learning tasks in a task class. This guidance and support decreases in a process of ‘scaffolding’ as learners acquire more expertise. In Figure 1, this is indicated by the filled circles. The last learning task in a task class is empty, meaning that the learners work without any support on this final learning task. Often this last task is also used as a test task for the assessment of learners’ performance. The supportive information (presented as Lshaped light grey shapes in Figure 1 for each individual task class) is the information that is often referred to as ‘the theory’ allowing learners to do things that they could not do before. Supportive information describes: •

Mental models of how the learning domain is organised while answering the questions ‘What is this?’(conceptual model), ‘How is this constructed?’(structural model) and ‘How does this work?’(causal model). The supportive information also gives concrete examples and case studies;


Figure 1. A schematic overview of the four components of the Instructional Design Model Note: Adapted from van Merriënboer, Bastiaens, & Hoogveld (2004), p.15.

•

•

cognitive strategies of how to approach a problem in a learning domain. After a description of successive phases in a problem solving process and the rules of thumb that may be helpful to complete each of the phases; again examples may be shown of an expert thinking aloud while problem solving; and cognitive feedback that is given on the quality of the task performance while working on the learning tasks.

The just-in-time (JIT) information is represented by dark grey rectangles, with upward pointing arrows indicating that just-in-time information is explicitly coupled to separate learning tasks. This information is preferably presented exactly when learners need to perform particular recurrent aspects of learning tasks. It removes the need for memorisation beforehand.

Part task practice is indicated in Figure 1 by small series of circles representing practice items. Part task practice is only necessary if the learning tasks do not provide enough repetition to reach the required level of automation. The main goal of the 4C/ID model is to support and enable educational developers to construct learning materials for complex tasks that are in line with cognitive load theory, implying that the complexity of these materials do not overwhelm the student. However, there are also motivational claims (Bastiaens & Martens, 2005). It is presumed that the structure of the 4C/ID model, especially the different sequencing principles (simple to complex, high level of support to no support) and the difference between supportive and just-in-time information will have positive effects on learning and motivation. “It is clearly impossible to use highly complex learning tasks from the start of a course or training program because this would yield excessive cognitive load for the learners,

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with negative effects on learning, performance and motivation” (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998, p. 260). Thus, an important aim is to construct learning materials in such a way that they do not increase cognitive load (Paas, 1992). Next to this, learning tasks are defined as realistic and authentic situations and problems which are derived from professional practice (Janssen & van Merriënboer, 2002). Four C/ID’s whole task practice offers “nontrivial, realistic, and increasingly more authentic tasks” (van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002, p. 58). These tasks are expected to be more stimulating and challenging for learners. Instructional design models such as the 4C/ ID model of van Merriënboer (1997) are increasingly popular for the development of learning environments for complex learning. 4C/ID is based on the tradition of situated learning and has been acknowledged as one of the most effective instructional design models for e-learning environments. The model fitted our ambition to develop an authentic learning environment for the project reported below. It gives structure and guidance in the development of authentic learning tasks and authentic learning environments in general.

THE “INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARDS – AUTHENTIC LEARNING” PROJECT Since the 4C/ID model is acknowledged as one of the most effective instructional design models (Merrill, Barclay, & Schaak, 2008) a complete multimedia learning environment was developed applying this methodology. The multimedia environment provides a possibility for (future) teachers and educational staff to learn how to use an interactive whiteboard, and how to develop teaching materials for it. In fact, the multimedia learning environment provides training for our adult students, studying mostly part time while in existing employment and who are approaching the end of their bachelor’s degree at our distance teaching

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university. Their bachelor’s degree prepares them for practical work as an educational technologist in schools and educational institutes. These adult students are used to self-regulated learning and have clear expectations in the sense that the time they invest in further education should benefit them in the work they are already doing. These students at least do have a clear goal about how they want to use the new knowledge they acquire to further their careers, as nearly all of them already have clear ideas about the requirements of working life. Thus there is a specific need for the learning materials to be authentic for this group of adult learners. For example, badly drawn metaphors depicting working situations would not be sufficient for this user group. Other expectations involve the need for materials to have a clear structure, as this homogeneous group of adult learners has a common background in higher education and also prior working experience. The clear structure and choice of support needed during the work on the learning tasks allows learners to choose freely the topics they need and to focus on, or skip exercises and topics that they have already mastered. While the content area for the development of the learning environment according to the ID model is not critical, the 4C/ID model has been proven to be particularly appropriate for our content area of learning to apply a tool, i.e. interactive whiteboards. The lack of training in the use of interactive whiteboards for teachers was obvious as the technology was still in its infancy at the beginning of this project (Beauchamp & Parkinson, 2005; Cogill, 2006). Our project idea of encouraging the use of interactive whiteboards through the development of a rich multimedia environment seemed perfect. The seamless integration of multimedia into the learning environment enables learners to familiarise themselves first with the topic through worked examples and case studies, and then to develop a mental model. After the development of these understandings, students can get proactive in working with simulated exercises, both at a technical level (concerning the


software) as well as involving the behavioural modelling of the expert. Students finally work towards the integration of their new knowledge into their real world experiences, (in this case the integration of an interactive whiteboard in their own classroom situations). The four interrelated blueprint components of the 4CID model were used, detailed and worked out in designing the authentic multimedia environment with its simulated exercises.

Learning Tasks The backbone of the model are the learning tasks which are concrete, authentic, and meaningful whole task experiences that confront learners with all aspects of a certain task and deal with all aspects of a professional competency. In our multimedia environment defined as authentic, whole-task experiences, which include worked examples in the form of case studies, were provided. Learning tasks come in a specific order that is based on the scaffolding principle. For example, learners get a first learning task in which a video of an experienced teacher using the whiteboard

in a classroom is shown. This expert performance has to be observed, (see an example of this represented in Figure 2). This worked out example generates the first mental model for the learner of what constitutes effective practice. The second learning task can be an imitation problem in which an example is shown that the learner consequently has to imitate in a different context. The third learning task can finally be a conventional problem in which the learners have to perform the task or solve the problem themselves. In our example, we first made a mind map of an expert teacher using an interactive whiteboard in actually undertaking their work in a real classroom. We analysed how the expert develops their lessons and prepares themselves while also video recording the actual classroom usage of the interactive whiteboard. The authentic learning tasks constructed deal with the development, preparation, and usage of the interactive whiteboard in a classroom. In the design process, we gathered detailed input from actual teaching experts in an actual job situation (as the 4CID model suggests).

Figure 2. Case study in Module 1

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Supportive Information The second component is called supportive information. This is (theoretical) information that is supportive to the learning and performance of nonrecurrent aspects of learning tasks (e.g. problem solving and reasoning). Supportive information helps to develop mental models and cognitive strategies. Supportive information is necessary for the non-recurrent aspects in the multimedia environment and is provided in the form of classroom videos and audio files containing the “theory”. The multimedia learning environment therefore offers a mix containing video and audio resources as well as more traditional online texts. The learner can get more fundamental information about the situation or problem from these resources. Supportive information is valid and pinpointed to all the learning tasks in the one module.

Just-In-Time Information Just-in-time information is the third component and is prerequisite to the learning and performance of recurrent aspects of learning tasks, meaning that it is relevant to the performance of routine aspects of the learning tasks. In general these are small information units and presented to learners, just-in-time, while working on the learning tasks. The multimedia learning environment offers help sites, glossaries, and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). We also use software examples and hands on software exercises to promote the necessary technical skills needed to use interactive whiteboards. But equally as important as the technical knowhow are the pedagogical context and the didactical strategies to apply when using the interactive whiteboard. As situated learning research has shown, case studies especially have the ability to introduce the learner to a certain situation or context and to show them how to reflect on the case situation from various perspectives. This multimedia learning environment integrates a wide range of case studies reflecting various

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perspectives from experienced teachers who have used interactive whiteboards for several years to those who are less experienced and represent a novice point of view. Just-in-time information is available at the right moment of need to solve practical routine problems, for example, in providing short information on how to take certain procedural steps in the software. Just-in-time information is connected to each individual student’s authentic learning task.

Part-Task Practice Part-task practice for the automation of some recurrent tasks in form of additional exercises. These are in fact additional exercises for recurrent aspects of learning tasks for which a very high level of automation is required after instruction (van Merriënboer, 1997). These exercises were not required in our multimedia environment, so we did not develop part-task practice tasks. The learning materials in our multimedia environment are organised into four modules that build upon each other with increasing complexity (as depicted in Figure 1). Learners encounter authentic and complex problems in the learning environment in the same way teachers would in classroom situations except that they have the scaffolding support they need in place such as the supportive information and the just-in-time information. The learning environment is web based and was developed with Adobe Flash and a MySQL Database. It has been created to run on all standard browsers and is available for participants on the university website.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The main research questions of this study are twofold. The first question is whether learning in an authentic learning environment influences student performance, and especially whether there is any difference between younger students (under 25, the


so called network generation) and the older more experienced adult learners. The second question is whether learning in an authentic environment influences student experiences with the learning environment and whether that experience makes the transfer of what is learned easier to their daily practice. Moreover, we are also interested in the intrinsic motivation of students and the experience of reality as a result of the learning environment within which they work. We hold the hypothesis that the authentic learning environment will result in higher intrinsic motivation and an experience of increased connection to reality, simply because the authentic environment is a more realistic simulation of reality. In our research design, we rank the participants on age, experience, and background. In the environment, we have built in three questionnaires (pretest, during and posttest). During a one year period, participants are free to register and work/ learn in the online environment. In comparable designs with online questionnaires we have collected data from up to 15 000 people (Deimann & Bastiaens, 2010).

DISCUSSION This chapter deals with three central challenges: how best to support adult learners with their specific learning in multimedia learning environments; how to use the increasingly popular concept of situated learning in the instructional design process; and finding an appropriate instructional design model for the development of suitable learning tasks and environments. Lifelong learning and the growing use of new technology provide interesting challenges for instructional designers. Difficulties in learning can be caused when adult learners cannot anticipate what to expect in terms of how the learning materials interrelate with each other or with existing knowledge (Botwinick, 1978).

The aforementioned learning environment based on the 4C/ID model shows how learning materials can be developed to ensure that adult learners can benefit from contextualised learning in terms of motivation and performance (Martens, Gulikers, & Bastiaens, 2004).The sequencing from simple to complex modules and the separation of recurrent and non-recurrent information provides the right amount of scaffolding when it is needed. Though the need for student-centred, problembased learning environments has been recognised, the difficulties in implementing those affect most higher learning institutions. The aforementioned characteristics of situated learning in general and more specifically the 4C/ID model can be implemented in the real world, in classroom situations, in e-learning environments, and all variations of blended learning. Apart from the methodology, they can be applied to practically any discipline. Gulikers, Bastiaens, and Martens (2005) completed a comparable study that provided insight into the effects of an authentic electronic learning environment on student performance and experiences. At that time, it was expected that learning in an authentic learning environment resulted in higher performance. The results of that study showed, contrary to what was expected, that students who worked in an authentic environment did not perform better than students who worked in a less authentic environment. Moreover, the reported experiences with the learning environment did not differ between both groups. It was concluded that the main reason for that outcome could have been that students in the non-authentic condition were possibly distracted because this condition contained less (irrelevant) information and fewer multimedia features. Students in the authentic condition were, in that study, confronted with much more choice of options and a lot to see and hear because of all of the multimedia features that were used. Consequently, because the students were distracted during their learning, they did not perform better.

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However, we believe that times have now changed; students are more used to working and learning online with multimedia. We have also changed our concept and view about authentic learning. In this new study we made some radical changes. Most importantly, now we more clearly structure the authentic learning experience that we develop. Although it is authentic, it is still all about learning. In our earlier projects, we probably focused more on constructivism and the high fidelity of the multimedia environment, (meaning that it had to be as close as possible to a real-life experience), than on the fact that we are still designing for a learning situation. The experience of the FernUniversität in Hagen with teaching undergraduate and graduate students in a blended learning approach using authentic learning materials has shown in the past that, the more authentic the tasks are, the more students generally get engaged within the learning process and are able to retain that knowledge. However, experience has also shown that students might be overwhelmed with self-regulated learning especially with little prior experience. For that reason the 4C/ID model was chosen because the combination of authentic learning with a good instructional format based on cognitive load theory can be seen as a solid basis for the development of learning materials.

CONCLUSION In this chapter we have described the benefits of authentic learning and a possible approach to create these kinds of learning experiences through the use of an instructional design model. Learners have to solve problems and create a result (mostly a product) themselves. However, authentic learning should not be seen as the ultimate constructivist approach. Too often, educators abuse the term authentic learning or constructivism for situations in which learners are struggling with a learning task, completely left alone and, for example, revert

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to only googling for solutions. That has nothing to do with authentic learning or constructivism. We still think that guidance, structure, and good examples are very important for learners. As we learned the hard way, high fidelity is not of primary importance. It is expected that students benefit both from authentic tasks and well structured supportive learning materials and flexible scaffolding. Further research and an empirical study needs to be undertaken to prove these claims.

REFERENCES Bastiaens, T. J., & Martens, R. L. (2000). Conditions for Web-based learning with real events. In Abbey, B. (Ed.), Instructional and cognitive impacts of Web-based education (pp. 1–31). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing. doi:10.4018/9781878289599.ch001 Bastiaens, T. J., & Martens, R. L. (2005). Motivational effects of learning with complex tasks. Paper presented at the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI) Conference 2005, Nicosia, Cyprus. Beauchamp, G., & Parkinson, J. (2005). Beyond the ‘wow’ factor: Developing interactivity with the interactive whiteboard. The School Science Review, 86(316), 97–103. Botwinick, J. (1978). Aging and behavior. New York, NY: Springer. Cogill, J. (2006). Pedagogy, models of teacher knowledge, and use of the interactive whiteboard. Education Today, 56(3), 6–13. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In Resnick, L. B. (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honour of Robert Glaser (pp. 453–494). Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.


Deimann, M., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2010). The role of volition in distance education: An exploration of its capacities. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 11(1), 1–16. Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Martens, R. L. (2005). The surplus value of an authentic learning environment. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(3), 509–521. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.028 Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48(3), 23–48. doi:10.1007/ BF02319856 Janssen, A. M. B., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2002). Innovatief onderwijs ontwerpen. Via leertaken naar complexe vaardigheden [Designing innovative education: from learning tasks to complex tasks]. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning. Chicago, IL: Follet. Martens, R. L., Gulikers, J., & Bastiaens, T. (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in authentic computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 368–376. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2004.00096.x Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43–59. doi:10.1007/BF02505024 Merrill, M. D., Barclay, M., & Schaak, A. V. (2008). Prescriptive principles for instructional design. In Spector, J. M., Merrill, M. D., van Merriënboer, J., & Driscoll, M. P. (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 173–184). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.

Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429–434. doi:10.1037/00220663.84.4.429 Park, I., & Hannafin, M. J. (1993). Empiricallybased guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 63–85. doi:10.1007/ BF02297358 Petraglia, J. (1998). Reality by design. The rhetoric and technology of authenticity in education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Roth, W. M. (1995). Authentic school science: Knowledge and learning in open-inquiry science laboratories. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press. Stoof, A., Martens, R. L., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2002). The boundary approach of competence: A constructivist aid for understanding and using the concept of competence. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 345–365. doi:10.1177/1534484302013005 Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 Uhlenbeck, A. (2002). The development of an assessment procedure for beginning teachers of English as a foreign language. Doctoral dissertation, University of Leiden, The Netherlands. Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for technical training. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Educational Technology Publications.

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Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Bastiaens, T., & Hoogveld, A. (2004). Instructional design for integrated e-learning. In Jochems, W., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Koper, R. (Eds.), Integrated e-learning: Implications for pedagogy, technology & organisation (pp. 13–24). London, UK: Routledge Falmer. Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R., & de Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-Model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50, 39–64. doi:10.1007/ BF02504993 Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Martens, R. L. (2002). Computer-based tools for instructional design. [Special Issue]. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50. Young, M. F. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(1), 43–58. doi:10.1007/ BF02297091

Chaffin, A. J., & Harlow, S. D. (2005). Cognitive learning applied to older adult learners and technology. Educational Gerontology, 31, 301–329. doi:10.1080/03601270590916803 Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2003). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. Gerven, P. W. M. v., Paas, F., Merriënboer, J. J. G. v., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2003). The efficiency of multimedia learning into old age. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 489–505. doi:10.1348/000709903322591208 Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004). A Five-Dimensional Framework for Authentic Assessment. ETR&D, 52(3), 67–87. doi:10.1007/BF02504676

ADDITIONAL READING

Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L. (2006). Relations between student perceptions of assessment authenticity, study approaches and learning outcome. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 32, 381–400. doi:10.1016/j. stueduc.2006.10.003

Bastiaens, T., Boon, J., & Martens, R. (2004). Evaluating integrated e-learning. In Jochems, W., Merriënboer, J. v., & Koper, R. (Eds.), Integrated E-learning. Implications for Pedagogy, Technology & Organisation (pp. 187–199). London: Routledge Falmer.

Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, Th. J., Kirschners, P. A., & Kester, L. (2008). Authenticity is in the eye of the beholder: student and teacher perception of assessment authenticity. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 60(4), 401–412. doi:10.1080/13636820802591830

Bastiaens, Th., & De Croock, M. (2005). Instructieontwerp voor effectieve taakuitvoering: in 10 stappen naar complex leren. Persoon en Gemeenschap, 57(3), pp 169-180.

Herrington, A., & Herrington, J. (2006). Authentic learning environments in higher education. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

Brünken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 53–61. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_7

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Herrington, J., Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59–71.


Jonassen, D. H. (2006). A constructivist’s perspective on functional contextualism. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(1), 43–47. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-6493-3 Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing instructional efficiency of interactive e-learning environments: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387–399. doi:10.1007/ s10648-007-9051-6 Martens, R. L., Gulikers, J., & Bastiaens, T. (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in authentic computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 368–376. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2004.00096.x

Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32, 1–8. doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516. d0 Petraglia, J. (1998). Reality by design: The rhetoric and technology of authenticity in education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 285–407.

Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6

Reigeluth, C. M., & An, Y.-J. (2006). Functional contextualism: An ideal framework for theory in instructional design and technology. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(1), 49–53. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-6494-2

Merriënboer, J. J. G. v., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). Ten steps to complex learning: A systematic approach to Four-Component Instructional Design. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (Eds.). (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Merriënboer, J. J. G. v., & Stoyanov, S. (2008). Learners in a changing learning landscape: Reflections from an instructional design perspective. In Visser, J., & Visser-Valfrey, M. (Eds.), Learners in a changing learning landscape: Reflections from a dialogue on new roles and expectations (pp. 69–90). Berlin, Germany: Springer.

Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., Vollmann, B., & Catrambone, R. (2009). The impact of learner characteristics on information utilisation strategies, cognitive load experienced, and performance in hypermedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 387–401. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.004

Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 309–326. doi:10.1007/ s10648-007-9047-2 Paas, F., & Kester, L. (2006). Learner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 281–285. doi:10.1002/acp.1244

Sweller, J., Merrienboer, J. J. G. v., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3). doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 Young, M. F. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(1), 43–58. doi:10.1007/ BF02297091

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Section 2

E-Simulation Learning Designs in Action

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Chapter 5

E-Simulations for the Purpose of Training Forensic (Investigative) Interviewers Belinda Guadagno Deakin University, Australia Martine Powell Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT One of the most critical issues facing investigative organisations is how best to administer effective practice opportunities in investigative interviewing on a global scale. Interviewer evaluation research across the world has highlighted inadequacies in the adherence to and maintenance of best-practice interview approaches, and insufficient opportunities for practice and feedback are the major reasons attributed by experts for poor interviewer competency. “Unreal Interviewing: Virtual Forensic Interviewing of a Child” (an e-simulation created at Deakin University, Australia) was developed as a way to ‘expand the reach’ of trainers in the investigative interviewing area. The simulation enables trainers to provide ongoing professional development for forensic interviewers in dispersed work environments, without the financial burden on organisations of extracting large numbers of professionals from the workplace to the classroom. This chapter provides readers with: an overview of the key stages involved in the development of Unreal Interviewing and the education and technical decisions that needed to be made; and a review of the application of “Unreal Interviewing” in the training and continuing professional development of trainees in their workplace. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch005


E-Simulations for the Purpose of Training Forensic (Investigative) Interviewers

INTRODUCTION Whenever there is an allegation of abuse (or other crime) perpetrated against, or in the presence of, a child, the child witness will typically engage in an investigative interview with a professional working in the forensic field. Although investigative interviews may vary in purpose, scope, and content, the common objective of all investigative interviews is to elicit an accurate, complete, and detailed account of the incident in question (Powell, 2009). Eliciting an accurate and detailed account of an event (such as abuse) from a child is a complex process that involves several skills and competencies which have been well articulated in the literature. Overall, experts agree that the most critical skill is the ability to maintain the use of non-leading, open-ended questions; such questions elicit elaborate responses but do not dictate or suggest what information is required (e.g., “I wasn’t there when that happened. Start at the beginning and tell me everything that happened”, “What else happened?”, “And then what happened?”; Powell & Snow, 2007). Open-ended questions are essential because they maximise the accuracy of the child’s account of the event and minimise the opportunity for confusion, contamination and/or misunderstandings between the child and the interviewer (Powell, Fisher, & Wright, 2005). An open-ended questioning style is also critical to tasks such as the development of rapport (Roberts, Lamb, & Sternberg, 1999; Sternberg et al., 1997) and the elicitation of a clear disclosure of abuse and temporal attributes (Orbach & Lamb, 2007; Powell & Snow, 2007). Further, open-ended questions elicit the most coherent and credible statements from child witnesses (Feltis, Powell, Snow, & Hughes-Scholes, 2010; Guadagno, Powell, & Wright, 2006). Experts in investigative interviewing are also in agreement about what is generally needed to promote the use of open-ended questions. As with most practical skills (see Ericsson, 2004;

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Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993), regular practice in the use of open-ended questions and expert feedback is critical. The impact of practice and feedback has been indicated in studies showing better use of open-ended questions among interviewers who received these elements on an ongoing basis (i.e., after the initial training program ceased) compared to those who did not (Lamb, Sternberg, Orbach, Herskowitz, et al, 2002; Powell, Fisher, & Hughes-Scholes, 2008a, 2008b). However, research in relation to interviewer training is still in its infancy and further research is needed to define the relative effectiveness of the various training elements as well as the precise way in which feedback and practice exercises should be delivered. The importance of, and urgent need for, further guidance in this area is heightened by the finding that most investigative interviewers have tremendous difficulty maintaining open-ended questions with children. Most of the prior evaluation research in the U.K., U.S., and Australia has revealed rates of open-ended questions of approximately 25%; research has shown that this low rate would be minimising the chance of successful prosecution (Pipe, Orbach, Lamb, Abbott, & Stewart, 2008). The major reason attributed to this poor performance is insufficient opportunity (within police and human service organisations) to practise skills on an ongoing basis, and a lack of appropriate monitoring and supervision of performance (Aarons, Powell, & Browne, 2004; Davies, Wilson, Mitchell, & Milsom, 1995; Lamb, Sternberg, Orbach, Espin, & Mitchell, 2002; Lamb, Sternberg, Orbach, Herskowitz et al., 2002; Schollum, Westera, Grantham, & Chartres, 2006; Wright, Guadagno, & Powell, 2009). Learning the precise skill of maintaining open-ended questions can be conceptualised as involving several discrete sub-skills. These include: knowing what an open-ended question is, and why it is important; recognising various types of open-ended questions; choosing the most effective open-ended question at the appropriate


point in the interview; and being able to vocalise the right open-ended question. In this chapter we describe and evaluate the use of an e-simulation specifically designed to facilitate the development of the third skill relating to the choice of appropriate open-ended questions. As far as we are aware, “Unreal Interviewing” is the first interactive e-simulation developed to assist professionals in learning how to interview a child. It was developed as a way to “expand the reach” of trainers in the investigative interviewing area, allowing training to occur in dispersed work environments without the financial burden on organisations of extracting large numbers of professionals from the workplace to the classroom. Specifically, “Unreal Interviewing” encourages trainee interviewers to take an active role in initiating practice in the selection of open-ended questions and monitoring of their performance in their own time and space (without the cost associated with other training programs that include a live practice and feedback component). “Unreal Interviewing” was created to selectively simulate professional practice, rather than to create a richly complex, immersive environment. In this sense, it is best described as an experiential simulation, as denoted by the inclusion of two features of this type of digital simulation. These features are: a live actor (rather than animated computer characters or simple case-study text) who is rendered in the simulation as a video character; and a trainee engaging in the simulation participates in a timed interview with a virtual child (and receives expert feedback about his/her performance) that generally unfolds in real-time. “Unreal Interviewing” allows trainees to participate in the interview by influencing the scenario through their question selections, analysing the resultant information, and making professional decisions along the way. Creation of a simulated interview of this type was a costly and complex process involving many steps. Specifically, its development required consideration of its use and consideration of the

training literature on investigative interviewing, creative scenario design, attention to detail of simulated characters and their behaviour, involvement in graphic and multimedia design, as well as extensive testing and evaluation of simulation scripts and their deployment in the teaching context. The purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with an overview of what was involved in each of these stages and a justification for the decisions that needed to be made. First, we provide a description of “Unreal Interviewing” and each stage of its development. Second, we review preliminary qualitative feedback about the exercise from trainee investigative interviewers who used the e-simulation as part of a training course.

DEVELOPING “UNREAL INTERVIEWING” In “Unreal Interviewing”, trainees interview a virtual five-year-old child (named Theresa) about suspected sexual abuse by choosing the most appropriate questions to ask from a list of question options provided in the simulation. Development of the simulation involved several discrete stages: preparing question-and-answer scripts for multiple logical paths through the interview; selecting actors to represent the child interviewee (Theresa); structuring the user’s interview experience and designing the simulation interfaces; and finally developing the technical architecture of “Unreal Interviewing”. Each stage is now discussed separately in turn.

Stage 1: Preparing Scripts for Multiple Logical Paths Through the Interview As previously mentioned, the simulation allows trainees to interview a virtual child (Theresa) about her experience of abuse by choosing the best questions to ask from a list of question options provided. At each step in the interview, trainees

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are provided with four questions to choose from. Once trainees select one of the four question options, they receive a response from the child and four further question options, from which they are to select their next question. There are a total of 226 question options included in the simulation. Each question selection made by the trainee determines the path of the interview, and trainees receive immediate expert feedback about their selections. Two educators (both expert trainers and researchers in the area of child witness interviewing) prepared the question-and-answer scripts, the logic of the multiple paths through the interview, and the coding of those paths in XML. This was done with the help of a software programmer. The programmer requested a diagrammatic representation of the question-and-answer structures, starting initially with one section/path of

Figure 1. Summary of complex question structure

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the interview (with the idea that the many sections/paths would interconnect). However, the educators were not sure that this diagram would be helpful as there was such a complicated web between questions. Ultimately, an Excel sheet was employed to plot every question and answer included in the simulation (along with their respective identification number/code). The process involved the educators writing four questions and responses on a three-by-four meter sheet of paper. For each response, they wrote another four questions until they had completed the scenario (i.e., when a disclosure of the abusive act had been elicited and all of the question-andanswer pathways had been brought together and ended on the same question). Figure 1 provides a summary of the complex question structure employed in “Unreal Interviewing”.


For each of the four question options, there was always one question that was the ‘best’ question (i.e., most open-ended) to ask next. Openended (desirable) questions were rewarded with relevant (abuse-related) information, and specific questions (less desirable questions) were discouraged (i.e., they elicited brief responses), consistent with the literature on best-practice guidelines and formative assessment. Prior research shows that reinforcement of appropriate questions is critical for the effectiveness of practical training exercises (Irons, 2007; Powell et al., 2008a). Once completed on the three-by-four meter sheet of paper, every question and answer was entered into a Word document and evaluative feedback was written by the educators for each question choice. Feedback on trainee question choice was considered a critical component of the simulation (Irons, 2007). Once finalised, all questions, answers, and feedback were edited by the expert trainer in forensic interviewing. Finally, all question-and-answer pathways were checked to ensure they functioned correctly (i.e., all ended on the same question and made logical sense). The software developer created the XML structure (the code and content that ran the e-simulation), and the question-and-answer pathways were again checked for accuracy, this time by running simulated interviews in a nomedia mode.

Stage 2: Selecting the Actors to Represent the Child To simulate an interview with a child witness, the producers agreed that it demanded a video recording of an actor playing the role of the child interviewee (Theresa). However, a script dealing with child sexual abuse presents clear legal and ethical reasons for not using a five-year-old girl actor. Various options, such as using the image and voice of an adult playing the role, were rejected. Rather, it was decided that the simulation should

have a seemingly “live” video nature so as to allow trainees greater emotional engagement with the simulation (Salmon, 2003). The development team favoured the use of a real child, however, Theresa had to be represented in a semi-realistic manner. A real child actor was recorded answering general questions about herself (but not related to the topic) while seated on a chair in the video studio. The child was lit with back lighting to give the appearance of legitimately hiding the child’s identity. The “real” simulation child responses were recorded in an audio studio with an adult actor, selected because of her child-like voice, and special post-production processing treatments using ProTools (a professional audio engineering software program by Digidesign) were used to manipulate the adult actor’s voice to sound even more like that of a child. This processed voice recording was used to replace the child’s actual voice. Thus, the sometimes sexually explicit answers apparently given by the child in the simulation were actually provided by an adult female actor whose voice mimicked that of a five-year-old child via voice enhancement to the audio postproduction. There was a real need to be able to control the voice nuances in the questions asked by the adult interviewer and the answers seemingly given by the child. To achieve excellent modelling of the question asking, one of the educators (an expert forensic interviewer of children) asked the questions rather than an actor. However, using an actor for the child’s voice enabled clear studio direction (by the same expert in forensic interviewing) about how the answers should be approached and how they should sound. Quite some care was taken to refine the scripted answers in the studio to achieve the best delivery, something that is difficult to script in academic isolation. In addition, the video of the child was timed and looped to substantially reduce the file-size of the video content, thereby reducing the computer demands of the simulation and making it more readily accessible by trainees who may have computers with low specifications. The size and

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framing of the video image of the child were also discussed in design meetings. It was decided not to crop the ‘kicking’ legs of the child so as to retain natural body language, rather than representing the child in a closer shot. The use of a wide-angle shot, along with the backlit image of the child, further enhanced the appearance of natural audiolip synchronisation. The scenario achieves significant emotional engagement by trainees in part due to the seemingly ‘live’ nature of the simulated child interacting with trainees. This approach delivered a believable character, helping to encourage learners to give themselves over to the scenario with that classic “willing suspension of disbelief for the moment” famously attributed to Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1817/1854, p.365).

Stage 3: Structuring the Interview Experience and Designing the “Unreal Interviewing” Interfaces The expert interview trainers/educators and software programmers worked collaboratively in structuring the “Unreal Interviewing” interview experience. All agreed that: trainees must receive a clear introduction to the task and detailed instructions about their role in the simulation; and that the simulation should unfold in a way that is reminiscent of the interviews encountered by investigative interviewers in the workplace. “Unreal Interviewing” was developed to include the following: •

•

•

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A “welcome interface” where users are introduced to the tool and the reasons for its development, and are offered instructions about its use. A “login interface” so that use of the simulation could be tracked and retained in a database for performance evaluation and research purposes. A briefing about the child interviewee (Theresa) and the nature of her experi-

•

•

ence of abuse, not unlike the background information about a case that investigative interviewers receive in the field, prior to interviewing a child witness. The ability for users to customise their learning experience by, for example, modifying whether evaluative feedback on question choices is offered during the interview experience (immediately after each question has been selected), or whether it is delayed until the conclusion of the interview. An invitation for users to provide an email address, to which a rich text file of their interview transcript (including their chosen questions, child responses and evaluation feedback) can be forwarded at the end of their simulation experience.

While “Unreal Interviewing” contains the expected briefing before the interview experience, it was decided that a postuse debriefing would be best provided online in discussion forums associated with the e-simulation, rather than embedded within the simulation. Table 1 provides a description and visual representation of each of the various screen interfaces that users encounter as they navigate the “Unreal Interviewing” simulation. There was no precedent for representing the physical characteristics of a ‘typical’ interview room for a child interview. Rooms and interview formats vary across states and investigative organisations in Australia, so the virtual room included in the various “Unreal Interviewing” interfaces was evaluated by police colleagues. The “Unreal Interviewing” interface, during the interview phase of the simulation, displays five information panes as shown in Figure 2. A clock is located in the top left-hand pane, while the top right-hand pane provides the interview room scenario (where Theresa is shown sitting on a chair in a virtual room via a blue screen montage). Immediately below the interview room scenario are the question options (questions are always


Table 1. Description and visual representation of screen interfaces No.

Sequence

Description

01

Run the simulation launcher

Opening the.exe file loads the Sumulation Launcher which if clicked will confirm launching Flash simulation software

02

Splash screen

The splash screen presents the title of the program, Unreal Interviewing

03

Welcome screen

This screen displays a welcome video to Unreal Interviewing. The welcome is made by an expert trainer in forensic interviewing. The educators decided to deliver the welcome and instruction in both video and text form. Video was included to enhance engagement with the simulation and to ensure that personal communication with users and clear instructions were offered

04

Log-in screen

Users log-in to this first scenario, Forensic Interviewing of a Child, by providing a Username and Password. If the user does not login, then the trainee’s use of the simulation offline cannot be tracked and retained in the database.

05

Introduction screen

An introduction to this forensic interview of the five-year-old-girl, Theresa, is offered by an expert trainer and a background briefing about Theresa and the general situation regarding her family and friends is provided. This is very specific briefing information that could be easily edited, if desired. Care is taken to not provide in the simulation what can be provided another way outside the simulation. Instructions in text can be read carefully by users and considered, rather than only listening to transient audio if presented that way.

06

User Options

Optional setting for the receipt of a transcript of the interview and exaluative feedbnack on question choices are offered. Useres can select to (i) display the transcript of the interview in real-time, and/or (ii) display as text an evaluation of the question choices made in the interview. All expert feedback to users is contained in the simulation. Users have the option of viewing the feedback during or at the end of each session. Evaluation responses can be retained by users along with a record of the interview (i.e., the interview transcript).

07

Clock

The interview is timed and, if the user is logged in, events are tracked time-stamped and are retained in the database.

08

Interview Questions

Interview questions are displayed as text in groups of four and the user is required to select one by clicking on the respective button. Once selected, the question is spoken by a voice on behalf of the interviewer.


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Table 1. Continued No.

Sequence

Description

09

End the interview

Regardless of whether the user reaches a point of disclosure about the abusive event, they can exit the interview (at which time a record of the interview, as a rich text file, is email to the user). This record of the interview includes the chosen questions, the answers given and the evaluative feedback.

10

Credit sequence and Exit.

The user is thanked for using Unreal Interviewing and the people involved in the conception and creation of the simulation are acknowledged in the credits (along with the copyright details).

Figure 2. Five information panes of “unreal Interviewing” interface

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released in sets of four with a fifth question, the exit option, always reading “That’s all the questions I have to ask you today. Thank you very much for coming and talking to me”). The bottom left- and right-hand corners of the interface display the record of the interview transcript and the question evaluations, (feedback on the quality of the user’s question choice), respectively. Importantly, the size and placement of the panes on the computer screen are a customisation choice; these are just a few of the optional panes in a live simulation design.

Stage 4: Developing the Technical Architecture of “Unreal Interviewing” Four separate technical modules, in combination, comprise the underlying simulation architecture that presents “Unreal Interviewing”:

The Screen Presentation of all Simulation Components Adobe Flash® is the proprietary software that runs “Unreal Interviewing”. The production team decided to use this software because it is found on most computers. Using this software ensured greater access among potential trainees (particularly those living/working in rural areas).

The Authored Scenario as a Script of Speech with Interaction Commands The actual scripted words and the code for enacting the simulation behaviour is delivered to the “state” logic controller in the form of XML script. Computer instructions as “ActionScript” and XML scripting are used to enable the simulation architecture to present the required behaviours of objects (e.g., the child) and the simulated events over time, in a series of “states” in the system that respond to the trainee-user interactions.

The ‘Controller’ of Responses made to Trainee Interaction (Client-Side Actions) In most cases, it is the non-linear progress through the simulated reality that is enacted by the “state” logic controller.

The Database Services (Server-Side Actions) Simulation settings prescribed by the trainer/administrator, or optional settings by the trainee, can be managed and/or tracked by the database. Key purposes for the data in the database are for trainee assessment, evaluation of the simulation, and for research (with the permission of the trainees). A significant benefit of this architecture is that it is modular and manages reusable media elements, allowing significant customisation and editing. When managed by a database, such alterations can be executed on the fly. This can be seen at work in “Unreal Interviewing” where optional modular components (such as the panes for the transcript, clock, and feedback on the question choices) are used and placed where they are in relation to the panes for the interview scenario and the sets of four questions.

EVALUATING “UNREAL INTERVIEWING”: PRELIMINARY RESEARCH “Unreal Interviewing” was developed for use in a range of distance education contexts. To date, the e-simulation has been used by a variety of professionals. These include 72 trainee investigative interviewers (police and child protection officers, psychologists) enrolled in a distance education course aimed at improving their skills in interviewing, 29 social work students completing undergraduate study, and 17 primary school teachers who are mandated under state legislation to notify police and child protection authorities

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where they suspect a child is, or may be, at risk of being, abused. All professionals used “Unreal Interviewing” as part of their broader training in the child abuse investigation area. This training adopted a blended learning approach where a combination of teaching methods, media and technologies were employed to aid learning. At the end of their respective training programs, each professional was asked to give feedback regarding their perceptions of “Unreal Interviewing” and its value as a training tool. A total of 106 trainees (34 male, 72 female) agreed to provide feedback. The sample of participants was heterogeneous in terms of occupation, and the qualifications, background experience, and length of service varied markedly among participants. The sample comprised 44 police officers, 15 child protection officers, 6 psychologists, 26 social work students, and 15 primary school teachers. The estimated number of child abuse interviews previously conducted by the participants ranged from 0 to 300 (M = 29.24, SD = 96.30), formal qualifications ranged from high school diploma to masters degree, and the mean length of employment in the child abuse area was 38 months (range = 0 – 21 years). Each participant was asked to consider the following questions when giving feedback about “Unreal Interviewing”: •

• • • •

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What was your overall impression of “Unreal Interviewing”? Imagine that I am a colleague asking about its value. What would you tell me? Be as honest as you can. What did you learn (if anything) from using “Unreal Interviewing”? What aspects of “Unreal Interviewing” best contributed to your learning? What improvements (if any) could be made to enhance your learning experience? How easy was it to use “Unreal Interviewing”? Please describe the nature

•

of any difficulties that arose when using the e-simulation. What other personal observations about “Unreal Interviewing” would you like to provide?

Some participants were asked to respond to these questions in face-to-face interviews while others were asked to provide written responses in an online forum.

Data Management and Analysis Where qualitative interviews were conducted, they were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim, and added to the written feedback obtained from other participants. Thematic analysis, which involves the process of locating common patterns within a dataset (Gifford, 1998), was used to systematically analyse the participants’ perceptions about “Unreal Interviewing”. The process of extrapolating key themes within the dataset began with the primary researcher (first author) independently reading the feedback responses offered by all 106 participants. A collaborative discussion was later held with the second author (who had also read a random selection of feedback responses from a number of participants) to communicate and debate the emerging themes. A coding manual was developed and all of the feedback responses were subsequently reread and coded. All of the key themes were inductively derived and grounded within the dataset in agreement with principles of grounded theory (Browne & Sullivan, 1999).

Results Overall, despite the heterogeneous sample, many of the participants provided similar feedback about their experience of “Unreal Interviewing”. The feedback offered by participants will be discussed under the following headings: the overall value


of “Unreal Interviewing” as a training tool, what participants learnt by using the e-simulation, the features of “Unreal Interviewing” that best facilitated participants’ learning, how easy the e-simulation was to use, and suggestions for the future development of “Unreal Interviewing”.

Overall Value of “Unreal Interviewing” as a Training Tool The participants provided positive feedback about “Unreal Interviewing”. Indeed, 98% of participants (104/106) indicated that “Unreal Interviewing” was a useful tool for professionals training in the child abuse investigation area. Many of the participants described “Unreal Interviewing” as a training tool that could be used “again and again” by trainees in their ongoing professional development; one of the few training tools available in the child abuse investigation area that can be retained and used in one’s own time and space. As one participant stated: I thought “Unreal Interviewing” was a brilliant resource for learning the best questions to ask children in an interview. And it’s a resource that I can keep with me and use from time to time to refresh my training. It’s a good tool to hold on to and use repeatedly over time. (Police officer)

What Participants Learnt by using “Unreal Interviewing” Many of the participants commented that “Unreal Interviewing” enabled them to identify the challenges that operate within a forensic interview with a child, and the best questions to use to overcome those challenges. All of the participants reported that the e-simulation was effective in teaching the range of questions that an interviewer might choose to use in an interview, and the value of different types of questions when trying to elicit a complete and accurate account from a child.

As intended, many of the participants reported that “Unreal Interviewing” helped to improve their understanding of the difference between various questions (e.g., open-ended versus specific questions), and provided an opportunity to learn about the impact of different questions on children’s responding. “Unreal Interviewing” was commended for teaching the value of open-ended questions when the aim is to elicit the most detailed and accurate account of an event or situation from a child, as these comments indicate:. I learnt more about the sort of questions you should ask kids to elicit the most independent information. Open-ended questions are the ones to ask if you want to get clean information that hasn’t been tainted by anything that you have asked – I didn’t know this before using this tool but by the end it was very clear.(Social work student) It was helpful to have a go at asking questions in a safe practice environment and to see how the different questions affect what the child says. I often use specific questions in my interviews but now I can see how they close the child down. Open questions are better at encouraging a child to really tell his/her story of what happened. (Child protection officer) The primary school teachers and social work students, who had less experience conducting “real” abuse-related interviews with children in the field, made the additional comment that “Unreal Interviewing” offered an opportunity to observe just how difficult it can be to question children about abusive experiences. These participants believed “Unreal Interviewing” identified the challenges of this “complex” task and highlighted the importance of taking time and carefully considering the questions to ask when interviewing children. Finally, many of the participants reported that “Unreal Interviewing” taught the importance of asking developmentally appropriate questions. For example:

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I learnt that interviewing a child about a sensitive issue like abuse is not nearly as easy as I thought it would be. It is actually very hard. This program showed me that it’s all about taking your time and using thoughtful questioning. I also learnt that I need to talk at the child’s level. You need to think about your words and what you want to ask and then consider whether children of that age can answer the question before you ask it. (Social work student)

The Features of “Unreal Interviewing” that Best Facilitated Learning When discussing the training value of “Unreal Interviewing”, most of the participants spontaneously identified the elements that they believed best facilitated their learning. Collectively, the participants’ responses fell into four major themes. First, many participants believed the inclusion of expert evaluation feedback about their question choices significantly contributed to their learning. When commenting about the evaluation feedback, participants commended the decision to offer feedback both immediately following each question selection and at the end of the interview (on the interview transcript), as the following comments suggest: It was so wonderful to get feedback straight away because it provides either confidence you are on the right track or alternatively highlights the areas you need to work on. (Police officer) “Unreal Interviewing” really shows you how the various questions you ask can take the interview in a totally different direction. The immediate feedback was extremely valuable in highlighting the impact of asking certain questions as opposed to others. It also highlighted to me specific questions that I thought were open. Child protection officer)

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The feedback that you received each time you picked a question was spot on and it drove home the importance of using open questions... I liked that we could get a copy of our transcript at the end too. I can go and read through the interview and feedback in my own time to reinforce what I learnt. (Police officer) Second, the participants recognised that the responses offered by the child interviewee (Theresa) were scripted to reinforce appropriate questions (i.e., open-ended questions elicited richer, more detailed, and relevant responses than did other questions). The majority of participants reported that this varied response reinforcement aided their learning about the best questions to ask, as exemplified by these comments: Problems in your questioning were immediately evident by the child’s response. It was helpful that you could actually see that more focussed questions received briefer responses and open-ended questions got much more information. (Child protection officer) The way that Theresa responded to certain questions showed me how helpful and unhelpful the different types of questions are at getting information from a child. It was so easy to know when I chose a poor question – it reminded me to keep an open-ended approach. (Police officer) Third, many of the participants perceived that “Unreal Interviewing” offered a “realistic” and “engaging” opportunity to practise interviewing. The participants appreciated the inclusion of both an audible child’s voice and a visual representation of a real child. The added realism created by these features was seen to facilitate learning. In fact, the majority of participants reported that “Unreal Interviewing” offered a “more realistic” learning opportunity than engaging in a simulated interview with a colleague or trained actor


playing the role of the child interviewee. As two participants indicated: The only way to improve is to practice and this is a terrific way to do just that. Mock interviews with adult role-players can be useful but this program allows you to really feel like you are interacting with a child – it has that element of realism because you see and hear a child respond to your questions. (Police officer) “Unreal Interviewing” was so much more real than interviewing a classmate in a role-play activity because it includes a real child, albeit simulated. That you actually have the image and voice of a child makes it more real. And it’s difficult for an untrained person to act like a 5-year-old child! I think I got more realistic answers from the simulated child in “Unreal Interviewing”. Sometimes when we role-play in class we know what information is needed so we make it easier for our fellow student by giving too much information. (Social work student

Ease of Using “Unreal Interviewing” All of the participants reported that “Unreal Interviewing” was easy to use. The participants believed the e-simulation included clear instructions and was easy to follow. A small number of the participants also credited “Unreal Interviewing” with improving their confidence in using online technology. Indicative comments include: This is such a really easy to use program. The instructions at the beginning were clear. I knew exactly what I had to do to work my way through the interview. (Psychologist) “Unreal Interviewing” was very easy to use. I liked the video instructions at the beginning – nice way to deliver instructions because it made the whole thing seem more real. The instructions at the end about receiving the interview transcript were easy to follow. I also liked the look of the screens... they were really clean, easy to navigate, everything was nicely laid out. (Teacher)

Fourth, a number of participants commented that “Unreal Interviewing” provided a nonthreatening opportunity to practice, unrestrained by place and time. The participants believed that the e-simulation offered a “less intimidating”, “less threatening” and “more flexible” learning experience than other training activities. For example:

I must confess I did feel a little anxious initially because I’m not good with technology but “Unreal Interviewing” was really easy to use – by my second attempt I was having fun and I feel much more confident about using computer simulations like this in the future. A surprisingly enjoyable way to learn! (Police officer)

I liked that I could use the computer simulation anywhere at any time and I didn’t feel like I was being judged by anyone. I learnt more because I wasn’t embarrassed about choosing the wrong question so I could concentrate more. (Psychologist)

Suggestions for the Future Development of “Unreal Interviewing”

“Unreal Interviewing” gives you a non-judgmental training experience where no-one will laugh at you if you make a mistake. (Teacher)

A number of the participants commented that “Unreal Interviewing” was restrictive in the sense that users were required to select their questions from among lists of question options. The participants perceived that it would be more beneficial to be able to generate (type) their own questions, though many recognised that this may not be feasible, as this remark indicates:

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It would be even better to have a program where you could ask your own questions instead of picking one from a list, but I guess that’s not possible to create. Would be great, though. (Teacher) Other participants suggested that “Unreal Interviewing” be revised to address additional aspects central to good interviewing beyond open-ended question use, (e.g., learning to develop rapport with a child). Some psychologists and social work students also recommended broadening the scope of the abuse-related scenario to include the disclosure of complex clinical issues (e.g., self-harming and suicidal ideation), so that clinical competency could be developed alongside questioning practice when using “Unreal Interviewing”. For example: I’d like to be able to question Theresa about more than just what happened. I know the aim was to get her to tell me what happened to her but it would be great if the simulation also had Theresa talking about how the abuse made her feel (e.g., the nightmares and self-harming thoughts she’s been having). Then we could practise questioning about these clinical issues as well. (Psychologist) In addition to these modifications to “Unreal Interviewing”, many of the participants recommended developing additional simulations. Some participants called for more child abuse simulation scenarios, while a number of police officers who interview adult suspects and victims of crime supported developing simulations featuring these interviewee groups, as the following comments suggest: All children are different and they respond to people differently. It would be great to have more of these programs so you could practice interviewing different children with different personalities about different types of abuse. (Teacher)

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I often interview suspects as well as child witnesses as part of my role. It would be useful to have something like this where the interviewee is an adult suspect or even an adult rape victim. Practice leads to improvement so the more practice opportunities the better. (Police officer)

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In developing “Unreal Interviewing”, we attempted to create a tool that was easy to use and enabled trainers to ‘expand their reach’ by providing training for forensic interviewers in widespread work environments, without the financial burden of extracting large numbers of professionals from the workplace to the classroom. “Unreal Interviewing” allows trainees to administer their own practice opportunities (unrestrained by time and space) and provides immediate expert feedback that is crucial for open-ended question maintenance. The preliminary research reviewed in this chapter suggests that “Unreal Interviewing” offers a realistic training environment. The simulation was commended for: improving trainees’ understanding of different questions and their impact on children’s responding; teaching the value of open-ended questions when the aim is to elicit accurate and detailed information; and improving trainees’ confidence in using online technology. Past users of “Unreal Interviewing” recommend developing further e-simulations in the following ways: •

•

Increasing the number of child witness simulation scenarios to allow professionals greater opportunity to practise interviewing and receive feedback. Adding e-simulations with different interviewee groups (e.g., adult witnesses, suspects).


•

•

Introducing e-simulations that focus on how to question children (and adults) about complex clinical issues associated with the experience of abuse (e.g., self-harming and suicidal ideation). Advancing technology to allow e-simulations where professionals can generate (enter) the questions rather than select from lists of question options.

However, further evaluative research is warranted before the expense of developing additional e-simulations can be justified. First, research needs to examine trainees’ actual use of “Unreal Interviewing”; we need to know more about how “Unreal Interviewing” is being used by trainees in their environment. How regularly is the e-simulation used? Do trainees select the best question options at each point in time? Does their performance improve with repeated use of the tool? Second, longitudinal research is needed to examine the impact that “Unreal Interviewing” has on actual interview performance in the field, and how this training tool compares with other training exercises (e.g., role-play activities with a trained actor playing the role of the child interviewee). The response to “Unreal Interviewing” in the preliminary research was overwhelmingly positive. Once evaluation data has confirmed actual transfer of learning into real interview practice in the field, it can be said that the considerable cost and time of developing further e-simulations is warranted.

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Irons, A. (2007). Enhancing learning through formative assessment and feedback. London, UK: Routledge. Lamb, M., Sternberg, K., Orbach, Y., Esplin, P., & Mitchell, S. (2002). Is ongoing feedback necessary to maintain the quality of investigative interviews with allegedly abused children? Applied Developmental Science, 6, 35–41. doi:10.1207/ S1532480XADS0601_04 Lamb, M., Sternberg, K., Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Horowitz, D., & Esplin, P. (2002). The effects of intensive training and ongoing supervision on the quality of investigative interviews with alleged sex abuse victims. Applied Developmental Science, 6, 114–125. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0603_2 Orbach, Y., & Lamb, M. E. (2007). Young children’s references to temporal attributes of allegedly experienced events in the course of forensic interviews. Child Development, 78, 1100–1120. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01055.x Pipe, M. E., Orbach, Y., Lamb, M. E., Abbott, C. B., & Stewart, H. L. (2008). Do best practice interviews with child abuse victims influence case outcomes? Final Report to the National Institute of Justice (Grant Number: 2006-IJ-CX-0019). Washington, DC., USA: Department of Justice. Powell, M. B. Fisher. R. P., & Wright, R. (2005). Investigative interviewing. In N. Brewer & K. Williams (Eds.), Psychology and law: An empirical perspective (pp. 11- 42). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Powell, M. B. (2009). Investigative interviewing. In Wakefield, A., & Fleming, J. (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of policing (pp. 181–184). Los Angeles, California: SAGE Publications. Powell, M. B., Fisher, R. P., & Hughes-Scholes, C. H. (2008a). The effect of intra- versus postinterview feedback during simulated practice interviews about child abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 213–227. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.08.002

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Powell, M. B., Fisher, R. P., & Hughes-Scholes, C. H. (2008b). The effect of using trained versus untrained adult respondents in simulated practice interviews about child abuse. Child Abuse &. Neglect, 32, 1007–1016. doi:10.1016/j. chiabu.2008.05.005 Powell, M. B., & Snow, P. C. (2007). Guide to questioning children during the free-narrative phase of an interview about abuse. Australian Psychologist, 42, 57–65. doi:10.1080/00050060600976032 Roberts, K. P., Lamb, M. E., & Sternberg, K. J. (1999). Effects of the timing of post event information on preschoolers’memories of an event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 541–560. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1099-0720(199912)13:63.0.CO;2-5 Salmon, G. (2003). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London, UK: Taylor and Francis. Schollum, M., Westera, N., Grantham, R., & Chartres, M. (2006). Investigative interviewing: Evaluation of Manurewa trial. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Police. Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Hershkowitz, I., Yudilevitch, L., Orbach, Y., Esplin, P. W., & Hovav, M. (1997). Effects of introductory style on children’s abilities to describe experiences of sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 1133–1146. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00071-9 Wright, R., Guadagno, B. L., & Powell, M. B. (2009). An evaluation of a self-initiated practice exercise for investigative interviewers of children. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 11, 366–376. doi:10.1350/ ijps.2009.11.3.141

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Chapter 6

Professional Midwifery Education: Blended Teaching and Learning Approaches Diane Phillips Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT Blended teaching and learning approaches are used in the postgraduate course of Graduate Diploma of Midwifery for students who are predominately women with family responsibilities residing in metropolitan, regional, or rural Victoria, a major state in Australia. The Virtual Maternity Clinic (VMC), a virtual learning experience (VLE) research project, was implemented during trimester 2, 2009. The purpose of the project was to expand the blend of teaching and learning activities to support students in their preparation for professional practice. The VMC includes four characters in early pregnancy and care provided by their midwife. All students enrolled in midwifery courses (postgraduate and undergraduate) at Deakin University were recruited to participate in a two-phase, pre- and post-use evaluation process related to the VMC. Findings from the pre-evaluation included that students’ had high expectations of the VMC in supporting their learning. The results from the post-evaluation of the VMC indicated that students’ were very satisfied that the VMC supported their learning. Future research directions include further development of the VMC.

INTRODUCTION Students (undergraduate and postgraduate), who successfully complete midwifery courses at Deakin University, are eligible to apply for registration as a “midwife” in Australia. Graduates of these courses are therefore required to develop disci-

pline-based attributes in academic performance and competence in practice. The undergraduate combined course of Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery is offered as on-campus courses at three campuses of Deakin University in metropolitan, regional, and rural locations, and the postgraduate course, the Graduate Diploma of

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch006


Professional Midwifery Education

Midwifery is only offered at Melbourne Campus at Burwood. Melbourne is the capital city of the state of Victoria. To qualify for entry in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery, students must already have a nurse qualification, current registration, and recent experience as a nurse. This chapter is about blended teaching and learning approaches applied within the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery and the development and implementation of a virtual learning environment (VLE) project during 2009, called the Virtual Maternity Clinic (VMC). The findings of this project are presented in a two-phase evaluation process (pre and post VMC evaluation) including its potential in this blend and for professional education. Blended teaching and learning approaches used for the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery are comprised of a range of course delivery strategies to support student engagement. Face-to-face contact for nominated days/dates and times at the Burwood Campus at Melbourne promotes socialisation of students with academics and their peers, so that they become familiar with the on-campus facilities, services, and resources of the University. Video-conference arrangements from Melbourne Campus at Burwood to the other campuses of Deakin University, reduces travel time for students who live in regional and rural areas of Victoria. Since 2006 Elluminate Live (a synchronous and asynchronous computer-based application) has been used to deliver short lectures, promote discussions, and share storytelling. A benefit of this modality is that all sessions can be recorded, thereby being available to students whenever it is convenient for them. In addition, students have reported the benefit of using Elluminate Live from their own personal computers at home. Online learning activities are placed on existing modalities such as the learning management system that is part of Deakin Studies Online (DSO) to promote independent learning and when it is suitable for students.

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The use of a blend of teaching and learning approaches commenced with the implementation of the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery in 2001 and was driven by the characteristics of the student population. At that time and today, students are predominately women with family responsibilities, residing in various areas of the metropolitan area of Melbourne as well as regional and rural Victoria. Students have reported their satisfaction with all of the abovementioned modalities that support them in meeting course requirements around their own needs. Some of the modalities are also used in the undergraduate combined course of the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery. Despite these applications, postgraduate students did not develop a deep understanding of health assessments required for the care of women during early pregnancy and where midwives have an important role as primary health practitioners. A key issue was related to the demand of placements in maternity services within the metropolitan, regional, and rural areas of Victoria from a number of universities, including Deakin University. The challenge for midwifery academics was to re-think how student placements in practice settings could be managed more creatively around course content delivery. The concept of virtual learning in a maternity environment, the VMC, was conceived as a mechanism to complement practice learning and enhance student learning during their placements in practice settings. The VMC was developed as an important component of blended teaching and learning approaches in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery.

BACKGROUND The task of ensuring that students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery have clinical learning opportunities in pregnancy care is a challenging one for academics. This challenge is related to the shortage of available places in practice settings as a consequence of demand


from various disciplines such as medicine and allied health (i.e. paramedicine). In addition, there are limited opportunities to access student placements related to pregnancy care services in the private health sector and where instead, students predominately have placements in postnatal and birth units. In turn, this leads to reduced prospects for students to expand their professional practice development by observing the care of women during early pregnancy and, in particular, learning about the role of the midwife. As a primary health practitioner, the midwife is expected to engage in effective communication, recognize health issues, provide effectual and appropriate care, and, where necessary, refer women to other health professionals (ANMC Australian Nursing & Midwifery Council, 2006). These issues led to the consideration of technological applications to support students more in their professional learning and preparation for practice as a midwife. Use of technological applications in nursing education according to Simpson (2006) is aimed at creating equity in learning opportunities for distance learners, while another outcome from the use of simulation technology for undergraduate students, is the promotion of interactive and critical thinking (Medley & Horne, 2005). In using simulation applications, the VLE becomes a vehicle to keep pace with educational changes (Chan, Corlett, Sharples, Ting, & Westmancott, 2005) and support effective learning in health (Mantovani, Castelnuovo, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2003) for practice-based professions. Studentcentred learning encourages the development of attributes such as independence, self motivation, critical analysis, and reflective practice (Nagia, Hodson-Carlton, & Ryan, 2004), all of which are required for professional midwifery practice. Within the VMC, the midwife is the primary health practitioner and where a “woman-centred” framework of individualised care is promoted. In using elements of woman-centred care, such as choice, control, and continuity of care or carer, each woman is encouraged to assume an active

role in her own care (Brodie, Warwick, Hastie, Symthe, & Young, 2008). Bluic, Goodyear, and Ellis (2007) describe “blended learning” as a relatively recent term that incorporates pedagogical approaches (i.e. constructivism, behaviourism, cognitivism) using a variety of modes of web-based technology, including face-to-face interactions with students. The success of blended teaching and learning approaches is, however, due to the careful development of quality programs (Akyod, Garrison & Ozden, 2009; De George-Walker & Keeffe, 2010) to guide students in their learning (De George & Keeffe, 2010). In taking these factors into consideration, the project team developed the VMC with the intention of it being applied within the context of a blend of teaching and learning approaches for the postgraduate course, the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery.

THE VIRTUAL MATERNITY CLINIC The media production unit at Deakin University developed the VMC software using existing software including LiveSim and Adobe Flash. The application consists of four separate video scenarios of a pregnant woman being interviewed by a midwife. An avatar (called the midwife avatar) provides an introduction for each of the scenarios, a summary of key aspects of midwifery care with the emphasis placed upon elements of woman-centred care (individualised care) and effective communication. The VMC is a clinic where women attend care conducted by the midwife, whose practice role is as a primary health provider. Paid actors performed these roles of women during early pregnancy and two registered midwives assumed the role of midwife in each of the four scenarios. The inclusion of these midwives was to bring to each scenario their respective style of professional practice of caring for women during early pregnancy, thereby capturing as much

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as possible, the “real world” of a midwife in a primary health practitioner role. The scenarios were developed by the midwifery academic members of the project team who also created the interactive learning activities related to each of the four women and their particular health issues. An external member of the project team, a senior midwife of a health service, contributed significantly to the design of the VMC and its characters to reflect contemporary midwifery practice and maternity services within Victoria. The estimated time to visit each character and perform related activities is approximately 30 minutes. The four women in the VMC have diverse health issues, such as a lack of social support and diabetes. These issues place emphasis on the midwife’s primary health practice role performed according to the scope of practice in Australia (ANMC Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2006). The VMC was made available to all students enrolled in midwifery courses (postgraduate and undergraduate) at Deakin University during trimester 2, 2009. Students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery, (a duration of three trimesters), used the VMC while they were in their second trimester of the course, whereas students enrolled in the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery (a four-year program of study), included those enrolled in first, second and third years. This particular course commenced for the first time in 2007, which meant that during the project period of trimester 2, 2009, there were no students in the final year of the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery. The aims of the project included: •

•

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Improving learning outcomes for students to better prepare them for professional practice by the development and provision of high quality and flexible learning activities; Assisting students in meeting the competency standards of the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council and expectations

of industry that, as graduates, they would be “work ready” in their capacity to provide effective care of women during early pregnancy. The project was approved by Ethics Committees of Deakin University during trimester 1, 2009 and was implemented in trimester 2. There were holdups in the development of the VMC for each of the scenarios for the four characters. They were related to changes in the project team. The VMC interface as running in the University’s learning management system is featured in Figure 1. The first character (Anisa) of the VMC was available for student access on 31st July (see Figure 2); the second (Sienna) on 7th August 2009; the third (Sarah) on 14th August 2009; and the final one (Emma) on 4th September 2009. The implementation timelines were modified so that student access of all characters of the VMC was reduced according to the original plan of 12 weeks. The rationale for this time of 12 weeks included pedagogical considerations, such as allowing all students time to access the VMC and explore each character around their academic and practice requirements. A total number of 140 students were identified as having current enrolment in both the postgraduate and undergraduate courses. They were recruited from three campuses of Deakin University by academics (nonproject members) to participate in the project. Information given to each student included an invitation to participate in the project and a plain language statement (PLS). It was emphasised in the PLS that access (or nonaccess) by all students would NOT impact upon their academic progress for the unit of study in which they were enrolled during trimester two of 2009. Instead, it was explained that access of the VMC would assist students in their learning. Consent from each student to participate in the project was implied in his or her access of the VMC. The research assistant had the capacity to track all students’ access of the VMC.


Figure 1. VMC interface

METHODS OF EVALUATIVE DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS A two-phase evaluation process of the VMC was conducted, before (pre-VMC) and after (postVMC) the implementation of the VMC. Evaluation tools were developed for the data collection and both incorporated qualitative (interpretation) and quantitative (measurement) items.

Pre-VMC Tool The pre-VMC tool was developed to obtain data about students’ expectations of the VMC, their access to a computer, and exposure to midwifery practice through placements at maternity services of hospitals in metropolitan, regional, and rural areas of Victoria. All students had some exposure to online learning previously and it was of interest

Figure 2. One of the virtual characters, Anisa (paid actor) being interviewed by midwife

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to the project team to determine whether or not they had any expectations of the VMC. The pre-VMC was distributed during the first week of trimester 2, 2009 and prior to implementation of the VMC. Academics, who were not members of the project team, distributed and collected completed pre-VMC questionnaires and returned them to the research assistant. The return rate was 85% (n=119). No identifying data was requested from students and if present, were removed by the research assistant.

Data Analysis and Findings from the Pre-VMC Evaluation Participants were surveyed regarding their expectations of learning within the VMC. Findings were sorted into two initial categories: their expectations of learning regarding midwifery; and their expectations of the VMC experience itself. Individual phrases within participants’ responses were considered as the “meaning unit”

and then coded. Coding was undertaken according to similarities and differences that were sorted into sub-categories and categories. Credibility of the qualitative data analysis was achieved by iterative coding and category determination by two individuals undertaking separate coding of the findings, and by the inclusion of all data relevant to the research question and study aims (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). The findings are presented in Figure 3 as a concept map.

Discussion of the Pre-VMC Evaluation Participants’ expectations of the form of learning constituting the VMC varied widely, but all were optimistic about its possibilities in providing opportunities to support their practice development. All responses related to the quality and use of the VMC in that it would offer safe, diverse, experiential learning, and that the online aspect of the VMC would provide ease and flexibility

Figure 3. Concept map of the findings from the Pre-VMC evaluation

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of use. Some participants indicated that they did not expect any new information from the VMC, but some did. The first year students of the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery had not undertaken any placements in maternity services at the time of data collection for the pre-VMC questionnaire and were looking forward to observing the role of the midwife and their interactions with women later in the trimester. Both second year and third year students of this course indicated that, despite their previous placements, they required further resources to support their learning about the care of women during early pregnancy. The students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery wanted specific information related to strategies used by the midwife in the care of the woman during early pregnancy such as interview styles.

Post-VMC Tool The distribution of the post-VMC commenced early in October 2009 and was managed by the research assistant through online access to all students. At this time, all students were undertaking placements and were not available on any of the three campuses of Deakin University. As a consequence of students being off-campus, the period for the post-VMC evaluation was extended because they continued to have access to online resources of the University. Along with the extension of time for data collection, the research assistant continued to send out friendly reminders to all students on a regular basis. This extended time for data collection was managed by the research assistant, who carefully monitored the return rates of the completed post-VMC evaluation. A return rate of 30% (n=42), was obtained early in December 2009. It was agreed by the project team at this point to bring the data collection to a conclusion, as the majority of students were off-campus. They were no longer accessing online and were not enrolled in units of study during trimester three (conducted over the summer period).

It would have been preferable to obtain the post-VMC data when all students were available on-campus and thus were more accessible to academics (non project members) who could remind them about the project. Factors that hindered data collection included project delays, the trimester time being shorter, and students being off-campus for their placements in maternity services. An important consideration upheld by the project team was the need for all students to have time to access the VMC and each of its four characters and midwives around their academic and practice requirements of their respective courses. While it is acknowledged that the return rate is low from the post-VMC evaluation, the project team agreed that invaluable feedback had been obtained.

Data Analysis and Findings of the Post-VMC Evaluation Quantitative and qualitative data was obtained from the post-VMC evaluation. Data analysis was undertaken by two teams of individual raters, comprising of two members each. These teams independently coded student responses, from items of the post-VMC tool according to similarities and differences, with inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa =.89). The agreed category names, descriptions, and frequencies for seven items are presented in Table 1. Data obtained from five items of the post-VMC evaluation indicated positive impacts of the VMC on student learning in terms of “ease of use”, “understanding about the care of women required during early pregnancy” and contributing to “preparation for placements” in maternity services. The levels of significance are presented in Table 2. Student satisfaction related to their “learning”, and “development of confidence and competency related to midwifery knowledge and skills” are presented in Table 3 including “recommendation of the VMC to other students”.

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Table 1. Categories, descriptions, and frequencies Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€How would you rate your learning experience of the VMC? Category Name

Description

Frequency

Knowledge testing/consolidation of learning

The VMC assisted with testing the students’ knowledge and/or the consolidation of knowledge.

5

Knowledge application

The VMC assisted students in applying their knowledge for their workplace/placements/practical environment.

2

Experience in responding and communicating

The VMC helped students learn how to respond and/or communicate with women during pregnancy.

3

Variety/breadth of cases covered

The VMC exposed students to diverse cases of pregnant women.

4

Helpful

The word “helpful” was used but was mostly unexplained.

8

Unhelpful/not useful

The word “unhelpful” was used but was mostly unexplained.

2

Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€What did you find most helpful about the VMC? Category Name

Description

Frequency

Realism

The virtual characters were very realistic.

12

Vicarious learning

Learned from the interviews of each of the four virtual characters.

13

Variety/breadth/ diversity of characters

It was helpful to be exposed to four virtual characters in early pregnancy with diverse experiences.

6

Information and resources provided

The VMC provided information (i.e. declarative and procedural knowledge) that was relevant.

9

Communication skills

8

Ease of use

The VMC was easy to navigate.

3

Self-paced

The online nature of the VMC, allowed students to proceed at their own pace during access.

1

Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€What did you find least helpful about the VMC? Category Name

Description

Frequency

Avatar interactivity

The midwife avatar provided introductions of each character and summaries of care, and was considered to be annoying.

1

Program speed

Problems with program navigation and the inability to skip sections.

5

Program speed

The program was slow to load.

5

Balancing VMC and study

It was an issue to balance academic and practice requirements and the time needed for the VMC.

3

Nothing

The word “nothing” was used but was mostly unexplained.

6

Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€Â€How did the VMC contribute to your preparation and learning placements in practice settings? Category Name

Description

Frequency

Communication and listening skills

The importance of developing effective communication and listening skills when interacting with childbearing women.

12

Preparation for placements (diversity/ variety)

What to expect in the workplace related to the variety and diversity of experiences.

17

Midwife’s role

Understanding the role of the midwife as a primary health care provider during pregnancy.

6

Modeling workplace procedures

The VMC provided students with a template of how to provide care of women during pregnancy.

1

Would be useful before placement Unhelpful

7 The word “unhelpful” was used but was mostly unexplained.

5

continued on following page 94


Table 1. Continued Did the VMC contribute to development of your confidence and competency related to midwifery knowledge and skills? Category Name

Description

Frequency

Procedural knowledge in the antenatal context

Development of procedural knowledge (i.e. interview techniques and dealing with sensitive situations) and how to act in antenatal contexts.

7

Testing/judging/comparing knowledge base

The VMC provided the opportunity to judge/compare and test one’s knowledge.

5

Confidence

The VMC assisted in increasing student confidence in terms of declarative and/or procedural knowledge.

6

Acknowledgement: Dr Gery Karantzas, School of Psychology, Deakin University.

Discussion of the Post-VMC Evaluation

The students of the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery also identified the “realism” of the interviews with women, health assessments, and issues presented in the VMC because they had also observed similar episodes from their placements in antenatal clinics. Although this seems to be a reiteration of experiences, students were looking at other elements of the VMC such as the midwives, their individual style of conducting an interview, their responses to women, and how to perform health assessments on women during early pregnancy. In this context, student knowledge is both “declarative” (comprehension or understanding and problem solving) and “procedural” (knowing how to perform a task). Students had unlimited access to the VMC to expand their understanding of procedures, such

While it was reported that students’ experiences of the VMC varied widely, they were generally very positive about its potential to support their practice development and role as a midwife. Each of the characters (pregnant women and midwives) was “real” to students (except for those in the first year of the combined course of the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery) as they had seen similar interviews with women when they had undertaken placements in various antenatal clinics. This particular finding was identified as “vicarious learning” and indicates application, synthesis, and evaluation of information by students.

Table 2. Student learning Questions

1

2

3

4

How would you rate your learning experience of the VMC?

-

Did you find the VMC easy to use?

.363*

-

Did you find that the VMC contributed to your learning about midwifery care early in pregnancy?

.527**

.227

.563**

-

Did the VMC contribute to development of your confidence and competency related to midwifery knowledge and skills?

.388*

.227

.563**

-

How many hours in total did you access the VMC?

.366

-.013

.494*

-.370

5

-

Legend: * = significant ** = most significant Note: The author acknowledges the contribution of Dr Gery Karantzas, School of Psychology, Deakin University.

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Table 3. Student satisfaction of the VMC Did you find that the VMC contributed to your learning about midwifery care in early pregnancy? Frequency Valid

Missing

Percent

Valid Percent

Yes

38

88.4

90.5

No

4

9.3

9.5

Total

42

97.7

100.0

System

1

2.3

43

100.0

Total

Did the VMC contribute to your development of your confidence and competency related to midwifery knowledge and skills? Valid

Missing

Yes

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

36

83.7

85.7

No

6

14.0

14.3

Total

42

97.7

100.0

System

1

2.3

43

100.0

Total

Would you recommend the VMC to other students planning to enrol in Midwifery courses at Deakin University in 2010? Frequency Valid

Missing Total

Percent

Valid Percent

Yes

37

88.1

97.4

No

1

2.4

2.6 100.0

Total

38

90.5

System

4

9.5

42

100.0

Note: The author acknowledges the contribution of Dr Gery Karantzas, School of Psychology, Deakin University.

as abdominal examination and its technique, or to learn how to interview women, and what type of questions to ask related to health and lifestyle factors. In the real world, repeated procedures or interviews could cause women and their families, unnecessary concern. The responses indicated that students identified the necessity for midwives to conduct interviews with care and sensitivity (i.e. cultural issues or domestic violence), thus indicating the need for effective communication and interview skills. This links with the data obtained from the pre-VMC evaluation, where students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery wanted specific information about strategies for interview styles used by the midwife in the care of the woman during early pregnancy. Other elements identified in the postVMC evaluation data include the professionalism

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of midwives (i.e. not being judgmental of women and their lifestyle), performing comprehensive health assessments on women, knowledge of lifestyle factors such as substance use (alcohol, illicit drugs and alcohol), and disease states such as diabetes. The demonstration of the midwife’s role as a primary health practitioner is emphasised in consideration of the scope of practice within Australia. The first year students of the combined course of the Bachelor of Nursing and Bachelor of Midwifery were undertaking their first placement in maternity services at the time of the availability of the post-VMC evaluation tool and this could explain the “didn’t access” code. Further, all students (both undergraduate and postgraduate) had examinations during October and this could have also been a factor in the low return rate and their


application of the above code. The program speed of the VMC was identified as a concern for some, whereas others had problems with navigation and the inability to “skip” sections. The program speed could have been related to each student’s personal computer access. In reference to skipping sections, it could be interpreted to mean that if students did not like a character, or alternatively if they had a good understanding about the components of a character’s presentation related to their pregnancy, they could not progress to other sections of the VMC. This inability had been set in the program to encourage students to explore all sections of the VMC. The terms “nothing” and “unhelpful” appeared in a number of items but were largely unexplained by the participants. The non-explanation of “nothing” or “helpful” could be related to students’ difficulties with the technological applications contained within the VMC that can be modified for future use. For example, where students want to move forward to the next character, they could do this with more ease. It is expected that, with the increasing use of broadband, access to the VMC would be improved. Anecdotal feedback from students indicated that for some, home internet access was an issue. Despite these concerns, students were very satisfied with the VMC because it supported their learning and they indicated that they would recommend it to others. A significant benefit of the VMC, other than learning and teaching, is that it provides a safe environment for students where they are not at risk, for example, of providing inappropriate care or information to women. The VMC is therefore a safe haven for students to observe the interactions between a pregnant woman and her midwife, and not feel unwelcome or overwhelmed by the intensity of human issues and related interactions. This benefit of the VMC is considered as a preparation process for each student’s entry into lived experiences of midwifery practice and has an important role in the blended teaching and learning approaches for the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery.

The VMC and Blended Teaching and Learning Approaches In the early phases of project implementation, it was learned that when students accessed the VMC they did so briefly, or spent more than an hour online. There was a wide variation in access time of the VMC by both postgraduate and undergraduate students, with postgraduate students accessing the VMC more often. There are a number of possible reasons for this, including that undergraduate students were full-time enrolments and were probably concentrating more on their preparation for examinations. Further, the undergraduate students in years 1 to 3 were also beginning to commence their placements in maternity services. Through the online tracking mechanisms, it was also identified that there was little access to the VMC by the undergraduate students during their placement time. This links with the students’ stated difficulties in balancing concurrent course commitments and access to the VMC. For postgraduate students, who were enrolled part-time during trimester 2, 2009, placements were continuous throughout the trimester, but were predominately undertaken in postnatal and birth units. The project team speculated that if the project had met its planned timelines by earlier implementation of the VMC there may have been increased participation by all students (postgraduate and undergraduate). The data obtained from the pre-VMC evaluation indicated that students were confident about the VMC as another modality of providing opportunities to support their midwifery practice development. All responses related to the quality and use of the VMC, in that it would offer safe, diverse experiential learning; additionally, the online aspect of the e-simulation would provide ease and flexibility of use. This expectation was largely achieved in the post-VMC evaluation, notwithstanding the reduced response rates. There was a strong indication by students that they found each of the four virtual women of the VMC, 97


(including their related scenarios and interactive activities), realistic and typical of experiences they had observed in practice settings. The VMC however, provided an opportunity to observe and learn more about the role of the midwife. This referred to the manner in which the midwives conducted interviews with women, performed health assessments, and engaged in the delivery of woman-centred care. Further, students can refer to any of the four virtual women repeatedly if required, and at any time of their choosing to support problem-based learning (PBL) (Kalyuga, 2007) and access of interactive activities (Atkinson & Renki, 2007). The learning activities for each of the characters were found to be useful in supporting student learning so that they could for example, judge and compare their experiences in practice settings to make meaningful connections with the VMC. The integration of the VMC in a blend of teaching and learning approaches is to support the concept of “student-centred” and a framework for active learning. It is acknowledged that the VMC cannot replace student placements in practice settings of maternity services. Rather, the VMC serves to enhance the experiences of students so that they can reflect, analyse, interpret, synthesise, and create them into units of meaning and apply them in practice settings. In light of the typical characteristics of students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery, it is imperative that in the development of course curricula that relevant, contemporary, flexible, and innovative course content (Deakin University, 2011) be incorporated to support each student in their journey towards to the qualification of “midwife”. In this quest by academics to deliver a blend of teaching and learning, a key goal is for each student to achieve their best potential in their academic and practice performance, to meet the attributes required for professional practice as a midwife..

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The VMC has great potential to be developed further by the inclusion of learning programs related to late pregnancy, intrapartal and postnatal phases of childbearing, as well as care of the newborn infant for postgraduate and undergraduate midwifery courses. These programs would also incorporate the scope of the midwife’s role as a primary care practitioner in providing services for women across all phases of childbearing. Future research directions include the development of midwifery health assessments’ tools contained within the VMC for students to evaluate their learning and prepare them for professional practice as a midwife.

CONCLUSION The VMC is an important component in midwifery courses and it is planned to expand the programs further to include all phases of childbearing to provide safe, varied and experiential learning opportunities. Blended teaching and learning approaches applied for the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery, such as face-to-face interactions, video conference and online programs including the VMC, support postgraduate students around their various personal and course commitments. The diversity of blended teaching and learning approaches contribute to both academic and professional attributes such as critical analysis, problem solving and applying learned knowledge to new situations. Blended teaching and learning approaches therefore, provide a solid foundation for students enrolled in the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery in their preparation for the role of midwife.


ACKNOWLEDGMENT Ms. Susie Macfarlane, Associate Professor Gery Karantzas, Professor Maxine Duke, Associate Professor Cate Nagle, Ms. Denise Patterson and Associate Professor Dale Holt, Deakin University, Australia.

REFERENCES Akyod, Z., Garrison, R., & Ozden, M. Y. (2009). Online and blended communities of inquiry: Exploring the development and perceptional differences. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(6), 65–83. ANMC Australian Nursing & Midwifery Council. (2006). National competency standards for the midwife. Dickson, ACT: ANMC Australian Nursing & Midwifery Council. Atkinson, R. K., & Renki, A. (2007). Interactive example-based learning environments: Using interactive elements to encourage effective professing of working examples. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 375–386. doi:10.1007/ s10648-007-9055-2 Bluic, A. M., Goodyear, P., & Ellis, R. A. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in studies into students’ experiences of blended learning in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 13, 108–114. doi:.doi:10.1016/j.oheduc.2010.02.005 Brodie, P., Warwick, C., Hastie, C., Smythe, L., & Young, C. (2008). Sustaining midwifery continuity of care: Perspectives for managers. In C. Homer, P. Brodie & N. Leap (2008). Midwifery continuity of care: A practical guide (pp.149-164). Sydney, Australia: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.

Chan, T., Corlett, D., Sharples, M., Ting, J., & Westmancott, O. (2005). Developing interactive logbook: A personal learning environment. In Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education. De George-Walker, L., & Keeffe, M. (2010). Self-determined blended learning: A case study of blended learning design. Higher Education Research & Development, 29(1), 1–13. doi:10.1080/07294360903277380 Deakin University. (2011). Operational Plan (p. 2). Geelong, Victoria: Deakin University. Graneheim, U. H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24, 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001 Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing instructional efficiency of interactive e-learning environments: A Cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387–399. doi:10.1007/ s10648-007-9051-6 Mantovani, F., Castelnuovo, M. S., Gaggioli, M. S., & Riva, G. (2003). Virtual realty training for health-care professionals. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 6(4), 389–395. doi:10.1089/109493103322278772 Medley, C. F., & Horne, C. (2005). Using simulation technology for undergraduate nursing education. The Journal of Nursing Education, 44(1), 31–34. Nagia, S. A., Hodson-Carlton, K., & Ryan, M. (2004). Students’ perceptions of online learning: Implications for teaching. Nurse Educator, 29(3), 111–115. Simpson, R. L. (2006). See the future of distance education. Nursing Management, 42–51. doi:10.1097/00006247-200602000-00012

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Chapter 7

Evaluating the Impact of a Virtual Emergency Room Simulation for Learning Luke Rogers University of Ballarat, Australia Charlynn Miller University of Ballarat, Australia Sally Firmin University of Ballarat, Australia

ABSTRACT This study explored the value of Second Life as a clinical simulation platform for healthcare students. Participants were exposed to the Critical Life simulation and worked in teams within the simulation. Pre- and post-surveys and interviews were used to gauge responses to participation, level of use of online tools and gaming, and input about the experience of using the simulation. The main findings from the study were that participants had positive and realistic experiences using Critical Life as a collaborative learning tool; participants agreed that Critical Life would assist them in developing technical and non-technical skills; participants were not deterred by the technology and perceived they would use it in their own time; and participants agreed that the simulation was able to incorporate effective learning strategies that may improve clinical judgment. Interviews revealed that the participants enjoyed working in virtual teams suggesting that in healthcare education, virtual simulations have potential for use across multiple campuses and universities. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch007


Evaluating the Impact of a Virtual Emergency Room Simulation for Learning

INTRODUCTION Three-dimensional Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE) simulations in tertiary-level healthcare education are used for a variety of teaching and learning purposes, including teaching of facts, principles, and concepts; assessing students’ development of certain skills or competencies; integrating the use of technology in the learning experience; and developing problem solving and diagnostic reasoning skills in a safe, nonthreatening environment (Boulos, Hetherington, & Wheeler, 2007; Jeffries, 2006). Simulation is particularly suited to team training, giving participants the opportunity to interact, play different roles, and practice team-based activities in real time (Fanning & Gaba, 2008). Prior research indicates that simulations can lead to increased self-confidence, improved clinical judgment (Thiele, Holloway, Murphy, Pardavis, & Stuckey, 1991), and enhanced problem-solving abilities (Johnson, Zerwic, & Theis, 1999). If clinical simulations are viewed as events made to resemble clinical practice as closely as possible (Seropian, Brown, Gavilanes, & Driggers, 2004), and take into account that research has shown learning obtained from clinical simulations is very similar to the learning gained from traditional classrooms (Bruce, Bridges, & Holcomb, 2003; Engum, Jeffries & Fisher, 2003; Jeffries, 2006), it can be seen how a simulation with a constructive and collaborative environment can provide an effective means by which educational training and collaborative team-building exercises can be conducted. At the authors’ institution, Second Life is being used as a platform for an emergency room simulation to train pre-service nurses (Rogers, 2008). This chapter focuses on research conducted in 2009 on this e-simulation that included both quantitative and qualitative data collection to investigate the learning habits and perceptions

of healthcare students with regard to simulation, computer games, online learning and virtual worlds. This information is used to provide a descriptive profile of the sample and to determine the complexity level of the simulation for the students. In addition, the participants reported on which experiences they perceived could assist them develop as a healthcare professional. The research further focuses on what technical and nontechnical skills can be developed in a virtual simulation and how the participants perceived they could transfer these skills into the real world. In the past, research into the value of a simulation has primarily been interested in quantifying its performance in terms of retention, student motivation, and engagement. Although these aspects are important, and are touched on in this study, with the introduction of virtual world technologies a new phenomenon is emerging where students can participate together in a computer-based simulation and experience problem-based learning in a team environment. The evaluation of the advantages of simulations as clinical teaching and learning platforms was an important aspect of this research. In addition, the investigation included exploration of healthcare students’ perceptions of usability of the e-simulation platform and perceived value of future use of such simulations to assist them in learning practical components of their course. The chapter begins with a systematic review of the literature including a critical exploration of the rationale/motivation for using simulations in healthcare education and the need for evaluation of these simulations. Following is the research study that underpins this chapter, concluding with practical suggestions and discussion of the implications of the research for educators, as well as outlining recommendations for future research and development. It is intended that this chapter will provide guidance and information to those considering the development and evaluation of virtual simulations for learning.

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BACKGROUND Simulations in Nursing Education Research within the nursing field indicates that clinical experience is an essential part of learning for the development of competent nurses (Benson, 2004; Fanning & Gaba, 2008). Traditionally undergraduate nursing students have gained this experience through participation in clinical field placements. However, there are inherent issues involved with clinical field placements in that they do not provide exclusive learning experiences, there are limitations in learning time, tasks are unpredictable or repetitive, and students’ receive dissimilar experiences due to variations in institutional culture (Heinrichs, Youngblood, Harter, & Dev, 2008; Lee et al., 2007). Add to these issues the current ethical and professional climate where undergraduate nursing students’experience gained by clinical practice is being limited for patient safety and ethical reasons (Ziv, Small, & Wolpe, 2000). Due to this environment opportunities for nursing students to participate in clinical practice is restricted and there is an imperative for learning activities that can reproduce the applied experience by other means (Alinier, 2007). From as early as the 1960’s, healthcare educators have investigated the use of simulation as a learning strategy to provide healthcare students safe hands-on experiences (Lind, 1961). Prensky (2004) suggests that simulations can be defined as the creation of an artificial world that imitates reality, with activities that represent a real world situation in the workplace that provides students with practice in problem based decision making. In healthcare, an educational clinical simulation provides experience as it requires trainees to be actively involved in trying to solve a problem presented to them by interacting and communicating with their peers, environment, equipment, and the

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patient (Miller, 1987). Studies have shown that clinical simulations can equip learners with skills that can be directly transferred into the clinical setting (Clague et al., 1997; Engum et al., 2003). A clinical simulation does not rely on chance exposure to encourage diagnostic situations and allows students to practise skills in a safe nonthreatening environment (Fanning & Gaba, 2008). Role-play has become a popular form of providing simulated clinical experience in nursing education as it allows learners to assume and act on the behaviours of the particular character role with minimal risk (McLaughlan & Kirkpatrick, 2004). A simulation that requires students to play a role for a specific purpose encourages the student to practice sets of interests, values and knowledge encompassed in the profession. This allows them to experience and learn the adopted role in a safe, non-threatening environment (McLaughlan & Kirkpatrick, 2004). A nurse’s ability to solve problems and make accurate clinical judgments is crucial to the patient’s safety and well-being. Kwan, So, Lai and Tiwari (2006) found the use of case studies could significantly improve students’ truth seeking, analytical and critical thinking and self-confidence. A similar study (Alinier, Harwood, Gordon, & Hunt, 2006) determined that simulation is a useful training technique as it enables students to practise skills and obtain hands on experience in a safe and controlled environment. Simulations can provide nursing students with the opportunity to improve communication and, thus, enhance patient safety. Communication and teamwork failures have been found to be a major cause of errors and accidents within the nursing profession (Lingard et al., 2004; Sexton, Thomas, & Helmreich, 2000). There is need for simulation to assist nursing students learn both technical and non-technical skills required in their profession (Beyea & Kobokovich, 2004).


Technology Assisted Learning and Communication in Nursing Education Contemporary nursing students juggle multiple demands and cannot always be physically present on campus due to a number of factors including field placements. This creates a need for flexible student-centred learning activities. In the last decade, university nursing faculties have embraced technology that enables flexible learning. Computer-assisted electronic learning, or e-learning, has become an intricate component of teaching and learning strategies within Australian nursing tertiary education. Yet leading researchers question the validity of current e-learning strategies, arguing that computer-based (CB) learning cannot provide realistic experiences due to the limited range of training and interactivity it can provide (Alinier, 2007; Berge, 2008). Advancements in information and communication technology are influencing instructional formats and delivery modes of Australian Bachelor of Nursing programs. In the past decade technology enhanced delivery has become a popular teaching and learning platform. Computer-based simulations have become an accepted platform for simulating clinical experience as they allow for flexible learning, have a student-centred approach, and promote engagement in active learning (Benson, 2004; Alinier, 2007). Virtual reality (VR) simulations are a popular form of simulating clinical experience. VR is a technology that allows users to interact with a computer-simulated environment. VR clinical simulations are used in nursing training for a variety of teaching and learning purposes, such as teaching facts, principles and concepts; assessing the student’s progress or competency with a certain skill, integrating the use of technology in the learning experience, and developing problem solving and diagnostic reasoning skills in a safe, non-threatening environment (Jeffries, 2006; Lee et al., 2007; Miller, Lee, Rogers, Meredith,

& Peck, 2010; Taber, 2008; Waltz, Strickland, & Lenz, 2004). VR simulators allow nursing students to practise a range of skills and improve techniques without consequences. VR simulations also reduce the potential risks involved in training nurses and can help develop standards and optimise procedures. Engum, et al. (2003) found engagement and skill development occurred through the use of VR simulation. In a similar study (Jeffries, Woolf, & Linde, 2003), the researchers concluded that a skill learnt from a computer simulated experience can be similar to a skill learnt via traditional methods, and that simulated experiences can be effectively transferred into the real world. Interactive instructional tools that involve realistic environments and incorporate constructive learning are increasingly being used to supplement hands on practical training. A study by Mili, Barr, Harris and Pittiglio (2008) found that nursing educators perceived virtual simulations could provide them with more pedagogical control, and afford timely and quality feedback to students. In addition, they can mediate student workload, provide consistency, encourage the development of learning scenarios and assessment, provide comparative detail, and capture student performance records. Curran, Aziz, O’Young and Bessell (2004) found that computer-based simulations are as effective as video instruction in the retention of information and development of particular skills and are more cost-effective than traditional Internet based approaches.

Online Learning: A New Platform for Teaching and Learning The Internet has provided a unique e-learning opportunity for nursing educators and students. Increasingly, universities are incorporating online technologies into teaching and learning strategies with the aim of creating more flexible learning activities (Taylor & Eustis, 2002). In relation to nursing, researchers suggest that the benefits of

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an online learning platform in tertiary nursing programs include: •

• •

Enhancement of marketability, maximising students’ choice of learning styles, location, time and place of learning, reduced instruction time; Enhancing effectiveness and mastery of learning, improvement in retention; and An increase in student motivation, satisfaction, and enjoyment in learning (Farrell & McGrath, 2001; Kenny, 2002; Miller, et al, 2010).

Carbonaro et al. (2008) found that students reported enjoying the novelty and flexibility afforded by the use of online technologies. Farrell and McGrath’s (2001) work with nursing students produced both positive and negative responses towards online computer-based learning. Investigation revealed themes in student’s responses around the development of independent learning, student engagement, and negative aspects such as feelings of social isolation and lack of applied practice. The anecdotal and statistical evidence from studies involving nursing students suggest that computer-based simulations and online learning can expose students to meaningful experiences and assist students to develop a range of skills and knowledge. However, leading healthcare researchers argue that online learning has a limited range of training functions due to its unrealistic settings, and therefore cannot provide an effective problem-based learning environment (Alinier, 2007; Jeffries, 2006;). Traditionally, online learning and computer assisted learning in healthcare has rarely been anything more than the student passively viewing information or playing a game by themselves (Jeffries, 2006). However, research has shown that effective learning does not occur in isolation, but rather, in teams working together to solve problems (Jonassen, 1998). Petty (2004) claims that,

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on average, students retain 10% of what they read and 30% of what they see, whereas students retain 50% of group interaction and 90% of what they act on. There is a need for online learning activities that allow students to be actively involved in trying to solve a problem presented to them, by interacting and communicating with their peers, environment, equipment, and patient (Fanning & Gaba, 2008). In the past decade, online computer-based technology has become an important element in teaching the necessary skills and knowledge to develop competent healthcare students (Carbonaro et al., 2008; Farrell & McGrath, 2001; Miller et al., 2010). Studies have established that computer simulations can assist in developing both technical and non-technical skills that can be effectively transferred into the real world (Curran et al., 2004; Engum et al., 2003; Jeffries et al., 2003; Mili et al., 2008). Studies also suggest that students appreciate the flexibility and enjoyment of learning in an online environment (Farrell & McGrath, 2001; Kenny, 2002).

Second Life in Higher Education Virtual worlds, such as Second Life, enable learners to interact with, and manipulate, information and representations of an environment and synchronously communicate with other people from a first person perspective (Dickey, 2005). Second Life can be described as an online computer-based entity that can simulate a real-world environment by representing objects to the user, giving the user the impression, as realistically as possible, of being in another place. Through the use of an avatar, a digital representation of the user, people can create, interact with, and manipulate elements of the modelled world and communicate with other users (Haycock & Kemp, 2008). Communication between users ranges from text, graphical icons, visual gesture, sound, and voice. Second Life is a virtual world that has gained much attention with tertiary educators as it enables


its users, known as residents, to explore, socialise, and participate in individual and group role-play activities. Although research into Second Life as a learning environment is in its early stages, significant research exists from similar technologies such as immersive VR and multi-user domains which support constructivist learning, online communities, and educational games (Bruckman, 2002; Fanderclai, 1995; Gee, 2003). Many universities have a presence in Second Life, generally using these spaces to hold lectures, meet with students, host gatherings, and build virtual campuses (Baker, Wentz, & Woods, 2009; Miller, et al., 2010). Research into the use of virtual worlds has been conducted in various disciplines in the higher education context. Baker, Wentz and Woods (2009) found that a virtual world can allow for valuable social interactions to occur. Ritzema and Harris (2008) explored the ability of Second Life to convey simplistic object orientated programming techniques. Results showed that students found the overall experience to be enjoyable, and that the virtual learning activity added to their understanding. A similar study by Haycock and Kemp (2008) investigated the use of Second Life as an innovative learning environment for off-campus librarian students, indicating that students believed Second Life to be well suited for reflection and deeper learning. Specific to healthcare, a team of medical staff at Stanford University (Heinrichs et al., 2008) examined a series of case studies that compared learning outcomes and usability of a human patient simulator (HPS) with a virtual world similar to Second Life. The results advocate that team training and assessment is feasible using virtual world technologies and that it can be as effective as the traditional method of using human patient simulators. Not all experiences reported are positive. Berge (2008), suggested that activities in Second Life can be accomplished using a regular website or video conferencing technologies, have little value other than novelty and can have a negative

effect on the learning process as a result of the steep learning curve associated with its use. Second Life’s platform allows educators and developers to create simulations in an environment incorporating rich information (Good, 2004), high immersion (Dede, 2005), development of a skill and understanding (Alinier, 2007), multi-user interactivity (Sontag, 2009; Miller, et al., 2010), and gaming elements (Gee, 2003). In summary, technology-enhanced flexible learning environments such as virtual worlds have been used successfully to develop skills and experiences in training nurses for clinical work. Research suggests that virtual worlds have the ability to assist people learn and understand new concepts and material, make meaningful social interactions, and develop team work skills (Baker, et al., 2009; Haycock & Kemp, 2008; Miller et al., 2010; Ritzema & Harris, 2008).

THE CRITICAL LIFE SIMULATION FOR PRE-SERVICE NURSING EDUCATION Introduction The unique characteristics of virtual worlds such as Second Life have been well documented. In order for the healthcare field to understand the potential of an emerging technology and play a role in its development, it is important to investigate what the technology may offer. The research presented in the previous section suggests that scenariobased simulations can assist nursing students make transitions to actual patient care and clinical environments (Alinier, et al., 2006; Thiele, et al., 1991). In the past decade universities have been incorporating online technologies into nursing teaching and learning strategies with the aim of creating more flexible learning activities (Kenny, 2002; Taylor & Eustis, 2002). Therefore, this study conducted an evaluative pre-trial/post-trial survey and investigative interviews to research

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the attitudes and experiences of a self-selecting sample of nursing students enrolled in a Bachelor of Nursing Program who were exposed to Critical Life - a clinical simulation created in Second Life. The Critical Life simulation (Figure 1) contains six scenarios, each portraying a possible emergency room crisis (Miller, et al., 2010; Rogers, 2008). The scenarios include various clinical diagnostic problems such as respiratory, pharmacological, and electrocardiogram. Students work in teams of three or four within each scenario to make collaborative decisions about the care of a patient in crisis. Student nurses can assess the patient through a series of questions, including interaction with the patient’s family. Decisions are team-based, with consensus required to move forward. Text, audio, and tactile interaction are used, and the simulation depicts the motion of the patient, working medical machines, and an observation board. The application can be used

Figure 1. The Critical Life Simulation

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for training and assessment of novices, as well as acting as a practise facility for re-skilling. Collaborative learning and the fostering of teamwork skills are facilitated in parallel to the development of specialist nursing skills, through the use of a process model whereby (Rogers, 2008): A. The team is faced with a clinical problem which requires action; B. Group discussion is required as no action can be taken in the simulation without a unanimous decision; C. A solution is formulated from the group discussion; D. Each team member must carry out the solution decided upon by the team for the action to take place and for the simulation to continue;


E. Once the problem is solved, each team member reflects (in written form) on the individual and team processes of the action carried out. This study explored the attitudes and experiences of nursing students towards Critical Life, and investigated whether the students perceived virtual worlds as viable simulation platforms that could assist them in developing characteristics and skills essential to their future roles as healthcare professionals. The study also investigated what design aspects were important in this development. The methodology identified the following sub-questions during this investigation. 1. Can healthcare students successfully use Second Life as simulation platform? 2. Can simulations developed in Second Life incorporate characteristics of effective simulation learning activities? 3. How do participants perceive simulations developed in Second Life could be used in healthcare education in the future?

Method The focus of the methodological framework for this investigation consisted of a series of exploratory case studies. For this study, the case was the event of a group of nursing students trialling an online virtual clinical simulation. Yin (2003) describes a case study as a method of choice when the phenomenon under study is not readily distinguishable from its context, suggesting that it lends itself to how and why questions. The reason for choosing a series of exploratory case studies as a framework for this inquiry was not to provide a definitive judgment about the validity of 3D worlds for healthcare education, but rather to provide a rich description and explanation of a better understanding of the benefits and constraints of using Second Life as a simulation tool.

Study Design The investigation into healthcare students’ perceived effectiveness of virtual worlds as a simulation tool was conducted using two quantitative surveys and a follow-up qualitative interview. The surveys aimed to gather data to investigate any relation between the students’ attitudes and their experiences with the simulation, their ability to use the simulation, and what skills they were able to experience and practise. The surveys were conducted pre- and post-trial. The study was conducted in 2009 involving 6 groups of nursing students, totalling 16 participants, trialling the Critical Life simulation. The population for this particular research project was students enrolled in the Bachelor of Nursing Program, as they are the intended users of the simulation. Advertisements were posted in the Nursing School for participants, resulting in a self-selected group of 16 nursing students. By investigating this group it is hoped the study can begin to draw some conclusions about the larger group. The sixteen participants were placed into groups based on their year level and were asked to complete a pre-trial survey to provide information relating to their demographics, attitudes, level of activity in online learning, simulation, virtual worlds, and gaming. After a short ten minute overview of the basic functions on how to use the Second Life viewer and how to use the simulation, the participants were placed in separate rooms and were given 30 minutes to perform the series of scenarios, with a user document and their peers to help them. The participants then completed a post-trial survey to gather information about the participants’ experience with using the simulation. The responses collected in the pre-trial and post-trial surveys enabled comparisons of traditional learning methods with Critical Life. The post-trial survey gathered information relating to the knowledge and skills that the participants found the simulation could allow them to practise

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and develop, as well as the usability of different aspects of the simulation. The post-survey also measured the uptake difficulty involved with using the simulation, in order to understand the extent of training required by the students. Eleven students participated in individual interviews. The interview was designed to provide an understanding of the participants’ experiences and to provide richness to the responses gathered in the surveys. The interview gathered information about whether participants believed their simulation experience could assist them in developing characteristics and skills essential to their future roles as healthcare professionals. Questions were also asked about how the participants interacted with each other and their learning environment and how they would use the simulation if given the opportunity in the future. A critical part of the research was to attempt to understand the skills that healthcare students may learn through the use of a simulation such as Critical Life. The skills evaluated were based on both the discipline characteristics outlined in the Bachelor of Nursing program and the skills detailed in the Acute Care Nursing course for which the simulation was built. The post-trial survey included questions that addressed communication skills, critical thinking, problem solving skills, teamwork, leadership, nursing intervention and procedures, and evaluation of patient care. Since a major part of this study was to investigate what specific skills students could learn in the unique virtual world simulation, it was deemed necessary to investigate exactly what aspects of the multi-user computer-based simulation the students found assisted their learning. The aim was to gather data that could assess whether this form of simulated activity could incorporate the characteristics of an effective simulation revealed in the literature (Alinier, 2007; Jeffries, 2006). In particular, the survey questions looked at whether the students found the Critical Life simulation could engage them in the learning, encourage

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active participation and teamwork, and enable application of nursing concepts and principles. The final area explored in this study was the perceptions of the participants about the future potential of the simulation for Nursing Education. Questions focused on how the participants felt the simulation could be used in future as a learning tool and any developments they felt would be necessary to encourage this future use.

RESEARCH FINDINGS This section presents the results and provides discussion from the pre- and post-trial surveys and a summary of the major themes that emerged from the interviews undertaken in this study. The data presented here is from a total of 16 participants, and as a result no statistical representations can be made from these results. However, the interviews add some relevance to the quantitative data in order to draw some conclusions. All data presented has been rounded to the nearest whole number. All participants surveyed were domestic students enrolled in the Bachelor of Nursing with English as their first language. Seventy-five percent of participants were female, with males representing the other 25%. The two age ranges “Under 25” and “25 and over” were equally represented.

Habits, Perceptions and Simulation Use The data reported in Appendix A, Table 1, investigated the participants’ habits and perceptions towards computer games prior to using Second Life. As the results illustrate, the majority of the participants were not avid gamers, with only 18% playing computer games once or twice a week. Only 31% perceived they could provide a real-life experience, yet none of the participants viewed computer games in nursing education as a waste of time.


Table 1. Technology enhanced learning pre-conceptions and habits Question Number

Question

Responses

%

1

Students computer game habits

Played them more than once a week Played them once or twice a month Played them once or twice a semester Never played them

18 18 39 25

2

Students perceptions of computer games in nursing education

Fun and Interesting Entertaining New and different Provide real life experience Hard to use Waste of time

25 50 50 31 6 0

3

Students online communication habits

More than once a week Once or twice a month Once or twice a semester Never

75 19 6 0

4

Platforms used for communication

Instant Messaging Social Networking Internet phone calls Email Forums Blogs Wikis Virtual Worlds

38 50 6 88 31 25 6 0

5

Students previous experience with Virtual worlds

I have never heard of them I have heard of them but haven’t used one I have use a virtual world once or twice I use a virtual world once or twice a month I use a virtual world once or twice a week I use a virtual world on a daily basis

88 6 0 0 0 6

6

What media did you use to communicate in the Critical Life simulation?

Voice only Text only Voice & text

31 6 63

The majority of participants (94%) had never used a virtual world. All of the participants had used some sort of online communication tools throughout the semester, with 75% using communication tools to communicate with peers in their program. Appendix A, Table 2, questions 7 to 12, indicate that 81% of the participants found they could easily operate the Second Life interface. Another 87% agreed they could easily navigate the simulation. The majority (76%) agreed they could identify simulated equipment and patient objects. However there were still some participants (18%) who found they could not easily identify with the replicated objects. Most participants

found they could effectively operate the equipment in the simulation, with 88% agreeing they could easily interact with the simulated patient and apparatus. Participants’ communication habits during the simulation were investigated, with the majority (94%) of them using the voice chat option throughout the trial. Prior research suggests that a person’s ability to use virtual worlds is dictated by their ability to play computer games (Berge, 2008). This was not found to be the case in this study, however, as the results of the pre-survey and parts of the postsurvey highlighted. It was suggested early in the investigation that the unique environment of Second Life might enable students to operate the

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Table 2. Operation and personal development within the Critical Life simulation Question Number 7

Question

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly agree

The Second Life interface was easy to use

6%

15%

50%

31%

8

The simulation was easy to navigate

6%

6%

56%

31%

9

Equipment and patient objects in the Critical Life simulation were easy to recognize

18%

6%

38%

38%

10

Equipment and patient objects in the Critical Life simulation were easy to interact with

6%

6%

69%

19%

11

I feel I did not require past experience with virtual world environments such as Second Life to use the Critical Life Simulation

12%

12%

38%

38%

39%

12%

6%

31%

50%

50%

12

I feel the Critical Life simulation would be more advantageous if I had past experience with virtual world environments

12%

13

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in communicating information and listening to ideas from my peers

14

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of information relating to the patient

6%

50%

44%

15

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of information relating to the functionality of the equipment

6%

69%

25%

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in embracing my own abilities as a nursing student and accepting the contributions of others

50%

50%

17

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in working in a team

44%

56%

18

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in critically thinking about problems and solving them

6%

25%

69%

19

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in demonstrating leadership skills

12%

50%

38%

20

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of the ethical and social responsibilities required for the patient in the simulation

6%

31%

25%

38%

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of common terms, equipment and procedures involved in acute patient care

6%

13%

70%

13%

20%

50%

13%

6%

16

21

22

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of managing family members of the patient

13%

continued on following page 110


Table 2. Continued Question Number

Question

23

The Critical Life simulation assisted me in developing an understanding of pharmacological management

24

Strongly disagree

Disagree 6%

Neutral

Strongly agree

63%

25%

I found the simulation engaging

19%

81%

25

I found I was actively involved in the simulation

25%

75%

26

The simulation encouraged me to solve problems as a team

25%

75%

27

I used knowledge and skills from previous experiences to help solve problems in the simulation

56%

44%

28

I listened to and understood knowledge and skills from other student’s experiences to help solve problems in the simulation

32%

56%

6%

6%

Agree

6%

29

The simulation allowed me to apply nursing concepts and principles

44%

56%

30

I think I could apply my experience from the simulation to real life healthcare problems in the future

50%

50%

31

I would use simulations created in Second Life, such as Critical Life, if given the opportunity in the future

19%

81%

32

I would use simulations similar to Critical Life outside the university in my own time if given the opportunity

31%

69%

33

I would feel comfortable using the Critical Life simulation for assessment purposes

44%

50%

34

I would feel comfortable using the Critical Life simulation with students from another campus

50%

50%

35

I would feel comfortable using the Critical Life simulation with students from another campus

44%

56%

simulation effectively in spite of a lack of prior experience in gaming. It was suggested by the researchers that the participants’ ability to communicate and interact in an online virtual environment would play a major role in their ability to operate Second Life. The results shown in the tables supported this suggestion, as the majority of the participants were not avid gamers and had never used a virtual world before trialling the Critical Life simulation. In spite of this, the par-

6%

ticipants indicated that they were able to operate and be successful in the simulation. Once participants became comfortable with using a new interface, the majority perceived that their lack of gaming experience, and even virtual world experience, had little effect on their overall experience with the simulation and their ability to use Second Life as a simulation platform. Survey results in Appendix A, Table 2 indicated that the majority of participants could easily adapt to using

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the Second Life platform, and every participant who trialled the simulation was able to operate it. Interview feedback from the participants further suggested that the technical learning curve for Second Life would not be difficult regardless of their computing skills. Another focus of this research was investigating participants’ experiences with communicating and working in an online virtual environment, as this was a relatively new concept that has not been explored often in current computer-based clinical training simulations. As the results indicate, the majority of the participants used the voice chat option throughout the trial of the simulation. The participants’ feedback indicated that the majority of the students had no issues communicating in an online virtual environment without any faceto-face interaction. In terms of usability, most participants felt comfortable using the voice chat function in Second Life and, although there were a few technical problems, the participants found that there wasn’t a technical barrier and they were able to easily communicate with their peers. Earlier results indicated that a majority of participants used various online communication platforms to communicate with their student peers as well as with others. These results, along with the literature (Carbonaro et al., 2008; Kenny, 2002), suggest that the idea of communicating online in a virtual environment without face-to-face interaction is not a foreign concept to healthcare students and therefore communicating and working in Second Life was not a significant issue. Although results from this study suggest that some minor changes could improve the usability of the Critical Life simulation, feedback suggests that healthcare students could successfully use Second Life as a simulation platform.

Skills Development Appendix A, Table 2, Questions 13 to 23, details the survey results investigating whether participants found the communication channels in Second Life effective in allowing them to share 112

thoughts, ideas, and experiences. All participants agreed that the simulation was effective in assisting them to listen and share ideas with peers. The data gathered additionally investigated whether participants found the simulation assisted them in developing an understanding of patient information. As the results indicate, 94% of the participants agreed that the simulation allowed them to develop an understanding of information relating to the simulated patient. A majority of participants (94%) agreed that the simulation allowed them to develop an understanding of the functionality of the medical equipment used in the simulation. All participants agreed that the simulation assisted them embrace their own abilities as a nursing student and accept the contributions of others. All participants likewise agreed that the simulation assisted them to work in a team. An overwhelming number of participants (94%) agreed that the simulation assisted them in developing critical thinking and problem solving skills. When the participants were asked if the simulation assisted them to demonstrate leadership skills, 88% agreed that it did. Only 63% of the participants agreed that the simulation assisted them to develop an understanding of the ethical and social responsibilities required for the patient in the simulation. Eighty-three percent of participants found the simulation assisted them to develop an understanding of common terms, equipment, and procedures, which were present in the simulation. When participants were asked if the simulation assisted them to develop an understanding of managing family members of the patient, only 19% believed that they were assisted with this skill. Finally, when asked if the simulation assisted them to develop an understanding of pharmacological management, 88% of the participants agreed that the Critical Life simulation assisted them in this way. The results indicated that Critical Life was an effective learning activity that could assist participants in developing characteristics and skills essential to their future roles as healthcare


professionals, such as teamwork, communication skills, and working with patients. The results also indicate that the participants were able to work as a team in the artificial social structure and could actively co-construct mental models of technical and interpersonal skills through experiencing human interaction in the online computer-based simulated environment. Interview feedback indicated that being able to visually interact with the patient assisted participants in identifying and solving problems and developing deeper understanding of the underlying principles presented in the simulation. Participants expressed that they felt there was no barrier working in the virtual environment and, in some cases, perceived that the online environment and design of the simulation could in fact enhance their team-based learning activities. These findings are supported by the work of Savery and Duffy (1995). Previous research shows that communication failures are an important cause of errors and accidents (see Lingard et al., 2004; Sexton et al., 2000). Results from the survey indicated that the online communication in Second Life would be a valuable element of a computer training simulation. Analysis of the interviews indicated that, because the students were not in a face-to-face environment, it was necessary to communicate with their peers; resulting in assistance with their cognitive understanding of clinical problems and their ability to solve them. Interestingly some participants were able to use the communication channels in Second Life to assist one another with operating Second Life and the actual simulation, thus reducing feelings of isolation and frustration, and improving engagement in the simulation. This indicated that the voice communication in Critical Life would not only assist collaborative problem-solving, but may also reduce the learning curve involved in using Second Life as a simulation platform. The ability of Second Life to assist teamwork was a significant theme that emerged from the study. Both the quantitative and qualitative

feedback supported Second Life as a simulation platform that could assist students to develop teamwork skills. Feedback from interviews found that all the students enjoyed the team aspect of the simulation and found it assisted them to develop teamwork skills. Research suggests that clinical simulations are particularly suited to team training, giving participants the opportunity to interact, play different roles, and practice team-based activities in real time (Fanning & Gaba, 2008) and can assist in developing skills required for effective team work (Heinrichs et al, 2008). Due to the nature of the simulation in a virtual environment, without face-to-face interaction, participants expressed that they felt more comfortable collaborating with their peers and ‘bouncing ideas’ off each other regardless of whether they knew each other. Participants indicated that because there was no hand raising mechanism, having to discuss their actions was critical to work as a team to solve problems. Since cohesion is considered a key element in determining team performance (Anderson, 2005) this was initially viewed as a negative aspect of working in a team in Second Life. However, after a closer review of the literature it was discovered that that groups that are too cohesive can develop ‘group think’ which can lower performance, and low levels of cohesion can in fact benefit group performance (Carron, et al., 2004; Chansler, Swamidass, & Cammann, 2003). A nurse’s ability to solve problems and make accurate clinical judgments is crucial to the patient’s safety and well-being (Kwan et al., 2006). Feedback indicated that participants were able to interact effectively with the simulation to assist in identifying and solving problems. Most of the participants expressed that being able to visually interact with the patient assisted them to identify and solve problems and develop a deeper understanding of the underlying principles present in the simulation. Research has shown that computer simulated patients can assist students develop technical skills (Curran et al., 2004; Jeffries, Woolf, & Linde, 2003). However, these findings suggest 113


that computer simulated patients also have the ability to assist students develop non-technical skills involved in patient care. Another theme that emerged from the interviews was that participants expressed that having virtual representations of equipment allowed them to think about how they could use the equipment to solve a problem. Some of the participants also suggested that it was extremely beneficial to interact with the simulated equipment, as many of them had not been on a clinical placement and did not have a prior understanding of what the equipment was and what it did. This indicates that the Critical Life simulation would be beneficial as a pretraining tool and would allow students to develop an understanding of equipment and patients prior to placements. The majority of the participants agreed that the simulation assisted them in developing an understanding of common terms, equipment, and procedures that were present in the simulation, and further agreed that the Critical Life simulation assisted them to develop an understanding of pharmacological management. Most participants understood the common terms and equipment present and found the value of the simulation was in providing them with the opportunity to practise and visualise certain procedures and test their understanding. When the participants were asked questions relating to how they found the simulation, they indicated that it assisted them in developing an understanding of pharmacological management. Feedback from the interviews suggests that, because participants were able to visualise the cause and effect of specific drugs, they were able to develop a deeper understanding of how the patient would react to the administered drug. Another aspect that was investigated was the ability of the Critical Life simulation to assist participants to develop an understanding of managing family members. Very few participants agreed that the simulation was able to assist them. However, the aspect of managing family members was not

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simulated, but rather presented as a video. The video depicts the reaction of the patient’s wife regarding his illness. These results illustrate that if the students could not interact and experiment with a concept in the simulation, they may not able to develop an understanding of the skill as effectively as if it were simulated. Research into Second Life as a clinical training simulation tool is in its early stages. The results from this study support current literature, which suggests the students can develop technical skills in a computer-based simulation, as well as nontechnical skills such as communication, team work, and patient care in a virtual computer-based simulation. This suggests that simulations in Second Life could be used for a variety of teaching and learning practices in healthcare education.

Simulation Satisfaction and Engagement The survey results in Appendix A, Table 2, Questions 24 to 30 show levels of satisfaction with the simulation regarding non-health skills such as engagement and team problem-solving as well as the application of nursing principles. The results indicate that all participants found the simulation engaging, were actively involved in the simulation, and were encouraged to solve problems as a team. All participants were actively involved in the problem-solving process, agreeing that they could draw on their skills and knowledge to solve problems in the simulation and found they could listen to and understand knowledge from other student experiences. All participants agreed that the simulation allowed them to practice a range of nursing concepts and principles, and perceived that they could apply their experience from the simulation to a real-life healthcare problem in future. The survey investigated whether this simulation incorporated characteristics of an effective simulation revealed in the literature (Alinier, 2007; Jeffries, 2006). Since a major focus of this study


was to investigate what specific skills students could experience and learn in the unique virtual world simulation, it was necessary to investigate which aspects of the simulation the participants found assisted their learning. Participants found that due to the high level of interactivity and engagement in the simulation they were encouraged to solve problems as a team. Participants also indicated how they were able to apply nursing concepts to the simulation and perceived that their experiences from it could be used in a real world healthcare setting. The relevant literature revealed that engagement is an important aspect of education as it actively involves students in the learning process improving understanding and retention of information (Alinier, 2007; Benson, 2004). Feedback from the interviews highlighted a similar theme from the literature in that the participants found aspects such as visual representations, sounds, and animations added to the engagement of the simulation. Participants observed that, due to the realistic nature of the simulation, they found they were extremely engaged in solving the problems that were presented to them. This outcome has the ability to enhance student learning and confidence as a result of the high level of engagement in the simulation. The Critical Life simulation provided for development of critical aspects of problem solving. All participants agreed that they could draw on their own skills and knowledge as well as listen to, and understand, information from other participants to solve problems in the simulation. This shows that participants were not simply clicking to get an answer but were actively engaged in the problem-solving process, suggesting that the simulation was effective in developing criticalthinking and problem-solving skills. Feedback from interviews described how the participants appreciated being able to share thoughts, ideas, and experiences in the problem solving process as it assisted in developing a better understanding of the problem at hand.

This showed that even in a virtual environment, the participants were still able to demonstrate collaborative problem-solving skills inherent in the literature (Sontag, 2009). Investigation found that all the participants agreed that the simulation allowed them to apply nursing concepts and principles in the Critical Life simulation, and their trial of the simulation would provide them with an experience that they could apply to a real life healthcare problem in the future. Since the participants found that the simulation could assist them develop a variety of skills, which they also perceived could be transferred into a real world setting, it was necessary to investigate what aspects of the simulation assisted this process. Interviews were analysed to identify what gaming principles could be developed in Second Life to enhance student learning (Gee, 2003). Analysis indicated that the simulation provided a safe environment that was an excellent testing ground for students.

Attitudes Towards Future Use Appendix A, Table 2, Questions 31 to 35, investigated attitudes towards the ongoing use of the simulation for development of clinical skills. All participants agreed that they would use simulations created in Second Life in future if given the opportunity. Due to the unique environment of Second Life, where people can use the Critical Life simulation regardless of their location, information was gathered to identify whether participants believed they would use a simulation outside of class, to which all participants agreed. Since the Critical Life simulation has the ability to detect actions taken by the students, information could be gathered and used to assess students on particular tasks. Participants were asked if they would feel comfortable using the Critical Life simulation for assessment purposes. Ninety-four percent of participants indicated they would feel comfortable with this.

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Participants also indicated that they would use the Critical Life simulation with students from another campus, or from another University. This question was particularly important with the increase in online and cross-institutional learning options. All participants agreed that they would feel comfortable using Critical Life with students from another campus or another University. Attitudes of participants were measured to determine whether simulations such as Critical Life are viable and useful to students in future. Participants agreed that they would use the simulation outside classes and with students at other campuses and other universities. Feedback from interviews indicated that participants were able to recognise that doing the simulation with people from another campus or university would provide them with a valuable learning experience in having the ability to connect with people from different backgrounds and experiences (Siemens, 2004). In addition, most participants felt comfortable using the simulation for assessment. Interviews suggested, however, that some participants were concerned this would cause negative feelings towards the simulation. The availability of Second Life from any computer connected to the Internet, coupled with the positive outcomes from this study, indicates that healthcare simulations can be a viable addition to traditional healthcare education. An interesting theme that emerged from the interviews was participants’ attitudes that they did not get enough time in lectures and labs to develop the skills required of a nursing professional and due to clinical placements and physical location, the Second Life platform would be extremely beneficial for developing skills in their own time. Interviews also indicated that the majority of the participants enjoyed using the simulation and perceived it would provide them with a meaningful learning experience. An interesting theme that emerged from the study was that because the participants had a common goal they perceived

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that the simulation would be a valuable way to meet people and form professional relationships.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The outcomes of this study support the literature that suggests that students can develop technical skills in a computer-based simulation. The outcomes also indicate that there is great potential for simulations to be used across campuses and even universities. Although the financial and educational benefits of this would be significant, further research would be required to investigate the impacts of using a virtual simulation on a wider scale. As this study focused on students who were in the same program and in the same year level, the results may significantly vary if students were to have different backgrounds and levels of knowledge. Even though virtual worlds are not games, the results indicate that virtual worlds can incorporate gaming elements, which can enhance learning. Additional research to evaluate how the design of discrete simulations in multi-user virtual environments could enhance interactivity, engagement, and communication and thus optimise learning would be desirable. Now that there is an understanding of what skills and characteristics a clinical simulation in Second Life can (and cannot) assist students to develop, future experimental research that includes pre and post measures of understanding and retention would be a valuable addition to further investigation of the value of Second Life as a training simulation tool in nursing education. From this study, it is clear that further research is also needed to measure student comprehension and retention to clarify the value of Second Life as a teaching and learning tool. Since little is understood about simulating teamwork in virtual worlds, research that investigates how event based simulation could be engineered to optimise collaboration in multi-user virtual learning environments would be valuable.


CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

This study explored the experiences and attitudes of nursing students towards the Critical Life simulation to provide a better understanding of the personal and educational experiences of students using such a simulation. The results of this study indicate that virtual clinical simulations are an ideal setting for proactively engaging students in constructing knowledge which relates to realistic problems, and assisting in the development of problem solving skills in a collaborative environment. Results from the study indicated that students could successfully operate Second Life and suggests that the Critical Life simulation can create an artificial social structure where problem-based scenarios can be created, allowing students to actively co-construct mental models of technical and interpersonal skills through experiencing human interaction in problematic environments. Although the virtual simulation is unable to teach specific motor skills, the study showed promising results that Critical Life could assist students to develop an understanding of team-oriented procedural and problem-based decision-making skills. Results from the study also highlighted the ability of Second Life to incorporate effective learning strategies that have been proven to assist students develop and improve clinical judgement and reasoning skills. This study makes a start in showing that clinical simulations developed in Second Life can engage healthcare students and assist them to develop a variety of technical and nontechnical skills and characteristics essential to becoming future healthcare professionals. Simulations developed in Second Life can provide a vibrant, engaging alternative for learning and assessment for students in nursing education. These outcomes suggest that an investment in a virtual simulation could be a valuable addition to a university healthcare program.

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Chapter 8

Designing Simulations for Professional Skill Development in Distance Education:

A Holistic Approach for Blended Learning Deborah Murdoch Charles Sturt University, Australia Chris Bushell Charles Sturt University, Australia Stephanie Johnson Charles Sturt University, Australia

ABSTRACT Designing simulations for higher education requires planning. This chapter explores the use of a design process of an iterative model with frequent evaluation of the process to ensure strong design in blended and flexible learning. Two case studies are used to demonstrate how the ADDIE process is used in an iterative method to develop simulations to teach and refine professional practice in distance learning situations, from both a course and subject perspective. The authors argue that if a strong development and evaluation process is followed, sustainable simulations can be developed. Results show that students have a positive response to simulation use in learning and appreciate a well structured simulation to aid in professional practice development.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch008


Designing Simulations for Professional Skill Development in Distance Education

INTRODUCTION Charles Sturt University (CSU) is a regional university in Australia committed to achieving excellence in education for the professions and leadership in flexible and distance education (Charles Sturt University, 2010b). The university delivers courses through internal and distance education modes of delivery, providing material through a range of methods including print, multimedia, and online delivery through a learning management system (LMS). More than half of the university’s students study by distance which offers them flexibility in completing a degree from anywhere in the world. The university has five main campuses and four specialist campuses across the state of New South Wales (NSW). The two schools discussed in this chapter offer degrees through both modes of delivery, internal and distance, and cater to students who are geographically dispersed throughout Australia. The School of Policing Studies offers training to the recruits of the NSW Police Force who attend the university as internal students for the first two sessions, then are sent to both country and metropolitan locations by the NSW Police Force for the remainder of the time and consequently study by distance, often from remote areas. The School of Humanities and Social Sciences offers degrees in Social Work which include the subject area of Mental Health. Many of these students work in regional areas and attend residential schools as part of their degree. It is because of these situations that simulations were developed to better serve students studying at a distance in their gaining and refining of professional skills. The simulations were developed to improve student understanding of issues in subject content and to expand professional skills in application to authentic contexts. In both policing and mental health professions, it is not always possible to put students into a real situation, due to safety concerns for both the student and the client, so simulations were developed to give students opportunity to practice and hone skills in a safe and supportive environment (Chen, 2007). 122

Blended learning at CSU refers to learning and teaching which may blend elements of internal, on-line and distance education to enhance student learning (Charles Sturt University, 2010a). In each case, the simulations developed were fine-tuned to fit into existing courses where theory, practice, and assessment were already part of the course but practice and refinement of practical professional skills were missing and were designed to complement the face-to-face delivery, print material, and online resources already in existence. The e-simulations were delivered online and by CD-ROM. The main purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate to academics, designers, and developers how the use of a design process directed the design of simulations for blended learning into two subjects in a way that considered all aspects of the learning environment and simulation design. The processes are illustrated through case studies of two simulations developed to meet different needs, and issues are discussed with suggested solutions. This chapter presents a narrative that demonstrates through case studies the processes followed. The chapter emphasises the importance of the analysis and mapping of existing resources to ensure the seamless fit of new resources into an existing course, and also suggests the use of this process as a method of planning for a new course. It discusses the application of the SOLO taxonomy (Biggs, 2008) to developing a type of simulation for professional practice and the learning theories that influenced the learning designs for the simulations. It also discusses issues in implementation and deployment of the e-simulation to remote and rural students, who may have difficulties in access and technology, and how the design process ensured that factors that might affect these issues were considered. Finally the issue of simulation development that is sustainable, reusable, and transferable to other disciplines and context is discussed and related to its position in the design process.


PLANNING PROCESS

E-SIMULATION DESCRIPTION

Planning and organisation is paramount in the success of any project and the use of a design process helps ensure that all aspects of design and project management are covered, and quality teaching materials are created that blend seamlessly into the course or subject. The process used in the design and development of the simulations showcased in this chapter is the commonly accepted ADDIE process (Dick & Carey, 1978), that incorporates the stages of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. It should be noted that the ADDIE process followed was not a simplistic model, but one which incorporated iterative processes of evaluation of the design at each stage. Changes are occurring in higher education in both distance education and face-to-face classrooms. Interactive learning resources are becoming more common and should be designed into the subject or course to blend them seamlessly into the full learning experiences of the student. There needs to be cohesion and coherence between materials and experiences (Bain, Zundans, Lancaster, & Hollitt, 2004). The designer must be aware of the whole system, environment, and learners in order to design for their requirements (Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). Organisation and planning for design is required for this cohesion.

The simulations discussed in this chapter incorporate different elements. One simulation uses avatars to simulate an authentic interview situation where students interact with the avatar to pursue an interview to its conclusion with appropriate assessment of learning linked to the simulation. Students are introduced to the realistic avatar with both text and audio and then introduced to the client through a demonstration of the opening of an interview. They then continue through the interview by choosing questions and proceeding onwards, reflecting on the feedback programmed into the sequence after each question set. Students are also given the option of reflecting on their interview by printing the transcript of the interview and writing a report. There is a choice of a male or female voice for the interviewer although the image of the interviewer is not seen as the student becomes the interviewer in the simulation. The client is an animated avatar that uses text-to-speech technology to respond to the questions asked. Feedback is provided to the student immediately after the question is asked as scaffolding to support their decision, or guide further choice (see Figure 1). The other simulation (see Figure 2) presents students with a common policing incident through images and audio and asks students for the most appropriate choices for their actions as they prog-

Figure 1. Mental Health simulation avatar image

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ress through the simulation. Students must complete each consecutive component of the scenario before proceeding on, just as would happen in a real incident or situation. In order for proper legislative processes to proceed, police must use good practice and follow correct procedures. It is sequence controlled so it links individual evidence or facts to form a pattern which, when combined, may lead to resolving the policing incident/problem. The simulation used a combination of still images of typical scenes in a policing incident along with audio files to build a sense of an authentic situation. Resources and readings were provided or references given for students to access the information. Resources were those which had been provided in earlier classes and to which students had ready access. Both images in Figure 2 are presented digitally, one delivered through the LMS and the other delivered on a CD. Both link theory to practice and are aligned to assessment. Terminologies in this chapter include the use of course meaning a degree or diploma, and subject meaning a unit or component within a course.

Figure 2. Police simulation examples

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SIMULATION AND LEARNING THEORIES Constructivists theorise that knowledge is constructed by the learner in control of their own learning. Piaget believed that people learn through active exploration, as did Dewey (Roblyer & Doering, 2010), and the use of simulations provide opportunities for students to experience authentic situations and explore their own learning, with scaffolding provided by the teacher’s feedback and guidance (Dalgarno, 2011; Roblyer & Doering, 2010) Making meaning through interaction with a simulation was a desired effect of the development of the Mental Health e-simulation, Suicide Risk Assessment. Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999, p. 6) offer that learning should be “active, constructive” and “authentic” amongst other characteristics. Through experiencing an interview where the student interviewer had to interact with the client (avatar) to ensure the client safety and elicit information about the client, the student was able to use trial and error with immediate feedback to determine how to interview a client in order to provide the problem-solving skills, strategies,


and interventions. Using theory learnt from other sources in the subject and completing assessment tasks that exemplified normal professional tasks in their chosen career, students are able to learn in an active and authentic way that allows them to articulate their knowledge and put it into practice in a learning environment such as the eSim (Dalgarno, 2001; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). Students are asked to link previously learnt theory with practice and reflect on their learning by providing appropriate interventions for the client. The creation of a client report details the intervention and supports those decisions with theory (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999, p. 7).

THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN The ADDIE design process was followed in the design and development of the simulations shown here. Following a design process is an established method of ensuring that the process is systematic to guarantee that all factors are considered (Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). Using an iterative pro-

cess of design that continues to evaluate and refine the design reinforces the process (Chan & Robbins, 2006, p. 491). After each evaluation, the material is re-analysed and the cycle starts again. Although the ADDIE process in its most simplistic form follows a linear approach (Dick & Carey, 1978), it offers educational designers a base from which to work on an iterative method. As a designer, a better approach may be to evaluate the process at each step as to whether the learning goals are still being met, whether the resource still fits the learning environment, and whether the context is still the same, and also to evaluate feedback and make refinements throughout the whole process. There is support for this iterative process amongst technology designers as evidenced by Lombardi’s posts on her Learning Journal Blog (Lombardi, 2008) and Tyson in his blog which concentrates on discussing learning design approaches (Tyson, 2009). Both of these posts indicate that there is support for a changed ADDIE process which is iterative rather than linear. It is this iterative and reflective approach that has been used in both of the simulations described in this chapter.

Figure 3. A. Traditional ADDIE process; B. Flexible ADDIE

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When designing a learning environment as complex as an e-simulation into the already complex environment of a subject or course having a clear plan and course of action assists in organisation of the process. For this reason, the ADDIE process was adopted within the whole subject and course design process. With both simulations discussed here, there was an existing course and the simulation had to be designed into the current environment as seamlessly as possible. Consequently the ADDIE process was followed iteratively in both the design of the simulation as a blended learning resource into the course as well the simulation as an entity itself. Figure 3(a) shows the circular stepped process of the traditional ADDIE process but a more flexible ADDIE process is demonstrated by Figure 3(b) where evaluation is carried out after each stage of the process to ensure that the design is constantly refined and developed in response to evaluation and feedback. This process was carried out throughout the design and development of the blended learning resources to fit the existing courses. Firstly, to aid in this process a series of tables were created to identify existing components with each course and start the analysis stage of the ADDIE process.

Analysis Stage The analysis stage is an opportunity to determine the many factors that affect the design and development of the resource within the subject or course as well as determining existing objectives and components of a course. It also provides a planning opportunity for desired characteristics or components to be incorporated. Using a series of tables to collate data from the subject, (in the case of the Mental Health simulation), and the course, (in the case of the Policing simulation), assessment, resources, and activities were constructively aligned with learning objectives. Table 1 is an example of how assessment information is gathered and plotted in the table to give an indication of

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what assessment is taking place over a course and matched against the course objectives. An analysis of this assessment will show where there may be gaps or overload of assessment. Each assessment task in each session is then aligned against the learning outcomes in the subject. A similar table (Table 2) is created for each subject where the subject learning outcomes are placed in the left hand column and the assessments entered in the column header rows. Information about each assessment is entered in the cells below to identify how the task meets the learning objective. As much information as possible is gathered about the assessment task to provide the best information about how learning materials and activities can be designed for an optimum learning experience. More information is gathered about the subjects, their materials, and activities, and plotted in tables to align them against learning objectives and assessment. Table 3 demonstrates the process followed to build a picture of what exists, and a design can start to be formulated on how to best meet the needs of the students with the resources. These tools can also be used to outline the attributes of what a graduating student should gain, and to plan which learning resources and activities can be created to provide them. Analysis of the course allowed an appreciation of what the ultimate goal of the course was and what might be required to design resources to suit both the learners and the course. It is a time consuming activity that pays off in the long term by a better understanding for the design of the material (Chan & Robbins, 2006, p. 491). Thomas (2002) discusses the importance of cultural sensitivity and it could be inferred that an understanding and awareness of all factors that might impact on design and development should be considered at all stages of the design process (Chan & Robbins, 2006, p. 492). The use of constructive alignment (Biggs, 2008) to align learning objectives to assessment, learning resources, and activities helped to ensure


Table 1. Assessment analysis across the Policing course in 4th and 5th sessions Assessment Tasks Objectives

4th session

Understand the social context of policing

4th session

5th session

5th session

5th session

Forum discussions

Critical analysis of a policing incident students were involved in Essay questions

DV Simulation (Module One) First Response

Discussion of case study

Essay

DV Simulation (Module Two) Inside Premises

Case study response

Understand the place of policing within the broader context of the criminal justice system the police organisation and in dealing with all customers * Apply conflict resolution skills in communication * Apply problem solving skills in a community context Evaluate critically their professional practice in policing

Reflect on professional practice

Essay

DVSimulation (Module Three) Post Arrest

Contribute to the enhancement of police practice

Police Statement

Police statement critique

DVSimulation (All modules)

Undertake autonomously and through further study professional development Understand the values which guide policing in Australian society

Understand the ethical standards and accountability expected of police officers

Essay

Case studies

Preparation of notebook, statements, interviewing of accused, gathering evidence, documentation

that students were offered teaching and learning opportunities that covered all aspects of the course or subject. From a course perspective, when all assessment in a course is identified and mapped in a table, the types of assessment become easily visible and gaps in assessment are recognised. The assessment can then be aligned to individual subject learning objectives and analysed to ensure that they are being met. By analysing the way in which the learning outcomes are being met by all resources, activities, and interactions, the designer is able to see what is needed or what can be removed or improved (Chan & Robbins, 2006). This tool can be used not only as an analysis of an existing subject but also to plan a new course or subject based on a course view of desirable

Critical Analysis of an incident

Case studies

graduate attributes and course outcomes. This process was applied to both the Mental Health subject and the Policing course and gaps were identified where students were exposed to theory and then later assessed on practice, but had no opportunity to practise and develop skills in the professional practice before final assessment. Through this process, the analysis stage showed where an interactive simulation could fill this gap and provide students with a learning experience to improve their skills and knowledge.

Design In the design stage of the ADDIE process, a simulation design was produced that matched

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Table 2. Constructive alignment subject assessment analysis ASSESSMENT ITEMS OBJECTIVES

Forum Posting-15% 1000 words in total

E-sim and case notes 35% 1500 words in total

Case studies – report style 50% 2500 words in total

Be able to demonstrate a sound understanding of the biological, psychological and sociological frameworks for understanding the etiology of mental disorders

Questions posed to students to answer and discuss within the Forumto encourage discussion, debate and thinking around new concepts. Students to submit their 5 best discussions to be assessed

Online suicide assessment interviewing client Write report of interventions using theory to underpin assessment made

Answer questions based on diverse case studies, students will be required to make assessments, interventions in cultural appropriate manner based on theory and linking to practice

Be able to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the mental disorder classification system

Questions posed to students to answer and discuss within the Forumto encourage discussion, debate and thinking around new concepts

Be able to identify the effects of oppression, discrimination and stigma on individuals with mental disorders and their families


Be able to identify strategies to minimise discrimination and combat stigma


Answer question based on a diverse case studies, students will be required to make assessments, interventions in cultural appropriate manner based on theory and linking to practice

Be able to assess the risks and strengths of individuals, families and communities for the purposes of promoting mental health, early intervention, treatment and continuing care



Be able to plan and conduct culturally competent, gender specific individual, family, group and community based capacity building and preventive interventions



Be able to demonstrate an understanding of mental health policy and service delivery systems, legal and ethical issues

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Table 3. Constructive alignment activity analysis Objectives

Questions

Forum activities

Audio lecture

Viewing PowerPoint’s

Screening DVD

e-sim

Be able to demonstrate a sound understanding of the biological, psychological, and sociological frameworks for understanding the etiology of mental disorders

Answering questions

Discussing on the Forum

Explains and explores

Reinforces learning

Be able to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the mental disorder classification system

Answering questions



Reinforces learning

Girl Interrupted DVD Explores and highlights the biomedical classification system via the story line and demonstrates and assessment

Be able to identify the effects of oppression, discrimination, and stigma on individuals with mental disorders and their families

Answering questions



Reinforces learning

Cosi DVD explores the media stereotyping of people living with mental health issues and highlights stigma of mental illness. Awakenings DVD- highlights oppressive mental health system

Be able to identify strategies to minimise discrimination and combat stigma

Answering questions



Reinforces learning

Choir of hard knocks DVD highlights stigma and shame relating to mental illness and homelessness

Interview skills, identifying strategies

Be able to assess the risks and strengths of individuals, families, and communities for the purposes of promoting mental health, early intervention, treatment, and continuing care

Answer questions

Discussion on the Forum


Reinforces learning

DVD, Angels & Demons, Andrew Denton. Users and carers perspective in mental health and their treatment/recovery process DVD Changeling, Highlights assessment of mental health client

Lead students through an assessment process


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Table 3. Continued Objectives

Questions

Be able to plan and conduct culturally competent, gender specific, individual, family, group, and community based capacity building and preventive interventions

Unit 5 questions Unit 6 questions Unit 7 questions Unit 3 questions, report writing

Be able to demonstrate an understanding of mental health policy and service delivery systems, legal and ethical issues

Unit 8 Questions

Forum activities Discussion on the Forum Unit 5 Unit 6 Forums Unit 7 Forums Unit 3 Forum, case reports

the requirements identified during analysis. The more detailed the analysis of the course or subject means that a better match of interactive media can be designed (Chan & Robbins, 2006). It was clear from the analysis of the subjects that a simulation was required to provide a practice arena before assessment that linked theory to practice and provided opportunities for reflection and transfer of knowledge to practice (Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). The decision to use the SOLO taxonomy in the police simulation was made at this time. The SOLO taxonomy is a process first defined by Kevin Collis and John Biggs in Evaluating the Quality of Learning: The SOLO Taxonomy (1982). It is a process that can be used to evaluate assessment or design learning. In the SOLO taxonomy (Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome), student assessment outcomes are measured through the degree of complexity from a minimal level to a conceptual stage where the student can generalise and transfer the gained knowledge to other situations. This taxonomy has been applied to the ADPP (Associate Degree of Policing Practice) to measure the degree of student outcomes throughout the course and is explained in the following section.

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Audio lecture

Viewing PowerPoint’s

Screening DVD

e-sim


Reinforces learning Unit 3 case report PPT Forum trial reports by the students

DVD Changeling, Highlights assessment of mental health client

Student assessor plans for preventative intervention


Reinforces learning

SOLO Taxonomy in Practice Students commence the ADPP with a pre-conceived notion of policing, for investigation and the gathering of evidence, based upon past experiences or notion of policing exposed to them through the media either factually or as entertainment. In the first session, in addition to other course requirements, students learned how to interview witnesses or victims of crime and how to gather evidence. Assessment strategies include the use of scenarios based upon actual policing incidents encountered as a probationers or operational general duties police officer. In the following session, their knowledge and skill base is extended to the conversation management when interviewing an accused. The knowledge of law and police policy and procedure which directly impacts on the legal and associated ethical requirements and the re-enforcement of interviewing of witness/victims in preparation of a brief of evidence for production for court. Again the assessment strategies are scenario driven, reflecting actual policing incidents. In the next session, the students are now sworn police officers. Their learning in this area comes about in two forums. Firstly, through the learning strategies and activities employed in the course


structure, reflecting what already has been learned as well as additional learning activities specific to the preparation of brief of evidence, including the interviewing of witnesses/victims and accused, as well as the knowledge of law and police practice. Secondly, through encountering actual incidents in the course of their operational duties or on the job learning. The following session builds upon the activities in the previous session. In addition, the students are asked to reflect on and compare their learning so far in the course to actual pieces of evidence produced by them in their role as a police officer, attending actual policing incident. In the final session, the simulation is delivered. It brings together both the learning that has taken place in the previous 4 sessions as well as on the job learning experiences. It promotes best practice, structured as an actual police incident from the initial call to attend the incident, interviewing the witness, interviewing the accused, gathering of evidence and the production of documents for court, then concluding with the production of evidence for court. The Police simulation is a scenario which poses a policing incident or problem regularly encountered by operational police. It requests a particular response which denotes best practice specific to that problem, first as defined by the experts within the NSW Police Force to meet legal requirements enacted by legislators, and also by advice of the NSW Police Policy and Programs Command (2009) to the Police Commissioner. It is sequenced-controlled to optimise the relationship between individual subject-specific learning that has taken place throughout the course. In doing so it develops and links individual pieces of learning or evidence of facts to form a pattern which combined may lead to resolving the policing incident/problem. A simulation designed in this format allows for individual pieces of evidence or learning to be examined by students who will examine the underlying relationship between each individual

piece of evidence leading to the recognition of a pattern designed to solve the incident/problem depicted in the simulation. The simulation becomes the scaffold for learning. Sequenced to allow for revision and practice when required, it dictates the pace of learning generating an understanding of the complexities associated with the incident/problem in the simulation. The simulation delivers sequenced pieces of learning or meta-data, learning which has occurred throughout the course. The meta-data, once sequenced, generates meta-knowledge necessary to understand the concept of the simulations and subsequent requirements of all pieces of evidence/ meta-data to form and recognise a pattern to resolve the policing situation depicted. Banerji (1985) connected the utilisation of pattern recognition to solving the problem. “A problem is defined by a set of available ‘actions’ that can be taken to transform situations from one to another. Among the situations, some are known to be ‘desirable’” (p. 179). Given an undesirable situation (policing incident), one needs to find a sequence of actions that change the situation at hand to a desirable situation. Such an action sequence will be called solving the problem (Banerji, 1985, p. 179). Gobet and Simon (1998, p. 208) highlighted that recognition implies the act of associating and classifying certain acts or pieces of information with a label, pattern classification rather than pattern recognition. Pattern recognition can be described as limiting those features and classifications specific to the problem(s). Making vital associations through pattern recognition activates higher order thinking. This is evident in Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy advanced by Biggs and Collis (1982). The taxonomy illustrates how unconnected pieces of information and processes may have patterns and meaning for informed students and allows them to have meaningful learning through extensions into multi-structural, relational, extended abstract outcomes.

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Ultimately at the highest operational level (extended abstract), students nearing completion of a topic area, or a probationer part way through the course, could identify and prioritise important cues/ relevant information, and recognise the appropriate pattern emanating from the information. Both in curricula design and simulation design, knowledge of the SOLO taxonomy associated with pattern recognition becomes essential. The absence of important information/cues renders the simulation unsound, unusable, or disjointed to the student. Chen (2007) indicated in research on the instructional design process, that a decision of when to place coaching feedback affected how the student experienced the simulation. The research also indicates that feedback is better contextualised at the point it is needed. The student can choose an action and dependent on the feedback can make a second choice on the action or return to other resources to make decisions about another choice. Professional skills transfer was also an important factor in design. Distance students in policing (situated in the local area commands around the state of New South Wales) observe simulated situations and are assessed in role-play, but have no chance to practise the processes. Distance students in Mental Health learn the theoretical aspects and attend a residential school where they are assessed on role-plays of professional practice. Simulations in both situations give students the opportunity to practise procedures and grasp an understanding of concepts presented in theory, as well as developing and refining practical professional skills. The simulation in Mental Health also gives students the opportunity to develop an understanding of the literacy of interviewing and the nuances of client communication in both verbal and non-verbal ways (Cybulski, et al., 2010). The design of these simulations to fit into, first, a subject where the simulation needed to provide a bridge between theory and practical components, and then, into a course where a holistic view of the course outcomes for students is considered

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to be indicative of how the design process must be used to determine the best fit of the resource for a blended and seamless method to ensure effective learning. The provision of feedback at the time of decision in each simulation gave students the opportunity to improve their practice with each repetition and gave them the ability to see best practice and form their own opinions as to the best practice for themselves. The ability to repeat the simulation multiple times also gave students an opportunity to improve their performance, and consequently, their confidence in the processes being learnt. A Gantt chart was developed that itemised each stage and components required in each stage. This process formalised the elements within each ADDIE step and allowed for the iterative evaluation of each stage to occur. The development of a checklist in the Gantt chart assists designers a tool to assist in the review of each stage and refine, change, or remove components after the evaluation. It is at the design stage that decisions must be made about software and hardware requirements, simulated situations, environments, use of avatars or actors, text to speech technology or real voices, script design and development, character design and development, user actions, gestures, and cues, both verbal and non verbal (Cybulski, et al., 2010). It is these decisions which can affect the credibility of the simulation, whether students believe it or not!

Development In order to keep the simulations as credible as possible, decisions were made in the case of the police incident simulation to use real images and real voices to try and imitate real life as closely as possible. Terminology was created and confirmed by serving police officers to ensure a life like simulation. Evidence relating to the incident was included for students to examine in order to make better decisions. In the mental health simulation,


Table 4. eSims Gantt chart eSims Project Gantt Chart Task

Person Assigned

Due Dates

Wk 1

Wk 2

Wk 3

Wk 4

Wk 5

Wk 6

Wk 7

Wk 8

Wk 9

Wk 10

Wk 11

Wk 12

Wk 13

Wk 14

Assign roles to project team members Align learning objectives Plan overall design Project parameters discussed and determined: scenarios scripts colours characters voices scenes identify resource requirements software hardware human resources time/people List components needed Assign tasks Plan and write script Plan character builder project Build character builder project Adapt/write xml code Test code/project Proof Production

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decisions were made to use avatars and simulated voices to try and maintain a sustainable resource not dependent on actors in any subsequent revisions or changes to the simulation. Evaluation from students has indicated that the use of avatars does not appear to detract from the student experience in the simulation. This however, had greater ramifications on script design, development and inclusions of avatar actions, gestures, and verbal and non-verbal cues. Within the script design, it was important to plan all interactions before starting development, as this made the final process much quicker. This included all movements such as head nodding, smiles, surprised looks, and grimaces. The look and feel of the character has an impact of how he or she is perceived by the student. Character movement about the stage has also to be considered as other props may need to be incorporated. The design of the script for the suicide risk assessment simulation required much greater effort to develop a scenario that could go in more than one direction while keeping it as true to life as possible, using knowledge of client interactions observed in practice (Cybulski, et al., 2010). As a method of designing sustainability, reusability, and cost effectiveness into the course a template was developed from the Police simulation. The development of the template for the policing simulation was intended to create a time saving method of transferring the use of the simulations of other disciplines, incidents, and even to international contexts where the formatting remains the same but it is a less costly and time consuming way to convert the material to local contexts. Creating a template meant that other lecturers could use the same format in the template but replace the images, text, and audio with those required for different simulations. This development also means that a library of simulations can be built up and different simulations rotated in use over time. Frequent evaluations of the simulation use will ensure that any problems or issues are solved early. Zary, Johnson, Boberg,

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and Fors (2006) echo that creating templates have reduced time and cost efforts in the development of new materials. With the use of user-friendly software this further compounds the savings as lecturers are able to create and refine materials for themselves as required without needing developers to generate the resources. The choice of software for development has a clear impact on resource development as the developer must have knowledge of the software and its capabilities. The two simulations discussed used two different softwares: one highly dependent on developers conversant with programming code and the XML environment, the other more easily created by the lecturer on a user-friendly software. However, it must be noted that the design of the two simulations are very different in their output, although the outcomes of skill development and knowledge gain are the same.

Implementation Implementation consists of the delivery of the e-simulation and the establishment of procedures for the use of the e-simulation. Given students do not all have equity in access, or up-to-date software or hardware, an important aspect to consider when designing simulations are the options of web-based or CD-ROM delivery. In one course, delivery options for all course materials were online so students were expected to have reasonable Internet access, but the design of the simulation was broken into sections, to facilitate improved delivery and a better assimilation of the media by the students. However, there were still issues in delivery for students with inadequate computer hardware or low internet download speeds. These were circumvented by advising students to seek access through alternate venues such as public libraries or the workplace. The first iteration of the Mental Health simulation was delivered online through another university’s server and had privacy and access issues. Evaluation and feedback from students showed


that an alternative method of implementation needed to be found, particularly for access for remote and rural students in the Mental Health course who did not have reasonable access to the Internet. Consequently, a decision was made to deliver the simulation via CD. This meant that students all had equitable access to the media. However, there were still some issues with students with old or inadequate computer hardware. Until all students have adequate hardware, these issues may continue. Alternate delivery methods are being explored. Continuing issues in this area will have impacts on future deliveries of the esimulations.

Evaluation The evaluation stage of the ADDIE process is an important one that helps determine potential improvements and changes to the design. Without this stage, the simulation would not improve or change to meet shifting student needs. Evaluation of the simulations was conducted from both the developer’s point of view as well as student feedback. After each iteration of the e-simulations, students were given access to an online survey. The survey consisted of multiple-choice and short answer questions. Questions covered usability, accessibility, learning enhancement, concept understanding, student experience, skill development, relationship to professional practice, engagement, and reflective practice. Students also offered feedback on issues in delivery particularly on the difficulties experienced in online access. Usability is a prime issue that must be considered when designing a simulation, and the evaluation of the simulations indicated that in some areas improvement could be made. Evaluation showed that some students were less familiar with technology and some had difficulties in negotiating the simulations. Consequently, instructions were modified by bolding sections of the instructions for easier understanding of the machinations of the

simulations and plans for audio instructions have been made to reduce confusion. Further evaluation indicates that students need simpler guides in simulation use. After receiving feedback from the students on the e-simulation experience, delivery was changed to a CD-ROM delivery system rather than via a server. Students experienced technical issues in accessing the server as well as difficulties with passwords. Evaluation of the simulations from the accessibility perspective highlights issues for remote and rural students who may not have good Internet access. Where there are some remote students, the delivery of the simulation, Suicide Risk Assessment in Mental Health, had some difficulties in access for a web-based delivery. Consequently, the next iteration of the simulation was delivered via a CD-ROM to solve this problem. This is not without its own complications as students need to have hardware of sufficient quality to read the graphical user interface. Students predominantly preferred the delivery of this simulation via the CD as it gave them more freedom to use it frequently without incurring further costs and difficulties in Internet access. The Domestic Violence simulation however was delivered via the web as the police recruits have access through their local area command offices if not elsewhere. Feedback on this type of delivery indicates that this is an acceptable method of delivery. Evaluation of the learning enhancement, skill development, and professional practice components of the simulations showed that overwhelmingly students had a positive response to simulation use to enhance their learning and expose them to professional practice that would be expected in both the subject and in professional life. Improved practice was commented on favourably with respect to learning complex situations, professional practice, and future relationships to professional life. Linking assessment to the e-simulation encouraged students to regard the simulation as exposure to authentic situations.

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Some student comments reflected the positive experience of being able to try an experience and improve their skills in a safe environment where others cannot intrude. Comments like: “You are more relaxed and less self conscious” and “it is an area of study you can’t have too much of”; or “Realistic scenarios”, “Helps me get a clear view on what interviewing a client is really like” and “Not hazardous.” indicate that students appreciate the opportunity to learn in this environment. However others found that a scenario did not give the same experience of reality and commented:” Real experience differs”, and “Expectation to think without the answers/references in front of you is harder.” This reinforces the belief that giving students greater opportunity to develop skills and understanding before facing reality is a confidence booster. Student experience responses indicate that overall, they find simulation use a positive learning experience that: enhances their learning of theory and relationships of theory to practice; exposes them to practical situations otherwise not encountered; provides a safe learning environment; and when linked to assessment, leads to reflective practice. Reflective practice is a critical component of relating theory to practice and further developing the student in their professional practice. Evaluation has demonstrated that students find that the holistic experience of the simulation, coupled with the theory components of the course, provide learning opportunities that lead them to reflective practice of their own actions in the professions. Students indicated that there was a practical linkage of the assessment to professional life that was helpful and relevant to their reflection on professional skills and understanding. Future plans include developing more esimulations using the template developed for the Police Practice e-simulation, so that a library of simulations can be built and used interchangeably in subsequent sessions. The Mental Health e-simulation is already being used across three different subjects and interest has been expressed 136

in using it in other disciplines. Other simulations are planned using the same templates due to the positive response to the present use. It can be seen from the student responses that their feedback is an important component in design as the simulation must benefit the student learning experience. Non-consideration of their concerns and issues will lead to a breakdown in the cycle of analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.

Blended Learning in Distance Education Given CSU’s definition of blended learning, the two e-simulations were designed to complement the existing materials and teaching practices of the courses into which they were inserted. In the case of the Policing Practice degree, the theoretical focus of the first few sessions conducted in faceto-face sessions, and the scenario and problembased learning focus of the following sessions, which guided students towards assessment of their practical skills, were complemented by the online delivery of practice sessions of a common policing practice. Students were provided with print, multimedia, and online materials to support their learning throughout the course, including online library resources through a simulated library available to any student but particularly useful to distance students with poor access to resources. Students enrolled in Social Work degrees who undertook the Mental Health subject were provided with access to print materials, audio lectures accompanied by slides, and readings. They also attended a residential school where they undertook role-plays and were assessed on their practice. The design and delivery of a simulation which gave them the ability to practise professional skills provided access to a blended resource online to supplement other learning resources and was linked to assessment aimed at developing a greater confidence in their skills before attending the residential school.


Singh (2003, p. 1) offers the view that blended learning provides students with more choices of how to learn and notes that evidence indicates effective results. He goes on to say that a single mode of instruction may not be as effective. Osguthorpe and Graham (2003) support the notion of the best mode of delivery or interaction being used to suit the requirements of the class. In this case, it was using online e-simulations to provide skill development and practice opportunities to better prepare students for assessment of professional practice. In both cases discussed here, a conscious decision was made to design an environment to encourage students to think critically in complex situations, and to reflect on their understanding of the situation and be able to verbalise or textualise their responses. Garrison and Kanuka (2004, p. 5) support the view that these are skills needed in today’s world for our graduating students.

CONSTRUCTIVE RESPONSES TO THE DESIGN CHALLENGE Recommendations that may help solve the issues of design based on the authors’ experiences include: •

• • •

•

•

Professional development for instructional designers to keep them up to date on technology; Project management skill development for design staff; Professional development on e-simulation design and development; Professional development for academics to keep them aware of new changes to online learning and methods for blending it into their courses and subjects; An understanding developed of the need for planning and design BEFORE creating resources; Building a culture that encourages teamwork with respect for all team members’ professional knowledge and skills;

• •

•

Adequate time allowed for resource design and development Research into blended learning and in particular simulation design and development; and Encouragement to disseminate the results of research.

The continual upgrading of skills and assimilation of new knowledge and processes is as essential for the lecturers and designers as it is for the students they design for. Without the above recommendations occurring, a slower pace of movement into designing for blended learning incorporating e-simulations will materialise. Academics must be given time to learn, design, and develop new materials and designers must support them in a partnership that will produce well-blended materials. The change in culture of the university is a slow process as attitudes to interactive media and their benefits are also slow to change given their time consuming nature and the need for the processes in design and development to be understood. This will also need to include the necessary professional development in both processes and skills. With the rapid change in technology, professional development has the potential to be never ending.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Given the research that currently promotes active, constructive and meaningful learning (Jonassen, Peck and Wilson, 1999) and the positive response from students about the simulations described, it is clear that forging ahead into the interactive media arena is a constructive move. The results shown by the processes followed in the design of these two simulations are a clear indication that, if a design process is followed, then an excellent, sustainable resource can be designed and blended into both a subject and course. Further documentation of the process followed and the factors to be

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considered in simulation design would add to the confirmation that following a plan that is iterative and maintains frequent evaluation to keep on track is the way to success. A clearer taxonomy of simulations is an area which could bear further research as it became clear throughout the development of these simulations that the terminology used during the design and development stages meant diverse things to different people. As more interactive media comes into being, both professionally created and those created by students themselves in their learning, it becomes doubly important that there is a clearer understanding of what we mean by simulation.

CONCLUSION The complexity of design demonstrated here clearly shows that there is a need to plan and organise resource development carefully to blend it seamlessly into the learning experience of the student. Failure to include or consider all the factors that impact on resource design and their relation to the student’s experience can have a bearing on how well the student experiences learning and how effectively they learn. The descriptions of the simulations and the diversity of factors which had to be considered in the analysis, design, development, and implementation only emphasis the necessity of planning and the need to follow a model, which ensures that all is carefully deliberated and the right decisions made. The Gantt chart developed through the project shows the elements of design that must be considered in an e-simulation development and a clear indication of the time consuming processes that must be undergone. The use of a strategy such as the ADDIE process ensures that all factors required for design and development will be considered and the evaluation demonstrates that any issues that occur through implementation are reconsidered in the subsequent analysis, design, and development stages. In particular, the frequent use of evaluation

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at each stage of the process attempts to identify improvements that can refine the simulation even before it reaches the students. Thorough analysis of learning goals and objectives, as well as existing components of a course, ensures that the esimulation can be a well-integrated and seamless component of the course, constructively aligned as an activity with the assessment and learning objectives of the course. Linking assessment to the activity through constructive alignment ensures that learning objectives are met and students engage with the content of the e-simulations developing professional skills and knowledge (Raeburn, Muldoon, & Bookalil, 2009). Careful choice of software and elements at the design stage impact on the e-simulation during development as these choices affect the time, costs, and elements used by the developer in the development stage of the process. These choices also affect the ease of adjustment after evaluation, as programmer skill-heavy software is much more time consuming to update than software or templates easily manipulated by the lecturer. The careful consideration of all elements and factors using an iterative process with frequent re-evaluation of the components should ensure that the development of e-simulations can lead to their seamless integration into blended and flexible learning.

REFERENCES Bain, A., Zundans, L., Lancaster, J., & Hollitt, J. (2004). Collaborative course design and mapping: A team-based approach to course development and review. In S. McLeod (Ed.), Making spaces: Regenerating the profession (pp. 79-87). Bathurst, Australia: Australian Teacher Education Association Annual Conference.


Banerji, R. (1985). The logic of learning: A basis for pattern recognition and for improvement in performance. In M. C. Yovitts (Ed.), Advances in Computers 24. Florida, USA: Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. Biggs, J. (2008). Solo taxonomy (Bibliography). Retrieved 2010, from http://www.johnbiggs.com. au/solo_taxonomy.html Biggs, J., & Collis, K. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy. New York, NY: Academic Press. Chan, C., & Robbins, L. (2006). E-learning systems: Promises and pitfalls. Academic Psychiatry, 30(6), 491–497. doi:10.1176/appi.ap.30.6.491 Charles Sturt University. (2010a). Learning and Teaching. Retrieved from Charles Sturt University: http://www.csu.edu.au/about/learning-andteaching Charles Sturt University. (2010b). Strategic plan. Retrieved from The Flexible Learning Institute: http://www.csu.edu.au/division/landt/ flexible-learning/governance/strategic-plan. htm#USEFULDEFS Chen, C. (2007). Formative research on the instructional design process of virtual reality based learning environments. In R. J. Atkinson, C. McBeath, S. K. A. Soong & C. Cheers (Eds.), ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings ascilite Singapore 2007 (pp. 149-156), Singapore. Retrieved from http://www. ascilite. org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/chen.pdf Dalgarno, B. (2001). Interpretations of constructivism and consequences for computer assisted learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(2), 183–194. doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00189 Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1978). The systematic design of instruction (3rd ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, and Company.

Garrison, R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential. The Internet and Higher Education, 7, 95–105. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001 Gobet, F., & Simon, H. (1998). Pattern recognition makes search possible: Comments on holding (1992). [Retrieved from Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection database.]. Psychological Research, 61(3), 204–208. doi:10.1007/ s004260050025 Jonassen, D., Peck, K., & Wilson, B. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Learning Theories Knowledgebase. (2010, December). ADDIE Model at Learning-Theories. com. Retrieved December 10th, 2010 from http:// www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html Lombardi, C. (2008). Learning journal: Thoughts on learning in organisations. In The real change to the ADDIE process. Retrieved from http:// learningjournal.wordpress.com/2008/09/12/thereal-change-to-the-addie-process/ NSW Police Force Policy and Programs Command (2009, November). Code of Practice for the NSW Police Force Response to Domestic and Family Violence. Police Force: NSW. Osguthorpe, R., & Graham, C. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 277–233. Reaburn, P., Muldoon, N., & Bookallil, C. (2009). Blended spaces, work based learning and constructive alignment: Impacts on student engagement. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, A. Soong Swee Kit, & C. Cheers (Eds.), In Same places, different spaces. Proceedings ascilite Auckland 2009. Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/ auckland09/procs/raeburn.pdf

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Roblyer, M., & Doering, A. (2010). Integrating educational technology into teaching (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Singh, H. (2003). Blended learning environments: Definitions and directions. Educational Technology, 43(6), 51–54. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002, March). The third dimension of ADDIE. TechTrends, 46(2), 40–45. doi:10.1007/BF02772075

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Tyson, J. (2009). Is ADDIE still a relevant model? in ADDIE-tood: Keeping it real in a virtual world, Retrieved from http://addietood.wordpress. com/2009/03/15/is-addie-still-a-relevant-model/ Zary, N., Johnson, G., Boberg, J., & Fors, U. (2006). BMC Medical Education, 6(10).

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Chapter 9

Simulating Difficult Nurse Patient Relationships: Meeting the Online Continuing Professional Development Needs of Clinical Nurses with Low Cost Multimedia E-Simulations Peter Kandlbinder University of Technology Sydney, Australia Scott Brunero Prince of Wales Hospital, Australia

ABSTRACT Difficult nurse-patient relationships are an area where general nurses can improve their knowledge, confidence and skill. This chapter describes a user-centred approach used to create a low-cost e-simulation of a commonly occurring case of manipulative patient behaviour. This e-simulation required nurses to focus on specific problems, gain understanding about the possible causes, and use empathetic understanding of what was needed to improve patient care. Specific examples from our experience of including nurses from the very beginning of the design process illustrate how everyday technology can provide an authentic experience of difficult nurse-patient behaviours to prepare general nursing staff who are facing a higher incidence of mental illness in patients that are now in the general hospital setting.

INTRODUCTION Mental health liaison nurses have identified difficult nurse-patient relationships as an area where general nurses could improve their knowledge, confidence, and skill awareness in their workplace DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch009

(Sharrock & Rickard, 2002). In this chapter, we will describe a user-centred approach used to achieve the dual goals of developing practising nurses’ capacities in these areas while learning at work using low cost, everyday technologies. Highfidelity simulated manikins are becoming commonplace in pre-registration nurse education, but their use to develop interpersonal communica-


Simulating Difficult Nurse Patient Relationships

tion is limited as they, as yet, do not demonstrate the full range of communication capabilities, such as non-verbal communication. As an alternative to high-fidelity simulations, the mental health liaison nursing department at Prince of Wales Hospital in the state of New South Wales (Australia) chose to create a small budget e-simulation on the difficult nurse-patient relationship called ‘The case of Rosie O’Grady’. This e-simulation was designed to help nurses work through a case study of a difficult patient using a patient management technique called ‘BARE-Plan’ (Smith & Brunero, 2007). This technique requires nurses to focus on specific problems, gain understanding about the possible causes of difficult nurse-patient relationships, and use empathetic understanding to improve patient care. The project’s small budget required that the development team adopt a user-centred methodology in order to incorporate practising nurses’ experiences into the design and thereby ensure the maximum authenticity in the e-simulation. Each section contains specific examples drawn from our experience of developing this e-simulation for clinical nurses. The examples illustrate the different stages of the simulation’s development from the initial story to its final implementation as a CD-ROM for general nursing staff. Accompanying each illustration is an explanation of how we worked with nursing practitioners to address the specific challenges faced by nurses learning in the workplace.

KATE’S STORY Kate was a 33 year old single mother who had been admitted from the Emergency department with severe abdominal pain and nausea. According to staff, she was demanding (pressing the patient buzzer regularly), shouting, and crying during the shift. She verbally abused two staff members and threatened to walk out unless she received stronger pain relief and use of the telephone and a TV.

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Nurses encounter patients like Kate each day in any large metropolitan hospital. Kate was not deliberately intending to create stress or more work in the nurses’ day. Yet a difficult nurse-patient relationship began to develop and consume more nurses’ time than the patient’s condition would originally have suggested. Nurse Unit Managers are well aware that managing difficult behaviours from patients is a common problem experienced by general nurses (Stein-Parbury, 2009). These difficult behaviours limit the nurse’s ability to carry out their normal nursing care, as more time is spent in dealing with patients’ demands and complaints. As a result of an increased likelihood of confronting difficult behaviours, nurses need to have the self-confidence to be able to call upon appropriate strategies to pre-empt, de-escalate, and manage these behaviours in a way that ensures the safety of staff, patients, and visitors. Fortunately, managing difficult nurse-patient relationships is a skill that can be learnt and improved with practice. Aggression, complaints, or negativity from patients require nurses to be able to understand how they respond to these behaviours. The nurse needs the ability to evaluate each incident using empathetic questioning so that she can identify the best plan of nursing care to manage these difficult behaviours (Smith & Brunero, 2007). Developing strategies for dealing with difficult behaviour is not just a topic for pre-registration nurse education. Even experienced nurses can struggle with difficult patient-nurse relationships. Nurses are continually required to up-date their knowledge (Porter-O’Grady & Malloch, 2003) and this creates a strong desire for learning in the workplace albeit with less time or autonomy brought about by financial constraints and corresponding increasing patient to nurse ratios (Needleman, Buerhaus, Mattke, Stewart, & Zelevinsky, 2002). The major difficulty for most general nurses is finding the time for learning (White et al., 1998). Nurses work shifts and have family commitments that make accessing continuing education outside


the workplace difficult. Nurses need time to learn from their work-based experiences but hospital management and patients expect them to be concentrating on patient care not on up-grading their skills, especially their interpersonal skills (Lundgren & Houseman, 2002). Even when learning in the workplace, work pressures make it hard for nurses to learn in sessions longer than an hour, after which they begin to feel the pressure of leaving work and colleagues behind. For nurses, the obvious convenience of being able to learn at a time that suits the learner rather than the instructor is clearly beneficial (Sit, Chung, Chow, & Wong, 2005). The specialised context in which nurses work makes computer-based independent study a highly appropriate method for developing professional insights and skills. Clinical workplaces have undergone significant technological change and all jobs now involve the use of computers, including front-line nursing. The physical infrastructure needed to implement online learning environments is already well developed in hospitals and it continues to expand. Nurses, however, have varying degrees of computer literacy, and while computer usability makes information easier to find, computer and information technology can also make learning in clinical settings easier. These different approaches to learning are well understood in other settings but the take up of online technology for teaching and learning of nurses tends to be slow (Wharrad, Cook & Poussa, 2005).

Simulations for Continuing Professional Development Rosie O’Grady is a 58 year old Inpatient in an Oncology Unit who had been recently diagnosed with breast cancer and was receiving chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Since being in the hospital, Rosie has constantly used the patient call system and playing one staff member off against another, demanding special attention.

She is often rude and uncooperative, acting helpless, and demonstrating childlike behaviour. The nursing staff respond by being generally fed up and avoid Rosie wherever possible to the point of refusing to provide appropriate care. Rosie was labelled as a difficult patient, and stigmatising means she feels rejected, abandoned, and disliked so that the problem behaviours escalate. Learning how to restore an amicable atmosphere in a situation strained by Kate’s behaviour was going to require practice-focussed sessions in which nurses can role-play the outcomes of different scenarios. Role-plays would give general nurses the opportunity to rehearse what they have learnt in a controlled environment and ensure that they are able to employ their learning as soon as they return to their place of work. It is sometimes assumed that only the workplace can provide the highest possible level of realism and authenticity needed to learn complex work-based skills. From our experience, the work context is certainly capable of providing relevance, but with it comes amplified complexity that can obscure many lessons that could be learnt in an authentic situation. In health care settings, there is the added risk that the outcomes of the learning will not be optimal for patient care. The dual pressures of coping with real life and a reluctance to experiment on patients ensure that only minimal conceptual learning is likely to take place when learning at work while also engaged in patient care. Simulations provide one way of guiding nurses through the balance between authenticity and complexity. Simulations are stripped down versions of real problems where the key learning outcomes are emphasised to maximise learning opportunities. There is a great deal of overlap between games, simulations, and case studies. Case studies are based on real practice, making them complex, interdisciplinary, and provide opportunities for problem solving to develop issues. Simulations take a case study or real life situation and permit learners to apply their new knowledge

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and skills to received immediate feedback on the appropriateness of their responses. Educational games are simplified even further than simulations to include precise rules that develop an understanding of principles and relationships with the added element of competition or achievement in relation to an intended goal. Simulations are a good match for nurse continuing professional education because nurses are familiar with case-based learning from their everyday practice. Each shift begins with a handover in which the ward’s cases are studied and nurses informally learn how best to deal with each of their patient’s requirements. Niederhauser, Bigley, Hale and Harper (1999) found nursing students improved their clinical decision making through online group case work. Games, on the other hand, can be seen to trivialise a topic and an arbitrary notion of competition can be de-motivating for adult learners (Whitton, 2007). Many universities are using high-fidelity simulations for pre-registration nurse education as access to clinical sites decline along with the number of trained clinical educators and demand for better prepared students before they arrive at clinical settings (Bearnson & Wiker, 2005). From the very beginning of their nurse training student nurses need to enter high stakes learning situations. They are deliberately engaged in practice as early as possible and high fidelity simulation laboratories have increasingly become an important way for students to practice a range of clinical scenarios throughout their nurse education (Landeen & Jeffries, 2008). Bradley (2006) classifies high-fidelity simulations as those human patient simulators that are computer-based manikins with realistic physiological responses. These simulations are controlled by teaching staff who remotely alter a simulated patient manikin’s condition, allowing simulation of complex situations without risk to patents. High fidelity patient mannequins have been shown to provide a useful adjunct to clinical placements as long as they are integrated into teaching and learning to develop student’s problem

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solving abilities (Seropian, Brown, Samuelson, Gavilanes, & Driggers, 2004). By using high fidelity simulations, students can practise skills they will need in later unplanned clinical events. Consequently full scale highfidelity simulations are best suited for preparing undergraduate students for working in clinical settings. Their high level of accuracy has been used in providing opportunities for student nurses to work through clinical conditions they would not normally experience during their clinical rotations (Cooper & Taqueti, 2004). Use of highfidelity simulations has been shown to improve clinical skill performance and student confidence (Harder 2010; Lasater, 2007) and is often used to assess student’s readiness for clinical settings (Gaba, 2004). The cost of purchasing manikins, camera, and video systems, maintenance of hardware and software, as well as the cost of the trained technician required to operate the equipment, means high-fidelity simulations are only cost effective for larger educational institutions and rarely used for independent study (Rothgeb, 2008). In contrast, moderate-fidelity simulations such as standardised patients, multimedia computer programs and video games (Harder 2010) provide many of the advantages of high fidelity simulations without the disadvantages of cost and rigidity of operation including limitations in the location of simulations, programmed standards that may not represent local expectations, and the high levels of computer literacy required by both students and academic staff (Seropian, Brown, Samuelson, Gavilanes, & Driggers, 2004). Indeed, fear of complicated technology can be a factor in resisting simulations (Nehring and Lashley, 2004), and the greater flexibility through the use of everyday technologies in low cost settings of moderate-fidelity computer-based simulations can lessen the fear of technology (Alinier, Hunt, Gordon, & Harwood, 2006). This provides a more cost-effective option that is more suited to continuing professional development in the workplace.


CONSTRUCTING THE SCENARIO You have arrived at the Oncology Unit for a morning shift after days off. You are tired after a few big night out over the previous weekend and wish you’d requested another day off. You have been working here for two years and are considered a senior member of staff. Glancing at the whiteboard, you notice that there are quite a lot of new patients on the ward but Rosie your ‘problem patient’ is still here. Rosie O’Grady is 58 and was recently diagnosed with breast cancer with bone and liver met’s. She has been an inpatient for the past month receiving radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Her admission has been complicated by extreme nausea and lethargy. Her behaviour has been increasingly difficult to manage and on numerous occasions she has disrupted the otherwise smooth-running of the ward. Her behaviour is often manipulative and she regularly plays one staff member off against another. You sigh inwardly, the day ahead looks bleak and you begin to wish you’d called in sick this morning. Thankfully all the morning staff are here, report has already started. Crucial for a good moderate-fidelity simulation is a high quality scenario. The task of scenario writing is the conversion of the case study details to a scenario that can be simulated using everyday computer software. A scenario differs from a story in that it is crafted into a problem situation that leads to a desired learning outcome (Maufette & Kandbinder, 2005). Problem situations mediate the learning in moderate-fidelity simulations by providing an abstraction of the real situation that has been reconstructed to facilitate learning by dictating the interaction between the learner and the topic. The problem in this context is not a matter or situation regarded as unwelcome or harmful that needs to be dealt with or overcome. Rather, it is a trigger for further intellectual inquiry that assists in emphasising what is important or dismissing something as irrelevant which provides the overarching structure to the learning.

The key to developing a problem situation from a story like Kate’s is to understand the range of concepts and their associations that lie buried in the story. Novak (1991) developed a technique of using concept mapping as a way of graphically representing the ideas and concepts of science. Concepts of dealing with difficult nurse-patient relationships were enclosed in circles and the relationship between concepts indicated by lines of association, with each line identified by a single word or phrase. The lines further away from the centre are sub-categories or examples of the lines nearer the centre so that a pattern of concepts emerges that works outwards along a hierarchy of links (Figure 1). The concept map provides a visual representation of what the problem situation can achieve. Related concepts are effectively clustered together and an educational structure overlaid on the story to ensure that the experience of the scenario targets the most important learning in that domain. Our concept map was used to identify patient behaviours related to demanding attention and manipulation without transgressing into behaviours related to aggression and harassment. It was also useful in ensuring that the path of interactions that nurses commence reaches these goals obliquely, with sufficient incorrect but plausible alternative paths to test their understanding. Once an outline of the terrain of the problem situation was defined, the story of Rosie O’Grady was written from a first-person perspective so that learners play a significant role within the story. There are well known structures in digital storytelling that ensure the key elements of the scenario are combined to tell the story of the problem situation. Characters are the foundation of any storytelling (Nilsson, 2008). The story’s main character, in our case the nurse assigned to care for Rosie O’Grady, takes the actions that build the scenario’s narrative. In the process, she or he explore the mental and ethical qualities distinctive to the other characters, namely, the

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Figure 1. Concept map of difficult patient behaviours

handover nurses and the patient Rosie O’Grady. Plot connects the main events as represented in the concept map and presents them as a coherent and interrelated sequence of actions. An important aspect of the plot that makes the scenario attention-grabbing to the learner is the sequence of struggles experienced by the characters in their attempt to overcome the barriers that stop them achieving their goals. The situation provides the

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location and surroundings in which the plot takes place, lending authenticity to the scenario. A common narrative structure begins with a character, provides them with a goal, creates a conflict or problem to stop the character achieving their goal, then makes sure they struggle to overcome the conflict until the character has a resolution to the conflict. In the case of Rosie O’Grady, the story of the simulation is “a day in


the life of a nurse assigned to look after a noncompliant patient who has just been diagnosed with breast cancer and is receiving chemotherapy and radiotherapy”. It starts with the nurse’s handover where background information is provided about the patient. The handover is a typical start of any shift and provides important background information needed to resolve the scenario. The handover ends by putting the learner into the role of the nurse looking after Rosie. The setting and tone of the handover reinforces the authenticity of the e-simulation. Giving the learner the role of looking after Rosie also gives her or him their goal. This relies on the implicit understandings of nursing and the nurse’s desire to provide appropriate care to their patient. The scenario of Rosie O’Grady’s regular ringing of the buzzer creates a conflict or problem that stops the character achieving this goal and is immediately identified by nurses as being too demanding of nursing staff time. A sense of drama is built into the story line through a confrontation with Rosie O’Grady. The first time the learner meets Rosie, she exhibits the demanding, non-compliant behaviour that the nurse has been warned about earlier in the scenario. It is here that the learner will need to devise strategies to respond to Rosie’s demanding behaviour. Like a “make your own adventure” story, it is an opportunity for the learner to test out alternatives to see Rosie’s likely responses. With patients like Rosie, there are rarely resolutions to the story. For this particular learner, the drama ends with the end of his or her shift. Walking to the nurse’s station, they need to be thinking about the handover for the next shift and determine in their own mind the way to resolve the conflict with Rosie.

REVIEWING THE E-SIMULATION SCENARIO The buzzer goes off again and they all look at you. You are allocated five patients including Rosie. Your patient load has a high acuity. You start giv-

ing out medications, checking notes, and greeting your patients, leaving Rosie until last. However, you are interrupted several times to answer her buzzer. When you discover that her requests are quite minor you ask her politely to wait while you attend to some of your other work. The buzzing continues and you feel yourself becoming tense and angry. Your colleagues are too busy to help and you are already behind with your work. Rosie’s daughter rings the ward unexpectedly and when you inform her about Rosie’s overnight accident she becomes abusive and threatening. You ask her to ring the NUM and end the call feeling close to tears. You realise that you’ve been avoiding Rosie and decide that you need to spend some time with her but are concerned that the needs of your other patients haven’t been properly met. A rapid prototyping process is a common design-based research method (Barab & Squire, 2004). It involves creating small-scale examples that can be used to test out the different features of the design. It is an iterative approach that involves repeated cycles of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, with the outcomes of the evaluation feeding into the next stage of analysis. A basic version of the story, scenario, flow chart, storyboard, and PowerPoint prototype is each reviewed in turn to produce an increasingly sophisticated model that can ultimately be developed into the final product. The benefit of rapid prototyping for our project was that it permitted non-specialists to participate in visualising solutions for the next stage in the design process without closing off options or investing too much effort from the design team. The result of this process is a final product that is designed for local conditions, is therefore more interesting, and has built commitment from the nurses. It also treats nurses as creative people who can work through a series of cumulative, small steps of design-based research to recognise promising paths through many alternative designs. We relied on a range of strategies for enhancing creative thinking, from brainstorming, role-playing, and lateral thinking exercises to

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provide a carefully managed process that broke down inhibitions, while offering a supportive environment that encouraged exploring new and potentially risky ideas. The use of a user-centred design approach arose from a concern that without end-user participation in the design process, we could not be certain of the authenticity or validity of the design. Championed by Donald Norman (1988), the goal of user-centred design is to include the people who are going to use the product in the design process. Our intention in using user-centred design was to bring a more nuanced understanding of nurses and their interactions with technology and their environment. At its core, user-centred design focuses on the usability or ease of use of a product or system for the end users. More traditional, systematic processes for designing educational programs (for example, Tyler, 1971) assume that educational design is carried out by a team of educational development experts. After the initial analysis the users are not involved in the design process. Aoki (2004) describes this as the producer-consumer paradigm of curriculum implementation that is a single-direction, linear process separating planning from its implementation that is perhaps better suited to larger production teams. The draft scenario–that of being assigned a difficult patient, having a struggle to manage their behaviour and advising colleagues on which approach they tried was most effective–was tested in a focus group of practising nurses. This involved 12 nurses with various levels of experience from the recently graduated to 20 years of nursing experience. They also came from a range of fields of nursing including nurse education and mental health. The Rosie O’Grady scenario was progressively revealed to this group of practising nurses who were asked what they or their colleagues would do in this situation. The scenario was divided into three steps, each disclosing another dimension of the patient’s condition, followed by focused questioning aimed at developing clinical reasoning skills. The responses were discussed by the

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focus group and the range of possible alternatives canvassed. These responses by the focus group were audio recorded and transcribed, providing a series of authentic discussions among nurses reacting to the scenario. This provided sample phrases in the natural, professional language nurses would use in this situation that became the interactions between the learner and the patient in the final e-simulation. The outcome of the focus group was confirmation that the scenario was authentic and non-trivial. It identified important aspects of the scenario that did not work and language that was inappropriate for the context. For example, the ending of the scenario was changed because the focus group agreed that, while the suggested ending should happen, it rarely occurred in practice. At the end of this stage we had a scenario that had been tested with the target audience, confirmed as authentic, and validated as representing a problem situation that nurses would like to learn to resolve. We also had a sequence of nurse reactions to the scenario. The next stage was a flow chart conversion that takes the narrative of the scenario and divides it into a series of key interaction points (Figure 2).

DRAWING ATTENTION TO CLINICAL REASONING The key aim of the e-simulation was to make the clinical reasoning of all the characters involved in this situation explicit to the learner as the scenario unfolds (Waxman, 2010). We were aware from Benner (2000) that nurse clinical practice relies on nurses learning to read the situation and knowing which of the many possible responses to do first. This followed a typical experiential learning cycle of observing a concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation (Kolb, 1984). This learning cycle was the pedagogical model used to allow nurses to experience a behaviour management strategy devised by Smith and Brunero (2007).


Figure 2. Flow Chart of scenario interactions

This technique begins by describing the patient’s behaviour, asking questions about what is currently happening in the patient’s life, and using empathy skills such as active listening, reflective responses, and summarising to understand what is needed to help the patient to feel better, more secure, and more cared for, so they are better able to cope with their circumstances. This contextualisation takes

into account responses to a particular patient’s situation– including history, physiology and social interactions– to put the patients experience into context. When difficulties exist in the nurse-patient relationship the BARE-plan technique (Smith & Brunero, 2007) assists nurses to communicate effectively and therapeutically with their patients. They use this new understanding of the patient’s

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situation to set priorities, develop a rationale, and to learn how to act in the situation. The plan devised at the end of the process helps nurses to quickly focus on specific problems, gain understanding about the possible causes and use empathic questioning to improve patient care. The BARE-Plan technique was matched to the experiential learning cycle in a flow chart that identified key decision points. The scenario was divided into three parts with guided reflection of key concepts at the end of each part. When a nurse failed to observe key behaviours, ask appropriate questions, develop plausible questions, or identify ways of displaying empathy, he or she was required to complete that part of the simulation again (Figure 3).

Converting the Scenario into Multimedia Assets Unfolding case studies and problem-based learning are a form of simulation that asks nurses to enter an active clinical discussion about a simulated patient (Benner, Sutphen, Leonard, & Day, 2010). Nurse learning needs to be a dialogue between knowledge and salience, recognising what is most

urgent and important in a clinical situation (Benner, Tanner, & Chesla, 2009). Often these paradigm cases are too complex to be studied directly from practice where there is not time for questioning uncritical assumptions or seeking out appropriate exemplars. Benner, Tanner and Chesla (2009) believe that it is important for nurses to share critical reasoning and caring practices through narratives. A rich detailed explanation of nursing practice allows for greater understanding, as first a nurse will identify with another nurse telling the story, which generates an emotional response that in turn causes the receiving nurse to internalise the message (Benner, 1984). To replicate this kind of nurse storytelling in an e-simulation requires the digital story to be converted into an interactive story based on the flow chart and tested scenario. Firstly a storyboard transformed the flow chart into an approximation of the final design. The goal was to determine the different elements needed to build the esimulation. This involved downloaded images that approximated the final design in a PowerPoint working model of the design (for example, see Figure 3). Once the different elements of the e-simulation were confirmed, the storyboard al-

Figure 3. Simulated interactions in the scenario prototype

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lowed the development of a shot list for photos and video. A shooting schedule was arranged so that volunteer nurses could play the different characters in the scenario: the three handover nurses, Rosie O’Grady, an experienced nurse, and a nurse manager for aggression minimisation. Nurses are an untapped pool of talent for esimulations in health care. It can be challenging working with first time actors but we found nurses to be experts in the lives of nurses and patients. Their lack of professional training as actors means they may know very little about the video production process. A large proportion of the recording time was spent counselling and encouraging our nurse actors. To maintain a natural style that appears real to other nurses, it is important not to over rehearse. Each performance should be slightly different from the previous performance so that it does not end up getting stale and wooden. Trust that your nurse-actors know their characters so well they will know how they would act in any situation. This eliminates the need for a script that has to be memorised. Instead we provided them with the key points to be covered and allow this barebones script to be fluid. The job of the film crew was to allow the actors to make “mistakes” and continue shooting until sufficient material was recorded to produce the final product. Not surprisingly, inexperienced actors will be nervous during the shoot and it is essential to establish comfort and relaxation as the overriding mood during the video recording. This involved talking to the nurse-actors in a more casual, less authoritarian way than may be used with professional actors. Avoid abstract, technical language and abbreviations. Talk to the actors about their performance and give constructive feedback. Do not try and take control over the performance, but limit the scope of your comments to help the actor to realise their own purposes. Give them the choice to revise their work and time to act on suggestions. Our focus was on the most important elements needed to get the scenario across. Check they understand the feedback by asking

them one thing they will do diffently as a result of their feedback. Due to our limited budget, the scenario part of the Rosie O’Grady e-simulation was to be told in a video slideshow. This had the benefit that our nurse-actors did not need to act but could be posed in ways that would represent the action. Subtitles were overlaid over the visual representation of the action to allow nurses to mute the sound while viewing the simulation on the ward. Full video was used for two purposes: an interview with Rosie about her experiences of the nursing when she gets discharged from the ward; and an interactive question and answer exchange between the learner and Rosie. Once the text, photo and video assets for the final e-simulation were recorded it was possible to build a working prototype of the simulation. The video material was transcribed and a paper edit of the video performed. A working prototype was tested with two nurses. A talk-aloud protocol was used and the nurse interaction with the prototype was video taped. A talk-aloud evaluation is a common technique used in rapid prototyping that involves the learner working through the current version of the scenario and explaining their choices as they go. The test facilitator observes the learner’s interactions and only intervenes when they are stuck. Where assets or interactions are limited in the prototype, the test facilitator simply refers to the kind of action that would result from the learner’s choice and asks her to comment on how she would react in that situation. By listening to learners’ explanations of their interpretation of the prototype, we were able to identify areas of misunderstanding and modifications were made to the interface. After testing with nurses the text from the Rosie O’Grady case study was exported from the prototype and sent to the web designer for conversion into the final CD-ROM format (Figure 4). Once the design issues had been refined, the testing of the final product was largely focussed on technical issues like cross-platform

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Figure 4. Final CD-ROM interface design

compatibility, performance of video, and formats for distribution.

What Did We Learn? The primary aim of any professional development for nurses is to improve the quality of patient care (Halcomb, Meadley, & Streeter, 2009). Nurses work in complex contexts that require a high level of independent thinking and working in information-rich environments which requires a different mix of skills to those commonly associated with the care of patients. Improving patient outcomes has become linked to nurses’ ability to access emerging technology, which includes well developed information management skills and an ability to deal with rapid technological change (Eng, 2001). There are considerable resources already available for continuing professional development online, but access and availability of resources are not enough to ensure learning in the workplace. Learners report feeling frustrated with technical problems when required to access computers and the internet. They can develop a sense of isolation that is responsible for the

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relatively higher dropout rates for online learning compared to face-to-face learning (Atack, 2003; Hara & Kling, 1999). Learners often perceive online delivery to be an inferior form of learning, with learners questioning the quality of the learning materials which only focus on the lower level learning outcomes (DeBourgh, 2003). Also the blurring of work and learning means that there is less support for online learning at work, as patient care competes with learning and receives a higher priority due to its inherent lack of flexibility. Overcoming the many difficulties in online continuing professional development within a modest budget required drawing on less obvious strengths in e-simulation production than relying on high levels of simulation fidelity to drive interest in learning. To compensate for a lack of fidelity the scenario that forms the basis of these kinds of e-simulations needs to be authentic and non-trivial. In the first instance, the case of Rosie O’Grady appears quite straightforward. Yet providing clinical care alone will not solve Rosie’s manipulative behaviour. It is a problem with a multiplicity of dimensions and understanding the consequences of actions requires the situational


analysis of the context that explains how and why certain interactions are created. Survey data collected on nurses’ experiences of completing the e-simulation found that, like other simulations, learners engaging with the e-simulation reported the problem situation was realistic, completing the e-simulation was enjoyable, and they gained greater confidence in managing these kinds of cases. The convergence of communication technologies allows the recording and storing of text, images, sound, and video on everyday technology with minimal additional training. A by-product of new levels of access brought about by digitisation is the new ways of working with the target audience of e-simulations. What might be considered disadvantages in big budget high-fidelity e-simulations allowed us to work at a slower pace to fit in with other people’s workloads. We could draw on volunteers for short periods of time and enjoy a more organic development process. What was not achieved in straight-line efficiency was compensated for by a broader representation of voices in the design team. Our task turned out to be involved in finding ways to consolidate and integrate current nursing practices into a more comprehensive and grounded method of design and work intensively with a select group of nurses over the extended development time of the project.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS User-centred design is not commonly taken on because of the cost and time it adds to the design process. It requires extra work at the design stage, which is often sacrificed when time pressures encourage using standardised responses to challenges. There is also resistance to moving beyond individual roles and accountability to a more shared responsibility for the project. Yet the success of the user-centred method of e-simulation development described here has inspired us to continue using it to develop further online pro-

fessional development opportunities for nurses in the workplace. Since completing the case of Rosie O’Grady we created another e-simulation to focus on cross-cultural dimensions of nursing practice (available at http://www.mhclna.org.au// resources.php). It again involved the target audience for the simulation as co-learners in a critical inquiry and built on what we learnt from the first e-simulation to include higher levels of learner interaction with a different fictitious patient. We can see no reason why a range of additional difficult nurse-patient relationships could not be explored in a similar way.

CONCLUSION By simply working through the process of formulating a management plan for a patient, nurses are able to establish a better rapport with their patients and thus improve their relationship with them, often making a behaviour they found difficult to manage easier to handle or possibly even cease entirely. To help practising nurses understand the importance of planning in difficult nurse-patient relationships, a small budget e-simulation allowed nurses to simulate their interaction with a fictitious patient called “Rosie O’Grady”. The case material of this simulation came out of Kate’s story after it had been presented to the first production team meeting as an example of a common difficult nurse-patient situation. Computer-based simulations inspired by case materials are not new and e-simulations are unlikely to ever fully replace experiential learning with real patients in health care settings. However, e-simulations do provide an important remedy to the unpredictable experiences of learning from difficult nurse-patient relationships. Common problems experienced by general nurses can be attributed to an increased exposure to aspects of mental health as a result of a higher incidence of mental illness in patients in general hospital settings. In these contexts, increased realism does

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not necessarily lead to better learner outcomes. Moderate-fidelity simulations can provide opportunities to broaden nurse exposure to challenging nursing situations in a safe, non-threatening yet demanding learning environment. In the end, what will most engage nurses is the potential for improving patient care, and general nurses appreciate the opportunity to actively review their response to difficult incidents so they can develop strategies for the best way to deal with them. With moderate-fidelity e-simulations this can be created in a way that does not require any specialised equipment and can be used in the workplace or at home. Our e-simulation could not attempt to compete with realism to reveal all the dimensions of the case and instead needs to rely on the learner’s imagination to enhance the setting being depicted. In this chapter we have outlined how the key principles of user-centred design from recruiting participants, user testing, and analysing user feedback results assisted us in regards to relevance of the topic and cost of production. By including nurses in the design process, significant results in the professional development of health care workers can be achieved on a small budget.

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Chapter 10

Blended Learning Designs Facilitated by New Media Technologies Including E-Simulations for Pharmacy and Other Health Sciences Gregory Duncan Monash University, Australia Ian Larson Monash University, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter explores the use of innovative technologies that facilitate blended learning approaches to meet contemporary educational challenges and the modern learning needs of a new generation of students. An underpinning framework for development and delivery of these contemporary programs is applied consistently across them. This framework is represented as Pedagogy > Space >Technology (Radcliffe, 2008), a guiding principle which reinforces the essential educational design with space and technology considered as supporting tools not as driving forces for course design. Three case studies describe the development, design, and delivery of innovative curricula framed round this model. Case 1 demonstrates the enhancement of an existing space to deliver an existing curriculum and to improve the experience of students, with inherent capacity for adaptation to other professional environments. Case 2 represents a functional response to an essentially logistical problem of lack of space, resources, and time to deliver a process-oriented activity. Case 3 is unique in that it describes a new curriculum to be delivered entirely in a new “space” with a broad set of objectives that go beyond mere functionality.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch010


Blended Learning Designs Facilitated by New Media Technologies Including E-Simulations for Pharmacy

In each case, while the technology enhances the overall experience for both educators and learners, the technology is not the focus for either, nor is it the point of the spaces and activities. Significant benefits are gained in terms of student experiences and outcomes, efficiencies in delivery and overcoming a range of barriers such as class sizes. There are also significant challenges to be faced in development and implementation as well, including a potentially large financial burden, need for expertise, ongoing support, and changing technologies. An important caveat is to not let the technologies distract from the educational goals and student needs.

INTRODUCTION “Technologies can help faculty and students carry on kinds of conversations that couldn’t easily have happened otherwise”(Ehrmann, 2010, p19). As a commentator, researcher, and educator focused on the use (and misuse) of technologies for learning, Stephen Ehrmann sets a positive tone for this chapter and his years of research and reflection on the concepts for this chapter also provide useful caveats and strategies for effective implementation. The chapter will explore the use of innovative technologies that facilitate blended learning approaches to meet contemporary educational challenges and the modern learning needs of a new generation of students in pharmacy and the wider health care education setting. While various e-simulations will be the focus, they are no more than a model for exploring technologies facilitating and/or complementing blended learning. Resources such as learning management systems (LMS) that can facilitate the integration of e-simulations with other contemporary learning resources, including more traditional didactic approaches, allow for an apparently seamless blending of resources used, with the capacity to integrate any number of them. While the LMS may have this integrative capacity, it is unlikely that students do, so it is important to be conscious of the inherent risk of using too many elements and making the learning process even more complex than it might already be. E-simulations, whether they are virtual worlds, virtual people, virtual processes, or other electronic representations of some real-world element, pres158

ent an opportunity for contextualisation of learning activities, engaging learners in a new and realistic way of learning, and delivering content in a dynamic and interactive environment. While there are many educationally sound reasons for using e-simulations, the drivers from an organisational perspective usually go beyond enhancement of the educational experience and outcome. In pharmacy and other healthcare settings, dramatic increases in student numbers, limited space, and other resources, along with increased demands by professional and other groups for patient-based (experiential) learning have further pressed universities and other organisations to explore creative, dynamic, flexible education especially for technical and clinical teaching. In an experiential learning context, for which each of the educational activities described in this chapter is planned, blended learning stimulates interaction and engagement with content and between students. E-simulations allow for better preparation for real world experiences, including familiarisation with environments, process, and people involved, and decision-making practice in a situation that puts neither patients, students, nor teachers at any form of risk. Developing these projects exposed educators to a number of significant challenges, many of which were predictable: costs, resources, time, resistance to change, and so on. One critical challenge to keep in mind and be alert to was not predictable. It is important not to be distracted or even mesmerised by the WOW factor of new technologies at the expense of a sound educational framework. New technologies can be distracting from the point of mere curiosity through to totally mesmerising because of a variety of aspects: visual


appearance, interactivity, outputs, novelty, etc. Ehrmann (2000, p40) uses the phrase “the rapture of technology” in a cautionary context referring to the risk of new technologies that consume limited resources and time. Ehrmann also warns specifically for ascribing the success or failure of a project to the technology specifically. In light of this caveat, each of the cases presented in this chapter uses the Pedagogy > Space >Technology (PST)(Radcliffe, 2008) guiding principle which reinforces the essential educational design, with space and technology considered as supporting tools not as driving forces for course design. At a faculty level, this simple acronym has been useful as a yardstick for measuring appropriate progress in new program development and the redesign of existing ones. Following are three cases studies describing the development of either technical or clinical teaching activities in a blended learning context using various technologies, and all including some form of e-simulation (people and/or processes) that followed the PST framework to achieve desired outcomes.

CASE STUDY 1: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VIRTUAL PRACTICE ENVIRONMENT (VPE) Background and Drivers As with much vocationally oriented education, a physical environment that represents a professional practice setting is often used to enhance teaching by providing an active learning environment with a sense of a context for the practice, while maintaining a safe environment for students (and the public). Many pharmacy schools have a “mock” pharmacy or dispensary as one of their teaching spaces to provide such a practice context for learning activities in professional service and practice. This may be to develop and enhance communication skills, familiarise students with physical layouts and processes, explore various resources, and provide supporting structures for

practice. A number of challenges confront pharmacy schools and their curricula when trying to maintain an effective space that meets the needs of learners, institutions, professions, and the public. Changes to physical layout and structure of pharmacies over time, new technologies, new service development, changing public expectations, ethical challenges surrounding confidentiality of patients, and more, all make it difficult to maintain a contemporary environment that reflects the current context for service delivery. This was very much the authors’ experience with the mock or model pharmacy lacking a realistic pharmacy appearance and structure after 10 years, a period in which significant change occurred within pharmacy in the wider community in terms of the services delivered, the layout and structures in pharmacy that facilitate service delivery and the new technologies that have become common resources and tools in practice. An existing curriculum had been delivered in the traditional space for several years. This had been updated to reflect changing treatment guidelines, social and cultural variations in the community and so on, but could no longer be effectively delivered in the existing space due to physical layout, space (as class numbers increased), technology demands, and professional practice resources. At the same time, demands on space across the university increased as student numbers increased. The space was effectively a “pharmacy” and prescription medicines were kept for context and use as props in communication exercises, so access was limited to staff who were registered pharmacists. For use by other classes not conducted by pharmacist academics, either the medicines had to be further locked away or, ultimately, removed. Over time as well, the medicines used in the classes changed appearance, strength or form, meaning they became outdated and redundant for teaching. With the need to renovate the physical space, it was also opportune to review the educational content to see which learning activities needed to be modernised, put into a suitable context, and modified to meet 159


the needs and expectations of a new generation of pharmacy students.

Curriculum Design Communication skill development is a critical component of modern pharmacy education. An experience that incorporates the appropriate pedagogy in a functional space, supported by relevant technologies, enhances learning. Other challenges such as class sizes, changes in pharmacy service delivery, and community expectations are further drivers for development of a meaningful educational framework for communication skill development. The main educational function of this model pharmacy was the delivery of tutorials/workshops to develop and enhance communication skills in professional settings (pharmacist/patient, pharmacist/prescriber, etc). This well-structured curriculum had been in use for many years, modified as needed over time. As with many educational activities in pharmacy outside the lecture theatre, an active learning approach, based on Kolb’s learning cycle(Kolb, 1984), was taken. The curriculum had been designed and developed according to the steps in the Kolb’s learning cycle. The existing learning objectives were appropriate, relevant, and realistic.

Designing the Space for Curriculum Delivery and Technologies to Support It Long and Ehrmann (2005, p.46) suggest four ideas that are useful in imagining the classroom of the future: • • • •

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Learning by Doing Matters Context Matters Interaction Matters Location of Learning Matters

With a review of the curriculum producing a useful active learning framework, opportunities existed in designing the new spaces to improve the context for learning, facilitate interaction, and affect the location (real or perceived). To generate both a context for the activity and a sense of location, a new “hard” mock pharmacy would not be appropriate, as this would be out of date quickly and even at that point would not be able to reflect the variety of settings in which services are delivered. Using a physical, flexible space to reflect any practice setting was the chosen path and to achieve this, a range of technologies were introduced to facilitate the meeting of needs. For the space itself it was decided that visual representation was appropriate. Using video or still images projected onto screens that fill the field of vision of the student would not only be effective to give a sense of location, but also allow for representation of any setting without the need to physically build such an environment. The final result is a screen 10m wide by 3m high positioned 50cm above the floor that is angled at 2 points using three high definition projectors to cast one continuous image, or which may deliver up to 3 images from separate sources (eg PowerPoint, etc) to give students a sense of immersion and a sense of location for activities (Figure 1). High resolution video of a local community pharmacy in action, including the background sounds (muffled in some instances to protect patient confidentiality), was then captured to provide the location sense as well as more context (Figure 2). Furthermore, context for learning is further enhanced by using scripted pharmacist/ patient and pharmacist/prescriber interactions filmed in a studio and then superimposed over the pharmacy background using chroma key or “green-screen” technology, as case studies for student consideration (Figure 3). The nature of these elements makes it clear that similar things could be done to create a realistic context and/or location for most professional practice activities without significant investment in infrastructure.


Figure 1. Design views for VPE immersion teaching space

Figure 2. Immersion image of a pharmacy displayed in the VPE

Figure 3. Screen capture of Pharmacist/Patient interaction superimposed over active real-life pharmacy background video (image on screen extends beyond borders of page)

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Interaction is fostered by a number of factors. Firstly, the size of the space needs consideration. The space is limited to a maximum of 24 students with a tutor to allow for interaction and participation. This is achieved by creating 2 smaller spaces from one large one that cannot be merged and having only a fixed number of specially designed chairs and tables in the rooms that comfortably fill the space, but don’t leave enough space for further additions. Genuine interaction is driven by the structured workshop itself but small numbers enhance this. A set of HD video cameras around the VPE for capture of student interactions, role play, and so on, for reflection within the group also facilitates an interactive experience supporting reflection and sharing. This was further complemented by other technologies to encourage information gathering, sharing, and interaction, including video and audio capture systems, shared electronic work capacity and so on.

Student Experience The established curriculum, with minor modifications, was delivered in this environment. Construction and curriculum resource development was completed in February 2009. At the end of semester 1 (May 2009), a survey evaluation of the student experience of this process was conducted in a lecture setting using an anonymous, electronic audience response system on completion of the set of tutorial classes. The evaluation revealed that: •

•

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Most students believed that the VPE is a useful teaching space, and that it is a suitable space for conducting the tutorials. Many students agreed that the video component enabled them to contextualise patient problems.

FFew students did not identify self-improvement in communication as a result of participation in the tutorials. •

In this technologically advanced space, very few students found the technology distracting from the learning experience.

Case 1 Conclusion The VPE was an effective innovation that enhanced the student experience with positive learning outcomes.

CASE STUDY 2: DEVELOPING PHARMATOPIA Background and Drivers Pharmacy education has a strong vocational emphasis with a focus on the professional preparation of our students. This is accompanied by many academic’s goal of developing their students’ lifelong learning skills; indeed, it is an explicit goal of our university for our graduates to “be equipped to live, learn, work and contribute globally”.(Monash University, 2005) In line with professional practices at the time, traditional pharmacy courses were heavily science based with many courses containing maths and physics as explicit units of study. These courses also contained a large number of practical classes in which students were taught how to prepare many different kinds of dosage forms such as pills, tablets, suspensions, emulsions, powders, elixirs, etc. Over time, the pharmacy profession has changed to become more patient oriented with an increased focus on counselling and communication. And today’s pharmacists rarely, if ever, prepare their own pills, tablets, emulsions, or powders, for example. With time, these changes influenced pharmacy courses, so many now include explicit study in counselling,


ethics etc. It has taken longer, however, for the practical laboratory classes to be updated for the new role of pharmacists. While the profession has been changing over the past 30-40 years, student numbers undertaking pharmacy courses in Australia have risen dramatically in the last few decades. For example, in 1985, there were 338 pharmacy graduates while in 2007 there was 1,427! (PSA, 2010). This growth places pressure on access to larger lecture theatres, extra tutorial rooms, and, what is more difficult to solve, increased demand for larger teaching laboratories equipped with greater amounts of equipment. Coincidental with these changes to the profession and increasing student numbers, there is a constant drive for increased research performance outputs from academic staff at research intensive universities. This increased research focus has led many academics to look to develop more time effective teaching methods. This environment led to evaluating the role of all the laboratory classes in the pharmacy program. In the review of the tablet making class, the question was asked: do today’s pharmacy graduates need to know how to physically operate a tablet press? The answer was “No”. This allowed a rethink not only of the student learning objectives for this class, but also the space in which this new learning may take place. As with each of the cases described in this chapter, the simple but structured framework, Pedagogy—Space—Technology was used to guide the process.

Pedagogy The first step was to define the learning objectives and design the most appropriate set of activities to enable students to meet these objectives. For these pharmacy students (from internal polling), of whom 85% will go on to work in community pharmacy, 10% work in hospitals, and 5% will return for postgraduate study, the most important learning objective for this practical was for stu-

dents to understand the action of inactive ingredients in controlling a tablet’s physical properties. Australian pharmacy students, as do pharmacy students around the world, learn in great detail the mode of action of the active ingredients in medicines, but there is little focus on the necessary inactive constituents. And, as around 80-90% of medicines dispensed by a pharmacist will be in the tablet form, a secondary objective was for students to gain an understanding of how tablets are made. More formally the learning objectives were as follows. After completing this activity, students should be able to: 1. Create a specific tablet through understanding the role of inactive ingredients in determining a tablet’s physical properties. 2. Describe tablet making equipment and processes. To achieve these objectives, we designed the student activity loosely based on Kolb’s experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984). In short, Kolb proposed that learning passes through a cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. This constructivist view stresses that knowledge is gained through experience. Following this approach, our students would certainly need to make tablets themselves in our new activity! But, whereas in the traditional activity they would make tablets, test these tablets, and then report their results, we would need to extend this by adding further steps to enable the complete learning cycle. The resulting learning activity was broken down into four stages: 1. Students are given a specific tablet (as defined by its physical properties) to formulate. 2. Students set the levels of inactive ingredients in their first formulation and then make and test these tablets.

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3. The students then compare the properties of the tablets they made with the desired properties. 4. If the students have not made a tablet with the necessary properties (as is likely as there are 64 different inactive ingredients combinations possible), they need to change their formulation and repeat the manufacture and testing processes until the tablets have the desired properties. At stage 4, students would be able to either randomly change the inactive ingredient levels and hope to chance across the correct formulation, or iteratively change the levels to determine the inactive ingredient effects on physical properties and so design the correct tablet. With 64 different formulations possible, the non-systematic approach could be very time consuming and it was postulated that modern students are too time conscious to follow this approach.

Space It is challenging to design laboratory classes to offer meaningful learning experiences. Kirschner (1988) pointed out that some of the common shortcomings in laboratory classes are time Figure 4. Arial view of Pharmatopia

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constraints and cognitive overload. Classical laboratory activities give students less time for interaction and reflection because they are so busy with the technical and operational side of the activity (Gunstone, 1991). Faced with a similar range of issues as ours, Gil (2000) developed a virtual laboratory in which to conduct strain measurements, in which students are expected to familiarise themselves with the techniques, procedures, and theories. These are very similar to the aims of the Pharmatopia project. It is in this teaching context that the development of our virtual tabletting laboratory, Pharmatopia, was placed (Figure 4). To solve many of the issues faced, a virtual tabletting laboratory would: •

•

Allow time for student reflection, conceptualisation, and experimentation. The traditional laboratory class took 12 hours from start to end, denying the time for making and testing different tablets. Not be restricted by infrastructure, equipment, or space considerations and limitations. Indeed, it was only limited by our imagination of what could be built!


Table 1. Issues and proposed solutions to potential problems Issue

Proposed solution

Constructivist approach

Pedagogical design – already done

Encourage collaboration/peer-to-peer interactions

Multi user technology with chat functionality

Real-world context

High quality graphics and animations

Software and support

Must be free, widely used already, accessible

Programming skills

Contract out (cost?)

Implementation

Approach key people in university if necessary

Technology The decision to conduct the activity in a virtual environment also meets a desire in universities to teach with, and have students use, information and communications technologies (McLaughlan & Kirkpatrick, 2004). Having decided to use a virtual laboratory, the decision needed to be made as to whether to use an immersive or nonimmersive approach. Both can be interactive, engaging, and provide a meaningful learning experience. However, given the second learning objective aimed at students developing a good understanding of tablet manufacturing, an immersive environment was the preferred option. This was challenging due to concerns that the immersive environment may be thought to be a game with no specific learning outcomes. Prensky (2001) argues that while there is a need to engage the younger, multimedia-stimulated generation through simulated environments, a constructivist approach is necessary (Prensky, 2001,). As pointed out by Galarneau (2005), for learners to construct their own knowledge in a simulation, we need to place them at the centre of the learning experience, encourage them to take an active role, and place the experience in a real-world context. Kapp (2010) also highlights the need for careful design when creating an effective educational immersive environment. Kapp (2010, p.32) concludes that for such an environment, it is necessary to encourage collaboration, help learners achieve specific goals, foster peer-to-peer interactions, and to provide

the right context. He stresses that “context is critical”. And, although Stewart, Hutchins, Exell, Martino and Bobba (2010, p.103) point out that virtual reality “provides real-time engagement and immediate feedback”, there can be problems with design and implementation aspects such as software and support, programming skills, and implementation. Strategies were put in place to avoid these issues. Before choosing the most appropriate technology to support the virtual environment, these parameters and potential issues with our proposed solution were itemised (Table 1). Second Life©, a user-created, 3D virtual world, was chosen as the platform technology. It offers high quality graphics and animations and includes text and voice communication. At the time this decision was made in 2005, Second Life (SL) had 45,000 users and had just offered free membership (Terdiman, 2005). In 2010, there are over 20 million user accounts with 40,000 people logged in at any one time (Linden Research, 2010). Implementation was the next issue to address. While the SL software was free, it was classified by the university as being a “game” and was blocked by the university firewall. After some months of negotiation, individual staff member’s computers were permitted access but it took 12 months of discussions to completely open the firewall for all university computers. This was finally allowed because right across the university there was interest in the use of SL. During 2006, an island was purchased on Second Life; a project brief was written and a

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programmer commissioned to ‘build’ the virtual tabletting laboratory. This process itself involved the Monash University Quality Cycle (Monash University 2010) where academics planned, programmers built, academics evaluated, and then asked for improvements.

EVALUATION Pilot Evaluation In 2008, a class of third year Bachelor of Pharmaceutical Science students who had all completed the traditional tabletting classes tested the virtual laboratory. Fourteen students participated in the survey and 75% of them formulated their required tablet in less than one hour. On average, it took the students around 10–12 minutes to make and test one formulation, so in one hour they each made and tested 5–6 different tablets. This indicates that, through an iterative process, the students learned the action of each of the inactive ingredients and applied that knowledge to successfully format their required tablet. Half of the students accessed the program using the Faculty library with the remainder connecting from home or other settings. The majority of stu-

dents found the environment engaging with only 7% expressing a negative opinion. From a learning perspective, 78% found their understanding of the topic enhanced by using the environment, though 21% did report a negative judgement. The majority of students found the workload involved with the activity appropriate. On completion of this exercise, 85% of the students indicated an interest in more experience in this virtual world. Can we do more of this stuff? Can you make the task harder? (William) While this positive feedback was very encouraging, one student didn’t complete the task. I just don’t get it. I created my avatar, the software worked but I just don’t get Second Life. I didn’t understand it, I didn’t know what to do (JessicaI). Even with introductory workshops, it is apparent that not everybody can operate in a virtual world immediately. Indeed, in a survey of their second year medical students who completed a virtual hospital ward learning activity, academics at Imperial College London found “that although a high percentage of the students in the Second Life group were high gamers, they still found prob-

Figure 5. Student avatar mixing the active and inactive ingredients in the laboratory on Pharmatopia

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Figure 6. Student avatar conducting tests on tablets

lems navigating in Second Life” (Toro-Troconis, 2008, p.237).

Modification after Evaluation for Wider Use To improve the Second Life experience, an orientation stage was “built” to teach students how to navigate in Second Life before they undertake the tabletting activity.

Implementation Evaluation A class of 207 second year pharmacy students also undertook the virtual laboratory activity in 2009. Of these, 206 successfully completed the task. Twelve of these students reported that they had difficulty in navigating through the virtual lab and needed assistance from friends. This class was not surveyed on Pharmatopia specifically. This suggested that a SL orientation was not adequate for all student needs. So a blended learning approach, including a didactic face-toface component, was introduced. Small group workshops in which students were led through orientation activities in a supervised and supported environment were added to the curriculum.

Case 2 Conclusion The educational drivers for virtual worlds are engagement, context, and cost-effectiveness of teaching large groups of students. The great majority of students on Pharmatopia are engaged by the virtual lab experience and the context is shown to be crucial through the use of the text-based approach. A blended learning approach facilitated optimal student engagement while still reducing teaching load and resource demand.

Broader Outcomes This learning activity formed the foundation of a teaching collaboration, now involving ten world leading pharmacy institutions from Australia, Europe, and the USA. Built on a shared practice model, each participating institution develops one learning activity in Second Life to which all participants are granted access. In 2010, over 600 students from collaborating institutions will use the virtual laboratory as part of their studies, while students from other institutions in New Zealand, South Africa, and the USA, will perform trials with the tablet laboratory. The value of this game-based approach is demonstrated by the fact that it has been used as a template by one collaborating university

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to build a virtual Mass Spectrometry laboratory and a virtual Atomic Absorption Spectrometry laboratory, and another is designing a virtual Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant with a focus on Good Manufacturing Practice. This project is recognised by UNESCO to be an internationally significant learning activity.

CASE STUDY 3: BLENDED LEARNING IN A COMPLEX NEW CURRICULUM: DEVELOPING AESLECPIA, AN INTERPROFESSIONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR MEDICAL AND PHARMACY STUDENTS The potential benefits from using a technology component in blended learning are becoming increasingly evident, hence certain technologies are currently being used to develop a completely new module for Inter-professional Learning (IPL) for medical and pharmacy students. From an educational perspective, both improved student experiences and learning outcomes were the focus, but other factors were more significant as drivers for going down this path. Competency frameworks for health practitioners indicate the need to practice in an IPL context to be “fit for practice”. In some jurisdictions, course endorsement or approval by regulatory authorities requires IPL elements in a program, while there is a general trend for educators and clinicians to engage more holistically, inclusively, and be patient/community focused (rather than service/medicines/disease focused). The desire to develop an IPL project to enhance clinical learning as well as the IPL specific objectives (described further on) was driven by an increasing demand for patient focused clinical experiences from the professions, regulatory authorities, and the community. With a dramatically increasing number of health care students across the spectrum of disciplines who all require experiential learning with patients, and with very

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limited opportunities for structured, controlled, safe patient interactions in hospital settings, a serious challenge existed. This was further compounded by the geographic dispersion of medical students across the State of Victoria due to the nature of rotations through various clinical modules while pharmacy students were on a campus in a more traditional environment. Connecting these students with each other, and with patients, would be a serious logistical challenge as well as an educational one.

Curriculum Educationally, the IPL nature of the activity reflected the primary objectives and enhanced clinical knowledge and decisions were a secondary benefit. The broad IPL objectives are to enable students from both disciplines to work collaboratively as adult learners in a clinical context. Being able to interact and work together in teams, and accept shared responsibility for patient care, models behaviour for future practice. “Learning with each other and about each other” sums up the primary goal. The clinical focus on older people with multiple medicines is of great relevance to both medical students (as prescribers) and pharmacy students (as medicines managers), and will be used as the template for this interaction, a need identified in both curricula. This activity will be delivered to students in the senior years of their respective programs as students would then have sound foundation knowledge, not only of various clinical aspects, but also of their own professions, so that the IPL nature of the activity is enhanced. It is difficult to gain a sense of what another profession does if one is interacting with students who have not yet formed a professional identity. The consensus of academic, clinical, and technical staff on this project was to take a blended learning approach through adaptation of an educational model designed for a traditional clinical teaching setting into a contemporary one that could not have been considered at the time of


Figure 7. Ken Cox model for bedside teaching

its development. The Cox model (Figure 7) was designed for clinical bedside teaching at a time when this was the place where the experiential learning in medicine took place (Cox, 1993). Using the basic structure of the Cox model, elements have been introduced at each step to give the overall same experience, using the same logical progression towards a learning outcome and blending in elements that provide opportunities for interaction, self-directed learning, didactic learning and reflection. Broadly, a virtual patient will “present” clinical diagnostic and management issues. Small groups of medical and pharmacy students will work together, interacting through facilitated meetings through the internet, to identify issues and to produce a plan for patient care that draws on the expertise of students of each discipline. The patient case is designed to provide a realistic clinical challenge for both disciplines, with optimal outcomes being dependent on collaborative practice. This ensures consistency in the student experience, and assures proper exposure to key elements of this clinical experience. When a more detailed perspective is taken, the blended nature comes through the various

activities to occur at each stage in the 2 loops of the cycle. These include traditional approaches such as the use of readings and text books, didactic content delivered via embedded video to be watched by small groups together as the basis for discussion and reflection, student interaction with a patient (history taking), student interaction with each other (diagnosis and care planning), and individual and group reflection at various stages on both IPL issues and the clinical content. The IPL framework is structured to prevent any individual or discipline dominating the interactions. The debriefing will elicit the skills and expertise each discipline may bring to the case. This will show how the background histories taken by medical and pharmacy disciplines differ, will lead to acknowledgement of each others’ specialist knowledge, and lead to integration of this knowledge to plan for optimal patient care. Reflection is a key aspect of the IPL activity and also forms the basis for student assessment. After working through this activity (the detailed structure will require several collaborative interactions over the course of a 3 week period), peer assessment and feedback, and the production of an appropriate patient care plan, will represent the students’

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outcome. A feature of this IPL package is that, even though there are critical clinical decisions to be made in the process, there is no single correct answer. The reflective nature of the evaluation ensures that even when future students become aware of the cases (as occurs from year to year), the activity remains relevant as the learning is based on the individual journey rather than on producing a particular answer. This form of assessment requires little input from clinical staff. Indeed, participation can be monitored by non-clinician project officers. Similarly, should support with the IPL process be required, then most of this could also be provided by non-clinician project officers. Further, the IPL case is designed such that while the initial steps are clearly laid out, subsequent steps require self-direction. This deliberate requirement for student-led activity helps prepare students for professional life by building skills for life-long learning. Assessment will focus primarily on IPL experiences as evaluated by reflective activities at various stages and group reporting of the IPL process and experience. From a clinical perspective, the outcome is a structured care plan which will be formatively accessed via an automated process with feedback when groups submit their work electronically. This will follow Norcini’s (2003) discussion of the incorporation of Miller’s pyramid for assessing clinical competence and other tools for clinical work place assessment.

Space With over 500 students in the two programs dispersed over a large geographical area and hospitals already bursting with students, real-time bedside teaching with patients is not possible. Even if it were possible to effectively manage the students in a real-life setting, it is impossible to know what patients will present at any time so a consistent experience is not possible. For these reasons, the bedside setting for the patient encounter is now a virtual environment, utilising Second Life as in Case 2. This allows large numbers of students to experience patient contact in a safe and consistent 170

way and they can access it at a time and in a place convenient to them. For pharmacy students, the SL environment is already familiar, having had exposure to it in at least the activity described in Case 2 with others in development.

Technology The patient will be accessed virtually using various web technologies in which the university has already invested, including Second Life as mentioned. This gives a consistency of experience for all students and allows for control by academic/ clinical teachers to ensure all objectives are addressed. The Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science at Monash University has created a virtual hospital on a Second Life island called Aeslecpia as part of a wider program of using such environments to facilitate both clinical and practical skills teaching. This provides an existing and familiar framework, in a safe environment, for the patient interaction to occur, eliminating risks for both real patients and students, while ensuring key critical clinical thinking skills are developed and assessed. Other advantages of this process, include flexibility for students to engage at times that suit them, flexibility in scheduling with the capacity for managing increasing student numbers without significant increase in resource demands, and the opportunity to record activities for reflection as part of the learning cycle. Once the encounter with the patient is completed, small groups of students (both medical and pharmacy together) will meet to begin the debriefing in specially designed meeting spaces in the SL hospital on Aesclepia and move into the explanation cycle of the learning model. All will interact in virtual space within a framework that requires participation by all members of the group. Students move around this virtual patient setting interacting with their student colleagues using information-communication technology to work collaboratively across different sites. Students engage with assessment tasks, various resources, and program information via this technology,


connecting via a learning management system or other resource such as Google apps. The challenge in this project is in scripting a patient interaction to cover all potential questions students may ask the virtual patient—an automated “bot”. While verbal input would be ideal, the process of voice recognition training for computers would be a logistical barrier to implementation so students will type their questions. Using keywords, fuzzy logic, and an extendable database of questions, the virtual patient will be able to respond to questions asked appropriately, (it will have built in responses to clarify questions if necessary), keep students focused and keep them realistic about the process (e.g. it will fall asleep if they ask too many questions). In recent months significant advances have been made in developing bots and managing their interaction using a simple web interface allowing for management by teachers without higher level programming and technology skills. This will improve both the variety of patients that can be used and, significantly, decrease costs associated with programming, development, and maintenance. The technologies to facilitate student interaction exist in SL already (text and voice chat, video, white boards, etc) but can also be enhanced using SL plug-ins for LMS such as Moodle’s® SL plug-in, SLoodle. There are limits to the benefits of this experience. As the interaction is with a virtual rather than a real person, some of the subtle human elements that would be part of communication are missing. It is not possible in this setting to build an emotional component that would reflect compassion, empathy, etc, nor is it possible for the patient to detect body language and verbal nuances from the history taking student (although the virtual patient can be programmed to display certain forms of body language that students may observe in the interaction). While this is a shortcoming in preparing students for working with real patients, there are two ameliorating factors. Firstly, the lack of these aspects of human communication is addressed in the structured reflective exercises for students, after the interaction with the virtual patient. This is a crucial reminder of

the role other elements of communication play in an effective interaction with a patient. Secondly, this is not the only experience students have to develop communication skills with patients. Other curricular activities require interaction with a different type of virtual patient, played by actors in some situations and classmates or tutors in others, and on experiential placements in clinical settings students interact with real patients. The experience with patients in the virtual world is designed to prepare students better for real human interaction.

Case 3 Conclusion This project is scheduled for pilot implementation in 2011 so the description of this case is presented as an example of development from scratch, rather than a relocation or redesign of existing curricula.

CONCLUSION: WHAT TO TAKE FROM THESE CASES? Implementation of unique interactive technologies, such as e-simulations, has the potential to engage students in new ways, stimulate and inspire learning, challenge conventions in curriculum development, and introduce a creative dimension to addressing the problems that confront contemporary clinical education. The examples in this chapter highlight the various challenges and how they have been addressed. Key features include managing numbers of students while maintaining or even enhancing engagement, building in capacity for future changes in the delivery of professional services (settings and activities), and integrating a range of educational methods for constructive and creative student experience. The three learning environments described in this chapter reflect three very different situations with different objectives, different student outcomes, and different drivers. Case 1 demonstrates the enhancement of an existing space to deliver an existing curriculum and to improve the experience of students, with inherent capacity for adaptation to other professional environments. Case 2 171


represents a functional response to an essentially logistical problem of lack of space, resources, and time to deliver a process-oriented activity. Case 3 is unique, in that it describes a new curriculum to be delivered entirely in a new space with a broad set of objectives that go beyond mere functionality. The technology cannot completely replace the learning from a genuine patient interaction, nor is it designed to. This experience allows for students to refine the process elements of the clinical patient interaction, with reflection on how interacting with a real human would impact on this interaction, so that they are better prepared for that event when it happens. At that time, the focus is on the human dimension and the process aspect has already been consolidated into their professional behaviours rather than being learned concurrently. In each case, while the technology enhances the overall experience for both educators and learners, the technology is not the focus for either, nor is it the point of the spaces. While the experience of these projects was positive, it is opportune to reflect on the caveats of using e-simulations and other technologies in blended learning. While the delivery of content and student engagement may appear seamless, professional, and even exciting, there is a very large amount of preparatory work in developing a program, even more so if aspects of the type or use of technologies is unique. This introduces significant cost in terms of the time devoted to the process. Costs are further increased as specialist skills are required for space and technology design and construction. Once completed, ongoing technical support and content management and review are essential. Technology rapture is a genuine risk and can distract developers, educators, and learners from tasks at hand. The PST framework for development helps to overcome this problem in many cases but even within this, there is the potential to be distracted by technologies and dazzled by their use, losing focus on outcomes. It is also worth keeping in mind Moore’s Law that describes the doubling of capacity of com172

puters and other technologies every 18 months. Letting technology drive the educational design introduces the risk of equipment, processes, and resources becoming redundant in a relatively short period of time. Newer technologies with enhanced capacity and unique capabilities will continue to be released, so their place as a tool for, rather than the focus of, educational design needs constant reiteration. In describing the development and delivery of the case examples in this chapter, a series of pointers, critical steps, and caveats have been described that will hopefully be of benefit for others looking at enhancing clinical and technical teaching with innovative blended curricula. Long and Ehrmann (2005, p.56) describe the attributes of the “classroom of the future” to be: • • • • • • •

Designed for people, not ephemeral activities; Optimised for certain learning activities; not just stuffed with technology; Enabling technologies brought into the space, rather than built into the space; Allowing invisible technology and flexible use; Emphasising soft spaces (comfortable, informal, welcoming environments); Useful across a 24hr day; Zoned for sound and activity (different parts of a space for different activities).

With a little thought outside the square, most of these attributes can be useful to consider when designing curricula and spaces for virtual environments as well as physical settings. For example the emphasis on soft spaces can be applied virtually in an engaging and visually comfortable design of virtual environments, taking into account how they are accessed and delivered. The attributes may provide indicators for the application of then Pedagogy—Space—Technology approach to curriculum design and reiterate important considerations that will enhance development of technical and clinical teaching resources for modern health care students.


REFERENCES Cox, K. (1993). Planning bedside teaching. 1. Overview. The Medical Journal of Australia, 158(4), 280–282.

McLaughlan, R. G., & Kirkpatrick, D. (2004). Online roleplay: Design for active learning. European Journal of Engineering Education, 29(4), 477–490. doi:10.1080/03043790410001716293

Ehrmann, S. C. (2000). Technology and educational revolution. Liberal Education, 86(4), 40–49.

Monash University. (2005). Monash Directions 2025. Retrieved from http://www.monash.edu.au/ about/monash-directions/directions.html.

Ehrmann, S. C. (2010). Taking the long view: 10 recommendations about time, money, technology, and learning. Retrieved from http://www.tltgroup. org/strategies/10Recs.pdf.

Monash University. (2010). The Monash quality cycle. Retrieved from http://opq.monash.edu.au/ mqu/quality-cycle.html.

Galarneau, L. (2005). Authentic learning experiences through play: Games, simulations and the construction of knowledge. Paper presented at the DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing views: Worlds in play, Vancouver, Canada. Gil, L., Blanco, E., & Auli, J. M. (2000). The virtual laboratory concept applied to strain measurements. European Journal of Engineering Education, 25(3), 243. doi:10.1080/030437900438676 Gunstone, R. F. (1991). Reconstructing theory from practical experience. In B. Woolnough (Ed.), Practical science (pp. 67-77). Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Kapp, K. M. & O’Driscoll, T. (2010). Designing virtual immersive environments. T + D, 64(4), 30-32. Kirschner, P. A. (1988). The laboratory in science education: Problems, premises, and objectives. Higher Education, 17(1), 81–90. doi:10.1007/ BF00130901 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the sources of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Linden Research. I. (2010). Retrieved from http:// secondlife.com/xmlhttp/secondlife.php.

Norcini, J. J. (2003). Work based assessment. British Medical Journal, 326(7392), 753–755. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7392.753 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Radcliffe, D. (2008). Designing next generation places of learning: Multidisciplinary collaboration at the Pedagogy-Space-Technology nexus. Next Generation Learning Spaces Colloquium. University of Queensland. Stewart, B., Hutchins, H., Ezell, S., De Martino, D., & Bobba, A. (2010). Mitigating challenges of using virtual reality in online courses: a case study. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 47(1), 103. doi:10.1080/14703290903525937 Terdiman, D. (2005). ‘Second Life’ membership now free. CNET News. Toro-Troconis, M., Partridge, U. M., Meera, K., Barrett, M., & Higham, J. (2008). Designing game-based learning activities for virtual patients in Second Life. Journal of Cyber Therapy & Rehabilitation, 1(3), 225–238. Waterman, P. (2010). Feast or famine – predicting the pharmacy workforce of the future, Australian Pharmacist. Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, 29, 651.

Long, P. D., & Ehrmann, S. C. (2005). The future of the learning space: Breaking out of the box. EDUCAUSE Review, 40(4), 42–58.

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Chapter 11

Integrating E-Simulations in Teaching Business Information Systems Jacob Cybulski Deakin University, Australia Lemai Nguyen Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT Students’ early exposure to the fundamentals of business and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT), creation of a professional skill base, as well as, the gaining of practical experience in applying such knowledge and skills, are the determinants of success in their study and development as Information Systems (IS) professionals. This chapter argues that e-simulations, or computer-based and online simulations, can be effectively used to engage learners in interactive learning activities and provide them with real world practical experience in the safety of an educational setting. A research project is subsequently described. A suite of e-simulations were developed and deployed across two institutions to support teaching and learning of Information Systems. Using staff discussions and online surveys, quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the staff and students. The collected data were then analysed to evaluate and guide a sequence of curriculum and technology changes with a view to arriving at an optimum support model for students and teachers using the e-simulations. The findings of the study emphasise the usefulness of e-simulations to accommodate the learning styles of generation Y students, to stimulate their interest and creative thinking, and in meeting industry expectations of IS graduates’ ability to fulfil professional roles. Based on these insights, in its concluding remarks, the chapter outlines a conceptual framework for the inclusion of e-simulations in Information Systems curriculum development and teaching delivery. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch011


Integrating E-Simulations in Teaching Business Information Systems

INTRODUCTION Information Systems academics face a number of challenges in providing relevant and effective education to meet various demands and expectations from modern organisations as well as the newer generation Y of learners. The challenges include: curriculum development that provides the students with the Business Analysis (BA) body of knowledge required by the industry; providing hands-on experiences that can enable students to apply theory to practice in solving real world problems, thus improving their ability to work as business analysts; and, teaching methods that are effective with generation Y students (our youngest entrants into the university system). All these challenges need to be met within the confines of a modern university system, with its social, financial, and time-space constraints. The Information Systems professional association in Australia – the Australian Computer Society (ACS) - defines the core body of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) knowledge including components such as Technology Building, Technology Resources, Service Management, Outcome Management, ICT Problems Solving and Professional Knowledge (Gregor, von Konsky, Hart, & Wilson, 2008). Universities and professional associations providing ICT courses often use this core body of knowledge in the development and assessment (for accreditation) of their ICT curriculum. A large part of the ICT curriculum recommended for the Information Systems (IS) sub-discipline intersects technology and business topics, and relies on gaining professional knowledge and skills, such as Ethics, Professionalism, Teamwork, Interpersonal communication, Societal and Legal issues, as well as, History and Status of discipline. According to surveys (such as Kim, Shim, & Yoon, 1999; Lee, 2004) into expectations of employers and employees in relation to the demands of IS jobs, students need to develop abilities to grasp complex inter-disciplinary concepts, gain fluency

in using information technology, acquire insight into modern business needs, and sensitivity to personal, social, and cultural issues. Students’ early exposure to the fundamentals of business and ICT, creation of a professional skill base, as well as, gaining practical experience in applying this knowledge and skills, are the determinants of success in their study and development as IS professionals. While such an exposure to a real world workplace environment would be desirable, it is often difficult to conduct in terms of cost, resources, risk management and availability of practitioners, and organisations willing to participate (Nguyen & Cybulski, 2008). E-simulations, or computer-based and online simulations can, however, be used to provide learners with some of the real world experiences while overcoming difficulties commonly faced by IS educators. Experiential e-simulations (Gredler, 1996) are especially valuable for IS education as they emphasise gaining practical experience and application of professional knowledge and skills in the safety of educational settings. Experiential e-simulations allow learners to take on an active role in the e-simulation, engage in the simulated practice and perform tasks associated with their professional role, participate in decision-making, thus controlling pathways through the simulation scenarios, and consequently influencing learning outcomes through their own actions and engagement (Cybulski, Parker, & Segrave, 2006). Student-centred learning is an education approach that is based on, and influenced by, various educational theories primarily including constructivist, experiential learning (Piaget, 1950; Vygotsky, 1978), and individual development and interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning (Rogers, 2002). Learning with e-simulations is useful in directly providing experiential learning, and as has been found in this project (Cybulski, et al., 2006). Not only does it recognise student’s learning needs, characteristics, and learning styles, but it also focuses on the facilitation and engagement of the student

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in learning as opposed to the focus being on the teacher perspective and the teaching instruction. An emerging challenge to Australian tertiary education is the arrival of generation Y students (Choy & Delahaye, 2007). Generation Y (i.e. Gen Y) refers to the generation of young people who were born in the 1980s and early 1990s. The environment in which this generation has grown up has been characterised by stable economic growth and the rapid adoption of information communication technology over the last two decades (Choy & Delahaye, 2007). Growing up with economic prosperity, Gen Y students tend to have high demands for, and expectations from, education services. Learning styles of Gen Y can be characterised with technological intensity, experimental activities, structured guides, and rich feedback, as well as reliance on collective experience and peer-to-peer interactions (Carver & Cockburn, 2006; Hodgkinson & Percy, 2008; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). These students are often seen as competent users of technologies, such as the Internet, laptop and tablet computers, mobile phones, the PDA, and iPod. While their technology skills can be seen as providing some advantage in certain domains of study (e.g. IT and business analysis), their critical thinking and associated information skills are lacking in comparison (Weiler, 2005). Gen Y information seeking styles are different from those of the previous generations and can be characterised by a preference for visual media and multimedia over text reading, a desire for interactive, spontaneous, and experimental hands-on activities over lectures, with time saving and specific needs/ tasks being important factors in their information seeking (Weiler, 2005). Such students often need structured learning and teaching processes and show aversion to any ambiguity (Carver & Cockburn, 2006; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Growing up with the Internet social interactions and games, Gen Y develop their abilities in reading visual images, inductive discovery (rather than being told), switching interests and attentions,

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and responding quickly, as well as, expecting rapid responses (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). The above-mentioned learning styles, information seeking styles, and abilities of Gen Y should be taken into account in Kolb’s learning cycle of experimenting-doing, experiencing-feeling, observing-reflecting, and abstracting-thinking (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). To facilitate the full cycle of experiential learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005), educators need to develop their students’ critical thinking and abstraction learning style. To support the Gen Y students (Rogers, 2002) through the full cycle of experiential learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2005), a combination of constructivist learning, creativity learning, and e-simulations of real world problem solving is employed in our approach to teaching business analysis (Nguyen & Cybulski, 2008). The approach supports the Gen Y students’ learning styles through interactions with technology, experimental and interactive activities with simulated characters (avatars), scaffolding classroom activities and structured learning processes in lectures, and assignment teamwork. The business analysis assignments are also designed to be open-ended and to challenge the Gen Y students to develop their inductive discovery, creativity, and critical thinking.

PLANNING BUSINESS ANALYSIS TEACHING WITH E-SIMULATIONS The above analysis of educational challenges motivated us to develop an IS syllabus that would appeal to Gen Y students undertaking commerce and information systems degrees, on-campus and off-campus, and enrolled in a large first year Business Information Systems subject of up to 1,500 students per trimester (i.e. 12 week teaching period). As the management of the subject at the time changed to incorporate staff previously involved in the successful teaching of a Masters level subject in business analysis, and who were experienced in the use of e-simulation, amongst


many suggested improvements, it was deemed appropriate to transfer their experience to the first year’s teaching, and incorporate a project with a focus on “naïve” business analysis and a possible use of e-simulation. After teaching the subject in the old format for one trimester, it was decided to re-design it from the ground up and in doing so address the following issues: elevated staff workload and staff dissatisfaction, leading to high staff turnover in teaching the unit; very poor student evaluation ratings and feedback; too many overly complex assessment components; great effort exerted in managing a major assignment and battling errors in assignment marking; and high failure rate. The changes, of course, did not focus primarily on the use of e-simulation in the subject teaching - this would be a superficial and ineffective subject redesign. Instead, massive changes to the

subject content, structure and procedures were incorporated and were initially met with considerable staff resistance. However, as the majority of improvements aimed at reducing the complexity and workload for staff, as well as making teaching more enjoyable, after the first year of teaching a stable and well trained group of staff were happy to continue their active engagement with all aspects of the subject teaching in its new form. As can be seen from Table 1, the introduction of the e-simulation to the redesigned subject was planned to represent only a fraction of the new content coverage (see the points in bold and italic where the e-simulation impacted on the overall unit approach). At the same time, however, its addition to the teaching and learning repertoire affected a large number of curriculum aspects other than content (see the points in italic), ranging from the project (where it was used as the main vehicle to

Table 1. Subject improvements (with e-simulation) motivated by needs of staff and Gen Y students Staff: • Teaching the unit must be enjoyable experience • Change management and continuity planning • Reduce complexity, admin, and preparation • Increased communication and staff support • Empower all staff to own the subject • Regular meetings with all staff • Trailblazer’s reports from morning classes • Online site for problem capture and resolution • Online help desk (2 hours/week per staff) • Effective online marking regime (via rubrics) Lectures: • Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity • Focus on students’ chosen profession • Information Systems is about business, not IT • Only one hour lecture per week of unit content • Additional hours of experiential learning • Web 2.0 technologies assisted teaching Experience lectures: • Invited talks by industry speakers • Invited “reflections” by e-simulation characters • Technology demonstrations and case studies • Introduction of research and social topics • Large audience discussions and brainstorms • Seeking connections (e.g. with sport) • Focus on engaging and enjoyable activities Tutorials and labs: • Business case studies and problem solving • Development of practical skills • Labs and tutorials parallel project stages

Textbook: • Textbook is to be pitched at the students’ level • Textbook ought to be read, not studied • Textbook supports assignment skills development Online Portal • Help desk (5 days a week) • Ad-hoc questions to e-simulation characters • FAQ, Q&A, Blogs, YouTube, A&V streaming • Online self-paced tutes Project work: • Assignment leads the curriculum • Comparable on- and off-campus experience • Includes only individual tasks • Develops business and technical skills • Focus is on business analysis • Supported with business e-simulation • Deliverables staged by level of difficulty • Trial assignment submission in labs Review and exam: • Progressive reviews • Weekly, non-assessable quizzes • Sale of the Century pre-exam quiz • Review walk-through review lecture • Case study based multiple-choice exam • Sample exam questions discussed in lectures • Focus on thinking and problem-solving • Manageable size (60 structured questions) • Meaningful groups of questions • Assignment hurdle quizzes to motivate progress • Some questions are related to project experience

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support all assignment work), tutorials (which mirrored the e-simulation based project deliverables), and lectures (the e-simulation would appear to build students’ familiarity with the simulation characters, as well as, to be used as break points and provide reflections), to online support (esimulation characters were role-played by staff to answer students online questions via a Help Desk on the portal) and the examination (which featured questions related to skills and experience gained in the process of running the simulation). And thus, while the impact of e-simulation was broad, it was carefully targeted, intentionally contained, and controlled. In the process the e-simulation was fully integrated with the rest of the subject curriculum, where various modes of content delivery, engagement, and experience supported different models of teaching and styles of learning, hence resulting in a blended learning environment for students (Heinze & Procter, 2004). In the process of implementing the subject changes, staff preparation, supervision and marking times were reduced to help moderate their workload. In view of this, and with greatly enhanced team communication, as well as a participatory approach to unit management, staff satisfaction in teaching the unit was also improved. The number of assessment items was reduced to one. However the assignment, which consisted of several tasks, was structured into a consistent suite of deliverables with staged levels of difficulty. These deliverables were designed to gradually build students’ skills, alongside their confidence, with the use of tools and concepts. As multiple team assignments were discontinued and replaced by a single individual project, while the overall number of submissions to be marked increased, the marking effectiveness actually improved. First of all, the marking process moved online so that it could be monitored by subject supervisors, who ran daily statistical reports on marking activities, identified differences between markers, and acted swiftly to correct any discrepancies between them. Marking also relied on the

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use of a rubric, which simplified assessment decisions and which was trialled by all markers ahead of the actual marking, thus reducing errors later on. The effort of managing the project by staff was also reduced, as teams no longer had to be formed and their problems monitored and resolved. In this way, students could focus on learning personal management techniques (such as time management) rather than management of team work, which used to cause grievances and interpersonal problems, proving too difficult to be handled by the inexperienced first year students. As a result of all these changes, the student failure rate was halved, and their subject rating and feedback turned largely positive. While teaching the subject in its new form, many educational dogmas, which are still deeply established in university settings, were ruthlessly broken. For example: •

•

Lectures are commonly believed to be an effective method of transferring knowledge from the lecturer to students. This is not so, for as many experienced academics argue, lectures are definitely an efficient method of knowledge transfer (in terms of cost); however, teaching in smaller and more interactive groups is far more effective (in terms of quality). In our approach, lectures focus on highlighting important learning milestones but overwhelmingly we structure our large group teaching to motivate our students to undertake the desired independent study of the subject. Some academics believe that textbooks need to be comprehensive and challenging for students; no, we believe that learning will occur when a textbook can be quite easily read and enjoyed; also, there are many other modern media forms that compete with books and are more effective in knowledge and experience transfer, e.g. simulation and role-playing.


•

•

•

Many university administrators expect subject coordinators to be managers solely responsible for all aspects of the teaching of a unit; no, all teaching staff should be entrusted with responsibilities and made to feel that they own the subject, its materials, and processes. Some argue that junior staff cannot be trusted to make decisions; no, we believe that junior staff have the best understanding of Gen Y students and so they need to be empowered to make decisions. It has been asserted that business students hate technology; no, we argue that young business students are representatives of generation Y, and so are masters of novel technologies that senior academics could only aspire to consider seriously in their work. It can be assumed that assignments are to test knowledge gained in lectures and tutorials; no. we believe that assignments should facilitate the learning of new knowledge, and lectures and tutorials are to support this learning process.

The list of assertions and our own viewpoints can go further: •

•

Students learn best from their teachers who hold valuable knowledge; no, students learn quicker and more by undertaking authentic tasks and experiencing real-world phenomena. Consequently, they can reinforce this learning by interacting with their peers. Examinations are to test students’ knowledge, no, examinations are to test students’ foundational knowledge, but also they should be testing their thinking, and should reveal the experience they have gained during their studies.

We believe that as future professionals working in a technologically-rich business environment, over time, our first year students will have to become not only knowledgeable in their chosen business field, but they will also need to become effective communicators, independent learners of business and technology, as well as, creative problem solvers. These three attributes, which are commonly expected of all students graduating with degrees in Accounting, Finance and Economics, Management and Marketing, Information Systems, or Law, are also at the roots of professional skills characterising modern business analysts. We believe that all students undertaking our first year subject in Business Information Systems ought to focus on developing these essential soft skills in business analysis rather than exploring the formal aspects of business analysis, such as business process modelling or requirements specification, which are grounded in advanced knowledge of business and IS, and are available in the later years of study. While in previous years, the project in Business Information Systems involved the modelling of a technology solution to a business problem, in the new unit offering, the subject has focused on understanding the business operation by analysing business data (using personally available technology, such as Excel), seeking evidence of problems, and offering recommendations as to the solution of these problems with clear support from the collected evidence. The change of focus was motivated by students’ interests and the lack of formal IS skills (such as systems analysis and design modelling techniques) in their first year of study. Due to the large number of students involved in this project and the necessity to create a believable business setting for the project, an e-simulation was developed to support all project-related activities, then this e-simulation was embedded in the teaching by blending it with the remaining parts of the subject elements (Nguyen & Cybulski, 2008). The blended learn-

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ing environment included different aspects of a constructivist learning approach to provide formal instructions (lectures and downloadable materials), facilitate an interactive exchange between the students, and between the students and teachers (in tutorials and online forums), and to engage the students in solving real world business problems (in tutorials, online forums, assignments, and the e-simulation). We thus integrated our e-simulation into an interactive learning environment, within which our students could experience some authentic business analysis tasks, and where students could feel comfortable as representatives of Gen Y. Students’ professional interests were to be satisfied and their competence with technology fully recognised. The environment is designed to facilitate student learning of relevant knowledge, to gain experience transferable to real-life skills, and to enable the ability to solve problems and to think critically to be developed as a collateral artefact of their engagement (Zyda, 2005).

E-SIMULATION DESIGN AND BLENDING WITHIN INFORMATION SYSTEMS CURRICULUM An e-simulation, known as Blue Cut Fashion ‘Store’ (BCFS), was designed as an experiential learning environment based on a constructivist learning paradigm (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; Lainema & Makkonen, 2003), where the learning process can be described as emergent, collaborative, and domain specific (Baer, 1998; Plucker & Beghetto, 2004). In BCFS, students have to interview three company employees, seek knowledge related to the business and technology aspects of its operation, determine organisational problems and the means of their analysis, and, finally, determine requirements for their solution. Outside the e-simulation, students need to refine their understanding of the problems by posting follow-up questions to the simulated characters, debate issues with other students online, analyse

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rich data supplied by the company, and finally, write recommendations to the satisfaction of the company management. BCFS was one of a series of Blue Cut Fashion e-simulations, some of which were created for the teaching of undergraduate students enrolled internally across all our own university campuses, and some for the teaching of our Masters students, while others were in turn adopted externally by various partner institutions to teach students at various levels of knowledge, skill and maturity. All such simulations were tailored to support distinct student cohorts. Irrespective of the organisational settings and the level of teaching, all Blue Cut Fashion simulations used the same business case but defined distinct project objectives and deliverables depending on the various target audiences. The e-simulation characters, dialogues, and business documents were also altered to make the potential project solutions significantly different (and thus avoid plagiarism) in the different settings. The most important difference in presenting the Blue Cut Fashion e-simulation to students in different years of study was to take account of their needs versus the needs of teachers monitoring and assessing the project work that depended on the simulation case study. This was accommodated in the treatment of the e-simulation, which was to be viewed by novices as a sophisticated help desk to seek advice on the problem area as compared to a challenging field trip by the more advanced students. In a typical scenario, the simulation case is first explained in a lecture and online, leaving much of the detail of the actual problem and possible solutions open to the students’ imagination. The assignment specification is intentionally designed to be minimalist, as we want our students to become independent learners and self-sufficient professional problem-solvers. In the assignment, the students are expected to identify the full scope of their projects by engaging and communicating with the e-simulation characters.


These characters are also first introduced in lectures (and online) via mini simBlogs (see Figure 1). The e-simulations are designed to interrupt the lecturer, providing students with a much needed break from the lecture PowerPoint slides and textbook style of content, inject an element of humour into the presentations, and provide a stimulus for a large audience discussion. Therefore, at critical points in the lecture presentation, the e-simulation characters are designed to appear and reflect on the introduced topic using their own circumstance of the simulated world, and often challenging the human vantage point in the presentation by the lecturer. The most important objective of these simBlog events is for students to become accustomed to the characters, their look and speech patterns, their personality, the projection of their personal experience and knowledge, and their often unusual views of the world around them. A sample simBlog transcript from the lecture on hardware and software demonstrates the content and the humour of these virtual visits and the

exchanges the virtual characters have in front of the lecturer and students: John: Jane, I had a really awful thought! Jane: Tell me more about it! John: I had this vision that we are not here, but that we are just pixels - on the screen! Jane: …? John: I imagined that we are split into millions of data bits and bytes: some stored on the disk; some loaded into RAM; and some cached in between the disk and the memory. Jane: …? John: Could this really happen? I worry that we may not be anywhere in particular; and everywhere at the same time! Jane: I think you need some counselling John. On some rare occasions, the e-simulated characters also attempt to grab the attention of lecturers (well prepared for this), seek their participation in the discussion, or utter their not always favourable

Figure 1. A simBlog with a mini-simulation

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views of the subject chair (who of course designed these mini-dialogues). During various formal interviews with students (see Figure 2), e-simulation characters are well composed and display a fully professional attitude to their interviewers (students). The students can opt to conduct a group interview with two business representatives of Blue Cut Fashion store (CEO and a Sales Manager), who provide them with an outline of the business problems and opportunities. Alternatively, students can talk with a technical person (IT Manager), who provides them with hints and guidelines on solving some of the problems identified by her business counterparts. Students are able to select interview questions from a structured (and pre-defined) interview

plan. They can listen to the answers, take notes and follow up with more suitable questions. During a group interview, an interviewee who may not be actively engaged by an interviewer can suddenly decide to quit the session. Alternatively, if both interviewees (in a group interview) are left to their own devices they can initiate a discussion on some unrelated topic or leave the interviewing room altogether. Characters would often remark on political events, weather, sport, and current affairs, which would all require just in time script alterations. A fragment of a typical dialogue with a member of BCFS technical staff (Franca DeLorenzo) is demonstrated in the following transcript (note references to Excel data, tables and structures that students need to seek for their projects):

Figure 2. Student’s (right) interview with a member of BCFS technical staff (top left)

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Interviewer: Can we talk? Franca DeLorenzo (when she is available for an interview): Sure! Let’s talk about technical details of the planned Excel system! I assume that you have already spoken with Jane and James, and already know the high-level business context. Interviewer:Tell me a few words about yourself. Franca DeLorenzo: I am Franca De Lorenzo. I am in technical support of our shop and its equipment. I take care of cash registers and computer equipment, software, phone lines, and internet connections. On this project, I have been asked to advise external contractors (you of course) on our requirements for the Excel analysis of our operation. […] Interviewer: What are the styles of your products? Franca DeLorenzo: I am not sure. The Blue Cut Fashion’s stock table is quite small, so you could simply note all stock styles by visually inspecting stock records. If we had a larger table, we could rely on a filter to isolate the style values from the column listing all product styles. Interviewer: How can you determine profitable suppliers? Franca DeLorenzo: This is a hard problem and so we cannot provide much help here. We seek your advice on the best way of handling this problem. I imagine the most profitable suppliers are those whose products sell at the highest profit to the store. This would be a combination of high numbers sold and the gross profit generated on each product. Consider only the actively used suppliers. […] Interviewer: Aren’t you tired? Franca DeLorenzo: Hell yes! I just want to go home and sleep forever! Interviewer: Would you like some coffee? Franca DeLorenzo: Coffee? No thank you. However, I would not mind a glass of water. It is quite hot in here today. Do you know that the

entire week is likely to be that hot? The heat will be unbearable, especially since my office is in that environmentally friendly section of this new building; no air-conditioning! How do you cope on a day like this? If I am too hot, I usually go and visit the BCF store and keep cool in one of its departments! Changing rooms are the coolest. Quite a few customers even complained about the cold in there! While designing the BCFS e-simulation environment and its interaction with various parts of the Business Information Systems curriculum, we also developed an alternative view of IS teaching and learning, where project-work is supported by the e-simulation, which could effectively lead all teaching and learning activities of a single subject, while remaining only in its seemingly small but well controlled part of the unit,.Our view was that e-simulations should stimulate independent experiential learning. In our view, teaching with e-simulations should use different learning and teaching styles, be reliant on a variety of assessment regimes, and access multidimensional resources across business and technical knowledge domains. In such a rich interactive environment, collateral learning of professional skills will occur (see Figure 3). In our conception of tertiary education in Information Systems, the most important outcome of students’ first encounter with Business Information Systems is to become effective communicators, independent learners of business and technology, as well as, creative problem solvers. These three fundamental soft skills are clearly transferable to any other area of students’ future professional careers. To this end, our use of e-simulation provides our students with some hands-on experience in professional interviewing, the analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, using these data as evidence of business operation and its problems, making insightful business observations, under-

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Figure 3. Design of IS curriculum with e-simulation in a blended learning environment

taking independent research outside the scope of the subject to seek more knowledge and understanding, which finally allows students to develop their writing of recommendations to the company management. The IS project with the e-simulation draws in much of the subject’s business and technology teaching that takes place in lectures, tutorials, and labs, and which is supported by various knowledge sources, such as textbooks, case studies, and guest lectures, as well as the previously mentioned online communication. Interestingly, our experience in teaching the new subject with the e-simulation uncovered our previously unjustified fears and personal prejudices about educational use of simulation technology in practice, which were also abolished in the process. Here are some examples. E-simulation experiences are not authentic: not so, our students seemed to accept e-simulation characters in their role as client substitutes and often treated them as if they were real. They were also able to pose questions to them on the

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portal as if they were indeed human. Members of staff who role-played the characters, engaged in such discussions and felt as though they were accepted as authentic characters surrounded by junior consultants awaiting their knowledge and expertise. Again, some of our staff thought that students would reject e-simulation scenarios and characters due to flaws and inefficiencies in their technological delivery (e.g. in their near realistic animation and artificially sounding voice synthesis), but unexpectedly under pressure of time and task complexity, students seemed to forgive the e-simulation for its imperfections and omissions. In a similar vein, we were afraid that due to the limited selection of questions that could be asked and the provision of only a few e-simulation encounters, students would judge the e-simulation as incomplete. However, again, this was not the case. Students accepted this limitation as part of an established business practice (preparing an interview plan ahead of an interview and short interviews by appointment only) and were satis-


fied with the opportunity of having further conversations and enquiry online in front of a larger audience (i.e. all students). E-simulations were not the only method of engaging the minds and bodies of the Gen Y students in learning Business Information Systems (e.g. see Figure 4). We utilised many other interactive media forms from variety of sources to enhance face-to-face and online teaching, e.g. we recorded and used Flash animations to explain selected issues and we adopted YouTube videos to elucidate many difficult lecture topics from multiple vantage points. We established our presence at numerous social network sites, such as Facebook, to promote active student communication with staff and other students. We sought metaphors of IS concepts and compared them to notions drawn from other domains. For example, we used elements of sport to draw parallels between business/technology tensions and alignments, using fencing, weapons, and sword fighting to illustrate business competitive behaviours. With a strong view towards supporting the students to learn about technology in business

and to use technology, we challenged them to dare and think independently. We motivated them to be creative and above all have fun. Our own mission was also formulated to: make learning a memorable experience! While experimenting with the existing teaching formulas we innovated, we created, we broke with the established dogmas, and we too enjoyed the entire teaching experience.

EVALUATION AND FINDINGS Designed to be appealing, stimulating, engaging, immersive, guiding, and experiential, esimulations can be used as a very effective tool in delivering a complex IS curriculum to generation Y students. When blended with other aspects of learning (Gribbins, Hadidi, Urbaczewski, & Vician, 2007), e-simulations can become a pivotal force in a rich range of teaching methods and learning strategies, as well as an important resource in support of classroom, online, and self-paced project activities. They can become the cross roads of alignment between students’

Figure 4. Student engagement via e-sims, YouTube, Facebook and even fencing demos

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abilities, their intended knowledge and skills, and the authenticity of experience to be gained from the simulated IS projects. However, unless carefully monitored, evaluated, and adjusted when needed, such e-simulations could also transform the planned educational success into a pivot of failure. To cope with the potential risks of using esimulations in the context of live educational deployment, our BCFS e-simulation project was structured around an iterative action research approach (Baskerville, 1999; Baskerville & Myers, 2004), in which Blue Cut Fashion Store’s technical and educational effectiveness, as well as students’ experience in its engagement, were repeatedly evaluated at every step of the deployment process. An ongoing evaluation, driving many e-simulation design decisions, was conducted in weekly staff and developers discussions. The main element of the action research evaluation, however, included online surveys (Edmunds, 2000; Lichtenstein & Swatman, 2002), which collected both quantitative and qualitative data. The collected data were analysed and evaluated to guide a sequence of changes on improving students learning experience in using the BCFS e-simulation. The simulation was fully developed and improved in three separate phases. In the first phase, a BCFS pilot study took place with the participation of 70 students (end of 2008). A review of the pilot was conducted by the development team, teaching staff, and the university network engineers. Based on this review, an improved version of the BCFS e-simulation was developed and subsequently deployed for full-scale teaching with 1504 students in trimester T1, 2009. After a formal evaluation of student experiences, the simulation and its blended environment were altered and again applied in teaching with a much smaller group of 182 students in trimester T3, 2009. The process ended with a formal evaluation, used as a final validation of the previous findings. Since that time, the BCFS e-simulation is in continuing use in teaching across several educational institutions.

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The following sections present our account of insights gained from this process of phased deployment of the BCFS e-simulation and its iterative evaluation. However, as the pilot study was not subjected to students’ rigorous evaluation, its results are not reported here.

Learning Skills and Gaining Competency: Trimester T1 As mentioned before, after the trimester T1, 2009, the students enrolled in Business Information Systems were invited to participate in an evaluative survey. The survey instrument (see the Appendix at the end of this chapter) included 37 closed-ended as well as open-ended questions to allow students to evaluate the usefulness of the e-simulation application in assisting their business analysis project. A survey invitation was sent to 1504 students and 439 responses were received; among them 285 complete responses were received making a 29% response rate. The quantitative data show that the students learned to acquire competency in terms of knowledge and skills across different areas of competency (see Table 2, which includes data collected in both trimesters T1 and T3. A great majority of students perceived BCFS as creating opportunities to practice business analysis skills (with 85.71% holding positive views in T1, which increased to 91.67% in T3). Students also recognised the BCFS’s potential in providing them with skills useful in dealing with business and technological complexity (75% in both T1 and T3). They considered these skills to be difficult to master in a workplace situation (66.96% in T1 and 68.18% in T3). Finally, they acknowledged the positive role of the BCFS in building their own confidence in their evolving skills and growing capabilities as business analysts (66.96% in T1 and 77.27% in T3). In the students’ assessment, they gained new knowledge and skill sets in several professional areas, ranging from business to technology. Table


Table 2. Students’ reflections on knowledge and skills gained in different areas of competency Questions

Strongly Agree

Blue Cut Fashion provided an opportunity to practise the kinds of learning (e.g. data analysis, observation and making recommendations) expected in the unit. Blue Cut Fashion helped me learn business analysis skills because the scenarios helped me understand how complex situations unfold. Blue Cut Fashion was a valuable way of learning concepts and skills that would be difficult to experience in a real work place. Blue Cut Fashion helped me develop confidence in my present capabilities in the area.

Agree

Positive

T1

34.17%

51.54%

85.71%

T3

29.17%

62.50%

91.67%

T1

22.97%

52.38%

75.35%

T3

12.50%

62.50%

75.00%

T1

20.47%

46.49%

66.96%

T3

18.18%

50.00%

68.18%

T1

20.47%

46.49%

66.96%

T3

13.64%

63.64%

77.27%

Table 3. Students’ reflections on aspects of business and technology Business • (Blue Cut Fashion gives me) Insight into the operations behind common businesses. • It (Blue Cut Fashion) helped me to have better understanding on how to manage the product and the stock in various shop that the company have and it will helped me in the future life. (sic) • It (Blue Cut Fashion) really let me know how to improve the business and if I run my own business I will also use what I learn from the class • Seeing a business where you can study a number of different aspects of it helps to draw conclusions and make reflections that can then be used to look at any number of businesses. • Helped to look deeper into the problems …. look at sales … tie sales to stock levels and deliveries etc. • It make me understanding on how to manage supplier, product and the stock itself (sic) • It made me focus on the ‘business’ side of it, made me see that Business info systems is about business and not IT (although, IT sometimes drives Info systems).

BA in IS Context

Technology

• Blue Cut Fashion enabled me to become aware of how some business’ use excel to analyse data. (sic) • Blue cut fashions helped me analyse the business process quite simply it provided me with a chance to find a useful and meaningful way to interpret data. • Blue Cut Fashion stimulated how a real workplace could record data and in this way i could analyse and work out better ways to do things. (sic) • It was helpful in the areas of business analysis and use of excel • Assignment combined BOTH excel skills and business analysis skills. • It taught me the value of making detailed recommendations. • Lots of subjects require analysis skills. • It helped in learning how to delve deeper into the analysis portion of business information systems.

• Understanding how to use data to effectively table results and recommendations. • How to manage well about the database. • Provides an opportunity to examine real life business operations, thus improving systems analysis skills. • (Blue Cut Fashion) helped learn the way data is used to make decisions in the business and also how to make use of simple calculations to make such important and huge decisions in business day to day activities from using the different formulas it allowed me to see what needed to be improved and allowed me to see the areas that I need to make sure are not getting left out…(sic) • Yes. It provided a great task in working with computers and excel. • How to use excel effectively to analyse business statistics.

3 gives a sample of students’ reflections, classified into three categories, i.e. Business, Business Analysis (BA) in an Information Systems (IS) Context, and Technology. Some comments show students’ reflective learning even in the absence of any significant complexity of learnt topics. For example, one

student wrote: “I learnt more about excel than I did about system analysis skills”. This student explained this through his/her assertion that BCFS provided only “a snapshot and any business would not make important decisions based on this (snap shot) data”.

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In addition to skill competency, the collected qualitative data also revealed that the students perceived BCFS as useful in other areas of learning, such as problem solving and creative thinking. One student noted the breadth of BCFS simulation as involving “problem solving, decision making, self learning, writing and presentation skills”, whereas another student noted the depth of learning: “The sims provided an in depth realistic perspective on how to think about problems and analyse them”. The students’ reflective thinking can also be found in notes such as: “It provided a guide to analysing the business, but not an exact answer” and “Yes, because it helps you to understand and think about reasons for any incorrect data that may appear and reasons for it”. It was interesting to find many students commenting on their sense of the imperfections of the real world. By listening to e-simulation characters and examining the Excel sheets these characters pointed them to, many students came to a realisation that the real world is full of flaws and mistakes: “They got many information and some mistakes in the worksheet.” (sic) Such a reflection reveals students’ critical thinking skills. Interestingly, some students showed how BCFS facilitated their creative thinking. For example, “because the information delivered to us seemed authentic enough for us to relate in a real life situation. We are able to think ‘outside the box’”. (sic) Another student made a further suggestion on the line of creative thinking: “that there is no right nor wrong way of doing certain questions, in the sense that your mind is able to wonder”. The connection between flexibility, problem solving, and creative thinking was also valued by the students. For example, “(BCFS offers) flexibility to be creative in the approach” and “allows you to make mistakes and work through them. It also gives you an idea of what you may face in the future and the ways you may go about fixing them”.

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Gaining Real Experiences: Trimester T1 BCFS was designed to simulate a real world problem situation with a view to facilitating the students’ experiential learning. In this regard, the result was again positive. Almost 83% (82.94%) of the respondents believed that the Blue Cut fashion was authentic for the purpose of learning systems analysis skills. Many students compared and related the simulated BCFS to the real word, in their words: • •

•

•

•

(BCFS) was authentic in the background information presented. Yes it is realistic in the sense not all information is given and therefore requires investigation and assumptions. It relates very well to real-life businesses, thus being authentic and easily related to the real business world. It relates to a real scenario - a retail shop though the data would not be as complex as larger or medium businesses. I believe it is authentic in that it represents a real life business and day to day activities a similar business would experience in reality.

Others explicitly remarked on the value of the BCFS authenticity: •

• •

If that is what you want to do in your career, Blue Cut was a good indication of what your job would entail. It has the feel of a real situation one might come across once they start their career. The sims are a brilliant way of bringing the assessment to life and making it seem like you really are in the scenario suggested for the assignment.


Thought it was a great way to learn. Was challenging yet so rewarding. It is good to have a realistic data figures to work with.

•

A student suggested that simulating a real business in university teaching should be a norm. However, he/she did not differentiate between computerised /virtual and role-played face-to-face business simulations; “I find simulated learning a norm in university level learning and Blue Cut fashion functions as a conventional platform for students to simulate working in a real company.” This also shows an attitude from students that to “simulate working in a real company”, is an expectation and even a demand of Gen Y students. Many students were relieved that the e-simulation protected them from exposure to risks in the work environment, or while handling real world data. For example, they remarked:

•

• •

•

• •

(BCFS) relates to real scenarios and give the opportunity to experience an ‘interview’ without any risk. there is no risk of making fatal mistakes because it is not actually a real life scenario. (BCFS can be seen as) an environment where you may be unsure of what to do. It helps to build confidence.

We also found expressions of feelings that confirmed our belief that an e-simulation can provide young students with a safe learning environment, e.g. “Blue Cut Fashion provides a non-threatening (e.g. low risk) way of learning work-related realities” while enabling them to explore the solution space, e.g. “opportunity to demonstrate clearly what I think I can do”. Other students found value in obtaining personal insights about the professional world and the role of the business analyst in business. For example:

From the use of Blue Cut Fashion simulation, I learned a lot from business’ analysis point of view. Even though what I dream of to be is not exactly to be an analyst, however this is a good practice. It helped me realise that Business information systems is more concerned with helping business people make informed decisions about their organisation and its structure. At first I thought the assignment was going to be IT based, but I soon realised that we use IT components as tools to assist us in our business decisions. Thanks Blue Cut Fashions.

Some students, however, disagreed about the usefulness of the e-simulation. One student expected an unexpected business case to facilitate his/her learning and was somewhat disappointed that, “Blue cut fashions seems very similar to regular clothes stores with common stock, deliveries and sales calculations which are all essential in recording the business performance.” In contrast, another student found useful learning “because it relates to a real business and by doing the assignment, I was able to get a taste of an analysis of a real business.”

Blue Cut Fashion Store E-Simulation and Gen Y Characteristics in Learning The following survey questions demonstrate how BCFS was perceived and received by Gen Y students (see Table 4, which includes data collected in both trimesters T1 and T3). The data reveals students’ apparent preference for rich interactive multimedia, such as that used in BCFS. Around 70% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the BCFS assisted them to understand and assess their own abilities better than traditional media forms, such as print.

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Table 4. Students’ perception of e-simulation value Questions

Strongly Agree

Blue Cut Fashion provides the simulated workplace conditions to measure my abilities more accurately than traditional approaches such as print can do. Blue Cut Fashion allows me to provide a more complete picture of my abilities than traditional methods such as print.

Agree

Positive

T1

19.10%

53.13%

72.24%

T3

27.27%

59.09%

86.36%

T1

19.70%

49.85%

69.55%

T3

22.73%

63.64%

86.36%

Blue Cut Fashion sustained my interest throughout.

T1

17.07%

45.99%

63.07%

T3

18.18%

50.00%

68.18%

Blue Cut Fashion allowed me to learn at my own pace, in my own time and place.

T1

29.97%

50.17%

80.14%

T3

27.27%

45.45%

72.73%

Similarly, almost two thirds of all students reported that the e-simulation was responsible for sustaining their interest in the project (and the subject) throughout the trimester. The following examples from the students’ comments show the students’ orientation and inclination toward interactive multimedia and their preference over printed materials (with some grammar and language expression corrected): •

•

• • • •

• • •

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It was an interactive way to learn and therefore made it more interesting, lifelike and fun. It allows receiving information in a more interactive way, rather than just reading from paper. It was interactive and non-text. It gave context to an assignment otherwise perceived as unrelated. Blue cut fashion was a fun and interactive way of engaging in a topic. It is a practical application; learning is better achieved this way, and is more interactive …an interesting and interactive assignment. Good for assessment and more interactive than other assignments. (What I enjoyed a lot is) Sims characters.

Interestingly, over 80% of students agreed or strongly agreed that the e-simulation was flexible in addressing their personal learning pace, as well as the convenience of time and place of learning. This can also be seen from qualitative data, for example: “we are able to work at our own pace”, “You can access it in your own time and review all elements as necessary”, and “You can do it whenever you like, and it’s not as in your face as a physical interaction can be (especially for shy people)”. While students’ preferences for interactivity and enjoyment in learning, along with some flexibility of learning styles may be found in generations of students prior to Gen Y, the literature has identified them as strong characteristics of the Gen Y learners (Choy & Delahaye, 2007). The collected data, nevertheless, indicated that in the view of surveyed students, BCFS satisfactorily addressed these expectations.

Validation of the Initial Findings: Trimester T3 The BCFS e-simulation and the associated blended teaching approach was repeated in trimester T3 for the subject with a smaller group of 182 students, comprised largely of international students. A different teaching team was involved; however, an active knowledge transfer was coordinated within


the team thanks to a senior staff member, the BCFS champion, who this time was not involved in teaching and interacting with the students. At the end of the trimester T3, all 182 students were invited to participate in the evaluation survey. Only 21 responses were received making only a 16% response rate. This was because of the nature of the trimester run over the summer when international students often leave the country for a holiday before the commencement of a mainstream trimester T1. Findings from the analysis of T3 data strongly confirm the findings associated with teaching in the previous trimester T1. Quantitative data analysis confirmed the findings from the previous trimester T1 with a large proportion of Strongly Agree and Agree responses. The total positive responses were similar or higher than the previous corresponding ones (see Table 2 and Table 4, T3 component). Due to fewer responses received, fewer comments were registered regarding different areas of learning. Still, the students’ responses indicated that they appreciated learning multiple knowledge areas and gaining significant skill sets. It was noticeable that the students of this cohort were inclined to comment more about technical skills they received, and in particular Excel skills. It was interesting that while appreciative of their growing technical prowess, some students could foresee the emerging connection between these skills and their business knowledge thanks to BCFS e-simulation. In answering questions about the value of BCFS, some of them commented: “(BCFS) definitely was beneficial in understanding business analysis and using excel.” and “(Valuable learning from using BCFS was the) use of different techniques in analysing different areas of business.” One such technique could have been interview and elicitation skills: “(BCFS) was useful to understand some of the best skills is to ask questions.” (sic) With regard to problem solving and creative thinking, one student commented: “Blue Cut Fashion aided my studies in allowing me to investigate means of obtaining a result. By providing

some guide lines and then allowing the students to figure out the most part it seemed an essential tool in creative thinking to solve a problem.” This comment clearly explained the student’s reflection upon his/her learning and meta-cognitive skills of investigating the means of getting a solution, figuring out how to do it, and creative thinking in doing so. Similar to the students in the previous offering of the subject, a clear majority of this cohort of students (77.27% compared to 82.94% in the previous trimester) responded positively to the question of whether BCFS was authentic for the purpose of learning systems analysis skills. The students’ appreciation of the authenticity of BCFS can be found in their comments, for example: “(BCFS) emphasised a typical business and what they go through” and “(BCFS) allowed me to see textbook ideas working in real life situations”. Interestingly, one student commented on how difficult it could be in obtaining relevant information in a real world situation and related it to BCFS: “(BCFS) was important and authentic in my view because the employer knows what they are hoping to retrieve from the information supplied and it is up to the employee to provide that information.” The T1 and T3 students shared their satisfaction that within a simulated real world, they could work in a risk-free environment exploring the BCFS problem space, for example “(there) has been a learning curve using an example, and we were able to make a mistake and learn from it, without the pressure of making a real mistake in the real world which could possible lead to a very bad end!” or “(BCFS) prepares you for the actual experience it allows you to test your knowledge and receive feedback on mistakes etc, rather than making these initial errors in an actual workplace.” Another student wrote: “valued the ability to be able to ask them questions and confirm queries at any given point.” Such comments, again, confirm our belief that for young learners, a simulated real world would balance the real world experience and the need for a safe environment to learn and

191


explore ideas. Furthermore, the usefulness of BCFS in simulating the business analyst’s role is also confirmed by this cohort of students. For example: “great way to teach students the real world requirements and questions they may be faced with in their chosen careers”. A clear majority of positive responses (Agree and Strongly Agree) confirmed the findings from the previous offering of the subject with BCFS. The data collected in T3 (see Table 4, T3 component) provides evidence that the Gen Y students in this cohort positively responded to the virtual aspects of the BCFS e-simulation and that they strongly maintained their preference for interactive multimedia over traditional texts. Such a preference can be identified in comments such as: “It was a nice change from just text book reading and provided a ‘slightly’ more real feel to the assignment compared with normal” and “the ability to use outside resources other than typical reading material was useful.” Another student remarked on his/her familiarity with technology and saw this as his/her advantage in using BCFS in the subject: “I have experienced both in a simulated experience there is less pressure put on you to come up with results.” All such comments together with the high proportion of positive responses indicated that the e-simulation, in general, was seen as a form of interactive multimedia that is eminently appropriate for Gen Y students. A clear majority of students agreed or strongly agreed (72.73% combined) on the flexibility of BCFS in allowing students to learn at their own pace, time, and place. This proportion, however, slightly dropped from the 80.14% received in the previous trimester. A small number of negative comments were noted in relation to the students’ perception of the e-simulation’s realism. Some students observed that BCFS was not able to provide them with real interaction with business people nor allow them access to a real business project. As discussed earlier, there are two issues in providing a real business case in business analysis education.

192

First, it is difficult to involve real commercial projects in running a large subject due to resources constraints (time and cost) and unreasonable risk. Second, such comments at any rate were few, and far outweighed by student comments that praised BCFS as a safe environment for them to learn, such as “mistakes are forgiven”, “no pressure if things go wrong”, and “our mistakes are not detrimental to our job”. In the future, in order to provide the simulated case giving a more authentic impression, we can include video multimedia illustrating real business cases in a similar situation to the simulated case.

CONCLUSION Experiential e-simulations can be used very effectively in the teaching and learning of Information Systems. One avenue for application of such an e-simulation is in supporting business analysis projects that otherwise may be inaccessible for first-year students. Interactivity and engagement of e-simulation, and their full immersion in blended learning environments makes learning of business analysis tasks attractive to generation Y students. E-simulated activities allow teachers to be in control of educational outcomes, and at the same time, provide students with real world practical experience in the safety of an educational setting. As e-simulation in blended learning creates significant complexity for technology developers and educational designers, special care should be taken in deploying the innovative approach in live education. Staged implementation and iterative evaluation of technical and educational outcomes should occur following the cycles of action research. Using data collection methods like online surveys and focus groups, quantitative and qualitative data can be collected from the staff and students and analysed to evaluate and guide a sequence of curriculum and technology changes with a view to arriving at an optimum support model for students and teachers using the e-simulations.


The findings resulting from the reported study of the Blue Cut Fashion (Store) e-simulation used in teaching of over 2000 students, over the period of over 1 year and three cycles of action research, reveal that e-simulations are especially useful in higher education to accommodate the learning styles of generation Y students, including stimulating their interest and creative thinking, and in meeting industry expectations of IS graduates’ ability to fulfil professional roles.

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Cybulski, J. L., Parker, C., & Segrave, S. (2006). Touch it, feel it, and experience it: Developing professional IS skills using interview-style experiential simulations. In Spencer, S. & Jenkins, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS’2006). Edmunds, H. (2000). Focus group research handbook. Sydney, Australia: McGraw-Hill. Gredler, M. E. (1996). Educational games and simulations: A technology in search of a (research) paradigm. In Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 521–540). New York, NY: Macmillan Library Reference. Gregor, S., von Konsky, B. R., Hart, R., & Wilson, D. (2008). The ICT profession and the ICT body of knowledge (5th ed.). Sydney, Australia: Australian Computer Society. Gribbins, M. L., Hadidi, R., Urbaczewski, A., & Vician, C. (2007). Technology-enhanced learning in blended learning environments: A report on standard practices. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 20(46). Heinze, A., & Procter, C. (2004). Reflections on the use of blended learning. Paper presented at the Education in a Changing Environment. Retrieved from http://www.ece.salford.ac.uk/proceedings/ papers/ah_04.rtf. Hodgkinson, A., & Percy, A. (2008). Exploring student engagement for generation Y: A pilot in environmental economics. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 37th Australian Conference of Economists, Gold Coast Queensland Australia. Retrieved from http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1198&context=commwkpapers. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

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APPENDIX Blue Cut Fashion: Store’ — STUDENT SURVEY 1. Course Name:

2. Year Level:

3. Campus:

4. Off-Campus: YES / NO

5. Age:

6. Gender: F / M

(For this type of question tick your response to each statement in ONE of the 7 shaded boxes) 1

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ brought to life abstract topics and helped me to relate them to the practice of business analysis. Strongly Agree

2

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Not Applicable Don’t Know

Strongly Disagree Not Applicable Don’t Know




Strongly Disagree

While I was using ‘Blue Cut Fashion’, it provided a method for me to reflect on the quality of my performance. Strongly Agree

8

Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ was a valuable way of learning concepts and skills that would be difficult to experience in a real workplace. Strongly Agree

7

Neither

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ opened up new opportunities for diverse feedback about how well I learned what the unit was designed to teach. Strongly Agree

6

Agree

Don’t Know

Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provided an opportunity to practise the kinds of learning (e.g. data analysis, observation and making recommendations) expected in the unit. Strongly Agree

5

Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ helped me learn business analysis skills because the scenarios helped me understand how complex situations unfold. Strongly Agree

4

Neither

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provided access to experiences that I may not otherwise have had in a university context. Strongly Agree

3

Agree

Not Applicable


Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ helped me develop confidence in my present capabilities in the area.


Strongly Agree 9

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

I expect my learning from ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ to be useful later in an actual workplace.


Strongly Agree 10

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

When used in assessment, ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provides reliable evidence of the kinds of learning needed for assessment purposes. Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither

Disagree


Strongly Disagree

195


11

When used in assessment, ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provides the simulated workplace conditions to measure my abilities more accurately than traditional approaches such as print. Strongly Agree

12

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Don’t Know

Strongly Disagree

When used in assessment, ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ allowed me to provide a more complete picture of my abilities than methods such as print. Strongly Agree

13

Agree

Not Applicable


Strongly Disagree

Overall, ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ helped me achieve the learning results expected in the unit.


Strongly Agree 14

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Using ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ has led me to reflect more on the actual role of a business analyst.


Strongly Agree 15

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Using ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ has led me to reflect on my readiness for the professional role of business analyst. Strongly Agree

16

Agree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Don’t Know

Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ broadened my thinking about the actual practice of business information systems. Strongly Agree

Not Applicable


Strongly Disagree

17

Describe any valuable learning from ‘Blue Cut Fashion’.

18

For learning systems analysis skills, do you think ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ is ‘authentic’ in important ways?

YES NO

Please explain your response: 19

Was ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ valuable in helping you to learn important things for assessment?

YES NO


Do you support using ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ for assessment purposes?

YES NO


‘Blue Cut Fashion’ is well integrated into the unit as a whole.


Strongly Agree 22

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ could be used as a stand-alone resource for independent learning.


Strongly Agree 23

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Through communications in class or online, were there adequate opportunities for you to prepare for using ‘Blue Cut Fashion’?

YES NO


Through communications in class or online, were there adequate opportunities for you to review and discuss ‘Blue Cut Fashion’? Please explain your response:

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YES NO


25

Could ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ be used for other learning purposes?

YES NO


27

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ was only one of many learning approaches you may have experienced in the unit. Which of the following approaches were used in conjunction with ‘Blue Cut Fashion’? Check the boxes for the approaches you experienced. Study guide practice examples

Study guide exercises

Guided readings

Case studies

In text questions

Face-to-face lectures

Face-to-face tutorial discussions

Streamed lectures (iLecture)

Quizzes in the learning management system (DSO)

Forum discussions online

Class role plays

Practical field work

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ allowed me to learn flexibly. (e.g. at my own pace, in my own time and at my chosen place) Strongly Agree

28

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Not Applicable Don’t Know Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ sustained my interest throughout.


Strongly Agree 29

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

I was positively engaged in the experiences provided in ‘Blue Cut Fashion’.


Strongly Agree 30

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

My motivation to do assessment tasks increased due to the experience with ‘Blue Cut Fashion’.


Strongly Agree 31

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provides a non-threatening (e.g. low risk) way of learning work-related realities. Strongly Agree

32

Agree

Agree

Neither

Disagree


Strongly Disagree

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ provides the opportunity to demonstrate clearly what I think I can do.


Strongly Agree

Agree

Neither

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

33

‘Blue Cut Fashion’ is hyper-real. That is, a variety of elements are incorporated in the one setting that would not otherwise be possible to experience. What element of this do you value?

34

What are the practical benefits of engaging in a simulated experience, rather than having the actual experience in the physical world?

35

Should e-simulations be created for use in other units of the course?

YES NO

36

Would you recommend ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ to other students?

37

What personal observations of ‘Blue Cut Fashion’ would you like to provide?

YES NO

197

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Chapter 12

Developing Professional Competence in Project Management Using E-Simulation on Campus Ian Searle RMIT University, Australia Hossein Zadeh RMIT University, Australia

ABSTRACT Professional Competency is an important aspect of tertiary education. The term implies not just theoretical knowledge but practical know-how and ability to perform in the workplace. This chapter describes an approach to building professional competency in the field of project management developed in a postgraduate Project Management course at RMIT University, Australia. The course involves an extended twelve-week project simulation in which all phases of the Project Management Life-Cycle are exercised. The aim of the simulation is to build professional competency in the management of projects with particular emphasis on the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) project management framework. The simulation uses various techniques to provide a realistic experience for students. Some the techniques involve electronic simulation tools, including electronic communication media and animations. Student evaluation of the use of the simulation tools is presented and discussed.

INTRODUCTION One of the early works on how knowledge is acquired and accumulated, and how obsoleteness and forgetfulness affect the accumulated knowledge, was done by Richmond and Peterson

(1992). As shown in Figure 1, they argued that knowledge is accumulated through assimilation, and its value is reduced through forgetfulness and obsoleteness. But more importantly, Richmond and Peterson (1992) argued that the process of learning through assimilation is only part of the

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch012


Developing Professional Competence in Project Management Using E-Simulation on Campus

big picture; a learner’s knowledge is augmented through rebuilding knowledge, rebuilding knowledge capacity, and through sharing knowledge capacity (see Figure 1). The learning process based on assimilation is the main, sometimes sole, learning process followed in traditional teaching schools (Zambon, Saito, Yonenaga, & Figueiredo (2000). The “flow of knowledge”, as shown in Figure 1, is from the teacher to the students’ knowledge repository (i.e. their brain). It is hoped that these repositories keep accumulating knowledge and that it can be recalled when requested. Unfortunately, this is usually not the case; some of the accumulated knowledge loses its value over time (a certain way of solving a problem might not remain the best practice indefinitely), and the knowledge bank is constantly depleting due to forgetfulness. In order to keep this stock of knowledge refreshed and up to date, teachers (and students) must use

the remaining learning methods in addition to assimilation. In some disciplines, such as mathematics and engineering, the current body of knowledge already includes a well-developed set of relationships (Richmond & Peterson, 2000). Therefore, in those disciplines, knowledge is recreated and captured by students through developing problem-solving methodologies by way of assimilation and knowledge rebuild. Students with pre-existing creativity and ingenuity can extend their knowledge bank by rebuilding and extending their knowledge capacity and sharing their new knowledge capacity with others. In less procedural disciplines, such as management, the effect of assimilation on learning is reduced, as there are less universally applicable sets of relationships and methodologies. In these disciplines, each problem presents unique challenges and hence requires unique solutions. Therefore, it is pivotal that teaching and learn-

Figure 1. Model of life-long learning

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ing in those disciplines comprise all the learning methods depicted in Figure 1. This chapter presents the use of simulation technologies in teaching and learning of a project management course at graduate level at an Australian technology-based university situated in Melbourne. A significant number of students undertake this course and study on-campus at a particular University location in the Melbourne Central Business District (CBD). A substantial amount of the teaching and learning is expected to take place on-campus at this location. The context helps to frame the development and use of the simulated environment to enable quality learning. A typical project management course usually only employs the assimilation process as shown in Figure 1, which teaches the principles of the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) or other similar frameworks, and then hopes that students perform well in their professional careers after graduation. As teachers with extensive industry experience, the authors realised many years ago that there is a lot more to successful project management than those frameworks. Team and relation management play a significant role in the success of a project. This is what is known as “Professional Competence in Project Management”. The authors set out to develop an innovative method to enhance the professional competence of project management students. This chapter is a report on how one such innovative method was implemented and evaluated in an actual classroom setting.

PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE Educational achievement testing has been an active area of great debate. It is an area where tradition, personal values, and experience tend to dominate discussions (van der Vleuten, 1996). There are also numerous scientific publications on the subject, but they tend to be domain specific. Based on the authors’ industry as well as teaching experience, a hybrid approach (Cheetham & Chivers, 1996) to 200

professional competency development seemed to be the most suitable. In this study, a combination of an “outcome-based” approach, and the “reflective practitioner” approach has been used. Outcomebased approaches are a key feature of “UK National Vocational Qualifications” (Cheetham & Chivers, 1996). Reflective practitioner approaches are suggested by Schön (1991) and are now well recognised with professional education programs (Cheetham & Chivers, 1996).

Project Management and Professional Competence In this section we consider the question, “What constitutes competence in project management?” We look at project management both as an academic discipline and as an area of professional practice. We then discuss the role of universities in contributing to project management competence.

Project Management as an Academic Discipline The term “project management” has been in use since the early 1950s (Hodgson, 2002), and academic research has been a major contributor to the field (Morris, 2010). Even though it is claimed that some academic research has been too far removed from practice (Morris, 2010), research has contributed a number of concepts that are important to the theory and practice of project management (Jugdev, 2004; Rozenes, 2006). Contributions suggested by Morris (2010, p. 144) include: • • • • • • •

Systems analysis Precedence diagrams Resource scheduling Risk management Quality management Relationship based procurement Knowledge management and organisational learning.


Academic research continues to help consolidate and to shape future project management frameworks (Shenhar, 2007). The research contribution to the development of professional conceptual frameworks (also known as “Body of Knowledge” or BoK) has been varied in different countries. The major BoK in the United Kingdom, published by the Association for Project Management (http://www.apm. org.uk/) has been influenced by research input to a larger extent than the arguably more influential PMBoK from the Project Management Institute (http://www.pmi.org) based in the United States of America (Morris, 2001; Hodgson, 2002).

Project Management as a Professional Practice The characteristics of a profession have been the subject of debate for a long time. The concept of “profession” has been dominated by reference to the “traditional” professions of the law, medicine, the church and so on (Morris, Crawford, Hodgson Shepherd, & Thomas, 2006). Project management, some argue, does not qualify for “professional” status according to the same criteria used to judge “traditional” professions (Morris, Crawford, Hodgson, Shepherd, & Thomas, 2006). Rather, it is best categorised as a “semi-profession” or an “emerging profession”. Nevertheless, in the development of project management as a profession or semi-profession, professional bodies have played a crucial role (Morris et al., 2006). In the following sections we will review the existing professional associations for project management from an international and Australian perspective. Later we will discuss the role of the professional associations in fostering project management as a profession and in educating project managers.

Professional Associations International The most well-known and probably the most influential professional body related to project management is the Project Management Institute (PMI). PMI is based in the USA but has chapters in many parts of the world, including Australia. The major professional association in the United Kingdom is the Association for Project Management (http://www.apm.org.uk/). This organisation is influential in the UK and to some extent in Europe. The International Project Management Association (IPMA) (http://www.ipma.ch/) is a European-focused umbrella organisation for project management associations. However, it has affiliations in Asia and Africa. There are also affiliations with less important associations in North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) and South America (Peru). It is significant that there is no affiliation between IPMA and PMI. Project management professional associations have played an important role shaping the project management profession. The “Project Management Frameworks” section (below) describes the contribution of these associations in developing and promoting project management frameworks which have, to a large extent, shaped project management practice.

Australia In Australia, the major professional body is the Australian Institute of Project Management (http:// www.aipm.com.au). AIPM has around 10,000 members, and is affiliated with the IPMA. There are chapters in all states and territories. In addition to AIPM, there are also PMI chapters in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and all states in Australia except Tasmania.

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The AIPM has a significant role in educating and accrediting project managers (see the “Professional Accreditation” section, below).

tations of how a project manager is to behave (Hodgson, 2002). They provide the basis of accreditation and training programs.

Project Management Frameworks

Professional Accreditation

As discussed earlier, professional associations play an important role in accrediting professionals aspiring to be members of the project management profession. In turn, the accreditation process has a strong influence on the content and form of training programmes and education in institutions of higher education. A significant contribution of professional associations has been the development of project management conceptual frameworks known as Body of Knowledge. There are basically three professional association BoKs (Morris et al., 2006):

An important characteristic of a profession is the accreditation of practitioners. In the “traditional” professions, accreditation is often a statutory requirement before a person is allowed to practise. However, in many of the “semi-professions”, such as project management, there is no statutory requirement for practitioners to have any particular qualifications. Nevertheless, such accreditation is frequently provided by professional associations and has been generally accepted by industry as an appropriate qualification for prospective employees (Morris et al., 2006). In Australia, professional accreditation in project management is available from the PMI and the AIPM. Credentials available from PMI are:

•

•

•

Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK), created by the PMI and published in the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMI, 2008); Association of Project Management Body of Knowledge (APM BoK), influential in Europe through the European association and the IPMA; and New Project Management Knowledge System (P2M), from the Project Management Association of Japan.

PMBoK is the most widely known framework, forming the basis of education and accreditation in many parts of the world (Hodgson, 2002). PMBoK is recognised as a standard by the IEEE Standards Association (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 2009). In addition to BoKs created by professional associations, Office of Government Commerce (GOC) in the United Kingdom has developed a widely known and used methodology, known as PRINCE2 (GOC, 2009). Regardless of the specific framework, project management frameworks have shaped the expec-

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• • • • •

Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM); PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP); PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RPM); Project Management Professional (PMP); and Program Management Professional (PgMP) (PMIa, 2010).

The most important of these credentials is the PMP. Candidates require at least three years experience leading and directing project tasks and then are required to successfully pass a four-hour, 200-question, multiple-choice examination. The AIPM has the Registered Project Manager (RegPM) credential, available in three grades: •

Certified Practising Project Practitioner (CPPP);


• •

Certified Practising Project Manager (CPPM); and Certified Practising Project Director (CPPD) (AIPM 2010).

These credentials are competency-based, requiring assessment of workplace performance by an assessor (AIPMa, 2010).

Project Management Training in Universities The contribution of universities to accreditation in the Project Management profession has been much less important than for many other professions. The vast majority of accredited project managers have association-based qualifications (Morris et al., 2006). Notwithstanding this focus, many Australian universities run courses in project management, some endorsed by associations such as AIPM. A cursory examination of the websites of universities in the state of Victoria, Australia (November, 2010) reveals a variety of project management courses and degrees being offered by all major universities at bachelor, masters and doctorate levels: • • • • • •

RMIT University (bachelor, masters, doctorate); Monash University (masters); Deakin University (bachelor, masters); The University of Melbourne (masters); Latrobe University (bachelor, masters); and Victoria University (bachelor, masters).

In the following section we will present a case study of the way project management education is taught in one course at an Australian university. The course seeks to develop professional competence through a process of engagement and assimilation using one of the frameworks endorsed by the professional associations.

CASE STUDY: IT PROJECT MANAGEMENT AT RMIT UNIVERSITY The School of Business IT & Logistics within RMIT University offers a course in project management called “IT Project Management”. The course is part of the “Master of Business in Information Technology” program. Typical enrolments are between 160 and 200 per year, distributed across two semesters per year. Most students have no previous training or experience in project management, although there are some with significant practical experience. The twelve-week course is based on the PMI PMBoK framework, with additional attention being paid to governance and ethics, areas in which PRINCE2 is particularly strong. The “Master of Business in Information Technology” program is accredited by the Australian Computer Society (ACS). The IT Project Management course is not currently recognised by the AIPM. However, plans have been formulated to seek such recognition in the near future. RMIT and AIPM have agreed to offer a jointly sponsored prize for project management for students in the course from 2011. An important part of this course involves students being immersed in a simulated project management exercise. The simulation is designed to develop basic skills in managing a project for students with no previous project management experience and to practise those skills in as near to a “real world” environment as is possible. For those with some previous project management experience, the simulation is designed to familiarise students with acceptable processes and procedures as defined in the PMBoK.

Development of the Simulation There are a number of project management simulation packages available on the “market”. Examples

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of web-based simulation packages are SimulTrain (STS, 2010), SharkWorld (SharkWorld, 2010). There are also other project management simulations, which run locally on a computer using such engines as Microsoft Excel, such as the unpublished “Project Management Simulation Game” developed by Wee Leong Lee at the Singapore Management University. These simulation games have a common theme. Players form groups of about four people. The game presents a scenario and objective for the simulated project along with a set of resources. Teams have to schedule a set of work packages (tasks), allocate resources, and develop a budget. The execution of the project then proceeds in accelerated time, typically covering several weeks or months in a couple of hours. Teams have to react appropriately to a series of events that are presented by the simulation engine. In some games, players have to choose the most appropriate action from a number of alternatives presented by the engine. The simulation discussed in this chapter does not owe anything to these computer-based simulation games. The concept of this simulation grew from work done by Dr Arthur Tatnall of the Victoria Graduate School of Business (Victoria University, Melbourne). In teaching project management to graduate students, Dr Tatnall developed a number of simulation exercises, based mainly on the execution phase of the “Project Management Life Cycle” (Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring & Controlling, and Closing). One of the authors, after being involved as a guest lecturer in the course, decided to adopt some of Dr. Tatnall’s material in his own course and also contributed several case studies and simulations to Dr Tatnall’s course. From this humble beginning, the project management simulation exercise has developed to include all phases of the “Project Management Life Cycle”. In addition, the execution phase now includes events panning out and being communi-

204

cated to the students in near real time. There is an increased emphasis on stakeholder management and communication. In addition, electronic tools have contributed animations of events that affect the execution of the project. These tools and other electronic communication media provide the “E” aspect of the e-simulation. This approach is in line with rebuilding and sharing knowledge capacity as outlined in Figure 1, in which a blended learning environment is utilised where certain aspects of the simulation are being delivered and supported online, while other aspects of the simulation are being enacted in face-to-face settings. This simulation itself is the prime focus of learning and teaching practice in the course. While this simulation has a number of features in common with the computer-based simulations described at the start of this section, it has significant differences as well. Common features include scheduling, resource allocation, budgeting, and project execution. This simulation differs in its emphasis on simulation of the whole project management life cycle, including scope definition and commercial proposal. There is also an emphasis on project documentation (proposal, project plan, progress reporting, communication with stakeholders, and project director), and role playing, both of which are absent from the computer-based simulations. The simulation proceeds in real time rather than accelerated time. The use of real time allows the simulation to become the centrepiece of the course.

Description of the Simulation For the purposes of the simulation, students are organised into syndicates of three or four. Each syndicate is responsible for managing its simulated project. The syndicates operate during one-hour workshops consisting of a maximum of twenty-four students. The number of workshops conducted depends on the course enrolment. In


a typical semester there would be three or four such workshop classes. The project management simulation exercise involves all phases of the Project Management Life Cycle from initiating to closing. Initiating. The first part of the simulation requires students to create a commercial proposal. The case study provides the necessary information about the client, the client’s requirements, and the service provider so that students can prepare the proposal. Students are expected to develop a proposal that is good enough to present to a real client. Such a proposal requires the following characteristics. •

•

•

Sales appeal. The proposal must look attractive and professional, neatly formatted with appropriate typefaces, section headings, company logos, and so forth. The wording of the proposal must appeal to the prospective customer and address the customer’s requirements and “hot buttons”. Clearly defined scope. The deliverables of the proposed project must be clearly and fully described so that misunderstandings, omissions, and ambiguities are avoided. All critical success factors must be explicitly defined in objectively measurable terms. Appropriate pricing. The price offered to the client must be fully developed and detailed to the appropriate level. Students are required to develop a complete Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and resource allocation in the process of arriving at a price, although this WBS may not form part of the proposal itself. The appropriate level of detail in the pricing schedule is needed. Students are encouraged to consider how to present the price in sufficient detail to satisfy the client, without inviting the client to drive down the price of each detail.

•

•

Commercial integrity. Inclusions, exclusions, assumptions, and terms and conditions should be included in a way that defines and limits the liability of the service provider. The case study includes stipulations about the price basis of the project (“Fixed Price” or “Time and Materials”). Governance. There must be a description of the proposed governance structure of the project. At a minimum, there is a requirement for a steering committee chaired by the sponsor and an escalation process through a project director.

Planning. Once the proposal is submitted to the client (represented by the workshop tutor in this simulation) and evaluated (marked by the tutor), planning for the project can begin. By their nature, simulations have unrealistic elements. In this simulation, all proposals are accepted by the client (tutor), even if they are defective and uncompetitive. •

•

•

Planning is expressed in the “Project Plan”. The project plan provides the basis for management of the whole project. The plan is a living document which is constantly updated to reflect changes as circumstances develop during the execution phase. Because the project plan requires constant amendment, it is not expressed as hard copy. Instead, students use a Wiki (provided on the RMIT Learning Hub (Blackboard Learning Management System) to create and maintain their plan. The structure of the plan reflects the “PMBoK Knowledge Areas”: “Scope, Time, Cost, Quality, Human Resources, Communication, Risk, and Procurement”. The plan itself represents the ninth knowledge area, “Project Integration”.

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•

The plan is assessed by the Project Director – represented by the tutor.

◦âŠ¦

Execution proceeds once the project plan is completed. Unfortunately, the classroom environment (and funding) does not permit real work to be done and real funds spent. So, the simulation is limited to managing communication flows and managing documentation (e-mails, letters, phone calls, updated project plan). Meetings with key stakeholders can be simulated by role play.

◦âŠ¦

•

•

•

206

◦âŠ¦

In our course, execution is described in the following paragraphs.

Events. No project ever attempted was executed according to plan. Events conspire to make the road to completion bumpy and replete with detours. While the full horror of failed projects and angry clients can not be replicated in the classroom, some approximation can be simulated. •

◦âŠ¦

Each week of the execution phase, syndicates receive word of various “events” that have taken place. These events cause changes to the planned progress of the project. For example, during the kick-off meeting (the first meeting of the steering committee), the sponsor asks the project manager to include some additional work in the project. Syndicates are required to respond to the events in an appropriate manner, consistent with procedures outlined in the project plan (in line with building and re-building their knowledge capacity as outlined in Figure 1). Action taken is reported to clients and the project director in weekly role-play meetings. Information about events is conveyed to syndicates through various media including:

E-Mail: Messages are sent by various “actors” in the simulation to the project manager; Voice Mail: Phone messages are left in a voice mail system (simulated by a mini-web site incorporated into the RMIT Learning Hub); Animations: Short animated sequences showing conversations between actors are shown (in mini-web sites in the Learning Hub); and Text Messages (SMS): simulated within the Learning Hub. (Real SMS messages were attempted in an early version of the simulation. However, the administrative effort involved seems not to be worthwhile. If a convenient gateway were to become available, this avenue may be attempted again.).

Events are designed to present the students with issues typically encountered when managing a project. Events include: •

• •

•

•

•

Changes of scope, additions and deletions come from client request or external circumstances; Schedule changes, delays, interruptions, unexpectedly good progress; Cost changes, arising from delays, unplanned work, adverse or advantageous circumstances; Resource reallocation, caused by events occurring outside the project, such as with other projects in the service provider organisation, illness and so on; Human resource crises, such as unsatisfactory performance, accident, interpersonal interaction, external circumstances, workplace safety issues; and Other unanticipated events, such as weather interfering with travel arrangements.


Stakeholder Communication. Project stakeholders are within the client organisation and within the service delivery company. Both these classes of stakeholders need to be managed. •

•

•

•

•

Each week syndicates meet with their key stakeholders in a simulated “Project Steering Committee (Project Board)” meeting. These meetings take place in the workshop classes described above. The meetings involve role playing in a face-toface environment. During the meeting, the syndicate presents reports on progress of the project, the status of the project compared to the planned baseline, and a forecast for the following week. This helps with their rebuild of their knowledge capacity, and learning through sharing (see Figure 1). Progress is determined by the project plan altered by “events” that have occurred during the week. Syndicates also meet with their project director and provide reports with a particular bias towards the requirements of the service provider. Financial reporting is determined by the terms and conditions of the project (as set out in the proposal and the project plan). In particular, the information provided to the client depends on the price basis of the project. Syndicates are expected to provide information appropriate to the project terms and conditions. “Earned Value Analysis” is used to track progress against the project baseline. The detail provided to the client depends on the terms and conditions. The reporting activity is conducted in the form of role plays during the workshop classes. Some syndicates role-play the project team while others play the client or the project director. Roles are swapped during the class, so syndicates take turns to act as the project team or the client / proj-

•

ect director. All of this happens in the faceto-face setting. To help their learning through the reflective practitioner approach, syndicates acting as client/project director are provided with an assessment sheet which is used to assess the performance of the syndicate playing the project team.

Issue management. Some of the simulated events that happen during the execution of the project raise significant managerial and ethical issues. Students are expected to manage these issues appropriately and are assessed for their performance in this regard. Some issues involve the relationship between the client and the service provider. In one event, resources are diverted from the project to another of the service provider’s projects, which was in trouble. The event raises a number of issues: •

• •

How is the client to be informed of possible delays caused by the loss of resources? What information should be given to the client? Are the facts to be hidden or presented transparently? How is the reputation of the service provider to be maintained? How is the schedule of the project to be adjusted so lost time is recovered? Who is to pay for additional costs, given that the payment terms of the project is “time & materials”? ◦âŠ¦ Other events involve human resource management. In one event, a member of the project is expelled from the client’s site by the sponsor after an altercation with a contractor working for the client. Information subsequently revealed allegations of improper conduct of a sexual nature by the contractor. Students are required to: manage the immediate aftermath of the event; care for the team member involved in the incident; and identify appro-

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◦âŠ¦

priate actions to restore relationships with the client and ensure interrupted progress of the project. This major event in the project (the sexual harassment allegation) is one of the issues all students seem to clearly remember even well after the course is finished. This is in line with combined outcome-based and reflective practitioner approaches to learning (see Professional Competence section).

Monitoring and Controlling. Students are required to monitor the progress of the project against the baseline established at the start of the project. They are also expected to adjust the baseline to take account of events that legitimately change the parameters of the project, such as scope changes. •

•

•

208

The principal tool for monitoring progress used in the course is “Earned Value Analysis” (EVA). EVA allows project performance in cost and schedule to be tracked against the project baseline. Students are expected to update their project plans on a weekly basis to accommodate events. The activities involved in monitoring and controlling are assessed as part of the weekly role-play meetings with the clients and project director. As well, there is a visit from the auditors (acted by the tutors) where project plans are reviewed for alterations made following the initial assessment of project plans. Other project documentation is also “audited” at this time. This is yet another opportunity for students to learn through reflection.

Closing. Project “Close-Out” activities involve sign-off by the client, a post-project review, and a report to the project director. The performance of the project teams during role-play meetings with the Steering Committee and Project Director is assessed by the syndicate playing the client/Project Director. The client teams are provided with a briefing note, which tells them what to look for, and an assessment sheet. These peer assessments contribute about one third of the marks for the project execution part of the simulation, and they are informed by sharing knowledge capacity (Figure 1). Their design is based on the combination of outcome-based and reflective-practitioner approaches discussed above in the Professional Competence section.

The “E” Part of the Simulation An important part of simulating a project is communicating project events to the students. In real life, events do not have to be communicated; they just happen, making the experience real and often sharp. Unfortunately, in simulations, reality can often be blunt. An easy way of communicating events is to give students a description each week at the conclusion of each face-to-face workshop in which role-playing activities take place. This method is relatively easy for the teacher to manage, but it lacks all aspects of realism. In our overall simulation, we have attempted to take a step towards greater realism by presenting events in near real time and by using electronic simulations. One way of creating some sense of realism is by presenting in real time. Events happen during business hours through the week leading up to the weekly workshop role play. This method of presentation requires members of the syndicate groups to keep in touch with each other as they react to the events. It also emphasises to the students that surprises in project management inevitably occur at inconvenient times.


Another way of adding realism is to use an appropriate method of communicating the event to students. Some events are notified by e-mail, others by voice-mail and yet others via text messaging (SMS). The most important way that project managers find out about things that happen is by talking to people or being there when things happen. In our simulation, we used animations to convey this type of information. Our animated sequences were created by using Character Builder software by Media Semantic (Media Semantic, 2010). Character Builder facilitates the building of animated scenarios with avatars and simulated or recorded voices. Figure 2 is an animated TV news broadcast. By watching this news clip, the project managers find out about floods that have closed Brisbane (capital city of the northern State of Australia, Queensland) airport at a critical stage of a system implementation for a client in the city of Brisbane. In another animation (Figure 3), the project manager visits the doctor after feeling unwell.

The consequence is that the Project Manager is unable to visit the interstate client for a week. The animated scenarios have uses beyond conveying information in a more realistic way than some alternatives do. A certain amount of tacit information can be conveyed by gesture and tone of voice. Also, some information can be implied, or left unsaid, encouraging the students to read between the lines or make inferences. Although the use of animations with avatars has a great deal of promise, there are quite significant limitations in practice. The Character Builder avatars are basically designed to face the front, and conducting a conversation between two avatars can look very stilted (Figure 4), especially in the version (Version 4) used in early 2010. After trying artificial voices (text to speech conversion), better results were obtained by using recorded voices. Human voices are able to convey more information by tone of voice.

Figure 2. Simulated TV news broadcast

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Figure 3. The PM visits the doctor

Figure 4. Avatars in conversation

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EVALUATION OF THE SIMULATION LEARNING EXPERIENCE

I was positively engaged in the experiences provided in Ringo Robotics.

Effectiveness of any method of developing professional competency can only be truly assessed by a longitudinal study, which observes the behaviour of former students in the workplace and relates that behaviour to the skills acquired during the practice of the method in the formal course of study. This approach was not available to the authors in this case, so an alternative approach (i.e. survey) was employed which evaluated more short-term effects.

Ringo Robotics allowed me to provide a more complete picture of my abilities than traditional methods such as print.

Methodology The evaluation approach which was adopted used an evaluation instrument previously developed by staff at Deakin University, the institutional leader of a national e-simulation project to which RMIT University was a partner. The evaluation instrument consisted of a series of thirty-two questions. Some questions invited students to respond to statements using a 5 point Likert scale. Other survey items invited free-text responses. Students were invited to respond to the paperbased survey during the last class in the course. Responses were subsequently analysed by an independent party. Some questions asked about students’ experience of the simulation and their perception of the way they engaged with the learning process. Examples of responses to such questions from students who used the e-simulation “Ringo Robotics” include: While I was using Ringo Robotics, it provided a method for me to reflect on the quality of my performance. Ringo Robotics allowed me to learn at my own pace, in my own time and place.

Others questions sought information about how students’ saw the relevance of the simulation to the project management domain. Indicative responses include: Ringo Robotics helped me learn project management skills because the scenarios helped me understand how complex situations unfold.” Ringo Robotics helped me develop confidence in my present capabilities in the area. Overall, Ringo Robotics helped me achieve the learning results expected in IT project management. Yet other questions were directly related to levels of competency that students perceived themselves to be developing. Typical responses include: Ringo Robotics brought to life abstract topics and helped me to relate them to the practice of project management. Ringo Robotics helped me learn project management skills because the scenarios helped me understand how complex situations unfold. I expect my learning from Ringo Robotics to be useful later in an actual workplace. These questions provided a snapshot of student opinion at the conclusion of the course. They related to students’ perceptions of assimilating life-long skills and developing professional competence through the whole simulation experience,

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both its varied face-to-face and online blended learning aspects. One aspect noted was the great difficulty of disaggregating any evaluation approach around discrete micro-level components of face-to-face and online when they are so highly interrelated in the whole simulation experience. As stated earlier no attempt was made to assess actual competence developed over an extended period.

Outcome A number of observations are made about the participation students in the survey: •

•

The number of completed responses to the survey was 7% in Semester 1, 2009 and 15% in Semester 2. Partially completed surveys were 27% in Semester 1 and 52% in Semester 2. The response rate may have been influenced by two factors: the survey was quite long and the time that respondents have to complete the survey was quite short; and ethical considerations prevented any kind of pressure being placed on students to complete the survey. The class in the first semester where surveys were administered was also used for the “Good Teaching Score” survey conducted independently by the University. Students were “surveyed out” by the time the e-simulation survey was introduced.

•

Free text comments were, in the main, sparse and brief.

Survey results were analysed and audited by independent parties, and were provided to the authors. The following table shows the positive responses to the three categories of question: the student experience of using the simulation; perceived relevance of the simulation to the project management domain; and the perceived development of professional competence. The data were derived by averaging the numbers given by the external analyst for each individual question. The data confirm that, for those who provided survey returns, the experience of the simulation was perceived to be strongly positive in the three categories. The indication is that students were generally positive about their experience, regarded the simulation as being highly relevant to the project management domain, and believed that there was an enhancement of their professional competence. Anecdotal evidence based on unsolicited comments to the authors at the end of the course also indicates that some students valued the experience of the simulation highly. Students were also required to keep a reflective journal (in the form of a private blog). The comments in the journals have not been analysed, as no ethics clearance has been sought or obtained for this analysis. However, our impressions from reading the journals

Table 1. Student responses to key areas of the simulation experience Semester Semester 1, 2009

Category Student Experience

Strongly Agree 21.65%

Agree 61.04%

Total Positive Response 82.68%

Semester 1, 2009

Project Management Domain

19.82%

69.16%

88.99%

Semester 1, 2009

Professional Competence

23.81%

59.05%

82.85%

Semester 2, 2009

Student Experience

22.90%

60.28%

83.18%

Semester 2, 2009

Project Management Domain

21.81%

67.50%

89.32%

Semester 2, 2009

Professional Competence

23.81%

59.52%

83.33%

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are that the experience was seen as valuable and enhancing of professional competence. On the other hand, the authors have noticed that in some semesters, in relation to the “Good Teaching Scores” instrument (administered and analysed independently by the University—no association with the survey discussed here), there seems to be a group of about 20% of students who consistently rate the course negatively. We speculate that the negative feedback may be the result of two factors. One is the work load required to do well in the course, which due to the inclusion of the classroom activities, is significantly greater than some other courses in the degree. The second is that the simulation process generates a significant degree of uncertainty in some students. Events during the simulation are unpredictable and the reaction necessary to deal with the events is not always obvious. We consider that uncertainty to be an integral part of project management and, thus, the uncertainty in the simulation as a fundamental and necessary learning experience. In addition, a high degree of interaction and skills in English are required during the role-playing and negotiation sessions. It seems that while survey data indicate a strong positive response, some participants do not gain the same value from this immersive experience.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The authors will continue to adopt and embrace tools and techniques to augment students’ learning experiences. This could be in the form of real-time communication tools, or the use of more realistic three-dimensional visualisation techniques for a fuller immersion experience. Real-time communication tools would allow the authors to add a degree of realism to projects, which could well be conducted in several geographically separated locations. In the “Ringo Robotics” project, the service providers and project

managers were located in Melbourne with the client in Brisbane. In the simulation, the Project Manager was travelling to Brisbane each week for meetings. In a real project, many of these meetings would have been conducted by phone or video conference. There may be scope for using 3D gaming technology or on-line immersive technologies, such as Second Life (http://secondlife.com). These technologies may enhance the realism of the way scenarios are presented to students.

CONCLUSION As shown in Figure 1, knowledge is accumulated through assimilation, and its value is reduced through forgetfulness and obsoleteness. Furthermore, it was discussed that assimilation is only part of the big picture; a learner’s knowledge is augmented through rebuilding knowledge, rebuilding knowledge capacity, and through sharing knowledge capacity (refer Figure 1). Through introducing simulation exercises, the authors have gone beyond mere assimilation of knowledge; the exercises provide an environment for the students to rebuild and share knowledge. The use of e-simulations and near real-time communication of events have augmented this environment so that students can immerse themselves in the exercises, so much so that rebuilding and sharing knowledge capacity have become an implicit and tacit part of the experience. Evaluation of the educational outcome of e-simulations has been carried out and repeated for different cohorts of students, in order to minimise any bias a particular cohort might have of the educational experience. The evaluation overwhelmingly supports the idea that e-simulations have provided a holistic environment for the students, in which they can be immersed in the experience and develop their knowledge beyond what typical assimilation affords.

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REFERENCES AIPM. (2010). Guide to RegPM levels. Australian Institute of Project Management. Retrieved from http://www.aipm.com.au/resource/AIPM_Table_ GuideToRegPMLevels.pdf. AIPM. (2010a). AIPM RegPM FAQs. Australian Institute of Project Management. Retrieved from http://www.aipm.com.au/html/regpmfaq.cfm. AIPM. (2010b). AIPM endorsed course providers. Australian Institute of Project Management. Retrieved from http://www.aipm.com.au/html/ PM_Courses_and_Providers_Wizard.cfm. Cheetham, G., & Chivers, G. (1996). Towards a holistic model of professional competence. Journal of European Industrial Training, 20(5), 20–30. doi:10.1108/03090599610119692 Hodgson, D. (2002). Disciplining the professional: The case of project management. Journal of Management Studies, 39(6), 803–821. doi:10.1111/1467-6486.00312 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. (2009). IEEE standards wire online – Standards board actions May 09. Retrieved from http:// standards.ieee.org/standardswire/sba/5-09.html Morris, P. (2001). Updating the project management bodies of knowledge. Project Management Journal, 32(3), 21–30. Morris, P. (2010). Research and the future of project management. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 3(1), 139–146. doi:10.1108/17538371011014080 Morris, P., Crawford, L., Hodgson, D., Shepherd, M., & Thomas, J. (2006). Exploring the role of formal bodies of knowledge in defining a profession: The case of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24, 710–721. doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2006.09.012

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Office of Government Commerce (OGC). (2009). OGC PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce. Retrieved from http://www.ogc.gov.uk/ methods_prince_2__background.asp. Project Management Institute (PMI). (2008). A Guide to the project management body of knowledge. Newton Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Project Management Institute (PMI). (2010). The PMI family of credentials. Project Management Institute. Retrieved from http://www.pmi.org/ PDF/Family-of-Credentials_Jan2010.pdf. Richmond, B., & Peterson, S. (1992). An introduction to systems thinking. Hanover, Germany: High Performance Systems. Schön, D. A. (1991). The reflective turn: Case studies in and on educational practice. New York, NY: Teachers Press, Columbia University. Semantics, M. (2010). Media Semantics – The virtual people platform. Retrieved from http:// www.mediasemantics.com/. van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (1996). The assessment of professional competence: Developments, research and practical implications. Advances in Health Sciences Education : Theory and Practice, 1(1), 41–67. doi:10.1007/BF00596229 Zambon, A. C., & Saito, J. R. Yonenaga, W. H., & Figueiredo, R. S. (2000). The introduction of simulation as a teaching and learning tool. Editors G. Altmann, J. Lamp, P. E. D. Love, P. Mandal, R. Smith & M. J. Warren (Eds.), In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Systems Thinking in Management, Geelong, Australia.

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Chapter 13

Using E-Simulations in Retail Sales Training:

Benefits of Blended Learning Design Virpi Slotte AAC Global, Finland Anne Herbert Aalto Universtiy School of Economics, Finland

ABSTRACT This chapter concentrates on e-simulation training programs used as part of workplace learning when socially situated interaction and blended learning are specifically included in the instructional design. In this research project, the responses of more than 750 learners were studied in order to answer the questions: How did the learners experience learning from e-simulation? And what were the structural features of the e-simulation sales training programs that promoted the learning of the participants? The e-simulations were an engaging and fun way of learning, reported the learners, but there were other benefits. The authentic dialogue exercises with socially-situated interaction, both online and face-toface, improved the learners’ awareness and understanding of various practical ways to handle challenging situations. The results are attributable to the proper opportunity to supplement learning with practice, achieved through the design features of the program. Suggestions are made for the design of future programs.

INTRODUCTION Simulations have a long history as a teaching method. Today these techniques have reached a state where considerable empirical data, in relation to performance gains, have been collected and analysed even though some authors ask for further

research mainly for investigating effects from a broader perspective. Longhitano and Testa (2006) argue that a simulation tool itself does not provide positive or negative effects on organisations, but rather, how the tool is used in conjunction with complementary human resources. Simulations can have noteworthy impact upon learning when

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch013


Using E-Simulations in Retail Sales Training

properly implemented in the workplace. Simply making e-simulation courses available to even highly motivated employees does not mean that the employees can, and will, use them. How do we engage a classroom of both younger and older learners in ways that will increase their skill base, their abstract knowledge, and reinforce and strengthen the retention of their work-based learning experiences? This chapter provides evidence that socially situated blended learning design and delivery are effective ways to motivate personnel to use an esimulation program as part of workplace learning. Our research project focused on two organisationspecific, tailor-made e-simulation packages that were developed for improving the sales and customer service skills of staff at (a) Suomalainen Kirjakauppa (Finnish Bookstore), a national retail chain store selling books and stationery, and (b) Alko, a national retail chain store selling alcoholic beverages (Slotte & Herbert, 2008; Slotte, 2010). The professional development program was put online applying the ideas of blended learning design in other companies (Slotte & Herbert, 2006; Slotte & Tynjälä, 2003; 2005; Slotte, Tynjälä, Hytönen, 2004). The purpose of the e-simulation packages was to engage workers in learning improved sales, security, and customer service skills needed in their daily work. The packages include integrated elements of face-to-face and off-line activities as well as the online simulation. This mode of delivery is called ‘blended’ because the participants practised (a) using a business process e-simulation together with (b) a live coach who provides the opportunity to share and negotiate the content of the online course. The project, including putting the professional development online, had the following goals: •

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To develop a new and engaging way to learn sales and customer service skills through the design features to increase the socially situated interaction;

•

•

To reduce overall costs for software to enhance the reusability of the general content; and To conduct follow-up studies in order to see how consistent the results are in different sales domains.

In this chapter, we concentrate on the experiences of the e-simulation programs in a blended learning design. The voices of sales personnel and sales directors are analysed based on several survey questionnaires and interviews. During the project, we studied the responses of more than 750 learners in order to answer the questions: How did the learners experience learning from the e-simulation? And what were the structural features of the e-simulation sales training programs that promoted the learning of the participants? By learning from the user experiences we can better develop course design and delivery modes that not only motivate employees to develop the competencies they need at work, but also help their organisations to improve their return on training investments.

E-SIMULATIONS AND SITUATED SOCIAL INTERACTION The current theories of learning emphasise the situational nature and social aspects of learning. Learning at work, at its best, is based on the learners’ experience and authentic problem-solving situations.It involves the learner in a reflective process and in social processes, and is organised in flexible ways (e.g., Hutchins & Hutchison, 2008; Tynjälä, 2008). To benefit both personal development and organisational learning processes, e-simulation solutions should include features such as: •

Integration of theoretical knowledge with participants’ practical experience,


•

•

Learning tasks that lead learners to examine their work in the light of the conceptual tools provided, and Encouragement of collaboration and knowledge exchange between colleagues.

These intended features, together with the benefits presented in the literature (e.g.,CabaneroJohnson & Berge, 2009; Longhitano & Testa, 2006), provided the basis of the rationale for designing e-simulation packages to improve the sales and customer service skills of staff at Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and Alko. Both these organisations especially requested an online solution to their development needs. They sought the flexibility and content consistency that online learning offers for employees at different times and locations. The sales staff was not interested in sitting and listening or reading long explanations, but typically they preferred to be actively engaged in activities and practising with exercises directly related to their everyday work experiences. The simulation method thus suits very well the sales training purpose. Simulations provide a possibility to solve real-world problems through work-related scenarios (e.g., Antonacci & Modaress, 2008; Bos, Shami, & Naab, 2006; Ng & Ng, 2004). Using simulations can engage learners in experimental and experiential learning, which provide the learners with opportunities to reflect on the way knowledge and skills can be used. As a process which is situated and authentic, learning includes, from the point of view of successful career development, such important factors as values, feelings, insights, and other special and personal ways of thinking and using knowledge (Watkins & Marsick, 1992). It is precisely this personal kind of knowledge that can only be obtained from direct experience of working in groups. As a learning tool, the simulation posits to modify people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations by allowing learners to rehearse appropriate behaviors, motivate them to target desired behaviors, or adopt another person’s perspective thereby

experimenting with a behavior different from their own (Cabanero-Johnson & Berge, 2009). Informal learningplanned or unplannedalone is not enough. Formal education and planned learning situations make it possible to exploit informal learning effectively, turn tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, and integrate conceptual knowledge and practical experience, which is the foundation for the development of expertise (see Leinhardt, McCarthy, Young, & Merriman, 1995; Slotte & Tynjälä, 2005). Validated course content, with formal and informal knowledge contributions from peers and experts alike, enriches the learner’s ability beyond previous experiences to engage with the sales situations and understand them better and more intimately (Cabanero-Johnson & Berge, 2009). For these reasons, different modes of workplace learning should be combined so that formal training utilises informal learning (Berg & Chyung, 2008). Research has demonstrated that interaction is a critical factor for learner satisfaction, higher level of achievement, higher learner engagement, and a positive disposition toward digital learning (Atkinson, Mayer, & Merrill, 2005; CabaneroJohnson & Berge, 2009, Tynjälä, 2008). Learning together with fellow workers supports opportunities for giving and receiving assistance which typically boosts confidence (Svensson, Ellström, & Åberg, 2004). Therefore the most important learning events should take place in collaborative knowledge building modes. This interactive aspect includes real dialogue as well as integration of different forms of representation and learning activities e.g. reading, writing, discussing, using metaphors, audio, and visual (Hutchins & Hutchison, 2008). The design of online learning for workplace contexts then, should incorporate and facilitate socially situated interactions resonant with those situations in which employees are expected to learn to be effective. Furthermore, combining e-simulations with a classroom coach may meet the need for both knowledge about the learning process and interac-

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tive skills. According to Cabanero-Johnson and Berge (2009) the intensity of teacher participation in guiding the learners to their desired learning objectives balances the learners need for free play. A live instructor might provide additional insight into the topic being taught in the e-simulation course by taking questions from the learners. The instructor can also help participants to discover their own learning process, resulting behaviors, and the consequent effect on others and the group process (Leigh & Spindler, 2004). Ideally, using blended learning, the best of a face-to-face coaching session is combined with the dynamics of the e-simulation to help employees apply knowledge and skills required to achieve maximum business results. Another further reason for considering a blended learning model for a workplace program is that the e-simulation is more likely to be integrated effectively into the learning culture in units where learning is not just a one-time event, but continues within workplace conversations (Slotte & Herbert, 2006). The live coach helps set the stage for the learning and can assist in ensuring staff confidence with using the technology as part of their learning. The task of seeing that everyone is comfortable enough to share their ideas and to learn belongs to the work culture (Prichard, Bizo, & Stratford, 2006). Studying in a small group with an in-house coach provides an additional social structure within the learning task itself. Social elements are important for employees in retail store environments who must be able to handle not only the product specific aspects of their job, but a variety of customer queries in an appropriate manner, using skills such as the ability to communicate effectively, listening skills, diplomacy and change-readiness, team-building skills, flexibility, and creativity (Rabak & Cleveland-Innes, 2006).

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DESCRIPTION OF THE E-SIMULATION TRAINING PROGRAMS In this project, the e-simulation was a relatively small-scale customised online program with specially tailored content that gave the learners opportunities to practise sales and service skills in a context like the one they faced in their retail store. The nature of the simulations was interactive and designed in social situations relevant to the learners and learning. Our intent was to extend the benefits of using e-simulations in training to relatively small customer groups, in contrast to commercial simulation games addressing millions of consumers. Reusable and scalable software, characters, and the part of the general customer dialogues were utilised from one organisation to another whenever possible. This adoptability was enabled by attempting to decrease the complexity of the task setting, while maintaining the functional and cognitive fidelity of the task requirements (Wildman & Salas, 2009). There was no attempt to create immersive 3D simulation training with media-rich virtual characters and branching multiple-choice questions and consequences. The e-simulation programs were based on dialogue between a salesperson and customers who visit Suomalainen Kirjakauppa twice and Alko three times. The content of all the dialogues was developed together with a group of experienced in-house salespersons from each retailer and professional scriptwriters. The process of scripting the work-related scenarios for each module started with a half-day workshop. The idea was to brainstorm the content structure and gather the widest set of real life examples possible. These sessions were essential to define the most typical customer types, their level of demands, irritability, diction, and language use, such as swearing. Thereby the content related directly to the retail business in which the participants


worked. Careful attention was paid to creating authentic and relevant interchanges between a demanding customer with many arguments and a salesperson whose role the learner would adopt. In later scriptwriting phases, the scenarios were supplemented with the relevant selling techniques and other company specific materials. The authenticity of the dialogues was confirmed by the client companies. Usability was tested by technical experts and client representatives. Figures 1 and 2, respectively, show the same customer in the bottleshop and the bookstore, demonstrating the reuse of characters for different sales contexts. Figure 2 includes the alternative responses from which the learner needs to choose in Finnish. Figure 3 shows the virtual coach offering feedback to the learner. At various points in the dialogue the learner, as salesperson in the dialogue, had to select one response among a series of responses offered by the program. The decision was taken to remove

any time pressure on decision-making so the participants had the chance to survey the situation, discuss with others, and even try out some different possibilities before committing to an action (Aldrich, 2004). This was intended to promote thoughtfulness and reflection. The dialogue exercises challenged the learners to reason over the different alternatives and their consequences. The virtual customers were difficult ones, prone to walk out of the shop if the salesperson did not offer a response that satisfied them. The two customer dialogues in the Suomalainen Kirjakauppa simulation provided the sales person with the chance to:test different approaches to the customer, probing for her needs and positioning the product; and to concentrate on practising taking orders, managing counterarguments, and closing the sale. In the Alko case, the same themes were incorporated into the skills and knowledge required to implement store policies and procedures to ensure store security

Figure 1. Customer in bottleshop

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Figure 2. Customer in bookshop

is maintained. Throughout the content, pressure situations were incorporated to tap learners’ emotions and force them to act. The training comprised one day working offline with a live coach and a group of peers, then the possibility to continue working with the simulation online later. The group work was facilitated off-line while the e-simulation involved the participants on an individual basis. The e-simulation paralleled the situation where typically only one salesperson in the shop deals with a customer. Before or after serving a customer, salespersons have opportunities to discuss their experiences with one another: learning by building on collective socially situated interpretations of episodes and imagined possibilities in context. The learners’ task was to handle all customer arguments politely and find the best solution to the customer’s need. Feedback was provided immediately all the way through the course by a virtual coach. S/he told employees to

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back off when they became too aggressive, and offered encouraging words and useful tips when the learner became too passive or strayed from key messages.

RESEARCH METHODS Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to increase our appreciation of the learning outcomes and learners’ attitudes to the use of the e-simulation courses in the two organisations. One of the authors was actively involved in the design of the e-simulations and subsequently collaborated with the other author to evaluate the outcomes. Data about learners’ individual experiences at Suomalainen Kirjakauppa were produced from:298 sales personnel; and 37 sales directors. Data from Alko comprised 214 sales personnel and 194 sales directors, who responded


Figure 3. Virtual coach providing feedback

to the questionnaire after the one-day training. In addition, nine interviews of sales persons gathered more detailed self-reported learning outcomes. Most participants from Alko were long-term employees; 46% of them had worked for their current employer for more than 10 years. The extent of their work experience varied from under a year to as much as 32 years. Data were generated using a web-based survey instrument with a Likert-type scoring scale where 1= low and 4=high for each factor. Learners, including both sales personnel and sales directors, were invited to respond to a list of questions (both open-ended and closed-ended items) about the content and design of the e-simulation course, and their learning performance. For example: “How useful do you consider the content of the one-line sales training program?”; “How well are you able to apply the customer service knowledge and skills to your own work tasks?”; “How effective do you

consider this kind of training?”; and “How well did you learn from the simulation-based course compared to the classroom training?” The sales directors were also asked to respond to the questions about the necessity of the coaching session, the usefulness of live e-simulation delivery in small groups, and how much they discussed the simulation topics in their work unit. Other open-ended questions were broadly worded, such as “What did you find best in the training program?”; “What was most challenging?”; and “General feedback for the program”. The themes of the semi-structured half hour interviews covered the learning outcomes and instructional design features. For example, the learners in the interviews were asked about the competencies they needed to carry out their job, their past work experiences with demanding customers, and their skills to manage the challenging situations at work. Their answers to the

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survey questionnaire about the effectiveness of using the e-simulation were further discussed and elaborated. Interviews and all the spontaneous responses to the open-ended questions were analysed according to the principles of the phenomenographic approach (Marton, 1994). A system of categories was established by using contextual analysis and concentrating on the similarities and differences in the participants’ conceptions. The analysis took place in four phases, each of which had a different objective: to gain an overall impression; to note similarities and differences in how meanings were expressed; to determine descriptive themes for categories; and to establish the set of examples on positive and negative experiences. The results for both the staff of Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and Alko are summarised below.

PERCEIVED BENEFITS OF THE E-SIMULATION PROGRAMS Slotte and Herbert (2008) found that the staff of Suomalainen Kirjakauppa perceived the content of the e-simulation dialogue to be very useful.

A majority of the learners (86%) either strongly agreed or agreed that the content of the sales training simulation was useful. Similarly, 86% of learners rated the program, including the simulation course and the coach session, as effective (60%) or extremely effective (26%). Learners reported good experiences of learning from the simulation-based course when compared to the classroom training, and they reported being able to apply the newly acquired knowledge and skills to daily work. The findings of positive attitude towards and perceptions of the sales e-simulation were replicated among the Alko salespersons with slightly less favorable attitudes (Slotte, 2010). Yet, two thirds of all learners from Alko reported the applicability of the content learned being high or very high, and 71% experienced the e-simulation being useful. The correlation analysis revealed that all these items were perceived equally positively regardless of the amount of participants’ previous sales training experience (all r< ±0.11, p= n.s.). Figure 4 summarises these results. However, positive attitudes are only effective when they lead to learning processes that are directly relevant for reaching the central learning

Figure 4. Reported benefits of the e-simulation programs in two retail store chains

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goals. Workplace goals and practices determine the activities in which employees engage. As for perceptions of learning, the further content analysis of the participants’ comments and interview data confirmed the rather favourable survey results, and found three main learning outcomes discussed: increased awareness and understanding of different customer service situations; practical skills and knowledge required in demanding situations; and confidence in handling them.This first category emphasised equally the importance of communicating with various types of customers and understanding the causes of difficult behaviour. It included examples such as awareness of how to manage customer service situations on the basis of what one says, understanding customer expectations through careful listening, and the importance of putting things in an appropriate way, as the following participant quotations illustrate: I realised that how you communicate has a lot to do with how you handle the difficult customers. It’s all about choosing your words well. I must say that even having worked here over ten years, this training in a way clarified what’s happening above and below the surface in difficult situations. The second common line of reasoning relied on practical skills and knowledge, e.g., giving sales personnel strategies for dealing with different types of behaviour so that they know how to adjust their serving method appropriately. These comments reflected closely the chance to share ideas together with colleagues and learn from others’ experiences as well as one’s own. Learners appreciated the possibility to talk to others because “things you often take for granted are not necessarily self-evident in real life”. They also valued acquiring work process knowledge, like the company wide recommendations about how to act. In the words of two interviewees:

This training provided a chance to discuss and debate the ideas together with others. The training gave me a good behavior model pattern; something that I can use in demanding situations. This training supported my security skills based on my previous experiences, and clarified the way our company wants us to act. Thirdly, the participants’ comments indicated that the e-simulation program helped them to improve their confidence in handling demanding situations. Most of these comments were given by participants who had less than two years’ work experience. Going through the simulated customer service situations increased their readiness and courage to manage unexpected situations, as the following examples illustrate: I got more confident in distancing myself from personal remarks and responding professionally, without entering in to arguments. The problematic customer situations in which I felt somewhat insecure were nicely presented here. Now I also know where to get more information. These results show that going though the simulated customer service situations is effective in developing and retaining learned competences. It can be argued that e-simulation exercises provide the learner with the possibility to experiment using their own skills in real life situations. Instead of watching on the sidelines, the learner steps into the situation and experiences first hand the content and the context of the interaction that takes place (Cabanero-Johnson & Berge, 2009). This potentially leads to generative processing referring to systematic reflection on past episodes and experiences (Eraut, Alderton, Cole, & Senker, 2002) that goes beyond conducting “thought” experiments and “what if” scenarios (CabaneroJohnson & Berge, 2009, Goodyear, 2006). In the cases where tangible learning outcomes could

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not be found, learning results were expressed very generally or the participants focused on the external features of the learning situation. In all these responses, the participants emphasised their long work experience and accumulation of practice as the sources of their job competence. For example, in the opinion of two participants, the classroom sessions did not provide them with any new information they had not yet confronted during their rather long work careers. Both these participants, one of them having worked for her current employer over 20 years and the other over 10 years, considered that the e-simulation program would be useful for orienting new employees. It is possible that these participants experience being the ones who give more than they receive in learning in the workplace, thus engaging in what Moreno and Mayer (2007) call extraneous processing and near-spontaneous reflection. Despite these critical comments, the learners’ desire to recommend a similar kind of blended learning to others, and their willingness to study other e-simulation courses were above and beyond expectations in both organisations. Of all the responding participants, 99% in the Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and 95% in the Alko case were positive about the question of whether they could recommend the e-simulation course to other colleagues. The corresponding percentages for the question of whether they would like to study other courses with the same method were 98% and 91%, respectively.

learning. Conversations and interesting arguments over the customer dialogues brought fellow employees closer to each other, as they did something together and jointly talked over work at their store. In that way, skills were “transferred to the store environment in a totally different way than reading manuals” as mentioned by one participant. One participant in the bookstore observed that, in her three-person group, they noticed that they looked at some issues from different points of view. She observed that these differences generated vivid discussion and practical new ideas. Her colleague remarked that she really appreciated that they did not need to compete with each other. Instead of comparing quantitative results, they could reason together about where each could make renewed efforts. Similar kinds of comments were frequently mentioned both by other salespersons as well as sales directors acting as coach for their employees:

STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE E-SIMULATION TO PROMOTE LEARNING

Interestingly, an improvement in learning when studying together with others was made irrespective of whether the participants were relative newcomers, or had worked at Alko for over ten years, as no significant difference was found between these two groups (F(1,212)=.1,70, p= n.s.). A possible explanation for this is that when both a trainer and colleagues have complementary information, the learners with a varying amount of previous experiences can improve their un-

What were the structural features of the e-simulation sales training programs that promoted the participants’ learning? Slotte and Herbert (2008) and Slotte (2010) found that the discussions with colleagues and a coach were definitely the aspect the participants considered had promoted most

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It was good to practice in small groups. At the same time a variety of ways to take care of situations emerged in the groups. And we had a good laugh when we made blunders; the course wasn’t just a piece of cake, as most of us had expected. When presented the right way and discussed with the team members, the course content opens up much more. This day helped us to commit to the program. For me, the ‘simulation’ was at first only a word but now it is a method, and an effective one.


derstanding−and performance −through social interaction (Helle, Tuominen, & Olkinuora 2006; Lehtinen, 2003). In social situations, individuals explain their ideas and thus make thinking visible. This, in turn, gives peers and the coach a chance to challenge or offer support in favour of particular ideas (Helle et al., 2006). Similarly, many participants, with varying levels of previous work experiences, mentioned that what they valued in the e-simulation program was the challenging customer dialogue with which participants easily identified. For example, one participant admitted how great it was to be able to go through the safety issues when handling the virtual drunken customer instead of the real one. Many others emphasised the need to stop and carefully consider the various possible lines of discussion with the customer, as the following participant quotation illustrates: The chosen customer service situations were suitably challenging. It was good, in many instances, to have to think through the alternatives. You don’t necessarily always come to think about how you can influence a customer’s attitude with just a little alteration of what you say to them. Other commonly expressed compliments for the e-simulation courses were “engaging”, “a novel experience”, and “a fun way of learning”. When these spontaneously written comments describing the training program were further elaborated in the interviews, there was a clear consensus that the participants enjoyed using new technology for learning, especially because of the proper opportunity to practice the customer service skills. At the same time, the majority of these arguments highlighted the importance of getting feedback – both reasonable explanations as to why a particular answer was wrong, and encouraging words to proceed with the demanding customer. The following examples illustrate this:

Esko was a tough coach. He didn’t let you off easily. The best part was to get constructive feedback! The tips for success are there, everything depends on how you can use them. One benefit of this course was that feedback was given by a computer and not by human being. When the machine gives critical feedback you can’t be insulted. Computer tutors have been shown to rouse less anxiety in learners than human tutors by deflecting the learner’s efforts to understand the teacher’s intentions, or by tak the feedback too “personally” (Gonen, Brill, & Frank, 2009). In addition to these findings, our data also showed that seven out of nine interviewees reported gains in learning from a live coach. These results most likely reflect the usefulness of getting feedback from an in-house coach familiar with local retail practices about which an external trainer may not know. Even a few explanations and stimulating comments can matter a lot if the employees have doubts about simulation training. The in-house live coach can, with the help of an e-simulation course, thus have a very significant influence on getting learners to experiment, explore, and reflect their current ways of working with customers. In addition to the perceived benefits, the respondents offered some critical feedback for the instructional design features of the e-simulation courses. Among all these responses four themes were found: the course was technically too inflexible; some alternative answers did not fit a realistic selling situation; there was not enough variety in the dialogue process; and the course was experienced as too easy. The comments regarding technical inflexiblity were mainly related to the need to return, in certain points of the simulation dialogue, a couple of steps backwards to repeat the dialogue. The usability was, however, based on the idea that if users have once learnt the principle

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of how to serve customers in an appropriate way, it should be easy and quick to choose the correct answer again. In the case that it would be difficult for them, the program provides the learner with a new chance to practise with a virtual customer instead of the real one. It is notable that no spontaneous comments were given for the lack of media-rich graphics usually associated with immersive 3D learning environments. Instead, one participant pointed out that, in her opinion, the virtual coach’s view of ideal sales was rather forward, pushy, and obtrusive. Another criticised that she did not agree with the course designer that the successful customer service situation would always end up with a sale. These responses revealed diversity in what instructional design features the learners appreciated most. A few participants commented that the answer alternatives in the simulation exercise were predictable or naïve, whereas most participants reported that they were challenging enough. Some reported being satisfied with the length of the training, whereas others would have hoped for more simulation exercises with more versatile customer dialogues. Learners from Alko especially hoped for additional simulation exercises about managing exceptionally aggressive and threatening customers where there are security issues. To conclude, the participants seemed to pay a lot of attention to content and the ability to reflect collectively with their peers rather than on graphic design issues.

DISCUSSION The reported e-simulation training programs for Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and Alko were delivered to facilitate the improvement of the customer service skills of sales personnel.. The success of the initiatives depended on being able to motivate the personnel to use the e-simulation course as part of workplace learning. In addition to the learners’ overall attitude towards training being very posi-

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tive, the results affirmed that in different retail contexts e-simulation dialogue exercises were effective in developing and retaining learned competences. The findings earlier published (Slotte & Herbert, 2008; Slotte & Herbert, 2006) were replicated and extended in this research. Learning valued by the participants and their seniors appeared to be related both to job demands and to personal qualifications, such as increasing participants’ awareness and understanding of the various types of customer service situations, and practical skills, together with improved confidence enabling them to do their jobs better. Simulations are called the next generation of online learning (Boehle, 2005), but even proponents have concerns regarding the use of simulation products and related services in the workplace. The biggest concerns are the effectiveness, cost, content quality, employees’ perceptions that they had ‘not learned’, and management perception that simulations are ‘not work’. Based on the findings of a survey about these concerns, Boehle (2005) recommended “practice by doing” and “teaching others and immediately using the knowledge” (p.1). As described above, both the Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and Alko cases, based on the values of blended learning and situated social interaction, had included those elements−practice, teaching others and immediate use−in the mix by inviting participants to work with the e-simulation initially in groups and with a coach. Our results with respect to effectiveness, content quality, and the employee’s and management perceptions of the e-simulation training, (cost was not surveyed in either of the cases), all compare positively with those reported by Boehle (2005). We offer four suggestions about how to ameliorate these concerns when using and creating e-simulation programs in corporate training contexts. First, we argue that the reasons for a high rate of positive participant responses are attributable to the proper opportunity to supplement learning with practice. The use of a blended learning approach provided the participants with two


ways to practise the customer service skills: the e-simulation course and the coach-led small group discussions. Participants’ comments about the online course alone were affirmative but the experiences studying the e-simulation with their colleagues resulted in high enthusiasm for the sales and customer service skills. Group work seems to be the factor which promotes knowledge exchange and sharing of expertise in many ways, and thus enhance individual learning (see also Eraut et al., 2002). Participants, with varying amounts of previous work experience, found particularly valuable the opportunity to discuss practical challenges with their peers. Further, the efficiency and flexibility of “loose talk” allows rapid topic identification and shifting between topics to get a shared sense of the “real business” (Goodyear, 2006). During these interactions, the learners can make reference to previous experiences, lessons learnt, insights, and knowledge they have obtained throughout their working lives (Styhre, 2006). Second, the benefits of studying the e-simulation course in small groups derive from sharing ideas and learning from each other. This supports the previous findings indicating that the proper opportunity to integrate learning with practice and to reflect on prior knowledge and everyday work experiences increases learning at work (Tynjälä, 2008). Sufficient variation in practice conditions increases skill formation arising out of the demands and challenges of customer service situations and social interactions with colleagues (Cole, 2008). Studying together with others, thus, most likely helps learners to arrive at outcomes for which there is no script. This probably enhances the learners’ ability, (including those who find the e-simulation exercises too easy), to use their own and their colleagues’ individual work histories and shared communities to further develop the skills needed at work. The results reported here showed that experiencing the cause and effect of managing demanding customer service situations was effective, also among those who had worked for the

same employer over ten years. This is in line with previous research showing that past experience, embedded in everyday practice, can act both as a source for competence and as helpful in further learning and in developing one’s job competence over the life-course (Paloniemi, 2006). The third lesson was that positive results of the blended live facilitation relate to the vivid discussion and fruitful debate about the course content. What makes a live coach valuable is setting the stage for learning and helping the employees to identify themselves with the course content, thus making it motivating and personally relevant. At the same time the coach can provide conceptual knowledge against which the participants can reflect their practical experiences about customer service skills. As people acquire conceptual tools for reflecting their experiences, they may develop new understanding of their everyday problems, and consequently, may become aware of a need to transform their practices (Tynjälä & Häkkinen, 2005). Employees want to engage in learning that matters and is related to their work. They do not generally find time to engage in such discussions on a day-to-day basis or do not always have the conceptual tools for reflection. Finally, among the compliments for the esimulation course mentioned by the participants are appropriate content, and most important, other factors creating opportunities for real-life problem-solving, such as challenging customer dialogue and constructive feedback. Effective content is among the greatest challenges facing any online learning initiative. If the content doesn’t teach, it has no value, regardless of how “hightech” or cost-effective it might be. This does not, however, have to equal a need for situated social interaction with large-scale multi-layered simulations. Our results revealed that learners did not see the animated virtual characters and closed-choice interactivity with a customer as significantly detracting from their engagement and learning. No respondents mentioned such issues in their open answers. This is in line with the previous

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research (Standen & Herrington, 1997) showing that a high degree of realism is not necessarily required from the virtual characters, and in some contexts it may even overload learners leading to poor performance. As with other questions concerning realism in e-simulations, the answer to this question will change with time. According to Aldrich (2004), simulations will become increasingly realistic but they do not need to perfectly replicate reality because the environment provided by an e-simulation may actually be a better one for learning than real-life situations, which almost always contain a fair number of distractions (see also, Hunecker, 2009). For example, illustrations employ the editorial ability of the expert both to highlight certain aspects and to pull out some of the background information. Thus, while reducing the complexity of the task setting, on the basis of our results, it is important to maintain the functional and cognitive fidelity of the task requirements (see also, Wildman & Salas, 2009). In that way also, smaller-scale custom e-simulation versions can, at a relatively low cost compared to more complex and sophisticated animated solutions, indeed, be useful in learning customer service skills development.

difficult “customers”, for example, giving advice regarding medications. Engagement of a whole generation of learners leveraging what they already know, and expertly use, is a challenge to today’s educators, and is certainly a major consideration when teaching or training in a learning organisation (CabaneroJohnson & Berge, 2009). The harder issue is that the buyers from the Human Resources (HR) or training departments can be several computer generations away from the users (Aldrich, 2004). Our findings did not support significant division between the newcomers and employees with years of work experience but, at least to some extent, that can be due to the smaller-scale two-dimensional custom version and the presence of the live coach. As simulations become more technologically infused with artificial intelligence, the distinction between “technology immigrants” and “digital natives” may turn out to be a bigger issue. Herein lies the challenge, as well as the opportunity, for engaging both the younger employees and their more mature and experienced colleagues together to deepen their job-competence. It will be valuable for future research to monitor developments here.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

This investigation and comparison of two separate e-simulation training programs confirmed differential benefits of the design and delivery values of socially situated interaction and blended live facilitation. A live coach adds value by adding depth to interactivity inherent in the e-simulation design. Simulations provide a natural setting for explanation, argumentation, real dialogue, and examination of one’s work in various circumstances (Dillenbourg, 2002). Simulation-based learning solutions increasingly fuel the pressures for course designers across disciplines to hone their representations of credible workplace experiences. This is consistent with the value of instructional design

These findings have relevance for other corporate training providers considering incorporating live facilitation into online simulation solutions. Although these e-simulation courses do not necessarily replace live training simulations, this study clearly indicates that the virtual environments with situated social interaction, both online and live, show promise of improving knowledge and skills needed at work. It will be very interesting to study the extent to which the same methods can attain similar results in other service areas, other than sales, where staff require high level social interaction skills to give advice, often to

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CONCLUSION


based on clear pedagogical values in combination with business processes with contextually bound activities (Moon, Birchall & Williams, 2005). In our programs, personal relevance of the learning content was achieved by close co-operation between a group of top sales persons and a pedagogical expert who finalised the scriptwriting. It was also essential that the customer dialogues, whose thread derived from generic sales theories, were customised specifically and separately for Suomalainen Kirjakauppa and Alko. The most optimal alternative is to develop training methods that provide a return in each context. In the discussion, we have proposed considerations to increase positive outcomes across a variety of corporate training contexts. Together, these findings suggest that the simulation itself does not need to be too complicated to serve and fulfil the learning goals. Our findings point to the critical importance of creating training programs where experience-based and tacit competence is valued and shared and integrated with new knowledge. In line with Palonieni (2006), the challenges are how to develop programs that promote organised competence-sharing inside work communities, and networks that enable learning and development among employees with diverse work experiences and individual life histories. Simulations are there to help people, not replace them.

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ADDITIONAL READING

Slotte, V., Tynjälä, P., & Hytönen, T. (2004). How do HRD practitioners describe learning at work? Human Resource Development International, 7, 481–499. doi:10.1080/1367886042000245978

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Clarke, E. (2009). Learning outcomes from business simulation exercises: Challenges for the implementation of learning technologies. Education + Training, 51, 448- 459. Felstead, A., Fuller, A., Unwin, L., Ashton, D., Butler, P., & Lee, T. (2005). Surveying the scene: Learning metaphors, survey design and the workplace context. Journal of Education and Work, 8, 359–383. doi:10.1080/13639080500327857 Gulz, A. (2005). Social enrichment by virtual characters – Differential benefits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21, 405–418. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00147.x

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Hakkarainen, K., Palonen, T., Paavola, S., & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Communities of networked expertise. Professional and educational perspectives. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. Jonanssen, D. H., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47, 61–79. doi:10.1007/BF02299477 Lampotang, S., Lizdas, D., Gravenstein, N., & Liem, E. B. (2006). Transparent reality: A simulation based on interactive dynamic graphical models emphasizing visualization. Educational Technology, 46, 55–59. Leinhardt, G., McCarthy Young, K., & Merriman, J. (1995). Integrating professional knowledge: The theory of practice and the practice of theory. Learning and Instruction, 5, 401–408. doi:10.1016/0959-4752(95)00025-9 Marton, F. (1988). Phenomenography: Exploring different conceptions of reality. In Fetterman, D. M. (Ed.), Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education. The silent scientific revolution (pp. 176–205). New York, NY: Praeger.

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Milheim, W. D. (2006). Strategies for the design and delivery of blended learning courses. Educational Technology, 46, 44–47. Rowden, R. W., & Conine, C. T. Jr. (2005). The impact of workplace learning on job satisfaction in small US commercial banks. Journal of Workplace Learning, 17, 215–230. doi:10.1108/13665620510597176 Scardamalia, M. (2004). Instruction, learning and knowledge building: Harnessing theory, design, preparing students to work in groups. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 119–140. Servage, L. (2005). Strategizing for workplace e-learning: Some critical considerations. Journal of Workplace Learning, 17, 304–317. doi:10.1108/13665620510606733 Singh, H. (2003). Building effective blended learning programs. Educational Technology, 43, 51–54. Slotte, V., Palonen, T. & Salminen, L. (2004). Organisational learning–Adopting best practices for professional competence development. LLinE – Lifelong Learning in Europe, 2, 95-105.

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Chapter 14

The SUPL Approach:

A Conceptual Framework for the Design of 3D E-Simulations Based on Gaming Technology within a Problem-Based Learning Pedagogy Michael Garrett Edith Cowan University, Australia Mark McMahon Edith Cowan University, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter presents a conceptual framework for the design of e-simulations with a focus on developing knowledge and skills that can be transferred to real world scenarios. The Simulation, User, and Problembased Learning (SUPL) approach has been developed to inform the design of e-simulations within a problem-based learning pedagogy. This approach is focussed towards the development of e-simulations using three-dimensional (3D) gaming technologies for low cost computer hardware to support face-toface instruction.A case study has been undertaken using the SUPL approach to design an occupational health and safety training platform, designated the Fires in Underground Mines Evacuation Simulator (FUMES), to support traditional training for underground mining in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the SUPL approach as a design framework. This chapter offers guidance for the design of future e-simulations using the SUPL approach as well as report on current research and evaluation on the impact of FUMES within a blended learning environment.

INTRODUCTION E-simulations can be utilised to provide threedimensional (3D) representations of real, recreated, abstract, or imaginary environments that

may otherwise be of impractical size, infeasible distance, prohibitive cost, or too significant a hazard to experience in person (Baylis, 2000). As such, e-simulations can provide a safe and effective means for developing knowledge and skills

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch014


The SUPL Approach

for real world application by situating learning within an authentic representation of the activity, context and culture in which it is developed and used (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Jonassen, 2000; Keh, Chang, Lin, & Hsu, 2005; Smith, 1988). E-simulations used within an educational or training capacity must go beyond representing the physical and functional characteristics of the real world environment to provide guidance for the user as part of the learning process (de Jong et al., 1998; Withers, 2005). One way of achieving this is through problem-based learning. Problem-based learning pedagogies promote active, transferable learning in which learners use problem-solving tasks to develop strategic models that can be utilised in future problem-solving applications (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). The technical development of 3D e-simulations has been influenced to a great degree by innovations within the gaming industry, where rapid advancements in hardware and software technologies have been fuelled by high consumer demand. This is particularly evident with regard to First Person Shooter (FPS) games, where player interaction within the 3D environment occurs from a first person perspective. FPS games are typically characterised as being on the cutting edge of gaming technology in terms of visual fidelity and performance, and have amongst the highest of expectations placed upon them by the gaming public in this regard. These abilities have been recognised by computer assisted and blended learning practitioners who have acknowledged their potential to be utilised for training and educational purposes. With the availability of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) gaming software, such potential can be realised in a manner that has shown demonstrable training outcomes (Alexander, Brunye, Sidman, & Weil, 2005; Banks & Stytz, 2007; Howell, 2005).

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THE SUPL APPROACH AND SUPPORTING LITERATURE REVIEW The SUPL approach (Garrett & McMahon, 2009), as depicted in Figure 1, was developed to guide the design of 3D e-simulations within a problembased learning pedagogy. The SUPL approach provides a number of key benefits to the design and development of 3D e-simulations for training and educational purposes. This approach identifies a series of design factors which serve as a solid foundation on which to base design. Iterations during the design process are supported due to the modularised and flexible nature of the SUPL approach whilst also anchoring each design factor relative to the user, problem-solving task, or 3D e-simulation components of the framework. The SUPL approach also identifies the contextually relevant areas in which fidelity must be concentrated within the e-simulation. This serves to focus the development process whilst also reducing the time and costs associated with the fabrication of the simulation environment. Such an approach is thus well suited to agile development and rapid prototyping as aspects of the simulation environment which are not relevant to the specified learning objectives can be quickly implemented. The SUPL approach was derived from a review of the literature that explored the interplay between problem-based learning, the affordances and limitations of 3D e-simulations, and the characteristics of the user that are relevant to the problem-solving process.

Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning is an experiential learning approach, which is situated in problem-solving experience (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Two core tenets drive problem-based learning: that learning through problem-solving is more effective in

The SUPL Approach

Figure 1. The SUPL approach for the design of 3D e-simulations within a problem-based learning pedagogy

developing knowledge for future application and that problem-solving skills are more important than memory skills (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). Problems are utilised as the stimulus and focus for learner activity within problem-based learning which differs from other instructional methods in that it begins with problems rather than the exposition of disciplinary knowledge (Boud & Feletti, 1997). The process of problem solving is influenced by factors both internal to the problem solver, in terms of their existing knowledge, skills, and experience, and external in terms of

the variable characteristics of the problem and the manner in which it is represented (Jonassen, 2000; Lee, 2004; Newell & Simon, 1972; Smith, 1988; Zhang, 1991), and is thus a key component in problem-based learning. Problem-based learning is successful only if the scenarios that learners engage in are of high quality (Wood, 2003). These scenarios need to be provided in a format that allows the learner to challenge and develop their reasoning skills and stimulate their self-directed study (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). Furthermore, problem-based

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The SUPL Approach

learning scenarios should also facilitate the learner’s ability to evaluate their knowledge and skills as they work through the problem (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Design considerations must thus be made in relation to the format and presentation of the problem and the manner in which the learning process is controlled and directed according to a problem-based learning pedagogy (Arts, Gijselaers, & Segers, 2002; Barrows, 1986). This takes place in conjunction with an understanding of the affordances of the technology in presenting the problem as well as the extent to which the problem-solving task is structured to accommodate the background and needs of the user.

User Needs and Characteristics While often outside the control of the designer, a range of user characteristics can impact greatly on the quality of learning and thus need to be taken into consideration during the design of e-simulations. Such characteristics can be categorised according to cognitive and metacognitive factors; motivational and affective factors; developmental and social factors; and individual differences (American Psychological Association, 1997). To a certain extent, these characteristics are dependent on the context in which learning takes place. Learners’ existing knowledge and problemsolving skills are key when considering the manner in which they represent, reason, search, and develop during the problem-solving process as well as the way in which the structuredness, complexity, and domain specificity of the problemsolving task is perceived (Jonassen, 2000; Lee, 2004; Smith, 1988). Similarly, the characteristics of the environment must be considered in terms of the level of control that is afforded to the user as well as understanding the role of control as a key motivational strategy (Malone, 1981). Understanding user requirements in relation to the representational complexity of problems, the

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extent to which they are structured as part of a learning sequence, and their perceived relevance are necessary precursors to providing experiences that promote transfer relative to the capacity in which learners’ are being trained.

The Capabilities of 3D E-Simulations Three-dimensional e-simulations based on FPS game engines are an appropriate means for simulating real world environments based on their ability to represent 3D spaces at a high visual quality while providing the user fluid control within the virtual environment. Simulation environments of this nature utilise Euclidean geometry to describe the objects within them and, as such, can be used to construct accurate spatial representations of real world spaces, preserving dimensions, perspective, and relative distances to scale. Furthermore, the potential for high visual fidelity inherent in this type of environment can be used to depict a realistic virtual space where the behaviour of objects and their subsequent relationships with each other and the user can be represented appropriately in addition to providing the user with a sense of presence and immersion (Gernmanchis, Cartwright, & Pettit, 2005; Sadowski & Stanney, 2002; Shiratuddin & Thabet, 2002). A large number of inexpensive COTS game engines are available for this purpose which can operate on standard desktop computer hardware using built-in editors for arranging and manipulating content (Lewis & Jacobson, 2002; Smith & Trenholme, 2008). Given these capabilities, 3D e-simulations based on FPS gaming technologies are well suited to the representation of real world tasks that may involve movement and orientation, complex object manipulation, or decision making in a three dimensional space (Munro, Breaux, Patrey, & Sheldron, 2002). Furthermore, the scripting languages and other programmable constructs inherent in FPS game engines provide the ability to structure and facilitate interaction (Dupire,

The SUPL Approach

Topol, & Cubaud, 2005; Herz & Macedonia, 2002; Marks, Windsor, & Wunsche, 2007). In this manner, the instructional components that mediate the problem-based learning process identified within the SUPL approach can be provided for.

Supporting Learning Transfer The intersection of the three components of User, Problem-solving task and the E-simulation characteristics is where the key design elements can be found to support learning transfer from the simulation into the real world. E-simulations can be used to represent real-world systems in order to foster the transfer of knowledge and develop conclusions that provide insight into the behaviour of the real-world system that is being modelled (McHaney, 1991; Towne, 1995). The success of an e-simulation is thus often measured according to the degree of knowledge transfer and is only of value if the skills addressed and improved upon in the simulated environment are required in the corresponding operational environment (Alexander, Brunye, Sidman, & Weil, 2005). Representing the system and its underlying behaviour facilitates this objective, with the assumption being that a faithful representation will encourage knowledge transfer between the simulation environment and the real world system (Lathan, Tracey, Sebrechts, Clawson, & Higgins, 2002). This assumption is consistent with Brown, Collins, and Duguid’s (1989) theory of situated cognition which asserts that knowledge is situated within the activity, context and culture in which it is developed and used. Such activity promotes cognition through the deliberate use of the social and physical context of the environment (Brown et al., 1989). The communities of practice that evolve through the interplay between experience and ability in situated cognition ensure outcomes that are culturally appropriate. Simply modelling an authentic environment however is not enough to ensure learning without an instructional framework to effectively support

and guide the learning process (van Rosmalen, 1994; Tait, 1994; Withers, 2005). By utilising a problem-based learning framework in this regard, authentic activity is the basis for encouraging the reflection necessary to ensure that the developed skills can be applied to future problem scenarios in the real world. This occurs through elements such as the quality of representation, feedback inherent in the system, level of control afforded the user and so on.

TRAINING CONTEXT OF THE CASE STUDY The case study was undertaken in conjunction with a mining company who had acknowledged the potential for e-simulations to support their existing procedures for emergency evacuation training in underground mining environments. Existing training methods utilised by the mining company consisted of traditional classroom-based methods combined with on-site walk throughs as part of the induction process for all new employees. The characteristics of these existing training methods are summarised in Table 1. While the mine has acknowledged the effectiveness of the existing training methods described in Table 1, an examination of the needs of the learner, the task to be completed, and the potential of 3D gaming technology may provide a solution that provides high quality representation, efficient learning, and a high level of transfer in a low cost and safe manner. In this way, the limitations of the traditional approaches can be addressed as part of a blended approach that reinforces each strategy and links the theory and practice of mine safety.

DESIGN Generating design documentation for the development of the e-simulation necessitated a thorough

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Table 1. Characteristics of existing induction training methods Classroom

Walk-through

Quality of representation

Low

High

Efficiency

High

Low

Learning transfer

Low

High

Safety

High

Low

Cost Description

Low

High

Trainees are provided with reading materials in addition to PowerPoint and video presentations which detail the structure of the mining environment and the procedure for evacuation during an emergency. Personnel are instructed to retreat to one of several refuge chambers according to their location within the mine in the most safe and efficient manner possible. These training materials also describe the operation of the self-rescuer breathing apparatus which is to be utilised during an evacuation if smoke or noxious gases are encountered.

Trainees are taken on a walk-through of the underground mining environment by experienced personnel who demonstrate the emergency evacuation procedure. The locations of refuge chambers and escape ladders, which are used to travel between levels if the primary shaft is obstructed in an emergency, are shown to trainees. Trainees are required to demonstrate the correct evacuation procedure, including the climbing of an escape ladder, before they are allowed to begin working in the underground mine.

situation analysis in order to clearly delineate the pertinent design factors. Components of the Document-Oriented Design and Development for Experiential Learning (DODDEL) model (McMahon, 2009) were utilised in this regard to guide the characterisation of design factors elicited from the SUPL approach. The design process thus consisted of: •

•

An initial situation analysis of the underground fire emergency evacuation scenario at the mine, encompassing the aims and outcomes, learner and context, and learning approach; and The subsequent development of a detailed design proposal, which identified the specific concepts, challenges and feedback, and the relevant game approach.

A condensed summary of the design is provided in the following sections with reference to the role of the SUPL approach in informing the design decisions required for each stage.

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Situation Analysis The situation analysis was used as the basis for the exploration of design in order to provide a cohesive picture of the major determinants that would allow the Fires in Underground Mines Evacuation Simulator (FUMES) to instil the knowledge and skills necessary for emergency evacuation and augment the existing training methods used at the underground mine. This process consisted of identifying the aims and learning outcomes of the product as well as the user attributes and contextual requirements that would affect the product design in a manner where each of the elements informed each other (McMahon, 2009). The situation analysis was conducted in constant consultation with appropriate subject matter experts who were employed at the mine. Existing training identified a range of learning outcomes that needed to be developed in the learner that were also adopted to inform the blended approach to emergency evacuation training. Supporting these were organisational aims which pointed to the deficit inherent in these

The SUPL Approach

existing strategies. The SUPL approach enabled further development of aims and outcomes which are listed to enhance their situatedness relative to the real world task:

Organisational Aims of the Simulation Environment • •

•

Augment existing training; Provide personnel with a more realistic depiction of an emergency evacuation scenario; and Improve decision making during an emergency evacuation of the mine.

To this end, the common level of prior knowledge assumed amongst learners’ was considered to consist of: •

•

•

Learning Outcomes of the Simulation Environment • • •

•

Know the layout, structure, and organisation of the mining environment; Understand the role and appropriate application of the self rescuer; Understand the function, and appropriate application, of refuge chambers and escape ladders; and Perform an emergency evacuation procedure during an underground fire.

With regard to the User components of the SUPL approach, consideration needed to be given to the minimum level of prior knowledge, domain knowledge, structural knowledge, and general problem-solving skills that could be assumed as a result of the induction training that all personnel at the mine were required to undertake at the commencement of employment, as detailed in Table 1. While the actual extent of knowledge and skills was likely to differ between personnel, the induction training served as a common foundation to inform problem selection such that it would be consistent with the learners’ level of understanding of the subject domain.

An awareness as to how much physical exertion was required to traverse the environment using the primary shaft and escape ladders respectively; An awareness as to the approximate duration required to travel between levels of the mine, including the distances involved, using the primary shaft and escape ladders respectively; and Spatial awareness of the mining environment, which may have included knowledge of the visual cues which could aid navigation and way-finding..

The induction training provided to personnel also provided a basis by which to assume a common level of domain knowledge amongst learners, which was considered to consist of knowledge of: • •

• •

• •

The manner in which emergency evacuations could be declared; The layout and structure of the mine, including the location and function of refuge chambers and escape ladders; Visual cues which could assist way-finding and navigation within the mine; Environmental conditions that could inhibit the ability to evacuate to a refuge chamber, such as fire, smoke, and low lighting levels; The function and characteristics of the helmet light and self-rescuer; and The correct emergency evacuation procedure to perform during an underground fire emergency evacuation.

The structural knowledge that could be acquired by learners during induction training was considered to be comprised of knowledge of the relationships between:

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• •

•

•

• •

Physical exertion and the rate at which oxygen in a self-rescuer is depleted; Helmet light beam setting (low or high beam), the amount of light produced, and the rate of battery depletion; Physical exertion and the inclination of mine shafts (upward sloping, downward sloping, or level); Physical exertion and the rate of movement through the mine (walking, running, or remaining stationary); Physical exertion and the demands of climbing escape ladders; and The presence of smoke as a possible indication of fire.

The extent of general problem-solving skills acquired by learners, as a result of induction training could not be determined with any degree of accuracy and as a result were not factored into the development of the problem-solving tasks. While the classroom and walk-through-based training methods instilled knowledge pertinent to the evacuation process in trainees, they were unlikely to provide them with the grounding necessary for applying this knowledge within a relevant context. A scaffolded approach to learning situated within problem-solving tasks could thus be used to expose trainees to a series of contextualised scenarios in order to address these limitations. This informed the learning approach to be adopted within the product and identified the key characteristics of the task and environment that needed to be considered in the design proposal. External characteristics also needed to be considered. It was proposed that learners at the mine site would use the e-simulation individually on a single dedicated desktop computer allocated for this purpose. This computer was to be brand new and built specifically for 3D graphics applications with hardware that allowed the e-simulation to run without any performance issues. Learners were to be momentarily excused from their normal duties

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in order to participate in the case study, and no human facilitator or organised group discussion with other learners was proposed. In place, a facilitator type construct was to be implemented within FUMES to pose predefined questions to the learner, call for certain content to be displayed, or put the e-simulation into a certain state under specific circumstances which were triggered in response to input or changing system wide variables.

Design Proposal The design proposal is as an extension of the situation analysis which proposes a general approach to meet the needs of the product that have been previously elicited (McMahon, 2009). Beyond identifying the characteristics of the setting, user, and nature of the problem-solving task to be performed expressed as outcomes, the next stage is to take these requirements and identify the design criteria that need to be implemented. These take the form of the specific concepts that underpin the broad learning outcomes, and the nature of cause and effect interaction within the product (McMahon, 2009). In particular, this section links the requirements identified within the outlying elements of the SUPL approach with those intersecting elements that form design criteria. They are discussed here in terms of the 3D simulation characteristics, specific concepts used to structure and prescribe activity and the nature of challenge and feedback to provide effective remediation and learning transfer.

The 3D E-Simulation The SUPL approach suggests that representing the context, setting, and activity of the real world mine during an emergency evacuation in order to effect learning transfer is contingent on the ability of the 3D e-simulation to authentically depict the real world space whilst providing the user with sufficient control over their experience.

The SUPL Approach

Authentically representing the real world mine in this manner necessitated the identification of the physical and functional aspects of the e-simulation that required high fidelity representation as determined in accordance with the learning outcomes. The aspects of the e-simulation that required high physical fidelity were subsequently identified as: • • • •

The 3d models of the mine, escape ladders, and refuge chambers; The textures for locational signage within the mine; The lighting and shadows; and The fire and smoke effects.

Authentically representing the functional characteristics of the mining environment further necessitated the modelling of behavioural and environmental concepts that included: • •

•

•

•

The rate at which oxygen was depleted from the self-rescuer when activated; The level of physical activity required to traverse various areas within the virtual mining environment, and its effect on selfrescuer oxygen consumption; The speed at which the user could traverse the virtual mining environment, and its effect on physical exertion; The slope of the terrain within the virtual mining environment, and its effect on physical exertion; and The spread of smoke.

In order for spatial representations to be transferable, the spatial characteristics of the virtual mining environment had to be consistent with those of the real world mine in relation to: • • •

The locations of refuge chambers and escape ladders; The layout and structure of the mine; and The visual cues that could assist way-finding and navigation.

The methods for interaction within the esimulation made available to the user also had to represent those that would be available to them as part of an emergency evacuation procedure during an underground fire within the real world mine. To this end, the user was to be provided with the following methods of interaction within the e-simulation: •

• • •

The ability to move both forwards and backwards at speeds that approximated those which would be available for walking and running within the real world mine; The ability to side-step left and right; The ability to freely orient their viewing perspective; and The ability to climb escape ladders and equip their self-rescuer.

Specific Concepts Achieving the aims and outcomes of the product requires the identification of the knowledge and skills that must be developed by the learner toward this end (McMahon, 2009). Table 2 details the specific learning objectives of the simulation environment that have been derived from the aims and outcomes identified above. Having established the specific concepts underpinning the broader aims and outcomes of the training simulation and the knowledge and experience of the learners who will be using it, it is now possible to determine the nature of the problem-solving activity which will be directed towards the development of the knowledge and skills detailed in Table 2.

The Problem-Solving Task In order to augment the existing training in use at the mine detailed in Table 1, it was necessary for the instructional component of the e-simulation to address the limitations of the classroom and walk-through based methods to provide learners

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Table 2. Learning objectives for the simulation environment Learning objective

Relevant knowledge

Relevant skills

Recognition of an emergency evacuation scenario

An emergency evacuation may be signalled via radio communication or by the release of stench gas

Awareness of the primary goal during an emergency evacuation scenario

The primary objective for any personnel working within the mine once an emergency evacuation has been declared is to retreat to the nearest refuge chamber as quickly and safely as possible

Awareness of the locations of refuge chambers within the mine

Refuge chambers are located on levels 1020, 940, 860, 800, and 740 within the mine. The flashing lights mounted on refuge chambers indicate their presence when in close proximity

Awareness of the locations of escape ladders within the mine

Escape rises are located in the subshafts on every level of the mine with their direction indicated via reflective green signs

Understanding the layout and structure of the mine

Each level of the mine is separated by distances of 20 metres vertically, or 140 metres on a 1:7 decline. Each level of the mine is labelled according to its vertical distance from the main portal starting at 1200 and descending in intervals of 20 metres

Performance of the emergency evacuation procedure

Park up all vehicles, go to the nearest refuge chamber, and utilise self rescuers if required. Personnel should also not attempt to walk past or extinguish the fire unless it is small and they are confident to do so

Identifying the ideal refuge chamber Navigating to a refuge chamber safely and efficiently Utilising a self rescuer effectively

Application of visual cues that can assist navigation

Depth markings, reflective signage, refuge chamber lights, and other assorted infrastructure

Navigating to a refuge chamber safely and efficiently

Application of escape ladders

Escape ladders provide access between levels of the mine and are intended to only be used when the decline is blocked in the event of a fire


Application of the self rescuer

Self contained personal oxygen supply for use in situations where the level of breathable air in the surrounding environment is not sufficient. Provides 100 minutes of oxygen at low physical exertion, 30 minutes at medium physical exertion, and 10 minutes at high physical exertion

Utilising a self rescuer effectively

Awareness of the environmental conditions that can affect the ability to reach a refuge chamber

Fire, smoke, external power failure, external oxygen supply failure, insufficient oxygen in the mining environment, and lighting conditions in the mining environment


with a more realistic and experiential opportunity to apply their knowledge of emergency evacuation procedures in context. The SUPL approach suggests that the significant characteristics of the problem-solving task that need to be considered during the design phase are structuredness, complexity, domain specificity, situatedness relative to the real world problem-solving task being modelled, the authenticity of the information provided to the learner, and the manner in which the problem is represented.

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Based on the situation analysis of the underground fire emergency evacuation scenario and the subsequently derived learning objectives, a highly contextualised, domain specific partial problem simulation was proposed as the basis for learner activity whereby learners would be provided with a number of the facts about the problem before deciding on a limited number of inquiry actions or decisions (Barrows, 1986). This initial information was structured across a series of three separate problem-solving scenarios, preceded by an initial briefing, such that each

The SUPL Approach

successive scenario would provide the learner with less initial information explicitly, thereby increasing the level of uncertainty and making each subsequent problem more ill-structured. In this manner, the extent of learning resources provided directly to the learner could be decreased, requiring them to assume greater responsibility for gathering their own learning resources from the environment around them as progress was made towards a successful evacuation to refuge chamber, as detailed in Table 3. The complexity of each problem-solving scenario was also configured such that the learner would be required to consider a greater number of aspects towards the resolution of the problem as progress was made. This was mediated primarily by the positioning of fire and smoke relative to the learner’s initial location within the simulation to prompt decisions about the most efficient means of evacuation. The fidelity of the problem representation also needed to be considered during the design of the simulation environment, as problems with more fidelity may be more likely to transfer to the real world whilst also providing greater motivation for the problem-solver (Norman, 1988). However, the

aspects that require high fidelity representation need to be identified with reference to the learning objectives that have been identified, such that the additional information acts as an aid to recall and subsequent transfer, rather than as a handicap (Alexander et al., 2005; Norman, 1988; Stone, 2008). Given the learning objectives established in Table 2, these aspects are identified as follows: • • •

• • • •

Spatial characteristics of the virtual mining environment; Speed at which the virtual mining environment can be traversed, walking or running; Physical exertion required to traverse the virtual mining environment, given the inclination of the terrain and movement speed; Visual cues within the virtual mining environment; Lighting conditions within the virtual mining environment; Characteristics of the self-rescuer; Rate of oxygen consumption of the self rescuer in relation to physical exertion within the virtual mining environment;

Table 3. Structuredness of problem-solving scenarios within the simulation environment Problemsolving scenario

Initial information provided to the learner

Unknown or uncertain elements in the problem equation

1

• Emergency evacuation declaration • Potential environmental conditions • Location of vehicle fire • Location of smoke • Goals of the problem-solving task • User’s initial starting location • Location of nearest refuge chambers

• Appropriate method for reaching a refuge chamber

2

• Emergency evacuation declaration • Potential environmental conditions • Location of vehicle fire • Location of smoke • Goals of the problem-solving task

• User’s initial starting location • Location of nearest refuge chambers • Appropriate method for reaching a refuge chamber

3

• Emergency evacuation declaration • Potential environmental conditions • Goals of the problem-solving task

• Location of smoke and vehicle fire • User’s initial starting location • Location of nearest refuge chambers • Appropriate method for reaching a refuge chamber

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The SUPL Approach

• • •

• •

•

Location and depiction of refuge chambers within the virtual mining environment; Location and depiction of escape ladders within the virtual mining environment; Declaration of an emergency evacuation within the virtual mining environment, including the information provided in such a declaration; Environmental conditions that can affect the ability to reach a refuge chamber; Method by which an emergency evacuation of the virtual mining environment can be successfully performed in a manner that is consistent with real world procedures; and Depiction of fire and smoke, including subsequent constraints to visibility.

Challenges and Feedback A rigorous approach to designing challenge and feedback is necessary to ensure that activity is goal directed and leads to positive consequences for the learner (McMahon, 2009). The SUPL approach mandates that challenge and feedback be integrated within the problem-solving task such that there is a degree of uncertainty perceived by the learner which is alleviated via the provision of relevant corrective feedback towards the achievement of the learning objectives (Johnstone, 2001; Newell & Simon, 1972; Norman & Schmidt, 1992). While challenge was moderated through the increasing complexity of the decision making requirements within each scenario, feedback needed to be developed in a manner that supported its critical role in helping users to monitor their learning (McMahon, 2009). Problem solving, within a problem-based learning environment, requires feedback to be provided in response to learners’ interaction with the facilitator and task environment in order to guide their search for a solution to a problem (Arts et al., 2002; Newell & Simon, 1972; Norman & Schmidt, 1992;

244

Savery, 2006). This feedback must be provided immediately and in a realistic form in response to user interaction in order to guide the problembased learning process (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Charlin, Mann, & Hansen, 1998; Norman & Schmidt, 1992). To this end, the scripting capabilities that are inherent within gaming technologies provided the means for creating a facilitator like construct within the e-simulation which responded to learner action in order to guide the problembased learning process. In this manner, specific user actions can be set to trigger responses from the simulation environment in the form of questions or responses that are directed towards the user in order to guide the development of higher order thinking by encouraging learners to justify their thinking and externalise their self-reflection (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Savery & Duffy, 2001). To this end, audio cues were scripted to redirect the user in the event of inappropriate action in response to: • • • • • •

The user heading in the wrong direction away from refuge chambers; User encountering smoke; User encounters smoke but is yet to equip their self rescuer; User in dangerous proximity to fire; Escape ladder usage; and Low self-rescuer oxygen capacity.

Physical environmental feedback within the task environment that can either directly or indirectly constrain or suggest different methods by which to solve a given problem (Dunbar, 1998), was incorporated into the e-simulation and consisted of: •

Feedback representing footsteps provided in response to user movement speed;

The SUPL Approach

•

•

• • •

•

Feedback informing the user as to the inclination of the terrain over which they were moving; Feedback representing the level of physical activity required to traverse the virtual environment dependent on the inclination of the terrain and the user’s movement speed; The activation status of the user’s self-rescuer; Feedback when the oxygen supply in the user’s self-rescuer is nearly exhausted; Feedback to inform the user as to when they are being provided with information at the onset of each problem-solving scenario; and Feedback to inform the user when they are exposed to fire and smoke.

Assessment measures can also be used to provide feedback that is tied directly to the challenge and give the learner the ability to monitor their performance (McMahon, 2009; Pederson & Williams, 2004; Rushton, 2005). Given the learning objectives detailed in Table 1, a subsequent series

of measures were derived to allow the learner to monitor their performance, which assessed: • • • • • • • • •

The outcome of the problem-solving scenario; Time elapsed; Total physical effort exerted; Distance travelled; Remaining self-rescuer capacity Refuge chamber reached; Path taken to refuge chamber; Escape ladder usage; and Self-rescuer usage.

In addition to assessment feedback, reflective question prompts were also included in the design of the e-simulation to be presented to the learner at the conclusion of each problem-solving instance. These reflective question prompts differed according to the outcome of each problem-solving instance and were designed to complement those posed by the facilitator to help learners reflect on the strategies for learning, as well as what they learned and how it could be reapplied in future

Figure 2. Screen-shot of the FUMES e-simulation

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The SUPL Approach

situations (Grunefeld & Silen, 2000; HmeloSilver, 2004; Savery & Duffy, 2001).

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Utilising the design criteria elicited using the SUPL approach, FUMES was instantiated as a threedimensional e-simulation representing the mining environment within the context of an emergency evacuation scenario. The user was provided with a first person perspective of the virtual mining environment in which they were free to move, orientate themselves, and perform actions necessary for successful evacuation. Figure 2 details a screen-shot taken from FUMES depicting a user who is close to successfully evacuating to a refuge chamber within the virtual mining environment. As described in the design proposal, the emergency evacuation scenario was instantiated as a series of three problem-solving tasks in which the user was required to reach a refuge chamber in a manner that was consistent with existing evacuation protocol established during induction training. Each problem-solving task situated the user within an emergency context in which an underground fire and resultant smoke necessitated the evacuation of the virtual mining environment. The extent of information provided to the user at the onset diminished for each problem-solving task, while the severity of the fire and smoke increased, forcing the user to assume greater re-

sponsibility for their learning and more stringent considerations in relation to the environment around them in order to successfully evacuate from the virtual mine. Preliminary results and analysis from the case study will now be presented with the intention of establishing the impact of FUMES and extent to which learning transfer occurred as well as evaluating the effectiveness of the SUPL approach as a design framework. This process included investigation of the data gathered from participant questionnaires, interviews, and audio recordings, in addition to information stored and collected by FUMES in a database. During the case study, 41 volunteer participants were separated into two groups according to whether they were existing employees who were familiar with the mining environment (GROUPA, consisting of 21 participants) or new employees who had only recently arrived at the mining site (GROUP B, consisting of 20 participants). Data was collected between October 2009 and September 2010 on-site at the mining facility located in South Australia.

Learning Transfer between Real World and Simulated Environments The extent to which learning transfer occurred was determined using the measures (Lathan, Tracey, Sebrechts, Clawson, & Higgins, 2002) detailed in Table 4 owing to the fact that the underground

Table 4. Methods for measuring transfer from the 3D simulation environment Method

Description

Operator opinion method

Operators, instructors, training specialists and students are asked to give their opinions on the perceived training value of a simulator, features of the simulators, or probable impact of simulator based training on subsequent real world performance.

Assessment of fidelity

Describes the physical similarity between the simulator and the real-world environment, equipment, interface, or facility.

Inverse transfer of training method (or backward transfer method)

Experts at the operational task perform the same tasks, without practice, in a simulator. A positive result assumes that a suitable training program exists for the simulator.

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mine was not suitable for performance testing of participants after using the simulator. The operator opinion method was measured using questionnaire responses in relation to participant experience with FUMES in the form of standard five-level Likert scales (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree). Responses from participants suggested a positive reception towards FUMES and its ability to act as a training tool for real world evacuations of the mine: •

•

•

•

90% (36/40) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that FUMES would be a valuable training tool for emergency evacuation procedures at the mine; 80% (32/40) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that FUMES accurately represented the emergency evacuation procedure during an underground fire in the mine; 67% (27/40) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that FUMES had the necessary features for emergency evacuation training at the mine; and 83% (30/36) of participants agreed or strongly agreed that using FUMES could improve the performance of mining personnel during an emergency evacuation at the mine.

The assessment of fidelity method was assessed via questionnaire using only those participants in Group A who had previous experience at the mine and were not new personnel. These participants were qualified to assess the fidelity of FUMES in reference to the real world mine based on their experience. The twenty responses from participants in Group A suggested that FUMES exhibited sufficient fidelity to represent the real world mine: •

80% (16/20) of participants from Group A agreed or strongly agreed that FUMES ac-

•

curately represented the real world mining environment; and 70% (14/20) of participants from Group A agreed or strongly agreed that FUMES accurately represented the environmental conditions in the real world mine during an underground fire.

The inverse transfer of training method utilised performance measures within FUMES to determine the participant level of success for each problem-solving scenario. These performance measures were based on corresponding real world metrics for the performance of the emergency evacuation procedure according to subject matter experts at the mine. A total of forty-one participant responses were recorded in a database, with analysis of the performance measures for the first problem-solving scenario indicating: •

•

100% of participants (41/41) successfully evacuated to a refuge chamber, of which 100% (41/41) selected the most appropriate refuge chamber; and 51% of participants (21/41) who reached a refuge chamber took the most efficient path through the virtual mine to reach it.

Analysis of the performance measures for the second problem-solving scenario indicated that: • •

•

85% of participants (35/41) successfully evacuated to a refuge chamber; 51% of participants (18/35) who reached a refuge chamber selected the most appropriate refuge chamber; and 37% of participants (13/35) who reached a refuge chamber took the most efficient path through the virtual mine to reach it.

Analysis of the performance measures for the third problem-solving scenario indicated that:

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• •

•

43% of participants (18/41) successfully evacuated to a refuge chamber; 94% of participants (17/18) who reached a refuge chamber selected the most appropriate refuge chamber; and 5% of participants (1/18) who reached a refuge chamber took the most efficient path through the virtual mine to reach it.

The positive performance results exhibited by participants suggested the presence of learning transfer with respect to the inverse transfer of training method. Furthermore, the highly contextualised and domain specific nature of the problemsolving scenarios suggested that knowledge of the mining environment and its emergency evacuation procedures was necessary in order for successful performance. Participants from both Group A and Group B who were interviewed indicated that such knowledge was required in order to successfully engage with FUMES in this regard. While the overall success rate across all three scenarios was 76% (94/123), performance tended to decrease with each successive problem-solving task, especially during the second and third instances. This degradation in performance was expected given that FUMES was designed to provide less explicit information initially for each successive problem-solving instance, requiring the learner to assume ever-increasing responsibility for control of the learning process and provision of learning resources as progress was made. Furthermore, the extent and rate at which smoke spread through the virtual mine was also configured such that it became more severe with each successive problem-solving instance. The user’s starting position for each problem-solving task was also designed to place them in closer proximity to the simulated fire and smoke as they progressed through the series of scenarios. Analysis of the data collected during the case study suggested that learning transfer had occurred between the real world and simulated mining envi-

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ronments according to the methods for measuring transfer outlined in Table 4. Participants exhibited a positive response towards FUMES as platform for emergency evacuation training which was also found to manifest sufficient fidelity for the task at hand, according to participants who were familiar with the real world mine. This was further evidenced by the positive performance of participants in the simulator in which problem-solving tasks were highly contextualised and domain specific and thus required knowledge of the real world mine in order to be undertaken effectively.

Effectiveness of the SUPL Approach as a Design Framework The data collected during the case study was also evaluated in order to determine the effectiveness of the SUPL approach as a design framework for the development of 3D e-simulations which could facilitate the construction of transferable problem-solving knowledge. Evaluation criteria derived from the supporting literature was used to determine whether each design factor identified by the SUPL approach could be validated in this regard, based on the preliminary data collection and analysis that had been completed at the time of writing. The pre-existing problem-solving knowledge and skills of participants was found to be a factor that affected problem-solving task performance within FUMES. The extent of prior knowledge and experience was gauged via questionnaire, whereby 66% (14/21) of respondents from Group A agreed or strongly agreed that they had previous experience with emergency evacuations of the mine, and 65% (13/20) agreed or strongly agreed that they had previous experience with emergency evacuations in other underground mines. In contrast, 85% (17/20) and 70 (14/20) of respondents from Group B disagreed or strongly disagreed to both of these questionnaire prompts respectively. The extent of prior knowledge and

The SUPL Approach

experience of participants in Group A with the mining environment and its emergency evacuation procedures was reflected in performance in FUMES, whereby these participants tended to be able to reach a refuge chamber on more occasions than participants from Group B and were also more inclined to do so in less time and over a shorter distance. This suggests that the problemsolving knowledge and skills of participants is a relevant factor to consider during the design of 3D e-simulations within a problem-based learning pedagogy. The characteristics of the problem-solving task were also found to be a factor that affected problem-solving task performance amongst participants in the case study. As detailed previously, participants were presented with a series of three problem-solving scenarios within FUMES, which became progressively more ill-structured and complex. Analysis of the participant performance across these problem-solving scenarios indicated that while 100% (41/41) of participants were successfully able to reach a refuge chamber in the first scenario, only 85% (35/41) and 43% (18/41) of participants were able to successfully complete the second and third scenarios respectively. This suggests that the characteristics of the problemsolving tasks are pertinent factors to consider in the design of 3d e-simulations within a problembased learning pedagogy. The situatedness of the problem-solving task was found to be a relevant design factor by virtue of questionnaire responses from participants familiar with the real world scenario. These participants attested that the problem-solving tasks within FUMES were well situated in relation to emergency evacuation procedures within the real world mine. This suggested that these participants were able to recognise and engage with problemsolving tasks within FUMES that existed within a familiar context in which they could utilise their existing real world knowledge and experience. Given that participants were largely successful

in this regard, as evidenced by the analysis of the performance data, this indicates that the situatedness of the problem-solving task is a relevant design factor within the SUPL approach. The characteristics of the e-simulation that related to its ability to provide an interactive representation of a real world 3D space were also found to be relevant design factors. Participant responses elicited via questionnaire indicated that the spatial characteristics of the virtual mine were consistent with their real world counterpart and that movement and interaction were well supported with sufficient immediacy of response. The levels of authenticity and fidelity were also found to be sufficient for FUMES to function as an effective platform for real world training. However some deficiencies were uncovered in relation to the omission of cabling and vent infrastructure within the virtual mine, which could be used as way-finding and navigational aides. Given the generally positive performance of participants, this suggests that FUMES provided an effective representation of emergency evacuation scenarios within the real world mine as a result of the identification of design factors which were pertinent to this end. Analysis of the preliminary data also provided some evidence to suggest that the components that mediated the problem-based learning process had an influence on participant learning and interaction. Audio responses recorded via microphone headset demonstrated that the feedback measures within FUMES that were designed to redirect the user during inappropriate action were effective, and this was verified via playback of participant interaction. Furthermore, the audio data also indicated that participants who chose to speak aloud their responses to the reflective questionnaire prompts at the end of each problem-solving scenario were able to provide appropriate answers. Participants also indicated that the assessment criteria detailed at the conclusion of each scenario served to highlight significant aspects of their

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interaction which were important for successful evacuation, such as the time taken and distance travelled.

KEY FINDINGS Based on analysis conducted on the data collected at the time of writing, a number of key findings were identified in relation to the impact of FUMES and extent to which learning transfer occurred in addition to the effectiveness of the SUPL approach as a design framework: •

•

•

•

•

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The presence of learning transfer between the real world mining environment and FUMES was established using operator opinion, assessment of fidelity, and inverse transfer of training measures; Participants who were existing employees at the mine tended to perform better within FUMES than those participants who were new employees; The extent of prior knowledge and experience established amongst participants as a result of the situation analysis was effectively utilised to inform problem selection. These problem-solving tasks were found to be within participant understanding of the subject domain, yet also challenging enough such that all participants were not able to complete all problem-solving scenarios successfully; FUMES represented an emergency evacuation scenario in the real world mine sufficiently enough to allow participants to utilise their knowledge and experience in the real world environment to undertake the problem-solving scenarios; and The components that mediated the problem-based learning process were found to exhibit influence on the learning process.

A number of limitations with the study were acknowledged in relation to these findings. A greater number of participants would have improved the significance of the results. However, given the operational status of the mining facility, personnel were not always available to participate in the study. Additionally, a more direct comparison in which participants could have used FUMES before being engaged with a similar simulated emergency evacuation task in the real world mine could have been used to indicate the presence of learning transfer. However, such assessment was not safe, practical, or feasible given that the mining facility is in operation twenty-four hours a day.

CONCLUSION The SUPL approach provides a flexible framework for the design of 3D e-simulations that are utilised within a problem-based learning pedagogy which can be used to augment existing training practices. This approach acknowledges the prior problem-solving knowledge and experience of participants to inform problem selection that is situated relative to corresponding real world problem-solving scenarios. Design factors which encompass the threedimensional representation of real world environments provides the means by which to identify the prevalent factors that are necessary in this regard in relation to the areas in which fidelity needs to be contextualised. Care needs to be taken in order to concentrate on aspects which directly relate to the established learning objectives such that the resulting problem-solving knowledge that is developed is applicable in the real world environment. The components that mediate the problembased learning process are also accommodated for during the design phase, and are integrated into the learning environment using the scripting and programming facilities that are provided

The SUPL Approach

by gaming technologies. In this manner, support and prompting for abstraction and reflection can be integrated into the learning environment and presented in a manner that corresponds to learner progress. Preliminary analysis of the data collected during the case study suggests that the SUPL approach provides an effective means for the design of e-simulations which can be utilised for training within a real world context. Future research directions could see the SUPL approach utilised within other technical capacities outside of a mining context as a further validation of its ability to satisfy real world training objectives.

Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problembased learning methods. Medical Education, 20, 481–486. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.1986. tb01386.x

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Chapter 15

Media Effects:

E-Simulations and Authentic “Blended” Learning Kristin Demetrious Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT Public Relations (PR) is an occupation through which public identities and realities can be constructed and manipulated. Thus, understanding the implications for ethical practice, especially in light of rapid developments in social media and new digital technologies, is increasingly relevant. However, conventional approaches to the teaching of public relations tend to emphasize practice and knowledge of occupational tools, over deeper reflection in areas such as the social effects and ethics. This chapter explores an e-simulation used in the public relations program at Deakin University, which aspires to develop higher ethical dispositions in students and canvasses what this means at a societal, practitioner, and industry level.

INTRODUCTION Commitment to online learning in Australian universities continues to grow and with this are higher expectations for integrity. In relation to online learning, Palmer, White, and Holt (2007, p.1) define integrity as “encompassing three principles relating to teaching online: coherence, commit-

ment, and competence. By implication, it suggests a new meaning in acting honestly or authentically in relation to one’s teaching values and beliefs in online environments.” E-simulations are one such online learning technology that has potential for integrity and authenticity and by extension can be used to develop higher order learning. This potentiality is significant especially in relation to

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch015


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the powerful critique that “the ubiquitous presence of technology in schools impacts deleteriously on principles of democratic learning by promoting instrumental rationality, or uncritical means/end reasoning” (Hyslop-Margison, 2004, p. 138). Indeed, Hyslop-Margison argues that other concerns focus on the possibility “that technology inevitably reduces classroom instruction to simple information transfer, or instrumental learning, rather than fostering the critical dispositions and creative capacities necessary for meaningful democratic citizenship” (p. *). The purpose of this chapter is to show how e-simulations, combined with face-to-face and online teaching, can be used to promote both integrity and higher order learning in a discipline area which has a predilection for instrumentalism. Firstly the chapter will show why there is a need for a new paradigm in public relations curriculum development. Secondly, it will show how diverse pedagogies can be applied in public relations, but will also discuss their limitations. Finally, it will describe the e-simulation ‘PRessure Point!’ and show how students have responded to it, at the same time discussing the importance of contextualising information and communications technology (ICT) more broadly in the curriculum and flagging some new directions for future development. “PRessure Point!” is used for large student cohorts in an undergraduate Arts program and is embedded with ambitious pedagogical objectives, beyond just skills acquisition. Combining real and virtual time and place, students use it to develop a greater understanding of who they are, and how their perspectives or world views as public relations practitioners develop within three dynamic and challenging work settings. This authentic orientation is delivered through a blended learning approach, i.e. one that combines online and face-to-face delivery, and helps students to develop awareness and understanding of Public Relations (PR), and its relationship to society and ethical conduct (Cranton, 2006; Stacey & Gerbic,

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(2009). Educational designer, Stephen Segrave explains the various technologies that support the e-simulation: The Deakin LiveSim method for creating an e-simulation uses various Flash objects to assemble, house, control, and render other Flash components and media assets (such as video, audio, images), presenting them on the screen as events defined by “state” logic. “ActionScript” and XML scripting are used to enable the LiveSim architecture to present the required behaviours of objects and the simulated events over time, in a series of system “states” that respond to user interactions (S. Segrave, personal interview, 17th October 2007). However, assessing the success of blended learning techniques like e-simulations requires careful consideration beyond the technical. In particular, paradigmatic and pedagogical orientations as well as the limitations and affordances of the ICT need factoring in; so too do the resources and input of students. Lastly, the context of esimulation—whether it is a stand-alone activity or embedded within the unit materials—is of significance. Without a nuanced understanding of these variables, e-simulations such as PRessure Point! may succeed on a superficial level but fail to reach their potential for developing high order thinking. Before opening up these matters for discussion, the next section shows the complex discipline context in which this e-simulation is used.

WHO AM I? UNDERSTANDING PR CONTEXTS IN EDUCATION Despite the PR profession’s codes of ethical conduct, and those of many business organisations, public relations as a function of management is primarily directed at enhancing the interests of large and powerful organisations, often to the

Media Effects

detriment of various other internal and external parties reliant on the organisation (Beder 1997; Stauber & Rampton, 1995). Hence, unease about the public relations industry is in part because of its potential to exploit news and media outlets “to the point of setting agendas and becoming primary definers themselves” (Breit, 2007, p.10). In part, it is also because these practices have led to controversial issues around social control and resistance (Habermas, 1995). An example is in 2001 when the Australian building materials group James Hardie Industries set up a ‘’fully funded’’ foundation or trust to pay compensation for the health risks associated with the highly toxic material asbestos. In reality, the foundation had inadequate funds to pay the growing ranks of asbestos victims. At the centre of this controversy was a media release—a widespread public relations tool—which became key evidence when the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) launched an investigation into whether the James Hardie board and senior executives were guilty of breaches to the Corporation’s Act. The media release contained strong assurances or spin, from James Hardie that sufficient funds were in place to cover compensation costs, when in reality there were not (Australian Government National Health and Research Council, (2009); The Sydney Morning Herald, (2009). The case of James Hardy and the role of the media release show that public relations’ potential for influence goes beyond the banal or the politically benign and extends centrally into the dynamic communicative public spaces in which meanings are formed and dispersed, and through which, individuals base complex decision making. Hence, there is no question that university educators must tackle, robustly, the grey areas of ethics within business communication. However, in the main, approaches to public relations practice and teaching are oriented towards understanding and validating knowledge in somewhat narrow and prescribed ways that avoid deeper reflection in these areas. One reason is because the mainstream

approaches are underpinned by a functionalist paradigm. Functionalism assumes that “society is like any organism that has functional parts making up a whole. In this assumption lies the idea that, like an organism, society is generally in a state of harmony or equilibrium, until something comes along to disrupt it.” (Jureidini, 1997, p.36). With respect to public relations this approach emphasises “usefulness” over the exploration of ideas and focuses on outcomes that relate to organisational self-interest such as effectiveness, excellence, and status (L’Etang, 2008). As a corollary, public relations education places great store on students’ acquiring technical expertise especially in vocational skills; for example, the creation of PR plans and communication audits over the development of how these objects are created in the first place, and who, or what, they serve. A preoccupation with process and its limitations can be explained by the ideas of Kornelsen, 2006, p.79). He argues that there are “two forms of Aristotelian knowledge, techne and phronesis. Techne is knowledge possessed by a maker and suggests sovereignty over; phronesis is knowledge that is personal and suggests communal engagement with.” In relation to these, McGee (2001, p.5) argues “Phronesis presents an aspect of wisdom that is missing in techne…we do not describe technical mastery as wisdom, for it consists of habituated familiarity of a technology”. Phronesis on the other hand, has a deeper conception grounded in core values which can provide guidance in a range of diverse circumstances. Thus, public relations education can be viewed as having an embedded bias towards techne and the production of useful tools or artefacts. Moreover, deficient in phronesis, it fails to give context to the broader purpose of the way in which these artefacts –such as the media release at the centre of the James Hardie Industries scandal – interact with society. Combined, this has a multiplier effect which leads to a somewhat shallow and self-serving treatment of ethics which has consequences for how public relations is viewed by society.

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According to media ethicist Rhonda Breit (2007, p. 308), definitions of ethics emphasise that it is the “process of decision-making aimed at making the right choices”. She says that “part of making the right choices is identifying and prioritising your responsibilities to yourself as a person, your profession and the wider community”, but to do this effectively, you must be well grounded in a broad understanding of your obligations and duties and what affects diverse, complex, and sometimes competing social interests. This is particularly important because according to Peter Singer, “the dominant political and economic model today” encourages us to live our lives is in the pursuit of self-interest, that is wealth, prestige, and power. He says that “as a result we rarely reflect, either collectively or as individuals on whether this dominant conception is a wise one. Does it truly offer the best lives for us all?” (Singer, 1993, p. 17). Breit argues that the preconditions for making the ethically right choices depends on a broad understanding of social dynamics; however, a functionalist approach, so prevalent in public relations education, means that students are unlikely to gain a deep understanding of their responsibilities to the wider community or the collective, rather a narrower understanding of themselves, and their ‘profession’. Indeed, a focus on techne or the tools to produce an outcome, rather than the outcome itself, characterises public relations education, and moreover, dovetails neatly into consequentialist or teleological theories of action in which “ethical value is determined by good ends or results” with the accompanying mantra that “the means” justify “the ends’”, (Breit, 2007, p. 314). Moreover, in public relations education, the limitation of this thinking may well be obscured by the normative cultural conditions which Singer discusses; that is, where individuals place the pursuit of self interest in respect to power, prestige, and wealth attainment, at the forefront of their priorities. The functionalist and teleological approaches, therefore, limit the extent to which public relations

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education has focused on collective effects of PR industry on society and a rigorous interrogation of its power relations. And this is significant for ethical practice. The James Hardie example serves as a reminder that unequal power relations and misleading communication activities can and do affect citizen’s rights and thus fairness, equity, and truth in our increasingly media dependent and saturated society. A critical approach redresses this. It seeks to find alternative ways to understand the activity of public relations both from a research, teaching, and practice point of view. The critical paradigm if applied to the teaching of public relations, encourages students to think about its representations from a range of perspectives. It orients students to reflect on the different, and often competing, ways in which the world is seen, understood, and acted upon for particular purposes. And it is an approach which encourages reflexivity, opening up the complex conversations about public relations and rethinking some of the ways it can be thought about or practised. A core concept is that there is not one single way to think or do, but an acknowledgement that there are many ways in which we can do this (L’Etang, 2008). Significantly, a critical approach considers relations of power between actors and its effects. Applied to public relations, it therefore acknowledges that paradigmatically there are certain things that have been included and excluded. One example of what has been included is a strong focus on big business in the United States of America. Indeed, Vercic and Grunig in (Moss, Vercic and Warnaby 2000, p. 12) argue that the development of public relations in the US has created prejudicial ethnocentricity within the field. This focus on the US and big business has meant other perspectives, such as third sector groups (that is those outside the state and business sectors such as not for profits, community action groups, and non-governmental organisations), and those from different geographic locations, such as Asia or even Australia, have been excluded

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from much of the literature. Mainstream public relations literature not only lacks reference to the legitimate communicative activities of activists, but it frames them adversarially. Indeed, in regard to the widely applied US based “excellence theory” which draws on functionalism of the dominant paradigm in public relations, Holthausen (2007, p. 364) states: “there is no doubt... it was informed by the work of organisational theorists of the time, who viewed activists as real threats to organisations.” There are other reasons why a paradigmatic shift towards critical perspectives is significant for the relevance of the contemporary PR curriculum. A central one is the increased awareness of, and action around, carbon pollution—at a political level—which positions activist groups to occupy a more central social and political space and influence decision making. Social theorist Ulrich Beck (1992) argues that third sector groups, with their unique “bottom-up” understanding of the world, will take issue with the institutions of government and business responsible for producing risks, such as carbon pollution. Further, they will do this using public information campaigns as tools to create understanding. This movement of activism, from the margins to the mainstream, is evident already (see Demetrious, 2001 2002, 2008). The critical approach centrally acknowledges and analyses the merit of these new communicative activities, rather than attacking or marginalising them, as has been the case in the past. The drive to teach ethics in public relations from multiple perspectives is significant for the PR industry as a whole. As a relatively new work domain, PR has sought to align itself as a profession rather than an occupation. PR’s professional project is evident in the activity of its peak national and international industry associations like the Public Relations Institute of Australia (PRIA) and Global Alliance. However, not all agree that PR qualifies as a profession. For example L’Etang (2008, p.41) refers to public relations as an “occupation” and posits that in part this is

because it has been subject to “considerable media criticism (ongoing in the UK since the 1960s) of public relations as persuasive communication”. Moreover, the work of sociologist Rudi Volti sheds light on why public relations struggles to qualify fully as a profession (2008, pp. 98-99). His theories position a work area’s professional status centrally to ethics, both within its own ranks, and within the broader realms of society. Indeed, he says “Professions are distinguished from other occupational groups by their ability to function with a high degree of autonomy and self-governance”. Central to PR’s professional project therefore is its ability of the domain to self-govern and to discipline its own members who are in breach. In these ethical respects public relations is wanting, and aside from the considerable issues that this raises for environment and politics in a risk society, it has flow-on effects that hinder its attainment of professional status. Therefore not only is there a real need to develop a more insightful and critical understanding of the practice of PR from a social, environmental, and professional perspective, but there is clearly a need for new pedagogies and paradigms in public relations education. The e-simulation PRessure Point! used in the teaching of public relations ethics in Faculty of Arts and Education at Deakin University opens up new territory in these respects, as it is designed as a teaching tool, using virtual simulation technology, to shed light on the ways actors reproduce and frame realities using instruments such as media releases, and in investigating the consequences this has for communication and citizenship.

SPINNING OUT: NEW PEDAGOGY IN STUDIES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS From an educational point of view, it is important for teachers of media to present students with opportunities to learn how communication is both structured and ideologically invested and can be

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used by organisations as a powerful instrument to further self-interest. Pedagogically, mediating learning in studies of public relations can take place in a myriad of ways. As discussed, in public relations, transmission models have dominated and constrained willingness to develop innovative approaches to pedagogy. Going beyond the mainstream epistemological directions set by a functionalist approach, requires first, a critical stance. In this, the teacher must distance herself from the knowledge base and instead critically apply another interpretation that is synthesised within the mainstream but nonetheless draws in new perspectives. One way is to adopt an authentic approach with students rather than playing an elaborate role, and adopting dress, manners, and behaviours of the ideals they think they should be. In 2001, Patricia Cranton discussed the idea of ‘authentic’ teaching at length arguing that a key driver is self-awareness She says as teachers, knowledge of who we are and how our perspectives have evolved is essential for individuals to be able to deconstruct and become critically reflective. Without this critical reflection, Cranton (2001, p. 6) argued, it is impossible to be a “good teacher”. Thus teachers must understand both who they are and why they are. Beyond selfknowledge, Cranton believes it is also important to act or be prepared to act on what we have defined as essential individual values. Cranton therefore implies a political context in which those values are situated. Once teachers have defined who they are, they must be prepared to speak up and engage with that volatile environment and its multiple communities (2001, p. 94). In practice, this means participating in public debates and actively engaging on a range of levels like committees. Lastly, authentic teachers need to feed those defined values, situated in the wider contexts of state and society, back into their educational communities. This will achieve the paradoxical goal of developing in their students both reflexive, sceptical and critical thought, as well as a holistic integration of their professional and personal self.

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However, there are constraints in relation to becoming an authentic teacher. Indeed Hunt (2006, p. 54) argues that there are a range of structural and physical constraints that affect “the conditions teachers work in and what they do”. He cites physical constraints such as “timetables, classroom configurations, enollments” (Hunt 2006, p. 54. Others include policy constraints that may affect curriculum offerings, particularly if the “teachers wish to challenge deep-seated assumptions” that push students out of comfort zones. Another is social constraints that frame and determine what “good teaching” is and how it is built into language. He argues “The tacit shaping of thought and speech facilitated by such discourse profoundly affects students assumptions about, and expectations of, teachers” (Hunt, 2006, p. 57). So while, the authentic approach is laudable, and promotes a credible and honest relationship between students and teachers, it can be constrained and inhibited by a number of factors outside the control of individual subjects. In the last twenty years, university teaching has undergone enormous changes through the uptake of digital technologies. According to Dutton and Loader (2002): Advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as a growing range of versatile wireless media and high-speed Internet and Web application (The Economist, 2001), might enable fundamental transformations in education. These parallel developments in the restructuring of business processes, but – for better or worse – these new media could have even more profound implications for the reinvention of education institutions because of the centrality of knowledge creation, acquisition and dissemination to conceptions of the information age, the knowledge society and to the learning process. (p. 1) Hence, since the 1990s, sweeping technological developments and new learning delivery modes have proliferated, for instance, student

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learning management systems, online studies, and student tracking devices. In tandem with this, scholarship investigating these developments has followed. Stacey and Gerbic (2009, p. 2) for example, refer to the combination of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) with face to face as “blended learning”. Significantly, the term blended suggests more than a crude division of two delivery platforms. It suggests a level of integration which blurs the boundaries separating the online and face-to-face learning environments which is underpinned by phronesis. Blended learning, they argue, moves into and becomes incorporated with key dimensions of “space, time, fidelity and humanness” (Stacey & Gerbic 2009, p. 2). This approach opens up new ground for teachers wishing to eschew a narrow functionalist approach to online teaching, but even so; the term ‘blended learning’ is broad and could be applied in a variety of ways. Shedding light on its nuances and its potential to foster critical thinking, Geer (2009, p. 39) outlines a range of strategies “for fostering higher order cognition in a blended learning environment”; in particular she sets out “a pedagogical framework which outlines the relationship between pedagogies, technologies, and their related learning outcomes”. For Geer, constructivism is a key element in the development of higher order cognition in learning communities. She says, “The focus shifts to the acquisition of knowledge rather than its transmission” arguing that this is an immutable element in the constructivist approach regardless of the multitude of approaches. “Despite numerous constructivist perspectives, a common thread is the belief that learning is an active process unique to the individual, where knowledge is constructed from information and prior experience” (Geer, 2009, p. 40). For Shapiro (2003), a social constructivist method includes these five principles: •

Student perspectives are valued and used in an organic process to feed new learning

• •

• •

approaches appropriate for the individual students. Lessons should be structured to challenge students’ assumptions. Recognition that students must attach relevance to the curriculum. As students see relevance in their daily activities, their interests in learning grow. Lessons should be structured around big ideas, not small bits of information. Assessment of student learning in the context of daily classroom investigation, not as separate events. (Shapiro, 2003, pp. 337-8)

Constructivist authenticity to achieve higher order learning, using blended learning, in teaching is a worthy goal; however as Geer (2009) has shown, there are a number of issues that complicate its achievement. Constraining its achievement further is if the move to online technologies has emphasised techne, to an even greater extent, and the possibility that this embedded bias has become part of the dominant discourse in universities (Kornelsen, (2006; McGee, 2001). If so, it is important to ask if this impacts and inhibits the development of an authentic learning approach, which draws on wider interpretative and critical resources which seek to develop phronesis? These questions are central to my exploration of e-simulations and online learning technologies. Later in the chapter, I will discuss this in relation to PRessure Point! but first I describe the ICT in detail.

PRESSURE POINT! VIRTUAL PRACTICE: AN E-SIMULATION The idea for a series of Deakin e-simulations, designed around interactive virtual workplaces across several Faculties at Deakin University built on the success of HOTcopy, a successful online experiential learning resource developed for journalism students. HOTcopy situated students within a simulated newsroom and presented them

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with a range of challenging hypothetical scenarios requiring their problem solving skills and the discernment of key information in order to write effective reportage containing “news value” (Segrave, 2003). PRessure Point! draws on ideas from the original, but it also developed a different treatment. For example, instead of a series of discrete unrelated scenarios, there was a more integrated approach between the three hypotheticals through an interconnecting narrative thread of logic and action. Time and spatial arrangements are also different in PRessure Point! For example, students are asked to perform the same task three different ways. Lastly, PRessure Point! seeks to motivate students to excavate knowledge about relations of power and to understand the discursive and social practices that embed the production, distribution, and consumption of texts such as media releases. In this sense, it introduces more ambitious pedagogical outcomes than the development of a set of work-related skills. PRessure Point! was developed for large undergraduate cohorts where students interact with the technology as individuals rather than in groups. It can also be used as a stand alone activity or one that can be integrated into other assessments. In the e-simulation, the student interacts with the technology to play the role of the public communicator in a range of settings, each with the task of writing a media release, a central and powerful PR document, based on three versions of the same event. Each media release represents and reproduces a different frame, or way, of seeing and understanding the world. To complete the exercise successfully, students need to have an understanding of the concept of framing in media texts as a form of reproducing paradigms. They should also have the basic skills involved with writing a media release (several online quizzes and activities are designed to prepare the students for this, but housed separately). In PRessure Point! the students use the technology to situate themselves in three very different simulated workplaces, responding to the same task. This is

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a situation which would be awkward to achieve in other teaching settings such as face-to-face. On the other hand, the e-simulation enables the student to have a powerful virtual real-world experience, produce data in the form of media releases, and then to critically analyse their unique experience. In practice, students take three to four hours to participate in three separate sessions of the e-simulation. On completion, they should have an understanding of unethical and undemocratic communication practices and their implications for citizenship in areas such as: greenwashing; spin and distortions; misinformation and astroturfing (phoney front groups). To commence the task, students select one of three sessions, business, civil, or state. (Figure 1 is the overall interface and the three scenarios featured.) However, before they begin, students are exposed to extensive introductory information about the role they will play, including their age, job, background and information about the other characters they will encounter in the session. Students are also introduced to layout and features of their office in a dummy session, as well as given a detailed synopsis of the narrative action. Within the interface, a media release workstation and transcription space provides a unique delivery of resources to help students to produce an authentic media release. Other features the technology affords are a timer, a facility to copy text across to a media workstation, and a series of alerts/prompts and interruptions for students that provide information from a range of sources, such as telephone, face-to-face, email, and television.

‘WHAT WE DO DEPENDS ON WHAT WE THINK’ PR practitioners, caught up in the hype of the moment, sometimes can intentionally or unintentionally dismiss the significance of their actions failing to appreciate that what they do affects other parts of society. Thus, this e-simulation was designed to develop broad concepts of ethical communica-

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Figure 1. Overall interface and three scenarios

tion practice and community engagement and to consider the wider social, cultural, and political relationships with which it interacts. PRessure Point! came about through a former face-to-face tutorial exercise where public relations students investigated the various actors and dynamics of public debate around a contested issue such as a planning proposal, particularly from a civil society or local activist perspective. Therefore the program aspires to achieve an interacting level of phronesis and techne that build on an authentic constructivist approach in a number of ways (Kornelsen, 2006). Firstly, the learning resource provides students with technology and pedagogy to discover, understand and describe invisible discursive practices in effective ways (Fairclough, 1999; Habermas, 1995). Within PRessure Point!, students absorb and represent organisations’ values and views from different ideological perspectives, both as

producers and products of the text. One way or another, their opponents of the organisation become outsiders to be managed and categorised. Therefore, students find themselves in powerful positions whereby they can manage identities. However, PRessure Point! ruptures the idea that there is a natural worldview, and in this sense is a powerful learning tool for complex studies of media production. Exposing the process of constructing knowledge assists students to develop ethical competencies and to further understand how media industries, such as public relations organisations, shape and reinforce discursive control over consumers and audiences by constructing definitions of what should be a “reality” (Fairclough, 1999). Secondly, PRessure Point!’ focuses on a moment in the busy public relations practitioner day and positions students to pause and to consider

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how what they do affects other parts of society. This leads them to ask questions about the embedded beliefs and practices of public relations in order to develop the critical distance necessary for purposeful reflection. For Scott, adopting this “questioning stance” is associated with “breaking the power that the claim exercises and with finding alternative and better claims” (Scott, 1990, p. 6). This exploration of the “alternative” and “better” is an underlying aim of the unit of study and the e-simulation. Thirdly, PRessure Point! builds on an authentic constructivist approach by designing a rich triangular experience that casts students into the role of a public communicator in three scenarios: civil, state, and business. This approach encourages students to consider alternative viewpoints and is augmented by the opportunity for students to interact with real-world unethical communicative activity, such as astroturfing and greenwashing, and compare alternative views about it. Drawing on the work of Gramsci (2006) and Fairclough (1999), this positioning helps break through the discursive control or hegemony that leads to the naturalisation of views and helps students to build and shape understanding of issues in ways that are deeper and more challenging especially around the production of texts relating to themes of social change. Thus learning through this e-simulation is characterised by diversity of viewpoints and multiple truths that encourage objectivity over subjectivity (Laurillard, 2003). Students construct a media release, not just as a technical exercise but to reflect on how it will compete in the mediascape and achieve status as a dominant truth. Hence, they participate in the complex process by which texts are ideologically invested and distributed. This powerful experience, in turn, leads to a deeper understanding of how professional practitioners in areas such as public relations can unwittingly produce and reproduce spin, which can frame opponents as the enemy and cause conflict and

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marginalisation in society (Fairclough, 1999, p.80; Breit, 2007, p.341; Stauber & Rampton, 1995, p.125). Lastly, the themes of PRessure Point! centre on media production and social change. In this sense, students’ interaction with news production in the gathering of information and interpretation in writing a media release is structured around big ideas such as the Habermasean concept of public sphere. First published in 1962, Habermas’ defined the public sphere as a conceptual space, separate from the state, where citizens, in a free and open way, engage in dialogue and debate focused around issues for the common good (Habermas,1995). In the e-simulation these ideas are contextualised objectively within a real-world environmental planning debate, something that students could be familiar with from local newspapers or television sources (Shapiro, 2003, pp. 337-8). In this sense, the ICT attempts to foster student agency and relevancy that encourages them to transfer knowledge to different settings (Laurillard, 2003). For example, students in PRessure Point! get the experience of what is like to be a decision maker or a doer in society, even if only in a mediated sense. The design is intended to provide students with the idea that as individuals, they are able to participate in the shaping and development of the polity. In a similar way, its intent is to shed light on the processes of political involvement, by giving students frameworks, such as communicative theory, to understand social events and cultures (Habermas, 1995). PRessure Point! shows that well designed, technology-enhanced e-simulations enable students to challenge ideological assumptions and to explore relations of power in society in complex ways that lead to a critique of discourse and foster the idea of political agency. These student feedback comments about PRessure Point! from Deakin University’s student evaluation survey give an indication of its effects on teaching and learning:

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The pressure point exercise was the most enjoyable as it required you to ‘think outside of the box.’ It also allowed you to integrate everything that you were learning into practice. (ALR276, Student, T1 2010) PRessure Point was by far my favourite. It was very exciting and challenging. (ALR276, Student, T1 2009) Expanding our minds to the different aspects of PR as well as PRessure Point, which was excellent and really helpful. (ALR276 student, Sem. 2, 2007) Moreover, Deakin University’s Institute of Teaching and Learning’s independent Survey Report: “Student perceptions of their experience of learning and being assessed using the e-simulation PRessure Point! Virtual Practice 2007” found that the majority of respondents appreciated clearly the underlying pedagogy inherent in PRessure Point!; 80% believed it helped them relate the abstract and theoretical studies to the real work of the profession. Of the 30 respondents, the importance and value of using PRessure Point! for assessment purposes was also endorsed overwhelmingly; by 100% in the survey. Similarly, 97% thought e-simulations like PRessure Point! should also be used in other units. For example, comments indicated that students see possibilities for use in other PR units, journalism, and commerce units. As one put it, This type of learning provides much more interaction and could therefore be used successfully in other courses, while another maintained, it is so engaging, and you can’t help but be more interested in your work when it is a format like that. Clear endorsement of PRessure Point!’s value is evidenced by 96% of respondents who would recommend PRessure Point! to other students. In addition, there has been an excellent external response to PRessure Point! In particular, the project is considered to have value by other institutions that wish to replicate it as a template or model. As such, it is included as part of a joint

Edith Cowan University and Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) “Technology Supported Data Base” which seeks to “share good teaching ideas” with teachers interested in taking up the challenge of integrating ICTs into their learning environments across the country. As a developer, teacher, and moderator of PRessure Point!, it is pleasing that students and the broader educational community have responded so positively to the program. Furthermore, the fact that this is achieved using online learning resources is significant because it counters the view that as a mode, it promotes uncritical compliance in students by binding them to instrumentalism (Hyslop-Margison, 2004, pp. 138). However, in PRessure Point!, student reflection, necessary to facilitate contextualised “descriptions of the world”, is not entirely facilitated within the ICT. Rather, the media release provides the student with data to use separately, as part of a written reflective exercise (Laurillard, 2003, p.24). To complete the assessment, students need to participate in PRessure Point! and then draw on the media releases they produce to respond to a 2000 word essay question. Four marking criteria underpin this assessment: •

•

•

•

Clear understanding of public communication and its social, cultural, and political impacts in society and a clear understanding of the relevant theory bases and the unit content. The ability to critically analyse the PRessure Point! experience and media releases, and use them effectively to illustrate the essay. The ability to develop a coherent and powerful argument that builds on the ideas and concepts in this unit. Clear written expression and use of appropriate essay structure, including: Introduction, Conclusion and References; and timely assignment submission.

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Therefore, it would be a mistake to underestimate the amount of contextualisation and support a program like PRessure Point! needs more generally in the curriculum to achieve its potential. Another consideration in the inhibition of higher learning on PRessure Point! is the variable input of the students themselves. According to Laurillard, “The character of student learning is elusive, dependent on former experiences of the world and of education, and on the nature of the current teaching situation” (2003, p. 62). Therefore, the value of the program like Pressure Point! is limited if students do not prepare and engage with the unit work beforehand and concepts such as framing and exploring other learning resources. Skilled ethical reasoning will only be achieved if students apply considerable time and effort in developing an understanding of theoretical frameworks and engaging with a range of supporting case studies. A range of external factors may influence this; for example, the fact that some students work in demanding casual jobs to support themselves which take priority over their studies. Moreover, unit length is another consideration. Twelve weeks is a short time to have access to students’ time and attention and in effect, an isolated learning activity, or even a unit of study, can only do so much within such constraints. Therefore, while PRessure Point! is one step further along the way, the cultivation of ethical awareness for PR students needs to be embedded more broadly in critical curricula and reinforced at every level of their studies. If a critical ICT like PRessure Point! is treated as a stand-alone activity, it is unlikely to have more than a temporary effect on student learning and will fall short of developing higher order learning that is transformative over the long term. For this reason, limitations of the program need to be evaluated. Indeed, a criticism that could be levelled at PRessure Point! is that it lacks the affordances that provide communicative reciprocity and the opportunity for students to gain direct feedback. However, arguably this is offset by the

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highly developed virtual aspect in the program which encourages students to choose which bits of the character commentary or events they will use and include in their media releases. Laurillard (2003) maintains that a virtual environment, which positions students to select some elements over others, and that is related to an overall goal, does provide a satisfying form of feedback for students. “Like interactive media, they provide new information according to user’s selection; they are environments for exploration and discovery” (p. 134). To some extent this is the case in PRessure Point which could compensate for the lack of intrinsic feedback within the program itself. The interacting nexus between media, as an area of study, and blended learning, as a tool, to open up understanding is a powerful combination, but without a nuanced understanding of the wider context, student commitment, and constraints on authenticity, the focus could be weighted on technical and functional aspects of the program. Embedding the ICT holistically within the course of study is vital to develop the Aristotelian idea of phronesis. Thus, the new curriculum which supports PRessure Point! should be considered in its evaluation, especially in light of Cranton’s (2001) ideas about authenticity in teaching and learning. Informed by my PhD studies, the unit curriculum challenges orthodox understandings of PR by engaging students with contentious debates around activism, ethics, and citizenship, and is strongly linked to PRessure Point!. My motivation for developing this curriculum is to develop higher ethical standards in public relations practitioners of the future who will be working within the context of a risk society, that is one primarily oriented to the environmental consequences of industrial over-production, for example mitigating the deleterious effects of carbon pollution (Beck, 1992). In this setting, not only should they avoid spin, but they should have both the understanding and knowledge to develop effective values-based strategies to communicate with diverse stakeholders (business, government,

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and third-sector groups) within a culture that will increasingly demand intelligence, responsibility, and accountability.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS An e-simulation that helps students to identify and understand the various ways public relations works through media releases to produce and reproduce ways of seeing and knowing is significant. However the mediascape is rapidly transforming with new technologies and practices and new conventions taking their place in communication practice. In particular, since 2004, when the second wave of internet usage Web 2.0 gained prominence, powerful internet search engines, user-generated blogging, micro-blogging, vodcasting, podcasting, together with an array of social networking sites such as Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, have transformed news content, news gathering, and news publishing. New styles of media dissemination, fitted specifically for delivery through social media and mobile phones, are now a staple tool of public relations practitioners. The extent of this transformation on audience behaviour is evident from this State of the News Media report (Pew Project 2010), which claims: On a typical day, 61% of Americans get news online, which puts the Internet just behind television as a news source and ahead of newspapers. And more than a quarter of adults now commonly access the Internet on their phones and PDAs, adding yet another layer of change in consumers’ relationship with news. Therefore future directions in the development of Pressure Point! relate once again to its real world relevance and to its ability to engage students powerfully with the ideas of techne and phronesis. Currently, PRessure Point! asks students to produce three traditional media releases normatively aligned to print media. Therefore the first task is to update PRessure Point! in step with these

developments and replace the print media release with a social media release (SMR) template which incorporates photos, graphics, podcasts, videos, and other features and including RSS feeds such as tracking. This will help students to understand and use Web 2.0 tools competently and creatively as techne. However, it will also be used to engage students critically in the politics by giving them an opportunity to explore the cultural and social aspects of the social media technologies that they are commonly using. A deeper exploration of this will provide an opportunity to develop phronesis. In turn this could help to open students’ eyes to the possibilities of the unintended byproducts and their ethical consequences of these Web 2.0 developments. One example is a preoccupation with self on social media. Indeed, Buffardi and Campbell (2008, p. 1304) argue that online communities such as Facebook, which has millions of users worldwide, “may be an especially fertile ground for narcissists” and for behaviour that promotes shallow and superficial relationships and control over self-presentation. In concert with the blurring of advertising and news content, these aspects of social media could promote a greater tolerance of spin and persuasion in audiences. Arguably this is a new development that contemporary public relations practitioners need to be aware of in relation to ethical practice and to which educators must respond.

CONCLUSION This chapter suggests that the arrival of information and communications technology (ICT) has brought about an increased emphasis on techne, which has become embedded within contemporary universities as a dominant discourse. If that is the case, a challenge for all teachers, using blended learning techniques, is to design contextualised mediated learning resources and environments with the affordances that enable students to investigate phenomena at a deeper level that involves phronesis. 267

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Together with a range of other public relations scholars who are engaging with the critical paradigm, the designers of PRessure Point! place weight on the multiplicity of ethical perspectives at play in the public sphere and the broader social objectives associated with different approaches to practice. This distinguishes it from mainstream public relations and addresses a weakness in the field. Moreover, disarticulating public relations from narrow ideas of organisational self-interest could contribute to scholarship, teaching, and ultimately practice, which explores the ways and means of conduct which “has value to society as a whole and to the individual who makes use of professional services” (Volti, 2008, p.99). This reorientation in public relations could contribute to the development of credibility in the field by contributing to the reformation of its ethical foundations. A critical blended learning approach to the teaching of public relations is embedded in PRessure Point! and provides students with unique resources to see the world from a range of perspectives from the state, business, and third sector. Given the serious critiques that have been levelled at public relations, i.e. that it has advantaged business interests in ways that encourage unscrupulous behaviour, particularly in relation to the civil sector; this ICT can help students to develop an understanding of what PR does so that when they graduate they can apply these strategies and methods in their workplaces. Significantly, this willingness to introspectively examine the power relations within media practice positions public relations closer to professional status by engaging students with the wider cultural and social consequences of what they do as practitioners.

(2006). Authenticity in teaching. InCranton, P. (Ed.), New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 111. New Jersey, USA: Wiley Periodicals.

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Laurillard, D. (2003). Rethinking university teaching: A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London, UK: Routledge/Flamer. McGee, C. M. (2001). Phronesis in the Habermas vs. Gadamer debate. Retrieved from http://mcgeefragments.net/OLD/Phronesis.in.the.Habermas. vs.Gadamer.Debate.htm Palmer, S., White, R., & Holt, D. (2007). Conceptions of teaching with integrity online in higher education: A case in the field of engineering. In C. Montgomerie & J. Seale (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2007 (pp. 2603-2612). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Pew Project. (2010). The state of the news media: An annual report on American journalism. Retrieved from http://www.stateofthemedia. org/2010/online_audience.php Scott, E. C. (1990). The question of ethics: Nietzsche, Foucault, Heidegger. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Segrave, S. (2003). HOTcopy®: Benchmarking design of simulated professional practice for authentic learner engagement. In G. Crisp, D. Thiele, I. Scholten, S. Barker, J. Baron (Eds.), Interact, Integrate, Impact: Proceedings of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE) Conference. Retrieved from www.ascilite.org.au

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Chapter 16

Through the Looking Glass: Immersive Interfaces for Participant Engagement in Blended E-Learning Environments Janette Grenfell Deakin University, Australia Ian Warren Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter outlines current research profiling students and educators participating in and constructing immersive interfaces in blended e-learning settings. Multi User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) and real world settings augmented with virtual information can generate problem-solving communities where participants gain greater technical knowledge and skills through meaningful and frequent interaction. MUVEs can also generate technical innovation amongst students from diverse disciplinary backgrounds, provided students are encouraged to help each other and learn together. After detailing some false assumptions about computer literacy that can stifle meaningful exploration with new technologies in contemporary education, this chapter documents an exemplar involving extensive collaboration between students from different educational backgrounds with diverse technical competencies. The success of this initiative hinges on the willingness of educators to provide a shared learning experience where technology is used to facilitate increased student communication and offers a site for invention, informed critique, industry participation, and a sense of community.

INTRODUCTION The educational uses of selected next-generation technologies are designed to engage students and educators in socially networked blended e-learning landscapes. Social software such as

wikis and media-sharing sites allow communities of learners to interact in multiple modes, ranging from text and images to the “through the looking glass” multi-user virtual environment (MUVE), in which the user’s creative imagination transports them to the other side of their computer screens.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch016


Through the Looking Glass

These constructed environments enable multiple simultaneous participants to access graphically built three-dimensional (3D) environments, including landscapes and buildings, interact with digital artefacts and various functional tools, and represent themselves through “avatars” (graphical representations of participants) to communicate with other participants and enact any number of collaborative learning activities (Dede, Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, & Bowman (2004). When situated alongside several new developments including the blending of real and virtual environments, digital information is now superimposed on the real world. Instead of staring at screen or imagining themselves on the other side of the screen, students and educators are able to move through the real world with wireless devices such as mobile phones and digital cameras. These technologies allow users to carry the virtual world with them. This chapter examines how this new generation of technologies enable novel forms of collaborative and simulated learning, which reconfigure the roles of educators in steering the learning process, while encouraging students to translate their customary social uses of these technologies into a more active and constructivist learning experience.

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS In defining blended learning in higher education, the literature produces a wide variety of approaches. As Stacey and Gerbic (2009) indicate, blended learning incorporates the shift from traditional face to face environments that rely on weekly interaction between participants led by the educator, to a broader range of asynchronous study designs incorporating text or web-based resources generally associated with distance education. More recently, greater engagement with information and communication technologies (ICT) has supported the integration of these two models to embrace

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new modes of independent and wholly online study, identified here as e-Learning. Current examples of blended learning include a combination of e-Learning modules and timetabled online tutorials using chat room facilities that are integrated into a learning management system (LMS), or external internet based software such as Skype or MSN Messenger. Another model situates e-Learning alongside a designated number of intensive study days on campus or online. This integration blends across four key dimensions that Graham (2006) identifies as space, time, fidelity, and humanness. In the recent development of an innovative model of blended learning, MUVEs are now commonly integrated within an e-Learning intensive study model. In this framework, the blended learning process includes much more than web-based resources located in a Learning Management System (LMS). This model integrates intensive face-to-face workshop activities or tutorials and online learning resources within a LMS with purpose-built MUVEs. Deakin Island, located on the web-based MUVE Second Life, provides a useful illustration of the potential for these distinct technologies to be blended with routine face-to-face and distance learning activities in a variety of disciplinary settings. These blended teaching and learning environments host authentic applications using interactive digital artefacts, which enhance the professional development of students, while increasing their awareness and understanding of curriculum content and their competence with emerging technologies relevant to their future careers. Threedimensional MUVEs offer students opportunities to construct new forms of personal meaning on key issues associated with their routine learning, through the development of, and interaction with, scenarios and collaborative role playing. Within this environment, social interaction and interpersonal contact through computer technologies are considered vital (Collis, Bianco, Margaryan, & Waring, 2005).


Prensky (2001b) contends that role-play scenarios enrich and transform student learning, as educational content that simulates the real world promotes authenticity. By embedding authentic simulated challenges within curriculum, students can become immersed in problem solving activities (Dede et al., 2004) that may not be readily available or as engaging as real life activities. The simulated digital environment enables the creation of virtual spaces that encourage deep thinking, freedom of choice, and decision-making depending on the variety of options presented to students, while advancing innovative problem solving and interactivity. Participants in these environments, individually and collectively, control and determine their experiences to explore a range of different outcomes. This enables students to simultaneously navigate through various simulations containing targeted learning content, while contributing their own ideas and technical skills to enhance the collaborative learning space. Figure 1 demonstrates the breadth of video conferencing, chat tools, blogs, wikis and video streaming technologies that are now key components of MUVE platforms or virtual worlds. This convergence of computerised tools, combined with the visually immersive aesthetic that can be created within three-dimensional platforms such as Second Life, enable users to see, hear, navigate, build, and communicate in ways that are simply not envisaged in static online teaching and learning forums. While education in 3D virtual worlds might involve similar principles to conventional face-to-face modes of instruction, increased levels of immersion and constructivist knowledge-sharing (Warren, 2010) can stem from simulated learning activities that produce greater degrees of realism and immersion through the technical convergence of emerging social software platforms. Many MUVEs are also easily integrated into conventional LMSs and document repositories.

Note: Sourced from Grenfell, 2009, p.4. A post card from Second Life: Student participation in immersive virtual and real life art education teaching and learning simulations. Paper presented at the The Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Art Educators (ANZAAE) Conference. Dunedin, New Zealand. This model of blended learning in MUVEs is the primary focus of this chapter. Building on Chittaro & Ranon (2007), various new technologies allow students to develop complex problem-solving skills and construct their own meanings about key issues in teaching curricula. Converged technology enables students to actively experiment with scenarios, which promotes learning through experiential principles to accomplish specific tasks. Virtual worlds can also support creativity within a rich media environment, increasing a sense of shared presence, accommodating net generation learning preferences, and providing opportunities for collaboration, community creation, and social interaction. Our own experiences with MUVEs reinforce the claims of Jarmon, Traphagan, Mayrath, & Trivedi, (2009) that MUVEs not only facilitate independent and collaborative learning, but also foster self-esteem, self-determination, and enhanced self-image in students through role plays and other simulations.

Profile of the Student and Educator as Learners Today’s new generation of students have been variously described as the Net Generation, Digital Natives, Millennials, or the Y Generation. They inhabit a world dominated by the use of information and communication technologies where the internet and mobile phone use are routine (Oliver & Goerke, 2007), and years of participation in interactive game play have developed high-level visual, audio, digital, or new media literacies. Prensky (2001a; 2001b) argues that learners who

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Figure 1. MUVEs and technological convergence

grow up in this environment effectively accommodate the language of new technologies and its place in their world because it is part of their reiterated experience. This implies that a majority of students entering higher education already have advanced capabilities in using new technologies and can readily interpret the layers of meaning that multimodal digital environments may convey.

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However, Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, and Krause (2008) reveal that many young people assumed to be part of the e-generation are actually situated within a digital melting pot (Stoeger, 2009) where there is a lack of homogeneity with regards to the acquisition of skills or access to new technologies (Lorenzo, Oblinger, & Dziuban, 2006). Educators therefore must be aware of the


real possibility that a “digital divide” will exist between students in the same cohort. Prensky (2001a) also expressed concern at an apparent lack of technological literacy among educators, labelling them “digital immigrants”. Oblinger (2003) and Frand (2000) also suggest that, because of this disparity, educators need to engage with new technologies and adjust their pedagogical models to enhance communication and learning among a new and more diverse generation of students. Further, information and communication technologies significantly impact on the evolving role of the educator, who now moves from a discipline expert to a participant facilitator (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Importantly, the development of a learning community that includes the educator as a co-learner has growing currency. This means educators are required to adapt their conventional chalk-and-talk methods of conveying information to accommodate new blended learning modalities that cater for diversifying student cohorts, while developing innovative ways to maximise the value of new technologies to promote novel forms of virtual student engagement.

Establishing Communities of Learning Blended learning environments that support student engagement and active participation in the learning process are considered effective methods of introducing students to the concept of a learning community. However, before this can occur, Lee (2009) believes there is a need to foster a range of social and interpersonal skills amongst participants, such as leadership, trust, team communication, group decision-making, consensus-building, and conflict management. This is particularly crucial in humanities fields where such skills are embedded as core graduate attributes in most conventional face-to-face learning and workplace settings (Grenfell & Warren, 2010, p. 27).

For Salmons (2006), active learning joins participants by mutual interest, enabling the intensive examination of particular themes, collaborative learning, knowledge exchange, and collective problem solving. Active learners are participants who learn from and with each other, with an educator taking on the role of facilitator, introducing ideas or answering questions as needed, framing issues, setting boundaries, and summarising key steps in the process. An extension of this theme that is highly relevant to virtual worlds such as Second Life situates the educator as a participatory collaborative member of the virtual learning community. Here, the overarching concept of a collaborative virtual community of learners is one that is interactive and dynamic, where all members communicate fully with each other, and where the virtual site engages and reflects the interests of the members who contribute shared content with a unified purpose, common interest, and a united sense of engagement (Grenfell, 2007). It is crucial that learners feel part of a community where their contributions add to a common knowledge pool and collective spirit is fostered through meaningful social interactions (Bernard, de Rubalcava, & St Pierre, 2000). Members of an active learning community work together to achieve certain purposes for their mutual benefit by exploiting the notion of social capital, by establishing networks, and contributing to the common good (Wenger, 1998). Beavis (2004) reports that the web environment allows students to work collaboratively, to find groups with affiliated interests despite geographical and cultural separation, and to join informal “exchange networks” or “communities of practice” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 29) or “affinity groups” (Gee, 2003, pp. 1-50). As Warren (2010) demonstrates, even static and non-immersive information repositories, such as wikis, can play a valuable role in promoting a sense of group affinity amongst combined face-to-face and distance education cohorts, who might not otherwise have the opportunity to collaborate. However, the broader collaborative goal needs to be embedded in clearly

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articulated assessment tasks and informed by clear boundaries that facilitate meaningful information sharing. This process is crucial, given the spatial distance and problems associated with monitoring student movements in social software platforms, and it requires clear instructions on content-based hurdle requirements and formative assessments to promote a shared identity while recognising the divergent interests of each student and the need to develop engaging learning tasks. In this respect, the work of one student cohort has the capacity to be translated into expanded applications relevant to new student cohorts or professional groups outside of the educational environment.

Collaborative Learning and Multi-User Virtual Worlds Emerging collaborative learning pedagogies aim to encourage the construction of knowledge, deep learning, and greater skill development to engage students in active learning (Jara, et al, 2009). Collaborative learning involves the development of specific activities by interacting groups (Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2004). This is most effective when participants verbalise their ideas, challenge others, and work to achieve collective solutions to problems (Shih & Yang, 2008). Collaborative learning has a central place in art education, through blended learning techniques in which physical and virtual environments are integrated within an e-Learning intensive study model. By integrating face-to-face workshop activities and online learning resources within a purpose-built MUVE, the social interactive aspects of a real world classroom can be replicated to provide a virtual meeting place where learners who find it difficult to attend face-to-face classes due to employment, family, geographical, or timetable constraints are able to collaborate with peers at times outside of normal class hours (PrasolovaFørland & Divitini, 2002). Multiuser virtual worlds use a metaphor of physical space and place to create the illusion

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of “being in the virtual world” (Lombard & Ditton, 1997, p.120). These shared platforms allow multiple simultaneous participants representing themselves through avatars (Czarnecki & Gullett, 2007) to communicate with each other, interact with digital artifacts, and take part in immersive problem solving scenarios and simulations (Dede et al., 2004). Within a virtual context, collaborative and individual practice (Bartle, 2004) enables students to access new ways of learning (Metcalf, Clarke, & Dede, 2009) and present information, ideas, or respond to core discussion themes (Prensky, 2001a). The interactive and immersive character of 3D virtual environments also enables a new realm of constructivist learning building on other popular Web 2.0 technologies, such as wikis (Warren, 2010), by enhancing the capacity of students to collaborate, talk, and interact in real time, while sharing still or moving digital images, audio streams, and adding to the digital infrastructure by constructing buildings, signage, or developing simulated art displays (Grenfell & Warren, 2010). One example demonstrating how collaborative learning coalesces within a three-dimensional MUVE commenced in 2008 and involves the seamless integration of students undertaking an Art Education Visual Culture unit, hosted by an educator in the Art Education Centre on Deakin Island in Second Life. Students from another university were invited to attend in-world tutorials in this MUVE and student avatars from both universities interacted using in-built audio devices and gestures to communicate across time and place. Grenfell & Warren (2010) report on the development of a simulation or immersive narrative to enable students to explore introductory visual analysis activities examining the formal properties of composition, exploring the illusion of space, and identifying foreground, middle distance, and background in a digital artwork. Students located in highly dispersed geographical areas constructed an interactive 3D model of a selected painting in this virtual world. When completed, students, via


their avatars, were able to explore spatial concepts because of their ability to walk through, and within, the digitally constructed model. This inventiveness was only possible by utilising the converged digital functions of the MUVE platform. The collaborative student community was facilitated by instant text and voice communication, gestures, conventional emails, and blog postings in the LMS outlining the instructions for this activity. Central to the building process was the development of alpha graphics images physically manipulated in Photoshop and uploaded as textures into student inventories located in Second Life. This enabled the integrated in-world construction of a 3D model incorporating the preprepared images. Students were also introduced to machinima, a movie technique designed to capture images and installations in Second Life, and viewed as real world presentations and exhibitions. Collaboration and communication processes were central to the successful implementation of the exercise, which highlights how the technical convergence associated with MUVEs, and their rich media capabilities (Saeed, Yang, & Sinnappan, 2008), can facilitate innovative learning activities constructed by students and enhance their preexisting or acquired technological skills. The concepts underpinning this example can be explored further to encourage the making of original artworks within the virtual environment. The technology allows students to create 3D installations that can be entered and explored through manipulation of the student’s avatar. Instead of paint, the artist uses sound, prims, scripts, narrative, machinima, and other tools that encourage the creation of new art forms. The resultant artworks are unique to this medium and can be equally transformed into real world installation art or earth art and animation. Figure 2 provides a model of collaborative participation that demonstrates how fostering a sense of community through collective usergenerated activities accommodates the individual characteristics of each participant, along with

specific task-driven elements devised by the contemporary educator. Through converged, multi-functional, and 3D information technologies, students develop a sense of community that is enhanced through creative technical applications devised by the lecturer, which are then linked to core elements of curriculum and individual or collective assessment tasks. The centrepiece of this model involves fostering of a sense of community through shared activities, which brings together diverse individual skills on joint collaborative tasks, and offers a sense of mission that enhances engagement with the technology and each other. To support the development of technological base for authentic learning, an audit was completed of existing frameworks that could be integrated with a virtual world environment such as Second Life. The following figure demonstrates this process.

New Pedagogies In many higher education learning environments, the current pedagogical model can be described as an industrial model of student mass production, where the educator is perceived as the broadcaster. A broadcast is, by definition, the transmission of information from transmitter to receiver in a one-way linear format. Broadcast learning may have been appropriate for a previous economy and generation, but increasingly, it fails to meet the needs of a new generation of students about to enter the global knowledge economy. Vygotsky’s social constructivist perspective (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997), identifies the need for collaborative processes to be developed between learners and practitioners in the field (McMahon, 1997; Warren, 2010). This model highlights that a society’s practical knowledge is situated in relations between students, their disciplinary practices, and the social organisation and political economies of professional practice communities (Gredler, 1997; Lave & Wenger, 1991). In meeting this need, social constructivism may include reciprocal teaching, peer collabora-

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Figure 2. A model of collaborative participation

tion, problem-based instruction, web quests, and other methods that involve learning with field professionals (Shunk, 2000). At the core of social constructivism are specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. Social constructivists contend that reality is constructed primarily through human activity (Kukla, 2000) and that knowledge, which is also a human product, is socially and culturally articulated (Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). Therefore, individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with their environment. McMahon (1997) considers that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities that incorporate professional voices into the educational dialogue. Currently, with increasing technological convergence, models such as social constructivism have the potential to engage students in more authentic forms of learning. However, this pedagogical change is not about technology per se, nor is it about students being able to access lectures by experts from their iPhones, Blackberry or iTunes. Rather, a pedagogy built on multi-media

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convergence represents a change in the relationship between students and educators in the learning process. Beavis (2004) comments on how the internet allows students to work collaboratively, to locate groups with affiliated interests despite geographical and cultural separation, and to join informal ‘exchange networks’ or more formalised professional “communities of practice” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 49). However, the focus on promoting improved simulated learning will never be solely focused on the technology itself. Rather, the pedagogy must remain sound and informed by the professional requirements particular to a subject discipline. Computers, therefore, are simply tools that have the potential to make learning easier, more enjoyable and meaningful for students (Holmes, Annetta, & Klesath, 2008). A learning environment where students access computers ’on demand’ at university or in the home provides numerous opportunities for deep learning to occur outside the formal classroom.


ESTABLISHING AN ART EDUCATION BLENDED E-LEARNING COMMUNITY Grenfell and Warren (2010) observe that, in higher education, the establishment of e-learning real and virtual communities may bring together learners and educators from diverse disciplines to support interactive deep learning, and foster innovative teaching and learning practices. These communities support the introduction of new pedagogical models, identify and share exemplary e-learning initiatives, and explore emerging issues such as ethics and ethical behavior brought about by the use of MUVEs for learning. The central role of participants in the process of knowledge creation is not new. What remains innovative, however, is the collaborative engagement of students and educators in blended e-learning environments to form an active virtual community of learners who engage in role play simulations to achieve high levels of satisfaction and achievement in the construction of new knowledge. Punie (2007) contends that the collaborative engagement of participants involved in common projects has

the potential to establish communities of learners based on the perception that interaction, knowledge exchange, experience sharing or creation, stimulating curiosity and novelty all enhance the learning process. The more participants feel they can learn something from a community and share their experiences, projects, and values within it, the more they are likely to engage and participate as active thinking members of that community. Figure 3 illustrates another aspect of community development, where participants collaboratively create a 3D virtual world environment, consisting of shared and individual teaching and learning spaces. The Deakin University Strategic Teaching and Learning Grants Program in 2007 funded a built virtual environment in Second Life that sought to incorporate these concepts into the innovative design of a virtual world accessible within a conventional LMS. The convergence of streamed audio and video, blogs, and links to external webbased social software platforms including Facebook, Flickr, UTube, wikis, and iTunes, provides students with a plethora of ways to participate and engage in a learning community of practice

Figure 3. A view of the Deakin Arts Education Centre on Deakin Island in Second Life

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(Sanders & McKeown, 2007), while enhancing their competence with the various technologies they customarily use for social purposes outside the educational context. The Arts Education Centre consists of several diverse spaces and interactive simulations and incorporates a range of functions to facilitate communication between students. The digital infrastructure includes Dance, Drama, Music and Visual Arts studios, tutorial spaces supporting inworld seminars, role-playing simulations, office spaces for educators, a virtual art gallery with both permanent and temporary exhibition spaces for student and community artworks, and a festival performance area for music, dance and drama students. There are also venues for large group lectures, arts education conferences and seminars. In-world movie and PowerPoint display screens allow for streamed video, audio, and conventional web content to be delivered in-world, while supporting additional study materials housed on the university LMS. Grenfell (2009) found that the strategic use of MUVE technologies supports innovative problem solving and improved learning. This is because students are able to gain simultaneous access to streaming video, audio, and web-based resources.

Further observations have shown that access to these resources and study materials on demand supports high levels of independent asynchronous learning. When art students identify a theme or issue and develop authentic responses using purpose created digital artefacts, including images and machinima, the result is an increased understanding of core art education content, which is central to the continued acquisition of knowledge through discipline-based problem solving. A recent blended e-learning collaboration involved the collection of digital artworks created by art education students using computer software located in a real world environment, which was exhibited in a virtual gallery. In Figure 4, the exhibition was the focus of a virtual campaign that was researched, designed and developed by public relations students to promote the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery on Deakin Island in Second Life. Over a twelve week period, the art exhibition Identity was curated by art education students for viewing by in-world patrons. A real world public presentation of the virtual gallery promotion, titled “Real works in a Virtual World”, was developed by public relations students for an audience of staff in the Faculty of Arts and Education at Deakin University. This integrated assessment task

Figure 4. Student art works exploring the theme Identity from the foyer of the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery in Second Life.

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was undertaken by two groups of students enrolled in separate undergraduate art education and public relations units in the Faculty. Students were required to hold regular timetabled meetings, initially on campus and later in-world, to facilitate collective decision-making and information exchange relating to the progress of each strand of the project. The public relations group initially interviewed participating art education students and educators on their perceptions of the draft campaign design proposal, its specifications, and target audience. Educators also used these meetings to survey the twenty-four student participants about their skills in using digital technologies and 3D MUVEs including Second Life. The survey revealed that fourteen art education students had varying levels of prior experience with this technology, while ten, including all the public relations students, had little or no prior experience. These results led to the development of several support services to assist students with the various technical requirements of this platform. These included scheduled help sessions in face-toface and in-world modes, comprehensive written tutorial guides, and instructional videos outlining the basics of Second Life. These resources were crucial in assisting students with the transition into undertaking an assessment task within the Deakin MUVE. Both student cohorts met in the university computer laboratories, where they worked with educators to develop the technical competencies essential to completing this activity. Art education students also developed skills associated with digital image creation and manipulation. It was immediately apparent that, although the majority of students in the group were of the Net Generation (Lorenzo et al., 2006), they did not fit Prensky’s (2001a) digital natives profile. Within the art education cohort, a greater number of mature-age students possessed advanced skills including the use of digital manipulation technologies such as Photoshop. To overcome this disparity, students with more computing experience worked in

partnership with less technologically-competent colleagues. Individual instruction from educators was also available on demand and additional support was provided through printed handouts and an instructional video. Throughout the introductory phase, one of the most rewarding outcomes of these sessions was the willingness of students to support each other, both verbally and through sharing knowledge on the acquisition of new technical skills. Individual success in achieving a positive outcome from what may initially have been a frustrating process was met with great enthusiasm by the entire group. During these timetabled computer sessions, it was evident that peer encouragement was central in retaining student interest and engagement in the project’s initial stages. This supports Salmons’ (2006) concept of the learning community, where participants are joined together by mutual interest and knowledge exchange and work collaboratively on collective problems. An initial and crucial task involved each student creating an avatar and individualising their alter ego. The avatar is the primary medium through which a virtual world user talks, walks, runs, sits, dances, flies, drives, rides, teleports, makes gestures such as clapping or waving, and communicates with others. Avatars can also have adaptable visual appearances including size, clothing, gender, hair, and skin color (Gregory & Tynan, 2009). In one of the introductory sessions a student alter ego, Alidia Opaline, commented that, The thing about Second Life is being able to completely change who and how you see yourself. By choosing stereotyped outfits we can be the perfect rock child, a tough chick, party designer, or student ‘Goth’. What student would actually wear a tight little tartan skirt to uni? Who cares, because on SL, you can wear anything – playing with identities. Nowak (2004) believes that avatar alter egos can increase a student’s sense of social presence

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and awareness of issues surrounding personal identity. This logic was extended as art education students focused on ideas of identity to further personalise an avatar or persona from the stock of default characters provided by the MUVE site developers Linden Labs. They also considered the concept that avatars are individually sculptured art forms designed by their owners and contribute to the aesthetic of the virtual environment. By acknowledging that virtual personae have the potential to differ from real life human presence and appearance, exploring the look of each avatar, as a means of individual expression, provided numerous opportunities for expressing the virtual self as an artistic form. Initially a collective exercise, students continued to work individually to produce a more personalised image of their human selves. From feline to robot, attractive top models to amorphous beings or objects, each student created avatars involving multiple textures and shapes (Annetta, Klesath, & Holmes, 2008; Giresunlu, 2010). Students quickly realised they had the ability to explore the character of their virtual personae at any time by changing clothing, hairstyles, or other elements of their visual appearance. Silver Shadow Firethorn describes herself as: She’s a rocker Her eyes are electric blue, I’ve changed her facial features, made her hair short. She’s tall and slim. She’s a woman of independence who blends into her world and doesn’t take crap from anyone or anything. She’s a powerful woman of striking stature and substance.

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She’s got depth. Figure 5 illustrates the exploration of identity in which each participant experimented with and developed the physical characteristics of their alter ego in the form of an avatar. Each student was also provided with various activities requiring their interaction with other avatars in the Deakin Art Centre. This required developing proficiencies with in-built audio, text, and MSN communication tools, and uploading image textures into personal inventories. The successful completion of each task aimed to enhance the confidence of students in navigating and working in-world as they experimented with building and “rezzing” objects in the MUVE “sandpit”. Students were also required to change the time of day in the virtual environment, adjust the sound, experiment with editing and creation tools, and take screen shots. Many students carried out these in-world tasks outside of formal class times. For many, the Deakin Art Centre became a meeting place in the evening, where their alter egos congregated before teleporting to other Second Life sites, then returned to report their experiences to fellow classmates and educators. The complexity of the project and timetabling difficulties allowed the two groups to work independently to create their artworks, design the exhibition space, and frame the promotional campaign. As the project progressed, asynchronous in-world meetings became more frequent as art students continued to work outside timetabled classes to design and construct the exhibition space, upload artworks into personal inventories, and curate the exhibition. Public relations students also used these times to meet and report on the development of the promotional campaign, usually through the audio communication function, which proved to be more efficient to communicate key issues than written text or MSN messaging.


Figure 5. A virtual world avatar class portrait

The Art Exhibition Student engagement in principles of art education was underpinned by two of the most powerful developments to impact on contemporary art experience. These were the use of new information and communication technologies (ICT) and the acceptance of these technologies to enhance artistic practice as a legitimate form of creativity and innovation through the use of still images, video, film, animation, machinima, and two-dimensional (2D) and 3D installations. Second Life provides open virtual land to enable pioneers in the arts (Giresunlu, 2010) to explore new forms of digital media and experimental modes of expression in tandem with aspects of the real life art scene. Here, real world artists and film makers including Tim Burton and virtual artist Alizarin Goldflake (2009) blur the edges between reality and fantasy to create new digital media landscapes that reflect

their artistic imagination. One outcome is that the divide between traditional high or popular art has diminished or completely disappeared, as artists and art students push the boundaries of innovative creative practice in real or virtual contexts. New forms of digital art practice and the aesthetic experiences within MUVEs are at the cutting edge of originality. In a simulated environment real life forms of artistic expression are adapted and transformed. Giresunlu (2010) supports the idea that digital artworks undergo a creative transformation from real life to a simulated digital environment to open new contextual avenues for their aesthetic re-evaluation. In Second Life, 2D artworks obtain new expressive qualities through an avatar’s ability to interact within the digital infrastructure (Grenfell & Warren, 2010). Avatars are artistic creations, in and of themselves, who paint Second Life’s ever-expanding canvas with their diverse colorful shapes and render the

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virtual landscape as a unique global performance. Moreover, the virtual environment becomes a social space for participants to generate all forms of art using digital graphic media, Photoshop, Fireworks, Adobe Flash and infrastructure creation tools available within MUVEs. Digitally rendered paintings are scripted and built to rotate. Sculptures may change color, shape, and sound. Human portraits can morph into other forms as the viewer approaches to appraise what appears to be living art. At the beginning of this blended e-learning project, art education students collectively chose Personal Identity as the overarching theme for the exhibition and began the individual and collaborative processes of researching and exploring ideas, experimenting with digital media, using technology to create artworks, and using various creative techniques to generate a collection of digital artworks for public display. Figure 6

demonstrates the concept of the artist as a cultural agent who individually and collectively creates visually aesthetic objects for public view. For virtual viewers, aesthetic contexts are socially constructed through various collaborative interactions and conversations about the artworks with their creators. In timetabled studio sessions, students explored their own identities within broad social and cultural frameworks. This creative process allowed frank discussion of issues relating to gender, class, and personal identity, and the impact of these themes on their own lives and personal experiences. Students critically examined various ways that art has traditionally defined roles and values in contemporary society, debated the use of irony and parody as strategies for critical social commentary, and the appropriation of other artistic works to fuse fine art traditions with popular cultural statements to generate new art forms and

Figure 6. Students explored the theme Identity. Queen of Hearts image from the virtual Deakin Art Gallery on Deakin Island in Second Life

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new meanings for staid expressive concepts. Students also considered the practical roles of artists, gallery directors, and curators in the creation and presentation of the artwork to a wider virtual community within Second Life. Students were encouraged to explore concepts associated with the theme of identity by moving freely from virtual to real-world experimentation using digital technologies, in-world creation tools, and more traditional art-making techniques such as drawing, painting, and print making. They kept visual diaries researching and annotating works in other virtual art galleries and web-based resources, including the blogs of established virtual world artists. These sources often contained machinima, or short video films, recording in-world installations and exhibitions. Through direct exposure to the worlds of virtual artistic expression, students progressively experienced and developed their own range of technical capabilities to enable them to work collaboratively in-world, construct the virtual gallery infrastructure, and participate in simultaneous real and virtual world art learning. Peer assisted mentoring encouraged students to experience art learning via new technologies as active participants. Grenfell & Warren (2010) suggest that, as students collaborate to create new scenarios and build new environments, they are less inhibited in developing informed critiques of conventional social, cultural, and educational phenomena. The converged technical capacities of the MUVE allowed educators to proactively augment both virtual and real worlds, enabling students to gain informed technical and artistic knowledge by interacting with the virtual artistic community and with each other. Curatorial experts from a regional gallery in Victoria, Australia, provided students with crucial insights into the presentation of art works, applicable to both the physical and virtual worlds. This generated useful spatial design concepts for students to consider and incorporate into the construction of the virtual exhibition space.

This blended e-learning approach reinforced the view that the progressive development of a strong technology skills base is crucial for successful engagement in art making and its public in a virtual environment. Student satisfaction was high when they were fully immersed in role playing and problem solving activities that enabled them individually and collaboratively to explore, experiment, research, improvise, reflect, discuss, critique, and evaluate their digitally manipulated artworks. These experiences resulted in students publicly displaying their exhibition in the digital infrastructure of Deakin Virtual Art Gallery. Figure 7 shows a small sample of these artistic works. The 3D capabilities of this MUVE ensure the experience of gallery-gazing can incorporate novel forms of computerised design, which in turn can promote new forms of artistic composition within the converged technical requirements of this platform.

The Virtual Campaign The virtual promotional campaign for the in-world exhibition was framed around a partnership with the Geelong Art Gallery in regional Victoria, and sought to leverage the goodwill of existing patrons and the Gallery by establishing a virtual presence within the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery. The campaign involved the display of new student works building on their innovative experimentation and critical thinking alongside the Geelong Gallery’s role in showcasing student artwork and providing allied technological and curatorial skills. A group of public relations students using the pseudonym Canvas Communications identified the goals of their campaign in raising awareness of and increasing the level of public attendance in the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery to provide exposure for the works of art education students (Lovell, Pitato, & Taylor, 2009). A detailed literature review and two exploratory reviews involving participating educators and the Marketing and Development Retail Manager of the Geelong Art Gallery provided

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Figures 7. Student images from the virtual Deakin Art Gallery on Deakin Island in Second Life

useful information regarding current communication strategies used in the contemporary art world. Surveys targeted current art patrons and Deakin University students not involved with the project. An initial survey of sixty tertiary students revealed that 42% percent knew of Second Life, and of those, 97% had limited knowledge of the function of virtual environments other than for gaming and social interaction. These findings implied that target audiences needed more awareness of the nature and potential of virtual worlds to provide a viable gallery experience. Key audiences were also open to gaining more knowledge about the Deakin Virtual Gallery, with 83% of respondents indicating they were interested in art and 78% indicating they were pleased or extremely pleased to have the opportunity to view art works using 3D MUVEs. Figure 8 highlights the innovation associated with the public campaign, and demonstrates that students with limited experience of 3D

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MUVEs were able to produce viable promotional material with clear artistic merit in its own right. The public relations campaigners then focused on developing a formal partnership with the Geelong Gallery. The Gallery’s Marketing and Development Manager expressed a keen interest in establishing a presence in the MUVE art world. This enabled the Deakin Virtual Gallery to leverage the Geelong Gallery’s pre-existing reputation, patrons, and marketing skills to enhance its own development and promotion. The partnership agreement enabled the Geelong Gallery to become a portal through which real-world patrons could access the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery. The foyer of the Geelong Gallery would house a computer kiosk to provide direct access to virtual art exhibitions displayed on Deakin Island. Pre-created avatars acted as guides to enable casual art patrons to access the MUVE and take selected tours of the virtual art venues and works.


Figure 8. Promotional posters developed for the Deakin Virtual Art Gallery

The campaign also considered that greater awareness of the virtual art gallery was necessary throughout the University, and used the university library, student cafeteria, and a number of computer laboratories as venues for students and staff to access the exhibition. After a joint meeting of all project participants, during which examples of the work of Second Life artist Bryn Oh (2010) captured by machinimagrapher Chantel Harvey (2010) were viewed, the decision was made to create a machinima of the art exhibition for display on another website. Large screens will now be erected in the real-world cafeteria and library to display a recorded in-world tour of the exhibition. Promotional post cards and posters of current artworks, together with information pamphlets, are also available at all venues.

CONCLUSION The success of this initiative involves several convergences. The convergence of new technologies is facilitated by 3D MUVEs. This provides the key medium for experimentation, innovation,

and developing new mechanisms for students to engage with standard curriculum in ways that allow meaningful collaborations and discernible outputs beyond a written numerical grade on an academic transcript. Through these means, the educator’s own learning and experimentation enables the convergence of conventional methods of knowledge transmission to enable new methods of constructivist learning. Not only does the classroom have new meaning in the 3D digital realm, but the virtual world also entices other institutions to explore new technologies for their own professional and community-based activities. Finally, the convergence across academic disciplines formed several strategic partnerships amongst cohorts of students that would otherwise not have been brought together. The deliberate intention of creating a learning community involving students enrolled in separate degrees, with different educational, professional, and technological capacities and aspirations, was forged through unified, collaborative, goal-directed participation in a novel technological platform. These convergences become the centerpieces of an evolving art gallery, built on ongoing collaborations within and outside

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the university context, which is centered on the converged technical capacities of an emerging MUVE platform. The future of MUVEs and simulations in contemporary education involves the very ingredients that shape the evolution of the Deakin Virtual Arts Gallery as an appealing and intellectually challenging space for students and other visitors to exploring the boundaries of 3D art, the practicalities of gallery management, and the identity of their own digital personae. As technology and educational practice continue to bridge the divide between the virtual and the real, the test for other educational disciplines is to develop meaningful collaborations relevant to their own students and professional fields. This quest is only confined by the imagination, and the willingness to translate conventional teaching methods into simulated activities with discernible real-world relevance.

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McMahon, M. (1997). Social constructivism and the World Wide Web: A paradigm for learning. Paper presented at the ASCILITE Conference, Perth, Australia. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/ perth97/papers/Mcmahon/Mcmahon.html. Metcalf, S. J., Clarke, J., & Dede, C. (2009). Virtual worlds for education: River City and EcoMUVE. MiT6 International Conference. Retrieved from web.mit.edu/comm-forum/mit6/ papers/Metcalf.pdf Nowak, K. (2004). The influence of anthropomorphism and agency on social judgment in virtual environments. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 9(2). Retrieved from http:// www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgibin/ fulltext/120837918/HTMLSTART. Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers, Gen-Xers & Millennials. Understanding the new students. EDUCAUSE Review, 38(4), 37–47. http://www. educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0342.pdf. Oblinger, D. G., & Oblinger, J. L. (Eds.). (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Educause. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/ pdf/pub7101c.pdf. Oliver, B., & Goerke, V. (2007). Australian undergraduates’ use and ownership of emerging technologies: Implications and opportunities for creating engaging learning experiences for the Net Generation. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(2), 171-186. Retrieved from http:// www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet23/oliver.html Prasolova-Førland, E., & Divitini, M. (2002). Supporting learning communities with collaborative virtual environments: Different spatial metaphors. In Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2002), Kazan, Russia (pp. 259-264). Retrieved from http://www.idi.ntnu.no/grupper/ su/publ/ekaterina/icalt114.pdf.


Prawat, R. S., & Floden, R. E. (1994). Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning. Educational Psychologist, 29(1), 37–48. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2901_4 Prenksy, M. (2001a). Digital natives, digital immigrants, Part I. Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/ writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,% 20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816 Prenksy, M. (2001b). Digital natives, digital immigrants, Part II. Do they really think differently? Horizon, 9(6), 1–6. Retrieved from http://www. marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20 -%20Part2.pdf. doi:10.1108/10748120110424843 Punie, Y. (2007). Learning spaces: An ICT-enabled model of future learning in the knowledge-based society. European Journal of Education, 42, 185–199..doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2007.00302.x Saeed, N., Yang, Y., & Sinnappan, S. (2008). Media richness and user acceptance of Second Life. In R. Atkinson & C. McBeath (Eds.), Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ASCILITE Melbourne 2008 (pp. 851-860). Retrieved from http://www.ascilite. org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/saeed.pdf Salmons, J. (2006). E-learning. Retrieved from http://www.vision2lead.com/ Sanders. R., & McKeown, L. (2007). Promoting community through action learning in a 3D virtual world. Retrieved from http://www.iadis.net/dl/ final_uploads/200701C040.pdf Shih, J., & Yang, H. (2008). Virtual reality and mixed reality for virtual learning environments. Computers & Graphics, 30(1), 20–28. Shunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Stacey, E., & Grebic, P. (Eds.). (2009). Effective blended learning practices: Evidenced based perspectives in ICT-facilitated education. Hershey, NY: Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-296-1 Stoerger, S. (2009). The digital melting pot: Bridging the digital native–immigrant divide. First Monday, 14(7), 6. Retrieved from http:// firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/ fm/article/viewArticle/2474/2243. Warren, I. (2010). Using MediaWiki as an efficient data repository and ubiquitous learning tool: An Australian example. Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal, 2(1), 21–38. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Bollestorff, T. (2008). Coming of age in Second Life: An anthropologist explores the virtually human. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Dede, C. (2005). Planning for neomillennial learnings styles: Implications for investments in technology and faculty. In D. Oblinger & J. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the Net Generation (pp. 226-247). Boulder, CO: Educause. Retrieved from www.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen/ Golub, A. (2010). Being in the world (of warcraft): Raiding, realism and knowledge production in a massively multiplayer online game. Anthropological Quarterly, 83(1), 17–46. doi:10.1353/ anq.0.0110 Schroeder, R. (2002). The social life of avatars: Presence and interaction in shared virtual environments. London, UK: Springer-Verlag.

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Section 3

Developing Knowledge and Building Capacities for E-Simulations

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Chapter 17

A Framework for Designing Mainstream Educational E-Simulations Jacob Cybulski Deakin University, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter describes the knowledge, skills, and technology needed for the effective design of educational e-simulations. It reviews the features and functionality of a typical experiential e-simulation and discusses approaches useful in its design, with impact on its subsequent construction and deployment in the field. The chapter reports a conceptual study examining development experiences gained in the construction of several educational e-simulations and folds these experiences into a framework for understanding e-simulation design. The chapter finally uses the framework to compare and contrast different approaches taken while designing and delivering two e-simulations, based on the same technology and business case, but delivered to distinct cohorts of university students.

INTRODUCTION E-simulations, digital games, and e-learning are slowly becoming part of the mainstream of modern education (Moreno-Ger, Burgos, & Torrente, 2009). Readily accessible and increasingly affordable computer and Internet technologies provide developers and educators with tools to create new classroom and online resources. With the sophistication of virtual spaces and artificial

environments, often come highly focused visual and auditory stimulation, interactivity, and immersion that are all capable of drawing students to the learning tasks and activities, and which provide opportunities for developing a sense of authenticity and personification that sustain the learner’s engagement. By interacting with virtual objects, simulated people, and imaginary spaces, learners construct their knowledge and acquire skills and experiences that can later be transferred to the

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch017


A Framework for Designing Mainstream Educational E-Simulations

real problems, tasks, and environments (Lainema, 2003b). Learning in such simulated environments is often pushed to the sphere of subconscious and is capable of becoming a collateral artefact of student engagement (Zyda, 2005). These technical, cognitive, and pedagogical factors —previously unheard of in a traditional face-to-face education— create uncertainty and complexity for educational developers and demand new approaches to the planning, design, and implementation of novel curriculum with educational e-simulation tools. There exist a large variety of e-simulation types, each with its own peculiar mode of interaction, task virtualisation, and user experience (Aldrich, 2004). There are also a great many conceptions of effective utilisation of e-simulations in teaching and learning (Jeffries, 2005). A vast array of commercially available tools can be easily obtained to support the creation of these e-simulation and e-learning archetypes (Swain, 2005). Approaches to designing and later construction of these esimulations and games, and their deployment in the field, unfortunately are very few. This chapter strives to close this apparent gap in research and practice of e-simulation design. Over recent years, taxonomies of simulation and game design have emerged to assist better understanding of interaction components and learning styles (Thavikulwat, 2004). Theoretical work has been laid to deal with cognitive load of e-simulation users engaged in constructivist learning (Gerjets & Hesse, 2004). Cognitive models are being developed to guide simulation and game designers in the creation of believable learning spaces (Funge, 2000). New devices are being designed to assist user direct manipulation of virtual objects (Fishkin, Gujar, Harrison, Moran, & Want, 2000). Issues in the design of simulated people and authentic interaction with virtual characters are vigorously pursued (Hutchison, 2006). Creation of a total e-simulation experience (Rosenbloom, 2003), seamless incorporation of the specific domain knowledge (Goosen, Jensen, & Wells, 2001), augmenting virtuality with elements of the real world (Billinghurst & Kato, 2002), as well as 294

effective blending of these simulated phenomena into a cohesive learning environment (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005) are all still at the cornerstone of educational research. We are still at the very beginning of a path leading to a model suitable for the better understanding of educational simulation and gaming (Squire, 2002) and yet we are searching for a unified theory of e-simulation design (Shedroff, 2000). While some researchers are actively expanding the horizons of game and simulation design (Swartout & Lent, 2003), and others actively pursue the connections across research fields to close the gaps in the understanding of simulation and gaming design artefacts (Klabbers, 2006), there are still few consistent methodologies that successfully capture all aspects of e-simulation development (Hall, 2005). This chapter aims to further assist this pursuit of understanding esimulation development and outlines a framework that conceptually maps and inter-relates the tasks typically taken in building e-simulations and their subsequent use. While the framework was not intended to serve as a rigorous and prescriptive development methodology, it was conceived to enhance developers and teachers’ understanding of e-simulations and to provide them with a guide to e-simulation planning, design, constructions, and deployment. Its richness and the lack of methodological constraints were intentional to encourage flexibility and adaptability of the framework elements.

DESIGNING AND USING BLENDED EXPERIENTIAL E-SIMULATIONS Experiential learning is a participatory method of learning, which demands from a learner a variety of mental capabilities, and which is supported by an active and immersive learning environment (Feinstein, Mann, & Corsun, 2002). Experiential learning allows individuals to learn new skills and knowledge by reflecting on the completed tasks and processes. Such learning may occur in


the actual workspace or in a simulated environment, possibly created using digital technology. Simulation of community circumstances, human interactions and business transactions may help learners develop new professional skills, to include soft skills of interpersonal communication, negotiation, and collaboration. Such skills are all considered part of professional experience, which is often expected of graduates and necessary for them entering into the workforce, and yet, such experience is unlikely to be gained in the confines of a classroom. For this reason, there is an increasing use of experiential e-simulations in higher education, especially in teaching Science, Business and Information Technology. Modern experiential educational simulations (Cybulski, Parker, & Segrave, 2006a, 2006b) emerged from the experiential learning theory (Dewey, 1910; Kolb, 1984; Lewin, 1951), which claims that exposing learners to direct experience leads to far more profound learning outcomes than those achieved by passive receiving of learning instruction (Lainema, 2003a). In this way, the learner follows the process of doing, reflection, and abstraction, which can be further tested and cyclically refined leading to new implications and insights. While experiential learning occurs in the workplace (Dewey, 1910; Kolb, 1984), it can be triggered outside the work environment by using some well-known educational methods, which may include case studies and business simulations (Hoberman & Mailick, 1992). Experiential simulations provide one such method that has been proven successful in learning professional skills. In such a scenario (Gredler, 1996), the simulation designers select some aspect of the real world and represent it in a computational model, capable of introducing learners to realistic problems that need to be solved in a virtual environment, where tasks can be performed and decisions made based on exploration, learning new knowledge, and experimentation. Such simulations provide learners with opportunities to work individually or in teams; they set challenges, guide learners to the

optimum decision choices, invite discussion, involve educators facilitating learner reflections, and offer debriefing to learners on their performance, successes, and failures (see, for example, Chee, 2002; Feinstein, et al., 2002; Thavikulwat, 2004). Experiential e-simulations, delivered in digital form (also online), are often blended with conventional teaching and learning elements (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005), where skilled facilitators can guide the learner in online and face-to-face contexts, assess the progress of the learning process and improve the overall learning experience (Kim & Bonk, 2006). Such a blended approach facilitates learning, which combines different modes of delivery, models of teaching, and styles of learning, and which promotes transparent communication amongst all parties involved (Heinze & Procter, 2004). Our own work with experiential e-simulations includes development of a series of interview-style e-simulations (see Figure 1) that were subsequently used in a blended learning environment to provide business students with knowledge of and practical skills in business analysis (BA) - a starting point in understanding business, its problems and in seeking business and technological solutions to these problems. In the ensuing sections, we will reflect on this experience to formulate a framework for understanding e-simulation design. The First Australian Bank ATM (FAB ATM) was the first attempt at using e-simulations to teach business analysis skills to postgraduate students at Deakin University (Cybulski, et al., 2006a). Over the period of two years (2006-2008), FAB ATM suite of e-simulations supported students working on projects in requirements elicitation and specification, and their teachers in assessing these projects. By blending the simulation with class and online activities, FAB ATM created the perception of a complex corporate environment, which employed management and technical staff with varying knowledge and outlooks on organisational problems and their IT solutions. The students’ task was to identify these problems and to recommend suitable solutions 295


Figure 1. Two interview-style e-simulations: FAB ATM (top) and BCF (bottom)

(Nguyen & Cybulski, 2008b). FAB ATM featured micro-scenes acted and shot in a studio, then dynamically joined by software to form dialogue and scenarios, which could be played in response to students’ actions. Because of the complex and inflexible production process, the e-simulation’s potential for alterations and adaptations was limited to modifying project objectives and its deliverables. For this reason, in later years (2008-2010), FAB ATM was replaced with a much more flexible Blue Cut Fashion (BCF) e-simulation, which was based on a business case pertaining to a chain of fictitious fashion stores. Due to the BCF’s configurable architecture, the e-simulation was used not only in teaching postgraduate students (BCF Chain), as was the case with FAB ATM, but was also used in first year undergraduate teaching (BCF Store) (Nguyen & Cybulski, 2008a). The two variants of the BCF e-simulation used the same business case 296

but targeted different student cohorts, each with distinct skill sets, levels of maturity, interests, and abilities. Consequently, each version of the BCF e-simulation defined different objectives, demanded the undertaking of different tasks, and had entirely different deliverables. The BCF e-simulation evolved to have a flexible design and its components to be highly reusable, which allowed its case study, story line, characters, and the visual environment to be altered and renewed as required. BCF e-simulations were tailored to distinct Deakin student cohorts and used in teaching over 1,500 on-campus and off-campus students. BCF was also adopted at participating institutions. In teaching first year students, the BCF Store e-simulation was used primarily as an online help desk allowing students to seek assistance in dealing with the problem area and with the use of tools needed to complete their projects. In teaching to advanced students, BCF


Chain simulated a field trip, where students were challenged and the tasks confounded by providing them with multiple views of a business problem, conflicting information, untrustworthy information sources, and omissions of pertinent facts. The two BCF e-simulations were designed around the same case study, with similar structures, deployment of the character technology, and approach to student engagement. Blended learning (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005) was also used in both cases, as it allowed fusion of reality and virtuality into a single and consistent world. To gently introduce students to the simulation characters, mini e-simulations were used to interrupt lecture presentations, BCF representatives were role-played to visit face-to-face tutorials, and the e-simulation characters were role-played on a student portal, so that students could pose online queries to the simulated and real people alike. Traditional teaching resources, methods and techniques, were also in use and their content directly supported e-simulation activities. By blending and seamless alignment of all teaching and learning aspects, the e-simulation had a significant impact on students’ perception of learnt skills and on their enjoyment of the learning experience. Experience in the building and teaching with both FAB ATM and all variants of BCF, as well as participation in the development of other esimulations at Deakin, led us to set down some foundations for the e-simulation design framework, which is presented in the following sections.

A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING E-SIMULATION DESIGN Over the years, the technology needed to support development of e-simulations has become more accessible and affordable for educators. At the same time, knowledge and skills required to support the e-simulation development process

place significant demands on such educational developers and on their support staff. As modern e-simulations are likely to blend classroom and online activities with activities taking place in the virtual space, design of such e-simulations will necessarily be complex, spanning many professional disciplines, including education design, cognitive science, video and sound engineering, graphic and multimedia design, game design, software engineering, etc. This chapter therefore proposes a framework that allows better understanding of all the necessary aspects of e-simulation development, as well as, knowledge and skills needed to support the associated design tasks. The proposed framework (see Table 1) addresses four separate dimensions of e-simulation development. The first is its scope or the overarching conceptualisation of the simulation with all of its high level objectives. The second is its experience design, which focuses on the learner’s perception of the e-simulation environment and its tasks. Next is the design of e-simulation mechanics, which specifies the looks, behavior, and interactivity of e-simulation components. Finally, is the deployment of the e-simulation, which aims at implementation, adoption, and long-term use of the e-simulation as a product in the institutional context. In the following sections we will briefly describe each of the dimensions of the e-simulation development framework. The framework will later be elucidated by drawing examples from the previously outlined e-simulations, i.e. BCF Store and Chain. The reader is also encouraged to crossreference the framework elements with details of other simulations described in the previous chapters of this book.

Scope The most important aspect of any simulation or a game is its definition of scope. Simulation scope identifies its key describers, which include

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Table 1. Dimensions and aspects of experiential e-simulations Dimension Scope

Experience

Mechanics

Deployment

Aspect

Components and Alternatives

Audience

User, skills, expectations, market.

Aim

Learning and assessment, gaining experience, testing ideas and theories, developing understanding, entertainment.

Objective

Environment, physical and mental tasks, communication, relationship, collaboration, and resistance.

Substance

Narrative, story, scenario, script, content, theme.

Settings

Time, space, culture and language, resources, rules, styles.

Arrangement

Duration, extent, completeness.

Emergence

Presentation, guidance, direction, surprise, uncertainty, unpredictability.

Convergence

Blending, reality and virtuality, transferability, coherence, consistency, connectedness, reflection.

Immersion

Perception, attention, concentration, comfort, fitness.

Engagement

Commitment, interest, satisfaction, and enjoyment.

Authenticity

Believability, credibility, acceptance, congruence.

Strategies and methods

Thinking and planning, problem solving, use of skills and reflexes, listening and observing, following instructions.

Stage and props

Backdrop and environments, objects, inventory, representation, instrumentation.

Characters

Personality, abilities, looks, voice, behaviour, body language.

Character control

Puppetry and role playing, personification, constraint satisfaction, improvisation, and experimentation.

Action

Simple, facilitated, collaborative, adversarial.

Exploration

Navigation, gaining familiarity, confidence.

User interface and control

Audio-visuals, media, interactivity.

Implementation

Managing development process (creative and structured), development of simulation systems, delivery media, curricula and teaching resources, production.

Adoption and diffusion

Development of personal, technical, and organisational capacities, acquisition of resources, skills and knowledge (training), experience transfer.

Monitoring

Setting objectives, performance tracking, modelling mental states, assessment and ranking, feedback, and debriefing.

Evaluation and improvement

Evaluation of objectives, processes and artefacts, experiences, views and opinions. Improvement by refinement, adaptability, reusability, and configurability.

the simulation audience, the high-level aims and objectives, its main ideas or its substance, as well as its general settings. Understanding the e-simulation audience, which in educational e-simulation includes the learner, the teacher, and other stakeholders exposed to the influence of the planned e-simulation, is crucial in determining the simulation parameters. However, comprehensive characterisation of all simulation users is not possible from the outset of simulation conception. The identity of user types, 298

their roles and their contribution to the simulation slowly emerge as simulation processes are clarified, and the links between the virtual and real environment become more apparent. Some of the members of the audience, and their expectations of the e-simulation, may not even be anticipated until the e-simulation’s deployment or its release onto the market. It is therefore vital that all aspects of simulation design are cyclically evaluated and gradually improved with time.


Each simulation is constructed with different aims in mind and the manner of its use (Hall, 2005). While some e-simulations play a clear educational role in knowledge transfer, others may have a sole purpose in assessment. Some aim at creating a safe virtual environment for practising professional skills and gaining practical experience that cannot be easily attained in a classroom (such as learning to fly an airplane using Microsoft Flight Simulator). Others enable development of deep understanding and exploration of real world phenomena (such as living in a modern city, Ishida, 2002), testing ideas and unproven processes (such as testing maintenance procedures, Badler, Erignac, & Liu, 2002). Still, some of the e-simulations and games provide only an entertainment value, which may be used very effectively in an educational setting as lecture break points, directing learner’s focus of attention, or for gaining familiarity with a larger e-simulation’s mechanics. E-simulation’s objectives are commonly derived from its main aims. Such objectives include creation of virtual and real environments that would accommodate all e-simulation participants, identification of key physical, virtual, and mental tasks expected to be undertaken by these participants, means of establishing collaborative, cognitive, and emotive relationships between them, definition of communication channels, etc. Simulation objectives assist definition of the main elements of the story line or a narrative that is the key to the understanding of all e-simulation contents, its themes, players, their goals, and actions. The narrative can subsequently be turned into a detailed script that identifies the story characters (capable of answering user questions), defines a temporal and spatial context for the unfolding actions, stylistic and cultural framing of the character behaviour (as displayed in a body language and a manner of speech), and resources available to the characters (such as photographs and documents passed to learners). Unlike a movie script, an e-simulation script is not linear but instead

identifies alternative scenarios, sequences of events, decision points, and activity flows taken in response to participants’ actions and time events. The script is thus fragmented into a large body of rules governing events of the simulated world, the rules that assist a later assembly of simulated events that will be perceived as continuous and consistent in the minds of e-simulation users.

Experience Experience design focuses on the creation of believable and engaging environments that deliver all of the designer’s objectives and which sustain the avid interests of all simulation participants. Experience design aims at the arrangement of temporal and spatial structures to support the simulation story line; it plans the simulation elements to slowly emerge in the process of interaction, which would ultimately lead to the convergence of the simulation with the user’s world experience. The simulation environment should be designed to fully immerse the participants in the simulated world and to support their engagement in its tasks and objectives, thus giving them an illusion of authenticity and persuading them to accept the simulation as an integral part of their world experience. It is important to note that the aim of e-simulations is not necessarily to recreate a real-like environment that would be readily accepted by the participants as an extension of their reality (Swartout & Lent, 2003), but rather that experiences gained from participation in the activities of the simulated world are authentic, that they extend their personal knowledge, and add to the valued skill sets (Rosenbloom, 2003). This implies that such e-simulated environments may be designed to pose unlikely challenges to their users (clearly beyond the scope of the real), they could confuse participants by impossible tasks, play with their belief systems to abolish the established dogmas, and rely on their imagination to uniquely fill in the gaps in the virtual world.

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The foundation of experience design is in the clear organisation of all perceptual and actionable artefacts. As indicated by Shedroff (2000), organising experiential things involves determining categories of these things, their time and location, their internal structures, to reflect continuums and randomness. The proposed e-simulation design framework limits this foundational basis to arrangement of time and space, their apportioning to the real and virtual experience, their span, fragmentation, completeness and interconnectedness, which, when presented to the perceiver, would form the whole experience (in the eye of beholder). In practice, experience designers identify sequences of participatory encounters, some of which would take place in the real environment with real people, others would be unfolding in the virtual environment. Some would take place in a total synchrony with the current events, others would happen asynchronously and the participants would be notified of them by letter, email, bulletin board or mobile text messages. All these fragments would be designed to fall into a meaningful single user experience, and assist learning, possibly as a side effect of participation in enjoyable activity (i.e. without intention, Zyda, 2005). However, the carefully crafted but complex design may elude the e-simulation participants, some of whom may just be learners of new skills, and the skills of observation, analysis, and integration of insights could be amongst the skills to be learnt in the esimulation process. The e-simulation experience would necessarily need to emerge in this process of interaction. For the new learners, e-simulation would require guidance and directions to assist identification of themes, threads, and meanings. Problem solvers may need to be helped in decomposition of problems and applying solutions to the sub-problems. Professional or advanced users, on the other hand, may need to be challenged by presenting them with surprising twists of action, uncertainty, and unpredictability.

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As individual communications and interactions within an e-simulation are potentially highly fragmented and discontinuous in their basic design, it is important to carefully stage not only the presentation of simulation artefacts and emergence of simulated events but, more importantly, the convergence of experiences gained in the process. Mixing the real and virtual experiences (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005), relying on multiple (possibly facilitated) communication channels (Asakawa & Gilbert, 2003), and actively pursuing alternative learning paradigms within a single educational e-simulation (Heinze & Procter, 2004), can all contribute to the ultimate convergence of all simulated experiences, and the construction of meaningful insights and reflections. The nexus of the alternative experience paths into the participants’ mind is especially important in educational settings, where an e-simulation may be required to reach the learner through multiple communication channels and to provide support for multiple learning styles. A number of distinct e-simulation learning approaches, typically present in the traditional face-to-face teaching environment, can be deployed to this end, e.g. an e-simulation could rely on the tasks that involve learning (as adopted from - Chee, 2002) by being told, by observation, by doing and discovery, by playing, by engagement in peer-to-peer communication and collaboration (see Figure 2). In educational e-simulations, such as FAB ATM and BCF interview-style e-simulations, it is possible to design sequences of sessions that could immerse and engage the learner to provide a sense of authenticity. Through a single person interview, the learner can exercise the skills of observations and discovery, could engage in question answering, learn to control the focus of attention and master the thematic shifts. In a simulated group interview, completely different learning outcomes can be delivered, e.g. to include multi-agent communication and meeting control, sustaining concentration, dealing with distractions


Figure 2. Approaches to learning with e-simulations

and commitment to objectives. In a brainstorm session, learners may draw satisfaction and enjoyment from applying imaginative thinking, participative problem solving and consensus building. In quiz sessions, they can be challenged out of their comfort zone and tested for valid insights. All these e-simulation experiences can be complemented with highly congruent physical activities, where the participants could apply and transfer skills from the virtual to the real, and be involved in role playing (e.g. interviewer-interviewee situations) and purposeful action (such as analysing interview transcripts and preparing written reports). A blend of virtual and physical learning activities provides the learner with a greater sense of reality and credibility of the whole learning experience.

Mechanics Each simulation must have its own mechanics, i.e. methods of interaction to allow users to act in the virtual environment, gain the required experience and achieve the planned aims and objectives of the simulation. The simulation mechanics lay down the fundamental principles of experience delivery, whether it be in problem-solving, application of skills, or following instructions. The simulated activities follow the dynamic script of play, which takes place on its stage with virtual backdrops, props, and characters, each equipped with audiovisual and interactive instrumentation giving them their unique look and behaviours, so that they could be manipulated directly or indirectly by the simulation participants able to enter the roles of the character-puppet masters. The characters, whether enacted by human participants or fully

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simulated by the rules of the script, can assume collaborative or adversarial roles acting on the simulated objects and exploring the simulated environment. E-simulation mechanics are often borrowed from the commercially available games sold for use in home entertainment systems or they are adapted from non-educational simulations (e.g. military and business). As the accessibility of game technology increases and its costs drop, small business and educators are now able to employ hardware and software tools to create inexpensive e-simulations that utilise complex user interfaces, immersive 3D environments, realistic animation, use of human-models and movement controls, face modelling and speech synthesis, and a variety of media production and delivery options. The core difficulty of any e-simulation design, however, is still in careful mapping of simulation aims (for both the virtual and the real), as well as experiential goals and constraints into a selection of strategies for media control and man-machine interaction. Fortunately, many strategy choices form well-known genres of game and simulation design, which are exemplified with popular games and simulation products (see Additional Reading Section for their web sources), construction of which can be supported with readily available software toolkits (Swain, 2005). •

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Action genre: Provides an environment to exercise skills and reflexes. In popular console games this involves combat, struggle, running, jumping, shooting, sport, and competition. While the genre is not in common use in educational simulation, its elements are being utilised for user engagement, enhanced interactivity, or as a reward. Adventure genre: Supports user exploration. The genre creates a complex immersive environment, often from a fantasy world, where the aim is to navigate the world, identify and subsequently reach

•

•

objectives, avoid obstacles, gather objects and resources that could assist in the quest, follow instructions, solve puzzles, and engage in some limited combat (no reflex or action). Examples of such environments can be found in: ◦âŠ¦ Graphic Adventures: Myst, Mystery Of Time And Space (MOTAS) ◦âŠ¦ Story Adventures: Sam & Max Save the World, Japanese anime stories Role-playing genre: Focuses on provision of direct control of characters by players who can then be embodied in a virtual environment. Role playing games fall into two major classes, known as RPG (RolePlaying Game) and MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game). Both types of environments define a specific time, location, society and culture. They allow characters to be designed by players themselves and via these characters to undertake quests, exploration, use of inventory of tools and resources, as well as engagement in some tactical combat. In the process of interaction, the controlled characters may grow in power and abilities. Examples: ◦âŠ¦ RPG Examples: Oblivion, Assassins Creed, RPG Maker, KOTOR ◦âŠ¦ MMORPG Examples: Runescape, World of Warcraft Strategy genre: Places the priority on players to invoke thinking and planning. Players of games and simulations representing this genre explore a variety of tools and actions to achieve well-defined objectives. The rules of the game require thinking, problem solving, and long term planning. Examples include war games and business simulations: ◦âŠ¦ 4X (eXplore, eXpand, eXploit and eXterminate): Civilization ◦âŠ¦ Real-Time Strategy and Tactics: Icehouse and Empire Total War


◦âŠ¦

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Business simulations: Capitalism II, BTS, AdSim and Simuland ◦âŠ¦ Military simulations: ES2 and ES3 (Intelligence observation and reporting) Simulations and virtual environments: This genre features complex and realistic simulation of environments, people, rules, and tasks. Exploration, experimentation, learning, and construction in the rich virtual environment are the main tasks performed by the characters controlled by the players. While the objectives of these games and simulations are often undefined, it is the players’ immersion in the environment and engagement in multi-party action, which provides the participants with satisfaction and enjoyment. Examples include: ◦âŠ¦ Entertainment and games (focus on fun) ▪âŒª Hobby: Guitar Hero and Sing Star ▪âŒª Relationship: Sims Family, Party, Animals ▪âŒª Sport: Wii Sports, Tiger Woods PGA Tour, WhatIfSports ▪âŒª Construction: SimCity, Tycoon Zoo, Rollercoaster ◦âŠ¦ Educational simulations (focus on knowledge acquisition) ▪âŒª Business simulations: Industry Player and Industry Masters ▪âŒª Business games: Virtonomics and Airline ▪âŒª 2D Physics sandbox: PHUN ▪âŒª Robot simulation: Darwin2K, Webots and Yobotics ◦âŠ¦ Serious simulations (focus on investigation and learning) ▪âŒª Pilot training: Microsoft Flight Simulator ▪âŒª City and crowd simulation: UrbanSim, Distrimobs and Massive

▪âŒª ▪âŒª

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Bushfire simulation: SiroFire Earth Systems Simulation: Auscope Simulation and Modeling (SAM) ▪âŒª Business: Virtual Stock Exchange and Virtual Chancellor ▪âŒª Health: Simulated operating theatre, Penfield virtual hospital ▪âŒª Military: Total Immersion RealWorld, VIMS ◦âŠ¦ 3D virtual community (focus on socialising) SecondLife and PlayStation Home Alternate Reality genre: This is a new form of interactive narrative, which involves authentic characters and real objects, and which uses the real world as its delivery platform, in which new rules of engagement define an alternative reality. Multiple media and communication channels may assist communication between players. A group of game facilitators, or puppet masters, design and change the game rules and weave the story line in response to players’ actions. Inclusion in the game is often on condition of secrecy, which fosters viral marketing and massive participation. Examples: ◦âŠ¦ The Beast (A.I.), I Love Bees (Halo 2)

In summary, e-simulation mechanics—similarly to game mechanics—defines its strategies and methods of delivering all its elements to simulation participants, both players and facilitators. Mechanics also provide a design of the simulated environment, which may feature rich audio-visual media components and complex interactivity. The environment may consist of a stage for the unfolding action, its specific props or objects that can be manipulated by e-simulation characters. The characters are designed to navigate, explore, and act on their environment, have unique personality, looks, abilities, voice, body language, and

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patterns of behaviour. Some of these characters may be designed to personify e-simulation users, who could in turn define their features and be in direct control of their actions.

Deployment E-simulation deployment is a process of creating, delivering, and improving (over time) all of the necessary e-simulation components, so that the intended users can reach their planned aims and objectives. The process includes design of various simulation-related artefacts, which include: software, multimedia, as well as teaching and learning resources. Organisations involved in the implementation of these resources need to develop the necessary technical and educational infrastructures. Those involved in the adoption of these resources also need to acquire the necessary

skills, knowledge, and experience in effective delivery and use of e-simulations. Monitoring user performance may be required to facilitate their assessment (in the educational setting), provision of feedback or debriefing, or simply to encourage user competition and improvement. Evaluation of simulation processes and artefacts, as well as experiences and views of their users and designers is necessary to improve some aspects of the simulation technology, experience, and deployment. There are many possible architectural designs that could support the workings of a typical esimulation system. A simple e-simulation consists of several technical resources (e.g. FAB ATM and BCF), such as simulation scripts and media objects, to include backdrops, characters and props, which in the e-simulation run-time are interpreted and manipulated by a specialised simulation engine. The engine would initially populate the simulated

Figure 3. Typical e-simulation architecture and development process

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environment with media objects, and then trigger audio-visual action (playing speech, sound and video) in response to user activities (such as clicking buttons, selecting menus, and entering text). A simulation engine typically features four separate modules responsible for the authoring, presentation, control, and tracking of e-simulations (see Figure 3). All user generated events, as well as actions performed by the e-simulation, may be tracked and later accessed for reporting purposes, user debriefing, or student assessment. As discussed before, creation of high quality educational e-simulations requires an established educational approach, student experience design, development of creative scenarios and complementary teaching and learning resources, attention to detail of simulated characters and their behaviour, involvement in graphic and multimedia design, as well as extensive testing and evaluation of simulation scripts, and their subsequent deployment in a teaching context. The process is normally focused on the development of educational contents and media artefacts that are able to create and enhance the learner’s experience. Typically, such development involves an author/ educator, media designer and a software developer (see Figure 3). The development process starts with an author or educator creating a simulation narrative, or a story consisting of several scenarios, which describe e-simulation characters, identify what they know and what they say, in response to what questions, and in what circumstances. Similarly, for the development of a script for a play or a movie, character prompts (questions) and lines (responses, gestures, fidgets and body language) are scripted in considerable detail. During e-simulation execution, its story line unfolds dynamically, and thus, the script represents not linear chronology of events but instead identifies possible states of the story, its characters and props, as well as state changes in response to events triggered by user actions and time, which all need to be scripted. Media designers are responsible for the creation

of all audio-visual aspects of e-simulation objects, their methods of animation, and puppetry (provision of real-time character controls). In some cases, where actors are involved in personification of e-simulation characters, studio work and multimedia postproduction would also entail. Integration and testing of an e-simulation would normally involve both the media designer and authors/educators; however, in the later stages of e-simulation development, it may also include a pilot study with the participation of players/ learners. Before releasing the e-simulation into production, the educator will also need to design an assessment regime suitable for the tasks supported by the e-simulation. In some cases, such assessment would require automatic tracking of learners’ activities and reporting of these activities. On rare occasions, requirements for e-simulation features’ customisation would necessitate changes to, and redevelopment of, the simulation engine. One of the most critical aspects of e-simulation development is in the creation of believable characters with their unique personality and mannerism, looks, voice, body language, abilities, and behaviour. The characters can be enacted by actors and recorded in the studio line by line. During e-simulation execution, its video sequence can be assembled dynamically of movie fragments that correspond to parts of simulated action and dialogue (as featured in previously discussed FAB ATM). However, the number of possible meaningful permutations of such conversational fragments would be severely limited, and thus, e-simulation products of this type are quite inflexible in their lack of malleability to different user groups and educational objectives. However, availability of inexpensive technology capable of incorporating realistic synthetic characters in e-simulations (as featured in BCF e-simulations and Media Semantics software) provides a viable alternative to actors (see Figure 4). There are many vendors specialising in virtual characters software that could be used in packaged commercial applications and delivery over the web. The most

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Figure 4. Different character technology options: Hosted (left), built (top) and served (right)

popular products for rapid delivery of synthetic characters include SitePal, Media Semantics, and Reallusion iClone, with CrazyTalk. Software at the higher end of the cost scale includes products for professional 3D modelling and animation, such as Poser, LightWave 3D and Autodesk Maya. In the simplest scenario, synthetic virtual characters can be hosted from the vendor’s site. This approach has been taken by SitePal and is also available as one of the services from Media Semantics. In a typical situation, developers (or even end users) can purchase the hosting service, configure a number of conversational characters to say a range of phrases in different voice styles, and then include them on their web site. The main advantage of this approach is that developers do not require any IT infrastructure to use their

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characters, the upfront costs are small, and the development of useful characters does not require sophisticated technical skills. Alternatively, conversational characters can be created using a specialist “character builder” tool (e.g. Media Semantics Character Builder), which also requires a text-to-speech system capable of synthesising voices of acceptable quality. The resulting multimedia products can be delivered with the minimum of costs to end users either on the web or on a CD-ROM. Finally, an organisation that needs to reach a large number of concurrent users via online e-simulation products (e.g. embedded in Flash) may require its own character service (e.g. Media Semantics Character Server). Commonly, in such a case, voice and character servers need to be purchased and setup as an extension of the


standard web server. Quality voices (text-tospeech service) will require expensive “telephony” licenses and a separate licensing for redistribution of the character artwork may also be required. The main advantage of this approach, however, is the attractive cost to volume ratio, the flexibility of service delivery, and a high degree of control over different delivery channels. Depending on the choice of character, speech, and multimedia technology used in the implementation of a particular e-simulation, a team of graphic designers, multimedia developers, and software engineers may be required to work jointly in developing its software components and in integrating them into a new e-simulation product. However, running such e-simulations in a large educational institution requires not only a sophisticated e-simulation product but also a complex technical infrastructure capable of supporting large numbers of concurrent users, i.e. learners using the e-simulation and teachers tracking students’ performance, assessing their skills and knowledge, and providing them with meaningful feedback on progress. These e-simulation user groups are capable of generating significant load on the Internet gateways, computer networks, and web servers, as well as on professional staff employed to maintain and improve the technology used in support of e-simulation infrastructure. The selection of e-simulation technology will thus provide a hosting institution with unique challenges, some in balancing staff workloads, some in their specialist training, and some in financing the long-term commitment to using e-simulation in student education.

APPLYING THE FRAMEWORK The presented framework for the development of experiential e-simulation addresses four separate aspects of this undertaking, i.e. project scoping, experience and mechanics design, as well as its

institutional deployment. It explains the main decisions in the process of designing e-simulation’s educational and technical aspects. It also draws the reader’s attention to the need for establishing suitable organisational infrastructures to sustain long-term commitment to using e-simulation in education. The framework provides understanding of benefits and challenges of e-simulation projects and offers insights into the e-simulation development process. To better elucidate the conceptual underpinning of the framework, this section provides an example of the framework application to the development of the previously mentioned two variants of experiential e-simulation, Blue Cut Fashion - Store and Chain (see Table 2). As evident from Table 2, the choice of audience for the BCF simulations (Store and Chain) had a major impact on the whole set of e-simulation design decisions. While the case study and the simulation settings are remarkably similar, the e-simulations’ aims, objectives, and their substance clearly differentiate between novice and mature learners. The former group of students aimed at simplicity, the latter at complexity. The objectives for the first group were concerned with improvement of personal skills, the second were concerned with developing professional skills and being capable of dealing with team management, collaborative problem solving, and industry standards. The experience design was consequential to the choices made during the project’s scoping. The e-simulations arrangement implied freedom and flexibility for novices and strict time management and scrutiny for advanced students. The BCF Store e-simulation was designed to assist beginners who used it as a help-desk, whereas BCF Chain was designed to challenge mature students who used it as a field trip, which also presented them with conflicting and incorrect information, as well as omission of important facts.

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Table 2. E-simulation features and variants E-Simulation

BCF Single Store

BCF Chain of Stores

Scope Audience

Undergraduate business students (1st year)

Postgraduate business students (Masters)

Aims

Learning simple consulting tasks and fulfilling the role of a naïve business analyst

Learning a full spectrum of requirements engineering tasks and gaining experience in the role of a professional analyst

Objectives

Analyse business performance and recommend change

Analyse business needs and specify requirements for process/IT solution

Deal with: Personal management Business and communication complexity Task complexity (Excel) Errors in data

Deal with: Team management and time pressure Business and communication complexity Multiple and conflicting viewpoints Incorrect information and omission Standard compliance

Substance

Analysing a simple business case, working individually to analyse data, seek evidence of problems and offer recommendations for change

Analysing a complex business case, working as a member of business analysis team to elicit data, seek business and technical problems and specify a viable solution

Settings

A single modern-day store in Melbourne, Australia. Access to simulated executives and technical staff

A modern-day chain of stores in Melbourne, Australia. Access to simulated executives and technical staff

Arrangement

Students have unlimited access to e-simulation BCF characters. Characters are also role-played by staff answering questions online

Students participate in several encounters with role-played BCF staff, which includes one hour of interviews with three e-simulated members of staff

Convergence

Blending with some aspects of curriculum Laboratory sessions mirror project stages

Blending with all aspects of curriculum Project with e-sim leads curriculum

Emergence, immersion, engagement and authenticity

E-sim is a ‘help desk’ Mini e-sims are introduced in lectures E-sim reveals and explains a data set E-sim provides hints and guides Staged levels of difficulty

E-sim is a ‘field trip’ Role-plays in classes and e-sims online E-sim tangles a data set E-sim sets challenges

Strategies and methods

Instruction (in class) Interviews (via e-simulation) Analysis (of data with Excel) Presentation (of evidence with Excel) Recommendation (as informal report) Assessment (and debriefing in class)

Brainstorm (in teams) Interviews (via e-simulation) Analysis (of facts and viewpoints) Validation / negotiation (with customer) Recommendation (as specification doc) Assessment (and debriefing in class)

Stage, props, characters and UI

Flash environment, ‘realistic’ animated characters, pre-set menus with questions

Flash environment, ‘realistic’ animated characters, pre-set menus with questions

Action and exploration

Selection of questions from menus, answers in voice, transcript generated

Questions from menus, answers in voice, body language, interruptions and time events, no transcript

Implementation

Adapted from BCF Chain e-simulation Sequencing and staging of scenarios Pre-caching of e-simulation contents

Developed using DeakinSim framework Sequencing and staging of scenarios

Adoption and diffusion

Reliance on institutional infrastructure Piloted with a small group of students Full deployment after evaluation Fall back deployment planned

Reliance on institutional infrastructure Initially delivered via development server Full deployment after evaluation

Experience

Mechanics

Deployment


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Table 2. Continued E-Simulation

BCF Single Store

BCF Chain of Stores

Monitoring

Continuous load monitoring Organisational IT help-desk used Problem monitoring via project help-desk Feedback and debriefing via portal

Organisational IT help-desk used Feedback and debriefing in class

Evaluation and improvement

Need for evaluation and improvement E-sim configurability and reusability

Need for evaluation and improvement E-sim configurability and reusability

The main principles of e-simulation mechanics were very much alike, which indicates the need and opportunities for technology reuse. However, activities conducted outside the confines of the e-simulation took advantage of students’ abilities to conduct independent work (e.g. the use of brainstorms by Masters students) and engaging in face-to-face dialogue with domain practitioners (e.g. validation of findings with a client). The logistics of communicating with thousands of concurrent students involved in BCF Store pointed to the use of online facilities for student assistance, feedback, and debriefing. The BCF Store e-simulation was an adaptation of BCF Chain, which was previously developed using the DeakinSim framework (LiveSim) and used a year earlier. As both e-simulations were developed and deployed within the same educational institution, and by the same team of developers and educators, the processes and design aspects of their deployment were very similar. While BCF Chain was targeted at only a handful of graduate students, it was initially installed on, and served from, a small development machine. Moving the simulation to a large student audience placed the organisational IT support as an important feature of its successful delivery. Issues such as hardware and software operation, application and data security, workload monitoring, server maintenance, as well as 24/7 telephone help desk support were all considered vital and were included as part of the standard institutional IT infrastructure support. This also meant that the deployment of BCF Store to thousands of concurrent students demanded formal analysis of

its potential impact on the organisational network and server infrastructure. The e-simulation was initially piloted on a small group of 70 summer semester students, its network and server loads evaluated, risks assessed, and its launch to 1500 concurrent students carefully orchestrated. As part of risk management, alternative service delivery options were planned to include pre-caching of e-simulation contents, sequencing and staging of e-simulation scenarios, and staggering of esimulation access by “appointment”. However, in the course of e-simulation use, continuous network and server monitoring demonstrated that none of these fall-back positions were in fact necessary to be invoked. After each teaching period all BCF e-simulations documents, objectives and the associated scripts were significantly altered to avoid plagiarism and collusion. This change was also considered an opportunity to evaluate BCF esimulations and their use in teaching, and subsequently improve their aspects of technical delivery and in forming student experience. This need for regular e-simulation updates, while reusing large parts of their shared resources, drove the developers to construct and refine the simulation engine to become modular, highly configurable, and maintained centrally as an e-simulation farm.

CONCLUSION Development and successful use of educational e-simulations requires significant knowledge of educational design and relies on considerable

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technical skills and practical experience. Due to this complexity, e-simulations are commonly the result of the combined effort of many participating parties, iterative development, evaluation, and refinement of e-simulation products and their use, which may span several years and may affect many groups of users. This chapter highlighted challenges that are commonly faced by e-simulation designers and developers, by adopters considering e-simulation’s use in an educational setting, or by those responsible for building institutional capacity and infrastructure capable of supporting e-simulations and their long-term use. The chapter finally proposed a framework that identifies and clarifies the tasks typically undertaken in the design of experiential e-simulation, the framework that enhances our understanding of design processes associated with the creation of the mainstream educational e-simulations.

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Gredler, M. E. (1996). Educational games and simulations: A technology in search of a (research) paradigm. In Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 521–540). New York, NY: Macmillan Library Reference. Hall, J. J. S. B. (2005). Computer business simulation design: The rock pool method. Paper presented at the Association of Business Simulation and Experiential Learning (ABSEL) Conference. Retrieved from http://www.simulations.co.uk/ download/RockPool.pdf Heinze, A., & Procter, C. (2004). Reflections on the use of blended learning. Paper presented at the Education in a Changing Environment. Retrieved from http://www.ece.salford. ac.uk/proceedings/ papers/ah_04.rtf. Hoberman, S., & Mailick, S. (1992). Experiential management development: From learning to practice. New York, NY: Quorum Books. Hutchison, A. (2006). Where are my legs?: Embodiment gaps in avatars. In K. Wong, L. Fung & P. Cole (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Game Research and Development. Ishida, T. (2002). Digital City Kyoto. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 76–81. doi:10.1145/514236.514238 Jeffries, P. A. (2005). A framework for designing, implementing, and evaluating simulations used as teaching strategies in nursing. Nursing Education Perspectives, 26(2), 96–103. Kim, K. J., & Bonk, C. J. (2006). The future of online teaching and learning in higher education: The survey says... Educase Quarterly, 4, 22–30. Kirkley, S. E., & Kirkley, J. R. (2005). Creating next generation blended learning environments using mixed reality, video games and simulations. TechTrends, 49(3), 42–53, 89. doi:10.1007/ BF02763646

Klabbers, J. H. G. (2006). A framework for artifact assessment and theory testing. Simulation & Gaming, 37(2), 155–173. doi:10.1177/1046878106287943 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Lainema, T. (2003a). Experiential learning: How to apply experiential learning environments in the context of organizational learning. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, Turku, Finland. Lainema, T. (2003b). Implications of constructivism for computer-based learning. In Proceedings of the 11th European Conference on Information Systems, Naples, Italy. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social sciences. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., & Torrente, J. (2009). Digital games in e-learning environments: Current uses and emerging trends. Simulation & Gaming, 40(5), 669–687. doi:10.1177/1046878109340294 Nguyen, L., & Cybulski, J. L. (2008a). Into the future: Inspiring and stimulating users’ creativity. In W. Juang, & H. H. Teo (Eds.), Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS ‘08), Suzhou, China. Nguyen, L., & Cybulski, J. L. (2008b). Learning to become a creative systems analyst. In J. C. D. Schmorrow & D. Nicholson (Eds.), The PSI handbook of virtual environments for training and education: Developments for the military and beyond (Vol. 1, pp. 208-226). Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing group. Rosenbloom,A. (2003).Agame experience in every application: Introduction. Communications of the ACM, 46(7), 28–31. doi:10.1145/792704.792726

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Swartout, W., & Lent, M. v. (2003). Making a game of system design. Communications of the ACM, 46(7), 32–39. doi:10.1145/792704.792727 Thavikulwat, P. (2004). The architecture of computerised business gaming simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 35(2), 242–269. doi:10.1177/1046878104263545 Zyda, M. (2005). From visual simulation to virtual reality games. IEEE Computer, September, 25-32.


APPENDIX ADDITIONAL READING General •

Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/. Terms of interest: ◦âŠ¦ Computer games ◦âŠ¦ Video game ◦âŠ¦ Simulation ◦âŠ¦ Computer simulation ◦âŠ¦ Blended learning ◦âŠ¦ Medical simulation ◦âŠ¦ Business simulation game

Alternative Reality Games • • • •

SemirealGames.com: Brief Snippets from the Serious Games Community. Retrieved from http://www.semirealgames.com/ Unfiction.com: Alternative Reality Gaming. Retrieved from http://www.unfiction.com/ Stewart, S. The Beast: The A.I. Web Game. Retrieved from http://www.seanstewart.org/beast/ intro/ Terdiman, D. (2004). I Love Bees Game a Surprise Hit. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/ culture/lifestyle/news/2004/10/65365

Entertainment • •

What If Sports: Your Sports Simulation Destination. Retrieved from http://www.whatifsports. com/locker/ Simulation: Games that mimic real life in some way from business to politics to human behavior! Retrieved from http://www.download-free-games.com/download/cat/simulation/

Educational • • • •

Darwin2k: Simulation and Automated Synthesis for Robotics. Retrieved from http://darwin2k.sourceforge.net/ DeakinSims - Our Experience in Learning (incl. LiveSim simulations). Retrieved from http:// www.deakin.edu.au/itl/insims/ Phun: 2D Physics Sandbox. Retrieved from http://www.phunland.com/wiki/Home Webots 6: Fast Prototyping and Simulation of Mobile Robots. Retrieved from http://www. cyberbotics.com/products/webots/

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•

Yobotics: Simulation Construction Set (Biomechanical Systems). Retrieved from http://yobotics.com/simulation/simulation.htm

Government and Scientific • • • • • • • •

AuScope SAM (Simulation, Analysis, Modelling). Retrieved from http://www.auscope.org.au/ content.php/content/id/16 DISTRIMOBS: Pedestrain Mobility Simulation. Retrieved December 2009, from http://physicsofthecitylab.unibo.it/index.php/The-Distrimobs-simulator/ Massive: Simulating Life (Crowd Simulation). Retrieved from http://www.massivesoftware. com/real-world-simulation/ Penfield Virtual Hospital (Nursing Simulation). Retrieved from http://www.hud.ac.uk/hhs/ departments/nursing/penfield_site/ Southern Health Simulation Centre (Simulated Operating Theatre). Retrieved from http:// www.monashsimulation.com/ SiroFire - The Bushfire Spread Simulator. Retrieved from http://www.csiro.au/products/ SiroFire.html UrbanSim Community Web Portal (Urban planning). Retrieved from http://www.urbansim. org/ VIMS™ Virtual Incident Management System. Retrieved from http://www.ctcorp.com/capability26.html

Military • • • • • •

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Ackerman, R. K. (2005). Army Teaches Soldiers New Intelligence-Gathering Role (ES2 & ES3). Retrieved from http://www.afcea.org/signal/articles/templates/SIGNAL_Article_Template. asp?articleid=731&zoneid=132 Department of the Army Headquarters, USA (2003). Training Objective Force Embedded Training (OFET): Users’ Functional Description. Retrieved from http://www.tradoc.army.mil/ tpubs/pams/p350-37.htm Francoeur, A. D. Applications: Soldiers Train for Real Combat Through Virtual Simulation. Retrieved from http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=36226 Knerr, B. W. (2007). Immersive Simulation Training for the Dismounted Soldier. Retrieved from http://www.hqda.army.mil/ari/pdf/SR2007-01.pdf Total Immersion Software. Military-DoD: Rapid Mission Rehearsal and Training (RealWorld). Retrieved from http://www.totimm.com/RealWorld-military-dod.php USMC VBS1™ Simulation Centers (Battlespace Rehearsal System). Retrieved from http:// www.ctcorp.com/performance25.html


BUSINESS General •

ABSEL: Gaming/Simulation Packages. Retrieved from http://absel2011.wordpress.com/ gaming-packages-by-abselites/

Entertainment • •

Bates, J. (2002). Trevor Chan’s Capitalism II. Retrieved from http://au.pc.ign.com/ articles/167/167372p1.html Capitalism II: The Strategy Game of Money, Power and Wealth. Retrieved from http://www. enlight.com/capitalism2/

Serious Simulation and Education • • • • •

Airline (Strategy, Marketing and Operation). Retrieved from http://www.interpretive.com/rd5/ index.php?pg=al GoldSimulations (Economics Simulations). Retrieved from http://www.goldsimulations.com/ Virtonomics: MMORPG, best free online economic game. (Retail, manufacture and trade) Retrieved from http://virtonomics.com/ Virtual Chancellor (Simulation of UK Economy). Retrieved from http://www.virtual-worlds. biz/vwc/ Virtual Stock Exchange from MarketWatch. Retrieved from http://vse.marketwatch.com/ Game/Homepage.aspx

Strategy • • •

ASD Business Simulations (Analysis and decision making). Retrieved from http://asdsim.buz. net/ Business Acumen Simulations (Facilitated). Retrieved from http://www.bts.com/business_simulations_businessacumen.aspx Simuland: The Better Online Business Simulation so Close to Reality (Strategy and decision making). Retrieved from http://www.simuland.net/en/

Role Playing • •

Tycoon Systems. IndustryPlayer: Business Simulation Game. Retrieved from http://www.industryplayer.com/ Tycoon Systems. Industry Masters: Real-Time Business Simulation. Retrieved from http:// www.industrymasters.com/

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Chapter 18

Supporting the Design of Interactive Scenarios in a University Environment:

Techniques, Issues and Constraints T. M. Stewart Massey University, New Zealand

ABSTRACT Interactive scenarios are embedded in many e-simulations and can assist learning by providing authentic and engaging student experiences. While software exists for constructing and delivering interactive scenarios, planning and storyboarding for the latter can be difficult. This chapter illustrates a systematic approach to planning interactive scenario-based exercises and tying them into a lesson plan prior to constructing the electronic version. Constraints and barriers to using interactive scenarios in a university setting include lack of training or knowledge of pedagogy by academics and conflicting demands on their time. Strong institutional support is required to embed interactive scenarios within the learning culture.

INTRODUCTION Interactive scenarios play an increasing role in blended learning. Many of the chapters preceding this one discuss interactive scenarios of one type or another; indeed many e-simulations are a form of interactive scenario. The term “interactive scenario” can be defined very broadly. However, the term has a specific meaning in this chapter so before continuing it is useful to clarify its meaning.

A scenario in its simplest sense is a description of an event or a series of events. Scenarios can be used as methods to describe and plan for the future (as in futures research) or they can be linear or non-linear discrete event narratives (as understood in the film and digital games industry). The term “scenario” in this chapter refers to the latter type. In an e-teaching environment an interactive scenario refers to a sequence of events, delivered electronically in the context of a lesson

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch018


Supporting the Design of Interactive Scenarios in a University Environment

and utilising a possible mix of media (text, images, video and audio). A learner working through such a scenario should have a degree of control as to the sequencing, depth of information, pace, and/ or eventual outcomes. The scenario requires input from the learner hence it is “interactive”. The interaction could range from the very simple, such as mouse-clicks to determine pace in a sequential “click-through” narrative, to rich non-linear explorations where the learner is required to answer questions and make decisions. These decisions may have consequences, and may result in limited or expanded information access. They may also change the eventual outcome of the scenario. Feedback is given during or after tasks. From a designer’s perspective, these scenarios are well structured and the outcomes are pre-programmed. Although the learner may have choices, each outcome is anticipated and appropriate feedback prepared. These scenarios are used for scenariobased learning, which Kindley (2002) defines as “learning that occurs in a context, situation, or social framework. It’s based on the concept of situated cognition, which is the idea that knowledge can’t be known and fully understood independent of its context”. I first encountered interactive scenarios as described above 30 years ago, in the guise of textbased “adventure games” such as those described in Montfort (2003). These games were written for adults not children. These user-directed narratives were elaborate, rich and most of all engaging. They engaged me, who could see that their slow unfolding nature, exploratory nature, opportunity for reflection, and problem-solving tasks provided potential for narrative and scenario-based instruction. It is gratifying that today, adventure games are recognised as carrying useful pedagogies for learning (van Eck, 2007). Inspired by these games, I, alone and with others, developed similar scenarios and associated authoring software for my own subject discipline (Stewart, 1992; Stewart et al, 1995; Stewart & Galea, 2006). I also created a generic authoring tool

called CHALLENGE (Stewart & Bartrum, 2002). Many of the concepts used in CHALLENGE and the previous discipline-specific software found their way into SBL interactive (University of Queensland, 2010). In the last five years, I have supported and been involved in scenario-creation for a number of subject disciplines, firstly through a large national project which involved a precursor to SBLi called PBL interactive (Stewart, 2007), and then in a consultancy and support role for teaching staff at Massey University. This chapter draws on this experience by outlining and discussing techniques, which have been found useful in planning and designing interactive scenarios for use in lessons. These will be illustrated with select examples. Issues and constraints of using this teaching pedagogy in a University setting are also discussed with some possible solutions suggested. Finally, a look to the future is touched on, including the challenges of incorporating more game play into teaching and embedding interactive scenarios more closely within learning management systems. SBL interactive is my authoring and delivery tool of choice, but this chapter’s content is relevant to all interactive scenario design and use, regardless of the authoring tool or delivery platform used.

BACKGROUND Electronic interactive lessons have been used for education for as long as microcomputers have been popular in classrooms. Even in pre-web days, the availability of technologies such as CD-ROM, videodisks and early authoring and presentation software utilising hyperlinks, such as the Apple Hypercard™ System, allowed for rich interactive learner experiences. Regarding these systems Allred and Locatis (1988) categorized three types of design; scenario-based, hypermedia, and parallel systems. By their definitions, scenario-based designs involved learners being given a goal

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and being required to perform a series of tasks to achieve it. Performance was monitored and feedback given during the task, or when it was completed. Hypermedia designs involved exploring and annotating electronic media as a reference source. Finally, parallel systems designs involved information being presented, teaching strategies then being outlined, and finally, a test mode where questions on the knowledge base were presented. Matching up these design strategies with research on desirable learning properties, such as intrinsic motivation, aptitude for learning and learner control of instruction, the authors found that scenario-based design alone supported all three. Research also took place in the 1980s to assess scenario-based learning with computer versus non-computer technology. For example, Randel, Morris, Wetzel & Whitehill (1992) reviewed 68 studies assessing both computer and non-computer-based education games and simulations for their educational effectiveness. They concluded the use of games and simulations were as effective as the traditional classroom approach but not necessarily more so. However, McGrenere (1996) argues these studies did not show the full picture. She points out that many early studies looked at straight comparisons between computer games/ simulations and traditional classroom teaching. Very few studies occurred on the integration of these products into the classroom, where the software was used to build knowledge but more traditional methods were used alongside it in support of the lesson as a whole. In other words, a ‘blended’ approach was not considered. Furthermore, the design requirements of educational games and simulations for education have to be considered carefully. The effectiveness of interactive scenarios, many of which are games or simulations, is as much a reflection of the educational soundness of the lesson design, as the technology itself. This is an important point and one that all scenario-based lesson designers need to be aware of.

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Since that review, the importance of interactive scenario design for educational purposes has been examined by a number of authors (Aldrich, 2004; Aldrich, 2009; Amory, 2001; Bergeron, 2006; Burgos, Moreno-Ger, Sierra, FernandezManjon, & Koper, 2007; Ju & Wagner, 1997; Michael & Chen, 2006; Prensky, 2001; Quinn, 2005). A number of desirable elements are common to interactive scenarios: •

•

•

A realistic, well-defined, situated context. In other words, rather than being abstract, the scenario reflects a realistic story or “case” which includes problem(s) likely to be encountered in the subject domain. In this way the learner can see the relevance of the knowledge domain hence increasing motivation to learn (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1993). Storytelling. Everyone loves a good story! However, stories through the ages have been more than just entertainment. They have played a major role in learning ever since early humans sat around campfires and shared experiences of the hunt. Stories allow learners to encapsulate information through an experiential (as opposed to abstracted) approach. Plots, contextualized situations, and problems focus the attention of the learner aiding in inquiry, decision making, and learning. They are effective for learning because the mind is good at recognizing patterns. The mind seeks to organise knowledge by associating similar structures, events or contexts into a meaningful whole. Using this tacit process, it can apply information about similar events and patterns, both past and present (Andrews, Hull, & Donahue, 2009). Scaffolding. Scaffolding relates to strategies that support student learning, guiding the learner as they work through a task (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). This can be


•

•

represented as feedback on learner input, notes, hints, and background information. Work on cognition has recognised the importance of good scaffolding particularly when learners are tackling problem-based exercises (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clarke, 2006; van Merrienboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003). Without good scaffolding, a scenario-based exercise can lose much of its relevance or simply be too difficult due to cognitive overload. The ARCS motivation model (Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction), which has a role in instructional design, tells us that the learner must believe they have a reasonable chance of success in order for them to be motivated (Keller, 1987; Cheng & Yeh, 2009). Learner input. At the simplest level this can mean the learner has to click a hyperlink to progress, hence controlling the speed they work through the scenario. However, learner input can be in the form of questions requiring answers and, where an adventure game metaphor is being used, collecting items for reuse somewhere else. Learner choice and consequences. When solving any kind of problem, humans are always faced with decisions. Interactive scenarios, which allow learners to choose between courses of actions and/or allow choices from within a series of actions, mirror real life. Furthermore, choices in real life always have consequences. When rewards or penalties result due to learner’s choice, the focus of the learner can be sharpened. When learners were surveyed after working through a scenario which included such penalties, 29 out of 31 learners agreed that procedures which had a monetary cost attached made them careful about selecting these procedures, even though excessive spending was not considered in assessment for their grades (Stewart,

Flint, & Brown, 2010). Rewards and penalties can be represented by a number of indicators including money, time, or simply points. Some decisions can simply be detrimental like pushing the learner down a “blind alley” or cutting off access to information necessary to solve the problem. These consequences can mirror real life. Interactive scenarios can be delivered using simple linked webpages, which have been put together in common web-authoring tools such as Adobe Dreamweaver™. For very simple scenarios, Web-authoring tools are adequate. However, sophisticated programming is required to add any advanced functionality like pre-requisites (i.e. the ability to close off or open up sections of the scenarios based on previous decisions), forms for learner input, customised feedback from the system, collecting of objects, cost/time/mark penalties, and maintaining an interface which can help scaffold the scenario. Authoring tools designed specifically for scenario-based lessons make this task easier. At the time of writing, these include packages such as SBL interactive (University of Queensland, 2010), Adobe Captivate (Adobe Systems Inc., 2010), Udutu (Udutu Online Learning Solutions, 2010), Emergo (Nadolski et al., 2008) and e-adventure (University of Madrid, 2010) to name but a few.

TECHNIQUES FOR PLANNING AN INTERACTIVE SCENARIO Having defined interactive scenarios in the context of this chapter and given some background on their use in education, I want to turn now to practical guidelines for designers (in any knowledge domain), who may wish to develop these learning objects. The existence of specific authoring tools for interactive scenarios makes it tempting to jump in and start using the tool straight away, before

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a clear idea of content and structure has been developed. Apart from constructing dummy scenarios to become familiar with the features of the authoring tool, this temptation should be resisted. Once the scenario is broken up into its separate components (actions, content, locations, reports) in the authorware, it is difficult to see the whole. Scenarios designed “on the fly” can result in an ill-structured and confusing mess which does not tie into learning outcomes, and which learners find difficult to navigate through. Without a clear framework, they can also have a tendency to become too complex and focus on the visual experience rather than the educational objectives (Westera, Nadolski, Hummel, & Wopereis, 2008). A teaching scenario is set in a knowledge domain with a target audience undertaking a particular course in the curriculum. It should have learning objectives, which in turn contribute to the overall objectives of the course. Once learning objectives of the scenario have been determined, a framework should be developed with all the proposed raw ingredients present. The type of scenario, the narrative (i.e. plot and characterisation), scaffolding considerations, learner choices, and consequences all need to be determined. Other issues include assessment type and placement, and exactly where the lesson supported by the interactive scenario is placed in the course. Ideally this should take place before any detailed content is written. The following section of this chapter outlines a sequenced approach to planning interactive scenarios used at Massey University, together with examples to illustrate the process. As presented below, the planning and development sequence appears tidy and linear. Bear in mind however, that planning of this nature is a creative activity and, like many creative activities, a fair amount of iteration and revisiting is likely to take place (Laurillard, 2002). However, it is better to have some kind of a road map to point the way forward than none at all, even if you need to retrace and redefine your route occasionally.

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The roadmap referred to above can be managed through the use of tables and flow diagrams. These have two main purposes both of which add rigour to the process. Firstly they can document all elements of the whole scenario in a generic, accessible flat-file format. This allows easy adaptation to any authoring tool or delivery system, and also documents the scenario for archival purposes. Secondly, these tables and diagrams have a role in communication where the scenario is being developed with a team and/or needs to be discussed with stakeholders. “Master” documents can exist where all concerned can see the latest iterations as the scenario takes shape.

Four Example Scenarios In discussing scenario-planning techniques, four interactive scenarios reflecting different types of instruction will be used as examples. Staff at Massey University have developed and use many interactive scenarios in a number of courses. These examples were selected to show the diversity of approach and also because further information about these scenarios, which cannot be described more fully here, can be found in other publications. A brief description of each scenario-based lesson follows. •

•

“Doug’s apple problem” In this diagnostic scenario learners play the role of a crop consultant. They must examine a sick crop, ask questions of the grower and collect plant material to take to the laboratory. Once in the laboratory, they have the option of running further tests on the plant material collected. After working through the scenario, learners are required to justify their diagnosis and provide recommendations (Stewart & Galea, 2006). “But surely it’s harmless?” In this casebased ethics scenario, learners follow the fortunes of an adult research student who attempts to circumvent ethics guidelines.


•

•

The student, who is also head of human resources for a large company, decides to conduct research on company staff members. Things fall apart and our protagonist almost loses his job. Learners are asked reflective questions at several points in the narrative and once completed, are required to discuss aspects of the scenario via a web-forum (Stewart & Brown, 2008). “Microbial contamination” This scenario requires learners to work through a sequence of preliminary tests in order to identify an unknown organism. At each stage, they can choose one test from four or more options. Once they select a test, they are told if it is the appropriate test, then shown the result. They then have the choice of selecting a further test or continuing on. They are billed for the tests, so selecting an incorrect test results in increased costs. At the end of the scenario, learners must compile a report saying what group they think the organism belongs to, and what further tests or measures are required (Stewart, Flint, & Brown, 2010). “Liam’s decision day” This is a sequence of four narrative/case-based mini-scenarios where learners play the role of a crop consultant advising on a grower’s pest and disease management strategy. They visit the grower over four different stages of the year and are required to give recommendations for that particular day, based on past history and monitoring information (Stewart & Brown, 2009).

STEPS IN PLANNING AN INTERACTIVE SCENARIO Preliminary Conceptual Design This first stage is a very iterative process, which involves dialogue and often brainstorming sessions between the subject teacher and the scenario

designer (assuming they are not one and the same). The goal of this step is to explore ideas for a scenario-based lesson and what form this might take. A whiteboard is a useful tool here. Aspects covered include context of use (which course in which curriculum), the subject matter, basic concepts being taught and how they are interrelated, the target audience and how much scaffolding they might need given assumed knowledge/expertise, the scenario setting, the sequence of events, and what students might be required to do. From this process, it can become clear whether an interactive scenario appears appropriate for the part of curriculum concerned, and what form it might take. The steps below can then be undertaken to assist in turning these conceptual ideas, (which may be revisited), into a real scenario-based lesson.

Developing a Scenario Descriptor This is a simple one-page document that summarises the scenario and its use in a lesson at a glance. The descriptor may be formatted as a table (Table 1). The headings in the document act as a prompt to what needs to be considered. The following is normally covered:

A Brief Synopsis This is similar to the scenario descriptions above. What role will the learners play and what will they be expected to do, during and after the scenario?

Expected Learning Outcomes What skills/knowledge should learners develop/ learn from going through this exercise? This is a big question. There is little point in having scenarios as an “add-on” unless they are designed to address specific outcomes (Gossman, Stewart, Jaspers, & Chapman, 2007). How will learners benefit from the exercise?

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Table 1. A scenario descriptor for the “Liam’s decision day” scenario Heading

Text

A brief synopsis

Learners play the role of an orchard consultant. They will be asked to suggest the pests and diseases which need consideration, and their control recommendations, for a particular apple variety in a fictitious orchard at four consecutive times in the growing season. Each of these times will be represented by an individual scenario. They will have access to monitoring data and any history of crop management relevant to the decision. After suggesting control measures learners will be told a “best practice” solution, and this solution will be carried into the next scenario as management history.

Expected learning outcomes

An awareness of the complexity of modern pest and disease management, monitoring techniques and available decision aids.

Placement

In the last four weeks of both the internal and distance offering of the course.

Scaffolding

Learners are expected to have basic plant protection knowledge from earlier courses. For reference, they will be give a hard-copy control manual similar to that made available to growers by Pipfruit New Zealand. The decision point (facilitated by the first scenario) will be the simplest as this will be at the start of the season when the crop has little seasonal management history. Each decision point will get progressively more difficult as the learner will have an increasing number of factors to consider. At each decision point, students will be given help to focus down to just the important pests and diseases for that period. This will narrow down the complexity of their final recommendation.

Assessment

The assignment will count towards 15% of the final mark for the course. Learners will need to produce four decision reports and one reflective report as indicated: Report 1 – 2 marks Report 2 – 3 marks Report 3 – 4 marks Report 4 – 4 marks Reflections – 2 marks

Delivery

The exercise will be delivered over the web as four separate scenarios

Availability and Access

The scenarios will be made available consecutively a week apart from each other. As the “best practice” recommendations for each decision are revealed in the scenario following it, learners must submit the report for the current scenario before the next scenario is made available. Past scenarios will remain available for viewing and learners may work through them as many times as they wish.

Team Play

Students may work through the scenarios and submit a report in pairs. Each individual will receive the same mark for each report.

Placement

•

What course is the scenario going to be used in and where will it be placed? Errington (2005) suggests the following:

Scaffolding

•

•

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Beginning–useful to motivate learners or to demonstrate a process or a skill. It is also useful to illustrate to students what they need to know in a problem-based learning context. Part-way through a course–useful for assessing the learning process, invigorating learners and providing in-depth examples of integrated theory and practice.

At the end of a course–integrate knowledge, test what learners have learned, and be used as a tool for reflection.

Van Merrienboer and Sweller (2005) emphasise the importance of considering cognitive load when developing problem-based exercises, and they give advice as to how this should be managed. Learners must be carefully guided through the process according to their degree of expertise, otherwise there is a danger of cognitive overload, which can be detrimental to learning. This is seminal work and authors of scenario-based exercises should be aware of it. How much (if any) assistance will


learners be given in interpretation, when and how will they be given feedback, and how and when will resources be available to them? Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn (2007) reiterate the importance of scaffolding in all problem-based exercises, while Demetriadisa, Papadopoulosa, Stamelosa, and Fischer (2008) show that appropriate questioning strategies can make a difference in learning.

Assessment Assessment is a main driver of learner behavior (Kirkwood, 2009) and hence this aspect needs to be considered carefully. Will the scenario be assessed and if so, how? Something that is worth marks is likely to be taken more seriously by learners. Is the assessment formative or summative? Will it be peer assessment or participatory assessment? Whatever the assessment, a clear rubric needs to be constructed, which should also be available to the learner prior to tackling the scenario-based lesson.

Delivery How is the scenario to be delivered? Will learners access it over the web in a browser, download a file containing the scenario, or access it via other media such as a CD-ROM/DVD. Such decisions impact on the authoring tools used, and the equipment and internet access learners are expected to have. For example, if an interactive scenario is an important component in a distance course, where many of the learners live in rural areas, then rapid Internet access may be problematic. If the scenario is media-rich, a CD-ROM/DVD approach may be more fruitful.

Availability and Access Will the learners be restricted to a single pass through the scenario or can they attempt the exercise a number of times? Will they have the ability to backtrack if necessary? Will the scenario

only be available for a certain length of time? The answers to many of these questions relate to learning outcomes and assessment. Consider “Doug’s apple problem” described earlier. If the learning outcomes are focused on interpretation of the observations and the assessable component is a diagnostic report, a learner needs to supply a correct diagnosis, a justification of that diagnosis, and a recommendation to the grower to obtain high marks. If the focus of the lesson is on the interpretation of observations, there is no need to restrict the scenario to a single run-through, or make it available over only a short period of time. Indeed, it can be argued that revisiting the scenario again and again is a form of cognitive scaffolding for beginners, as the learner is free of the time pressure encountered in a real situation. On the other hand, if the focus is not only on the interpretation of observations, but also on the learner’s attention on process, i.e. the importance of following a correct path to prove or disprove generated hypotheses formulated in the diagnostic process (Elstein & Schwarz, 2002) in the most logical and inexpensive way, then there is a need to restrict repeated access. To assess process, a tutor would need to check to see what choices were made by the learner and in what sequence (via logs). In this case, tutors would only want learners to work through the scenario once. In “Liam’s decision day”, outlined above, learners act as a consultant to an apple grower and are called in to make recommendations at four points in the season, represented by four sequential scenarios. These recommendations are based on past management history (e.g. past sprays) and pest and disease monitoring information. Learner reports are assessed after each submission and they are then given feedback as to “best practice”. Each subsequent scenario incorporates this best practice into the history of the crop, which the learners can look up when they work through that future scenario. It is important, therefore, not to give learners access to the subsequent scenario in

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the sequence unless they have already submitted the report for the one before it. If they have access to the next scenario whilst working through the present one, they could cheat. In this case, therefore, subsequent scenarios are not revealed until the deadline for report submission on the present scenario is expired.

Teamwork Tutors need to ask the question “will learners work through scenarios in teams or alone?” While working through scenarios, the learners can develop mental models for solving problems, and interacting with others can assist to fine tune these mental models (Merrill & Gilbert, 2008). There is evidence that team work can be positive or negative for the learner depending on the learning objectives and learning style (Yazici, 2006), so some thought needs to go into this. Is learning to work as a team integral to learning outcomes? If it is not, then there is an argument that team play should be voluntary, hence accommodating individual learning styles. Where teams are formed to work through problems, the literature would suggest a team of no more than seven is desirable (Michaelsen, Knight, & Fink, 2002). For my own courses I use no more than three students per group. Although team play might be advantageous in many situations, whether it is used or not may come down to practicalities. Do the learners have access to each other? On-campus learners can often get together face-to-face. With distance-learners it may be more problematic, although synchronous or asynchronous communication tools can assist in this regard. Table 1 shows a scenario descriptor for “Liam’s decision day”. As mentioned previously, it’s not always possible to fill in the descriptor completely before starting work on the scenario. However, at least its headings act as a prompt to the issues that

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must be considered, and it can be a good place to start. Like all of the other tables and diagrams discussed, it can be a living document which can be revisited from time to time.

Outlining the Scenario Interactive scenarios may consist of a timeline of events interrogated by the learners in a sequential manner. Alternatively, scenarios may be based on a snapshot in time, with an environment learners can explore. They may be a combination of both, with a timeline but including scope for exploration within specific phases. Scenarios may contain objects learners can examine, manipulate, and carry and “actors” (characters in the scenario other than the learner), either built into the scenario with pre-programmed responses or even real actors if interactive scenarios in virtual worlds are being considered. Information (text and media) may appear at various points, which learners will need to interpret and perhaps react to. Alternative pathways may be available to learners depending on choice. Choices may have consequences in time, money, scores, or the ability to progress. Guidance, learner input, and feedback may occur at various times. In short, there are many factors to consider. A visual representation of these parameters and where they fit can be useful during the planning phase. Whiteboards are an ideal tool for this task, especially where a team is involved. The following section discusses various scenario components, all of which can be represented diagrammatically as the scenario takes shape.

The Sequence of Events The first step is to outline the sequence of events at a very generic level. Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4 show flowcharts for the four scenarios described above.


Figure 1. Sequence of events in “Doug’s apple problem”

Figure 2. Sequence of events in “But surely it’s harmless?”

The Plot and Characterisation Having determined the general flow of the scenario in terms of the instruction or lesson, the next stage is to think about the details. A click-through linear scenario is best told as an unfolding story, with

opportunity for learner reflection. Problem-based or goal-based scenarios (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1993) need a backstory to the problem at hand. Learners then must be provided with opportunities for further exploration of the environment, interaction with actors and/or access to further

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Figure 3. Sequence of events in “Microbial contamination”

Figure 4. Sequence of events in “Liam’s decision day”

information in order to solve the problem. Given this, a plot needs to be determined. What has happened, what is happening, and what is going to happen? The latter could have several answers depending on learner selection. What role is the learner going to play in the scenario? Will it be as “a fly-on-the-wall” observing what is happening and commenting where appropriate, or will it be the role of a

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supplementary character, like a consultant to the protagonist? Alternatively, the learner might be the main character, in which case the narrative will appear in the second person in a similar way to an adventure game. What role do other actors play in the story? Supplementary characters are likely to have their own back-stories, which may be important to the scenario. For example, during the “But surely it’s


harmless?” scenario, a workplace union leader reacts very negatively to an unauthorised survey issued to staff by the main character. It could be regarded as an over-reaction. However, this particular union leader has been on the losing end of a restructuring exercise led by our protagonist a few years before. There is no love lost between the two men. Here is the motivation for the union leader to publicly question this survey, which ultimately leads to the demise of our main character. Learners working through the scenario need to be aware of what motivates other characters to behave as they do. Without these back-stories, the scenario can become a flat and shallow narrative. More importantly, character motivation may relate to learning objectives. For example, the aim of the “But surely it’s harmless?” scenario is to make learners aware of what can go wrong when ethical guidelines are ignored. One of the reasons for ethics guidelines is that people may respond to situations in ways others may not foresee. Often this unexpected response may be due to past experiences conferring certain sensitivity, as with our union leader above. Our protagonist humiliated him in the past and now unethical behaviour by the latter has given our union man an opening for payback. Hence to understand the purpose of ethics guidelines, learners must see/experience how seemingly innocuous things can go bad if possible sensitivities are not considered. Construction of a good plot and appropriate characterisation relies on skills more often associated with film and literature than learning design. They have a bearing on motivation and engagement. However, teasing out these elements can be time-consuming. Where time is short, the focus should be ensuring that the plot and characterisation contribute to the learning objectives. What elements are necessary and what are superfluous? Do they add anything to the learning, or are they just for entertainment? For example, in “Doug’s Apple Problem” the learner can examine a number of things in the grower’s shed. They can examine the orchard sprayer, for example, and even test it to

ensure it is operating properly. This is completely appropriate for a diagnostic scenario such as this one, as sprayer issues are a common cause of plant problems, even though it is not faulty in this case. When planning the scenario, it was considered that learners could also examine the grower’s classic car collection (also in the shed). This would have added some humour, and developed the grower’s character more in the scenario. However, it was deemed unnecessary to the learning objectives, hence was left out.

Breaking the Scenario Down into Content Screens After the general sequences of events have been mapped out, and the plot and characters determined, work can start on figuring out what content to show at each screen. Content could contain information, questions, or feedback. Each content screen descriptor can be mapped onto a detailed pathway and the following noted, using brief headings: • •

• •

• •

•

A short title to explain what the content is. Available resources that learners may need to reference from this content (hardcopy or electronic resources such as PDFs or URLs). Images and other media associated with the content. Prerequisite requirements. Did the learner need to do anything prior to this, in order to reveal this screen? Did visiting this content accrue and subtract time, money or points for the learner? Where visiting the content screen is by choice, should visiting this content be commented on in the scenario debriefing? Was it a wise/unwise thing to do? Does visiting this content trigger a pre-requisite for other content?

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Figure 5. Full map of “Liam’s decision day” showing content screen descriptors

The latter three points allude to consequences to learners’ choices as they move through the scenario. Just how these content screen descriptors are represented visually can vary widely and may

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have a regard to authoring and delivery system, which is going to be used for the scenario. Figure 5 shows one of the “Liam’s decision day” sequential scenarios mapped out in its entirety.


Prototyping the Scenario in the Authoring Tool Once the sequence of events is mostly determined, it is useful to construct a skeleton scenario in the authoring tool using placeholder graphics, media, and text. Doing this allows the scenario author to get a feel for the flow and complexity of the scenario. This can reveal navigational issues, which may have the potential to confuse learners. Navigation in interactive learning environments is an expanding area of research in its own right (Liang & Sedig, 2009) and navigation options need to be carefully considered not only in the scenario but also the scaffolding surrounding it.

Specifying the Exact Content using Table-Based Schemas Once the scenario has reached this point, the exact content needs to be specified. At this stage, there is a temptation to insert this content directly into the authoring tool, but one further step is useful. This involves construction of a content schema, which contains all the information pertaining to each content screen including the text-based content itself. The schema is a series of tables, whose rows and columns correspond to each content screen. It is at this stage that the shape and form of the scenarios, as represented, lose some of their generic nature and start to be represented in a form most conducive for use in the selected authoring tool. The following examples relate to scenarios developed for SBL interactive. In these scenarios, the responses to learner input are all preprogrammed. However, an interactive scenario in Second Life, where real actors (represented by avatars) are used and responses and interaction is less predictable, would need to use a different structure or perhaps simply plan the lesson from a flowchart showing the sequence of events. If the authoring tool does offer a pre-programmed

environment, however, the discussion below should be of assistance. The shape of the schema (headings, rows, columns) can vary depending on the type of interactive scenario being developed. For example, click-through scenarios may not contain collectable items and have little scope for exploration of the environment. On the other hand, they are usually rich in reflective questions. The headings used within the various schemas may reflect this difference. There is no recipe in this regard. The content schemas are living documents. A scenario author can start off with a blank template, which contains a series of cells which simply contain a heading to the content, and some suggestion as to what should be included in there. Over time however, this content can be filled in until it matches exactly the content that will appear in the final, delivered scenario. At the end of the process, the result is a full schema containing many tables, the content of which specifies exactly the contents required to be inserted into the authoring tool. The file names of identifiable resources are provided (once known), so the scenario author knows exactly what multimedia or embedded file is associated with which content. Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5 show schema tables filled with final content for selected individual screens for our four example scenarios. Each one was developed from the flow diagrams discussed earlier. As mentioned previously, the headings used in the schemas shown are flexible and they assume the scenario will be authored in SBLi. If a different tool was intended for final authoring the headings and layout might be different. Nevertheless, a flat file table schema is a useful way to hold content “pages” and show what is associated with those pages. Text-based schemas like these are of considerable value when a team of people is working on one scenario together. The scenario content can be seen as a whole and easily tweaked, added

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Table 2. Section of a content schema for “Doug’s apple problem” Initial path

Doug’s Apple Problem → Orchard → Trunk → Cut into Trunk

Object

Action

Icon Name

N/A

Icon File

N/A

Pre-requisite required

No

Pre-requisite triggered

No

Content

Top of Form Squatting down, you take out your pocketknife and cut into the bark at the base of an affected tree. The bark and phloem is seen to be dark brown and it has a sour smell. Further cutting reveals this area of discolouration extends up and around the trunk, and down along the main roots. The lesion has a zonate margin. Nasty...! Click (link) here (/link) for the significance of this observation...

Media

p-trunk.jpg

Hyperlinks

Link from Content to embedded page. Text is as follows: Top of Form This is a major clue. Although many root rotting pathogens can cause foot cankers, this symptom is very typical of Phytophthora cactorum. Seeing this symptom should put this pathogen right at the top of the shortlist! Bottom of Form

Objects revealed

N/A

Cost

10 mins

Text to appear as part of the summary

If this action clicked: It’s good that you cut into the trunk. Discoloured bark can often indicate a canker is lurking underneath. If this action is not clicked: It would have been worthwhile cutting into the trunk. Discoloured bark can often indicate a canker is lurking underneath.

(Next screen)

to and amended on a master copy prior to being committed to the authoring tool.

Adding the Content to the Authoring Tool and Testing Having worked up the content, and already having a skeleton scenario developed in the authoring tool during prototyping, it is now a simple matter to add the content directly to the program. Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 show SBL interactive screen shots of the content screens outlined in Table 2, Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5 respectively.

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Testing the scenario with colleagues and a few learners is also advised. They should be well briefed so they can see the scenario in the context of the learning objectives and the whole course. Although trials can be useful to detect navigation or systems problems, they are less useful for flagging workload issues and assessing how long the target learners might take to get through the exercise. Even if well-prepared, “testers” may not see the scenario through the same lens as real learners will during the lesson. The former may not have the necessary prerequisite knowledge or, not having worked through the course up to where the scenario is introduced, lack a feel for where the scenario fits in the context of the whole


Table 3. Section of a content schema for “But surely it’s harmless?” Initial path

Ethics Scenario → Wet Weasel Bar (day 21)

Object

Location

Icon Name

Wet Weasel Bar

Icon File

Wet-weasel.gif


Yes. Action: Ethics Scenario → Grant’s Busy Office → Continue...


No

Content

Top of Form We are at the Wet Weasel Bar, a colourful drinking establishment and cafe often frequented by the workers from Aquarius Holdings. The ambience of the establishment reflects the cheerful and airy decor. Upbeat music is quietly issuing from rooftop speakers. Most of the lunchtime crowd has now left and staff are busy clearing the tables and settling accounts. In the table close to the bar, we can see Mary. She is having an animated conversation with a tall thin 30ish-something man, who appears anxious and worried. Click on the link “Introducing Gordon” opposite.

Media

None

Hyperlinks

None Bottom of Form

Objects revealed

None

Cost

None


If this action clicked: None If this action is not clicked: None

(Next screen)

Table 4. Section of a content schema for “Microbial contamination” Initial path

Microbial contamination → Stage 2 → Do test 2d

Object

Action

Icon Name

N/A

Icon File

N/A


Yes. Action: Microbial contamination → Stage 2 → 2d-Subculture on an agar slope as stock for further testing


Yes: Action: Microbial contamination → Stage 2 → 2e-Where to from here?

Content

Top of Form Growth on an agar slope. This IS the correct answer – you need to ensure that you have sufficient pure material to enable you to complete all the tests required. Now click on “2e-Where to from here...?” opposite...

Media

Agar-slope.jpg

Hyperlinks

None Bottom of Form

Objects revealed

Action: Microbial contamination → Stage 2 → 2e-Where to from here?

Cost

$5


If this action clicked: None If this action is not clicked: None

(Next screen)

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Table 5. Section of a content schema for “Liam’s decision day” Initial path

Apple Scenario → Pest and Disease Considerations

Object

Location

Icon Name

Pest and Disease Considerations

Icon File

Question.gif


Yes: Action: Apple Scenario → 30th November → Spray Application Records


Yes: Item: Apple Scenario → Pest and Disease Considerations →Monitoring Data

Content

The time of year is 30th November. Fruit has set and is rapidly developing. Growers should be aware of all pests and diseases all the time, but some are active and/or require control at specific times of the season. As before, (to simplify things) we are only concerned with management of the Pacific Rose Block. A real grower would have all varieties to consider. (Report here)

Report Content

Question: What specific pests or diseases should Liam be concerned about at this stage? Choice

Feedback if selected

Feedback if not selected

Codling Moth

Definitely, codling moth is active this time of year.

Codling moth is active this time of year.

Apple Leaf Curling Midge

No, apple leaf curling midge is unlikely to be an issue for this crop. They are mostly an issue for young trees and recently grafted ones.

Apple leaf curling midge is not an issue for young trees and recently grafted ones.

Black Spot

Yes, this is a critical time for black spot infection. Liam needs to be actively monitoring this disease, the conditions which may lead to infection, and his control programme.

This is a critical time for black spot infection. Liam needs to be actively monitoring this disease, the conditions which may lead to infection and his control programme.

(Note: this list would normally continue for 12 items. Reduced for brevity) Media

None

Hyperlinks

None Bottom of Form

Objects revealed

Item: Apple Scenario → Pest and Disease Considerations →Monitoring Data

Cost

None


If this action clicked: None If this action is clicked: None

(Next screen)

course. Also, they may not be assessed on their performance. The prospect of assessment is a strong driver for learners and may impact on the way they view and interact with an interactive scenario.

WORKING TO A TIME BUDGET: HOW LONG IS A PIECE OF STRING? Having reached this point it may appear that planning interactive scenarios appears complicated,

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difficult, and very time consuming. A question often asked is “How long does it take to develop one of these scenarios?” This is analogous to asking, “How long is a piece of string?” It all depends. In a university environment, where funds and time are often limited, a consideration of the following can be helpful: •

Limit Audio and Video to what is Necessary. Video and audio clips can add interest and engagement. However they can be timeconsuming to develop from scratch. Given


Figure 6. Examining the roots in “Doug’s apple problem”

Figure 7. At the wet weasel bar in “But surely it’s harmless?”

that scenarios are often context dependent, it’s not easy to borrow pre-made material. In some cases, this multimedia may be necessary. For example, if the learner

has to note attitude and/or body language, then video is a must. However, much can be communicated with good writing and static images. Where audio and video is a

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Figure 8. Testing a sample in “Microbial contamination”

Figure 9. About to answer a tick-box question in “Liam’s decision day”

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Figure 10. Feedback to the selected tick-box questions in “Liam’s decision day”

•

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desirable addition rather than a necessity, it is good policy to leave these components until last. If time allows, produce them. However, if time runs out, at least a workable scenario is still present and these extras can be added later. Start Small until Experience is gained. The availability of specific authoring tools makes development easier, but planning and designing interactive scenarios for lessons is an acquired skill. It is a good idea to start with a small scenario to illustrate a certain concept within a course rather than having the whole course hinge on one large scenario. Be Aware there is no Exact Recipe for Creating Interactive Scenarios, Just Guidelines. Scenario design is a creative,

•

iterative process. There is no exact “right way”. Do not be afraid to share with others, and revisit and revise during development. Case studies; A Rich Source of Material. Existing case studies have many of the raw ingredients for interactive scenarios. Use these where they are available.

Interactive scenarios do not need a team of scriptwriters, graphic designers, and media experts. Using the right tools, and once some skill has been gained; individual tutors can create simple scenarios in no more time than it would take to develop other types of lessons. For example, the simplest of the four scenarios shown here is “Microbial contamination”. It contains no video or audio. A total of 18 person hours were used to develop this new lesson (8 hours by the content

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expert and 10 hours by the learning designer). An estimated 10 hours was saved by offering this exercise over the web, rather than in a physical laboratory.

CONSTRAINTS, ISSUES AND BARRIERS As course components, well-designed interactive scenarios can assist to actualise the five curriculum design principles espoused by Meyers and Nulty (2009). These principles aim to develop courses in ways that provide learners with teaching and learning materials, tasks and experiences which: • • •

• •

Are authentic, real-world and relevant; Are constructive, sequential and interlinked; Require learners to use and engage with progressively higher order cognitive processes; Are all aligned with each other and the desired learning outcomes; and Provide challenge, interest and motivation to learn.

However, within a university setting, there are considerable barriers to the design of lessons utilising interactive scenarios. In fact, these barriers pertain not just to the forementioned lessons but also to problem-solving and learner-oriented pedagogies generally, all of which assist in promoting the curriculum principles listed above. Technology was seen to be an enabling conduit for these pedagogies but despite the existence of reliable e-teaching tools, methodologies, authorware and widespread learner access, didactic modes of instruction seem to predominate in University settings (Blin & Munro, 2008; Kirkwood 2009; Lonn & Teasley, 2009; Sharpe and Oliver, 2007). Why is this? The following points touch on some of the reasons, many of which are also cited by the authors above. The research findings cited

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fit well with my experience in supporting and promoting interactive scenario-based lessons within Massey University. These factors are important to consider for all those wishing to use advanced e-teaching pedagogies, such as interactive scenarios in their own courses, or promote their use generally. The barriers and constraints fall into two main areas: lack of training in, and knowledge about, pedagogy and lack of time to design and implement interactive scenario-based lessons.

Lack of Training in and Knowledge about Pedagogy Most academics are subject specialists. Although they teach, most regard themselves as professional practitioners of their discipline. A physics lecturer is a physicist, a sociology lecturer is a sociologist and a history lecturer is a historian. They may have received some basic training in tertiary teaching but when it comes to keeping up with the latest techniques and developments, the norm is to turn to scholarly works in their disciplines rather than the educational or design literature. They need to be at (or at least have knowledge of) the cutting edge of their specialisation, which is usually very narrow. Most have postgraduates to supervise and research outputs are important in promotion and reputation. Furthermore academic organisational structures tend to be along disciplinary lines and strongly encourage and even force academic staff to stick to their discipline specialty. Academic careers are built on a good knowledge of the analytical methodologies associated with their disciplines. There is little incentive (and in fact it may be detrimental) for the academic to apply their energies to areas outside their field. It follows, therefore, that the educational and design science methodologies required for the successful design and use of interactive scenarios are quite foreign to most teaching academics in a university setting. It is not surprising that developing the kind of lessons other than those that involve didactic “information transfer” can


be difficult. Lessons that conform to Myers and Nulty’s (2009) five principles are very challenging to those who do not have a good understanding of modern course design and all of the educational principles that underpin it. Delving into the literature may not help. To someone unfamiliar with it, there is a raft of confusing and interrelated terms that are hard to get to grips with. Terms like problem-based learning, constructivist learning, authentic learning, scenario-based learning, blended learning, collaborative learning, and other nomenclature seem loose and ill-defined. Even their effectiveness may appear questionable. For example, Norman (2008) remarks on how fuzzy the definition of “problem-solving” is, and questions whether the right methodologies are always used to assess its effectiveness as a pedagogy in medical training. Other authors have warned of the dangers of simple measures such as click-throughs (Maltby & Mackie, 2009) or of using single parameters such as learner satisfaction (Artino, 2008) to assess course effectiveness. M. Tait, Tait, Thornton and Edwards (2008, p. 977), commenting on the variability of evaluation outcomes for e-learning resources in Nursing Studies, say: This variability should not be unexpected as evaluation outcomes for e-learning resources are affected by the design of the material, its educational underpinnings, how it is deployed and the evaluation process itself. In a similar way, evaluation outcomes for lectures are affected by factors such as the subject matter, lecturer, presentation and learning environment. In the case of the evaluation of e-learning in nursing education, this is often suboptimal and undermined by design flaws such as insufficient learner numbers and the lack of an appropriate control group. This large number of variables often means simplification is usually entailed in comparative research (Goodyear & Ellis, 2008). This may be the fact of the matter, but the literature does not

always help discipline teachers trying to make sense of what might work, what might not and under what conditions. If the pedagogies are not understood then it is difficult to make best use of the tools that support them. E-learning tools incorporated into common Learning Management System (LMS) packages are now familiar to most readers. However, a number of studies examining e-teaching practice have found that teachers can be aware of these tools, but not know how to use them to enhance learning outcomes. They lack training in learning designs and pedagogy (Blin & Munro, 2008; Georgina & Olson, 2008). It may be for such a reason that a study by Mahdizadeh, Biemans, & Mulder (2008) found that e-teaching tools that supported advanced pedagogy (e.g. reflection, collaboration) were not adopted or even viewed as useful by staff! Lonn & Teasley (2009) reported similar findings, where instructors and learners valued tools and activities for efficient communication more than tools for innovating existing practices. Kirkwood (2009) goes further, arguing that before technology-led innovations can transform learning and teaching, learner expectations, perceptions of learning, and in particular, assessment demands need to be considered. Learners are driven by assessment and both teachers and learners need to understand why activities should be undertaken and what the rewards will be. One way many Universities have approached this problem of academic engagement with newer pedagogies is to have academic development units on campus. It is common for these centres to run workshops in tools and techniques, which relate to pedagogy that can be assisted through technology (such as scenario-based learning). However, research would suggest that one-off workshops have limited value in embedding such techniques into the mainstream. Concentrated, almost one-toone assistance is needed at the individual level to really bring them into the curriculum (Georgina & Hosford, 2009; Paechter, Maier, & Macher, 2010). There is a growing realisation that educa-

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tional approaches are not a one-size-fits all, rather they are closely aligned to the discipline and the teachers own view of the world (Donald, Blake, Girault, Datt & Ramsay, 2009; Fanghanel, 2009). This has been my experience. There are other factors that can influence buyin to new pedagogies and tools from faculty staff. Wolff (2008) warns about the negative perception from some faculty that can result when an educational process, organisation or courseware tool is lauded by management as being an “innovation”, and faculty are forced to attend workshops on how to implement it, particularly if it has come about from a competitive internal grant system. Grassroots buy-in is important, and he suggests real transformative innovation comes about through a community of practice, rather than when an innovation is “…reduced to a rhetorical device in a marketing campaign or departmental instructional technology vision plan…” (p.1184). Even when subject experts have a high level of education knowledge and the motivation to change their lessons, it does not always follow that good e-learning design will eventuate. So & Kim (2009) studied the ability of student teachers to develop lessons incorporating Problem-Based Learning (PBL). They found that even though the studied group had a high amount of knowledge about the PBL pedagogy, they had trouble designing PBL e-teaching lessons. Generating authentic and ill-structured problems for a chosen content topic, finding and integrating e-teaching tools and resources relevant for the target students and learning activities, and designing tasks with a balance between teacher guidance and learner independence were all problematic. The study suggests lesson examples may be useful in this regard. Certainly I have found a bank of examples of interactive scenarios in a wide range of discipline areas has been useful for facilitating the pedagogy at Massey University. Finally, the academic curricula itself can be unhelpful. Many programs consist of discrete courses that encapsulate fragmented knowledge

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domains, which, from a learner’s perspective, can seem disconnected. However, scenario-based teaching can cross these knowledge domains. This may help connect the dots for the student, but designing scenarios such as these may require input for several specialists, each with unease about fields they know little about and none having a real sense of ownership in the lesson.

Lack of Time to Design and Implement Interactive Scenario-Based Lessons Even with a good grasp of educational principles and good examples for illustration, developing good lessons takes time. Most academics are timepoor and tasks are prioritised to get the greatest reward for the finite amount of time available. Research outputs are generally rewarded above teaching and act as a strong driver for academic staff. Faced with large undergraduate classes, the most economical way to manage the teaching side of their profession is didactic instruction, with content being delivered, learnt, and then recalled by way of examination. While this is the most time-efficient way to teach, it does not necessarily lend itself to deep learning. It is not just time that is required, but “protected” time, where the designer can focus on the task at hand without interruption. Getting protected time can be problematic as an academic’s job is often messy and fragmented, with pressures from a variety of stakeholders (Malcom & Zukas, 2009). In a study of medical faculty, Zibrowski, Weston, and Goldszmidt (2008) found that most were only able to devote very small amounts of time to educational scholarship. Fragmentation, prioritisation, and motivation were the three main themes. They are likely to be common themes throughout tertiary training institutions in the western world. Other researchers found that face-to-face contact with learners was regarded as a powerful feature of academic identity, and many academics resisted developing technology-


enhanced lessons to protect this “being-there” relationship (Hanson, 2009). There is no obvious solution to this problem. Most educational researchers are aware of it and some effort is going into making lesson planning as painless as possible. For example, San Diego et al. (2008) have developed the “London Pedagogy Planner” as a way to structure lessons to a best practice model, enabling student and teaching time budgets to be captured, and interfacing to other e-learning planning tools such as LAMS (LAMS International, 2010). Some authors feel “More radical transformation of the overall social and cultural context of University teaching practices are also required” (Blin & Munro, 2008, p.489). It is hard to disagree with this view! That being said, even given these constraints and issues, progress can be made albeit slowly and incrementally. In the absence of “radical transformation”, the following pragmatic tips may assist those who wish to design or promote interactive scenarios within their courses and institutions. •

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•

•

•

Start small. Restrict the first interactive scenario to a minor exercise perhaps with a limited number of learners. Get familiar with the tools and techniques before trying anything more ambitious. Assess some of the authoring tools for interactive scenarios. They are designed specifically for this purpose and can speed up the technical side of development considerably. Seek out advice and examples. If possible, use someone else’s scenario as a template for yours and adapt it. An interactive scenario does not need to be a fully blown multimedia affair. Audio and video take time and money. Think about whether they are really necessary? Be mindful that they can always be added later. If you are an academic developer, there is great value in getting alongside the subject

teacher and working with them as a team. If possible, consider if the new lesson has value as a piece of research. Within a University setting, something that has publication potential and can be registered as a joint research output has value to you, your institution, and the wider educational community. It can also be a motivating factor for the academic, as it will contribute to their research outputs. Research has shown developers can make a real difference in driving change forward (Little, 2008).

FUTURE DIRECTIONS Interactive scenarios play a central role in most e-simulations. The field of e-simulations is widening and growing, and attempts have been made to categorise all the different types and flavours. Aldrich (2009) uses the phrase “Sims” as a catchall for these learning artifacts. The future is likely to see more gaming elements in Sims. There is little doubt that well designed games are highly engaging and motivating, as the gaming industry and their hosts of consumers can attest! These games teach the skills required to achieve their goals very well. The past decade has seen a use of the term “Serious Games”. This refers to games that go beyond entertainment and into education (Bergeron, 2006; Michael & Chen, 2006). Catchy though the name may be, it is an area that has struggled to define itself in terms of sound scientific methodologies and appropriate terminology (Gee, 2006). Aldrich (2009) draws a difference between games for learning (i.e., Serious Games) and what are termed educational simulations. The latter are more challenging experiences that rigorously develop skills and capabilities such as a flight simulator. Games for learning, on the other hand, are fun and engaging but also build awareness. This chapter looked at tips and techniques for designing simple interactive scenarios. Although some of these scenarios had benefits and penal-

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ties (such as a cost for the wrong choice), they were not really game-based. Developing simple scenario-based lessons is difficult enough, but to add a gaming element to the mix adds yet another layer. Games can be time-consuming, costly, and complex to produce. In most cases, a large effort is needed for their development, which is way beyond the scope of most university departmental budgets. Also, taking the fun and motivational aspects of video games and incorporating these into lessons designed for education is a real challenge. The existence of an immediate reward (a point, a new room to explore, some more cash) can be highly motivating, but a balance must be struck between designing to entertain (the primary purpose of most video games) and designing to learn real-world skills. This is not an easy balance to obtain. Recognising these two factors, researchers are working on educational game design frameworks that will assist in reducing complexity (hence costs) and strike the right balance between entertainment and education (Westera et al, 2008). It is hoped these developments continue. As a science, the field of games for learning is an active and evolving area that is likely to develop useful and robust principles in the future. One other area ripe for further work is a closer integration between the software packages that support scenario-based learning, and Learning Management System (LMS) packages like Moodle and Blackboard. Most tertiary institutions support an LMS for hosting their e-learning environment and seamless mechanisms to launch from an LMS. Also, transfer activity logs and student input from students’ scenario sessions would seem desirable. At the time of writing, LMS plug-ins exist for some of the tools (e.g. Udutu) and are in development for others. Whilst this can be challenging for 2D delivery platforms like SBLi or Udutu, it is even more problematic with 3D virtual worlds such as Second Life. However, work is being done on such integration and examples have been published (De Luciaa, Francese, Passero, & Tortora, 2009).

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These developments will no doubt continue if not accelerate. Even within the major LMS products themselves, components exist which can be used to author and deliver simple interactive scenarios (e.g. Moodle’s Lesson Tool), and it is likely these will become more sophisticated over time.

CONCLUSION This chapter started with a definition of interactive scenarios and covers some history on their use in education. In their most complete state, interactive scenarios are set in a realistic, welldefined, situated context, with a strong element of storytelling. They are well-scaffolded within the lesson with attention paid to the prior knowledge of learners, access to required resources, and the educational objectives of the exercise. Learner input is important, as are consequences for the actions they undertake. Scenario-based lessons with these ingredients can assist with engagement and improve learning. However, in order to realise their potential, they must be planned carefully. Compared to the electronic translation of the scenario content, structure, and functionality as facilitated by existing authoring tools, scenario design is the most difficult in the whole development process. Based on our experiences at Massey University, supported by the literature, and using four contrasting examples, I have described a systematic approach to planning an interactive scenario-based exercise prior to constructing the electronic version in the authoring tool of choice. Steps include the preliminary conceptual design, developing a scenario descriptor, outlining the scenario using diagrams then creating the content and associated properties in table-based content schemas, where they can be pasted directly into the authoring tool and then be archived. These planning figures and schemas can be easily shared between stakeholders, and have the advantage of showing the scenario as a whole in a flat file format. The only tools needed


for this phase are a whiteboard, a word processor, subject knowledge, and a creative imagination. The approach outlined above, and detailed in this chapter, is not a recipe. Any creative design process involves iteration and revisiting previous assumptions hence the pathway is not always linear. However, as a general road map the approach applies some discipline to the process. Constraints and barriers to using interactive scenarios in a university setting were also discussed. They fall into two main areas; lack of training in and knowledge about pedagogy, and lack of academic time to design and implement interactive scenarios. This comes about due to a higher priority on discipline expertise than knowledge of teaching methodologies, and powerful institutional drivers that discourage academic staff from exploring alternatives to didactic modes of instruction. Consequently, strong institutional support and perhaps even a significant change in culture are required to mainstream interactive scenarios in the curriculum at universities. However, even in the existing environment, progress can be made by designing small, effective scenarios, which can be used as learner assignments, even in courses that are largely didactic in nature. It is hoped the tips and techniques described above aid in this endeavour.

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van Eck, R. (2007). Building artificially intelligent learning games. In Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks (pp. 271–307). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

Stewart, T. M., & Brown, M. E. (2009). To spray or not to spray? A scenario-based exercise for tertiary-level horticultural students. In R. J. Atkinson & C. McBeath (Eds.), Same places, different spaces (pp. 1023-1027). Proceedings ASCILITE Auckland 2009, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand. Retrieved June 2nd, 2010 from http:// www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/auckland09/ procs/stewart.pdf

van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L. (2003). Taking the load off a learner’s mind: Instructional design for complex learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 5–13. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_2

Stewart, T. M., Flint, S., & Brown, M. E. (2010). Fast, flexible and value for money? Trialing a “virtual lab” exercise in a food safety microbiology course. In Proceedings of Global Learn Asia Pacific 2010 conference, Penang, Malaysia (pp. 4097-4012). Chesapeake, Virginia: Association for the Advancement in Computing in Education (AACE). Stewart, T. M., & Galea, V. J. (2006). Approaches to training practitioners in the art and science of plant disease diagnosis. Plant Disease, 90(5), 539–547. doi:10.1094/PD-90-0539 Tait, M., Tait, D., Thornton, F., & Edwards, M. (2008). Development and evaluation of a critical care e-learning scenario. Nurse Education Today, 28(8), 970–980. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2008.05.016 Udutu Online Learning Solutions. (2010). Udutu – Online course authoring. Retrieved on June 1st, 2010, from http://www.udutu.com/ University of Madrid. (2010). <e-Adventure>. Retrieved on June 1 st, 2010 from http://eadventure.e-ucm.es/

Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147–177. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 Westera, W., Nadolski, R. J., Hummel, H. G. K., & Wopereis, I. G. J. H. (2008). Serious games for higher education: A framework for reducing design complexity. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 420–432. doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2008.00279.x Wolff, W. I. (2008). “A chimera of sorts”: Rethinking educational technology grant programs, courseware innovation, and the language of educational change. Computers & Education, 51(3), 1184–1197. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.11.005 Yazici, H. J. (2006). A study of collaborative learning style and team learning performance. Education + Training, 47(3), 216-229. Zibrowski, E. M., Weston, W. W., & Goldszmidt, M. A. (2008). “I don’t have time”: Issues of fragmentation, prioritisation and motivation for education scholarship among medical faculty. Medical Education, 42(9), 872–878. doi:10.1111/j.13652923.2008.03145.x

University of Queensland. (2010). SBL Interactive (SBLi). Retrieved May 27th, 2010 from http:// www.sblinteractive.com/

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Chapter 19

Scenario-Based Learning: Experiences in the Development and Application of a Generic Teaching Software Tool Audrey Jinks The University of Queensland, Australia Geoff Norton The University of Queensland, Australia Matt Taylor The University of Queensland, Australia Terry Stewart Massey University, New Zealand

ABSTRACT The aim of this chapter is to share experiences involved in designing, developing, and implementing e-simulation software for achieving scenario-based learning objectives. It does this by focusing on our work with Scenario Based Learning-Interactive (SBLi), a software tool developed at The University of Queensland, Australia to provide lecturers and teachers with an easy-to-use tool for creating and deploying interactive multi-media scenarios on the Web or CD. While a number of authoring tools are capable of creating simple, interactive scenarios, SBLi has been developed to provide a tool with the functionality and transparency that allows scenario authors to easily create and modify complex and realistic scenarios that engage learners in acquiring specific knowledge and skills. This chapter describes the main features of this e-simulation tool, what is involved in creating SBLi scenarios, and how scenarios have been developed and used in Australia and overseas to provide problem-based and enquiry-based learning experiences. Examples are listed to show the range of learning objectives and the diverse and novel ways in which SBLi is being used to improve critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and other learning attributes across a range of disciplines in secondary and tertiary institutions and in continuing professional development. Important lessons concerning the development and sustainable application of this specific e-simulation tool are also discussed. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch019


Scenario-Based Learning

INTRODUCTION Following an account of the background history of SBLi, which indicates some of the factors that have influenced the design, development, and application of this specific e-simulation tool, the chapter then addresses the following questions: • • •

• • •

What are the critical features of a generic e-simulation scenario? How does SBLi capture these features? What functionality has been included to enhance scenario development and authenticity? What is involved in developing a scenario? How are scenarios being used? What lessons have been learned from the SBLi experience that might have implications for e-simulation software generally?

BACKGROUND In recent years, problem-based and enquiry-based learning (PBL and EBL) has become an important approach in many university courses, ranging from immersive PBL approaches (Barrows & Wee, 2007), to the use of PBL and EBL modules as specific exercises in existing courses (Barrett, MacLabhrainn, & Fallon, 2005). As well as differences in pedagogical approach within and between disciplines, there are also considerable differences in the ways in which problem-based scenarios are presented to students and how they engage with these scenarios. Scenarios can be presented orally, as text-based case studies, or as computer-based interactive scenarios; and students can engage with these scenarios in a group or as individuals, either in class or online. While “eLearning Technology” has been developing steadily for some years (Alessi & Trollip, 1985), computer-assisted “Scenario Based Learning” has only been developed in recent years. The greatest obstacle to computer-based

scenario-based learning has been the inability of early authoring tools to meet the needs of scenario authors. Scenario-based learning has a fluid nature and requires decision paths or branching capabilities. It was for this reason that tools such as Scenario Based Learning (SBLi) and Adobe’s Captivate have been developed. The involvement of some of the current authors in developing and utilising computer-based interactive scenarios began more than 15 years ago. The origins of SBLi began when a team at The University of Queensland (UQ) collaborated with Terry Stewart at Massey University to develop, distribute, and support a computer-based learning tool, “Diagnosis of Crop Problems” (Stewart et al., 1995). The University of Queensland is a major research intensive, on-campus based university in the Australian state of Queensland. Massey University is known for its distinctive mix of campus-based, distance, and international teaching, and has campuses located in the north island of New Zealand. Diagnosis of Crop Problems was a Windowsbased software program deployed via CD and focused on a specific PBL activity within a single discipline: the diagnosis of crop disorders. Based on this experience, this group continued collaboration in specifying and developing a more generic software product that would enable scenarios to be developed for any discipline and which could be delivered online. This Scenario Based Learning software (SBLi) consists of two desktop applications: a builder and player, for creating and exploring scenarios respectively; and a server-based player and scenario management tool, for deploying scenarios online. Since the UQ SBLi development team is employed in a not-for-profit Centre, cost effectiveness has been a critical consideration in designing and developing the software. We have aimed to design and develop an easy to use, generic and flexible e-simulation tool that maximises the potential breadth of use of SBLi and enables teachers to design and create scenarios across a range of

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disciplines without requiring special programming knowledge. The first version of SBLi was released by UQ in 2005: the development and use of SBLi scenarios was initially in tertiary institutions in New Zealand (Stewart, 2007), at UQ and at the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom. Since 2008, a full-time SBLi coordinator has been appointed at UQ to promote PBL/EBL activities, provide SBLi workshop and training sessions, and to support teaching staff at UQ in developing and implementing scenarios. To date, over 82 scenarios have been developed at UQ—covering all 7 Faculties—while at least an equivalent number of scenarios have been developed at other universities, government agencies, high schools, and other institutions worldwide.

CRITICAL FEATURES OF A GENERIC SCENARIO Problem-Based Learning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980), Enquiry-Based Learning (Kahn & O’Rourke, 2005), Goal-Based Learning (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1993), Challenge-Based Learning (Johnson, Smith, Smythe, & Varon, 2009) and Scenario-Based Learning (Kindely, 2002) all have one thing in common: they all incorporate the “Learn by doing” paradigm aimed at eliciting student motivated learning. At the core of these pedagogical approaches is the problem, case study, or scenario with which the learner engages. This engagement develops skills in: acquiring and applying information and knowledge; assessing and making informed judgments; and developing ways to resolve issues. In the broadest of definitions, we might class all these approaches as involving scenario-based learning, though see Stewart (Chapter 18) for a more thorough discussion of these terms. Barrow and Wee (2007) argue that the presentation or simulation of real world examples is essential for an authentic PBL experience. Others,

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concerned with developing problem-solving skills more generally, have used fictional situations that focus more on understanding principles (e.g., Breakey, Levin, Miller, & Hentges, 2008). Therefore, in order to develop scenarios that provide valuable learning experiences across the Problembased/Enquiry-based Learning spectrum, what features need to be available for constructing such scenarios? In considering the vital components and processes of a simulated scenario necessary to meet a range of topics and learning objectives, we arrived at a generic scenario structure that, at its most basic, consists of three key elements. 1. Locations: These are the places where the scenario story takes place, or where the learner will need to go in order to fulfill the scenario objectives. A scenario may involve a number of locations, including nested locations, such as rooms within a building, as described later. Each Location has an “Environment” that provides a visual representation of the selected location. Furthermore, rather than representing a physical location in SBLi, these elements could also represent conceptual “locations” such as a major activity, which is broken down into sub-categories through items and actions. 2. Items: Items are elements that learners can inspect, talk to, or use in order to more fully engage with, or understand, a scenario. Items can include people who can be questioned or examined, telephones that are answered, books or letters that can be read, or tools required for performing specific tasks. Items are represented as icons or images in the environment of the respective location: some items can be collected for use in other locations. 3. Actions: Actions provide learners with the ability to become more engaged with the scenario and make choices to do something. Actions allow users to ask questions, perform


tests, make decisions, etc. To increase the authenticity of “Actions” additional features have been added that allow the scenario author to allocate time and/or monetary costs to specific actions. With a given time or monetary budget, learners have to think critically if the cost or the time it will take to implement a specific action is likely to be the best use of limited resources.

How SBLi Captures these Features Having identified the three critical components of a scenario, how has SBLi been designed to capture these features? Figure 1 shows the SBLi Player interface through which the user engages with the scenario. It consists of four resizable component windows.

The Location Window The various locations included in a scenario appear in this window. This window shows the different locations within a scenario but, as mentioned above and in the scenario shown in Figure 1, it can be used to represent other features, such as a “Getting started” button.

The Environment Window The Environment Window represents the environment of the location currently being visited. Its purpose is to give the student a visual experience and a feeling of “being there”. It contains the Items associated with a Location and a background image.

Figure 1. Screen shot of the four windows of the SBLi Player, showing a specific (Engineers without Borders) scenario

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The Content Window This window is where most of the content of a scenario is delivered, allowing the author of the scenario to explain the story-line to the user and describe what is currently happening. It is here where all the information associated with every Location, Item, and Action within a scenario is displayed to the user in the form of images, videos, audio, question and answer modules, attached documents, links to web sites, and standard text information. All HTML functionality can be included in the content in this window, including external web pages, Macromedia Flash, Excel, Word, PowerPoint, and PDF files. A different content page appears in this window every time a new Location, Item, or Action is selected.

The Actions/Collections Window This window serves as an Actions window or a Collections window, depending on whether the Actions tab or Collections tab is active. The Actions window shows all the actions associated with the current Location or Item selected. The Collections window shows any Items that have been collected from the Environment window, which can then be retrieved in other locations.

Important Features To Enhance Scenario Development And Authenticity The previous section outlined how the SBLi interface has been designed to allow a wide range of scenario formats to be accommodated. In order to provide an easy way of constructing scenarios and achieving greater authenticity of scenarios, a number of additional features and functions have been incorporated in SBLi to provide scenario authors and users with a wide range of simulation possibilities. The more important features are described below. Full details of the features included in SBLi can be found in the Builder

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and Player Help documents that can be accessed at http://www.sblinteractive.org/Support/HelpDocumentation.aspx

Builder: Player Modes To enable scenario authors to easily see how the scenario they are developing will function and look to scenario users, the SBLi Builder—the scenario authoring module—has been designed as closely as possible to the interface used in the SBLi Player. When in Builder mode, two tool bars appear, as shown in Figure 2, as well as a properties panel (Figure 3). The toolbar located between the Location Window and the Environment Window (Figure 2) is common to both and is used to select, add, remove, and move objects within these two windows. The tool bar above the content window (Figure 2) provides the scenario developer with various editing and multimedia functions that can be used within this content window. The floating properties panel (Figure 3), which appears in Builder mode, allows the scenario author to perform a number of functions associated with the construction and design of a scenario. There are five tabs on the left of the panel that allow the author to set properties for the Scenario, Location map (which allows the author to create nested locations in the scenario - see below), Location, Item and Actions. The Location tab has been selected in Figure 3, showing the specific features that can be determined for a specific location. As the scenario author works through the scenario, being able to easily switch from Builder mode to Player mode enables rapid testing of the latest version of the SBLi scenario as the user will experience it.

Nested Locations The SBLi Builder allows scenario authors to create nested Locations, that is, locations that exist within another location. For example, a specific scenario may have a hospital as one location


Figure 2. Screen shot of the four windows of SBLi (in Builder mode)

that can be visited. When the user clicks on that Location, the Location Window shows the different locations within the hospital that can be visited, such as the emergency desk, a ward, and X-ray theatre. Various Items and Actions will be associated with each of these nested Locations. One of the nested locations will be “Exit hospital”; selecting this location returns the user to the original set of Locations.

for further examination in another location where analytical tests are available. The scenario author determines which items are collectable and the learner collects items by moving the item to a collection box (Figure 4) in the environment window. Collected items can be retrieved from the Collection window (Figure 5).

Collection Box

An important requirement for an authentic scenario is the ability to set conditions on when and how components of the scenario are revealed. As a scenario user makes choices, the consequences of a particular choice will only be revealed as he or she proceeds through the scenario. Thus, the scenario author may not wish to reveal a Location, an Item, or an Action to the scenario user until another Location has been visited, an Item

As with any authentic, real-life situation, items situated in the environment window of a specific location may be relevant to analysing or diagnosing a problem throughout the process of engaging with the scenario. In moving through the scenario, the learner may wish to have various books and manuals available or may wish to collect items

Prerequisites

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Figure 3. The SBLi properties panel

– an X-ray theatre; an Action to closely inspect an imported shipment of produce for quarantine purposes cannot be performed if the user has not collected an item—a magnifying lens—from a Location equipment store. This crucial, pre-requisite function is made very easy for the SBLi scenario author to implement. The SBLi Builder software incorporates a Prerequisite Builder that enables the author to construct prerequisites through a series of drop down menus. An example is provided in Figure 6, for the particular case mentioned above concerning the conditions for the Action: making a quarantine inspection. The scenario author sets the conditions by completing the sentence: “I want this action”: “Inspect produce” to be available if... “the Item”, “Magnifying lens” “has been” “collected” where each parameter is defined by selecting these terms from the drop down menus. Note that more than one prerequisite can be added, allowing far more control over the conditions set on scenario processes.

Reports

examined or collected, or an Action performed. For instance, the action to take an X-ray cannot be performed until the patient is in a specific Location

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In many situations, teachers will wish to include reports within a scenario as a means by which students can test their knowledge or submit responses for formative or summative assessment. This is done via a report dialogue box, which opens as a pop up window, as shown in Figure 7. The scenario author completes the Report Template shown in Figure 5 by typing in an “Identifying name” (this is used in the pre-requisite builder mentioned above); a “Heading or Question” which the user will read; and selecting one of four response types: multiple choice, checked choice, or single or multiline text box reports. Other options available to the scenario author include scoring the question, revealing the score to the student, supplying feedback or sample solutions, as shown in the lower section of Figure 7.


Figure 4. Collecting items – showing the item “Diffusion of Innovations” being moved to the collection box

Figure 5. Collection Window active, showing the collected item “Diffusion of Innovations”

The scoring facility of the report can also be used as a pre-requisite where, for instance, the user can only proceed provided a minimum score has been achieved, thereby providing a “mastery test” function.

User Logs Another powerful reporting function of SBLi is the automatic capturing of information submitted into a User log as the user progresses through a scenario. The User Logs not only capture the re-

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Figure 6. Prerequisite builder for constructing pre-requisites in the SBLi Builder

Figure 7. The template for designing a report item – in this case showing a multi-choice question

ports and submitted responses but also track the User’s decision path. The decision path shows the sequence in which each location was visited; what

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items were viewed or collected and what actions were performed. If the author has set tracking as an option, every choice the user makes and the


Figure 8. An example of an SBLi user Log

time required in making that choice is tracked. Figure 8 shows a snap shot of an online log. The User log can be accessed via a number of methods. Scenario Authors can choose to have the completed User Logs emailed to them, or view an online listing, or have the logs (which are XML based) extracted to a database or spreadsheet for easy manipulation.

WHAT’S INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A SCENARIO? Since SBLi scenario development is a creative process, there are endless ways in which scenarios

can be developed and contribute to the learning process. Of the wide range of SBLi scenarios already developed, some take the form of a digital work book associated with a text book, while others resemble a cross between an interactive soap opera and a documentary film. In a later section, a number of different scenarios will be described that illustrate the various broad learning objectives that can be addressed and the range of creative ways in which SBLi scenarios have been developed to achieve these objectives. Nevertheless, despite this diversity, the following four step process is likely to be common to all scenario development projects:

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•

•

•

•

Designing the scenario to take into account: ◦âŠ¦ the target audience; ◦âŠ¦ the learning objectives; ◦âŠ¦ the context in which the scenario will be used (e.g. as part of a tutorial, a prelude to a field trip or a lab exercise); ◦âŠ¦ making the best use of the various features of SBLi to ensure the scenario is effective, appealing, and engaging for users; ◦âŠ¦ The style of scenario that: ▪âŒª Provides information in a structured way; ▪âŒª Develops problem solving skills (technical, social and/or economic); and ▪âŒª Raises and explores ethical or moral issues. Story-boarding, writing the script for the scenario, and testing the framework in SBLi. Taking and/or obtaining photographs and videos, creating icons, acquiring or developing other multimedia components. Incorporating the scenario into SBLi, and testing and editing the scenario before final release.

In discussing this process, Stewart (Chapter18) recommends a sequenced approach to planning interactive scenarios, one which ensures the important issues raised during the scenario development process will be addressed systematically. It would be difficult, if not counter-productive, to try to provide specific guidance on this essentially creative exercise. Apart from gaining a full appreciation of the possibilities provided by the software’s functionality, scenario authors can get stimulating ideas for their own scenarios by looking at existing scenarios and how they have been designed to achieve a diverse range of learning objectives. Some innovative ways in

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which SBLi has been used are described in the following section.

HOW SBLi SCENARIOS ARE BEING USED SBLi scenarios, as simulations of problem situations, are often used in conjunction with other, more traditional, teaching methods such as lectures, tutorials, field trips, and laboratory experiments. In some cases, they can replace the latter activities. They can also make for a more engaging assignment than the traditional static case-study research report. The scaffolding of these teaching methods within a blended learning environment capitalises on the advantages of computer-based e-simulations. These advantages include: providing greater flexibility by allowing access to online material at anytime; greater engagement via the use of mixed media and interactive components; and immediate feedback informing the learner’s progress. Given the creative nature of scenario development, the range of learning issues addressed, and the flexibility provided in the design of SBLi, it is not surprising that that there have been many different ways in which authors have used SBLi scenarios to engage learners and achieve specific learning objectives. In this section, we illustrate the extent of scenario variety and use, by providing brief examples in a table format, followed by five, more detailed showcases. While others have attempted to classify scenario-based learning (e.g., Errington, 2005), no clear categories became apparent to us when reviewing existing SBLi scenarios, except for the broad category of diagnostic scenarios (largely associated with PBL) and a range of problem solving challenges associated with broader aspects of EBL. Therefore, the brief descriptions of a small selection of scenarios given in Table 1 is organised on the basis of discipline. Since the chief purpose of Table 1 is to highlight the diverse ways in


Table 1. A selection of SBLi scenarios to illustrate the range of target audiences, learning objectives and approaches employed Discipline

Scenario Topic

Institution(s) Involved

Target Audience

Main Features

Scenario link if publically viewable on line

AGRICULTURE

1. Native plants

UQ (Gatton)

Existing and potential entrants to the industry

Series of scenarios to assist in planning and managing a floriculture enterprise; incorporates spreadsheet links; deployed on CD and Internet.

https://scenarios.sblinteractive. org/v2/main/StartScenario. aspx?Scenario=241

AGRICULTURE

2. Quarantine procedures

UQ

Students and new quarantine officers (especially in developing countries)

User acts as a quarantine officer required to inspect a new shipment with the aim of learning about relevant documents and procedures.


BUSINESS STUDIES

3. Statistics

UQ

UQ and Manchester undergraduates

Series of scenarios illustrating statistical principles based on a specific PBL case study.

ENGINEERING

4. A traffic speed survey

UQ

UQ undergraduates

The user plays the role of a junior traffic engineer who has to undertake and analyse a traffic speed survey.

ENGINEERING

5. Engineers without Borders (EwB)

UQ

Australian undergraduate students

A series of two scenarios based on EwB projects where users work their way through a number of local settings in SE Asia. Provides multimedia material for student projects in Australian universities.

LAW (showcased)

6. Client consultation

UQ

UQ undergraduates

A series of scenarios that use time budgets when interviewing a client to improve students’ critical thinking skills.

LAW

7. Suburban solicitor’s week

Queensland Legal Services Commission (QLSC); Queensland University of Technology (QUT); UQ

Professional solicitors; undergraduates

The user plays the role of a solicitor who is faced with ethical issues during the course of a week.

http://www.lsc.qld.gov.au/250. htm

LAW

8. Enduring Power of Attorney issues

QLSC; UQ

Professional solicitors; undergraduates

A series of three scenarios in which the user observes a solicitor dealing with a legal issue involving an elderly family member.

http://www.lsc.qld.gov.au/250. htm

MEDICAL (showcased)

9. Paediatrics

Royal Brisbane Children’s Hospital; UQ

First year doctors

Simulated triage process for three child patients

MEDICAL (showcased)

10. Physiology in clinical contexts

UQ

Undergraduates

Scenario aimed at improving diagnostic reasoning skills with learning modules (Flash animations, etc.) included.

MEDICAL

11. Phonological awareness

UQ School of Health & Rehabilitation

Continuing Professional Development

Three scenarios to assist facilitators in becoming proficient in screening and assessing phonological issues.

SCIENCE

12. Water4Life

NSW Science Teachers Association; NSW Government; Sydney Water

Secondary school students in NSW

A series of four scenarios providing information, projects on a wide range of water issues; distributed as CDs to NSW schools as well as on the Internet.

SCIENCE

13. Pond Life

Southbank TAFE, Brisbane

Teacher trainees, Secondary school students

Virtual field course including sampling and identification; incorporating PowerPoint module, animations; interactive identification key, etc.




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Table 1. Continued Discipline

Scenario Topic

Institution(s) Involved

Target Audience

SCIENCE

14. Vertebrate Pest management

University of Canberra; CRC for Invasive Vertebrate Pests

Secondary school students in Canberra ACT

Series of scenarios to illustrate ecological and social aspects involved in understanding and managing six different vertebrate pest problems.

http://www.canberra.edu.au/SBLiServer/ViewScenarios.aspx

SCIENCE

15. Marine Science

UQ

UQ undergraduate students

Virtual field course including site selection, sampling, identification, statistics – all the activities involved in the real thing.

http://scenarios.sblinteractive. org/v2/main/ViewScenarios. aspx?searchkey=moreton%20 bay&category=1&targetaudience=-1

SCIENCE

16. Genetics

Manchester University, UK

Manchester and UK undergraduates

Students investigate the genetics of “Chocolate monsters” using SBLi functions to breed biotypes, and analyse results; available as an UK Open Educational Resource.

http://sbli.ls.manchester.ac.uk/ OER/

SCIENCE

17. Nerve action potential

UQ

UQ undergraduate students

A scenario front end linking to “L-systems” modelling software allowing students to explore nerve action processes by changing model parameters.

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL STUDIES

18. Social Needs Education

UQ

UQ undergraduates

A scenario that requires the user to develop an individual educational plan for a specific (virtual) student.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

19. Virtual Veterinary hospital

Massey University, New Zealand

Massey undergraduates

Numerous scenarios developed using data template; No restrictions on diagnostic options; Three scenarios used as part of final 5th year examination.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

20. Virtual Practitioner

UQ

UQ undergraduates

Series of scenarios; Customised server and collections tab modified to “Patient file”

which the software is being used, space does not allow detailed descriptions. However, where the scenarios mentioned are publicly available on the Internet, more detail about them can be obtained by following the links provided. Another four scenarios are described by Stewart (Chapter 18), and are not repeated here. “The Habitat Change in Moreton Bay” scenario has been developed by Associate Professor Catherine Lovelock and colleagues at UQ, and takes the form of a virtual field trip. In the years prior to its use, it was found that second year students often returned from their first Marine field trip with insufficient data to complete their analysis reports. Their lack of experience meant that simple mistakes were made. Since the expense

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Main Features

Scenario link if publically viewable on line

of such field trips were extremely high, returning to the field was not an option. In attempting to remedy this problem the Moreton Bay scenario simulates a virtual marine field course, enabling students to learn the principles and techniques that they can apply subsequently to an actual field course. Students work in groups as a “professional” with a brief. In order to complete their project, they must make decisions critical to the experimental design. They can research various locations within Moreton Bay and select suitable sites to study. When the sites are selected they “travel” to these locations and collect data by sampling and identifying organisms found in the quadrats. Once data collection has been completed, students complete the exercise with a statistical analysis


Figure 9. Habitat Change in Moreton Bay

of the data to test their original hypothesis and write a report. The scenario is interactive and colourful. It provides an active learning situation, introducing students to the practical aspects of research so that they can get the most from the experience when they subsequently go out and literally get their feet wet. At the completion of the scenario students should be able to: • • • • •

turn questions into testable hypotheses; select sites that will achieve their scientific objective; sample a community to obtain a “representative” picture of the community; identify organisms; construct a data sheet and enter data in a way that can be analysed;

• • • •

analyse data at a basic level; interpret a statistical analysis; prepare a report including graphs; and efficiently use their time and resources.

Dr Terence Tunny (Senior Lecturer at the School of Biomedical Sciences at UQ), developed “Physiology in Clinical Contexts” as a Diagnostic tool for first year medical students. They reported that the scenario was easy to use and gave a high rating to the fact that the scenario could be accessed at their convenience at any time on the internet. The medical simulation was designed to improve student’s ability to integrate physiology knowledge in a clinical context in order to improve their reasoning capabilities. Experience with patients is a vital component in the development of reasoning skills and as the availability and diversity of patients for study may be reduced in

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Figure 10. Physiology in Clinical Contexts

modern medical programs, this clinical scenario package helps to advance reasoning skills as evidenced by improvement in script concordance test results. The scenario requires 7 locations to be visited, the user encountering a mixture of resources: audio, video, animated diagrams, documents, and images. Some of the integrated files are interactive, with rollovers, animations, and drag-and-drop activities. Paediatrics online was developed by Drs Mark Coulthard and Lisa Gotley of the Brisbane Royal Children’s Hospital. Their attraction to SBLi was the easy manner in which they could create their own scenarios. By using existing records and taking photos of patients, it was possible to expose all their first year doctors to typical cases and important procedures they should

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know, before they embark on their first paediatrics round. Learning objectives for this module include: • •

• • •

Elicit an appropriate history and examination in the approach to the febrile child. Prioritise clinical information including significant positives and negatives to determine the most likely source of fever in a child including risk stratification. Recognise and differentiate the clinical signs of a sick child. Understand the indications for and rationally plan investigation of a febrile child. Demonstrate rational antibiotic use in children.

Dr Nick James, Associate Professor in Law at UQ has used SBLi to create a series of three Law


Figure 11. Paediatrics Online - The Febrile Child

scenarios designed to develop students critical legal thinking skills. In wanting to encourage a critical approach to the study of law, Dr James firmly believes it is important that undergraduate law students do not simply accept what they are taught about the law in class or what they are told about the law by legal authorities. He seeks to develop and foster a critical spirit which students apply in their professional lives beyond university. The first scenario places the student in the role of a solicitor of a community legal center. They are required to: • •

Conduct an interview and gather information from a client. Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information.

• • • • • •

Evaluate the information gathered in terms of accuracy and reliability. Conduct legal research. Demonstrate comprehension of legal principles. Exercise legal reasoning skills. Apply legal principles to practical legal problems. Communicate the results of legal research to others.

Critical thinking is tested by the use of time constraints. Students are allowed 30 minutes of scenario time to complete a client interview. There are 23 questions to choose from, each with a specific time cost associated with the time taken to ask and answer the question. If the students do not select their questions wisely, they may find their time budget is depleted and the interview ends

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Figure 12. Critical Legal Thinking

before all the relevant information necessary to assess the case has been obtained (See Figure 13). The BIOL1020 Academic Ethics SBLi module was developed by Wallis Edwards at UQ as an online teaching module which demonstrates to Faculty of Science students how to uphold academic integrity in their assignments. To avoid breaching ethics in academic writing there are a series of rules and styles to follow. The consequences of breaching set guidelines and rules at university level can ultimately threaten academic careers. The scenario is used to educate students on a number of issues and rules surrounding academic ethics. The scenario provides a transparent, easy to understand guide to policies in the context of a specific written assignment within BIOL1020. The impact of this scenario is currently being analysed through the use of pre and post survey

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questions; analysing “Turnitin” plagiarism reports; and viewing Google Analytics reports. The Google Analytics report was particularly useful for seeing the number of times the module was used, and in particular when it was used. Wallis was keen to see if students used the scenario in a timely manner. Whilst the Google Analytics report did highlight a peak usage on September 1st, 2 days prior to the submission date, she was pleased to note that the bulk of students had accessed the scenario between August 26th and August 30th. Please see Figure 15 for more details.

WHAT LESSONS HAVE BEEN LEARNED? Over the period we have been involved in developing and implementing Scenario Based Learn-


Figure 13. Example of Scenario time constraints

Figure 14. BIOL1020 Academic Ethics

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Figure 15. Google Analytics report for the BIOL1020 Academic Integrity scenario

ing using e-simulation software—initially with “Diagnosis of Crop Problems” and more recently with SBLi—a number of issues have arisen that we have had to grapple with. The lessons learned, which could have implications for other e-simulation projects, are discussed under the following headings: sustainability of the software/approach; developing attractive and engaging scenarios; and using the builder as a learning tool.

Sustainability of the Software/Approach Funds for the development and implementation of both “Diagnosis of Crop Problems” and SBLi have come from various sources, including internal university funding, external grants, contract work, and commercial software sales. That the development and implementation of these learning tools has continued over a period exceeding 15 years, has involved a complete re-design and re-write of the software, and has resulted in an increasing number and range of applications, provides

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evidence of sustainability. Factors contributing to this durability include: •

• •

The focus on designing software that maximises the range of applications (and hence funding opportunities); Providing effective help and support services to scenario authors; and Being closely involved in the application of the software and modifying it in response to users’ requirements. User feedback, which has played an important role in SBLi’s development, has included such issues as: long delays in uploading large scenarios; difficulty inserting audio and video files; excessive time involved in sourcing suitable images; and question reports unable to be copied to maintain a question format. This feedback resulted in improvements such as image size optimisation to ensure file size is kept to a minimum; the inclusion of an image library, an improved, one button method for inserting


any type of media file; and the ability to copy and paste existing question reports. As with most software enterprises, failure to properly address any one of the three factors above is most likely to lead to the early demise of an e-simulation endeavor.

Developing Attractive and Engaging Scenarios In the earlier discussion concerning the creative process of developing a multimedia scenario, it was mentioned that some scenarios bear a similarity to a soap opera or documentary. Following on from this, scenario development, as with the production of a documentary film, should ideally involve a production team. Scenarios are likely to be more attractive, engaging, and pedagogically effective where the development team brings together expertise and skills in the following areas: • • • •

Knowledge and practical experience in the subject domain. Instructional design capability. Creative writing experience. Multimedia skills, including graphic design.

However, while having such a team and having a professional looking scenario is desirable, as indicated previously, a major advantage of SBLi is that it requires no specialist programming skills; so that teachers and trainers can easily develop, modify and update scenarios themselves. This is not the case for many “hard-wired” computerbased teaching and learning resources.

Using the Builder as a Learning Tool While some authors have used features of the SBLi software in ways we had not anticipated (e.g., Breakey et al., 2008), others have made use of the ease with which scenarios can be developed

to employ the Builder itself as a learning tool. Stewart and Galea (2006) describe student projects that have utilised the builder component of the Diagnosis of Crop Problems software. Students are assigned real problems in the agricultural and horticultural industry; they visit and interview growers; and inspect the crops and other components of the problem scenario. This information and related images are then used to create a scenario on which the project is evaluated. More recently, SBLi has been used in a similar way for a class on World Religion (Bachelor of Arts) at UQ. Students were provided with a rudimentary scenario template, and asked to create scenarios based on their own research findings for various World Religion issues, such as Hindu’s Sati (act of self-immolation); Jehovah’s Witnesses and blood transfusions; Women in the Clergy; and Interfaith Marriages. The learning experience involved students’ choosing the issue they wished to explore, researching that issue and presenting their results in the form of an authentic scenario. Since all these scenarios were online, students were encouraged to work through other student’s scenarios to further enhance the learning experience. Figures 16, 17, and 18 provide snap shots of three of these student projects. The scenario format and the use of images helps to engage the students’ interest in the project and to effectively portray the cultural differences involved.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The future of SBLi and its role in supporting the types of applications described in this chapter, as with other e-simulation tools, depends on a number of factors, including: the blended learning environment and the role e-simulation tools can play within the curriculum; available financial resources; flexibility and ease of use of the software; lecturers’ time; the availability of other staff who can be involved in developing and applying the

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Figure 16. World Religion student project - Sati

Figure 17. World Religion student project - Jehovah’s Witnesses and Blood Transfusions

learning material; institutional IT strategy; student and lecturer response; and the impact of the tool in enhancing the learning experience.

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Our approach in tackling a number of these challenges in the past has already been described in this chapter and we aim to continue and adapt


Figure 18. World Religion student project - Interfaith Marriages

this approach in the future. However, one issue that has not been discussed to this point is the potential for sharing images, icons, and scenarios and enabling lecturers and trainers to edit and modify scenarios developed by others. One feature that has already been developed in the SBLi Builder is a media library that enables scenario developers to save images and icons used in their scenarios. We are currently working on the development of an online version of this library which would enable scenario authors to contribute images, icons, and scenarios to an online repository, enabling others to access and download these resources for use in their own scenarios. The concept of sharing SBLi scenarios has already been implemented in the UK, where the Open Educational Resource project of the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) provides access to five SBLi scenarios developed by Manchester University (see Table 1). These scenarios can be used by other universities or downloaded, allowing the builder files to be modified for their own purposes. Further development of this and other initiatives, in making the development of

scenarios more efficient and more widely used, will add to the sustainability of the approach. How such developments will be funded and how teachers can be made aware of, and encouraged to use, Open Resource e-simulation tools are crucial issues that will need to be addressed.

CONCLUSION There is an increasing emphasis on problem-based and enquiry-based learning as important components of many teaching and learning activities. This is especially so for those occurring within a blended learning environment. This fact has created potential for increased use of scenario-based learning software tools, such as SBLi, Adobe Captivate (2010), and Articulate Online (2010). These tools make it possible to create complex and realistic scenario-based simulations that engage learners in acquiring specific knowledge and skills in a challenging yet entertaining way. The role that scenario-based learning can play in enhanc-

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Table 2. Examples of student and lecturer feedback Student Feedback “I didn’t watch any lectures on Lectopia. I went to all the lectures but watching them online is much harder for me to keep my concentration. SBLi was much better”. “The lecture provided most of the detail and SBLi was used for revision”. “You can use the scenarios to go over material covered in tutorials”. “SBLi provides a summary of the subject, so you don’t have to read through the whole book to understand what the topic is about”. “Pictures linking up with the theory gives me more clarity” (international student). “Different from other ways of learning – novel”. “Liked the feedback from questions – good to know why an answer is correct”. “Real risks included”. “Forced to think holistically about patient”.

ing learning experiences across a wide range of disciplines has been demonstrated in this chapter. Key features of SBLi, the e-simulation software for scenario based learning that has been the focus of this chapter, are: • •

• •

Specific features designed for the creation of interactive scenarios; The ease of scenario creation, not requiring programming expertise and the extent to which scenarios can be easily edited, adapted and updated; The scope of the applications that can and have been achieved; and The scalability of the software, enabling simple scenarios to be developed in a short time at low cost by teachers or students, through to professionally developed scenarios with inputs from graphic designers and other technical experts.

Formal evaluations on the impact of SBLi scenarios with regard to the learning process are

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Lecturer Feedback “LAWS1112 had about 450 students in each of 2009 and 2010, the years in which we have used SBLi. I have found it to be an enormously useful resource for demonstrating the application of a range of theoretical concepts to practical scenarios. Feedback from students has generally been very positive”. Dr Nick James Associate Professor | Associate Dean (Academic) “We used 3 SBLi [scenarios] in the course …Animal Breeding and Molecular Genetics with the second year vet students this semester. There was an enrolment of 109 students in the course”. “Students used the SBLi [scenarios] in advance of classes and we talked about the issues raised in tutorials that followed”. “I would have liked to use more SBLi [scenarios] and to integrate them into a tutorial as I have done in previous years but issues with computer lab availability prevented this. Indeed, I had to change one teaching session away from the SBLi and back to handout pieces of paper, which I think was detrimental to student learning as we had previously shown this tutorial/SBLi combination to have led to improved exam outcomes for students on the topic covered”. Dr Jennifer Seddon Senior Lecturer in Animal Genetics

still in progress. However anecdotal evidence, at least from some students and lecturers (see Table 2), indicates that the use of SBLi scenarios has at least made the learning process enjoyable and has improved examination outcomes. Feedback with regard to student use was captured from a variety of scenarios across different disciplines via anonymous student surveys and focus groups. Some of their comments included:

REFERENCES Adobe Captivate. (2010). Adobe Captivate. Retrieved from https://www.adobe.com/devnet/ captivate/articles/scenario_learning_03.html Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (1985). Computerbased instruction: Methods and development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Articulate Online. (2010). Articulate Online. Retrieved from http://www.articulate.com/rapidelearning/building-scenarios-for-e-learning/


Barrett, T., MacLabhrainn, I., & Fallon, H. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of enquiry and problem-based learning: Irish case studies and international perspectives. Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, NUI Galway and All Ireland Society for Higher Education, Dublin. Retrieved from http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-2/ Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. Barrows, H. S., & Wee, K. N. (2007). Principles and practice of APBL. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Breakey, K. M., Levin, D., Miller, I., & Hentges, K. E. (2008). The use of scenario-based-learning interactive software to create custom virtual laboratory scenarios for teaching genetics. Genetics, 179, 1151–1155. doi:10.1534/genetics.108.090381 Errington, E. (2005). Creating learning scenarios: A planning guide for adult educators. Palmerston North, New Zealand: Cool Books & Florida. U.S.A: Krieger Publishing. Johnson, L. F., Smith, R. S., Smythe, J., Varon, T., & Rachel, K. (2009). Challenge-based learning: An approach for our time. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium. Retrieved from http://www. nmc.org/pdf/Challenge-Based-Learning.pdf Kahn, P., & O’Rourke, K. (2005). Understanding enquiry-based learning (EBL). In T. Barrett, I. Mac Labhrainn & H. Fallon, (Eds.), Handbook of enquiry and problem-based learning: Irish case studies and international perspectives. Retrieved from http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-2/

Kindley, R. W. (2002). Scenario-based e-learning: A step beyond traditional e-learning. Retrieved from http://www.astd.org/LC/2002/0502_kindley. htm Schank, R., Fano, A., Bell, B., & Jona, M. (1993). The design of goal-based scenarios. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 305–345. doi:10.1207/ s15327809jls0304_2 Stewart, T. M. (2007). Tools and techniques for scenario based e-learning for New Zealand tertiary students: Prototype to adoption. In R. J. Atkinson, C. McBeath, S. K. A. Soong & C. Cheers (Eds), ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning (pp. 962-972). Proceedings ASCILITE Singapore 2007. Centre for Educational Development, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Retrieved on May 27th, 2010, from http://www. ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/ stewart-t.pdf Stewart, T. M., Blackshaw, B. P., Duncan, S., Dale, M. L., Zalucki, M. P., & Norton, G. A. (1995). DIAGNOSIS: A novel, multimedia, computer-based approach to training crop protection practitioners. Crop Protection (Guildford, Surrey), 14, 241–246. doi:10.1016/0261-2194(95)00005-7 Stewart, T. M., & Galea, V. J. (2006). Approaches to training practitioners in the art and science of plant disease diagnosis. Plant Disease, 90(5), 539–547. doi:10.1094/PD-90-0539

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Chapter 20

Future Developments in E-Simulations for Learning Soft Skills in the Health Professions Piet Kommers University of Twente, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT New interaction modes involving avatars in 3D virtual worlds and also software for interpreting facial and voice expressions are recognised for their potential use in soft skills training in professions such as medicine. Doctor to patient communication is becoming a vital element in the transition from cure to care, and communication skills training needs continual revision and development. A series of projects examined in this chapter articulate instructional strategies that rely on controlling communicative parameters such as emotional states. In one project, the natural coach/mentor was complemented by a semi-realistic 3D “Intelligent Virtual Agent”. Pedagogical scenarios like “learning by modeling” rest upon doctors’ and nurse practitioners’ competencies to classify patients’ emotions and various existential crises. The project formulated the method to derive and structure ontologies for emotions and affective behaviors and the outcome is a confrontation between advanced media and instructional strategies. In terms of communicative strategy, the doctor-patient interaction is a precursor to the wider field of professional communication, and needs dedicated methods to consolidate best practices in ontologies for life-long learning.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch020


Future Developments in E-Simulations for Learning Soft Skills in the Health Professions

INTRODUCTION Learning is gradually becoming a more integrated and inherent life attitude, spread along all phases and aspects of life. This chapter foregrounds how new media like Virtual Reality (VR), and facial and voice expression recognition media elicit a more active attention for developing soft skills; that is, the seamless integration of task performance and the more subtle social skills and intuition needed in health care and medical interventions. Rolebased simulations for developing social skills in the medical context are, therefore, the primary focus of this chapter. It delivers theories, models, cases, benefits, and future directions of innovations in e-simulations. Crucial is how a range of disciplines across a variety of institutions conceptualise their learning designs for local blended learning environments, and build the necessary capacities for developing and delivering e-simulations. An emerging phenomenon is the use of web-based simulations for education, and for embedding in job-based training. Modern workplace learning is blended by default. Media, colleagues, and sometimes an explicit curriculum work together and allow the employee to become a continuous, experiential, and reflective learner. These developments were first enacted in the “Myself” project (during the period 2004 – 2006) exploring the potential benefits of computer-based interactive simulations for enhancing communication and emotional competence training in physician/patient relationships amongst others. “Myself” is the project title for “Multimodal eLearning System based on Simulations, Role Playing, Automatic coaching and Voice recognition interaction for affective Profiling”. In 2003 the European Commission awarded funding to this cooperative research (CRAFT) project under the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6) for innovative small to medium- sized enterprises (SMEs). The Myself project worked towards more abundant, accessible, interactive, and usable content and knowledge, coupled with shifts in

demand (future of education and training systems, productivity, time to competency, focus on intangible assets) which will contribute to: • •

•

•

Reshaping the way we learn; Teaching methods that are increasingly focused on inquiry-based, problem-solving approaches; Technologies that are suggesting new ways to generate learner engagement and motivation and to support innovation and creativity; and Learning that is increasingly integrated into business processes, corporate knowledge management and human resources systems.

An offspring of the Myself project is an underlying model for the acceptance and integration of media which is examined in this chapter. Sharing, mentoring, and coaching become more essential in medical training programs. While still under development through two related projects (the Martina and Top-Staff projects), the model illustrates how a range of disciplines across medical institutions envisage learning designs for local blended learning. The theories, characteristics, and target health-care users of the model will be examined. The chapter therefore aims to help the reader to envisage new didactic genres and scenarios. Should doctor-patient communication be subject to peer review? Should media like video conferencing and 3D virtual spaces be used for medical training? A relevant anecdote is that in the early nineties, medical faculties hesitated to let surgeons and nurse practitioners practice with simulations in anatomy, physiology, and pathology on the Apple computer. The slogan was: “an Apple a day keeps the doctor away”; obviously the mediated version of visual, haptic, and kinesthetic feedback hampered the realistic learning compared to real interaction with patients. However, virtuality, mobility, and vicarious learning start paying back the heavy efforts to adopt web-based commu-

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nities within institutional boundaries (Nambisan, Gustafson, Pingree, & Hawkins, 2010). Blended learning and the convergence of traditional and media-based learning have been welcomed in the last decade. Still a super-ordinate model is needed in order to guide young professionals in complex fields like education and health care. It is argued that, more generally, critical elements in education that have matured can now be well served by e-simulations.

EVOLUTION OF LEARNING PARADIGMS Recent work undertaken by the European project consortia aimed at the inclusion of media-supported social skills in medical care requires both theoretical frameworks and case-based evidence to assist their development. Sharing this work will help readers build their own capacity for developing and/or using e-simulations. Critical educational elements for the success of such esimulations are: •

•

• •

Constructivist learning approaches and environments used in response to current brain research and theories of learning; Experiential learning made possible in technologies that create virtual learning environments; Authentic learning designs and assessment designs; and The life-long and flexible learning trajectory of all learners, but more particularly, the role of social media and the growing role of gaming for the Net generation and those more familiar with role-playing games.

The consortia’s underlying research became intrinsically cross disciplinary, requiring input from cognitive and social sciences, pedagogy, computer and neurosciences.

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DEVELOPING SOFT SKILLS THROUGH E-SIMULATION The Importance of Soft Skills The aim of the planned Martina project and later the Top-Staff project is to provide medical organisations with learning devices meant to train soft skills (skills in managing communication and emotion) through contextualised interactive simulations in order to improve the quality of recurrent communication exchanges between medical staff and patients suffering from multi-problematic incurable, but treatable, diseases. The first innovative feature of these projects is the use of the affective computing. In HumanComputer Interaction, Picard has defined affective computing as the types of computer applications that deal with emotion (Picard, 1997). A growing number of studies support the claim that affect plays a critical role in decision making and learning performance as it influences cognitive processes (Kinard, 2001; LeDoux, 1998). For example, David Goleman raised the awareness that emotions can interfere with mental performance and learning (Goleman, 1995). Despite the relationship between learning and emotions being far from that simple and linear, it is now recognised that positive and negative affect states trigger different kinds of thinking and this might hold important implications from educational and training perspective. Within the research community, there is more and more awareness that a consistent theory of learning that integrates effectively cognitive and emotional factors is strongly needed (Picard et. al., 2004). The work to be undertaken in the Top-Staff project aims to exploit the potential of technology-enhanced experiential learning for training in communication and emotional competence in the physician-patient relationship. In particular, the work is focused on the translation of typical interactive medical situations into computer-based simulations and specific training


exercises; this offers the possibility for physicians to develop their skills (e.g. empathy, emotional coping, non-verbal communication, etc.) in experiential settings through interactive scenarios that lead users’ identification of gaps and experience required in a virtual context. Specifically, within the e- simulations, the trainee interacts with virtual customer/patients facing a number of problematic situations. The trainee has the opportunity to verify his/her communicative and emotional skills while managing the conversation with the virtual patient within the simulation’s path. Top-Staff involves several types of end users: physicians and nurses; patients; patients’ families; associations of patients; and associations of patients’ families. Projects like Top-Staff and MySelf build upon earlier projects that have focused on theoretical notions about emotions, collaborative learning, and cognitive processes. During implementation, the balance between the moments of tutoring and student autonomy in using simulations and role-play games will come into focus. Patients’ associations and patients’ family associations will be taken into account in order to keep the cases realistic. Throughout the projects, systematic contacts with patients’ associations and patients’ family associations (focusing on incurable but treatable multi-problematic diseases) will be guaranteed and provided by hospitals involved as partners in the projects. We are expecting those associations to make the quality criteria for medical staff and patient communication more explicit and this will be necessary in order to validate protocols for critical situations.

The Communicative Challenge and Planned Solution Both from the standpoint of practical and scientific evidence, there is a strong need for communication models that moderate and facilitate patients’ life expectation. The first aspect is to provide correct factual information that is tailored to the patient’s particular disease and their general constitution.

The second intertwined aspect is the communicative function needed for supporting the patient in the transition into a changed life perspective. Life style and the conveyance of the patient’s emotional processes and growing skills to regulate emotions and targeted self-efficacy are at stake. A solution is needed to: •

• • • • •

Increase the effectiveness of the communication between medical staff and the patient (both face-to-face communication and computer/mobile-mediated communication); Have a positive impact on patients’ health and recovery, and subjective well-being; Help them to get a realistic view of what will happen to them in the near future; Reduce costs for medical institutions; Reduce legal risks; and Provide the scientific community with clues about the use of information and communications technologies (ICT) in learning soft skills.

In a number of disease classes, the effective regulation of emotion and mood has even proved to be crucial in the success of the medication. In these cases, it is obvious that the training of physicians and nurse practitioners in soft skills and communication strategies is vital for the cure process. For these reasons, the strategic relevance of soft skills, (with a particular focus on communication and emotion management skills), is receiving growing attention in healthcare organisations, specifically within medical staff-patient communication. Among the communicative domains connected with soft skills management, vital diagnosis communication has so far received attention, since a host of critical perspectives has to be taken into account turning communication management into a complex challenge both for medical staff and patients. Nonetheless, vital diagnosis communication (medical staff giving “bad news”) refers to specific communicative acts

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that typically represent a “one shot”, non-recurrent communicative situation within the broader range of communication exchanges between medical staff and patient. Learning implies emotion, from happiness, to excitement, to mourning; especially when it occurs in a realistic condition. The basic observation is that a range of emotions occurs naturally in a real learning process, from positive ones (joy, satisfaction, elation, etc. for example in the case of successful achievement), to negative ones (frustration, sadness, confusion as a consequence, for example, of failure and lack of understanding), to emotions more related to interest, curiosity, and surprise when confronted with a new topic. Models such as the one of Kort and Reilly (2001) for example, identified a cyclic model attempting to interweave the emotional dimension with the cognitive dynamics of the learning process. Compared with the communicative situation just described, healthcare organisations have been acknowledging the relevance of communication management within recurrent medical staff-patient interactions as in the case of chronic diseases. Within chronic diseases, a distinction can be made among routine chronic diseases (e.g. hypertension, etc.) and multi-problematic incurable but treatable diseases. This last class of diseases includes various cancer forms (e.g., mamma cancer, colon cancer), multiple myeloma, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, systemic lupus erythematosus, and rare diseases (e.g., in case of developmental pathologies, Cornelia de Lange Syndrome, Kabuki Syndrome). According to health-care organisations involved in proposing the Martina and later the Top-Staff project, multiproblematic incurable but treatable diseases (far more than routine chronic diseases) pose complex communicative challenges in medical staff-patient interaction.

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Such communicative challenges are connected with the following factors: •

•

•

•

Clinical protocols, though available, are still partially under empirical investigation or need to be specifically tailored to each patient’s case. Facing clinical decisions and sharing their rationale and impact on patients and their families implies dealing with strong uncertainty that needs to be appropriately managed. Recurrent communicative exchanges make the relationship-building process more demanding; such process encompasses, among others, the building of reciprocal trust, the recognition and regulation of both negative and positive emotions, the management of self-efficacy, and self-regulatory beliefs. The time span for such communicative exchanges is often unpredictable, both on the side of medical staff, and of patients. Communication management of all these issues, besides being time demanding, implies relevant legal risks.

The opportunity to effectively manage soft skills in communicative exchanges connected with these types of diseases strongly impacts on patients’ (and patients’ families) psycho-physical well-being and perceived quality of life. Extensive scientific evidence supports the need to manage effectively soft skills in communicative exchanges connected with these types of diseases, highlighting effects both on patients’ health and on patients’ (and patients’ families) subjective well-being. Research in psychoneuro-immunology has shown that psychological factors related to emotion (emotional disclosure, regulation of negative emotions, fostering positive emotions) positively affect the immune mechanisms involved in cancer


regulation and autoimmune diseases (Vedhara, & Irwin, 2005). Such research mentions substantial positive clinical outcomes. Also in the domain of positive psychology (Snyder, & Lopez, 2002), empirically based research has shown short- and long-term positive effects of emotion regulation strategies and emotional expression on physical health and subjective well being (Chang, 2002). More specifically, enduring negative mood and the suppression of negative emotion have been proved to cause a negative impact on patients’ health (Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000), whereas positive emotions: •

• •

• •

Are associated with positive long-term effects on health (e.g., longevity, “good aging”); Have an “undoing effect” on negative emotions; Foster the ability to flexibly adapt to rapidly changing critical situations and to adopt effective problem-solving strategies; Increase personal self efficacy in managing one’s health difficulties; and Enhance interpersonal relationships by participating in social support networks.

For these reasons, medical staff’s competence in communication and emotion management can be viewed as a vital and not trivial—though, obviously, not exclusive—factor in the management process of incurable but treatable diseases. Currently, hospitals have widely recognised that medical staff need additional training in order to cope with these actual complex communicative demands, but organisational and economical constraints strongly limit this opportunity. A joint effort is needed to increase medical staff’s communication quality and effectiveness, to optimise their time, to reduce legal risks, and to improve patients’ psycho-physical well-being and perceived quality of life.

OVERALL OBJECTIVES FOR E-SIMULATION DEVELOPMENTS The main technological need for ongoing and future projects is to provide a technological and scientific basis for the development of an experiential and collaborative technology-enhanced learning system for the training of soft skills with a specific focus on health care contexts. Three macro-objectives and subordinate targets are needed for the analysis of the planned activities. The development of innovative forms of adaptive technology-enhanced experiential learning for the training of communication and emotional competence needs to lead to an intelligent and self-adaptive system. This system would follow the learning path of users’ development, and be underpinned by an innovative collaborative architecture to support communities, such as community/physicians and paramedical staff, and also users who can cooperate during the training phase, sharing the same simulations and experiences and learning by discussion and critique. The collaborative architecture concept also applies to communities and organisations cooperating and collaborating synchronously and asynchronously to support the capturing of tacit embedded knowledge and its sharing, reuse and evolution. The primary application domain developed within the project is the health-care domain. Medical training systems will be used for the training of health-care personnel (both physicians and nurses). Health-care is a domain where relational and emotional aspects are present and are characterised by a high level of complexity. Through the experiential and collaborative activities allowed by the Top-Staff platform, these professionals will train in their communication and emotional skills in order to improve the management of the relationship with their patients, with expected positive outcomes, on patients’ compliance and satisfaction, on physicians’/nurses’ burn-out risks, and on the overall quality and effectiveness of medical care.

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HEALTH-CARE WORKERS AS ANOTHER PARTICIPANT GROUP

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Another important participant group is health-care workers for the elderly. It relates to the support that health-care workers carry out at the mature adults’ homes, especially for people concerned with dementia and Alzheimer diseases. The geriatric social worker in this case, who is continuously faced with dilemmas such as chronic illness, especially psychiatric disorders, is at high risk of suffering from job burnout. These types of healthcare workers require the organisation for which they work to provide them with the support they need and the possibility to share their experiences. Efforts made by the organisation appear to be of high significance in reducing the discrepancy between the person and the job, therefore allowing the social worker to better adapt to the environment and to find a greater balance within the professional setting. Health-care professionals face a very complex situation, from one side they need to find (very often quickly when they are one-onone with the mature adult) the ways of relating to elderly people at home, from the other side they should have very specific technical competencies (i.e., find the right way of helping a person who has difficulties in the instrumental activities of daily living (IADL or ADL), or the choice of a specific instrument). In this case, target users (of the project creations) are the health-care workers who carry out their job at homes for the elderly, while target patients are the mature adults/seniors and the target disease is dementia (in particular, Alzheimer’s).

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ADVANCED LEARNING ACTIVITY ARCHITECTURE The proposed system to be used for encouraging enhanced learning activities for the various health-care professionals will be made up of the following components:

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An Affective Recognition System able to detect emotion from the user by vocal and facial measurement. An Inferential System Module which will actively decide and build up the response to the user emotion recognition and will adapt the right output speech and the affective graphical characteristic by an Intelligent Virtual Agent to the user. The Kernel Inference Engine will undertake the inference analysis using the knowledge repository and ontology of emotions and user emotion detected by the Affective Recognition System. An Adaptivity and Evolutionary Contents Module which will adapt the learning path to the users and the adoption of scenario and content in the simulation according to the user emotional state. The Evolutionary User Adoption Module will catalogue the history of the user by tracking all data referring to the user (emotions, 3D content browsed, answers) and to system relevant information. The Evolutionary User Adoption Module will dynamically update the user model. An affective interaction by a ThreeDimensional Intelligent Virtual Agent (3DIVA) Module: an Intelligent Virtual Agent (IVA) will conduct inference and interaction with the users. These intelligent virtual and embodied animated agents engage users in natural face-to-face conversational interaction. The animated agent will also produce accurate, natural and expressive auditory and visible speech with facial expressions and gestures appropriate to the physical nature of language production, the context of the dialogue, and the goals of the task. An Experiential Learning Module which in relation to the adoption of the “Automatic Coaching” algorithm, will calculate the educational progress of the students/user


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based on a score-target algorithm in turn using the tree structured simulation and other didactical material. An Experiential Engine that will work deeply in association with the ‘Adaptivity and Evolutionary Engine’ and the Inference System. A Collaborative System which is ontology-driven and will manage stakeholders, roles, states, transactions, attributes, qualities, verbal reports, and learning outcomes during sessions in the communities of practice. A Knowledge Repository that is the Database containing ontologies with set of rules on the model of Emotion, and the Behavior and Pedagogical Model.

platform with new situations/solutions (both social and collaborative learning skills). The Authoring tool features are: •

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That the system will allow the creation of new storyboards as well as the introduction of modifications to the existing ones; and A possible open architecture, or, better as a hybrid one, consisting both of “off-theshelf” training contents and of dynamically evolving ones according to users’ inputs etc.

The architecture of training tools for soft skills has been defined in this exploratory action: core training “tools”. These core training tools encompass a multimedia interactive simulations authoring tool for individual and collaborative training and the accompanying methodological approach which is experiential, collaborative, and adaptive to users’ emotional states. The Collaborative features are the:

The idea is to support experiential-driven content generation and evolutionary story-telling. These features will be consistent with the definition of an innovative methodology to “acquire, capture, organise, model, visualise and (re-)use” tacit knowledge on soft skills. The innovative methodology will also incorporate voice-based interaction with the system based on speechrecognition software and integration with the mobile system to collect best practices. The affective computing features (recognition of, and adaptation to, the user’s emotional states) will be enabled through the capacity of the system to monitor the emotional states of the users. This facility will play an important role in the training process at two main levels:

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SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ELEMENTS

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Bottom-up extraction (data-mining) of tacit knowledge soft-skills (in the phase of storyboard development) to collect on the spot competencies through case studies, best practices helping to build realistic dialogues, the identification of criticalities and the development of storyboards (mobile devices will be used to feed the system); and “Life-Long” development of new situations according to (after-training) real-life experiences, continuous updating of the

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The level of emotion implied by the situation: for example, a depressed patient, etc. Personal emotions management where the situation will produce specific emotions for the learner: for example, relationship management with a patient that does not value the health-care worker’s medical competencies and expresses frustration and anger. This requires the physician to become aware of, and regulate, their emotional responses (recognise, analyse, express, etc.). For example, the system will

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show how some components of the emotional experience may be regulated (e.g., the physician’s heart rate levels, increased as a response to anger and to other negative emotions, which may be affected by some forms of biofeedback, and training the physician to regulate such negative emotions). The Intelligent tutoring features in the form of an Embodied Pedagogical Agent involving a 3D virtual tutor will be used at two levels: helping people to put their experiences in the system through mobile devices following the simulation experience; and coaching the learner during the simulation progress by giving feedback and help. Furthermore, it will be possible to customise the tutor (a lady, a man, a young person, a doctor, etc.) according to specific learning in health care contexts and in relation to cultural aspects. Mobile features using mobile devices technology might be envisaged in two cases: in order to gather “situated information” supporting the process of knowledge mining from the end-users being as close as possible to an event; and as an additional platform to access training simulation content.

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Another project phase will be oriented towards the pedagogical aspects. It intends to have an impact on behaviors, attitudes and skills. Different pedagogical models can be considered. The association of the three kinds of knowledge, during learning, will ensure a correct behavior in action. This is a classical approach in the pedagogical field. The final objective meets three pedagogical challenges: •

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PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES The first pedagogical matter of importance is the need for competence elucidation as a competence is a global concept, made up of different components (behavior, attitude, skill, etc.) and can only be expressed in action, in real life. Competence must be carefully described and taken into account as we do not exactly know what these so called competencies are as specifically operationalised by expert medical staff. Second is the need for communication models that should take into account situations, emotions, and impact on both actors. The global concepts are crucial in the first phase in:

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Gathering on-the-spot information, understanding how competence is structured, and how soft skills, attitudes, behaviors, body language and non-verbal signs contribute to design competence; Applying communication models and analysing their impacts and evolution; and Taking into account the impact of emotions on the medical staff-patient relationship.

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Making professionals change their attitudes which cannot be done with more and more formal information and doesn’t reside in declarative knowledge. Insisting on the importance of non-verbal attitudes and signs which is not typical of the medical population (especially physicians) who are trained to be passive, to ignore emotions and to believe in figures and facts, objectivity more than in the value of empathy, warmth, positive encouragement and subjectivity. Training medical staff to be aware and react to the patient’s own attitude and nonverbal signs and to take into account that both attitudes have an immediate impact on each partner.

The challenges embody three emotional parameters:


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Swiftness: the speed of this exchange is so quick that it is almost impossible to identify signs and consciously react to them. Complexity: many inextricable signs have to be observed and conscious adjustment is very difficult to undertake. To be skilled, reaction has to become natural, obvious and integrated. Domino effect: the attitude shown by one protagonist provokes a reaction on the other protagonist’s attitude, and then reciprocally. The impact of one little non-verbal sign has a great impact on the other protagonist who will react gradually.

Addressing the Pedagogical Challenge There are three classical learning theories (cognitivism, constructivism, and socio-constructivism). The pedagogical approaches covered next can be combined and integrated. The first is situated learning (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 2000). This theory is closely related to socio-culturalism, distributed cognition, and cognitive apprenticeship with the following characteristics: • •

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Learning is situated in the activity in which it takes place and implies doing. Meaningful learning will only take place if it is embedded in the cultural, social, and physical context within which it will be used. Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. Learning methods embedded in authentic situations are highly meaningful for the learner (Brown, et al., 2000).

Situated learning occurs when learners work on authentic tasks that take place in a real-world setting. Herrington and Oliver (1995) have identified nine significant items in situated learning,

namely: apprenticeship in an authentic context, authentic learning activities, access to experts’ competencies, multiples roles, and perspectives, collaborative construction of knowledge, reflexive approach on apprenticeship, explication of tacit knowledge, coaching, fostering scaffolding and fading, and integrating evaluation into learning activities. The second is reflexive learning. This has an orientation towards learning by doing, not through a test-error didactical method but by applying a reflexive method starting from concrete experience and linking it to formal knowledge. Learning is organised with a strong link to real situations, concrete experiences, experts’ testimonies, and peers’, patients’ and patients’ families’ evaluation. The global learning framework should be carefully prepared and exploited to optimise the role of experience. This can be done by: • • •

Preparing learners to observe, evaluate, and experiment; Creating instruments to help a reflexive attitude; and Helping the learner to show an objective attitude to help experience detachment and analysis.

The first step aims at eliminating the gap between the global learning framework and norms. The second step aims at modifying the reference framework. The third step, through reflexive apprenticeship, facilitates changes in the reference framework. The third is social learning theory. (Bandura, 1977). This emphasises the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1977, p. 22). The component processes underlying observational learning are: attention, retention, motor skills, and motivation: 379


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Attention includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement). Retention includes symbolic coding, cognitive organisation, symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal. Motor reproduction, includes physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback. Motivation includes external reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.

The fourth is affective learning. The affective learning domain addresses the learner’s emotions towards their learning experience. Learners’ attitudes, interest, attention, awareness, and values are demonstrated by affective behaviors. These emotional behaviors which are organised hierarchically, starting from the simplest and building to the most complex internalising values, are as follows: • • • •

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Internalising values (behavior which is controlled by a value system); Organisation of values (organising values into order of priority); Valuing which is the value a person attaches to something; Responding to phenomena which involves taking an active part in learning and participating; Receiving phenomena which is an awareness and willingness to listen.

These five categories can be thought of in a scaffolding manner, one must be learned in order to move onto the next category. Our e-simulation research field is related to affective computing, which is a branch of artificial intelligence that deals

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with the design of systems and devices which can recognise, interpret, and process emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. Finally, there is the meta-cognitive approach. Meta-cognition is the process of thinking about thinking. Knowing how to learn and knowing which strategies work best are valuable skills that differentiate expert learners from novice learners. Metacognition, or awareness of the process of learning, is a critical ingredient in successful learning. Metacognition is relevant to work on cognitive styles and learning strategies in so far as the individual has some awareness of their thinking or learning processes. Three kinds of meta-cognitive strategies can be discerned: •

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Awareness, which is the capacity to consciously identify what is already known, define the learning goal, consider the personal resources (e.g., textbooks, access to the library, access to a computer work station or a quiet study area), consider the task requirements (essay, test, multiple choice, etc.), and determine how performance will be evaluated. It also relates to the learners’ capacity to consider their motivation level, and to determine their level of anxiety. Planning is the capacity to estimate the time required to complete the task, plan study time and set priorities, make checklists of what needs to happen when organising materials, and to take the necessary steps to learn by using strategies like outlining, mnemonics, diagramming, etc. Monitoring and reflection is the capacity to reflect on the learning process, keeping track of what works and what doesn’t work, monitoring learning by questioning and self-testing, providing own feedback, and keeping concentration and motivation up.


Pedagogical Scenarios Our projects embody three commitments to learning: •

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Learning should be contextualised where real situations have to be proposed to medical staff, with scenarios extracted from “talented” medical staff’s concrete experience. The aim of learning is to change the learning attitudes, abilities, and behaviors for reaching new levels of competence. Learning activities should foster imitation. Referring to Bandura’s (1977) theories, activities should offer observation phases and comparison between standard attitudes and experts’ attitudes and show effects on communication, through realistic settings and cases studies. Collaborative evaluation should also be included. Metacognitive activities should be designed to favor reflexive learning. Major aspects of targeted competencies are related to non-verbal signs, and impalpable attitudes and abilities. The use of videos is predominant, if possible involving real professional staff and few actors. For example, there should be a facility for some non-verbal signs and attitudes to be extracted from the video and re-played in an exaggerated style to make the learner aware of the signs and attitudes mobilised (de Boer, 2010). As far as we know, only sporadic research has been undertaken on the impact of the use of video on cognitive processes, focusing on how learning with these media may change competency level in the area of soft skills.

Collaborative Activities There is an urgency to innovate our paradigms for human cooperation. An important step lies in the new methods and tools that enable contex-

tual, agile, and simplified information exchange and collaboration to distributed workforces and networks of partners and customers. The previous generation of collaborative support tools was based on central control, fixed schedules and taxonomies, top-down orchestration, driven by a technological regime. The emerging collaboration paradigm rests upon the centrality of the real users, distributed and flexible practices, folksonomies rather than hierarchical and fixed authorities, and easiness of organisational flow.

Ontology of Emotions and Affective Behaviors It is widely recognised that the most important problems facing information technology today are semantic in nature – they have to do with the ways in which the syntax of our systems relates to the content and objects addressed by real-world applications. So-called ontologies, which make explicit the semantics of a vocabulary in a machine -“processable” way, play a key role in removing ambiguities in terminology and meaning (thereby enforcing semantic interoperability), and in improving problem analysis and data structuring. One of the core aspects of our projects concerns the exploitation of ontological analysis to model affective and behavioral characteristics in healthcare and educational domains. The main objective of this activity is to build an ontology of emotional processes and affective behaviors, and integrate an existing terminology/vocabulary of health care and education, and embed the obtained knowledge base in the planned inference engine.

Affective Computing and Emotion Recognition Technology that allows an emotional interaction between the machine and the users, whether it be expressing, recognising or causing emotions can be defined as affective computing. Given the relevance of emotions in almost every human

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cognitive task, affective computing’s long-term aim is to enable artificial agents to be as effective as humans are. Picard stresses this aspect with respect to decision making, for example: ‘Computers, if they are to be truly effective at decision making, will have to have emotions or emotion-like mechanisms working in concert with their rule-based systems’ (Picard et. al., 1997, p 12.). Human intelligence is not equal to rationality, and the same observation applies to machines: ‘the question is not whether intelligent machines can have any emotions, but whether machines can be intelligent without emotions’ (Minsky, 1985, p.163). The convergence of human and machine intelligence plays a central role, when hybrid agents have to cooperate for simulation and learning tasks. Gratch and Marsella (2004) studied a mission rehearsal exercise, where soldiers learn how to act and react in war scenarios with enemies and injured people played by emotional avatars. Affective computing associates perfectly with enhanced e-learning, where the affective component plays a key role during choices and through the whole learning path. Affective computing gives considerable flexibility, because through the use of cognitive and emotional responses of the users the learning support systems can be customised and adapted. In one of our projects affective computing will deal with the system’s ability to express emotions through the Affective 3D Intelligent Virtual Agent (IVA) with its ability to perceive and generate verbal and non-verbal behaviors, to show emotional states, and to maintain social relationships. With this, affective computing will be achieved using the system’s ability to recognise and react/adapt to user’s emotional states through a multimodal emotional recognition system and the personalisation of learning path. The use of “computing” in order to train people in the management of emotions in interpersonal communication through interactive simulations in a collaborative environment is an important development. The recognition of the emotional user state in our project work will be

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done using two parallel technologies: the first by emotion recognition through facial expression; and the second in considering vocal parameters and verbal expressions. These are discussed in turn.

Analysis of Facial Expressions The human physiognomy reveals the mood of a person in a significant way. Naturally, a human being is able to see the contentment of a person by means of their facial expression. To allow an automatic classification of facial expressions, three main steps must be undertaken: • • •

First, the face must be detected and localised within the image or video sequence. Second, facial features must be extracted from the face region. Third, the appearance and the facial features are used to classify the physiognomy and the mood, respectively.

For the face detection task, a robust real-time face detection system has already been developed by Fraunhofer-IIS, a research institute involved in audio and multimedia technology. They have developed an extension of the real-time face detector that can be used for facial expression discrimination. Another major innovation will be in the development of a face detector working directly over the Web while in the collaborative environment. There is ample prior research in the field of automatic classification of facial expression. Several approaches are used where one can distinguish between local versus holistic approaches, deformation versus motion-based approaches, image versus model-based approaches, and appearance versus muscle-based approaches. The expression of emotions has been studied over the centuries but a breakthrough in this domain has been Darwin’s work and the fundamental insights of this work were re-elaborated by Ekman and Friesen (1978). Their Facial Action Coding System is, in


some way, a lexicon of facial expression, since it lists all the possible muscular actions of the human face and it attributes meanings of emotional expression to their combinations. Other studies have investigated more specifically the expression and the meanings of smile (Ekman & Friesen, 1978; Ricci Bitti, Caterina & Garotti, 1994) while others have focused on gaze (Argyle & Cook, 1976; Brossard & Decarie, 1968; Poggi & Pelachaud, 2002).

Vocal Parameters and Verbal Expressions: Acoustic Cues in Emotional Speech Some research on the acoustic characteristics which vocally convey emotions has been undertaken at ISTC Padua Section of the Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) to individuate the relations between paralinguistic and linguistic information which occur together in oral communication. Research aimed at the identification of vocal non-verbal profiles (NP’s) of different emotions related to communication have also been carried out by the Centre for Studies in Communication Sciences (CESCOM) at the university of Milano-Bicocca (UniMiB: www. unimib.it). This research was extended also to the vocal profiles (VP) of the specific communicative dimensions such as irony, seduction and deception. More recently, a cross-cultural study comparing vocal correlates of emotional expressions in different cultures has been carried out (Anolli et al., 2008). Our project work aimed to achieve the results of acoustic analyses on utterances made of NPs or NP+VP, uttered by an actor in specific situations with emotional intonations expressing joy, sadness, disgust, anger, fear, and surprise. The parameters we have chosen for the acoustic characterisation of the different emotions are both macroprosodic (global rhythmic patterns of stress and intonation in vocalisations) and microprosodic (local, elementary patterns). One can appreciate the communicative value of

microprosodic elements in vocal expressions that characterise sadness (a whispering voice), anger (a hoarse voice), and fear (a laryngalised voice. For soft skills training in the professions, intelligent virtual agents need to be able to communicate emotions in this way. It is now possible to extract in real time vocal patterns from the user and for this purpose specific software, a spectrograph, will be developed in the Top-Staff project. To detect the user emotion, acoustic parameters extracted in real time by the spectrograph will be compared with the training set using a clustering and classification algorithm. The result is the recognition of emotions. Most prior studies in emotion recognition show a frequent interference between emotions as “anger”, “surprise” and “happiness” on the one hand, and “neutral” and “sadness” on the other hand. Such confusion is also observed when humans make the same classification. Our project work has been devoted to developing dynamic classification models taking into consideration sequences of short-time behavior. The underlying idea is that the statistics of voice are not stationary. Rather, voice is modeled as a concatenation of states, each of which models different sounds or sound combinations, and has its own statistical properties. Moreover, this set of algorithms will also strengthen the reliability of recognising emotions, for instance, when identifying both vocal and facial inputs from users. A Bayesian model will calculate the two input emotions (vocal, Facial) comparing value from the two different approaches and strengthen the degree of reliability.

MULTIMEDIA SUPPORT IN COLLABORATIVE AUTHORING TOOLS From a technological point of view, our project work is aimed beyond state-of-the-art multimedia enhancements, to the whole area of collaborative authoring. To achieve this, several technological

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innovations are needed in addition to the latest multimedia standards (e.g simulations using 3D graphics supported by the latest in Scalable Vector Graphics, SVG, and Open Graphics Library, OpenGL, developed for the entertainment industry) in order to tailor their use to collaborative authoring. Particular emphasis has been given to the provision of these tools within mobile devices which requires computational, resolution/ screen-size and bandwidth scalabilities. To this end, the project team has proposed the design, development, and implementation of a resource/ device-scalable/aware, multimedia-authoring tool for the creation of novel forms of interactive and expressive content on mobile handhelds (with the added features of cameras, mobility, GPS, or other location functions), enabling multimodal, scalable content sharing and non-linear storytelling. This has the potential to enhance the user experience well beyond what is provided by the current state-of-the-art authoring tools and technologies to enhance the learning process. Furthermore, the scalability of the tool will allow advanced users (using high end PCs) to create interactive content, which can be accessed not only via PCs having full interactive, bandwidth resolution capabilities but also via handheld devices. In addition, the tool’s scalability will allow it to be used as an authoring tool within a handheld device allowing content with limited interactivity and resolution to be created and exchanged directly between handheld device users. The University of Twente (the Netherlands) with the University of Joensuu (Finland) explored the method of “Woven Stories” and from 2006 to 2008, Loughborough University in the UK developed techniques for providing pioneering mobile technology for digital storytelling within the StoryBank MASMEDIA (Multiplatform Authoring and Scalable Delivery of Multimedia) project (Wickramanayake & Edirisinghe, 2008). There were several technological challenges in doing this, due to incompatibility of

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devices, operating systems, multimedia formats, device constraints, and issues of trust. But from a methodological point of view, our authoring tool based on a collaborative environment will help develop expertise by catching observations and analysing and comparing competence on how soft skills are concretely developed and used in real life. This will help to realise simulations and personalised e-learning paths for user communities. Through the collaborative authoring tool, communities can interact together in building the content, designing storyboards, building the treestructured simulation, and in sharing didactical material that will compose the simulation.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES For successful performance in human services, cross-disciplinary cooperation in so-called communities of practice is vital. Actual communication paradigms and the theories on distributed cognition do not yet describe and manage this high level of cognitive and emotional synergy sufficiently. Building upon the results in earlier projects, a combination of emotional expressions (mimics, voice intonation, gesture, gaze, and articulation in typing speed), verbal contents (typed and spoken) and meta-communication (conative, relational, procedural, and reflective) will be integrated in a methodology for “aggregating expertise”. This will be done in order to identify and consolidate the more effective professional practices and intuition that arise during verbal reports, and which we have called “Collaborative Story Telling”. On the basis of these intertwined (“woven”) story elements, there will be a phase of conceptual restructuring and representation. Finally, the schematic conceptual representations are candidates for expression in consolidated procedures in the medical communication.


Collaboration, Physicians and Paramedical Staff Play Together The vital role of “Collaborative Activities” is to make the evolution in medical protocols and communicative protocols more dynamic and transparent. The goal is to articulate and valorise the chosen methods and formalise them in an explicit process so that variations later become distinct as well. The final result will be a template for discerning phases and subsequent results in templates for collaborative work when many stakeholders interact, just as in the field of medical practice. Another innovation is the “collaborative system” that is ontology-driven to represent and manage stakeholders, roles, states, transactions, attributes, qualities, verbal reports, and learning outcomes during sessions in communities of practice.

ONTOLOGIES FOR EMOTIONS AND BEHAVIOURS Current research aims at presenting the main features of the ontological approach and the general framework of affective computing, focusing on ontologies of emotions and behavior. In general, an agent is said to “have” emotions if it satisfies at least five requirements: • • • • •

Emotional behavior; Fast primary emotions depending on lowlevel perceptual stimuli; High-level cognitively generated emotions; Emotional experience (cognitive awareness, physiological awareness); and Subjective feelings.

Body-Mind Interactions In order to fulfill certain tasks, a subset of these requirements may suffice; for example, when a machine has to ‘detect’ the general affective state of a human user (afterwards providing proper

answers), the fourth requirement is superfluous. Thus, the system would only need to be equipped with suitable devices for emotion pattern recognition and expression/synthesis of affective states. Our current efforts are focused on the first three requirements above, which are concerned with the constraints and the modalities of affective interaction between humans and artificial agents. Our project work aims at focusing on a widespread analysis of human emotions in order to promote— on the side of interfaces—the implementation of a new generation of multimodal systems, able to adapt themselves to the affective human life and guide humans in responding to affective stimuli (e.g. in didactical and health care scenarios). It is important to point out that the characterisation of these emotion-driven responses requires a high-level model of ‘human behavior’. Considering scientific literature and public research projects, a large part of the existing models reflect only limited conceptualisations of human behavior, focusing on small sets of tasks to be performed by interoperating agents in shared environments (manufacturing, e-commerce, social scenarios, and so on and so forth). The joint work of the Semantic Web and Software Agent communities has fostered some progress. This cooperation led to the creation of SWRL (Semantic Web Rule Language), a language that actually extends the set of OWL axioms in order to include conditional rules of the form ‘if…then’. Rules of this type have always played a central role in designing intelligent agents, in particular, in modeling their intentional actions. On this basis, new attempts at defining basic features of agent behavior have emerged. For example, in the context of Reverse Network of Excellence, an ontology-based approach to integrate behavior in Semantic Web (exploiting SWRL capabilities) has been proposed. The actual problem, however, is not purely technological (namely, to find an adequate language) but conceptual, that is to study the primary aspects of the notion of “human behavior”. If SWRL represents a way to code conditional

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rules in machines, it does not help in clarifying the nature of the essential properties of human actions and behaviors. These aspects can be analysed only from an ontological perspective. We are investigating these problems, broadening the inquiry to the study of affective and cognitive interaction. The ontological layer is a fundamental one in agent communication. In support of the protocol layer, where the syntax of the communication language is specified, the ontological layer formally defines the concepts needed to exchange messages. Furthermore, when building human computer interaction resources, access to ontological concepts through natural language becomes an essential requirement to enable knowledge sharing, information integration, interoperability, and semantic adequacy. In this context, as mentioned in the previous section, ontologies for emotional processes and affective characteristics will be interfaced with suitable existing terminologies (or lexical databases) for the healthcare and educational domain.

Implementation of the Intelligent Virtual Avatar To develop Intelligent Virtual Avatars (IVAs) for “affective” computing systems the IVA must be endowed with three capacities: •

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Have knowledge of the user’s emotions, through both direct and inferential understanding. Take an emotional behavior decision. Display emotion expression encompassing facial expression, body gesture, and audiovisual speech.

In order to speed-up the procedure for building an emotive/expressive talking head, such as LUCIA (prototype developed and owned by the Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (CNR-ISTC), and in general for building IVAs, an integrated software called INTERFACE will

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be refined. INTERFACE should simplify and automate many of the operations needed for this purpose. A set of processing tools, focusing mainly on dynamic articulatory data physically extracted by an automatic opto-tracking 3D movement analyser, will be implemented in order to build up the animation engine and also to create the correct WAV (audio file) and FAP (facial description) files needed for the animation. In particular, the animation engine will be based on the Cohen-Massaro co-articulation model (Cohen & Massaro, 1993). A model like LUCIA (animated MPEG-4 talking face prototype) will be adapted to copy a real human by reproducing the movements of some markers positioned on their face and recorded by the ELITE optoelectronic device, or to be directly driven by an emotional XML tagged input text, thus realising a true audio visual emotive/expressive synthesis. The ‘Top-Staff’ project’s voice will be based on an Italian version of FESTIVAL-MBROLA text-to-speech package, modified for expressive/emotive synthesis by means of an appropriate tagged language: Attention Profiling Mark-up Language/Very Simple Markup Language (APML/VSML). This is an emotion-specific XML editor explicitly designed for emotional tagged text. The APML mark-up language for behavior specification permits to specify how to mark-up the verbal part of a dialog move so as to add to it the “meanings” that the graphical and the speech generation components of an animated agent need to produce the required expressions. This language will define not only the components that may be useful to drive a face animation through the facial description language (FAP) and facial display functions, but will be intended also to support voice specific controls. An extended version of the APML language will be included in the FESTIVAL speech synthesis environment, allowing the automatic generation of the extended.pho files from an APML tagged text with emotive tags. This module will implement a three-level hierarchy in which the affective high level attri-


Figure 1. Examples of the emotive expressions of LUCIA by the ELITE system

butes (e.g. , <joy>, , etc.) are described in terms of medium-level voice quality attributes defining the phonation type (e.g., <modal>, <soft>, <pressed>, , <whispery>, , etc.). These medium-level attributes will in turn be described by a set of lowlevel acoustic attributes defining the perceptual correlates of the sound (e.g. <spectral tilt>, <shimmer>, <jitter>, etc.). The low-level acoustic attributes will correspond to the acoustic controls that the extended, emotional Italian FESTIVALMBROLA TTS synthesizer will be able to render through the sound processing procedure. The synthesizer will be refined to give an emotional voice to the talking agent to be developed that will be also optimised to produce emotional behavior. The new IVA will be able to recognise the vocal speech of the user and his emotional state thus being able to answer properly and assuring a mediate human communication based on user emotions recognition.

Integration of 3D Mobile Technologies Guidelines from other available demonstrator research projects will be the proof of the reliability and portability of the innovative functionalities of the proposed platform. Enhanced learning based on experiential methodologies will also be on wireless devices. This opens up the possibility for users to play simulations on PDAs and Smart phones. This wireless collaborative environment will be characterised by cooperation using col-

laborative tools done both by a web solution on a client and on PDA and Smart phone. This means that a user (e.g., a physicians or a nurse) using the Top-Staff project website will be able to cooperate and collaborate also with other users (e.g. other physicians) on their wireless devices. Wireless devices could be used also to catch content and send directly to the authoring tools to create content in a cooperative and collaborative environment. The use of 3D Graphics on mobile devices will allow the use of a 3D Intelligent Virtual Agent (avatar) together with the “help communities” also on a PDA, smart phone, iPad etc.

COLLABORATION AND TECHNOLOGY FOR LEARNING SOFT SKILLS Given the relevance of emotional aspects to be included in a high-tech framework, emerging projects need to target the integration of the more classical simulation-based learning with affective computing technologies. This integration is grounded in the computational ontology of emotions and affective behaviors. It should be used with a suitable inference engine for enabling emotion-recognition and ontology-driven affective interaction. The possibility of developing a system that is adaptive to the trainee’s emotional state and that can track trainee’s facial and vocal non-verbal expressions will allow the inclusion of innovative features in simulation design and development. The trainee’s performance will not

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be assessed and monitored based only on linguistic strategies and observation skills, but may be based also on a trainee’s actual non-verbal behaviors. This focus on multimodality may strongly enhance the effectiveness of the training of communication and emotional competence. Finally, the combination of an authoring tool to be integrated in the simulation engine will offer the possibility for the communities of learners to tune and adapt situations, content, and dialogues to their specific setting, as well as to foster continuous learning. It will also represent a key success factor when trying to generalise the use of interactive emotional systems outside the health-care domain as well. From the technical side, the multi-modal combination using audio and video-based features will probably lead to much more robust classification results. From the application side, it seems to be a very innovative approach to use a collaborative environment for the classification of each user’s mood. This can be carried out with simple webcams and microphones at the client side. No special further requirements must be fulfilled, and the used algorithms are designed and implemented with respect to efficiency. Coming integrative projects should be based on seven underlying methodologies and techniques, with the aim to improve communication soft skills in order to emphasise the experiential training by developing and validating an enhanced multimodal learning platform. These seven methodologies are depicted in Figure 2. The Top-Staff project is meant to emphasise the experiential dimension of training by develop-

ing and validating an enhanced multimodal learning platform. In technical terms, the innovation of Top-Staff lies in the: •

• • •

Matching of the cognitive methodology and collaborative learning with affective computing by recognition of the user’s emotional state; Simulations via web and mobile technologies; Ontologies on emotion, behaviour, and the pedagogical model; and Inference methodologies for automatic coaching.

The analysis of these methodologies will have effects on a particular personalisation and adaptivity of learning path to the users and adoption of scenario and content in the simulation according to the user emotional state. This kind of personalisation will be enriched by the affective 3D IVA (Intelligent Virtual Agent), in terms of reaction at each user’s emotional level that will engage users in natural face-to-face conversational interaction. The animated agent will also produce accurate, natural, and expressive auditory and visible speech with facial expressions and gestures appropriate to the physical nature of language production, the context of the dialogue, and the goals of the task. In application terms, the validation of Top-Staff, to be achieved with pilot tests in collaboration with four end users at our four different European countries, will validate the effectiveness of the learning system through a general framework

Figure 2. Methodological scheme of the planned Top-Staff project

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for an effective application in respect to communicative situations regularly recurring within incurable, but treatable, health contexts. Specific adaptation criteria will be identified to tune the learning system according to the abovementioned variables.

Doctor Patient Communication The role of Twente University in the Top-Staff project plan was to explore whether, and how, the communication between doctors and patients could be improved. At the same time it became clear that nurse practitioners are going to play an ever more important role in this process. A crucial start was the signaling that patients after the diagnosis of breast cancer face a period of uncertainty and fear. Supplying them with more precise information on the procedures they have to undergo is very important. It is generally believed that one of the best ways health-care professionals can support their patients is by providing information about their upcoming surgery (Johnson, 1999). Supplying patients with information about what to expect, makes them capable of visualising the procedure completely and in detail and form accurate expectations, which increases perceived

control and decreases stress and anxiety (Johnson & Leventhal, 1974). Visuals of the crucial steps in determining the spread of breast cancer and its subsequent intervention methods were produced in order to keep the communication to the patient least threatening and in an unfolding manageable state (see Figure 3) A significant step was the medical terminology and the doctors’ reasoning about diagnostics and alternative intervention methods and the way nurse practitioners already tuned the communication to patients’ profiles like age, schooling, socioeconomic status, and copying style like monitoring and blunting. Monitoring and blunting characteristics of patients were assessed by the Threatening Medical Situations Inventory (TMSI, Van Zuuren et al., 1996). Experimental research by Bruggink (2010) confirmed the importance of preoperative information for high monitors and the lesser importance for high blunters concerning undergoing essential breast surgery. When dealing with patients and cancer patients in particular, health professionals should, therefore, be sensitive to individual differences in information needs. Given this differential outcome we built upon the earlier MySelf and Top-Staff projects a visual mediator system that allows doctors and nurse

Figure 3. Visualised relationships between the glandular tissue and lymph glands

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practitioners to tailor given information to the actual state of the patient in terms of blunting and monitoring (see Figure 4). Bruggink’s (2010) finding was that particularly high monitors benefit from detailed and extensive information, and in order to protect patients with low informational needs (especially high blunters) from receiving too much information, the possibility to access detailed information should only be offered to high monitors.

ONGOING RESEARCH AGENDA Projects like the planned Top-Staff proposal tend to focus on a narrow aspect of implementation to be tested and evaluated in the coming years. After extrapolating our design and experimentation work from the last four years, we have identified twelve major research priorities that need major empirical research. The range of abstractoperational research questions is reflected in their order below from the most operational to the most abstract:

1. What are the most effective strategies for enhancing doctor-patient communication? 2. What are central and peripheral skills and attitudes in medical communication that need an explicit training beyond experiential case-based learning? 3. What are the scenarios/methods for arranging and moderating meta-learning? How should learner reports be integrated into the core curriculum for the development of soft skills? 4. What are the needed optimal transitions between cure/care, and vice versa? 5. What are the first-order relationships between patients’ emotional expressions and the repertory of adequate responses by the doctor/nurse practitioners? 6. How can we derive valid ontologies from the evolved metadata from the relationships under 5? 7. How can the standardisation of the consolidated ontologies under 6 occur so that a rather simple heuristic/algorithm for adaptivity can be achieved?

Figure 4. Visualising the injection of isotope contrast in the sentinel node

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8. How can collaborative learning increase the effectiveness of the co-authoring under 3, 4 and 5? 9. What are appropriate rationales for introducing virtual- and vicarious-learning agents in the training of soft skills? 10. How can Bandura’s (1977) ‘learning based on identification’ be utilised among doctors, nurse practitioners, and patients? 11. How should affective and reflexive learning be integrated in a reflexive framework? 12. How can the preceding outcomes be applied in the design of a patient-friendly communication scenario in the cases of colon and mama carcinoma? Seeing the mutual dependency among the research lines, it is inevitable that a concurrent and iterative approach is needed. Finally the experimental outcomes need to be implemented in the continuous training of doctors and nurses. The changed law in the various European Union (EU) countries on how to inform and prepare patients before medical interventions are chosen embodies a strong incentive for hospitals to cooperate in the development and research program for e-simulations.

CONCLUSION Being fascinated by the new interaction modes and their potential for learning (including learning in the professions) a number of joint European projects were launched in order to develop and combine new media technologies. The projects initially highlighted the challenge of using mediated communication and the interpretation of, for instance, voice and facial expressions in order to sharpen human performances. The second step has been to articulate instructional strategies that need such communicative parameters like emotional states. It proved necessary to complement natural partners in doctor-to-patient communication with

a semi-realistic 3D “Intelligent Virtual Agent”. After having identified pedagogical scenarios like learning by modeling the need to classify patients’ behavioral elements and templates became apparent. The Top-Staff project plan has formulated the method to derive and structure an ontology for emotions and affective behaviors. The outcome of concerting the advanced media with instructional practices is a mutual provocation to accept the much wider question: to what extent can we train soft skills for medical practitioners in the coming years? In the case of multi-modal communicative skills, it became clear that we need a much more differentiated perceptive and expressive repertoire than foreseen in the era of book-based instruction, with patients varying according to a large set of variables like prior education, personality scales, socio-economical background, age, etc. As patient satisfaction with health care becomes a larger priority, it will become clearer that a wide range of research is needed to meet expectations and operational learning needs in the clinics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The Top-Staff project proposal was conceived by the members of the preceding MySelf project. The Top-Staff project proposal members were: Prof. Luigi Anolli, Dr. Fabrizia Mantovani, Prof. Anne-Dominique Salamin, Dr. Bernard Dumont, Massimo Balestra, Pietro Venturini, Prof. Lorenzo Cantoni, Dr.Stefano Tardini, Dr Piero Cosi, dr. Stefano Borgo, Alessandro Oltramari, Dr. Christian Küblbeck, Andreas Ernst, Dr Eran Edirisinghe, Professor Alastair Gale, Giovanni Sorrentino, Marco Recchioni and Valentina Castello, Teresa Gallelli, Fulvio Tamburriello, Dr. Ivan Cinesi, Dr. Mike Michell, Dr. Erika Denton. Partner institutes that were consortium members at the stage of the Top-Staff project were: Centro per le Applicazioni della Televisione e delle Tecniche di Istruzione a Distanza; INVENT sas; Universty Bicocca; University Twente; University of Applied Sciences

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Valais; ATNIS srl; Università della Svizzera Italiana; Institute of Cognitive Science and Technologies; Fraunhofer – IIS; Loughborough University; DIDA Network; CUP 2000 SpA; Medical School Twente; Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana; Royal College of Radiologists - Breast Group.

REFERENCES Anolli, L., Mantovani, F., Balestra, M., Kommers, P., Robotti, O., Salamin, A. D., & Tarocchi, A. (2008). Experiential learning in the Myself project. In Kidd, T. T., & Song, H. (Eds.), Handbook of research on instructional systems and technology (Vol. 1, pp. 360–372). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-59904865-9.ch026 Argyle, M., & Cook, M. (1976). Gaze and mutual gaze. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning Press. Brossard, L., & Decarie, T. (1968). Comparative reinforcing effects of eight stimulations on the smiling responses of infants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 9(1), 51–59. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1968. tb02207.x Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42. Bruggink, L. (2010). Improving preoperative education in breast cancer patients: The influence of monitoring and blunting coping styles. Masters Thesis, University of Twente, The Netherlands. Chang, E. C. (Ed.). (2002). Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.

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Cohen, M. M., & Massaro, D. W. (1993). Modelling coarticulation in synthetic visual speech. In Magnenat-Thalmann, N., & Thalmann, D. (Eds.), Models and techniques in computer animation (pp. 139–156). Tokyo, Japan: Springer Verlag. De Boer, J. (2010). Using log files from streaming media servers for optimising the learning sequence. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, 20, 40–53. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). The facial action coding system: A technique for measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Gratch, J., & Marsella, S. (2004). A domain-independent framework for modeling emotion. Cognitive Systems Research, 5, 269–306. doi:10.1016/j. cogsys.2004.02.002 Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (1995). Critical characteristics of situated learning: Implications for the instructional design of multimedia. In Pearce, J., & Ellis, A. (Eds.), Learning with technology (pp. 235–262). Parkville, Vic: University of Melbourne. Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments. Education, Training. Research for Development, 48(3), 23–48. Johnson, J. E. (1999). Self-regulation theory and coping with physical illness. Research in Nursing & Health, 22(6), 435–448. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1098-240X(199912)22:63.0.CO;2-Q


Johnson, J. E., & Leventhal, H. (1974). Effects of accurate expectations and behavioral instructions on reactions during a noxious medical examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(5), 710–718. doi:10.1037/h0036555 Kinard, E. M. (2001). Perceived and actual academic competence in maltreated children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(1), 33–45. doi:10.1016/ S0145-2134(00)00219-2 Kort, B., & Reilly, R. (2001). Analytical models of emotions, learning and relationships: Towards an affect-sensitive cognitive machine (Tech. Report No 548). Cambridge, MA: MIT Media Lab. LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. London, UK: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Minsky, M. (1985). The society of mind. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. MySelf Project. (2003). Multimodal elearning system based on simulations, role-playing, automatic coaching and voice recognition interaction for affective profiling (Craft FP6-2002-SME-1 - Contract SME-2003-1-508259). Retrieved from http:// www.ctit.utwente.nl/research/projects/concluded/ international/fp6/fp6-other/myself.doc/ Nambisan, P., Gustafson, D., Pingree, S., & Hawkins, R. (2010). Patients’ sociability and usability experience in online health communities: Impact on attitudes towards the healthcare organisation and its services. International Journal of Web-based Communities, 6(4), 395–409. Pelachaud, C., & Poggi, I. (2002). Subtleties of facial expressions in embodied agents. Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation, 13(5), 301–312. doi:10.1002/vis.299

Picard, R. W. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Picard, R. W., Papert, S., Bender, W., Blumberg, B., Breazeal, C., & Cavallo, D. (2004). Affective learning: A manifesto. Technology Journal, 22(4), 253–269. Ricci Bitti, P. E., Caterina, R., & Garotti, P. E. (1994). Differential aspects of guilt, shame and embarassment. In N. H. Frijda (Ed.), ISRE ‘94 (pp. 327-331). Storrs: ISRE Publications. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of positive psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. StoryBank. Sharing stories across digital divides. (See: http://www.cs.swan.ac.uk/storybank/) Van Zuuren, F. J., De Groot, K. I., Mulder, N. L., & Muris, P. (1996). Coping with medical threat: An evaluation of the Threatening Medical Situations Inventory (TMSI). Personality and Individual Differences, 21(1), 21–31. doi:10.1016/01918869(96)00029-3 Vedhara, K., & Irwin, M. R. (Eds.). (2005). Human psychoneuro immunology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Wickramanayake, D. S., & Edirisinghe, E. A. (2008). A platform independent digital story authoring tool for mobile handhelds. In Proceedings of the International Conference in Consumer Electronics, ICCE IEEE, International Conference in Consumer Electronics, San Jose, USA. Retrieved from http://gow.epsrc.ac.uk/ViewGrant. aspx?GrantRef=EP/E007090/1

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Chapter 21

The Challenge of Investigating the Value of E-Simulations in Blended Learning Environments: A Case for Design-Based Research Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia Mary Rice Educational Consultant, Australia

ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on digital role-play simulations, which are increasingly being used in higher education via the Web to provide engaging, more authentic learning experiences for students. With careful attention to design, development, and implementation processes they can be particularly valuable for increasing the professional capabilities that graduates require in the workplace. Evaluation of an esimulation can be difficult, particularly when it is just one component of a blended learning environment. Using Deakin University’s e-simulations program as a case study, this chapter outlines the phases and elements of the program, its evaluation approach, evaluation challenges experienced, and lessons learnt. The chapter argues that, in spite of the challenges of investigating e-simulations in blended learning environments, design-based research offers the most value to stakeholders. The chapter concludes by outlining future commitments in the DeakinSims program to maintain a focus on design-based research. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-189-4.ch021


The Challenge of Investigating the Value of E-Simulations in Blended Learning Environments

INTRODUCTION Over the past decade, e-simulations have been used in various courses across higher education institutions to enhance students’ learning experiences and increase their professional capabilities so they are better prepared for work. (Cybulski, Parker & Segrave, 2006a, 2006b.) The design, development, and implementation of e-simulations has required generous levels of funding, and active commitment from managers, relevant teaching staff, education designers, and technology developers. Evaluation has been an essential part of this process because funding bodies and institutional managers expect evidence of the various kinds of value from e-simulations. A particular evaluation objective has been to find out whether the design underpinning the e-simulations promotes better learning, different learning, or merely more efficient learning. It has been difficult to answer these questions unambiguously, particularly when an e-simulation is just one component of an integrated, complex blended learning environment (Reeves, Herrington & Oliver, 2008.) frequently the product of expert, reflexive teaching. For the past nine years, Deakin University has nurtured and sustained a cohesive digital esimulations program (DeakinSims) to enhance education in the professions. The University is a large multi-campus, multi-modal institution that requires its courses to be relevant, responsive and innovative. At Deakin, the idea of a classroom goes beyond a physical space with furniture and learning resources and integrates e-Learning to create blended learning environments. There are many ways of conceiving such environments. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) suggest blended learning has been ill-defined, and argue it means different things to different people. However, Heinze and Procter (2004, p. 1) describe blended learning environments as those that facilitate learning and address different learning styles by combining different delivery modes, media, and teaching models, and are “based on open communication between those

involved with a course”. As mentioned in Chapter 1, for the purpose of simplicity, the DeakinSims program has adopted Graham’s (2006) definition “Blended learning systems combine face-to-face with computer-mediated instruction” (p. 5). DeakinSims is a major institutional research and development program. Using a design-based research paradigm, the role of evaluation has been to improve design through iterative cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and redesign, in order to develop or reinterpret theories of learning and teaching relating to the use of e-simulations in blended learning environments. The overarching strategy was to build environments that provided multi-modal opportunities for students studying in numerous discipline areas. Academics teaching in these areas had differing views about learning and evaluation of learning based on their different research traditions and disciplinary contexts. Using DeakinSims as a case study, this chapter outlines the program and its evaluation to date, the evaluation challenges, the lessons learnt, and future commitments required. In particular, the chapter argues that, in spite of the challenges of evaluating e-simulations in blended learning environments, design-based research offers the most useful approach.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Constructivist Principles DeakinSims has been underpinned by constructivist principles, which assume that individual knowledge is subjective and constructed by learners as they experience the world. Constructivists believe there are multiple perspectives about phenomena in the world and learners are engaged in a process of “meaning making”, which comes about when there is “a dissonance between what is known and what is observed in the world” (Jonassen, Peck & Wilson, 1999, p. 5). Biggs (2003) refers to the concept of “constructive alignment”, which brings

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together a constructivist view of learning, and an “aligned design for teaching” (p. 27), wherein students do the work and the teacher acts as a broker between the student and the activities that constitute the learning environment. Garrison and Anderson (2003, p. 13) present a “transactional view” of learning wherein students first construct their personal meaning then refine and confirm their understanding within a community of collaborative learners. These authors argue students learn better when they accept responsibility for their learning and have an appropriate level of control over what and how they learn.

Science of Design Recent theoretical developments regarding simulations have earlier been articulated in three special issues of the Simulation and Gaming journal. The 2001 issue provided glimpses of the state of play in respect to the art and science of simulation and gaming. Theoretical positions were further developed in a 2003 issue focusing on “simulation/gaming as a trans-disciplinary field of inquiry and practice from the perspective of the science of design” (Klabbers, 2003a, p. 488). Klabbers distinguished between two closely connected design levels: design in the large (DIL) and design in the small (DIS). DIL refers to actions “aimed at changing existing systems into preferred ones”, while DIS refers to design of a simulation or artifact. In Klabbers’ view, the approaches and linkages between DIL and DIS make the design process a science. The 2006 issue consisted of papers arising from a symposium on artifact assessment, evaluation, and theory testing. In the editorial, Klabbers (2006) importantly argued that the interplay between DIL and DIS affects evaluation methodologies for evaluating success. The purpose of the issue was to link communities of inquiry from the domains of analytical science and design science by including papers that exemplified the different research methodologies.

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The two need to be understood, differentiated, and used appropriately. Muddled methods and approaches are to be avoided.

Competing Evaluation Paradigms There have long been paradigm debates about educational evaluation and research. These have been well summarised by Guba and Lincoln (1989) who articulated four generations of evaluation, each building on the former. They saw measurement as the first generation, which was a scientific enquiry process that emphasised testing. Description, the second generation, required the evaluator to describe various strengths and weaknesses of the learning environment in respect to objectives. Judgement, the third generation, required the evaluator to make judgements about findings in addition to measuring and describing. Guba and Lincoln (1989) argued each of the aforementioned exhibited three major flaws: “a tendency toward managerialism, a failure to accommodate valuepluralism, and over-commitment to the scientific paradigm of inquiry” (p. 31-2). In arguing the need for a new paradigm, “fourth generation evaluation”, these authors emphasised that the evaluation process is not a technical one aimed at “revealing facts”. Rather, evaluation methods are “human constructions” that involve “social, political, and value-oriented” actions (p. 7). Essentially, negotiation is the key dynamic in fourth generation evaluation. It “defines a course to be followed, stimulates involved stakeholders to follow it, and generates and preserves their commitment to do so” (p. 10). The course of action is decided through a process of negotiation between stakeholders and evaluators. This approach is responsive to stakeholder needs and aligned strongly with constructivist principles. With the implementation of technologies in courses, evaluation has been significantly foregrounded with a particular emphasis on student learning. There is a need to reveal whether tech-


nologies help students to learn better, learn more, learn quickly and/or learn differently. Reeves and Hedberg (2008) suggested that evaluations of e-learning environments need to address several stages: review and needs assessment, formative evaluation during development, effectiveness evaluation during initial implementation, impact evaluation when e-learning has been institutionalised, followed by maintenance and reporting evaluation when appropriate. Oliver and Harvey (2002) argued the introduction of technology exacerbates the complexity of the educational and evaluation process, and suggested it can be difficult to look for, or recognise, what constitutes impact. Reeves and Hedberg (2008) see impact evaluation as the “greatest challenge faced by evaluators” because it focuses on “whether learners actually apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they learn via e-learning programs “on the job” or in another learning environment” (p. 1). These authors differentiate between short-term effectiveness and long-term impact, though evaluation at both levels is important. According to Klabbers (2009), the issue of causality is central to a discussion on opposing evaluation paradigms. He maintains “causeeffect relations” have different connotations in the analytical and design sciences, therefore “the requirements of analytical science should not straightforwardly be applied to the design science (p. 201). He suggests theoretical and experimental approaches are germane to analytical sciences, whereas in design science, questions should focus on epistemology and methodology because “irreversible processes” and “indeterminacy” are key elements of simulation and gaming, making it difficult to attribute cause-effect relationships between variables. An “understanding of (the) organised complexity” inherent in simulations is required for evaluating its usability and effectiveness (p. 233).

Design-Based Research The nature of design-based research (DBR) has been well articulated by a number of authors since the early 1990’s. For example, Brown (1992) and Collins (1992) introduced the term “design experiments” to describe formative research on design as an alternative to the summative, judgemental nature of traditional evaluation. These experiments were essentially theory driven, iterative interventions, though they also led to construction of new theories. To avoid confusion with “experimental design”, the term “design-based research” was coined first by Hoadley (2002). Numerous other authors have reported their use of this approach. (See for example Stahl 2002; Cobb, diSessa, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003; Barab & Squire, 2004.) The approach uses mixed methods, and was proposed as a way of bridging the gap between educational theories and practices, and as a way of balancing positivist and interpretivist paradigms, as Klabbers (2006) suggests. DBR is a methodology that blends empirical research with the design of learning environments to illuminate how, when and why educational innovations work in practice. Reeves, Herrington and Oliver (2008) view it as a desirable way of “addressing pressing complex problems in real contexts in close collaboration with practitioners” (p. 474). In 2002, a number of interested academic researchers formed the Design Based Research Collective (DBRC) to “examine, improve, and practise design-based research methods in education” (DBRC, 2003). Collins, Joseph, and Bielaczyc (2004, p. 16) argued design-based research could address specific issues associated with learning, including the need to research learning theories and phenomena in real world contexts rather than in narrow laboratory situations. They also noted the need for, and importance of, gathering findings from formative evaluation. The DBRC suggested design-based research reflects the following five key characteristics.

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1. The goals of designing learning environments and theory development are intertwined. 2. Research and development occur “through continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis and redesign”. 3. Design research “must lead to sharable theories that help communicate relevant implications to practitioners and other educational designers”. 4. Research must explain the way “designs function in authentic settings”. 5. The development of these explanations uses methods “that can document and connect processes of enactment to outcomes of interest”. (DBRC, 2003, p. 5.) The DBRC (2003) noted “design-based research methods respond to emergent features of the setting” (p. 6). Unlike traditional evaluation where learning interventions are measured against specific standards at a particular time, design-based research is aimed at improving design through iterative cycles of research at development and implementation stages. Mixed methods are used to analyse outcomes and suggest refinements. However, design-based research goes beyond perfecting and evaluating particular artifacts or products. Its aim “is to inquire more broadly into the nature of learning in a complex system and to refine generative or predictive theories of learning” (p. 7). While the research methods or tools might be similar to those in other paradigms, the purposes of evaluation and research in DBR are different.

A CASE STUDY: THE DEAKINSIMS PROGRAM – NINE YEARS OF ENGAGEMENT DeakinSims is a unique, evolutionary development involving multiple stakeholders and methods and was based on the theories and design principles outlined above. The program began as a small suite

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of digital role-play scenarios simulating aspects of situated work practices across a number of professions. The video-based computer simulation of characters has subsequently been extended using a “Conversational Character” server that delivers more flexible, synthetic characters and speech. Further, externally sourced e-simulations have also been incorporated in particular discipline areas. The Deakin e-simulations are listed in Table 1. Teacher agency is a key factor addressed deliberately in every DeakinSim, whether explicitly or implicitly, in both physical and virtual dimensions of the blended learning environment. Teacher agency in the process of DBR is exemplified in the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (2009) report by Goodyear, which documented iterative design experiences during a national teaching fellowship. The notion of teaching as design is strongly aligned with the call by Reeves et al. (2008) for academics to “engage in design research” and “be creative in their efforts to disseminate the findings of their endeavours” (p. 468). In DeakinSims, different kinds, levels, and placement of teacherly influence are designed into each e-simulation, depending on the nature of the scaffolding required and other important ingredients such as extrinsic motivation. This relational dimension is unusual in the design and use of digital simulations, which tend to be standalone, educational artifacts designed by unknown others for use as adjuncts to teaching, rather than as artifacts designed by teachers for integrating into blended learning environments. For DeakinSims, the connection between teaching and learning in the virtual and physical environments is paramount and is conceptualised at the outset as part of the design. During iterative design cycles, teachers applied theories of learning in simultaneously conceiving and integrating practical activities for use in class and in the e-simulations. This process was instrumental in the capacity building of staff, leading them to rethink the important concepts and skills they teach, and how to do this effectively for applications in specific


Table 1. E-simulations in the DeakinSims program e-simulation

Faculty/School

e-simulation description

HOTcopy

Arts, Journalism

Simulation of an internship experience: ethical, legal, commercial, and deadline newsroom pressures.

LiveSim: PRessure Point! Virtual PRactice: Getting Framed

Arts, Journalism

Role-playing three opposing PR practitioners in a conflict case study.

LiveSim: ‘Mods and Rockers’

Health and Behavioural Sciences, Psychology

Interviewing three practising psychologists: divergent theory and practice stances.

LiveSim: ClientView: Solicitor Interview

Business and Law, Company Law.

Role-playing a solicitor conducting three meetings with a client requiring a legal letter of advice on the formation of a company.

LiveSim: First Australia Bank: Automatic Teller Machine (FAB-ATM)

Business and Law, Information Systems (Requirements Engineering)

Role-playing an IS consultant interviewing two bank employees.

LiveSim UnReal Interviewing

Health and Behavioural Sciences, Psychology

Role-playing a civil servant (e.g. police) interviewing a child witness for forensic purposes.

LiveSim: Know Your Client

Business and Law, Financial Planning

Role-playing a financial planner advising a couple regarding multiple elements in their retirement portfolio.

Blue Apple Cruises: Application of the AASB accounting standards

DeakinPrime (Commercial arm of Deakin University.)

Role-playing for Certified Practising Accountants regarding application of the standards for financial statements.

Blue Cut Fashions (Store)

Business and Law, Information Systems

Role-playing a business analyst, students interview three representatives in a fashion store.

Blue Cut Fashions (Chain)

Business and Law, Information Systems

Role-playing a systems analyst, students interview representatives from a fashion store regarding supply chain issues.

professions. In blended learning contexts, DeakinSims clearly reflect the five interdependent attributes identified by Jonassen, Peck, and Wilson (1999) being necessary for meaningful learning. As discussed in Chapter 1, learning must be (1) active, (2) constructive, (3) intentional, (4) authentic, and (5) cooperative. Or as Carmen and Haefner (2002) noted, “deeper learning occurs when learning is social, active, contextual, engaging and student-owned” (p. 29). DeakinSims encourages students to use cognitive and practical skills to identify and solve professional problems that challenge their knowledge and values. The emotional dimension of learning is also embraced, as it applies to pro-

fessional work. Rather than offer abstract content learning, DeakinSims provides opportunities for students to engage in professional knowledge and capacity building through immersion in authentic, integrated experiences, which match in important ways the real tasks carried out by professionals. In designing them, careful attention was given to the alignment of elements in the total design, both inside and outside the e-simulation (Segrave, 2003a, 2003b, 2004b). The DeakinSims program has been designed, developed, and implemented over nine years from 2001-2010 in four overlapping phases summarised below.

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•

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Phase 1: HOTcopy: A Virtual Newsroom (Six distinct scenarios published on CDROM with internet updating of xml driven scenarios.) Phase 2: LiveSim: Simulated Interviewing and Role-play (Five video-based e-simulations delivered on CD-ROM) Phase 3: Simulated interviewing on the Web (Video-based LiveSims and 2D avatar-based e-simulations delivered as “lightweight” media objects on the web) Phase 4: Adoption of diverse new e-simulations across the university (such as Second Life ® from Linden Lab.).

Phase 1: HOTcopy: A Virtual Newsroom HOTcopy consists of six newsroom scenarios that simulate an internship experience for journalism students. Students engage in real time for between 20 and 60 minutes playing the role of a reporter (in 5 scenarios) or editor (in the sixth scenario). They complete tasks such as writing a front page story within a time-limited frame, as they would in a real newsroom. HOTcopy is based on a reusable technical architecture and many re-usable media elements and scenarios were rolled out incrementally.

Phase 2: LiveSim: Simulated Interviewing and Role-play Funding from Deakin University’s teaching innovations program, the Strategic Teaching and Learning Grants Scheme (STALGS), enabled design and development of new, quite varied e-simulations. Five simulated interviewing and role-play scenarios (“LiveSims”) engage students in authentic, complex professional contexts and are used in three faculties. They were created using live video actors chroma-keyed into matted screen regions (digitally-created synthetic backgrounds) and were based on a new technical architecture, improving that created for HOTcopy. 400

Phase 3: Simulated Interviewing on the Web Part of the 2007 STALGS funding was reserved for strategic projects led centrally, rather than in faculties. This enabled the establishment of the “Conversational Character” builder and server capability (Media Semantics Inc.) for synthetic 2D characters used in conjunction with text-tospeech (TTS) engines (e.g Loquendo S.p.A. and Cepstral LLC). More students could then participate in simulated interviewing via the Web; 1200 students during one year, in the case of “Blue Cut Fashions–Store”. This form of synthetic character creation was extended in e-simulations for psychotherapeutic practice. “Deakin Hospital” consists of four scenarios involving (coached) interviews with patients, where photographs of real faces are computer animated using face manipulation software in place of the Character Builder library of licensed characters. The LiveSim format using real video-recorded actors continues being used, particularly in the medical sphere, e.g. the communication simulations in clinical settings for maternity, paediatric asthma and “end-of-life” care.

Phase 4: Adoption of Diverse New E-Simulations Internally and Externally to Deakin The program has adopted Second Life (SL), a 3D virtual world developed by Linden Lab, enabling users to “socialise, customise an avatar, create and connect using free voice and chat”. As it continues to expand, DeakinSims is making use of conceptual and process tools developed over recent years such as the Learning Design Template and numerous discipline-based Case Studies. More recently, e-simulations continue being developed with project proposals emerging from other professions. From 2008-2010, Deakin led a national project funded by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC, 2010). The project was conducted in partnership with the Royal Melbourne Institute


of Technology (RMIT) and Charles Sturt (CSU) Universities, and aimed to begin transforming professional learning by engaging a small number of academics in each institution in designing and developing e-simulations for their disciplines. These were trialled in two semester-long subjects allowing two action research cycles to occur. The project report focused on technical design, educational effectiveness of the e-simulations, and capacity-building of staff and their institutions. The program described above has been aligned with the key characteristics of design-based research outlined earlier. This alignment is demonstrated in Table 2.

Summary of Evaluation of the DeakinSims Program Being a large-scale endeavour, DeakinSims has required well-planned, formative evaluation procedures throughout design, development and implementation stages. Consistent with designbased research that uses multiple sources of data, and consistent with a breadth of commitment approach across disciplines, balanced, mixed methods evaluation has been used for collecting and interpreting a range of evidence from relevant stakeholders. Evidence reported in Tables 3 and 4 attests to this approach. Generally, it aligns with the pragmatic approach for evaluating e-learning

Table 2. DeakinSims response to key characteristics of design-based research Design-based research: Key characteristics

DeakinSims program Examples

(1) The goals of designing learning environments and theory development are intertwined.

The HOTcopy project deliberately explored applications of “authentic learning” in digital role-play scenarios providing experience in situated, cognitive practice in journalism. This engaging e-simulation resulted from pursuing new designs for learning environments based on efforts to transform curriculum and teaching using new theories and models. Design occurred in the context of new university policies for e-learning and flexible education where theories and models for curriculum enactment were developed and trialled by course teams.

(2) Research and development occur “through continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis and redesign”.

During two years of rapid development and improvement cycles for the HOTcopy project, four CDs were produced containing successive releases of 6 new scenarios. Each release featured user testing, piloting, observation, analysis and redesign. An accessibility standards review partly led to creation of the LiveSim framework replacing the HOTcopy framework in subsequent phases. Demands for “lighter” media objects, rapid development and more flexibility in revising e-simulations led to research and development on synthetic characters and speech in Phase 3.

(3) Design-based research “must lead to shareable theories that help communicate relevant implications to practitioners and other educational designers”.

Through journal and conference publications accompanied by applications for grants and awards, the simulation model developed for Journalism was interpreted and disseminated to several other disciplines following Phase 1. In creating LiveSim, a multiviewpoint, three-session simulation called “PRessure Point! – Virtual Practice” was created for a public relations course. This escalated the complexity in applying theories such as “Cognitive Dissonance Theory” (Festinger, 1957) used in the single session scenarios developed earlier for Journalism.

(4) Research must explain the way “designs function in authentic settings”.

Various evidence and rational argument has explained how the e-simulation designs function in authentic settings. Research publications, award applications and a showcase website have documented this. Also, the 2008–2010 national project aimed to create tools to better explain the manner in which designs function from the perspectives of both the learner and the teacher. A DBR approach necessarily continues to respond to this challenge.

(5) The development of these explanations (see above) uses methods “that can document and connect processes of enactment to outcomes of interest”.

The design team for DeakinSims is addressing the challenge of explaining the use of esimulations in blended learning environments by research into matters expressed in the learning design templates for each simulation. The templates ask the educator/designer to define the objectives, enactment and outcomes of each simulation. (See Chapter 1)

Note: Characteristics adapted from The Design-Based Research Collective (2003, p. 5)

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Table 3. Criteria by which HOTcopy was evaluated for Grants and Awards during 2001-2004 Criteria

Focus

Grants and Awards

• Development of series of interactive scenarios simulating “slice of life” events. • Goal: program-wide resources using a reusable shell and reusable media elements for sharing.

Online and blended teaching and learning.

2001 – GRANT 1 (Deakin) Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) Category A funded project: “E-learning in Journalism”.

• Needs identification. • Alignment of innovation with company objectives. • Development of design strategy and plan. • Development and implementation of evaluation strategies. • Quality of learning materials. • Acknowledgement of inputs and resources.

Innovation in workplace learning.

July 2002 – AWARD 1 – (National Professional Association) Winner of the major national award for Innovation in Learning from the Australian Institute of Training and Development (AITD).

• Teaching that influences, motivates & inspires students to learn. • Curricula & resources that reflect a command of the field. • Assessment & feedback that foster independent learning. • Respect and support for the development of students. • Scholarly activities that have enhanced learning and teaching.

Teaching excellence

Dec. 2002 –AWARD 2 – (Deakin) Winner of the Deakin University Vice-Chancellor’s award for Excellence in Teaching.

Demonstrates through evaluation a positive impact on students’ learning and: • creativity, innovation and a mix of technologies to meet specific learning needs, • advancement of distance learning with technology, and • replicable methodology of value to the teaching profession.

Telecommunications in distance education: learning and training

May 2003 – (International Professional Association) - 5th position - United States Distance Learning Association’s award for Excellence in Distance Education, at “Learning and Training Week” 2003 conference and expo in Washington DC.

Direct sales to individuals and organisations (e.g. Thomson Education Direct – distance learning; Libraries, general suppliers and bookshops, Australian College of Journalism and universities; Deakin and other universities with journalism (e.g. Bond University) and professional writing courses (e.g. Monash University).

Commercial success in publishing innovative digital publications along with books in the field of public communication.

Sept. 2003 – (International Publishing House) Published by Allen and Unwin (Ver. AU 1.0.0) and is released for sale prior to semester 1, 2004.

• Meet relevant standards set in the Australian Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth). • Respond to the Deakin University Disability Discrimination Act Action Plan. • Increase participation of disadvantaged groups in higher education.

Embedding accessibility functions

Jan. 2004 - GRANT 2 – (National) Higher Education Equity Program (HEEP) Grant. An internal competitive grant of $12,000 plus matched in-kind contributions.

advocated by Reeves and Hedberg (2008), and has reflected the five key characteristics outlined above.

Phase 1: HOTcopy During design and development processes, evaluation incorporated “whole of curriculum” reviews and needs assessments (including collaborative approaches to teaching and resource development), as well as formative methods for developing and refining the e-simulations. During implementation, methods included observation of students

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using HOTcopy during lab-based tutorials, focus group discussions with students following their use of the e-simulation, a survey administered to 64 first year students and follow-up discussions with staff about students’ experiences. Key evaluation findings indicated: •

•

HOTcopy was seen by almost all students to be highly or moderately valuable for engaging attention and prompting action. Most students seriously engaged with the e-simulation and were moderately motivated, committed, and immersed.


Table 4. Criteria by which LiveSims (& Character-Server technologies) were evaluated for Grants and Awards during 2004–2009 Criteria

Focus

Grants and Awards

• Innovations that could be applied elsewhere in the institution. • Improvements in the use of technology.

Teaching and learning with technology

July 2004 - GRANT 3 (Local) $75,000 grant from Deakin University’s Strategic Teaching and Learning Grants Scheme (STALGS)

• Improve quality & quality assurance processes. • Foster innovation & can be applied elsewhere. • Improve graduate outcomes, retention and/or progression rates. • Create collaborations locally & internationally • Improve use of educational technologies. • Enhance relationships with government, industry and professions. • Demonstrate Deakin’s leadership in teaching and learning. • Better position to attract top students.

Teaching and learning with technology

Feb. 2007 - GRANT 4 (Local) Special Reserve STALGS funding for the Institute of Teaching and Learning at Deakin University.

• Commitment to carrying out a program of research in order to improve teaching and learning.

DeakinSims Wiki and the Character-Server technologies

June 2007 – FELLOWSHIP (Local) Teaching and Learning Fellowship awarded to Dr. Jacob Cybulski for e-simulations ($29,663).

As for Grant 4 above. Evidence-based, flexible eLearning for the professions: integrated student tracking for e-simulations to improve assessment, evaluation and research.

Assessment, evaluation and research with technology

Mar. 2008 - GRANT 5 (Local) - $48,665 grant from STALGS scheme.

• Innovation and development in learning and teaching with technologies. • Assessment and promotion of student learning. • Curriculum renewal. • Enhancing student access and progression.

Innovation in learning and teaching with new technologies

May 2008 GRANT 6 – (National $218,433 from Australian Learning and Teaching Council Competitive Grants program

• Teaching that influences, motivates & inspires students to learn. • Curricula & resources that reflect a command of the field. • Assessment & feedback that foster independent learning. • Respect and support for the development of students. • Scholarly activities that have enhanced learning and teaching.

Achievement in Teaching and Learning

June 2008 - AWARD 4 (Local) Deakin University Vice-Chancellor’s Award to the LiveSim Pressure Point! Virtual Practice for Outstanding Achievement in Teaching and Learning ($5,000)

• Learning Design that makes effective technology-facilitated teaching ideas, reusable and sharable.

Effective learning designs database

Aug. 2008 - AWARD 5 – (National) PRessure Point! won a ($3,000) award for one of the best contributions to the Technology Supported Learning Database.

• Provide students with wide enriching educational experiences. • Promote active learning.

Teaching practices that lead to student engagement as measured by the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE)

July 2009 - AWARD 6 – (Local) The LiveSims “Know Your Client” (Financial Planning) and “ClientView” (Company Law) each won a $3,000 award for “Exemplar of Teaching Excellence” in the Faculty of Business and Law.

• Quantifiable benefits. • Learning design. • Effectiveness of delivery. • Quality of content, administration and assessment. • Relationship between established pedagogical principles and the effective use of technologies.

Industry - design and development of eLearning

Nov. 2009 - AWARD 7 – (Regional: Victoria, Australia) Winner of the eLearning Industry Association’s Excellence Award for “University eLearning: Deakin University for e-simulations”

•

•

Most believed HOTcopy simulated the workplace in ways that satisfied their learning needs. When using HOTcopy, students’ self-reported experiences were consistent with the design intention of simulating the real pressures of working in a print newsroom, trying to integrate legal, ethical, and busi-

•

ness competition issues while writing to deadlines. Almost all students felt more “serious”, “urgent” and “real” pressures during the e-simulation. (“Felt pressure” was a primary design goal expressed by the teaching staff and certain newspaper employers who judged the workplace simulation as successful in this regard.) 403


In addition to the formal evaluation, HOTcopy was externally validated from multiple perspectives through numerous awards to individuals and/or teams, funding grants, and expert reviews. An examination of the criteria (Table 3) that had to be met for each grant and award provides evidence the e-simulations were recognised and judged as valuable by numerous local, national, and international organisations, including industry professionals, academics, a peak distance education body, media training experts, and an equity group. Furthermore, a review of their “value” propositions constitutes a post-hoc shared understanding of the conceptual design vocabulary and design constructs embodied in the HOTcopy e-simulations (Vaishnavi & Kuechler, 2004, p. 5). This represents a substantial contribution to fulfilling DBR requirements (Table 2) and clearly “emerge” as a result of the DBR process. Importantly, the criteria in Tables 3 and 4 have been drivers (among others) of cycles of improvement that involve real academic rigor through reflective practice in educational design. Meeting the criteria for various grants and awards represents triangulated evidence of progress made over time through DBR processes, and reflects the nature of the DBR approach. The process of writing submissions, which involves interrogating evidence and formulating arguments to explain results, is a DBR process. Design intentions, results, outcomes, and evidence are evaluated in relation to meeting the criteria as they emerged over time. The awards and grants, summarised in Table 3, generated further resources that assisted in continuing the early design-based research for expansion and enrichment of DeakinSims. The emerging program clearly represents innovative and cost-effective use of technology that meets imperatives validated through internal and external awards and grants, and their evidentiary requirements.

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Phase 2: LiveSim During 2006, a research project undertaken by education designers investigated university teachers’ conceptions of the nature and value of simulations for teaching and assessing elements of their curriculum. The methodology was based on a Delphi-like process of enquiry aimed at refining questions through collaboration with teaching staff. Five academics and two design and development staff were interviewed about their experiences in developing e-simulations. The interviews examined a closed loop of five congruencies consistent with Biggs (2003) notion of constructive alignment. They were expressed in regard to the matching of profession/discipline needs with curriculum goals; curriculum with “kinds” of learning; “kinds” of learning with teaching strategies; teaching strategies (and all of the above) with assessment strategies; evidence of learning with identified needs of the profession/ discipline (Segrave and Rice 2007, p. 2). Evidence related to desired learning, teaching strategies and assessment. Key findings indicated: •

•

•

•

Staff believed e-simulations provided a valuable mechanism for concentrated, sustained learning, and a non-threatening way of introducing work-related skills, issues and problems. They thought it preferable that students’ first experience of interviewing a client was via an e-simulation, (rather than in a real case), because of its low risk and nonthreatening nature. They clearly articulated the capacities they wanted students to achieve; most were higher order skills including analysing, interpreting information, reconciling opposing views, discerning relevance, decisionmaking, and so on. Learning through self-evaluation and selfreflection was regarded as a valuable feature of the e-simulations.


•

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The e-simulations were seen as a way of solving teaching problems and providing rich experiences with opportunities for enquiry, exploration, feedback, and guidance. Teaching strategies were aimed at helping students learn how to learn, challenge students’ views, and begin thinking like professionals. Staff believed e-simulations provided opportunities for more complete assessment of students’ performance. Assessment tasks focused strategically on specific skills and staff believed students had attained the kind of learning intended.

This research led to the development of a generic student survey for LiveSims, (Appendix, page 195, Chapter 11). Its design was based on shared teaching and learning intentions and issues that arose during interviews. It was framed by the notion of the aforementioned five congruencies. The rationale for this was to find out whether students understood the design intent, whether they could discern the links between professional needs, curriculum, teaching, assessment approaches, and their own levels of learning. In collaboration with staff, the survey was implemented in some disciplines using LiveSims. In other cases, staff were not in a position to implement the survey. From a design-based research perspective, it is important to note it is the teachers as designers and researchers who have the role of placing value on the learning resource. Design-based research depends on a professional orientation towards research and scholarship by the teachers as “agents for change” (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2008, p. 470). It is expected that, through successive cycles of inquiry and improvement, results are theorised, documented and disseminated. Some academics reported on experiences with the e-simulation used in their discipline. (See, for example, Demetrious 2007; Cassidy 2008; Powell, 2008; and Cybulski et al., 2006a, 2006b.) Key findings generally indicated that most students:

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Valued the e-simulation as a way of broadening understandings of a workplace by experiencing work related practices and issues; Believed the e-simulations provided a valuable opportunity for learning and practising important work-related skills; Saw their discipline-related LiveSim as a positive resource that enhanced understandings about the real world of work; Felt the e-simulations enabled them to practise and develop desired professional capabilities; Believed the e-simulations provided opportunities for learning that would not otherwise be available to them; Were led to reflect more deeply on the role of professionals in actual workplaces.

In 2006, an external evaluation of LiveSim was conducted by a senior independent evaluation expert with expertise in multi-media development in higher education. He reviewed each LiveSim, held discussions with the relevant disciplinebased staff and viewed presentations by several academics who used LiveSim in their teaching. Keppell (2006) found LiveSims was based on a re-useable, “robust learning design” that represented “a leading edge development in educational technology”, which should be “championed in the international educational community” (p. 11). This external validation further confirms the value of the educational design underpinning DeakinSims and is a highly desirable means of underpinning the research-based design process. As with HOTcopy, the design and efficacy of e-simulations based on the LiveSim and CharacterServer technologies were validated in other ways by meeting specific criteria that led to further funding grants, awards, and a teaching fellowship as outlined in Table 4. The fellowship in particular enabled reflection on theory and design practice recorded in a Wiki available to Deakin University staff: InSims Wiki.

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Table 4 shows that as well as mirroring innovative aspects of HOTcopy (Table 3), LiveSim represents a broadening of the program design in ways that are re-usable and sharable (e.g. via a web-based database for tracking student interactions with e-simulations). It has also continued to maintain the standards required to meet criteria for grants and awards: accessible use of technologies, and quality teaching that motivates learners and provides a breadth of experience for them. Arguably, these broadly-based validations of the program are due largely to the careful application of design-based research.

•

Phases 3 and 4: Expansion of the DeakinSims Program

•

As the program continued to expand with the development of the “character server technology”, and adoption of other simulations across the University and beyond, there was a need to contribute to gaps in research on the use of e-simulations in the professions. It was thought the generic survey and other tools could be administered to large numbers of students, and that research that covered both DIL and DIS domains (Klabbers, 2004) could be undertaken incrementally. A proposal was submitted and subsequently funded nationally for research on the impacts of e-simulations on university learner experiences and the quality of learner responses. In particular, the research sought data on whether the e-simulations provided opportunities to learn, practise and perform the professional capabilities identified in curricula as requirements of the respective professions. The survey was administered in 2010 across the relevant disciplines at Deakin University, RMIT and Charles Sturt Universities. Its design enabled items to be somewhat customised and was a further refinement of the one used for LiveSims. Response rates for this larger survey were low in some disciplines and unevenly spread across the user population. General findings indicated:

•

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A high proportion of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the survey propositions relating to the five congruencies. (Mature age students, such as the eight forensic interviewing students, were more likely to do this, suggesting they could discern the design intent and their perception of its impact on their learning, whereas the 1500 first year students studying information systems were less likely to do so.) Most students recognised the authenticity of the scenarios or cases (across all esimulations) and the “bringing to life” of abstract concepts. Most appreciated the opportunity to practise skills and learn through trial and error in a non-threatening environment. Almost all respondents enjoyed the e-simulations experience and would recommend them to other students.

Although evidence from the survey is uneven, teaching staff who constantly interact with students report anecdotal and ad hoc feedback that reinforces their beliefs in the value of the e-simulations. For example, in cases where e-simulations were used for assessment, staff reported students performed better on assessment tasks than had students in previous years, despite similar profiles. Of course, as Klabbers (2009) pointed out, it is difficult to attribute cause-effect relationships in this way. The intention was to administer a similar survey to teaching staff and to conduct focus groups with students and follow-up telephone interviews with staff. However, these goals have not yet been realised, though there may be opportunities to do so beyond the life of the national project. No funding was available to other institutions to facilitate the establishment of focus groups on the campuses involved in the project.


EVALUATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES The preceding discussion attests to DeakinSims having received considerable external validation of its underpinning learning design. Yet in implementing investigations, some issues and challenges arose emphasising the complexity of using DBR processes in blended learning environments. Conducting mixed-methods investigation across a range of disciplines and, for the national project, across three different institutions, was difficult. Guba and Lincoln (1989) and Klabbers (2009) recognise that different disciplines favour different approaches to research and evaluation, and that misunderstandings can occur regarding the rigour of techniques, validity, and reliability of data, and its interpretation. According to the DBRC (2003), there is a “necessary tension” when empirical research is coupled with design. They suggest “DBR typically triangulates multiple sources and kinds of data to connect intended and unintended outcomes to processes of enactment” (p. 7).

Evaluating an E-Simulation in a Blended Learning Environment Klabbers (2003a, 2009) and the DBRC (2003) recognised the difficulties of evaluating student learning in respect to a single resource. In each discipline, the learning environment was complex. It included a variety of experiences and resources along with the e-simulations. It was not possible to isolate out for study the single variable of esimulation effectiveness without having control groups where that variable would be denied to learners. Even if it could be isolated, data would lack meaning without consideration of the rest of the elements of the environment. Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) notion of fourth generation evaluation recognises this difficulty. It is arguable that denial of a learning tool available to others would be unethical and discriminatory. This is

particularly the case where teachers as designers in coming to the development task are strongly predisposed to the value of e-simulations based on their pre-existing educational experiences, values and beliefs, and positive assessments of completed e-simulation projects. (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2008). Neutrality is abandoned and “teacherly presence” is paramount in shaping the whole process of design, development and usage.

Lessons •

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Evaluation should encompass the whole of the educational experience because everything in a blended learning environment is inextricably linked. The broader the evaluation focus, the less control there appears to be over sampling, administering particular methods, and response levels. Teachers as designers have primary responsibility for evaluation of teaching and learning, and depending on their discipline, may choose different methods for gathering data and reporting findings. Generally, an institution-wide program of e-simulations development, incorporating a design-based approach, and led by an appropriate centralised group, may reasonably run in parallel with specialised discipline-based research and evaluation efforts using particular preferred methodologies.

Administering Mixed Methods Evaluation Administering mixed methods evaluation in the context of DBR is time consuming and expensive, and relies on maintaining “a productive, collaborative partnership” with research participants (DBRC, 2003, p. 7). Despite intentions, focus groups and staff interviews did not eventuate because participants were unable to make them

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happen. Local research/evaluation coordinators were not appointed. Survey administration involved different institutions, campuses, cohorts (on/off-campus students, school leavers and mature-aged students), other learning materials and experiences. Delivery methods and timing did not always coincide with what was happening on each campus. The survey was administered online in two institutions using different digital delivery tools and administered in paper-based form in class in another institution. In the former situation, responses were voluntary and students could respond at their convenience. In the class situation, students were a “captive audience” and had a set time in which to complete the survey if they consented to participating. Not surprisingly, response rates varied across institutions, year levels, experience levels, and so on, and the quality of responses was inconsistent. DBR and mixed methods evaluation compete with other institutional realities and expectations. Academics are expected to research in their discipline area, and for some, research on their teaching is regarded as less relevant and less important. Similarly, eliciting quality feedback from students can be difficult. They are expected to complete many faculty or institutional surveys, including evaluations of courses and units, student satisfaction surveys, surveys of student engagement, graduate destination surveys, and so on. Moreover, they are often administered at the end of trimester/semester, when students are busy completing assignments and preparing for examinations. Completing surveys and participating in focus groups can be an imposition and many students choose other priorities.

Lessons •

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Evaluation findings can be “messy” when mixed methods are used across institutions and across disciplines, whether this is due to different delivery mechanisms, response rates, interpretation inconsistencies, or other anomalies.

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Institutional realities should be considered when conducting evaluations. Pragmatically, it may be more useful to respond to location-based contingencies and to take more advantage of, and value, ad hoc evidence when it arises. Where there are expectations that staff on other campuses will facilitate data gathering, funding needs to be allocated to enable this to happen. A more coordinated use of surveys at institutional level may alleviate timing difficulties, though the timing of survey dissemination is always a vexed issue.

Data Collection and Interpretation Challenges There were challenges in designing a survey that was not too complex. The generic instrument was seeking detailed information related to the five congruencies and was lengthy compared with other instruments that students complete. Most questions required respondents to think carefully and reflectively about their responses, so the time needed to complete it may have deterred some students. Staff reported that first year students had a problem with the language used in survey items, so the survey design for first years will need to be simplified. The difficulty is that the simpler the survey version is in respect to language and length, the less precise and useful the findings may be. This requires further work. In the national project, the intention was to triangulate data across methods, but to date only the survey has been implemented. Data interpretation from it was confounded because the total number of students using each e-simulation varied greatly, from 8 in a Master’s course to 1504 in an undergraduate course. Data from students in some disciplines was not as representative as it might have been. Therefore aggregated data was somewhat meaningless statistically but in the context of a Masters course for example, small numbers of responses had value to the individual


teacher. The DeakinSims experience is consistent with the view that “complications arise from sustained interventions in messy settings” (DBRC, 2003 p. 7).

Lessons •

•

•

•

In designing a survey, there is a trade-off between the language required for meaningful data and the ability of students to interpret and respond adequately. Interpretation of survey responses is difficult without triangulation of data from other methods. It is possible that perceptions expressed by small samples of a total population are not representative. On the other hand, students considered responses to questions ought to be taken seriously. There may be a case for not surveying first years about their learning because some may not be able to judge, particularly learning related to the workplace. It may be more useful to investigate more directly whether students use e-simulations as teachers intended to bring about desired learning. It should be noted however, that there are individual variations in the use, resulting benefits, and expected consequences of constructivist approaches to learning design.

FUTURE COMMITMENTS TO DESIGN-BASED RESEARCH DeakinSims is based on innovative web technologies, which are fundamentally “disruptive technologies”. As a result, they exert a range of transformative impacts via a ripple effect across the educational “system of interest”. The expression disruptive technology was first used in business contexts and referred to innovations that provided new ways of doing things that disrupt traditional practices (Archer, Garrison, & Anderson, 1999). More recently, the term has appeared in the

context of K-12 education (Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2008). The “Unleashing the Future” report (Project Tomorrow: Speak-up, 2009) signals for higher education planners, the mindset of university entrants of tomorrow. These are the students currently in the K-12 sector: Students continue to see the potential transformative impact of games and virtual simulations for learning and tell us that these tools help them connect content with the real world and give them opportunities to apply their knowledge, test their assumptions and take risks in a safe environment. By comparison, only about one quarter of the district administrators and principals selected games and simulations for inclusion in their ultimate school. (p. 4) The discussion in Chapter 1 indicates that simulations will play an important role in blended learning environments in future, particularly in the area of experiential learning for education in the professions. This is important in light of the quote above. The next stage of the DeakinSims program will focus on creating e-simulations for health-related courses. For example: •

•

•

A suite of synthetic conversational character scenarios (small media files requiring low band-width) will be created for medical students and other health professionals to teach skills in communication with patients and their families; Second Life ® will continue to be used as required for goal-based, immersive, role-play simulations and collaborative learning; Use of mobile devices will be explored for their contributions to e-simulations in blended learning environments, particularly for more social learning moments unfolding over a series of different times and locations.

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As DeakinSims further expands, the research focus will build on the key characteristics of DBR outlined earlier in this chapter. This approach examines a specific set of relationships in the “system of interest”. It seeks explanations and methods for documenting these in readily understandable ways. It will also continue to relate to education for the professions. As mentioned earlier, academic staff involved in designing, developing and teaching with DeakinSims reported that the act of designing and introducing their e-simulation (that is working with disruptive technologies), led to changes in many areas in respect to what they previously thought and did, including teaching philosophies, teaching strategies, and importantly their assessment methods. This cautions against investigating e-simulations only in isolation. DeakinSims can

continue to be a powerful catalyst for change by employing more widely in DBR activities, tools that have been developed during the recent twoyear national project, such as the Learning Design Template, and by building on the range of Case Studies across disciplines within Deakin and in other institutions. In addition to the expansion of DeakinSims at Deakin University, there are opportunities for collaborative DBR activities with professionals in various workplaces, and with colleagues at other national and international institutions. Further research is needed in the area of esimulations to document the range of models, applications, and influences (particularly unexpected influences) they are having, and the changes that accompany them in specific higher education contexts. DeakinSims can contribute to

Table 5. Prospects for design-based research in education Prospects for DBR in education

Indicators of DBR responses from DeakinSims program

1. Exploring possibilities for novel learning and teaching environments [See table 2 for contributing activities]

Teaching staff are creating exemplars of digital role-plays where scenario characters are generated dynamically using a library of avatars and text-to-speech (TTS) technology. Such characters will be used for rapid prototyping of LiveSims, also in classroom settings to introduce scenarios and characters in professional contexts. The dynamic speech function may have an application in English Language education and mobile learning.

2. Developing contextualised theories of learning and teaching [See table 2 for contributing activities]

Festinger’s (1957) “Cognitive Dissonance Theory” needs to be further explored as a device for learning and teaching as seen in the e-simulation “PRessure Point!” Students play advocate roles involving research and writing for three opposing points of view as they represent three potential employers who are parties to the same dispute. Further investigations into applications of Cognitive Dissonance Theory are planned for the ViewQuest simulated interview player that presents to students a potentially expanding “wall of viewpoints” from stakeholders.

3. Constructing cumulative design knowledge [See table 2 for contributing activities]

One strength of in-house innovations using DBR is that a properly managed program of work in e-simulations, can lead to the organisation maintaining a body of “design knowledge”. Documents (e.g. exemplar websites) convert the design “knowledge-in-action” (“…the permanence of having (knowledge) gives way to the constant flux of doing”. (Sfard, 1998, p. 6), into a more shareable form. The DeakinSims website and other publications are expected to accumulate design knowledge for use in further courses at Deakin, and in other institutions. A goal is to collaborate internationally for a stronger and more rapid accumulation of design knowledge.

4. Increasing human capacity for innovation [See table 2 for contributing activities]

Pure design is a creative, generative process. DBR provides foundational processes for genuine innovation. Documenting outputs from the use of tools and methods in the processes builds capacity for more sustainable innovative work. While writing for publication, grants, and awards generate documentation that analyse and synthesise. The DBR processes in the national project, for example, created results such as the framework for organisational capacity building. This pointed to the synergistic alignments needed for capacity building in Deakin University if DeakinSims is to continue to deliver value to the organisation in the form of innovations in flexible education.

Note: Adapted from the prospects for design-based research articulated by the Design-Based Research Collective (2003, p. 8).

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this through its cycles of DBR, where the main emphasis is on challenging, instantiating, and elaborating theories about learning and teaching in higher education by •

•

• •

•

Reinterpreting existing major theories that relate to online learning and their use in simulations for education in the professions; Using the new interpretations to create new insights into existing theories, such as the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978), and Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Lave & Wenger, 1990); Providing new meanings for the application of theories of learning; Improving the communication of relevant theories and research findings to academic practitioners, education designers, and industry professionals; and Developing a typology for designing simulations for education in the professions.

In respect to “prospects for design-based research”, the DeakinSims program intends to focus attention on the courses of action suggested by the DBRC (2003, p. 8), as outlined in Table 5. The four “prospective” outlooks for DBR in the use of DeakinSims will derive from activities associated with the five key characteristics.

CONCLUSION Blended teaching and learning environments are extraordinarily complex. So many variables affect students’ learning and many variables are beyond the influence of teachers and institutions, so isolation of meaningfully controllable variables for research purposes is almost impossible. In this situation, we argue for a new and deliberate approach to design that reflects the key characteristics of DBR, because such processes

emphasise the educational design of a learning intervention such as an e-simulation, within a whole learning environment. Yet, implementing DBR can compound the complexities because it is a challenging paradigm. There is a need to develop research paths that can refine “locally valuable innovations” and develop “more globally useable knowledge” at the same time (DBRC, 2003, p. 7). It is arguable that, when this approach culminates in a learning resource that is the “best it can be educationally”, and when teacher/designers are clearer and more confident about the theories upon which it is designed, perhaps that should be seen as the primary, desired outcome of research, rather than how it, as a single element, affects the learning of individual students.

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INTRODUCTION This book epitomises an emerging ‘megatrend’ of international interest and active experimentation in the use of new and extremely varied forms of e-simulations in the service of education, professional development and training. It also signals for Australasia and Europe, as examples, an emerging ‘foresight’ network of higher education institutions, keen to participate in knowledge networking in order to more quickly advance the theoretical conceptualisations, constructs and ‘evidence-based’ practices in the use of e-simulations. Trends identified and insights gained from this book are due to the authors reflecting and reporting on the underlying strategic projects of their individual institutions and in some cases those flowing from relatively early examples of the dissemination of sound teaching practices locally and further afield. This merits some reflection on the dynamics at play and the, often fragile, potentials for those dynamics to deliver returns on investment (ROI) for the actors and educational enterprises supporting them. While computer simulations have been explored for decades, we puzzle at the immediate future of e-simulations for education in the professions, particularly in the light of the most recent network technologies. What is the hype? What are the trends? Who needs to lead? What organisational capacities are required?

Hype For Gartner Inc., Zastrocky, Lowendahl, and Harris, (2007) examined technology adoption and use in higher education institutions and identified three functional areas as emerging, defined by their level of risk tolerance: the Chaotic Sandpit (high risk), the Healthy Hothouse (moderate risk), and the Disciplined Engine Room (low risk). While the cutting edge research function, the ‘chaotic sandpit’, pioneered new and emerging technologies, the ‘disciplined engine room’ delivered the mainstreamed technologies supporting teaching business as usual and the administrative functions. Between these two is the teaching and learning function; the ‘healthy hothouse’. Actively seeking opportunities to explore new technologies ‘faculty should engage in experimentation and “learn by playing” (p.6). The chapters in this book variously reflect positions taken by the e-simulation technologies and strategies within this model of educational technology adoption, in their respective organisational contexts and broader contexts of blended learning for education in the professions. A useful and associated model, for which Gartner is well known, is the technology ‘Hype Cycle’. In this cycle, it is hoped a ‘plateau of productivity’ is reached to provide the elusive evidence of a return on investment. It is comforting to note that educational digital simulations, as a set of relatively mature technologies, in general, may be placed in the later phases of a technology’s life cycle, but the transfor-

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mative potential of e-simulations for professional education and training, is not yet in evidence through wide dissemination of quality teaching and learning designs and practices. And we would contend that as the range and sophistication of the e-simulation technologies increases, its potential for significant, positive impacts on blended teaching and flexible education is threatened by a lack of strategic capacitybuilding individually and collectively by organisations. In a real sense, as networked and mobile technologies increase their influence as disruptive technologies in educational settings, new constructs for e-simulations place them once more in the earlier phases of the ‘Hype Cycle’, which Gartner (2010) describes in the following manner: •

• •

•

•

Technology Trigger: A potential technology breakthrough kicks things off. Early proof-of-concept stories and media interest trigger significant publicity. Often no usable products exist and commercial viability is unproven. Peak of Inflated Expectations: Early publicity produces a number of success stories—often accompanied by scores of failures. Some companies take action; many do not. Trough of Disillusionment: Interest wanes as experiments and implementations fail to deliver. Producers of the technology shake out or fail. Investments continue only if the surviving providers improve their products to the satisfaction of early adopters. Slope of Enlightenment: More instances of how the technology can benefit the enterprise start to crystallize and become more widely understood. Second- and third-generation products appear from technology providers. More enterprises fund pilots; conservative companies remain cautious. Plateau of Productivity: Mainstream adoption starts to take off. Criteria for assessing provider viability are more clearly defined. The technology’s broad market applicability and relevance are clearly paying off.

FORESIGHT While Gartner Inc. continues to make a business of trend analysis and forecasting in 2011, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885 - 1962) is reputed to have said that ‘prediction is very difficult, especially about the future’. Yet various approaches to futurology (futures studies or foresight), particularly corporate-friendly concepts like ‘trend sensing and analysis’ are growing in popularity today. Indeed horizon scanning in the field of educational technologies has been made famous for teaching and learning across the sectors through the annual ‘Horizon Report’. This emanates from the ‘New Media Consortium’ (NMC), an initiative of EDUCAUSE. In 2009, the NMC conducted a ‘Symposium for the future’ in Second Life (Linden Lab Inc.), which, along with other 3D immersive worlds and other Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVES) have for several years been grappling with the ‘Trough of Disillusionment’. Regardless, the evidence in this book and in other recent literature (Gregory, Lee, & Ellis, 2010; Kirriemuir, 2009) shows that Second Life continues to flourish through maturing and newly emerging applications for educational purposes. However, senior organisational managers are constantly demanding optimal ‘returns on investment’ (ROI) and the minimisation of risk. This is understandable as in higher education we are finding that mainstreaming and sustainability of new educational technologies is becoming an increasing challenge.

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In 2008, a European ‘Megatrend project’ sought to ‘identify major/significant trends and discover rules that should be followed for achieving critical mass in e-learning as well as for moving from a small-scale, fragile e-learning provider to a large-scale, permanent and successful e-learning institution.’ (Learnovation Consortium, 2008, p.12). This reflects the real challenge faced by many educational institutions in this age of rapidly emerging new media.

DESIGN PRAXIS In the second section of this book, ‘E-Simulation Learning Designs in Action’, evidence is presented about the work of authors quite possibly situated in one of the Chaotic Sandpit, the Healthy Hothouse, or the Disciplined Engine Room. Regardless of those circumstances, ‘design’ as a praxis, is described by Voithofer, (2005, p.8) as ‘planning, creation, reflection, and adjustment for the construction of research, media, and knowledge’. He goes on to propose that the: use of these available resources is never a simple matter of mimicry. Employing conventions is an unpredictable and dynamic process that always involves some degree of transformation of those conventions . . . (and that) . . . if the earlier observation is correct and this is a time of epistemological and ontological transition influenced by the widespread diffusion of Information, Media, and Communication Technologies, the divisions between design resources are unclear and open for experimentation and debate across shifting disciplinary borders. (p.8) Various chapters have tackled the challenge of describing the theoretical and practical underpinnings of their endeavours. Chapter 21 of this book describes these conditions in the higher education context through the lens of Design-based Research (DBR). The chapter also reflects the long-term challenges for a single institution to build its internal staff and organisational capacity for e-simulation development and mainstreaming. It is therefore argued that a ‘strategic education design’ is required for building staff capacities through action learning in collaborative projects (internal/external, local/global) as a proactive form of professional development and capacity-building expectantly leading to the renewal of curriculum and teaching practices. As proposed by Corbitt, Holt and Segrave (2006, p.16): This strategic education design requires an expansive view of the ‘system of interest’ – while focusing on teaching and learning it should boldly embrace multiple disciplines, faculties and institutions. A systems-based education design approach is the key to help unlock the teaching and learning value of new technologies for universities. Both in philosophy and process, it is a critical orientation for the university as a learning organization wishing to continuously improve its collective learning and performance in the new digital knowledge era. They further suggest that benefits may be derived from new approaches to co-operative, staff ‘capacity-building’ facilitated by a form of collaboration on new e-learning design projects. This requires strategic action, while at the same time enabling teachers as agents to continue to design and work in reflexive ways. Through enacting their ‘teacherly art of influencing’ the way the learning environment is conceptualised and functions, a more mature notion of ‘blending’ than the simple fusing of face-to-

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face and online, will incorporate a rich palette of other methods for educating. Innovative, reflexive teaching will increasingly complement practical learning in the workplace with physical and virtual role-plays and simulations in the ‘classroom’. Further to this, location-based experiences in both places may be augmented via mobile devices used to deliver the emerging learning designs and constructs for new types of e-simulations.

BUILDING ORGANISATIONAL CAPACITY FOR E-SIMULATION DEVELOPMENT The successful mainstreaming of e-simulations is an educational, technical and organisational challenge that needs a well and comprehensively conceived basis for success. Organisational capacity is defined as resources, opportunities and expertise required to achieve cost-effective performance. Expertise would cover all of the facets of ‘knowledge’ as defined below. As Southwell, Gannaway, Orrell, Chalmers and Abraham (2005) observe: Capacity building is more than training programmes. Capacity building is based on needs analysis and audits of capability and potential. It requires the design of strategic interventions that employ and challenge the enhancement of strengths, exploit opportunities, confront constraints and supplement gaps and limitations. (p.23) When asked in surveys, organisations identify people as their most important asset. The ‘expertise’ of the people in an organisation is ranked highly and the expertise of senior leadership not only sets the strategic directions of the organisation, but it also creates the supportive culture for its people. When considering the alchemy of ‘capacity-building’ in the area of innovation and change, strategic leadership and operational leadership need to be viewed in concert as ‘foundational’ – forging the energies and alignments of the spheres and forces at its disposal. Foundational leadership needs to be attuned to innovation and be responsive while maintaining and reflecting back to the total organisation, a cohesive and congruent vision from which it drives its strategic action. But this needs to take explicit and tangible form. There must not be gross inconsistencies when one examines the operational leadership and the manner in which supposed strategic projects are structured and funded. We propose a model that places both strategic and operational leadership at the feet of the spheres and forces that create the more local capacities – where the ‘rubber hits the road’. The core capacities in the spheres of: Teaching and Learning Design; Discipline / Professions; IT Infrastructure; and Media Technology Production must be properly aligned and cooperatively supported by the following leadership elements: • • • • • •

Rational structures Rational funding Collaborative projects Joint investment Evaluation and improvement Staff development.

An alignment of the spheres and forces of capacity is required.

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Our experience has shown that improvements, of a satisfactory kind and speed, can only occur with SYNERGISTIC ALIGNMENTS of the four capacities facilitated by a conscious and concerted effort by management: Leading by building the capacity from the foundations: ‘The internal organization of educational institutes, the academic structure of disciplines and the lack of long term funding of these innovations in education are for various reasons the big problem. Those are the key issues.’ (Personal correspondence – Jan Klabbers Oct, 2010.) A model is proposed (See Figure 1) as a window into capacity building. Capacity building has been conceptualised and expressed in this ‘abstract’ model of ‘spheres and forces’. Several assertions underpin the messages highlighted for communication through the model: • • • •

Functions and activities are portrayed rather than organisational entities or groups. The bird’s eye view depicts two spheres of leadership (strategic and operational) that are considered ‘foundational’ – underpinning capacity in the spheres that execute action. The six leadership elements (above) within the strategic and operational leadership must be aligned for congruent action to be possible in the spheres of capacity. The four spheres of capacity in key functional areas require strong collaborative/communicative bonds and the support of leadership if they are to be drawn into active capacity-building to reach synergistic, productive alignments.

Figure 1. Organisational capacity for e-Simulation development

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•

In each of the four spheres of capacity, several vital activities are non-exclusively foregrounded to highlight the activities involved in creating digital, Web-based simulations in blended learning environments.

If organisations are to reap the benefits of e-simulations supporting their variously defined education and training missions, from management, there must be nurtured an accepted ‘congruent strategic vision’ that forges the alignments. If organisations providing education and development for the professions remain ‘stuck’ in last century concepts of delivery online, on campus and at a distance, e-simulations won’t receive the strategic traction. Equally, if the four spheres of capacity fail to share a new vision – fail to cooperate in making joint investments – the capacity for innovation and progress is undermined. The building of congruent capacity creates the conditions for lively, competitive advancement in know-how and results when pursuing mature and sophisticated blended learning environments that use e-simulations for education in the professions.

CONDITIONS AND INGREDIENTS FOR SUCCESS (LEADING INTO THE FUTURE) We have long since experienced the convergence of the array of analogue technologies to the digital platform, and almost immediately the convergence of design endeavours such as instructional design, curriculum design, multimedia design, message design, graphic design, interface design, etc. as the digital exploded, giving birth to new media forms with new design requirements and opportunities. In one sense, this explosion drove us toward a new form of ‘Education Design Science’, premised on new theories of knowledge and of the ‘coming to know’ and being ‘able to do!’ With the advent of the ubiquitous Internet and new fields like universal design, experience design, interaction design, game design, there is a pervading sense of ‘can’t see the wood for the trees’. There is an urgent need for major collaborative efforts to assemble national and international expertise and funding streams to address these challenges. The following brief list foregrounds high priority areas for attention if building capacity at local, national and international levels: • • • • • •

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Authoring processes and tools: ‘smart’, low-threshold technologies to facilitate the creation and rapid prototyping of e-simulations by teachers and teams Networked e-simulations, facilitated by ubiquitous computing featuring mobile devices: new factors in ‘blending learning’ Dissemination and ‘scaling up’: best-practice concepts and models including where possible, open-source approaches Dissemination to other professions from professions leading in the use of e-simulations: Interdisciplinary, inter-professional e-simulation developments Expanding teams and their expertise and expanding the funding for e-simulations: National and international funding bids to government and private enterprises Strategic alliances linking diverse organisations: inter-institutional and inter-regional collaborations and partnerships

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CONCLUSION We leave readers to reflect on two quotations from Clark Aldrich who has written the Foreword to the book: ‘Books and their ability to let people “learn to know” had their role in creating the modern concepts of freedom and democracy. What will Sims and “learning-to-do” next bring?’ (Aldrich 2009, p.507) ‘Seeing the world (and modelling it and presenting it) through the approximation of a simulation rather than a book will require new tools and even a new syntax and corresponding style guide, but will mint a new generation of scholars – and a new generation of leaders.’ (Aldrich, 2009, p.xxxiv) These views point the way to the emerging opportunities for using e-simulations in educating the professions through blended learning designs. Stephen Segrave Deakin University, Australia

REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2009). The complete guide to simulations and serious games: How the most valuable content will be created in the age beyond Gutenberg to Google. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Corbitt, B., Holt, D. M., & Segrave, S. (2006). Strategic design for Web-based teaching and learning: Making corporate technology systems work for the learning organisation [Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.]. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 1(4), 15–35. doi:10.4018/jwltt.2006100102 Educause (n.d.). A non-profit corporation whose mission is “to advance higher education by promoting the intelligent use of Information Technology”.,Washington, the District of Columbia. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ Gartner, Inc. (2010). Gartner hype cycle: Interpreting technology hype. Retrieved from: http://www. gartner.com/technology/research/methodologies/hype-cycle.jsp Gregory. S., Lee, M. J. W., Ellis, A., Gregory, B., Wood, D., Hillier, M.,McKeown, L. (2010). Australian higher education institutions transforming the future of teaching and learning through virtual worlds. In C. H. Steel, M. J. Keppell, P. Gerbic & S. Housego (Eds.), Curriculum, technology & transformation for an unknown future. Proceedings Ascilite Sydney 2010 (pp. 399-415). Retrieved from http://ascilite. org.au/conferences/sydney10/procs/Gregory-full.pdf Kirriemuir, J. (2009). Early Summer 2009 Virtual World Watch. A ‘snapshot’ of virtual world activity in UK HE and FE, Eduserv Virtual World Watch. Retrieved from http://virtualworldwatch. net/ wordpress/ wp-content/uploads/2009/06/snapshot-six.pdf.

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Learnovation Consortium. (2008). ICT, lifelong learning and innovation reports in evolved distance education, WP1 - Explore emerging innovation paradigms. Education and Culture DG, European Commission. Levine, A. (2008). The NMC Campus . EDUCAUSE Review, 43(5). Retrieved from http://www.educause. edu/EDUCAUSE%2BReview/EDUCAUSEReviewMagazineVolume43/TheNMCCampus/163174. Southwell, D., Gannaway, D., Orrell, J., Chalmers, D., & Abraham, C. (2005). Strategies for effective dissemination of project outcomes; A report for the Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, The University of Queensland and Flinders University, 2005. Voithofer, R. (2005). Designing new media education research: The materiality of data, representation, and dissemination . Educational Researcher, 34(9), 3–14. doi:10.3102/0013189X034009003 Zastrocky, M., Lowendahl, J.-M., & Harris, M. (2007). Technology adoption in higher education: Know your businesses. Industry Research Paper ID Number: G00152548. Stamford, CT: Gartner Inc.

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About the Contributors

Dale Holt, Associate Professor, is Associate Director of the Institute of Teaching and Learning at Deakin University, Australia, with active participation in Educational Design, Professional Development and Research. Dale has coordinated major academic professional development programs and his responsibilities see him heavily involved in supporting staff applying for University and national teaching awards and development grants. He was awarded a national Carrick Citation for Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning in 2007, ‘For longstanding leadership and support for the professional development of teaching staff to advance student learning in the field of flexible, online and distance education’. Dale was Project Leader of the 2007 Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) funded project, ‘Strategic Leadership for Institutional Teaching and Learning Centres: Developing a Model for the 21st century’, and a project member of the recently completed 2008 ALTC Competitive Grants project, ‘Building academic staff capacity for using eSimulations in professional education for experience transfer’ and a 2008 ALTC Leadership project, ‘Coalface subject co-ordinators – the missing link to building leadership capacities in the academic supply chain’ nearing completion. He has recently secured an ALTC grant for a project titled, ‘Building distributed leadership in designing and implementing a quality management framework for Online Learning Environments’. Stephen Segrave is an Academic Education Designer for the Institute of Teaching and Learning, Deakin University, Australia. Having lectured in Instructional Design and Educational Technologies, he now consults with academic staff to improve teaching and learning through innovative designs. Stephen is recognised for design excellence through Vice-Chancellor’s awards in 2000 and 2002 for ‘Excellence in Teaching’ and in 2008 for ‘Outstanding Achievement in Teaching and Learning’. In 2002 the award for the suite of simulations: ‘: a virtual newsroom’ (Allen & Unwin, 2003) also won the Ascilite award for Best Software Project demonstrating ‘Exemplary use of electronic technologies in teaching and learning in tertiary education’ and the Australian Institute of Training and Development (AITD) award for ‘Innovation in Learning’. In 2004, Stephen received a Deakin Teaching Explorer Grant culminating in the strategic project: ‘Experiential Learning Through Simulations: Enhancing education in the professions through interactive computer simulations online’ creating five simulations in different disciplines. During 2008-2010 he was a member of the leadership team for the Australian Learning and Teaching Council competitive grants project: ‘Building academic staff capacity for using eSimulations in professional education for experience transfer’. Stephen has published on eSimulations, eLearning environments and academic professional development in several national and international journals.


Jacob L. Cybulski, Associate Professor, is a member of the School of Information Systems at Deakin University, Australia. His research interests include Information Systems theory and research methodology, Information Systems strategy, as well as ICT education. Jacob also works as a consultant to organisations willing to investigate their business processes, develop their technology strategies or align their IT and business practices. Jacob’s past projects range from engineering and telecommunications applications to developing software productivity environments and toolkits. His recently commissioned work includes work on e-commerce, Web development and contents management, educational video and simulation. In his free time Jacob engages in competitive fencing and fine arts. *** Theo Bastiaens is Professor of Educational Technology, Director of the Institute of Educational Science and Media Research and dean of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Fernuniversität in Hagen (Germany). He also holds a Professorship for Educational Technology at the Open University of the Netherlands. His research interest includes instructional design, authentic learning and new technology. He has published extensively in this field and is a frequent invited speaker at conferences and seminars. For the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) he Co-Chaired E-learn 2007 and E-learn 2009. In 2011 he will be the Co-Chair of the Ed-Media Conference in Lisbon, Portugal. He is an Executive Committee Member of the World Conference on E-learning and Executive Committee Member & Founder of Global Learn Asia Pacific. Scott Brunero is a Clinical Nurse Consultant in mental health liaison nursing, at Prince of Wales Hospital Sydney, Australia and has been in mental health nursing for over 20 years. Scott is a PhD student at Sydney University researching the provision of mental health education programmes for ‘non’ mental health professionals. Other research interests include, stress management in nursing, emergency department mental health and metabolic syndrome in people with a mental illness. Chris Bushell is a Senior Lecturer and the Year 2 Course Coordinator for the Associate Degree in Policing Practice (ADPP) at Charles Sturt University(CSU), NSW, Australia. Before joining CSU in 2000, Chris was a Chief Inspector serving in the NSW Police Force for 28 years. Chris spent the majority of his policing career at the Redfern Command in Sydney commanding and controlling large police operations and major incidents; developing and implementing standard rostering practices and ‘Standard Operating Procedures’ for the duties of: Aboriginal Liaison Officers; handling of riot incidents in the Redfern Community and handling of prisoners within the Police Station. Chris has lectured on policing & crime prevention as well as society and law subjects and has been the Subject Coordinator for PPP251: Session 5 Police Practicum for over eight years. He has recently re-written components of PPP251 and has been the driving force for a major distance education re-design/development project moving from paper based subject delivery to a more innovative, cutting edge multimedia approach to learning and teaching within the School. Andrew Cram is completing a PhD with the Department of Education at Macquarie University, exploring innovative applications of ICT in education and research. He is currently focusing on virtual worlds, particularly their use as a space for modeling and refining design ideas that may be implemented in the ‘real’ world, and as a contextualised setting for role-based problem-solving scenarios. 424


Kristin Demetrious is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Communication and Creative Arts, Deakin University, Australia. She is an experienced media and communication practitioner who at various times worked in house as a Publicist, Video Producer and Public Relations Administrator. She also has a background in community work and in 2003 received the Centenary of Federation Medal. Kristin’s PhD investigated communication in sub-political movements and in public relations. She has published widely in Australia and in the UK. Gregory Duncan is a Senior Health Services Research Fellow at Monash University, Australia and teaches into several programs. He works as an Independent Health Services Consultant. Greg has taught widely at undergraduate, graduate and professional development level in Communication, Wound Management, Pharmaco-epidemiology, Evidence-Based Practice and Public Health. He has worked with Asian regional groups and the World Health Organisation (WHO), developing and conducting training workshops for community pharmacists in the region. Greg is of the Journal of Wound Practice and Research and Pharmacy World and Science. He is a member of the editorial board and a peer reviewer for several international journals. Sally Firmin is a Lecturer in Information Systems in the Graduate School of Information Technology and Mathematical Sciences at the University of Ballarat, Australia, and a Doctoral Candidate in Computer Science Education in the School of Information Technology at Monash University, Australia. Sally is a member of the Virtual Reality and Simulation Laboratory and the Computing Education Research Group and has published in the area of educational technology. Michael Garrett is a PhD student currently studying at Edith Cowan University in Australia. His Phd studies focus on the application of three-dimensional gaming technologies within a problem-based learning framework for the purpose of providing training for real world scenarios. Michael has also conducted previous research in conjunction with the Royal Australian Navy to assess the viability of gaming technology for spatial awareness training with Collins class submarines. Jenny Grenfell is an Art Educator at Deakin University. Her ongoing research involves the scholarship of teaching and learning and explores the concept of ‘mixed reality’ to inform and facilitate authentic constructivist learning in the arts by exploiting the interactive and immersive character of blended real and Multiuser Virtual Environments (MUVES). She believes that through shared experiences, collaborative student participation in learning is heightened through linking the digital infrastructure of e-learning technologies, mobile devises, games based apps and real world experiences. Belinda Guadagno, a Lecturer in the School of Psychology at Deakin University, Australia, is an early-career researcher who, having completed her doctorate in the area of children’s eyewitness testimony, also specialises in the area of investigative interviewing of children. Dr. Guadagno plays a major role in the education and training of professional investigative interviewers (e.g., police, social workers) throughout Australia. In particular, she has established, in conjunction with Dr. Martine Powell, the first ever fully online course in this field, entitled Advanced Practice in Forensic Interviewing of Children, which includes the eSimulation UnReal Interviewing.

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John G. Hedberg is Millennium Innovations Chair in ICT and Education, Head of the Department of Education, and Director of the Macquarie ICT Innovations Centre at Macquarie University. He is known for the ICT-based constructivist learning environments he has designed culminating in a British Academy award for an interactive theatre CD-ROM entitled StageStruck. His research has focused upon the role of technologies in engaging students in Mathematics, Science, History and Geography classrooms. In particular, how ICT can support disruptive pedagogies, where the digital nature of the tools enable outcomes to be achieved in ways not possible with other tools. This has resulted in the rethinking of learning tasks to provide both an engaging challenge for students and to support students creating artifacts demonstrating effective performance. Anne Herbert works as an Assistant Professor at Aalto University, School of Economics, Helsinki. Previously she was Academic Director at Helsinki School of Economics Executive Education. Her research interests focus on management development and changes in the nature of work in all contexts but especially in academic workplaces. Recently she has published various chapters in books and recently also in the Journal of Workplace Learning, Organisational Transformation and Social Change, Simulation and Gaming, and Thunderbird International Business Review. Audrey Jinks has a Bachelor of Creative Industries and has over 16 years corporate experience spanning diverse industries including education, publishing, government, investment banking, mining and mapping; successfully delivering services and solutions to a wide range of clients. Audrey majored in Communication and Interaction design and she is passionate about technologies which focus on these two elements. Audrey is an Educational Design Project Officer at The University of Queensland (UQ), actively supporting the use of Problem Based Learning and SBLi, at UQ and other Australian Universities, as a way to implement research-rich teaching and active learning. Stephanie Johnson is a Lecturer in Social Work at Charles Sturt University, Australia. Previously, Stephanie had a lecturing position with Liverpool John Moore University, England and prior to that was a Lecturer and Student Counsellor at Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia for three years. Stephanie has had over 18 years experience in the field of social work and counselling in Australia and Europe. Stephanie has been working in the area of education for the last 10 years and has been practising as a counsellor since 1993. Her background is in counselling and social work. Stephanie is also recognised as a Mental Health Social Worker under the Better Health Initiatives of the Federal Government and has post graduate training in adult education. Stephanie’s area of research is in adolescent trauma, mental health and counselling. Stephanie has published and presented internationally in the area of social work and is passionate about social work education and inspiring students to be life long learners. Peter Kandlbinder is a Senior Lecturer in the Institute for Interactive Media & Learning, University of Technology Sydney, where his main responsibility is academic staff development in assessment and evaluation. With more than 20 years of experience in the field of academic development, Peter has supported academics in developing their capabilities in digital media, assessing student learning, problem-based learning, postgraduate supervision and other forms of small group learning. Peter has extensive experience in leading interactive media projects including the development of SimAssessment, a classroom simulator designed to improve assessment practices at UTS.

426


Piet Kommers is Associate Professor in New Media for Communication at the University of Twente, Netherlands. His PhD research addressed the need for conceptual representations in hypertext for the sake of learning. The last two decades he undertook research and development in virtual reality for medical training. European projects on multimedia design became a widespread demonstrator and motivated institutions to reconsider the balance between instruction and autonomous learning paradigms. From 2005, he accepted the position of Associate Professor in the field of societal effects of ICT. International student exchange emerged as a vivid example of socio-cognitive acculturation. Piet Kommers was elected as Chairman of the International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) multiple conference with the sub strands of Web–based communities and e-society. He became Associate Editor of the International Journal of Continuous Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning and Executive Editor of the International Journal of Web-based Communities. In the period 2002-2005, he was Lector “Educational Functions of ICT” at Fontys University of Science. Through the UNESCO Institute for Learning Technology in Kiev he became Honorary Professor and received the title of Honorary Doctor by Capital University in Beijing. Ian Larson is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences at Monash University, Australia at which he teaches a number of undergraduate programs. Ian provides unit and course leadership and is currently the Chair of the faculty’s Quality in Learning and Teaching Committee. Ian is widely recognised for his contribution to innovations in teaching and learning in the pharmaceutical sciences. In 2010, he was the recipient of the Monash University Vice-Chancellor’s Teaching Excellence Award. Mark McMahon is a Senior Lecturer and Program Director of Creative Industries and Contemporary Arts at Edith Cowan University where he also co-ordinates the Game Design & Culture and Digital Media courses. He has previously worked as a Multimedia Developer and Instructional Designer. His current research is in Serious Games, particularly the underlying psychology of learning and immersion as well as instructional design models to support Serious Game development. Charlynn Miller is the Deputy Head of School with the Graduate School of Information Technology & Mathematical Sciences at the University of Ballarat, Australia. Charlynn’s research focuses on the enhancement of learning, teaching and business through the use of emerging technologies; specifically virtual worlds, social networking, and podcasting. Charlynn also conducts research in the area of Cyber-Safety. Charlynn has a number of publications and grants and regularly presents in the area of emerging technologies. Charlynn worked in the private IT sector for a number of years as a consultant, manager and business owner. Deborah Murdoch is an Educational Technologist involved in designing practical learning experiences and resources with academics for students using educational technologies. She has worked as an Educational Designer and Educational Technologist at Charles Sturt University, Australia, and has experience as a High School Teacher with a specialisation in Information Technology. Deborah has a broad background in teaching over many years in a wide range of areas in both child and adult education and industry. She is currently working with the transition and retention of first year students in the School of Computing and Mathematics. Deborah has particular interest in simulations, serious games and

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authentic work related teaching including role plays. She holds qualifications in Education majoring in Information and Educational Technology. Deb has a strong interest in creating professional development programs and resources to assist academics and educational designers improve teaching and learning using the most suitable ICTs. Lemai Nguyen is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Information Systems, Deakin University, Australia. Her research interests include health informatics, creativity and problem solving in business requirements analysis, eLearning, and socio-technical issues in Information Systems. Lemai’s research is widely published in high quality international scholarly journals, book chapters, and conferences. Lemai is Program Chair for various academic conferences and Member of the Editorial Board of a number of international journals. She is a member of the Health Informatics Society of Australia (HISA), Special Interest Group in Aged Care Informatics, Steering Committee for Australian Workshop on Requirements Engineering, Australian Computer Society (ACS) and the Association for Information Systems (AIS). Geoff Norton is a Professor at The University of Queensland and Associate Director of the University’s Centre for Biological Information Technology (CBIT). He spent over 20 years at Imperial College in the UK, working on economic, decision making, systems analysis and computer-based decision support systems for agricultural and natural resource management issues worldwide. After moving to Brisbane in 1992, Geoff is currently involved with helping to implement CBIT’s identification and educational software. Diane Phillips, a Registered Nurse and Midwife, is an Associate Professor at Deakin University, Australia. Her academic responsibilities include teaching in undergraduate and postgraduate midwifery education and supervision of students enrolled in higher degree courses. Diane is the Course Coordinator for the Graduate Diploma of Midwifery/Master of Midwifery and Master of Nursing Practice (Nurse Practitioner). Her research interests include professional education, women’s health including pregnancy, labour and birth; and women who use substances (illicit drugs, alcohol and tobacco) during pregnancy. Diane is a member of the Australian College of Midwives, a national committee member of the Midwifery Education Standards Advisory Committee (MESAC), Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing Australia and member of PSANZ (Perinatal Society of Australia and New Zealand). She engages in peer reviews of articles submitted to professional journals for publication and participates in a number of committees and boards within the University. Martine Powell, Personal Chair at the School of Psychology at Deakin University, Australia, is a leading expert in the area of eyewitness testimony and investigative interviewing. To date, she has over 130 publications related to the topic, including a book entitled A Guide to Interviewing Children (Allen and Unwin). Martine plays a major role in the education and training of professional investigative interviewers (e.g., police, social workers) throughout Australia. In particular, she has established the first ever fully online course in this field, entitled Advanced Practice in Forensic Interviewing of Children, which includes the eSimulation UnReal Interviewing.

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Mary Rice has worked in the field of education for many years, and has spent the past 15 years specialising in educational evaluation, with a particular focus on evaluation of the use of various kinds of technologies in university courses, including stand-alone software, CD-ROMs, learning management systems, and e-simulations. This work has been largely project-based and has required the design and implementation of different types of evaluation processes for use across a range of disciplines during different stages of the various projects, encompassing evaluation at development, pilot, and full implementation phases of technology use. During this time, Mary has written numerous reports for funding bodies, co-authored a handbook on learner-centred technology evaluation, and published several papers in relevant journals and conference proceedings. Since 2007, Mary has worked as an Evaluation Consultant and her most recent work has been as an External Independent Evaluator for nationally-funded projects related to the use of educational technologies. Luke Rogers completed his Bachelor of Computing (Hons) in 2009 at the University of Ballarat, with research on the application of simulating clinical scenarios in virtual worlds. Luke has been involved in designing and developing a series of Second Life multi-user virtual simulations and researching how these environments can optimise learning as part of a funded research project. Luke’s areas of expertise include discrete event simulation, simulating AI behaviours and Second Life physics/software engineering. Luke currently works with Telstra as a technical specialist for Voice and Data Networks, assisting in the research and development of an enterprise IP Multimedia Subsystem. Ian Searle, following an extensive career in secondary education and 12 years in the IT industry as a senior consultant (business analysis and system architecture) and project manager, now holds the position of lecturer in the School of Business Information Technology and Logistics at RMIT University, Australia. Ian’s teaching focuses on hardware and operating systems and in particular, on innovative approaches to teaching Project Management to postgraduate students. Rod Sims has worked in the technology and education field for over 30 years. During that period he has seen significant change in the technology we use and has written and presented about the design of learning environments to effectively integrate that technology. Rod has worked as both a Consultant in educational technology as well as designing and implementing undergraduate and postgraduate programs at the University of Technology Sydney and Southern Cross University, Australia. Over the last six years, Rod has been working as an Adjunct Professor with the US-based Capella University, with responsibilities for online teaching, course development and PhD supervision in the field of Instructional Design for Online Learning. Currently Rod is working with academic staff at the University of New England to enhance and revitalise a range of units through the implementation of online strategies and resources. Virpi Slotte works as Content Development Manager at AAC Global. She is responsible for pedagogic issues related to creating content, evaluating and implementing digital learning solutions. She has carried out research on educational issues, mainly in the quality of learning and training in corporate environments. She is an Author of several publications including educational articles and chapters in books, also of textbooks in study strategies. She took her PhD degree at the University of Helsinki, Finland.

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Terry Stewart is a Teaching Consultant at the Teaching and Learning Centre (Manawatu Campus), Massey University. Terry Stewart has used and developed tools for scenario-based learning within his own discipline of plant protection for over 21 years, an activity which won him a New Zealand Tertiary Teaching Award for Innovation in 2003 and a Distance Education Association of New Zealand (DEANZ) award in 2008. When not teaching undergraduate students in the Institute of Natural Resources he spends time as a teaching consultant facilitating and promoting scenario-based learning at Massey University generally. He is skilled at using SBL interactive, a tool which he had some conceptual input into designing. Matt Taylor is Director of The University of Queensland’s Centre for Biological Information Technology (CBIT). With 14 years experience in the IT industry, Matt has been involved in numerous software development and IT projects. His particular interests are in expert systems, problem based learning (PBL) and natural language processing. Ian Warren is a Senior Lecturer in Criminology at Deakin University. Ian has received numerous University and national awards for his uses of technology to enhance learning and teaching on current issues associated with criminology, including drugs and crime, and the use of virtual worlds to simulate crime-prone urban environments. He is involved in ongoing research into the regulation of virtual worlds, the privacy implications of new technologies and the educational uses of multi-user social software platforms. Hossein Zadeh is a Senior Lecturer and Director of the Master of Business Services Sciences degree program in the School of Business Information Technology and Logistics, RMIT University, Australia. He has researched and published in Multicrew Optimisation and Decision Support Systems. His research, linking the diverse fields of engineering, management, and IT has attracted over $1,000,000 in grants, awards, scholarships and contracts, from organisations such as the Australian Research Council and the Department of Defence. His current research focuses on educational and healthcare services as pillars of most modern economies. Hossein is a continuing Reviewer of multiple international journals and conferences, and has been a Session Organiser and Reviewer of IEEE Aerospace Conference since 2002. Hossein’s teaching focuses on eBusiness technologies and innovative approaches to teaching Project Management to postgraduate students.

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431

Index

A activities of daily living (ADL) 376 Adaptivity and Evolutionary Contents Module 376 ADDIE structure 27 affective learning 380, 393 Affective Recognition System 376 affect states 372 Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation (ADDIE) 27, 58, 121, 123, 125127, 132, 135, 138-140 Associate Degree of Policing Practice (ADPP) 130 Australian Capital Territory (ACT) 3, 7, 30, 74, 83, 99, 102, 104, 131, 150-151, 201, 207, 220, 223, 227, 247, 257, 260, 301, 303, 321, 323-324, 338, 365, 382, 410 Australian Computer Society (ACS) 175, 193, 203 Australian Institute of Project Management (AIPM) 201-203, 214 Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) 265, 398, 400, 411, 414 Australian Nursing & Midwifery Council (ANMC) 89-90, 99 Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) 257 Authentic learning 20, 23, 32, 39, 55, 58-59, 62-68, 173, 261, 277, 337, 343, 372, 379, 392, 394 authentic learning environment 59, 62, 64-65, 67 Avatar 41, 49, 54, 89, 104, 123-124, 134, 166-167, 277, 281-283, 386-387, 400

B BARE-Plan technique 149-150, 156 Blended Learning 1-2, 9-17, 19, 21-23, 30, 65-66, 80, 89, 99, 121-122, 126, 136-137, 139-140, 157-159, 167-168, 172, 178-179, 184, 192-193, 204, 212, 215-216, 218, 224, 226, 232-234,

256, 261, 266-270, 272-273, 275-276, 288-289, 291, 295, 297, 311, 313, 316, 337, 356, 365, 367, 371-372, 394-395, 398-399, 407, 409, 412-413 Blue Cut Fashion (BCF) 180, 182-183, 186-193, 195, 296-297, 300, 304-305, 307, 309 Blue Cut Fashion Store (BCFS) 182, 186, 189 Body of Knowledge (BoK) 1, 7, 60, 175, 193, 198202, 214 Business Analysis (BA) 175-177, 179-180, 186187, 191-192, 295 Business Information Systems 174, 176, 179, 183, 185-186, 189

C Canvas Communications 285, 290 Centre for Studies in Communication Sciences (CESCOM) 383 Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM) 202 Certified Practising Project Director (CPPD) 203 Certified Practising Project Manager (CPPM) 203 Certified Practising Project Practitioner (CPPP) 202 CHALLENGE 137, 317, 344 Charles Sturt University (CSU) 121-122, 136, 139, 401, 411 chemotherapy 143, 145, 147 Collaborative Activities 375, 381, 384-385 Collaborative Story Telling 384 Collaborative System 377, 385 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) 234, 236 computer-based (CB) learning 7, 11, 22, 25-26, 28-31, 33, 36, 39, 68, 88, 101, 103-104, 108, 112-114, 116, 118, 143-144, 153, 174-175, 204, 311, 344, 347, 356, 365, 368-369, 371-372 concept mapping 145

Index

constructive alignment 6, 14, 126, 128-129, 138139, 395, 404 constructivism 4-6, 15, 22, 40, 60, 66-67, 69, 89, 105, 119-120, 139, 163, 165, 175-176, 180, 193-194, 232, 253, 261, 263-264, 269, 272273, 276-278, 287, 290-291, 294, 310-311, 337, 343, 372, 379, 395-396, 409, 412-413 Constructivist learning 60, 105, 119, 176, 180, 232, 272, 276, 287, 294, 337, 372 content schema 329-332 content screen descriptor 327 Conversational Character 398, 400, 409 CRAFT 371 Critical Life 100, 105-108, 110-117

D DeakinSims 309, 313, 394-395, 398-401, 404-407, 409-411 Deakin Studies Online (DSO) 88 Deakin University 1, 71, 87-90, 93, 95-96, 98-99, 174, 203, 211, 255, 259, 261, 264-265, 271, 279-280, 286, 289-290, 293, 295, 394-395, 400, 405-406, 410-411, 413-414 Deakin Virtual Art Gallery 280, 285-287 Design Based Research Collective (DBRC) 397398, 407, 409, 411-412 design-based research (DBR) 10, 56, 147, 154, 288, 394-395, 397-398, 401, 404-413 design experiments 397, 412 design in the large (DIL) 10, 396, 406 design in the small (DIS) 10, 396, 406 Distance Education 10, 21, 34, 39-40, 67, 79, 99, 118, 120-123, 136, 139, 155, 230, 252, 272, 275, 288, 342-343, 404 Document-Oriented Design and Development for Experiential Learning (DODDEL) 238, 252 Domino effect 379 draft scenario 148

E ease of use 93, 148, 365 e-learning 1, 9-13, 21-23, 26-29, 33-35, 37-39, 5758, 62, 65, 67-69, 99, 103, 118, 120, 139, 229232, 271-272, 276, 279-280, 284-285, 290-291, 293-294, 311, 337-345, 369, 382, 384, 395, 397, 401, 412-413 electronic communications 3, 198, 204 emergent design 26, 28, 30, 35, 39

432

enquiry based learning (EBL) 347-348, 356, 369 e-Sim 125 e-simulations 1-2, 4-7, 9-16, 19-21, 25-26, 30, 71, 84-85, 122, 135-138, 141, 151-154, 157-158, 171-172, 174-176, 180-181, 183, 185-186, 192193, 213, 215-218, 220, 228, 233-237, 248251, 255-256, 261, 264-265, 293-302, 304-305, 307, 309-310, 316, 339, 356, 370-372, 391, 394-395, 398-402, 404-407, 409-412, 414 Ethical Dilemma simulation 48-51 Experiential Engine 377 Experiential learning 10, 20, 42, 92, 97-98, 148, 150, 153, 158, 163, 168-169, 173, 175-176, 180, 183, 188, 194, 217, 234, 238, 261, 289, 294-295, 311, 372, 375-376, 392, 409, 412 Experiential Learning Module 376 expert performance 63, 85 explanation cycle 170 exploratory narrative 45, 55 extended abstract 131-132

F Facial Action Coding System 382, 392 Fires in Underground Mines Evacuation Simulator (FUMES) 233, 238, 240, 245-250 First Australian Bank ATM (FAB ATM) 295-297, 300, 304-305 First Person Shooter (FPS) 234, 236 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 64, 214 fuzzy logic 171

G Geelong Gallery 285-286 Generation Y 3, 174-177, 179-180, 185, 189-190, 192-194 GFC Simulation 31-32, 34, 36-38

H holistics 5, 121, 132, 136, 213-214, 260, 382 HOTcopy 261, 269, 400, 402-406, 413-414 Human-Computer Interaction 372 Human Resources (HR) 172, 205, 215, 228, 321, 371

I ID models 58, 61-62, 65-66 immersive 3D learning 226

Index

Inferential System Module 376 Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) 383, 386 instructional design (ID) 25-28, 30, 38-40, 57-62, 65-69, 120, 132, 139, 215, 221, 225-226, 228229, 288-289, 314, 319, 341-342, 345, 365, 392 Intelligent tutoring features 378 Intelligent Virtual Agent (IVA) 370, 376, 382, 386388, 391 Intelligent Virtual Avatars (IVAs) 376, 382, 386-388 interactive narrative 303 Interactive scenarios 316-321, 323-324, 329, 332, 335-336, 338-341, 346-347, 356, 368, 373 interactive whiteboard 62-64, 66 INTERFACE 386 International Project Management Association (IPMA) 201-202 interpretivism 30 Inter-professional Learning (IPL) 168-170

Moodle 171, 340 Multimedia Assets 150 Multiplatform Authoring and Scalable Delivery of Multimedia (MASMEDIA) 384 multi-user virtual environment (MUVEs) 56, 101, 271-274, 276-277, 279-288 MySelf 223, 371, 373, 389, 391-393 Mystery Of Time And Space (MOTAS) 302

J

O

N nature of knowledge 4-5 New South Wales (NSW) 85, 122, 131-132, 139, 142, 269, 414 non-verbal profiles (NP’s) 383 Nurse Patient Relationships 141 nursing 7, 87-90, 93, 95-96, 99, 102-108, 112, 114120, 141-144, 147-148, 150-151, 153-156, 311, 314, 337, 392

Knowledge Repository 199, 376-377

Office of Government Commerce (GOC) 202, 214 Oncology 143, 145 Open-ended questions 72-73, 81-82, 84, 186, 221222 Operational Health and Safety (OH&S) 48-49

L

P

LAMS 339, 343 Learner experience 13, 19, 43, 47, 49, 53 Learner input 319, 324, 329, 340 Learning Design Template 400, 410 Learning Management System (LMS) 13, 88, 90, 122, 124, 158, 171, 205, 272, 277, 279-280, 337, 340 live actor 73 LiveSims 89, 256, 309, 313, 400, 403-406 LUCIA 386-387

Part-Task Practice 60, 64 patient contact 170 patient simulator (HPS) 105 Pedagogy 8, 11, 25, 66, 68, 157, 159-160, 163, 172, 233-236, 249-250, 259-260, 263, 265, 278, 310, 316-317, 336-339, 341, 343-344, 372 Personal Identity 282, 284 Pharmatopia 162, 164, 166-167 phenomenography 6, 22, 230, 232 phronesis 257, 261, 263, 266-267, 269 Pilot Evaluation 166 PLATO 30 PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RPM) 202 PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP) 202 post-VMC 91, 93, 95-97 PRessure Point! 256, 259, 261-268 pre-VMC 91-93, 96-97 Proactive Design for Learning (PD4L) 25-26, 30-39 problem based learning (PBL) 98, 252-254, 317, 338, 344, 347-348, 356

just-in-time (JIT) 60-61, 64

K

M machinima 277, 280, 283, 285, 287-289 Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) 302, 315 Media Semantics 209, 214, 305-306, 400 Melbourne Central Business District (CBD) 200 Metacognition 236, 380-381 Midwifery 87-93, 95-99 Mobile features 378 model reality 8

433

Index

Professional Competency 60, 63, 198, 200, 211 Program Management Professional (PgMP) 202 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) 198, 200-203, 205, 214 Project Management Institute (PMI) 201-203, 214 Project Management Knowledge System (P2M) 202 Project Management Professional (PMP) 201-202 Public Relations (PR) 255-260, 262-270, 280-282, 285-286

Q Quest Atlantis 45-47, 49, 56

R radiotherapy 143, 145, 147 rationalism 30 real-time 10, 31, 42, 73, 165, 170, 213, 289, 302, 305, 315, 382 Real-Time Strategy and Tactics 302 reflexive learning 379, 381, 391 Registered Project Manager (RegPM) 202, 214 Representational opportunities 42-43 role-based simulations 1, 371 Role-Playing Game (RPG) 302

S Scaffolding 40, 47-48, 57, 59-60, 63-66, 123-124, 176, 318-323, 329, 342, 356, 379-380, 398 Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 384 Scenario Based Learning-Interactive (SBLi) 317, 329, 340, 345-357, 360, 362, 364-365, 367-368 scenario-planning 320 Second Life (SL) 34, 56, 100-101, 104-109, 111120, 165-167, 170-171, 173, 213, 272-273, 275-277, 279-291, 329, 340, 342, 400, 409 Semantic Web Rule Language (SWRL) 385 SharkWorld 204 simBlog 181 simulated interview 73, 82 Simulation, User, and Problem-based Learning (SUPL) 233-235, 237-240, 242, 244, 246, 248-251 SimulTrain 204 SitePal 306 SLoodle 171 small to medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) 230, 371

434

social learning theory 379, 392 social media release (SMR) 267 soft skills 179, 183, 295, 370-375, 377-378, 381, 383-384, 387-388, 390-391 SOLO taxonomy 122, 130, 132, 139 Space 28, 32, 41, 43, 49, 52-54, 73, 81, 84, 157164, 170-173, 189, 191, 230, 236, 240, 249, 259, 261-262, 264, 272-273, 276, 282, 284285, 288-289, 297, 300, 302, 358, 395 Strategic Teaching and Learning Grants Scheme (STALGS) 289, 400 Strategies for meaningful interpretations 42-43 Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) 122, 130-132, 139 Student-Constructed Artwork 41, 53 Suomalainen Kirjakauppa simulation 219 supportive information 60, 64 Supportive modifiers 43, 45, 48

T tabletting 164, 166-167 Taiga Park 45-47, 49, 55 teacherly influence 398 techne 257-258, 261, 263, 267 technology immigrants 228 tertiary-level healthcare education 101 text-to-speech (TTS) 123, 306-307, 386-387, 400 The Four-Component Instructional Design Model (4C/ID) 58-62, 65-66, 68 theory of andragogy 58 theory of self-regulated learning 58 theory of situated learning 58 Three-Dimensional Intelligent Virtual Agent (3DIVA) 376 Top-Staff 371-375, 383, 386-391

U UNESCO 168 Unreal Interviewing 71, 73-74, 76, 78-85 User-centred design 148, 153-154

V Virtual Emergency Room Simulation 100 Virtual Forensics 71 virtual learning experience (VLE) 87-89 Virtual Maternity Clinic (VMC) 87-93, 95-98 virtual practice environment (VPE) 159, 161-162 Virtual Reality (VR) 20, 103, 105, 119, 139, 165, 173, 194, 251, 253, 291, 312, 371

Index

virtual world 20, 35, 41-43, 45, 47, 52-55, 101, 104-105, 108-109, 111, 115, 140, 165-166, 171, 272, 276-277, 279-281, 283, 285, 287, 289, 291, 299, 400 virtual world simulations 41-42, 45, 47 vocal profiles (VP) 383 VR simulations 103

W woman-centred 89, 98 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) 205 WOW factor 158

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