Probing the Depths of Evil and Good
CURRENTS OF ENCOUNTER STUDIES ON THE CONTACT BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIG...
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Probing the Depths of Evil and Good
CURRENTS OF ENCOUNTER STUDIES ON THE CONTACT BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS, BELIEFS, AND CULTURES GENERAL EDITORS JERALD D. GORT HENRY JANSEN LOURENS MINNEMA HENDRIK M. VROOM ANTON WESSELS
VOL. 33
Probing the Depths of Evil and Good Multireligious Views and Case Studies
Edited by
Jerald D. Gort, Henry Jansen and Hendrik M. Vroom
Amsterdam - New York, NY 2007
This volume is part of the project on The Problem of Evil in Religious Traditions: Origins, Forms and Coping, organized in cooperation with the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and the Royal Tropical Institute at Amsterdam on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the Vrije Universiteit and the exhibition “Religion & Evil” in the Tropenmuseum (Amsterdam Museum of Tropical Ethnology). The conference, held March 17‐19, 2005 was made possible by generous subsidies from the Vrije Universiteit, the Tropical Institute, the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Netherlands Organization for Academic Research. This publication has been made possible by a grant from the Vrije Universiteit for a research project in comparative religious anthropologies.
The editors would like to thank Pier Post, the production manager and design editor at Editions Rodopi, for the care and artistry with which he executed the cover of this volume, and the publishers, Fred van der Zee and Yvonne Schip‐ pers for the unstinting kindness, support and encouragement they have shown us throughout the nineteen‐year history of the existence of our series Currents of Encounter, in which the present work appears as volume 33.
Cover design: Pier Post The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO 9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents - Requirements for permanence”. ISBN: 978-90-420-2231-7 ©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2007 Printed in the Netherlands
Table of Contents Probing Evil and Good: On the Imperative and Benefits of Taking Tea Together JERALD D. GORT ............................................................................................ 1 Myths as Metaphors for Radical Evil WENDY DONIGER ........................................................................................ 17 Maya as Evil: From Classical Hindu Thought to Bhakti Saints and Kabir. A Historical Exploration DINESH PRASAD SAKLANI ........................................................................... 41 The Struggle with Evil: The Theology of Evil in the Bhagavad Gita and the Devimahatmya VICTOR A. VAN BIJLERT ............................................................................... 57 Evil and its Treatment in Early Taoism JOHN LAGERWEY .......................................................................................... 73
The Problem of Evil in Confucianism CHING‐YUEN CHEUNG ................................................................................. 87 Evil and the Transformation of Evil in Buddhism and Socially Engaged Buddhism CHRISTA W. ANBEEK ................................................................................. 101 Zen and the Question of Evil SODO YASUNAGA ....................................................................................... 117 Nothingness‐qua‐Love? The Implications of Absolute Nothingness for Ethics JOHN D’ARCY MAY .................................................................................... 135 The Problem of “Evil” in Pure Land Buddhism MARTIN REPP ............................................................................................. 151 Awareness of Evil in Christianity and Buddhism EIKO HANAOKA ......................................................................................... 169 Emptying Good‐and‐Evil: Masao Abe’s Approach to the Problem of Evil ANNEWIEKE VROOM .................................................................................. 187
Forgiving God: A Jewish Perspective on Evil and Suffering N. VERBIN ................................................................................................... 201 Conceptualizations of Evil in African Christian Theology CONRAD WETHMAR ................................................................................... 217 The Descent into Hell and the Phenomenon of Exorcism in the Early Church MARTIEN E. BRINKMAN ............................................................................. 235 God’s Good Plan and Evil Forces in This World: The Place of the Devil in Traditional Islam ANNEMIEK SPRONK ................................................................................... 249 “Soul of a Woman Was Created Below”: Woman as the Lower Soul (Nafs) in Islam RKIA E. CORNELL ....................................................................................... 257 Evil, Virtue, and Islamic Moral Theology: Rethinking the Good in a Globalized World VINCENT J. CORNELL ................................................................................. 281 The Islamic Point of View on the Problem of Evil SAEID EDALATNEJAD ................................................................................. 305 Critical Humanism and the Problem of Evil: From Vertical to Horizontal Transcendence HARRY KUNNEMAN ................................................................................... 319 Evil from a Comparative Perspective HENDRIK M. VROOM ................................................................................. 343 Index of Names ........................................................................................ 367 Index of Subjects ....................................................................................... 371 Contributors to this Volume ................................................................... 379
Probing Evil and Good On the Imperative and Benefits of Taking Tea Together Jerald D. Gort Viewed from the perspective of the postmodern discourse, the basic preliminary question that has to be put in connection with interreligious colloquies or symposia—such as this one on religious views of evil and good—is what, if anything, we may expect to gain from them. Many contemporary observers voice serious doubts as to whether religions have any common ground at all that would make it possible for their adherents to speak meaningfully to one another or understand each other’s concepts and positions. One often hears the argument that religions are totally discrete systems, unconnected closed dwel‐ lings, separate houses so individually distinct and discontin‐ uous that when we think to have found footings common to them all or even only some of them, we discover that any such “shared” groundworks are nothing more than a chimera. To use a Wittgensteinian epigram: “When we find the foundations, it turns out they are being held up by the rest of the house” (cited in Knitter 1996: 41). Even if one does not agree or fully agree with this position, it must nevertheless be recognized that religions are indeed characterized by genuine diversity and in important ways are even incommensurable. All people of religion see, perceive, interpret and understand reality through the colored spectacles of their own or their group’s thought structures and mind set, the specific filter of their own context and experience. And the resulting religious difference needs to be taken seriously and respected. A radically inclusivist‐ or pluralist‐inspired refusal to do so can easily lead to what may be called religious coloni‐ alism: to contend that what others think religiously is in essence no different from what I think, means that in reality they think what I think, which actually means they think what I want
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them to think. An inclusivist‐pluralist approach of this nature calls the presumptive boundaries between religions into ques‐ tion. What appears at first glance to be a difference is reinter‐ preted, discovered to be little more than a distinction rooted in power or a move in a rhetorical game. Differences, in oth‐ er words, never have a fixed status in and of themselves .... (Wolfe 1993: 310)
If carried out rigorously, however, this kind of pluralist concern to do away with borders and identifying limits in the interest of providing an antidote to exclusivism can in the end only lead to total disintegration. As Miroslav Volf states: “The absence of boundaries creates nonorder, and nonorder is not the end of ex‐ clusion but the end of life” (Volf 1996: 63). Genuinely differen‐ tiating boundaries between religions clearly exist and may not be ignored or played down. Nor may they be viewed as the unfortunate outcome of lapses of reason, along the lines of Western rationalism, which posited the existence of a “universal rationality,” a set of ration‐ al principles that would be self‐evident to all thinking people. This kind of rationalism consists of “an exclusive reliance upon human reason alone.” It rests upon “the belief that unaided hu‐ man reason can deliver everything that humanity needs to know,” and that having first consulted reason, “there is no need to listen to other voices,” such as that of external (divine) revel‐ ation or any other kind of religious enlightenment (McGrath 1977: 216). According to this position, religious believers cannot by definition “have anything to say that is at one and the same time distinctive and right. If it is distinctive, it departs from the path of reason—and thus must be untrue. To be different is, quite simply, to be wrong” McGrath 1977: 216). Anything typ‐ ical, thus, is suspect—it cannot be the result of rigorous rea‐ soning and therefore must be regarded as erroneous figment. But this kind of rationalism is coming to be “viewed by many as little more than a fiction” (McGrath 1977: 218), because, though it does not deny difference as illusion, it fails to recog‐ nize the existence of differing rationalities, which beget genuinely real differences of religious thought, beliefs and practices. But, looking beyond this, do religious traditions share any‐ thing of a basal or elementary nature? Without detracting from
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what has just been argued in the foregoing, there does seem to be at least one fundamental thing they have in common: con‐ frontation with evil. In every place and time people have had to come to terms with what they experienced as evil. Diverse schools of philosophy throughout history have reflected on the possible source(s) and cause(s) of evil. And it goes without saying that the attempt to come to grips with the phenomenon of evil has always been a central concern of the various religious traditions and their adherents. In other words, many, if not most, of the answers given to the question of evil—ar‐ guably one of the most disquieting of all problems facing hu‐ mankind—were and still are rooted in and colored by religious beliefs and convictions. All religions have searched for and found answers to the question of the existence, prevalence and stubborn virulence of evil as they understood it, and then taught ways of coping with it and fostering, in its place or as a counterbalance to it, what they view as good. The interesting question, and one of the central questions of this symposium, is whether these answers manifest any de‐ gree of commonality or overlap. Do religions share anything at all in terms of the understanding of the content, origin and re‐ solution of evil? What constitutes evil? What is its relationship to good? Would evil even exist without good, or conversely good without evil? Where does evil come from? How can it be mit‐ igated? Can any definition of evil be adduced that would be generally accepted, or is there anything that would be generally viewed as evil? Could it be said, for example, that evil consists of suffering or, as the case may be, that suffering is evil? Paul Knitter argues that the various religions of the world hold the human condition fraught with pain and distress as “common property.” This is of course not to say that the human condition is unrelievedly gloomy—it manifests lights of happi‐ ness, well‐being and joy as well. Granting evil, which it seems a dangerous error to consider solvable, human civilizations have created abundant good, refining experience and circumstance into astonishingly powerful visions and dreams, into poems and music which have fallen like a mantle of light over our mere human weakness. (Robinson 2005: 2)
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But one has only to survey history and look around in the pre‐ sent world to see that it is far more typically, even overwhelm‐ ingly, shot through with blood and tears and massive suffering. It cannot be denied, surely, that suffering is one of the most pressing perennial problems facing the human race. Ever since the first cave woman’s child was snatched away from her and devoured by a saber‐toothed tiger, ever since the young cave boy’s entire family group was swept away by the rampaging waters of a flooding river, ever since then up until the present moment people have been subject to or otherwise faced with suffering. In our times suffering has many different faces, some of which have taken shape only relatively recently. There is and has always been inexplicable adversity and affliction: hideous diseases, sudden disasters, earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis and other forces of nature which can swallow and suffocate people. But most of the world’s present ill is perpetrated by people against themselves, others and the earth. Knitter speaks of the evils of abuse, victimization and violence as the causes of suffering (cf. Knitter 1996: 58‐67). Millions of people, partic‐ ularly those living in the burgeoning urban environments found right around the world, are trapped in what might be called psycho‐spiritual distress: they have lost their bearings, they no longer know how to cope and are overwhelmed with feelings of purposelessness and meaninglessness. Vast and in‐ creasing numbers of our fellow human beings suffer acute physical and material distress, the misery of grinding poverty, hunger, homelessness, exploitation and social‐cultural discrim‐ ination. In 1993 it was reported that one‐sixth of the world’s population possessed five‐sixths of its wealth, and this situation of world poverty has not improved since then but only grown worse. At the time of this writing (January 2007) it is reported that in our world a child dies of dysentery every twenty sec‐ onds due to the lack of clean water. There is the past and ongo‐ ing horrendous suffering of Armenia, Nanking, the Holocaust, Hiroshima, Dresden, the events of 9/11 and Irak. Nor can the suffering of animals be ignored, particularly those processed for human consumption in some segments of the bio‐industry. Finally, there is the devastating suffering of nature in which the
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whole of our human existence is rooted and from which our lives cannot possibly be detached. It is this world that we all share—a world characterized by the impinging realities of social bifurcation in the form of huge economic and political disparities, and environmental degradation as a result of the irresponsible, greedy exploitation of planet earth (cf. Gort 1992: 89; 1995: 204); an increasingly globalized, interdependent world typified by an ever closer interlocking of human distress and destinies (cf. Balasuriya 1988: iv). It is this world shot through with the great evil of massive suffering, ar‐ gues Knitter, which all people inhabit together and which ac‐ cordingly constitutes the joint holding, the common ground of all religions. If one accepts this, it would seem plausible to contend that the evil of world suffering, whether undergone or perpetrated, should be seen as the most pressing context of and the only ap‐ propriate point of departure for any and all interreligious col‐ loquy and dialogical encounter—that is, if such encounter is to relate meaningfully to the reality of the human condition (cf. Knitter 1996: 58; Gort 1992: 98). “This common context or start‐ ing point,” writes Knitter, “can be understood as a new her‐ meneutical kairos for interreligious encounter.” In other words, the global circumstance of suffering offers an energizing in‐ terpretive opportunity for a fresh encounter of religions, and at the same time makes this encounter “both necessary and pos‐ sible.” The universal situation of human and planetary distress consists of “concerns and questions that transcend differences of culture and religion and [thus] touch all peoples.” It gives the adherents of the various religious traditions not only a new op‐ portunity “to understand” one another but also a new responsi‐ bility “to judge each other” (Knitter 1996: 58). It must be added here of course that people apprehend and evaluate suffering in quite different, sometimes radically di‐ verse ways, depending on their philosophical convictions or re‐ ligious beliefs, their psychological makeup or their circum‐ stances and frame of mind. First of all there is the philo‐ sophical‐religious question regarding the nature of the exist‐ ence of suffering. Is it proximately existent but ultimately non‐ existent? In what way is it real? Some see suffering as illusorily real, others as substantively real. Is it only categorically and
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perfectly real in its potential state and in its actualized form on‐ ly contingently and fleetingly real, i.e. only potentially abso‐ lutely real and actually only relatively real? Suffering can also be understood as a just punishment for “sin” or wrongdoing. Further, personal suffering can be and sometimes is viewed pos‐ itively as something good: a test of faith or hope or love; a means of cleansing the soul or fortifying patience and perse‐ verance; or even a source of masochistic pleasure. But many, if not most, people—whether religious or nonreligious—would in one manner or another define or refer to the suffering of the world negatively as evil. But like suffering, evil and good, too, are subject to inter‐ pretive ambiguity, for example that engendered by the partic‐ ular cultural, social or political perspective from which they are viewed. My evil can be your good and conversely your evil can be my good. There are those who hold up laissez‐faire cap‐ italism as a salutary good, whereas others experience it as a de‐ vastating evil. Female circumcision can be and is viewed as good by people who are members of certain cultural traditions, but by those who do not belong to those traditions it is re‐ garded as evil. During the era of White domination in South Africa those on the side of power and privilege considered Apartheid to be a blessed good but to those on the receiving end of the racist humiliation, oppression and exploitation which formed the warp of Apartheid’s fabric it was a cursed evil. Moreover, views on evil and good can also differ within specific thought worlds, sometimes very strongly. As Miroslav Volf points out, for instance, serious doubts about and chal‐ lenges to the conventional understanding of the nature of good —and by extension evil—have been raised in modern Western thought. For Friedrich Nietzsche, for example, “the good and just” can be and often are “the hypocritical murderers of their rivals,” and for Michel Foucault “civilization” is a “smooth de‐ stroyer of those things inside and outside itself that it constructs as barbarity.” And even though one might not agree fully with Nietzsche and Foucault, they do, states Volf, “rightly draw at‐ tention to the fact that the ‘moral’ and ‘civilized’ self all too often rests on the exclusion of what it construes as the ‘im‐ moral’ and ‘barbarous’ other” (Volf 1996: 62).
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There is, thus, no universal perception of evil but a variety of religious‐cultural and political‐economic positional under‐ standings of what it is as to content. But what about the origin and source of evil? Where does it come from? How does it take its rise? What is its cause? The shortest answer to this question is that evil results from something which is itself considered to be evil in one or another way or form. In other words, evil is understood not only as effect but also as cause. A distinction must be made here, however, between immediate‐proximate, mediate‐approximate and final‐ultimate cause. Proximately, evil is caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes or the process of dying and death, on the one hand, and, on the other, by unintentional or intentional perpe‐ tration of distress, injury and ill by people on themselves, on other people and sentient beings and on nature. Political, eco‐ nomic, institutional, ecclesiastical and cultural structures can and do cause evil. Religions have been and continue to be mis‐ used as catalysts of evil. Evil can be seen as the disruption of the social order caused by transgressive behavior or wrongdo‐ ing, as in African traditional religions, or as the defiling com‐ promise of the purity of the order and balance of traditional ways and conventions as in classical Shinto. In Western tradi‐ tion reference is made to the seven cardinal sins or deadly vices —pride, covetousness, lust, envy, gluttony, anger and sloth—as root causes of existing evil. Buddhism views craving thirst for more or clinging attachment to things and life (tanha) as the cause of life’s suffering (dukkha). The mediate source of evil, too, is conceived by religions in very different ways. Some, such as Shinto find the approximate cause of evil in the primordial corruption of original good. Oth‐ ers see it as inevitable realization of potential evil. Still others teach that evil is mediately caused by lesser gods, spirits, de‐ monic forces, cosmic powers. Is evil somehow fatefully passed along from one generation to another through the effects of something like original sin, as thought by many Christians, or consequentially transmitted from one life to another via the five skandas of classical Buddhism? Is perpetrated evil caused by outside influences and forces or does it take its rise from dark inner drives and impulses moiling and roiling in the deepest
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recesses of the human heart and soul? Or are these latter two possibilities to be seen as interacting causal moieties? Human nature which is capable of abundant good is also prone to copious evil. Many Christians give assent to Martin Luther’s famous adage, simul iustus et peccator: in God’s sight the believer is at once righteous and a sinner. And to the mind of most people what the Roman historian Tacitus (ca. 55 ‐ ca. 118 A.D.) said of a first‐century Roman governor in Asia Minor applies to everyone: “Mucianus’ character was a compound of self‐indulgence and energy, courtesy and arrogance, good and evil” (Tacitus 1995: 21). A recent film All the King’s Men, based on the 1946 book by Robert Penn Warren bearing the same title, relates the story of Willie Stark, a gaudy, enigmatic, populist, philandering politician who runs for and is elected governor of a southern American state. Discussing the book and the film, the literary critic Richard Schickel writes that “commentators on Warren’s book often say that ... Willie is essentially a good man ruined by [outside] dictatorial depravity.” Though there may be some truth to this, Schickel says, there is something far darker and bleaker present in Willie’s life, psyche and self‐ awareness. Willie has ... a primitive sense of original sin. He believes the world is essentially dirt and that man is born of that filth. He speaks of man living out his life between the stench of the diaper and the stench of the grave. There is, finally, no one in the novel or in this movie who is untouched (or un‐ moved) by that dark and hopeless fatedness .... [I]n Willie’s relentless, utterly insatiable appetites there is something ... much more than a conventional ambition .... What drives him is an unacknowledged anarchy of the soul. (Schickel 2006: 58)
The life of Willie forms a powerful parable. There are many—at least among those nurtured by prominent forms of Western culture and thought, and perhaps others as well—who would share Willie’s view on the origin of iniquity and injustice, who hold the conviction that various forms of evil are engendered and driven by a profound primal lawlessness of the human soul. To those who are of this mind the tragedy of Willie’s and
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the human story lies in what Schickel terms “the dankness of the heart.” But what causes this dankness of the heart? What lies behind the demonic powers and cosmic forces of evil. What accounts for the ongoing power of evil, its stubborn impinging virulence? The Apostle Paul’s confession in the biblical New Testament book of Romans undoubtedly resonates in the hearts of many: I do not understand what I do. For what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do .... I have the desire to do what is good, but I cannot carry it out. For what I do is not the good I want to do; no, the evil I do not want to do—this I keep on doing .... When I want to do good, evil is right there with me. (Romans 7: 16, 18, 19, 21)
Or as the novelist Phillip Roth puts it in The Human Stain: “The subconscious mind, you can’t control it. It’s like the govern‐ ment. It is the government .... It gets you to do what you don’t want to do.” (Roth 2001: 355). The Apostle Paul’s confession is really an anguished cri du cœur: How come? Why? How does one explain the relentless presence, the persistent, never‐ending existence of evil in life on earth? In other words, what is the ultimate or final source of evil? It is here that all religions and religious people run up against a profound riddle. At this point they have to say, and be content to say, ignoramus: we do not know. Evil is also clothed in mys‐ tery. It has to do not only with our fears, emotions, feelings, hearts, minds and souls but also with the inexplicable and in‐ comprehensible. In modern times, particularly in the West since the Enlightenment and the advent of Darwinism, there have been attempts to provide flat, scientistic, closed‐world accounts of and answers to the problem of evil in nature, the world and individual and communal human life. But such explanations can never really be successful or satisfying. For when it comes to probing the ultimate depths of evil we require in the end to accept the mysterious. Religions also offer a broad assortment of recommenda‐ tions and instructions for coping with or mitigating evil and fostering corresponding good. With respect to proximate evil they disseminate teachings regarding morality, which has to do
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with desirable, estimable ways of life; and ethics, which has to do with behavior that both derives from and reinforces that way of life. In connection with this latter, some religions call on their adherents to avoid moralism, i.e. a morality consisting of ethical behavior determined by a prescribed set of external tra‐ ditional rules, regulations and conventions. Ethics then be‐ comes nothing more than outward conformity to these conven‐ tions. Moral ways of life, according to these religions, should ideally be freely chosen and internalized in the heart. This would render a morality of positional rather than impositional ethical judgments and behavior, a volitional rather than an ob‐ ligatory ethics, an ethics of conviction rather than convention, of discretion rather than compulsion. The kind of morality advocated here is, of course, not one of libertine license but of libertarian freedom, a morality which entails following a way of life because one wants to, not because one has to. To cope with mediate evil, religions offer scriptural or oth‐ erwise authorized teachings, spiritual training, liturgical prac‐ tices, and guidance on meditation and prayer as separate or col‐ lective means of achieving inner peace, faith, trust, and daily conversion of heart and mind or sudden insight and enlight‐ enment. Finally, they offer ways to cope with the mystery of ul‐ timate evil. Religious tradition is replete with sacred writings, theodicies, stories, fairy tales, legends, theologies, philosophies, poetry, music, song, epic narratives, dramas, myths which have served as vehicles of “explanation” for the inexplicable, i.e. have been provided to help people “understand” what cannot be understood, “express” the inexpressible, “answer” the unan‐ swerable, find “deliverance” from that from which they could not be delivered. It needs to be emphasized here once again that religions differ significantly from one another. There are theistic, a‐theis‐ tic, monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, ecclesiocentric, the‐ ocentric and soteriocentric religious approaches to individual and collective human needs, questions, problems, longings, sorrows and joys. This being the case, is there anything they share or could share in terms of teachings, ideas, insights and moral convictions? That remains to be seen and must be care‐ fully searched out by means of, among other things, interreli‐ gious dialogue and multireligious colloquies such as the one
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from which the essays in this volume emerged. And such inter‐ faith discussions directed toward the exploration of a given topic or problem should be entered into on a regular basis. For religious traditions alter through time as a result of moves to new places, new circumstances, experiences and contextual en‐ counters. Religions are at one and the same time fixed entities and works in progress, they are both constant and dynamic, both unchanging and changing. Christianity has recontextualized itself time after time. Buddhism has undergone variation and continues to adapt to new times and conditions. In Europe Is‐ lam is attempting to adjust itself to European norms and values. Confucianism is having to accommodate itself to rapidly chan‐ ging Chinese society, and Traditional African Religion to mod‐ ernity. The great world religions which speak to the hearts and minds of millions of people are not hoary lichen‐covered mono‐ liths but living and moving organisms made up of a quiddity or essential core surrounded and borne by attendant rolling stones, which gather no moss. To be sure, these rolling stones can, and sometimes do, succumb to the ever present antikinetic forces of conservatism and thereby come to rest and fuse into a condition of stasis. But then they will gather moss and no longer speak to people who in today’s world must needs move on. As stated above, all religions have views on and speak in one way or another about evil and good, and offer ways to cope with, mitigate or remove evil and foster good. This given makes it possible for them to talk and write together about these mat‐ ters in a theoretical way, but if the oral or written dialogue re‐ mains stuck at that level, if it is treated as a mere exchange of views on evil and good, it would constitute nothing more than a descriptive exercise in comparative religion or cultural an‐ thropology. It is, of course, essential for the participants in in‐ terreligious colloquies—both those who take active part in them and those who later reflect on their published results—to listen carefully in order to gain insight into one another’s positions and thinking. But interreligious discussion of whatever sort may not remain merely descriptive. The partners in dialogue, whether speakers or writers or readers, should also be prepared to judge and be judged, to challenge and be challenged. In other
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words, if it is to be practically relevant, multifaith encounter must also have a prescriptive dimension. In his novel Friends, Lovers, Chocolate, Alexander McCall Smith describes the main protagonist, Isabel, a philosopher, as being morally egalitarian, though not in the non‐discriminating sense of many contem‐ porary egalitarians, who sometimes ignore the real moral differences between people (good and evil are not the same, Isabel would say). She felt uncomfortable with moral rela‐ tivists and their penchant for non‐judgementalism. But of course we must be judgemental, she said, when there is some‐ thing to be judged. (McCall Smith 2005: 6)
Like Isabel, religious people should be fully open and of a non‐ exclusionary mind when encountering or reflecting on the views of those belonging to other faith traditions. Nor should they dismiss one another’s claims to normative truth as im‐ perialist and divisive. Yet this does not preclude the necessity of judging and the possibility of challenging one another’s posi‐ tions and notions as to whether they perpetuate or mitigate evil, particularly the evil of world and planetary suffering. It is clear from what we see around us that this assessment needs to be made. The situation in the world places a heavy obligation on reli‐ gions and their believers to search for ways to palliate evil and foster good. In the novel just referred to, the narrator reports that one day Isabel was considering the weeds in her garden and the fact that she had absolutely no time or inclination to deal with them, but then went on to the thought that “weeds, and what to do about them, were very much a part of everyday life, and everyday life was exactly what philosophy was about” (McCall Smith 2005: 158). And of course everyday life with its myriad noxious weeds needing urgent attention is also an es‐ sential part of what religion is or should be about. It is of great importance that religions and religious people seek to grapple with the weeds of suffering wherever they find themselves in the global garden which we all share. And today many are becoming ever more cognizant of the fact that they do have a duty, a religious duty, to address themselves to local and global evil, for some of which they themselves are responsible:
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broken and divided societies, human division and strife, mas‐ sive and growing poverty, environmental degradation. Because all religions share the context of world suffering, however, it is also vitally important that they search jointly for common criter‐ ia, try to forge a common agenda and begin to operate together, along with all other people of good will, in the struggle to help lessen or resolve the evil of world suffering and nourish good. “We must be able to agree among ourselves” that there should or could be “common ground on which we can come to common convictions, criteria, and action,” otherwise what is “good” will be “decided by power—by who has the money or the guns” (Knitter 1996: 56). The common cause out of which we can fashion our com‐ mon ground is all around us in the sufferings that rack and endanger our species and planet. Our world is such that moral discernment and moral commitment are simply una‐ voidable. There are issues and dangers and a spectrum of suffering on which we must take stands. And we must do so not individually, each in our own perspectival tower ... but together, in a manner which will lead to common discern‐ ment and common commitment .... While we must treasure our diversity, we must also discern what can unite us in common concern and action for the sufferings of our fellow beings and planet. (Knitter: 56)
People of differing faiths, “sharing a suffering world, also share an urgent global concern on which they have no alternative but to work together” (VanElderen: 6). That is why the starting point of interreligious dialogue must be this world permeated with distress and ill, and its focus and aim must be the well‐ being of a suffering humanity and an endangered planet. There would seem to be no other option for interfaith encounter. To sum up the argumentation: Religions and their adher‐ ents share a world of clamant need; therefore they have a worldwide responsibility to address this need and work for hu‐ man and environmental well‐being; to be truly effective, this global responsibility needs to be carried out jointly; but such joint action is impossible without some degree of consensus on the nature of evil and good, moral and ethical values, and cri‐ teria for action; and, finally, in order to ascertain whether such
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agreement or partial agreement on these matters exists or could be reached, religions must engage in interfaith colloquy. Once again, it is clear that the great religious traditions of the world manifest very different and sometimes even contra‐ dictory views of virtue and vice, moral‐ethical soundness and unsoundness, right and wrong, evil and good and their several relationships. How we and our religions view evil and good and work separately to hamper or defang or do away with the one and bring about or nurture the advance of the other is and remains important. But with a view to the depth and intensity of the evil of suffering, which stretches like a vast intertwined network right throughout the world we share locally and glo‐ bally, it is of crucial significance that we do this together as well. Or to paraphrase Isabel the philosopher: How we take our tea separately is important, but that we take our tea together is momentous. (cf. McCall Smith 2005: 158) * * * * * The following collection of essays does not, of course, pretend to provide a comprehensive or exhaustive survey but only a representative selection of religious views on evil and good and their relationship. Each of the separate compositions included in this compendium provides valuable information and insights on these matters. And in the final chapter Hendrik Vroom pro‐ vides, with his usual consummate analytical skill, a useful com‐ parative synthesis of the salient positions and views contained in these papers. Bibliography Balasuriya, Tissa. (1988). “Editorial.” In: Voices From the Third World 11: iii‐iv. Gort, Jerald D. (1992). “Liberative Ecumenism: Gateway to the Shar‐ ing of Religious Experience Today.” In: J.D. Gort, H.M. Vroom, et al. (eds.). On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality, Currents of Encounter, Amsterdam/Grand Rapids: Ro‐ dopi/ Eerdmans Publishing Company. Pp. 88‐105. (1995). “Distress, Salvation and Mediation of Salvation.” In: F.J. Verstraelen et al. (eds.). Missiology, An Ecumenical Introduction:
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Texts and Contexts of Global Christianity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company. Pp. 194‐210. Knitter, Paul. (1996). One Earth Many Religions: Multifaith Dialogue and Global Responsibility. Maryknoll: Orbis Books. McGrath, Alister. (1977). Christian Theology: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. McCall Smith, Alexander. (2005). Friends, Lovers, Chocolate. London: Little, Brown. Robinson, Marilynne. (2005). The Death of Adam: Essays on Modern Thought. New York: Picador. Roth, Philip. (2001). The Human Stain. London: Vintage Books. Schickel, Richard. (2006). “Review of ‘All the King’s Men’.” Time Magazine (October 30): 58. Tacitus, Cornelius. (1995). The Histories. Transl. Kenneth Wellesley. London: Penguin Books. VanElderen, Marlin. (1990). “On Religious Plurality.” One World 153: 6‐9. Volf, Miroslav. (1996). Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation. Nashville: Abingdon Press. Wolfe, Alan. (1992). “Democracy Versus Sociology: Boundaries and Their Political Consequences.” In: M. Lamont and M. Fournier (eds.). Cultivating Differences: Symbolic Boundaries and the Making of Inequality. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Pp. 309‐25.
Myths as Metaphors for Radical Evil Wendy Doniger Abstract This contribution argues for the value of certain myths as metaphors for radical evil. Taking as examples the American reactions to 9/11 2001, South Asian sources that might temper reactions to the tsunami of December 26, 2004, the imagination of the end of the human race at the close of the great ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata, and Hindu and Buddhist beliefs on the philosophy of evil, the conclusion will speculate on the consequences of natur‐ alizing moral evil and moralizing natural evil.
Myths as Metaphors I have argued elsewhere that we need other peoples’ myths as metaphors. Myths from other peoplesʹ cultures often provide us with useful metaphors that are more refreshing than our own (Doniger O’Flaherty 1988). Many myths are simply the narra‐ tive embodiment, sometimes an exaggerated, larger‐than‐life embodiment, of clichés of language or metaphors that occur in everyday speech (Doniger 1997: 1‐5). A myth is a story that re‐ veals the profundity of a cliché. Mythological texts may be fan‐ tastic, yet they often present in a grotesquely exaggerated form situations that are quite common in real life (Doniger 2000: 3‐4). And, at the other extreme, myths present in an apparently ba‐ nal form situations that are so far removed from everyday life that they outstrip any language that attempts to capture them. This second pattern applies to the use of myths as meta‐ phors for unimaginable evil in the future, myths that enable us to expand our imagination of what cannot be imagined in our own lives as well as to develop true empathy for other people in the thrall of evil on a scale beyond that of our own lives. Reli‐ gious metaphors allow us to balance the microscopic view of our daily lives against the telescopic view of cosmic disaster (Doniger 1997: 1‐10). The telescopic view, which activates our 17
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self‐irony, and the microscopic view, which activates our sym‐ pathy, share at least one essential feature: both are self‐distan‐ cing. Both self‐irony and sympathy pluck us out of our imme‐ diate preoccupation with ourselves and our own woes, though in different directions: self‐irony allows us to see ourselves through a telescope, while sympathy allows us to see other peo‐ ple no longer through a telescope but through a microscope. Mythological metaphors rescue us from the numbers game, the Dow Jones of disasters. There is the old story about the lady who went to a lecture and heard the lecturer say that the uni‐ verse was going to self‐destruct in five billion years, at which she fainted. When they asked her why she was so upset at an event that was five billion years away, she heaved a sigh of re‐ lief and said, “Oh thank god. I thought he said five million years.” “One manʹs death is a tragedy; the death of a million is a statistic,” said Joseph Stalin (who knew whereof he spoke). And John Coetzee, writing of the concentration camp deaths, said, These are numbers that numb the mind. We have only one death of our own; we can comprehend the deaths of others only one at a time. In the abstract, we may be able to count to a million, but we cannot count to a million deaths. (Coet‐ zee 1999: 19)
Annie Dillard mocks the numbers, speaking of the way that the Hubble space telescope forced us to revise some of our estim‐ ates, reporting that the stars are “not 12 but 13 billion years old.” (“These astronomers are nickel‐and‐diming us to death,” says Dillard; Dillard 2000: 25). When words fail, and numbers pale, we resort to meta‐ phors: this is like that. Ordinary language cannot say what something so far off the scale as the tsunami of 2004 is “like.” But myths often provide metaphors for things that we have no words for (God, the cosmos, time before the universe began, 200,000 swept underneath a wall of water in just a few min‐ utes). Myths are far more comforting than statistics, in part be‐ cause they allow us to distance ourselves from the tragedy enough to allow us to acknowledge how deeply frightened and moved we are by it but not so far as to dull the intensity of our compassion. The imagination that dwells on the unthinkable—
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the end of the world, the apocalypse—is an integral part of reli‐ gious sensibilities these days, but truly it always was, for some people. My first example is 9/11 and the movies. 9/11 and the Movies After the attacks of September 11, 2001, it was difficult for those of us living in the United States to stay fully aware of the bodies still lying under the rubble while we were, at the same time, worried about the longer lines at the airport and the rising costs of fuel. We strove to keep both these levels of vision alive in us at the same time. But how? Americans tended to view the ter‐ rorist attacks on September 11 as a disaster movie, a phenomen‐ on that also seems to reflect a deep human need to transform terror into art. Anthony Lane entitled his piece for the special issue of the New Yorker devoted to the attacks, “This is Not a Movie,” and remarked: It was the television commentators as well as those on the ground who resorted to a phrase book culled from the cine‐ ma: “It was like a movie.” “It was like ‘Independence Day’.“ ”It was like ‘Die Hard’.” “No, “Die Hard 2’.” “‘Armaged‐ don’.“ (Lane 2001: 79‐80)
Lane offers an explanation for this reaction: unlike Europe‐ ans, Americans have no real experience of such attacks against which to measure this new event: “When a European surveys the wreckage of the towers, he or she will summon, consciously or otherwise, a folk memory of catastrophe. Not “It’s like ‘Die Hard’” but “It’s like the Blitz,” or “It reminds me of [the fire‐ bombing of] Dresden.” Yet Americans might have said but did not say, “It was like the other Trade Tower bombing,” referring to the blast in October of 1993 that left six people dead and more than a thousand injured. Or they might have said but did not, “It was like the Oklahoma City bombing,” referring to the April, 1995, attack that killed 168 people. No, the numbers game spoiled that; the scale of 9/11 required a myth, not a dress rehearsal for this one‐night performance. And it seemed to re‐ quire a religious, or at least a mythological, rather than a polit‐ ical metaphor. Very few people likened the human devastation of 9/11 to the Holocaust, though some who attributed it to
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Osama bin Laden compared him to Hitler. Instead, before the political PR machines got to them, people identified the perpe‐ trators with mythical enemies, the villains in the disaster films. And it did not seem to matter how realistic or fantastic these mythical enemies were; the spread ranged from the entirely earth‐bound, non‐super‐powered human international terror‐ ists in Die Hard (1988) to the galactic aliens of Independence Day (1996) and the presumably morally neutral giant rogue asteroid of Armageddon (1998). What all these films had in common, what mattered, was that they were not historical. The flight from history to myth on the part of those who used these myths to process the news of 9/11 was the very opposite of the flight of the American radio audience, in October of 1938, on the eve of World War II, when people who listened to Orson Welles’ broadcast of a dramatization of H.G. Wells’ fictional War of the Worlds mistook it for radio reportage of a genuine invasion, and panicked. On 9/11, they mistook a real attack for television, and still panicked. Gerald Holton’s wise essay on terror also sees films, and other forms of popular culture, as a form of distancing, or what he calls self‐protection: I have argued that cataclysmic events, the perpetration of enormities, and other precipitous changes in the human con‐ dition, stretch personal and historic memory beyond the limits of accommodation within the ordinary elastic range. They make a plastic deformation, leaving the psyche differ‐ ent, distorted, and ready to crystalize experiences around the wound in new ways. When we ask what lessons the his‐ toric memory of our time has drawn from these events, one finds that the most prominent response is self‐protection on the conscious level .… For the masses the chief vehicle for pre‐ senting terror situations after the fact has been banalization and exploitation. Examples are such movies and TV produc‐ tions as Hiroshima Mon Amour, Hoganʹs Heroes, The Night Por‐ ter, Mel Brooksʹs The Producers, Lina Wertmüllerʹs Seven Beauties, the film Life is Beautiful, and, most recently, video‐ games using Nazi protagonists in full uniform. The Jewish National Museum in New York City includes in its exhibit of Holocaust art “a model of a concentration camp made of Lego; a “Gift‐gas Giftset” of poison gas canisters with Chan‐
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nel, Hermès and Tiffany & Company logos; and a photo of Buchenwald prisoners in their bunks with a superimposed image of the artist holding a Diet Coke can (Holton 2002: 4).
I have argued elsewhere that films such as The Producers and Life is Beautiful, and jokes more generally, play a major role in the human attempt to come to terms with unimaginable horror. But where Holton and I see the film material as distancing the emotional impact of the event, some see it as enhancing it. After 9/11, according to Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, “videotapes went on sale in China showing the horrific high‐ lights, spliced together with scenes from Hollywood disaster movies.” Their comment is rather different from my analysis of the situation in New York: It was as though the real thing—two flaming skyscrapers collapsing on thousands of people—were not dramatic enough, and only fantasy could capture the true flavor of such catastrophes, which most of us know only from the movies. (Buruma and Margalit 2004: 13)
And in the New York Times on July 27, 2005, Alessandra Stanley, reviewing a TV program called “Over There,” a fictionalized story about the Iraq war, wrote, Except perhaps in the cartoon strip “Doonesbury,” remin‐ ders of war in the media are fleeting. Live battle scenes and Pentagon briefings flicker across television newscasts as fast as weather bulletins and weight‐loss features; even live events become dulled by repetition on cable news programs and radio. Fiction, however, has a way of slowing time and putting a frame on a shifting, fragmented reality.
The reclassification of the Trade Tower attacks as a film continued to color perceptions of real life. According to News‐ week, two American women from Waco, Texas, captured by the Taliban and held hostage for five weeks, “often felt as though they were trapped inside a terrifying special‐effects action mo‐ vie,” and when they were rescued by US military forces, the fa‐ ther of one of the women said, “I don’t think Hollywood could have done it better” (Moreau 2001: 52). When a plane hit a skyscraper in Milan, on April 18, 2002, Francesca Giorgetta, 33, a freelance journalist, told a New York Times reporter, “Imme‐
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diately I thought it was a terror attack. I turned and began running. I had a feeling it was like a movie, like what happened to you in New York” (The New York Times, Friday, April 19, A3). On July 11, 2005, a New York Times article about a tank truck that crashed into another truck on the Sunrise Highway and ex‐ ploded into flames, involving 14 cars and 4 dead, referred to it as a “cinematic disaster,” and quoted someone who said, “It was like a scene out of a movie.” There are further ironies in this American tendency to view violence as film. Some people speculated that it was Osama bin Laden’s explicit intention that the attacks should be very film‐ able, photogenic, a true photo‐op, that the pilots chose a nice day with good weather and designed the event to be filmed: the first plane was to attract the cameras, which would then have a perfect shot at the second plane. September 11 was indeed strangely perfect weather. And, later, Americans viewing the tapes of bin Laden speaking after the attacks insisted that it was not true, that the tape had been faked by American technology, that bin Laden had not said those things. Here we may hear un‐ comfortable echoes of the denials of the Holocaust. Once some‐ thing is like a film, anything is like a film. A side effect noted by Anthony Lane was the feeling that disaster films would no longer be acceptable, that the experience of art as “as if” had somehow been spoiled, that the disaster film as a genre had be‐ come real and therefore no longer viable as “mere” art. I would draw a different sort of line between life and art here, insisting on a distinction between temporary crisis management and long‐lasting ways of making sense of a tragic universe. I think that at the time of crisis, in the midst of our pain, we use the “it’s just a dream/play” motif to keep from falling apart with shock and grief, while in the long run we need a more profound mythology to help us go on living. People who have been the victims of violence, such as rape, often dissociate themselves from the scene of the crime by tell‐ ing themselves that they were not there, that some illusory dou‐ ble experienced the event (Doniger 1998: 79‐87). Those who per‐ petrate violence, too, may seek refuge by absenting themselves from reality in this way; we know this from Robert Louis Ste‐ venson’s Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde as well as from the insanity de‐ fense often invoked in present‐day legal actions (Doniger 1998:
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255‐9). More to the point, Robert Jay Lifton’s The Nazi Doctors documents the ways in which those who perpetrated the atroci‐ ties bracketed their moral selves in order to project the re‐ sponsibility from their evil away from themselves, doing this not merely in order to face others, such as the prosecutors at Nürenberg, but unconsciously, for themselves, in order to be able to face themselves (Lifton 1986: 45; Doniger 1998: 257). Such bracketing is also a temporary means by which we, too, often think about unthinkable crises. But Indian philosophy urges us to awaken from the night‐ mare of our lives—or, indeed, from the pleasant artistic fictions of lila, the playful creation of the universe by God, or maya, the illusory universe—to the true awareness of—of what? This is much debated: God, or godhead, or moksha, or nirvana. Europe‐ ans and Americans do not find this a helpful line to follow un‐ der normal circumstances but may resort to it in emergen‐ cies—and Indian philosophy regards all of life as such an emer‐ gency; the Buddha preached that we were all in a house on fire and needed to get out fast. Someone suggested that on Septem‐ ber 11 Americans awakened from the greedy dreams of the 90s, when “everybody” got rich quick—except, of course, the poor. Hollywood is America’s myth factory as well as dream fac‐ tory; like the elements of myths that Claude Lévi‐Strauss called “mythemes,” the “cinememes” can be repeated over and over, with or without minor variations, for audiences that glory in the rituals of repetition. But Hollywood films usually do not, like more traditional myths, speculate on the possible role played by fate, demons, or god(s) in the disaster at hand, nor inquire theologically or philosophically into the ultimate sour‐ ces of evil. For this, we have to turn to South Asia, where myth in a more traditional sense is alive and well. This brings us to our next section. The Tsunami and the Flood Myths After the desperate scramble for survival, for shelter, water, food, after searching for the living and then searching for the dead, it is time to bury the dead and to grieve, and that is al‐ ways a moment that, to borrow Samuel Johnson’s phrase, con‐ centrates the mind wonderfully. Some might argue that this is the sort of moment for which religion was invented, that there
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are no atheists in foxholes (a cliché against which the official or‐ ganization of American Atheists lodges formal protests from time to time). On the other hand, others might recall that a similar natural catastrophe—the great earthquake that shook Lisbon at about 9:30 in the morning on 1 November, 1755, killing between 15,000 and 60,000 people and setting off a tsu‐ nami that reached England by 2 PM and the West Indies by 6 PM—also shook European religious faith. How could God do this? they asked, or, Can there be a God, if this can happen? The disaster inspired Voltaire to parody Leibniz, author of the great justification of God, in the form of the fictional Dr. Pangloss in Candide (1759). By this reckoning, there should be no theolo‐ gians in foxholes. (A colleague of mine, a theologian and a priest, told me of a man he knew who was an atheist but served as a chaplain in the army. An unexpected advantage of this ar‐ rangement was that there was at least one atheist in a foxhole). But the Hindus who lost everything to the ocean may well ask, as Europeans did in 1755, Why me? Why did I lose every‐ thing? or, Why did I survive? Many of the survivors, including mothers who had lost their children, told reporters, told anyone who would listen, that they wished that they had been taken by the sea in place of their lost children, or with them. What could they say to one another to give themselves the strength to go on? “I’ve never seen anything like this,” people kept saying who had been there. “No words can describe it.” And so, in‐ stead of words, the numbers kept rolling in, first 28,000 dead, then 49,000, then 139,000, and on and on, past 300,000. That was supposed to be a way of making us see how terrible it was, but of course it did not. As always, the numbers game quickly be‐ comes meaningless. Americans boast of their literacy rate, but most Americans, faced with a sudden need for a sustaining narrative, can reach for nothing better than a disaster movie. Many Hindus, by con‐ trast, who cannot, literally, read, are culturally quite erudite; they know their myths. They also have their own disaster films, Bollywood films based on those myths (and on Hollywood films: recall The Rains Came [1939] and The Rains of Ranchipur [1955]), films in which earthquakes or monsoon rains or and breaking dams, (or some combination of all of the above) trig‐ gers a cataclysmic flood. Satyam Shivam Sundaram (1978) ends
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like that: The floodgates open, the waters rise above the bridge, and the estranged married couple is swept away. Together they swim to safety, saving themselves by grabbing hold of a pole sticking out of the water, which turns out to be the top of a Hin‐ du temple that the waters gradually reveal. The sun comes out, the clouds disperse, and the images of Krishna and Radha emerge from the subsiding flood. The classical Hindu myths, too, are well known by many of the survivors of the tsunami. Flood myths, as the folklorist Alan Dundes explained in 1988, are found in most of the mythologies of the world—Africa, the Near East, Australia, South Seas, Scandinavia, the Americas, China, Greece (Dundes 1988). They are widespread because floods are widespread, especially along the great rivers that nurture early civilizations (and even more widespread in the lands watered by the monsoons, with their violent and unpredictable rains). There are significant variants in flood myths: some cultures give one reason for the flood, some other reasons, some none; sometimes one person sur‐ vives, sometimes several, sometimes many (never none, or who could tell the story?); some survive in boats, some by other means; and so forth. In the oldest extant Indian variant, from about 900 B.C.E. (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the first human being, Manu (the In‐ dian Adam), finds a tiny fish who asks Manu to save him from the big fish who will otherwise eat him (“fish eats fish” is the Sanskrit equivalent of our “dog eat dog,” a phrase designating anarchy); the fish promises, in return, to save Manu from a great flood that is to come. Manu protects the fish until he is so big that he is “beyond destruction” and then builds a ship, fol‐ lowing the fish’s instruction; the fish pulls the ship to a moun‐ tain, and when the flood waters subside, Manu keeps following them down. The text ends: “The flood swept away all other creatures, and Manu alone remained here” (Doniger O’Flaherty 1975: 180‐81; Shatapatha Brahmana 1.8.1.1‐5). The theme of “help‐ ful animals” who requite human kindness (think of Androcles and the Lion) points to a moral: a good deed is rewarded. Since the fish expands from a minnow to a kind of whale, and since he is a savior, he soon became one of the avatars or incarnations of the god Vishnu, who is both an expander (in an‐ other avatar he is a dwarf who becomes a giant) and a savior.
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The flood now becomes the doomsday flood, or dissolution (pralaya), which comes at the end of the last of the four ages of the Eon. In Hindu cosmology, the universe is created anew, out of the cosmic ocean, over and over again at the start of each eon; each time, it begins with a golden age (the Krita Yuga) and ends in a time of social disorder and individual wrong‐doing, the Kali Yuga. Of course, we always live in the Kali Yuga. At the end of the Kali Yuga, there will be a great conflagration, and then a great flood; and when the universe has lain fallow in its watery bed for millions of years, it will be recreated in another golden age, and so forth and so on. It is in this context that the tale of Vishnu the Fish is retold, in a Sanskrit text from the third or fourth century of the Common Era (the “Ancient Text of the Fish” [Matsya Purana]): Manu won from the god Brahma, the creator, the boon he requested: that he would be able to protect all creatures, moving and still, when the dissolution took place. One day, he found a little fish, and saved it until it grew so big that it terrified him, whereupon he realized that it must be Vishnu. The fish said, “Bravo! You have recognized me. Soon the whole earth will be flooded. The gods have made this boat for you to save the great living souls; bring all the living creatures into the boat, and you will survive the dissolution and be king at the beginning of the golden age.” A mare with a fire inside her mouth lives in the ocean; the waters of the ocean keep the fire from bursting out, and the flames of the mare keep the waters of the ocean from flooding its banks. The fish told Manu: “At the end of the Kali Yuga, the mare will open her mouth and a poisonous fire will burst out of her, coming up out of hell; it will burn the whole uni‐ verse, gods and constellations and all. And then the seven clouds of doomsday will flood the earth until everything is a single ocean. You alone will survive, together with the sun and moon, several gods, and the great religious texts and sciences.” And so it happened, and the fish came and saved Manu. (Doniger O’Flaherty 1975, 181‐84; Matsya Purana 1‐2)
In this later version, Manu saves not himself alone but all creatures. More significantly, the myth is now part of the great cycle of time, involving fire as well as flood, so that the flood
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now appears more as a solution than as a problem: it puts out the fire that is always on the verge of destroying us, held in check by a hair‐trigger balance between two massive forces of natural destruction, what Robert Frost called “Fire and Ice.” This variant also gives us a much more detailed, and hence more reassuring, image of what is to follow the flood; a new world is born out of the old one. As T.S. Eliot (who knew and cited a great deal of Hindu mythology) put it in Burnt Norton, “Or say that the ending precedes the beginning, And the end and the beginning were always there Before the beginning and after the end.” These stories suggest that floods are both inev‐ itable and survivable; this is what happens to the world and yet the world goes on. We go on. The great myths may help surviv‐ ors to think through this unthinkable catastrophe, to make a kind of sense by analogy, to say, “This is not unlike anything else; this is like that. This tsunami is like the doomsday flood.” And by saying that, they are also saying, “We are supposed to survive.” For such people, the myth of surviving the flood may provide a structure on which to construct a justification for go‐ ing on. Radical Evil in Hinduism: Karma and Honi Hindus also have other, more general explanations. They might call upon any combination of the many explanatory philosoph‐ ical concepts that are available to Hindus, and have been cited by some of the survivors, beginning with the concept of maya, which we have briefly noted. There is also the concept of what the people in Kangra, in the foothills of the Himalayas, call honi, persistent, apparently inexplicable bad luck; when honi enters the house, there is nothing to do but wait until it moves out again, and luck changes. Honi seems to be derived from the verb “to be” and “so could mean, simply, “exist‐ ence” or “that which happens” .... less of a cumulative force and more the personification of arbitrary bad fortune for which other causal explanations—righteousness, fate, prior actions—fall short. (Narayan 1997: 199)
Honi, a kind of undeserved evil, is balanced by a kind of unde‐ served good, what might be called accidental grace. A typical story of this type, from the medieval compendia of myths called
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the Puranas, is the tale of the man who committed every con‐ ceivable sin—murder, incest, abortion, you name it—but then accidentally committed a good deed: sneaking into the temple at night to rob it, he lit a candle in order to find the treasure there, and then returned to his wicked ways. Years later, when he died, he won deliverance from hell and eternal life in hea‐ ven, because he had lit a candle in front of the god. And then there was the man of equally dastardly deeds who tripped while hastening to bring flowers to his whore; he fell down, dropped all the flowers, and cried out, “Shiva!”, as a Christian might blaspheme by crying out “Jesus Christ” in a similar mo‐ ment. For offering flowers to Shiva .... etc. (Doniger 1993). Both honi and accidental grace, in which the victim of evil is passive, stand in contrast with the theory of personal karma, often wrongly said to be fatalistic. For your karma is your own fault, the result of your free will, and you must exercise free will to find a way to get out of the pickle that your previous free will got you into in the first place. In the theory of karma, ap‐ parently undeserved misfortune is actually well‐merited pun‐ ishment for sins committed in forgotten past lives; and one definition of honi, expressed by an astrologer, also throws the guilt back onto the apparently, but only apparently, innocent victim of evil: “Honi is the bad part of one’s actions: what you do unconsciously and do not know will come back to you.” This would make honi, in Kirin Narayan’s words, “a shadow of the conscious mind.” The passive and active views of grace were epitomized, in South Indian theology, by the “cat” school and the “monkey” school: the “cat” school argued that God was like a mother cat, who picked up the passive kittens by the scruff of their necks; the “monkey” God, on the other hand, required her babies to hang out with all their strength as she swung through the jun‐ gle. And standing in contrast to the two views of grace, as a whole, were the theologies that explained apparently unde‐ served suffering through the workings of a more vengeful god, like Varuna (related to the Greek Ouranos, the sky god), who punished people for misdeeds they might not even have known about; already in the Rig Veda, 1000 B.C., the worshiper prayed: I ask myself what my transgression was, Varuna, for I wish to understand. I turn to the wise to ask them. The poets have
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told me the very same thing: “Varuna has been provoked to anger against you.” O Varuna, what was the terrible crime for which you wish to destroy your friend who praises you? Proclaim it to me so that I may hasten to prostrate myself before you and be free from sin, for you are hard to deceive. (O’Flaherty 1981: 213‐14; Rig Veda 7.86.3‐4).
Thus reincarnation does not eliminate tragedy: a life is still a life. But it goes a long way to explain it. Why do bad things happen? Because bad things were done, is the answer offered by Greek tragedies and by the theory of karma. Philip Larkin’s most notorious poem (“This Be The Verse”) speaks of the harm that parents do to children because of the harm that the parents’ parents had done to them. The final stanza speaks of karma, by any other name: Man hands on misery to man. It deepens like a coastal shelf. Get out as early as you can, And don’t have any kids yourself.
“Get out as early as you can” is a line worthy of Gautama the Buddha; he would have called it nirvana (the blowing out of a candle) while a Hindu would have called it moksha (getting free, breaking out). For you can break out of the chain of karma by understanding its unreality. For India, the realization that the world is not what it seems to be is not the problem but the solu‐ tion: since the world is full of unreliable appearances, suffering, too, is transitory, and, in that sense at least, unreal. Though Max Weber, among others, regarded karma as the best of all possible solutions to the problem of evil, Hindus, as we have seen, found a need for many other approaches (O’Flaherty 1976). Fate, like honi, is usually invoked when all other explanations, even karma, seem inadequate to the case at hand. Fate, or Time, is even stronger than grace in some texts, such as the great Sanskrit Epic, the Mahabharata, composed be‐ tween 300 BCE and 300 C.E. In this text, the incarnate god, Krishna, is omnipotent but chooses not to intervene in the final battle that destroys his friends and family and, indeed, the whole human race. Again and again the poet insists,
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WENDY DONIGER Krishna knew how it would end, for he was wise, and he said, “It must be just like this.” He did nothing to stop it, for he was the lord of the universe and did not wish to make otherwise what already had a pre‐determined/finished end. (Mahabharata 16.2.13‐14)
And even fate is sometimes not sufficient to explain the power of evil. One anthropologist of Sri Lanka said, after the tsunami, “In Thailand, we believe that a bad event takes place to save us from something worse that might have happened. It is hard to think that there could be something worse than this.” Philosophy does not do the trick for most people; Leibniz failed, Voltaire failed, and in India, too, the myths pick up the pieces where philosophy throws up its hands. Hinduism on the Psychology of Evil But Leibniz, Voltaire, and the renunciant strains of Indian philosophy also suggest ways of coming to terms with evil. The problem that the sages of the Upanishads and Gautama the Buddha addressed from the start was not the theological pro‐ blem of evil, the problem of how there can be evil if there is a wise, powerful, and loving god (for Buddhism has no god to blame, and Hinduism, which has more than enough to go around for both itself and Buddhism, does not always locate the source of evil there). It is, rather, the problem of human suffer‐ ing, particularly apparently unjust suffering. This form of evil is neither moral nor natural, though it subsumes both of these cat‐ egories, much as Freud did, in the individual experience of evil: the fault, dear Brutus, lies not in our stars, but in ourselves, that we cannot understand or deal with natural and/or moral evil. (This sort of location of the problem in the individual rather than the world is one of the points of contention between Freudians and Marxists, who otherwise usually run with more or less the same crowd). The solution, therefore, is epistemo‐ logical or (in Freud’s terms) psychological: the solution is to un‐ derstand that human suffering arises out of our inability to real‐ ize the basic impermanence of all things (anitya in Sanskrit, anic‐ ca in Pali), and therefore, in that sense at least, the illusory na‐ ture of all things—human ambition, human craving, human dissatisfaction with the nature of things.
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Metaphors for the End of Time Krishna, in the Mahabharata, knew that the end was near be‐ cause of the omens that began to appear, and these omens are powerful, surreal metaphors for radical evil: Harsh winds blew, bringing hurricanes and raining peb‐ bles. The great rivers flowed backwards. Dust covered the orb of the sun, and at sunrise it was surrounded by clouds like headless torsos. Time, incarnate, kept prowling around the houses of all the people in the form of an enormous man, deformed and bald, black and tawny, with gaping mouth and protruding teeth, who looked into the houses, but he himself was never seen again. The number and size of the rats on the highways increased, and the clay water jugs, set by the side of the road to provide water for trav‐ elers, shattered. Water birds imitated the call of owls, and goats imitated the call of jackals. Impelled by Time, pale birds with red feet flew through the houses. Donkeys were born in cows, and camels in female mules, cats in bitches and mice in mongooses. Then people committed evil acts without feeling any shame; they even hated Brahmins, ancestors, and gods, and dishonored their gurus. Wives committed infidelities against their husbands, and husbands against their wives. In food that was very well‐done and completely cooked in the great kitchens, worms appeared just as it was being eaten. When people were wishing one another good day and the priests were chanting, the sound of people running up in attack was heard, but no one was seen. Everyone saw someone elseʹs constellation being struck by planets again and again, foretelling someone else’s death, but never their own. A black woman with pale teeth entered the city in the night and ran around, laughing, robbing the women in their dreams. Terrifying vultures devoured the people in their dreams in their homes in the middle of the sacrificial ground. Monstrous vultures crouched on peoples’ shoulders and made terrifying cries. And horrible demons, two‐ head‐ ed and four‐armed, were born in the wombs of women. (Mahabharata 16.1.2‐5, 16.3.1‐14, 16.4.1)
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The omens, a mixture of moral and [un]natural evil, are night‐ mare images, weirdly specific and detailed metaphors for what cannot be comprehended: the imminent destruction of every‐ thing in the world. And the omens came true: the people trans‐ gressed against the sacred law, broke the rules of battle, defied the prohibition against the drinking of alcohol, and gave to the monkeys “the food, flavored with the perfume of wine, that the people had prepared for the sake of Brahmins.” Eventually the men simply got into a sordid drunken brawl, in Krishna’s pres‐ ence. At first, Krishna “did not get angry, for he knew that it was the turning of time.” But then, when he saw his own son murdered, he became enraged and killed all the people in front of him. And when they were all dead, he predicted that a great flood, coming from the ocean, would inundate the city, and it did. Thus, at the end of the story, two things happen in quick succession: the human race is killed, while a god looks on, and then there is a natural flood that mimics the doomsday flood. Buddhist Variants on the Myth of the End of the World One Buddhist myth refers in passing to the periodic flooding and recreation of the world. But another Buddhist text (a part of the Buddhist canon, perhaps dating from the beginning of the Common Era) substitutes human error (that is, war) for the su‐ pernatural flood, replacing what we might call natural evil, the flood, with moral evil, human aggression and hatred. This is the story: There will come a time when moral conduct will disappear, immoral conduct will flourish, and even the word “moral” will no longer exist among humans. Then for Seven Days of the Sword, men will look on each other as wild beasts and kill each other. But a few will think, “We do not want any‐ one to kill us, and we do not want to kill anyone. Let us hide and live on the fruits of the forest.” Thus they will survive. And after the Seven Days of the Sword they will come out and embrace one another and say, “My friend, how good it is to see you still alive.” Then they will increase in age and beauty, and they will practice virtues. (Doniger 1976: 41; Digha Nikaya, Cakkavatti Sihanada Suttanta 3.71‐75)
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Buddhists constitute some 75% of the population of Sri Lanka, while only about 18% are Hindus. The tsunami hit Sri Lanka hard (numbers: 30,000 dead), but not nearly so hard as the brut‐ al civil war that has been there raging for years (numbers: 64,000 dead). Many journalists applauded the remarkable spirit of cooperation that suddenly joined the two sides, bitter ene‐ mies until the tsunami struck, as they worked together in plan‐ ning the distribution of aid to victims of this catastrophe. The ancient Buddhist myth seems to speak to this ray of hope, too. But the truce did not last long; within days, one faction was busy slaughtering members of the other faction as they went to give aid to the victims. Cultivating Gardens The solution is therefore not to try to fix the world, which can‐ not be fixed, but to live with it as it is and/or, eventually, to get out of it forever, “as early as you can,” to break away from the wheel. We may see a rough parallel to the South Asian idea in Voltaireʹs reaction to Lisbon, at the end of the book that he wrote in protest against Leibniz, his novel Candide: given the world that Candide discovers, our world full of chaos and hor‐ ror, the best that we can do is to retire to a quiet corner in which to cultivate our garden. For some people, such as the renoun‐ cers who were inspired by the Buddha and the Upanishads, this is a complete solution to the problem of suffering. For others, this kind of withdrawal is useful only as a stop gap, a way to deal with the pain at any given moment, reculer pour mieux sau‐ ter [“pull back in order the better to leap forward”]. Buddhism and Hinduism do ask, “How can the amount of evil in the world be reduced?” But since, in their view, the psychological origin of the disease of human suffering is ignorance, the best medicine is right thinking, and the texts, Buddhist or Hindu, have many different but, on the whole, compatible ideas about how that right thinking is to be achieved. This is not, of course, a way of dealing with social ill, the mess that the world is in; it is a personal, Freudian approach, not a social, Marxian, ap‐ proach. The word “solve” is the wrong word to use for evil, im‐ plying the possibility of success, like a solution of salt in water (a metaphor, by the way, that the Upanishads used for the
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merging of the individual soul with the godhead in the ultimate withdrawal from the world), or a mathematical solution, a sci‐ entific solution, x = 23, two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen produce water. But “solutions” to the problem of evil are more like suspensions, in the chemical sense, or, in human terms, more like the solutions that the hospice people offer when they enter a home: the best of all possible deaths, the least painful, the most dignified. To cultivate oneʹs garden is a banal solution to the banality of evil, banal fire to fight banal fire. Woody Allen offers us the ultimate banal theodicy: “If it turns out that there is a God, I don’t think that he’s evil. But the worst that you can say about him is that basically he’s an underachiever.” (Allen 1975, final monologue). In Salman Rushdie’s novel, Fury (2002), there is an English professor who writes about Candide and argues that Pangloss/Leibniz is right, that we have to rejoice in this world, warts and all, because man is not perfectible. But the professor keeps trying to commit suicide. Myth as a Non‐Solution to the Problem of Evil: The Garden of Eden How, then, to keep gardening, and not commit suicide? Where philosophy fails to solve this problem that cannot be solved, myth succeeds—not as explanation, but as comfort, a kind of narrative seed catalogue to pore over during the long winter nights when the garden sleeps. Mythology offers non‐rational ways of dealing with what is, after all, an irrational problem, not accessible to reason. Myth tells us how we got into this mess and how we can live with it, not get out of it. Great myths remind us that some forms of suffering turn out to be unavoid‐ able. This is the wisdom of the tale of the man who, in the mid‐ 1930s, rightly saw that there was going to be a terrible world war, and wanted to move to a place so far off the beaten track that the war would never come near it. He moved to the idyllic South Pacific, to Iwa Jima. The Hindu mythology of karma enacts the concept of en‐ tropy, which is the mythological parallel to the philosophical principle of impermanence: once there was a Golden Age in which human beings were virtuous and there were no social evils. (In Hindu terms: there was social hierarchy, but that was a Good Thing). There was no poverty, violence, or unhappi‐
MYTHS AS METAPHORS FOR RADICAL EVIL
35
ness. What went wrong? Nothing but time. In time, the texts say, someone became greedy, or lustful, or hungry, and from then on it was downhill all the way: sex and death, hand in hand, entered the world. Which is to say that only before we were who we are, humans with bodies that need food, and that procreate and die, was the world good, and static; once we be‐ came ourselves, everything began to run down: we get arthritis and flat tires, and the computer, sooner or later, crashes. Jessica Rabbit, in the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) said it as well as anyone: I’m not bad, I’m just drawn that way. Freud argued that myths of the Golden Age are so wide‐ spread because they reflect an adultʹs longing to return to a ro‐ manticized image of happy childhood; this accounts for the conservative attitude toward the lost, perfect past, when apples tasted sweeter, and children treated their parents with respect, and I walked ten miles barefoot in the snow to school and back every day, uphill each way. But the deeper longing that echoes in the myth of the Golden Age is well captured in Robert Frostʹs poem entitled, “Nothing Gold Can Stay.” The theologian Pierre Teilhard de Chardin pointed out that myths of the Golden Age are really myths about the future, about a perfect time that never was but that might someday be. (Teilhard de Chardin 2002: 40‐41). This is the force behind the mythologies of utopia, often fanatical and/or socially disruptive myths. But it is also the force behind all of the myths of origins, which, under the cover of excavating the past, what we once were, where we came from, actually express our dreams of the future, of what we might someday be. The garden that we must cultivate is the Garden of Eden. Teilhard was right: Il faut cul‐ tiver notre Chardin. The Mythology of Containment Hindu mythology offers us another corpus of narratives with another piece of useful advice: how to contain and inoculate evil. A fine example of containment is the myth in which Krish‐ na does not kill the serpent Kaliya (for if he did, the serpent’s many wives would be widowed), but merely moves him to a pool far away, where he will not gobble up the little boys who swim in the river (as he has been in the habit of doing) (Bha‐ gavata Purana 10.15‐17; Doniger O’Flaherty 1975: 221‐8). An‐
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other example of containment: a mare with a fire inside her mouth who lives in the ocean; the waters of the ocean keep the fire from bursting out, and the flames of the mare keep the waters of the ocean from flooding its banks. It is contained within time. As for inoculation, the goddess of smallpox, Sitala, is wor‐ shiped by people who beg her not to stay away entirely, for they know that that is impossible, nor to kill them with small‐ pox, but to come gently, leaving behind the sign of her kiss of grace, the promise that she will never come back to kill them, the pock mark (Dimock 1989). Conclusion: Moralizing Nature, Naturalizing Morality The pathetic fallacy, or religious fallacy, leads us to moralize nature. Even disaster films often impose a strong, if simplistic, morality upon nature: promiscuous women are usually the first to get eaten by monsters, captured by aliens, hurled down into the center of the earth, etc. The same logic was at work in those who saw AIDS as a sign of God’s disapproval of homosexuals, fire and brimstone in twentieth‐century guise. This is an old, bad habit: the reflex reaction to many such disasters in many re‐ ligious traditions is to assume that it is a punishment—one’s own karma, one’s own unconscioius honi. After every flooding of the lagoon, the medieval Venetians used to round up all the homosexuals (the usual suspects, known to everyone but ar‐ rested and tried only when the sea forced the hand of author‐ ity). The interlocking themes of floods, excess, and sexual fluids constantly resurface. The Saudis allegedly would not send aid to their co‐religionists in Indonesia because they took the tsu‐ nami to be an expression of God’s righteous anger against So‐ dom and Gomorrah in Jakarta. The tsunami certainly appears to be a natural evil, but humans contributed to the effect of the tsunami through deforestation, building too close to the sea, committing all the sins of tourism. On the other hand, we are equally inclined to naturalize morality: the Mahabharata includes adultery and the dishonor‐ ing of gurus among natural monstrosities, such as the birth of cats in dogs, goats speaking with the voices of jackals. Evil in these metaphors is matter out of place in a most radical way, as in Mary Douglas’s definition of dirt, hybrid, neither fish nor
MYTHS AS METAPHORS FOR RADICAL EVIL
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foul. (Douglas 1966). But the mixing of natural and moral evil— equating adulterous women with rivers flowing upstream—is a similar monstrosity, expressed in literally mixed metaphors, half natural, half moral. The very strangeness (to us) of their monstrosity, however, simultaneously speaks to us with the fa‐ miliar surrealism of such dream images as the sound of attack‐ ing footsteps when no one is seen, and this eerie familiarity also makes us suspect that our own formulations may be, inevitably, equally monstrous, in their attempts to think the unthinkable as radical evil beggars imagination. It seems to me that the thoughts of people who have tried to make sense of the chaos and horror of the world throughout these dark ages are sources that we can draw upon for our own insights. I think the Hindus and Buddhists were on the right track when they regarded the problem of evil as a problem within each individual, within the human heart and mind (where Freud, too, located it), rather than in a society that pro‐ duced the suffering born of inequality (where Marx, too, locat‐ ed it). To this extent, at least, they were individualistic (“Take care of your own house”) rather than socially oriented, as dominant Hinduism was (“Your identity is meaningful only as one member of a diverse social body”). And so they devised several quite different ways of coping with evil, arising from the insights of different individuals and perhaps suited for dif‐ ferent individuals. If we translate as much of this as is relevant to our contemporary world, it would mean that each of us must deal with the particular evils in our own particular lives, and our particular reactions to the evils that we share, in our own way, and it suggests, I think, that each of us might find the method best suited for our situation by drawing from a kind of toolbox of different approaches that have been offered up throughout human history and across the globe. Bibliography Bhagavata Purana. (1972). With the commentary of Shridhara. Benares: Pandita Pustakalaya. Digha Nikaya. (1890‐1911). Ed. T.W. Rhys Davids and J.E. Carpenter. London: Pali Text Society. Mahabharata. (1933‐60). Critical Edition. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,.
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Matsya Purana. (1907). Poona: Anandashrama Sanskrit Series. Shatapatha Brahamana. (1964). Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Allen, Woody (1975). Love and Death (film). Buruma, Ian and Avishai Margalit. (2004). Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of its Enemies. New York: The Penguin Press. Coetzee, J M. (1999). The Lives of Animals. Ed. Amy Gutmann. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Dillard, Annie. (2000). For the Time Being. New York: Viking. Dimock, Edward Cameron. (1989). “A Theology of the Repulsive: The Myth of the Goddess Sitala.” In The Sound of Silent Guns, and Other Essays. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. 130‐149. Doniger, Wendy. (1993). “The Scrapbook of Undeserved Salvation: The Kedara Khanda of the Skanda Purana.” In: Purana Perennis. Ed. Wendy Doniger. Albany: State University of New York Press. Pp. 59‐83 and 262‐65. (1997). The Implied Spider: Politics and Theology in Myth. New York: Columbia University Press. (1998). Splitting the Difference: Gender and Myth in Ancient Greece and India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (2000). The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade. Chicago: Uni‐ versity of Chicago Press. (1975). Hindu Myths. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. (1976). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley: Uni‐ versity of California. Doniger O’Flaherty, Wendy. (1981). The Rig Veda: An Anthology, 108 Hymns Translated from the Sanskrit. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. (1988). Other Peoplesʹ Myths: The Cave of Echoes. New York: Mac‐ millan. Dundes, Alan. (1988). The Flood Myth. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Douglas, Mary. (1966). Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Holton, Gerald. (2002). “Reflections on Modern Terrorism.” The Read‐ ing Room: 4. Lane, Anthony. (2001). “This is not a Movie.” New Yorker (September 24): 79‐80. Lifton, Robert J. (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. New York: Basic Books.
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Moreau, Ron. (2001). “Delivered from Evil.” Newsweek (November 26): 52‐53. Narayan, Kirin and Urmila Devi Sood. (1997). Mondays on the Dark Side of the Moon: Himalayan Foothill Folktalkes. New York: Oxford University Press. Rushdie, Salman. (2002). Fury. New York: Modern Library. Teilhard de Chardin. (2002). Christianity and Evolution. New York: Harvest Books.
Maya as Evil From Classical Hindu Thought to Bhakti Saints and Kabir A Historical Exploration Dinesh Prasad Saklani
Abstract When we speak of the treatment of evil in Hinduism we find many examples of the conflict between sur (deities) and asur (devils), gods and demons and so on. In Vedic scripture itself we see serious attempts to defeat evil. In addition to struggling evil, there has also been the attempt to identify the source(s) of evil. Maya has been identified as one such source by medieval bhakti saints, who transformed the maya of Vedic, Buddhist, and Puranic and Advaita philosophy into an evil force. All medieval bhakti poet saints share the view of maya as an evil and the cause of all sufferings, short‐ comings, problems and tensions in the world among all human beings, irre‐ spective of any distinction. Many of the adjectives used for maya by Kabir and the bhakti saints are feminine. The reason for this seems to be the social condition and attitude towards women in medieval Indian society. It is very difficult to free oneself from the influence of evil maya. Kabir confronted maya with the weapon of knowledge provided by his satguru (true teacher) and only then could he give up maya. Nanak, Dadu, and Malukdas hold that divine power provides the strength to identify and escape the trap of maya. Kabir suggests that only by acquiring true knowledge under the able guid‐ ance of a satguru (true teacher) can one be free from maya. Whoever can keep maya at bay possesses eternal happiness and liberation from worldly pain.
Introduction The problem of evil is as old as human civilization itself. As civ‐ ilization progressed, the human mind developed a rational ap‐ proach to issues of importance, including the problem of evil. 41
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Almost all the religions of the world have their own experiences of a good God and evil. When we speak of the treatment of evil in Hinduism we find many examples of the conflict between sur (deities) and asur (devils), gods and demons and so on. In Vedic scripture itself we see serious attempts to defeat evil. The strug‐ gle against evil was accompanied by the identification of the source(s) of evil. Maya has been identified as one such source by medieval bhakti saints, who transformed the maya of Vedic, Buddhist and Puranic and Advaita philosophy into an evil force. The Perception of Maya in Hindu Thought From ancient to medieval times the term maya was used, but it was not used in the Vedas in its current dominant meaning. The optimistic Vedic saints who believed in the reality of the world often used maya for disguise or illusion. An example is how Indra disguised himself in different forms by using his maya.1 Here maya seems to mean power, the power to transform oneself without thereby necessarily becoming any less than one intrinsically is. In Vedic literature, maya is often used in the sense of illusion. In post‐Vedic literature the use of maya almost disappeared for quite some time. But in the meantime the meaning of maya as propounded earlier became consolidated. The question was later raised: “Why we are unable to under‐ stand the mystery of this world?” And the answer to this ques‐ tion is very telling: “We all talk futilely, remaining contented with physical comforts and always running after lust. And that is why we have covered the truth with the dusk cover of ig‐ norance.”2 Here the term maya is not used, but it is clear that the source of our ignorance is like a fog that has come between us and truth.3
1
Rigveda 6/47/18: “Indro Mayabhi Pururupa Jayte.”
2
Rigveda 10/82/71: “Niharena Pravrita Jalappya Casutrip Ukkathas‐ asascaranti.” 3
Svetasvatara Upanishad 4/10: “Mayan tu Prakriti Vidyanmayinam tu Mahesvaram.”
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After a long interval, the term maya reappeared in a com‐ paratively later upanishad but in a different perspective. And its meaning had been transformed through the addition of several new meanings. Different ideas and ideologies were propound‐ ed and propagated again and ultimately the concept of maya took on a definite shape. In Swetasvatar Upanishad we read: “Take nature for maya and the controller of maya is Mahesvar.”4 Buddhists also used mayabad, but here mayabad was changed into idealism, Vigyanvad, by Buddhists, and it is now understood and used only in the Buddhist framework.5 When Hindus say that the world is completely full of maya, ordinary people normally presume that the world is an illusion. This in‐ terpretation has some basis, because certain Buddhist philo‐ sophers did not believe that the phenomenal world truly exists independently of our ideas. But the fully developed and mature opinion on maya in the Vedanta is neither idealism nor realism. Actually, Vedanta thought does not teach a dogma but intends only to describe facts: what we are and what we see around us. In the Hindu Puranas, lila and maya are used in the de‐ scription of the scheme of various functions of the gods. Vishnu often plays lila to defeat and destroy demons. The goddesses Kali and Shakti are called the maya of Lord Shiva. Some schol‐ ars interpret these references in the Buddhist, “idealist,” sense. Such interpretations lead to serious misunderstanding, due to which the goddess Kali or Durga is understood as a negative power. However, Kali and Durga are not evil like maya but rather help to destroy the evil demons. In the descriptions of the divine actions, this process is called lila. Wendy Doniger (1976), Freek Bakker (1993), and some other Western scholars explain maya and lila in quite a different way than I do. Of course, there are different views regarding the concepts of maya and lila among Hindus themselves. 4
“The perception of the world by our bodily organs is only the different realization by self and the world has no real existence, this thought is called Vigyanvad or Idealism” (Sharma and Sarkar 1987: 42). 5
The idealist interpretation says that the world is not a true “ma‐ terial” world but only our ideas of “the” world; a realist interpretation claims that the world is not merely our perception but a “real” reality. Cf. Murty 1955: 218; Bhikku 1971.
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The Advaita Vedanta of Shankara (788‐820 C.E.) provided a philosophical account of maya, but in Shankara’s view maya is not evil either. Rather, it is the power of Brahman by which the latter manifests itself as the phenomenal world. It is without be‐ ginning and without end, coexistent with Brahman itself (cf. Puligandla 1997: 276). It would be a serious mistake to construe this statement as implying that there are two ultimate realities, namely, Brahman and maya, for maya has no existence apart from Brahman. It is to be emphasized that, when Shankara talks about the phenomenal world as maya in the sense of illusion, he is not saying that the phenomenal world is unreal but that it is an appearance that has its foundation in reality.6 An appear‐ ance, unlike something that is not real, can be sublated. For this reason, there can be no such thing as pure illusion. Every il‐ lusion is grounded in reality. Just as the magician creates an illusion in us through his power of manipulation, reality does the same. By his creative power, namely maya, Brahman pro‐ duces in us the illusion of the phenomenal world of variety, multiplicity, and diversity. Once ignorance is overcome by knowledge of the real, one is no longer held captive by maya. On attaining knowledge of reality, ignorance, maya and the world of appearances vanish simultaneously. Buddhist philo‐ sophers hold that everything is empty and unreal and that all we have and know are our perceptions only. Shankara himself argues most strongly against such a full‐blown idealism and enters into elaborate discussions with the nihilism of Buddhists (Müller 1928: 209‐11). The Perception of Maya as an Evil by Medieval Bhakti Saints In ancient Indian philosophical tradition, maya was not viewed as the supreme evil; rather, it was defined as the power of Brah‐ man by which He manifests himself as the phenomenal world. 6
“By that element of plurality which is the fiction of Nescience— maya as ignorance which is characterized by name and form, which is evolved as well as non‐evolved, which is not to be defined either as the Existing or the Non‐existing, Brahman becomes the basis of this entire apparent world with its changes, and so on, while in its true and real na‐ ture it at the same time remains unchanged, lifted above the phenomenal universe” (Shankara 1959: II, 27).
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It is without beginning and end and coexists with Brahman Himself. The political subjugation of Hindus by Muslim invad‐ ers and ultimately the establishment of Muslim rule over India in medieval times had a profound impact on the Hindu reli‐ gious and philosophical tradition. In spite of the zealotry of Is‐ lam, it should be admitted that mutual understanding and appreciation developed between the Hindu and Islamic cul‐ tures. The Muslims acquired insight into the profound and sub‐ lime teachings of the Upanishads and, in turn, the Hindus, moved by the Muslims’ simple devotion and self‐surrender to Allah, revived the practice bhakti‐yoga, i.e. the path of devotion in their own tradition.7 The rise of Hindu devotionalism (bhakti) gave rise to a long line of illustrious poet saints, such as Kabir, Tulsidas, Tukaram, Chaitanya, Namdev, Ravidas, Sunderdasa, Malukdas, Nanak and many others who produced superb de‐ votional literature. These bhakti saints made poetry a medium for expressing their devotion to God and finally a path of liber‐ ation (moksha) from worldly pain. But it is not easy to free oneself from the shackles of world‐ ly affairs. Basically, all living creatures (jivatama) are part of Brahman, the Supreme Reality. But, through ignorance, our perception of this reality is obstructed. All sufferings, sorrows and pains of human beings arise from this ignorance. Human beings are deprived of divine pleasure through their ignorance, which is the fruit of wicked maya. This is how the bhakti saints perceive maya. According to Namdev, the apparent diversity in the world is a mere illusion and deception. The power behind the scenes is invisible, and that is the only truth. Only those
7 It would be a grave mistake to think that devotionalism was un‐ known to Hinduism until its contact with Islam. Quite the contrary, de‐ votion as a means to salvation is to be found in the Vedas and Upani‐ shads and, above all, in the Bhagavad Gita, where bhakti‐yoga is explicitly and elaborately discussed. Thus, “the movement for expressing religious truth in the language of the people began in the south by at least the sev‐ enth century A.D. The time and place are both significant, for they make clear that the impetus towards devotional religion came from within the tradition itself, not, as has sometimes been suggested, from contact with Islam in the twelfth century” (Ainslie 1972: 229).
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who realize this truth can attain liberation; otherwise, it is impossible. Another bhakti saint, Ravidasa, did not see any positive quality in maya either; he sees only evil and negative elements in maya. His negative views of maya are expressed in two ways: first, in its factuality and, second, in the harm it causes to life and penance. The first argument is that maya is false but at the same time is temporary and will pass away. Assuming maya to be unreality, Ravidasa says that maya is false, unreal. Due to ig‐ norance, the human mind is devoid of rationality and commits folly under the influence of unreal maya. Just as one cannot get milk from a stone, so, because of maya, one cannot achieve any‐ thing of any real or substantial importance in this world. Ra‐ vidasa recognizes the domination of the inauspicious and harmful nature of maya in this world. According to him, the whole world is under the evil influence of maya. Nobody can be free from the influence of maya; if even the gods are its victims, what is one to think with respect to the creatures of this world? Maya is the source of illusion. No relationship in this world is real. All relationships die with death because all relationships are false, based as they are on maya. We all commit misdeeds under the influence of maya. The only escape from it is through the name of Rama. By giving the examples of the deer, fish, moth, and elephant, Ravidasa argues that they are destroyed because of the influence of maya on only their one sense organ. But the end of the human being is inevitable because all five sense organs are attacked by and fully polluted by maya. Ra‐ vidasa’s view is grim and he complains helplessly against maya for obstructing his path of divine worship and turning his at‐ tention from eternal happiness to temporary and inferior worldly pleasures. The whole world is reeling in pain because of maya and the only escape is through true devotion to Rama. This is what Ravidas prescribes for the liberation of the world that is suffering from maya. Sunderdasa, another bhakti poet, compares maya to a witch who devours the whole world. Maya increases with the help of five agents and three gunas, which are present in each and ev‐ ery human being (Singh 1977: 66). Thus, maya is active in all human beings, provoking them to indulge in evil. Maya is not permanent but transitory, since it is a natural law that whatever comes will pass away.
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47
According to Dadu, maya is not eternal; it comes into being and then perishes. Its real form is never visible and what is visible is not real. But it carries a trap to catch someone as soon as it finds a suitable opportunity.8 Women are maya for men and men for women. Both indulge in sensual pleasures and forget divine grace.9 The serpentine maya bites all through wealth and women (Mishra 1971: 132). In the same way as a peacock is glad to see a peahen, a human, because of attach‐ ment and ignorance, is pleased by maya. Malukdasa used different terms for maya, such as: kriya, kam, achar, etc. Kriya means activity, kam means lust and achar character. He called maya an illusion and hindrance in the path of liberation from worldly concerns. Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, believed that women, wealth, prosperity, and progeny are all different forms of ma‐ ya.10 Nanak discusses maya, laying the emphasis on the unity of jiva, the individual soul, and Brahman, the Supreme soul or Reality. The function of maya is to create illusion, to mislead one into and keep one in ignorance.11 Nanak’s views on maya are a riddle for scholars. He divided maya into two categories. The first category is of divine quality: here maya is the power of su‐ preme Brahma. The second category is that of false maya, which is the cause of worldly attachment.12 Nanak holds that this maya is the enemy of all creatures. Maya displays its impact by creat‐ ing differences. For humans, maya is a serpent that bites every‐ one.13 In other places Nanak called maya nature. Even Brahma, 8
Mishra 1971: 132: “Maya pasi hathi lai baithi gop chipai.”
9
Mishra 1971: 126: “Maya Vairni Jva ki.”
10
Mishra 1971: 131: “Maya Sampini Sab Dasai Kanak Kamini Dosh, Brahma Vishnu Mahesh Dadu Bache na Koi.” 11 Mishra 1977: 792: “Maia mohi sagal jag chaiya, Kamsi dekhi kami jo bhaiya / Sut Kanchan Siu hetu badhaia, Nanakbani.” 12
Mishra 1977: 792: “Baba mamia bharami bhuli. / Bharami bhuli dohagani na phir ank samai / Trisana maia mohini sut bandhay ghar nari.” 13
Mishra 1977: 1036: “Brahma Vishnu Mahesh Upaye mayia moh badhaida.”
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Vishnu, and Mahesh are under maya’s influence. His views on maya are similar to those of Shankara and other bhakti saints. Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836‐1886 C.E.), a worshiper of the goddess Kali, also has two categories of maya. The first one, vidya maya, consists of discrimination and non‐attachment. With the help of these the individual soul (jiva) surrenders itself to the mercy of God. The second, avidya maya, consists of lust, an‐ ger, and avarice, inordinate attachment, pride and envy. This kind of maya gives rise to the sense of “I and mine” and keeps people chained to the world. But as soon as vidya maya mani‐ fests itself, all avidya maya is totally destroyed. Ramakrishna holds that some maya is necessary for a person to survive and to carry on the functions of the body. We have already pointed out that, from an ontological point of view, Shankara’s maya is the creative power of Brah‐ man, by virtue of which the world of variety and multiplicity comes into existence. Sometimes maya, as the creative power of Reality, is referred to as “the sheer cosmic playfulness [lila] of Reality.” Ramakrishna holds that the evil maya keeps God hidden from our sight. The universal soul (paramatman) cannot be realized till God’s veil is removed. The sun lights up the earth, but a small cloud can hide it from our view. Similarly, the insignificant veil of maya prevents us from seeing the omni‐ present and all‐witnessing sachchidananda (existence ‐ knowl‐ edge ‐ bliss). Maya is like the weeds floating on a pond. We keep pushing the weeds away, but the space that we clear is soon filled up again by the weeds. In similar fashion, as long as we reason within ourselves and associate with holy men, everything seems clear; but shortly afterwards worldly desires will throw the veil of illusion created by maya over us. But then, just as we could prevent the return of the weeds by interposing a piece of floating bamboo in their way, so we could also prevent the return of maya through the fence of the knowledge and love of God. In that case maya could not make its way through such obstacles—and sachchidananda alone would be perceived. Some people, even though they have nothing to attract them in this world, create attachments for themselves and thus attempt to bind themselves to this earth. They do not want to be free. A man who has no family to care for, no relatives to look
MAYA AS EVIL
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after, generally takes a cat or a monkey or a dog or a bird as a pet and companion, and thus slakes his thirst for milk by drinking mere whey. Such is the illusive power of maya. A per‐ son suffering from a high fever and excessive thirst imagines that he can drink an immense amount of water. But when that fever has gone and he returns to normal temperature, he can barely drink a single cupful of water and his thirst is quenched immediately by even a very small quantity of it. In this way a person under the feverish excitement of maya and forgetful of his own smallness imagines that he can embrace the whole of divinity within his own bosom. But when the illusion passes away, a single ray of divine light is seen to be sufficient to flood him with eternal divine bliss. If one can detect and discover the universal illusion of maya, it will fly away just as a thief runs away when he is discovered. If the person who is possessed by an evil spirit is conscious that he is possessed, the evil spirit leaves him at once. Similarly, when the jiva, possessed by the evil spirit of maya, realizes that he is self‐ deluded, he is liberated from maya immediately. Kabir on Maya Kabir (14‐15th centuries C.E.) is one of the most renowned poet saints of Hindi literature. The most widely accepted dating of Kabir’s life is from 1385 to 1505 C.E. He was a poet saint with‐ out any formal education. He composed songs on various themes, all related to the welfare of human being, spiritually and socially. His songs were written down by his followers and published in the annotated volumes by Shyamsunder Dass as Kabir granthawali and sant Kabir. In his songs Kabir often criticized maya and his view of maya sometimes resembles Shankara’s Advaita Vedantin view. He rejects the notion that maya has any real existence; for him maya is illusionary and due to its influence non‐real, non‐existent things appear to be real. This happens because of adhyasa (superimposition). The classic illustration of superimposition is the rope‐snake example. A man steps on a rope in the dark and thinks it is a snake. Here the rope is what is immediately present to the consciousness, an object of past experience, and superimposition is the person’s mistaken attribution of the remembered qualities of the snake to the rope. Just as the rope is experienced as a snake under su‐
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perimposition, so reality, which is beyond names and forms, is experienced as the world of experiences through the superim‐ position of names and forms. On attaining knowledge of re‐ ality, ignorance, maya, and the world of appearances vanish si‐ multaneously. Kabir indicated the same situation caused by maya in a poem (Scott 1985: 185). Kabir condemns maya for two reasons. First, maya causes illusion in the mind of a jiva and, conse‐ quently, the latter forgets the reality of the self. Secondly, maya leads a jiva in the wrong direction by producing attachment, liking for and blind attraction to evil things, thus causing a great deal of pain, agony and suffering in the world. Kabirʹs sorrow is the game of maya. Death dances, salvation dances and, with them, maya (Singh 2002: 85‐86). It is again Kabir who says elsewhere that maya is like a seller of liquor who keeps us inebriated by making us drink. It is a strange dance where laughter and tears coexist. Did Shiva not dance in such frenzied inebriation as he carried the corpse of his spouse Sati? The sorrow of Kabir is similar. The common world knows only the illusory temptress maya and Kabir too was confronted by her. For Kabir, maya is not an abstract concept from philosophy but a concrete reality, a bitter truth. His Ram might be nirguna (without attributes), but maya to him is absolutely saguna (with attributes), corporeally present everywhere and all the time. However, at other times Kabir contradicts himself on the question of the real existence of maya. Maya in the thought of Kabir is not the cosmic illusion of classical Advaita Vedanta. The world is indeed maya, but it is far from unreal, for it is an il‐ lusion only in the sense that it is accepted for what it is not. Delusion is a more appropriate word. The essence of the world is its impermanence. It is real, but it is impermanent both in the sense that it is itself perishable and in the sense that its at‐ tributes cannot follow a person after his physical death. It offers qualities that are accepted as both good and desirable but constitute a fraud, a deception. He who accepts the world in this way, as a thing, is a victim of maya, of the pretense that these attachments, if not actually ultimate Reality itself, are at least not inimical to ultimate Reality. Maya is basically unreal‐ ity, as opposed to Reality, and the expression of this unreality in the world (Singh 2002: 85‐86). It is in worldly affections, in
MAYA AS EVIL
51
the desire to appropriate the things of this world, that the in‐ dividualʹs greatest temptation lies, and succumbing to this temptation means involvement in unreality. The result can only be separation from God, ultimate Re‐ ality, and continued transmigration. Maya is amjan, literally the black collyrium applied to the eye but traditionally the symbol of darkness and untruth. God, on the other hand, is niramjan, the One who is wholly apart from all that is false, the One who himself is Truth. The individual must choose one or the other; Truth and its antithesis cannot coexist. Kabir says, “I know I should adore Hari, God but in my [hu]man[hood] is great de‐ sire. Between Hari and me she opens a chasm. Maya is a true witch.” If an individual accepts the world’s attractions, if he ac‐ cepts the pretenses of maya, he must inevitably choose to be separated from God, and this is precisely what the unregen‐ erate individual does. Blinded by ignorance used for agyan (un‐ awareness), avidya (ignorance), led astray by delusion and for‐ getfulness, he accepts the world at its own valuation. But it is maya, it is a fraud (kapat), a deceit (chal), untruth (jhut), snare (jal), and the penalty for accepting it is inexorable. By accepting it, the individual involves himself in dubhida (“duality”) in all that stands in opposition to union, in that separation that in‐ evitably divides the human being from God. Some of the practical manifestations of maya are wealth, women, sons, power, status, worldly honour, comfort, food— these are the attractions that the world offers and which evoke an individualʹs greed, lust, and pride. These are the allurements that stimulate his evil impulses and lead him into the trap that maya has set. “In the heat of maya the world burns, attached to women and gold. Tell me how to keep this fire wrapped in cotton.” None of this, however, endures. Kabir gathers only that wealth that is directed at the future. “No one has ever been seen taking the bundle on his head with him, i.e. when leaving this world.” Maya is, of course, the work of God, for it consists in the creation and is inseparable from it. In Kabir’s thought, maya is fundamentally an interpretation of the creation or, rather, a misinterpretation of it, a misunderstanding of its nature and purpose (Shyamsunderdasa 1930: 41). Kabir says that the earth belongs to the “saints,” but thieves have taken possession of it.
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Nevertheless, the saints do not feel its weight; for them it is all gain. The creation is both a revelation of God and a snare. What matters is the individual’s response to it. If he perceives the re‐ velation he is on the way to salvation. If, on the other hand, he regards it as a means for indulging in his desires and lust and greed he is on the road to ruin. In short, creation can be his ally or his enemy, an opportunity or a trap, solid ground or deadly quicksand. Even evil comes from God and is to be regarded as an aspect of the opportunity given to someone. Everything de‐ pends on the response that the individual makes, and the unregenerate person makes the wrong response. A wayward human dominated by selfish and sensual desire inevitably means involvement in maya. Maya is, to put it in the commonly used feminine imagery, the greatest temptress we know. She has ensnared purity, passion and ignorance in her hands (Singh 2002: 86). And she struts about mouthing sweet words. To Vishnu she is the consort Lakshmi, to Shiva she is Par‐ vati. To the priest she sits as the idol, at the place of pilgrim‐ age she is holy water. She squats as Yogini with the Yogi, as queen with the king. To some she belongs as a diamond, to some as a cracked cowrie. She is a devout female to the de‐ votee, a Muslim woman to a Turk. The menial Kabir is the Masterʹs slave and she sold herself to him. (Shyamsunder‐ dasa 1930: 43)
In short, maya is as universal and all pervasive as Rama, if not more. It can reach where Rama has no place and it transforms itself to suit the venue. It is not called maya for nothing. But it sells itself to Kabir whom it failed to enchant and who learned to control it. At least that is what Kabir wants us to think. But we come across a poem by him in which he confesses helplessly that he is trying to jettison maya, but it will not let him go—the familiar case of the ascetic who is trying to rid himself of his blanket which, however, continues to cling to him. This is how the poem begins: “I am abandoning maya but she does not become abandoned. Maya embraces me again and again.” Following that is a detailed delineation of maya. She is respect, honor, the sap and the taste. Incantation, penance, yoga are maya as well. Mother, father, wife, son, daughter, etc. are
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maya and so, of course, wealth and possessions are maya. If she is so omnipresent, who can escape her bondage? He says a great deal more about maya. The name of Rama occurs several times in Kabirbani, the poems of Kabir and maya almost the same number of times. Kabir is related to it in many ways. At times it is represented as a whore, sometimes as his sister in whom he confides his sorrows. First he says affectionately. “Return to your house, Sister, your eyes are poison to me.” He goes on to point out the reason, “Go where there is throne and silk, where there is incense and sandal. What use is living with me, I belong to a base caste.” Kabir is unhappy because of the all pervasiveness of maya. When he laments that maya does not leave him, the hint is obvious that the world created by maya does not free him. In a way, Kabir weeps for the entire world. The pain of death is also due to maya. Love itself is a game played unendingly between God and the individual devotee, it encompasses all mystical experience, and part of this game is death. He suggests a remedy for freeing oneself from the trap of maya. First, one is to give up all false ego and pride; only then is there some hope of giving up maya. He asks: What point is there to giving up maya as long as pride remains? Through pride the great sages were lost; pride devoured them all. Kabir is of the firm opinion that maya is as immortal as the mind, and so are desires and thirst: O heart put away doubt And dance fearlessly. All this is Maya’s artifice Hey pundit! Listen to this marvel; I can describe it; Gods, men, Shivaʹs devotees, the celestial dancers. Are all in love with maya; The three worlds are ensnared in her nose, Kabir compares maya with a prostitute – Kabir, maya is a harlot, Who sets her snare in the market place?
The whole world was trapped, but Kabir cuts himself free. The widespread impact of maya is visible in the whole world and Kabir is able to discover it:
54
DINESH PRASAD SAKLANI In the flame of maya, the whole world is burning, Lusting after women and gold. Tell me, how can one keep fire Wrapped up in cotton? (Vandeville 1993: 207‐08)
All people fall into the trap of maya irrespective of their religious identities, rituals and practices. Only the saints can check and command the crooked maya. Maya is fraudulent and cheats. Kabir gives a few clues to ascetics for identifying maya so that it can be avoided. Even the gods are unable to identify and isolate it.14 Kabir equates maya with all mental, physical and social de‐fects. Mental defects are ill feelings towards others (anger, jealousy, lust, temptation, etc.); physical defects are being blind, lame, deaf and dumb; social defects refers to social discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, sex, etc.). In the early phase of his spiritual life, Kabir was the victim of maya, but after the blessings of his guru, he attained spiritual perfection and after that maya could not deter him.15 Like Shankara, Kabir ac‐ cuses maya of creating hindrances to the unification of individual self with supreme reality.16 Maya’s ability to bind is more effective due to its charming nature. Kabirʹs maya is very attractive and sweet.17
14
“O Ascetic, think hard / and figure it out: It is a male or a female?” Kabir himself replies that she is neither married nor a virgin, but she gives birth to sons; M.P. Gupta, in his edition of the Kabir‐Granthavali, p. 265, interprets Maya’s sons as manovikar (defects of the mind); these “sons” may also be interpreted as the lures of the world in general. 15
Kabir states (1960: 33): “maya approached me, / Dressed in so many garbs. / But the Guru protected me. / So she made obeisance and went away.” 16
This is evident from Shankara’s commentary on Brahmasutra 2/1/28. 17
“Maya is mohini (attractive), She allures all. / She cannot be aban‐ doned, as she has intoxicating power. Only the arrow of real knowledge can kill her” (Kabir 1960: 233).
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Concluding Remarks All medieval bhakti poet saints have very common views of maya. All of them consider maya to be an evil and see it as the source of all sufferings, shortcomings, problems and tensions in the world among all human beings irrespective of any distinc‐ tion. Kabir uses many adjectives to condemn maya; many of the adjectives used by Kabir and the bhakti saints are feminine. The reason for this seems to be the social condition and attitude to‐ wards women in medieval Indian society. At the time women were thought to be the source of all problems in India arising from social tension, political exigencies and economic degrada‐ tion. It is very difficult to free oneself from the influence of evil maya. Very few were able to do it and remain happy. Kabir faced maya with the weapon of knowledge provided by his sat‐ guru (true teachers), and only then could he give up the same. Nanak, Dadu, and Malukdas are of the view that divine power provides the strength to identify and escape the trap of maya. Kabir suggests that only by acquiring true knowledge under the able guidance of satguru can maya be kept at bay. And if one can keep maya at bay, then he can possess eternal happiness and lib‐ eration from worldly pain. Bibliography Ainslie, T. Embree. (1972). The Hindu Tradition: Readings in Oriental Thought. New York: Vintage Books. Bakker, Freek L. (1993). The Struggle of the Hindu Balinese Intellectuals: Developments in Modern Hindu Thinking in Independent Indonesia. Amsterdam: VU University Press. Doniger, Wendy. (1976). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berke‐ ley: University of California Press. Hyms from the Rigveda. (1922). Transl. and ed. A.A. Macdonell. Lon‐ don: Oxford University Press. Kabir. (1960). Kabir‐Granthavali. Edited by M.P. Gupta. Agra: Sahitya Sadan. (1961). Granthavali. Ed. Shyamsunderdasa. Varanasi: Nagaripra‐ charini Sabha. Mishra, Bhavatarat. (1971). Dadudayal Ki Bani. Kanpur: Sahitya Nike‐ tan.
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Mishra, Jayram.(1977). Nanakbani. Kanpur: Sahitya Niketan. Müller, F. Max. (1928). The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. London: Green & Co. Murti, T.R.V. (1955). The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. London: George Allen & Unwin. Nanananda, Bhikku. (1971). Concept and Reality in Early Buddhist Thought. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Puligandla, R. (1997). Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. Radhakrishanan, S. (1935). The Philosophy of the Upanishads. London: George Allen & Unwin. Scott, David. (1985). Kabir’s Mythology. Delhi: Bhartiya Vidya Praka‐ shan. Shankara. (1959). Naiskarmya‐Siddhi. Transl. by A.J. Alston. London: Shanti Sadan. (1960). Brahma‐sutra‐Sankara‐Bhasya. Transl. V.M. Apte. Bombay: Manohar Publishing Company. Singh Nambar. (2002).”The Sorrows of Kabir.” In: Monika Hovst‐ mann (ed.). Images of Kabir. Delhi: Mittal Prakashan. Pp. 84‐92. Singh, Yogendra. (1976). Sant Raidasa. Allahabad: Nagpur. Vandeville, Charlotte. (1993). A Weaver Named Kabir: Selected Verses with a Detailed Biographical and Historical Introduction. Oxford: Delhi. Vivekananda. (1987). Gyanyoga. Transl. Brahmendra Sharma and A‐ mal Sarkar. Nogpur: Ramkrishna Math.
The Struggle with Evil The Theology of Evil in the Bhagavad Gita and the Devimahatmya Victor A. van Bijlert
Abstract The problem of evil has vexed many Hindu thinkers throughout the ages. But unlike Christianity, Judaism and Islam, which hold to the belief in an all‐ powerful benign creator‐God of the world, Hinduism never explicitly held that God is good. Rather, God is impersonal, like the universe itself. Thus, as the universe, God created everything but in an impersonal way. The creator‐ God of the three Abrahamic religions is a person, even a legal person, who en‐ ters into a contract with His people and Who promulgates irrevocable legal texts. This idea is unknown in Hinduism. God is not a lawgiver. In Hindu thought, the question of evil is relevant only in the social world. Moreover, evil is the outcome of (social) human action, driven by desire, anger and avar‐ ice. These three vices are regarded as the sources of evil. This idea is illustra‐ ted by relevant passages from the Bhagavad Gita, a rather abstract theological scripture and the Devimahatmya, a very popular narrative Hindu scripture. With respect to both scriptures, it is important to note that (a) they promul‐ gate the idea of an internalized renunciation of the world as the source of ul‐ timate human good, and (b) they place the origin of evil squarely in human hands. God, the ultimate Spirit of the universe, is not responsible for evil. Evil has a human source and it takes human effort to overcome it within one‐ self by renouncing the three vices of desire, anger and avarice.
The Problem of Evil The problem of evil has always vexed Hindu sages, theologians and philosophers. From the earliest written sources of the Veda samhitas down to modern times, we find discussions on evil and exemplary stories on evil and divine intervention to vanquish it. The problem of evil in Hinduism is both complex and simple. The complexity lies in the fact that Hinduism, despite the term 57
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itself which suggests a more or less uniform system of beliefs and practices, is an amalgam of theologies, stories, practices and an abundant wealth of sacred texts in different Indian lang‐ uages. There is no unifying authoritative book or church that gives direction to the “chaos” of Hinduism. Unlike Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Hinduism does not possess a single au‐ thoritative scripture or canon of scriptures. It does have a wealth of scriptures, but none of them is exclusively authorita‐ tive. Rather, Hinduism resembles a free market of competing religions and ideas. It is for this reason that sociologists like Louis Dumont have attempted to define Hinduism as a socio‐ logical phenomenon rather than as a scriptural religion.1 The difficult part, therefore, is how to go about finding out what Hinduism has to say about evil. There is probably no single answer. Wendy Doniger in her admirable study (1976) has indi‐ cated that the problem of evil in general is the problem of theo‐ dicy and that Hindu tradition has more than ten varieties to of‐ fer. The problem of theodicy brings us at the same time to the easy part of our problem. Doniger explains that the term “theo‐ dicy” was first proposed by Leibniz. In brief, the term denotes the following problem: If God, as the creator of the world, is ab‐ solutely good, then why is there evil in the world and where did it come from? Why can the problem be easily solved in Hin‐ duism? I would propose a rash solution: Hinduism simply does not have an absolutely good God who creates the world and must therefore somehow be responsible or not for the appear‐ ance of evil in the world. The problem of theodicy is a typically medieval scholastic Christian problem, based on the concept of an all‐powerful single creator God who is absolutely holy, abso‐ lutely good and all‐loving and absolutely different from His creation. In other words, in Christianity (as well as Judaism and Islam) God is a heavenly ruler, a juridical partner of and law‐
1
Incidentally, Dumont was not the first. The British census takers in the 1870s faced the enormous task of defining Hinduism in categories that would be useful for the purpose of a census. They did not succeed and had to define Hinduism instead by pointing out that it was not any of the other “well‐organised” religions such as Islam, Christianity, Bud‐ dhism and Jainism. See Beverley1872: 129‐33.
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59
giver for humankind. As such, God would naturally be thought to be absolutely good because, among other things, He pro‐ vided divine legislation (through revelation) which must neces‐ sarily absolutely good and enforceable. The role of the creator‐God as lawgiver and “legal person” entails the problem of evil. How can God, the good lawgiver and trustworthy legal partner of the people of Israel and, later, of the Christian believers and of the Islamic ummah, have al‐ lowed evil to mar His creation? The contradiction is stark and seems unresolvable via religious concepts that visualize God as a benign creator and legal partner. Hinduism, for all its varie‐ ties, simply does not include the concept of God as a legal part‐ ner with whom a person or a whole people can make a contract. Also, Hinduism does not conceive of God as a lawgiver nor does it hold that God is necessarily absolutely good. The only general traits of God in Hinduism one could recognize are his or her omnipotence and his or her preference for sincere wor‐ shipers. Law, in the sense in which it is “fixed” in the Torah or the Qur’an, is simply unknown in Hinduism. Dharma would be the closest one could get to religious, social and ritual customs and their codification. But, unlike the Torah and the Qur’an, the Hindu texts on Dharma are at variance with one another, do not prescribe and forbid but rather describe, advise and sug‐ gest.2 Moreover, the Dharma texts are not regarded as having been literally dictated by God. As far as Hinduism is concerned, the solution to the problem of the origin of evil lies elsewhere: it is not found in a theodicy. The easiest answer has already been cited: in Hinduism God is not necessarily good; God is like the universe: universal, omnipresent and all‐powerful but not a le‐
2 The most famous Hindu “lawbook” states that the sources of Dharma are the Veda, tradition and customs of those who know the Veda, the conduct of virtuous people and what is satisfying to oneself (cf. Manu 2.6) See Doniger1991: 17 and I, which quotes Apastamba’s Dharma Sutra 1.7.20.6 to the effect that right and wrong (dharma and adharma) do not go about saying “Here we are.” In the final analysis, Dharma is trans‐ cendent, undefinable and must be continuously sought. It does not pre‐ sent itself in a divinely revealed body of legal prescriptions that are unal‐ terable. Since Dharma itself is transcendent, it cannot be adequately and exhaustively described in texts.
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gal partner who should not have allowed evil. Just like the uni‐ verse, God also displays pleasant and unpleasant aspects. The Bhagavad Gita and Renunciation of the World The statements made above to the effect that Hinduism has no authoritative scriptures and does not have a theodicy problem in the Western sense must be qualified. In what follows we will see that Hinduism has some rather famous scriptures and that these do discuss the origins of evil in an interesting way.3 One of the roles of sacred scriptures like the Torah and the Qur’an is to provide divinely revealed laws and regulations for ritual, ethical and social life. In other words, these texts “speak” to groups, to a people or to many peoples. Mainly, however, they address collectives. In the modern era laws are no longer considered to be inflexible and of divine origin but of human origin. Hindu scriptures (like the New Testament) speak pri‐ marily to individuals; they never seem to address a whole peo‐ ple, as they are not covenants with a people nor do they pre‐ scribe ritual worship once and for all.4 Rather, Hindu scriptures seem to address the individual. At least two important and po‐ pular Hindu scriptures do: the Bhagavad Gita and the Devima‐ hatmya. We will first look at the former.
3
Discussing various Western scholars on the Indian ideas of theo‐ dicy, Doniger mentions the view of Max Weber who regarded the doc‐ trine of karma as being among the most satisfactory theodicies, since it does not a good God as creator of the world (Doniger 1976:5). The doc‐ trine of karma, however, is a philosophical teaching that is tacitly denied in many Hindu mythological stories. For example, the Supreme Divinity can absolve someone of the effects of bad karma if he so wishes. This means that the karma doctrine is only one of the (not very plausible) ex‐ planations of the observed inequality in the social world. 4
In the New Testament, the old law of the Torah was not, of course, formally abolished but transcended in the famous summary of the law as the commandment of love given by Jesus in Matthew 22:36‐40, Mark 12:28‐34, Luke 10:25‐28, and perhaps John 15:12‐13. Christianity began with personal conversion and an individual choice—cf. the story of the conversion and baptism of the Ethiopian in Acts 8:26‐39.
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The Bhagavad Gita is written in the form of a dialogue be‐ tween the God Krishna and the prince Arjuna.5 Krishna is speaking, as it were, privately to Arjuna and to him alone, re‐ sponding to Arjuna’s questions. The Gita is thus a private in‐ struction by God to a single human individual. It exemplifies and enacts, as it were, dramatically the individualism of Vedan‐ tism, a major gospel of Hinduism.6 It offers, among other things, a summary of the teachings of the Upanishads and adds to the latter’s meta‐theology a personal touch of theism and de‐ votion to the Godhead. The highest teaching of the Gita is the gospel of individual devotion to a personal God who is at the same time the indwelling spirit of the universe: “Renounce all [religious and social] duties (dharma) and take your refuge in Me alone. I will liberate you from all sins. Do not weep” (18:66); “Eternal, omnipresent, stable, immoveable, is this everlasting One”(2:24cd).7 In addressing this individual, Prince Arjuna, the Gita is addressing every single individual and thus the whole of humankind. This universalism cum individualism, or universal‐ izable individualism, is the outcome of the internalization of the ethos of renunciation or the world, the veritable motor of Hin‐ du spirituality, Hindu religion and ethics, as well as of Bud‐ dhism and Jainism.8 The occasion for revealing the Gita to Arjuna was the lat‐ ter’s sudden unwillingness to face the consequences of the bat‐ tle that was about to begin. Arjuna suffered from “weakness” of heart. He was entirely overwhelmed and confused as to what he should do: fight or flee (cf Gita 1:45‐46). He asks Krishna for
5
For more philological details on the Gita see van Buitenen 1981:1‐
29. 6
In the late nineteenth century, the great Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee preferred the Gita above all other Hindu scriptures because, in his view, it embodied the essence of Hinduism, the core of Hindu theology that is worth preserving and developing. For details on this see my forthcoming book on Hindu modernity and Harder 2001. 7
Translations are mine unless otherwise indicated.
8
On the importance of renunciation of the world for Hinduism see Dumont 1970: 42‐45. On the internalization of this through devotion (bhakti) to God see Dumont 1970: 56‐58.
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spiritual council. The teaching, the religion, of the Gita addres‐ ses human social dilemmas and human suffering within the so‐ cial world. The old solution for overcoming this kind of suffer‐ ing was total renunciation of the world, perhaps best exempli‐ fied in the (legendary) life of the prince Siddhartha who became the Buddha after full spiritual awakening. The Gita solves the problem of suffering and dilemma in the social world by re‐ commending an internal renunciation of the world. One should not renounce the social world and its actions; one should per‐ form one’s worldly duties and actions and mentally renounce their results: … you should always do works that ought to be done with‐ out attachment. A man who performs actions without at‐ tachment reaches the highest goal (Gita 3:19); The soul embodied in the city with nine gates [i.e. the phys‐ ical body], who is self‐controlled, continues happily to re‐ nounce mentally all actions but does not [really] do any‐ thing nor makes others do anything (Gita 5:13); Renounce all actions in Me; set your heart on the Self, be without cravings, be without egoism. Thus, you should fight and be free from worry (Gita 3:30).
The last verse addresses Arjuna personally. Krishna, as the Su‐ preme spirit of the universe, tells him plainly to fight and not to worry about the outcome, for such is the way of the social world. The sphere of renunciation and the blessedness it brings can and must be realized within the social world. The passage already shows the absence of a true theodicy problem: God is not responsible for the troubles of the world. The Gita on Evil Evil in the world is evil primarily committed within the context of the social world (samsara), the world of social hierarchies, of castes and classes, of ritually purer and ritually less pure people and occupations. Within this hierarchical world, evil takes the form of rampant violence and usurpation: some evil kings op‐ press poor brahmins; some demons disturb the sacrifices of sages or gods; some local landlord oppresses his tenants, etc. Most evil, also in the wider story of the epic Mahabharata in
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which the Gita is embedded, is social and of human origin. The older Hindu escape from these troubles of the world was to re‐ nounce it physically: in other words, to opt out of the social world, to leave the ritual and social hierarchy of Hindu society behind. By leaving the world, the one renouncing the world also left evil behind. He (or she) could no longer be touched or stained by the evil in the world. Like good, evil is the outcome of actions performed within a particular social context. Evil deeds will bring evil results, good deeds good results. But evil deeds are a social phenom‐ enon because they can only be performed and suffered when others are around as victims or perpetrators. In fact, the one re‐ nouncing the world cannot sin nor undergo evil by others be‐ cause he or she is totally alone and outside the context of the so‐ cial world of caste and hierarchy. In the Gita God represents the sphere of the total renunciation of the world. In almost any Hindu text God is omnipresent and impersonal, like nature or space.9 Good and evil do not reach or taint the Supreme omni‐ present Spirit. In the Gita Krishna speaks as a “persona” of this universal omnipresent Spirit. He states about himself: Works do not taint Me; I do not desire the results of action. Those who know Me to be thus are not bound by their ac‐ tions (Gita 4:14); The Lord of the world does not create agency nor actions nor the accruing fruits of actions, but it is the nature of things that operates. The omnipresent Lord does not accept anyone’s sins nor anyone’s good deeds. Living beings are deluded because knowledge is covered up by ignorance (Gita 5:14‐15).
If this is so, then the question that should still vex us as well as Arjuna is: Where does evil come from if not from the imper‐ sonal spirit of the universe?
9
The most famous Advaita Vedanta text, the Agamashastra of Gau‐ dapada (ca. 5th century A.D) compares the universality of the Self with the omnipresence and universality of space (Gaudapada Agamashastra 3:3‐8; see Bhattacharya 1943:50‐53).
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VICTOR A. VAN BIJLERT Arjuna asked: What makes man do sinful deeds, even against his will, as if driven by force? The Lord answered: It is desire, it is anger springing from the natural force of passion. This [force in the form of desire and anger] is a great consumer and extremely prone to sin. It is our enemy here in this world .... Knowledge is covered up by this eter‐ nal enemy of the wise man, this enemy that is an insatiable fire in the form of desire. (Gita 3:36‐37,39)
Not God but human beings themselves are responsible. Even the wise person can fall victim to this source of evil that takes the form of inordinate desire and anger. The natural force of passion refers to the doctrine of the Sankhya philosophy which holds that three forces work in nature (which again includes the social world): the force of balance and goodness (sattva), the force of passion (rajas) that causes movement in the world, and the force of inertia (tamas). In various combinations these three forces determine the quality of everything in the world, from food to social behavior, forms of worship and different occupa‐ tions. Here in the Gita (which uses Sankhya terminology and concepts throughout), evil is the outflow of the natural force of passion, an impersonal force like any force of nature. But it be‐ comes evil when a person in a social setting gives in to its dic‐ tates. Passion as the source of evil then manifests itself when the person is prone to inordinate desires and great anger. Ultimately these two vices are derived from a lack of prop‐ er knowledge. This knowledge is a lucid state of mind in which one realizes what is important in life and what is not. True knowledge is spiritual knowledge, as we are informed in Gita 13:2: “Know Me as consciousness in all embodied beings. Knowledge about this consciousness and about the body I deem to be real knowledge.” Ignorance, by contrast, leads to in‐ ordinate desire and anger, especially when the desires are not easily fulfilled or cannot be fulfilled. Thus, the Hindu theodicy is that evil is purely of human origin. Desire and anger are the root causes of evil. Chapter 16 of the Gita picks up the theme of evil once more. There it is stated that the world has two kinds of beings (Gita 16:6): those with godly tendencies and those with demonic tendencies.
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These two classes of beings are called sarga which means creation. But the text does not specify who made them thus. We are here in the realm of mythology rather than theology. But towards the end of chapter 16 it is again clear that evil is based on free human choice, not on divine creation: Threefold is the gate to hell, destroying the Self: desire, an‐ ger and avarice. Therefore you should abandon these three. Freed from these three gates of darkness, a man performs what is beneficial to himself, and is then going to the highest goal. (Gita 16:21‐22)
Even if there are two kinds of beings on earth, i.e. godly ones and demonic ones, one does not need to belong to the demonic ones. One can freely chose to reject the three gates of hell, namely desire, anger and avarice. These three are the sources of all (social) evil. Their total rejection leads to the supreme spirit‐ ual goal. Evil and its destruction thus lie within human control. This is the doctrine we can derive from the Gita. The Devimahatmya and the Renunciation of the World The Devimahatmya is viewed as an independent scripture while at the same time, like the Gita, forming part of a larger text. The Devimahatmya (the greatness of the Goddess) is found in chapters 81‐93 of the Markandeya Purana.10 The Devi‐ mahatmya is also available in numerous independent manu‐ scripts, and currently in numerous printed editions. The text contains both a story and devotional hymns but, unlike the Gi‐ ta, very little abstract theology. Recitation of the Devimahatmya is considered to be a meritorious deed and forms the heart of the devotion to the Goddess (see Coburn 1992: 159‐69). But again, like the Gita, the Devimahatmya is addressed explicitly to individuals. In the Devimahatmya, however, the individuals to whom the text is addressed are in distress and have left the social world behind. In this respect, the setting differs from that of the Gita. The Devimahatmya narrative opens with the sorry plight of two individuals: a king named Suratha and a merchant
10
For details see Coburn 1988.
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named Samadhi. King Suratha had been forced to wage war against his enemies, lost the battles and, after returning to his capital, fell victim to wicked ministers. Under the pretext of go‐ ing hunting he abandons his kingdom altogether and finds the hermitage of the sage Medhas in a dense forest. There the king meets the merchant Samadhi. This merchant was banished from his estate by his wicked sons in collusion with his wife.11 Both king and merchant are the innocent victims of evil done to them by others. The evil is done within a social context. In the case of the king, it is his enemies and wicked ministers who pursue him, whereas the merchant has been driven from his home by his wicked family. In despair both have renounced the social world and taken refuge with the sage Medhas. Even though their renunciation of the world is not voluntary, they find themselves in a situation similar to that of any one renoun‐ cing the world. They have left the social world behind and, in the relatively non‐hierarchical setting of a forest hermitage, they are looking for answers concerning the origin of their suf‐ fering, caused by the evil committed by others. In fact, the story implies realistically that renunciation of the world may have oc‐ curred often because of troubles in the social world. People sel‐ dom voluntarily renounced their social world unless they were forced to do so by others. The Devimahatmya thus does not present an idealistic picture of the renunciation of the world. Even Arjuna’s unwillingness to fight and eventually his deci‐ sion to leave the battlefield was not a form of voluntary renun‐ ciation. Rather, Arjuna felt forced by the circumstances in which he found himself. Nevertheless, in both cases there was a turn to a transcendent source of knowledge. In Arjuna’s case, Krish‐ na is that source and, in the case of the king and the merchant, the source is the sage Medhas. The king and the merchant debate how it is possible that they are still emotionally so much attached to the welfare of the kingdom and unloving relatives respectively. They approach the sage Medhas with this question. The king adds, almost as
11
I am summarizing the story as it occurs in Coburn’s translation (1992:32‐33) of the first twenty verses or so of chapter one of the Devi‐ mahatmya.
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an afterthought, a psychological explanation for their deep but irrational attachment to their own people: [B]oth he and I are extremely miserable: our mind is drawn towards an object through our emotional attachment, even though we have seen the faults in the object. What, o illustrious one, is this that deludes even those who have knowledge; this delusion of him and me whose faculty of discriminating [between good and bad] has been blinded? Devimahatmya 1:32‐3312
The king diagnoses his own situation and that of his friend Samadhi: they are both deluded, because they feel miserable and yet entertain love for those who have driven them out of the social world. He does not try to explain the evil that others against them. He is seeking an answer to their own reaction. The king senses that they themselves are responsible for their misery, for they are unnecessarily attached to bad people whom they still love. The Total Nature of the Goddess The sage Medhas explains to his two listeners that all this is the doing of the great Goddess who, as the Great Illusion (maya), deludes living beings: The Lady (Bhagavati), the Goddess, forcibly pulls at the hearts even of those who possess knowledge and causes their delusion (moha), She who is Great Illusion (maya). She creates these three worlds [heaven, the atmosphere, and the earth] with their living beings and stationary things.
12 I am using the Sharma edition (1997) as the basis for the Sanskrit text. Consequently, I am following Sharma’s verse numbering. Coburn also follows this numbering in his translation (1992). There are other verse numberings, which is a matter of some confusion in the Devi‐ mahatmya. Most editions do not simply count the two lines of the verse metre in which the text is written but try to count smaller units and even single words as separate verses in order to arrive at the sacred number of seven hundred verses for the Devimahatmya, for it was later known as the Goddess’ laudation in seven hundred verses. For easy reference I have retained the verse numbering of Sharma and Coburn.
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VICTOR A. VAN BIJLERT When She is pleased She grants boons to men and promotes their liberation. She is the highest knowledge, the eternal one who is the cause of liberation and the cause of bondage to the cyclical [social] world (samsara). She is the Lady (ishvari) of all the Lords (ishvara). Devimahatmya 1:42‐44
The Devimahatmya proposes a theodicy here that is not very different from the one implied in the Gita. The ultimate divinity in and behind the universe is the Goddess. She encompasses everything in the universe. She is an impersonal power, the power of illusion, the creatrix of the universe and the Queen of all the Gods. She causes bondage and She causes liberation from bondage. The Goddess is no more and no less than the multifaceted impersonal universe itself, with good, evil, pleas‐ ant, and unpleasant. She is immanent and transcendent at the same time. She creates the universe and is congruous with it or identical with it. She encompasses matter and spirit, nature and society, good and evil. Further on in the text She is praised by the God Brahma in the following verses: Great knowledge are You, great Illusion, great Intelligence, great Memory, great Delusion (moha) are You, o great God‐ dess, great Demoness! You are the nature (prakriti) of the universe, manifesting the three powers of nature.13 You are the night of the cos‐ mos, you are the great Night, you are the cruel Night of De‐ lusion (moha). Devimahatmya 1:58‐59
Does this mean that the Goddess will allow evil to reign su‐ preme in the world? Interestingly, the Goddess appears when‐ ever forces of evil have upset the order of the social world. This is symbolized in the struggle between the gods and the de‐ mons, the devas and the asuras. The bulk of the Devimahatmya is taken up by three major stories of the Goddess’ liberating in‐ tervention.
13
This refers to the three forces of nature as taught in the Sankhya. I have briefly explained these three forces in the discussion of the Gita.
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In the first story (the latter part of chapter 1) she does not intervene directly. As the power of the God Vishnu, she is in‐ voked to awaken Vishnu who is asleep on his cosmic snake‐bed as two powerful demons, Madhu and Kaitabha, spring up from the dirt of his ears. These demons threaten to kill the God Brah‐ ma seated on the lotus growing out of Vishnu’s navel. Brahma implores the Goddess, among others, by the verses 58 and 59 quoted right above, to awaken Vishnu. The latter wakes up and, after a long struggle, slays the two demons. The second episode (chapters 2‐4) narrates how the demon Mahisha (the buffalo‐shaped demon) had vanquished all the gods in a war. The gods become angry and create a mass of light out of which the ten‐armed Goddess Durga emerges. She fights with Ma‐ hisha and defeats him in battle. She thus restores the gods to their rightful functions and returns their possessions to them. The third and longest episode (chapters 5‐12) narrates how the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha had robbed the gods of all their possessions and defeated them. The gods invoke the God‐ dess who, through various transformations of her own form, defeats all the armies of the demons as well as the two leaders of the demons, Shumbha and Nishumbha in different battles. Especially after these last exploits the Goddess promises that “… whenever there is harassment caused by demons, I will de‐ scend on earth and destroy the enemies” (Devimahatmya 11:50‐ 51). These last words are in perfect harmony with the famous verses from the Bhagavad Gita where Krishna declares roughly the same: Whenever righteousness (dharma) is on the decline and un‐ righteousness rises up, I create Myself, For the protection of the good ones, for the destruction of the evil‐doers, and for the restoration of righteousness, I am born in age after age. Gita 4:7‐8
The Gita does not specify how Krishna appears in age after age. In the Devimahatmya the Goddess does indicate how she is to return. In the first place she must be worshiped and her mar‐ velous deeds should be recounted (12:3‐23). This will protect one from all fears and dangers. The other means to make the
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Goddess appear is to “invoke” her powers as happened sym‐ bolically at the beginning of the second episode (2:8‐30). In oth‐ er words, the Goddess is a Divinity of war and a Divinity pre‐ ferred by kings. This becomes clear from the last chapter. The merchant and the king worship the Goddess intensely for three years (chapter 13:5‐9). The Goddess is pleased and appears before them, grant‐ ing them a boon. The merchant chooses knowledge “which causes the disappearance of attachment” (13:13). But the king gets more: he receives an everlasting kingdom and here and now he regains “his own kingdom in which the forces of the enemies are slain by force” (13:12). The latter statement proba‐ bly implies that the king reconquered the kingdom that was stolen from him by his wicked ministers. Conclusion Both the Gita and the Devimahatmya put the origin of evil plainly in the human beings themselve. They, being products of nature and influenced by emotional forces like greed, anger and desire, can commit wrongs in the social world. The human be‐ ing, and not an impersonal Supreme Spirit (symbolized as Krishna or the Goddess), is responsible both for committing evil and undergoing evil. The not very pronounced implication of the latter is that human beings should fight evil when they en‐ counter it. Not only should humans struggle against their own evil tendencies in the form of desire, etc. but also fight it phys‐ ically, if it comes their way. Of course, physical fighting in the Gita and the Devimahatmya is the prerogative of the royal class, the class to which Arjuna and King Suratha belong. If evil is a social phenomenon, its removal is also a social obligation, a kind of police duty, in fact, that falls to the king. But generally speaking, one must root out evil from within oneself. This is done by overcoming desire, anger and avarice in one’s own personal make‐up. Thus, the bulk of the teaching of the Gita is devoted to the psychological spiritual disciplines of yoga. The Devimahatmya recommends devotion to the Goddess, primar‐ ily through listening to her grand exploits against the demonic perpetrators of evil. Both the Gita and Devimahatmya teach that ultimate salvation lies in transcending the social world. The renunciation of the world is the sphere in which one finds one’s
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true spiritual destiny. The road to this goal is not necessarily through actually opting out of the social world but lies in an in‐ ternal renunciation of the world whose essence is the private devotion to the impersonal spirit of the universe. Bibliography Bhattacharya, Vidhushekhara. (1943). The Agamashastra of Gaudapada: Ed., transl. and annotated by Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya. Fore‐ word by Christian Lindtner. Repr. 1989. Delhi: Motilall Banarsi‐ dass Publishers, Private Ltd. Beverley, H. (1872). Report on the Census of Bengal. Calcutta: Her Ma‐ jesty’s Stationery Service. Coburn, Thomas B. 1992. Encountering The Goddess: A Translation of the Devi‐Mahatmya and A Study of its Interpretation. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. (1988). Devi‐Mahatmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. Repr. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Doniger, Wendy O’Flaherty. (1976). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Myth‐ ology. Berkeley: University of California Press. Dumont, Louis. (1970). “World Renunciation in Indian Religions.” In: Religion/Politics and History in India: Collected Papers in Indian Soci‐ ology. Paris, The Hague: Mouton Publ. Pp. 33‐60. Harder, Hans. (2001). Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay’s Srimadbhagabad‐ gita: Translation and Analysis. New Delhi: Manohar. The Laws of Manu: With an Introduction and Notes. (1991). Transl. by Wendy O’Flaherty Doniger and Brian Smith. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics. Sharma, Hari Krishna. (1997). Durgasaptasati: With Seven Sanskrit Com‐ mentaries. 2nd ed. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. Van Buitenen, J.A.B. (1981). The Bhagavadgita in the Mahabharata: A Bilingual Edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Evil and its Treatment in Early Taoism John Lagerwey
Abstract Early Taoism showed remarkable stability in its basic ideas of the origins of evil and how to deal with it. Basically, evil is seen as anything that under‐ mines or is antipathetic to life. Life is the supreme good, and everything must be done to secure it and even to extend it. However, a moral dimension was added very early on to what it meant to be devoted to life: a notion of sin, guilt, debt, and personal responsibility. Adherents imagined an immense bureaucracy spying on human beings and reporting their acts to a central archive. What happens to one, illness or bad luck, is a matter of one’s own responsibility. The guilt‐inducing faults must be confessed and repair or com‐ pensation made. Confession and compensation may be said to be the primary ways of coping with negative events that threaten life. But the defining at‐ tribute of a Taoist was his doing all he could to sustain and nurture his life forces.
Before Taoism The Taoist religion emerged only in the second century C.E., but it is impossible to talk about its attitude toward evil without a rapid review of the time prior to its emergence. The earliest period for which we have texts is the Shang dynasty (1350‐1050 B.C.E.), one of whose primary characteristics was divination to determine the correct course of action. Whether it was to go to war, to obtain a good harvest, or to put an end to the king’s toothache, diviners prepared the plastrons of tortoises or the scapula of cattle, placed them in a fire, and then obtained the answer to their question by reading the cracks that appeared around a small hole which had been bored in the plastron or scapula. These cracks told the diviners whether it would be aus‐ picious or not to go to war, or to pray and make sacrifice to this or that ancestor so that the toothache or other ailment would cease. Matters having to do with the weather, the harvest, war 73
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and peace—in short, climate and the state—were in the hands of the “gods,” and ultimately decided by the supreme god, Di, who, however, could not be directly addressed: the Shang kings had to ask their ancestors to transmit their concerns to the high‐ est god. The ancestors, in turn, were appealed to frequently in matters having to do with health and illness, and female ances‐ tors for obtaining a son. Early Taoism (2nd‐6th centuries) If discontented or suffering ancestors continue to this day to be a potential source of family disfunctioning or even of illness, their role in causing illness had declined precipitously by the time Taoism as a religion was born in the mid‐second century C.E. By that time, a whole world of “demons” had emerged and, as often as not, they were thought to be the source of ill‐ ness or disfunction: there were drought demons, spirits of “things”—rocks, trees, mountains, rivers, mist—and spirits of the unhappy dead who could cause trouble of all sorts, and who had to be appeased with blood sacrifices so that they would leave the living alone, or even bring them good fortune. A sense of guilt/responsibility had also emerged, and engen‐ dered an entire bureaucracy in the other world that matched the bureaucracy of this world. This otherworldly bureaucracy had two components, a celestial one and a subterranean one: earthlings lived between them. We have an example dated 79 C.E. of the relations between these worlds: fourteen bamboo slips give an account of the sacrifices made by the family on be‐ half of a sick and then a dead mother. These sacrifices are ad‐ dressed to the earth gods of the family, its stove god, and a wa‐ ter‐side spirit: they are clearly considered capable of obtaining for the woman healing and a reprieve, as they can cause her and her family trouble if all promised sacrifices are not made. Thus the bamboo slips begin by asking for healing and end by declaring that all promised offerings have been made, so that neither the deceased person nor her family members should be considered as “debtors” when the deceased woman appears be‐ fore the Lord of Heaven to give an accounting (see Harper 2004). What kind of an account, the slips do not tell us. But other documents of the period suggest that the judicial review that
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occurred immediately after death aimed at determining whe‐ ther the person “deserved” to die, that is, whether or not her time had come. Each person had an allotted time span at birth, and this time span could be increased or decreased, depending on how the person behaved. Mere “good behavior” included proper social behavior, observance of taboos of all kinds—with respect to the calendar, the earth, etc.—and proper worship of the gods. The relationship to the gods was a contractual one, with both regular sacrifices in exchange for regular protection and extraordinary sacrifices in time of illness or other misfor‐ tune. Performing one’s social and religious duties alone kept one’s slate clean of debt. A poem from the third century B.C.E. for the recall of the soul after a person’s death suggests another dimension, for it tries to persuade the deceased family member to come back, that the other world is dark and dangerous, and he would do better to come back. Here, no moral, no behavioral factors are invoked, just the idea that life is the supreme good and death the supreme evil: come back! It is no doubt this characteristically Chinese view that life is good and death evil that explains the emergence of forms of self‐cultivation aimed at prolonging life and even achieving im‐ mortality1 in the last three centuries before our era: going off in‐ to the hills to live as a hermit, replacing the standard diet of cer‐ eals with one of jujubes or pine seeds, or even of “air”, collec‐ tion of medicinal herbs, concoction of a mineral‐based elixir, ritualized sex, mental work on the energies (qi) in the body, “stretching and pulling” modes of gymnastics, and so on. By the second century C.E., these practices had reached a degree of systematization such that practitioners came to be organized in lineages and even communities: Taoism was born. Five early Taoist texts or groups of texts will serve to gain insight into 1
In Taoism, immortality is, in the first place, a matter of not dying, normally achieved by hermits who engage in different forms of self‐cul‐ tivation. Very quickly, however, the “immortals” become, for the people, local gods (or saints), prayed to for all manner of protection and good fortune. Within the evolving Taoist system itself, they become officials in the rapidly expanding celestial part of the other world’s bureaucracy. As such, they share in the control of the underworld, the demonic por‐ tion of this bureaucracy, a fact which helps explain why they are viewed by the people as gods.
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how the early Taoist movement understood evil and what it did to cope with it. The Middle Scripture of Laozi The first is the Laozi zhong jing, or Middle Scripture of Laozi. It begins by describing a complex system of the spirits inside the body, starting with the Supreme Great One, “father of the Tao,” who resides at once in the highest heavens (macrocosm) and just above the head of the meditating adept (microcosm): I don’t know his name, he is primordial energy. His spirit has the head of a human and the body of a bird. He looks like a cock .... When you see him, say: “Supreme Great One and Lord of the Tao, your great‐great‐grandchild, whose will is pure and who loves the Tao, desires to obtain long life.” (Lagerwey 2004: 151)
Paragraph after paragraph, in descending order, the spirits of the body are thus described, until the text reaches the dark ne‐ ther regions of the adept’s bowels, where a tortoise is encoun‐ tered “inhaling and exhaling primordial energy.” Nine persons are seated on its back, among them the father and mother of the Tao and divine masters of account books and destiny. The Newborn is also there: primordial Yang energy; the Newborn is the child of the father and the mother of the Tao who is de‐ stined to become the adept’s True or Realized Self by virtue of assiduous meditative practice. The visualization of the spirits of the body is closely tied to a calendrical system which we do not yet understand. But one point is clear: every year at the time of the autumn equinox, the adept stayed in his meditation chamber without leaving it for three whole days. The reason for this is that the Great One, lo‐ cated in the navel where he is surrounded by the Eight Messen‐ gers of the trigrams, is in charge of inspecting all spirits and, after comparison, of bringing the account books up to date so that the spirits can‐ not escape. On the days of the Eight Articulations,2 the Eight Messengers ascend to make their report to the Great One. 2
The first days of the four seasons, the two equinoxes, and the two solstices.
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That is why the navel is called the Metropolitan Office of the Great Abyss. It is on the day of the autumn equinox that the balance sheets are drawn up. Fast, bathe, and stay lying down for three days without going out. Three times each day, call on Him, nine times in all. If you do this without failing, your spirits will not be able to escape, your name will be inscribed on the register of immortality, and your po‐ sition as a True Person will be confirmed. (Lagerwey 2004: 152)
At another point in the text, this annual retreat is described in even greater detail: the adept addresses his prayer for immor‐ tality to the Inspector General Yellow God. It is this god, who would seem to be a terrestrial expression of the Lord of Heaven, or perhaps even the Lord of Heaven himself, who enters the body of the adept to inspect it: “None of my spirits may escape, all must come to meet him.” It is to get them to come to meet the Yellow God that the adept calls on all the spirits in his body, from top to bottom, three times per day, ending each time with this prayer: “Master of the register, jade maidens of the calen‐ dar, erase my name from the list of the dead and inscribe it on the jade calendar of immortality” (Lagerwey 2004: 163). The Book of Great Peace The second text, the Taiping jing or Book of Great Peace, describes in detail the vast bureaucracy in charge of record‐keeping: the Lord of Heaven is flanked, on his left (the superior side in China), by a Great God who is assisted in the Hall of Brightness by men who, because of their great sanctity while alive, have ascended to heaven. They in turn have under them an infinite multitude of “small spirits” who do all the legwork of spying and reporting to the central agency in heaven where the records are kept. A related text warns adepts of meditation that “in case of severe internal disorder, frightened bodily gods will leave their host to report to the Hall of Brightness, thus causing the death of the material body” (Espesset 2005: 14). Among the modes of benevolent conduct prescribed in this text are the non‐transgression of “the proscriptions of Heaven and Earth, the four seasons, the five agents, the sun and moon, the stars, and all the gods” (Espesset 2005: 18). The Book of Great Peace de‐
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scribes its own times as quite the opposite of a time of great peace. On the contrary, there is an accumulated burden of sin, and the Celestial Master has therefore been sent by Heaven to save humankind with a celestial scripture he transmits to True Persons, who are in turn to convey them to an enlightened rul‐ er. In this book, then, the rampant evil of the age is seen primar‐ ily as a political problem, to be solved by the revelation of texts with recipes for good government in the public domain and moral behavior in the private. No church is yet visible, but it is incipient insofar as a new, non‐canonical supply of revealed texts and their transmission is proposed as a new source of so‐ cial authority. These texts and their transmission will soon become the function of the Taoist church, but before we move on to that historic moment, let us examine the Taiping jing a bit more ex‐ tensively. The spiritual bureaucracy is central to its solutions: When nothing of what goes on in the local districts is con‐ cealed, Heaven is satisfied, and disasters are averted .... If there are pests who devour the people, this is due to petty officials without virtue who continue to be rampant and are similar to pests. If there are no diseases, this signifies that good people are in office. (Kaltenmark 1979: 28)
Evil in the world is due not only to bad government but also to individual misbehavior: hoarding of wealth and wisdom, lack of filial piety, not procreating, providing excessively sumptuous offerings for the ancestors, drinking alcohol, and killing daugh‐ ters are all mentioned. There is a very strong emphasis on the need for goods, wisdom, and energy to circulate, and for triadic groups—Heaven, Earth, Man; the sovereign, his ministers, and the people; the three principle energies—to be in harmony. The reason for opposing excessive offerings to the dead is particu‐ larly interesting: “They will be unable to eat all of it, and it will be the demons who come to eat the surplus and loiter af‐ terwards in order to trouble the living and make them ill” (Kaltenmark 1979: 36). The world of death and punishment is an underworld of the Great Yin. When too many reports on misconduct on some‐ one reach the Hall of Brightness,
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officers are informed about the burden of their transgessions and, in turn, inform the officials of Great Yin. These officials then summon the culprits’ ancestors, interrogate and lam‐ bast them by way of punishment, and order them to return home to curse their descendants for trying to escape from that burden. If their misconduct does not cease, disease will eventually be sent to the moral deviants .... The years of life of the culprits decrease until the annihilation of their life span .... Then Earth spirits will interrogate them, in order to check the correctness of their conduct records; if their an‐ swers and their records differ, severe ghosts will inflict pun‐ ishment on them repeatedly until they admit their wrongs .... Their misdemeanor will transfer to their descendants. (Espesset 2005: 33‐34, 36)
The only way out of this grim end is to “meditate on one’s faults” and express one’s remorse: Speaking while frequently shedding tears, they ask Heaven to forgive them their transgressions, slapping themselves and begging for pity, and towards Earth, knock the ground with their forehead, without avoiding splinters of stone, in the middle of filth. (Espesset 2005: 43)
Exorcism and incantation may also be used to expel the nega‐ tive energies causing illness or trouble, and “the state of Great Peace attained subsequently, by musical performance and sing‐ ing in accordance with the cosmic principles” (Espesset 2005: 40). The Taiping jing also recommends “holding on to unity,” that is, retaining the spirits in one’s body, as in the Laozi zhong jing, through directed meditation. The Way of the Heavenly Masters The Taiping jing may have been linked to the equivalent of a church, but if it was, the movement did not survive. The rough‐ ly contemporary movement that did survive, the way of the Heavenly Masters, would appear to have had much in common with that behind the Book of Great Peace. Curiously, while here the movement did survive and crystallize into a real church, none of its early documents have come down to us. The earliest description of its vision of evil and its remedy is found in a
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third‐century C.E. history of the period: people who fell ill had to enter a “pure room” to meditate on their failings. Then clerks of the church would “prepare three copies of a document bear‐ ing the name of the sick person and the full detail of the sins of which she accused herself. The document for Heaven was placed on a mountain, that for Earth was buried, and that for Water submerged. They were called the ‘documents of the Three Officers’. Because the family of the ill person had to contribute five bushels of rice, they were also called ‘masters of the five bushels of rice’” (Ngo 1976: 54). Later texts confirm the impression given by this one, that the chief preoccupation of the adherents of this Way was illness and how to heal it. The Three Officers were the heads of the bu‐ reaucracy of inspectors, and their festivals were also the key times of congregation in the early church. These “assemblies” occurred in the first (Heaven), seventh (Earth), and tenth (Wa‐ ter) months of the year. Like the autumn equinox in the Laozi zhong jing, these were times when the spiritual censors came on inspection tours to settle accounts. At the same time, these were occasions for the church to update its own record books, espe‐ cially at the assembly in the tenth month, corresponding to the first month of winter in the Chinese calendar. In fact, each household had population registers which it updated regularly, whenever there was a birth, a marriage, or a death in the fam‐ ily. These updates had to be transferred during the church‐wide assembly of the tenth month. One of the functions of these ar‐ chives was to enable the spiritual bureaucracy, when the church’s priests sent them memorials, to check the names against those in their archives, to ensure no error was made. The memorials also listed the offerings made in exchange for help and healing—offerings which no longer included the blood sacrifices characteristic of traditional religion. Sending such memorials was the primary function of Hea‐ venly Master priests. For each kind of difficulty or illness, a sep‐ arate officer in the spiritual bureaucracy had to be addressed. It is from the names of the memorials that we can glean the most pertinent information about the nature and range of “evil”: there were illnesses caused by the “spirits of heterodox tem‐ ples,” and the officer in charge of such a problem could also be invoked to “catch all demons who eat and drink, whose en‐
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ergies go the wrong way, or who dwell in the camps of the Five Peaks or in temples with talismans.” These gods of the still sac‐ rificial religion of the majority were also referred to as “stale en‐ ergies of the Six Heavens.” They were the primary sources of illness, possession, and death, as opposed to the fresh and vital energies of the Three Heavens which the adepts learned to re‐ cognize and circulate within their own bodies. Different officers were addressed for families bothered by nightmares, or indi‐ viduals who could not retain their souls (soul‐loss being the symptomatic explanation of illness). Memorials were sent to erase the sins of a new convert, for a couple which wished to have a son, for a woman who had fallen ill after giving birth, for a house where bizarre goings‐on had occurred, or to make confession and ask for mercy after having disobeyed canon law or transgressed the prohibitions. One ancient collection pro‐ vides texts of 66 memorials, which Franciscus Verellen (2004) divides into the following categories: on the level of the com‐ munity, agriculture, sericulture, public order, and issues of morals; on the level of individual destiny, illness and undoing of black magic; on the level of the household, all domestic dif‐ ficulties, in particular those of women and children; for the dead, forgiveness of sins and passage into the next world. To protect themselves against the infinite variety of disor‐ der, whether individual, familial, or communal, involving the living or the dead, the church proposed initiation into a hier‐ archy of “orthodox spirits”—spirits who had recognized the au‐ thority of the Heavenly Master and entered into the Covenant of Orthodox Unity with the Powers. Initiation consisted in the transmission of lists—called registers—of these powers so that the adept could learn to visualize and summon them. Even the case of a small child was envisioned: should he be in danger, his parents could receive a first list of protective generals in his stead. Otherwise, the young child began to receive lists of gen‐ erals and their spirit armies at the age of six. By the time he was twenty years of age, adepts of both sexes were in possession of registers of seventy‐five generals and their armies. Then, by a ritual called “uniting the energies,” a young couple engaged in a ritual of sexual union which in effect led to the conjugation of their respective registers, giving them each a bi‐sexual register of one hundred and fifty generals, half of which were Yin, half
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of which Yang energies or powers. These spiritual armies suf‐ ficed to protect the adept, but if he/she wished to become an of‐ ficer in the church—a priest—he/she went on to receive other registers which gave power over ritual agents enabling the priest to send memorials and help others with their problems. It is from the ritual of transmission of these registers that we can get the clearest view of how the church coped with the multifarious forms of evil. Just before the actual transmission occurs, the transmitting priest places the register on the ritual table and invokes “the four lords who do inspections, interroga‐ tions, and summons, as well as the miasmic energies and au‐ thentic officers of this place to summon the parents and an‐ cestors of the adept, male or female, to the third, fifth, and sev‐ enth generations, that they may come to the diocesan oratory of Your Servant to inspect their mortal descendant” (cf. Lagerwey 2005). He also requests the various ritual agents henceforth to accompany and protect the adept, wherever she goes, and re‐ quests that the sins committed by the adept “before she re‐ ceived a register and since she reached awareness at the age of six be forgiven.” After handing the register to the adept, the priest “renews the contract” by asking the transmitted spirits to protect the adept: “May she no longer do evil and sin. Should she one day disobey canon law or transgress the contract, may she be wounded, starting with her soldiers and clerks.” That is, may she fall ill, thanks to the the loss of her divine body guards, a kind of soul‐loss. It was a virtually perfect system, in short, not unlike Nor‐ ton Anti‐virus: as long as the adept had paid his bills and received his updates, he was protected; as soon as he failed to make his regular payments or forgot to download his updates, he would be attacked by a virus, leading to the collapse of his entire immune system, as well as to his becoming an agent for the spread of the infection. All perfectly mechanical! The Lingbao Canon Around the year 400 C.E. a massive new revelation of Taoist texts occurred, and then another one around 420. The first pro‐ duced the “Lingbao” canon, a group of texts in which Maha‐ yana Buddhist analyses and aims—karma, retribution, univer‐ sal salvation—were integrated into Taoism. It includes, there‐
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fore, rituals designed to “ransom and save all souls of the dead, to enable them to leave the long night of Ninefold Darkness, enter into the light, and be reborn in a well‐to‐do family” (cf. Lagerwey 2005). Among the most potent rituals of this kind is the recitation of the new scriptures themselves, in particular the Duren jing or Book of Salvation: After one recitation, the great saints of all the heavens, with one voice, said that it was good, and at that very moment, the deaf recovered perfect hearing. After the second recita‐ tion, the eyes of the blind were opened. After the third, the dumb could speak; after the fourth, the halt ceased to limp; after the fifth, the chronically ill recovered their health; after the sixth, white hairs became black again and fallen teeth grew back; after the seventh, the old were rejuvenated and the young renewed in their strength; after the eighth, wo‐ men became pregnant, as did animals and birds, and births occurred everywhere; after the ninth, the earth revealed what was hidden, jade and gold became visible; after the tenth, dried bones returned to life, and all became humans. Then all men and women in the land opened their hearts, were saved, and obtained long life.
The reason recitation of the scriptures could cure all ills, even death, was that the text was composed of the secret names of the spirits of the entire universe: in reciting, one was in effect calling on the gods. The Lingbao system of evil and its resolution relied on a system of divine surveillance and punishment even more thor‐ ough than that of the Heavenly Masters, with long lists of rules to be observed and endless litanies of confession to be recited. It required full‐fledged adepts to engage in regular fasting and re‐ citation of these litanies. The calendar of fast days included the days of the Eight Articulations and many more, indeed there were ten every month, and every fast day required six recita‐ tions per day, for “Heaven sends the agents of the six offices in‐ to the world to spy out the good and the evil acts done by people.” In short, ritual performances still took place whenever divine inspections were underway, it is just that the number of these inspections had mushroomed. What this meant, of course, is that the distinction between the lay and the clerical members
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of the “reformed” Lingbao church was far greater than that in the Way of the Heavenly Masters. First cenobitic and then fully monastic communities came into being, and they engaged more or less full time in praying and confessing for others. As in the contemporary Buddhist church, lay members paid money in ex‐ change for the performance of rituals whose purpose was to earn merit, especially for the deceased of the family, so that they need not suffer too long a time in what was now a full‐ fledged Purgatory, with modes of punishment even worse than those of the imperial administration. Apocalyptic Messianism The second wave of new texts was linked to the hoped‐for re‐ turn of an imperial messiah who would drive the barbarians out of the occupied North and restore the Great Peace: When the Perfect Lord, descendant of the last generation of the Liu, will go to Chang’an to reign as emperor, the calen‐ dar will be reestablished. This enlightened sovereign will lead a civilizing government. The migrant populations will return the Central Capital. (Mollier 1990: 58)
This joyous event was seen to be imminent, but it would come only after a time of great tribulation, in which demons would sow terror and pestilence everywhere: The Tao said: Starting in the xinsi and renwu years of the cycle, the demonic armies will swarm, the demon kings will spread their poisons and sow illness among the people. I have already sent forty‐nine billion guards to arrest the de‐ mon kings of the Thirty‐six Heavens and make them vow as follows: “If henceforth people die unjustly, are victims of contagious diseases, punishments, imprisonment, or exile, it will be because the demon kings have not kept watch on the lower spirits and have allowed them to harm the elect. Then, in confirmity with the order of the Most High uttered by his golden mouth .... we the demon kings will be held respon‐ sible because of our failure to control the subaltern spirits.” (Mollier 1990: 96‐97)
The solution to this massive outpouring of devastation was simple: “If but one member of a family obtains this Book, the
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entire household will be protected from calamities” (Mollier 1990: 78). Conclusion Over a period of five centuries, early Taoism was remarkably stable in its basic ideas of the origins of evil and the right way to deal with it. “Evil” is, basically, anything that undermines or is antipathetic to life. Life is the supreme good, and everything must be done to secure it and even to extend it: observance of prohibitions, meditative practices, dispatch of written petitions, confessions—the list goes on and on. Very early on, moreover —one could even say that it is an identifying mark of the emer‐ ging religion—an intensely moral dimension is added to what it meant to be devoted to life: a notion of sin, guilt, debt, and per‐ sonal responsibility. An immense bureaucracy is imagined that spies on human beings and reports their acts to a central ar‐ chive. What happens to one is, therefore, one’s own responsi‐ bility: if one encounters bad luck or illness, it is because one is guilty. The guilt‐inducing faults must be confessed and repair or compensation made. One of the typical modes of repair is the providing of a banquet for the “worthy” of the church com‐ munity; another is to pay for an initiation into a higher level of spiritual power. Thus confession and compensation may be said to be the primary ways of coping with negative events, that threaten life. But in addition, what really made a Taoist was all he did of a positive nature in order to sustain and nur‐ ture his life forces, till he lived “as long as Heaven and Earth.” Postscript While the basic ethos and practices of Taoism survived, the ec‐ clesiastical institution incorporating priests and laypersons gave way to a combination of state‐sponsored monasticism and private priestly lineages. Such was the institutional profile of Taoism from the seventh century to the present. Chinese society and ethical values came gradually to be a thoroughly com‐ mingled synthesis of Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and “popular religion.” Confucianism provided the structuring val‐ ues of loyalty to one’s superiors and filial piety, Buddhism the overarching anthropology of karma, judgment and reincarna‐
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tion, and Taoism the uniquely Chinese passion for long life as the supreme good. Buddhist and Taoist priests continued as well to perform both rituals of merit to pay the ancestors’ debts and ensure for them a happy rebirth and exorcisms that kept the forces of evil at bay, whether for individuals or commun‐ ities. But local society was focused on the temples and mediums of popular religion and, starting in the fifteenth century, on an‐ cestor temples built in the heart of often monolineage villages. Bibliography Espesset, Grégoire. (2005). “Criminalized Abnormality, Moral Etiolo‐ gy, and Redemptive Suffering in the Secondary Strata of the Tai‐ ping jing.” Asia Major Series 3. 15.2. Pp. 1‐50. Harper, Donald. (2004). “Contracts with the Spirit World in Han Common Religion: The Xuning Prayer and Sacrifice Documents of A.D. 79.” Cahiers d’Extrême‐Asie 14. Pp. 227‐67. Kaltenmark, Max. (1979). “The Ideology of the T’ai‐p’ing ching.” In: Holmes Welch and Anna Seidel (eds.). Facets of Taoism: Essays in Chinese Religion. New Haven: Yale University Press. Pp. 19‐52. Lagerwey, John. (2004). “Deux écrits taoïstes anciens,” Cahiers d’Ex‐ trême‐Asie 14. Pp. 139‐71. (2005). “Zhengyi Register: Institute of Chinese Studies Visiting Professor Lecture Series (I).” Journal of Chinese Studies Special Issue: 35‐88. (2007). “Le rituel taoïste du deuxième au sixième siècle.” (Forth‐ coming). Mollier, Christine. (1990). Une apocalypse taoïste du Ve siècle: Le livre des incantations divines des grottes abyssales. Paris: Collège de France, Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises. Ngo, Van Xuyet. (1976). Divination, magie et politique dans la Chine anci‐ enne. Paris: Collège de France, Institut des Hautes Etudes Chin‐ oises. Verellen, Franciscus. (2004). “The Heavenly Master Liturgical Agenda according to Chisong zi’s Petition Almanac.” Cahiers d’Extrême‐ Asie 14. Pp. 291‐343.
The Problem of Evil in Confucianism
1
Ching‐yuen Cheung
Abstract In Confucianism, the problem of evil has a twofold aspect. First, it is related to the order of good and bad. This order is a hierarchy of values that develops into the moral standard of a society. Second, it is related to the debate on hu‐ man nature: is human nature good or evil. This paper will discuss the Con‐ fucian problem of good and bad, and the problem of good and evil. It will also explore two ways of overcoming evil in Chinese and Japanese Confucianism, namely, the approach of orthodox Confucianism and the approach of Legal‐ ism. Confucianism suggests overcoming evil by restoring the order of heart through education. Legalism suggests that human beings are powerless to overcome evil, and hence it is necessary to set up strict law and punishment. However, Legalism can be easily misused and may end up with dictatorship, totalitarian or even in the justification of war.
Introduction In Chinese, the word that appears to be equivalent to evil is , which is pronounced as è in Mandarin (or aku in Japanese). In order to understand è, one can first study its Chinese character (or kanji), for Chinese is an ideographical language where the meaning of a word is found not only in its spoken pronun‐ ciation but also in the written character. The character è has two ideograms: (crooked) and (heart). In other words, è means “crookedness of heart” or “hatred” (Carus 1907: 9). It can be a noun meaning “evilness,” a verb meaning “to hate something” (in this case pronounced as wù), or an adjective with the meaning of “bad” or “evil.”2 Needless to say, it is 1
In this paper, “Confucianism” is not limited to Chinese Confucian ideas but also refers to Confucian schools in East Asia (for example, Jap‐ anese Confucianism in Tokugawa Period). 2
The Chinese word è (the accent mark indicates the tone in Man‐ darin) can mean bad or evil according to the context. It is better to trans‐ late it by the Latin word malus, which means bad, evil, unfavourable, etc.
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necessary to distinguish between “bad” (schlecht) and “evil” (böse), for the former is related to the value judgments of a person or a society, while the latter is related to ethical issues of a universal nature, disregarding the preference of any single party. For example, we would say it is bad to be lazy, but we would not say laziness is an evil act. However, in the case of murder, we would not say it is bad, but it is in all cases an evil act. In other words, good and bad refer to values, which are essentially different from the ethical concepts of good and evil. The difference between bad and evil is not a matter of degree, since the two concepts are qualitatively different. In the Confucian context, the problem of è has a twofold as‐ pect. First, it is related to the order of good and bad. This order, however, is not the arbitrary preference of a particular person (e.g. Confucius). Rather, it is a hierarchy of values that develops into the moral standard of a society. Second, it is also related to the debate of human nature: is human nature good or evil? In this paper I will explain the twofold Confucian notion of è, namely bad and evil. I will also mention two ways of overcom‐ ing evil, namely the approach of orthodox Confucianism and the approach of Legalism. Good and Bad: The Hierarchy of Values What is meant by good and bad? First of all, good and bad are values: good refers to a value that is higher than the bad. In addition, it is evident that the concept of good is more primor‐ dial than the concept of bad, for the latter can be derived by ne‐ gating the former. It is necessary to investigate the concept of good before investigating the concept of bad. In Confucian morality, good is regarded as a positive val‐ ue. Although the notion of good is not defined formally, one can grasp the meaning of good by looking at some concrete ex‐ amples of “good acts,” as suggested by Confucian thinkers. In Analects 20: 2, Confucius mentions that it is important to honor “Five Excellent Things” and to banish “Four Bad Things.” This idea can be found in his dialogue with Zizhang (rendered as Tsze‐chang in Legge’s translation): Tsze‐chang said, “What are meant by the five excellent things?” The Master said, “When the person in authority is
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beneficent without great expenditure; when he lays tasks on the people without their repining; when he pursues what he desires without being covetous; when he maintains a digni‐ fied ease without being proud; when he is majestic without being fierce” .... Tsze‐chang then asked, “What are meant by the four bad things?” The Master said, “To put the people to death without having instructed them;—this is called cruel‐ ty. To require from them, suddenly, the full tale of work, without having given them warning;—this is called op‐ pression. To issue orders as if without urgency, at first, and, when the time comes, to insist on them with severity;—this is called injury. And, generally, in the giving pay or rewards to men, to do it in a stingy way;—this is called acting the part of a mere official.” (Legge 1960: 352‐54)
Confucius mentioned explicitly four notions of bad, i.e., cruelty, oppression, severity and bureaucracy. In addition, five more notions of bad can be drawn by negating the “Five Excellent Things,” i.e., great expenditure, repining, covetousness, pride, fierceness. Further examples of bad values can be derived by negating other notions of good. For example, the notion of “Five Constant Virtues” (humanity, justice, propriety, wisdom, honesty) suggests five bad virtues, i.e., inhumanity, injustice, impropriety, ignorance and dishonesty. Generally speaking, good persons are those who possess good virtues. Good virtues precede bad virtues. If a person does not possess the virtue of “humanity,” there is no ground for her/him to be a good per‐ son. In educating people about what is bad, it is first necessary to teach them what is good. After knowing what good and bad are, one can naturally recognize that there is an order of good and bad. Hence, the ultimate goal of moral education is not to force a person to follow the formal rules or authority but to develop one’s inner conscience in order to grasp this non‐ formal hierarchy of values. With regard to different kinds of bad values, it is note‐ worthy that betrayal is regarded as the most negative value in Confucianism. Betrayal presupposes human relationships, which is represented well by the Confucian notion of “Five Re‐ lations,” i.e., the reciprocal relationship between ruler and min‐ ister, between parents and child, between husband and wife, between old and young, and between friends. Among these
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relations, the worst of all acts of betrayal is the act of breaking the relationship between parents and child. Undoubtedly, filial piety is the virtue of all virtues in Confucianism. To be a good person, one should first be filial. In Analects 1: 6, Confucius says that a young person “when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders” (Legge 1960: 140). In “Classic of Filial Piety,” he suggests that “filial piety is the root of (all) vir‐ tue, and (the stem) out of which grows (all moral) teaching” (Legge 1879: 466). Confucius lists five criteria of filial piety for a child: In his general conduct to them [parents], he manifests the utmost reverence; in his nourishing of them, his endeavour is to give them the utmost pleasure; when they are ill, he feels the greatest anxiety; in mourning for them (dead), he exhibits every demonstration of grief; in sacrificing to them, he displays the utmost solemnity. When a son is complete in these five things (he may be pronounced) able to serve his parents. (Legge 1879: 480)
There is no ground for self‐cultivation of a person if she/ he does not respect the parents, for filial piety is one of the most important elements in Confucianism. “There are three thousand offences against which the five punishments are directed, and there is not one of them greater than being unfilial” (Legge 1879: 481). One should note that the Confucian notion of filial piety is not a formal obligation, which demands that a person obey his parents; rather, it is a virtue of respecting others, start‐ ing with one’s own parents. In fact, filial piety is not merely an abstract concept but a ritual act related to many concrete ev‐ eryday practices, especially in the practice of respecting one’s own parents even after their deaths.3 Needless to say, the reli‐ gious act of ancestor reverence occurs in almost all cultures over the world, but in East Asian societies it is strongly influ‐ enced by Confucianism. Filial piety is de facto the most fundament moral standard of Confucianism in the making of the order of good and bad.
3
Details on the filial piety in the three‐year mourning for parents can be found in Classic of Filial Piety. Cf. Legge 1879: 487‐88.
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The primacy of filial piety over all other acts can be found in the “Six Maxims,” which are: Be filial to your parents. Be respectful to the elders. Live in harmony with your neighbours. Instruct your sons and grandsons. Be content with your calling. Do no evil.4
It should be emphasized, however, that moral good and bad should not be confused with ethical good and evil. If one is not filial to parents or fails to venerate one’s ancestors, it is consid‐ ered to be “bad” from the viewpoint of Confucian morality but not as “evil” from an ethical perspective. For instance, if a fa‐ ther asked his son to kill someone, the son has ethical reasons to refuse the father’s request. But if the son actually kills some‐ body, it is in all cases an evil act. In other words, it is morally “bad” to be unfilial, but it is ethically “evil” to kill someone or to justify killing. Good and Evil: The Problem of Human Nature Confucian morality is based on a non‐formal order of good and bad, which is concrete moral guidance on good and bad behavior. If a person living in a Confucianism‐influenced soci‐ ety does not follow that order, she/he will be regarded as a bad person. In this case, she/he will be pressured socially and pro‐ bably suffer major damage to her/his personal status. Ac‐ cordingly, the only way to be a good person is not to do some‐ thing bad. However, a man who seldom performs bad acts is not necessarily a non‐evil man. In an extreme case, a so‐called good man may suddenly become an evil murderer, who even kills the members of his own family.5
4
The “Six Maxims” (Rikuyu) was written by the first emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1397, later imported to Japan through Okinawa. Cf. De Bary 1998: 72. 5
For example, a 57‐year‐old man killed five of his relatives and two dogs before trying to kill himself at his home in a quiet town in Gifu Pre‐ fecture, Japan, 2005. He was known to be kind and responsible, and had
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Why do humans have a tendency to be evil? This leads to the problem concerning good and evil, which is not about the hierarchy of good and bad but relates to the human nature of a person. Human nature is undoubtedly one of the most contro‐ versial issues in Confucianism. Different Confucian thinkers have tried to answer the question: Are human beings good or evil in nature? Mencius, for example, argues that all human be‐ ings possess a good nature, and hence evilness is not essential to human nature. Human nature, according to Mencius, “is na‐ turally good just as water naturally flows downwards” (Chan 1963: 52). Mencius emphasizes that the essential nature of hu‐ man being is humanity, which is the source of the spontaneous feeling of sympathy or the natural instinct of giving help when someone is in need, e.g. the impulsive act of saving a drowning child. One may say that Mencius presupposes that the human being is not merely an animal but an “ethical” being. In this sense, human beings are essentially different from other ani‐ mals. Not surprisingly, Mencius’ optimism is challenged by other more down‐to‐earth thinkers. For example, Xunzi (Hsün Tzu) opposes Mencius’ view and suggests that human nature tends to be evil and, hence, external controls are indispensable in a so‐ ciety. He argues that “[the] nature of man is evil. It must de‐ pend on teachers and laws to become correct and achieve pro‐ priety and righteousness and then it becomes disciplined” (Chan 1963: 128). Xunzi presupposes that man is not an “ethical” being but an animal with desire, which results in evil acts. The position of still another Confucian thinker, Gaozi (Kao Tzu), is rather relativistic. He claims that “man’s nature is in‐ different to good and evil, just as water is indifferent to east and west” (Chan 1963: 52). Gaozi’s relativism is based simply on the presupposition that humans are determined by their external environment, so one can be either good or evil. It is clear that the Confucian thinkers mentioned above have different opinions about what human beings are. They do not share a common definition in their philosophical anthro‐ pologies, but they all treat evil as the negative elements (desire,
good relationships with his neighbours and colleagues.
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selfishness, irrationality, disorder of the heart, etc.) of a person, and hence the obstacle to his becoming a sage. However, Mencius’ position is questionable: are humans truly “ethical” beings who can become sages? In fact, it is inappropriate to de‐ scribe Mencius’ position as “ethical,” for the innate ability to rescue the other is merely a natural disposition or instinct, which has nothing to do with ethical free will. Xunzi’s position is also problematic, for it simply begs the question by saying that humans have a tendency to be evil because they are not good by nature. Gaozi’s attempt is to avoid a definition of hu‐ man nature, but we still have to face and solve ethical problems that require an answer. As a matter of fact, most of us are not sages. We have to ad‐ mit that humans can be evil. However, we have to add that the origin of evil does not lie in human desire. Rather, humans have a tendency of evil even though they are rational beings with free will, and hence responsible for their evil acts. More precisely, if we follow Kant’s insight that there is a propensity to evil (Hang zum Bösen) in human nature, it should be more im‐ portant for us to deal with the practical issue of how we can cope with evil, rather than making unfruitful attempts to figure out whether humans are good or evil in nature. To avoid misunderstanding, the Confucian notion of evil is not identical to the Kantian concept of evil. It should be empha‐ sized that the Confucian problem of “good and evil” is es‐ sentially different from the European tradition of the problem of “God and evil,” namely, how can an omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God allow the existence of evil? Without the presupposition of the existence of God, the problem of “good and evil” is an extremely important issue, especially in the cur‐ rent situation that evil should no longer be conceived of as a re‐ ligious issue only but is ultimately an ethical issue. In other words, evil in religion has different variations among different cultures, but we have to say that killing a person is universally an evil act, whether it is based on a “religious reason” or a “jus‐ tified belief.” Overcoming Evil: Confucianism or Legalism? As the character è suggests, evil comes from the crookedness or disorder of heart. How can a person cope with the evilness in
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one’s heart? Orthodox Confucianism suggests the approach of education, i.e. overcoming evil not by mere external means but by developing one’s inner conscience. In Analects 2: 3 Confucius says, Lead the people with governmental measures and regulate them by law and punishment, and they will avoid wrong‐ doing but will have no sense of honour and shame. Lead them with virtue and regulate them by the rules of propri‐ ety, and they will have a sense of shame and, moreover, set themselves right. (Chan 1963: 22)
The aim of education is not to force a person to follow formal laws blindly but to overcome evil in his heart through self‐cul‐ tivation. In other words, a person with a good conscience will not do something evil, since it is shameful as a human being to do so. In this sense, Confucianism can be seen as an alternative solution to formalism, which is the result of overemphasis on the written laws.6 However, one should note that Confucius never suggests that social laws and punishments are complete nonsense. Confucianism is not anarchism; it is not a radical movement of eliminating all authoritarian institutions. Rather, it points out that law alone will never be able to overcome evil in one’s heart. Ironically, Confucius’ approach has never been regarded by most political leaders as the answer to the problem of evil. In fact, Legalism is considered to be a more pragmatic approach for coping with evil in society. For example, Han Fei’s Legalism suggests that law and authority are ultimately the best ways to rule a country. He writes, Therefore in the state of the enlightened ruler, there is no lit‐ erature of books and records but the laws serve as the teach‐ ing. There are no sayings of ancient kings but the officials act as teachers. (Chan 1963: 160)
What are the differences between the approaches of Confucian‐ ism and Legalism? Following Max Scheler, one might divide Chinese intellectuals into two types, namely, those with ro‐ 6
Roger T. Ames (1988: 213) suggests that Confucianism provides an alternative for resolving conflicts in the modern world.
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mantic ressentiment and those with apostatic ressentiment.7 The former can be found in Confucianism. For example, Confu‐ cius was discontent with his contemporary situation and looked back nostalgically to the ideal moral standard in the Golden Eras. The latter type can be found in the Legalistic school. For example, Han Fei rejected the old values and urged the ruler to set up new‐fashioned laws and punishments. Legalism does not only presuppose a well‐written law and civilized people, it also requires a liberal ruler who has the political wisdom to deal with conflicts among people as well as ambiguities in laws. However, it is a different story in reality. One cannot deny that even a righteous law can be abused, and a wrong punishment will never be undone. In fact, Han Fei’s legalistic thinking was misused by the First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang (247 BC‐221 BC), who banned Confucian works and killed many Confucian scholars during his dictatorship. The problem of Legalism is that it presupposes a narrow and one‐sided conception of human nature, which can be traced back to Xunzi’s position that man is evil in nature (Wu 1967: 223‐24). As a matter of fact, Legalism did not develop as the mainstream thought in China. However, the situation is quite different in Japan. Many Japanese Confucian scholars disagreed with the very idea that every person can become a sage. On the contrary, human nature is more evil than good. Therefore, the only way to overcome evil is through strict laws and social controls. Japanese Confucianism tried to break the parallelism between Orthodox Confucianism and Legalism. One can find that the doctrine of Sorai School, one of the most important schools in Japanese Confucianism, has a rather legal‐ istic approach. Ogyu Sorai (1666‐1728), the founder of this school, was a Confucian scholar who had the ability to read an‐ cient Chinese classics and was widely regarded as a Sinophile. However, he was also one of the first Japanese scholars to re‐ cognize the importance of Legalism (Blocker 2001: 102). In his work Bendo, he criticized the orthodox Confucian idea that hu‐ man nature is innately good. He suggests, rather, that “man is a social animal, whose nature requires that he be part of a group” 7
Max Scheler, “Das Ressentiment im Aufbau der Moralen.” Cf. Scheler 1972: 57.
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(Bito 1978: 159). He argued that Neo‐Confucianism is ridiculous in saying that humans should remove their desire through reason. Humans can never cope with evil through their own moral conscience, since they cannot become sages (Ogyu 1973: 203). Due to the evil hidden inside their own nature, people are powerless, and hence it is necessary to have external means for overcoming evil. This insight by Ogyu was further developed by Dazai Shundai (1680‐1747) and Kaiho Seiryo (1755‐1817). Like Gaozi in claiming that humans can be good or evil, Dazai argues that it is more pragmatic to govern a society by strict legal measures (Dazai 1972: 95). In this sense, social hierarchy is the only way to deal with evil, since it is almost an impossible task to remove temptations from people’s hearts. Kaiho’s posi‐ tion is even more radical. He suggests that all human beings are egocentric in the economic world (Kaiho 1970: 237). It is better to abandon the orthodox Confucian values and to develop a new model of merchant society based on instrumentalism. Perhaps Kaiho is more of an economist than he is a Confucian moralist, but his position can be traced back to Legalistic ideas in Ogyu and Dazai (Najita 1978: 23‐34). Against the background of the bakufu (military govern‐ ment) situation in the late Tokugawa period, samurai had rea‐ sons for supporting the Legalistic approach. However, Confu‐ cianism was still influential in moral education, especially in the making of bushido virtues. However, after the Meiji Restor‐ ation, there was a demand to transform the old motto of wakon kansai, meaning Japanese spirit and Chinese knowledge, to the new motto of wakon yosai, which means Japanese spirit and Western knowledge. In other words, the guiding principle of modern Japan is no longer the old‐fashioned Confucian teach‐ ing but the newly‐imported knowledge (including philosophy) from the West. Nowadays, it seems that Japan is increasingly becoming a legalistic society, but one should not overlook the legacy of Confucianism in Japan (Collcutt 1991: 153). Conclusion How can a person—who is not a superhuman being—cope with evil? More fundamentally, is it possible for a person to overcome evil? Confucianism believes all human beings can
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overcome evil through education, with minimal law and pun‐ ishment. Legalism suggests a more realistic approach: human beings are powerless to overcome evil, and hence it is necessary to set up strict laws and punishment. Confucianism’s approach is challenged by Legalists as too optimistic. However, Legalism is too dangerous to bear in the sense that it can be easily mis‐ used and may end up in dictatorship, totalitarianism or even the justification of war. In fact, Confucius’ contemporary think‐ er, Laozi, notes the weakness of law and punishment. He writes in Daodejing: The more taboos and prohibitions there are in the world, the poorer the people will be. The more sharp weapons the peo‐ ple have, the more troubled the state will be. The more cun‐ ning and skill man possesses, the more vicious things will appear. The more laws and orders are made prominent, the more thieves and robbers there will be. (Chan 1964: 166)
As is well known, Confucius and Laozi have different ap‐ proaches in metaphysics, but they share the same wisdom that evil cannot be overcome by external means (Wu 1967: 216). Ap‐ parently, external means are useful for solving many social problems in the short term but will never solve the problem of the original disorder of the heart. For instance, law and punish‐ ments have recently become stricter with respect to drunk driv‐ ing in Japan. However, that does not mean that drivers have re‐ flected more on the evil act of killing someone in a drunk‐driv‐ ing accident. Rather, they are simply afraid of being penalized. Unfortunately, accidents continue to happen in which innocent people lose their precious lives to drunken drivers. In short, the contribution of Confucianism to the contemp‐ orary world is the insight that formal laws can never replace the inner conscience of a person. This conscience is not merely the self‐consciousness of an individual, but the ethical self‐aware‐ ness that a person is always in relationship with other persons. As an ethics of reciprocity, Confucianism suggests that it is evil to treat people in a way that one does not want to be treated herself. It suggests nothing than how a person can live in har‐ mony with the other. This is represented well by the “Golden
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Rule” of Confucianism: “What you do not want done to your‐ self, do not do to others.”8 Bibliography Ames, Roger T. (1988). “Rites as Rights: The Confucian Alternative.” In: Leroy S. Rouner (ed.). Human Rights and the World’s Religions. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. Pp. 199‐216. Bito Masahide. (1978). “Ogyu Sorai and the Distinguishing Features of Japanese Confucianism.” In: Najita Tetsuo and Irwin Scheiner (eds.). Japanese Thought in the Tokugawa Period 1600‐1868. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pp. 153‐60. Blocker, H. Gene and Christopher L. Starling. (2001). Japanese Philo‐ sophy. New York: State University of New York. Carus, Paul. (1907). Chinese Thought. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. Chan Wing‐tsit. (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Collcutt, Martin. (1991). “The Legacy of Confucianism in Japan.” In: Gilbert Rozman (ed.). The East Asian Region. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Pp. 111‐54. Dazai Shundai. (1972). Nihon Shiso Taikei. Vol. 37. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. De Bary, William Theodore. (1958). Sources of Japanese Tradition. Vol. 1. New York/London: Columbia University Press. (1998). Asian Values and Human Rights. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Kaiho Seiryo. (1970). Nihon Shiso Taikei. Vol. 44. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Legge, James (ed.). (1879). The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (1960). The Chinese Classics. Vol. 1. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Uni‐ versity Press. Liu Shu‐Hsien. (1996). “Global Ethics – A Confucian Response.” In: Hans Küng (ed.). Yes to a Global Ethic. London: SCM Press. Pp. 216‐21.
8
Cf. Analects 15: 23 (Legge 1960: 301). This Confucian teaching is regarded as one of the sources of a universal ethics for the global village (Tu 1998; Liu 1996).
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Najita Tetsuo. (1978). “Method and Analysis in the Conceptual Por‐ trayal of Tokugawa Intellectual History.” In: Najita Tetsuo and Ir‐ win Scheiner (eds.), Japanese Thought in the Tokugawa Period 1600‐ 1868. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pp. 3‐38. Ogyu Sorai. (1973). Nihon Shiso Taikei. Vol. 36. Tokyo: Iwanami Sho‐ ten. Scheler, Max. (1972). Vom Umsturz der Werte. Gesammelte Werke, Bd. 3. Bern: Francke. Tu Wei‐ming. (1998). “Epilogue: Human Rights as a Confucian Moral Discourse.” In: William Theodore De Bary and Tu Wei‐ming (eds.). Confucianism and Human Rights. New York: Columbia Uni‐ versity Press. Pp.297‐307. Wu, John C. H. (1967). “Chinese Legal and Political Philosophy.” In: Charles Moore (ed.). The Chinese Mind. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. Pp. 213‐37.
Evil and the Transformation of Evil in Buddhism and Socially Engaged Buddhism Christa W. Anbeek
Abstract Different conceptions of evil and the transformation of evil can be observed in the history of Buddhism. Originally, the final overcoming of evil was the re‐ sult of attaining nirvana. Through nirvana one escapes from the cycle of re‐ birth, which entails no more evil and no more suffering. A central insight in Mahayana Buddhism is the negation of all duality. Ultimately, there is no difference between good and evil. Both are empty and “like a magical illu‐ sion.” The final overcoming of evil is found in a new awareness of this reality. In the engaged Buddhism of Thich Nhat Hanh, both the way in which we perceive reality and reality itself are transformed. By transforming the hatred, anger and delusion within ourselves, society will change. Internal evil and external evil are interrelated. Transformation of outward evil begins with inner transformation through mindfulness. This will change our world.
Introduction This article provides an overview of the perception of and over‐ coming evil in Buddhism. The first remarkable characteristic of the perception of evil in Buddhism is that it is not seen as a cen‐ tral—and thus not as an absolute—category. Rather, for Bud‐ dhism, the following notions are central: the observation that existence is suffering, the causes of suffering, and the way to liberation from suffering. The expression of the way to liber‐ ation has undergone several developments, some of which will be elaborated. We will first describe the central ideas on evil in early Bud‐ dhism. Second, we will sketch some of the characteristics of the insights about good and evil in Mahayana Buddhism. And fin‐ ally, we will explore some ideas about good and evil in the so‐ cially engaged Buddhism of Thich Nhat Hanh. 101
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Early Buddhism From a certain perspective, Buddhism begins and ends with Buddha’s enlightenment experience. This experience is the ulti‐ mate source of the Buddhist teachings, which are a pathway to‐ wards a moral and spiritual development that results in this ex‐ perience. In the enlightenment experience the Buddha received direct knowledge of rebirth, karma and the four noble truths; all of these embody important insights about evil and the trans‐ formation of evil. Rebirth and Karma The word samsara refers to the cycle of rebirths. According to this teaching, people are born in this world over and over again. Every being has innumerable previous lives and, ac‐ cording to the Buddhist view, this cycle has no beginning. All forms of life—not only human beings but others as well, such as insects and animals—take part in the cycle of coming into being and passing away. There are also realms of invisible be‐ ings, such as petas (hungry ghosts) and devas (gods). One can be reborn into any one of several realms: the animal realm, the realm of the hungry ghosts, hell, the realm of human beings and the realm of the gods. In Buddhism, the universe is seen as a never‐ending process in which worlds and everything those worlds contain come into being and pass away innumerable times. This process has no aim (King 1964: 38). The Buddhist perspective on rebirth is that it is not a pleas‐ ant affair, because every existence brings new suffering with it. Rebirth is not seen as a consolation for the fact that we must die but, rather, entails an increase of suffering, as suffering does not cease when we die but starts all over again. All non‐enlightened beings are subject to this cycle of rebirth. The Buddha, however, held that the course of rebirths could be influenced. In accord‐ ance with their acts (karma), people are born into pleasant or un‐ pleasant conditions. However, a better rebirth is not Bud‐ dhism’s highest ideal. The Buddha proclaimed the overcoming of the cycle of rebirths and preached the escape from samsara, as the definite liberation from suffering. For those who could not reach this highest goal, he referred to the importance of good deeds. Good deeds result in a better rebirth. A rebirth into good circumstances gives a better starting
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point for the path to liberation than a rebirth into bad circum‐ stances does, as the latter causes people to become preoccupied with the cares of everyday life, which leaves too little time to think about or to strive for liberation (Vetter 1992: 57). The goodness or badness of deeds is related to a contribu‐ tion or lack thereof to the well‐being of others. To do something good for another is a good deed. The Samyutta Nikaya lists the following examples of good deeds: the giving of alms to monks and nuns, the construction of parks and bridges, the sinking of wells, and giving shelter the homeless (1.47). To omit doing a good deed when the situation demands it is considered to be a bad deed. Not harming another is a good deed, while harming a being is a bad deed. Karma is often compared to a seed, and an act is a seed that will result in a certain type of fruit. Those who perform good acts produce good fruit and those who carry out bad acts produce bad fruit. The present situation of one’s life, character, social and economic status and many psycho‐ physical characteristics are the result of the moral quality of past deeds (King 1964: 42). The most important criterion for deciding whether a deed is good or not is the volition or motivation behind it. In itself, an act is not good or bad, but it is the attitude that is good or bad. Thinking about an evil act is already an evil act (King 1964: 122). A second criterion is the direct effect that the act has on causing suffering or happiness. A third criterion is the contribu‐ tion of the act to spiritual growth, which finally leads to nir‐ vana. Good acts by themselves do not lead to nirvana. They can, however, result in a better rebirth, or prepare an individual for further steps on the pathway to nirvana. There are three roots of bad acts: greed, which ranges from states of mild longing to full‐blown lust while clinging to ideas and insights; hatred, which covers everything from slight irrita‐ tion to burning resentment; delusion, which can cover states from being unclear to distorting the truth or spreading misun‐ derstanding. The roots of wholesome acts are, in contrast, the following: non‐greed, which is generosity and the renunciation of worldly pleasures; non‐hatred, which is friendliness, even in the face of provocation, and deep love for all beings; and non‐ delusion, which can range from clarity of mind to the deepest insight into reality (Harvey 2000: 47).
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The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path The teaching of the Buddha is entirely dependent on its goal of freedom from suffering and ultimate frustration (Williams 2000: 36). In the first sermon of the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths are laid out which describe the way to liberation: 1. The processes of body and mind and the experience of life are dukkha: unsatisfactory, frustrating and productive of suffering, whether in a gross or subtle form. In the first place this suffering refers to illness, old age and death. Thus, every pain which is the result of mere bodily exist‐ ence. But there is also emotional pain: the pain of being separated from that which one loves or being united with that which one does not love: people differentiate be‐ tween the pleasant and the unpleasant. The third form of suffering has to do with impermanence. Everything pas‐ ses away: happiness, good moments, health. Happiness in itself is not suffering, but it is impermanent. When it is over, we long for it and suffer. 2. Suffering is caused by “craving”, demanding desires which lay open to frustration and disappointment which keep individuals within the cycle of rebirths, with its at‐ tendant ageing, sickness and death. A more deeply root‐ ed factor behind craving and thus the real cause of suf‐ fering is ignorance or misconception, which produces egotism. 3. Suffering can be transcended by destroying craving, and associated causes such as attachment, hatred and delu‐ sion, in the experience of Nirvana. Once this is attained during life, a person will no longer be reborn, but will pass into final Nirvana at death, beyond space, time and dukkha. It is the complete cessation of samsara. 4. The way to liberation lies in radically eliminating all false assertion of Self, through knowing that each candidate for Self is really no Self at all. The way to attain this goal is the “middle way” consisting of the Noble Eightfold Path. (Harvey 2000: 32; Williams 2000: 47)
The first of the Four Noble Truths deals with an analysis of the personality in five groups. All the characteristics of a person are in a constant process of change and are impermanent. All the
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elements of a person and all those of all worlds of rebirths are impermanent. Normally people view themselves erroneously themselves, as if they have a permanent substance and become attached to things as they are in the present time and conse‐ quently suffer when things change. The impermanence of ev‐ erything and the lack of a permanent self creates suffering for both those people who are attached and those who are not aware. The overcoming of this suffering is the central occupa‐ tion of Buddhism, to which ethical acts contribute. The practice of the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the cessa‐ tion of suffering. The Path has, as its name suggests, eight fac‐ tors: 1) right view or understanding; 2) right resolve; 3) right speech; 4) right action; 5) right livelihood; 6) right effort; 7) right mindfulness; 8) right concentration. These factors are grouped into three sections: 1 and 2 are the conditions that should be ful‐ filled before starting out. The right view refers to the vision of karma and rebirth and the conviction that the Buddha pro‐ claims a way to liberation, which he himself followed suc‐ cessfully. The right resolve refers to the decision one makes to leave home and to start on the way to liberation. Factors 3 to 5 are the moral virtues (sila). These are aspects that have to do with doing good and not harming others. Right speech is ab‐ staining from speech that is false, divisive, hurtful or mere idle gossip. Right action is refraining from wrong bodily behavior, including not killing living beings and not taking what has not been given. Right livelihood is avoiding ways of making a liv‐ ing that cause suffering to others. These factors are steps on the way to the factors 6 to 8: right effort, meditation and concentra‐ tion. The right effort is to abandon unwholesome states that have arisen. Right mindfulness is constant mindfulness, aware‐ ness with reference to the body, to feelings, to the mind and to physical and mental processes. In observing them one becomes aware of their impermanence. Right concentration consists of unequivocalness of mind and the realization of the four dhyanas that lead to prajna, insight. The moral instructions on the path are not simply given for their own sake but are essential elements on the path to the final goal, which is nirvana. Ethical assignments are part of this pathway, but they cover only the lower levels. On the higher levels, the ethical aspect is not explicitly mentioned: the con‐
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cepts are related to spiritual/mystical development. Moral be‐ havior alone will not bring about nirvana. This does not render moral conduct totally relative. It is a necessary basis that is needed for mental concentration and insight. Only on a solid basis of good moral character and genuinely ethical living can one achieve mental concentration and in‐ sight. Nor does one leave sila behind him if one climbs the ladder toward Nibbana; it must go with him, in practice and in attitude, all the way there. It only becomes more inter‐ nalized, being transformed from the mere keeping of per‐ ceptual morality in outward action into the attainment of complete purity of motive and emotion and the eradication of greed and hatred. (King 1964: 171)
The Four Immeasurables The Pali Canon mentions the four immeasurables: loving kind‐ ness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. They are seen as a part of the Noble Eightfold Path and have to do with the right effort. The practice of the four immeasurables makes the mind immeasurable. Loving kindness is the wish that all be‐ ings may be happy and is the antidote to hatred and fear. Com‐ passion is the wish that all sentient beings be free from suffer‐ ing and it is the antidote to cruelty. Sympathetic joy rejoices in the joy of others and is the antidote to jealousy and discontent. Equanimity is being well balanced toward others and yourself, which goes together with the insight that suffering is a indissolubly part of life. It is the antidote to attachment (Wil‐ liams 2000: 43). The practice of the four immeasurables displays a certain order. First, the practice is directed toward oneself. Then it is extended to the other and, next, it is extended to those who are hostile to us. Finally, the practice embraces every being without distinction (King 1964: 156). This practice is seen as the ideal for the relation between the spiritual practitioner and the other as they deconstruct the discrimination between the self and the other. It is the practice of true selflessness, which relates the four immeasurables to the ultimate goal of the path (Harvey 2000: 103). The final goal of Buddhism is to escape from the world as it is. This can be done by reaching nirvana, or by a new awareness
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of samsara, an awareness in which the self is transformed. Ethics is seen from the perspective of this ultimate goal. For Buddhism, either Pali Canon or Mahayana variety, nei‐ ther world nor self are what they seem to be. The impor‐ tance of the world as it stands before the human being must be deflated (Pali Canon) or immanentalized into a higher self’s transformed awareness (Mahayana). The important goal for ethics is that Buddhism thus refuses to deal with the world on its own terms. It has no mandate to save the world, only to save selves from themselves. (King 1989: 24)
The world does not need to be changed, but the present situa‐ tion can be transformed by an inner awakening. The most dy‐ namic and effective way to control a social situation is psycho‐ logically, that is to say, by seeking to change the motivation rather than physical circumstance or by seeking to control the physical circumstance by means of controlling the motivations of the persons involved (King 1964: 96). Buddhism sees a highly developed sense of self as the es‐ sential evil of human existence, through which rebirth contin‐ ues. A strong sense of self results in attachment to ourselves and our ideas and emotions in a constant fear of the dissolution of ourselves through death. Through this selfishness all our deeds are poisoned with proud, desires and hatred. All knowl‐ edge, all will, all motives, all acts turn sour by self‐love. Therefore, Buddhism wants to destroy the illusion of the self. The one who engages in meditation has to come to the complete conviction of the impermanence of all beings, including him‐ self. Mahayana Buddhism Mahyana Buddhism is characterized by the final overcoming of the dichotomy of good and evil. The fundamental idea of Buddhism is to pass beyond the world of opposites, a world built up by intellectual distinc‐ tions and emotional defilements, and to realize a spiritual world of non‐distinction, which involves achieving an abso‐ lute point of view. Yet the absolute is in no way distinct from the world of discrimination, for to think so would be to
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This non‐dualistic approach is systematically worked out in the Prajnaparamitra sutras. The following ideas are elaborated. First, all things are empty. Not only persons, but all things are empty of self and have no self‐existence. By itself a thing has no significance. It is what it is only in relation to other things, and they are what they are only in relation to it and yet other things (Harvey 1990: 98). The term sunya is used to refer to absolutely everything, and it entails that absolutely everything is “like a magical illusion” (Williams 2000: 135). Second, all duality is er‐ roneous. Real insight is beyond duality. Third, emptiness is also termed “suchness.” The practice is to learn to take everything “as it is.” Fourth, the negation of duality is also applied to the duality of the relative and the absolute. Nirvana and the world of life and death are not different. The idea that nirvana and samsara are non‐different plays a central role in the perfection of the wisdom perspective (Harvey 1996: 103). According to the Buddha’s teachings, it is our habit of “likes and dislikes” that make a difference between the pleasant and the unpleasant. That is the source of suffering (the first and second noble truths). In Mahayana Buddhism all discrimination is seen as illu‐ sory. The polarities of the dichotomies can not be surpassed by making one of the polarities absolute. Good and evil exist only in their original oneness. Evil cannot be surpassed by the growth of good. The only remedy is to become free of the du‐ ality of good and evil. Karma and Nirvana Buddhism According to King and Van Bragt, there are two types of Bud‐ dhism: karma Buddhism and nirvana Buddhism. Karma Bud‐ dhism is for the lay person: it results in good deeds, which are dedicated to a better individual rebirth. Wholesome acts are also directed at a better world. Nirvana Buddhism is the way of the monks and nuns. It is oriented to the goal of equanimity, in which the difference between good and evil is relative. Kamma represents the world of the outward, personal‐social action fully and strenuously dedicated to the production of a better individual rebirth – if not so a better space‐time
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world. Nibbana represents the inaction of the contemplative life whose energies are turned toward a goal that is trans‐ cended even of the ideal “rebirth.” (King 1964: 170)
The result of this distinction is the spiritualizing of ethics: ethics is viewed from the perspective of a spiritual goal. The concrete ethical order in the social world becomes relative and is not seen as very important. Liberation is the supreme norm of mor‐ ality (Van Bragt 1991: 45). Outward social reformation can be left in other hands in the belief that at best it is superficial and in any case can be achieved only when a majority of people are inwardly reformed, which may not occur for ages to come, if ever (King 1964: 124). Traditionally, Buddhism is not greatly concerned about so‐ ciety. There is no drive to change society. Inner liberation is im‐ portant—this will eventually lead to a better society. A good personal character will result in a good community character. Personal virtue will result in social virtue (King 1964: 181). According to King, in the modern world karma Buddhism and nirvana Buddhism are coming closer to each other. Because of various scientific developments, people long for a better stan‐ dard of living in the present. The promise of a future reward is no longer enough. This results in further emphasis on the avail‐ ability of nirvanic peace here and now, even for the laity. Medi‐ tative techniques help to develop equanimity and inner peace. Nirvana and ethics have value for society and are reinterpreted to the here and now (King 1964: 229). Engaged Buddhism Although Buddhism did not play a big role in the past in re‐ solving local or international (political) tensions, we are now witnessing a form of Buddhist activism. In this Buddhist activ‐ ism old Buddhist teachings are interpreted from the perspective of modern problems. The liberation that is sought has changed from transmundane to mundane liberation, with a new focus on the causes, varieties, and remedies of worldly suffering and oppression, which includes individuals, villages, nations and ultimately all people and which focuses on objectives that may be achieved and recognized in this lifetime, in this world. Buddhist activism portrays a democratizing of spiritual prac‐
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tices. Lay people meditate and do other practices which in the past were reserved for monks. In Buddhist activism there is a dual emphasis on inner peace practice and world peace practice (Queen 1996: 11‐13). There is a discussion among scholars as to how new these developments are. Is the image of monks withdrawing from so‐ ciety and living in distant monasteries correct? Many scholars seem to agree with the view of King, Van Bragt, Gombrich and others who state that the Buddha should not be seen as a social reformer: Certainly, in consenting to preach and then establishing an Order of monks to do likewise, he showed his great compas‐ sion and concern for mankind. Moreover he was supremely kind and understanding towards everyone, so far as we can tell. But his concern was to reform individuals and help them to leave society for ever, not to reform the world .... He never preached against social inequality, only declared its ir‐ relevance to salvation. He never tried to abolish the caste system nor to do away with slavery. (Gombrich 1991: 30)
There are some examples of social workers in Buddhism, such as the Indian king Ashoka, but these are exceptions to the prac‐ tice of individual discipline, virtue and altruism advocated in the tradition (Queen 2000: 17). Characteristic of this new activist Buddhism are an empha‐ sis on mindfulness, especially mindfulness for “the cries of the world,” the identification of self and world, and the imperative of action. Ancient Buddhist teachings and the analysis of mod‐ ern problems go hand in hand. Queen writes the following about this form of Buddhism: This Buddhism is endowed with many, if not all of the themes and techniques from the past: interdependence, mindfulness, compassion, skilful means, chanting and walk‐ ing meditation, community practice, right livelihood, and many, many more. But it is also endowed with a sensitivity to social injustice, institutional evil, and political oppression as sources of human suffering, that has not been central to Buddhist analysis in the past. (Queen 2000: 25)
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In the following we will focus on the engaged Buddhist move‐ ment of Thich Nhat Hanh and see how evil is reinterpreted and transformed. Thich Nhat Hanh Thich Nhat Hanh was born in central Vietnam in 1926 and joined a monastery at the age of sixteen. He founded the School of Youth for Social Services (SYSS) in Saigon in the early 1960s, a grassroots relief organization that rebuilt bombed villages, set up schools and medical centres, resettled homeless families, and organized agricultural co‐operatives. The SYSS based its work on the Buddhist principles of non‐violence and compas‐ sionate action. Volunteers of the SYSS were trained to relieve the sufferings caused by the war and to extend their work to all Vietnamese people, regardless of political orientation. In 1965 he founded the Tiep Hien Order, the Order of In‐ terbeing, designed as a manifestation of engaged Buddhism. The order is composed of both laypeople and monks and nuns. The members of the Order of Interbeing commit themselves to the discipline of the fourteen precepts. Since 1982 Thich Nhat Hanh’s practices have been present in Western countries. He established Plum Village, a monastic training and retreat center in southwestern France. Thich Nhat Hanh wants to renew Buddhist practices and re‐articulate tradi‐ tional Buddhist teachings in ways that speak to the hearts of people of all faiths and of no faith in countries around the world. The basic characteristics of Thich Nhat Hanh’s engaged Buddhism are as follows: 1) Peacemaking and socially engaged Buddhism encompass all aspects of life; 2) insight into inter‐ being (nonseparate self, emptiness of a separate self) and im‐ permanence is fundamental to engaged Buddhist practice and peacemaking; 3) socially engaged Buddhist practice includes the practice of mindfulness, social service and non‐partisan ad‐ vocacy to reduce and stop injustice; 4) engaged Buddhism is the way we live our lives—peace is not only the absence of war but needs to be present in each action of our daily life; 5) teachings and practices must be appropriate for time and place; 6) we continue to learn, and we can learn from everything (Queen 2000: 35).
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All Buddhism is Engaged Thich Nhat Hanh states that the teachings of the Buddha were not to intended to have us escape from life but to help us to re‐ late to ourselves and our world as thoroughly as possible (Thich Nhat Hanh 1998: 8). Meditation is not a means for flee‐ ing society or escaping from it but preparation for re‐entry into society (Thich Nhat Hanh 1987: 45). He uses the idea of “inter‐ being” to emphasize that there is no difference between the in‐ dividual and society. Interbeing is a term for describing the es‐ sential interconnectedness of the universe. It challenges us to look beyond the world of concepts and opposites. If we look deeply into the nature of the universe we can see that all things are profoundly interdependent. Thich Nhat Hanh often uses the example of a sheet of paper often to explain this interbeing of everything: A sheet of paper is made of non‐paper elements. A cloud is a non‐paper element, the forest is a non‐paper element. Sun‐ shine is a non‐paper element. The paper is made of all the non‐paper elements to the extent that if we return the non‐ paper elements to their sources, the cloud to the sky, the sunshine to the sun, the logger his father, the paper is emp‐ ty. Empty of what? Empty of a separate self. The paper is made of non‐paper elements. (Thich Nhat Hanh 1987: 46)
Thich Nhat Hanh refers to traditional Buddhism where interbe‐ ing was originally called dependent co‐arising. At the heart of this understanding is the realization that we have no separate self, that everything is empty of a separate self in a universe that is in a constant state of flux and change. Thich Nhat Hanh stresses that interbeing is also true for the individual. There is no difference between the individual and society. In the same way the individual is made of non‐individual elements. How do you expect to leave everything behind when you enter a meditation center? The kind of suffering that you carry in your heart, that is society itself. You bring that with you, you bring society with you. You bring all of us with you. When you meditate it is not just for yourself, you do it for the whole society. (Thich Nhat Hanh 1987: 46)
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There is no difference between socially engaged Buddhism and non‐socially engaged Buddhism. Everything we do can create suffering or happiness; everything has an effect on peace or non‐peace. Every word, every act has a consequence. If a person is not peaceful, he or she cannot truly contribute to the peace movement. Without a sense of inner peace, we can‐ not do anything for peace. Four Noble Truths Remarkable in Thich Nhat Hanh’s interpretation of the four no‐ ble truths is the way in which the third noble truth is formulat‐ ed positively. Thich Nhat Hanh not only mentions the possi‐ bility of the cessation of suffering, but emphasizes the possibil‐ ity of healing. In a commentary on the first noble truth he states that not everything is suffering. Impermanence and non‐self are univer‐ sal, but not everything is suffering. “It is true that the Buddha taught the truth of suffering, but he also taught the truth of ‘dwelling happily in things as they are’” (Thich Nhat Hanh 1998: 22). Practicing Buddhism is a clever way to enjoy life. Happiness is available. Please help yourself to it. All of us have the ca‐ pacity of transforming neutral feelings into pleasant feel‐ ings, very pleasant feelings that can last a long time. If you are happy, all of us will profit from it. Society will profit from it. All living beings will profit from it. (Thich Nhat Hanh 1987: 33)
The most important practice in relation to suffering and well‐ being is mindfulness. We must recognize our suffering, our suf‐ fering needs to be identified. After recognizing and identifying our pain, we need to look deeply into it in order to understand its true nature. Mindfulness helps us also to appreciate the well‐ being that is already there. The cessation of suffering, well‐be‐ ing, is available for those able to enjoy the precious jewels that are available. You have eyes that can see, lungs that can breathe, legs that can walk and lips that can smile (Thich Nhat Hanh 1998: 39). A first important step, according to Thich Nhat Hanh, is to see that well‐being is possible. The second step is to encourage ourselves to find peace and joy. A third step is to realize that
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suffering and happiness are not two separate identities. By this Thich Nhat Hanh means that whoever sees suffering, sees the making of suffering, the ending of suffering and the path. When we look deeply into the truth of suffering, we see how suffering arose. When we look deeply into the truth of suf‐ fering, we see how to end that suffering and touch well‐being (Thich Nhat Hanh 1998: 43). The path to well‐being is the Noble Eightfold Path: If we live according to the Noble Eightfold Path, we cul‐ tivate well‐being and our lives will be filled with joy, ease and wonder, but if our path is not noble, if there is craving, hatred, ignorance, and fear in the way we live our daily lives but if we practice the ignoble eightfold path, suffering will naturally be the outcome. (Thich Nhat Hanh 1998: 44)
The Noble Eightfold Path is reformulated by Thich Nhat Hanh in the fourteen precepts of the Tiep Hien Order. Ordained members vow to observe these fourteen precepts. These pre‐ cepts clarify how the roots of suffering are transformed into the roots of well‐being through mindfulness training. A significant change is the reversed order of the precepts compared to the original Noble Eightfold Path. Here the transformation of the mind (1‐4) precedes the transformation of ethical conduct. Mor‐ ality is not a phase on the way to liberation, but liberation has consequences for every act one does. The final outcome of lib‐ erated acts will be a liberated society.1 Conclusions In the development of Buddhism different conceptions of evil and the transformation of evil can be observed. Originally, the final overcoming of evil was the result of attaining nirvana. Through nirvana one escapes from the cycle of rebirth. The ces‐ sation of rebirth means no more evil and no more suffering. In Mahayana Buddhism a central insight is the negation of all du‐
1
For the formulation of the fourteen precepts see www.plumvil‐ lage.org/MindfulnessTrainings/14Mt.htm
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ality. Ultimately, there is no difference between good and evil. Both are empty and “like a magical illusion.” The final over‐ coming of evil is found in a new awareness of this reality. In the engaged Buddhism of Thich Nhat Hanh, both the way in which we perceive reality and reality itself are transformed. By trans‐ forming the hatred, anger and delusion in ourselves, society will change. Inward evil and outward evil are interrelated. Transformation of outward evil begins with inner transform‐ ation through mindfulness. This will change our world. In Buddhism, evil is not seen as an independent, absolute phenomenon. Evil is seen from the perspective of the way to liberation, and in the end it is transformed. From an unen‐ lightened perspective many questions can be raised, which all circle around the question: Is the problem of evil in the world taken seriously enough and will it be solved in Buddhism? Is the striving for nirvana not a form of irresponsible escapism? From the standpoint of the oneness of good and evil, is evil (and the suffering caused by evil) truly taken seriously? Is Thich Nhat Hanh not too optimistic about the goodness of human beings? Does it not belong to human nature to be at‐ tracted to evil? Does this not make the way of transforming evil by transforming human beings an endless one? These questions are not easily answered in Buddhism, be‐ cause Buddhism is not, in the first place, a philosophy of evil. Buddhism is a path to liberation from suffering. Not all ques‐ tions about evil are answered on this path. Bibliography Gombrich, R. (1988). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London/New York: Routledge. Harvey, P. (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2000) An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hunt‐Perry, P. and L. Fine. (2000). “All Buddhism is Engaged: Thich Nhat Hanh and the Order of Interbeing.” In: C.S. Queen (ed.). En‐ gaged Buddhism in the West. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Pp. 35‐ 66. King, W.L. (1964). In the Hope of Nibbana: An Essay on Theravada Bud‐ dhist Ethics. LaSalle: Open Court.
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(1989). “Buddhist Self‐World Theory and Buddhist Ethics.” In: The Eastern Buddhist 22: 14‐27. King, S.B. (1996). ”Thich Nhat Hanh and the Unified Buddhist Church: Nondualism in Action.” In: C.S. Queen and S.B. King (eds.). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany: State University of New York Press. Pp. 321‐65. Queen, C.S. (1996). “Introduction: The Shapes and Sources of En‐ gaged Buddhism.” In: C.S. Queen and S.B. King (eds.). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany: State University of New York Press. Pp. 1‐44. (2000). “Introduction: A New Buddhism.” In: C.S. Queen (ed.). Engaged Buddhism in the West. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Pp. 1‐31. Thich Nhat Hanh. (1987). Being Peace. Berkeley: Parallax Press. (1998). The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching: Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy and Liberation, The Four Noble Truths, The Noble Eightfold Path and Other Basic Buddhist Teachings. Berkeley: Parallax Press. Van Bragt, J. (1991). “Voorbij goed en kwaad.” In: C. Anbeek (ed.). Voorbij goed en kwaad? Christendom en boeddhsime. Kampen: Kok Agora. Pp. 25‐74. Vetter, T. (1992). Levende godsdiensten 2: Inleiding in het boeddhisme, Kampen: Kok. Williams, P. (2000). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the In‐ dian Tradition. London/New York: Routledge.
Zen and the Question of Evil Sodo Yasunaga
Abstract The concept of “evil” is difficult to define, varying as it does according to his‐ torical, cultural, social, and religious context. The present article, after re‐ viewing the understanding of evil in Indian Buddhism, examines how the concept came to be viewed in Chinese Buddhism. First it considers the treatment of evil in the treatise Yuanren lun by the Zen and Huayen master Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), then assesses how attitudes developed as Zen evolved into a thoroughly Chinese expression of Mahayana Buddhism. Finally, citing evidence from the writings of the Song dynasty Zen master Wuzu Fayan (1024?–1104), it suggests that Zen employed the East Asian sense of “shame” as a practical means of implementing the Buddhist ethical directive to “cease evil, cultivate good.”
Introduction Reflections on the nature of evil may date back to the very be‐ ginnings of human thought, and will no doubt continue for as long as humanity exists. Universal though the concept of evil may be, however, concrete views on what exactly evil is differ depending on age, society, culture, and religion. So many issues are involved that it is easy to wander off on side paths and lose sight of the central questions. Evil is, of course, an important issue in Buddhism, as in all religions, and it has been the subject of much deliberation since the time of Shakyamuni (ca 500 B.C.E.). Early Buddhism, with its practical outlook, taught people simply to “cease evil, cul‐ tivate good.” This is expressed in the aphorism known in Buddhism as the “Precept Verse of the Seven Buddhas,” found in the Dhammapada: “Commit no evil, cultivate all good, purify the mind—this is the teaching of all the Buddhas.” Regarding what was intended by the word “evil” in early Buddhism, the
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Japanese Buddhist scholar Nakamura Hajime1 offers the fol‐ lowing definitions in his Bukkyogo daijiten (Dictionary of Buddhist Terms): 1) That which is bad; that which harms peo‐ ple; that which contravenes natural law and has the power to cause suffering in the present and future; 2) evil action; evil karma; 3) “evil” in the moral sense; undesirable consequences; 4) the manifestation of defilement; 5) disgrace; uncleanliness; ugliness (Hajime 2001: 8). In East Asian Buddhism there is, in addition to the concept of evil (aku in Japanese), the notion of “sin” (zai in Japanese), referring to particularly grave forms of evil. Yet in practice the Chinese translations of the sutras use the characters for aku and zai almost synonymously, with no clear distinction. This illustrates an interesting difference in the Buddhist understanding of evil as opposed to that of Christianity, with its concept of original sin. In Christianity the notion of evil ex‐ ists in opposition to that of good, which involves love of God, love of neighbor, and action for the benefit of others. Although evil cannot be separated from sin, the two concepts are not re‐ garded as identical; the concept of evil is a larger category that includes sin. Moreover, since evil is defined as the antithesis of good, it is rendered meaningless as a concept when disconnec‐ ted from this binary opposition. In contrast with this tendency in the Christian worldview to grasp things in dualistic terms, the more pantheistic Chinese worldview, according to the Japanese Sinologist Mori Mikisa‐ buro, tends to conceive of the world as a harmonious whole. This, he argues, relates to the question of good and evil as well: As with flesh and spirit, there is no fundamental opposition between good and evil. Mencius, who asserts the funda‐ mental goodness of human nature, comments that human beings, despite their basic goodness, may occasionally en‐ gage in wrongdoing, but that this is the result of external cir‐ cumstances. Once these circumstances are rectified, humans naturally move toward the good. Evil, in other words, is not an independent principle existing in opposition to good, but
1
The traditional Japanese convention of writing the surnames first will be followed in this article, except in the bibliography.
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that which occurs when good is not yet complete. One might even say that evil is an imperfect form of good. (Mori 1992: 39)
Mahayana Buddhism, with its central doctrine of sunyata, stresses the essentially empty, non‐substantial nature of evil. The underlying standpoint is therefore not so much on “ceasing evil, cultivating good” as on transcending relative good and evil. The basic outlook is that actions accord naturally with the good, once true detachment is attained, that virtue manifests of itself when human artifice is dropped. Several central questions are involved here. Can the mere fitting of one’s behavior to the established norms of good and evil ever result in true self‐actualization? And at the same time, is it genuine self‐actualization and spontaneity to simply rid oneself of those norms and let the original Buddha‐mind act as it will? Certainly the transcendence of good and evil does not imply uncontrolled licence. Rather, such transcendence signifies the capacity to distinguish good and evil from the standpoint of original self‐nature. But for this it is necessary to be thoroughly liberated from established, externally imposed standards of good and evil. In Zen—the most Sinicized form of Mahayana Bud‐ dhism—this point of view is expressed in Case 23 of the koan collection Mumonkan, where Dajian Huineng (638‐713), the Sixth Patriarch, says to the senior monk Huiming, “Do not think of good, do not think of evil. At this very moment, what is your Original Face?” In the rest of this paper I would like to examine in greater detail this basic standpoint as developed in various repre‐ sentative Zen writings, beginning with the Yuanren lun (Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity) by Guifeng Zongmi (780‐841), and followed by the records of such masters as Dajian Huineng; Mazu Daoyi (709‐788), Huangbo Xiyun (850?), and Japanese masters such as Bassui Tokusho (1327‐1387) and Bankei Yotaku (1622‐1693). Finally, I would like to examine the way in which the concept of shame came to serve as a substitute for the eth‐ ical imperative in early Buddhism to “cease evil, cultivate good,” as evidenced in the records of Wuzu Fayan (1024?‐1104) and other Chinese and Japanese thinkers. In East Asia the sense of shame in many ways provided the practical impetus to
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bridge the gap that potentially exists between the awakening experience (kensho) and the practical expression of this exper‐ ience in daily behavior. Originally, the word “sin” (zai), though often used almost synonymously with the word evil (aku), referred also to be‐ havior that violated the Buddhist ethical teachings usually referred to in English precepts. The original word for “pre‐ cepts” is, in Japanese, kairitsu, made up of the characters kai and ritsu. Kai, the translation of the Sanskrit sila, refers specifically to the inner determination of the seeker to follow the rules of training and thereby advance in the Way. No punishment is thus incurred by lapses in sila. Ritsu, the translation of the Sanskrit word vinaya, refers to the rules and regulations for the communal life of the monks and nuns. As the ethical code of the sangha, the vinaya is of course enforced through penalties for infractions. With the transmission of Buddhism from India to China, the vinaya, as externally imposed ethical regulations for mon‐ astic life, naturally underwent a process of change in response to the differing cultural and climactic conditions of Buddhism’s new environment. In Zen this evolutionary process was ex‐ pressed in the appearance of the “rules of purity” (shingi) that regulated the life of the sangha in the Zen monastic commun‐ ities. In contrast to the external, ethically oriented vinaya, the more spiritually oriented sila, directed toward the religious de‐ velopment of the mind, underwent a change not so much in form as in nature. Chinese Buddhism saw a shift from the Hin‐ ayana pratimoksha precepts to the Mahayana “formless mind‐ ground” precepts, which in Zen led eventually to a more ab‐ stract, conceptual view of the sila as a whole. It was in place of this abstract understanding of the sila (or perhaps as a com‐ plement to it) that the East Asian notion of shame came to serve as a practical impetus to spiritual training and an antidote to sloth. Zen, having “transcended” and relativized the concepts of good and evil, no longer found ethical guidance on the per‐ sonal level in the Indian system of sila. Instead, it turned to the more human, emotionally based sense of shame. The notions of “name” and “shame” were deeply rooted in the Confucian values of Chinese society. Such values had an in‐
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evitable effect upon Chinese Buddhism, for it was the literate, Confucian‐influenced classes of China who shaped the devel‐ opment of Chinese Buddhist thought and education, and who supplied much of the educated Chinese clergy. A typical story relates how, in his youth, the Zen master Danxia Tianran (738/39‐824) was on his way to take the civil service examin‐ ations when a monk he met on the road persuaded him to take up Buddhist practice. Monks like Tianran, steeped since child‐ hood in Confucian thought, would certainly have felt the con‐ cepts of “name” and “shame” far more keenly than did the Ar‐ yan monks of India and Central Asia. The growing role of shame as an ethical force in East Asian Buddhism is evident in the way that the words for shame (Jap. chi, zan, shu) are used in the Zen literature. First evident in writings associated with the Song dynasty master Wuzu Fayan (1024?‐1104), the concept of shame was increasingly invoked by teachers in China and Japan through the ensuing centuries, de‐ monstrating how, with the integration of Chinese ethical val‐ ues, Buddhism found a new, more culturally appropriate dy‐ namic for “ceasing evil and cultivating good.” Guifeng Zongmi and the Yuanren Lun The Yuanren lun (Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity) was written by Guifeng Zongmi, the fifth patriarch of both the Hu‐ ayen school of scholastic Buddhism and the Heze school of Zen, in response to attacks on Buddhism by representatives of the “two teachings” of Confucianism and Taoism. A systematic ex‐ position of the principal doctrines of Buddhism, the text became a standard work in the education of Buddhist monks. The Jap‐ anese Buddhist scholar Kamata Shigeo describes the signifi‐ cance of the Yuanren lun in the history of Chinese thought: First, the Yuanren lun introduced the concept of mind‐con‐ sciousness to Chinese philosophy, stimulating investigation into the nature of the subjective mind. Second, while advo‐ cating the superiority of Buddhism, it assigns a place and a role to Confucianism and Taoism, and thereby contributed to the later Chinese view of the essential unity of the “three teachings.”(Kamata 1995: 29)
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The Yuanren lun is a quite short work, but, perhaps owing to its very brevity, it offers a number of concise statements involving various nuances of evil. I will list below several representative passages in which the character for evil (aku) appears. Since encouraging the myriad practices, admonishing against evil [aku], and promoting good contribute in com‐ mon to order, the three teachings should all be practiced and followed.2 (74) Again, since their claim that [the myriad things] are en‐ gendered and formed from the primal pneuma means that a spirit, which is suddenly born out of nowhere, has not yet learned and deliberated, then how, upon gaining [the body of] an infant, does it like, dislike [aku], and act willfully? If they were to say that one suddenly comes into existence from out of nowhere and is thereupon able to like, dislike, and so forth in accordance with one’s thoughts, then it would mean that the five virtues and six arts can all be un‐ derstood by according with one’s thoughts. Why then, de‐ pending upon causes and conditions, do we study to gain proficiency? (96) Again, as for their claim that poverty and wealth, high and low station, sageliness and stupidity, good and evil [aku], good and bad fortune, disaster and bounty all proceed from the mandate of heaven, then, in heaven’s endowment of destiny, why are the impoverished many and the wealthy few, those of low station many and those of high station few, and so on to those suffering disaster many and those enjoying bounty few? (103) The Buddha, for the sake of beginners, at first set forth the karmic retribution of the three periods of time and the causes and effects of good and bad [aku]. (115) That is to say, [one who] commits the ten evils [aku] in their highest degree falls into hell upon death, [one who commits the ten evils] in their lesser degree becomes a hungry ghost,
2
Translations are based on those in Gregory 1995. The bracketed numbers in the text refer to the pages in this text.
ZEN AND THE QUESTION OF EVIL and [one who commits the ten evils] in their lowest degree becomes an animal. (115) As for the worldly teaching of India, even though its ob‐ servance is distinct, in its admonishing against evil [aku] and its exhorting to good, there is no difference [from that of China]. (117) As for karma, there are three types: 1) good, 2) bad [aku], 3) neutral. (123) If one were to say that it is just joy, anger, love, and hate [aku] that activate the body and mouth and cause them to generate karma, then, since the feelings of joy, anger, and so forth abruptly rise one moment and abruptly perish the next and are of themselves without substance, what can we take as constituting the controlling agent and generating karma? (124) That which receives agreeable and disagreeable [aku] things. (143) Then one does not obstruct the mind in good and bad [aku] that have outflows in the three realms. (144) [The Buddha] would initially expound the first teaching [of Humans and Gods], enabling them to be free from evil [aku] and to abide in virtue; he would then expound the second and third [teachings of the Lesser Vehicle and the Phenom‐ enal Appearances of the Dharmas], enabling them to be free from impurity and to abide in purity; he would finally discuss the fourth and fifth [teachings], those that Refute Phenomenal Appearances and Reveal the Nature, subsum‐ ing the provisional into the true. (186)
It is necessary to cut off evil [aku] and cultivate virtue by means of the insight of having awakened to the true, and to put an end to the false and return to the true. (186) Therefore, when one commits evil [aku] such as murder or theft, one’s spirit, impelled by this bad karma, is born among the denizens of hell, hungry ghosts, or animals. (200) Therefore in this bodily existence, although there may be cases of those who are without evil [aku] and even so suffer
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SODO YASUNAGA disaster, or those who are without virtue and even so enjoy bounty, or who are cruel and yet are long‐lived, or who do not kill and yet are short‐lived. (203) Moreover, there are those who in a previous life cultivated virtue when young and perpetuated evil [aku] when old, or else were evil in their youth and virtuous in their old age. (204)
The passages above provide a summary of the ways in which the concept of evil is generally understood in Buddhism. The concept of the “ten evils” mentioned in example 5 is particu‐ larly worthy of further examination, owing to its concrete nature. The ten evils comprise the three physical evils of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct; the four verbal evils of lying, harsh speech, duplicity, and frivolous speech; and the three mental evils of attachment, aversion, and ignorance. Commis‐ sion of the ten evils results in karma leading to rebirth in the realms of hell, the lowest of the six paths through which sen‐ tient beings are said to wander. What then, of the basic understanding of evil in the Zen tradition? Let us look at several pertinent passages from the Zen literature. Those who wish to realize buddhahood should first learn peace of mind. When the mind is not yet at peace, even good is not good. How much [worse] then, is evil? When peace of mind is attained, both good and evil are free of striving. (Yanagida 1971‐76: 103) Those who seek the dharma should not seek for anything. Outside of mind there is no other buddha, outside of buddha there is no other mind. Neither grasping good nor rejecting evil, relying neither on purity or defilement, one realizes that the nature of evil is empty and cannot be gained at any moment because it is without self‐nature. (Iriya 1984: 199) Self‐nature is originally perfect. Simply avoid entanglement in matters of good and evil and you will be one who cultivates the Way. Grasping good and rejecting evil, con‐ templating emptiness and entering samadhi—these belong to the realm of striving. (Iriya 1984: 25)
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Where all phenomena arise, there is the Gate of Infinite Sa‐ madhi, far removed from all inner and outer views and at‐ tachments. This is known also as the Dharani Gate and the Dana Gate. Not thinking of the phenomena of good and evil either inside or outside, this is the Gate of the Paramitas. (Iriya 1984: 191) The Sixth Patriarch said, “Concentrate your thoughts for a while and do not think in terms of good or evil. (Iriya 1969: 86). [A monk] asked, “What is it to transcend the three worlds?” The master answered, “If you do not think of good and evil, right where you are you have transcended the three worlds.” (Iriya 1969: 133)
From the standpoint of Zen, “grasping good and rejecting evil, contemplating emptiness and entering samadhi” all belong to the realm of striving, so it is essential first to “learn peace of mind.” The person who realizes that “when peace of mind is attained, both good and evil are free of striving” and “simply avoids entanglement in matters of good and evil” is one who truly “cultivates the Way.” Thus the relative (i.e. conventional and non‐enlightened) maintenance of the precepts, involving the mere suppression of individual evil, leads to sublimation in absolute emptiness. The Sixth Patriarch commented as follows. You should understand that the function of all phenomena derives from the essence of mind. This is the true teaching of sila, dhyana, and prajna. To always watch one’s own mind and nature, this is the buddha of self‐nature. When the mind is free from evil, that is the sila of self‐nature. When the mind is free from delusion, that is the prajna of self‐nature. When the mind is free from disturbance, that is the calmness of self‐nature. (Nakagawa 1976: 149)
From this perspective, one can readily understand the follow‐ ing comment on the precepts by the Japanese Zen master Bassui Tokusho: Maintaining the precepts involves nonduality of principle and phenomena and unity of essence and form. Those who have yet to see self‐nature are submerged in the sea of pas‐
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SODO YASUNAGA sion, thus killing their own mind‐buddha. This is murder of the most serious kind. For this reason seeing self‐nature and attaining enlightenment is true maintenance of the precepts. (Ichikawa 1967: 199)
Bassui’s position that true maintenance of the precepts equals awakening to one’s true nature is reflected in the following pas‐ sage from the records of the Japanese master Bankei Yotaku: Basically, the precepts were formulated for the sake of im‐ moral priests. True priests do not transgress against the dharma and therefore need not take the precepts. A person who doesn’t drink has no need of the precept against alco‐ hol; one who doesn’t steal has no need of the precept against theft. One who tells no lies needn’t take the precept against deceitful speech. Thus, though you [priests of the Vinaya School] proclaim that you maintain the precepts, whether the precepts are observed or transgressed is of concern only to immoral priests. To proclaim oneself a Vinaya School priest and assert the superiority of the precepts is like car‐ rying around a sign saying that one is evil. It’s like a good man imitating a bad man and pretending to be wicked. Wouldn’t that be shameful? The unborn is the buddha‐ mind; if you live in the unborn buddha‐mind then the ob‐ servance or nonobservance of the precepts is not an issue. (Suzuki 1961a: 23)
Insightful as Bankei’s words are, though, even those true priests who constantly maintain the unborn buddha‐mind must never‐ theless reside in the secular world. And as long as one lives in the world of form and discrimination one must deal with the tangible, ever‐changing phenomena that always surround one. The Hinayana and Mahayana approaches to resolving this pro‐ blem both have their weaknesses. The Hinayana pratimoksha, with its emphasis on the phenomenal, can easily result in preoc‐ cupation with empty form, while the formless mind‐ground precepts of Mahayana, with their emphasis on the transcend‐ ent, can just as easily lead to a sterile conflation of observance and transgression and end up confusing freedom and license. It is my belief that, as East Asian Buddhism became aware of these problems, it strove to augment Mahayana precept prac‐ tice with an ethical mindfulness fostered through the awareness
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of shame. This brings us to the teachings of the eleventh‐cen‐ tury Zen master Wuzu Fayan. Wuzu Fayan and the Concept of Shame Fayan said, “For twenty years I have practiced; now for the first time I know shame.” Hearing this, Zen Master Lingyuan was surprised, and commented, “How wonderful, these two words ‘know shame’!” Wuzu Fayan, together with his descendents Yuanwu Keqin (1063–1135) and Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163), was one of the great Song dynasty formulators of koan Zen practice. Why did his words “know shame” so deeply impress Lingyuan Weiqing (d. 1117)? What was this “shame” that Wuzu finally understood after twenty years of practice, and why was he ashamed? There are many Chinese characters that convey the mean‐ ing of “shame.” Zangi, the traditional Buddhist term for the concept, is formed from the characters zan, indicating the per‐ sonal shame one feels when reflecting upon one’s shortcom‐ ings, and gi, indicating the more social shame one feels re‐ garding how one appears in the eyes of others. Zan also has the nuance of “loss of face.” “Face,” needless to say, generally sig‐ nifies “honor” and “reputation,” but in Zen it has the additional meaning of “original face”—one’s true nature before one’s par‐ ents were born. Thus in Zen, to lose sight of one’s “face” is truly a matter for shame, and Wuzu may have been pointing to this. Shame, in any event, is one of the most mysterious of hu‐ man emotions. Thus, in the West as in the East, thinkers have devoted much thought to the nature of shame. The German philosopher Max Scheler (1874–1928), who was much con‐ cerned with this subject, wrote that no god and no animal can have a feeling of shame. Shame is found only in humans, who combine the qualities of god and animal .... Shame is the feeling that inevitably arises when man as a spiritual, personal being reflects upon him‐ self as an impulsive, animal being and becomes aware of the contradiction and discord between these two orders of be‐ ing. (Tanaka 1937: 77)
Other well‐known writers comment as follows:
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SODO YASUNAGA True shame cultures rely on external sanctions for good be‐ havior, not, as true guilt cultures do, on an internalized con‐ viction of sin. Shame is a reaction to other people’s criticism. A man is shamed either by being openly ridiculed and re‐ jected or by fantasying to himself that he has been made ridiculous. (Benedict 1946: 223) When one knows shame, one becomes aware for the first time of an aspect of the spirit’s activity. (Suzuki 1961b: 253). Shame and guilt are not opposing concepts, but instead may be seen as comprising the two poles of a continuum ... with shame emerging from the standpoint of superiority/inferior‐ ity, and guilt emerging from the standpoint of good/evil. (Sakuta 1967: 11) Whereas guilt may be seen as the self‐consciousness of the evil ego, shame may be seen as the self‐consciousness of the ugly ego. Thus the contrasting landscapes of guilt cultures and shame cultures reveal the differences between cultures that value ethics and those that value aesthetics. (Umehara 1967: 107) Guilt arises from the tension between the self and that which transcends self; while shame arises from the tension be‐ tween the ego and the ego‐ideal. (Inoue 1977: 123) Human beings have strength and nobility, and at the same are weak. Aware of this fundamental weakness, they at‐ tempt to transcend it. In this spiritual endeavor, shame pro‐ vides a great source of energy. (Togi 1989: 65) Shame arises when our self‐respect is doubted or under at‐ tack, whether from without or from within. Each of us has within ourselves a partially conscious image of the way we want to be seen—the so‐called “ego‐ideal.” The higher this ego‐ideal’s demands are for perfection, the easier it will be to fall into feelings of inferiority and shame. ( Jacoby 1994: 3) In the psychoanalytic literature, shame is usually regarded from the standpoint of narcissism. Wurmser ... for example, identified shame as the “hidden partner” of narcissism. In this case shame is no longer a reaction formation serving as
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a secondary guard for suppression; it is a narcissistic dy‐ namic. (Tisseron 2001: 18)3
From a religious point of view, one can regard the “repentance” of “other‐power” religions like Christianity, in which salvation is effected through an encounter with a redeemer, as analogous in function to the “shame” of “self‐power” religions like Zen, in which liberation is realized through an encounter with one’s own original self. When Christians experience salvation, they must simultaneously confront the “non‐original” sin that they themselves have committed. While confronting sin, one is saved from sin; knowing this, one repents. The Zen practitioner too, when awakened to self as original buddha nature, must at the same time face self as deluded being. The sense of shame emerges from this experience of the oneness of buddha and de‐ luded being, of sage and sinner. As mentioned above, the sense of shame as an ethical force emerged in Zen with the increasing inculturation of the tradi‐ tion in China. This is reflected in the development of Chinese Zen literature. The various words used to signify shame, such as (Jap.) chi, zan, jiku and shu are not seen in any of the early Zen texts, including such central works as the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch and the Record of Linji. It is only after the ninth century that the concept comes into frequent use. Below I list a number of representative examples of the use of shu from ninth‐ to fourteenth‐century texts (that is, from the late Tang to the Yuan dynasties). You lowered your hook into flaming water where there’s no fish And nowhere to look for one either—I’m laughing at your chagrin. Ku‐yin, the Ch’an elder Tzu, how pitiable you are; You’ve been spat on, and now are ashamed to look at me. (Layman Pang; cf. Sasaki et al.) I can’t bear heads growing horns anymore:
3
The passage is translated from the Japanese translation.
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SODO YASUNAGA If you rouse the mind to seek buddha, it’s an occasion for shame. (Record of Dongshan) (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 47: 525c) What are you priests seeking with your ringing of bells, beating of drums, and other activities? What ridiculous be‐ havior is this? Have some shame! (Record of Xuefeng) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:24:5:945b) Inside you’re not in control, yet when you meet people you ask, “What is the self?” Have some shame! (Record of Xue‐ feng) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:24:5:946b) Were the buddhas at fault, that they could not take their places? The master said, “This shameless rascal!” (Record of Xuefeng) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:24:5:950b) There is no Master yet in your mind, but how big you talk! Have some shame! (Record of Xuefeng) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:24:5:954a) Awaken immediately to awareness of original no‐doing, no‐ thing, and no‐mind. Then afterwards have shame, be at rest, and simply be the dark mystery. (Essentials of Mind according to Yuanwu) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:25: 4:723) You make another circumambulation, or snap your fingers, or make a cough, or give a shout, or clap your hands. What sort of understanding is this? It’s just that you have no shame! (Record of Dahui) (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 47: 849b) Proud of your skill in using people, you age without learn‐ ing shame and die a death that disgraces your school. (Re‐ corded Sayings of Ying’an Tanhua) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:25:5:888a) Do you wish to understand Caoshan? Then serve the mas‐ ter, and afterwards understand how to behave before people in an unashamed manner. (Recorded Sayings of Dachuan) (Ni‐ hon Zokuzokyo:313a) You should first have shame; only then can you attain the ideal. (Record of Xutang) (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 47: 101b) Thus I recall the words of Old Master Wuzu. I have been on pilgrimage for forty years, and today for the first time I
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know shame. (Recorded Sayings of Foguang) (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 80:149c) At that time I experienced deep enlightenment and was un‐ able to hear for three days. I felt great humiliation, and un‐ derstood shame. (Recorded Sayings of Xueyan) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:27:3:539) This mountain monk knew a bit about shame, yet without cause I deliberately transgressed. I see now how that too was an expedient means. (Recorded Sayings of Yishan) (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 80:318) Liao’an said, “Yueshan started the exchange and Yunyan finished it, but though the start and the finish formed a whole still he didn’t understand shame. (Recorded Sayings of Liao’an) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:28:4: 606b) If it is thus, then it means he didn’t understand shame, saying that the old masters of the world all have the Clear Diamond Eye. (Recorded Sayings of Liao’an) (Dai Nihon Zoku‐ zokyoo 2:28:670a) The desolate village hasn’t even charm to call its own; knowing neither comb nor powder, ignorant of shame; she plucks a flower in the meadow; and lightheartedly places it in a countryman’s hair. (Recorded Sayings of Shuai’an) (Dai Nihon Zokuzokyo 2:26:1:124)
These passages clearly demonstrate how Zen, as it gradually deepened its roots in Han culture and developed into a dis‐ tinctly Chinese form of Buddhism, came to employ the concept of shame as a motivating force for self‐reflection and contrition among its clergy. When Zen was transmitted to Japan this dis‐ tinctive characteristic accompanied it. Torei Enji (1721‐1792), the chief disciple of the great Japanese Rinzai master Hakuin Ekaku (1685–1768), wrote as follows in his instructions to his disciples: I will now indicate ten ideals that the student should keep in mind and thoroughly investigate: 1. profound respect for the vow of compassion; 2. wholehearted determination; 3. greatness of ability; 4. clarity of wisdom; 5. surpassing in‐ sight into the Way; 6. clear practice of the Way; 7. cutting off of the passions; 8. abandonment of worldly thoughts; 9. a
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SODO YASUNAGA suitable sense of shame; 10. thorough investigation of the doubt‐mind. If one constantly examines one’s mind in ac‐ cordance these ideals, has a deep belief in them, and always practices and studies them, then all will be accomplished as easily as one points to one’s own palm. (Nishimura 1992: 111).
Here we see that “a suitable sense of shame” has assumed an integral place in the practice and perfection of the Buddhist Way. As mentioned above, in Buddhism the concept of evil was relative in nature rather than absolute. In this respect it is ba‐ sically different from the Christian concept of evil. The absolute nature of evil in Christianity signifies the actual existence of evil, an existence that must be obliterated. And indeed, the present state of the world is easily explained if understood in terms of the Christian concept of evil. Christianity is a religion centered above all else on love, but rigid interpretations of evil have been emphasized and politically exploited to such an ex‐ tent that love seems often eclipsed. A way out of this impasse may be provided by the Bud‐ dhist teaching of causality, which views evil as that which does us harm, and which looks into the sources of that harm. At the same time, needless to say, we must cultivate that humility of spirit that allows us to examine the evil within our own minds. To face honestly the evil within our minds is, in other words, to “know shame.” It is this dynamic of self‐examination, I believe, that gives the Zen concept of shame a broader relevance for the world today, pointing the way to an approach that transcends limited sectarian systems of doctrine and ethics in dealing with the problem of evil. Bibliography Benedict, Ruth. (1946). The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Gregory, Peter N. (1995). Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity. Honolu‐ lu: Hawaii University Press. Dia Nihon Zokuzokyo. (1912). Tokyo: Nihon Zokyo‐in. Ichikawa, Hakugen. (1967). Chusei zenka no shiso. Tokyo: Iwanami Shobo.
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Inoue, Tadashi. (1977). “Sekentai”no kozo: Shakai shinrishi he no koko‐ romi. Tokyo: Nihon Hoso shuppan kyokai. Iriya, Yoshitaka. (ed.). (1984). Baso no goroku. Kyoto: Zen Bunka Ken‐ kyujo. (ed.). (1969). Denshin hoyo: Enryoroku. Zen no Goroku Vol. 8. Tok‐ yo: Chikuma Shobo. Jacoby, Mario. (1994). Shame and the Origins of Self‐Esteem: A Jungian Approach. Transl. Douglas Whitcher. London: Routledge. Kamata, Shigeo. (1995). Genjin‐ron (Yuanren lun). Tokyo: Meitoku Shuppan. Originally published 1973. Mori, Mikisaburo. (1992). Chugoku shiso‐shi. Vol. 1. Vol. 1. Tokyo: Daisan Bunmeisha. Originally published 1978. Nakagawa. Takashi. (1976). Rokuso dankyo. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. Nakamura, Hajime. (2001). Kosetsu Bukkyogo daijiten. Expanded Edi‐ tion. Vol.1. Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki Inc. Nishimura, Eshin (ed.). (1992). Shumon mujinto ron. Ed. Zen Bunka kenkyujo. Shizuoka: Ryushaku‐ji. Sakuta, Keiichi. (1967). Haji no bunka saiko. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. Sasaki, Ruth Fuller et al. The Recorded Sayings of Layman P’ang: A Ninth‐Century Zen Classic. New York / Tokyo: Weatherhill. Suzuki, D.T. et al. (ed.). (1961a). Bankei Zenji seppo. Tokyo: Iwanami Bunko. (1961b). Suzuki Daisetsu Senshu. Vol. 17. Tokyo: Shunjusha. Tanaka, Hiroshi. (1937). Makasu Shera. Tokyo: Kobunsha. Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo. (1924‐1934). Tokyo: Taisho issai‐kyo kan‐ kokai. Tisseron, Serge. (2001). Haji: Shakai kankei no seishin bunseki. Tokyo: Hosei Daigaku Shuppankyoku. Togi, Michiko. (1989). “Hazukashii” no kozo: Gendai shakai ni saguru. Tokyo: Hokuju Shuppan. Umehara, Takeshi. (1967). Bi to shukyo no hakken: Sozoteki nihon bunka‐ ron. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. Yanagida, Seizan (ed.) (1971‐1976). Shoki no Zenshi 1: Ryoga shijiki, Denpo hoki. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo.
Nothingness‐qua‐Love? The Implications of Absolute Nothingness for Ethics John D’Arcy May Abstract Much Western theology still takes Buddhism to be a form of nihilism or athe‐ ism because it dispenses with “God.” Some Buddhists contest this: in the Theravada, dhamma is the equivalent of what Christians mean by “God” (Buddhadasa); in the Mahyana, sunyata (Emptiness, Absolute Nothingness) has been brought into relationship with kenosis as the divine self‐emptying made manifest in creation and redemption (Abe Masao). Many Christians, however, are dissatisfied with a theologia negativa which goes beyond “God” to the absolute transcendence of an unknowable Deitas (Eckhart), while some Buddhists have become uneasy with the re‐ontologizing of No‐ thingness as a new Absolute (“Buddha nature”). These conceptions also have ethical consequences: Does an a‐personal Absolute connote the a‐moral in hu‐ man terms, and is absolute transcendence in any way commensurate with the reality of evil and historical injustice? It is conceivable that the Buddhist‐ Christian dialogue can give Buddhists a way of formulating the social and political consequences of the Great Compassion which flows from the Great Wisdom of the Bodhisattvas, while for Christians it can purify the concept of “God” so that, instead of being their idol (W.C. Smith), it can signify non‐ dually the immanence of divine transcendence in human lives and histories.
Introduction In the early decades of European scholarship on Buddhism from about 1820, the impression was created that Buddhism is a form of nihilism or atheism, a negative and life‐denying philo‐ sophy rather than a religion. Hegel’s surmises, Schopenhauer’s enthusiasm and Nietzsche’s scepticism, each based on misun‐ derstandings of the sparse information that was available, did little to help things. These unfortunate misconceptions persist today (Droit 2003), but they have now been joined by another attitude towards Buddhism which needs to be taken more seri‐ 135
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ously in the light of recent history in countries like Burma (My‐ anmar), Japan and Sri Lanka. Buddhism as such, it would seem, simply lacks an ethic altogether. It can appropriate the ethic ob‐ taining in a given context (say, in ancient India or China), but in and of itself it is incapable of generating one. By regarding ra‐ tional discrimination between good and evil as a manifestation of dualism, it removes the basis for ethical decision (van Bragt 2002). These views are particularly characteristic of Buddhists whose thought derives from the Chinese Ch’an and Japanese Zen schools of Buddhism, especially the so‐called Kyoto School of Buddhist philosophers. Nishida Kitaro (1870‐1945), the foun‐ der of the Kyoto School, spent his whole career combating Nietzschean nihilism and positivistic scientism by trying to es‐ tablish his thought on the “field” (basho) of Absolute Nothing‐ ness or “absolute infinite openness”1 as the source of personal and social fulfilment through love, and Hisamatsu Shin’ichi ar‐ rived at a postmodern a‐theistic Buddhism in which the stand‐ point of the True Self transcends autonomous reason and makes possible self‐less action in history (Heisig 2001; Mitchell 1991). In Southeast Asia, on the other hand, the Vietnamese Zen monk Thich Nhat Hanh inspired a movement known as So‐ cially Engaged Buddhism, which is noted for its strong commit‐ ment to social and ecological justice, for example in the thought of the Thai Theravada monk Buddhadasa (Queen and King 1996; Jackson 2003). The link between the radical transcendence of certain Zen‐inspired thinkers and the apparent transcend‐ ence of ethics is thus not unequivocal. Relating to these developments from the point of view of Christian faith and theology, then, is not straightforward, but the issues involved—the possibility of rethinking our whole un‐ derstanding of ‘God’ and the consequences of this for ethics— are so important that it is well worth our while to examine these complex currents in contemporary Buddhism, even though the Kyoto School is already fading into history. I pro‐ 1
A satisfying paraphrase by Hanaoka Eiko in this volume; see pp. 169‐86. I employ the Japanese convention of putting surnames before given names. I would like to thank John O’Grady, Paul O’Grady and David Loy for helpful comments.
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pose to do this in two steps: first, to examine the Buddhist con‐ ception of Absolute Nothingness, understood as a dialectic of total self‐emptying, to see whether it could be interpreted as a way of purifying and strengthening Christian understandings of God; and second, to ask how far Christians can go down this road without losing their foothold in history as the arena of moral responsibility. Absolute Nothingness: An Alternative to “God”? The impression has understandably arisen among Buddhists that Christians reason their way to God. Christians have left themselves open to this interpretation, I would suggest, by claiming that unaided reason can arrive at certain knowledge of the existence and nature of God. Even if one accepts these argu‐ ments, however, they are at best ancillary to the primary Chris‐ tian orientation to the “Christlike God” made accessible in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus (Taylor 1992). When we say “God” as believing Christians, we mean “the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” (Exodus 3:6; 6:3), “the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Romans 15:6; 2 Corinthians 1:3, 11:31; Ephesians 1:3; 1 Peter 1:3), not the “God of the philosophers” (Pascal). This involves us in the mysteries of the Incarnation and the Trinity, but it also suggests the prim‐ acy of a “narrative Christology” over the deductive approach of the “natural theology” taught to many Catholic theologians. The centrality of this point for the following reflections be‐ comes apparent when we note that something very similar holds for Buddhists. It is significant that the German funda‐ mental theologian Hans Waldenfels, who knew Nishitani and studied with the Kyoto philosophers, stresses this very point. Affirming that “[b]eyond all doubt, Jesus crucified is the gate‐ way to the Christian understanding of God,” he finds fault with Abe Masao because for him “the historical figure of the Buddha and its significance for future history is left out of consid‐ eration” (Waldenfels 1995: 158‐59). Despite later developments of Buddhology which in Christian terminology would have to
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be called docetic,2 the quasi‐mythological Buddha legend tells us that in each world‐age (kalpa) there arises a human being who is an Enlightened One (Buddha), one who is liberated yet living among us (jivanmukti), human like us yet no longer under the sway of passions and desires and thus incapable of wrong‐ doing. This was to lead the Buddhists into endless debates with their Brahmin adversaries in India, especially when the mani‐ fest misdemeanors of allegedly liberated ones had to be ex‐ plained. The problem is as relevant today as it was then, not on‐ ly in the light of scandals involving Theravada bhikkhus in Thailand and Zen roshis in the United States, but much more seriously in connection with revelations about Japanese teach‐ ers who had supposedly experienced satori or enlightenment yet supported militarism and imperialism (Victoria 1997; 2003). Structurally, the problem is familiar to Christians: Jesus is said to be human like us in everything except sin; Gautama Shak‐ yamuni walked the earth as one already enjoying the absolute peace of Nirvana. While it could plausibly be said that Christians give too much scope to reason in explicating faith, whereas Buddhists use rational means to transcend reason altogether, it is nonethe‐ less true that neither “God” nor “Nirvana” is available as the conclusion of a chain of deductive reasoning. We know the God to whom Jesus prayed, as we know the Nirvana to which the Buddha’s enlightenment gave him access, narratively, in our re‐ sponse to the stories which bear witness to the presence of these realities in the lives of Jesus and Gautama. The Christian re‐ sponse typically takes the form of “faith,” containing elements of hope, trust and reassurance (elpis, spes) but predominantly an intellectual assent to the truth of what one believes (pistis, fides). The Buddhists also have a word for “belief,” shrad‐dha, which is etymologically akin to cre‐do, “to give one’s heart” (Smith [1979:
2
I refer, without being able to elaborate further, to the “three bod‐ ies” of the Buddha: the nirmana‐kaya or “manifestation body,” which comes close to what we might call the “historical Buddha”; the sam‐ bhogha‐kaya or “body of bliss,” in which transcendent Buddhas reveal themselves; and the dharma‐kaya or dharma body” of absolute trans‐ cendence; the parallel with the earthly Jesus, the risen Christ and the pre‐ existing Word is striking.
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ch. 4] develops this with his customary thoroughness). Its func‐ tion, however, is less prominent than that of “faith” in Chris‐ tianity: it means giving credence to the accounts of the Bud‐ dha’s enlightenment as expressed in his teaching, manifested in his life and handed down by tradition. The individual sutras, bearing witness to this ongoing process of proclamation and transformation, typically begin: “Thus have I heard on a certain occasion,” preserving the character of reliable testimony hand‐ ed down by witnesses (though the more usual punctuation is: “Thus have I heard: On a certain occasion …,” which does not materially affect the point; see Brough 1950). The content of that testimony was difficult to accept then and is difficult now. At its core is the teaching on “not‐self” (an‐ atman) given in the traditional “second sermon” to the Bud‐ dha’s former companions in asceticism. Whatever data of ex‐ perience are analyzed, they do not yield knowledge of what is commonly taken to be the “self” or substantial core of the per‐ son; this must therefore be disregarded as the primary illusion, the ego which becomes the focal point for the harmful passions (the “roots,” mula, of lobha, desire; dosa, hatred; moha, delusion) and all the subsidiary illusions generated by them. Though the Buddha continually warned his followers about becoming em‐ broiled in the debates of their contemporaries about “views” (ditthi) or theories of the world, defending this teaching de‐ manded an enormous intellectual effort over the centuries. In the course of this it was radicalized to the point where it denied “self‐existence” or “own‐substance” (svabhava) to all constituents of reality, affirming the “emptiness” (sunyata) of all things, experiences and concepts. The place of “being” in most ontologies was taken by the fundamental Buddhist philosophy of “dependent co‐origination” (pratityasamutpada), which posits universal reciprocal relationships in place of substantiality. This was taken by the Mahayana to assert the mutual dependency of all things, thus cancelling out the need for any prior cause or creator. It is important to stress that these teachings go back as close as we are likely to get to the very origins of Buddhism as transmitted by the Theravada Pali Canon. The Chinese, in their struggles to appropriate Buddhist teachings, bequeathed to the Japanese the terms ku (“emptiness”) and mu (“nothingness”) to translate sunyata, thus providing a linguistic basis for the curi‐
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ously un‐Buddhist substantialization “Absolute Nothingness,” which in turn seemed more compatible with European exist‐ entialism and lent some plausibility to the Kyoto synthesis as philosophy—something entirely new in Japanese intellectual history. There was, then, definitely a basis for the Mahayana, when it arose in India some time before the beginning of the Christian Era, to seize upon the traditional doctrine of Emptiness and turn it, as Nagarjuna did in the second century, into an intellec‐ tual rapier which not only dissects any position which an op‐ ponent can put forward but does so from the non‐position of asserting the emptiness of Emptiness itself. I take this, and most of its later elaborations in East Asian Buddhism, to be the ex‐ pression in the form of an intellectual dialectic of the impossi‐ bility of reasoning one’s way to liberation as the conclusion of an argument. In our somewhat inadequate terminology, its in‐ tent is “spiritual” rather than “philosophical.” Nevertheless, it can be measured against the attempts of our greatest philo‐ sopher‐theologians to do justice to the mystery of “God” with‐ out falling into the idolatry of a substantialist metaphysics. In carrying out such comparisons, we soon realize that the Buddhist teaching on Emptiness is something even more rad‐ ical than the theologia negativa of our own apophatic tradition, and even that is more radical than most Christians are aware of. Just as the Mahayanists can assert the non‐duality of Form and Emptiness, Samsara and Nirvana, so Nagarjuna, like his Chinese Ch’an sucessors (on whom see Hershock 2005), leaves intact the entire order of “conventional truth” (samvrtisatya), i.e. the truth of the “constructed” self or world in its “suchness” (tathata), because it is non‐dual with the order of “transcendent truth” (paramarthasatya), the emptiness which always takes construc‐ ted form and to which the enlightened have access—not by in‐ tellectual means, however, but by utterly surpassing the sphere of ratiocination and intellection. The Mahayanists produced nu‐ merous scriptures purporting to contain the teaching of the Buddha finally and fully revealed, implying that those of the Theravada canon were merely the deployment of “skillful means” (kaushalya‐upaya) at an earlier stage when people were incapable of grasping the teaching in its entirety.
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This could be interpreted as a form of Buddhist “inclu‐ sivism” analogous to theories developed by Christian theolo‐ gians to show that aspects of other religious traditions can be understood to be “included” in the Christian scheme of salva‐ tion (Kiblinger 2005). Schools deriving from the Lotus Sutra did this by positing the One Vehicle (ekayana) that resolves all dif‐ ferences between the sects and transcends all their inadequa‐ cies, while those who adhered to texts such as the Mahayanasu‐ tralankara solved the problem by proposing the distinctiveness and complementarity of the Three Vehicles (triyana) (Kiblinger 2005: ch. 4). But even these inclusivistic theories were repudi‐ ated by the most radical Ch’an masters, for whom the only tra‐ dition that mattered, the transmission “outside the scriptures” of the authenticated experience of final liberation from one en‐ lightened master to another, was a matter of person‐to‐person lineage (Hershock 2005: ch. 5). This, briefly, is the background to the attempts by members of the Kyoto School, beginning with Nishida, to mediate this tradition—and, later, the Pure Land (Jodo‐shin) tradition of Ami‐ da Buddhism as well—to modernity by positing Absolute No‐ thingness (mu) as the “place” or “field” (basho) on which not‐ self can be realized as True Self or liberation (satori). The insight that by not‐self Nishitani actually meant “letting‐go” of self in a sense close to self‐forgetfulness or selflessness in the Christian sense was very important to Hans Waldenfels (1995: 153), and it indicates that there is indeed a moral dimension to this philo‐ sophy‐cum‐spirituality. For the moment, however, the pressing question becomes: what sense can be made, by Christians or anyone else, of the proposition that there is, ultimately, No‐ thing, that is, no‐thing that can be grasped or held onto; that just as Heidegger’s Sein was to be understood as crossed out and negated, so too must sunyata, so that we are ultimately faced with the “nothingness of Nothingness”? One thing is clear: whatever it means, it means the contrary of “nihilism” and “atheism” as understood in the West. It is meant to be a radical purification of all attempts to “ontologize” or “substantialize” Self, Nirvana and—eventually—Emptiness itself, as had occurred repeatedly throughout the Buddhist tra‐ dition. This is an unexceptionably Buddhist undertaking, but as the Kyoto philosophers have disagreed with one another and
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built upon one another in extremely fruitful ways, there has been a growing uneasiness, both among Buddhist protagonists and Christian observers, that the process of ontologization has set in once again: the ultimate realization of Absolute Nothing‐ ness, the Buddha nature (Buddhadhatu, Tathagatagarbha), is now posited as “reality itself,” inhering in all beings. This, too, has been seen by proponents of “Critical Buddhism” to have impli‐ cations for Buddhism’s capacity to generate an ethic: if all be‐ ings already have Buddha nature and remain in their “such‐ ness,” what scope is there for transforming self or world, and where are the criteria for distinguishing between good and evil? The lively debate on the failure of Zen Buddhist proponents of radical transcendence to understand, let alone oppose, Japan’s embrace of militarism and imperialism in the pre‐war Meiji per‐ iod provides ample documentation of the moral dilemmas in‐ volved (Hubbard and Swanson 1997), and Victoria (1997; 2003) gives detailed evidence of statements by Zen masters to the ef‐ fect that the true Samurai, imbued with the spirit of Zen and the warrior ethic of Bushido, does not delay with thoughts of right and wrong but simply fulfils his duties to the Emperor and the national polity, pressing on to the bitter end to complete the task, even if this involves killing and conquest. Is there scope for a more phenomenological and less onto‐ logical understanding of Emptiness which might point a way out of this dilemma? One of the most persuasive proponents of Absolute Nothingness as a possible corrective to elements of dualism and substantialism in Christian conceptions of God is Abe Masao, the foremost interpreter of the Kyoto philosophy to the West, who cleverly deploys the dialectic stemming from the Perfection of Wisdom literature of the early Mahayana to re‐ state central Christian doctrines in non‐dualist terms. David Tracy, after carefully examining Abe’s extensive presentation with reference to the contrast between the intellectualist Eck‐ hart and the more mystical Ruysbroec, says he is “not persuad‐ ed” (Tracy 1991: 135). Negativity can be accepted and must be stressed as one moment in the mind’s movement towards “God,” but it is not capable of articulating the fullness of Christian faith‐experience. Though many have been stimulated by Abe’s challenge to locate the self‐emptying (kenosis) attributed to Christ in the Phil‐
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ippians hymn (Philippians 2:5‐8) in the Godhead itself, few are willing to go the whole way with him and accept that the full‐ ness of divine love is the absolute self‐emptying of God’s Self, even though this would offer the possibility of a radical Trini‐ tarian reinterpretation of Incarnation which dispenses with the “two natures” doctrine, because the Persons are self‐emptied in what Abe calls “dynamic Sunyata” and any nature is no‐nature. In particular, both Jewish and Christian respondents recoil from Abe’s apparent relativization of the Holocaust as merely an‐ other instance of “suchness” and his detachment from time and history. Even sympathetic Buddhist commentators ask whether this radical interpretation of Absolute Nothingness leaves any scope whatever for a “return to the relative,” from transcendent to conventional truth, in the form of a viable ethic (see Ives 1995: 165‐71 and David Chappell’s Introduction, 14‐21). How does the Great Wisdom (maha‐prajna) attained in the Great Death of satori flow into the Great Compassion (maha‐karuna) which characterizes the bodhisattva ideal so central to all Bud‐ dhism? Is Buddhist loving‐kindness (metta) at all commensur‐ able with Christian love (agape)? This prompts us to take the next step in our argument. Nothingness as Love: A Paradigm for Ethics? It was a necessary step in the emancipation of reason from the tutelage of Church authority in the European Enlightenment to establish the autonomy of ethics, the independence of ethical reasoning from religious presuppositions. Yet looked at histor‐ ically and experientially, this is an extremely limited achieve‐ ment; the terms in which it is formulated would not even have been available to philosophers like Hume and Kant had they not emerged from the centuries‐long interaction between Chris‐ tianity’s Jewish heritage and Greek thought. Even though reaching moral decisions is a rational enterprise in its own right which can be reconstructed logically, in most people’s experi‐ ence it presupposes premises and concepts supplied by reli‐ gious traditions, from Hindu dharma and Jewish Torah to Mus‐ lim Shari’a and the ius divinum (Divine Law) of Catholic tradi‐ tion, which then operate somewhat like the “warrants” for pro‐ ceeding with an argument as described by Stephen Toulmin (1969). Christianity and Islam, in particular, with their Jewish
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inheritance, are strongly “prophetic” religions with a constitu‐ tive concern for justice. For all forms of Buddhism, too, sila or living according to moral precepts is the conditio sine qua non for embarking on the higher paths of meditative practice (dhyana) and the attainment of wisdom (prajna). It is not, however, the Buddhist’s main pre‐ occupation, though in the course of time there developed a ten‐ dency to restrict the religious life of the layperson to the “worldly” (lokiya) sphere of ethical living, while the monks and nuns devoted themselves to the “higher” (lokuttara) realm of spiritual practice. A sharp distinction was made at times be‐ tween kammic and nibbanic Buddhists, the former interested on‐ ly in gaining merit to be stored up against future lives (kamma), the latter striving for the release of final liberation (nibbana). This has now been challenged, even in the Theravada, for ex‐ ample by Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and his followers in Thailand, for whom “rebirth” is an interior phenomenon of the mind and Nibbana may be attained in and through an active life in the world (see Jackson 2003: 129‐53, on Buddhadasa’s concept of chit wang, “voided mind” or “free mind,” as a basis for super‐ seding the distinction between “worldly” layperson and “other‐ worldly” monk, and Kiblinger 2005: 50‐51, 64‐66). In Japanese Buddhism, as we have seen, there is a strong tradition, inher‐ ited from China, of the “Buddha nature” (Buddhata, Buddhadha‐ tu) inherent in every being, to which the enlightened become awakened in the reality of their everyday lives. Ethics becomes a problem for Buddhists, not because Bud‐ dhism is sub‐ethical—on the contrary, it is one of the most eth‐ ical of religions—but because it is trans‐ethical, purporting to render precepts, laws and rights ultimately superfluous (see the controversial discussion in Keown et al. 1998; one is reminded, indeed, of Paul’s rather drastic statements about the Law in Ga‐ latians and Romans). Where wisdom and compassion prevail, obedience to laws and the establishment of rights may be pre‐ sumed without having to be insisted on. Indeed, in the more advanced forms of the Mahayana the non‐duality implicit in complete liberation from passions and desires makes the dis‐ crimination between good and evil or right and wrong, which normally constitutes morality, appear to be a state of delusion, because it posits an “I” for whom supposedly objective grounds
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for decisions actually matter. It is here above all, perhaps, that Buddhism shows itself to be pre‐eminently the religion of monks and philosophers, for the “people’s religion” of most practicing Buddhists, especially those of the Pure Land and Ni‐ chiren traditions but also in the Theravada countries, has a strong sense of personal morality and public justice. Neverthe‐ less, it was precisely the supposed transcendence of moral dis‐ crimination by the truly liberated that plunged the Kyoto philo‐ sophers into crisis. The story of how some among them wrestled with their di‐ lemma and even attempted some ineffectual interventions to stem the tide of militarism and imperialism cannot be told here (see May 2003: 75‐78, 144‐46). In the case of one of them, how‐ ever, Tanabe Hajime (1885‐1962), a complex and independent‐ minded thinker who had broken with his master Nishida Ki‐ taro, the sense of intellectual (rather than moral!) failure became so acute that he ceased doing philosophy altogether until after the war. The intervening years of isolation and retreat proved to be the incubation period for a “converted” and “reborn” philosophy which he called “metanoetics,” what might be termed an epistemology of moral transformation in the en‐ counter with Absolute Nothingness. Tanabe had realized that a philosophy that does not mediate between the abstract uni‐ versals of ultimate reality and the sphere of moral action in his‐ tory falls short of both rational principles and the Buddhist ideal. His “logic of species” sought to bring about such media‐ tion by interposing species, the intellectually graspable “na‐ tures” of things, between the universalia of the Absolute and the individuum of concrete moral choice. Nothingness, on this view, could be interpreted as the source and guarantor of love; love is the inevitable outcome of Nothingness as the praxis of trans‐ cendence (see Ozaki 2001). Tanabe thus thought himself to have achieved something more concrete than Nishitani’s “self‐forgetfulness” (and— though it was formulated later—the same would presumably apply to Abe’s kenosis). His succinct formulation: nothingness‐ qua‐love, love‐qua‐nothingness, may have prepared the ground for Abe’s (in Ives 1995: 49): God is love because God is Nichts Nichts is God because Nichts is love.
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The question for Christians thus becomes: is anything gained, morally or spiritually, by this radical reduction of the well‐ spring of morality to absolute transcendence? There are Christian precedents for moving beyond a moral‐ ity based on the supposed will of God as a benevolent Parent who sometimes punishes and disappoints God’s children— precisely the conception of “God” which prompted the ration‐ alist revolt and still causes perplexity in the face of the human evil of war and Shoah or natural disasters, from the Lisbon earthquake in 1755 to the Southeast Asian tsunami of 26 Decem‐ ber 2004. Is God as the mystery of presence‐in‐absence, the lu‐ minous darkness of the mystics, not even Deus as the Urgrund (ultimate ground) of all things but Deitas, the all‐transcending Godhead as the Ungrund (non‐ground), compatible with Bud‐ dhist Emptiness? Eckhart prayed to be delivered from “God” in order to attain “Godhead,” which he was bold enough to de‐ scribe as the birth of the Word in his own soul. Some Buddhists find this congenial, though still not radical enough. Abe goes so far as to claim that the Christian Trinity still presupposes a “fourth,” the divine essence as ipsum esse (the divine “to‐be” it‐ self, the “pure act” of existing which is ineffable and therefore, as far as human knowledge is concerned, coincides with No‐ thingness). This, the mystery within the divine mystery, trans‐ cends the hypostases or “persons” (in Ives 1995: 47‐48). Only when this “fourth” is seen to be the “absolute interior,” Nichts, the Ungrund, is our way clear to understand God as love. There is no doubt that this could represent a purification of theism from the “idolatry” of its God‐concept (W.C. Smith) in the crucible of the Emptiness dialectic. Before trying to evaluate it, we should remind ourselves that this is not just a rational en‐ terprise; Abe, in the tradition of Nagarjuna and ultimately of the Buddha himself, calls it “non‐thinking thinking,” the posi‐ tion that is “no‐position,” a view subjected to trenchant criti‐ cism by Kiblinger (2005: 102‐12). Reason does not deliver us from the delusions that make us suffer the unsatisfactoriness of existence (dukkha), thus prompting us to become immoral in the first place; it only plunges us deeper into them. Such deliv‐ erance comes, rather, from the intuition that carries us beyond reason to “pure experience,” the “bare awareness” that pro‐ vides the matrix for “clear comprehension” (in the terminology
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proposed by Nyanaponika Thera 1962), allowing the goodwill, compassion, altruism and equanimity (metta, karuna, mudita, upekkha) that constitute the “boundless perfections” (parami, brahma‐vihara) to develop. The crux, however, at least for West‐ ern Christians within a narrative‐historical interpretative frame‐ work, remains the ways these can be mediated to the unavoid‐ able imperfections of moral decision‐making in a world charac‐ terized by political power, technological complexity and en‐ demic violence. There is also the question of how a concept so abstruse as “nothingness‐qua‐love” can be made intelligible at all to the people for whom Buddhism and Christianity are the “home ground” (Heimat) on which they can erect meaningful and fulfilling lives—not to mention those entirely outside both traditions! One of the most astonishing insights of Abe Masao as he thinks his way into the very center of Christian faith is that the Trinity is the kenosis of divine love as the Persons constitute themselves precisely by emptying themselves absolutely into the Nothingness that is creation, love and liberation. This en‐ tirely spiritual—and, in this sense, phenomenological—insight could, for him, supersede the essentialist metaphysics of “na‐ ture” and “substance” and provide an entirely theological ex‐ planation of the significance of Christ, just as its Buddhist coun‐ terpart does for the Buddha. This counterpart would be the (non‐) doctrine of dependent co‐origination (pratityasamutpada) of all things without any prior cause over and above their inter‐ relationships, which thus becomes a kind of parallel to the peri‐ choresis of Trinitarian theology. If for Buddhists reality is consti‐ tuted as Empty by the non‐substantiality (anatman) of all its conceivable components, so for Christians reality bears the im‐ print of relationality as it flows incessantly from the divine Self‐ Emptying. Grasped experientially—as theologians might say: as the indwelling of uncreated Grace—this would in itself be the substance of both an ecological and a social ethic as well as of the inspiration of personal morality. As the Buddhists, fol‐ lowing Dogen, might put it: transcendence is neither a principle nor a concept but a praxis; it is non‐dual with the world just as it is (tathata, “suchness”) yet at the same time it is a restless dy‐ namic of the human heart and mind which yearns to die to the world, not in order to escape it or condemn it but to transfigure
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and transform it. As Abe puts it, we live constantly at the inter‐ section of horizontal and vertical, and it is at this elusive point that visions of the ultimate reality and outcome of things as dif‐ ferent as those of the Sutta on Loving‐kindness (Metta‐sutta) and the groaning of creation to be reborn in Romans 8:18‐25 be‐ gin to coincide. Each is profoundly ethical—and more. Each embodies not only a vision of transcendence but also norms for living. And this frontier of dialogue is by no means beyond the reach of those who may lack the conceptual means to describe it abstractly, because it is prior to conceptualization: it marks out both the role and the limits of reason in Buddhology as in theo‐ logy. This implies, of course, that just as Emptiness cannot be on‐ tologized as anything separate from the forms it takes, so “God” as dynamic Emptiness has no “reality” apart from the constructing and constructed world which is Form sive Empti‐ ness, and may not be personified or substantialized as self‐ex‐ isting. There are those, like David Tracy and even John Cobb, who conclude reluctantly that they must finally decline the Buddhist offer of a radical reformulation of transcendence in terms of the Nothingness that is Love. We need to weigh their reasons carefully, but also those of the few Buddhists who are sufficiently informed about theological positions to be engaged with these questions. It could well be that a whole new concep‐ tion of liberation that is not ultimate loss but ultimate gain, not the emptiness of denial but the fullness of acceptance, lies here. If so, it may yet be possible to achieve both a deeper insight into the mystery of God and a better understanding of the trans‐ cendence which is a dimension of all ethics, without the one ne‐ cessarily militating against the other. Bibliography Brough, John. (1950). “Thus Have I Heard ….” Bulletin of the School of African and Oriental Studies 13: 416‐26. Droit, Roger‐Pol. (2003). The Cult of Nothingness: The Philosophers and the Buddha. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, orig. 1997. Heisig, James W. (2001). Philosophers of Nothingness: An Essay on the Kyoto School. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
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Hershock, Peter D. (2005). Ch’an Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Hubbard, Jamie, and Paul L. Swanson (eds.). (1997). Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm over Critical Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Ives, Christopher (1995). “The Return to the Relative: Sunyata and the Realm of Ethics.” In: Christopher Ives (ed.). Divine Emptiness and Historical Fullness: A Buddhist‐Jewish‐Christian Conversation with Masao Abe. Valley Forge PA.: Trinity Press International. Pp.165‐ 71. (ed.). (1995). Divine Emptiness and Historical Fullness: A Buddhist‐ Jewish‐Christian Conversation with Masao Abe. Valley Forge, PA.: Trinity Press International. Jackson, Peter A. (2003). Buddhadasa: Theravada Buddhism and Modern‐ ist Reform in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, orig. 1987. Keown, Damien et al. (eds.). (1998). Buddhism and Human Rights. Rich‐ mond, Surrey: Curzon. Kiblinger, Kristin Beise. (2005). Buddhist Inclusivism: Attitudes Towards Religious Others. Aldershot: Ashgate. May, John D’Arcy. (2003). Transcendence and Violence: The Encounter of Buddhist, Christian and Primal Traditions. New York/ London: Con‐ tinuum. Mitchell, Donald W. (1991). Spirituality and Emptiness: The Dynamics of Spiritual Life in Buddhism and Christianity. New York/Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Nyanaponika Thera. (1962). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Hand‐ book of Mental Training Based on the Buddha’s Way of Mindfulness. London: Rider. Ozaki, Makato. (2001). Individuum, Society, Humankind: The Triadic Logic of Species according to Hajime Tanabe. Leiden: Brill. Queen, Christopher S., and Sallie B. King (eds.) (1996). Engaged Bud‐ dhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany NY: State University of New York Press. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1979). Faith and Belief. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Taylor, John V. (1992). The Christlike God. London: SCM. Toulmin, Stephen (1969). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cam‐ bridge University Press. Tracy, David (1991). “Kenosis, Sunyata, and Trinity: A Dialogue with Masao Abe.” In: John B. Cobb and Christopher Ives (eds.). The
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Emptying God: A Buddhist‐Jewish‐Christian Conversation. Mary‐ knoll: Orbis Books. Pp. 135‐54. Van Bragt, Jan. (2002). “Reflections on Zen and Ethics.” In: Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12: 133‐47. Victoria, Brian Daizen. (1997). Zen at War. New York/Tokyo: Weather‐ hill. (2003). Zen War Stories. London/New York: RoutledgeCurzon. Waldenfels, Hans. (1995). “God’s Kenosis and Buddhist Sunyata in the World of Today.” In: Christopher Ives (ed.), Divine Emptiness and Historical Fullness: A Buddhist‐Jewish‐Christian Conversation with Masao Abe. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International. Pp. 150‐64.
The Problem of “Evil” in Pure Land Buddhism Martin Repp
Abstract In the framework of the general Buddhist concept of “karmic retribution (in‐ ga) of good and evil deeds, the Pure Land Buddhist tradition developed a unique way to treat the problem of evil persons. Based on Indian and Chinese sources, Japanese Pure Land tradition attempted to include also evil persons in the possibility to attain religious liberation. This is probably one of the most distinct features of Pure Land Buddhism in comparison with other Bud‐ dhist schools. During the Heian period this issue was called “birth of an evil person” (akunin ojo) into the Pure Land. During the end of this period, Ho‐ nen began to argue that evil persons even have the proper disposition for birth into Pure Land because they can rely on Amida Buddha’s power. This kind of Pure Land discourse, however, did not permit moral libertinism, as it was the case of the “inherent awakening” (hongaku homon) discourse in Tendai Buddhism which developed during the end of the Heian period in or‐ der to justify “evil monks” (akuso). Honen’s Pure Land discourse main‐ tained the tension between evil persons to be saved and the necessity for reli‐ gious practice and for following the Buddhist precepts.
Introduction In the West, Pure Land Buddhism is known less than Zen Bud‐ dhism. In Japan, however, the number of Pure Land believers surpasses by far the membership of any other traditional Bud‐ dhist school. While most Buddhist schools teach that “awak‐ ening” (Jap.: satori) can be attained during this lifetime, Pure Land Buddhism considers this as very difficult and therefore teaches that after death liberation from suffering can be at‐ tained in the Pure Land (jodo). The Pure Land is a kind of trans‐ cendent realm created by Amida Buddha as ideal place to per‐ form the difficult bodhisattva practices. When people trust in Amida, keep him in mind and call on his name (nenbutsu), after death they are “born” (ojo) in Amida’s land. Having mastered 151
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the bodhisattva practices here, they attain ultimate liberation and enter Nirvana. In order to understand the Pure Land discourse on the problem of “evil,” the general Buddhist perception of this issue has to be considered briefly first. It is the concept of karmic re‐ tribution (inga) of good and evil. A work of the early Japanese Buddhist tradition, the Nihon ryoiki (Miraculous Stories in Ja‐ pan) introduced the concept of karmic retribution to Japan for the first time on a popular level (in distinction from scholarly discourse). It is a collection of edifying stories, which was com‐ piled at the beginning of the Heian period (794‐1185), but it contains older stories from the Nara period (710‐794). In the in‐ troduction of the Nihon ryoiki, its compiler Kyokai explains the concept of karmic retribution as follows: Good and evil deeds cause karmic retribution as a figure causes its shadow, and suffering and pleasure follow such deeds as an echo follows a sound in the valley .... Were the fact of karmic retribution not known, how could we rectify wickedness and establish righteousness? (Nakamura 1973: 101)
The basic Buddhist idea of karmic retribution implies the eth‐ ical admonition to avoid evil deeds, to practice good deeds, and to change from bad to good behavior. Such an understanding has to be distinguished from later perceptions that reverse this mechanism by speculating about possible previous reasons for a deplorable present situation. This kind of perception preserves the status quo and can be used to justify social injustice, as in the case of the discrimination of outcasts (hinin, burakumin). In other words, their present social status was affirmed by speculative recourse to karmic reason assumed to have occurred in the past. Further, it may be re‐ marked that in the context of karmic retribution, good and evil refer to deeds. In distinction, other Buddhist discourses attrib‐ ute these qualities to human beings, such as the qualification as a “good” or “bad person” or the inner condition of a “good” or “evil heart (mind).”
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The Treatment of the Problem of “Evil” in the Pure Land Tradition The Pure Land Sutras In one of the basic sutras for the Pure Land tradition, the Muryoju‐kyo, we find the general Buddhist understanding of the necessity to avoid evil and to perform good deeds. In this sutra, the Buddha addresses the so‐called “five evils,” which are kil‐ ling, theft, adultery, lying, and consumption of intoxicants. In other words, the five kinds of evil consist of breaking the five basic Buddhist precepts. In the Muryoju‐kyo we read that when Buddha is living in this world, he dwells in the midst of five evils and five sufferings (Inagaki 1994: 291). The Buddha also says that devas, human beings, etc., “are bent on doing evil. There is no being that is not. The strong subdue the weak; all inflict serious injuries and kill each other; all devour their prey” (Inagaki 1994: 291). He further states that people of this world “all lack moral principles, break laws, conduct themselves arro‐ gantly ...” (Inagaki 1994: 293). All human beings, without ex‐ ception, are portrayed here as having the inherent tendency to commit evil. Facing such a situation, the Buddha says according to this sutra: I have become a Buddha in this world, destroyed the five evils, removed the five sufferings, and extinguished the five burnings. I have countered evil with good, eradicated the suffering [of the cycle] of birth‐and‐death, and enabled peo‐ ple to acquire the five virtues and attain the peace of uncon‐ ditioned Nirvana. (Inagaki 1994: 305)
Thus, the Buddha’s aim is to destroy evil, to foster good, and to break the cycle of karmic retribution. Shifting from general Buddhist perceptions to specific Pure Land traditions, we quote a passage from the Muryoju‐kyo, which probably became the single most important passage for the Japanese Pure Land tradition. It is the 18th Vow, which Amida Buddha made in his former existence as bodhisattva. It reads as follows: If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the land of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust them‐ selves to me, desire to be born in my land, and call my name
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Here, those who commit the five grave offenses and slander the right Dharma are excluded from religious liberation. The five grave offenses are killing one’s father, mother, or an arhat, hurt‐ ing Buddha’s body, or disrupting the unity in the Buddhist or‐ der (Inagaki 1994: 400). Another basic sutra of the Pure Land tradition, however, the Kanmuryoju‐kyo or Contemplation Sutra, contradicts this po‐ sition by including evil persons into the possibility of religious liberation. As mentioned above, religious liberation in Pure Land tradition is perceived as a process of two steps. First, a be‐ liever is born into Amida’s Pure Land at the time of death, thereby escaping from the cycle of birth and death. Second, such a person performs bodhisattva practices in the Pure Land in order to attain buddhahood and thereby ultimate liberation from samsara. Birth into Pure Land is perceived as occurring on different levels according to the religious qualities of a person. The Contemplation Sutra speaks of nine levels, among which the two lowest include also the birth of evil persons. According to this sutra, Buddha says: Those who attain birth on the middle level of the lowest grade are the sentient beings who violate the five precepts, the eight precepts or the complete precepts of a monk or a nun. A foolish person such as these steals from the Sangha or takes the personal belongings of monks, or preaches the Dharma with impure motives but feels no remorse. Thus he defiles himself by evil karma, and because of this he will fall into hell. When he is about to die and the flames of hells suddenly close in on him, he may meet a good teacher, who compas‐ sionately explains to him the ten supernatural powers of Amitayus, fully describing the majestic power of the light of that Buddha, his virtues in the observance of the precepts, meditation, wisdom, emancipation and knowledge of eman‐ cipation. When he has heard this, the evil karma which he has committed during eighty kotis of kalpas of Samsara are
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extinguished; thus the fierce flames of hell turn into cool and refreshing breezes, wafting heavenly flowers .... In an in‐ stant, he attains birth within a lotus‐bud on a seven‐jewelled pond. (Inagaki 1994: 347) Those who attain birth on the lowest level of the lowest grade are the sentient beings who commit such evils as the five gravest offenses, the ten evil acts and all kinds of im‐ morality. Owing to such evil karma, the fool like this will fall into evil realms and suffer endless agony for many kal‐ pas. When he is about to die, he may meet a good teacher, who consoles him in various ways, teaching him the won‐ derful Dharma and urging him to be mindful of the Buddha; but he is too tormented by pain to do this. The good teacher then advises him, “If you cannot concentrate on the Buddha, then you should say instead [Namu Amida Buddha].” In this way, he sincerely and continuously says [Namu Amida Buddha] ten times. Because he calls the Buddha’s Name, with each repetition, the evil karma which he has committed during eighty kotis of kalpas of Samsara is extinguished. (Inagaki 1994: 348)
The latter passage of this quotation became very influential in the subsequent Pure Land tradition in China and especially in Japan. However, both sutras quoted contradict each other in the treatment of evil persons. While the Muryoju‐kyo explicitly ex‐ cludes those who committed the five graves offenses and slan‐ dered the right Dharma from the possibility of religious libera‐ tion, the Contemplation Sutra explicitly includes those who committed such evils as the five grave offenses, or the ten evil acts. Important here is that the passage of the Contemplation Sutra marks the beginning of the inclusion of evil persons into the possibility of religious liberation. Chinese Pure Land Discourse on “Evil” Representatives of the Chinese Pure Land discourse took up the topic of the liberation of evil persons and developed it further, especially by discussing the contradiction between the two sutras (cf. Repp 2005: 52‐141). The Chinese Pure Land master Tanluan treated this contradiction for the first time. By compar‐ ing the texts of the two sutras he reached the conclusion that only the slanderers of the dharma were excluded from birth
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into Pure Land, because they were not explicitly mentioned in the text of the Contemplation Sutra. However, ordinary persons (Chinese: fanfu), heretics (waidao) and those who committed the five evil deeds were included (T. 40. 833c‐834a; Corless 1973: 198‐201). Another important Chinese Pure Land master, Shandao, took up Tanluan’s interpretation, and developed it further. He argued that the exclusion of the slanderer of the dharma was meant as “skillful means” (fangbian), namely as a warning to cause such persons to stop slandering (T.37. 277a). Thus, those who were born on the lowest level were the “heavily sinful ordinary persons who had committed the five offenses [against the precepts] and the like” (wuni‐deng zhongzui fanfu‐ren)” (T.37. 276c. 277a). Thus, Shandao argued for a comprehensive system of religious liberation that includes all evil persons. In Shandao’s case we observe also the tendency to perceive the evil not only as something exterior but as an inner condition of human beings. Not only deeds, but the constitution of a per‐ son’s heart can be evil as well. When explaining different as‐ pects of “faith” (xinxin) in his commentary on the Contempla‐ tion Sutra, he wrote about the “utmost sincere mind” (zhicheng xin) as follows: One should not outwardly manifest the aspects of being wise, good and diligent while inwardly embracing vanity and falsehood. Greed, anger, evil, falsehood, deceit and pre‐ tension have a hundred facets. Evil nature, difficult to erad‐ icate, is like snakes and scorpions. (Quoted from Senchak‐ ushu English Translation Project 1998: 99; revised)
Shandao perceived evil as ‘evil nature’ that characterizes the in‐ ner condition of a person. In other words, it is not enough to change one’s behavior from bad to good, the problem of evil lies deeper in the human condition itself. Then, Shandao ex‐ plained another aspect of “faith,” the profound mind (shenxin), as follows: The profound mind is the mind of deep faith. It, too, has two aspects. The first is to believe firmly and deeply that, now in this present body, one is an ordinary sinful being involved in transmigration [zuie shengsi fanfu] who has for countless kalpas been always sunk tumbling in the stream of cyclic re‐
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birth, unable to find the karmic conditions for escape. The second aspect is to believe firmly and deeply that [Amida’s] forty‐eight vows enfold sentient beings in their embrace and that those who without doubt or reservation entrust them‐ selves to the power of these vows will certainly attain birth. (Quoted from Senchakushu English Translation Project 1998: 101)
“Deep faith” is characterized by Shandao in a twofold way (Jap.: nishu jinshin). One has to have a firm grasp of one’s own spiritual condition as being sinful, evil, and bound by the cycle of samsara. At the same time, while being deeply conscious of one’s bad condition and desperate situation, a believer of the Pure Land path relies completely on Amida’s saving power. Here the object of faith is both the “evil” condition of a human being as well as the possibility of religious liberation. Japanese Pure Land Discourse on “Evil” On the basis of the Pure Land sutras and the Chinese develop‐ ments, the Japanese Pure Land tradition took up the topic of salvation of evil persons and developed it further (Repp 2005: 147‐218). During the Heian Period (794‐1185), Tendai Buddhism contained and developed Pure Land teaching and practice most among the contemporary schools. During this time, in its Japan‐ ese Buddhist hymns (wasan), edifying literature (setsuwa), and scholarly treatises, it already took up the theme of the evil per‐ son. The Tendai monk Senkan wrote in his Gokuraku‐koku mida wasan (Japanese Hymns on the Land of Utmost Bliss of Amida) that “even the gravest and meanest sinners of the ten evil and five wicked deeds, the slanderers of the Dharma, etc.” (juaku gogyaku hobo‐to, gokuju saige no tsumibito mo) can attain birth if they only once call Amida’s Name (namu) (Sato 1989: 76). In Japan this came to be called the “birth of evil persons [into Pure Land]” (akunin ojo). Who were these persons in more concrete terms? Yoshishige no Yasutane, the compiler of the Nihon ojo gokuraku‐ki (ca. 986 C.E.), the first Japanese collection of “birth tales” (ojo‐den), wrote, for example, in the preface that even butchers and poultry merchants may be able to attain birth. They are those who kill animals or sell animals to be killed. Subsequent collections of Japanese birth tales then recorded ac‐ tual cases of evil people who had attained birth.
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Scholarly treatises also took up the issue of the birth of evil persons. In the most representative work of the Tendai Pure Land tradition of the Heian period, the scholar monk Genshin wrote in his Ojoyo‐shu: For the worst evil person (gokuju no akunin) is no other skill‐ ful means (hoben) then to keep Buddha in mind and to recite [his name] (shonen) in order to attain birth in [the Land of] Utmost Bliss. (NST 6: 251)
Since Genshin was well acquainted with the broad range of Tendai teaching and practice, such as the Lotus Sutra tradition, Zen, Esoteric Buddhism, this passage seems to indicate that he considered the Pure Land teaching of the liberation of evil per‐ sons as unique within the whole Buddhist system. In other words, the Pure Land teaching was the foremost, or even the only, Buddhist tradition facilitating the liberation of evil per‐ sons. At the same time, however, it must be emphasized that Genhsin’s theoretical reasoning for such a possibility was deep‐ ly embedded in Tendai metaphysics. According to the Lotus Sutra, the basic sutra of Tendai, he argued, it is the “Dharma of the One Vehicle” (ichijo no ho), by which all human beings can reach Nirvana (NST 6: 301). And, according to the Nirvana Su‐ tra (T.12. 522c), all sentient beings possess Buddha nature (issai shujo ni wa kotogotoku bussho ari) and thereby can attain religious liberation. For these reasons, Genshin wrote that “raw minds (hearts)” may attain “wonderful fruits,” and “evil hearts (minds)” can receive the joy of Nirvana (NST 6: 297; 301). By the end of the Heian period, the idea of the birth of evil persons in the Pure Land seemed to have spread also among or‐ dinary people. In a contemporary popular song (imayo) we hear, for example: Trustworthy is Amida’s vow, yes! Even those of ten evils and five vices who invoke his sacred name even once are welcomed, taken at death to paradise. (Kim 1994: 70; cf. 79)
Artistic depictions of the end of the Heian period render this idea as well. A picture of the nine levels of birth into Pure Land in the Kakuren‐ji temple (founded 1112) depicts hunters and
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fishermen during their work, as well as warriors tearing down a Buddhist pagoda. (Bryant 1995: 178, 188) Those are evil per‐ sons who not only kill others but slander the dharma; in other words, they are those who were excluded from religious libera‐ tion by the Muryoju‐kyo but then included in the subsequent Pure Land tradition. Honen The Tendai monk Honen (1133‐1212) established the first inde‐ pendent Pure Land doctrinal school (jodo‐shu) at the beginning of the Kamakura period (1185‐1333), which later developed into different sects of Jodo‐shu (cf. Repp 2005: 260‐495). In his early work Gyakushu seppo (Sermon for a funeral ceremony in ad‐ vance [of a person’s death]) Honen explicitly took up the Heian Pure Land expression “birth of evil persons” (akunin no ojo) (HSZ 242) and explained, according to the model of the Con‐ templation Sutra that the “birth of evil persons” occurs on the three lower levels of the nine grades. Honen calls those being born on the seventh of the nine levels the “ordinary persons of the light sins of the ten evil [deeds]” (juaku keizai no bonbu), those of the eighth level the “ordinary persons of the subse‐ quent sins of breaking the precepts” (hakai jizai no bonbu), and those of the ninth level the “ordinary persons of the heavy sins of the five wicked [deeds]” (gogyaku juzai no bonbu) (HSZ 242 f.). In his commentary of the Contemplation Sutra, the Kan‐ muryojukyo‐shaku, Honen stated that the three lower levels of the lowest grade are divided according to the weight of karma. He called them the “three levels of evil persons” (sanbon no aku‐ nin) (HSZ 118). Here, he commented on the lowest level as fol‐ lows: “Among the nine levels is this the most necessary (es‐ sential) one. This is fitting best for us” (HSZ 118). Since Honen spoke here of “us,” his remark indicates his own self‐con‐ sciousness (cf. HSZ 459). Such an expression also reflects Shan‐ dao’s above mentioned understanding of the “utmost sincere mind” and the “deep faith,” namely the awareness of one’s own evil nature. In his main work, the Senchaku‐shu (Passages on the Selection of the Nembutsu in the Original Vow), Honen quoted and commented on these important passages by Shan‐ dao (Senchakushu English Translation Project 1998: 99, 101; HSZ 328, 329).
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Honen’s self‐consciousness as an individual “evil person” coincides with a very broad, if not universal, concept of an evil person, which includes even a good person. In his commentary on the Amida Sutra, the Amidakyo‐shaku, he explained the su‐ tra’s expression “good men and women” as follows: even though “good persons” (zennin) were mentioned, its meaning also implies “evil persons” (akunin) (HSZ 135). In Honen’s view, the clear‐cut distinction between good and bad persons has been suspended. Both Honen’s radical generalization of evil and, at the same time, his suspension of the fundamental difference between good and bad, receives another twist in the following expres‐ sion which combines the polar concepts in a novel, remarkable way. In the Senchaku‐shu he wrote that “for the worst and meanest person” (gokuaku saige no hito) Amida provided the “best and supreme Dharma” (gokuzen saijo no ho) (HSZ 337). What is of interest here is the logical figure according to which Honen combined good and evil in this sentence. First, good and evil appear here in the form of the superlatives “best” and “worst.” Then both pairs of the superlative expressions “worst and meanest” and “best and supreme” are combined in a para‐ doxical way. Normally, one would combine equivalent terms, such as “the supreme dharma for supreme people” and a “me‐ diocre dharma for mediocre people.” The whole Tendai system of teaching and practice is structured according to such a hier‐ archical model. This applies also for the Contemplation Sutra’s hierarchical pyramid of nine levels. Honen, however, develops an alternative model when he considered the superior qualities of Amida’s dharma in the power to save the most inferior, evil persons. Such a paradoxical logic is also found in a famous phrase, which for some time has been attributed to Honen’s disciple Shinran, but recent research has identified as Honen’s words. It reads: “Even good persons attain birth, how much more evil persons” (HSZ 454; cf. HSZ 500; Kajimura 1993; Hirota 1982: 59). In modern Pure Land discourse this is called the “explana‐ tion that evil persons have the proper disposition” to attain lib‐ eration (akunin shoki‐setsu) (cf. Kajimura 1993). According to or‐ dinary logic, one would say, as Shinran remarked in this con‐ text, “Even bad persons attain birth, how much more good
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persons” (cf. Hirota 1982: 59). Similarly, in Shandao’s Guannian famen we find the phrase that “all sinful, evil ordinary persons” can attain birth, how much more can “saints” achieve it (T. 47. 28ab). Honen turned this way of reasoning upside‐down. I would consider this as the climax of the long development of Pure Land discourse on “good and evil.” Finally, in Honen’s thought we find yet another kind of combination of “good” and “evil.” This time the term “good” does not signify the moral qualities of a person or deed but the religious qualities attributed to the believer by Amida. It is the problem of how a bad, sinful person, may achieve religious lib‐ eration or, more precisely, how good religious qualities of salvation may coexist with the bad moral qualities of a person. In the Jodoshu ryakusho (Summary of Pure Land teaching), Ho‐ nen wrote concerning those who desire birth into the Pure Land: It is necessary to establish a [firmly] assured mind, [believ‐ ing that] without regarding good and evil of [one’s] heart, without measuring the lightness or weight of [one’s] sin, one will certainly attain birth on the basis of Buddhas Vow, if one only utters with the mouth namu amida butsu. (HSZ 595)
This quotation sheds light on the problem of how to treat one’s evil condition at the time a believer has begun to rely on Amida’s saving power. According to Honen, the evil heart con‐ tinues to exist when one has entered the Pure Land path, but the continuation of evil in one’s inner life threatens the believ‐ er’s certainty of being saved. His response to this problem is that a believer should continue to rely on Amida’s power with‐ out considering one’s evil condition. The evil in one’s heart and the good of Amida’s saving power continue to coexist in the be‐ lievers’ religious life. While this phrase suggests to neglect one’s own evil, previous quotations by Honen tended to neglect the good in respect to those who need to be saved. In this con‐ text Honen equalized the good with the bad on an existential level of human beings, thereby neglecting the good, be it moral or religious. The last quotation, however, concerns persons who have entered the Pure Land path already. By asking to neglect one’s bad qualities on a religio‐existential level, Honen equal‐ ized the (existential) bad with the (religious) good.
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Seen from the perspective of comparative religious studies, Honen’s peculiar combination of the continuously existing evil in one’s heart and the reliance on Buddha’s power structurally resembles Martin Luther’s concept of simul justus et peccator. Both figures view religious life as the continuous coexistence of existential evil and religious salvation until the time of death. Finally, it should be noted that the last quotation does not mean an encouragement for moral laxity or libertinism. Honen himself was a precepts master and administered the precepts to those who requested it. This issue leads to a form of treatment of “good” and “evil” which neglects, or even justifies, moral evil through religious reasoning, as it occurs, for example, in the teaching of hongaku homon. When Evil Becomes Good: Hongaku homon The hongaku homon is a Tendai Buddhist discourse of the late Heian period (ca. twelfth century), which proposes the idea that each person possesses “original” or “inherent awakening.” This is a new concept because traditional Buddhism, in contrast, holds that awakening is acquired (shikaku) by cultivation of reli‐ gious practice. Since Honen was a contemporary Tendai monk, he shares the historical and doctrinal context with the represen‐ tatives of hongaku homon. While at first glance there seem to be some similarities between the two, closer scrutiny reveals sig‐ nificant differences (Repp 2005: 496‐512). Hongaku homon re‐ presents an alternative model for the treatment of good and evil in Buddhism. A comparison, therefore, helps to understand the peculiar profile of Honen’s religious thought more precisely. The doctrinal background for the development of the con‐ cept of “inherent awakening” is the Tendai teaching that each sentient being possesses the “Buddha nature” (bussho) as the potentiality to attain awakening. Buddha nature is perceived as a kind of seed in each being that, if properly nurtured, would yield the fruit of religious liberation. This is basically the afore‐ mentioned “acquired awakening.” This Tendai teaching contra‐ dicts the doctrine of the Hosso school of Nara Buddhism ac‐ cording to which only some sentient beings have the capability to attain awakening. The attempt of the Tendai Pure Land tra‐ dition, discussed above, to secure the salvation of evil persons has to be understood in this context of the Tendai teaching of
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bussho to provide liberation for all beings. During the late Heian period, the idea of “inherent awakening” developed in Tendai on the basis of the concept of “Buddha nature.” While the idea of “Buddha nature” concerns the realm of potentiality, on the basis of which actual awakening (shikaku) can be attained, the teaching of “inherent awakening” treats the potentiality of awa‐ kening already as actual awakening. Thus, hongaku homon shifts the focus from potentiality to actuality. In other words, since each being possesses already the inherent awakening, no per‐ sonal effort and religious practice to actually attain awakening is necessary anymore, as it is the case of Tendai’s traditional concept of Buddha nature, for example. The basic difference between the teachings of Buddha nature and inherent awa‐ kening consists in the shift of emphasis from potential to actual awakening. Thereby, hongaku homon eliminates the necessity of religious practice as a means to reach actual awakening. Since human beings possess inherent awakening, they do not need religious practice to actualize it. If there is no necessity for religious cultivation by practice, new views concerning “good” and “evil” open up. In fact, hon‐ gaku literature is very much concerned with evil persons. In this respect, it is similar to the Pure Land tradition, as outlined above. However, the proposed solutions of the problem differ considerably between the two. In one work of hongaku homon, the Sanju‐shi ka no kotogaki (Treatise of thirty‐four issues), for ex‐ ample, the problem of evil persons is treated in the chapter “Karma equals liberation” (go soku gedatsu). Here we read: According to the interpretation of our school, being orig‐ inally nondual [funi] in essence is called “identity” (soku) .... When one knows the doctrine of perfect interpenetration that is the true aspect [ennyu jisso no homon], deluded action in its essence is endowed with all dharmas; thus it is not merely deluded action but the perfect interpenetration of the dharma realm in its entirety. A hawk seizing a bird is, with‐ out transformation of its essence, precisely the true aspect of liberation [gedatsu jisso]. A fierce dog pursuing a beast is, without transformation, precisely the true aspect of libera‐ tion. And all other sorts of actions should be understood in light of these examples. The point is to understand the con‐ stant abiding of the dharmas. “Constant abiding” means
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According to this text, it is not necessary to pursue liberation first by getting rid of evil karma and then by religious practice to achieve good, such as keeping precepts. Liberation as an evil person is already achieved qua inherent awakening. Since other writings of the hongaku homon also treat the problem of evil fre‐ quently, this issue apparently had become an important prob‐ lem in Tendai. The Kanko ruiju identifies the essence of evil karma (akugo) with that of liberation. On this background it raises the question whether a practitioner of Tendai meditation (shikan) may com‐ mit evil actions such as theft and murder. One response is: However, if, returning (to the realm of daily affairs) from the inner enlightenment of calming and contemplation, one were to commit evil deeds unintentionally (musa) in accord‐ ance with one’s destiny (nin’un), there could still be no dif‐ ference (between karma and liberation). This is what is meant by Kannon appearing as a fisherman and killing many fish. (Stone 1995: 37)
This text permits evil deeds on the basis of the karma idea in or‐ der to secure the religious liberation of a bad person without the necessity to change the evil way of life. Modern Japanese and American scholars tend to treat hon‐ gaku homon as an abstract theory, usually calling it hongaku shiso, i.e. ”hongaku idea” or “thought” (Repp 2005: 496). However, the original texts called it homon, that is a “Dharma gate,” a Buddhist teaching for religious liberation. Then arises the con‐ crete question: With which kind of evil persons was the hongaku homon literature concerned? In order to find an answer, we have to look at the historical context of the time. Owing to certain po‐ litical, social and economic developments during the late Heian period, many attempts occurred to appropriate landed estates
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not by legal means, but by force. The landed estates formed the economic basis of the power holders in Japan at the time, namely the imperial court, the court nobility, and the Buddhist temple complexes. Due to these legal insecurities, the owners of estates had to recruit warriors in order to defend their pos‐ session against violent intrusion. This caused the rise of the Jap‐ anese warrior class, the bushi, or, as they were called later, sam‐ urai. The temple complexes also had to resort to such means in order to defend and secure their economic base in the coun‐ tryside. Temples employed their servants and monks of the lower class. Since these monks had to use weapons to defend or gain temple property, which implied killing people, they came to be called first “evil monks” (akuso) and later “warrior monks” (sohei). The contradiction between the Buddhist prohi‐ bition to kill, and the economic and institutional necessity to de‐ fend temple property by force, caused problems not only within the Buddhist orders but also severe criticism from outside, es‐ pecially from patrons. In my opinion, Tendai scholar monks de‐ veloped hongaku homon in order to solve this contradiction the‐ oretically and to justify such evil actions on a newly developed doctrinal basis. In order to maintain the economic basis of tem‐ ples, monks had to kill people. The teaching of inherent awak‐ ening legitimized the actions of these evil monks. This is the so‐ cio‐economic background of hongaku homon. The historical con‐ text clarifies the motive for representatives of the ‘Dharma gate of inherent awakening’ to provide an ideological basis for the teaching that evil persons do not need to change their life for the better, but are justified such as they are. Compared with hongaku homon, Japanese Pure Land tradi‐ tion in the Heian period had begun already much earlier to treat the problem of evil persons. Its concern was mainly ordin‐ ary persons, not evil monks as in hongaku homon. Further, unlike the latter, the Japanese Pure Land tradition of the Heian and Kamakura periods did not justify evil deeds or moral libertin‐ ism. Instead, it maintained the fruitful tension between the ba‐ sic potentiality of liberation for all sentient beings, and the ac‐ tual achievement of the goal via practice and/or faith.
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When Good Becomes Evil: Jesuit Criticism The first Jesuit missionaries arrived 1549 in Japan. They sent regular reports to Europe, which show them as keen, though not impartial, observers also of the religious world of Japan. Father Torres, one of the early missionaries, wrote in a letter in 1551 that Japanese Pure Land believers say that in his [Amida’s] extreme old age he declared to himself that the just did not need his or anybody else’s help to be saved, but that he would have a great means of sal‐ vation to the wicked, however evil they might be: Anybody who invoked the name Amida Butsu with faith at the hour of death would be saved. A great number of people belong to this sect because of the great ease with which it promises salvation to all, good and wicked alike. (Cooper 1965: 317)
When observing the popularity of Pure Land Buddhism at that time in Japan, Torres suggested that its reason lay in the “great ease” in attaining salvation for “good and wicked alike.” Since the Jesuits had a negative attitude towards religions in Japan, they were also very critical towards Pure Land Buddhism, as the next quotation shows. Valignano, the otherwise insightful visitator of the Japan mission, wrote in his Historia Indica: Even though humans commit as many sins as they wish, if only they invoke (the Buddha’s) name, saying Namu Amida but[su]—which is to say, sanctissimo Amida fotoque—with faith and hope in him and the merits of his accomplishment .... then by this they will be rendered immaculate and purged of all their sins by the virtue and merit of these fo‐ toques [Buddha], without any necessity to perform other penance or to involve themselves in other works, for thereby injury would be done to the penances and works which (the Buddhas) performed for the salvation of mankind. So much that they hold precisely the doctrine which the devil, father of both, taught to Luther. (Elison 1988: 43)
Valignano’s critique is that Pure Land believers lack penance and good works. In this respect he compared Pure Land teaching with that of Luther. For his contemporary European Catholics, the association with the “Lutheran heresy” dis‐ credited the Pure Land teaching right from the start. It is also
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interesting that Valignano saw the work of the devil behind both the Pure Land teachers and Luther. Already 350 years before, Honen had been called a devil by Jien, a Tendai bishop contemporary with him. In other words, the Buddhist and the Christian reformers, who both intended to facilitate the salva‐ tion of evil persons, not conditioned by good works, were iden‐ tified by their opponents as evil persons themselves. Since nei‐ ther Tendai nor the Catholic Church condemn the two any more, such statements reveal the relativity of the distinction be‐ tween good and evil in the history of religions. The reverse side of the negatively evaluated comparison between Pure Land teaching and Luther, however, indicates interesting structural similarities in soteriology (cf. Repp 2005: 520‐40), which for lack of space cannot be elaborated here. Since the Jesuit missionaries in Japan were not impartial observers of Japanese religions, we cannot take their statements at face value. However, they may serve as indicators of certain problems, such as moral laxity within the Pure Land tradition of the sixteenth century. When Honen and Shinran argued for the religious liberation of evil persons, they never encouraged moral libertinism. Later developments in Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, though, may have gone in this direction, as Jesuit sources of the sixteenth century indicate. Abbreviations HSZ Honen Shonin Zenshu, ed. Ishii, 1991 NST Nihon shiso taikei NST 6 Nihon shiso taikei Vol. 6, ed. Ishida 1970 NST 9 Nihon shiso taikei Vol. 9, ed. Tada, et al. 1973 T. Taisho Daizokyo, eds. Takakusu und Watanabe
Bibliography Bryant, G.C. (1995). Kuhon Ojozu: Paintings of the Nine Grades of Birth. Context and Interpretation. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California. Los Angeles. Ann Arbor: UMI. Cooper, M. (ed.) (1965). They Came to Japan: An Anthology of European Reports on Japan 1543‐1640. Berkeley et al.: University of California Press.
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Corless, R.J. (1973). T’an‐luan’s Commentary on the Pure Land Discourse: An Annotated Translation and Soteriological Analysis of the Wang‐ Sheng‐Lun Chu. Ph.D. Diss. University of Wisconsin. Elison, G. (1988). Deus Destroyed: The Image of Christianity in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Hirota, D. (transl.). (1982). Tannisho: A Primer. Kyoto: Ryukoku Uni‐ versity. Inagaki, H., in collaboration with H. Stewart. (1994). The Three Pure Land Sutras: A Study and Translation from Chinese. Kyoto: Nagata Bunshodo. Ishida, M. (ed.). (1970). Genshin. Nihon shiso taikei (NST) Vol. 6. Tokyo. Ishii, K. (ed.). (1991). Shinshu showa Honen shonin zenshu. (HSZ). Tok‐ yo. Kjaimura, N. (1993). Akunin shoki‐setsu. Tokyo. Kim, Y. (1994). Songs to Make the Dust Dance: The Ryojin Hisho of Twelfth‐Century Japan. Berkeley et al.: University of California Press. Nakamura, K.M. (1973). Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition: The Nihon Ryoiki of the Monk Kyokai. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Repp, M. (2005). Honens religiöses Denken: Eine Untersuchung zu Struk‐ turen religiöser Erneuerung. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Sato, T. (1989). Eizan jodo‐kyo no kenkyu. Kenkyu‐hen. Tokyo. Senchakushu English Translation Project (transl. and ed.). (1998). Ho‐ nenʹs Senchaku‐shu: Passages on the Selection of the Nembutsu in the Original Vow. Honolulu: Kuroda Institute. Stone, J. (1995). “Medieval Tendai Hongaku Thought and the New Ka‐ makura Buddhism: A Reconsideration.” In: Japanese Journal of Re‐ ligious Studies 22: 17‐48. Tada, K. et al. (eds.). (1973). Tendai hongaku ron (NST 9). Tokyo. Takakusu, J. and K. Watanabe. (1924‐1932). Taisho shinshu daizokyo. 85 vols. Tokyo.
Awareness of Evil in Christianity and Buddhism Eiko Hanaoka
Abstract This inquiry into evil in Christianity and Buddhism is grounded in the vari‐ ous stages of self‐awareness of the self and the world. The aim is to clarify how all religions misinterpret the origin of evil because of a false self‐aware‐ ness of the self and, by consequence, a wrong understanding of the world. The reason is that they do not reach true self‐awareness because believers in those religions do not yet live and think according to the paradigm of absolute no‐ thingness as absolute infinite openness. This infinite openness includes rela‐ tive being, relative nothingness, absolute being and nihil as paradigms of various schools in European philosophy. Kitaro Nishida (1870‐1945), as the first original philosopher in Japan, advocated the paradigm of absolute no‐ thingness as the absolute negation of each substantial standpoint. In this con‐ tribution it is argued that all religions can be understood on the basis of this absolute openness, that the philosophical method concerning religion should be an analysis of self‐awareness as self‐awareness sive intuition, and that this approach must be applied to the understanding of evil as well. This paper will discuss: 1) What is self‐awareness? 2) What is evil in religion? 3) liberation from evil in religion; 4) correspondence to self‐awareness in Christianity and Buddhism.
Self‐Awareness and Evil Since the dawn of history, evil has always been present in soci‐ ety and the world. In the ethical dimension evil has its origin in the ego: one of the most basic causes of evil lies in human rea‐ son, because through reasoning we start to objectify all that we experience, see and hear. This objectification determines our self‐understanding as well. The religious understanding of evil seems to originate from a false self‐awareness of the self and the world. The more religious people become, the deeper becomes their awareness of the evil in themselves, while they realize their shortcomings more and more according to their openness 169
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for their fellow beings, their suffering, their needs and their own limitations and selfishness. A good example of this in the New Testament is how the prayer of a tax collector is valued more than that of a self‐righteous Pharisee (Luke 18:9‐14). An‐ other example, from Pure Land Buddhism, is the idea advanced by Shinran that Amida made his vows to help people overcome bad karma and reach the Western Paradise primarily for the benefit of evil persons: the deeper the consciousness of sin in a person becomes, the more powerful the grace of Amida is.1 The consciousness of sin, evil acts or bad feelings and, as Sodo Ya‐ sunaga also stresses, of shame, entail self‐awareness or, better, awareness of the self in the world. Of course, it has been said often, with Paul Tillich, that religion is “ultimate concern,” but even such an ultimate concern presupposes awareness of self and “the other of one‐self.” So, at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, we should acknowledge that religion has its basis in the self‐awareness of heart and mind. In other words, in the contemporary world re‐ ligion means self‐awareness. Awareness of one‐self entails awareness of the other‐than‐oneself. Therefore, “self” and “world” cannot be separated: they “arise” together and deter‐ mine each other. Originally, they are one. However, in the more common religious understanding of the self, the self and the world are understood as different entities—even if people stress that human beings are relational beings. Keiji Nishitani (1900‐ 1990) has discussed critically the way in which Martin Buber laid the link between “Í” and “Thou”: First , the I and the Thou are absolutes, each in its own re‐ spective subjectivity. And second, both I and Thou are, be‐ cause of their relationship to one another, at the same time absolutely relative. (Nishitani 1982: 49)
Of course, there is a deep truth in this view of the self‐con‐ sciousness of the I and its relations to other persons. Who would not agree, on the one hand, that the individual must live
1
See the extensive discussion of the relation between grace from Amida and sin in the contribution by Martin Repp in this volume (pp. 151‐68). Shinran advocated the theory that evil persons are the ap‐ propriate group to receive the benefits of the vows of Amida Buddha.
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autonomously and, on the other, respect the dignity of other persons—who should not be used as a means to an end but as ends in themselves, as Immanuel Kant (1724‐1804) stressed? However, what exactly is the right relation between my “self” and others? When do I make an “autonomous” decision and in what ways do I have to respect the dignity of others? Of course, in his “Christian” age, Kant could appeal to the idea of common nomoi (laws) that can guide human conscience. But two centur‐ ies later, we have discovered how deep cultural and religious diversity reaches—the idea of a common conscience with the “same” moral rules all over the world has disappeared after the findings of cultural anthropologists, scholars in religious stud‐ ies, and philosophical deconstructionists. What is the “I”? Whose morality? What virtues at any cost? What about equality and democracy? What is good? What is the source of evil? At the beginning of the twenty‐first century we now truly realize that in our global world our lives are completely inter‐ woven with the lives of other people and with the natural “sys‐ tem” as a whole. On the one hand, we are individuals; on the other, we are immersed in the world at large, and Buddhists will stress that we are immersed for the full hundred percent. Religion comes in here—in its central meaning of religio: linking individuals with all there is. This is the main problem: to be one’s “self” and to be part of that whole with all that it contains, the “good” and the “bad,” the ugly and the beautiful, what is worthwhile and what is worthless. Religion has to bridge these distinctions and make “whole” that which is divided. It has to respect differences and overcome them. This requires an under‐ standing of religion that respects this contradiction. Let us call this a contradictory definition of religion. My thesis is that this contradictory definition of religion can be realized only in true self‐awareness in the absolute infinite openness as “the field of absolute nothingness,” as discussed in the work of Nishida. We can find both elements in Buddhist and Christian teachings. In Buddhism, each of us knows, that heaven and earth have the same root and all things are in oneness fully intertwined—and at the same time it can be said that I alone am honoured, in heaven and on earth. (Hirata 1972: 184f.)
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As all Buddhists know, all things are originally equal and si‐ multaneously independent and free of each other without being controlled by anything or anyone—and they are co‐arising and interdependent. From a Christian point of view, each individual as a person can be one with Christ and at the same time be part of the whole community of the church which, as such, forms the “body of Christ” (Romans 12:5; Ephesians 1:23; 5,23; 2 Cor‐ inthians11:3). On the one hand, Christians are members of a community—the one a hand, the other an eye—but, on the other, each individual is a person with the God‐given dignity to live independently of others in the freedom of the Spirit of the Lord (1 John 3:16; 2 Corinthians 3:17). However, while each person knows that s/he is independ‐ ent and free of any other person, s/he does not want to be equal with all of nature, one with all nature and to spring from the same root as everything else—because we are and have a Self, an ego, by nature. The natural human self‐awareness is founded on the ego. Self‐awareness does not exist on its own. It is based on the relatedness of our own being and thus on our “relativ‐ ity” and interdependence with other beings. The very idea of “relativity” rests on two further notions, namely the contrast with the idea of absoluteness and the idea of a (kind of) “field” for all our experiences and thus for our lives. By nature, our ego wants to be independent of all kinds of events in the world that we reject for personal or even for moral reasons. However, we are often part of processes that we reject but from which we cannot free ourselves. On a larger scale, this can occur with re‐ spect to involvement in war, the exhaustion of natural resources or shameful political processes. On a more personal level, it can involve the processes of domination, enrichment and poverty and thus much more of what goes on between human beings (and other parts of nature). Moreover, by nature, the ego wants to protect the self, his/her groups, institutions, state, nation, species and so on, to which each ego belongs. As a result of such “natural” behavior of the ego, the self‐awareness that should lead to the true awareness of our “self,” is gradually bent into something else. This estrangement from the true self is the root of all further evil. From a religious point of view, evil exists, in our awareness of our selves, others and the world as a whole, on the basis of a separation between our selves and
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“others,” instead of being aware of ourselves as not‐our‐ selves—however paradoxical this expression be. It is time to ex‐ plain this notion of self‐awareness more fully. What is Self‐Awareness? In my view, self‐awareness is that each individual intuits and is conscious of him‐ or herself in a life project—or, to put it in oth‐ er words, on the way to the true self—throughout each life. And the consciousness of “the world” is raised to awareness of “the world” in the course of the development of world history itself. Søren Kierkegaard (1813‐1855) exposed the growth and fractures of the development of the subject in its subjectivity. Kitaro Nishida described the individual consciousness in its in‐ terconnectedness with its environment—a whole field of hap‐ penings in their specificity and interrelatedness. This kind of self‐awareness of self and world seems to apply to the history of the human race and simultaneously to each individual hu‐ man being. To give just two examples of such an self‐understanding of history and of individuals, I will refer to Joachim de Fiore and Paul Tillich. On the basis of his prophetic understanding of his‐ tory Joachim de Fiore (ca. 1135‐1202) distinguished three periods: the Old Testament, the New Testament, and the period of 42 generations (of 30 years each) afterwards till 1260. The three periods are the periods of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Thus people try to understand the course of his‐ tory. An example of the self‐awareness of human beings is found, on the other hand, in Paul Tillich’s Systematic Theology (1951‐1963). In his view, in this human being, existence, life and history correspond respectively to the Father, the Son, the Spirit and the Kingdom of God. In such a vein I feel we can distinguish four stages of self‐ awareness in world history, that is the self‐awareness of self and world: a) the stage of the self‐awareness of the ego; b) the stage of the self‐awareness of existence; c) the stage in which the ego and existence itself have their origin in nihil; and d) the stage of the self‐awareness of true self. The self‐awareness of the world as history (a), is self‐ awareness of an “ego” that objectifies both nature and cultures. Hegel (1770‐1831) can, of course, serve as a typical representa‐
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tive of this view because in his philosophical system history un‐ folds as the spontaneous development of God as Substance to‐ wards God as Subject and/with absolute knowledge of reality. However, the understanding of God that springs from the Old Testament differs, as we will discuss later, considerably from a Greek substantial or ontological idea of the divine. The Old Testament sees God as dynamic becoming or dynamic activity, as the Hebrew verb hayah (“to be”) indicates. In regard to the self‐awareness of the stage of existence in world history (b), a typical representative is Kierkegaard. With respect to self‐ awareness of the stage of nihilism and the understanding of life as non‐substantial and of world history without a divine, trans‐ cendent ground (c), Friedrich Nietzsche springs to mind as a typical representative. Nishida is a representative of a further stage of self‐awareness, i.e. the stage of self‐awareness of a true self, bound up in history (d), a self that underlies all that exists. The development of self‐awareness of the individual—via those stages of awareness of ego, existence, the nihilistic indi‐ vidual and the true self—can be realized if we allow for a deep‐ er, true self‐awareness in the dimension of absolute nothing‐ ness in the sense of full openness. It is, of course, possible that, in the self‐awareness of the world and of the self, self‐aware‐ ness from the ego to existence, from existence to nihilistic life, and from nihilistic life to true self does not develop in quite this way. It has often happened that a culture or persons represent another stage than the majority of people in their culture or that they jump to a further stage of self‐awareness without experi‐ encing the intermediate stage. However, if an individual becomes aware of true self in ab‐ solute infinite openness (like Nishida’s field of absolute no‐ thingness), even just for one moment, it is possible that s/he be‐ comes truly aware of true self, even for that one moment. In the same way, it is possible that a period in which s/he lives begins to make the effort to realize an ego, existence, and life as a nihil‐ istic individual in a new way. On the basis of love as agape and compassion, we can develop another understanding of persons and of the global world as an infinite openness with all the pos‐ sibilities for change and make the effort to give help and over‐ come suffering. Such an approach becomes possible by the awareness of an absolute infinite openness as a field of absolute
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nothingness, because this does not only open up a dimension beyond relativity but also means a total negation of substan‐ tiality and thus of every separate self‐being—be it of a person, a culture, a state or a religion. Only such a negation of substantial entities makes a total openness possible which in turn render the possibility of mahakaruna, great compassion or even abso‐ lute compassion. We must pay attention here to the fact that the logic of self‐awareness is fully interwoven with the logic of his‐ tory and that the self‐awareness of the self and the world are or‐ iginally one in the field of absolute nothingness. As the self‐ awareness of the world develops, it comprises that of the self, as Nishida rightly says. Moreover, I must add here that abso‐ lute contradictory self‐identity in the logic of the field of abso‐ lute nothingness in Nishida’s philosophy—in this case absolute contradictory self‐identity between the self‐awareness of the self and that of the world—is based on the logic of the one or (sive) the many, the many or (sive) the one in Mahayana Bud‐ dhism. The Latin term sive can be used for identity and its use here can be explained as follows: because of the non‐substan‐ tiality of things, each phenomenon appears as it is and is com‐ pletely interwoven with all other phenomena. In other words, they are two different things as they are and at the same time they are not to be distinguished from each otherbecause they have no own being in the field of infinite openness (absolute nothingness). From the standpoint of absolute nothingness, the tradi‐ tional paradigms from ancient Greek philosophy up until Nietzsche that have been formative for the awareness of self and the world, have been absolute being and the highest good as in Platonic thought, relative being as in materialism, relative nothingness like anxiety and despair in Kierkegaard, and mean‐ ingless and nihilism as in Nietzsche. Nishida worked out the paradigm of absolute nothingness, which subsumes the par‐ adigms of relative being, relative nothingness, absolute being and nihil—of which the central insights can be integrated. Abso‐ lute nothingness means not only nothingness beyond the oppo‐ sition between being and nothingness but also the absolute negativity that can keep each stage of the individual alive as being, subject, existence and the meaninglessness of existence in this openness that is aware of the particularity and emptiness of
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each phenomenon. The absolute negation of each substantial standpoint means the breakthrough of the subject‐object scheme; it is aware of the subject in a field of radical, non‐ substantial openness. Namely, each person is not only the sub‐ ject as the center of the cosmos, who looks upon all things as his object, but at the same time a tiny point on a periphery which constitutes the cosmos. The metaphor of a whirlpool may help to make this clear. From a ship on the sea we can see the form of a whirlpool very clearly. However, when one lives in a whirlpool, one cannot ob‐ jectively see the whirlpool, because one lives in unity with the whirlpool. Thus, absolute nothingness subsumes all the other four paradigms by its own love as agape or compassion and is based upon the “standpointless” standpoint, as Nishida and Nishitani (1900‐1990) insist. The paradigm of absolute nothing‐ ness is not only a non‐substantial paradigm but also the para‐ digm that includes the other four substantial, non‐substantial and nihilistic paradigms. To become aware of such a paradigm of absolute nothing‐ ness, each of us must pursue art, sports or the discipline of reli‐ gion so intensively that the ego of each of us, who live in self‐ attachment, will die, will abandon the way of existing in anxi‐ ety, despair or ennui and become free of a nihil that plays, so to speak, a role as a wall of self‐defense for nihilistic individuals, namely those who can find no other aim or meaning or value in life than, for example, dancing all night in a disco—or perhaps writing and reading philosophical books or having dharma talks or sermons. However, in a non‐self paradigm of absolute nothingness, each self can live its own particular non‐self life in the transparent relations between individuals and nature with‐ in (so to speak) the boundaries not of Reason but the non‐boun‐ daries of absolute infinite openness (as the field of absolute no‐ thingness by Nishida). What is Evil in Religion? Under the influence of Plotinus (ca. 205‐270), Augustine (354‐ 430) looked on evil as a lack of being (privatio boni). However, I look on evil in religion as “to be without self‐awareness of evil”—as discussed above. How can such a paradox exist? The reason is that existence for a human being is not only a gift but
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also always a task. As long as s/he lives, each person must become a true self all her/his life. The lack of this awareness of self that we must become a true self, therefore is religiously evil. The kernel of evil is religious evil (cf. religio): a false relatedness to the whole of existence. Such a religious view of evil can be learned from the religious philosophy of Kierkegaard, who understood the center of human existence as a two‐sided relationship, i.e. to its own existence and to God (Kierkegaard 1982: 8). This double relation in each existence must be kept pure by each person during the whole of their lives. This type of understanding of evil rests on self‐awareness of the self and world (in Kier‐ kegaard an awareness of the self and God). My thinking on evil in religion has its origin in the self‐awareness of the self and world within the field of absolute nothingness (or self and God as absolute nothingness). I think that we can distinguish three forms of religious evil—three forms for precluding people from infinite openness and absolute nothingness. The first is that each person considers her/his own religion to be absolute and rejects all other reli‐ gions. This form is the result of an intellectual approach to reli‐ gion that leads inevitably to a schism between the (intellectual) “self” and full reality—as is evident in a culture in which tech‐ nology and economy stamp life, almost without any further consideration (Nakagawa 1956: 25).2 The idea of God is in dan‐ ger of becoming a mental scholastic construct. The second form is to ignore that the religion of belief in the divine and the religion of self‐awareness (of the self and the world) spring from the same, single source (within infinite openness as the field of ab‐ solute nothingness). This form of evil in religion arises from the unwillingness to become aware of one’s own existence in an open field of other phenomena and possibilities and from the despair of finding one’s own place (see Kierkegaard) which makes it impossible to be aware of true self. The third form is to prohibit dialogue with adherents of other religions. This form of evil in religion originates in the thread of nihilism in the his‐ torical stage of the self‐awareness of the nihilistic individual, 2
Ta‐cheng‐chi‐bshin‐lun, edited by Zenkyo Nakagawa, was published by Koyasan University Press. Nishida speaks about the demonic in mod‐ ern technology, vol 8: 89.
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who thinks s/he can survive by denying other phenomena in the open field and to stick to her/his, so to speak, nihilistic safe‐ ty, as in Nietzsche. However, we can overcome evil in religion through art, lit‐ erature or the discipline of religion, even if it is only for a mo‐ ment. Every individual who acknowledges a wrong relation with life and the world is able to leap from the stage of a wrong form of self‐awareness to the stage of self‐awareness—which by definition entails that it be beyond good and evil: overcoming the bad awareness of self and world means leaving behind the domain of good and evil. In other words, none of us can realize the true self as the dimension beyond good and evil all the time, but when we begin to realize the true self only at certain mo‐ ments, each of us can make the effort to realize the true self. I must add a clarification here about ethical evil, wrong acts and thoughts. The root of awareness of existence surpasses all dualities—everything that happens happens in the wide, in‐ finite field of events. Also, after some persons have realized lib‐ eration, many things will continue to go less well than they should. But that is another topic than the religious quest to overcome evil and to understand its root. Because true religion can be realized only in the original dimension, it leaves the op‐ position between preferable and not‐preferable in practical life behind. True self in the religious dimension lies “prior to” eth‐ ical judgments, i.e. it lies in the oneness prior to the distinction between preferable and non‐preferable. Before I explain the no‐ tion of “true self” a bit more, we need to deal with the liberation from false self‐awareness. Liberation from Evil in Religion Here I would like to discuss liberation in the three forms of evil in religion mentioned in the last section, namely liberation from looking on one’s own religion as absolute, from ignoring the oneness in the origin of religion of faith and self‐awareness, and from prohibiting dialogue with other religions. They can be de‐ picted as stages in a development that, for many people, could follow each other. Every reflection on religions and interreli‐ gious relations reflects a specific self‐awareness (cf. Nishida 1965: vol. 10, 471). Therefore, the method of philosophical anal‐ ysis is analytical and intuitive because self‐awareness cannot be
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reached within a separation of subject and object (cf. Nishida 1965: vol. 10, 564). Liberation from the Evil of Absolutization (Evil in the Ego) For the liberation from evil of absolutizing a religion in the en‐ counter with other religions or in comparisons with other reli‐ gions, a person must become aware of the oneness or the open‐ ness, which, according to a Buddhist view of reality, underlies all religions. Such openness or such oneness is always possible in our daily life, while the only barrier is a false attachment of the ego of a person. When somebody becomes aware of the true self and the abovementioned openness, for even a moment, s/he can become aware of the open infinite reality, which underlies all religions, because all persons and all religious traditions or‐ iginate in this field. In order to reach this stage of pure self‐awareness of exist‐ ence, the individual has to be liberated from an intellectualistic approach in which all phenomena are objectified and therefore understood apart from the relations in which they exist. In spite of this partial liberation, because of the attachment to intellectu‐ alism in the stage of the self‐awareness of existence, people can be hindered by religious evil. Liberation in the Stage of Existence (Evil in Existence) The evil in this form of self‐awareness of existence consists in the fact that a person is not aware of the emptiness of his or her own self and clings to false forms of a substantial self. If some‐ body can no longer believe in a personal God as absolute being, the only way out is to overcome the fear of vulnerability and to‐ tal openness, to break down the walls that have been erected around the ego and break through to the openness of a dy‐ namic reality without clinging to the notion of a meaningful life. However, when somebody reaches this point, a further bar‐ rier has to be overcome. If that does not happen, the person will live with a false, nihilistic self‐understanding and will neither be related in the right way to other beings nor realize mahakaru‐ na. Therefore, people need to realize the true self. Liberation in the Stage of Life as the Nihilistic Individual The evil in the stage of life as the nihilistic individual consists in the fact that the person is not aware that s/he does not live as “true self” but as a non‐related person. The acknowledgment
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that life has no other, ulterior meaning than living in infinite openness is hidden and obscured by the nihil, vacancy, as a wall of defence, which keeps the individual safely from her/his op‐ ponents. In the encounter with people holding other views of life, this attitude makes people reject these other views and makes dialogue impossible. Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil deals with this self‐awareness of a nihilistic individual, but he did not see that persons in this mood have to be liberated from their imprisonment in their own nihilistic world. Indeed, each of us must make the effort to live as true self in infinite open‐ ness with self‐awareness, because no one will always be the true self beyond good and evil. Beyond Good and Evil in Nietz‐ sche’s sense still remains inside the wall of nihil, which should be opened to the absolute infinite openness as the field of abso‐ lute nothingness. Breaking through the nihilistic wall can be realized only by the Great Death of the nihilistic individual if she makes the double movement of letting herself go through the abyss of “nothingness” and “not getting any hold” on the one hand and making the effort at true self on the other. The means for reaching such a breakthrough are personal; they may be im‐ mersing oneself in art, literature, or sports or following the discipline of a religion. This breakthrough from the nihilistic in‐ dividual in the field of nihil to the true self in the field of abso‐ lute nothingness, results in the fact that each individual is the self, who underlies all nature, and at the same time each indi‐ vidual is an independent unique self. The world as the field of nihil revives (is reborn) as the field of absolute nothingness. The reason is that the self‐awareness of the true self in the individ‐ ual is self‐identical, in an absolutely contradictory way, with the self‐awareness of the world in the field of absolute nothingness, as Nishida says (vol. 8: 89), on the basis of Mahayana Bud‐ dhism, in which one is many, many is one (Nakagawa 1976: 97f.).3 The term absolute contradictory self‐identity in Nishida’s
3
Editorial note: for English reference see: Kitaro Nishida, “The Logic of the Place of Nothingness and the Religious Worldview,” in: Kitaro Nishida, Last Writings: Nothingness and the Religious Worldview, transl. and intro. by David A. Dilworth (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987), pp. 47‐123, especially 106‐23, on contradictory identity. One
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thought means the coincidence of the distinct poles—as self and world—by the absolute mutual negation of the independence of each pole, which results in awareness of self and of world and so in infinite openness. This and only this radical selflessness as contradictory identity with sunyata (emptiness) brings real love as agape and compassion. This absolute infinite openness in Ni‐ shida differs from the coincidentia oppositorum in Nicolaus Cu‐ sanus (1401‐1464) in that the latter understands love as agape or compassion as the ground of coincidentia oppositorum and does not know of the field of absolute nothingness as absolute in‐ finite openness. Now I have to try to clarify the meaning of “true self.” That it is difficult to express in words may be clear enough after such mysterious expressions as absolute contradictory identity. But let me try. The true self is neither ego, nor existence, nor a nihil‐ istic individual but (a) reborn ego on the ground of agape (divine love) and compassion, and reborn existence on the ground of agape and compassion and a reborn nihilistic individual on the ground of agape and compassion. The reason is that Buddha nature and the self‐nature of the true self are the same, namely the absolute nothingness as absolute negativity: both are non‐ substantial and “empty” and nothing (of their own being) and both are each other’s counterpart and “negation.” Indeed, the true self is, in my view, nothingness (absolute negation = the negation of my ego by nature is nothingness). But the negation of my ego is at the same time the negation of the negation of my ego. Concretely speaking, and using the well‐known Japanese expression, the absolute negation of my ego is the Great Death of my ego. However, after the Great Death of my ego, it must again and again be negated, because the absolute nothingness as the true self always acts as an absolute negation. Therefore, the true self cannot remain static but has to act always in the ab‐ solute negation of ego on the ground of agape and compassion. That is the background of the paradoxical expression absolute contradictory identity: it never comes to rest (because that would be a new substantiality with greed and suffering), and it should also keep in mind the words found in the Heart Sutra: form is empty, emptiness is form.
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is precisely in overcoming that suffering that is rest, and openness and loving‐kindness. This way of understanding the true self has been indicated in the Kongo‐hannya‐Sutra (Vajra‐cchedika‐prajna‐paramita‐sutra): “Just when we have no place to live, we can for the first time have true heart and mind …” (Jap.: omushojyuni shogoshin). Shinichi Hisamatsu has used the expression that the true self is formless self. Nishida said that the true self is the experience that “the heaven and the earth have the same root and all things are one body and simultaneously that I alone am hon‐ ored, in heaven and on earth.” Nishitani would say, if he lived in this world, that the true self is suchness (Sanskrit: tathata; Jap.: nyo). In order to understand this a bit more deeply, we must have a look at the logic of emptiness. Here the logical rule of the principium non‐contradictionis is stretched and used to point be‐ yond itself to that which is inexpressible. This logic goes back to the classical texts of the great philosopher Nagarjuna, who in a certain sense is the father of Mahayana Buddhist thought. But it has its ultimate background in the old conversations of the Bud‐ dha, where he answered a question as to where the deceased are with a simile about the extinction of a flame: I would not say “the flame is” nor “the flame is not” nor “the flame is and is not.” 1. A is B
Affirmation, e.g. The flame is.
2. A is not B
Negation, e.g. The flame is not.
3. A is B and not B simultaneously
This is the affirmation of 1 and 2. (e.g. The flame is and simultaneous‐ ly is not.)
4. A is neither (A is B) nor (A is not B)
This is the negation of 1 and 2. (e.g. The flame is neither “the flame is“ nor “the flame is not.”)
The significance of this logic of emptiness consists in its having to do with thoughts that cannot be thought clearly and distinct‐ ly: what it is cannot be explained fully by words but needs to be “read” between the lines. We can say that we can apprehend the true self through oneness of mind and body in the exper‐
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ience of emptiness, which can be experienced all day but of which we cannot be aware, because we live in evil—as long as we are not aware of our real (non‐)self and life as a whole. All experiences that we normally call evil follow from this. In order to experience the true self that underlies all nature, we must live in the discipline of religion, art, music, literature, and/or sports as the way to become the true self by forgetting the ego that is egocentric by nature. Correspondence to Evil and Self‐Awareness in Christianity and Buddhism It seems to me that both Christianity and Buddhism surely can‐ not oppose the understanding of evil from the “standpoint” of self‐awareness proposed in this contribution, because both reli‐ gions converge in the acknowledgment that religious life will be deepened if believers reach a true self‐awareness. They point to prayer, meditation and the attempt to live without expecting honor or thankfulness. Therefore, the problem will be with those Christians who disagree with a non‐substantial understanding of God as abso‐ lute nothingness, which is an absolute negation of substantial ideas of God or naively personal images of God. A substantial idea of God has deep roots in European theology and philo‐ sophy. Since Plato and Aristotle up until the nineteenth century the Hebrew words “I am who I am” in God’s answer to Moses’ question as to God’s name (Exodus 3:14) have been understood as a more or less substantial form of existence. In the latter God is seen as a being or being itself—which in itself is very ambig‐ uous (Latin: ens or esse). Against this background, it looks al‐ most impossible that the idea of non‐substantiality of God will be acceptable to many Christians. Generally speaking, in Christianity God is understood as substantial and personal, and in Nishida’s philosophy, ground‐ ed in Mahayana Buddhism, “God” is understood as the non‐ substantial origin of both the personal and impersonal God. I think, on the one hand, that in the twenty‐first century Chris‐ tianity will have to learn to understand God as non‐substantial, as in Nishida and Alfred Whitehead (1861‐1947), and Bud‐ dhism, on the other, will seriously have to learn to read the Ser‐ mon on the Mount (Matthew 5‐7) as a religious ethics by aiming
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at not only peace in the soul but also at peace in this world, without looking upon the various difficult problems in this world as only concupiscence. Religions in the twenty‐first cen‐ tury should make the effort to live the religious life that un‐ derlies all nature in the field of absolute nothingness as absolute infinite openness and subsumes not only material, biological and animal life but also mental life. Otherwise, this world will be destroyed through religious wars. In the religious life that subsumes the self‐awareness that each person cannot always be free of evil in religion, because each person cannot always live as true self because of her/his limitedness, being determined, and temporality, each person should make the effort to live in the openness as absolute nothingness: in the dimension beyond good and evil, even if only for certain moments. Conclusion In this paper, evil in Christianity and Buddhism have been un‐ derstood as self‐awareness without understanding true self, i.e. absolute contradictory self‐identity of the self‐awareness of the self and of the world. Each person is identical simultaneously with the infinite and limited, simultaneously temporal and eter‐ nal, and simultaneously free and determined, as contradictory as that may appear. An individual can become aware of true self beyond good and evil in the unity of the self‐awareness of self and world, in that the individual leaps from the dimension of self‐awareness of evil to the dimension beyond good and evil. Here we must be careful of the fact that the dimension without self‐awareness of evil and the dimension beyond the self‐awareness of good and evil are quite different. The former is religious evil without self‐awareness: the individual is not yet true self. The latter is the spiritual enlightenment which each person individually should approximate. A awareness of life as true self in the dimension beyond good and evil is realized only by overcoming evil in religion with true self‐awareness. It happens when individual and world, one and many, are realized in their oneness in the field of absolute nothingness as absolute negativity. Because of that, the individual is not only infinite, eternal and free but also si‐ multaneously limited, temporal, and determined, the individ‐ ual needs to pursue daily training for life in order to be aware
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of the absolutely contradictory self‐identity between the indi‐ vidual and the world and between the many and one. The “be‐ yond good and evil,” as characteristic of the true self in the field of absolute nothingness is only possible at moments. However, if the individual is aware of the true self, even for a moment, s/he can make the effort to be reborn from the ego, the existence and the nihilistic individual into the true self by being sup‐ ported by love as agape or compassion, which originates in the field of absolute nothingness. The peace in religions in the twenty‐first century will be re‐ alized only by the constant effort to be aware of the true self by each person. In conclusion, I would like to say that in Chris‐ tianity, absolute nothingness as the paradigm of thinking and its field should be accepted on the one hand, and that in Buddhism, on the other, there should be an attempt to construct a new ethics that includes bioethics, environmental ethics, med‐ ical ethics, information ethics and so on, and that are appro‐ priate to the twenty‐first century on the basis of love as agape and compassion in the field of absolute nothingness. In this case the lack of true self‐awareness, that each of us cannot always be true self as self beyond good and evil, should not assume the role of mediation to the true self. But the experience in the field of absolute nothingness by each individual—namely the experi‐ ence that heaven and earth have the same origin and all things are one body and simultaneously the experience that I alone am honored in heaven and on earth and the expression of this ex‐ perience—make it possible to break through to the true self‐ awareness, even if only for a moment. If one lives without the self‐awareness of evil, one lives in religious evil because one forgets that it is the true self that one must try to become. One lives in this world through the discipline of religion, the arts like that of flower arrangement, the tea ceremony, calligraphy, music, literature, poetry or sports like Japanese fencing, ar‐ chery, and karate, in order to become aware of the true self. Bibliography Hirata, T. (1972). Hekiganshu (=Pi‐yen‐lu). Bukkyo‐koza 29. Tokyo: Daizo Press. Japanese‐English Buddhist Dictionary. (1979). Tokyo: Daito Press.
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Kierkegaard, S. (1982). Die Krankheit zum Tode. Gesammelte Werke. Vol. 24 and 25. Ed. by E. Hirsch and H. Gerdes. Cologne/Düs‐ seldorf: Gütersloher Taschenbücher, Siebenstern. Nakagawa, T. (1976). Rokusodankyo (Zen‐no goroku 4). Tokyo: Chiku‐ ma Press. Nakagawa, Z. (1956). Daijo‐kishin‐ron (Ta‐ch eng‐chi‐bsin‐lun). Waka‐ yama City: Koyasan University Press. Nishida, Kitaro. (1965). Nishida’s Complete Works. Vol. 8 and 10. Tok‐ yo: Iwanami Press. Nishitani, Keiji. (1982). “The I‐Thou Relation in Zen Buddhism.” In: F. Franck (ed.). The Buddha Eye: An Anthology of the Kyoto School. New York: Crossroad. Pp. 47‐60.
Emptying Good‐and‐Evil Masao Abe’s Approach to the Problem of Evil Annewieke Vroom
Abstract Masao Abe experiences evil as a problem of human beings not showing their “true face.” This true face seems to be lost, but, in reality, it is simply the case that humans do not show it. Thus, the problem of evil is relative and can be resolved. Awakening to sunyata or boundless openness (which is, in fact, hu‐ mans’ true face) can help true compassion and wisdom to break through the clouds of ignorance and greed. One major obstruction for this breakthrough, however, is that humans cling to the duality of good‐and‐evil. Naturalness, which lies deeper then all oppositions, can spontaneously manifest itself only if it is freed from the grasping clutch that ethics only intensifies. To free us from this, Abe explains how even the Holocaust cannot be seen as radical evil. The Holocaust is also, in a sense, “natural.” This paper discusses the basis on which Abe claims this and evaluates his alternative to duality‐based ethics.
Introduction Masao Abe (1915‐2006) was a leading figure in Zen‐Christian dialogue from the 1970s until the late 1990s. One of the topics in this dialogue has been Buddhist and Christian ethics. While Abe held that Buddhists can learn from the socially active atti‐ tude of Christians, he was critical of the rigid forms Christian belief in judgment can take and stresses the importance of wis‐ dom based on the insight in the interdependence of phenom‐ ena. Abe thinks that a major problem of Christian and Western thinking is the tendency to hold to a substantial understanding of good and evil. Abe even defends this considering what has become the symbol of radical evil, the Holocaust. Why does Abe think it is wise to do so? In this paper I examine what ex‐ actly, according to Abe, is the problem of evil, and evaluate his account of this problem. 187
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The Problem of Evil Defined as Not Showing our True Face What precisely is the problem of evil according to the Zen phil‐ osophy of Masao Abe? Abe argues that a fundamental improve‐ ment is needed in the way humans live, for life is suffering for too many living beings. A change in this situation is not only desirable but also possible, Abe claims, through Zen anthropo‐ logy and cosmology. He envisions a fundamental change to‐ wards a world of compassion and wisdom. Great compassion, mahakaruna, is actually quite natural to human beings, accord‐ ing to Abe, if they would show their original nature or “true face.” Wisdom, prajna, is also very natural, if someone is aware of the true nature of reality. Thus, the problem of evil is the loss of one’s original face. The Zen tradition developed several methods for overcoming this problem. One such method developed in the Rinzai tradi‐ tion is meditation on koans given by a Zen teacher. Monastic traditions developed whole curricula of koans, with monks sit‐ ting for months in temple halls meditating on one after the oth‐ er. One of the koans in the most famous collection, the Mumon‐ kan, is: “What was your original face before your parents were born?” The true meaning of the koan lies in the alleged existen‐ tial breakthrough triggered by a deeper realization beneath all conceptualizations. Still, for Abe, who follows Rinzai (Lin‐ji) here, “true face” or, more often, “true self” became a key term in his philosophy. In the context of the question on evil, we can at any rate say that this original face is an open place where wisdom and compassion can be born. Awakening is a contin‐ uing manifestation or expression of this true face. This true face lies deeper than human nature; it is “boundless openness,” the open place beneath the separation of selves and inseparable from all interdependent phenomena. Thus it is a place where anthropology and cosmology collide. The true self is deeper than the many forms it takes as the conventional “self.” With this “cosmo‐anthropology,” the direction of the Abe’s theory of evil is already largely decided. Because human beings are, at bottom, part of the open space where wisdom and com‐ passion arise, evil is always secondary; its ontological status is relative. Evil is not a massive, unavoidable force or an indispen‐ sable natural infliction. There is an openness beneath evil that, if it is functioning properly, does not cause evil. Thus, the pro‐
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blem of evil is defined as a problem of not showing our true face, and this is a situation we can change. Evil is not necessary, not inevitable and not primary. To explore Abe’s understanding of evil further, we will now look at the question of the origin of evil. What causes this evil that can be defined as the obstruction of true self or sun‐ yata? In other words, if evil is the result of obstructions, what causes obstructions to arise? Here Abe holds the Mahayana position that nirvana, para‐ doxically, is identical with samsara. In this context, this insight implies that we never actually lost our original face. Sunyata is, in fact, not truly obstructed. As Abe’s teacher Hisamatsu puts it in one of his lectures on Rinzai, “It is you just as you are,” right now and right here (Ives 2002: 52).1 If so, evil as the loss of or‐ iginal face is not real and is therefore also relative in this sense. We have discovered that evil is a relative problem in two ways. First, evil is not primary and fundamental but is always secondary and caused. Second, deep down evil is not truly evil. Abe’s view consists of two parts: i) evil as the obstruction of sunyata should and would diminish through our being awakened (relative truth); ii) we are awakened as we are and evil does not truly exist (absolute truth). Abe’s thinking about evil is characterized by his attempt to ex‐ plain or discover the relation between these two insights. In both, the priority of the religious dimension is crystal clear. Evil is a religious problem that expresses itself in society but arises from and needs to be dealt with in the existential dimension. Thus, while Abe wants us to improve our lives and behavior by regaining our original state of awakening, he claims at the same time that we are awake right now. Saying this might be, in part, the use of skillful means to bring people to realization. But Abe also believes it is ultimately true. With the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna (second century C.E.), Abe distinguishes between two levels of truth (e.g. 1995: 200). Abe explains his understanding of the double truth theory 1
Unless explicitly indicated, all references in the text are to Abe’s works.
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most clearly in one of his articles on ethics. There is a level of absolute truth (paramartha‐satya), on which the conventional truth (samvrti‐satya) is “nothing but ignorance or falsehood.” The ultimate truth is “Emptiness completely free from concep‐ tual distinction and beyond verbal expression” (1992: 200). This is one of Abe’s descriptions of sunyata. According to Abe, ulti‐ mate truth is free from discrimination and verbal expression, but this does not mean that it is finally ineffable. It can be ex‐ pressed, even though this expression occurs necessarily within the “conventional realm.” Abe follows the Svatankrika interpre‐ tation of Nagarjuna,2 which holds that the conventional truth is established anew on the basis of the ultimate truth, Emptiness (1992: 201). the conventional is truly established therefore on the basis of emptiness (1992: 200). This possibility of vyarasthapara (the establishment of conventional truth based on awakening) is very important in the discussion on evil because it gives way to the possibility of speaking about evil from the perspective of awakening. The Holocaust as Natural On the absolute level, every evil is, at botton, already “original face”; there is nothing that is not part of sunyata. Even the Holo‐ caust, Abe writes, does not lie outside of this naturalness, this jinen, for the awakened. One can never fall outside of this sun‐ yata or pratitya samutpada, conditioned co‐arising of things. Any‐ thing that happens is part of this process of things that arise‐ and‐cease. On the level of absolute truth or, rather, the reestab‐ lishment of conventional truth on the basis of the experience of awakening, even the tragedies of the Holocaust appear—al‐
2 Nagarjuna is the second‐century Buddhist philosopher who devel‐ oped the doctrine of radical sunyata: everything is empty of independent existence; nothing has any enduring nature. Emptiness itself is also emp‐ ty, i.e., as Abe explains, it is not truly something. Thus, in Nagarjunaʹs words, sunyata is pratitya samutpada (lit. conditioned co‐arising), every‐ thing existing only in and because of interdependence with other phe‐ nomena. To express the idea that the deepest insight can never be ex‐ pressed in this teaching, even though we need the teaching to get to the deepest insight, Nagarjuna developed the abovementioned double truth theory.
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though in the relative domain as horrific evils—as manifesta‐ tions of naturalness. Thus, Abe can say: While Auschwitz is an unpardonable absolute evil in the hu‐ man, moral dimension, from the ultimate religious point of view it should be taken as a relative rather than absolute evil. (1990b: 181)
Abe’s article caused a stir among scholars, of course.3 John B. Cobb Jr. especially criticized Abe for not allowing any room for the particularity of the Holocaust (Cobb 1990: 96‐97). Sin and ig‐ norance are part of life, he says, but the event of the Holocaust is of a whole different scope. The Jewish writer Eugene Boro‐ witz stressed that, for him, there is still a difference between those who ran the Nazi death camps and their victims. One’s worth is decided by what one does for humankind (Borowitz 1990: 82‐83). How can Abe claim that the Holocaust is relative evil and even claim it is wise to say this? Abe replied to Cobb and Boro‐ witz that he did understand that the Holocaust was a terrible event that should not have been allowed. But Abe also holds that “all things in the universe are interdependent, co‐arising, co‐ceasing—nothing exists by itself.” Thus, there is nothing ab‐ solute and, therefore, no absolute evil. In other articles Abe ex‐ plains that, to him, sunyata is not a deeper dimension separable from phenomena, as God in Christianity is, but exists precisely in the interdependence of all that is. With this understanding of the ultimate in mind, we can understand that nothing can be excluded from this immanence, whether or not we experience it as evil. Any separation would turn sunyata into another dimen‐ sion, which it is not. The Causes of the Problem That Does Not Truly Exist Let us retreat for a moment to the relative domain, even though this is intrinsically related to the ultimate. What causes this evil 3
I.e. J. Moltmann, D. Tracy, J.B. Cobb Jr., etc. Abe’s paper, seven critiques and Abe’s reply to the critique were published in Cobb and Ives 1990. Abe says he used the difficult example of the Holocaust both as a test case for considering the relation between religion and ethics and to open up Buddhist‐Jewish dialogue (1990b: 180).
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that exists relatively, as our not‐showing our original face? Abe argues that evil, and thus the Holocaust, is “ultimately rooted in the fundamental ignorance and the endless blind thirst to live” (1990b: 186). Of the two, ignorance is the primary problem; it leads to greed. Abe is brief on the origin of ignorance. He quotes the classical text The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana Buddhism (a Chinese translation of an Indian text ascribed to Asvagosha, (first or second century C.E.). The text explains the origin of ig‐ norance: “Suddenly, a thought arises” (1995: 209). Somehow ig‐ norance arises—here Buddhists take an agnostic position. Often quoted by scholars in this context is a story attributed to the Buddha. In this story Buddha asks whether a person with an arrow in his thigh first sits down and wonders where the arrow came from or simply tries to remove the arrow. Of course, one can reply that it might be wise to do both. But the point is, ac‐ cording to Buddhists, that the practice of meditation brings about a change in our suffering that at some point is more im‐ portant than pondering its cause. The Problem of Good: Just as Great a Problem? I explained above that in the deeper religious dimension evil no longer obtains as a qualification of phenomena. The same, how‐ ever, holds true of good. Sunyata is also deeper than good and cannot be called good. Sunyata is beyond good and evil or, ra‐ ther, prior to good and evil. In other words, awakening begins prior to the opposition between good and evil (2003: 23). Actu‐ ally, thinking about good and evil as done in Western philo‐ sophy and Christianity is, according to Abe, more a serious cause of evil than it is a satisfying antidote. Trying to break through this paradigm of the good‐evil duality might have in‐ cited Abe to use the emotionally charged example of the Holo‐ caust to explain his view. For Abe, it is very important to realize that wisdom and compassion are good in a non‐ethical sense, since they arise from a source beneath the domain of the ethical. Awakened wisdom and compassion are not forces against anything. They are not “done”—they simply arise naturally. Because they or‐ iginate in sunyata, they do not feed a counterflow of evil, as nor‐ mal ethical actions based on dualistic thinking do. Every now
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and then Abe calls this domain of awakened action “beyond good and evil” (e.g. 1986: 142). His use of this phrase shares with Nietzsche’s use of it, the idea that it is beyond conven‐ tional ethics. But the meaning of the phrase might be clearer where Abe uses the phrase “prior to good and evil,” since the Zen practitioner does not transcend good and evil as the result of some kind of Hegelian process. The Zen practitioner returns to a purity that is far more basic to a human being than ignor‐ ant views are (1986: 142). Thinking in terms of good‐and‐evil is only one of the mis‐ takes that cause evil as an obstruction of true self. In Abe’s de‐ finition of nirvana, he describes it as beyond any kind of dual‐ ity. Next to good and evil, Abe mentions other specific exam‐ ples of serious erroneous dualities. ... Nirvana as the existential awakening to ego‐lessness or no‐self is beyond any kind of duality, including that of good and evil, right and wrong, life and death, human beings and na‐ ture and even that of human beings and God. To attain nirvana in this sense is salvation. (1995: 76; emphasis mine)
All the dualities are resolved, Abe claims, in the awakening from or emptying of the focal duality of self and others. The wisdom of non‐discrimination arises (1995: 101). It is difficult to arrive at this point, as long as attachment to notions of good grounded in associations of God or Being as summum bonum hold us in their grip (1986: 145‐46; 2003: 133). In his “philo‐ sophy of awakening,” Abe tries to show this to us. Practical Arguments The philosophical argument is clear: good‐and‐evil as a duality does not truly exist; good and evil arise and pass away simul‐ taneously, never separately from each other (1986: 145). In this respect, good‐and‐evil does not differ from natural phenomena that arise in dependence on one another. Abe thus critiques philosophies that see good and evil as absolutes. But Abe also thinks we are better off “beyond good and evil.” Since Abe re‐ defined evil as unnaturalness, we can understand why Abe thinks that an ethics that depends on one trying to improve oneself artificially by means of external criteria will not be fruit‐ ful. Further, the judgmental attitude one develops using an
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good‐evil ethics gets in the way of both the openness needed for great kindness (mahakaruna) and the non‐discriminative wisdom (prajna) needed to express this kindness. As long as conventional ethics arises out of ignorance, which any knowl‐ edge lacking the depth of emptiness does, it does not produce any good (2005:22; cf.1985: 132). Abe also argues that this strug‐ gle makes things worse, because judgment strengthens the du‐ ality between good and evil (1985: 132). In my view, this is more a possibility than it is a necessity. But let us look at his argument that the Buddhist alternative works better. If we would truly break through good and evil, what would the result be? The claim is that whoever breaks through all duality returns to purity of heart and produces wisdom and compassion (1986: 142). We would then be better off than we are now, caught up as we are in a struggle between good and evil. But is Abe’s alleged result necessarily the case? What hap‐ pened to the samurai who used Zen to free themselves from fear and to become one with the duty to serve the warlords by the sword and even found honor in their faultless killing tech‐ niques? The samurai are not a good example of what Abe means by going beyond good and evil. Abe might note that they are not free from conventional ethics; they are not yet be‐ yond good and evil. And what about the kamikaze pilots—they were actually far from Japanese conventions, one might say. Then, is that what Abe means? Abe stresses that in Mahayana Buddhism one is not truly awakened unless one feels the need to save all other beings. Also, a Buddhist needs to act upon this need and not just sit in a temple. Abe believes Buddhists have too often been apathetic or indifferent towards social evils (1986: 153‐54; 1990b: 179). However, caring about the social di‐ mension can, in Abe’s view, only be truly done on the basis of emptiness. Abe argues that awareness of sunyata would, of it‐ self, lead to social change and, in fact, it is the only true way to establish a better world (1985: 256). For Abe, the alternative to awakening is ignorance and a life lived in ignorance always remains unsatisfactory. As an an‐ swer to the Holocaust, Borowitz proposes that one should try harder to live properly, “opposing evil wherever one sees it” and “fostering goodness to the extent that one can” (Borowitz 1990: 87). For Abe, to live for the good cannot be a solution. As
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long as life is a project of striving for good, one remains separ‐ ated from outside phenomena. That is the problem of duality. In the case of good and evil, this separation is strengthened by the constant activity of judging phenomena from the outside with respect to their possible goodness or evilness. Whether one judges by the heart or by the head, in both cases one stands outside. Life turns into an unnatural affair for those who lock themselves in a fabricated ego or “I.” What will still be missing is harmony with the phenomena with which one is, in reality, interdependent. To be able to judge, human beings sacrifice their original interdependence with the stream of things,; they separate themselves from this stream and place themselves out‐ side of it. The alternative Abe offers is a return to the natural course of things in which in spontaneity wisdom and compassion manifest themselves in an unobstructed way. Only if our ego dies the Great Death can we return to being tatha, “thus,” as part of the ten thousand phenomena. Then our greed will no longer dictate our behavior. The biggest problem of evil for Abe is that our attachments caused by ignorance are so deeply rooted in human nature. Abe does not believe in radical evil, but it is interesting to note that when speaking of ego he does use this term. It is the inner strug‐ gle between good and evil that can be called a radical evil; it is more evil than evil itself (1990b: 188). For Abe, attachments, sometimes related to karma, are so strong that a solution to these attachments needs to be radical. The religious has to over‐ throw the ethical (1990b: 183‐85), which is a domain of attach‐ ments, be they good or bad. And overcoming good and evil is part of this problem. Abe thinks that only this deep emptying of ego will bring human beings back to a naturalness that will pre‐ vent occasions like the Holocaust from arising. Taking the Risk Abe acknowledges the risk that the full detachment needed for awakening encompasses. One could remain in indifference or apathy or fall into nihilism. Abe sees these as the dangers of Buddhism. But he thinks the advantages are worth this risk (2003: 21f.). Buddhists who do not take a further step after the phase of detachment are simply not far enough on the road. Ac‐
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tually, as we saw in the double truth theory, the conventional world should be renewed, not forgotten. In explaining the importance of negation, Abe often quotes a story from the classic Zen collection Five Lamps Merged in the Source, in which the Chinese Zen master Ch’ing Wei‐hsin ex‐ plains enlightenment: When asked about the difference between his awakened and his earlier state of being, master Chʹing Wei‐hsin said: “Be‐ fore I studied Zen, I said ‘mountains are mountains, water is water’. After I got insight in Zen through the instruction of a good master, I said: ‘Mountains are not mountains, water is not water’. But now, having attained the abode of final rest, I say: ‘Mountains are really mountains, water is really wa‐ ter.’ (1995: 57)
This story is about the moment when mountains and waters lose their conventional identification for us and we see them as they truly are. Abe explains this story in different ways. One goes through the phases of (i) thinking there is an ego‐self to (ii) knowledge of no‐self to (iii) the realization that both are not true to (iv) a fullness that somehow encompasses both self and no‐self. Abe also explains this differently: when one has at‐ tained rest, one has gone beyond (i) the misconception of hav‐ ing an isolated identity through (ii) the insight that the self is nowhere, is unattainable, to (iii) the realization that “the unat‐ tainable itself is the true Self.” In this last stage, one experiences interdependence and individuality in “interfusion” (1985: 13‐ 18). The heart of the story is that human beings can be trans‐ formed from an ego to an expression of true self. Ego does not completely disappear but is reborn. Abe sometimes compares this to Paul’s “Christ in me.” Abe uses the Wei‐hsin story also with respect to good‐and‐ evil. Here Abe differs from other Zen thinkers who do not speak about this return of good and evil. Good and evil are “emptied” in the process of transformation and then return as they truly are, which is not in a duality (1995: 57). Abe uses his own experience to explain his view: “In my personal experience the more seriously I tried to do good and to avoid evil, the more clearly I realized myself to be far away from good and to be in‐
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volved in evil” (1990b: 188). Abe also experienced a break‐ through, on the basis of which he advises: The point in which you are not limited by the duality of good and evil can be realized in yourself, right here and right now, through the realization that you are the dilemma of good and evil. Once you thoroughly realize that you are the dilemma of good and evil you can break through the dilem‐ ma and come to a standpoint which is neither good nor evil. (1985: 192)
When one is reborn, one is free from good and evil, no longer limited by the illusion of duality. History is turned to the good because one no longer takes part of the age‐old struggle be‐ tween good and evil. One now has a deeper standpoint from which to work, as Abe himself claims he does (1990b: 188). For Abe, this emptying is the answer to international evils. He wrote, during the Cold War, that nation‐states need to experi‐ ence this “emptying” through all its citizens breaking through their egos and realizing original self (1985: 251). Thus, on this scale as well, Abe believes in a religious solution to what, in fact, was also a religious problem: evil as ignorance. Ethics Without Rules The difficulty is that Abe can never provide any rules for this ethics of emptiness. That would destroy the whole affair, in fact. Naturalness cannot be displayed artificially. Rules can only obstruct naturalness. Thus, the many rules in Buddhism and the eightfold path of right action never gain ultimate import‐ ance. True morality “above good and evil” is a spontaneity that rests on spiritual transformation. The essence is to “return to the root and source from which good and evil emerged” (1986: 150). The challenge in life is to keep oneself located in this depth and thus surrender oneself to the spontaneity that then arises. To remain focused on this, however, Abe does stress the need to take a vow so as to awaken all living beings. This is part of the expression of what Abe calls a “newly grasped distinc‐ tion” between good and evil (1995: 57).
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Optimism and Escaping from Duality We saw that Abe does acknowledge the problem of evil, but it is always a relative and religious problem and realizing this is part of the solution to the problem of evil. In the religious prac‐ tice of “not thinking good and evil” (1986: 143) the ego collap‐ ses and one regains one’s true face. The true face then manifests itself within history. Ethics can never be the locus for experien‐ cing this rebirth, for ethics depends on the distinctions from which one needs to be free. Is Abe right? Philosophically, the question is whether Abe has enough room for the experience of evil. He implies that ex‐ periencing the Holocaust as an absolute evil is an instance of re‐ ligious ignorance. But perhaps it is ignorance to think of it as a relative evil. And if it is not relative evil, one can wonder whe‐ ther it is true that there is no incomprehensible dark power of evil at work. If there is such a power, can we then rely on our spontaneity? Or are further safety measures required? If one closely examines Abe’s thought, one might wonder whether he does not also have a deep experience of good and evil that is actually more substantial than Abe admits. Abe clearly explains that sunyata, as emptiness, is more fundamental than good and evil. But Abe also equates dynamic sunyata with wisdom and compassion. One might wonder whether these cannot be seen as “good.” Abe speaks of the return of good and evil after emptying, but one might ask whether Abe has his own attachments. And perhaps rightly so. At no point in the process of awakening would Abe allow the killing of another human being. A related question that arises is: When Abe calls the Holo‐ caust a relative evil and a manifestation of naturalness, in what sense does he use the notion of naturalness or sunyata? Would he also use the term “Wondrous Being,” which he sometimes uses for sunyata, in this case? If the Holocaust was fundament‐ ally also jinen or naturalness as sunyata, this has serious conse‐ quences for speaking about sunyata. One should then at least refrain from using the term “Wondrous Being” (1995: 110), and also perhaps reconsider quoting the metaphor of the jewel net
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used in Hua‐Yen Buddhism.4 But we saw that Abe needs these terms to stress that Emptiness is not a mere negation but also fullness. Another option would be to discern different aspects of sunyata, in the same way that Chinese thought distinguishes between yin and yang. But this would be in conflict with Abeʹs point that sunyata is not a “thing” and cannot be split into parts. Rather, it is the paradoxical unity of the many particular things. Also, speaking of dynamic sunyata as “boundless openness” and as wisdom and compassion manifesting themselves continually becomes difficult, if not impossible. The image of a Nazi kicking the face of a Jew lying on the ground comes to mind. Perhaps Abe is right by saying that this, unfortunately, is part of the phenomena as we see them. Perhaps we should accept this. I understand how sunyata in the aspect or the sense of “empty of self” and “interdependent” applies to the Holocaust as a phe‐ nomenon in a chain of events. But, considering other aspects of sunyata, I wonder whether one is not closer to the truth in calling the Holocaust a deep and dark evil that is incomprehen‐ sible on all levels. I stated above that, in some sense, sunyata might be experi‐ enced as good rather than evil, despite its being deeper than good and evil. I also wonder whether at some points Abe has a more substantive experience of evil than he admits. Does evil gain any ultimate status as ignorance? Abe’s philosophy rests on the duality between awakening and ignorance. Even though in the end this is, from the perspective of the awakened, transcended, his philosophy cannot be said to be free from du‐ alism. Abe himself would correct me by saying it is not a dual‐ ism but, on the level of the awakened, a paradoxical identity. In every awakened perspective, the relative should return, and thus the distinction between things. It is possible, Abe claims, for the one who is awakened to make distinctions without cre‐ ating a duality. The most fundamental way to summarize Abe’s approach to evil is this: if we do not constantly empty our views to see anew whatever arises in front of us, we will not 4
In this metaphor, the interdependent phenomena are envisioned as a net of jewels, shining on one another without any visible source of light apart from the elements in the web itself. It expresses the beauty and fullness that arise after the negating activity of emptying of self.
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manage to change the world to good—or, in Abe’s words, to recover the world’s naturalness. Abe’s optimism about our awakened true face stands in sharp contrast to his pessimism about unawakened ethical be‐ havior. Still, Abe is correct to bring into the domain of ethics the problem of ethics itself: the constant attempt to distinguish be‐ tween good and evil may cover up the true pre‐verbalized source, which might not be “good” but is also not evil. Bibliography Abe, Masao. (1986). “The Problem of Evil in Christianity and Bud‐ dhism.” In: P.O. Ingram and F. Streng (eds.). Buddhist‐Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation. Honolulu: Univer‐ sity of Hawaii Press. (1990a). “Kenotic God and Dynamic Sunyata.” In:John B. Cobb, Jr. and Christopher Ives. (eds.). The Emptying God: A Buddhist‐ Christian Conversation. Faith Meets Faith Series. New York: Orbis Books. (1990b). “A Rejoinder.” In: John B. Cobb, Jr. and Christopher Ives. (eds.). The Emptying God: A Buddhist‐Christian Conversation. Faith Meets Faith Series. New York: Orbis Books. (1995). Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue, Ed. S. Heine. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.(2003). Zen and the Modern World: A Third Sequel to Zen and Western Thought. Ed. S. Heine. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Borowitz, Eugene (1990). “Dynamic Sunyata and the God Whose Glory Fills the Universe.” In: John B. Cobb, Jr. and Christopher Ives. (eds.). The Emptying God: A Buddhist‐Christian Conversation. Faith Meets Faith Series. New York: Orbis Books. Pp. 79‐90. Cobb, John B. Jr. (1990). “On the Deepening of Buddhism.” In: John B. Cobb, Jr. and Christopher Ives. (eds.). The Emptying God: A Bud‐ dhist‐Christian Conversation. Faith Meets Faith Series. New York: Orbis Books. Pp. 91‐101. Ives, Christopher and Gishin, Tokiwa (eds.). (2002). Critical Sermons of the Zen Tradition: Hisamatsuʹs Talks on Lin‐ji. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Forgiving God A Jewish Perspective on Evil and Suffering N. Verbin
Abstract This paper proposes forgiveness—human forgiveness for divine abuse—as a religious response to the suffering of the innocent. It is divided into three sec‐ tions. The first section examines the logical space within which forgiveness is possible. It shows that forgiveness presupposes the possibility of a meaningful relationship between valuable moral agents who have certain fundamental rights and who may seriously compromise each other’s happiness. The second section discusses the nature of forgiveness, arguing that forgiveness is dis‐ tinguished from reconciliation and has to do primarily with the overcoming of one’s resentment of one’s assailant, which does not require the assailant’s re‐ pentance or a more favorable view of one’s assailant. The third section dis‐ cusses Job’s relationship with God as an instance of a victim‐assailant rela‐ tionship and shows that, while Job transcended his resentment toward God and forgave God for the unjust suffering that He had inflicted on him, he was not willing to be reconciled with Him. Forgiveness, even in cases lacking di‐ vine response, is thus presented as a viable option for the abused believer for sustaining a minimal relationship with God.
Introduction In his Days of Awe Shmuel Yosef Agnon records the following tale of Rabbi Elimelekh of Lizensk: Once upon a time, on the eve of Yom Kippur, the holy rabbi said to his disciples: “If you wish to find out how to make atonement on the eve of Yom Kippur, go to the tailor who lives at the edge of town.” And the disciples went at dawn and stood by the tailor’s window. They saw the tailor and his sons praying simply, like all tailors do. After the prayer, the tailor and his children put on Sabbath clothes, they lit candles, prepared a table with all the delicacies and sat down merrily at the table. Then the tailor took out a book, in
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This story, I believe, captures an important Jewish response to evil and suffering—forgiveness. Thus, I would like to discuss forgiveness: about human forgiveness to God, about human forgiveness for divine abuse. My paper is divided into three sections. In the first section I will discuss the logical space within which forgiveness between an assailant and his victim can take place. In the second section I will discuss the very nature of forgiveness and propose a dis‐ tinction between forgiveness and reconciliation. In the third sec‐
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tion I will examine forgiveness as a religious response to unjust suffering and divine abuse in the book of Job. The Logical Space for Forgiveness Different people display different attitudes toward the harm that others inflict on them. Some, undoubtedly most, display an active attitude: they resist the harm that they suffer, attempting, if possible, to do away with it and they resent the one or ones who inflict it. Others, on the other hand, display an attitude of passive resignation. They do not attempt to do away with the harm but to rethink its nature or value. Instead of aiming at transforming the world, they aim at transforming themselves. To understand the diverse avenues that lead to passive resigna‐ tion toward harm is to understand the logical boundaries of our concept of forgiveness. Thus, I shall attempt to shed some light on the different avenues that lead to passive resignation. The first avenue leading to resignation to which I would like to point has to do with one’s conception of happiness and the ways in which it can or cannot be compromised. If one’s happiness cannot be injured by what another may do, if one’s happiness is not vulnerable to the contingencies of human exist‐ ence, then there is nothing to resist, nothing to resent and nothing to forgive. I will give two examples of such conceptions of happiness: one from Socrates and the other from Maimon‐ ides. In the Gorgias, Socrates defines happiness in terms of vir‐ tue: “for a good and honorable man or woman ... is happy, and an unjust and wicked one is wretched” (Gorgias 470e). For So‐ crates, the moral has priority over the non‐moral in the consti‐ tution of happiness. Thus, although a person may suffer harm at the hands of another, such harm is insubstantial since the as‐ sailant, in a certain deep sense, cannot get at the victim; the as‐ sailant cannot tarnish the moral soul of his victim or violate his moral integrity. He can make him suffer, but he cannot render him unhappy. Thus, it is better to suffer injustice than to cause injustice: “of these two, doing and suffering wrong, we declare doing wrong to be the greater evil, and suffering it the less” (Gorgias 509c). A Socratic conception of happiness turns the relationship between the victim and his assailant upside down. Since it is
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not the victim who suffers substantial harm but the assailant, who inflicts serious harm upon himself by means of his victim, we may expect the victim to seek his assailant’s forgiveness, ra‐ ther than vice versa. After all, it is through him that the assailant has become an evildoer; it is through him that the assailant has desecrated his own soul. To avoid the desecration of the assail‐ ant’s soul, the conscientious victim may attempt to adopt an in‐ different attitude toward the harm done. Simone Weil expresses her wish to be able to do so by the following words: “if some‐ one does me an injury I must desire that this injury shall not de‐ grade me. I must desire this out of love for him who inflicts it, in order that he may not really have done evil” (Weil 1987: 66). Elsewhere she states: “We cannot have a horror of doing harm to others unless we have reached a point where others can no longer do harm to us” (Weil 1987: 70). Whether or not the vic‐ tim is successful in undoing his assailant’s evil deeds, the vic‐ tim, who is not fundamentally harmed by the assailant, is logic‐ ally incapable of forgiving him. Like Socrates, Maimonides, too, believes that one’s true happiness cannot be compromised by what another moral agent may force one to endure. For Maimonides, true happiness is the knowledge of God. In his commentary on Job in the Guide to the Perplexed, Maimonides states that Job’s complaints had to do with his lack of wisdom: The most marvelous and extraordinary thing about this story is the fact that knowledge is not attributed in it to Job. He is not said to be a wise or a comprehending or an intelligent man. Only moral virtue and righteousness in action are ascribed to him. For if he had been wise, his situation would not have been obscure for him …. (Guide of the Perplexed III/22)
Being unwise, Job failed to see that his loss was insignificant: While he had known God only through the traditional stor‐ ies and not by the way of speculation, Job had imagined that the things thought to be happiness, such as health, wealth, and children, are the ultimate goal. For this reason he fell into such perplexity and said such things as he did. (Guide of the Perplexed III/23)
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When Job came to acquire the knowledge of God, he ad‐ mitted that true happiness, which consists in the knowledge of the deity, is “guaranteed to all who know Him and that a hu‐ man being cannot be troubled in it by any of all the misfortunes in question” (Guide of the Perplexed III/23). In other words, after acquiring knowledge of God, Job ceased to be troubled by his loss of wealth, health, and by the death of his children. According to the Socratic and Maimonidean conceptions of happiness, moral agents can suffer pain and hardship and they can inflict pain and hardship on one another. However, they cannot harm each other in any deep sense nor can they contrib‐ ute to each other’s true happiness. Thus, instead of seeking to transform the world and to liberate human beings from their suffering, Socrates and Maimonides seek to transform the man‐ ner in which human beings perceive themselves and their suf‐ fering so that they may learn to ascribe no significance to their suffering. When the suffering that is inflicted is seen as insignif‐ icant, it is not resented and the relationship between the victim and his victimizer does not require mending. Thus, given such conceptions of happiness, there is no need nor is there logical space for forgiveness or reconciliation between a victim and his assailant. Another, second, boundary to our concept of forgiveness leading to resignation toward harm allows for the possibility that one inflicts substantial harm on another but conceives of the harm as warranted or justified. If the harm is justified, if it does not constitute an injustice, it cannot be forgiven. Jean Hampton points to the logical relation between our conception of human value and our conception of justified harm. She points out that if a harm is considered to be in accord with a victim’s self‐worth or, rather, with its absence, then that harm is not seen as an injustice or a wrong. In such a case, the logical possibility of forgiveness is excluded (Murphy and Hampton 1988: 45). We may, however, distinguish demeaning positions from non‐demeaning positions regarding the justification of harm. By “demeaning positions,” I mean those that justify the inflic‐ tion of harm on the basis of the victim’s diminished value, e.g., chauvinist or racist positions. By “non‐demeaning positions,” I mean those positions that do not justify the infliction of harm
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on the basis of the subject’s diminished value but on something else, e.g., egalitarian utilitarian positions, which may justify harming an innocent person to prevent a greater harm. We may divide “demeaning positions” into “local” and “global” ones. “Local demeaning positions” concerning the jus‐ tification of harm attribute a diminished value to a specific per‐ son and argue that the aggressor has acted within his rights. A racist, for example, may justify certain acts of aggression if they are performed by white people and are directed at black people, refusing to conceive of them as unjust acts. If the victim inter‐ nalizes such a conception of his self‐worth, he, too, does not conceive of the harm that he suffers as unjust and, therefore, does not resent his assailant nor is he logically capable of for‐ giving him. Unlike the racist, one who subscribes to a “global demean‐ ing position” is committed to an egalitarian conception of hu‐ man value, but this egalitarian conception is one that robs hu‐ man beings of their self‐worth. Simone Weil, for example, ex‐ presses such a position when she calls us to adopt the following attitude toward those who harm us: “It is impossible to forgive whoever has done us harm if that harm has lowered us. We have to think that it has not lowered us, but has revealed our true level” (Weil 1987: 5). If we are worthless, we cannot be humiliated. The most contemptuous treatment is appropriate. Since the victim merely gets what he deserves, he does not suffer an injustice and, therefore, cannot forgive his assailant or be reconciled with him. Instead of resenting the harm, the victim is called upon to use it to consider his worthlessness. This is the way in which Weil conceives of her relationship with God: If I thought that God sent me suffering by an act of his will and for my good, I should think that I was something, and I should miss the chief use of suffering which is to teach me that I am nothing. (Weil 1987: 101)
A third boundary to our concept of forgiveness leading to passive resignation to evil and harm robs the assailant of his self‐worth to the extent that the injuries that he inflicts cannot humiliate his victim. Here, too, the victim subscribes to a non‐ egalitarian conception of human value. However, unlike the
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previous avenue for resignation, the victim conceives of his own self‐worth as too high to be diminished by the acts of an‐ other moral agent. The injuries that another person may inflict on him can be compared to the injuries that animals or insects may inflict. While such injuries may be severe, they do not war‐ rant resentment. They cannot be forgiven nor can one be recon‐ ciled with the animal or insect. As Murphy, Hampton and others point out, forgiveness and reconciliation involve the transcending of resentment to‐ ward one’s assailant. Murphy emphasizes that the victim’s re‐ sentment has to do with the symbolic message concerning his self‐worth that is conveyed by the offense. Thus, if the victim’s value greatly supercedes his assailant’s value, then the assailant cannot humiliate him nor can he injure his self‐respect. There is no room for hostility, resentment or rage toward him, and, therefore, no logical space for forgiveness or reconciliation be‐ tween them. Murphy ascribes such a position to Nietzsche: There is no need for forgiveness, because a truly strong per‐ son will never feel resentment in the first place. Why? Be‐ cause he is not so weak as to think that other people—even those who harm him—matter enough to have any impact on his self‐respect. We do not resent the insect that stings us (we simply deal with it), and neither should we resent the human being who wrongs us. (Murphy and Hampton 1988: 18)
To sum up, if the victim’s self‐worth is too low, any harm that is inflicted on him is deemed justifiable and does not allow for re‐ sentment or the transcending of resentment in forgiveness. If the victim’s self‐worth is too high, he cannot be demeaned by any harm that is inflicted on him and cannot, therefore, resent his assailant or forgive him. Forgiveness and reconciliation pre‐ suppose the possibility of a meaningful relationship between valuable moral agents, who have certain fundamental rights, and who may seriously compromise each other’s happiness. Forgiveness and reconciliation presuppose certain conceptions of happiness, and certain conceptions of human value. In the next section, I will briefly discuss the very nature of forgiveness. I will argue that forgiveness does not require the assailant’s repentance or the victim’s ability to view his assail‐
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ant in a more favorable light. Rather, it has to do with the vic‐ tim’s ability to reject the humiliating message that is conveyed by the harm that he has suffered and to reacquire his sense of self‐worth. The Nature of Forgiveness Unlike victims of natural injuries, victims of moral injuries char‐ acteristically feel humiliated. Murphy describes the humiliating aspect of moral injuries in the following way: One reason we do so deeply resent moral injuries done to us is not simply that they hurt us in some tangible or sensible way; it is because such injuries are also messages—symbolic communications. They are ways a wrongdoer has of saying to us “I count but you do not”, “I can use you for my pur‐ poses”, or “I am here up high and you are there down be‐ low”. Intentional wrongdoing insults us and attempts (sometimes successfully) to degrade us—and thus it in‐ volves a kind of injury that is not merely tangible and sensi‐ ble. It is moral injury and we care about such injuries. (Mur‐ phy and Hampton 1988: 25)
Hampton distinguishes two responses to the humiliating mes‐ sage: (1) A complete rejection of the message and (2) fear or concern that the assailant’s message concerning the victim’s self‐worth is correct and that the victim is not worthy of better treatment. While the latter response is accompanied by resent‐ ment, the former is not. According to Murphy and Hampton, resentment is a de‐ fense against the humiliating message; it is a way of fighting the message and reaffirming one’s self‐worth. They both conceive of forgiveness as involving, at least in part, the overcoming of resentment. However, if the victim’s resentment is a personal defense against the humiliating message, then his resentment presupposes a partial acceptance of the assailant’s message. As we have seen, a victim with a particularly high sense of self‐es‐ teem could not forgive his assailant since he could not feel hu‐ miliated by him. Thus, unlike Hampton, I believe that a com‐ plete rejection of the humiliating message would not constitute the type of relationship that would allow for forgiveness be‐ tween a victim and his assailant to take place. On the other
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hand, neither would complete acceptance of the humiliating message constitute the type of relationship that would allow forgiveness and reconciliation to take place. The victim who may transcend his resentment and forgive his assailant is the victim who does not completely reject and does not completely endorse the humiliating message that is conveyed by the injury but “converses” with it, entertains it, feels threatened by it, wor‐ ries that the message is correct, that he is not worthy of better treatment, etc. Thus, forgiveness is, in a certain sense, a dialogical process that involves the rejection of a humiliating message after dealing with it and the reacquisition of a sense of self‐worth. The victim learns to narrate himself differently; he comes to acquire a new narrative concerning his self‐worth by means of a dialogue with his assailant’s humiliating message. In rejecting his assailant’s humiliating message, he transcends his resentment toward him and can be said to forgive him. Thus, we can view forgiveness, even in the absence of the assailant’s repentance, as an achieve‐ ment for the victim, which, contrary to Murphy’s worries, can‐ not rob the victim of his self‐respect (Murphy and Hampton 1988: 17‐19). The victim’s dialogue with his assailant’s humiliating mes‐ sage and his rejection of that message does not require him to view his assailant in a more favorable light nor does it require the assailant’s repentance, punishment, or humiliation. Our ability to forgive those who are no longer alive testifies to that. Forgiveness must not be conflated with reconciliation. A victim may reject the humiliating message, overcome his resentment and forgive his assailant while at the same time refuse to be re‐ conciled with him. He may continue to see his assailant as dan‐ gerous. When the assailant does not repent, for example, his victim has every reason to consider him dangerous and to re‐ fuse to be reconciled with him. Reconciliation, therefore, goes beyond forgiveness. It requires a more comprehensive transfor‐ mation; it requires more than the transcending of resentment. The victim, characteristically, comes to draw a distinction be‐ tween the agent and his immoral act of aggression. He char‐ acteristically comes to view his assailant in a more favorable light. This is often achieved by means of the assailant’s re‐ pentance and by his attempt to make amends.
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So far, I have focused on the victim and on the victim’s re‐ sponse to his assailant. I now wish to say a few brief words about repentance and reconciliation from the assailant’s point of view. Like the victim who is logically capable of forgiveness, the assailant who is logically capable of repentance conducts a dialogue with a difficult narrative. The repenting assailant con‐ ducts a dialogue with his victim’s narrative, a narrative con‐ cerning the harm that he has done as well as concerning himself as the immoral agent by means of whom the harm was done. Viewing himself through the eyes of his victim plays an impor‐ tant role in the assailant’s repentance. It may help him acquire an unflattering view of himself, which can help him take re‐ sponsibility for what he has done, to distance himself from his act, and to mend the relationship with his victim, should the latter be willing to be reconciled with him. In the absence of the assailant’s repentance, the victim may forgive his assailant but refuse to be reconciled with him. In this section I discussed the nature of forgiveness and distinguished forgiveness from reconciliation. I argued that the assailant’s repentance does not play a focal role in processes of forgiveness, although it plays a dominant role in processes of reconciliation. In the next section I will turn to a specific victim‐ assailant relationship, the relationship between Job and God. I will examine the logical scope for forgiveness and reconciliation between them as it unravels in the book of Job. Job as a Victim of Divine Abuse Job conceives of his misfortunes as the result of the deliberate act of an abusive God. He describes God as an assailant: I had been untroubled, and He broke me in pieces; He took me by the scruff and shattered me; He set me up as His tar‐ get; His bowmen surrounded me; He pierced my kidneys; He showed no mercy; He spilled my bile onto the ground .… He rushed at me like a warrior. I sewed sackcloth over my skin; I buried my glory in the dust. My face is red with weeping; Darkness covers my eyes. (Job 16:12‐16)
Unlike abuse by a human assailant, which demeans and humili‐ ates, divine abuse conveys a paradoxical message concerning the significance of the abused victim as well as his self‐worth.
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On the one hand, Job loses his property, children, health as well as the respect of his neighbors. He is reduced to poverty, misery and sickness. He is demeaned and humiliated. On the other hand, Job becomes the focus of divine action and deliberation. God, who “moves mountains,” who “shakes the earth from its place,” who “commands the sun” (Job 9) takes a great deal of effort to abuse Job in every possible way. Job complains des‐ perately: “Will you not look away from me for a while, Let me be, till I swallow my spittle?” (Job 7:19); “Let me be, for my days are a breath. What is man, that You make much of him, That You fix Your attention upon him? You inspect him every morning, Examine him every minute” (7:16‐18). In other words, what is man that you abuse him with such great precision? “Will You harass a driven leaf, Will You pursue dried‐up straw?” (13:25), he asks in despair. Owing to the subliming message involved in divine provi‐ dence, whether it is providence to benefit or to harm, Simone Weil rejects any teleological conception of good and evil as re‐ sulting from a specific divine purpose or plan: “God sends af‐ fliction without distinction to the wicked and to the good, just as he sends the rain and the sunlight” (Weil 1987: 101). Job, however, sees his torment as the result of a deliberate divine act: “Man born of woman is short‐lived and sated with trouble. He blossoms like a flower and withers; He vanishes like a shad‐ ow and does not endure. Do you fix Your gaze on such a one? Will You go to law with me?” (14:1‐3). Seeing God as the archi‐ tect of his torment, as sending him, with distinction, rain, sun‐ light and horrendous suffering, he is humiliated and hurt as well as confused by the symbolic message that is conveyed by his abuse. Job’s relationship with God, overall, does not shift from in‐ timacy to distance but from good intimacy to bad intimacy, from love to hatred and abuse. In his experience of God’s ha‐ tred toward him, Job does not feel himself distanced from God. He does not experience God’s hiddenness. He is intimate with God: “You have become cruel to me; With Your powerful hand You harass me. You lift me up and mount me on the wind” (30: 21‐22). God is present as a cruel enemy to him. Job seeks to re‐ establish his previous relationship with God: “O that I were as in months gone by, In the days when God watched over me,
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When His lamp shone over my head, When I walked in the dark by its light, When I was in my prime, When God’s com‐ pany graced my tent” (29:2‐4). Job seeks to reestablish the mu‐ tual love that had transpired between him and God. At the very least, he demands an explanation for God’s turn of heart. How can we characterize Job’s attitude toward God, the abuser? Moral hatred and resentment, I believe, are an accurate description of his attitude toward God. Resentment, as I have previously argued, is an emotional protest, which is intended to defend the victim’s self‐worth. Moral hatred, on the other hand, is an emotional protest, which is intended to defend a moral value that has been violated (Murphy and Hampton 1988: 79‐ 87). We may morally hate the racist, for example, without re‐ senting him, without feeling personally injured by his state‐ ments or deeds. Job seeks to protect both his own self‐worth, as well as the demands of justice, from the symbolic message that is conveyed by the injuries that God had inflicted upon him. His resentment, his protest, is, at least in part, a declaration con‐ cerning the moral restrictions by which God is bound in his in‐ teraction with human beings. It is a declaration concerning hu‐ man value and human rights. God, for Job, is bound by the de‐ mands of justice, and evaluated in relation to them. He cannot do as he pleases with human beings. Job rejects Simone Weil’s conception of human worthless‐ ness. He believes that he has certain rights and that his rights have been violated. “Yet know that God has wronged me …. I cry, ‘Violence!’ but am not answered; I shout, but can get no justice” (19:6‐7). He demands justice: “Advise me of my trans‐ gression and sin” (13:23). He wishes to put God on trial: “See now, I have prepared a case; I know that I will win it …” (13:18). He wishes for an arbiter to adjudicate his case against God: “No arbiter is between us to lay his hand on us both” (9:33). He believes that he deserves better treatment. He cries out and refuses to be comforted: “Earth, do not cover my blood; Let there be no resting place for my outcry!” (16:18). Does God’s revelation to Job allow him to transcend his rage and resentment and forgive God? Does it allow him to transcend his moral hatred toward God and to be reconciled with him?
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In order to be logically able to forgive God, Job must be‐ lieve that he has suffered a substantial unjust harm. If he had perceived the harm that he had suffered at the hands of God as insubstantial, as Maimonides believed, there would have been nothing to forgive God. Job must also continue to believe that he had suffered unjustly. Had he retracted his belief concerning the unjust nature of his torment, he could have condoned the abuse but he could not have forgiven it. Had he come to believe himself unworthy of better treatment or deserving of divine af‐ fliction as punishment, he could not have forgiven God since God would merely have given him his dues. The text itself, which tells of God restoring Job’s loss, tells against Maimonides’ reading of the book of Job. Had the in‐ juries that Job sustained been insubstantial, there would have been no need to restore them. The text, therefore, suggests that Job’s torment and suffering have severely compromised his happiness. It does not convey a Maimonidean conception of happiness, which renders forgiveness impossible. As to the question of the justification of Job’s suffering, no moral reason was given for his suffering, either by God or by the book’s re‐ dactors. The narrative’s framework does not present a moral justification for Job’s suffering; a divine bet does not amount to a moral reason, which either Job or the story’s readers can ac‐ cept as a justification for Job’s suffering. A global demeaning position concerning the harm that Job has endured, such as Si‐ mone Weil’s position concerning human worthlessness, is also rejected by the text. Thus, the logical possibility of forgiveness for divine abuse remains. We may reiterate: Did Job forgive God? Did he transcend his resentment and rage toward him? God reveals himself twice to Job. After his first revelation, Job is silent. He does not retract his complaints and accusations. He acknowledges his inferiority before God but does not accept it as a valid reason for being maltreated: “See, I am of small worth; what can I answer You? I clap my hand to my mouth. I have spoken once, and will not reply; Twice, and will do so no more” (40:4‐5). After God’s second revelation, Job retracts his accusations. Job seems to conduct a dialogue with the paradoxical di‐ vine message concerning his self‐worth. The paradoxality of the divine message is epitomized in God’s revelations. On the one
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hand, God emphasizes Job’s insignificance: “Who is this who darkens counsel, speaking without knowledge?” (38:2); “Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundations?” (38:4). On the other hand, God himself reveals himself to Job, converses with him, seeks his response, and reappears to him a second time. Job’s response to God’s second appearance seems ambiva‐ lent as well. On the one hand, Job ceases to complain and he ac‐ knowledges that he is mere dust. On the other hand, he addres‐ ses God as an equal, using the same words that God himself used when he addressed Job. He says to God: “Hear now, and I will speak; I will ask, and you will inform me” (42:4). Job calls God himself to listen and to respond. The manner in which he addresses God shows that he has regained his self‐respect de‐ spite his dire condition. Job, therefore, seems to transcend his resentment and rage and to forgive God for the harm that he had inflicted upon him. He retracts his complaints and says: “Therefore, I recant and relent, Being but dust and ashes” (42:6). Job, however, does not retract the content of his accusa‐ tions. He does not take back his claim to have suffered an in‐ justice at the hand of God. He retracts the speech act of accu‐ sation. He ceases, in practice, to complain to God; he ceases to accuse him. He transcends his resentment and is carried beyond his personal injury. He does not, however, give up his moral protest. His moral protest in the name of humanity for unjust suffering, for injustice, subsists. The text itself, which justifies Job over and against his friends, emphasizes that. In doing so, it issues a statement concerning the human right, perhaps the hu‐ man obligation, to protest before God when confronted with evil and injustice. Thus, while Job has been able to forgive God, I do not be‐ lieve that he was willing to be reconciled with him. While God’s revelation made it possible for him to transcend his own per‐ sonal resentment for having suffered divine injustice, to reac‐ quire his self‐respect and to forgive God, God’s revelation did not allow him to give up his moral hatred of God, and quit his role as a spokesperson for humanity who protests against injustice, whether divine or human, and refuses to be reconciled with it. God’s revelation did not allow him to adopt a new nar‐ rative concerning God as a transformed moral persona. God has
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remained a highly potent incomprehensible and dangerous presence in Job’s life. God showed no remorse. He did not perceive Job’s injuries from Job’s own perspective. He did not understand nor at‐ tempted to understand their meaning for Job. He did not per‐ ceive Job’s humiliation or the total breakdown of his world‐ view, which He had brought about. Instead of reflecting about himself as a moral agent, about what He is, and about what He has done, instead of reflecting about Satan’s importance for him and about the significance of his challenge, he mocked his vic‐ tim. Instead of listening to Job, he attempted to humiliate him. In short, he did not do what a repenting assailant, who seeks to regain his victim’s trust and to mend the relationship, is expec‐ ted to do. Thus, Job, who retracts his complains and accusations, does not address God directly any longer. He prays for his friends, as he has been commanded to do, but he does not thank God who blesses his latter days nor does he respond to God’s bless‐ ings in any other way. His intimate relationship with God has ended. Like other victims of bad intimacy, he seeks to maintain a safe distance from God. Job’s story is, therefore, to some extent, the story of a failed relationship. While Job has learnt to conduct a complicated dia‐ logue with God and with himself, about his complex status in the world, about his being dust and ashes on the one hand, and an important participant in a partnership with God on the oth‐ er, God has refrained from conducting a dialogue with Job and with himself. Instead of embarking on self‐examination, he at‐ tempted to buy Job’s renewed confidence and trust with gifts. Like an assailant who fails to understand the harm that he has done, he “restored Job’s fortunes” (42:10), “gave Job twice what he had before” (42:10), “blessed the latter years of Job’s life.” (42:12). These repetitious expressions, which describe God’s at‐ tempts to compensate for the suffering that He had inflicted on Job, to appease him and reestablish their past intimacy testify to his failure to do so. They show God’s unrequited wish to regain Job’s trust and to mend their relationship in reconciliation.
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Concluding Remarks Satan has challenged the boundaries and limitations of the rela‐ tionship that human beings and God can establish. As such, Sa‐ tan’s challenge was addressed to both human beings as well as to God. It appears to have been a challenge that God has failed to meet. The human response that the book of Job seems to elic‐ it to such a divine failure is complex. It does not elicit the com‐ plete breakdown of the relationship with God; it does not elicit one’s walking away from God; it does elicit a stepping back and maintaining a safe distance from God. It allows those who suf‐ fer unjustly to sustain a minimal engagement with God, even when he is experienced as an abuser. Above all, it calls those who have suffered an injustice to restore their sense of self‐ worth, transcend their resentment, and forgive God. Bibliography Agnon, Shmuel Yosef. (1964). Days of Awe. Jerusalem: Schocken Books. Murphy Jeffery and Jean Hampton (eds.). (1988). Forgiveness and Mer‐ cy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Plato. (1983). Gorgias. In: Plato in Twelve Volumes. Transl. W.R. Lamb. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Maimonides, Moses. (1963). The Guide of the Perplexed. Transl. Shlomo Pines Chicago: University of Chicago Press. The Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures According to the Traditional Jewish Text. (1985). Philadelphia et al.: The Jewish Pub‐ lication Society. Weil, Simone. (1987). Gravity and Grace. London/New York: Ark Pa‐ perbacks.
Conceptualizations of Evil in African Christian Theology Conrad Wethmar
Abstract The aim of this paper is to give an account of the interaction between Chris‐ tianity and African Traditional Religion found in African Christian theology. The comparison is made with special reference to the respective conceptual‐ izations of evil present in each of these traditions. The paper commences with a brief survey of the manner in which the notion of evil features in the Chris‐ tian Scriptures and tradition. A brief outline of the African world and life view is then presented in order to provide the back‐drop against which an an‐ alysis of the notion of evil in African Traditional Religion can be attempted. This analysis is mainly made with reference to recent research on witchcraft and spirit beliefs and is followed by a portrayal of the interaction between the traditional Christian views of evil and those found in African Traditional Re‐ ligion. This interaction exhibits the twofold structure of rejection on the one hand and accommodation on the other.
Introduction Africa is a huge continent inhabited by a large number of na‐ tions and cultural groups. One of the salient features of this continent is the big variety in manifestations of its traditional religions. It is therefore more or less impossible to speak of Afri‐ can religion as a unitary system (Bosch 1974: 38). This is not to say, however, that there are no features, that those religions have in common. It would therefore, to a certain extent, be pos‐ sible to identify a number of common denominators that would enable one to construct in very basic outline a theoretical struc‐ ture that could be called African Traditional Religion, which manifests itself in concrete and contextual form in a large num‐ ber of different situations. It is important to note that the task of the systematic theologian in this regard differs from that of the cultural anthropologist, as the former is not, in the first in‐ stance, interested in the specific manifestation but rather in the 217
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basic pattern and principles at the basis of those religious phe‐ nomena. It is the aim of this paper to make a few remarks on the conceptualizations of evil found in African Christian theology with a view to gaining some understanding of the mutual inter‐ action between African Traditional Religion and Christianity. In order to do this, a brief survey of the notion of evil in the Chris‐ tian scriptures and tradition will be given before an attempt is made to provide a basic outline of the African world and life view. The intention of the latter is to provide the backdrop against which a brief description of the notion of evil in African Traditional Religion can be given. The final step would then be to make a few remarks on differing responses in African Chris‐ tian thinking with respect to the conceptualization of evil against the background of that found in African Traditional Re‐ ligion. The Notion of Evil in the Christian Scriptures and Tradition Without being able, in the context of this paper, to go into much detail, one could say that the Christian Scriptures teach the per‐ sonal existence of an evil power called Satan who heads a host of demonic powers. Of decisive importance in this regard, how‐ ever, is the fact that the existence and activities of Satan is not portrayed as an independent reality but only as backdrop for the witness of Scripture regarding the salvation that Christ brought about for humanity (Gaybba 1987: 100). The light that Christ has brought into the darkness of human existence can be seen only when contrasted with this darkness. The darkness, however, is not what the Christian message is all about. For this reason, one of the most prominent Protestant theologians of the twentieth century, the Swiss theologian Karl Barth emphasized that Biblical demonology is nothing more than a negative re‐ flection of Biblical Christology and soteriology (Barth 1954: 621). For this reason, it is Barth’s view that Christians should re‐ frain from constructing a natural demonology as part of a more comprehensive natural theology based on manifestations of de‐ monic phenomena that Christians may occasionally encounter. Satan and demons are not mentioned for their own sake but only as a reality that should serve to emphasize the role of
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Christ in the salvation of mankind. For this reason the Bible is not interested in supplying an extensive explanation of the origin of the devil. It rather emphasizes the reality of this negative power that consistently tempts humans to be ali‐ enated from God. (Durand 1978:92)
It is of the utmost importance to realize that this low key Bib‐ lical demonology is not intended as providing an explanation of human sin. Referring to Satan would in any case not provide a meaningful reason for sin but only give the problem of sin a su‐ pra‐human dimension. The involvement of Satan in the human condition, according to the Christian Scriptures, is therefore not intended to portray humanity as an innocent victim of a guilt that it cannot avoid. Sin remains human guilt as it implies an active acceptance of and yielding to temptation. Relevant in the context of this paper is, furthermore, the fact that the manner in which the Bible refers to Satan does not imply that Christianity is based on a thoroughgoing dualism in which God and Satan are pitted against each other as adversar‐ ies of equal status. The Christian Scriptures regard Satan and the powers of evil as part of creation and therefore subject to God (Kasper 1978: 59). This does not imply, however, that evil in the Christian tra‐ dition is regarded as an issue of minor importance. This can be demonstrated by referring to the last petition in the well‐known prayer that Jesus taught his disciples. This petition is a request to deliver us from evil. The English verb “deliver” sounds fairly mild and does not reflect the urgency that one hears in the or‐ iginal Greek word used in this prayer. The verb ruomai em‐ ployed in this text means to draw out of danger physically, to rescue, to protect and save and echoes the extensive and com‐ prehensive endangerment that constantly threatened human existence as portrayed by the Hebrew Scriptures of the Old Testament. These Scriptures form the backdrop against which the words and life of Christ becomes comprehensible. The endangerment referred to here could be caused by evil people like enemies, oppressors, tyrants, murderers and liars or by evil circumstances like poverty, servitude, illness and other negative experiences of various kinds. What is furthermore rel‐ evant, however, is the fact that the evil from which the Chris‐ tian prayer requests to be delivered is not only something ex‐
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ternal but also one’s own seemingly incurable tendency to‐ wards evil, which finds eloquent expression in the Apostle Paul’s exclamation “O wretched man that I am! Who shall deliver me from the body of this death?” (Romans 7:24). I have already referred to the fact that the evil to which hu‐ man existence, according to the Christian Scriptures, is exposed does not only consist of matters, circumstances and events but also occur in the ultimate form of an evil person, Satan or the devil. In trying to come to terms with the phenomenon of evil the Christian tradition therefore emphasizes both its personal and impersonal dimensions. The Greek patristic authors of the earliest Christian centuries favored the idea of personal evil while the Latin patristic authors, of roughly the same period, preferred an impersonal interpretation (Lochman 1988: 132). This division gave rise to the development of two different types of soteriology in coping with evil. The Greek patristic tra‐ dition, represented by authors like Irenaeus and the Cappado‐ cian fathers, developed what the twentieth‐century Swedish theologian Gustav Aulén (1978:4) called the Christus Victor so‐ teriology. This theory in dramatic and even mythological terms described salvation as a victory that Christ gained against Satan by dying on the cross as a ransom for humankind. By doing so, Christ, as it were, outmaneuvered the devil because the devil did not realize that beneath Christ’s humanity his divinity was hidden and that he therefore would not remain in death (Mc‐ Grath 2001: 57). Aulén’s (1978: 53) interpretation of the religious meaning of this theory, which was originally formulated in terms that must seem highly objectionable to present sensibilities, is that it intends to show that God does not stand outside the drama that is being played out but Himself takes part in it and attains his purpose by internal and not by external means. He overcomes evil not by an almighty command, but by putting in something of his own, through a divine self‐sacrifice. It is furthermore important to note, says Aulén, that this theory, while implying the dualistic notion of the devil being the enemy of God, simultaneously contains an idea that signifi‐ cantly curtails the idea of dualism. This is the idea that the devil has won certain rights over human beings that empower him to demand a ransom for their freedom. These rights, however, de‐
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rive from God as the devil stands, as it were, to execute God’s own judgment on sinful and guilty humankind. As this is so, the devil cannot be regarded as equal to God but remains subject to Him. In dealing with the problem of evil the Latin patristic au‐ thors did not emphasize so much the personal embodiment of evil but attended rather to the disastrous effects of human sin and its implications. It was Augustine’s view therefore that hu‐ man sin and the punishment that it brought on itself constitu‐ ted the sum‐total of evil. This idea was further developed dur‐ ing the Middle Ages by Anselm of Canterbury. Anselm regard‐ ed sin as of fatal importance. Through the fall into sin and alien‐ ation from God humankind dishonored God and this disturbed the order of creation. This order had to be restored by the pun‐ ishment of sin. In order not to destroy creation God restored this order by having Christ substitute Himself for the sinner to pay the price of reconciliation by satisfying God’s divine honor. To anybody questioning the severity of this line of thinking, Anselm would respond with his well‐known words, “You have not as yet es‐ timated the great burden of sin” (Cur Deus Homo I, 21). In the cross of Christ the full extent of the disaster called sin and hu‐ man involvement in it becomes evident. Considering these two lines of thought it is clear that in the Christian tradition the prayer “deliver us from evil” could be relevant to a concept of evil either in the sense of an evil person of ultimate dimensions or to a concept of evil as sin and the de‐ struction associated with it. More important however than this kind of distinction is the fact that the coping mechanism that the Christian tradition suggests in both cases is the cross of Christ (Lochman 1988: 133). The cross of Christ is the final de‐ monstration in Christianity of the unfathomable mystery which is evil and which echoes through the ages in Christ’s cry of de‐ solation: “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46). The African Life and Worldview In order to understand the notion of evil reflected in African culture one first has to attend to a few characteristics of this cul‐
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ture, keeping in mind the limitations to which generalizations in this regard by necessity are subjected. In his influential book on Bantu philosophy Placide Tem‐ pels (1959: 43) had, more than forty years ago, already devel‐ oped the theory that the basic structure of African thought is formed by the idea that the totality of reality consists of the in‐ teraction of forces or powers. Tempels’ views had been criti‐ cized by various authors as being too generalizing in nature (Dammann 1963: 54; Mbiti 1970: 10), while others (Brandel‐Syr‐ ier 1962: iii; Magesa 1979: 39) are of the opinion that his theory is helpful in supplying a practical hypothesis in terms of which a variety of phenomena in African culture can be explained. Ac‐ cording to Tempels (1959: 39), life consists of the continual in‐ crease or decrease of one’s vital force. And the aim that one has for one’s life is to develop the optimal vital force that one’s loca‐ tion in the hierarchical order of reality allows. It is important to realize that African societies do not operate along egalitarian lines but according to hierarchical structures. Finding one’s rightful place in the hierarchical network of powers between God, ancestors, chief, father, animals and plants means to be in possession of force. To be displaced and in disharmony with this network implies decrease and eventually loss of vital force. The main and vital aim in life is to find your allotted place in the total scheme of things. J.V. Taylor (1963:99) in his well known book, The Primal Vision, depicted this state of affairs as follows: Man is a family. The living chain of humanity, in which the tides of world‐energy ebb and flow most strongly, stands at the heart of the great totality of being. The underlying con‐ viction remains that an individual who is cut off from the communal organism is nothing. As the glow of a coal de‐ pends upon its remaining in the fire, so the vitality, the psy‐ chic security, the very humanity of man, depends upon his integration into the family. There are many who feel that the spiritual sickness of the West, which reveals itself in the di‐ vorce of the sacred from the secular and in the loneliness and homelessness of individualism, may be healed through a recovery of the wisdom which Africa has not yet thrown away.
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What should be taken note of is that religion in the African context is not something supra‐natural or metaphysical but something which is part of the natural scheme of things. It is therefore understandable that Mercy Oduyoye (2003:42) de‐ scribes the pre‐Christian and pre‐Islamic religion of Africa as a cosmic religion with the premise that it does not claim a single revelation, nor a special messenger from God, but has grown as part of being human. In order to understand the value system that corresponds to the cosmology that I have now attempted to describe, one should keep in mind that, according to African thinking, the created universe is centered on human beings. Human beings are the supreme force, the most powerful among created be‐ ings. In spite of the fact that God is regarded as the creator of reality, it is human beings who occupy the center stage in the cosmos. African philosophy therefore has, according to most of the researchers that have been working in this field, a radical anthropocentric focus (Van der Walt 1997: 24). It is important to keep in mind however that human be‐ ings, to whom we are referring here, should never be thought of in the singular. For traditional African thought in fact, the hu‐ man being never appears as an isolated individual. Every hu‐ man being, every individual, forms a link in the chain of vital forces, a living link, active and passive, joined from above to the ascending line of his ancestry and sustaining below him the line of descendents. Africans are quite unable to conceive of indi‐ viduals apart from their relationships (Tempels 1959: 71). This is well summarized in John Mbiti’s statement (1970: 14): “I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am.” In South Africa this communality is expressed in the principle of Ubuntu to which one currently so often finds references in public com‐ munications. The cardinal belief of Ubuntu is that one can only be a human being through others (Mcunu 2004: 18). This corporate notion of humanity has far‐reaching impli‐ cations for the value‐system that is related to it. The following aspects could be mentioned in this regard: society is not in the first instance structured in terms of rights but rather in terms of duties. In the African understanding, priority is given to the du‐ ties which individuals owe to collectivity, and their rights are seen as secondary to the exercise of their duties. Special empha‐
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sis is laid on one’s social responsibilities. Miserliness and self‐ centeredness are regarded as serious vices. Relationships be‐ tween people are judged to be of the utmost importance. This gives rise to the high appreciation that is given to characteristics such as courtesy, friendliness and an attitude of sympathy. Ac‐ cording to African sensibilities people should be valued for what they are and not for what they can achieve. Inclusivity is regarded as important. Instead of, for the sake of efficiency, making quick decisions, as is often the case in Western societies, Africans tend to regard meetings and extensive consultation as very important. Decisions are taken by consensus rather than by means of a vote. The communality to which we are referring here, however, does not only have positive implications. The following nega‐ tive effects should also be noted. First, it quite often leads to so‐ cietal pressure not to move out of one’s allotted position in the social hierarchy. Moving out of one’s position is regarded as disturbing the social balance and order. Exhibiting more vital force than what is one’s due, according to one’s allotted social location, can be regarded as employing the procedures and powers of witchcraft. Because of the fact that only limited vital force is present in the overall scheme of things that could imply that a person who exhibits too much initiative is impinging on that which belongs to somebody else and should be restrained or even eliminated. Second, the emphasis on communality invariably leads to jealousy. Because of the fact that in an African context one eval‐ uates developments in terms of the presence of vital force, achievement and the corresponding acquisition of material benefits are often not in the first place linked to hard work but to the unfair disturbance of the balance of power in society. This then tends to call forward the experience of jealousy that is not willing to tolerate somebody else’s success. A third implication that the application of the characteristic communal thought‐and‐life structure has, is the development of an ethic of shame. Because of the fact that social harmony is re‐ garded as of the highest priority one’s behavior should be aimed at not disturbing this harmony. If that does happen, it leads to an intense experience of shame. Avoiding shame and disharmony therefore becomes a stronger motivating force
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than, for example, speaking factual truth. The available litera‐ ture in this regard often refers to cases or situations where an African person, instead of communicating an unpleasant truth would, for the sake of harmony, avoid such a communication or rather tell what would technically be regarded as a lie (Van Niekerk 1993: 24). The Nature of Evil in African Traditional Religion Many religions in the world are involved in a struggle to ex‐ plain the origin of evil and to reconcile the presence of evil with the existence of an all‐powerful and well‐ meaning God (Bosch 1987: 38). In theological circles belonging to these religious tra‐ ditions, this is known as the theodicy problem: the problem therefore of justifying the reality of God in the light of the exist‐ ence and occurrence of evil. Normally, theologians provide one of two answers to this question, respectively called dualism and monism. Dualism presupposes the existence of two equally powerful realities opposing one another and monism implies a single source and cause of all that happens. The latter position in the African context does not imply, however, that all evil has to issue from God directly. It could also be interpreted in such a manner that lesser deities could be used by the Supreme Being to bring about evil effects. In the latter case, monism seems to be moving in the direction of dualism, without ending up in an absolute dualism (Bosch 1974: 63). To ascertain whether in African Traditional Religion the Supreme Being can be regarded as being the origin of evil or not or, in other words, whether this tradition thinks monistic‐ ally or dualistically we will first have to make a few remarks on how it deals with the notion of God In line with the African life and worldview, the Supreme Being in this tradition is experienced in terms of the basic cos‐ mological notion that the totality of reality consists of the inter‐ action of forces or powers (Van der Merwe 1981: 14). Within this constellation of forces the Supreme Being is seen as having the most vital force, followed by the lesser deities, the ancestors, humans, animals and material objects. This Supreme Being is not really experienced as a person but rather as the personifica‐ tion of the interacting system of life forces that keeps this sys‐ tem intact. Although this Supreme Being is of vital importance
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to humanity, he is not in the forefront of their awareness. Some researchers used the term God, the Indifferent, Absent One to de‐ scribe this state of affairs. This is not appropriate, as this term derived from Western deistic philosophy is not capable of de‐ scribing the Supreme Being of African Traditional Religion who is not fundamentally absent but continually present and opera‐ tive, although he is not always perceived to be so (Nürnberger 1975: 183). In attempting to answer the question whether African Tra‐ ditional Religion is monistic or dualistic one could refer to vari‐ ous northern African cultures in which the idea of a lesser deity of evil nature clearly plays a prominent role. The evil deities Eshu and Marcardit, believed in by the Nigerian Yoruba and Sudanese Dinka people respectively, are cases in point (Van der Merwe 1981: 21). The South African missiologist David Bosch (1974: 67) is of the opinion, however, that these cases do not point to dualism but rather to monism as these deities are seen to remain under control of the Supreme Being. The tendency to‐ wards monism seems to be even stronger further south in Afri‐ ca. The statement of Placide Tempels (1959:53) in which he said, “It seems to me necessary to reject as foreign to Bantu philo‐ sophy the idea of good and evil as two forces,” still proves to be valid. In African thinking both good and evil are caused by the same Supreme Being. As has been indicated above, the theodicy problem generated by this position is solved by projecting the evil dimension of the Supreme deity on a lesser deity in such a manner, however, that the involvement of the Supreme Being is maintained. This tendency will be emphasized when, in due course, we discuss witches and sorcerers as embodiment of evil par excellence in African religion. These evil beings are regarded as receiving their power from the Supreme Being (Van der Merwe 1981: 79). A remarkable relationship between the Supreme Being and evil can be seen in the manner in which the notions of trans‐ cendence and immanence function in African Traditional Reli‐ gion. We have already mentioned the fact that the presence of the Supreme Being is not constantly in the forefront of the belie‐ vers’ awareness. M.J. McVeigh (1974: 133) convincingly devel‐ oped the theory that the root cause for the high God’s being pushed to the periphery of human consciousness is not the em‐
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phasis on his transcendence but rather his immanence. An all‐ encompassing nearness seems to be the fundamental character‐ istic of God in African thinking. However, a Supreme Being that is the origin of both good and evil is extremely difficult to live with. This led to the attitude that the transcendent far‐away God is good and that the immanent nearby God is bad. To be too near to God is dangerous. This insight seems to be con‐ firmed by the view that one finds in various South African cul‐ tures like that of the Xhosa, Tswana and Southern Sotho peo‐ ples, namely that mental disorder is the result of direct expo‐ sure to God and his power. The Xhosa people call a person suf‐ fering from insanity “a man of God” (Van der Merwe 1981: 24). Because of the fact that the High God is seen as the source of good and evil, he is experienced as unpredictable and dan‐ gerous, which leads to a certain fatalism being characteristic of African religion. And this, in turn, has as a result that in African thinking God is regarded as good when he does not involve himself in human affairs, remaining a distant and transcendent being. The religious awareness and cultic activity of traditional African believers, therefore, focus more on intermediary agen‐ cies like ancestor spirits, witches and sorcerers than on the Su‐ preme Being. The latter is only approached when involvement with all these intermediary figures has exhaustively proved to be unproductive. And such an approach of the Supreme Being is, furthermore, not effected directly but through the ancestors. It is well known that in Africa the ancestors are tradition‐ ally regarded as being part of the living community. The living and the living‐dead, as John Mbiti (1969: 84) calls the ancestors, are seen as being mutually dependent. The living keep the an‐ cestors in remembrance and make sacrifices to them, while the ancestors are expected to protect their kinspeople. The relation‐ ship is not really cordial and is often, but not exclusively, char‐ acterized by fear. Too much intimacy with the ancestors is not desirable and contact with them is really only necessary in times of crisis. Adversity is often experienced as punishment by the ancestors for being neglected or because some societal rule or taboo had been violated. In the study of the phenomenon of evil, cultural anthropo‐ logists quite often one‐sidedly concentrate on witchcraft. David Parkin (1988: 2) is therefore correct when he maintains that
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witchcraft is only one of many perspectives on good and evil and cannot, therefore, claim a privileged place in analysis. As we have already intimated, however, witchcraft is one of the contexts in the African scene where the phenomenon of evil is most conspicuously manifested. This phenomenon, which is, of course, by far not only found in Africa, can in the African context be related to the African life and worldview, according to which the totality of reality consists of the interaction of forces and powers. In terms of this worldview, witchcraft can be described as the activities of witches and sorcerers “who are people with the mystical ability to manipulate the forces of life to do harm to human be‐ ings or their property” (Van Wyk 2004: 1210). One should distinguish between witches and sorcerers. Witches who, in African awareness, are mainly but not exclu‐ sively older women are credited with the ability to free their spirits from their bodies at night and in this disembodied form harm people by magic procedures of various kinds, either by directly causing illness or death or by using animal familiars like baboons, owls, snakes or cats to effect their evil purposes. These evil deeds are usually not performed by solitary indivi‐ duals but by groups of evil spirits acting in unison. Two re‐ markable things about these witches are that they are often not aware of what they are doing, on the one hand, and further‐ more that they do not use medicines or other magic objects like charms or amulets, on the other. The usage of these kinds of ob‐ jects is characteristic of the work of sorcerers who are mostly men performing their evil deeds during daytime with deliber‐ ate intent. This implies that a sorcerer would be able to stop being a sorcerer while witches who are under control of their evil spirits cannot do so of their own accord. Characteristic of witches are that they are usually not pub‐ licly known. They comply with the general insight in the sci‐ ence of religion that the “evilness of evil cannot be identified” (Van Wyk 2004: 1213). The implication of this is that quite often a certain fatalism in connection with witchcraft develops in African society. When evil is among you, but you do not know what it is, then nothing can be done about it (Van Beek 1994: 207‐12).
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That, however, does not mean that no attempts are made to identify and eliminate witches. The result is that people exhib‐ iting unusual personal features, extraordinary behavior or ex‐ cessive power, i.e. people, in other words, who disturb the bal‐ ance and harmony of power relations, which is so important in African society, are easily accused of being witches. African society developed various agents whose task it is to defend society against witchcraft. These are known as herbal‐ ists, witch doctors and diviners. Natural and supernatural means are employed to counter witches and sorcerers. White magic is used to conquer black magic. From time to time, even human body parts are used to gain the desired effect. It is a tragic fact that the procedures to defend society against the ev‐ ils of witchcraft quite often lead to witch hunts and witch kil‐ lings. In this way people who are presumed to be the friends of society are “the very people responsible for maintaining a vi‐ cious circle of revenge and counter‐revenge” (Van Wyk 2004: 1219). It remains a perplexing and most disconcerting phe‐ nomenon that, even after the political transformation in South Africa, the volume of witchcraft‐related crime does not seem to be abating (Niehaus 2001: 2; Bähre 2002: 329; SANPAD [South Africa‐Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in De‐ velopment] 2003: 3). This could, to a certain extent but not ex‐ clusively, be attributed to the uncertainties related to a period of political transition. Various authors are of the opinion that it would not be possible to deal decisively with these issues if their religious and theological dimension is neglected (Van Wyk 2004: 1202). We therefore now turn to the response of Afri‐ can Christian theology to the problem of evil. The Response of African Christian Theology Having given an account of the notion of evil present in the Christian Scriptures and tradition as well as in African Tradi‐ tional Religion, the question that in conclusion should briefly demand our attention is: To what extent would it be possible for present‐day African Christians to deal with the notion of ev‐ il in their indigenous religious tradition in such a manner that continuity with the overall Christian tradition can be main‐ tained?
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This issue is dealt with in the modern African theological discussion in various ways. In the context of this paper I would like to attend to two of these options which happen to be dia‐ metrically opposed to each other. The first approach radically rejects the traditional African reference to the spirit world, while the second approach attempts to reinterpret the tradition‐ al African position so as to provide an intelligible witness to present‐day Africans. The first approach then is that of radical rejection. This ten‐ dency started developing as a mechanism by which the initial Christian missionaries, especially those influenced by revivalist theology, attempted to distinguish Christianity from traditional African religion. The initial form that this distinction took was the demonization of traditional African religion. Missionaries spoke about the devil and the demonic realm as a way of setting Christianity apart from traditional reli‐ gion. To them Christianity was good, while traditional reli‐ gion belonged to the devil. (Akrong 2001: 18)
This approach was not restricted to missionary theology but happens quite often to be characteristic also of some present‐ day charismatic churches in various African countries. They al‐ so tend to demonize and then exorcise traditional spirit beliefs. It is a development, however, that renders an unexpected re‐ sult. The big emphasis that the charismatic churches put on the devil creates what can perhaps be called a “cult of devotion to the devil.” And in the African context this awakens the need in traditional African circles to re‐employ the mystical procedures that they used to protect themselves with in such circumstan‐ ces. In this manner these charismatic churches paradoxically stimulate a response that they originally intended to prevent, while this response, furthermore, stimulates the development of a dualism that is traditionally alien to Christianity in that it devaluates the power of God as it puts the devil’s power on a par with that of God (Akrong 2001: 20). A third dimension in the rejection of the traditional African spirit beliefs is supplied by allowing modern Western secular‐ ism not to deny these beliefs explicitly but simply to ignore them, presupposing that witchcraft‐related issues are merely developmental problems which could exclusively be solved by
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processes of educational and economic development. (SAN‐ PAD 2003:32). Without a doubt, development in these fields are of vital importance, but whether a total neglect of the religious and theological aspects of the problem is conducive to its solu‐ tion is doubtful (Van Wyk 2004: 1224). There is a further argument in favor of rejecting the tradi‐ tional spirit beliefs that operates however on a totally different level, as compared to the previous ones, and that is the argu‐ ment that traditional spirit beliefs would be implausible in terms of modern foundationalist epistemology that developed in line with the European enlightenment project. However, this argument did not prove to be as convincing as it originally seemed. Since the demise of the enlightenment canon of human rationality which initially developed in concert with Newtonian mechanical cosmology, the predilection of African thought for personal rather than mechanical explanations of observable phenomena gained in plausibility to such an extent that John Pobee (1979: 100) from Ghana can conclude that the mechanical and personal explanations of reality are not contradictory. A philosopher like Kwasi Wiredu (1998: 198) adds to this the sug‐ gestion that the personal rather than mechanical explanations that Africans tend to give to phenomena and the acceptance of the reality of the spirit world that this implies may even be helpful on a conceptual level in that it could help solve some of the logical problems related to the Christian understanding of evil. What he has in mind is what we have earlier on already al‐ luded to, namely that accepting the notion of lesser deities, as in African Traditional Religion, would be helpful to solve the the‐ odicy problem because evil will then be attributed to them and not to God. Reasoning along these lines, we have, in fact, already ex‐ plained the second approach that is gradually gaining support in African theological circles, and that is the conviction that there is no good reason why Christian theologians cannot simply accept the traditional African scheme of the so called unseen world including their traditional mechanisms in dealing with it. (Brand 2002:48)
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This would, of course, require careful theological deliberation to establish coherence with the main tenets of Christian doc‐ trine. But in principle that should not be impossible. An example of how this could be done is supplied by the innovative way in which the doctrine of the descent into hell is interpreted by a number of African Christian theologians (Van’t Spijker 2003: 504).1 According to this approach, the notion of salvation is not only a matter of the forgiveness of sins as em‐ phasized by the tradition of the Latin West but also and fore‐ most a matter of Christ’s victory over the powers of evil. Christ did not only die for our sins, but He also descended into hell to demonstrate his power over the living and the dead. When the African context contributes towards the emphasis on this aspect of the Christian notion of salvation and towards the revitaliza‐ tion of this long‐neglected article of the faith, we are reminded that the Christus Victor idea is an important one in the New Testament. In this way African Christian theology contributes towards reconnecting the ecumenical church with a vital ele‐ ment of the Christian faith that played a dominant role in the first ten centuries of Christian history. This could finally suggest that a solution to the persisting scourge of witchcraft‐related catastrophes in Africa should not exclusively be expected from secular processes like educational and economical development but that well‐founded and re‐ sponsible theological considerations and corresponding pastor‐ al procedures should at least not summarily be discounted (La‐ gerwerf 1985: 57; Ganly 1985: 350). Bibliography Akrong, A. (2001). “Towards a Theology of Evil Spirits and Witches.” In: Journal of African Christian Thought 4: 18‐21. Aulén, G. (1978). Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement. 3rd. ed. London: SPCK, 1978. Bähre, E. (2002). “Witchcraft and the Exchange of Sex, Blood and Money among Africans in Cape Town, South Africa.” In: Journal of Religion in Africa 32: 300‐34.
1
I would like to thank Dr. Gerard van’t Spijker who, during the conference on Religion and Evil, drew my attention to this development.
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Barth, K. (1961). Die Kirchliche Dogmatik III/3. Zurich: EVZ – Verlag. Bosch, D.J. (1974). Het evangelie in Afrikaans gewaad. Kampen: Kok. (1987). “The Problem of Evil in Africa: A Survey of African Views on Witchcraft and of the Response of the Christian Church.” In: P.G.R. de Villiers (ed.). Like a Roaring Lion: Essays on the Bible, the Church and Demonic Powers. Pretoria: University of South Africa Publishers. Pp. 38‐62. Brand, G. (2002). “Witchcraft and Spirit Beliefs in African Christian Theology.” In: Exchange 31: 36‐50. Brandel‐Syrier, M. (1962). Black Women in Search for God. London: Lupperworth. Dammann, E. (1963). Die Religionen Afrikas. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag. Durand, J.J.F. (1978). Die Sonde. Pretoria: NG Kerkboekhandel. Ganly, J.C. (1985). “Evil Spirits in Pastoral Practice.” In: African Eccle‐ siastical Review 27: 345‐50. Gaybba, B. “The Development in Biblical Times of Belief in Demons and Devils and the Theological Issue Raised by such Develop‐ ment.” In: P.G.R. de Villiers (ed.). Like a Roaring Lion: Essays on the Bible, the Church and Demonic Powers. Pretoria: University of South Africa Publishers. Pp. 90‐101. Kasper, W. (1978).“Das theologische Problem des Bösen.” In: W Kas‐ per and K. Lehmann (eds.). Teufel, Dämonen, Bessessenheit. Zur Wirklichkeit des Bösen. Mainz: Matthias Grünewald‐Verlag. Pp. 41‐ 69. Lagerwerf, L. (1985). “Witchcraft, Sorcery and Spirit Possession: Pas‐ toral Responses in Africa.” In: Exchange 41: 1‐62. Lochman, J.M. (1988). Unser Vater: Auslegung des Vaterunsers. Güter‐ sloh: Gerd Mohn. Magesa, L. (1997). African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life. Maryknoll: Orbis Books. Mbiti, J.S. (1970). African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heine‐ mann. Mcunu, T.N. (2004). The Dignity of the Human Person: A Contribution of the Theology of Ubuntu to Theological Anthropology. Unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of South Africa. McVeigh, M.J. (1974). God in Africa: Conceptions of God in African Tradi‐ tional Religion and Christianity. Cape Cod: Claude Stark. Niehaus, I. (2001). Witchcraft, Power and Politics: Exploring the Occult in the South African Lowveld. Cape Town: David Philip.
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Nürnberger, K. (1975). “The Sotho Notion of the Supreme Being and the Impact of the Christian Proclamation.” In: Journal of Religion in Africa 7: 175‐87. Oduyoye, M.A. (2003). “African Culture and the Gospel: Incultura‐ tion from an African Woman’s Perspective.” In: M.A. Oduyoye and H.M. Vroom (eds.). One Gospel – Many Cultures: Case Studies and Reflections on Cross‐Cultural Theology. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi. Pp. 39‐62. Parkin, D. “Introduction.” (1985). In: D Parkin (ed.). The Anthropology of Evil. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Pp. 1‐25. Pobee, J.L. (1979). Toward an African Theology. Nashville: Abingdon. SANPAD. (2003). Crossing Witchcraft Barriers in South Africa: Exploring Witchcraft Accusations. Causes and Solutions. Utrecht: Faculty of So‐ cial Sciences, Utrecht University. Taylor, J.V. (1963). The Primal Vision. London: SCM Press. Tempels, P. (1959). Bantu Philosophy. Paris: Presence Africaine. Van Beek, W.E.A. (1994). “The Innocent Sorcerer: Coping with Evil in Two African Societies (Kapsiki and Dogon).” In: T. Blakely et al. (eds.). Religion in Africa: Experience and Expression. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Pp. 197‐228. Van der Merwe, G. (1981). Die begrip van die kwaad by swart Christene in Suid‐Afrika soos dit veral in die Sionistiese onafhanklike kerke na vore kom en die implikasie daarvan vir die verkondiging van die evan‐ gelie. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation: University of Pretoria. Van der Walt, B.J. (1997). Afrosentries of Eurosentries? Ons roeping in ‘n multikulturele Suid‐Afrika. Potchefstroom: Instituut vir Reforma‐ toriese Studie. Van Niekerk, A.S. (1993). One Destiny: Our Common Future in Africa. Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers. Van’t Spijker, G. (2003). “Die Botschaft des Sieges Christi in Afrika.” In: J. Thiesbonenkamp and H Cochois (eds.). Umwege und Weg‐ gefährten. Heinrich Balz zum 65. Geburtstag. Neuendettelsau: Er‐ langer Verlag für Mission und Ökumene. Pp. 503‐15. Van Wyk, I.W.C. (2004). “African Witchcraft in Theological Perspec‐ tive.” In: HTS Theological Studies 60: 1201‐28. Wiredu, K. (1998). “On Decolonising African Religions.” In: P.H. Coetzee and A.P.J. Roux (eds.). The African Philosophy Reader. London/New York: Routledge. Pp. 186‐204.
The Descent into Hell and the Phenomenon of Exorcism in the Early Church Martien E. Brinkman
Abstract In early Christianity, the descent into hell was the symbol of the range of the resurrection: even the dead would be liberated from the evil powers holding them captive. Together with the phenomenon of exorcism during the baptism rite in the night of Eastern it is a clear indication of the strong awareness of the influence of evil powers upon the living and dead in the ancient church. This contribution will discuss the continuous struggle with evil for the dead and living believers. It confronts us first with our beliefs on the place of our ancestors and, second, with our own position regarding bad (evil) spirits, even after our baptism. By speaking about demons, the New Testament in‐ tends to underline the seriousness and power of the temptations to which hu‐ man beings are exposed and to which they repeatedly succumb. The prayer “deliver us from (the) evil (one)” indicates that we need strength from else‐ where to be delivered from the grip of evil. Evil, then, not only has to do with a good or bad will or with a concretely good or bad deed but also with a third power which we cannot apparently denote in a different or more adequate way than by means of such words as demon, devil, Satan, etc.
Introduction: Redemption as the Opposite of Evil In the Christian tradition there has been a great deal of dispute over the question of the extent to which the struggle against evil power had already been decided for us. How radical is the “redemption in Christ” to be understood? A plea for a radical redemption from evil need by no means imply that the pull of evil is underestimated. That appears, indeed, not to be the case in the New Testament. In ever‐changing expressions, an image emerges of a formidable opposition or opponent who exerts a coercive influence on the human being’s thoughts and actions. Consequently, the New Testament does not introduce a mar‐ 235
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ginal character in the person of Satan but a key figure against whom the struggle between the Kingdom of God and the realm of darkness reaches its culmination. It is especially against this power or these powers that the liberating effect of the Gospel is most explicitly and fundamentally described. Resurrection as Liberation from the Underworld: The Descent into Hell Resurrection The New Testament connects the resurrection of the already de‐ ceased with the death of Jesus (Matthew 27:51‐53) but leaves the moment of that resurrection aside. The New Testament pas‐ sages vary from Jesus’ words to the murderer crucified with him (“Today you will be with me in paradise” [Luke 23:43]) to the reference in the book of Revelation to a “second resurrec‐ tion” a thousand years after the first (20:4‐6). The Dutch expert in the religious context of early Christianity, Jan Bremmer, points out that the records of the interrogations of many Chris‐ tian martyrs from the middle of the second century show that many of them were firmly convinced that they would rise again with Christ immediately after their violent death (Bremmer 2000: esp. 100‐01). In Luke 16:19‐31, on the other hand, the idea of an under‐ world (hades [Greek]; gehenna [Hebrew]; infernum [Latin]) is in‐ troduced as the place where the rich man will have to dwell af‐ ter his death, suffering hellish pains, whereas poor Lazarus will be carried away by angels to the bosom of Abraham after his death. Thus, in addition to a hell for the unjust, we see here the emergence of a place for the just, also called “hell.” It is espe‐ cially this idea that will be worked out in great detail in the course of the centuries and will take on a variety of forms. Thus the word “hell” may also be used to indicate a “waiting room” for both the unjust and just who will be separated only at Christ’s “descent into hell.” Over the centuries the Christian tradition has produced a variety of representations of the after‐ life for pious believers who have already died, for those who had not been baptized, prematurely deceased children as well as for those who had lived neither a clearly evil nor a clearly good life: from the bosom of the fathers to limbo and purgatory. This variety of representations is not specific to Christianity
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alone. We find them in almost every—specially African and Asian—religion, often concentrated in varieties of ancestral be‐ lief (Dovlo 1993). These varieties are especially reflected in the early Chris‐ tian renderings of the resurrection. The resurrection itself was not depicted before the eighth century. Yet very early, both in the Eastern and the Western church, there were representations that alluded to the resurrection. Originally, both in the East as well as in the West, the women at the empty tomb were the on‐ ly allusion. Slowly but surely, originating in the fifth‐century Syrian and Greek patristics, the mythical motif of the “descent into hell,” which was eventually even incorporated into the Apostolic Creed, slowly emerged in Syrian pictures of the eighth and ninth centuries. In the East this motif came to re‐ place entirely that of the women at the tomb. Until the present, it has been the most central iconographic motif of the resurrec‐ tion. In the West the two motifs appear side by side, supple‐ mented or replaced from the fifteenth century onwards by “re‐ alistic” scenes of the resurrection. The Descent into Hell In early Christianity—and still so in some parts of Africa—the image of the descent into hell was the most important image of the resurrection. The dead were thought of as still wrestling with evil and therefore they needed redemption. The motif itself of the “descent into hell,” the descent of gods or goddesses into the underworld, is generally associated with pre‐Christian Greek redemption myths, but similar myths can be found in Buddhism, for example, as well. The most well‐ known is the myth of Orpheus, who attempts to free his belov‐ ed Euridice from Hades.1 However, there are also numerous scriptural passages, both in the Old and the New Testament, that either speak in rather expressive terms of God seeking out the dead (Psalms 103:4 and 107:13‐20; I Samuel 2:6; Wisdom 16:13 and I Peter 3:19‐20 and 4:6) or emphasize more generally that the dead will also share in Christ’s resurrection (Romans 8:37‐39 and I Corinthians 15:12‐34).
1
For an elaborate survey of the images of the underworld in the Middle East of that time, cf. Spronk 1986.
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The idea of a Jesus who also descended himself into the un‐ derworld but could not be held captive by death and then also comes to free others from the underworld is definitely not alien to the New Testament (Matthew 12:40; Acts 2:24; Romans 10:7; Ephesians 4:8‐10; Acts 2:24‐31 and Revelation 1:18). The story of the descent into hell is most beautifully told in the second part of the apocryphal Gospel according to Nicodemus.2 The first part dates from the fourth century at the earliest and the second no earlier than the fifth. The central idea, however, i.e. the libera‐ tion of the patriarchs from the underworld, is much older. Many Christian writers from the second century refer to it a great deal. The dramatic dialogue between Satan and Hades, the ruler of the underworld was added later, as in the sermons of Eusebius of Emesa. The story goes as follows: After his death Jesus, together with his angels, goes to the gate of the underworld. After order‐ ing Satan in vain to admit him, he thrusts open the doors with the stake of his cross, defeats the demons, frees all the right‐ eous, beginning with Adam, and triumphantly pulls them by the hand out of the underworld. The purpose is clear: the re‐ demption in Christ also extends backward in time to the dead. From the eighth century on we find representations in the Syrian‐Palestine area that are to be understood as visualizations of this story from the Gospel according to Nicodemus. In addition to Adam and Eve, David and Solomon are also frequently de‐ picted. Quite often Hades is recognizable under Jesus’ feet as the defeated ruler of the underworld, sometimes groping with one hand for Adam’s feet. The open gates of hell are usually clearly visible. The word anastasis (“resurrection”) is often writ‐ ten somewhere on the depiction, showing that the “descent into hell” is regarded as an interpretation of the resurrection. From the ninth century onward, these representations also appear in the West. Slowly but surely, the number of the just who are rescued from the underworld increases. In addition to Adam and Eve and David and Solomon, we now also see Abel, Enoch and Elijah. Jesus is sometimes shown with a volume in
2
For the various textual variants cf. James 1972: 94‐146, esp. 117‐44.
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his left hand—an allusion to I Peter 4:6, where it says that “the dead had to be told the Good News as well.” Is anything left, we might ask, of this spirituality which was apparently widespread in the Christianity of East and West for centuries? We still find, at any rate, that later erratic addi‐ tion to the Apostles’ Creed about the descent into hell. Accord‐ ing to the testimony of Rufinus (end of the fourth century) it had already occurred in the baptismal confession of Aquileia. The synods of Sirmium (357) and Nice (359) were also already familiar with the expression. Since the seventh and eighth cen‐ turies we also find it in Gaul, Spain and Germany. After the “buried” (sepultus) and before the “rose again from the dead” (resurrexit a mortuis), the “descended into hell” (descendit in inferna) was inserted.3 It was finally also included in the Apos‐ tles’ Creed, the symbolum Romanum, which was given definite form in the eighth century, due especially to Charlemagne. There is no consensus on the exact meaning of the passage. In any case, it seems reasonable to suppose that it means more than that Jesus continues his solidarity with humans beyond all limitations, to the point of being dead. After all, that was al‐ ready expressed in the “buried” and “rose again from the dead.” This was a way of saying that he had descended into the realm where, in the eyes of the early church, the dead were ga‐ thered: the underworld. What is new, however, is that mention is made here of “hell” (inferna or inferos). This emphasizes not only his solidarity in physical death but also his solidarity in God‐forsakenness. Hence John Calvin explains this passage in line with Jesus’ cry on the cross: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46).4
3
Cf. Denzinger and Schönmetzer 1976: 23 (no. 16), 25 (no. 23), 26 (no. 27) and 27 (no. 28). Since the fifth century it was also included in the Athanasian Creed. Cf. Denzinger and Schönmetzer 1976: 40‐42 (no. 40/76). In a Coptic text and an Ethiopian text of the fifth century we en‐ counter the phrase “libera(vi)t vinctos” (‘frees the fettered’). See Den‐ zinger and Schönmetzer 1976: 38 (nos. 62‐63).. 4
Cf. Calvin 2001: II.16.8‐12. The elaborateness and emotional tenor found here in Calvin justifies the conclusion that he sees the heart of his theology at stake here. The Heidelberg Catechism presents the issue along the same lines when, in Lord’s Day 16, Q. and A. 44, it associates the
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A complicated text such as I Peter 3:19 (cf. also 4:6) appears to mean even more: namely that those who died as unbelievers are given another opportunity for conversion after Christ’s re‐ demption. Thus, the fate of the deceased is not represented here as merely passive. In itself, that, too, is an idea that has several starting points in the Bible. Thus, the New Testament, for in‐ stance, not only includes the stories of the appearance of the ris‐ en Lord but also the appearance of Moses and Elijah in the story of the transfiguration (Matthew 17:1‐13). However, there is also, especially in the Old Testament, a line of thought that seems to rule out completely any activity on the part of those already dead. They appear to have been totally left to themselves, far removed from God: “For in death there is no remembrance of you: who can sing your praises in Sheol?” (Psalm 6:5 and also 115:17) and Ecclesiastes 9:5‐6: The dead know nothing; no more reward for them; their memory has passed out of mind. Their loves, their hates, their jealousies, these all have perished, nor will they ever again take part in whatever is done under the sun.5
Against the background of these passages it also becomes un‐ derstandable why Saul’s attempt to contact Samuel is not at all appreciated by the latter (1 Samuel 28:11‐20). These divergent biblical images have in turn led to very di‐ vergent ideas in Christianity. The extremes in human conduct (just and unjust) also produced extremes in the ideas of death: heaven and hell. As a result of the expectation of the (second) resurrection of the dead occurring at the end of time (Revela‐ tion 20:6), the stay in heaven was not considered final but rather an interval to be spent in a heavenly waiting room. That inter‐ val in turn gave rise to all kinds of speculation. Those who are there are supposed to be capable of at least some activity for the descent into hell with the “unspeakable anguish” of Christ’s suffering. Luther at first held the same view, but it was gradually replaced by the victory motif. In this matter the Lutheran Pannenberg follows the Cal‐ vinist interpretation and sees the descent primarily as “exclusion from God’s nearness.” Cf. Pannenberg 1968: 269‐74, esp. 270. 5
Cf. also Job 14:10‐14 and Psalm 103:15‐16.
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benefit of those not (yet) present. In particular, the exception‐ ally pious among them, the saints, are expected to play the role of intermediaries for those who dwell in purgatory (purgatori‐ um) as a kind of purifying phase. In this context it is especially I Corinthians 3:13‐15 that has functioned as a key text since the early church. The concept of purgatory also gave rise to the idea of being able to pray for the dead and to the saints. The non‐ baptized young children who had died were also placed in a similar vestibule of heaven. Hence, in the requiem, the living who are left behind sing the libera me (“liberate me”) vicariously for the deceased. In the churches of the Reformation, purgatory was always rejected as unbiblical speculation. That is why in these churches prayers are said neither to the dead nor for the dead but only for those left behind. Contemporary Protestantism, however, also includes a “calendar of saints or confessors” or creates memor‐ ial chapels in which a different “confessor of the faith” is re‐ membered every day. These are remembered not as saints to whom or for whom one prays but as confessors of the faith with whom one expresses solidarity. Such a calendar usually over‐ laps the classical, Roman Catholic gallery of saints in part but in general a great deal has been omitted and added, e.g. the names of the Reformers and more contemporary confessors such as King, Romero, Gandhi, Bonhoeffer, etc. In addition, the Pro‐ testant hymnal tradition has for centuries included “For all the Saints” in which communion with saints in all times is cele‐ brated in song. We can conclude that, according to the Christian tradition, the resurrection of Christ includes all the pious dead (1), con‐ nects them to one another (2) and to us (3) and liberates them and, indirectly, us from the power of Satan. Exorcism in the Early Church In a certain sense one might say, that what was believed about the liberating character of Jesus’ descent into hell with regard to the saints and even all believers before us, is believed about the phenomenon of exorcism with regard to our contemporaries. In the early church, masses were celebrated during Lent, when catechumens were prepared for baptism during the night after Holy Saturday in which, for their benefit, exorcisms were pro‐
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nounced. These celebrations were called scrutinia (examina‐ tions), because they also involved an inquiry into their daily lifestyle. We know from the Sacramentarium Gelasianum that in the fourth and fifth centuries in Rome three of those celebra‐ tions took place on the third, fourth and fifth Sunday of Lent.6 We know from the “mystagogical” catecheses from Cyril of Je‐ rusalem (fourth century) that on the afternoon of Holy Satur‐ day—as a kind of final renunciation—the catechumens them‐ selves were also expected to renounce Satan (the so‐called apo‐ taxis) while facing West and to profess their faith (the so‐called syntaxis) while facing East.7 In the profession of their faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit and in the baptism for the forgive‐ ness of sins, the catechumens gave back (redditio symboli), as it were, what they had previously been given (traditio symboli). The prayers of exorcism consist of two parts: an interces‐ sion and exorcism. The intercession starts from a protective act of God in the past and, referring to this divine action, asks for similar protection for the catechumen. Thus, there are referen‐ ces to the liberation from Egypt, God’s appearance to Moses on Horeb and the angel who protected the people of God in the desert. Similar protection was thus sought for the catechumens. In all these prayers God appears as the liberator of Israel’s past
6
For the text of the Sacramentarium Gelasianum see the series Rerum ecclesiasticarum documenta, series major, fontes IV (Rome 1964): 44‐46. A great deal of this can be found in the Rituale Romanum, Tit. II, c. 4, II. 7
For the Greek text (and the English translation) of the terms in which Cyril calls upon the catechumens to renounce Satan, see Cross 1966): 13‐16 and 54‐57 (nos. 4‐8), esp. 14, 55 (no. 4): “What then did each of you standing up say? ‘I renounce thee, Satan, thou wicked and most cruel tyrant!’ meaning, ‘I fear thy might no longer; for Christ hath overthrown it, having partaken with me of flesh and blood, that through these He might death destroy by death, that I might not for ever be subject to bondage’ (Hebr. 2, 14‐15). I renounce thee, thou crafty and most subtle serpent. I renounce thee, plotter as thou art, who under the guise of friendship didst work all disobedience, and bring about the apostasy of our first parents. I renounce thee, Satan, the artificer and abettor of all wickedness.”
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who is now asked to liberate the catechumen.8 The exorcisms have that same tenor. With reference to the liberation of Peter from the “waters of death” on the Sea of Ti‐ berias, the healing of the man born blind and the raising of Lazarus, Christ is represented as the liberator from death. The formula of exorcism proper begins with three commands to Sa‐ tan. He must acknowledge the sentence Jesus has passed on him (John 12:31 and 16:11). He must show his submission to the sentence that has deprived him of his power by paying tribute to the three persons of the divine Trinity and he must leave the proximity of the catechumens. The sign of the cross especially, which the catechumen is given, is a sign that in the future he or she belongs to Christ’s kingdom and not to Satan’s. This ritual was eventually formalized at the end of the sev‐ enth century in the Roman baptismal rite. It aims at invoking an actual intervention of God for the benefit of the catechumen on the way to her rebirth in baptism. Apparently, there is still some stumbling block that needs to be explicitly removed. Thus in the catechesis of baptism, in which her sinfulness and hence the necessity of rebirth is pointed out to the catechumen, a sec‐ ond power is exposed. The concern is not only to expose sin, which causes the human being to abuse her freedom but also to expose a “prehuman” figure making common cause with hu‐ man sin: Satan, God’s great opponent. What is striking is how hard and realistic the struggle against the devil is portrayed. And the awareness of the neces‐
8
The words in which Cyril, after pointing out the example of the past exodus from Egypt, calls on the catechumens to turn from the past (palaioon) to the present (ta nea) now, from the image (tupos) to reality (alètheia) are magnificent. The English translation by Cross 1966: 54, no. 3) is also very good: “There we have Moses sent from God to Egypt; here, Christ, sent by His Father into the world; there, that Moses might lead forth an oppressed people out of Egypt; here, that Christ might rescue mankind who are whelmed under sins; there, the blood of a lamb was the spell against the destroyer; here, the blood of the unblemished Lamb Jesus Christ is made the charm to scare evil spirits: there, the tyrant pursued even to the sea that ancient people; and in like manner this daring and shameless spirit, the author of evil, followed thee, even to the very streams of salvation. The tyrant of old was drowned in the sea; and this present one disappears in the salutary water.”
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sity of so hard a struggle only increased in the course of the centuries in the early church and in the Middle Ages. Where ex‐ actly that realization originated, however, is difficult to determ‐ ine. Is it rooted in the dispute between Augustine and Pelagius on the extent of original sin? But that debate left its traces espe‐ cially in the Western church, whereas the ritual of exorcism is certainly not an exclusively Western phenomenon. Or was it a reaction to resilient heathen practices in which people suspec‐ ted devilish influences and which therefore were to be vigor‐ ously cast aside? At any rate, it may be noted that this way of thinking, in which human freedom is deemed to depend on the outcome of the struggle between God and the devil, went on to dominate thinking until far into the Middle Ages and is con‐ stantly echoed in Luther’s hymns, for instance.9 Of course such a struggle may lend itself to all sorts of car‐ icatures, and that is frequently what happened in church his‐ tory. Right up until the present, it has not been very difficult to imagine the psychological damage that a strongly internalized belief in devils can do. Hence, the effort is sometimes made to portray this element as a deformation of the Christian faith from the start and therewith to dismiss it as alien to the faith. Thus, the phenomenon of the renunciations in the liturgy of baptism is sometimes placed against the background of appar‐ ently hard to eradicate heathen influences on Western Chris‐ tianity that may have crept in through, for instance, Mani‐ chaean influences in Augustine. On the basis of new archaeo‐ logical finds, however, the tendency now is to consider not only
9
A good example is the third stanza of Luther’s hymn “A Mighty Fortress is Our God,” (“Ein feste burg ist unser Gott”) in which the figure of Christ is placed opposite the figure of Satan: And though this world with devils filled, should threaten to undo us, we will not fear, for God has willed His truth to triumph through us. The prince of darkness grim, we tremble not for him; his rage we can endure, for lo! his doom is sure.
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Manichaean influences on Christianity but also Jewish and Christian influences on Manichaeism. Therefore it might well be that in such a “theodrama,” a struggle between good and evil gods, we might be dealing with authentic Christian faith. Systematic Reflections According to early Christian testimony, such rituals of renunci‐ ation are liberating rather than oppressive. After all, they con‐ ceal nothing and, with respect to evil, they may even exhibit a great sense of realism. They do not avoid an open confrontation with malicious external and internal forces and do not conceal the outcome of that confrontation. They are always an indica‐ tion of the growth of the new, reborn human person.10 If we separate the myth from the theology behind the early Christian rituals of renunciation as much as possible and at‐ tempt to understand its essence, we may note that the biblical and early Christian language was apparently strongly colored by the realization that the individual is not the only source of the evil that he does: it is the realization that evil precedes the individual. Evil was already there before humans committed any evil. The figure of the devil denotes the evil that is already there at the same time that I commit it. It is, as Paul Ricoeur puts it, “the uncommitted reverse of a committed evil.”11
10
Exorcism is anything but a Christian phenomenon alone. See e.g. Goodman 1988 and Lewis 1989. 11
Ricoeur 1967): 257‐58 (“Triple Sketch of a Serpent”). See especially p. 257, where Ricoeur deals with the fact that the snake, as the embodiment of evil, is “already there” (déjà là) and also “already evil” (déjà mauvais) and elaborates on the limit notion (concept‐limite) of evil. For Ricoeur, the serpent represents the following situation: “in the historical experience of man, every individual finds evil already there; nobody begins it absolutely …. There is thus an anteriority of evil to itself, as if evil were that which always precedes itself, that which each man finds and continues while beginning it, but beginning it in his turn. That is why, in the Garden of Eden, the serpent is already there; he is the other side of that which begins.” Cf. also Ricoeur 1974: 284: “For every consciousness which awakens when responsibility is taken, evil is already there. In tracing back the origin of evil to a distant ancestor, the myth discovers the situation of every man: evil has already taken place.
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It is this aspect of evil, the radical but not necessary, acci‐ dental aspect that is renounced in exorcism as the evil of the devil (Satan). The whole aim is to exorcize this ever‐intruding presence of this other‐than‐I, because our “I” falls time and time again into the clutches of this opponent of Him who wants to liberate us to our true “I,” God’s image. But because this is an evil in us that precedes our actual decisions, we cannot cast out this evil; only God can do so. Through the laying on of hands and the utterance of exorcisms, the minister of baptism is no more than God’s assistant. For it is only God who can liberate us from this opponent, this source of restlessness that will al‐ ways be the inhuman source of all human evil. In fact, the discussion on the consequences of original sin comes very close to that. In the story of the origin of sin in Gen‐ esis 3 there is also a similar, almost inextricable tangle of ex‐ ternal (the snake) and internal (the listening to) factors. This does not condemn human beings to passivity and therefore does not excuse them either, but it does reveal the sad previous history of the confrontation with evil and almost considers the struggle of human beings with evil to be a part of the human condition. Apart from a personal and a situational, more collec‐ tive component, evil appears to have—to use a phrase from the Dutch dogmatician Hendricus Berkhof—“infra‐ and supraper‐ sonal” aspects (Berkhof 1979: 206‐08; cf. also Vandervelde: 1975). It might be said that the suprapersonal aspect is reflected in the references to a devil or Satan quoted here. The infraper‐ sonal appeals to our subconscious, to something of which we are usually not conscious. The ancient baptismal customs illustrate how seriously evil forces were taken. However, this still does not adequately ex‐ plain the precise nature of that threat. What were people afraid of and what did they want to exorcize? Conclusion: Evil as Power Roughly speaking, it is rather easy to say what the first Chris‐ tians regarded as sin. The Ten Commandments were taken as a guideline and interpreted more precisely by means of the stor‐
I do not begin evil; I continue it. I am implicated in evil.”
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ies related to Jesus’ words and deeds and Paul’s admonitions. Of course, very soon a variety of emphases arose in the various contexts in which Christianity spread, but by and large we can establish a sort of “catalogue of sins” and can thus determine what was regarded as a sin against God and against one’s fel‐ low human beings. Sin was usually connected with a certain mentality that can be summarized in seven “vices”: pride, avar‐ ice, lust, wrath, gluttony, envy and sloth. However, that does not tell us anything about what the first Christians regarded as evil forces. Apparently, these trans‐ cend the notion of sin. After all, if the evil that is referred to by means of all those expressions that point to the influence of an evil force could be described more precisely, there would be no need to speak of an evil force. It would then be possible to call a spade a spade, so to speak, and to refer specifically to people’s conduct or particular natural phenomena. From the fact that they did more than that we may conclude that an intense exper‐ ience of evil evokes the assumption that there is more at stake here than human conduct or a natural phenomenon. Even now we are able to recognize that experience quite readily. That it is virtually impossible to draw an exact line be‐ tween the human and the “suprahuman” or “subhuman” char‐ acter of evil is made abundantly clear by the ever‐recurring at‐ tempts to modernize the biblical awareness of the devil. Thus Moltmann, for example, in The Crucified God speaks of the “vi‐ cious circles of death,” i.e. the “vicious circles” of poverty, of violence, of racial and cultural alienation, of the industrial dis‐ ruption of nature and the comprehensive vicious circle of sense‐ lessness and God‐forsakenness (Moltmann 1993; 329‐32). These modernizations, attempted again and again in the course of the centuries, make it clear that even to people in the twenty‐first century there may be something behind unmistak‐ ably human misconduct that cannot be denoted any more ade‐ quately than by means of the qualification “demonic behavior.” Such a qualification is generally not in the least meant as an ali‐ enating externalization whereby it may come to function as an alibi, somewhat like the argument: “The devil made me do it.” Yet the fact that this phrase is apparently especially suita‐ ble for expressing the concrete threat to the human condition may be clear from the high degree of recognizability that one of
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Dostoyevsky’s most famous novels, The Possessed, also trans‐ lated as Demons, evoked in constantly changing times during the last century and still evokes today. Bibliography Berkhof, H. (1979). Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Study of the Faith. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Bremmer, J.N. (2000). “The Passion of Perpetua and the Development of Early Christian Afterlife.” Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift 54: 97‐111. Calvin, John. (2001). Institutes of the Christian Religion. Ed. by D.K. Mc‐ Kim. Westminster: John Knox Press. Cross F.L. (ed.). (1966). St. Cyril of Jerusalem’s Lectures on the Christian Sacraments: The Procatechesis and the Five Mystagogical Catecheses. London: S.P.C.K. Denzinger, H. and A. Schönmetzer. (1976). Enchiridion Symbolorum Definitionum et Declarationum de rebus fidei et morum. 16th ed. Bar‐ celona/Fribourg/ Rome: Herder. Dovlo, E. (1993). “Ancestors and Soteriology in African and Japanese Religions.” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 3: 48‐57. Goodman,F.D. (1988). How about Demons? Possession and Exorcism in the Modern World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lewis, I.M. (1989). Ecstatic Religion: A Study of Shamanism and Spirit Possession. London/New York: Routledge. James, M.R. (transl.). (1924/1972). The Apocryphal New Testament: Being the Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, Epistles and Apocalypses. Oxford: Ox‐ ford University Press. Moltmann, J. (1993). The Crucified God: The God of Christ as the Founda‐ tion and Criticism of Christian Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Pannenberg, W. (1968). Jesus – God and Man. London: SCM. Ricoeur, P. (1967). Symbolism of Evil. New York: Harper and Row. (1974). The Conflict of Interpretations. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Spronk, K. (1986). Beatific Afterlife in Ancient Israel and in the Near East. Kevelaer/Neukirchen: Butzon und Bercker. Vandervelde, G. (1975). Original Sin: Two Major Trends in Contempor‐ ary Roman Catholic Reinterpretation. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
God’s Good Plan and Evil Forces in This World The Place of the Devil in Traditional Islam Annemiek Spronk
Abstract This article will explore the topic of the devil in the Qur’an and the hadith. It will examine the character of the devil in Islam, his influence on humanity and evil in this world, and his relation to God and God’s good plan. God has made this world good and given humanity the chance to live according to his will and to merit heaven as a reward. The presence of evil is seen traditionally as part of God’s good plan and is therefore interpreted as a test and a chance to prove one’s confidence in God. Despite all the evil that crosses people’s paths, they must retain their trust in God and prove that they are good Mus‐ lims. Unfortunately, there is also the devil, who tries to divert believers from the proper path, to seduce them to do evil and to lose their faith. The Islamic devil influences the view of evil in daily life dramatically.
Introduction In this contribution I will describe how, in the Qur’an and ha‐ dith, good and evil are seen in relation to the evil forces that try to induce people to do wrong. Evil in Islam always reminds one of the power of God who rules the world and determines what may or not may happen.1 Indeed, the belief that God’s will is good is fundamental to Islam. God’s will was to create this world and, therefore, this world is good. But evil exists in this world: what does this mean for God’s good plan for this world? Apparently, God creates a place for the devil within his plan. He himself allowed the devil to seduce humankind. Traditionally, Muslims believe that God
1 See also Saeid Edalatnejad’s discussion on God and evil in this volume, pp. 305‐18 and Stoker 2007 on God and violence.
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will cast the devil into hell anyway in the end. Is this fair? Some Sufi movements and Sadik Al‐Azm question this (Al‐Azm 2004: 49‐85). These ideas are considered to be heretical, but in the Qur’an and hadith literature Satan has a particular function, which makes him useful. The Devil’s Character The figure of the Islamic devil has two names in the Qur’an: Ib‐ lis and Satan. The most important story in the Qur’an on the devil is the story of his fall (cf. 2:30‐34; 15: 28‐40; 7:11‐18), which brings into view different elements of the devil’s character. The story runs as follows. God forms Adam from clay and breathes into him a portion of his own spirit, after which He orders the angels to bow before this unique creation. All the angels obey, except Iblis who is convinced that his fiery essence raises him far above this human, a creature of mere clay. Because of his re‐ fusal, Iblis is cursed by God and driven from the heavens. As a consequence, he will be an object of fear and derision. But Iblis cannot be dismissed so easily. He begs God for a respite from his punishment so that he can become the seducer of humans, testing them in order to discover who is truly faithful to God. Iblis’ request is granted, however, with the understanding that he cannot force the upright man or woman to sin. He has the power to invite but not to coerce (see 2:34; 7:11‐18; 20:116). Ad‐ am and Eve are the first to fall victim to Iblis’ wiles and are driven from Paradise to earth. From that point on, Iblis will be a manifest enemy of all humans (see 2:35‐37; 7:19‐24; 20:117‐22). We learn a few important things about Iblis’ character from this story. Arrogance or pride is the most central element; this is the source of his feelings of superiority towards Adam and his refusal to bow before this human creature. The pride that is evi‐ dent when he screams, “ana khayrun minhu,” i.e. “I am better than he is,” echoes down through the ages of creation as the paradigmatic expression of pride and a sign of unbelief (Awn 1983: 34). Iblis’ pride and arrogance spring from his belief in the superiority of his created essence over that of Adam. Fire seems both more noble and more powerful to him than the clay of hu‐ mankind. That is why Satan thinks that he, as a superior being, should never bow before a weak creation of clay. This seems to be a reasonable analogy, which even shows a great deal of re‐
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spect for God’s order. Iblis wants to praise God alone and not an inferior creature. But this kind of reasoning does not hold. God blew His own spirit in Adam and commands Iblis to bow. Iblis’ analogy and its seemingly logical conclusion hardened his heart and lured him to his own destruction. Obedience to the command of God is a sign of true belief. Further, we get to know the devil as a very pretentious be‐ ing. Iblis even dares to speak up to God when he is told to go to hell. Satan does not ask for forgiveness for his pride but asks God to allow him to take revenge. And that is what he gets (38: 82). However, Satan knows his seductions cannot succeed over the true words of God (38:82‐84). He cannot force humans into disobedience. But if humans choose to follow the footsteps of the devil, they will go to hell with him. Iblis is more than a flat, one‐dimensional character. In this Qur’anic story, he is a complex figure with psychological mo‐ tives. Yet the treatment of Iblis in the text of the Qur’an is of ra‐ ther limited scope. To understand more of the significance of the devil in Islamic belief, it is essential to explore traditional lit‐ erature, the hadith. Iblis’ Influence on Humanity and Evil in this World Hadith literature is concerned with human praxis; believers hope these stories will help them to act according to God’s will in daily life. Hadith literature is therefore a good source for studying Satan’s bad influence on human life in detail. Parts of the hadith from Ibn Abbas, as related by Ibn Jabal (see website listed below) illustrate how Iblis challenges human beings. The hadith is called “The Nature of Satan and his Method of Seduc‐ tion: The Story of the Visit of the Devil.” In this story many of the elements from other hadith literature on Satan converge. The story takes place at a home where Muhammed and a few of his companions are gathered. Suddenly, the devil knocks on the door and they let him in. Satan tells them Allah ordered him to come and answer their questions on his methods of se‐ duction truthfully. After some other questions, they ask the devil why so many people fall for his wily plans when the re‐ ward for good behavior is so much greater. Satan answers that he never gives up trying to seduce humankind, since he understands why evil attracts. He says:
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ANNEMIEK SPRONK How can you feel there is safety for them as long as I exist? I enter their very veins, their very flesh, and they cannot even suspect, let alone see or feel me. I swear by Allah Who has given me time until Doomsday, that I will seduce them all, the intelligent and the simpleminded, the learned as well as the ignorant, the devout as well as the sinner. None will be safe from me, except the true servants of Allah. You know well, O Muhammad, that whoever loves his money and his property, Allah does not count among His servants. Whenever I see someone who does not say “mine” and me, who does not love either money or flattery, I know he is truly a servant of Allah and I run away from him. As long as one loves money, property, flattery, he obeys me, he is my servant. I need many servants and I have servants. I am not alone. O Muhammad, how can you hope and be serene about your peopleʹs salvation and felicity? I have a trap at every corner for them. I go to the poor and tell them, What has Al‐ lah done for you? Why do you pray to Him? Prayer is for those to whom He has given in abundance. Then, I go to the ones who are sick and tell them to stop praying. I hope that they will die having abandoned their prayers, so that Allah will meet them with anger in the Hereafter.
This hadith clarifies how Satan uses weakness and pushes weak people to sin. Not many people can withstand the temptations of materials. Fazlur Rahman emphasizes that Iblis is the enemy of humankind, not of God (Rahman 1994: 121‐31). It is the dev‐ il’s task and purpose to mislead humanity, but that also implies that it is the human being who can defeat him. Hadith literature strongly shows that all Satan’s activities take place in human life and that humans should always be alert to this danger. This is clearly shown in the devil’s following answer to the prophet’s question of what he thinks of praying believers. O Muhammad, let me tell you about my friends who aban‐ don prayers or delay them. When it is time for prayer, I make them imagine that there is still time, that they are busy. They should enjoy what they are doing, they can al‐ ways pray later! I hope they will die before doing their next prayer. If I donʹt succeed again, I enter into their prayers. I
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tell them, look to the right, look to the left! Think of the past, plan your future! And when they do, I caress their cheeks and kiss their foreheads and take the peace from their hearts. You know, O Muhammad, that the prayers of those whose attention is outside of them or who are imagining things which do not belong in the presence of Allah are also rejected and thrown in their faces. And, if I am not success‐ ful in that, I order them to do their prayers fast, and they look like hens picking at grain. If I still donʹt succeed, I fol‐ low them to the congregational prayers and put bridles on their heads. I pull, and lift their heads from the prostration before the Imam, and I push their heads down before the Imam touches his head to the ground and I am overjoyed to remember that Allah will turn those unruly heads into don‐ keys heads on the Last Day of Judgement. If I am still not successful, I try at least to make them crack their fingers while they are making prayers. Or at least I will blow into their noses and make them yawn and, if they open their mouths, a little devil will enter into them through their mouths and increase their love and ambition of this world. The one who loves and is ambitious for this world becomes my soldier; he obeys me and does as he is ordered.
When people seek protection through prayer, the devil does anything he can to disturb this. The devil persists in misleading humans and to distract them from their concentration. He catches them at weak moments, such as when they are sleepy. Satan has the power to awaken the worst in people. Hadith liter‐ ature also points out what not to do, if one wants to become a true believer. The story continues and the devil indicates what his favorite areas of seduction and temptation are: I asked Allah to give me a house, and He gave me the public baths. I asked Allah to give me a temple, and he gave me the marketplace as my temple. I asked Allah to give me a book. He gave me the book of poetry as my book. I asked for a call to prayer, and He gave me the dancing music.
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ANNEMIEK SPRONK I asked for someone to share my bed, and He gave me the drunkard. I asked Allah for helpers. Allah gave me those who believe in free will. I asked Allah to give me brothers and sisters, and Allah gave me the squanderers who spend their money on evil things.
It is clear that some things are haraam (forbidden) and others are halaal (allowed). The devil is associated with everything that is haraam. We are confronted in the hadith with a malevolent force. The focus is on the ruinous effects this evil force has on the lives of men and women. Satan is one‐dimensional; he is evil, cun‐ ning and wily; his delight is to lead humankind astray. Satan has an intimate link with people’s nature and his manifesta‐ tions appear in people’s psychological lives: sleep, dreams, and visions. His efforts to disrupt people’s prayer life and his med‐ dling with eating, drinking, and other bodily functions are de‐ scribed in hadith literature. God’s Plan with the Devil Hadith literature describes Satan as a malevolent force with sev‐ eral techniques for seducing humankind. He is absolute evil and is to blame when somebody chooses evil. This seems to be in contrast with the words in the Qur’an that Iblis cannot force upright people to sin. Because of the one‐dimensional, flat char‐ acter of Satan in hadith literature, the more complex sides of his Qur’anic character disappear. Philosophically, that raises a pro‐ blem concerning divine omnipotence. Can the devil force some‐ one to do evil even when God does not will it? Can Satan create evil or evil persons? This endangers the notion of the Oneness of God. To tackle that dilemma, some philosophers emphasize the devil’s role in God’s plan to maintain God’s might, power and providence. Al‐Azm even makes a hero of Iblis and thinks the devil endures the greatest test of all. God ordered him to bow before Adam when he knew this contradicted his will to praise him alone. Iblis was forced to choose between obeying God’s demand or his will and shows himself to be a true servant by adhering to his belief in the Oneness of God. Iblis acted in ac‐
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cordance with the will of God by not obeying his demand. God’s demand that he bow before Adam has all the features of a religious test. It is an unbearably difficult ordeal, which shows the true character of the person who must endure it. The test will become the source of suffering and despair. It asks difficult sacrifices of the individual. Satan passed the test successfully. Yet his disobedience caused severe punishment. He must be‐ come the evil force on earth and he is no longer allowed to do what he loves most: praising God. Yet he endures patiently and therefore he will be rewarded in the end. Conclusion In the Qur’anic story of Satan’s fall, it becomes clear that God himself allowed Iblis to seduce humankind. In the hadith stories we read about his evil seductions in detail. Sometimes, this veils the fact that God himself allowed the devil to do so and make him a necessary part of his plan for this world. By allow‐ ing the devil to try to seduce humankind, God made a clear dis‐ tinction between good and bad people. Bad people are those who follow in the footsteps of the devil; the good are those who are faithful to God, no matter what evil afflicts them. There will be a great reward for the true believers who endure evil patient‐ ly and keep their trust in God and his good plan. In the tradi‐ tional Islamic view, these religious tests are necessary within God’s plan. By means of these tests He is able to show who is good and who is bad. People know exactly what to do to be good. There are signs enough in this world. God gave them ho‐ ly texts, prophets and their good sense. Moreover, God is a for‐ giving God. If people are patient and faithful, they will be re‐ warded. Only people who act against the will of God and fol‐ low in the footsteps of the devil do not pass the test. God is re‐ sourceful and trial is His way of realizing His Will. The devil cannot, apparently, be missed in his plan. Bibliography Al‐Azm, Sadik. (2004). De Tragedie van de Duivel. Op weg naar een liber‐ ale Islam. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Van Gennep/Stichting El Hizjra. Awn, Peter J. (1983). Satan’s Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi Psy‐ chology. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
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http://www.crescentlife.com/spirituality/nature_of_satan.htm Leemhuis, Fred. (2004). De Koran. Houten: Uitgeverij Fibula. Rahman, Fazlur. (1994). Major Themes of the Qur’an. Minneapolis: Bib‐ liotheca Islamica. Stoker, Wessel. (2007). “Is God Violent? On Violence and Religion.” In: H.M. Vroom (ed.). Wrestling with God and Evil: Philosophical Re‐ flections. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Pp. 149‐66.
“Soul of a Woman Was Created Below” Woman as the Lower Soul (Nafs) in Islam Rkia E. Cornell
Abstract Although apologists for Islam often claim that the status of women in Mus‐ lim societies is “separate but equal,” this has rarely been the case in practice. Despite Qur’anic depictions of women as spiritually equal to men, medieval Islamic writings often portrayed woman as the embodiment of the lower hu‐ man soul (al‐nafs) or even the animal soul (al‐nafs al‐hayawaniyya). This negative portrayal of woman migrated from religious and philosophical texts to the popular imagination. In the Qur’an, the nafs is ambivalent in nature and its faults are not linked specifically to women. However, in the hadith, the nafs is portrayed negatively and women are depicted as lacking the reas‐ on (‘aql) to control the defects of the soul. Such portrayals led to later literary depictions of women as susceptible to evil. The portrayal of woman as the em‐ bodiment of the lower and animal souls was a common theme in philosophical and Sufi writings. In modern times, these Sufi and philosophical depictions developed into a misogynistic stereotype that linked the evil of woman to her animalistic nature. The sacralization of woman’s evil and inferiority to men in extra‐Qur’an religious writings has played an important cultural role in denying woman equal status in many Muslim societies.
Introduction The portrayal of women in Islamic literature is problematical for scholars who seek to ameliorate the social and political con‐ ditions of women in Muslim societies. Apologists for Islam, while recognizing that premodern Muslim women were placed in a separate category from that of men, typically prefer to view such categorization as “separate but equal,” such that the rights and obligations that pertained to men and women achieved a fair balance overall. This view is expressed in a recent work by the Algerian writer Zidane Meriboute, who asserts, 257
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RKIA E. CORNELL In effect, [the Muslim woman] could be privileged as much as she could be abased and humiliated by men. In sum, Muslims seem to have preached a differentiated treatment of woman; they avoided definitively advocating a mathe‐ matical equality between the two sexes. (Meriboute 2004: 131; my translation)
However, as any American citizen of African descent can attest, “separate but equal” may look good in theory, but it almost never works in practice. Islam is no different. While Muslim apologists try to sell idealized images of “real Islam” in the marketplace of ideas, Islam in practice remains deeply problem‐ atical to modern liberal sensibilities. Muslim women are typ‐ ically not “separate but equal.” Rather, they are more likely to be separate and unequal, and this distinction can go as deep as their moral and ontological natures. Medieval Islamic sources frequently reveal an image of woman as the embodiment of the lower soul (nafs). More specifically, woman is depicted as the embodiment of the animal soul (al‐nafs al‐hayawaniyyah). Both notions, that of woman as the lower soul and woman as the em‐ bodiment of the animal soul, are loaded with negative connota‐ tions that rob women of their humanity and contribute to the cultural prejudices that make woman a potential source of evil in Islam. These prejudices and the tropes that are used to sup‐ port them have led to serious consequences in the way that women are perceived and understood in Muslim societies. The authors of the medieval sources that discuss women were almost all male and could not have been aware of the problems their written words would cause in modern times. For them, the worldly and dangerous nature of woman was not a theory but an established fact. Most medieval Muslim authors were unable to stand at a critical distance, as modern scholars can do, and notice that in their writings they often fell prey to a culturally ingrained sense of superiority that compensated for an inner sense of doubt. This sense of doubt expressed itself in the desire to dominate and subdue the human animal called “woman.” Once their negative portrayals of women were com‐ mitted to writing, they turned into images that were fixed in the minds of their audience. Their potential for harm increased to the extent that they became part of the popular imagination.
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Systematic investigations of the interrelationship between works of religious literature, popular literature, and the popular imagination remain rare in the field of Islamic Studies. Allu‐ sions to woman as evil or as the source of evil are frequently en‐ countered in Muslim writings, but comparative analyses of such materials are rare. One reason for this may be the nature of modern disciplinary boundaries. Specialists in Islamic Studies do not often consult popular or secular literature in their re‐ search, and scholars of literature do not always consider reli‐ gious texts as part of their discipline. Subjects such as the image of the Muslim woman in the popular imagination and its rela‐ tionship to religious, literary, and popular writings are best ap‐ proached in an interdisciplinary manner. However, the frag‐ mentation of modern scholarship into the fields of philosophy, history, religious studies, cultural studies, and literary studies renders such subjects difficult to address. In the pages that fol‐ low, I will attempt to identify and discuss a few tropes that have migrated from religious texts to the popular imagination. This investigation is far from complete, and is intended primar‐ ily to suggest directions for other scholars to follow. Woman and the Nafs: Interpretations from Scripture In Islamic literature, the human nafs (self, spirit, or soul) is often used as a trope to symbolize the world and its temptations. As such, it is compared to a woman who, by her ruses, tries to en‐ snare the higher soul (ruh) and bring it down to the level of worldly life.1 The fact that the Arabic word nafs is feminine makes such a comparison easy. However, in the Qur’an, nafs has both positive and negative connotations and is not tied di‐ rectly to gender. One verse (75:2) refers to the “Inciting Nafs” (al‐nafs al‐ammarah) that urges human beings to do evil. This is supported by a second verse (12:53), in which the Prophet Jo‐ seph affirms that the nafs incites all human beings to do evil (inna al‐nafsa la ammaratun bi‐su’), except for the person whom God protects. In this verse, all human beings, and not just wo‐
1
See, for example, Schimmel 1975: 428‐29. In a much‐quoted pas‐ sage of the Qur’an (12:28), the Prophet Joseph says of women, “Verily, your wiles are great (inna kaydakunna ‘azim).”
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men, are susceptible to evil. This gender‐neutral view of the nafs is supported by a third verse (79:40‐41) in which Paradise is promised to the person who restrains the nafs from its desires. According to an interpretation common among Sufis, disciplin‐ ing the nafs too severely may cause a person to indulge in maso‐ chistic self‐accusation. This view of the “Self‐Blaming Nafs” (al‐ nafs al‐lawwamah) is a psychological gloss on a passage that ap‐ pears without a clear context in the Qur’an (75:2). Most medie‐ val commentators agree, however, that once the nafs has been properly disciplined, it is capable of transcendence and may be‐ come a vessel for divine inspiration. This self‐transcendent nafs is the “Nafs at Peace” (al‐nafs al‐mutma’innah). In the Qur’an, the nafs that transcends itself is the “soul” that is ultimately ac‐ cepted into God’s Paradise (89:27).2 Despite the fact that the nafs as depicted in the Qur’an has both positive and negative aspects, in later Islamic tradition it takes on an almost exclusively negative character. In several famous traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (Ar. hadith/aha‐ dith), jihad is depicted as a struggle against the nafs.3 Although Islamic philosophers used the word nafs interchangeably to connote both spirit and soul, among the Sufis the concepts of spirit and soul were sharply demarcated, with nafs standing for spirit (analogous to the Greek psyche) and ruh standing for soul (analogous to the Greek nous). Between the spirit and the soul was the intellect or rational mind (‘aql), which governed the nafs and acted as an internal arbiter of morality and justice.4 Wo‐ men, as a representation of the nafs, were often viewed as being
2
One of the most influential theoretical models of the three stages of the nafs mentioned in the Qur’an is that of the Sufi Harith ibn Asad al‐ Muhasibi (d. 857). See Smith1977: esp. 86‐110. 3
See, for example, Sunan al‐Tirmidhi, Fada’il al‐jihad 3: “The holy warrior is he who struggles against his nafs (al‐mujahid man jahada naf‐ sahu). 4
For the Sufi Muhasibi, ‘aql stood both for “mind” and for “reason.” In Kitab adab al‐nufus (Book of the Training of Spirits) he states: “The sign of [the ‘aql] is its power to organize and to put things in their right place, whether in speech or in act, and the proof of this is the preference of the greater to the less” (Smith 1977: 92).
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deficient in ‘aql. Being deficient in ‘aql meant that women were potentially deficient in one or more of the characteristics of in‐ tellect, rationality, morality, or justice. Despite the fact that the Qur’an often speaks of “believing women” along with “believing men” and that Eve (Hawa) is not blamed for humanity’s expulsion from the Garden, popular Muslim traditions often blame Eve for humanity’s fall from grace. Some traditions have Eve question God as to where her guilt might lie and what her punishment might be. In such stor‐ ies God answers: “I shall make you deficient in intellect (‘aql) and religion (din), and in the ability to bear witness and to in‐ herit” (Schimmel 1997: 57). As a literary device, the language of this non‐Qur’anic judgment parallels the Qur’anic passage in which Iblis‐Satan is cursed by God for refusing to bow down to Adam. In commentaries on the Qur’an, this is supposed to have happened in the Garden of Eden, after the creation of Adam but before the creation of Eve: “[God] said [to Iblis]: Go forth from hence, for verily you are reviled! Verily, the curse (la’na) shall be upon you until the Day of Judgment” (15:34‐35). An even closer parallel can be found in the curse that God puts on Adam and Eve upon their expulsion from the Garden. In the Qur’an, this expulsion is caused, not by the serpent’s temptation of Eve but by Iblis’ temptation of both Adam and Eve with an eternal kingdom, God‐like sovereignty, and immortality (20:120 and 7:21): [God] said: Go down, one of you the enemy of the other. You will have a residence and provision on Earth for a while. [God] said: There you will live and there you will die, and from thence you will be brought forth. (7:24‐25)
In this Qur’anic passage, God’s curse is made manifest through the establishment of enmity as an inborn human trait. For wo‐ men, a similar curse is manifested in their alleged lack of intel‐ lect and rationality as an inborn trait. The idea that women are deficient in religion and intellect is often based on the Qur’anic passages that state that two wo‐ men are needed to give testimony in court in place of one man (2:282) and that a daughter inherits only half the share of a son (4:11). From a strictly logical point of view, the common conclu‐ sion that a woman is only half a man in truth and intellect does
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not necessarily follow from these verses. For example, as many modernist reformers of Islamic law have asserted, the verses may in fact refer to an earlier social context in which women did not have as much access to information as men and were less able than men—because of cultural restrictions alone—to manage a business or significant amounts of property. Accord‐ ing to this logic, the Qur’anic restrictions on women’s testimony and inheritance may be waived if the social conditions of wo‐ men change so much as to make the reasons for the verses ob‐ solete.5 In this regard, it is important to point out that the most explicitly negative statement about women in Islamic tradition —“I shall make you deficient in intellect and religion”—does not come from the Qur’an. Instead, it is based on a tradition in the hadith collection Sahih al‐Bukhari (ca. 860 CE), where the Prophet Muhammad informs women that they are deficient in intellect and religion (Bukhari, Sahih al‐Bukhari, nos. 257 and 258). However, neither the non‐Qur’anic origin of this judg‐ ment nor the illogicality of the argument on which it is based was used by medieval jurists to improve the position of women in Muslim society. The inaction of the jurists was largely due to the great respect given to the canonical “Six Books” of hadith in Sunni Islam. Of these works, Sahih al‐Bukhari was paramount. If anything, the near‐canonical nature of the major hadith collections made matters worse for women. To cite but one im‐ portant example, in a work titled Ahkam al‐Nisa’ (“Rulings about Women”), the Hanbali legal scholar Abu al‐Faraj ibn al‐ Jawzi (d. 1201) adds other hadith accounts to the Bukhari narra‐ tive, which build on the supposed deficiencies of women in in‐ tellect and religion to demonstrate that woman is by nature im‐ moral, profane, and troublesome: Usamah ibn Zayd reported that the Messenger of God (PBUH) said: “I stood at the door of Heaven and Lo! Most of those who entered it were the poor. I stood at the door of Hell and Lo! Most of those who entered it were women.” Jabir ibn ‘Abdallah said: “I celebrated the ‘Id with the Mes‐ senger of God (PBUH)” and he prayed before he gave a ser‐ mon. He prayed without the first call to prayer or the sec‐ 5
See, for example, Kamali 2007: 149‐81.
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ond call to prayer. Then he counseled the people and re‐ minded them of various things. Later, he went to the wo‐ men and with him was Bilal. He ordered them to give alms and said: “Verily there are few of you in Heaven.” A woman asked him: “Why, O Messenger of Allah?” He replied: “Be‐ cause you curse a lot and you deny the good.” ‘A’ishah (the Prophet Muhammad’s widow) reported that the Messenger of God (PBUH) said: “The believing woman is like a white‐winged crow among other crows. Hell was created for fools (sufaha’), and women are fools except for the one who has justice and a lamp.” (Ibn al‐Jawzi 1988: 94‐ 97)6
In the ninth century CE, the cultural historian Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889), a contemporary of Bukhari, included a chapter on “The Evils of Women” in ‘Uyun al‐Akhbar (“The Wellsprings of Tradi‐ tion”). In this chapter, he cites Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), an early Muslim historian of Persian background, who summar‐ ized the negative view of women that was being developed in the late Umayyad (680‐750) and early Abbasid periods (750‐ 1258). This negative view was justified by recourse to a highly selective reading of the Qur’an and hadith, and was supplemen‐ ted by rulings from the Islamic jurisprudential (fiqh) tradition, which was being institutionalized at that time. According to Ibn Munabbih: God has cursed woman (‘aqaba Allahu al‐mar’ah) with ten characteristics: hardship in childbirth (shiddat al‐nifas); [pain in] menstruation; the impurity (najasah) of her inner parts (batn) and sexual organs (farj); making the inheritance of two women equal to that of one man; making the witness of two women equal to that of one man; making her deficient in in‐ tellect and religion because she cannot pray during her men‐ strual periods; one cannot greet a woman by the hand; she is not required to attend Friday prayers and other congrega‐ tional prayers; there is no prophet from among them; and
6
Perhaps alluding to this hadith, the famous woman Sufi Rabi’ah al‐ ‘Adawiyyah (d. 801) is sometimes depicted as carrying a lamp or a torch. See, for example, Schimmel 1997: 34‐35.
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What is perhaps most unsettling about Ibn Munabbih’s ac‐ count is that even at such an early period in Islamic history, wo‐ man is accursed because of characteristics she cannot control. Despite the Qur’an’s strong injunction to respect before all else the rights of the womb (4:1), woman is considered accursed by Ibn Munabbih because she suffers pain in childbirth.7 Even worse, she is impure, both inwardly and outwardly: her month‐ ly periods prevent her from enjoying the spiritual fruits of pray‐ er and a man cannot greet her by the hand.8 The passage strongly implies that both restrictions are due to woman’s es‐ sential impurity, which is linked to her sexuality.9 It is hard to imagine any other meaning that one could give to a statement that stresses the ritual impurity (najasah) of not only a woman’s sexual organs but also of the passage from the sexual organs in‐ to the inner recesses of her body. Finally, woman’s lack of intel‐ lect is seen to be proven by the fact that both her inheritance and her testimony are only half as valuable as that of a man— implying that she is incapable of sound judgment—and that she needs a guardian to accompany her when she travels. This final detail reinforces the image of woman’s inferiority by implying 7
The noted historian and Qur’an commentator Muhammad ibn Jarir al‐Tabari (d. 923) also cites Ibn Munabbih as the source of the ac‐ count about Eve’s curse of pain in childbirth. The ultimate source of this tradition is Genesis 3:16. See Kvam et al. 1999: 187‐88. 8
Contemporary Muslim women who do not shake hands with men, seeing this refusal as a sign of “respect” for women, would do well to re‐ consider their opinion in light of this and similar sources. 9 Although the point is difficult to prove, one may speculate that Ibn Munabbih’s view of woman as impure by nature might be specific to eastern Islamic lands that were influenced by Zoroastrian or Hindu no‐ tions of purity and impurity. In Morocco, the forty‐day period of child‐ birth and recovery (nifas) is thought to be dangerous for a woman’s health, but the woman herself is not considered polluted or unclean. On the contrary, she is treated with great respect and care, as befits a near‐ sacred personage. In fact, the prayers of a woman recovering from child‐ birth are thought to be especially efficacious. The trope of woman’s sex‐ ual weakness also has its origin in Genesis 3:16.
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that she needs to be accompanied on her travels like a child.10 This contradicts other accounts that indicate that in the first two centuries of Islam women traveled widely, and often alone, throughout Islamic lands.11 Ibn Munabbih’s views seem to con‐ tradict those of the Qur’an, which strongly imply that the most significant difference between men and women is not a matter of purity or ontological makeup, but of personal piety, which has no direct bearing on gender (49:13). By the beginning of the eleventh century CE, the idea that women were deficient in intellect and religion had become so firmly established in the Muslim East that even the Sufi Abu ‘Abd al‐Rahman al‐Sulami of Nishapur (d. 1021), who devoted an entire work to Sufi women, saw no contradiction in making this point in his treatise Adab al‐suhbah wa husn al‐‘ishrah (“The Etiquette of Companionship and Keeping Good Fellowship”). In a section entitled “Keeping Fellowship with Women and the Family,” Sulami echoes some of the same prejudices that were enumerated three centuries earlier by Ibn Munabbih: God has created [women] deficient in intellect and religion, so associate with them honorably, keeping in mind that God has made them deficient in intellect and religion; therefore, do not ask of them what God has not created them to do. Be‐ cause of their deficiency, God has made the witness of two women equivalent to the witness of one man. And the Prophet (PBUH) has said: “The deficiency in intellect and re‐ ligion that I have seen among [women] would cause the most learned of men to lose their reason.” The Prophet also said: “The best of you is the one who is good to his family, for I am the best of you toward my family.” ‘Ali ibn Abu Talib (may God ennoble his countenance) said: “The intel‐ lect of a woman is her beauty and the beauty of a man is his intellect.” (Sulami 1953: 91)
10
According to the noted Qur’an commentator Fakhr al‐Din al‐Razi (d. 1208) (1985: vol.6: 102): “[Woman] is with a man like a helpless cap‐ tive.” 11
See, for example, the accounts of early Sufi women’s travels in Su‐ lami 1999.
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This passage by Sulami is curious, because he wrote his work on Sufi women, Dhikr al‐niswah al‐muta’abbidat al‐sufiyyat (“Memorial of Female Sufi Devotees”), in order to prove that Sufi women were not deficient in either intellect or religion. Furthermore, Sulami was quite aware, despite the statement at‐ tributed to ‘Ali that at least some women are worthy of embel‐ lishing their intellects as well as their beauty. One must thus presume that the women Sulami refers to in Adab al‐Suhbah are “ordinary” women and not Sufi women, whose virtues and austerities protected them from the failings of their sisters. At the very least, this passage by Sulami should serve as an impor‐ tant corrective to Muslim apologists, who assume that kind treatment necessarily means respect.12 Kindness, in the sense used by Sulami, is more an act of pity than an expression of re‐ spect, much less an expression of equality. When compared with the examples of female independence, wisdom, and intel‐ lect that one finds in Sulami’s book of Sufi women (Sulami 1999: 18), this passage from Adab al‐Suhbah falls far short of his previous standard. Instead, it proves Carolyn Heilbrun’s con‐ tention that exceptional women are the chief imprisoners of nonexcep‐ tional women, simultaneously proving that any woman could do [remarkable things] and assuring, in their unique‐ ness among men, that no other woman will. (Heilbrun 1989: 81)
Philosophical Misogyny: Woman as the Animal Soul One of the more philosophical discussions of woman’s essential nature in medieval Islamic literature can be found in ‘Awarif al‐ Ma’arif (“The Understanding of What is Known”) by Abu Hafs ‘Umar al‐Suhrawardi (d. 1234). The author of this work was a member of the caliph’s court in Baghdad and was famous for institutionalizing the tradition of male Sufi chivalry (futuwwah). As a manual of Sufi practice, ‘Awarif al‐Ma’arif was so influen‐ tial that it was often used as a textbook in religious schools and even today is commonly appended to Abu Hamid al‐Ghazali’s 12
See, for example, the position taken by Meriboute in Meriboute 2004: 128‐29.
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(d. 1111). Ihya’ ‘Ulum al‐Din (“Revival of the Religious Scien‐ ces”). In the section entitled, “On Knowing the Human Being in Himself and Sufi Inspirations Concerning This Matter,” Suh‐ rawardi discusses the nature of the soul and its relationship to gender. Following literary convention, he portrays the lower soul, the nafs, as female. However, Suhrawardi also goes be‐ yond convention by portraying Eve as the archetype of the fe‐ male soul, whereas Adam is the archetype of the male soul. He contrasts Eve, who symbolizes the “Animal Personal Soul” (al‐ ruh al‐hayawani al bashari), with Adam, who symbolizes the “Higher Human Soul” (al‐ruh al‐insani al‐‘uluwi). According to Suhrawrdi, when the Higher Human Soul (Adam) entered into the Animal Soul (Eve), the nafs was conceived in the guise of Eve, the mother of humanity. Eve, the archetype of woman in general, is thus made equivalent to the nafs and is the product of the mixing of two ontologies: the animal nature, which is fe‐ male, and the human nature, which is male. In the hierarchy of spiritual being, the male Higher Soul finds its solace in the fe‐ male Animal Soul, just as the soul in general finds its abode in the body: The Higher Heavenly Soul (al‐ruh al‐‘uluwi al‐samawi) is from the realm of the Divine Command, whereas The Ani‐ mal Personal Soul (al‐ruh al‐hayawani al‐bashari) is from the realm of creation. The Animal Personal Soul is the abode of the Higher Soul (al‐ruh al‐‘uluwi) and is its source. The Ani‐ mal Soul is a subtle physical entity, which bears sensory ability and movement. It emanates from the heart. By the heart I mean the meaty mass (al‐mudhghah al‐lahmiyyah), known for its unique shape and placed in the left side of the body, from within which spread the veins and the arteries. This soul belongs to all animals .... Due to the encounter of the Higher Human Soul with this soul, the Animal Personal Soul was conceived as a distinct entity from the Animal Soul .... Then it assumed another characteristic and became a nafs endowed with speech and inspiration. Allah Most High said: “Consider the nafs, and how it is formed in accordance with what it is meant to be; and how it is imbued with moral failings as well as with consciousness of God (91:8).” This transformation of the Animal Soul by the Higher Human Soul coming into it caused [the Animal Personal Soul] to
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RKIA E. CORNELL cease being of the Animal Soul’s species. Thus, the nafs came into being through Allah’s Heavenly Spirit. The formation of the nafs ... is analogous to the formation of Eve from Adam, which took place in the world of creation. In this way, the passionate love and intimacy that united Adam and Eve is embraced by all creatures. In addition, each species learns to experience death through the depar‐ ture of its companion. Allah Most High has said: “He who has created you [all] out of one living entity, and out of it brought into being its mate, so that man might incline [with love] towards the woman (7:189).” Thus, Adam found solace in Eve, as the Higher Human Soul found solace in the Ani‐ mal Soul and then caused it to become the nafs.(Suhrawardi: 217‐18; translation mine)
Suhrawardi’s portrayal of Eve as the Animal Soul and Ad‐ am as the Higher Human Soul is similar to the model put forth by Philo of Alexandria (d. 50 CE), who is considered by many to be the father of Jewish philosophy. Both Philo and Suhraw‐ ardi were strongly influenced by Stoic and Platonic philosoph‐ ies. The sexual overtones in the passage from Suhrawardi above are reminiscent of Stoic representations of Heaven and Earth. This can be seen as well in Philo’s trope of God and Wisdom as husband and wife and in Suhrawardi’s trope of the human and animal souls as husband and wife. In Platonism, a sharp dis‐ tinction was drawn between the world of the senses (kosmos ais‐ thetos), which was portrayed as female, and the world of the in‐ tellect (kosmos noetos), which was portrayed as male. In Philo, God is the father of the world of the intellect, whereas Wisdom (Heb. Hokhmah and Gr. Sophia, both of which are feminine terms) is the “mother” of the world of the senses. The world of the intellect corresponds to Plato’s realm of Ideas or archetypes, and thus is directly related to the Logos, the Word of God that begets all things. Wisdom, which is depicted metaphorically as God’s spouse, bears the fruit of the Logos in the world of the senses. God, as the father of the world of the intellect, nourishes the intellect with ideas; Wisdom, as the mother of the world of the senses, nourishes creation with the virtues, the practical ap‐ plication of ideas. This corresponds to the superiority of theor‐
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etical wisdom over practical wisdom (Schäfer 2002: 40‐48). Says Philo: Although Wisdom’s name is feminine, her nature is mascu‐ line. As indeed all the virtues have women’s titles, but pow‐ ers and activities of consummate men. For that which comes after God, even though it were chiefest of all other things, occupies a second place, and therefore was termed feminine to express its contrast with the Maker of the universe who is masculine, and its affinity to everything else. For pre‐emi‐ nence always pertains to the masculine and the feminine al‐ ways comes short of and is lesser than it. (Philo, De Fuga et Inventione; quoted in Schäfer 2002: 49) Observe that it is not the woman that cleaves to the man, but conversely the man to the woman, mind to sense‐percep‐ tion. For that which is superior, namely mind, becomes one with that which is inferior, namely sense‐perception, it re‐ solves itself into the order of flesh which is inferior, into sense‐perception, the moving cause of the passions. But if sense the inferior follows mind the superior, there will be flesh no more, but both of them will be mind. (Philo, Legum Allegoriae II; quoted in Schäfer 2002: 47‐48)
The second quotation from Philo is particularly reminiscent of Suhrawardi’s discussion of the relationship between the hu‐ man and animal souls. From his portrayal of Eve as the Animal Personal Soul, which is generated through the intervention of Adam in the divine creation, Suhrawardi draws a fundamental ontological distinction between Adam and Eve that was later extended into the moral dimension by more popular writers. For Suhrawardi as for Philo, the male principle belongs to the transcendent world of divine creativity. Adam, as representa‐ tive of the male principle, possesses a soul that can conceive of higher ideas. Consequently, the male soul possesses the faculty of discernment, which is one of the most important functions of the intellect (‘aql). Eve, on the other hand, belongs to the non‐ transcendent and animal world of earthly creation. Her full po‐ tential can only be realized through the mediation of Adam, who raises her up from the category of animals to a secondary echelon of humanity. Eve’s secondary and non‐transcendent status is something that she must accept without question, be‐ cause she is constitutionally unable to do otherwise. Represent‐
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ing the creaturely (bashari) aspect of soul and spirit, she can rise above her position only through practical works of devotional worship and service to her fellow human beings. Although Suhrawardi does not state the point explicitly, it is doubtful that he would have imagined a female Sufi teacher reaching the same level of consciousness as that of a male Sufi master. Such a state would require a transformation of the female nature that seems impossible in Suhrawardi’s model. Mystical Misogyny: The Nafs as an Old Woman Suhrawardi’s depiction of human nature as a gendered con‐ junction of unequal and personified orders of existence was popularized in the following generation by the famous Persian Sufi Jalal al‐Din Rumi (d. 1273). In his poetic masterpiece Mas‐ navi Ma’navi (“Spiritual Couplets”), Rumi reproduces Suhra‐ wardi’s trope of the conjunction of the female nafs with the male faculty of reason, but in more poetic terms: “The mother is the spirit (nafs), and the father is reason (‘aql). Its beginning is limitation, but its end is a hundred expansions.”13 Rumi was a master at transgressing the boundaries of reli‐ gious, literary, and popular discourses. Not surprisingly, there‐ fore, his portrayals of woman’s inferiority were expressed in vivid terms that resonated more effectively with the popular imagination than did the more philosophical writings of Suhra‐ wardi. From Turkey to Afghanistan and Central Asia, the pow‐ er of Rumi’s poetry has had such a strong effect on the public imagination that in Iran the Masnavi is commonly referred to as a “second Qur’an.” Although he has gained a reputation in modern times as a liberal thinker, Rumi was in fact a product of his age and shared many of the same prejudices against women as his contemporaries. Among these prejudices was a view of woman that closely matched both the condescending attitude of Sulami in Adab al‐Suhbah and the philosophical double standard of Suhrawardi in ‘Awarif al‐Ma’arif. In the following selection from the Masnavi, Rumi portrays the nafs that searches for eter‐ nal life as an old woman (‘ajuz) searching for a young husband.
13
Nicholson 1977: 3:6, v. 1435, 338. See also Rumi, 1957: 1112. The translation above is by Vincent J. Cornell from the Persian text.
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Her foolishness and vanity cause her to waste her time seeking a mere fantasy, leading her to make a mockery of both morality and religion: When faded autumn desired to be wed, that dreadful one plucked the hair out of her eyebrows. That old woman (‘ajuz) held the mirror before her face, so that she might beautify her cheeks, face, and mouth. Although she rubbed rouge on herself repeatedly, the lines in her face were not concealed. So the dirty one cut out pieces of the Scripture (mushaf) and stuck them onto her face In order to hide the lines in her face and become the Bezel in the ring of the Fair Ones. She put pieces of the Scripture all over her face, but they always fell off when she put on her veil (chador). Nonetheless, she would continue to stick them on again with spit all over her face, And once more that “Bezel” would arrange her veil and the pieces of Scripture would fall from her face to the ground. Although she tried many an artifice, they always dropped off, so she exclaimed, “A hundred curses on Iblis!” Immediately, Iblis assumed form and said, “O childless whore with skin like dried meat! In all my life I have never thought of this. O whore, I have never seen such impiety except from you! Your infamy has sown a rare seed indeed! You have not let a single Scripture remain in the world! You are a hundred Iblises, rank upon rank! Get away from me, you foul old woman!” How long will you steal pieces of Scripture’s knowledge so that your face may be colored like an apple? How long will you steal the writing of the Men of God that you may sell them to obtain a welcome?
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RKIA E. CORNELL That rouge never made you rosy; the tied‐on bough never suffices to replace the stalk. In the end, when the veil of death overcomes you, these bits and pieces will fall from your face. When the “Arise, arise!” of the final journey calls to you, what will become of the arts of “He said, she said?” The world of silence comes into view. Alas for the one who has no intimacy within! Polish your breast for a day or two. Make that mirror your lesson‐book (daftar). After seeing the reflection of Joseph, Master of the Conjunc‐ tion, the old woman Zulaykha became young again. From that pairing (mizaj) the sun of July (Tammuz) trans‐ formed the chill of the old woman’s coldness. Through the anguish of a Mary, the dry bough is trans‐ formed into a flourishing palm tree. Old woman, how long will you struggle against destiny? Take the coins now, and leave the past alone. Since your face will never become beautiful, it makes no dif‐ ference whether you cover it with rouge or with ink!14
The association of old age with ugliness and of old women with foolishness and depravity is not unique to Muslim culture. It can also be found in Western society, where witches are de‐ picted as old women and where crones and hags also symbolize ignorance and evil. Rumi’s parable of the old woman contains several tropes that should be familiar to anyone who has read Grimm’s fairy tales or other collections of European folklore. First, the old woman is presented as a fool whose self‐involve‐ ment (i.e., her involvement with her nafs) prevents her from see‐ ing her true self (nafs) in the mirror of her soul (ruh). Next, the old woman profanes the Word of God by cutting up the Qur’an into little pieces and sticking random bits of the holy text to her
14
Nicholson 1977: 3:6, v. 1435 329‐330; see also the Persian text, 1106‐1107. Translation of the Persian text is by Vincent J. Cornell.
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face. This sin of desecration is compounded by the fact that she uses the sacred text for unlawful purposes. Instead of develop‐ ing her spiritual knowledge through the Qur’an, she practices contagious magic in the vain hope that the words of the Qur’an (which she does not or cannot read) will rub off onto her face and reverse the process of aging. In another ironic reversal, the chador, which is meant to protect the old woman’s virtue, hides only her ugliness; every time she draws it across her face, it rubs off the pieces of the Qur’an, which are the only valuable things her body contains, thus profaning the Qur’an even fur‐ ther. Repeating a trope used by Sulami (“The deficiency in intel‐ lect and religion that I have seen among [women] would cause the most learned of men to lose their reason”), Rumi depicts the old woman’s impiety as confounding even Iblis, the jinni whose arrogant self‐love caused him to be cast down by God as Satan. In the Qur’an, the sin that caused the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden is not a pretension to limitless knowledge, as in Genesis. Rather it consists of a lust for power and immor‐ tality that parallels the arrogance of Iblis. By way of punish‐ ment, God casts Adam and Eve from the Garden, thus remind‐ ing them of their inability to determine their own fates. Then He curses their progeny with enmity toward each other and re‐ minds them of their powerlessness by sentencing all of human‐ ity, in effect, to death. Rumi’s depiction of the old woman’s vanity and empty desire for beauty and immortality is meant to recall this famous scene from the Qur’an. The only answer for the old woman is to polish the mirror of the heart, the seat of the (male) intellect (‘aql). Much like Suhrawardi, Rumi portrays the intellect as the domesticator of the nafs and gives it a masculine personification in the guise of the Prophet Joseph, “Master of the Conjunction.” In doing so, Rumi alludes to a story that appears, among other places, in the Qur’anic commentary of the Persian Sufi Abu al‐Fadl al‐May‐ budi (fl. 1126). This story completes the narrative of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife Zulaykha in Qur’an 12:21‐34. Years after the events recounted in the Qur’an, a blind and decrepit Zulaykha encounters the still handsome Joseph after having lost her fami‐ ly and all of her possessions. Informing Joseph that she has em‐ braced Islam, she begs him to intercede with God to restore her
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sight and beauty. When he does so, she asks Joseph to marry her. Upon discovering that Zulaykha is still a virgin, Joseph marries her and fathers two sons, of whom one is the grand‐ father of Moses.15 The pairing or conjunction (mizaj) of Joseph and Zulaykha in Rumi’s Masnavi replicates the conjunction of Adam and Eve in Suhrawardi’s discussion of the nafs, in which the male High‐ er Human Soul creates the human spirit out of its conjunction with the female Animal Soul. The verse in which divine in‐ spiration, the “Sun of Tammuz,” thaws the coldness of the old woman’s heart (the unreconstructed nafs), recalls pre‐Islamic traditions in which the male sun warms the female earth, thus making it fertile. The only apparent exception to Rumi’s gen‐ dered discourse in the parable of the old woman is his reference to the “anguish of Mary,” which turns a dry stalk into a flour‐ ishing palm tree. However, when one turns to the Qur’anic source of this allusion (19:23‐26), one finds that God makes the palm tree bear fruit because Mary is pregnant with Jesus. Ac‐ cording to the logic of this parable, it is reasonable to assume that, for Rumi, Mary’s miracle was due more to the male proph‐ et within her womb than to her own qualities as a woman. Modern Misogyny: from the Animal Soul to Animalism The negative image of the old woman (‘ajuz) portrayed by Ru‐ mi in the parable echoes numerous accounts in Islamic litera‐ ture that depict old women as sources of evil and treacherous‐ ness. The modern Muslim polemicist ‘Ukkashah ‘Abd al‐Man‐ nan al‐Tayyibi cites the Abbasid‐era scholar Ahmad al‐Ibshihi (d. 852) as saying: “The end of a woman is worse than her be‐ ginning. Her beauty goes, her tongue wags, her womb dries up, and her morals become evil” (Tayyibi 1993: 206). He also agrees with Rumi that the wiles of women even exceed the trickery of Iblis (Tayyibi 1993: 191). Tayyibi’s contribution to gendered Is‐ lamic discourse is a coffee‐table book published in Egypt, which is tellingly titled, Ghara’ib wa ‘Aja’ib al‐nisa’: hikam, mawa’iz, am‐ thal, nawadir (“Oddities and Wonders of Women: Aphorisms, Admonitions, Parables, and Rarities”). This work shares certain
15
See Maybudi 1982: 82‐89; cited in Cornell 1998: 178.
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affinities with the perspective of modern Islamism. It was pub‐ lished by the “Office of Islamic Heritage” (Maktabat al‐Turath al‐ Islami), which seeks to promote a vision of Islamic authenticity. Whenever cultural attitudes are introduced in the text, the heri‐ tage and authenticity of Arab practices are highlighted over those of other cultures. In addition, following Hanbali usage, the Caliph Mu’awiyah (d. 680), who founded the Umayyad dy‐ nasty and is not generally known for his virtue, is honored by the phrase, “May God be pleased with him” (radi Allahu ‘anhu). This honorific is usually reserved in Sunni Islam for great Is‐ lamic scholars of the past and for saints. As an expression of popular culture, Tayyibi’s Ghara’ib al‐ Nisa’ serves to exceptionalize women for what is most likely a male audience and concentrates on the oddities (ghara’ib) and wonders (‘aja’ib) of an alien being about whom even Caliph al‐ Ma’mun (d. 833) said, “We can’t live with them and we can’t live without them.” Unsurprisingly, and perhaps reflecting the literalism of the work’s Hanbali orientation, tropes that are ex‐ pressed theoretically or metaphorically by earlier writers such as Suhrawardi and Rumi are expressed as literal truths in this book. In a section entitled, “Strange Characteristics Attributed to Women,” Suhrawardi’s image of woman as the embodiment of the Animal Soul is vulgarized by Tayyibi to the point where women are said to possess the actual characteristics of animals: In the past it was said that women possess the characteris‐ tics of ten animals: the pig, the monkey, the dog, the viper, the mule, the scorpion, the rat, the bird, the fox, and the ewe. As for the woman who is like a pig: She knows nothing but food, stuffing her belly, and breaking the food dish. As for the woman who is like a monkey: Her only concern is with wearing multi‐colored clothes, pearls, and gold. She takes pride in her house and her lodging is with her mate. As for the woman who is like a dog: When her husband speaks to her, she barks at him, argues with him, and then abandons him. Whenever she sees that his pocket is full, she honors him, comes close to him, and says, “I wish to die be‐ fore you.” If she sees that he is poor, she humiliates him, dis‐
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RKIA E. CORNELL parages his honor, and curses him. (Author’s note: This is the overwhelming characteristic of the women of this era.) As for the woman who is like a viper: She speaks sweetly to her husband, but most of the time she is evil. She resembles a viper, in that her touch is soft but her poison is deadly. As for the woman who is like a mule: She is stubborn; if she stops in the heat, she will not move, even if she is struck. She is also argumentative, single‐minded, and vain. As for the woman who is like a scorpion: She goes to the neighbors’ houses and spreads gossip and enmity among them. As for the woman who is like a rat: She gets into her hus‐ band’s pocket and steals from him. As for the woman who is like a bird: She goes about all day and only rests from her busyness at night. As for the woman who is like a fox: As soon as her husband leaves his house, she devours all of the food that she finds in the house, and uses the strength she obtains to argue and quarrel with him at all times. As for the woman who is like a ewe: She brings luck, she is compassionate, and everything that comes from her is good‐ ness, happiness and ease. (Tayyibi 1993: 80; translation mine).
The misogyny of this passage is apparent, and needs little explanation. Perhaps the most meaningful comparison that can be made with this text is not another example from Islamic liter‐ ature, but rather a Christian religious work of the late fifteenth century, the Malleus Maleficarum (“Hammer of the Evil Ones”). This work, which is also known as “The Hammer against Witches,” was written by Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, two Dominican inquisitors who wrote their book as an instruc‐ tion manual for inquisitors seeking to identify and punish the witches that were thought to live in their communities. The Malleus helped set off a wave of persecution that lasted for nearly two centuries and led to the deaths of numerous in‐ nocent women. In this work, one finds the following passage,
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which conveys an image of woman that is disturbingly similar to Tayyibi’s portrayal of women in Ghara’ib al‐Nisa’: Now the wickedness of women is spoken of in Ecclesiasticus XXV: There is no head above the head of a serpent, and there is no wrath above the wrath of a woman. I had rather dwell with a lion and a dragon than to keep house with a wicked woman. And among much which in that place precedes and follows about a wicked woman, he concludes: All wick‐ edness is but little to the wickedness of a woman. Wherefore St. John Chrysostom says on the text, It is not good to marry (Matthew XIX): What else is woman but a foe to friendship, an inescapable punishment, a necessary evil, a natural temp‐ tation, a desirable calamity, a domestic danger, a delectable detriment, an evil of nature, painted with fair colors? There‐ fore if it be a sin to divorce her when she ought to be kept, it is indeed a necessary torture; for either we commit adultery by divorcing her, or we must endure daily strife.(Kvam et al. 1999: 243)
In Arabic and Islamic culture, “what is written” (maktub) is syn‐ onymous with “what is destined” (muqaddar). Both of these con‐ cepts are closely related to “what is put into practice” (ma’mul) and “what is habitual” (ma’luf). What Muslim men put into writing about women in religious works from the medieval period was put into practice in later periods and in numerous social contexts from Morocco to Malaysia. Thus, when it comes to women in the Muslim world, “what is written” is all too of‐ ten understood as “what is habitual.” With the sanction of reli‐ gious texts behind it, “what is habitual” becomes “what is de‐ stined.” Today, the interrelationship between religious writings of the past and the modern social practices they have influ‐ enced destine many Muslim women to suffer discrimination in the form of limited education, social and behavioral restrictions, lack of political franchise, and unequal treatment by govern‐ ments. A common assumption in the contemporary Muslim world is that the evil things people say are not as important as the evil things people do. However, it is frequently the case that the evil things people say influence the evil that people do. When what is said has the authority of tradition, the evil that
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people do is often mistaken for religion, wisdom, or even com‐ mon sense. In his introduction to Islamic jurisprudence, the French Or‐ ientalist Louis Milliot wrote, The problem of the Arab woman is perhaps caused primar‐ ily by the “sacralization” of her inferiority. Ontologically, she is a second‐class human, coming after man in the hier‐ archy of the creatures of God, subservient to certain obliga‐ tions, limited in her powers, and having mastery neither of her future, nor of her own body (Milliot 1953: 98; cited in Meriboute 2004: 128; translation mine).
This pessimistic portrayal of the place of women in Arab‐Islam‐ ic society has been justly criticized for its inaccuracies. How‐ ever, it must be recognized that the Islamic literary tradition has indeed served to “sacralize” women’s inferiority in ways that still serve to deny the Muslim woman an equal ontological status with man. In the works of Ibn al‐Jawzi, Suhrawardi, Rumi, and Tayyibi, despite the cultural, ideological, and doc‐ trinal differences that separate these authors, woman is in all cases an alien being—as Milliot wrote, “a second‐class human, coming after man in the hierarchy of the creatures of God.” In the eyes of many Muslim men, woman remains a dan‐ gerous and potentially evil creature. Her wily nature, confirmed by selective readings of Qur’an and hadith, makes her compara‐ ble to Satan, if not actually in league with him. To be fair, how‐ ever, it should be noted that a negative view of woman is not exclusive to Islam but is shared by many cultures, from the Sioux of Native America to China. It is also deeply ingrained in Western culture, and has not yet been fully eliminated in the higher reaches of the American workplace. Lest we forget that the specter of the evil and devilish woman still haunts contemp‐ orary Anglo‐Saxon culture, one need only listen to the words written in 1968 by Jimmy Page, the guitarist of the British rock band Led Zeppelin, in the blues hit, Dazed and Confused: Been dazed and confused for so long it’s not true, Don’t let no woman never bargain for you.
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Lots of people talking, Few of them know, Soul of a woman was created below.16
Bibliography al‐Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma’il. Sahih al‐Bukhari, Kitab al‐zakat: al‐Zakat ‘ala al‐aqrab. (Book of the Alms Tax: the Alms Tax for Near Relatives). Cornell, Vincent J. (1998). Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press. Heilbrun, Carolyn G. (1989). Writing a Woman’s Life. New York: Bal‐ lantyne Books. Ibn al‐Jawzi, Jamal al‐Din Abu al‐Faraj. (1988). Ahkam al‐Nisa’. Ed. by ‘Abd al‐Majid Ta’muh al‐Halabi. Beirut: Dar al‐Ma’rifah. Kamali, Mohammed Hashim. (2007). “Shari’a: Law as the Way of God.” In: Vincent J. Cornell (gen. ed.). Voices of Tradition. Voices of Islam, Vol. 1: Westport CT/London: Praeger. Kvam, Kristen E. et al. (1999). Eve & Adam: Jewish, Christian, and Mus‐ lim Readings on Genesis and Gender. Bloomington/Indianapolis: In‐ diana University Press. al‐Maybudi, Abu al‐Fadl Rashid al‐Din. (1982). Kashf al‐Asrar wa ‘ud‐ dat al‐abrar. Vol. 5. Tehran. Meriboute, Zidane. (2004). La Fracture Islamique: Demain, le Soufisme? Paris: Librarie Arthème Fayard. Milliot, Louis. (1953). Introduction à l’étude du droit musulman. Paris: Recueil Sirey. Nicholson, Reynold A. (1977). The Mathnawi of Jalalu’ddin Rumi. Re‐ production of 1926 edition. London: Luzac & Co. ibn Qutaybah, Abu Muhammad ‘Abdallah. (1999). Kitab ‘Uyun al‐ akhbar. Ed. by Muhammad al‐Iskandarani. Vol. 3. Beirut: Dar al‐ Kitab al‐‘Arabi. al‐Razi, Fakhr al‐Din. (1985). Tafsir al‐Fakhr al‐Razi al‐mushtahar bi al‐ Tafsir al‐Kabir aw Mafatih al‐Ghayb. Vol. 6. 3rd printing. Beirut: Dar al‐Fikr.
16
Recorded and mixed in October 1968 at Olympic Studios, London. Originally released on January 12, 1969 on the debut album “Led Zeppel‐ in,” Warner Brothers Music Corp., ASCAP, and Superhype Publishing, Inc.
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al‐Rumi, Jalal al‐Din Molavi Muhammad. (1975). Masnavi Ma’navi, Ed. by Reynold A. Nicholson. Reprint of 1925‐1933 edition. Teh‐ ran: Mu’assasat Imarat Amir Kabir. Schäfer, Peter. (2002). Mirror of His Beauty: Feminine Images of God from the Bible to the Early Kabbalah. Princeton/Oxford: Princeton Uni‐ versity Press. Schimmel, Annemarie. (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. (1997). My Soul is a Woman: The Feminine in Islam. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company. Smith, Margaret. (1977). An Early Mystic of Baghdad: A Study of the Life and Teaching of Harith B. Asad al‐Muhasibi A.D. 781‐857. Reprint of 1935 original. London: Sheldon Press. al‐Suhrawardi, Shihab al‐Din Abu Hafs ‘Umar. (1289/1875). ‘Awarif al‐ Ma’arif. Appended to the last volume of Abu Hamid al‐Ghazali, Ihya’ ‘Ulum al‐din.Beirut: Dar al‐Ma’rifa. Vol. 5. Reproduction of the Bulaq edition of 1289/1872). al‐Sulami, Abu ‘Abd al‐Rahman (1953). “Adab al‐Suhba wa husn al‐ ‘ishra.” In: Majmu’at Athar Abu ‘Abd al‐Rahman Sulami. Vol. 2. Ed. by Nasrollah Pourjavady. Tehran: Markaz Nashr Daneshgahi. (1999). Early Sufi Women. Ed. and transl. by Rkia E. Cornell. Lou‐ isville: Fons Vitae. al‐Tayyibi, ’Ukkashah ‘Abd al‐Mannan. (1993). Ghara’ib wa ‘aja’ib al‐ nisa’: hikam, mawa’iz, amthal, nawadir. Cairo: Maktabat al‐Turath al‐Islami.
Evil, Virtue, and Islamic Moral Theology Rethinking the Good in a Globalized World Vincent J. Cornell
Abstract The understanding of evil in a culture involves important questions about what the structure of the world is like and what it means to think and act within it. Muslim moral thought today is confronted by many of the same ethical dilemmas that faced Enlightenment thinkers in the eighteenth cen‐ tury. However, the political ideologization of Islam has prevented coherent discussions of theological and ethical issues. Instead, Islamic identity politics encourage Muslims to forge a sense of ideotypical trans‐ethnicity, a state‐ ment of ʺwho we areʺ rather than ʺwhat we believe.ʺ When combined with an uncritical emotivism based on personal opinion, this inhibits the rational discussion of moral and theological issues. In Islam, the abandonment of sys‐ tematic moral inquiry has led to utilitarian justifications for extreme prac‐ tices, such as suicide terrorism, that subvert both scriptural and traditional norms of morality. It has also led to ad hominem condemnations of the moral qualities of non‐Muslim peoples and of non‐Muslim societies as sources of evil. This paper argues for a return to a rational and systematic critique of moral discourse in Islam, ʺwith both eyes open.ʺ Muslims must be prepared to answer important questions of difference, tolerance, and evil in a reasoned way if Islam is to coexist successfully with other traditions in an increasingly pluralistic world. The task of the modern Muslim theologian is not merely to repeat the language of tradition in new contexts, but to engage critically with her own traditions and expressions piety.
Introduction In the Muslim world, the understanding of evil is not uniform, but varies somewhat according to the influence of local culture. In Indonesia, for example, belief in natural evil, which is valid‐ ated by Islamic scripture, is often expressed within a wider context of pre‐Islamic beliefs in external powers. Even before the massive earthquake and tsunami of December 26, 2004 that devastated the region of Aceh in northern Sumatra, Indonesian 281
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President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono held sessions of prayer and invocation to ward off evil from his presidency. One such ceremony was conducted in mid‐December 2004 by the prea‐ cher Abdul‐Rahman al‐Habsy in the compound of the Merdeka (Independence) Palace in Jakarta. “In every life, there are events that force us to return to God and ask for His assistance,” ex‐ plained al‐Habsy, referring to the natural disasters and fatal ac‐ cidents that have plagued Indonesia since Susilo’s election. Most of Indonesia’s presidents have sought spiritual help to protect themselves or their possessions from external sources of evil. Suharto consulted shamans; Abdurrahman Wahid visited Sufi shrines for blessings; Megawati Sukarnoputri once held a ceremony to purify the sacred power‐objects (pusaka) that be‐ longed to the Sukarno family (Unidjaja 2004). In Morocco, on the opposite side of the Islamic world, na‐ tural evil and moral evil are seen as two sides of the same coin. In January 2005, the Moroccan newspaper Attajdid, published by the Justice and Development Party, printed an editorial that claimed that the Indonesian tsunami was an act of divine retri‐ bution for the sex tourism industry in Southeast Asia. The writ‐ er of the editorial predicted that Morocco would face a similar fate if it did not solve its own problems of prostitution, cor‐ ruption, and immorality. Despite expressions of outrage by hu‐ man rights groups, rival political parties, and even by King Mo‐ hammed VI, thousands took to the streets in the capital city of Rabat to express support for the newspaper and its views (BBC Online Service [January 30, 2005]). For these demonstrators, the editorial was simply reaffirming an obvious fact. Did not God say in the Qur’an: “We will show them our signs on the hori‐ zons and in themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth” (41:53)? As Susan Neiman says in her book Evil in Modern Thought, “Every time we make the judgment this ought not to have hap‐ pened, we are stepping on to a path that leads straight to the problem of evil” (Neiman 2002: 5; italics hers). Neiman reminds us that attitudes Westerners now think of as superstitious are not as far from our own consciousness as we would like to believe. For example, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed far fewer people than the Southeast Asian tsunami, “shook the Enlightenment all the way to East Prussia, where an unknown
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minor scholar named Immanuel Kant wrote three essays on the nature of earthquakes for the Königsberg newspaper.” Neiman adds that Voltaire and Rousseau quarreled over the meaning of the earthquake, academics across Europe dedicated prize essay contests to it, and “the six‐year‐old Goethe, according to several sources, was brought to doubt and consciousness for the first time” (Nieman 2005: 1). According to some historians, Rous‐ seau’s attempt, in the wake of the Lisbon quake, to separate moral evils from natural disasters marks the beginning of mod‐ ern ethics. The elimination of the concept of natural evil led to profound changes in the way that the Western world thought about the divine will. When Rousseau first demarcated the modern, “scientific” attitude toward natural disasters—that di‐ sasters have no moral worth, that they are neither divine pun‐ ishments nor divine signs but are part of a natural order that is ethically meaningless—he freed scholars to investigate natural disasters empirically and to develop the methods of risk assess‐ ment and disaster management that are commonly used in the West today. For Neiman, the problem of evil must be taken seriously because evil, whether natural or moral, is “the point at which ethics and metaphysics, epistemology and aesthetics, meet, col‐ lide, and throw up their hands” (Nieman 2005: 5). The under‐ standing of evil in a culture involves important questions about what the structure of the world is like and what it means for people to think and act within it. This is clearly the case in the Muslim world, where natural disasters, economic crises, foreign invasions, and political upheavals are still thought to be divine retribution for moral or religious shortcomings. In a 2003 poll of Muslim moral attitudes conducted by the Department of Reli‐ gion and Classics at the University of Rochester and by Zogby International, Muslim respondents in India, Israel, and Saudi Arabia all expressed strong beliefs in the dire consequences of immorality and the loss of faith: forty‐five percent of Indian Muslims felt that they would be punished in the present life for acts of disobedience toward Islam; sixty‐seven percent of Israeli Muslims and seventy‐six percent of Saudi Muslims believed that God’s punishment for disobedience would lead to suffer‐ ing in both this world and the next (Green 2003: 5). While gov‐ ernments in the Indian Ocean basin have begun to talk about
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tsunami early‐warning systems that might save thousands of lives in future disasters, Muslims in Aceh are still trying to un‐ derstand why they were singled out for what appears to be di‐ vine retribution. Many observers believe that the current peace agreement between the Indonesian government and Aceh reb‐ els would not have been signed if the tsunami had not oc‐ curred. Today, in the fifteenth century of Islam, Muslim moral thought is confronted by many of the same dilemmas that faced Enlightenment thinkers in the eighteenth century CE: How can evil exist in the world if God is both benevolent and omnipo‐ tent? How can a benevolent God allow thousands of innocents to perish or suffer? If we say, for example, that the natural mo‐ tion of tectonic plates causes earthquakes, does this mean that God is unable or unwilling to control such movements? Al‐ though the philosophy of Rousseau has been influential in con‐ temporary Muslim political thought, his secular rationalism has had little or no effect on Islamic moral theology. Claiming that natural disasters have no meaning, as Rousseau did, contra‐ venes a near‐universal understanding of the Qur’an that sees every significant event as containing a potential moral lesson. For those who believe in such a worldview, such as the Europe‐ an Muslim who refuses to buy life insurance because actuarial predictions seem to second‐guess the divine will, the modern scientific understanding of risk assessment appears arrogant, if not blasphemous. Because it involves difficult questions of epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and theology, the problem of evil cannot be adequately addressed by simplistic moral arguments such as those of religious fundamentalists. Fundamentalism, in the name of divine voluntarism, reduces God’s will to a caricature of the human will. A god who does what he wants simply be‐ cause he wants to do it is no better than a tyrant. Saying that God has lordship over the heavens and the earth does not necessarily mean that God makes his decisions arbitrarily, or that believers should not seek to understand the mechanisms of God’s will in the natural world. The notion of an unqualified divine voluntarism, which is common to fundamentalist theo‐ logy in both Christianity and Islam, often results in an anthro‐ pomorphized form of divine narcissism that makes a mockery
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of divine transcendence. God may be King, but he does not have to be modeled after an Ottoman sultan or a seventeenth‐ century absolute monarch from Europe. Certainly the Creator of the Universe, who transcends time, place, number, and mea‐ sure, should also transcend human notions of political philo‐ sophy! In a famous hadith qudsi (non‐Qur’anic divine saying), Al‐ lah says: “I am whatever my servant thinks of me” (ana fi zanni ‘abdi bi).1 In the world of Islamic fundamentalism, the trans‐ cendent God of the Qur’an would hardly recognize himself. The God of Islamic fundamentalism is less a theological con‐ struct than an ideological icon. As for the Islam that the Qur’an describes as “Allah’s religion” (3:19), a term that originally meant “individual submission to the will of God” is now rede‐ fined as a “system” (nizam) that unites creed and culture in a society where virtues are imposed rather than cultivated.2 The Shari’ah, formerly understood as the scriptural basis of the vir‐ tues, has been transformed into a creedal calculus—an algo‐ rithm that produces “Sim‐Citizens” of a virtual‐reality Islamic nation. Instead of an umbrella of inclusiveness, ideological Is‐ lam has become a totem of separateness, which recalls not so much the teachings of the Qur’an as it does sociologist Emile Durkheim’s view of religion as the symbolic representation of the social group.3 A major effect of the ideologization of Islam
1
This hadith can be found in Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Muslim, and Ibn Majah. 2
Qutb 2000: 135‐48 and translation, 107‐16, Chapter 8, “The Islamic Concept and Culture” (al‐Tasawwur al‐Islami wa al‐thaqafah) 3
“Religion is first and foremost a system of ideas by means of which individuals imagine the society of which they are members and the ob‐ scure yet intimate relations they have with it. Such is its paramount role. And although this representation is symbolic and metapnhorical, it is not unfaithful. It fully translates the essence of the relations to be accounted for” (Durkheim 1995: 227). In a recent work, Feisal Abdul Rauf used Durkheim’s concept of “anomic suicide” to explain the phenomenon of Islamic suicide terrorism. Although Abdul Rauf’s explanation gives in‐ sufficient importance to religious eschatology, it still serves as a sugges‐ tive reminder that the phenomenon of suicide terrorism is largely an ide‐ ological act that is built on sociopolitical rather than religious founda‐
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has been to prevent coherent discussions of theological and eth‐ ical issues. Muslims, especially in Europe and the United States, are instead encouraged to forge what Danish researcher Garbi Schmidt has termed an “ideotypical trans‐ethnicity,” a state‐ ment of “who we are” rather than a consideration of “what we believe” (Schmidt 2002: 1‐18). This is not a fertile environment for the kinds of critical theological, ethical, and cultural inquir‐ ies that are necessary if Muslims are to make a home for them‐ selves in a globalized world. In The Incoherence of the Philosophers the Muslim theologian Abu Hamid al‐Ghazali (d. 1111) wrote: Change from one kind of intellectual bondage to another is only a self‐deception, a stupidity. What position in God’s world is baser than that of one who thinks that it is honor‐ able to renounce a truth that is accepted on good authority, and then relapses into an acceptance of falsehood, which is still a matter of blind faith, unaided by independent in‐ quiry? (Ghazali 1963: 2‐3)
It is not enough for Muslims to assert that the only valid polit‐ ical manifestation of God’s will is the Islamic System, without assessing the concept historically, or to claim that “good au‐ thority” consists only of Qur’an, hadith, and Shariʹah, without the interpretive apparatuses that originally sustained these sources and prevented them (at least sometimes) from being used as instruments of social or political oppression. Nowhere is this more important than on the moral fault line between Is‐ lam and the West, where, in Susan Neiman’s terms, “ethics and metaphysics, epistemology and aesthetics, meet, collide, and throw up their hands” every day. The so‐called moral “debate” between Islam and the West is less a true debate than a shout‐ ing match, where the protagonists quarrel with each other be‐ cause they are unable to argue coherently. This replicates the situation noted by the philosopher Alas‐ dair MacIntyre in After Virtue. In this work, MacIntyre criticizes modern moral discourse for its inability even to reach agree‐ ment on the terms from which to argue:
tions. Cf. Abdul Rauf 2004: 143‐48.
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It is precisely because there is in our society no established way of deciding between these claims that moral argument appears to be necessarily interminable. From our rival con‐ clusions we can argue back to our rival premises; but when we do arrive at our premises argument ceases and the invo‐ cation of one premise against another becomes a matter of pure assertion and counter‐assertion. Hence perhaps the slightly shrill tone of so much moral debate. (MacIntyre 1984: 8).
Emotivism in Moral Discourse According to MacIntyre, a major reason for the incoherence of contemporary moral discourse has been the popularization of the notion of emotivism.4 Emotivism, when understood as a theory of meaning, asserts: “All evaluative judgments, and more specifically all moral judgments are nothing but expres‐ sions of preference, expressions of attitude or feeling, insofar as they are moral or evaluative in character” (MacIntyre 1984: 11‐ 12; italics his). MacIntyre rejects emotivism as a theory of mean‐ ing, in part because it can lead to moral relativism. However, he does not reject emotivism as a theory of use, which states that moral disagreements are irresolvable in practice whenever they are based on premises that amount to faith claims or unsubstan‐ tiated assertions of fundamental truths. But although this latter theory of emotivism accurately describes the moral debate be‐ tween Islam and the West, its assumptions may still be chal‐ lenged on logical grounds. As MacIntyre observes, “If I lack any good reasons to invoke against you, it must seem that I lack any good reasons” (MacIntyre 1984: 8). In Islamic moral discourse, one of the problems of emo‐ tivism is that it can lead people to make utilitarian excuses for 4
The fact that MacIntyre is talking about the popularization of emo‐ tivism seems to have been overlooked by Jeffrey Stout, who has criticized After Virtue for asking the reader “to see the essence of our contemporary culture as condensed in—of all things—the emotivist moral philosophy of C. L. Stevenson,” (Stout 2004: 122‐23. Stout’s position appears to be a case of taking academic philosophy too seriously. In the present discus‐ sion, emotivism is understood simply as a form of unwarranted argu‐ ment and is not limited conceptually to Stevenson’s model.
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practices that subvert scriptural norms of morality. The April 8, 2002 issue of Time magazine carried a rationalization of suicide terrorism by Eyad Sarraj, a politically moderate Palestinian psy‐ chiatrist and founder of the Palestinian Independent Commis‐ sion for Citizens’ Rights. Sarraj asserted that Palestinians blow up themselves and others because of the shame and despair they feel at the Israeli occupation of their country. “Shame is the most painful emotion in the Arab culture,” writes Sarraj, “pro‐ ducing the feeling that one is unworthy to live. The honorable Arab is the one who refuses to suffer shame and dies in dignity” (Sarraj 2002). According to Sarraj, who is not a practi‐ cing Muslim but a self‐proclaimed secularist, becoming a sui‐ cide bomber for Palestine echoes the teachings of the Qur’an, where Allah promises believers paradise for taking this “ul‐ timate test of faith.” Although the Qur’an does indeed condone martyrdom, no‐ where does it condone suicide or the taking of innocent lives. By making utilitarian arguments for such practices, Sarraj un‐ wittingly becomes an apologist for Islamic extremism. In fact, suicide terrorism contradicts a number of fundamental Islamic teachings. First, the willful killing of innocents goes against most interpretations of the rules of war in Islam. According to a recent article by the American Muslim scholar Sherman Jack‐ son, acts of terrorism such as suicide bombing fall under the Is‐ lamic law of hirabah (terrorizing markets and highways), one of the most serious crimes in Islamic jurisprudence (Jackson 2001). Second, the suicide bomber who kills himself or herself in order to be idolized for bravery contravenes a well‐known hadith that criticizes the martyr who forfeits his life in order to appear brave before his family and friends.5 Perhaps most serious from the point of view of Islamic moral theology is Sarraj’s assertion that Palestinians are so ashamed of being subjected to Israeli occupation that they feel unworthy to live. Hopelessness and despair are major sins in Islam because they imply a lack of faith in God’s providence. The desire to take one’s own life out of despair is a major sign of unbelief. The Prophet Muhammad said:
5
This hadith can be found in Muslim, Tirmidhi and Nasa’i.
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There was among those before you a man who had a wound. He was in such anguish that he took a knife and made with it a cut in his hand, and the blood did not cease to flow until he died. God Almighty said, “My servant has himself forestalled me. Thus, I have forbidden him para‐ dise.”6
Another problem of emotivism in Islamic moral discourse is that it leads to ad hominem condemnations of the moral qualities of non‐Muslim peoples and of non‐Muslim societies as sources of evil. Often, such attacks are based on exclusivistic claims of theological and moral truth. Recently, an Arab cab driver from East Jerusalem took me to Ben Gurion airport in Tel Aviv. Upon discovering that I was a convert to Islam, he proceeded to in‐ form me that all—literally all—of the world’s evils were created by the Jews. For this Palestinian cab driver, the basis of univer‐ sal ethics was to be found in the Islamic principle of the oneness of God, the establishment of regular prayers, and the truth of God’s law as expressed by the Shari’ah. Unmindful of the fact that the same or similar principles are fundamental to Judaism as well, he used theological arguments about the Jews’ rejection of Islam as proof of the moral bankruptcy of Judaism as a reli‐ gion and of the Jews as a people. Emotivism and Moral Pollution But at least the Palestinian cab driver had a scriptural notion of truth to which he appealed. More disturbing is when emotivism is used to condemn a people in ways that contradict the very texts on which believers rely when establishing their moral norms. Such was the case with the people of Hyderabad, India, that were interviewed by Sudhir Kakar for The Colors of Violence, a study of participants in the Hyderabad communal riots of 1991. As part of his study, Kakar, a secular Indian psychiatrist, prepared a questionnaire that elicited the moral limits imposed by the Hindu and Muslim inhabitants of Hyderabad upon themselves. His findings are a sobering reminder that people’s attitudes toward the religious other sometimes stray far from
6
This hadith can be found in Bukhari.
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the religious teachings that they purport to follow. For example, the prospect of a Muslim girl going to the cinema with a Hindu boy elicited a much more negative response among Hyderabad Muslims than the prospect of a Muslim girl marrying a Hindu boy, even though marriage to a non‐Muslim is expressly forbid‐ den for women in the Qur’an, whereas going to the cinema or appearing together in public is not prohibited per se. Nearly one third of Muslim respondents reacted to the prospect of a Mus‐ lim girl going to the cinema with a Hindu boy by saying that they would “have the girl killed, expecting the parents to quiet‐ ly poison her, bury her alive, or themselves commit suicide” (Kakar 1996: 135). Each of these scenarios is forbidden by the Is‐ lamic Shari’ah, Islamic scripture, or both. The ferocity of Mus‐ lim responses to Hindu‐Muslim dating says more about the so‐ cial and psychological dynamics of the Hyderabad Muslim community than it does about formal religious teachings. Kakar summarizes the matter in the following way: My hunch is that going to the cinema gives rise to images of hot, hurried gropings in the darkness of its foyer, fantasies of forbidden sexuality between the pair, whereas the elope‐ ment makes sexual congress between the couple more ac‐ ceptable in that it is legitimized by marriage. The girl who has married a Hindu is outside the bounds of the commun‐ ity, dead as far as the Muslim qaum is concerned. The girl who went to the cinema is still a part of the community, a boil which must be lanced. (Kakar 1996: 136)7
Perhaps the most significant combination of emotivism and ad hominem moral criticism in contemporary Islamic literature is to be found in Milestones (Ma’alim fi al‐Tariq) by the Muslim Bro‐ therhood activist Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966). This work has arguably become the most important political manifesto since The Com‐ munist Manifesto of Marx and Engels, and its influence on the “clash of civilizations” between Islam and the West has been enormous. For Qutb, any society that does not correspond to
7
Even worse is the notion expressed by several Muslim men that raping a Hindu girl is worse than raping a Muslim girl, because raping a Hindu girl would cause the Muslim man to enter “the polluted and contaminating inner regions of an infidel body” (Kakar 1996: 137).
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the virtual reality of the Islamic System is jahili, a term that liter‐ ally means “ignorant” but also carries the connotation of moral‐ ly depraved or even “rabid.” Jahili society is more than just a moral challenge. It is a source of cultural and ideological pollu‐ tion from which Muslims must be quarantined: “We should re‐ move ourselves from all of the influences of the Jahiliyyah (the society of moral ignorance) in which we live and from which we derive benefits,” writes Qutb. “We must return to that pure source from which [Muslims] derived their guidance, the source which is free from any mixing or pollution” (Qutb [n.d.]: 20‐21; Qutb 2000: 21). For Qutb, a society that is not ideologic‐ ally pure does not dedicate itself to submission to God alone, in its be‐ liefs and ideas, in its observances of worship, and in its legal regulations. According to this definition, all the societies ex‐ isting in the world today are jahili. (Qutb [n.d.]: 80; Qutb 2000: 98)
Qutb’s notion of jahili society also includes “all existing so‐ called Muslim societies” because although they believe in the Unity of God, still they have rel‐ egated the legislative attribute of God to others and submit to this authority, and from this authority they derive their systems, their traditions and customs, their laws, their val‐ ues and standards, and almost every practice of life. (Qutb [n.d.]: 82‐83; Qutb 2000: 101)
Qutb’s mixture of emotivism and ideological polemic makes Milestones a prime example of the impasse of moral un‐ derstanding in the encounter between Islam and the West. When one adds to this his appropriation of the Marxist notion of praxis and his consequent dismissal of theory and theology in moral discourse, one finds that all avenues of debate over moral perspectives have been sealed off, either from within or with‐ out.8 For Qutb, Islam is the only true civilization and Islamic so
8
On Qutb’s notion of praxis and his denial of theory and theology, see Qutb [n.d.]. Qutb 2000: 42 reads somewhat differently from the prin‐ ted English translation: “[The Meccan Qur’an] did not express [Islam] in the form of a theory (nazariyyah), nor in the form of a metaphysics (lahut);
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ciety is the only civilized society (Qutb [n.d]: 99; Qutb 2000: 126). The moral boundary between Islam and Jahiliyyah is less between cultures with varying notions of the good than it is be‐ tween humans and animals. “When the question is viewed in [the proper] manner,” says Qutb, “a fixed and well‐defined line of separation is obtained which cannot be erased by the inces‐ sant attempt of the “progressives” and the scientific societies to erase it.” Cultural pollution and moral backsliding inevitably lead to degeneration toward animalism. The direction of the line which separates human values from animal‐like characteris‐ tics is upward; but if this direction is reversed, then in spite of all material progress the civilization will be backward, de‐ generative, and jahili (Qutb [n.d.]: 97; Qutb 2000: 122‐23). Those societies which give ascendance to physical desires and animalistic morals cannot be considered civilized, no matter how much progress they may make in industry or science. This is the only measure that does not err in gaug‐ ing true human progress. In all modern jahili societies, the meaning of “morality” is limited to such an extent that all those aspects that distinguish man from animal are consid‐ ered beyond its sphere. In these societies, illegitimate sexual relationships, even homosexuality, are not considered im‐ moral. The meaning of ethics is limited to economic affairs or sometimes to political affairs, which fall into the category of “government interests. (Qutb [n.d.]: 98; Qutb 2000: 124)
Chapter Eight of Milestones, which is the epistemological centerpiece of Qutb’s work, portrays the concept (tasawwur) and culture (thaqafah) of Islam as a self‐contained system that erects impermeable barriers against materialism and unbelief. One of the barriers erected by Islamists who follow the teachings of Qutb has been the “Islamization of Knowledge,” a project that seeks to purify the human sciences by reconceptualizing West‐ ern social philosophy by means of an Islamist epistemology. In
neither did it express this in the form of a scholastic debate (jadal kalami), such as formerly characterized the discipline of theology (‘ilm al‐tawhid, literally, the science of divine oneness).”
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a statement with profoundly disturbing implications for liberal notions of humanism and multiculturalism, Qutb asserts: The statement that “culture is the human heritage” and that it has no country, nationality, or religion is correct only in relation to science and technology—as long as we do not jump the boundary of these sciences and delve into meta‐ physical interpretations, and start explaining the purpose of man and his historical role in philosophical terms, even ex‐ plaining away art and literature and human intuition philo‐ sophically. Beyond this limited meaning, this statement about culture is one of the tricks played by world Jewry, whose purpose is to eliminate all limitations, especially the limitations imposed by faith and religion, so that the Jews may penetrate into the body of the whole world and then may be free to perpetuate their evil designs. (Qutb [n.d.]: 111)9
For Qutb, Western disciplines such as philosophy, historio‐ graphy, psychology (except behavioral psychology), ethics, the‐ ology, comparative religion, and sociology (except demo‐ graphy) are all jahili sciences and thus are to be avoided by Muslims. Even speculative subjects in the physical sciences, such as cosmology and the study of human origins, should be avoided. Like Western systems of law, such speculative scien‐ ces indirectly affect man’s beliefs; it is therefore not permissible for a Muslim to learn them from anyone other than a God‐ fearing and pious Muslim, who knows that guidance in these matters comes from God. (Qutb [n.d.]: 109‐10; Qutb 2000: 139)
For anyone who might object that Qutb’s views are more ex‐ treme than those of most contemporary Muslims, I would sug‐ gest that he or she talk to Muslim scholars teaching in American universities, who can testify to the low attendance of Muslim students in the subjects proscribed by Qutb, and warnings by
9
See also Qutb 2000: 141. Although the Damascus English transla‐ tion does not literally follow the Arabic text, the meaning of this passage is not significantly different from the original.
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the leaders of local Islamic centers against the effects of “aca‐ demic Islam.” Emotivism and Moral Foundationalism The ad hominem rejection of Liberal values that characterizes the emotivist approach to moral thought in Islam is not only to be found in the views of Muslims in the street or in the manifestos of ideologues such as Sayyid Qutb. It can also be found in the writings of the Western‐educated Iranian philosopher Abdol‐ karim Soroush, who is most commonly known as a critic of Is‐ lamic authoritarianism. In an article entitled “Life and Virtue: The Relationship Between Socioeconomic Development and Ethics,” Soroush, who is one of several Muslim thinkers that have been lionized in the West as an “Islamic Luther,” demon‐ strates an astonishingly narrow view of Western Liberalism (Soroush 2000: 39‐53). The purpose of the article is to establish what Soroush calls “Guiding Values” as the foundational prin‐ ciples of universal ethics. Guiding Values are not only founda‐ tional for Islam. They are also the values “for the sake of which we live” as moral human beings. According to Soroush, foun‐ dational or Guiding Values are shared by all of the great reli‐ gious traditions. They are necessary for the promotion of the good and thus should never be abrogated. However, Guiding Values do not constitute all of the values in a society. Utilitarian values, or “Serving Values,” which exist “for the sake of living,” are also found in human societies. Serving Values are second‐ ary values that are designed to make life more pleasant, and as such can be changed according to utilitarian needs. However, Serving Values become counterproductive if they are applied dogmatically, such that the values of political, social, or eco‐ nomic expediency take the place of Guiding Values in impor‐ tance. According to Soroush, a major problem with the Islamic revolutionary regime in Iran is that it dogmatically enforces Serving Values while ignoring the more fundamental and uni‐ versal Guiding Values. The “meta‐ethics” that Soroush advo‐ cates posits a healthy society as one that is ruled by Guiding Values and universal moral virtues; if such values are adhered to without exception, evil cannot prevail. The problem with Soroush’s position is not that he advo‐ cates universal foundational values but that he denies such val‐
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ues to secular Liberalism. Also surprising for an argument based on Islamic notions of Foundationalism is first, the near‐ total absence of any reference to Islamic scripture, and second, how much Soroush’s so‐called “meta‐ethics” depends on Pla‐ to’s idealistic notion of the virtuous society. Although Soroush does not refer to Plato directly, it is clear that the worldly ethic he opposes is the same as that called “Sophistical” in Plato’s Dialogues. A Sophistical ethic is an ethic of expediency rather than of virtue—an ethic of pragmatism, rhetoric, and the satis‐ faction of human needs; for Plato and Soroush alike, this is a short‐sighted ethic that ignores the possibility of human trans‐ cendence by overlooking the ends to which a moral life aspires. For Plato, this ethic was embodied in the Athenian regime that stumbled blindly into the Peloponnesian War. For Soroush, this ethic is embodied in the Western intellectual tradition, the very tradition that promotes him as a political dissident and pro‐ vides his ideas with an international audience. Soroush condemns the modern West as the product of “the empirical science of Bacon, the secular religion (sic.) of Luther, and the amoral politics of Machiavelli” (Soroush 2000: 41). This ad hominem critique is in full agreement with that of Sayyid Qutb, whose own critique of the West similarly condemned em‐ piricism (which Qutb likened to atheism), secularized religion, and the ethics of expediency. But this is not all. Soroush even echoes Qutb’s rhetorical attempt to liken Western ethics to bes‐ tiality: Modern utilitarianism turned this wild beast of accidental and irrational happiness ... into an obedient, domesticated animal. Ethical axioms were evaluated [only] in terms of their ability to ensure public happiness, pleasure and wel‐ fare. (Soroush 2000: 41‐42)
For Soroush, the utilitarian desire to maximize human happi‐ ness was the beginning of the Western slide toward moral bankruptcy. Starting with Mandeville and continued by Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, and Adam Smith, a new ethic of utility was created wherein the wicked [i.e., those who are motivated by profit] are relieved of their shame because of their function in en‐ suring the equilibrium of economy and society .... Thus did
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Because of its materialistic foundations, the modern world is the ethical inverse of the old world. The ancient apocalyptic prophecies came true: Reason is en‐ slaved to desire, the external governs the internal, and vices have supplanted virtues. It required a great deal of courage to declare that the lifeblood of modern life is the traditional vices not virtues. The scale of vice and virtue is now held upside down as former vices are valued as necessary fuel for the furnace of the world. (Soroush 2000: 43)
On the whole, Soroush’s rendition of “The World Turned Up‐ side Down” is little different from Sayyid Qutb’s version. Both thinkers make frequent use of the “West and the Rest” dicho‐ tomy noted by Samuel P. Huntington, except that Soroush turns his critique of the West into a sort of “Occidentalism” that attempts to cast the West’s critical view of the East back onto itself.10 Soroush overstates the materialistic foundations of Wes‐ tern Liberalism, indulges in ad hominem attacks on Western val‐ ues, and fails to undertake the systematic critique of philosophy and religion that is necessary for a useful debate over moral norms. To take just one example, when he dismisses Martin Lu‐
10 See Huntington (1996); “The West and the Rest” is the title of Chapter 8. See also, Buruma and Margalit 2004, esp. 75‐99. “The mind of the West is often portrayed by Occidentalists as a kind of higher idiocy. To be equipped with the mind of the West is like being an idiot savant, mentally defective but with a special gift for making arithmetic calcula‐ tions. It is a mind without a soul, efficient, like a calculator, but hopeless at doing what is humanly important. The mind of the West is capable of great economic success, to be sure, and of developing and promoting ad‐ vanced technology, but cannot grasp the higher things in life, for it lacks spirituality and understanding of human suffering” (75).
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ther as a proponent of “secular religion,” he both cheapens the spiritual content of Protestant Christianity and mischaracterizes the role of religion in the formation of Liberal ethics. Soroush’s discussion of Islamic moral philosophy in this article is no bet‐ ter developed than his critique of Western ethics. As an answer to the alleged Western inversion of Guiding Values, the reader is presented not with a counter‐argument but with a smorgas‐ bord of intellectual finger food from Ghazali, Rumi, and other medieval Muslim writers, which is packaged in the wrapping‐ paper of a covert Platonism. If the polemics of Qutb and So‐ roush are the best critiques of the West that the Muslim world can offer, then Islam may pose a political problem but it will never become a serious alternative to the Western intellectual tradition. An effective Islamic critique of Western ideas must start not only with a more nuanced understanding of Western moral philosophy and values but also with an analysis of Is‐ lamic moral theology that is built on solid scriptural and intel‐ lectual foundations. Criticism “With Both Eyes Open” Since September 11, 2001, acts of terrorism committed by Mus‐ lims in Israel, Spain, East Africa, Indonesia, and the Nether‐ lands, and the U.S. invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq have led to repeated calls for greater tolerance between the Western world and Islam. However, according to some observers such as Bernard Williams, tolerance is an impossible virtue to realize because it involves accepting, or at least accommodating, views that some people are bound to reject.11 What lies behind this conclusion is the premise that not only the monotheistic reli‐ gions, but also culturally ingrained secular notions of ethics and morality such as the discourse on human rights, have created their own forms of fundamentalism. In a world governed by emotivist discourse, people are unlikely to question the as‐ sumptions that lie behind their prejudices and are more likely than not to come to the conclusion that some or all of the views espoused by the religious or cultural other are either theo‐
11
Bernard Williams, “Toleration: An Impossible Virtue,” cited in Se‐ ligman 2003: 1646.
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logically or morally unacceptable or both. In a word, they are evil. According to Adam B. Seligman, the Liberal idea of toler‐ ance can be faulted on three grounds. First, it is too demanding. For advocates of the “impossible virtue” thesis such as Bernard Williams, what is demanded of tolerance is untenable in that it involves the logic of contradiction, especially with regard to theological and moral notions. Second, from another perspec‐ tive tolerance may not be demanding enough. In Seligman’s words, “simply raising the resistance level of the detestable” has little real effect on people’s feelings toward each other. Tol‐ erance, as usually employed in Liberal moral discourse, is a “vapid” and “thin” virtue, and is not sufficient for the construc‐ tion of a new civil order or a new notion of civil society (Selig‐ man 2003: 1646‐47). Finally, both points of view beg the ques‐ tion of where one is to set the limits of tolerance. Nearly every‐ one condemns genocide as a crime against humanity and slav‐ ery as a crime against human rights, but what about polygamy, arranged marriage, differential rights of inheritance between men and women, or the criminalization of homosexuality? Sim‐ ply saying, as most liberals do, that one has the “right” to her own opinion, amounts to “throwing up one’s hands,” in Nei‐ man’s terms, indulging in “emotivism,” in MacIntyre’s terms, or practicing “principled indifference” for Seligman (Seligman 2003: 1648). An outright denial of difference is unworkable be‐ cause it fails to respect the diversity of religious and moral be‐ liefs and creates a sense of ideological sameness that mirrors in reverse religious fundamentalist notions of human nature. To adopt the “anything goes” approach of vulgar pragmatism is no better, because it leaves not only the question of difference but also the question of evil unanswered and plays into the hands of Occidentalists such as Qutb and Soroush, who are all too happy to dismiss Liberal society as “the system of practices and institutions invented by the North Atlantic bourgeoisie” (Stout 2001: 302). Where, asks Seligman, is the concept of the self‐regulating individual moral agent that has stood at the center of modern Liberalism since the age of Kant and the Scottish Enlighten‐ ment? In premodern societies, tolerance was practiced between groups rather than individuals. Tolerance could only exist
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where clear boundaries could be established. By contrast, the modern concepts of individual rights and human rights draw “thinner” boundaries between individuals and their beliefs, and are therefore more dangerously permeable from the outside (Seligman 2003: 1651‐54). Hence, according to Seligman, tradi‐ tional societies that are faced with the challenge of moderniza‐ tion or globalism often experience penetration anxieties, such as the fear of moral pollution felt by Hyderabad Muslims and Say‐ yid Qutb. When tolerance creates a threat to long‐held notions of personal identity, it is resisted. This is especially true when tolerance is seen as an imposition by a culturally imperialistic, economically hegemonic, and politically dominant alien society such as that of the West. Although I agree with Seligman that “thick” boundaries based on communal identities are easier to define than “thin” boundaries based on notions of individual rights, I do not feel that identity politics does much to solve the problem of theo‐ logical and moral difference between religious communities. If France decided to grant Muslims separate juridical status on the model of India, it would not prevent Brigitte Bardot from con‐ sidering Muslims evil because they cut the throats of sacrificial animals during the celebration of ‘Id al‐Adha. Even worse, such a Balkanization of religious communities would undermine the principle of individual rights that Liberalism shares with the Qur’an and would prevent Muslims from dissenting against the majoritarian views of their own communities.12 This issue was at the heart of the recent debate over the provision of a separate status for the Islamic Shari’ah in Canada. In the end, not only was this proposal rejected for Muslims, but the rejection of reli‐ giously constituted civil courts was also extended to include all minority religious groups in Canada, including Jews. If such a proposal were to be implemented in the United States, it would require a major revision of the U.S. Constitution. For better or for worse, I am convinced that the concept of democratic indi‐ vidualism is here to stay in a globalized world, whether or not the U.S. military is on hand to enforce it.
12
On the notion of human rights in the Qur’an, see Cornell (2004).
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But Seligman is right to insist that the related questions of difference, tolerance, and evil must be faced together if people of widely differing beliefs are to coexist successfully. The Al‐ Qaeda goal of a hermetically sealed Muslim world that can ex‐ ist independently of the modern world‐system is worse than a pipe dream. It is madness. But it is equally illogical to suppose that theologically exclusive religions such as Christianity and Islam can support a pluralistic notion of difference if their fol‐ lowers continue to adhere to doctrines of boundary‐mainten‐ ance that were created ages ago, when people still had the lux‐ ury of being ignorant of one another. As Michael Oakeshott has observed, no theology today can be “prone to superbia, that is, an exclusive concern with its own utterance, which may result in its identifying the conversation with itself and its speaking as if it were speaking only to itself” (Oakeshott 1962: 261; quoted in Stout 2001: 164). Unfortunately, this statement accurately characterizes the discourse of most contemporary Muslim religious leaders, especially those who have been influenced by the ideologies of Islamism and identity politics. If Muslims are to cease thinking of Western values as not only wrong but potentially evil, they will have to develop new theological and ethical perspectives that are truly universal, global, and multicultural. In addition, they must abandon fundamentalism in favor of deeper ap‐ proaches to Islamic tradition that are more fully in line with the actual history of Islamic thought. These approaches must de‐ pend on the ability to look critically at the history of Islamic ideas with the help of modern epistemologies, just as they will continue to look critically at Western Liberal assumptions from the perspective of Islamic tradition. Such new discourses of Islamic moral theology should not be expressed in the language of what Jeffrey Stout calls “moral Esperanto,” an artificial conceptual language appealing to transcendent universals (such as the recent fad of World Theo‐ logy) that no authentic religious tradition would ever be likely to accept (Stout 2001: 294). Instead, these new discourses will have to come from a critique of Islamic religious and intellec‐
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tual culture “with both eyes open.”13 This is a critique that will draw authentically from the full history of Islamic theology and philosophy to examine present‐day forms of Islamic thought and practice as well as the paradigms of modernity that chal‐ lenge the legacy of Islamic tradition. It will also draw from modern epistemologies to engage both past and present in a di‐ alectical manner that will allow a full and detailed conversation about theological and moral principles across the boundaries of different religious creeds and philosophical traditions. In the post‐9/11 age Muslims cannot advance the study of theology in its original sense as “the science of the nature of God” without being in dialogue with informed representatives of other reli‐ gions. By the same token, Christians and Jews, as well as Hin‐ dus and Buddhists, cannot advance their own religious think‐ ing without being in dialogue with Muslims. And all parties, of whatever religion, must be in dialogue with secular modernity, however it may be conceived. As Peter Ochs has observed, whatever our nostalgia as scholars of religion may be for the past, we are all born into “the original sin of modernity.”14 A kind of circularity is intrinsic to theological and moral re‐ flection within any religious tradition. But, as Jeffrey Stout has noted, such circularity only becomes vicious “when it stops delving deeper into its own assumptions and answering objections from other perspectives” (Stout 2001: 168). According to the Christian theologian James M. Gustafson, moral theology (or in his terms, theological ethics) does not “unfold an original essence or apply an unchanging inheritance to a new situation.” Instead, it develops in “a process of selective retrieval of tradi‐ tion, recombination, and reinterpretation of traditional ele‐ ments, and innovation.”15 The task of the theologian is not merely to repeat the language of tradition but to engage critical‐ ly with one’s tradition and piety (Stout 2001: 171). This under‐
13
For this term and the related concept of “stereoscopic social crit‐ icism,” see Stout 2001: 266‐92. 14
Personal communication, Center for Theological Inquiry, Prince‐ ton, New Jersey, May 2004 15
In Stout 2001: 168‐69; Stout is paraphrasing the arguments of Gus‐ tafson (1981 and 1984).
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standing is key to the new notion of theology that must be de‐ veloped in Islam. In the past, the Kalam theological tradition of Islam was conceived primarily as a defensive and reactive discipline. The purpose of the Muslim theologian was to defend the faith against intellectual attacks from outside the religion, and to shore up the dikes against the erosion of orthodoxy from with‐ in. Over time, this defensive posture caused Kalam to be seen as a second‐rate intellectual tradition that was more concerned with the maintenance of creedal boundaries than with the ad‐ vancement of thought. Eventually, Kalam was replaced as the primary defender of Islam by jurisprudence, which had a firm‐ er foundation in scriptural sources and did not have the disad‐ vantage of relying on foreign epistemologies. Today, new theo‐ logical perspectives must be developed in Islam that can recap‐ ture the vitality and innovation of the formative years of the Ka‐ lam tradition. Kalam could not have developed in the first place without theological and epistemological challenges, such as those posed by Christian arguments against Islam and Greek notions of knowledge and wisdom. The new Islamic theological and moral dialogue with the religious other must be broader, however, in that it should also take account of Hindu and Bud‐ dhist perspectives and secular points of view, which were ei‐ ther ignored or completely unknown by medieval Muslims. In a famous verse the Qur’an states: “For each of you we have made a Law and a way of life. If God had willed, He would have made you into a single community” (5:48). In this verse, the term “Law” (shir’ah) includes religion and philo‐ sophy, since it refers to the duties and obligations that provide a framework for the moral life. The verse goes on to say: “Strive against each other in good works, for to God is the return for all of you and He will inform you about that wherein you differ.” In other words, the only debate over values that counts in the sight of God is a debate that leads to good works, such that Muslims would compete with Jews, Christians, and even the non‐religious in the alleviation of human suffering. It is often overlooked by those who comment on this verse that it also al‐ ludes to the possibility of a common framework for the moral life that may be shared by believers in different religious tradi‐ tions. If it is indeed the will of God that different Laws and
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ways of life exist among humanity, and if, as the Qur’an says, God has not willed that all people should live within a single community, then it must be acknowledged that despite the dif‐ ferences that exist between religious and philosophical tradi‐ tions, there are standards of conduct and morality that are shared by all human beings. An important first step for the new Islamic moral theology is to investigate the shared notions to which this verse alludes, and to develop an Islamic notion of humanism that is based on scripture and cannot be dismissed as a product of secular modernity. By thinking in such a way Muslims can begin to play their rightful part in curing human‐ ity of the moral and theological isolationism that has caused so much misunderstanding, enmity, and suffering. Bibliography Abdul Rauf, Feisal. (2004). What’s Right with Islam: A New Vision for Muslims and the West. San Francisco: Harper Collins. BBC Online Service. (2005). “Morocco Protest over Tsunami Row.” (January 30) (http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/‐/2/hi/ africa/4219755. stm). Buruma, Ian and Avishai Margalit. (2004). Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies. New York: The Penguin Press. Cornell, Vincent J. (2004). “Practical Sufism: An Akbarian Foundation for a Liberal Theology of Difference.” In: Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society 36: 59‐84. Durkheim, Emile. (1995). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Transl. Karen E. Fields. New York: The Free Press. Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad. (1963). Al‐Ghazali’s Tahafut al‐Fa‐ lasifah [Incoherence of the Philosophers]. Transl. Sabih Ahmad Ka‐ mali. Lahore: Pakistan Philosophical Congress. Green, William Scott, “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Religious Toleration: Some Questions to Consider.” Unpublished paper summarizing the results of a 2003 poll conducted by the University of Roches‐ ter and Zogby International. The full results of the poll can be found at http://www.zogby.com. Gustafson, James M.. (1981 and 1984). Ethics from a Theocentric Perspec‐ tive. 2 Vols. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Huntington, Samuel P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remak‐ ing of the World Order. New York: Touchstone Books.
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Jackson, Sherman A. (2001). “Domestic Terrorism in the Islamic Legal Tradition.” In: The Muslim World 91: 293‐310. Kakar, Sudhir. (1996). The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Reli‐ gion, and Conflict. Chicago and London: The University of Chica‐ go Press. MacIntyre, Alasdair. (1984). After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. 2nd ed. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. Neiman, Susan. (2002). Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Oakeshott, Michael. (1962). Rationalism in Politics. London: Methuen Press. Qutb, Sayyid. (2000). Ma’alim fi al‐Tariq. Reprint of 1964 original. Bei‐ rut: Dar al‐Shuruq. (n.d.). Milestones. Damascus: Dar al‐‘Ilm translation of Ma’alim fi al‐Tariq. Sarraj, Eyad. (2002). “Why We Blow Ourselves Up.” Time (April 8). Schmidt, Garbi. (2002). “Dialectics of Authenticity: Examples of Ethni‐ fication of Islam Among Young Muslims in Sweden and the Uni‐ ted States.” In: The Muslim World 92: 1‐18. Seligman, Adam B. (2003). “Tolerance, Tradition, and Modernity.” In: Cardozo Law Review 24: 1645‐56. Soroush Abdolkarim (2000). “Life and Virtue: The Relationship Be‐ tween Socioeconomic Development and Ethics.”In: Mahmoud Sadri and Ahmad Sadri (eds). Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stout, Jeffrey. (2001). Ethics after Babel: The Language of Morals and Their Discontents. Princeton: Princeton University Press (2004). Democracy and Tradition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Unidjaja, Fabiola Desy. (2004). “Susilo Prays for a Little Good Luck.” In: Jakarta Post 22 (December 18).
The Islamic Point of View on the Problem of Evil Saeid Edalatnejad
Abstract This paper evaluates the problem of evil from Islamic point of view in three areas: ordinary people, theologians and theosophists. The reader will see how Muslims in some areas deal with the problem of evil without paying any attention to arguments and solutions that been presented by theologians and philosophers. On the other hand, Islamic theologians have, throughout the history of theology, offered some classical arguments. This paper discusses them briefly and critically. The conclusion is that in current Islamic theology we cannot see any new creative thinking and thus the problem of evil still re‐ mains obscure. Finally, the paper introduces the answer to the problem made by a new philosophical movement in the Shi’ite tradition, consisting of think‐ ers called theosophists.
The Problem of Evil We cannot deny that there is evil in the world. We only need to think of the earthquake in Iran (city of Bam) in 2003 and the tsunami in the southeast of Asia in 2004, in which circa 280,000 people were killed. We can add examples of moral evil in our contemporary world to this, like Saddam’s massacres in Iraq. Regarding the existence of so much evil, the problem is how we can believe in an omnipotent and just God. Is it true to say that God wills to create these events for humankind and He is sat‐ isfied with them? If someone objects that God could have ac‐ complished his purpose with less evil than presently exists, how would Islamic scholars respond now and in the past? Thus, we have two problems here on evil. First, why does evil exist in our world? And second, how is it possible to reconcile the existence of evil with attributes of God such as his justice? It should be noted that these questions on the problem of evil asked in this format, i.e. concentrating on a certain attribute of 305
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God, corresponds to Islamic theology, and it is possible to pre‐ sent them in another theological scheme. Let us take one definition of the term evil as “everything that brings about some suffering for human beings in their lives” (cf. Zamakhshari 1985: vol.1, 257; Hick 1990: 89). If there are, therefore, some events in the universe like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in places where there are no human beings, they would not be evil. On the other hand, if we find some re‐ sponses to the problem of evil in all religions, including Islam, that propose offering solutions from God’s perspective, we should not accept them. Solutions to the problem from a human point of view should be found. Therefore, in spite of some verses that can be found in the Qur’an that say, “Perhaps what we call evil is really good and what seems evil is in fact good when seen from the vantage point of omniscience, and you do not know” (2:216), these are not merely theological arguments but psychological recommendations. They make sense in a be‐ liever’s life and may be considered as a theological/spiritual strategy. At any rate, in this paper I will discuss the problem from three Islamic points of view, i.e. those of ordinary people, theologians and theosophists, and will conclude that the ques‐ tion still remains obscure. Ordinary People A widespread belief among Muslims, on the basis of the Qur’an and the traditions (hadith) and certain proofs, is that God is om‐ nipotent, wise, just and omniscient. So why does He do unjust and oppressive acts. Seeing Him as the origin of injustice and cruelty does not make any sense at all, and leads to infidelity. If some phenomena in the world seem as evil to us, we should justify them in the light of His interest and wisdom. We know our ignorance and the limitations of our knowledge, thus we should regard those phenomena, which do not make any sense, as part of the mystery of fate. The above is the sum of the argument for ordinary Muslim people. It is perhaps worth noting that they believe in the doc‐ trine that every evil can be regarded as God’s punishment for the wicked deeds of the believer and leads to his or her puri‐ fication.
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The function of this argument in Muslim belief, whether it is viewed as a theological argument or a psychological one, is to allow believers to be able to live with evil events in their lives and to be able to bear suffering. It seems that the solution of the Qur’an and the tradition and, consequently, ordinary people concerns both moral and natural evil The Qur’an regards evil as exclusively the result of a human act. “Pollution has appeared on land and at sea because of what man’s hands have accom‐ plished, so He may let them taste something of what they have earned, in order that they will turn back in repentance” (30:41). In addition, the Qur’an contains no division of beings into good and evil, but all of them are created by God and are beautiful. The devil’s only role is to tempt human beings into doing evil. The devil is not God’s partner, and even the angels are not God’s partner. On the other hand, in dealing with the problem of evil, or‐ dinary Muslims engage in some special rituals, without paying any attention to arguments advanced by theologians and philo‐ sophers. Most of them, in addition to believing in the mystery of fate, appeal to some verses of the Qur’an, such as the very commonly and well‐known verses 2:255‐57; 68: 51‐2; 12:64, in order to protect themselves against evil. They believe that these verses imply that the Prophet also read them to protect himself or his family against evil, and so they imitate him.1 By ap‐ pealing to these verses, I mean, of course, reciting or bearing them, which in Islamic culture is called ta’eviz. It means that the reader or bearer of verses has found refuge in and trust in God through his recitation or bearing of them. In some regions, these verses are written down on paper and put into a small bag, cov‐ ered by leather or some similar material, and hung around their necks. This custom had some roots in Jewish tradition: the Jews had the custom of wearing an amulet hung around their necks, while reciting some verses from the Old Testament to protect themselves from evil (cf. Shrire 1982). This act is very similar to magic and witchcraft and, as is well‐known, these are prohib‐ ited in Islam. But some regard ta’eviz as permitted because of
1
Most exegetes of the Qur’an mention these traditions after chapters 113 and 114, i.e “Naas” and “Falaq.”
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the appeal to the verses of the Qur’an. Some Islamic scholars, however, do not agree with the practice of ta’eviz at all.2 In addition, according to some tradition that was quoted by the Prophet Mohammad and some infallible imams, ordinary Muslims believe that it is advisable to read or bear these verses of a ta’eviz and some other prayers whenever they are going on a trip,(Majlesi 1983: vol. 91, p. 93). And they are also advised to give some charity to the poor or offer sacrifice to God in order to keep themselves from accidents and other evils (Majlesi 1983: vol. 92, pp.12‐14, 20‐39). There is another custom current in Muslim communities for protecting themselves from envious people (viewed as a kind of evil). They put some black mustard seeds in the fire, be‐ lieving that the smoke will keep them safe from the envious person when he or she becomes envious. They claim that their belief in the influence of the act of the envious person—as a kind of evil—is taken from the Qur’an (cf. 113:5). I am not going to criticize these ideas here but merely refer to two points. First, it is very clear that the Qur’an and some traditions reflect some opinions and cultural views that existed in Arab society at that time, without acknowledging these as a source. We cannot regard such things to be central teachings of the Qur’an. The second point is psychological. If Muslims be‐ lieve in the real role of envy, it can be expected that they will of‐ ten make a mistake in seeing someone as the envious one. Thus, in this situation, one can expect that some will appear suspi‐ cious to others in Muslim communities. This kind of suspicions might be regarded as such as evil. Theological Solutions There does not appear to be any obvious division in the works of Islamic theologians with respect to evil. There are some solu‐ tions proposed for both natural and moral evil and these can be found in all three main Islamic groups: the Shi’ites, Mu’taze‐ lites, and Ash’rite traditions. But, with respect to theologians who belong to the Ash‘rite traditions, most of them present
2
See, for example, Fakhr Razi 1984: vol.32, 190; Hajaj 1981: vol.2, 1723‐24.
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views that are very similar to those of ordinary people, even though some of them, such as Al‐Ghazali (d. 1111), regard any philosophical argument for the faith and especially the mystery of fate to be a deviation from the Shari‘ah (Ghazali 1997: 2‐3). The Ash‘rite school does not deny the justice of God, but they reinterpret justice so that what is just depends on how God in fact acts. What God did and does is just and we should alter our conception of God’s acts. However, the solutions that were offered in the history of Islamic theology by theologians insisted on these solutions as responses to Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, which argued for religious dualism. Adherents of dualism believed in a sec‐ ond being who had interfered in creation and caused evil. Thus, Islamic theologians did not regard the solution as a response to someone who doubted certain attributes of God and not as a response to those who denied God. It is worth mentioning here that their answers are quite similar to ones found in Christian medieval theology. But this is not the place to raise the question of who influenced whom. It seems to me that none of the an‐ swers is complete in itself; but, like a theory, each can help us to discover some aspect. The first response holds that evil has no being. Thus, as in Hinduism, they do not tell us that there is no evil in the world but that in their view being is equal with good and non‐being is equal with evil. Since God is pure being, so He is also purely good as well (cf. e.g. Avicenna 1997: 455, 452; Tusi 1992: 20‐21) and includes all of existence within itself (Tusi 1992: 20‐21). Evil is not created as an essence but is derived from that which exists. For example, war is the absence of peace and poverty is the absence of wealth. As is well known, Plato and Augustine held to this view as well and it can be easily found in some works of Islamic theo‐ logians such as Avicenna (d. 1036) and Tusi (d. 1274). They ar‐ gued that the status of evil does not require a cause and there‐ fore evil is not a thing, with its own substance. Avicenna added that, if we consider evil to be a positive thing, then a cause is re‐ quired. To admit the latter would not be consistent with the omniscience, omnipotence and goodness of God (Avicenna 1997: 457).
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But to say that evil is negative or is a lack of being seems to be primarily a play on words. Being classified as negative or positive does not change the fact of their reality. As Hospers stated, suffering exists and is not alleviated in the slightest by the consideration that it is only negative (Hospers 1990: 310). It seems that this argument, as we said before, was intended as a reply to dualism and it is not to be expected to be an argument for their main claim. The second response is that evil is necessary in order to achieve the greatest good. This argument is very similar to the one that is intended to justify a war. According to this view, war in itself is evil, but we need war if we are achieve more goodness or to improve the situation of the world. We are all familiar with examples this: one cannot regain one’s health without painful surgery and therefore one submits to the sur‐ gery in order to attain the goal. Thus, although there is evil in the world, it is compatible with the goodness of God and his purpose in creating the world. Thus, the evil that exists is the least possible amount needed for arriving at the greatest possi‐ ble good (Tusi 1992: 331). This is not a perfect world, but it is the best possible world. Islamic theologians also believe, based on the Qur’an (e.g. 23: 16), that this world is the best pos‐ sible—that is why they are trying to justify its deficiencies. But this attitude may be said to be acceptable if we can prove that the answer is the only means by which we can achieve recovery and happiness. Why is that the only way (Hospers 1990: 311)? The argumentation makes sense, perhaps, with respect to surgery, but what does it mean when it is ap‐ plied to the power of God? Would a good God actually use such methods to help our morality develop? The third response is that good often from evil. Suffering and hardship produce achievement and heroes, poverty pro‐ duces thrift, and so on. Islamic theologians referred to some characteristic of plants and animals that survive in difficult cir‐ cumstances to show they acquire qualities that others do not have. Such comparison can be found in some traditions quoted by Imam Ali ([n.d.]: vol.2, 147‐48). The Qur’an (2:155) also maintains that one can achieve happiness through suffering. It seems to me that we should make a distinction between two claims. The first is “Good comes out of evil” and the second
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is “Having to deal with evil leads to some good achievements in our development.” The latter is defensible, perhaps, but the former seems impossible. Some Islamic scholars attempt to qualify this argument by adding the proviso “some” to this statement and say: “Some evil can make us happy and virtu‐ ous” (Mutahari 1984: 185, 188). But regarding the first claim, if God could not bring about good except through evil, He would not be omnipotent. In addition, the good that comes out of evil is often hardly sufficient to justify it. The causal order is so com‐ plex that there is probably no disaster for one person that does not work to the advantage of another. On the other hand, per‐ haps we can agree with John Stuart Mill when he says, “Pover‐ ty is the parent of a thousand mental and moral evils …. One bad action leads to others, both in the agent himself, in the bystanders and in the sufferers”(Mill 1874: 35‐36). The fourth answer is that the purpose of evil is to make us virtuous. This is a solution borrowed from Iranaeus (125‐202) and is found in the works of many Islamic theologians such as Abd al‐Qahir al‐Baghdadi (cf. 1981: 240‐1) (d. 1024) and Imam Muhammad al‐Ghazali (Ghazali 1986: vol.4, pp. 96, 100‐01) who are affiliated with the Ash’rite school. Early Mutazelites like Abu Ali Jobbai (d.915) and Abu Hashem Jobbai (d.933) and Qa‐ zi Abd‐ Al‐Jabbar (d.1024) (Qazi 1962: vol.13, 103, 109) held this idea too. According to them, evils are there to discipline and improve us rather than to punish us. In some Shi’ite traditions (e.g. Imam Sadeq 1400: 183‐84) we can find recommendations and testaments attributed to infallible imams and the Prophet who advised that we consider all the sufferings in our lives as training and testing by God. The trouble in the life of believer is to be taken as a reward and grace from God. In addition, all Is‐ lamic schools believe that God will grant us further grace and rewards for suffering in the hereafter (Qazi 1965: 329). One may object here that if the omnipotent God wanted to give us a better way and a reward, why could He not make an easier solution that did not carry such a high price tag? More‐ over, the response might be useful for natural evil, but it is sure‐ ly not adequate for moral evil. Why should we tolerate a man’s behavior in driving his car so carelessly as to be a danger to oth‐ ers? To punish that man and force him to change his behavior is better than to tolerate him and justify the loss in order to im‐
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prove our soul. We can give another example from funda‐ mentalism. As a mindset, religious fundamentalism wants to deal with all the other ideas in a much harsher way. In this re‐ gard, we need mutual understanding to show them that their mindset is not appropriate to the facts in our world and we should not regard this kind of think as evil. Some one, perhaps, say the act of a terrorist, makes us virtuous, but punishing him or negotiating with him to find an easy way to change his beha‐ vior is better than tolerating his act. The fifth response holds that the small evil is necessary to gain the greater good. In comparison, we can understand the distinction between good and evil, beautiful and ugly, deficien‐ cy and completeness. This answer is attributed to both Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) and Mohammad Hassan Tusi (d. 1274), who were contemporaries. Then Shirazi (d. 1645) who belonged, in fact, to the theosophical and Shi’ite school qualified this argu‐ ment. He believed that “if there is no conflict in our world, then the flow of Grace from God will be cut off” (Shirazi 2002: vol. 3, p. 117; vol. 7, p. 70). In the last section we will see how Shirazi applies this rule in his solution. One may object to this solution by asking: Why are not a few evils enough for human beings to understand the advan‐ tage and benefit of goodness? Moreover, it might be acceptable if I suffer from an illness in order to understand the merits of health. But what about another who suffers from an illness so that someone else may learn a lesson from his or her trouble. This justification of an evil is intelligible from a holistic point of view perhaps, but from our particular point of view, it is very hard to understand. In addition, it presupposes that God’s goodness is different from ours. So we have to believe that only God perceives the goodness of everything and whatever He chooses will be good in itself. The main objection here is what was said by the Mutazilite school against the Ash’rite school: if we trust this judgment we will have no reason to trust any moral judgment, including the judgment that what is evil to us is good to God. If we accept this argument, then there is no reason and no criteria for distinguishing between good and evil (Qazi 1965: 76; 1962: vol.6, pp. 102‐03). Many things that we are supposed to attribute to God are incompatible with any thing
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we call goodness if we shift the meaning of “good” to accom‐ modate this discrepancy. The sixth response is that human free will is the cause of evil. As we saw in some verses of the Qur’an, the pollution and evil in the universe is caused by human wickedness; human be‐ ings have the freedom to do evil as well as good. If God did not give them this freedom, we would not see much evil in the uni‐ verse. It seems that this justification is more suitable for moral evil than natural evil, and I will return to it below. The Theosophical Solution Most theologians in the Shi’ite and Mutazelite schools belong to the general school of peripatetic philosophy, which was re‐ founded by Avicenna. But in the seventeen century there was a new movement in the Shi’ite tradition that integrated peripa‐ tetic philosophy with the neoplatonic approach and called their philosophy a perennial philosophy. The founder, Muhammad Ibrahim Shirazi (d. 1645), claimed that his philosophy was transcendental and a theosophical philosophy that integrated philosophy with a kind of mysticism. In the latter part of the Qajar dynasty and during the Islamic revolution in Iran (1979), most Islamic philosophers in Iran were going to welcome and accept this kind of philosophy. Mutahari (d. 1980), who was one of the close companions of Ayatollah Khomeini, elucidated theosophical philosophy in a clear language for Iranian readers. This movement looked at the problem of evil by means of their special method, and I will try in this section to explain this me‐ thod briefly. In the first stage, theosophists explain the meaning of the interest or expediency of God and humankind. According to them, we cannot compare and shift these two meanings of ex‐ pediency. With reference to humankind, it means using some means to reach his or her goal on the basis of the law and sys‐ tem of the universe. But with reference to God, we cannot infer this meaning, because He himself is the essence of the universe and that expediency does not make any sense for Him. There are no other rules or system than this one until God create in ac‐ cordance with it (Mutahari 1984: 107‐08). On the other hand, as
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I mentioned above, the conflicts in our world are essential to it and lead one to accept the universe as the grace of God. In the second stage, theosophists explain the definition of the system as a law of nature. According to them, the nature of the universe has levels that are essential to it, i.e. not contrac‐ tible or accidental. Every level has its law and consequences. So, the being of each phenomenon in the universe is equal to its level and its status in the universe. In addition, the causality of the system was created with the universe in one step and in one fiat. Thus, it is not true to suppose that God created the uni‐ verse in one step and then created its causality and levels in an‐ other step. They clarify their intention by the example of a chain of numbers. The numbers were created in one step and it does not make sense to say they were created and then were given the attribute of even and odd (Shirazi 2002: vol. 2, ch. 31; Muta‐ hari 1984: 109‐10). There are not two wills—a will that creates and a will that imposes a system on them. That is why all of the phenomena and events in the universe have a real and organic unity. This rule leads to the principle of the atomism of the universe (Mutahari 1984: 109‐10). Islamic theosophy holds that some verses of the Qur’an re‐ fer to this idea too: “We have created everything in due propor‐ tion. Our command comes only once, in the twinkling of an eye!” (54:49). This causality of the universe in the language of the Qur’an is called the tradition or precedent of God. Accord‐ ing to the Qur’an, “You will never find any change in Allah’s precedent” (33:62). Islamic theosophists interpret these verses as if they refer to the inalterability of the laws of nature. This explanation, as it seems, is intended to justify the na‐ tural events, which we occasionally regard as evil. In the view of Islamic theosophists all earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis are consistent with the creation of the universe and are created simultaneously with the universe and are essential to it. If God had created them after creating the universe, we could have asked Him about his justice or His goodness. But they occurred in the course of nature without God’s interven‐ tion (Shirazi 2002: vol. 7, pp. 71, 78; Mutahari 1984: 147‐49). The following example will serve to comment on their ex‐ planation of the cosmological system. The whole system of the world, including events and evil, is like the sun and its shadow.
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The shadow is the limitation of the light of the sun, but it is essential to it and is not created independently (Mutahari, 1984: 153). We, as human beings, because of our free will, should es‐ cape from the natural catastrophes as much as we can or pre‐ pare the best facilities to protect us from those catastrophes. Otherwise, we will die, which is another rule of the universe. From this final part of the explanation we can find their justification for moral evil as well. It is due to the free will of human beings that many moral evils appeared that are inflicted by people on others, such as plundering, killing, mental and physical torture and war. According to Islamic teachings, espe‐ cially in Mutazelite and Shi’ite schools, we should not regard them as acts of God or as the mystery of fate. Each person is re‐ sponsible for his or her actions (e.g. Qazi 1965: 396). God is not responsible for all moral evil like war, diseases and poverty. We were created with free will and thus we have to avoid moral evil and escape as much as possible from the massacre and evil ways of human beings. Religion and Wisdom have important roles here. On the one hand, they encourage us to defend our right against human action. And on the other hand, according to Islamic teachings, we should be content in facing some events and moral evils that arise from our capacity and free will. Even though this response seems more intelligible than that of theologians and shares similarities with Stoicism’s view of the universe, which held that the world is an organic whole and a rational being, there are still at least two objections. These objections arise partly from the obscurity of some terms such as essential and accidental attributes and the like in their explan‐ ation. Regarding the justification of natural evil, one could ask theosophists about the difference between God and nature in their philosophy. If we are right in our impression of this justifi‐ cation, it seems that God and nature are equal. Then this justifi‐ cation is not consistent with the orthodox conception of God in the Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In these religions, God, at least in the orthodox conception, is a person and has personal aspects. That is why it makes sense to pray to God in these religions. If Islamic theosophists insist that their solution requires that one accept this concept of God that
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He is beyond personal and impersonal conceptions, then they are in agreement with the orthodox conception. The second question is: If we accept that God created the universe and its law in one fiat, then how can we prove and elucidate the fact that our world is the best of all possible worlds? Conclusion The problem of evil, from the Islamic point of view has three main answers. All three categories—ordinary people, theolo‐ gians and theosophists—accept the existence of evil and then attempt to justify it, not to respond it. Some theosophists (Shi‐ razi 2002: vol. 7, p. 77) also state this reality in a way that shows that each justification is suitable for a certain category or cate‐ gories and so, perhaps, we can say that there is a typological ex‐ planation of the issue. The first has to do with ordinary people: they view evil as a mystery of fate. Most Muslims are content with this answer when confronted with evil. The second refers to those theologians who take up the problem of evil as a question in confrontation with some dual‐ istic religions and not as an argument against those who deny God. The Islamic theologians came to justify the problem in light of some experiences from other traditions. They would come to believe in a personal God who, in their view has some attributes like justice, omnipotence and omniscience, and the existence of evil does not destroy this conception. It is impor‐ tant for our discussion to know that most theologians in Islamic countries are not aware of the critiques of this response to the problem of evil made by some Western philosophers in the last two centuries. It seems that, because of this mentality, they have a kind of fanatical attitude with respect to their knowl‐ edge of the answers. Moreover, their theology did not advance beyond the fourteenth century. They usually repeat the old ar‐ guments, and, at best, only comment on some. They cannot cre‐ ate a new theology that is appropriate for our life in the contem‐ porary world. The third refers to those scholars who integrate elements of neoplatonic philosophy with Islamic mysticism. They believe that the most sacred and powerful entity in the universe is im‐
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personal and beyond our conception and categories. It does not matter to them what the name of this transcendental power is, and therefore we can regard them as pluralistic scholars. But, as we know, this conception is not consistent with Islamic teach‐ ing and doctrine. Thus, this power created the universe in one fiat in the best possible form with its natural events some of which we regard as evil. But, as to moral evil, they believe in human free will and thus do not attribute human evil to God or to the teachings of religion. This kind of evil should be con‐ trolled and avoided by rational solutions such as the enacting of necessary laws for social life, and the development of knowl‐ edge, dialogue, and mutual understanding. Finally, to put it briefly, it seems that our contemporary problems such as terrorism and religious fundamentalism need more revision and reflection than presently exist and viewing them as evil is the easiest way, which perhaps serves only to complicate matters. On the other hand, some concepts in Islam‐ ic theology and law such as just war, infidelity, relationships between Muslims and non‐Muslims, the right of minorities and etc., need more rethinking and reinterpretation. In this respect the role of scholars and the ulama in keeping peace and order is very important. Viewing these problems in the old way as a kind of evil does not help to solve the problem. Bibliography Avicenna, Hossein. (1997). Shefa. Ed by Hassanzadeh Amoli. Qum: Hoze Elmieh Qum, DaftareTablighate Islami. Baghdadi, Abd‐al Ghahir.(1981). Asul al‐din. 3rd ed. Lebanon: Dar al‐Kotob al‐Elmieh. Fakhr Razi, Mohammad Ibn Omar. (1934). Mafatih Al‐Ghaib. Egypt: Matbat al‐Mesrieh, Ghazali, Imam Mohammad al‐. (1986). Ehya al‐olom. Lebanon: Dar al‐Kotob al‐Elmieh (1997) The Incoherence of The Philosophers, Transl. Michael. E. Mar‐ mura. Provo: Brigham University Press. Hick, John. (1990). Philosophy of Religion. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Hospers John. (1990). An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.
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Imam Ali (n.d.). Nahj Al‐ Balaghah. Ed. by Mohammad Abdoh. Egypt.: Maktabol Tejarieh. Majlesi, Mohammad Baqer. (1983). Behar Al‐ Anwar. Lebanon: Moasesat al Vafa. Mill, John Stuart. (1874). Nature, The Utility of Religion, and Theism: Three Essays on Religion. London: Longmans Green. Qazi Abd Al‐ Jabbar Al‐. (1962). Al‐Moghni fi Abvab Al‐Towhid va Al‐ Adl. Ed. by Ibrehim Madkour. Egypt:[Dar al‐Mesrieh Lel Talif v al‐Tarjome. (1965). Sharh Al‐ Asoul Al‐ Khamsah. Egypt.:Maktabe Vahabe. Moslem Ibn Hajaj Naisabouri. (1981). Sahih Moslem. Istanbul: Daral‐ dava. Mutahari, Morteza. (1984). Adl Elahi. Qum: Sadra. Sadeq, Imam Ja’far ibn Muhammad. (1979). Mesbah Al‐Shari‘ate. Leb‐ anon: Moasesat al Elmieh Lelmatbooaat. Shirazi, Mohammad Ibrihim. (2002). Al‐Hikmat Al‐Motaaliyah fi Alasfar Al‐aghliyah Al‐arbae. Lebanon. :Dar al‐Ehya al‐Torasol Arabi. Schrire, Theodore. (1982). “Amulet.” In: Encyclopedia Judaica. Jerusa‐ lem: Keter Publishing House. Tusi, Mohammad Hassan, Nasir al‐Din. (1991). Kashf al‐Morad fi Sharh Tajrid al‐Eateghad. Qum: Ashakori. Zamakhshari, Jar Allah. (1985). Asas Al‐Balaghah. 3rd ed. Egypt: Dar al‐Kotob.
Critical Humanism and the Problem of Evil From Vertical to Horizontal Transcendence Harry Kunneman
Abstract The central theme of this article is the search for a critical humanistic anthropology that could help us to understand better the evil that is done in the name of both religious and humanistic worldviews, including their mu‐ tual hostility. To this end the author builds on the work of the primatologist Frans de Waal and the feminist philosopher Jessica Benjamin. The perspective developed by these authors enable one to fully recognize the central role of aggression both on the social and on the intra‐psychical level but to hold fast at the same time to the possibility of caring and intersubjective relationships between humans. In conclusion, the distinction between vertical and hor‐ izontal transcendence is offered as a possible bridge between religious and hu‐ manistic worldviews, which could help to diminish the hostile projections that, from both sides, tend to dominate their interactions.
Introduction Thinking about the problem of evil in relation to religious worldviews, the first thing that comes to mind is the relative impotence of religious and secular worldviews alike to dimin‐ ish and alleviate the staggering amount of evil and human suf‐ fering in our present world.1 According to many contemporary critics, religious worldviews should even be considered as
1
I am following Paul Ricoeur’s suggestion that the problem of evil concerns two problems: on the one hand, the evil committed by those who violate moral laws and precepts and, on the other, the suffering and grief of those struck by misfortune, violence and injustice. Cf. Ricoeur 1986.
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important sources of evil. Especially by secular humanists, reli‐ gious worldviews are criticized as sources of dogmatism and intolerance and as an impediment to enlightenment and social progress. Such judgments are returned in kind by religious thinkers criticizing secular humanism as furthering amoral forms of hedonistic individualism and strengthening a short‐ sighted confidence in scientific progress and rational control. As a critical humanist, opposing both dogmatic forms of reli‐ gious belief and dogmatic forms of secular humanism, these complementary shortsighted reproaches trouble me deeply.2 In view of the worldwide problems connected with war, terror‐ ism, social injustice, ethnic exclusion and ecological threats, I am convinced that the moral inspiration contained both within humanism and within the different religious traditions is need‐ ed more than ever. Considering these pressing problems, it seems, moreover, of great importance that the usual, deeply in‐ grained divides between religious and secular worldviews be supplanted as far as possible by new forms of mutual recogni‐ tion and cooperation under the banner of humane values such as social justice, solidarity and moral responsibility. Could there be a meeting ground where religious and secular worldviews could develop forms of mutual understanding and respect as a basis for new forms of cooperation aiming at furthering condi‐ tions for human flourishing? At first glance, the quest for such a meeting ground could seem rather naive—not only because of all the bombs that are exploding this very minute in many parts of the world and be‐ cause of all the people being killed in the name of God and in the name of Freedom and Democracy but also because neither the broad spectrum of religions nor the different humanist tra‐ ditions can exempt themselves from the evil and the violence they purport to combat. Both religious and secular perspectives are prone to develop dogmatic, one‐sided and absolutized ver‐ sions of their central tenets. This tendency stems from different, complementary sources. Religious and secular worldviews alike articulate transcendent values with regard to the most im‐ portant and conflictual aspects of human life, especially the 2
For a lucid exposition of some basic tenets of critical humanism, cf. Saïd 2005; also cf. Kunneman 2005.
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possibility of doing evil and the profound seductions connected with many forms of evil. Precisely because these transcendent values are so fragile and because it is so difficult to stay faithful to them, the narratives and arguments supporting their trans‐ cendent status are inherently prone to dogmatization and abso‐ lutization. In the second place, the development of dogmatic and ab‐ solutized versions of religious and secular worldviews is fur‐ thered because they embody an important form of “political capital.” An interesting illustration of this important point is provided by Mohammed Arkoun is his book Rethinking Islam. According to Arkoun the spiritual symbolism and the trans‐ cendent perspective embodied in the Qur’an during the time of the Prophet permitted political action to be linked to symbolic creativity, providing a transcendent perspective for the conduct of believers: The recurrent force of this transcendence [stemmed] very largely from the original link between each verse and a con‐ crete existential situation, either one encountered by the Pro‐ phet in developing his experience of the divine or one faced by his community of disciples in their struggle to perpetuate that experience. The linking of political action to symbolic creativity ended definitively with the rise of the imperial Umayad state. Instead there triumphed an inverse process whereby the symbolic capital carried by the Qur’an was util‐ ized for the construction and imposition of an official, ortho‐ dox Islam. (Arkoun 1994: 22)
This instructive example could easily be augmented by a host of other examples illustrating the dogmatisation and ossification of the transcendent force and moral import of living religious and humanistic perspectives under the influence of economic and political power constellations. In his last book, Humanism and Democratic Criticism, Edward Saïd refers to the critical study by France Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War. According to Saïd, this book gives plentiful evidence that the almost 200 million dollars spent by the CIA to subsidize innumerable humanistic and academic conferences, journals.. prizes, art exhibitions, con‐ certs, musical competitions and many individual scholars,
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HARRY KUNNEMAN writers and intellectuals had a profound effect on the kind of cultural work that was produced and the kind of activity carried on in the name of freedom and humanistic activity. (Saïd 2005: 35)
The same criticism can be made with even more force against all intellectuals who, during the Soviet regime, ignored the most violent forms of political oppression in the name of the “humanism” supposedly embodied in Lenin’s and Stalin’s versions of Marxism. Seen in this light, the search for a meeting ground where religious and secular worldviews could develop new forms of cooperation aimed at furthering conditions for human flourish‐ ing, could indeed seem rather naive. However, I would like to argue that it is precisely the growing insight among adherents of religious and of secular worldviews into their shared complic‐ ity in the violence and evil they purport to combat, which could help to clear a meeting ground between them and could streng‐ then their much needed contribution to a more humane and just world. Building on the analyses of Frans de Waal and Jessica Benjamin (to whom I will turn in the next section), I consider moral insights to flow from two experiential sources: on the one hand, being moved to compassion for another living being and taking adequate action to help or support that being and, on the other, the experience of aggressive impulses or aggressive ac‐ tions being justly restrained. As can be seen from the analyses of de Waal, both experiential sources are already to be found in our next of kin in the evolutionary chain: chimpanzees and bonobos. What they (more or less) lack, however, in compari‐ son with human forms of life, is the ability and propensity for cognitive and narrative symbolization. As a consequence, short‐ term survival value is the main test for new forms of behavior, and “moral innovations” can only be transmitted by way of the genetic preservation of traits favoring (proto‐) moral behavior. In comparison with this situation of our evolutionary pre‐ decessors, the great accomplishment of the different world‐ views that have emerged in the history of humankind is their ability to preserve and strengthen moral insights by cultural means that transcend specific communities and specific historic‐ al circumstances. They therefore make historical learning pro‐
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cesses possible, i.e. learning processes involving a reflective de‐ scription and reinterpretation of their own history, as distinct from (and much more complex than) biological forms of evolu‐ tion. Against this background, one of the sources of hope for me in our troubled times is the growing moral insight within re‐ ligious and secular worldviews into the negative consequences of their own aggressiveness toward other worldviews and into their own complicity with political power constellations and forms of violent exclusion. This kind of moral insight involves a form of reinterpreting and rewriting their own history and the possibility of envisaging another future for themselves in which there would be more room for cooperation and mutual learning between adherents of different religious and secular world‐ views. As a possible contribution to such a development I want to start “close to home” and propose a critical humanistic anthro‐ pology that could help to remedy the persistent tendency of hu‐ manists to look away from the violent parts of the human ac‐ tion repertoire and concentrate instead on human capacities for solidarity, learning and artistic creativity. Such a critical anthro‐ pology could perhaps help us to face the aggressiveness and the violence connected with humanism itself, not only in the form of complicity with political power constellations but also in the guise of persistent projections by humanist thinkers of all kinds of evil on religious worldviews. Only by “owning” our own ag‐ gressiveness, as Jessica Benjamin says, can we hope to contrib‐ ute to the human flourishing that forms the main horizon of re‐ ligious and secular worldviews alike. So, as a critical humanist, in this article I will try to sketch the outlines of a humanistic an‐ thropology that could help humanists to “own” not only the moral significance and inspiration but also the aggressiveness embodied in their worldview. I thus hope to contribute in this way to the clearing of a much needed “middle ground” and new forms of mutual recognition between religious and secular worldviews. Our Inner Ape In 2005 the Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal added another book to his already impressive oeuvre on primate behavior
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called Our Inner Ape. It contains a detailed exposition and com‐ parison of the social life of the two evolutionary lineages that, genetically speaking, are the closest to the human race: chim‐ panzees and bonobos. It is de Waal’s main contention that the basic psychological and social characteristics of humans, as passed down to them by two hundred million years of biolo‐ gical evolution, form an uneasy combination of the different be‐ havioral repertoire of chimpanzees and bonobos. To clarify the far‐reaching consequences of this thesis, I will briefly sketch some of the most telling illustrations of the differences between chimpanzees and bonobos provided by de Waal on the basis of decades of research by himself and by his colleagues, both in captive communities and in communities living in the wild. Squeezed Out Chimpanzees are very strong and intelligent creatures, leading an intense social life dominated by the strongest and cleverest males. Their weapons are not only strong muscles but also ca‐ nine teeth (only found in males), enabling them to inflict deep wounds. Social interactions between chimpanzees are charac‐ terized by high levels of strife and violence, mostly triggered by conflicts around food and sex. Violent confrontations take place not only within specific communities but also between com‐ munities. Internal community violence is connected mainly with the leadership position, which secures both control over food supplies and sexual access to females. The strongest and cleverest males acquire the position of “alpha male” but, in general, are not able to hold on to this position for more than four or five years, because their status is constantly challenged by younger “upstarts” and because the stress connected with all the fighting and scheming wears them out. De Waal relates the story of three powerful apes, Yeroen, Nikki and Luit, living in a sizable and flourishing community in “de Apenheul,” a park for primates close to Apeldoorn in the Netherlands. Yeroen had been the alpha male for several years, based on his great strength and cleverness, but was getting old‐ er and had lost his former strength. So his position was being taken over by a younger, very strong male, named Luit by the primatologists who made an in‐depth study of the inner dy‐ namics and the development of this community. Yeroen very
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much resented this loss of power and—being intelligent and clever—forged a coalition with Nikki, a young upstart. Nikki was stronger than Yeroen but weaker than Luit. Neither Nikki nor Yeroen could defeat Luit on their own, but together they could. So with Yeroen’s help, Nikki became the alpha male and secured his continuing support by granting Yeroen privileged access to food and females. Although Yeroen now found him‐ self second in command, he had regained almost all of his form‐ er privileges. This arrangement held for some time, until it was broken up by a conflict between Nikki and Yeroen over sexual privileges. According to de Waal, such a conflict is eminently understandable: Looking at the outsize canine teeth of a male baboon or the bulk and muscle of a male gorilla, ones sees fighting ma‐ chines evolved to defeat rivals in pursuit of the one currency recognized by natural selection: offspring produced. For males this is an all or nothing game; rank determines who will sow his seed far and wide and who will sow no seed at all. Consequently males are built to fight, with a tendency to probe rivals for weak spots and a certain blindness to dan‐ ger. (de Waal 2005: 48)
The top males in chimpanzee communities not only secure all the sex the want for themselves but also control the sexual op‐ portunities of other males. In this particular case, Nikki became ever more sure of his top position and started to hinder Yeroen from having sex with his favorite females. After repeated squabbles, Yeroen ended their “contract” and stopped hugging Nikki and supporting him in fights. So Luit stepped in again and challenged and defeated Nikki. This story came to a sad end after a few months of Luit being in the top position again, when, one night, Nikki and Yeroen cornered Luit in the night quarters where they had been place in separation from the fe‐ males. Luit was severely wounded and almost tortured to death by Nikki and Yeroen, who were working together once more to regain their joint power position. When de Waal found Luit the next morning after being summoned by an emergency tele‐ phone call, he witnessed the saddest moment of my career as a primatologist. It was immediately obvious that Luit’s condition was life‐threat‐
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HARRY KUNNEMAN ening. He still moved about but had lost enormous amounts of blood. He had deep puncture holes all over his body and had lost fingers and toes. We soon discovered that he was missing even more vital parts .… Luit’s testicles were gone. They had disappeared from the scrotal sac even though the holes in the skin seemed smaller than the testicles them‐ selves, which the keepers had found lying in the straw on the cage floor. “Squeezed out” the vet concluded impassive‐ ly. (de Waal 2005: 42)
Violent struggles for power, food and sexual privileges occur not only within communities of chimpanzees but also be‐ tween communities living in the wild. On a visit to the Mahale mountains where the renowned Japanese primatologist Nishida has been studying different communities of chimpanzees living in the wild for decades, de Waal witnessed the extreme tension and stress in a group of male chimpanzees who were on “bor‐ der patrol” at the edge of their territory. Given how chimpanzees of different communities treat each other, I would be nervous too. Males kill each other through highly coordinated actions against single individuals of an‐ other community. [They act] almost the way they do toward prey, treating the enemy as if it belonged to another species. One attacker might pin down the victim (sitting on his head, holding his legs) while others bit, hit and pounded. They would twist off a limb, rip out a trachea, remove fingernails, literally drink blood pouring from wounds, and in general not let up until their victim stopped moving .… Nishida … believes that all the males of one of his communities were gradually wiped out by neighboring males over a period of twelve years. The winners then claimed the vacant territory and the females in it. (de Waal 2005: 132‐33)
Proto‐Morality Before turning to a short characterization of the very different interaction patterns of bonobos, I would like to underscore an important aspect of chimpanzee life which has remained in the background until now but is of great significance for the subject at hand. I am referring to the different forms of “proto‐moral behavior” within chimpanzee communities analyzed by de
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Waal. A good example of such behavior is provided by the way in which Luit handled conflicts between lower apes in the com‐ munity. Such conflicts, for instance between younger male apes, can escalate rapidly because concerned mothers tend to join the fighting in support of their suns, bringing ever more parties in‐ to the conflict. When he came into power Luit developed a spe‐ cial way to deal with such conflicts. Dominant chimps generally break up fights by either sup‐ porting the weak against the strong or through impartial in‐ tervention .… Within weeks of attaining alpha rank, Luit, the most even‐handed leader I have known, adopted what is known as the “control role”. A quarrel between two females got out of hand and ended with hair flying. Numerous apes rushed up to join in the fray. A huge knot of fighting, screaming apes rolled around in the sand until Luit leaped in and literally beat them apart. He did not choose sides, like everybody else had. Instead, anyone who continued to fight received a blow from him .… As alpha, Luit seemed to place himself above the conflicting parties, his intercessions aimed at the restoration of peace rather than at aiding his friends. (de Waal 2005: 77‐78)
Although de Waal does not use this term, I think that Luit’s style of intervention can justly be called proto‐moral, because it involves the primacy of “considerations” of general interest above ties of friendship. Moreover, Luit was not the only one who was able to make this important distinction. When Nikki and Yeroen came into power, Nikki also tried to fulfill the con‐ trol role, but his interventions were not accepted by the older females. According to de Waal “one reason may have been that Nikkie was far from impartial: he sided with his friends regard‐ less of who had started the fight.” So the control role went over to Yeroen, whose attempts at peacemaking were generally ac‐ cepted. De Waal concludes that the community as a whole has a say in who performs the control role: If the control role is an umbrella shielding the weak against the strong, it’s held up by the community as a whole. Its members throw their weight behind the most effective arbi‐ trator, providing him with the broad base needed to guaran‐ tee peace and order. (de Waal 2005: 78)
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Make Love, Not War Not only in the light of the violence characterizing their beha‐ vior in general but also against the background of widespread prejudices about “bestial” behavior, such forms of proto‐moral‐ ity within communities of chimpanzees are striking enough in themselves. Even more striking however is the proto‐morality exhibited in the behavioral repertoire of bonobos. The special characteristics of bonobos have long been unre‐ cognized. One reason for this was that there was only one ter‐ ritory in the former Congo where they can be found in the wild. But another reason was that their specific form of social integra‐ tion was ignored for a long time by scientists who expected to find more or less the same general characteristics in bonobos as in chimpanzees. According to de Waal—whose scientific work over the last decades has been an important lever in bringing about new views on the life of the bonobos (cf. de Waal 1989; 2001)—there could well have been a strong male prejudice at work here. As revealed by his observations and those of other primatologists, a first far‐reaching difference between chimpan‐ zees and bonobos concerns the reversed position of males and females: with bonobos the older females rule the community, while the position of male bonobos, especially their access to food, is determined primarily by the rank of their mother. This difference clearly correlates with important differences between the habitats of chimpanzees and bonobos: chimpanzees live in territories where their most important sources of food are spread over a relatively wide area and have to be sought for in‐ dividually or in very small groups. Female chimpanzees cannot afford to form large, intensively communicating groups able to resist male dominance. Bonobos, however, live in a area with an abundance of fruit trees bearing very large fruits, sometimes weighing up to twenty pounds. When ripe, these fruits fall to the ground and are immediately surrounded by a large group of females accompanied by their sons. The leading female bonobo, in general an older ape, supervises the division of the food among the women and their sons. This power arrangement is accompanied by a completely different pattern of communication. Instead of the constant threats, challenges and fights characterizing the largest part of the interactions among chimpanzees, the groups of females
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who dominate bonobo societies are engaged in frequent sexual encounters both among themselves and with preferred males. Females use intensive reciprocal rubbing of their genitals both as a source of contact and pleasure and as a means to dampen beginning conflicts. Males also engage in mutual masturbation and—apart from routine masturbation on an individual basis— sexual intercourse between males and females is going on all the time. According to de Waal, bonobos have sex not only in a variety of positions, but also in virtually all partner combinations. They disprove the no‐ tion that sex is intended solely for procreation. I estimate that three‐quarters of their sexual activity has nothing to do with reproduction, at least not directly: it frequently in‐ volves members of the same sex or takes place during the infertile portion of a female’s cycle. And then there are the many erotic patterns that do nothing for reproduction, in‐ cluding not only French kissing, but also fellatio and mas‐ sage of another’s genitals. One male, with back straight and legs apart, will present his erect penis to another, who loose‐ ly closes his hand around the shaft, making caressing up‐ and‐down movements. (de Waal 2005:92)
An important aspect of bonobo sexuality is its casualness: sex is everywhere, but it is no big deal. Bonobos “happily mix the sex‐ ual with the social.” Sex is used not only for reproduction but also for same‐sex bonding, for conflict resolution, for the ex‐ pression of affection and, of course, just for fun. The preponderance of excited and affectionate rubbing, ca‐ ressing and touching among bonobos goes hand in hand with a high level of empathy among them. De Waal relates the story of Kidogoo, a feeble male bonobo who was introduced into an‐ other colony at the Milwaukee County Zoo and could not un‐ derstand the instructions of the keepers, trying to move him from one part of the tunnel system into another. Upon hearing his signs of distress, two other bonobos joined them, took Kid‐ ogoo by the hand and led him to the designated place. This scene repeated itself a few times and soon became a pattern, Kidogoo relying on and getting help whenever he could not cope with a situation (de Waal 2005: 170).
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Such empathic and helping behavior can even be extended to living beings of other species. De Waal once witnessed a scene with a little bird flying against the glass wall and lying dazed in a bonobo cage. A younger female bonobo approached, picked it up and held it in the air, apparently hoping that it would take flight again. When the bird apparently did not have the strength to fly, she took it up high in a tree, carefully spread its wings, and then let it go. Empathic acts such as these, involving “taking the place of the other” are by no means rare among primates (neither, we should add, among other animals leading an intense social life, notably elephants and dolphins). Even the aggressive chimpan‐ zees exchange grooming services and frequently “make up” af‐ ter fights, gently rubbing a wound they have inflicted minutes before. According to de Waal, the likely explanation of empath‐ ic behavior among primates is not concern about the other’s welfare, but distress caused by another’s distress. Such a response has enormous surviv‐ al value …. Evolution has equipped us with genuinely coop‐ erative impulses and inhibitions against acts that might harm the group on which we depend. (de Waal 2005: 178, 191)
Here we find the biological roots of morality. For de Waal, the concept of morality refers to the two “H’s”: helping and (not) hurting. Helping others is not only an extension of care for the young but is also directly connected with forms of cooperation associated with the gathering and sharing of food, especially hunting: The three primates best at public sharing—that is sharing outside the family—are humans, chimpanzees and capuchin monkeys. All three love meat, they hunt in groups, and they share even among adult males, which makes sense given that males do most of the hunting. (de Waal 2005: 196)
Thus according to de Waal, “moral emotions” and different forms of proto‐morality based on these emotions are firmly es‐ tablished in our genetic heritage. But so are all our competitive drives, our aggressive tendencies and our ability to display completely insensitive and even extremely cruel behavior. The
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customary image of nature “red in tooth and claw” is thus re‐ jected by de Waal: “Far from being a figment of the imagina‐ tion, our morality is a product of the same selection process that shaped our competitive and aggressive side.” The combination of these two sides makes for one of the most internally conflicted animals ever to walk the earth. It is capable of unbelievable destruction of both its environment and its own kind, yet at the same time it possesses wells of empathy and love deeper than ever seen before. (de Waal 2005: 237)
Intersubjective Containment The perspective developed by de Waal not only touches me deeply but is also of great help in my search for a critical hu‐ manistic anthropology that could help to remedy the persistent tendency of humanists to ignore the violent aspects of the hu‐ man action repertoire, especially their own complicity in power and violence, both in the domain of power politics and in the domain of the struggle for cultural hegemony. Atheistic tradi‐ tions especially within modern humanism have fought fierce battles against the supposed backwardness and dogmatism of religious worldviews, extolling their own rationality and pro‐ gressiveness and relegating religion to the domain of private opinion and superstition. As Alister Macgrath has convincingly argued in his book, The Twilight of Atheism, in our time the scales seem to be shifting again: the former confidence in the triumph of secularization and the benefits of scientific and tech‐ nological progress is waning considerably and religious world‐ views have regained much of their former social and cultural influence (cf. McGrath 2004). One would hope, however, that this development will not resemble the succession of alpha males within communities of chimpanzees too closely: the occupants of the top position change, but the hierarchical setup of the whole process remains the same. Instead, the incredibly violent history of the past cen‐ turies and the renewed outbursts of violent confrontations in our time in the name of opposing values and worldviews could help us perhaps to acknowledge and “own” the aggressiveness connected with our own worldview. As a small contribution to
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such a development from the side of my own tradition, in this section I want to flesh this critical humanistic anthropology out somewhat that arises from the work of Frans de Waal and other primatologists. To this end, it seems wise first to try and counter some rea‐ sonable arguments against all too hasty generalizations from the characteristics of chimpanzees and bonobos to human life forms. Is the development of the human race not characterized by a progressive development away from the repetitive violence and the immutable hierarchies of chimpanzee communities, culminating in modern democracy and the possibilities for ra‐ tional debate embodied in the sciences and the humanities? And is it not the great contribution of human cultural traditions and forms of symbolization, which cannot be found among apes, to have fed and supported this development during the past twenty‐five centuries by way of religious traditions and philosophical enquiries and the power of the literary imagina‐ tion? Indeed it is, at least up to a point, as I will argue in the last paragraph. At this point of my exposition, I would like to an‐ swer these reasonable arguments with a counter question: would it not be wise to try and bring this impressive cultural development one step further by considering the possibility that the aggressive potential embodied in our biological heritage is still very much with us, albeit in changed forms? Strong support for such a line of thought is to be found in the work of the psychiatrist and feminist philosopher Jessica Benjamin. Of course, the psychoanalytical tradition as a whole offers a wealth of insights into the importance and force of our aggressive capabilities. However, starting with Freud, the great‐ est part of the psychoanalytical tradition has tended to picture the dominant influence of this part of our action repertoire as an immutable ahistorical configuration, on a par with the un‐ changing energetic drive embodied in the libido. It has there‐ fore been unable to articulate the proper place and importance of moral insights and moral learning processes and of the cul‐ tural traditions feeding such insights, as appears from Freud’s dismissive analysis of the genesis and social function of reli‐ gious beliefs or Lacan’s conceptualization of the symbolic order, which eliminates beforehand every possibility of the moral learning processes.
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Against this background, the great importance of Benja‐ min’s work (and that of related feminist thinkers such as Judith Butler and Rosi Braidotti) rests on her efforts to develop a psy‐ choanalytically informed feminist philosophy focusing on the possibility of moral learning processes that are propelled by positive interference between aggressiveness and destruction on the one hand and intersubjective recognition on the other. In this way, the two poles of human nature that de Waal extracts from his analysis of chimpanzees and bonobos can be brought into mutual contact, at least at the level of conceptual analysis and philosophical reflection. In view of my search for a humanistic anthropology that does not invite us to ignore the problem of evil but keeps fast to the possibility and reality of moral learning, the pivotal point of Benjamin’s analysis is provided by her reformulation of a cen‐ tral psychoanalytical insight. This insight is that Freud’s thesis that the human subject is not an autonomous and undivided entity but is essentially dependent upon others. The subject constantly assimilates what is outside itself …. The ego can‐ not leave the other to be an independent outside entity be‐ cause it is always incorporating the other, or demanding that the other be like the self. (Benjamin 1998: 79)
In the classical Freudian view, this dependency is interpreted in terms of identifications and projections, serving to “deny the loss and uncontrollability that otherness necessarily brings.” Benjamin reinterprets this dependency in terms of the reciprocal constitution of human subjects in relation to one another by way of the recognition of the otherness of the other. Recogni‐ tion however cannot be had “without being negated, acted up‐ on by the other in a way that changes the self, making it non‐ identical” (Benjamin 1998: 79). The crucial question then becomes what could enable the self to accept the lack of self containment and safety inherently connected with recognizing the otherness of the other and re‐ specting difference. Benjamin explicitly rejects “moralizing” an‐ swers to this question which posit recognition and love for oth‐ er human beings as an overriding moral obligation, involving either the successful repression of our aggression and destruc‐ tiveness, as envisaged by Kant, for instance, or their complete
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transcendence, as envisaged not only by Maslow but also by Habermas in his famous sketch of the ideal speech situation.3 Such answers tend to deny the existence and importance of the “monster within”or, better, “the chimpanzee within,” i.e. the importance and influence of the violent capacities and tenden‐ cies of human subjects. Benjamin clarifies this crucial point with the help of the notion of omnipotence: Psychoanalytically we associate violence with the problem of omnipotence. By omnipotence, we mean not merely a wish but a mental state .... In this state we are unable to take in that the other person does not want what we want, do what we say .... Violence is the outer perimeter of the less dramatic tendency of the subject to force the other to either be or want what it wants, to assimilate the other to itself, or to make it a threat. (Benjamin 1998: 86)
Reading and rereading these insightful lines of Jessica Ben‐ jamin against the background of de Waal’s analysis of our inner ape, images arise in my mind of Nikki and Yeroen cornering and slowly murdering Luit and of Nikki trying to assume abso‐ lute power and to prevent Yeroen from mating with his favorite females. But images also arise from my own biography with respect to my own painful and destructive omnipotence in en‐ counters with important others. Indeed, Jessica Benjamin asks that attention be paid not only to all forms of physical violence between people but also to the “less dramatic” tendency of subjects to assimilate the other to themselves. Building on the work of Winnicott, Benjamin speaks here of the destruction of the otherness of the other as an all pervasive and persistent ten‐ dency in human subjects. An important manifestation of this tendency is the projection of one’s own aggression upon the other, of attributing “the chimpanzee within ourselves” to the other and thus refusing to “own” our inner aggression towards others who do not comply with our conscious and unconscious wishes.
3
For Maslow cf. Habermas 1984. Cf. also Benjamin’s acute remark on Habermas (1998: 93): he “provided an entry into intersubjectivity, but without sufficient attention to the subject’s destructive omnipotence.”
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Against this background Benjamin is able to reframe the question of what could enable the self to accept and recognize otherness instead of destroying it as a quest for intersubjectivity. The self is in need of intersubjective containment by the other in order to overcome its psychic omnipotence and be able to re‐ spect difference. Benjamin explains the central concept of inter‐ subjective containment by (implicitly) distinguishing several steps in the emergence of an intersubjective relation. The first step is formed by the intrapsychic destruction of the otherness of the other—by way of projection or of identification—by one of the persons involved in a interaction. If the other does the same, they remain stuck in a relation of dominance and submis‐ sion or in an indeterminate struggle for power over the other; in a chimpanzee universe so to speak. However, the experience of being “destroyed by the other” can also serve as an impulse to stand up for one’s own subjectivity and resist the intrapsychic omnipotence of the other without returning the destruction in kind. If this happens, a crucial next step in the emergence of an intersubjective relation is made. Benjamin designates this step as the ability of the person to “survive” the destruction by the omnipotent other without retaliating in kind. At this point, the essential dependence of subjects on other persons to overcome their intrapsychic omnipotence, shows itself most clearly. As Benjamin writes: The other’s difference must exist outside .… Only the exter‐ nality of the other that survives destruction allows a repre‐ sentation of the other as simultaneously outside control and nonthreatening—a form of negation that social relations of domination enforced by violence intrinsically prevent. (Ben‐ jamin 1998: 96)
A simple but instructive example of this kind of “contain‐ ing negation” or “negativity of nonviolence,” as Benjamin says, is provided by a woman who “survives” the anger and frus‐ trated projections of a male partner upon refusing to accommo‐ date his sexual wishes on demand. Survival would mean here not to submit to—or identify with—his omnipotence but in‐ stead to step “out of the shadow” of the male’s projections and stand up for the legitimacy of her own wishes and desires with‐ out answering his angry projections—for instance, about her
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lack of love for him or her supposed frigidity—with projections of her own. The chimpanzee is confronted here so to speak with a double‐headed other, a “chimpanbono,” who is simultaneously strong enough to resist his omnipotence and to offer a continu‐ ation of the relationship along lines of reciprocal recognition and cooperation. The core of this “containing negativity” is thus being simultaneously outside the control of the other and non‐ threatening; in other words, to offer a continuation of the rela‐ tionship on another basis, the basis of respected difference and mutual recognition. However, in order for this intersubjectivity to emerge (or reemerge) a third and last step is necessary, namely the acceptance of this offer by the other, who must be able and prepared to “take back” his projections and to “own” his aggression and frustration, as a reaction to intersubjective containment. The Inevitable Breakdown of Intersubjectivity As is clear from the above, I am impressed and moved both by de Waal’s analysis of the ambivalences of “our inner ape” and by Benjamin’s feminist and psychoanalytical perspective on the intersubjective containment of the “monster within.” My emo‐ tions stem primarily from the precious combination offered by their work of intellectual clarity on the one hand and moral and existential significance on the other. In the complex web of relationships I am involved in as son, brother, partner/ lover, father and friend, and as a professional within a network of aca‐ demic organizations, I have ample personal experience of chim‐ panzee behavior, both by myself and by others around me. In combination with de Waal, Benjamin provides me with a deeper understanding of two important experiential and exis‐ tential insights emerging from the high and low points of the story of my life thus far. The first concerns my experience that fierce conflicts with important others do not necessarily lead to a breakdown of the relationship but now and then can also re‐ sult in moments of truth in which “the otherness of the other” can be felt and respected on a deep emotional level, resulting in a deepening of the relationship. Referring to Chandler, Benja‐ min speaks here of “mimetic resonance in which two minds are felt to be present”; and, citing Winnicot, she adds: “… only the outside other can be loved. It is ultimately this pleasure in the
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discovery of somebody to love that compensates the break up of identity” (1998: 91). The second important life experience that Benjamin helps me to understand better and accept concerns the inevitability of the breakdown of intersubjectivity and—by implication—the preciousness of moments of intersubjective recognition. I have experienced a wide variety of breakdowns of intersubjectivity in many different contexts and many of them are connected for me with feelings of guilt, self‐reproach and remorse or with deep disappointment and anger towards others when I hold them responsible for such breakdowns. Benjamin helps me to interpret these experiences in a less punitive, more open frame‐ work in which tensions, ambivalence and inner division are not so much a condition to be transcended as the “very stuff” of hu‐ man encounters; the humus out of which intersubjectivity can emerge but from which it can never be severed: In referring the self to its relationship with the concrete other, we locate the self in the fragile, unenclosed space of intersubjectivity, a possible reciprocity of difference and re‐ cognition, from which negativity, both creative and disas‐ trous, cannot be excluded. (Benjamin 1998: 105)
Along these lines, the farewell to the autonomy and unity of the subject following from Benjamin’s analysis, can be considered as an important gain instead of a loss. To cite her for the last time: Difference, hate, failure of love can be surmounted not be‐ cause the self is unified, but because it can tolerate being di‐ vided. Inclusion of split off feelings or blocked aspirations is motivated not by a compulsion to restore unity but out of the wish to be less resentful and afraid of projected anger, less terrified of loss, less punitive toward what one desires. (Benjamin 1998: 105)
My efforts to highlight the moral and existential inspiration with which the analyses of de Waal and Benjamin provide me are motivated not only by the wish to do full justice to the im‐ portance of their views but serve also as a bridge to an aspect of the problems they address which remains more or less in the background of their work. I am referring here to the crucial im‐
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portance of narrative articulations of moral insights to be found, for instance, in religious traditions, in literary works, in all kinds of folk tales and in contemporary popular culture, such as films, pop songs and even in some computer games. In the work of religiously‐inspired hermeneutical philosophers such as Paul Ricoeur and Charles Taylor but also in the work of hu‐ manistic thinkers such as Bakhtin, Hans‐Georg Gadamer, Mar‐ tha Nussbaum and Edward Saïd, we find different articulations of the basic intuition that moral learning processes are essential‐ ly dependent upon the narrative articulation of “hypergoods” or transcendent values. In the first part of his monumental Truth and Method, Gadamer suggests that the development of moral insights on the level of the individual depends on forms of Bild‐ ung in which an image, or “Bild,” of a good life is pictured as a horizon of personal and moral development against the back‐ ground of a sensus communis, a shared feeling for the common good. Although de Waal and other contemporary primatologists rightfully stress that “culture” is not an exclusive privilege of human life forms but can also be found among apes, it is none‐ theless clear that ape communities have very limited possibili‐ ties for the narrative articulation and enhancement of shared moral insights, for example concerning the just or unjust char‐ acter of their leaders and the lessons to be learned for the com‐ mon good from their specific ways of handling conflicts. The story of Luit’s life is lost to future generations of chimpanzees, but it can be told by de Waal to us and to future generations of humans, just as the stories of the lives of Odysseus, Buddha, Je‐ sus and Mohammed have been recorded, told and retold thou‐ sands of times and have thus have developed into enormously complex and rich cultural frameworks, characterized by their own inner dynamics and historical development. As I already argued in the introduction, the great accom‐ plishment of the different worldviews that have emerged in the history of humankind is their ability to preserve and strengthen moral insights by cultural means transcending specific commun‐ ities and specific historical circumstances. They thus make pos‐ sible historical learning processes involving a reflective descrip‐ tion and reinterpretation of their own history, as distinct from (and much more complex than) biological forms of evolution. It
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is this cultural, hermeneutical and narrative dimension of hu‐ man life and the specific forms of moral learning connected with it that is in the background in the work of de Waal and Benjamin. Of course this is completely understandable in view of their aims, but it is also a pity. Their insights into the deep emotional and motivational ambivalences of humans and of hu‐ man life forms can and should be extended, in my view, to the inner dynamics of religious and secular worldviews. They could serve as an important correction of their persistent tend‐ ency to “disown” their own aggressiveness and omnipotence and project these outward, thus hindering or impeding much needed forms of intersubjective recognition and cooperation among adherents of the different worldviews dominating the cultural self‐understanding of our troubled age. In the conclud‐ ing part of my argument I want to explore the possibilities for the emergence of such forms of inter‐worldview recognition with the help of two concepts derived from the work of another important contemporary feminist philosopher: Luce Irigaray. From Vertical to Horizontal Transcendence Building on the work of Luce Irigaray and on Charles Taylor’s analysis of the importance of “hypergoods,” I have suggested that we are witnessing at this time a far‐reaching shift from ver‐ tical to horizontal articulations of transcendence and of trans‐ cendent values (cf. Kunneman 2005: esp. chs. 2‐3). Following Taylor, I interpret transcendent values as “hypergoods,” articu‐ lated within cultural frameworks that provide a horizon of meaning and standards to evaluate and judge one’s own ac‐ tions and those of others: To think, feel, judge within such a framework is to function with the sense that some action, or mode of life, or mode of feeling is incomparably higher than the others, which are more readily available to us. (Taylor 1989: 19)
The incomparability of these “hypergoods” hinges for Taylor on the fact “that these end or goods stand independently of our own desires, inclinations, or choices, that they represent stand‐ ards by which these desires and choices are judged” (Taylor 1989: 20). I follow Taylor ( and related thinkers such as Gada‐ mer, Ricoeur, Saïd and Nussbaum) in his thesis that such a hor‐
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izon of articulated hypergoods, such a horizon of transcendent values, is a prerequisite for a meaningful life. Such a vision makes understandable both the importance of experiences of transcendence on the level of individuals—in whatever form— and the importance of shared stories, rituals and all kinds of as‐ sociation and congregation enabling people to heighten their sensitivity for such experiences and the values connected with them and share their meaningfulness. But I think Taylor’s analysis could be strengthened by be‐ ing more precise about the exact status of the independence of transcendent values with regard to “our own desires, inclina‐ tions, or choices,” as Taylor says. The distinction between ver‐ tical and horizontal articulations of transcendence could be of help. Generally speaking, vertical articulations of transcendence have two main characteristics: in the first place they refer to an absolute source, whether this be God, the Ideas, Nature, Reason or the Other; in the second place they picture the transcendent values as stemming from (and guaranteed by) this absolute source as imperatives which have to obeyed without discussion or critique. In terms of de Waal’s analysis, vertical articulations of transcendence picture the cosmos along the model of a chim‐ panzee community, where order is maintained by submission to (and fear and reverence for) an all‐powerful entity. Horizon‐ tal articulations of transcendence, on the other hand, are charac‐ terized by the recognition that the horizon of transcendent val‐ ues can be kept open only on the basis of fertile frictions be‐ tween a plurality of articulations of the values involved and of the transcendent sources of these values. In terms of Benjamin’s analysis, horizontal transcendence hinges on intersubjective con‐ tainment, where a plurality of different articulations of trans‐ cendent values serve as each other’s “surviving other,” both containing the specific form of omnipotence of the other and creating space for difference and mutual recognition. Seen in this light, a transition form vertical to horizontal ar‐ ticulations of transcendence hinges upon the insight that the transcendence shining through in the different frameworks at stake can only throw its light on human life on the condition that no one of them can monopolize the source of this light and its meaning for human life. Looking back upon the confron‐ tations of the last few centuries between adherents of secular
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humanism on one hand and of religious worldviews on the oth‐ er, the conclusion, however, is justified that on both sides “di‐ sastrous forms of negation” have been more dominant than the creative forms of negation associated by Benjamin with inter‐ subjective containment. On the side of secular humanists, reli‐ gion has been associated consistently with vertical articulations of transcendence and with concomitant forms of dogmatism, while they have ignored, with equal consistency, their own sci‐ entistic dogmatism of secular humanism. During the last decennia however, vertical articulations of transcendence have been criticized from both sides and “weak” articulations of religious belief, as Vattimo has it, and critical forms of humanism have come to the fore. In my view, it is of the utmost importance that this development be strengthened. The deeply ingrained divides between religious and secular worldviews should be supplanted as far as possible by new forms of mutual recognition and cooperation under the banner of humane values such as social justice, solidarity and moral re‐ sponsibility. We cannot accomplish this alone but only by way of mutual intersubjective containment, by developing in our own ways into “chimpanbonos,” simultaneously strong enough to resist the omnipotence of the other and offering a continua‐ tion of the relation along lines of reciprocal recognition and co‐ operation. Bibliography Arkoun, Mohammed. (1994). Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Un‐ common Answers. Boulder: Westview Press. Benjamin, Jessica. (1998). The Shadow of the Other: Intersubjectivity and Gender in Psychoanalysis. New York/London: Routledge. de Waal, F. (1989). Peacemaking among Primates. Cambridge MA: Har‐ vard University Press). (2001). The Ape and the Sushi Master. New York: Basic Books. (2005). Our Inner Ape: The Best and Worst of Human Nature. Lon‐ don: Granta Books. Habermas, Jürgen. (1984). The Theory of Communicative Action. Vol. 1. Boston: Beacon Press Kunneman, Harry. (2005). Voorbij het dikke‐ik: Bouwstenen voor een krit‐ isch humanisme. Amsterdam: Humanistics University Press.
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McGrath, Alister. (2004). The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World. New York: Doubleday. Ricoeur, Paul. (1986). Le mal: Un défi à la philosophie et la théologie, Geneva: Labor et Fides. Saïd, Edward. (2005). Humanism and Democratic Criticism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Taylor, Charles. (1989). Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge University Press.
Evil from a Comparative Perspective Hendrik M. Vroom On Comparing and Consensus After reading all the articles on evil in this volume—and so many other publications by philosophers, theologians and scholars in religious studies—we cannot help asking: What is the case, actually? Is all this merely a matter of religious im‐ agination or philosophical constructions that may help us cope with evil and life? Obviously, believers themselves will tell us that what they say and think is true; otherwise they would not act in accordance with those beliefs. Should we then stop reflec‐ ting on truth and simply use these materials to construct our own imaginings—imaginings that help us cope with the evils and good things we encounter? Indeed, Wendy Doniger is right in stating that mythologies or, as it is currently said in philo‐ sophy, imagination do/does help people to cope. Such coping is related to plausibility and “success,” and both are related to the nature of the world that sets limits to the ways in which we can act. Helpful imagination and successful coping are related to truth. However, we will not delve more deeply into the ques‐ tion of truth in the last contribution to such a rich bouquet of views on evil. I will concentrate on the views described in the preceding pages and point out some lines of convergence and divergence. As in all comparisons between worldview traditions, it is fascinating, on the one hand, how “comparable” themes come to the fore time and again and, on the other, how great the dif‐ ferences are. Also interesting is that the ideas in traditions that are seemingly irreconcilable with each other prove, if we dig deeper, to have some commonality, and that sects in different parts of the world have gone through similar developments. Before we go into the materials themselves, it may be wise to alert ourselves to the fact that the term “comparable” is easy to misunderstand. In our everyday language, it can mean that things are more or less alike, but in comparative philosophy and intercultural theology its meaning is more formal: A and B 343
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are the right phenomena to compare with each other and, in‐ deed, can be compared. By means of a classification into three types of worldviews —acosmic, cosmic and theistic—we can distinguish among dif‐ ferent approaches to evil. This distinction may help us to gain a clearer view of the differences and similarities, even though in practice worldview traditions sometimes “use” elements from other types as well, which may reveal that people sensed a shortcoming in the type to which they in principle adhered. The distinction between types of worldview traditions helps us to see the differences between various approaches in relation to evil, the good life, and transcendence. I will first deal with the acosmic view of Hinduism. Then I will discuss cosmic world‐ views in two phases: first, the secular views of Confucianism and humanism and then some of the systematic points made in the contributions on Buddhism. Because the question of good and evil in Buddhism is difficult to understand for people with a secular and theistic background and this volume contains contributions that deal with evil from various perspectives in Buddhism, I will take some time to explain the main points of the discussion and to summarize the main line of the argument in a few of the papers. After a short treatment of worldviews on the border between cosmic and theistic philosophies, a section on theistic views of evil will follow. In the last section I will re‐ flect on convergences and differences and interreligious rela‐ tions. Evil is Cosmic, Goodness Acosmic As Wendy Doniger, Dinesh Saklani and Victor van Bijlert show, the world is maya. although—as they also show—maya has to be understood in a variety of ways. The world is only an illusion or it has some reality in itself, as most non‐Advaitins say. For all Hindu sects, the divine is not of this world in any way; it is acosmic, fully transcendent, and thus real, perfect bliss and love—satcitananda. By consequence, evil is characteristic of this world. Evil is, so to say, cosmic, and real; the full, divine reality is not‐cosmic. Earthly human beings have a divine core but are imprisoned in a finite, imperfect world. The most fundamental
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cause of the evil they suffer is their ignorance (cf. Doniger: 33).1 Because of their ignorance they do not see that the whole of reality is divine at bottom, and they look for true life and bliss where they cannot find it. The solution is right thinking, she says. But the broad variety of Hindu traditions on the Indian subcontinent do not all have the same “solution” for “the prob‐ lem of evil.” Doniger has pointed out that Hindu mythology had many approaches to evil, which cannot be systematized. No rational explanation and, therefore, no justification for the existence of evil, such as for the death of a young child, can be given (Doniger O’Flaherty 1980: 3‐5). The world can be ima‐ gined as caused by lila, a divine play with what the divine pow‐ er has made, and the world itself as a product of the human im‐ agination, lacking substance and its own reality. However, as Doniger wrote elsewhere, quoting someone else’s view, suffer‐ ing, terror and fear are real enough (Doniger O’Flaherty 1980: 5). Myths tell different stories and provide different perspec‐ tives. Let me give one example of a myth of the divine play with the world: the Mahabharata, the epos that tells the long history of two related families who in ancient times contested with each other for the crown of a (small) kingdom. The heir of the kingdom was addicted to dice and, in the end, could not resist staking his kingdom. He lost. So the brothers and their wife had to leave their city and kingdom and go into exile for twelve years and wander for a thirteenth year in cognito. After those long wanderings in which they underwent impressive religious experiences, they returned and had to challenge the power of their nephews. The fight became awkward—the Bhagavadgita relates the conversation of Lord Krishna with the leader. He ex‐ plains to him that he has to fulfill his obligations, even if that entails that he has to kill his relatives. The cruel battle is disastrous for all. After a prosperous reign, the family, at a later stage in their lives, again takes to wandering and some die. The former king, Yudhisthira, reaches the entrance of heaven and climbs the ladder. What does he see? The villainous family members, sitting right before him 1
Unless otherwise specifically, the page numbers in parentheses in the text refer to this volume.
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and already enjoying heavenly bliss. He cannot find his own family and asks to be brought to them. He has to descend a long path in darkness until he hears their cries of pain. They are being tortured in hell. He is then asked whom he would like to join. When he decides to join family and complain about the misery of how thing are, he is told that all is illusion, and that, in order to reach bliss, he should forget all that has happened.2 If all is maya, villains and doers of good are maya too. Hu‐ man beings are equal, we could say, but the concept of equality —so important for human rights—is different: we are equal in that each of us goes through a unimaginable series of lives that are related by karma, in which we develop or regress and re‐ turn time and again in other forms of living beings. This is not fatalistic, as Doniger stresses (28). It is another form of justice: each person gets what (s)he deserves and everyone can actively contribute to the future and try to reach liberation from this im‐ perfect world. The chain of karmic existence in this maya world will be broken if only we realize that all is illusion and that, at the core of our existence, we are one with the divine. Saklani (48) quotes Ramakrishna: ignorance is like the weeds on the crystal clear water of a pond: we need some bamboo to get rid of the weeds—they are a fence that keeps us away from the knowledge and love of God. As he reminds us of sayings by Kabir: maya is sweet and attractive, like the black collyrium the girls use to attract boys and enthrall them. It is very difficult to be rid of this. All is maya—although, as we can read in the contributions, interpretations of maya differ from “mere illusion” to being real in some sense. However, the evil that we do is because we have been deluded by maya. Good and Evil Are of This World (Cosmic, Secular) The Hindu and Gnostic worldviews are acosmic in the sense that True Reality is not of this world. Other worldview tradi‐
2
Here I follow the shortened movie version in English. The Indian version by B.R. Chopra and Ravi Chopra (RRO TV) ends with the rein‐ statement of the true king and the discourse of Bheeshma on Dharma and his death when his soul leaves for Heaven.
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tions honor this world alone and deny or are agnostic with re‐ spect to supra‐worldly realities in which people believe. Within such a view of life, good and evil are mixed up in the world. There are, however, differences with respect to how they see this mixture of good and evil. A few philosophical schools will say that each value judg‐ ment is a human interpretation of natural processes that in themselves are morally neutral. Each appreciation comes from a human perspective and has no other truth value than when someone says “ugh!” or “fine!” This applies to morality as well. Therefore, if somebody says “this is good” of “this is wrong,” it has no deeper meaning than “I like this” and “I don’t like this.” This view is called emotivism. We encounter this term in the contribution by Vincent Cornell in his judgment about certain religious positions, in which believers proclaim ethical norms and laws by a simple reference to religious commandments. We will discuss this in the section on theistic views of evil. In this section, emotivism is a naturalist view in which there is no higher reality at all. All that is is embedded in the network of natural laws. Human thought and our moral appreciations are embedded in it as well. Therefore, our moral feelings are simply part of our constitution, having developed out of biolo‐ gical and psychological causes and help the human species to survive. Also, “natural evil” just happens. As a young middle‐ aged man said, who had been told by the internist that he had an aggressive form of cancer and would die soon: “My dog will die after a few years, and me too; it happens; that’s life.” What is is just this worldly life, this universe and nothing more. We call evil “evil,” and indicate that we do not like what happens but it is a natural process. We can call such a view of life “natur‐ alism.” “Behaviorism” is one of its branches (all behavior and all conscious thought are mental processes that follow causally from biological and psychological causes) as is “constructiv‐ ism”: all ideals, values, norms and laws are human constructs produced by cultures. There is no other non‐“natural” (or, per‐ haps better: “natural‐cultural”) standard but only a human ap‐ preciation of natural facts or moral conduct that we call good or evil. This volume does not contain any contributions from a na‐ turalist position, but there are a number of contributions that
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deal with worldview traditions that confine themselves to this world or, better, to this cosmos or the (= this) universe. Some of them are religious, Buddhism and Confucianism, and we even see that some Buddhist schools acknowledge a transcendent, reality (nirvana) beyond this world and a gracious being who offers grace and helps human beings. But this is not the same as or even close to the theistic view. In this section I will make some remarks in relation to humanism and Confucianism, and discuss the articles on Buddhism in the next. As a Western worldview tradition, humanism is expressly secular, i.e. it does not acknowledge anything but the this‐ worldly age and existence (Latin secula: age). Humanism has its sources in the Greek, Latin and Christian traditions and was strongly influenced by Enlightenment thought. A humanist holds that all “good” and “evil” things that happen and have not been brought about by human beings are part of the natural processes in the world and are human valuations. However, human beings are reasonable beings with a conscience that tells them what is good and evil. In his contribution Harry Kun‐ neman gives a critical appreciation of the humanist tradition by showing how intersubjective feelings of care, compassion and soothing tensions are present in chimpanzee society. If human nature has been too much separated from its natural envir‐ onment, then the question becomes: How has “Nature” pro‐ duced a being that surpasses the rest of nature? Kunneman shows how one can understand humankind as a part of nature with moral feelings and a conscience. Humankind’s close rela‐ tionship with the chimpanzees implies, as he shows, the ac‐ knowledgment of the darker sides of human nature as well. With both its moral side and its competitive and aggressive side, the human being is one of the most internally conflicted animals ever to walk the earth. It is capable of unbelievable destruction of both its environment and its own kind, yet at the same time it pos‐ sesses wells of empathy and love deeper than ever seen be‐ fore. (De Waal 2005: 237; quoted in Kunneman: 331)
In this way he defends a humanist position that does not shy away from the violent aspects of human life but acknowledges the good and the evil in human conduct. This, of course, pro‐
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vides a stimulus for thinking about how to further the good aspects and mitigate the bad aspects of our being. An Asian type of humanism is, we could say, the Confu‐ cian valuation of human nature as good: the good is primary; what is bad lacks goodness (Cheung: 88). Filial piety is the root of all moral behavior—the neglect of parents and family amounts to lack of piety, and betrayal is the worst act one can do. Similarly, in Christian thought, as in Thomas Aquinas, evil has often been seen as the lack of something: blindness is not something positive but the lack of sight; “the subject that blindness befalls” is an entity but not the blindness itself (Aqui‐ nas 2003: 59). The argument has also been defended in Islamic thought (see Edalatnejad: 309). Thus, in classic Chinese Confu‐ cian thought, goodness is primordial and, by consequence, hu‐ man nature is good as well, according to Mencius. Humanity is moral; it is natural to do the good. Later Confucian scholars like Xunzi argued, however, that human nature is not just good but has an evil tendency as well. Nevertheless, the Confucian stress on the great value of the cul‐ tivation of one’s virtues belongs to the essence of Confucianism. Laws alone will never be enough for society. Of course people need laws, and Confucianism has had its Legalistic schools, but they have not become part of mainstream Confucianism. Inner cultivation is very important, as are high ideals about virtue. Those ideals for the attitudes that a person should develop has led to a culture of honor and shame—which is considered to be an incentive for moral behavior. Cheung says Japanese Confu‐ cianism rejected the idea that human nature is good as such. One’s private conscience alone is not sufficient to help one over‐ come one’s bad tendencies. Especially in the shogun period this stress on the evil tendency of human nature led to a more legal‐ istic and severe approach. After the Meiji Restoration and the contact with other cultures, the influence of Confucianism di‐ minished, although the legacy of Confucianism in Japan should not be overlooked, as Cheung says (96). According to both Con‐ fucius and Laotze, evil cannot be overcome by external means only, because law and custom do not overcome the roots of evil. It is interesting to compare this development from an opti‐ mistic view of human nature as intrinsically good to a more mixed view of good and evil in Confucianism with Kunne‐
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man’s view, which argues for a more realistic humanism that acknowledges both the good and the more violent elements in human nature. Good and Evil Are of This World (Cosmic, Buddhist) Cosmic worldviews are religious if they understand the uni‐ verse as immanent transcendence. This view is characterized by the acknowledgment that the universe is a unity. Because ev‐ erything is part of that unity and to be part of it is basic for ev‐ erything that is, nothing has an essence of its own and every‐ thing is fully interwoven within the whole of what exists. For a human being, this insight is Janus‐faced. On the one hand, a person is not an autonomous self, a transcendent subject, an eternal soul or a “reason” that can control the wild inner ani‐ mal—all these ideas are mistaken; but, on the other hand, ev‐ eryone is a specific phenomenon in a particular corner of the world with specific characteristics, possibilities and tasks. As Keiji Nishitani, a philosopher whose background is Zen Bud‐ dhism, expressed it: an ego/non‐ego, or more precisely an ego sive (soku) non‐ego, an “I or, put otherwise, non‐I” (Nishitani 1982b: 248f.).3 Eiko Hanaoka states it as follows: “The negation of my ego is at the same time the negation of the negation of my ego” (181). Only after the “Great Death” (of the ego) are things exactly as they are: interwoven with everything else (and, if they are separated from that: empty, nothing). From this it follows that “good” and “evil” are interwoven with everything else. But if everything is dependent on every‐ thing else, all phenomena are co‐arising and co‐changing and nothing is anything in itself. It follows from this that there is no “evil” separate from all that is, and therefore evil is interwoven with good and good is interwoven with evil. This last conse‐ quence has been the topic of a series of contributions to this vol‐ ume. In addition to a short introduction of Buddhist views in general and engaged Buddhism by Christa Anbeek, they deal with Mahayana Buddhism and, more specifically, with the Jap‐
3
Cf. the beautiful English translation by van Bragt (Nishitani 1982a). Another, Western, example of a cosmic worldview is the Stoa; see Vroom 2006: 134‐40.
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anese traditions of Pure Land Buddhism and Zen. If good and evil are fully interwoven in all that is, and transcendence is fully immanent, the question of course arises as to the differ‐ ence between good and evil. There are questions on this point, as is clear from John May’s contribution, but answers as well, as can be seen in Christa Anbeek’s article. Traditionally, Buddhism did not pay much attention to so‐ cial ethics. As Anbeek states, one reason is that from the be‐ ginning Buddhism did not set out to save the world but to save “selves from themselves.” It is precisely in that way that the world will be changed, because attached people cannot change the world into a world without attachment and the suffering that follows from it. As Mahayana Buddhism tried to overcome all dichotomies, so the dualism between good and evil is cri‐ tiqued as a form of dualism. In her contribution, Eiko Hanaoka explains why and how all dualisms should be overcome in or‐ der to be free to overcome hate, war, political domination, pov‐ erty, and problems on a more personal level. The critical question arises now as to whether it is morally responsible to overcome the distinction between good and evil. Can we get rid of “evil” just by accepting what many people call evil—injustice, tsunamis, hunger—as not evil but as part of the co‐arising whole of experience? That question is discussed in the articles by Christa Anbeek, John May and Annewieke Vroom—the last two very much in relation to the thought of thinkers related to the Kyoto School, with its strong back‐ ground in Zen Buddhism. Christa Anbeek shows the link between meditation and so‐ cial ethics: meditation is about full awareness of the context in which we live. If we are truly aware of things around us as they are, we are mindful of the cries of the world, and we will an‐ swer those cries by helping to alleviate suffering. All being is in‐ ter‐being; nothing exists in itself. Thus, all suffering is our suf‐ fering and all joy our joy. Engaged Buddhists stress the possi‐ bility of healing, Anbeek says. If our “ego” is transformed, the world is transformed, and then—as Annewieke Vroom also stresses in her discussion of Masao Abe—we are mindful of our environment and will act naturally and spontaneously. Who‐ ever realizes non‐ego will help to overcome suffering spontan‐ eously. Not all questions are answered, Anbeek writes, but we
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should not forget that Buddhism is not a theory about evil but a path to the liberation of suffering. As far as I can see, John May is the most critical. He asks how precisely does great compas‐ sion follow from the Great Death (of the ego on its own with its attachment and ultimate emptiness). He writes: Ethics becomes a problem for Buddhists not because Bud‐ dhism is sub‐ethical—on the contrary, it is one of the most ethical of religions—but because it is trans‐ethical, purport‐ ing to render precepts, laws and rights ultimately superflu‐ ous. (144)
Does this form of Buddhism offer enough ethical leadership in a complex world, ruled by technological and economic forces? he asks. He refers to the involvement of Buddhists in violence —such as the samurai and the kamikaze pilots—and the nation‐ alistic views of some of the Kyoto School philosophers. May asks if we can find common criteria for good and evil—a ques‐ tion asked by several contributors to this volume. However, May finally leaves it at the possibility that dialogue could result in a deeper understanding of the mystery of the divine as no‐ thingness and fullness and loving‐kindness. Eiko Hanaoka has gone through an almost lifelong inner dialogue between Christianity and Zen. In her own way she combines Buddhist and Christian insights. She wants to reach beneath all dualisms, including that of God and the world, good and evil (cf. Hanaoka 2006). If the subject is left behind in the Great Death, it is reborn as part of the field of absolute no‐ thingness. That field of emptiness is fullness of (interrelated) phenomena, and full of divine love. So the true (empty) self is “a reborn nihilistic individual on the ground of agape and com‐ passion” (181; italics hers). After reconstructing Masao Abe’s remarkable view on good and evil and his stress on spontaneous naturalness, Anne‐ wieke Vroom concludes that he thinks that evil can be over‐ come by the negation of illusionary selves that hinder us from real openness to what is and what the world around us tells us to do. The main cause of suffering is that people deny their in‐ volvement in injustice and violence by setting themselves apart as (illusionary) selves that would have to make themselves good and happy. And this is impossible because it leads to de‐
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lusion, egocentrism, the overemphasis on rights and the one‐ sided stress on (formal) justice. Human beings are not inde‐ pendent entities outside the great interdependent whole of ex‐ istence but parts of it. The only way to improve the world ac‐ cording to Abe, Vroom says, is to be changed ourselves and not be a cause of suffering to ourselves and others any longer. She ends with a discussion of whether all suffering will truly be overcome by this change of mind through the rediscovery of emptiness and real ex‐istence (or perhaps better, natural and spontaneous in‐sistence, i.e. standing‐in, instead of a Western standing‐outside or beside other beings). She also asks whether Abe really has no idea of what he thinks is good. Let us now return to the two expositions of Zen by Sodo Yasunaga and Pure Land Buddhism by Martin Repp. Yasunaga begins his article in some elementary ways to describe evil in conventional (“relative”) life, as in the well‐known admonition of the old Dhammapadda: “commit no evil, cultivate all good, purify the mind—this is the teaching of all Buddhas.” There is nothing wrong with this; in “normal” (conventional, “relative”) life we say that wisdom is good and stealing is evil. From a har‐ monic, East Asian perspective, evil is not a separate or inde‐ pendent principle but what happens if good is not fully real‐ ized. Because nothing stands on its own and all is interrelated, evil does not stand as an independent, self‐existing act either. Therefore, evil should not be destroyed but overcome—and overcoming evil necessarily requires overcoming the duality between good and evil itself. He therefore quotes a story about Huineng (Jap.: Eno), the sixth Zen patriarch in China, in which he is said to have used the phrase that Yasunaga translates as: “Do not think of good, do not think of evil.”4 This phrase may seem odd, but it is not that difficult to understand it. We will analyze it in two steps. Let us first ask: What is bet‐ ter: somebody who has to force himself not to steal or some‐ body who simply does not steal? Which is better: a teacher who
4
Cf. Mumon‐Kan (Zen Barrier Without a Gate), koans, case. 23, p. 45f.: “When you stand apart from good and evil, what do you think is your own identity?” The Mumon‐Kan is one of the most famous Koan selections of the thirteenth century, in Chinese collected by Wuman Hui‐ k’ai. Cf. Notz 2002.
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makes no “use” of his “power” to seduce girls who have been entrusted to him or the teacher to whom such an idea simply does not occur? The respective latter individuals in these two examples put the adage “Do not think of evil, do not think of good” into practice. They simply do spontaneously what they do. Second, we could call that better—as we often do and did a few lines earlier. But suppose that the sincere are proud and claim that they are happy that they are not like these wrong‐ doers? Could we not say then that they should consider them‐ selves lucky and should be thankful that they have not been subject to temptation, that they have other parents, friends, ex‐ amples, or simply another physiology? To make use of a Chris‐ tian saying here: “There, but for the grace of God, go I.” On this very point these Buddhist and Christian traditions come very close indeed to each other. The difference is that while Christians may be thankful to God and fellow humans, Buddhists will focus on the interdependence of their lives in the great web of co‐arising existences in which each person has his or her own place, tasks, weaknesses and strengths and nobody can be more or better than the other. Thus, good and evil are changed into: more or less appropriate and more or less suffer‐ ing. Does that relax the commandments of the Eightfold Path? Does it do away with the Ten Commandments? Of course not, but it does put legalism and moral codes and hierarchies and saintliness into perspective. Therefore, we may understand the saying “Do not think of good, do not think of evil” as indicating that we do not have to resist wrong inclinations but can become free of wrong inclinations and do spontaneously whatever is called for. So far, this comes close to what non‐legalistic Hin‐ dus, Jews, Christians, Muslims, Confucians and humanists would say. The difference is that Zen has a religious, cosmic view of the world, of individuality and humanity, and therefore a different metaphysics with immanent transcendence. Zen transcends the dualism of good and evil but acknowl‐ edges that some forms of life are more appropriate than other forms. Zen training is known to be rather severe. Yasunaga re‐ fers to the precepts of the Buddhist communities that people should follow (there are of course precepts on the conventional, relative level [125]). In order to stimulate people, Zen used the notion of shame taken from its originally Chinese, Confucian
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context (121). The great difference between a theistic and an acosmic view of life and the cosmic one with its stress on shame is that there is no guilt over against transcendence: “Guilt arises from the tension between the self and that which transcends self; while shame arises from the tension between the ego and the ego‐ideal” (128; quoting Tadashi Inoue). We would do bet‐ ter not to overlook the great difference between this kind of ego‐ideal and “ideals” as seen from a secularized Western understanding. The ideals to which Yasunaga refers on how to live are how we fulfill our obligations, and this self‐examination is not a question as to whether my actual life corresponds to the life that I would have chosen for myself. Rather, it is a question as to who I am in the eyes of the other people and whether I live up their justified expectations. Pure Land Buddhism gives a slightly different picture. It is the broadest Buddhist movement in Japan, with in itself a varie‐ ty of sub‐traditions. The fascinating trait of this tradition for some Westerners is what we could call a “theistic” element. Of course Amida Buddha is not a Creator God, but he is a Buddha who by his grace can release people from the burden of karma. Martin Repp, a scholar at Ryukoku University of the Pure Land tradition (Kyoto), has focused on two questions. First, how can people escape the burden of being born time and again if they are not able to overcome our misdeeds by themselves? Second, to whom does Amida give his grace, to good people or evil‐ doers as well? The idea of karma and rebirth—in describing Buddhist thought we speak of rebirth, rather than reincarnation, because there is no self or soul—entails as such that human beings do evil. We will be a mixture of good and evil as long as we are reborn and do not reach the state of being extinguished (nir‐ vana). Therefore, the basic Buddhist admonition is to avoid evil and do good. However, if we become aware that we cannot overcome evil so easily, then we need help. Amida Buddha has, indeed, made a vow to help those who ask him. The only thing they have to do is call his name (nembutsu). The classical text says that Amida will grant grace to those sincere people who entrust themselves to him but not to those who abuse the Dharma, the Buddhist teaching, and commit the five most ser‐ ious offenses. Repp describes how later treatises extend this
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group of people to include evildoers as well. The questions that arise are: What is evil? Who is evil? Is evil always an act or does it have its roots in tensions in the human heart? The more the complexities of life are discussed and the influence of circum‐ stances, the clear distinctions between the good guys and the bad guys disappear. Also, evil persons can be born in the Pure Land; in Tendai Pure Land Buddhism even butchers and poul‐ try merchants can receive grace. According to Honen, the sim‐ ple distinction between the good and the evil becomes even more sophisticated, when he states: “Even good persons attain birth, how much more evil persons”—which is a change in the ordinary order, even though this does not exempt us from keeping the precepts. Grace is free and merit does not entitle one to it—it is simply trust in Amida and the utterance of namu Amida butsu. Repp then compares Honenʹs treatment of the evil with that found in another contemporary Tendai tradition, the Hong‐ aku homon. This tradition teaches that everybody possesses or‐ iginal awakening (hongaku). This means that everything as it is —the hawk eating the starling and the samurai killing his ene‐ my—is already liberated. Here the need for religious practice and effort to change becomes superfluous, and evil practices such as the religious wars of the warrior monks were religious‐ ly justified. In other words, original awakening (hongaku) had developed from a concept designating potentiality into one per‐ taining to actuality. In contrast, when Honen argues for the lib‐ eration of evil persons as well, he still maintains the necessity for religious practice and the effort to change. In the Hongaku homon tradition people are precisely what they are within the great interdependent field of existence—and from this view another perspective of life arises, as we can un‐ derstand from the next quote as given in Repp’s contribution: However, if, returning (to the realm of daily affairs) from the inner enlightenment of calming and contemplation, one were to commit evil deeds unintentionally (musa) in accord‐ ance with one’s destiny (nin’un), there could still be no dif‐ ference (between karma and liberation). This is what is meant by Kannon appearing as a fisherman and killing many fish. (164)
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Here we have a cosmic “determinism” that parallels a theistic “determinism.” It seems that a full systematization of beliefs yields contradictions that cannot be solved. A Cosmos with Higher Powers In between the cosmic and theistic worldviews we could place worldviews that do not have a clear idea of creation as Judaism, Christianity and Islam do. Typologies are never conclusive: small sub‐traditions of Christianity and Judaism may believe in reincarnation, or some Pure Land Buddhist sub‐traditions con‐ ceive of the Pure Land as a kind of heaven instead of a place from where it is easier to realize nirvana—or in which nirvana is understood as a heavenly place. African cosmology is cosmic, Conrad Wethmar says. This earthly world is all there is, but there is more to it than can be established in laboratories. It is a cosmic view of the world, in which humanity is central (223). The human is not the individ‐ ual, as has been put so beautifully by John Mbiti: “I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am” (quoted by Wethmar: 223).5 The Supreme Being is a kind of personification of the in‐ teraction system of the combined forces of life (225). We could therefore say that this view of the world is a kind of median position between the co‐arising forces in Zen and the Creator in the traditions for which the act of creation is basic. Good and evil “play” in the streams of powers that have been occasioned by God. In a sense they are not two independent forces, where‐ as in the end God is immanent. Good and evil arise from the same source, although the distant God is good and the nearer, lower gods are bad. There are many layers between God and human beings; it is dangerous to come too near to God. In hu‐ man life one has to keep on the right side by fulfilling one’s ob‐ ligations to one’s tribe; duties have precedence over rights; one’s family and tribe can protect one against evil forces, such as sorcery.
5
Cf. Mbiti 2006: 152‐57 for another description of African Religion, in which he refers to God as creator—in a relationship to the cosmos that differs widely from the traditions that stem from the book of Genesis.
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In Taoism life is good, and all that undermines life and is antipathetic to it is bad (Lagerwey: 85). Taoism also includes unseen powers. However, they are not only good and bad for‐ ces but “heavenly administrators” makes records of our good and bad acts. As John Lagerwey points out, the balance is checked once a year and we can thus be motivated to repent, make sacrifices and get on the right track again, thus gaining in‐ stead losing years from our life—and a good rebirth—because of our good conduct. But powers and demons can do severe damage to us. However, we can arm ourselves against maladies by rituals and with the help of the generals of heavenly armies. In practical life, the three Chinese religions are “aligned toge‐ ther,” as is visible in Taoist temples in which the Buddha and Confucius are also honored. Theistic Views and Evil Theistic views of the world inevitably wrestle with the combin‐ ation of three ideas: 1) God and God alone created the world and all that exists within it; 2) evil exists; 3) God does not want people to do wrong. A well‐known Western objection against belief in God as Creator is that, if God is good and omnipotent, God would have not created evil; therefore, God does not exist —so the atheists say. The presupposition is that God is good and that the evil in the world is truly evil and should not have been made or permitted. The traditional theistic answer to this objection is that God has reasons, known only to God, for al‐ lowing imperfection in his Creation, and that some suffering arises from the imperfection and limitations of nature and other suffering from human misbehavior. Many Jews, Christians and Muslims would say that God is good and benevolent and that human beings cannot possibly understand the way in which God acts and why He does so. In her contribution Hami (N.) Verbin discusses Job’s pro‐ test against the maltreatment for which he takes God to be re‐ sponsible. Although this maltreatment is done to him by the devil, God has agreed that his loyalty to God be “tested.” Ver‐ bin argues that God does harsh things to his creatures. The evil done to Job is evil and not just a test. Job takes it seriously and he is right in his anger. With reference to Plato, Maimonides and Simone Weil, she rejects the views that were also discussed
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above, i.e. that people should not be disturbed by evil. Job has suffered the most serious forms of harm and damage. He com‐ plains, listens to God’s answers, is humble but does not take back his complaint. Right at the beginning of her contribution Verbin tells the story of a tailor who, during Yom Kippur, not only brings out his book with the records of his failures and misdeeds but also his record of what God has done to him as well—and then they reconcile. It is correct to do as Job did, she says: reject the evil done to us but keep a relationship with God, even if it is one at a safe distance. Conrad Wethmar summarizes the classical Christian views in which the devil is not a power equal to God: therefore, God is involved in the existence of evil in nature and human free‐ dom to do as we want. However, the struggle between good and evil in the world has been also understood as a drama in which God is involved, as one party. The devil has been person‐ ified and in the person of Christ God has fought the devil— which brought about the change in Christ from Victim to Vic‐ tor: Christ was brought to death but resurrected as Victor over the evil powers in the world. A Christian reflection on God and evil cannot overlook the claim that God Himself in Christ suffered evil and bore the bur‐ den of evil Himself. Martien Brinkman describes the victorious descent of Christ into hell and his victory over death. In its re‐ flections on evil, Christian theology will not begin with think‐ ing about God, creation and evil alone but has to put Christ in the center. This radicalizes the understanding of God and cor‐ rects its abstract character by including God’s own involvement in and with evil. The biblical idea of God itself is much less straightforward than we may think after reading some philo‐ sophical critiques of Christianity and theodicy. Evil has a place in the world, but where it comes from remains obscure. In the creation story in the book of Genesis—one of the most carefully and thoughtfully composed stories in world literature—we do not read where evil comes from. Adam and Eve had a choice, but they were also given a prohibition. Their wrong decision is a mistake that breaks their spontaneous relationship with God. They are the symbol of the “human” condition: in this world evil is a superhuman phenomenon, as both Wethmar and Brinkman stress.
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In traditional Islam, the evil that strikes people is primarily a test of true faithfulness. Annemiek Spronk describes God’s in‐ tention with the devil. When humans were created, the devil re‐ fused to bow before them, and God uses the devil afterwards to test them. He never stops attempting to seduce people and, in one of the stories, even tells the Prophet the places where peo‐ ple are most vulnerable. However, the devil is always a part of God’s plan. Saeid Edalatnejad discusses various theodicies that have been defended in Islamic and in wider philosophical thought: we need some evil in order to grow and become virtuous, to keep our interest in living, so that we will not become bored, etc. But none of these theodicies survives the objections that have been brought forward against them. The evil that strikes some human beings could always be less serious and still produce the same or even a better effect; some people do not grow at all through real suffering. Other arguments can be ad‐ duced. All arguments are unconvincing and therefore, Edalat argues, Islamic theology should rethink the problem of evil in the newly arising global context. For the rejection of the argu‐ ment that the experience of evil is a condition for human growth, we may refer to Wendy Doniger’s warning against the moralization of nature in the explanation of natural evil as a lesson. She states that we would do better not to see divine messages in natural evil, and let religion deal with the struggles in the human heart itself. This reminds us of the stress in the Islamic tradition on the great jihad, and also of the biblical say‐ ing that it is more difficult to rule one’s heart than to capture a city. From an Islamic perspective Vincent Cornell discusses the relation between Islam and the globalizing culture. He deals ex‐ tensively with critical and more or less radical voices who reject Western culture totally, as Qutb does in his influential Mile‐ stones, or sharply oppose Western Liberalism, as Soroush does. Cornell argues for an open‐minded Islam “with both eyes open,” one eye on the Qur’an and Islamic tradition and the oth‐ er on issues in our global world with its urgent socio‐political and ecological problems and its religious diversity. Cornell does not believe in a kind of neutral religious Esperanto in which we all have to forget what is holy to ourselves and in‐
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spires us. But he does reject a kind of moral emotivism that does not take seriously what other people think and rejects their views without further say. That is a kind of absolute emo‐ tivism: moral judgments are based not on reflections but on feelings and preferences instead of upon serious study of Islam‐ ic sources and a critical dialogue with people of other confes‐ sions. Rkia Cornell’s contribution deals with a not so popular part of the theory of evil: women as a temptation and test for males and of their lower ontological status in a long history of Islamic thought. It is clear that other religious traditions offer oppor‐ tunities enough to write articles with more or less “the same” content (cf. e.g. Romberg 2002; Visser 2002). Were young Bud‐ dhist monks who went begging for food not advised to avoid looking into the beautiful but seducing dark eyes of the women who gave them their rice? They were, instead, to imagine how the women would look when they were old and had lost their teeth and beauty! In any event, especially where celibacy was highly esteemed, women were, of course, a danger to their sanctity. Could women reach nirvana? Or could they be priests? That the inequality between the sexes is a worldwide phenom‐ enon does not influence the fact that the construction of the ideology of such inequality as Rkia Cornell describes is as baf‐ fling as it is interesting. The Animal Personal Soul developed from the encounter of the Animal Soul with the Higher Human Soul in Eve. In this way the difference between men and wo‐ men was given an ontological basis. Women are in between men and animals. The worst statement to be found is: “I shall make you deficient in intellect and religion,” from the influen‐ tial hadith collection Sahih al‐Bukhari (ca. 860 CE). This dis‐ crimination has a long history; Rkia Cornell provides blatant quotes even from such a highly esteemed individual like Rumi. Is this not a beautiful expression by an intelligent, undoubtedly male writer: “The intellect of a woman is her beauty and the beauty of a man is his intellect”? Many an evil has been attribu‐ ted to women. It is clear that this does not have its origin in the Qur’an!
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Observations and Conclusions In this last section I will make a few observations related to comparisons and interreligious relations. The first question to be asked, of course, is whether all tra‐ ditions agree or differ concerning the source(s) of evil and the moral codes that can help one to overcome evil and to live a good life. We can distinguish between natural evil, i.e. evil that is caused by what happens necessarily and/or randomly in na‐ ture: tsunamis, hurricanes, floods and long droughts, with all their consequences for animals and human beings, and moral evil, i.e. evil done by human beings, partly occasioned by hu‐ man limitations, partly done intentionally and with full re‐ sponsibility. In fact, natural and moral evil are often mixed together too much to be able to make a neat distinction between them—just as nature and culture are narrowly interwoven at present. What are the roots of evil that we do? All traditions point out that greed, hatred, bad temper, egocentrism, human vices lead to wrongdoing, especially in tense situations or contexts in which there is a shortage of resources. On this practical level, we see many commonalities between the religions that can be “used” in a pluralistic culture to find a partial moral consensus. However, it would be superficial to leave it at that and to over‐ look important differences that are obvious in this volume, i.e. the differences in the order of rights and duties, social and per‐ sonal religious life. It would also be superficial to separate the lists of vices and virtues from their various backgrounds, the ideas of how to overcome those vices and the evil that they bring about, and thus the varieties of lifestyles that people are taught to cultivate! Some worldviews hold that human nature in itself is good; therefore we are fully responsible for what we do. This can lead to legalism: one’s misdeeds are always one’s own fault. A gov‐ ernment will see to it that you do as you must. We have seen a strong legalism in certain branches of Confucianism and Tao‐ ism; and it is present in sub‐traditions of Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam as well. Other (sub‐)traditions say that all people are equal in that they are sinners, that all merit is rel‐ ative, and we should treat all our neighbors as equal, reject what is wrong and never reject the sinner. In such traditions in‐
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terhuman relations will be seen differently, with more stress on mutuality, forgiveness, and wisdom. That is the case in Bud‐ dhism and in sub‐traditions of other religions as well. The advice to overcome the difference between good and evil persons and the acknowledgment that all are sinners are not common to all. Many people will mistake this view for mor‐ al relativism, but such a conclusion is wrong: if there were no norms, no one could be a sinner. The norms are discussed, to be sure, but that in itself is not relativism. The cultivation of saint‐ hood by a total departure from society in absolute poverty dif‐ fers from an active involvement in society. There is a great dif‐ ference here, but both attitudes are present in Catholicism, Hin‐ duism, and Theravada Buddhism. However, they are rare in Is‐ lam, Protestantism, Confucianism and traditional religions. In the background there are different valuations of worldly life and different ideas of bliss and of God. This phenomenon, that conflicting and mutually exclusive attitudes are present intra‐religiously and interreligiously, may help us to realize that, first, it is wrong to say that all religions are unified in their view of transcendence and the idea of good life, and second, that traditions have nothing in common and are in sharp opposition to one another. Both views are mistak‐ en. A third failure would be to overlook the fact, as difficult as it is fascinating, that in the very midst of the commonalities great differences remain. A sannyassin has a very different view of the social involvement of other people then a Catholic monk has. We have seen some optimistic views of human nature in some Confucian schools and in humanism as well as some more moderate views that see a mixture of good and evil in hu‐ man nature. Commonalities are important, but they stand with‐ in different paradigms of being human. If we ignore these dif‐ ferences, we do not take people seriously in their understand‐ ing of the world. Therefore, the urgent task to find common ways of life in pluralistic societies is not at all easy, and the shortcut of propagating a few nice‐sounding common rules overlooks differences that, after a while, lead to conflicts be‐ cause they neglect the will and the rights of minorities. Vincent Cornell rightly rejects the “liberal” compromise that all should speak the same “worldview Esperanto,” lock their doors and live according to their religions only in their private lives.
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The differences between worldview traditions and their understandings of evil are related to their view of reality as a whole. If there was a neutral position to start with—quod non— we could say that they reexamine and reinterpret “evil.” But they differ, often from the ground floor up. Indeed, the view that evil is part of the world as illusion and maya implies a dif‐ ferent goal to life than that implied by a positive valuation of this worldly‐life in humanism and theistic religions. The consti‐ tution of the whole of reality is basic for the understanding of the place of human beings collectively and individually in the world. Human life looks different if it is held that all evil is caused by maya, if all misdeeds are caused by attachment and ignorance of true reality, or if all wrong is committed by tres‐ passing against the laws and the rules of the world. Evil is a dif‐ ferent phenomenon if it is sent by God to test one’s loyalty, per‐ mitted by God for His own reasons, or is part of reality just as sunshine and rain, etc. do (and thus is ultimately not truly evil). These worldviews differ. We may make our own melting pot of beliefs and practices, as people do indeed, but this does not negate the fact that some views contradict others. People make choices. If life is bondage, one has to be liberated, to stop samsara and reach eternal bliss. But if life is a test and Judgment Day waits, one should see to it that one passes that exam and knows the rules. Nobody can combine all of it and find a stable way of life. With the help of these deep gaps between the lifestyles of the various traditions, we can explain why interreligious differ‐ ences can contribute to serious conflicts. If my eternal salvation depends on my adhering to a halal way of life and passing the test of the eternal judgment or my good or bad rebirth is de‐ termined by my adhering to the rules of the tradition, I will pre‐ fer to live in a society that conforms to those standards, other‐ wise other people can form a danger for my eternal future or my next life. If people think that they live just one time, they may want experience as many aspects of life as possible, be‐ cause all they have is that one chance, and thus resent it if a “narrow‐minded” religious tradition wanted to limit my auto‐ nomous freedom. One could go on. Thus, conflicts will arise if religious communities try to influence the laws of a society ac‐ cording to their own norms—a phenomenon that we see in
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practice and is “solved” (as far as possible!) by the acknowledg‐ ment of minority rights. Differences in worldviews are deeply conflictual; that applies to both religious and secular worldview traditions—although conflicts are not to be equated with vio‐ lence and hatred! What we reject as moral evil will be especially conflictual if other people want to permit it by law. Conflicts about what we think is real evil are bound to arise, and are very problematic indeed. As stated before, it is clear from the contents of this volume that the view of evil and its roots, the religious understanding of the broader context in which we live and the moralities of traditions depend on each other. Therefore, religion cannot be equated with morality. It goes beyond morality, although it does entail a way of life. We have seen that some traditions are legalistic. However, it is argued in other traditions that pre‐ cisely the obligation to be moral is one of the deepest causes of evil that people do. If I try to improve myself, I am already attached to myself, and that attachment is the main obstacle for me in becoming free and in doing what is natural and good. This phenomenon of attachment is present in Krishna’s advice to Arjuna to fight his nephews: he should do his duty without giving way to sentiment and emotion. I have discussed this need to detach our‐self from our‐selves in relation to Zen thought and pointed to the commonality with Christian views of a change in the human heart. Most world religions go be‐ yond ethics in that they indicate what life essentially is and then—and only then—can they point out to us a way to live that corresponds to reality as it is—as far as we can know. Bibliography De Waal, F. (2005). Our Inner Ape: The Best and Worst of Human Nature. London: Granta Books. Doniger O’Flaherty, Wendy. (1980). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Myth‐ ology. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hanaoka, Eiko. (2006). “Buddhism and Christianity from a Christian‐ Buddhist Perspective.” In: Jerald D. Gort et al. (eds). Religions View Religions. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. Pp. 283‐94. Mbiti, John. (2006). “‘The Hen Knows When It is Dawn, But Leaves the Crowing to the Cock:’ African Religion Looks at Islam.” In:
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Jerald D. Gort et al. (eds). Religions View Religions. Amsterdam/ New York: Rodopi. Pp. 152‐57. Mumon‐Kan (Zen Barrier Without a Gate). (1997). Transl. Chosuke Imoto. Shimonoseki: Akine Minami‐Machi. Nishitani, Keiji. (1982a). Religion and Nothingness. Transl. Jan van Bragt. Berkeley: University of California Press. (1982b). Was ist Religion. Frankfurt a M.: Insel Verlag. Authorized German Translation. Notz, Klaus‐Josef. (2002). “Mumonkan.” Lexikon des Buddhismus, Wiesbaden: Fourier Verlag. P. 318. Romberg, Claudia. (2002). “Women in Engaged Buddhism.” In: Jerald D. Gort et al. (eds). Religion, Conflict, and Reconciliation. Reprint 2004. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. Pp. 176‐85. Thomas Aquinas. (2003). On Evil. Transl. by Richard Regan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Visser, Tirza (2002). “Islam, Gender and Reconciliation: Making Room for New Gender Pespectives.” In: Jerald D. Gort et al. (eds). Reli‐ gion, Conflict, and Reconciliation. Reprint 2004. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. Pp. 186‐94. Vroom, H.M. (2006). A Spectrum of Worldviews. Transl. Morris and Alice Greidanus. Amsterdam/New York. Rodopi.
Index of Names Cooper, M. . . . . . . . . 166, 167 Corless, R.J. . . . . . . . 156, 168 Cyril of Jerusalem . . . . . . 242
Abe, Masao . . . . . . . 135, 137, 142, 143, 146‐50, 187‐ 200, 353 Agnon, S. Y. . . . . 201, 202, 216 Al‐Azm, Sadik . . . . . 250, 254, 255 Allen, Woody . . . . . . 34, 38, 56 Augustine . . . . . . 176, 244, 309 Avicenna, Hossein . . . . . 309, 313, 317
Dadudayal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Dazai Shundai . . . . . . . 96, 98 De Bary, W.T. . . . . . 91, 98, 99 de Chardin, Teilhard . 35, 39 Dillard, Annie . . . . . . . 18, 38 Dimock, E.C. . . . . . . . . 36, 38 Dogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Doniger, Wendy . . 22, 23, 25 26, 28, 32, 35, 38, 43, 55, 58, 60, 71, 343‐46, 365 Douglas, Mary . . . 37, 38, 133 Dovlo, E. . . . . . . . . . . 237, 248 Droit, Roger‐Pol . . . 135, 148 Dundes, Alan . . . . . . . . 25, 38
Baghdadi, Abd‐al Ghahir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311, 317 Benedict, Ruth . . . . . . 128, 132 Berkhof, H. . . . . . . . . . 246, 248 bin Laden, Osama . . . . . 20, 22 Bito, Masahide . . . . . . . . 96, 98 Blocker, H. Gene . . . . . . 95, 98 Bonhoeffer, D. . . . . . . . . . . 241 Bremmer, Jan . . . . . . . 236, 248 Brough, John . . . . . . . 139, 148 Bryant, G.C. . . . . . . . . 159, 167 Buddhadasa Bhikkhu . . . . 144 Buruma, Ian . . 21, 38, 296, 303
Eckhart . . . . . . . 135, 142, 146 Eliot, T.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Elison, G. . . . . . . . . . 166, 168 Fine, L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Frost, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Gandhi, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Gaozi (Kao Tzu) . . . . . 92, 96 Genshin . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 168 Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muham‐ mad al‐ . . . . . . . 280, 286, 297, 303, 309, 311, 317 Gombrich, R. . . . . . . 110, 115 Goodman, F.D. . . . . 245, 248 Gorgias . . . . . . . . . . . 203, 216 Gregory, P. . . . . . . . . 122, 132
Calvin, John. . . . . . . . . 239, 248 Carus, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 98 Chaitanya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Chan Wing‐tsit . . . . . . . . . . 98 Cheung, Ching‐Yuen . . . . 349 Cobb, J.B. . . 148, 149, 191, 200 Coetzee, J.M. . . . . . . . . . 18, 38 Collcutt, Martin . . . . . . . 96, 98 Confucius . . . . . 88‐90, 94, 95, 97, 349, 358
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Hampton, Jean . . 205, 207‐09, 212, 216 Han Fei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Hanaoka, Eiko . . . . . 136, 169, 350‐52, 365 Hanh, Thich Nhat . . . . . . 101, 111‐16, 136 Harvey, P. . . . . . . . . . 103, 104, 106, 108, 115 Hegel, G.W.F. . . . . . . . . . . 173 Heisig, James . . . . . . 136, 148 Hershock, Peter D. . . . . . 140, 141, 149 Hick, John . . . . . . . . . 306, 317 Hisamatsu, Shinʹichi . . . . 136, 182, 189 Hitler, Adolf . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Holton, Gerald . . . . . . . 21, 38 Honen . . . . . . . . . 151, 159‐62, 167, 168, 356 Hospers, John . . . . . . 310, 317 Hubbard, J. . . . . . . . . 142, 149 Hume, D. . . . . . . . . . 143, 295 Hunt‐Perry, P. . . . . . . . . . 115 ibn al‐Jawzi, Abu al‐Faraj . . . . . . 262, 263, 278, 279 ibn Munabbih, Wahb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263‐65 Ichikawa, H. . . . . . . . 126, 133 Imam Ali . . . . . . . . . . 310, 318 Inagaki, H . . . . . . 153‐55, 168 Inoue, T. . . . . . . 128, 133, 355 Ishida, M. . . . . . . . . . 167, 168 Ishii, K. . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 168 Ives, Christopher . . . 143, 145, 146, 149, 150, 189, 191, 200 Jacoby, M. . . . . . . . . . 128, 133
Job . . . . . . 201, 203‐05, 210‐16, 240, 358, 359 Jobbai, Abu Ali . . . . . . . . 311 Jobbai, Abu Hashem . . . . 311 Kabir . . . . . . . . . 41, 45, 49‐56, 279, 280, 346 Kaiho Seiryo . . . . . . . . . 96, 98 Kakar. S. . . . . . . 289, 290, 304 Kamata, S. . . . . . . . . . 121, 133 Kant, Immanuel . . . . 143, 171, 283, 298, 333 Keown, Damien . . . . 144, 149 Khomeini, Ayatollah . . . . 313 Kiblinger, Kristin B. . . . . 141, 144, 146, 149 Kim, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 168 King, S.B. . . . . . . . . . 116, 149 Kjaimura, N. . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Knitter, Paul . . . . 1, 3‐5, 13, 15 Küng, Hans . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Lane, Anthony . . . . . . . 19, 22 Legge, James . . . . . 89, 90, 98 Lewis, I.M. . . . . . . . . 245, 248 Lifton, Robert J. . . . . . . 23, 38 Liu Shu‐Hsien . . . . . . . . . . 98 Luther, Martin . . . . . 166, 167, 240, 294, 295, 297 MacIntyre, A. . . 286, 287, 304 Maimonides, Moses . 203‐05, 213, 216, 358 Majlesi, Mohammad Baqer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308, 318 Malukdas . . . . . . . . 41, 45, 55 Margalit, Avishai . . . . . 21, 38, 296, 303 May, John DʹArcy . . . . 351‐52
INDEX OF NAMES Maybudi, Abu al‐Fadl al‐ . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274, 279 Mencius . . . . . . . 92, 118, 349 Mill, John Stuart . . . 311, 318 Mitchell, Donald W. 136, 149 Moltmann, Jürgen . . . . . . 191, 247, 248 Moore, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Moreau, Ron . . . . . . . . 21, 39 Mori , M. . . . . . . 118, 119, 133 Moslem Ibn Hajaj Naisabouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Muhammed . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Murphy, Jeffrey . 205, 207‐09, 212, 216 Mutahari, Morteza . . . . . 311, 313‐15, 318 Nagarjuna . . . . . . . . . 140, 146, 182, 189, 190 Najita Tetsuo . . . . . . . . 98, 99 Nakagawa, T. . . 125, 133, 177, 180, 186 Nakamura, H.. . . . . . 118, 133 Nakamura, K.M. . . . 152, 168 Namdev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Narayan, Kirin . . . . . . . 27, 39 Nicodemus . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Nietzsche, Friedrich . . 6, 174, 175, 178, 207 Nishimura, E. . . . . . . 132, 133 Nishitani, K. . . . 137, 141, 170, 176, 182, 186, 350, 366 Nyanaponika Thera . . . . 147, 149 Ogyu Sorai . . . . . . . . . . 95, 99 Ozaki, Makato . . . . . 145, 149 Pannenberg, W. . . . . 240, 248
369
Paramhansa . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Pascal, Blaise . . . . . . . . . . 137 Pelagius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Philo of Alexandria . . . . . 268, 269 Qin Shi Huang . . . . . . . . . . 95 Queen, C.S. . . . . . . 110‐11,115, 116, 136, 149 Qutb, S. . . . . . . . . 285, 290‐95, 297‐99, 304, 360 Rahman, Fazlur . . . . 252, 256, 265, 280, 282 Ram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Ramakrishna . . . . . . . 48, 346 Repp, M . . 151, 155, 157, 159, 162, 164, 167, 168, 170, 353, 355, 356 Ricoeur, P. . . . . 245, 248, 319, 338, 339, 342 Romero, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Rouner, Leroy S. . . . . . . . . 98 Rozman, Gilbert . . . . . . . . 98 Rufinus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Rumi , Jalal al‐Din . . 270, 273‐ 75, 278‐80, 297, 361 Rushdie, Salman . . . . . . . . 39 Ruysbroec . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Sadeq, Iman Jaʹfar ibn Muham‐ mad . . . . . . . . . . 311, 318 Sakuta, K. . . . . . . . . . 128, 133 Sarraj, Eyad. . . . . . . . 288, 304 Sasaki, R.F. . . . . . . . . 129, 133 Sato, T. . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 168 Scheiner, Irwin . . . . . . . 98, 99 Scheler, Max . . 94, 95, 99, 127 Schrire, Theodore . . . . . . 318 Seligman, A. B. . . 297‐300, 304
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Senkan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Shandao . . . . . . 156, 157, 159 Shankara . . . . . . 44, 48, 54, 56 Shinran . . . . . . . 160, 167, 170 Shirazi , Mohammad Ibrihim . . . . . . . 312‐14, 316, 318 Shyamsunderdasa . 51, 52, 55 Smith, Wilfred Cantwell . . . . . . 135, 138, 146, 149 Socrates . . . . . . . . . . . . 203‐05 Sood, Urmila Devi . . . . . . . 39 Soroush, A. . 294‐98, 304, 360 Stone, J. . . . . 46, 79, 164, 168 Suhrawardi, Abu Hafs ʹUmar al‐ . . . . 266‐70,273, 275, 278, 280 Sulami, Abu ʹAbd al‐Rahman al‐ . . . . . . . 265, 266, 270, 273, 280 Sunderdasa . . . . . . . . . . 45, 46 Suzuki, D.T. . . . 126, 128, 133 Swanson, Paul . . . . . 142, 149 Tada, K. . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 168 Takakusu, J. . . . . . . . 167, 168 Tanabe, Hajime . . . . 145, 149 Tanaka, H. . . . . . . . . 127, 133 Tanluan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Taylor, John V. . . . . . 137, 149, 222, 234, 338‐40, 342 Tayyibi, ʹUkkasha ʹAbd al‐ Mannan al‐ . . . . 274‐76, 278, 280 Tianran, Danxia . . . . . . . . 121 Tillich, Paul . . . . . . . 170, 173 Tisseron, S. . . . . . . . . 129, 133
Togi, M. . . . . . . . . . . . 128, 133 Torres, Father . . . . . . . . . . 166 Toulmin, Stephen . . 143, 149 Tracy, David . . . . . . . 142, 148, 149, 191 Tu Wei‐ming . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Tukaram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Tusi, Mohammand Hassan, Nasir al‐Din . . . 309, 310, 312, 318 Umehara, T. . . . . . . . 128, 133 Valignano, A. . . . . . . 166, 167 van Bragt, J. . . . . 108‐10, 116, 136,150, 350, 366 Vandervelde, G. . . . . 246, 248 Vetter. T.E. . . . . . . . . 103, 116 Victoria, Brian D. . . . . . . . 138, 142,150 Waldenfels, Hans 137, 141, 150 Watanabe, K. . . . . . . 167, 168 Wei‐hsin, Chʹing . . . . . . . 196 Weil, Simone . . . . . . 204, 206, 211, 216, 358 Williams, P. . . . 104, 106, 108, 116 Wu, John C.H. . . . . 95, 97, 99 Wuzu,Fayan . . . . . . . 117, 119, 121, 127 Xunzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 349 Yoshishige no Yasutane . 157 Zizhang (Tsze‐chang) . . . . 88 Zulaykha . . . . . . . . . . . 272‐74
Index of Subjects 9/11 . . . . . . . . 4, 17, 19‐21, 301
105‐21, 124, 126, 131, 132, 135, 136, 139‐41, 143‐45, 147, 149, 151, 157, 158, 162, 166‐71, 175, 180, 183‐ 86, 192, 194, 195, 197, 199, 200, 237, 344, 348, 350‐53, 355, 356, 362, 363, 366 Critical . . . . . . . . 149 Engaged . . . 101, 109, 111, 113, 115, 116, 136, 149, 350, 366 Mahayana . . . . 101, 107, 108, 114, 117, 119, 175, 180, 183, 192, 194, 350, 351 Pure Land . . . . . . . . 141, 145, 151‐63, 165‐68, 170, 351, 353, 355‐57 Tendai . . . . . . . 151, 157
abuse . . . . . . . 4, 154, 202, 203, 210, 211, 213, 243, 355 accidental grace . . . . . . 27, 28 Advaita Vedanta . . 44, 50, 63 aku . . . . . . . . 87, 118, 120, 122 Amida Buddha . . . . 151, 153, 170, 355 amulet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 ancestors . . . . . . 31, 74, 78, 79, 82, 91, 222, 225, 227, 235 Animal Personal Soul . . . . . . . . . . 267, 269, 361 ‘aql (intellect) . . . . . . 257, 260, 261, 269, 270, 273 “Armageddon” . . . . . . . . . 20 assailant . . . . . . . . 201‐10, 215 attachment 7, 47, 48, 50, 62, 67, 104, 106, 107, 124, 176, 179, 193, 351, 352, 364, 365 avatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
China . . . . . . . . . 21, 25, 77, 95, 117, 120, 121, 129, 136, 144, 155, 278, 353 church, early . . . 80, 235, 239, 241, 244 Classical arguments . . . . 305 compassion . . . . . 18, 106, 110, 131, 135, 143, 144, 147, 174‐76, 181, 185, 187, 188, 192, 194, 195, 198, 199, 322, 348, 352 Confucianism . . 11, 85, 87‐99, 121, 344, 348, 349, 362, 363 containment . . . . . 35, 36, 331, 333, 335, 336, 340, 341 cosmic disaster . . . . . . . . . . 17
bad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87‐92 Bhagavata Purana . . . . . 35, 37 bhakti . . . . . . . . . 41, 42, 44‐46, 48, 55, 61 bhakti‐yoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Blitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 bodhisattva . . . . . . . 143, 151‐54 Brahman . . . . . . 44, 45, 47, 48 Buddha nature . . . . . 129, 142, 158, 162, 163, 181 Buddhism . . . . . . 7, 11, 30, 33, 56, 58, 61, 85, 101, 102,
371
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cross . . . . . . . . . . 220, 221, 234, 238, 239, 242, 243, 248 death . . . . 7, 15, 18, 31, 35, 38, 46, 50, 53, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83, 89, 104, 107, 108, 122, 130, 137, 143, 151, 153, 154, 158, 162, 166, 180, 181, 191, 193, 195, 205, 220, 228, 236, 238‐40, 242, 243, 247, 268, 272, 273, 325, 345, 346, 352, 359 deep faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 devil . . . . . . . 166, 167, 219‐21, 230, 235, 243‐47, 249‐51, 253‐55, 307, 358‐60 Iblis . . . 250‐52, 254, 255, 261, 271, 273, 274 Satan . . . . . . 216, 218‐20, 235, 236, 238, 241‐44, 246, 250‐56, 261, 273, 278 dharma . . . . . . 59, 61, 69, 124, 126, 138, 143, 154‐57, 159, 160, 163, 164, 176, 346, 355 dialogue . . . . . . 10, 11, 13, 15, 61, 88, 135, 148‐50, 177, 178, 180, 187, 191, 200, 209, 210, 213, 215, 238, 248, 301, 302, 317, 352, 361 “Die Hard” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Digha Nikaya . . . . . . . . . 32, 37 discrimination . . . . . . . . 4, 48, 54, 106‐08, 126, 136, 144, 145, 152, 190, 193, 277, 361 dualism . . . . . . . 136, 142, 199, 219, 220, 225, 226, 230, 309, 310, 351, 354 dubhida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
education . . 49, 87, 89, 94, 96, 97, 121, 277 emotivism . . . . . . . . . 281, 287, 289‐91, 294, 347, 360, 361 E/emptiness . . . . . . . 108, 111, 124, 125, 135, 140, 142, 146, 148‐50, 175, 179, 181‐ 83, 190, 194, 197‐99, 352, 353 enlightenment . . . . . . 2, 9, 10, 102, 126, 131, 138, 139, 143, 154, 164, 184, 196, 231, 281, 282, 284, 298, 320, 348, 356 ethics . . . . . . . . . 10, 61, 97, 98, 107, 109, 115, 116, 128, 132, 135, 136, 143, 144, 148‐50, 183, 185, 187, 190, 191, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200, 283, 284, 289, 292‐97, 301, 303, 304, 351, 352, 365 evil . . . . . 1, 3, 304‐17, 319‐23, 333, 343‐66 moral . . . 17, 30, 32, 162, 282, 305, 308, 311, 313, 315, 317, 362, 365 natural . . . . . . 17, 32, 36, 281‐83, 307, 311, 313, 315, 360, 362 radical . . . . . . . 17, 27, 31, 37, 187, 195 evil nature . . . . 156, 159, 226 evil person . . . . 157, 158, 160, 164, 220, 221 exorcism . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 235, 241‐46, 248 faith . . . . . . . 6, 10, 12, 24, 111, 136, 138, 142, 147, 149,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 156, 157, 159, 165, 166, 178, 192, 200, 232, 241, 242, 244, 245, 248, 249, 283, 286‐88, 293, 302, 309 Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 261 fate . . . . . . . . . . 23, 27, 29, 30, 240, 282, 306, 307, 309, 315, 316 filial piety . . . . . . . . 78, 85, 90, 91, 349 flood . . . . . . . 23‐27, 32, 38, 49 flood myths . . . . . . . . . 23, 25 forgiveness . . . . . . 81, 201‐10, 213, 216, 232, 242, 251, 362 Four Noble Truths . . 102, 104, 113, 116 free will . . . . . . . . . 28, 93, 254, 313, 315, 317 fundamentalism . . . 284, 285, 297, 300, 312, 317 garden . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 33‐35, 245, 261, 273 God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . passim attributes of . . . 305, 309 plan of . . . 254, 255, 360 will of 249, 251, 284, 286 Good . . . . 11‐14, 57‐60, 67‐69, 73‐75, 85‐96, 101‐109, 117‐ 26, 151‐56, 160‐62, 192‐ 200, 226‐28, 243‐45, 346‐ 59, 362‐65 and evil 12, 63, 68, 87, 88, 91, 92, 101, 107, 108, 115, 118‐20, 122, 124, 125, 136, 142, 144, 151, 152, 160‐62, 167, 178, 180, 184, 185, 187, 192‐200, 211, 226‐28, 245, 249, 307, 312, 344,
373
346‐55, 357, 359, 363 good deed . . . . . . . 25, 28, 103 good person . . . . . . 89‐91, 160 hadith . . . . . . . . . . 249‐55, 257, 260, 262, 263, 278, 285, 286, 288, 289, 306, 361 happiness . . 3, 41, 46, 55, 103, 104, 113, 114, 201‐05, 207, 213, 276, 295, 310 hatred . . . . . 32, 101, 103, 104, 106, 107, 114, 115, 139, 211, 212, 214, 362, 365 heart . . . . . . . 8‐10, 37, 53, 61, 62, 65, 86, 87, 93, 94, 97, 112, 116, 147, 149, 152, 156, 161, 162, 170, 181, 182, 194‐96, 212, 222, 239, 251, 267, 273, 274, 299, 356, 360, 365 heaven . . . . . 28, 74, 77‐80, 85, 122, 171, 182, 185, 240, 241, 249, 262, 263, 268, 345, 346, 357 hell . . . . . . . . . . 26, 28, 65, 102, 122‐24, 154, 155, 232, 235‐41, 250, 251, 262, 263, 346, 359 Higher Human Soul . . . . . . 267, 268, 274, 361 Hindu cosmology . . . . . . . 26 Holocaust . . . . . . 4, 19, 20, 22, 143, 187, 190‐92, 194, 195, 198, 199 hongaku homon (inherent awa‐ kening) . . . . 151, 162‐65, 356 honi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27‐29, 36 human nature . . . . . 8, 87, 88,
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91‐93, 95, 115, 118, 188, 195, 267, 270, 298, 333, 341, 348‐50, 362, 363, 365 humiliation . . . . . . . . . . 6, 131, 209, 215 “Independence Day” . . . . 20 Islam . . . . . . . . . 11, 45, 57, 58, 143, 249, 255, 257, 258, 262, 265, 273, 275, 278‐81, 283‐92, 294, 297, 300, 302‐ 04, 306, 307, 315, 321, 341, 357, 360, 362, 363, 365 Jahiliyyah (society of moral ignorance) . . . . . . . . . . 291‐92 Japan . . . . 91, 95‐98, 121, 131, 136, 151, 152, 155, 157, 165‐69, 349, 355 Jesuits . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 167 Jivatama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 judgment . . 85, 187, 194, 221, 261, 262, 282, 312, 347, 364 just/unjust . . . . . . . . . 6, 30, 31, 166, 211, 213, 214, 236, 238, 240, 305, 306, 309, 317, 322, 338 justice . . . . . . . . . 89, 136, 140, 144, 145, 212, 260, 261, 263, 282, 305, 309, 314, 316, 320, 337, 341, 346, 353 justification . . . . . . . 24, 27, 87, 97, 205, 206, 213, 312, 313, 315, 316, 345 kairitsu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Kalam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Kali Yuga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 karma . . . . . 27‐29, 34, 36, 60, 85, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109,
118, 123, 124, 154, 155, 159, 164, 170, 195, 346, 355, 356 karmic retribution . . . . . . 122, 152, 153 kenosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 142, 145, 147, 150 Kyoto School . . 136, 141, 148, 186, 351, 352 law of nature . . . . . . . . . . 314 Legalism . . . . . . 87, 88, 93‐95, 97, 354, 362 liberation . . 41, 45‐47, 55, 68, 101‐05, 109, 114‐16, 129, 140, 141, 144, 147‐49, 151, 152, 154‐65, 167, 169, 178, 179, 236, 238, 242, 243, 346, 352, 356 lila . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 43, 345 love . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 38, 48, 53, 60, 67, 103, 104, 107, 118, 123, 132, 135, 136, 143, 145‐48, 174, 176, 181, 185, 204, 211, 212, 252, 253, 268, 273, 328, 330, 331, 333, 336, 337, 346, 348, 352 Mahabharata . . . . . . . . . 17, 25, 26, 29‐31, 36, 37, 59, 62, 71, 345 Malleus Maleficarum . . . . . 276 maya . . . . . . . 23, 27, 41‐55, 67, 344, 346, 364 mayabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 metaphor . . . . . . . . . . 19, 33, 176, 198, 199 political . . . . . . 19, 211, 254, 288
INDEX OF SUBJECTS Milestones . . . . . . . . . . 290‐92, 304, 360 moksha . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 29, 45 moral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . passim Muryoju‐kyo . . . 153, 155, 159 myth . . . 17, 19, 20, 23,26, 27, 32‐35, 38, 237, 245, 345 mythology . . . . . . . 17‐19, 34, 60, 138, 220 Hindu . . . . . . . 27, 34, 35, 38, 55, 71, 345, 365 nafs (soul, lower soul) . . . . . . . . . . . 257‐60, 267, 268, 270, 272‐74 al‐nafs al‐ammarah . . 259 al‐nafs al‐mutma’innah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 al‐nafs al‐lawwamah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 niramjan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 nirvana . . . . . . . . . 23, 29, 101, 103‐06, 108, 109, 114, 115, 138, 140, 141, 152,153, 158, 189, 193, 348, 355, 357, 361 Noble Eightfold Path . . . . . . . . 104‐06, 114, 116 non‐discrimination . . . . . 193 nothingness . . . . . . . . 135‐37, 140‐43, 145‐48, 169, 171, 174‐77, 180, 181, 183‐85, 352, 366 Occidentalism . . . . . . 38, 303 patience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 pratimoksha . . . . . . . . 120, 126 purgatory . . . . . . 84, 236, 241 Qur’an . . . . . . . 59, 60, 249‐51,
375 254, 256, 257, 259‐65, 270, 272, 273, 278, 282, 284‐86, 288, 290, 299, 302, 303, 306‐08, 310, 313, 314, 321, 360, 361
rebirth . . . . . . 86, 101‐03, 105, 107, 108, 114, 124, 157, 198, 243, 355, 364 reconciliation . . . . . . . 15, 201, 202, 205, 207, 209, 210, 215, 221, 366 redemption . . . . . . . . 135, 235, 237, 238, 240, 255 religion . . . . . . 1, 5, 11, 12, 23, 45, 58, 61, 62, 71, 73, 74, 80, 81, 85, 86, 93, 117, 132, 135, 145, 169‐71, 175‐80, 183‐85, 191, 217, 218, 223, 225‐34, 248, 256, 261‐63, 265, 266, 271, 273, 278, 283, 285, 289, 293, 295‐97, 301, 302, 304, 315, 317, 318, 331, 341, 357, 360, 361, 365, 366 repentance . . . . . . . . 201, 207, 209, 210 resentment . . . . . . . . 103, 201, 207‐09, 212‐14, 216 respect . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 35, 46, 52, 57, 65, 75, 90, 97, 128, 131, 132, 161, 163, 166, 171, 172, 174, 193, 195, 196, 207, 209, 211, 214, 218, 245, 251, 262, 264, 266, 298, 308, 310, 316, 317, 320, 334, 335, 347 resurrection . . . . 137, 235‐38, 240, 241
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PROBING THE DEPTHS
reward . . . . . . . . 109, 240, 249, 251, 255, 311 righteousness . . . . . . . . 69, 92, 152, 204 ruh (higher soul) . . . 259, 260, 267, 272 sachchidananda . . . . . . . . . . 48 Sahih al‐Bukhari . . . . 262, 279, 361 saints . . . 41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 75, 83, 241, 275 samsara . . . . . 62, 68, 102, 104, 107, 108, 140, 154, 155, 157, 189, 364 satguru . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 55, 71 satori . . . . . 138, 141, 143, 151 shame . . . . . . . 31, 94, 119‐21, 127‐33, 170, 224, 288, 295, 354, 355 Sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 sin . . . . . . . . . . 7, 8, 29, 63, 64, 73, 78, 82, 85, 118, 128, 129, 138, 161, 170, 191, 219, 221, 243, 244, 246‐48, 250, 252, 254, 273, 277, 301 original . . . . . . . 7, 8, 118, 244, 246, 248, 301 skillful means . . . . . . 158, 189 spirituality . . . . . . . . . 61, 141, 149, 239, 256, 296 suffering . . . . . . . . 3‐7, 12‐14, 28‐30, 33, 34, 37, 46, 49, 50, 62, 66, 74, 86, 101‐06, 108‐ 10, 112‐16, 118, 122, 151‐ 53, 170, 174, 181, 182, 188, 192, 201‐03, 205, 206, 211, 213‐15, 227, 236, 240, 255, 283, 302, 303, 306, 307,
310, 311, 319, 345, 351‐54, 358, 360 sunyata . . . . 119, 135, 139, 141, 149, 150, 181, 187, 189‐92, 194, 198‐200 ten evils . . . . . . . 122, 124, 158 test . . . . . . . . . 6, 191, 249, 254, 255, 288, 322, 358, 360, 361, 364 theology . . . 15, 28, 38, 57, 61, 65, 135, 136, 147, 148, 173, 183, 217, 218, 229, 230, 232‐234, 239, 245, 248, 281, 284, 288, 291‐93, 297, 300‐03,305, 306, 309, 316, 317, 343, 359, 360 theosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Trade Tower attacks . . . . . 21 transcendence . . . . . 119, 135, 136, 138, 142, 145‐49, 226, 227, 260, 285, 295, 319, 321, 334, 339‐41, 344, 350, 351, 354, 355, 363 Trinity . . . . . . . . 137, 146, 147, 149, 150, 243 truth . . . . . . . . 8, 12, 42, 45, 46, 50, 51, 103, 113, 114, 138, 140, 143, 170, 189, 190, 196, 199, 225, 244, 261, 286, 289, 336, 338, 343, 347 tsunami . . . . . . . 17, 18, 23‐25, 27, 30, 33, 36, 146, 281, 282, 284, 303, 305 underworld . . 75, 78, 236‐239 value . . . . . . . . 17, 88, 89, 109, 128, 167, 176, 203, 205‐07, 212, 223, 322, 330, 347, 349
INDEX OF SUBJECTS victim 28, 50, 54, 64, 66, 201‐ 10, 215, 219, 250, 326, 359 virtues . . . . . 14, 48, 76, 78, 89, 90, 94, 109, 110, 119, 123, 124, 166, 203, 204, 273, 275, 281, 286, 287, 294, 296‐98, 304, 349 virtuous . . . . 34, 59, 124, 295, 311, 312, 360 “War of the Worlds” . . . . . 20 well‐being . . . . . . . . 3, 13, 103, 113, 114 wisdom . . . . . . . . . . 34, 78, 89, 95, 97, 108, 115, 116, 131,
377
135, 142‐44, 154, 187, 188, 192‐95, 198, 199, 204, 222, 237, 266, 268, 269, 278, 302, 306, 315, 353, 362 woman, deficient in intellect and religion . . . . 261‐63, 265, 266, 273 Zen . . . . . . . 117, 119‐121, 124, 125, 127, 129, 131‐33, 136, 138, 142, 150, 151, 158, 186‐88, 193, 194, 196, 200, 350‐54, 357, 365
Contributors to this Volume CHRISTA W. ANBEEK is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at the Catholic Theological University at Utrecht, and pastor at the Psychi‐ atric Hospital Meerkanten GGZ. MARTIEN E. BRINKMAN, is Professor of Intercultural Theology at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. CHING‐YUEN CHEUNG received his doctorate degree from Tohoku Uni‐ versity, Sendai, Japan, with a dissertation on Nishida Kitaroʹs phe‐ nomenological philosophy. RKIA E. CORNELL is Senior Lecturer in Arabic, Emory University in At‐ lanta, Georgia, U.S.A. VINCENT J. CORNELL is Asa Griggs Candler Professor of Middle East and Islamic Studies, Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A. WENDY DONIGER (OʹFlaherty) is the Mircea Eliade Distinguished Ser‐ vice Professor of the History of Religions, the Divinity School at the University of Chicago. SAEID EDALATNEJAD is a staff member in the Department of Theology and Law at the Encyclopaedia Islamica Foundation in Tehran, Iran. JERALD D. GORT is Associate Professor of Missiology emeritus, Faculty of Theology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. EIKO HANAOKA is Professor Emeritus, Faculty of Philosophy, Osaka Prefecture University, Japan. HENRY JANSEN, a former Senior Research and Teaching Fellow at the Faculty of Theology, Vrije Universiteit, the Netherlands, currently works as a freelance translator of academic articles and books. H. KUNNEMAN is Professor of Social Theory at the University for Hu‐ manistics in Utrecht, the Netherlands. JOHN LAGERWEY is Professor of the History of Taoism and Chinese Re‐ ligions and Director of Studies at the École Pratique des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne, Paris. J. D’ARCY MAY is Associate Professor of Interfaith Dialogue at the Irish School of Ecumenics in Trinity College Dublin.
MARTIN REPP is Professor of Comparative Religion and Christian Stud‐ ies at the Graduate School of Jodo Shinshu Studies at Ryukoku Uni‐ versity, Kyoto, Japan. DINESH PRASAD SAKLANI is a senior Reader in the Department of His‐ tory, Culture, and Archaeology, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttaranchal, India. ANNEMIEK SPRONK is a graduate of the Faculty of Theology (Philo‐ sophy of Religion) of the Vrije Universiteit and is presently on the staff of the Tropenmuseum Junior, Amsterdam. VICTOR A. VAN BIJLERT is an Indologist, with a specialization in Neo‐Hindu movements. He has taught at the Indian Institute of Man‐ agement and the National Institute of Human Development Kolkata for several years and now teaches courses on Hinduism at Dutch uni‐ versities. N. VERBIN is a lecturer in the Department of Philosophy in Tel Aviv University and a research fellow at the Shalom Hartman Institute in Jerusalem. ANNEWIEKE VROOM is Lecturer in the Philosophy of Religion at the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. HENDRIK M. VROOM is Professor of Philosophy of Religion, Faculty of Theology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. CONRAD WETHMAR is Professor of Dogmatics at the theological faculty of the University of Pretoria; he is an expert on contextual African Tra‐ ditional theologies. SODO YASUNAGA is Professor of Buddhist Studies at Hanazono Uni‐ versity, Kyoto.