Picture Yourself Playing Cello: Step-by-Step Instruction for Playing the Cello
Jim Aikin
Course Technology PTR A part of Cengage Learning
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Picture Yourself Playing Cello: Step-by-Step Instruction for Playing the Cello Jim Aikin
Publisher and General Manager, Course Technology PTR: Stacy L. Hiquet
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This book is dedicated to the memory of Larry Granger— teacher, colleague, inspiration, friend. We miss you, Larry!
Acknowledgments I would like to thank the cello teachers I have studied with over the years, especially Ruth Saphir and Laszlo Varga. My own students have been an inspiration to me; without their determination to master the cello, this book would never have been written. Thanks to Orren Merton for suggesting that I write Picture Yourself Playing Cello and to Course Technology PTR for publishing it. Copious thanks to Barbara Stanton (www.barbarastanton.com) for the photo session! Without Barbara’s enthusiasm and keen eye, this book would have had to be retitled Imagine Yourself Playing Cello. Carolyn McIntosh read the manuscript and made a number of very useful suggestions based on her own teaching and years of experience as a professional cellist; needless to say, any mistakes that remain are my responsibility, not Carolyn’s. The staff at Ifshin Violins in El Cerrito, California (www.ifshinviolins.com) graciously allowed me to take photos of cello accessories in their marvelous store. Thanks also to Sibelius (a division of Avid) for making available the fine Sibelius 6 notation software used to prepare the musical examples in these pages. The free software used in the creation of this book included OpenOffice and GIMP.
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About the Author Jim Aikin has worn various hats during his career—as a writer, a cellist, and an electronic music specialist. While in high school, he studied the cello privately with Laszlo Varga. Varga had, prior to that time, been the principal cellist of the New York Philharmonic under famed conductor Leonard Bernstein. In recent years Aikin has studied with Carolyn McIntosh and more briefly with Larry Granger and Nina Flyer. He has played cello with various community orchestras in the San Francisco Bay Area, including the Redwood Symphony, Silicon Valley Symphony, and Livermore-Amador Symphony, and he teaches cello privately in Livermore, California. Occasionally, he can be glimpsed playing his five-string electric cello with a jazz group. For more than 25 years, Aikin worked on the editorial staff of Keyboard magazine, where he wrote innumerable reviews of synthesizers and music software, not to mention several thousand reviews of LPs and, later, CDs. Since leaving the staff of Keyboard in 2002, he has continued to write about music technology as a freelancer for Keyboard, Electronic Musician, Mix, Virtual Instruments, Drum!, and other magazines. He is the author of Power Tools for Synthesizer Programming and Chords & Harmony (both available from Hal Leonard Books) and two science fiction novels (both out of print). His short stories have appeared in Fantasy & Science Fiction, Asimov’s Science Fiction, and several anthologies. To learn more, visit his personal website at www.musicwords.net.
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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Quick Start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Chapter 1
Your Cello. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Parts of the Cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Scroll and Pegs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Fingerboard, Neck, and Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Tailpiece and End Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Selecting a Cello and Bow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Choosing the Right Cello Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Check List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Equipment You Will Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Rosin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Electronic Tuner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Music Stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 End Pin Holder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Metronome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Extra Strings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Fingerboard Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Mute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Wolf Suppressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Humidifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 How to Put On New Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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Chapter 2
Getting Ready. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 The Cello Chair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Positioning the Cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Tuning Your Cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Using an Electronic Tuner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Tuning to a Piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Tuning by Fifths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Tuning by Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Large Adjustments with the Pegs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 About Tuning and Intonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Taking Good Care of Your Cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Setting Down the Cello and Bow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Loosening and Tightening the Bow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Cleaning the Cello. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Using a Soft Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Carrying the Cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Simple Repairs You Can Make Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Repairs That Should Be Done by a Qualified Technician. . . . 33
Chapter 3
How to Use the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Applying Rosin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Holding the Bow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 The Bow Hold Using a Pencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 How Not to Hold the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Moving the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 The Sounding Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Down-Bow and Up-Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 The Regions of the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 The Angles of the Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Moving from One String to Another. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Using the Right Arm and Shoulder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Bow Speed and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Speed Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Playing Loudly and Softly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 A Bowing Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
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Table of Contents The Flexible Right Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Staccato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Playing Pizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Advanced Bowing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Playing Double-Stops and Chords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Col Legno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Bowing Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Exercise 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Exercise 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Exercise 3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Exercise 3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Exercise 3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Exercise 3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Exercise 3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 4
Fingering with the Left Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 The Arched Shape of the Left Hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Guitar Player’s Deformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 The Left Arm, Wrist, and Elbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 The Left Hand Death Grip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Numbering the Fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Other Fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Playing in Tune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Fingerboard Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Vibrato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 The Extended Hand Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Shifting to Other Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 The Numbering of the Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Half-Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Position and Finger Numbers in Sheet Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Advanced Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Trills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Double-Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Thumb Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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Fingering Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Exercise 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Exercise 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Exercise 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Exercise 4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Exercise 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Exercise 4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Exercise 4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 5
Reading Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 The Musical Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The Staff and Bass Clef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Ledger Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Sharps, Flats, and Naturals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Learning Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Major, Minor, Perfect, Augmented, Diminished . . . . . . . . . . 114 Chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Key Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Keys and Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Minor Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Finding the Cello’s Notes on the Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Note Rhythm Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Repeated Single Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Time Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Pickup Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Dots and Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Triplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Grace Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Other Marks on the Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Tenor and Treble Clef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 A Glossary of Musical Italian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
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Chapter 6
Music You Can Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Tips for Practicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Bow Direction and Counting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 “She’ll Be Comin’ Round the Mountain” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 “Long, Long Ago” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 “Joy to the World”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 “We Wish You a Merry Christmas” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 “Oh, Susanna” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 “Ode to Joy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 “Turkey in the Straw” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 “Home on the Range” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 “Blues in G”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 “William Tell Overture” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 “The Entertainer”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Suggested Method Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter 7
Happily Ever After... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 What’s Next? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 The Cello Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Playing with Other Musicians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 How to Find a Good Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Famous Cellists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Pablo Casals (1876–1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Yo-Yo Ma (1955– ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Mstislav Rostropovich (1927–2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Jacqueline du Pré (1945–1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Luigi Boccherini (1743–1805) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Gregor Piatigorsky (1903–1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Jacques Offenbach (1819–1880) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
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Table of Contents
Introduction People sometimes say to me, “Oh, the cello is my favorite instrument!” Maybe they’re just being polite—but somehow I doubt many people say this sort of thing to bagpipe players or timpani players. There is truly something unique about the rich, warm sound of the cello. Of all the instruments in the orchestra, the cello sounds most like the human voice. We can play the low, full sounds of a male singer or the soaring sweet sounds of a female vocalist. Instead of singing, we use a bow and strings, but the cello can easily be as expressive as the human voice. Playing the cello is not only an amazing and rewarding musical adventure; it’s also a social activity. The cello is almost always played as part of a group—either a small chamber ensemble or a large symphony orchestra. As a cellist, you’ll have many opportunities to meet and play with other musicians. You won’t always get to be the star of the show! The cello plays a supporting role in most music. But once in a while, the cello gets the spotlight. The rest of the time, we get to play parts that are not too difficult and help the other instruments sound good. A word of caution is in order, however, before we proceed. In our fast-paced society, many things are sold to the public with the claim, “It’s easy!” I’ve seen a course in an Adult Education catalog, for instance, that promised to teach you to play the piano in 30 minutes, which is laughable. There’s a word for people who believe this sort of claim: We call them “victims.” Some claims are, to be sure, more fact-based than others. My Zojirushi bread-making machine really does make it pretty darn easy to produce loaves of tasty homemade bread! But in general, you need to be skeptical of any claim that it will be easy to learn to play a musical instrument. Learning a few rudiments may be fairly easy (or it may be more challenging than you expect). Building any sort of technical mastery will assuredly take years of patient daily effort. When my students are feeling frustrated at how slowly they’re making progress, I like to remind them, “If it was easy, everybody would do it.” Being a cellist is special in no small part because you can take pride in having accomplished something that’s not easy at all.
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What You’ll Find in This Book Picture Yourself Playing Cello is a step-by-step guide to getting started as a cellist. The easy-to-follow instructions and the numerous pictures and diagrams will show you how to hold the cello, how to use the bow, and how to finger the strings to play music. Chapters 1 and 2 provide a wealth of information that you’ll find useful as you get started. You’ll learn the names of the parts of your cello, how to make sure the cello you’re thinking of renting or buying is in good condition, how to tune the cello, how to replace the strings, and how to hold the instrument while playing. You’ll learn about cello accessories and how to care for your instrument. Chapter 3 is all about using the bow to produce full, satisfying tones. In Chapter 4, we turn our attention to how to place the fingers of the left hand on the strings to play different notes. Chapter 5 is devoted to the details of how to read sheet music. In Chapter 6, you’ll find a selection of easy songs to get you started and some suggestions for other cello music that you may want to buy. In Chapter 7, you’ll find suggestions on where to go after you’ve finished the book. Many sections of the book are linked to video tutorials on the included DVD. Be sure to watch the videos, as they demonstrate many techniques that are possibly a bit difficult to grasp while you’re reading about them. Playing the cello is a single activity, in which you’ll use both hands while also reading the music sitting in front of you on your music stand. Because of this, Picture Yourself Playing Cello is not organized as a progressive series of lessons, where you can proceed from lesson 1 through lesson 50 and learn a bit more at each lesson. Instead, you’ll need to coordinate the techniques that you learn in Chapters 3 and 4 with the music-reading skills in Chapter 5 to play even the simplest music in Chapter 6. You may find it useful to read through the book quickly. Then, after sitting down with your cello and trying out a few things, you can return to the book for further study.
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Who This Book Is For If you want to play the cello, this book is for you! Whether you’re an absolute beginner wondering if it might be fun to rent an instrument to try it out, a student in school who is thinking of signing up for an orchestra class, or a budding cellist who has been playing for a year or two and is looking for ways to develop a better technique and a better sound, Picture Yourself Playing Cello will provide practical, hands-on advice that you can use. It may be true that learning a musical instrument is easier if you start at a young age, because a younger brain finds it easier to build up new neural pathways. But if you’re an adult who has never played an instrument, please don’t be discouraged! Adults have at least two advantages over younger students: an understanding of what’s involved in the self-discipline of practicing, and a greater ability to grasp abstract concepts. Picture Yourself Playing Cello is written for all beginners, both young and old. If you’re the parent or friend of a beginning cellist, you may want to consider buying this book as a gift. And if you’re a cello teacher, I hope you’ll consider recommending the book to your students. I’ve tried to make the information in it as authoritative and accurate as possible. Naturally, various teachers and performers have their own approaches to some of the finer points of cello technique. This book is not intended to be the last word on the subject—it’s intended to help beginners get started and have fun while learning to make music on the cello.
xv
How to Use the DVD In many of the sections of this book, you’ll find links to specific tracks on the DVD. Rather than watch the DVD from start to finish, I suggest that you read the book and stop periodically, after reading a section, to watch the DVD segment that demonstrates what you’ve just read. Many of the pieces of music in Chapter 6 are played on the DVD. If you’re not sure how they should sound, listen to the DVD performance once or twice before you start learning the piece and then refer back to it a few times to check whether you’re playing the notes properly. If your equipment setup allows, you can play the pieces on your cello along with the DVD.
DVD-ROM Downloads If you purchased an ebook version of this book, and the book had a companion DVD-ROM, you may download the contents from www.courseptr.com/downloads. If your book has a DVD-ROM, please check our website for any updates or errata files. You may download files from www.courseptr.com/downloads.
xvi
A Few Words of Advice Learning to play a musical instrument is not like memorizing facts. It’s a process. In some sense, it’s a process that never ends. (I recently heard a story about the great cellist Pablo Casals. Someone asked him why, even though he was almost 90 years old, he still practiced the cello every day. With a twinkle in his eye, Casals said, “I’m beginning to notice some improvement.”) It’s important to build good practice habits right from the start. You’ll find suggestions for how to practice in Chapter 7, but to get you started, here are some quick tips that may help: v Find a regular time in your schedule for daily practice. It’s important to practice every day. v Be patient with yourself. It’s normal to make mistakes—lots of them. Please don’t become discouraged. Instead, develop the skill of figuring out exactly where your hands are going astray and then think about ways to fix the problem. v At all times, listen carefully to the sounds coming from your instrument. v If you find that your muscles are getting painfully tense, take a short break. Then work on learning to relax while playing. v Practice difficult passages slowly—as slowly as you need to in order to make all of the correct muscle movements in the correct order. If you rush through and ignore a few flubs, you’ll only be getting good at making the same mistakes over and over. v Don’t play a piece straight through from beginning to end every time you practice it. Break it down into single phrases or even into one-measure chunks. Practice short phrases until you can play them flawlessly; then put the short phrases together into longer ones. v Set short-term and long-term goals for yourself.
Your immediate goal might be to play one or two measures with better intonation (that is, to play the notes in tune). An intermediate goal might be to learn an entire piece with the indicated fingerings and bowings. Your long-term goal might be to play well enough to join a community orchestra, play in a chamber group with other amateur music lovers, or learn some popular songs so you can play along with your favorite CDs. Whatever your goals, this book will help you reach them.
xvii
Do You Need Lessons from a Teacher? I hope you’ll learn a lot from Picture Yourself Playing Cello. This book is intended to help you improve and refine your cello-playing skills, whether you’re trying out the instrument on your own, playing in a school orchestra, or studying with a teacher. But no book on playing an instrument—not even a book that comes with a DVD—can take the place of personal instruction from a qualified teacher. If you’re at all serious about playing the cello, I hope you’ll find a private teacher in your area and take lessons. (For suggestions on how to find a good teacher, see Chapter 7.) Private lessons can be somewhat expensive, and you may be reluctant to make the financial investment. If you live in a rural area, it may not be easy for you to find a cello teacher in your region. All the same, after reading this book (or while reading it), I urge you to take regular weekly lessons with a cello teacher if it’s possible for you to do so. I can think of almost a dozen reasons why cello lessons are a wonderful investment: v A teacher can notice any bad habits that you’re developing and show you how to correct them. v A teacher can suggest cello music that is at the right level of difficulty for you. v A teacher can demonstrate and explain musical details and advanced techniques that are not covered in this book. v A teacher can help you develop good intonation (that is, the ability to play in tune). You simply can’t learn to play in tune by reading a book! v A teacher can help you analyze and learn to play complex rhythms and point out mistakes in your counting of rhythms. v A teacher can answer any questions that you may have about music theory, music history, or ensemble playing. v The fact that you have a lesson coming up in a few days will encourage you to stay on track and practice every day. You may be tempted to slack off if you don’t have to check in regularly with a teacher. v A teacher can check to make sure your cello is set up properly and advise you on any repairs that might be needed. v Many teachers provide enrichment opportunities, such as the chance to play in student recitals. v A teacher may suggest CDs of cello music that you might buy or upcoming concerts that you can attend where you’ll be able to hear wonderful music and be inspired. v Finally, a good teacher will give you plenty of encouragement and congratulate you on your growing mastery of the cello!
xviii
Quick Start Playing the cello is not quite as easy as falling off a log. (Whole books have been written about it, including this one!) But if you’ve just brought your cello home and you’re itching to get started, here’s what you need to do: 1.
Extend the end pin about 14 inches (see p. 21) and tighten the thumbscrew.
2. Tighten the hair on the bow—but not too much (see p. 30). 3. Make sure the cello is in tune (see p. 23). 4. Sit in a chair and hold the cello in playing position (see p. 76), as shown in Figure QS.1.
Figure QS.1 The cello in playing position. xix
5. Try using the bow to play a few notes on the open strings (see p. 43), as shown in Figure QS.2.
Figure QS.2 The bow placed on a string, ready to play.
6. Press the first finger of your left hand firmly on the D string (the second string, counting from the left) about 2-3/4 inches from the point where the string crosses the nut. (See p. 72 for left-hand shape and p. 2 for the names of the parts of the cello.) 7.
Bow the D string. With your finger pressed down, you’re playing the note E.
8. While keeping the first finger pressed down, press the second and third fingers down on the same string. Press the new fingers down at the same time, but keep them separated from one another and from the first finger. Your third finger should be about 5-1/2 inches from the nut, as shown in Figure QS.3.
xx
Quick Start
Figure QS.3 Fingers 1, 2, and 3 on the D string.
9. Bow the D string again. You’re now playing the note F-sharp. 10. Play this sequence of notes, bowing each note separately: F-sharp, E, D, E, F-sharp, F-sharp, F-sharp.
Figure QS.4 “Mary Had a Little Lamb” (left hand finger numbers and note names shown).
Congratulations—you’ve just played the opening phrase of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” Everything else that you’ll learn in your years of cello playing will be a refinement of that experience.
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Your Cello
P
1
laying the cello is a wonderful adventure!
As with any adventure, though, it’s smart to be prepared before you start out. If you were planning to go mountainclimbing, for example, you’d need a backpack, a sleeping bag, sunscreen, food and water, and a sturdy pair of hiking boots. In this book I’ll be your mountain-climbing guide as you set out on the endless adventure of playing the cello. We may not make it to the highest peak, but I’ll guide you up to a crest where you’ll have a clear view of what lies ahead. I’ll point out the safe trails so you know which direction to go next and make sure you’ve packed the right gear. To start our journey, we’ll look at the parts of the cello.
The Parts of the Cello Most of the cello is made of carved wood. A few parts are metal. The main parts of the cello are the body and the neck. The body is an acoustic amplifier. It magnifies the sound vibrations coming from the strings so that they can be heard easily. The strings run vertically, from the peg-box at the top, down the neck along the fingerboard, and across the bridge. Below the bridge they’re attached to the tailpiece.
Words to the Wise
Scroll
More subtly, you may see and wonder about the word “violoncello,” which often appears on published sheet music. This is the older name of the cello. A common mistake is to pronounce this word “violin-cello,” or spell it “violincello.” The first part of the word is not violin, it’s violon. The violon, which no longer exists outside of a few museums, was a large instrument, about the size of a modern string bass. In Italian, the word “cello” means “high.” (It’s related to the English word “ceiling.”) The violoncello was the high-pitched little brother of the violon. The word violoncello is always pronounced in the Italian fashion, with the “i” sounding like the English “ee.” So it’s pronounced “vee-oh-loanchell-o.”
Pegs
Peg-Box Fingerboard
Neck
Upper Bout
F-Holes (Sound-Holes)
Bridge Fine Tuners
Lower Bout Tailpiece
End Pin
Figure 1.1 The principal parts of the cello. 2
The word “cello” comes from Italian. In Italian, when the letter “c” comes before “i” or “e,” it’s pronounced the way “ch” is pronounced in English—“chell-o,” not “sell-o.” You probably knew that already. Also, the person who plays the cello is a cellist, not a “chello-ist.”
Your Cello
The Scroll and Pegs Let’s start at the top and look at each of the parts of the cello a little more closely. The scroll is purely decorative—it serves no purpose. Below the scroll is the peg-box. Four tuning pegs are inserted in the peg-box, two on each side. The strings wind around the pegs. If you’re facing the cello, looking at it from the front, the thinnest string (the A string) will be on the right, and the thickest string (the C string) will be on the left. When you’re sitting behind the cello, the A string will be farthest to the left, nearest the fingers of your left hand. Notice that the strings are wound over each peg, not under it.
Cello pegs come in two types. Most cellos have old-style wooden pegs, but some student instruments have plastic pegs with an internal gear mechanism. I’ll have more to say about the pegs in “Tuning Your Cello” in Chapter 2, “Getting Ready.”
Scroll
Peg-Box Pegs
Nut Fingerboard
Chapter 1
The pegs may look like cylinders, but they’re actually tapered slightly, with the thick end near the outer part of the peg. The pegs fit into the peg-box strictly by being pushed in firmly; they’re not attached in any way. When a string is out of tune, you can tune it properly by turning the pegs, either loosening or tightening the string as needed. (To learn how to do this, see “Tuning Your Cello” in Chapter 2.)
The Fingerboard, Neck, and Bridge As the strings leave the peg-box, they pass over a small ridge called the nut. From the nut, they travel down the length of the fingerboard. The fingerboard is mounted on the front of the neck. In a good cello, the fingerboard will be made of ebony, which is an extremely hard wood. Some student cellos have fingerboards of some other hardwood, which is stained black to look like ebony. The fingerboard is not flat; it has a gentle arch from left to right, which matches the arch of the bridge. The fingerboard of the cello is planed down beneath the C string (the thickest string) to allow the C string to vibrate more freely. Below the end of the fingerboard, the strings pass across the bridge. The top of the bridge is arched, with a curve that matches the curve of the fingerboard. The purpose of the bridge is to carry the vibrations from the strings down into the body of the instrument. The bridge is not glued on; it’s held in place strictly by the downward pressure of the strings.
Figure 1.2 The scroll and peg-box.
3
The feet of the bridge should be seated flat on the top of the cello. If the bridge is tilted forward or back, so that the feet of the bridge are not making firm contact with the top, you should take the cello to a shop and have the bridge adjusted. (But see “Simple Repairs You Can Make Yourself” in Chapter 2.) The feet of the bridge should be in a line between the little notches cut in the curve of the f-holes. The strings are close to the fingerboard at their upper end, but the bridge should be high enough that the strings are a bit further from the fingerboard at the lower end—about 1/4 inch.
The Tailpiece and End Pin At their lower end, the strings attach to the tailpiece. The tailpiece is usually wood, but some student cellos have metal tailpieces. If your cello has traditional wooden pegs, the tailpiece should be fitted with four fine tuners, one for each string. The fine tuners are for making small adjustments in the tuning of the strings, while the pegs are used for larger adjustments. (See “Tuning Your Cello” in Chapter 2.) If the tailpiece is metal, the tuners will usually be built into it. At the lower end of the tailpiece is a loop (usually plastic) that passes over the saddle and around the end pin block. The end pin protrudes from the bottom of the cello. It can be extended or retracted by loosening the thumb screw. (To learn more about extending the end pin properly, see “Positioning the Cello” in Chapter 2.) The round piece that the thumb screw and end pin pass through is the end pin block. The end pin is metal and will probably have a sharp point on the end. Many cellists prefer to put a small rubber tip on the point of the end pin, so as not to risk damaging a carpet or floor.
Figure 1.3 The bridge carries the vibrations of the strings down into the body. 4
Your Cello
Chapter 1
The Body The cello has an hourglass shape. The lower bout is wider than the upper bout; between them is a narrower waist, where the body curves inward to make it easier to bow the outer strings.
Figure 1.4 The lower end of the tailpiece is attached by a loop that passes over the saddle and around the end pin block. Tighten the thumb screw to hold the end pin either in or out and loosen it to adjust the end pin length.
Cello History
The top and back are gently arched, not flat. The sides are flat but curve around to match the contours of the top and back. In the top is a pair of curved holes, which are called f-holes (because they’re similar in shape to an oldfashioned italic letter f) or sound-holes. Around the edges of the top and back you’ll see a couple of narrow strips of inlay called the purfling. The purfling strengthens the edges of the top and back and helps guard against splitting. Two parts of the cello’s body are not easy to see from the outside. The bass bar runs lengthwise along the inside of the top; it passes underneath the right foot of the bridge (if you’re sitting behind the cello—the left foot if you’re facing the cello). The soundpost stands vertically under the other foot of the bridge and joins the top and the back.
The planing of the fingerboard beneath the C string was first done by cellist Bernhard Romberg (1767–1841). Romberg was a friend of Beethoven’s, but he may have found Beethoven’s music too challenging. He turned down Beethoven’s offer to write a cello concerto, saying he preferred to play his own compositions. The end pin was invented by cellist Adrien Servais (1807–1866). Before this, cellists had to grip the instrument between their legs or rest it on a footstool.
Figure 1.5 The cello’s body is narrow in the middle so you can freely bow the highest and lowest strings. The graceful shape is typical of European woodworking design in the seventeenth century. 5
The bass bar is glued to the top, but the soundpost is kept in position only by being wedged in place. On rare occasions the soundpost can fall. If this happens to your cello, don’t try to fix it yourself. If the soundpost falls, you should immediately loosen the strings so that the bridge doesn’t press down on the top of the cello, and then take the cello to a qualified repair shop.
The hair of the bow is horsehair. (Yes, it comes from the tail of a horse.) It’s a good idea never to touch the hair with your fingers, as your skin is always slightly oily. When you touch the hair, some oil will transfer to the hair. The oil can cause the bow to skid across the string rather than grabbing the string. When playing loud notes on the cello, you may occasionally break a hair. This is normal and nothing to worry about. Don’t pull out the broken hair. Instead, use a pair of nail scissors to clip the broken hair where it enters the frog and the tip.
The Bow Most of the time, you’ll be playing the cello by drawing the bow across the strings, as explained in Chapter 3, “How to Use the Bow.” The bow is a long stick of wood, but carbon fiber is now being used in place of wood in many student bows and some high-quality bows. The stick tapers gently and curves.
Behind the frog is the screw. The screw is used to tighten and loosen the hair. (For details, see “Loosening and Tightening the Bow” in Chapter 2.) Forward of the frog is a wrapping called the handgrip. This is mostly decorative, but its weight helps balance the bow. It also provides a little padding for the right index finger. When you’re playing, your right index finger will press down on the handgrip.
At one end of the bow is the frog. When playing, you’ll place your right hand so that it partially covers the frog, but the frog is not a handle. Its purpose is to hold the hair. The other end of the bow is called the tip.
Screw
Frog
Figure 1.6 The parts of the bow.
6
Hair
Stick
Tip
Your Cello
Chapter 1
Selecting a Cello and Bow A good cello is an expensive investment. Even a modest student instrument will cost between $500 and $1,000, and professional-quality instruments typically cost $10,000, $20,000, or more. The bow will be a separate purchase, and a bow of comparable quality will usually cost about 25 percent of what you pay for the cello. Less expensive instruments are available, but they are not usually of good quality. Don’t be fooled by a shiny finish. The important things about a cello are how it sounds and that it’s set up properly for playing. While the cello should be in good playing condition and free of rattles and buzzes, many fine older instruments have cracks that have been expertly repaired, so don’t be put off by signs of old damage. An unrepaired crack, on the other hand, is dangerous. A brand-new instrument is not necessarily best—and in fact, many people believe that the sound of a stringed instrument improves when it’s played every day for a few years. Also, the thick layers of varnish on a new, inexpensive cello will make the top and back stiff, so they won’t vibrate as easily. If the varnish layer is thin, so that you’re able to see the grain of the wood more easily, then the sound will be more full and open.
Simply because of the cost, I usually suggest to beginning cello students that they rent an instrument for a few months before making a purchase. Many stores have rent-to-own policies, so ask about this if you’re not sure about a purchase. Whether you’re buying or renting, you should acquire the best cello (and bow) you can afford. An inferior instrument won’t be as enjoyable to play, and you may be tempted to give up because you’re not enjoying it.
BUYER, BEWARE! I strongly recommend that you not buy a cello on the Internet. Always buy from a good local shop that has a selection of cellos for you to choose from. You’ll be able to inspect the instrument and listen to it before you buy it, and if problems should surface after you’ve taken the instrument home, you’ll be able to take it back to the shop for remedial work. Some decent cellos are available for purchase online, but many of the instruments you’ll see for sale, though they may look like bargains, are junk.
7
Choosing the Right Cello Size Cellos come in a variety of sizes. Most cellos played by adults are about the same size, although a few larger cellos, including a couple built by the famed violin-maker Stradivarius, exist. The string length of a standard-size cello is about 27 inches from nut to bridge, and the body is about 30 inches long. Smaller-size cellos are available for younger students. These are called 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, and 1/8 size, but the fractions don’t reflect exact differences in measurements; they simply refer to a series of gradations. Cellos in a 7/8 size are also available, and adults with small hands may find them easier to play. The guidelines for choosing a cello of the right size are a bit fuzzy. Some adults who are no taller than 5 feet play a full-size cello, though this requires some adjustments in how they use their left hand. If you’re in doubt, please talk to the sales staff at the store where you’re renting or buying the cello.
Size Chart
8
Age
Height
Cello Size
3–5
Under 3'6"
1/8
5–7
3'6"–4’
1/4
7–11
4'–4'6"
1/2
11–14
4'6"–5'
3/4
15+
5'+
Full-size
To judge whether a cello is the right size for a student, have the student sit in an upright chair. The student’s back should be straight and his or her feet flat on the floor. (For younger students, you may need a chair with shorter legs.) Extend the end pin and tighten the thumb screw. The upper edge of the body should rest on the student’s sternum (breast bone) near the lower end of the rib cage, and the left knee should contact the upper corner of the lower bout. The C string peg should be near or behind the student’s left ear, and the neck of the instrument should be no more than an inch or two above the center part of the left shoulder. If there’s a good instrument-rental shop in your area, you may prefer to rent a good-quality instrument for a younger student, especially if the student is within a year or so of being ready for a larger size. Some shops have rent-to-own plans that will allow you to rent a smaller instrument and accumulate credit toward buying a larger one. The cello’s bow should be in a size that matches the cello itself.
Your Cello
Check List If you’re purchasing a cello for the first time and have never played one, try to find an experienced cellist who can come with you to the store, play the instrument so you can hear it, and check the details of its condition. You may have already selected a cello teacher; in that case, you should ask your teacher for help selecting the proper instrument. (And you should plan to pay for the teacher’s time.) If you’re on your own, here are some things to check before you buy or rent: v The feet of the bridge should sit flat on the top. The bridge should be tilted slightly away from the fingerboard. v The strings should be centered as they run down the fingerboard, not angled to the left or right. At the lower end of the fingerboard, the A string should be no more than about 3/16 inch away from the fingerboard, the C string no more than 5/16 inch away. v The cello should have either four fine tuners on the tailpiece or plastic geared pegs (but not both). The tuners should turn easily. v The string windings should not be frayed or broken. The strings should be clearly graded in size, with the thinnest string (the A string) on the right side as you face the cello.
Chapter 1
Every cello has a slightly different sound, and the bow and strings will also affect the sound. If you’re new to the cello, ask the dealer from whom you’re planning to buy or rent to play a few instruments so you can hear them. Listen for a full, deep sound on the low end and an open, singing sound in the high register. Less expensive instruments will sound dull or thin. If you’re considering buying the cello, the dealer should be willing to let you take it home for a few days to try it out (and have your cello teacher look at it).
A Bridge Too Far The distance of the strings from the fingerboard depends on the curvature of the top of the bridge. A bridge that is too high can be carved down by an expert craftsperson so that the strings will be at the right height, but a bridge that is too short has to be replaced with a new bridge, again by an expert. You can’t put shims under the feet of a bridge that is too low, as that will affect the tone of the cello. As you’re inspecting a cello to rent or buy it, pay especially close attention to whether the strings are at the proper height.
v You should see no broken-off hairs protruding from the frog. If the bow has just been rehaired, ask the salesperson whether it has been thoroughly rosined. v The cello should have a suitable case. v The body should be free of unrepaired cracks and other damage.
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Equipment You Will Need In addition to your cello and bow,
Case
you’ll need a number of accessories in order to start playing the cello. A couple of these are optional, but most are essential.
Your cello may come with a soft canvas case or a hard case of fiberglass or plywood. A hard case will protect the cello better, but hard cases are also heavier and more difficult to carry. They’re also more expensive. Canvas cases start at around $100, hard cases at around $300. Fiberglass cases are lighter than plywood and provide good protection, but they’re also more expensive.
Rosin Rosin is hardened tree sap. It’s very sticky. Every day or two, you’ll need to apply rosin to the hair of the bow. (See Chapter 2 for details.) The cake of rosin may come in a folding cloth, or it may be embedded in a piece of wood.
Some hard cases have wheels, but I personally prefer not to use the wheels on pavement or tile floors, because I worry that in the long run the vibrations may affect the tone of the cello. On a carpeted or smooth linoleum floor, a wheeled case is very convenient. But you should never use the wheels while going up or down a flight of stairs! That amount of banging can damage the cello, even though it’s in a case.
Figure 1.7 Cakes of rosin.
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Soft (canvas) cases usually have a compartment for holding sheet music. Many hard cases don’t. If you have a hard case and take your cello to various places to play, you’ll also need a briefcase to hold the music and perhaps other accessories. Many cases have compartments for two bows, because many professionals carry a spare bow for emergencies. Separate bow cases are also available.
Your Cello
Chapter 1
Tuners are not expensive. I like the Korg Chromatic Tuner. It’s battery-operated, and a single battery lasts for several years. (Pictured is a Korg CA-30; the current model is the CA-40.) Be sure you get a chromatic tuner—that is, a tuner that can sense all 12 notes of the chromatic scale. A guitar tuner may only sense the pitches that are used to tune the guitar. The cello has a string that’s tuned to the note C, but a guitar doesn’t.
Music Stand To play the cello, you’ll need a music stand. When you join an orchestra, you may find that the orchestra supplies stands for the players, but even this is not guaranteed; sometimes you have to bring your own stand to an orchestra rehearsal. Most stands fold up for easy carrying.
Figure 1.8 This lightweight hard case, made by Bam, costs more than most beginners’ cellos; a professional musician will use a case like this to protect a fine instrument.
Electronic Tuner If you have a piano (or electronic keyboard) at home and are comfortable tuning the cello by matching the sound of the strings to the sound of the piano, you don’t need an electronic tuner. However, a tuner is a great accessory if you’re not quite sure how to tell whether your cello is in tune. I’ll have more to say about using the electronic tuner in Chapter 2.
Figure 1.10 Music stands.
Figure 1.9 An electronic tuner. 11
End Pin Holder To keep the cello’s end pin from scooting away from you across the floor while you play, you’ll absolutely need some type of end pin holder. Some are round and have a non-slip lower side. This type is variously called a rock stop or a doughnut. Some loop around the chair leg. Which type you use is a matter of personal preference.
Figure 1.11 A selection of end pin holders stocked by Ifshin Violins in El Cerrito, California. Some grip the floor with a high-friction bottom surface, while others loop around the leg of your chair.
Metronome A metronome is not an absolutely essential accessory, especially when you’re just starting out. As you get better and are able to play more complex music without faltering, you’ll find that a metronome is very useful indeed. Playing along with the rigid, inflexible beat of a metronome is a great way to spot and iron out problems.
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Figure 1.12 An old-fashioned clockwork metronome, which has a sort of upside-down pendulum, and a newer digital model.
I use a battery-powered metronome from Seiko. I recommend using a battery-powered metronome rather than the old-fashioned wind-up kind. A wind-up metronome will produce a lopsided, staggering beat unless it’s sitting on an absolutely flat surface. Electronic metronomes with drum beats are available, but these are more useful for pop musicians than for cellists and other classical musicians.
Extra Strings Cello strings don’t break often, but they do break. When you start playing in recitals or orchestra concerts, you will absolutely want to have a spare set of strings in your case, in case of emergencies. Until you start performing, extra strings are optional but convenient. You should expect to pay close to $100 for a decent set of strings. Fortunately, cello strings don’t need to be changed often. If you clean them with a soft, dry rag after every playing session, a set of strings can last up to two years.
Your Cello Cello strings have a core (of gut, synthetic, or steel) and windings (which may be chrome, silver alloy, tungsten, nickel, titanium, or some other metal). Gut-core strings produce a softer sound suitable for older styles of music, and it’s easier to produce a warm tone with them. Some brands of strings are available in fractional sizes, suitable for smaller cellos. Some brands are available in various tensions. Thicker, highertension strings will produce more sound, but they also require more finger pressure, and putting high-tension strings on an antique cello would likely be a mistake, because these strings also exert more downward pressure on the bridge. Some professionals prefer to choose individual strings that sound good on their cello. For students, a matched set is probably preferable. Crown makes good, inexpensive strings suitable for students. Pirastro makes many types of strings suitable for various budgets and musical needs.
Chapter 1
Strings usually come in individual square envelopes. The string should be left in the envelope until it’s time to put it on the cello. The envelopes are sometimes labeled with Roman numerals—I for the A string, II, for the D string, and so on.
Fingerboard Tape Because the cello has no frets, many beginners find it difficult to play in tune consistently. The fingers of their left hand can easily drift up or down the neck while they’re playing, which results in a very unmusical sound. Fingerboard tape is designed to guide the fingers into the correct positions. It is somewhat adhesive on the underside, but the adhesive wipes off easily. Fingerboard tape does no good if it’s not in the correct positions. If you want to use fingerboard tape, you should have someone with a good ear, such as your teacher or a senior clerk in a music store, apply the tape for you.
Figure 1.13 Cello strings from a variety of makers come in colorful envelopes.
Figure 1.14 Fingerboard tape in position on the fingerboard. 13
Mute When you start playing in an orchestra, you will need to buy a mute. Occasionally, a cello part in an orchestral piece will be marked con sordino, which is Italian for “with a mute.” The mute perches on the bridge and prevents the bridge from vibrating freely, which reduces the amount of sound coming from the cello. Until you join an orchestra, there’s no need to get a mute.
There are two types of mutes. They produce the same type of sound, but they operate a bit differently. The kind shaped like a comb with big teeth sits in your pocket (or on the music stand if you don’t have pockets) until you need it. In use, it is pressed down onto the bridge. The danger with this type of mute is twofold: You may drop it during a concert while putting it on or taking it off, and if it’s not seated properly, it may also pop off of the bridge due to the vibrations coming from the strings. Other mutes slide onto two strings below the bridge. To use the mute, you slide it up and over the bridge. If the mute is kept handy on the strings below the bridge, there’s no danger of it getting lost or being dropped, but it can sometimes cause a buzz or rattle.
Figure 1.15 Cello mutes, including one that looks like a mouse. The heavy mutes at the bottom are used only for practice in the home, as they lower the cello’s loudness dramatically.
Figure 1.16 A round mute in playing position on the bridge.
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Your Cello
Wolf Suppressor Every cello has a wolf. The wolf is a frequency at which the body of the cello goes into an unusual vibration mode. The note closest to the pitch of the wolf will be unstable and may not sound good. You’ll hear an unpleasant shuddering vibration mixed with the note. With a fullsize cello, the wolf is usually in the region of F or F-sharp in first position on the D string (though it may be more noticeable when you play the same note in fourth position on the G string). On a smaller cello, the wolf will be higher in pitch—possibly on G or G-sharp.
Chapter 1
If the wolf in your cello is troublesome, you should buy a wolf suppressor (also called a wolf eliminator). The ones shown here are inexpensive and simple to use. To use this type of wolf suppressor, slide it onto a string (I suggest starting with the G string) below the bridge. Play the cello’s wolf note and listen closely. If the wolf isn’t reduced in intensity, slide the wolf suppressor up or down half an inch or so, play again, and listen. Trial and error are the keys to positioning a wolf suppressor in the best possible place.
Humidifier
Figure 1.17 Wolf suppressors.
Some people recommend that if you live in a dry climate, you should keep a humidifier in the cello or the case so that the instrument won’t dry out. I’ve never used one, so I’m not sure whether that’s good advice. But if you live in a desert climate, you should talk to other cellists in your area to see what they recommend. If you live in a damp climate but are planning to carry your cello while traveling to (or relocating to) a desert area, I would definitely recommend that you research the subject of humidifiers.
Figure 1.18 A different type of wolf suppressor, this one with a rubber sleeve and a small thumb screw, positioned on the G string.
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How to Put On New Strings Putting a new string on the cello is not difficult, but you do have to know what you’re doing. If you have never tried replacing a string, you may want to have a senior clerk at a music store show you how it’s done. On the other hand, I recently had a student bring her cello to a lesson with a new string that had been put on by a music store clerk in a disastrously inept manner—so please don’t be bashful about asking whether the clerk is familiar with cellos and knows how to string them.
Figure 1.19 String inserted in fine tuner.
If you want or need to do it yourself, here are the basic steps you’ll need to follow. First, I suggest always wearing glasses (or protective goggles) while replacing a string. On extremely rare occasions, the loose end of a string might whip up and poke your face. Better safe than sorry! Don’t remove all of the strings at once—remove one at a time. If you’re replacing all four strings, remove one, replace it, and then move on to the next one. The reason for this is because the bridge is not attached to the cello; it’s held in place only by the downward pressure of the strings. If you remove all four strings, the bridge will fall, and you’ll have a much harder time getting it back where it belongs. The soundpost might also fall, which would be even worse, as you’d need to have it put back in place by a repair shop.
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Loosen the string by turning the peg downward. That is, if you’ve turned the cello around so that you’re facing it, you should turn the top of the peg toward you. (If you’re facing the peg, this would be counterclockwise for the A and D strings, clockwise for the G and C strings.) When the string is free of the peg, it may pop out of the tailpiece by itself. If it doesn’t, carefully slide the lower end out of the tailpiece. Remove the new string from its envelope. You’ll find that the lower end has a brass ring, while the upper end just has a colored wrapping. If you see a tiny plastic sleeve that slides easily up and down the string, slide it to the upper end and get rid of it. If it won’t slide over the wrapping, you can slide it down to the lower end of the string and leave it there, or use an X-Acto knife or razorblade to slice through it. Please do this carefully, so as not to damage the winding of the string! This sleeve is meant to sit between the string and the bridge, but it’s not necessary unless the string notches have worn too deeply into the bridge, and it doesn’t improve the tone.
Your Cello Insert the lower end of the string into the tailpiece. If your tailpiece has fine tuners, you’ll need to slide the brass ring down behind the fork at the front of the tuner. This can be hard to do, depending on how thick the string’s wrapping is. Apply firm thumb pressure, so that the string is inserted between the metal tines of the fork at the front of the tuner. Figure 1.19 shows what the strings look like when inserted into the tines of the tuners. While keeping the peg in position in the pegbox, slide the upper end of the string through the hole in the peg. Extend the end of the string an inch and a half or two inches past the far side of the peg.
Chapter 1
If everything looks good, you can hold the center of the string away from the neck with one hand while tightening the peg with the other hand, as shown in Figure 1.20. Check several times as you tighten, to make sure the string is where it’s supposed to be. Wrap the string neatly around the peg, so that the coils lie side by side. When there is no slack in the string, begin plucking it with your thumb while continuing to tighten the peg. You’ll hear it begin to rise toward the correct pitch. At this point, you want to push the peg into the peg-box while turning it (unless you have plastic geared pegs), so that the peg won’t slip. When the string reaches the correct pitch, you’re done!
Turn the peg slightly backward so that you can get at this free end of the string, and bend the end toward you. You want to wrap it halfway around the peg, so that it extends past the hole where the string enters the peg. Carefully bend and loop the free end so that it passes under the main part of the string. This is so that as the string is tightened, the main length of it will press down on the free end, thus holding the string firmly in place. This maneuver is difficult with the D string, because the D string peg is at the top of the peg-box, with very little space behind it. You might find that a pair of needle-nose pliers comes in handy. Begin to tighten the peg, while pulling rather firmly on the main length of the string. You want the string to press down on the free end as you turn the peg. (If you happen to have three hands rather than two, this maneuver will be easier. On the other hand, if you have three hands, maybe you should take up the pipe organ!) Do not continue tightening; pause at this point. Check that the lower end of the string is still seated properly in the tailpiece. Also, check that the string is passing across the correct notch in the bridge.
Figure 1.20 Tightening the string.
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Getting Ready
2
f you’ve just brought your cello home, I’m
I
sure you’re itching to get started! So please feel free to jump ahead to Chapters 3 and 4 and try playing. Later you’ll want to return to this chapter, in which we talk about some important preparations, such as tuning your cello. Also in this chapter you’ll pick up some vital tips on how to take good care of your cello.
Opposite: Bach's own manuscript for the Six Suites for unaccompanied cello is lost. The Suites are known only from handwritten copies made by his second wife, Anna Magdalena Bach, and a few of his students. This manuscript is Anna Magdalena's copy of the first movement from the First Suite.
The Cello Chair The cello is usually played sitting down. (The rock band Apocalyptica has several cellists who sometimes play standing up, but they’re very much the exception that proves the rule.) Sitting down may seem simple—you’ve been doing it all your life! But when playing the cello, you need to be aware of how you’re sitting. First, you need a firm chair with no arms and a flat seat. Folding chairs usually have a seat that angles down or dips down in a contoured way near the back. Because of this, a folding chair is a very poor choice for playing the cello. A cushioned chair or a chair with arms is even worse. However, you can buy a firm, wedge-shaped cushion so that your pelvis tilts forward slightly. This will help keep your lower back straight, and some players use this type of cushion or keep it handy in case they have to sit on a folding chair.
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Sit on the front half of the chair. Your feet should be flat on the floor, not curled around the chair legs. (Younger students may need a shorter than normal chair to do this. I had one six-year-old student for a while whose father brought a small chair with him to the lessons.) It’s important not to slouch or slump, and it’s important not to hunch your shoulders up or roll them forward. You should sit with your lower back straight while playing and with your shoulders relaxed. At first, you may find that the muscles of your lower back get tired quickly. If this happens, get up and stretch or walk around for a minute. Now you’re ready to try holding the cello.
Getting Ready
Chapter 2
Positioning the Cello Extend the end pin of your cello 13 to 15 inches and tighten the screw. The desired length of the end pin will depend on your height and also on the height of the chair, so you may need to experiment. Place the end pin holder about 2-1/2 feet in front of the chair. Put the tip of the end pin into the hole in the holder, sit on the front half of the chair with your feet flat on the floor, and spread your legs far enough apart that the cello can rest comfortably between them.
Here are some landmarks to help you check your position and make sure that you’re in a good posture for playing. This list may sound complicated, but after you’ve gotten into the correct position a few times, you’ll never have to think about it again. It will feel comfortable, and you’ll notice if the cello is out of position (if the end pin is not extended enough, for instance). v The rear edge of the upper bout of the cello should rest gently against the lower part of your sternum (breastbone). v The neck of the cello should extend over your left shoulder, perhaps gently brushing your shoulder but not resting on your shoulder. The cello’s neck should be no more than one or two inches to the left of your neck. v The C string peg (the lower peg on the right side of the peg-box as you’re sitting behind the cello) should be within an inch or two of the base of your skull, an inch or two behind your left ear. v Your right thigh should rest against the side of the lower bout, just below the cutout. Your right kneecap should be more or less flush with the top of the cello, not sticking up.
Figure 2.1 Sitting with the cello.
v The lower rear corner of the left cutout should dig gently into your left leg near the inside of your knee. (Some people prefer to place the left knee behind the cello. This may improve the tone slightly. It also tilts the cello a bit to the right and forces the right arm to reach just a tiny bit farther, as the strings and bridge will be half an inch farther from your body.)
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v The cello should slant away from you like a ski slope, at about a 45-degree angle. If you place the end pin holder too close to the chair, so that the cello is more nearly vertical, your arm movements will be restricted. v The strings should run vertically downward and away from you. They shouldn’t angle to the left or right. v The top of the cello should not be tilted left or right. That is, the left side of the upper bout should be the same distance from the left side of your torso as the right side of the upper bout is from the right side of your torso.
When you’re first learning the cello, and especially if you’re using fingerboard tape to guide your fingers to the right spots, you may be tempted to sit with the neck of the cello somewhat farther to the left than I’m recommending here. If the neck is five or six inches to the left of your neck, it will be easier to turn your head and check where your fingers are. You should resist the temptation to do this, for three reasons.
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First, if the neck of the cello is too far to the left, it will distort both your left hand shape and your use of the bow. Second, your goal is to develop a muscle memory of what your left hand is doing. If you’re constantly peeking to check where your hand is, you won’t develop muscle memory in the same way. Third, as you become a more accomplished cellist, you may want to play in an orchestra. Orchestral musicians have plenty to look at—mainly sheet music in front of them and the conductor. They don’t have time to look at their hands. Knowing how to play with your left hand by touch rather than by sight will be an important skill. Above all, cultivate the ability to remain relaxed while seated with your cello. Your shoulders should not be hunched. Your elbows should not be jutting out. Your hands should not be clenched tightly. Your head and neck should not be straining forward. Your feet should be flat on the floor, not tucked or twisted under. If you can learn to become aware of any tension in your body while you play, and consciously relax, your tone will improve, you’ll enjoy playing more, and you’ll be able to play for longer periods of time without getting tired.
Getting Ready
Chapter 2
Tuning Your Cello Before each playing session, you should tune your cello. If the cello is not in tune, you won’t be able to put your fingers reliably in the right places on the fingerboard, and you’ll have trouble developing a good ear for pitch. With a fretless instrument, being able to hear small adjustments in pitch is essential! I’ll have more to say about this in Chapter 4, “Fingering with the Left Hand.” To tune the cello, you’ll check the pitch of the strings, one at a time, to make sure that each string is at the correct pitch. A cello will usually stay in tune for the length of a single playing session, but changes in temperature and humidity can easily cause one or more strings to drift out of tune between sessions.
There are several methods for tuning the cello. We’ll look at each of them in turn. For beginners, the easiest method is to use an electronic tuner, so we’ll start there.
Tuning Notes on Other Orchestral Strings The notes to which the cello strings are tuned are, from highest to lowest, A, D, G, and C. (The A string, if you’re tuning to a piano, is two white keys to the left of Middle C.) The viola is tuned exactly like the cello but one octave higher: Its strings are also A, D, G, and C. The violin is tuned a fifth above the viola: It lacks the viola’s C string, but instead it has an E string, which produces the highest open-string pitch. The violin is tuned, from top to bottom, to the notes E, A, D, and G. The string bass (also called the double bass and bass viol ) is tuned in fourths, not in fifths. Its highest string, G, is an octave below the violin’s lowest string (also G). The bass strings are tuned, from highest to lowest, to G, D, A, and E. All of these tuning notes are shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.2 Holding the cello while turning a peg. 23
Figure 2.3 The tuning notes of the stringed instruments in the orchestra. All are shown on the bass clef to make it easier to see how they relate to one another, but only the cello notes would be written as shown here. The symbol 8va (an abbreviation for the word octava) means that the note is actually an octave higher than shown. The symbol 8vb means that the note is an octave lower than shown.
Pitch Most musical instruments produce notes that have a clear, distinct pitch. (The main exception is percussion instruments, such as drums and cymbals.) If you have a musical ear, you should be able to whistle or hum the pitch that you hear coming from the instrument. If you find it difficult to whistle or hum a pitch, learning to play the cello will help you develop your ear, but you may find learning to play somewhat more difficult at first. Without getting too technical, we can say that the pitch of a note is basically the number of vibrations per second in the sound waves that are coming from the instrument. For practical purposes, pitch is much the same as frequency. When there are more vibrations per second, we say that the note has a higher pitch. When there are fewer vibrations per second, we say that the pitch is lower. Our musical scale uses a standard set of pitches. For reference, the lowest key on the piano (an A) produces a pitch of 27.5 cycles per second. The highest key on the piano (a C) has a pitch of about 4,185 cycles per second. The C string on the cello produces a pitch of about 65.4 cycles per second. You’ll occasionally see the abbreviation Hz (short for hertz) in references to pitch or frequency. This term means “cycles per second.”
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Getting Ready
Chapter 2
Using an Electronic Tuner Turn on the electronic tuner. Its display should show that it’s set to A-440. This frequency (440 cycles per second) is the standard for tuning orchestral instruments, but some orchestras tune to a higher or lower frequency. If you don’t see the number 440 in the display—if you see 441, for instance, or 438—look in the owner’s manual to learn how to adjust it to 440.
On the DVD: Tuning Set the tuner on your music stand so that you can see its display. Pick up the bow and tighten it if it isn’t already tightened. (Tightening the bow is discussed in “Loosening and Tightening the Bow,” later in this chapter.) Draw the bow across the A string, with medium pressure, so as to make a firm, steady, sustained tone. (For much more on how to use the bow, see Chapter 3.) If your bow stroke is not firm and steady, the electronic tuner won’t be able to detect a clear, consistent pitch. Use the whole bow and play mezzo-forte (medium-loud). On the front of the tuner, you’ll see an indicator. This could be a needle that can waver from side to side, or it could be a trio of lights, or it could be something else. If the string is flat (that is, if the pitch is too low), the needle on the meter will angle to the left, or the light on the left side will glow, or both. If the string is sharp, the needle will angle to the right, or the light on the right side will glow. If the string is perfectly in tune, the needle will point straight up, or the light in the middle will glow.
Flat and Sharp The words flat and sharp have two different but closely related meanings in music. The two meanings have this in common: When a pitch is lower than expected—that is, when there are fewer vibrations per second —we say that it’s flat. When it’s higher than expected, we say that it’s sharp. Some of the notes in the scale are identified with these words. For instance, the note B-flat lies halfway between A and B. It’s higher than A but lower than B. Rather than give it a separate letter-name, we refer to it as a B, but a special kind of B—a B-flat. In tuning, the words flat and sharp usually refer to small gradations in pitch, much smaller than the distance between the notes B and B-flat. A string that is just slightly lower in pitch than it ought to be (or, for that matter, a great deal lower than it ought to be) is considered flat; a string that is higher than it ought to be is considered sharp. It’s important not to mix up these two usages of the words. If your C string is sharp, that doesn’t mean that it’s making the note C-sharp.
Before relying on the needle or light, you need to check the display to make sure that you’re seeing the correct note name for the string. If your string is far enough out of tune, the tuner won’t know what note you meant to play. If your A string is a half-step sharp, for instance, the meter may show the note name B-flat—and it may tell you that your B-flat is perfectly in tune!
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This is why you need to check the note name. When you’re tuning the A string, you should see the note name A, and so on. If you see the wrong note name, you’ll need to make a larger pitch correction, probably using the peg (as explained below).
If you’re tuning to an electronic keyboard, be sure to turn off any chorus effect, and don’t use a string orchestra sound. You want the keyboard to produce a clear, pure tone, not a rich tone with lots of activity in it. The notes to tune to are shown in Figure 2.3.
If the string is flat, you’ll need to raise the pitch by tightening the string. You’ll do this either by turning the fine tuner or by turning the peg. If the string is sharp, you’ll need to lower the pitch by loosening the string. Students whose cellos have fine tuners sometimes have trouble remembering which way to turn the tuner. It works like any other threaded device: If you want to tighten it, you turn it clockwise. But because you’re sitting behind the tuner, clockwise looks like counterclockwise! A bit of mental juggling is required: Imagine that you’re facing the cello instead of behind it, and you’ll know which direction tightens the tuner and which direction loosens it.
Tuning by Fifths The strings of the cello are tuned in equaltempered perfect fifths. (The terms for musical intervals are explained in Chapter 5, “Reading Music.”) You’ll commonly see string players in orchestras tuning their instruments by bowing two strings at once and listening to the sound of the interval formed by the notes of the two strings. This method of tuning is not as easy for beginners to master. I recommend not using it until you have some experience tuning your cello by one of the other methods. After getting the cello in tune, listen to the sound that you get when you bow two in-tune strings at once. Ultimately, tuning by fifths is a technique that you will need to learn.
Tuning to a Piano If you have a piano or electronic keyboard, you may prefer to tune the cello to it. If possible, have someone else play the keys while you bow the cello, as it’s easiest to hear whether the two pitches are the same if you’re hearing them at the same time. When the two notes (piano and cello) are perfectly in tune with one another, you’ll hear a smooth, pleasant sound. If the cello is out of tune, you’ll hear a harsh, unpleasant sound, which will be more unpleasant the further out of tune you are. (Needless to say, the piano itself should have been recently tuned!)
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To tune by fifths, you have to have a point of reference from which to start. When an orchestra tunes up, the oboe player plays an A. All of the string players tune their A strings to this note, and then they tune the other strings by fifths so that the strings sound correct with reference to the A string. After tuning your A and D strings using the electronic tuner, try making small adjustments (either up or down) in the D string, then bow the two strings together and listen to the blend of their pitches. This will help you learn how to hear an in-tune fifth.
Getting Ready
Tuning by Harmonics The technique for producing harmonics on the cello is explained in Chapter 4. Briefly, you touch a string lightly with only one finger, either halfway or a third of the way along its length. When you’ve learned to find the 1/2length and 1/3-length harmonics on an open string, you’ll find that the 1/2-length harmonic on the A string (which produces the note A an octave above the open string) is almost exactly the same as the 1/3-length harmonic on the D string. By playing the 1/2-length harmonic on the A string and the 1/3-length harmonic on the D string, you can quickly and quietly check whether these two strings are in tune with one another. You can do the same with the D and G strings or with the G and C strings. For technical reasons having to do with the tuning system used in European and American music since the 18th century, the harmonic produced by the lower of the two strings when you do this should be very, very slightly higher than the harmonic produced by the upper string—about 1/50 of a half-step. To learn more about this odd discrepancy, turn to “About Tuning and Intonation,” later in this chapter.
Large Adjustments with the Pegs Assuming your cello doesn’t have plastic geared pegs, there are two reasons why you may need to use the pegs. First, a string may have slipped so far out of tune that it can’t be corrected using the fine tuner. Second, the string may be only slightly out of tune, but you may have turned the gear on the fine tuner all the way in or all the way out, so that it can’t go any farther. So we need to talk about how to use the pegs. (Again, this information doesn’t apply if you have plastic geared pegs.)
Chapter 2
If you’ve reached the end of the travel of the fine tuner, before using the peg you should turn the tuner back to about the midpoint of its range. This will put the string even farther out of tune. Then use the peg to get the string close to the proper pitch, and if necessary finish the job with the tuner. When tuning with a peg, I like to lower the end pin to about 2 inches and turn the cello around so that it’s facing me. I find that this gives me the best angle for using my wrist. If your hands are stronger than mine, you may find it easy to turn the pegs just by reaching up and grabbing them, without changing the position of the cello. If the peg sticks, start by loosening it a little, so that the string goes flat. Then tighten it to bring the string up to pitch. While turning the peg, you should always press inward firmly, keeping it wedged tightly into its holes. This will ensure that when you’re finished, the peg will stay put. If you don’t press in, the peg may come loose immediately, uncoiling the string and forcing you to go through an even more complicated process to get the windings back in place and bring the string up to pitch. You may have to raise and lower the pitch several times with the peg to get the pitch where you want it. This can happen if the peg jumps and sticks (because you’re pressing it inward). This is normal.
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More Adjustments When you use a peg to retune a string, you’ll probably find that the pitches of the other strings have changed too, just slightly. This happens because the physical tension on the bridge and neck has changed. All of the strings are part of the same hightension system, and even hardwood is somewhat elastic, so making a change in one part of the system will cause changes elsewhere. After adjusting one string with the peg, you’ll most likely need to readjust the others using the fine tuners.
About Tuning and Intonation How can you develop the ability to hear whether you’re playing in tune or whether you’re out of tune? Some people find it easy, but the underlying theory behind playing in tune is not entirely simple. The tuning system used in European and American music since the mid-18th century is called 12-tone equal temperament. This tuning system is an extremely powerful musical resource, but it’s also somewhat artificial.
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To talk about this, we need to use a technical term from music theory. Any pair of notes forms an interval. For reasons that would take pages to explain, the intervals in the scale that we use are irrational numbers. (An irrational number is one that has an infinite number of digits to the right of the decimal point.) Because of this, two notes can be perfectly in tune with one another only in a few circumstances: If they’re a unison (the same note) or if they’re one or more octaves apart. The interval of the major third in our scale is especially rough. We’re used to it, so we don’t usually notice this, but it’s not a very nice sound. Highly trained musicians who play fretless instruments like the cello and violin will sometimes adjust the pitches of notes up or down just slightly to produce sweeter-sounding major thirds. They may do this consciously or unconsciously. As you’re learning to play the cello, you will naturally be educating your ear to hear the sounds of the equal-tempered scale. This will enable you to hear when the pitch of a fingered note is a little high or a little low. The best way to check whether you’re playing in tune is to play with an instrument that has fixed tuning, such as a piano. If your notes are not in tune with the piano, they’ll sound harsh and unpleasant.
Getting Ready
Chapter 2
Taking Good Care of Your Cello Your cello is made of wood. Wood expands and contracts as the temperature and humidity change. (This is one reason why the strings on the cello go out of tune. When the body expands just slightly, the strings will go sharp, and when it contracts they’ll go flat.) So you should store your cello in a place that has a stable temperature and as stable humidity as possible. Above all, never leave the cello in a parked car in the sun, nor in a car when the temperature drops near freezing. Indoors, don’t leave it sitting near a heating vent. If you have a hard case, you may prefer to keep the cello in the case between playing sessions, as the case will protect it. A soft case offers less protection, and getting the cello into and out of a soft case is a bigger hassle. If you use a soft case, you may prefer just to set the cello in an out-of-the-way corner when you’re not using it.
Setting Down the Cello and Bow Talking about how to set down the cello and bow may seem almost too trivial to bother with. But if you’re careless, you can damage your instrument, and more than once I’ve seen students being careless. Don’t lean the cello with its back against the front edge of your chair. The back of the cello is convex (curved outward), so it’s unstable as a resting place. The instrument can easily slide sideways and fall. Instead, set the cello on its side on the floor, as shown in Figure 2.4. In this position it’s stable.
If you’re going to be away from it for more than a minute, slide the end pin into the cello before setting the cello on the floor. Someone who is stepping around the cello may not notice the end pin if it’s extended and may trip over it.
Figure 2.4 How to set the cello on the floor.
If you have dogs or small children in the house, always put the cello back in its case when you’re not playing it. I suggest that you never set the bow on the seat of your chair. If you do this, you may someday sit on it. If you sit on it, it will break. For the same reason, don’t lean the bow against the side of the chair with one end sticking up past the seat. If you happen to sit down a little too far toward the edge, you may put weight on the end of the bow, which will snap it like a twig. One safe place to put the bow is horizontally on your music stand. If the cello is on its side on the floor, you can lay the bow lengthwise on top of it.
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Loosening and Tightening the Bow You can adjust the tension on the hair of the bow by loosening and tightening the screw at the end of the stick. When you’re not playing the cello, you should loosen the bow until the hair is slightly loose and slack. This will lengthen the life of the bow. At the start of each playing session, tighten the bow by turning the screw clockwise. Do not tighten it until the stick is straight! The center of the stick should still be curved inward, toward the hair. The bow is just right when you can insert the tip of your little finger between the hair and the stick at the center of the bow.
Figure 2.5 When the bow is tightened properly, it should still have some inward curvature; the tip of your little finger should just fit between the hair and the stick at the middle of the bow.
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Don’t Tighten the Bow Too Much If you over-tighten the bow, the hair may pull out of the frog. If that happens, the bow will have to be rehaired by a technician. Over-tightening can also damage the stick, causing it to warp.
Cleaning the Cello I have two cleaning cloths in my cello studio. One is for wiping off the strings and fingerboard after each practice session. The other is for removing rosin dust from the strings, fingerboard, and top and from the stick of the bow. Rosin is sticky, so you don’t want to get rosin on the fingerboard or strings up on the neck. That’s why using two separate cloths is a good idea. Wipe the fingerboard and strings first, with the rosin-free cloth, avoiding the area down by the bridge, which will have rosin on it. Then use the other cloth (which will soon be coated with rosin dust) to wipe the lower end of the fingerboard, the strings above the bridge, the top, and the stick of the bow. If you can’t remove a stubborn spot by rubbing, you can dampen one corner of your cleaning rag with water and attempt to dissolve the deposit. Dry the cello carefully after using water. Avoid using soap, and never use a cleaning solvent containing alcohol.
Getting Ready
Never Use Cleaning Solvents! Many commercial cleaning fluids contain alcohol (isopropyl or methanol, for instance). Alcohol dissolves varnish. If you get even one drop of this type of fluid on the cello, the varnish will simply strip away, leaving a spot of bare wood. Also, never use furniture polish on the cello.
Chapter 2
Most people carry hard cases by their side in one hand, as if they were suitcases. Some hard cases have wheels, so they can be dragged along behind you. If you need to take your cello on an airplane, check with the airline to learn what they recommend. They may have special procedures you’ll need to follow. Because the temperature in a plane’s luggage compartment can drop very low—and also because baggage handlers notoriously are not careful with musical instruments—it could be a mistake to check your cello during a plane trip the way you would a suitcase. So check with the airline and make sure the person you speak with understands your concerns.
Using a Soft Case Putting the cello into a soft canvas case can be a little tricky. Some people prefer to lay the case flat on the floor, unfold it so that it’s open, and slide the cello into it. You can also try holding the cello vertically with one hand on the neck and sliding the canvas case down over the scroll and then around the body. When removing the cello from a soft case, you should always remove the bow first. If you do this, the case will be more flexible, making it easier to remove, and you’ll be less likely to damage the bow.
Carrying the Cello Some soft cases come with shoulder straps, allowing you to put the cello on your back as if it were a backpack. This might be dangerous if you’re walking under a low tree branch, as the peg-box and scroll will be higher than your head. You can also carry a cello in a soft case by wrapping one arm around it.
Simple Repairs You Can Make Yourself Other than replacing the strings when needed, there are not many repairs you can make or should need to make to your cello. Once in a while, though, you’ll hear a buzz when you play. This can happen because the washer on a fine tuner is loose, for instance. To check for this possibility, hold the tailpiece firmly (or have a friend hold it) while you play the buzzing note. If the buzz disappears, check for loose parts on the tailpiece. A buzz can also be caused by the upper end of a string vibrating against the inside of the pegbox. Crimping the end with a pair of needlenose pliers will usually solve the problem. A buzz might possibly come from the end pin. Try tightening the thumb screw or slide the end pin in or out an inch or so and tighten the screw. This may get rid of the buzz. If the winding of the string is broken, it may buzz. If this happens, replace the string.
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Strings can buzz against the fingerboard because the bridge is too low. If you suspect this problem, inspect the bridge to make sure it hasn’t tilted forward or back. If the feet of the bridge are sitting securely on the top of the cello, with the bridge perpendicular to the top, but the strings are too low and buzzing against the fingerboard, you’ll probably need a new bridge. But if the strings are too low because the bridge has gotten knocked forward or back, you may be able to fix it yourself. (See “Adjusting the Bridge.”) If your tailpiece has individual fine tuners, and if a tuner becomes too stiff to turn easily, you might want to replace the tuner with a new one. You can order a tuner from a shop or over the Internet, remove the old tuner, and install the new one yourself. If the tuners are built into the tailpiece, you can order a new tailpiece. Replacing the tailpiece is a slightly more complex job, as it requires removing all four strings. I suggest you have this done by a qualified repair shop.
Adjusting the Bridge If your bridge is out of alignment, you may want to take the cello to someone who is comfortable making adjustments—an experienced cellist or a knowledgeable sales clerk in a music store. However, you can do this job yourself if you’re careful. When the bridge is properly set up, its feet should press flat against the top of the cello. If there’s a bit of open space on the upper or lower side of the feet, the bridge needs to be adjusted by tilting it forward or back until the feet are flat. If the strings are not parallel to the edges of the fingerboard, the bridge needs to be scooted left or right.
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To adjust the bridge, loosen the strings somewhat, but not all the way—until the pitch of each string has dropped by about an octave. The strings should still be bearing down on the bridge with enough force to keep it from falling, but you should never try to adjust the bridge without loosening the strings. Grasp the upper part of the bridge firmly, pressing with your thumbs, and scoot it by very small amounts until it’s where you want it. Before you tighten the strings again, check that the feet of the bridge tilt slightly away from the fingerboard. As you tighten the strings, the top of the bridge will be pulled upward by a couple of millimeters. When the strings are returned to their correct pitch, the bridge feet should be flat on the top. If you misjudge the amount of tilt, loosen the strings as before, tilt the bridge very slightly, and try again.
Tight or Loose Pegs If the tuning pegs (the standard wooden kind, not those with internal gears) are so tight that they stick and are hard to turn, you can pull the peg out partway and use a bit of graphite from a soft pencil to lubricate the area that presses against the hole in the peg-box. If the peg is too loose and tends to slip, try rubbing a little chalk in this area. If these simple measures don’t work, you’ll need to have an expert refit the peg.
Getting Ready
Repairs That Should Be Done by a Qualified Technician Your cello is a complex piece of 18th century woodworking technology. Even if you know something about woodworking, you’re well advised to take the cello to a good repair shop if anything needs attention. Here are some of the things a repair shop can take care of for you.
Chapter 2
Soundpost and Bass Bar Problems On rare occasions, usually after a severe collision or extreme weather conditions, the soundpost in your cello might fall, or the bass bar might come loose. If you hear buzzing or rattling from inside the cello, this has probably happened. If the soundpost has fallen, loosen the strings immediately. Only a qualified technician should undertake repairs to the soundpost and bass bar.
New Bridge Rehairing the Bow Depending on how much (and how energetically) you play, your bow may need new hair after a year or 18 months. Some shops can do this while you wait. After putting new hair on the bow, the shop will apply a generous dusting of rosin. If the bow fails to make any sound at all after being rehaired, it’s because the shop neglected to rosin it. Apply lots and lots of rosin (see Chapter 3 to learn how to do this) and then try playing again.
If the bridge breaks, you’ll need a new one. You cannot order a new bridge over the Internet, because it will have to be hand-carved with great care in order to fit properly. This repair should always be done by an expert in a qualified repair shop.
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3
How to Use the Bow
T
o produce a beautiful tone on your cello,
you’ll need to learn to use the bow. Bowing is one of the more elusive skills required of string players. It may look easy when you see a wonderful cellist such as Yo-Yo Ma do it, but that’s because he’s really, really good! The movements that you’ll need to learn in order to use the bow are quite subtle. You won’t master bowing in a few hours, nor in a few days. Fortunately, you don’t need to learn everything at once. If you take it one step at a time, practice with care, correct bad habits before they become ingrained, and listen closely to the sounds coming from the cello, you should be able to master the basic techniques of bowing within a month or two. Later on, you’ll learn some refinements. At the beginning of each playing session, you’ll need to tighten the bow, as explained in Chapter 2. At the end of each session, please remember to loosen the bow before putting it away. Forgetting to loosen the bow will have no short-term ill effects, but over the long haul you’ll need to have the bow rehaired more often, and the constant tension may eventually affect the wood.
Applying Rosin Before you use the bow, you’ll want to apply some rosin to the hair. It’s not necessary to do this before every playing session, but if you’re playing the cello every day, you should apply rosin several times a week. Some beginners are under the impression that when a cake of rosin is new, they should scratch its shiny surface so that it will apply better to the hair. This is not correct. You’ll get the best coating of rosin on the hair if the surface of the rosin cake is flat. Apply the rosin with short strokes near the frog, so as not to run the cake of rosin into the metal part (called the ferrule) on the frog. If the rosin hits the ferrule, bits of rosin will flake off. After applying rosin in short strokes near the frog, use longer strokes on the rest of the bow. A dozen strokes should be plenty.
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Switch Hitting Occasionally someone asks whether a left-handed person should reverse the cello, holding the bow with the left hand and fingering the strings with the right hand. The answer is no. All cellists use the same orientation, holding the bow in the right hand and fingering the strings with the left. (In fact, I’m left-handed, and I’ve found that this gives me an advantage in playing the cello because more agility is required of the left hand than of the right.)
How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Holding the Bow As you prepare to try holding the bow, begin by grasping the stick in the middle with your left hand. The hair should be facing more or less downward and inward, so that it’s nearer the cello while the stick is further from the cello.
Figure 3.1 Preparing to grasp the bow. Figure 3.2 The right hand on the frog—three views. 37
Figure 3.3 The bow grip seen from underneath.
Relax If the bow slides away from you, down across the bridge, the first time you try to play a note on the cello, you may be tempted to control it by tightening your grip. Don’t tighten up! A tight bow hand will tire quickly and won’t produce a smooth, warm tone. You want your right hand to be as loose as it can be without dropping the bow. To prevent the stick from sliding away from you on the string, pull inward lightly with your index finger. You’ll find it easy to adjust the angle of the bow using this finger, while the rest of your hand can remain relaxed.
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On the DVD: Holding the Bow Let the fingers of your right hand dangle loosely downward. Drape them gently around the frog area of the bow. As you let go of the stick with your left hand, tighten your right-hand fingers and thumb just enough that you can hold the bow securely, without dropping it. If you’d like, you can set the bow hair on a string at this point. Set the hair on the string halfway between the bridge and the lower end of the fingerboard. Try dragging the hair back and forth across the string. The good news is, you’re playing the cello! The bad news is, it probably won’t sound very good yet. To get a good sound, you’ll need to learn not only how to hold the bow, but also how to move it while applying pressure to the string.
How to Use the Bow Here’s a quick checklist you can use to see how well you’re holding the bow. v The fingers should be spread slightly apart, not bunched up.
Chapter 3
v The ball of the thumb should press gently against the inner front corner of the frog, at the point where the frog meets the stick. The thumb should not be inserted into the gap in the frog.
v The joints of the fingers should all be somewhat bent, so that the fingers have a nicely rounded shape. If any of the joints is straight while other joints are sharply bent, you need to adjust your hand to more nearly achieve a curve.
v You should be holding the bow as lightly as you can without danger of dropping it. If you’re clutching the bow harder than necessary, you’ll have no end of trouble— tired hands, poor tone, and worse.
v If you look on the inside of your hand, you’ll see wrinkles where the finger joints bend inward. Locate the outermost wrinkle in each finger (the wrinkle nearest to the tip of the finger). The stick of the bow should lie more or less neatly across those wrinkles.
The Bow Hold Using a Pencil
v Your fingers will be wrapped around both the frog and stick, but your main concern is to control the stick. The frog is not a handle; it’s mainly there to hold the hair. Your fingers will be touching the frog, but basically your job is to hold the stick. If your fingers are pressing into the frog while not touching the stick, you need to reduce the curvature of those fingers until they press against the stick.
If you’re having trouble understanding the bow grip, here’s a simple exercise you can try. Put down the bow and find a pencil. Turn your right hand over, palm upward. Curl your middle two fingers slightly, so that the creases beneath the outer knuckles on all four fingers more or less line up.
v The fingers should be more or less perpendicular to the stick. They should not be tilted to the right or left. v The little finger should be wrapped slightly around the stick, just as the other fingers are. A violinist may hold the violin bow with the little finger parked on top of the stick, but this grip is entirely wrong for the cello. If your little finger is sticking out straight, you need to wrap it around the stick. v The thumb’s outer joint should be curved in a very slightly convex manner. It should not be curved in a concave direction, with the knuckle locked. Neither should this joint be folded over so that the thumb is L-shaped.
Figure 3.4 Try learning the bow grip using a pencil. 39
Lay the pencil crosswise in the creases of those knuckles and spread your fingers slightly apart. Now bring in your thumb so that it holds the pencil. The thumb should contact the pencil midway between your middle and ring fingers.
v The Hump. Some students arch their right wrist upward so that it looks like a camel’s hump, as shown in Figure 3.6. The wrist should be relatively flat—slightly convex when playing near the frog and slightly concave when playing near the tip.
Turn your hand over so that the palm faces downward. That’s your bow grip.
How Not to Hold the Bow Beginning students often struggle to find a comfortable way to hold the bow. They may find a grip that feels secure and allows them to make sound—and yet they may be developing bad habits that will later be hard to correct. Here are the bad habits that I’ve seen most often in my teaching: v The Hook. Some students tilt the hand sharply to the left, as shown in Figure 3.5, so that the wrist is bent into a hook shape. The wrist should be straight, so that the hand is a continuation of the forearm, not curled inward in a hook.
Figure 3.5 The Hook (a bad way to hold the bow). 40
Figure 3.6 The Hump (a bad way to hold the bow)— two views.
How to Use the Bow v The Squash. The opposite of the Hump is the Squash. In this bow-grip, as shown in Figure 3.7, the first (inner) segments of the fingers are a continuation of the top of the hand, rather than sloping gently downward.
Chapter 3
v The Pinky Press. Violinists are taught to press the tip of their little finger against the top of the stick at its outer end, as in Figure 3.8. This may be correct for violin bowing, but it’s horribly wrong for cello bowing. The little finger should curl gently around the stick so that it touches the edge of the frog.
Figure 3.8 The Pinky Press (a bad way to hold the bow).
v Tea Party. A few students try to hold the bow with their little finger sticking straight out, as if they’re holding a cup of tea at an old-fashioned tea party. This looks silly, and it also produces a stiffer, less secure grip.
Figure 3.7 The Squash (a bad way to hold the bow)— two views.
Figure 3.9 Tea Party (a bad way to hold the bow). 41
v The Jab. If you’re holding the bow so that the stick forms a 135-degree angle away from your forearm, with the screw end of the stick tucked back into the corner of your palm, you’re ready to jab someone with the stick, as shown in Figure 3.10, but you’re not ready to play the cello.
Figure 3.11 Banana Thumb (a bad way to hold the bow).
Figure 3.10 The Jab (a bad way to hold the bow).
v Banana Thumb. If the outer knuckle of the thumb is locked in a concave curve, so that the thumb is curved like a banana, as seen in Figure 3.11, you’re in big trouble. This grip will make your hand rigid, and you’ll tire quickly. The right thumb should always be in a slightly convex but basically neutral, relaxed shape, as shown in Figure 3.12. v Fingertips Only. If your fingertips are pressed in on the frog but hardly touching the stick, you won’t be able to control the bow. v The Iron Grip. If your bow hand is gripping the bow too firmly, you won’t be able to produce a good tone. It’s important to remain relaxed while bowing.
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Figure 3.12 The correct placement and curvature of the right thumb.
If you can avoid the Hook, the Hump, the Squash, the Pinky Press, the Tea Party, the Jab, the Banana Thumb, and the Iron Grip, you’re well on your way to learning good bowing technique. Now you’re ready to learn how to move the bow back and forth across the strings.
How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Moving the Bow As you bow the cello, your right arm should move smoothly from left to right and back again. In the next few pages you’ll learn many details about how to make this motion. In some sense, bowing can be described as consisting of three factors—angle, speed, and pressure. For details, see “The Angles of the Bow” and “Bow Speed and Pressure,” later in this chapter.
Figure 3.14 The bow at the tip, ready to play an up-bow stroke.
Figure 3.13 The bow on the string, ready to play.
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If you’re impatient to get started, though, here’s a quick checklist for effective bowing. Return to this list after you’ve been playing the cello for a few days or a few weeks. It will give you some important reminders. v The bow should always be perpendicular to the strings, not angled up or down at its left or right end. v The bow should contact the string midway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge and should stay in that spot without skating up or down. In ordinary playing, it should never scoot up over the end of the fingerboard. v The bow should be tilted so that the stick is slightly closer to your face than the hair. v The bow should always travel in a straight, level line to the left and right. It should not rock up and down. v The bow should move at a smooth, uniform speed, without jerking or catching. v The right shoulder should be relaxed, not hunched up.
The Sounding Point The sounding point is the point where the bow contacts the string. In general, the ideal sounding point should be midway between the bridge and the lower end of the fingerboard. There are some important exceptions to this rule in advanced playing, but if you can keep the bow steady on the same spot, without scooting up or down on the string, while you draw the bow back and forth, you’ll be well on your way to producing a clean, beautiful tone.
On the DVD: Moving the Bow, Part I If the tone sounds silvery or icy, the bow is too close to the bridge. At an extreme, this sound can be as annoying as fingernails on a chalkboard. On the other hand, if the tone sounds dull and muddy, the bow is over the fingerboard (and may also be moving too slowly). If the tone sounds breathy, the bow is moving too rapidly, not digging into the string firmly enough.
v The right elbow should bend inward when the bow is contacting the string near the frog and should straighten as the bow moves outward (to the right). v The right wrist should remain flexible.
Figure 3.15 Too close to the bridge.
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How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
playing up near the far end of the fingerboard on the A string, you’ll need to be able to keep the bow firmly in position half an inch or so from the bridge. So learning to control the sounding point is important. Even before you start playing in high positions, if you let the bow “skate” up and down the string during a bow-stroke, you’ll produce an extraneous scraping noise, which will be part of the tone. This is not good.
Figure 3.16 Too far up over the fingerboard.
In her excellent book Cello Playing for Music Lovers, Vera Mattlin Jiji refers to what I call the sounding point as the “invisible groove.” We want the bow always to travel along that same groove for the entire length of each bow-stroke.
Down-Bow and Up-Bow As you play the cello, you’ll be sawing back and forth across the strings with the bow. String players use the terms down-bow and up-bow to describe these bow-strokes.
Figure 3.17 Midway between the bridge and fingerboard —just right.
The cello’s A string can sound quite bad if your bow drifts up over the fingerboard. The A string may sound squeaky or refuse to produce a decent tone at all. This is especially true when you begin playing notes that are farther up the A string (that is, closer to the bridge—on the cello’s fingerboard, “up” means down and vice versa). Learning to control the sounding point will become more important as you learn to play in the higher positions. By the time you’re
In a down-bow stroke, the bow begins near the frog and moves outward (to the right). In an up-bow stroke, the bow begins somewhere out toward the tip and moves inward (to the left) so that the frog approaches the string. This is the most basic concept in bowing, and you must master it. Experienced string players always know whether they’re playing a down-bow or an up-bow. They often refer to the strokes simply as up and down—yet another meaning of these terms. The terms refer to the direction of the bow’s travel, and not to its starting point. That is, in a down-bow stroke the frog moves to the right, away from the string, but a down-bow doesn’t always start at or even near the frog. Likewise, in an up-bow the frog is moving toward the string, but an up-bow need not start near the tip.
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Printed sheet music for string players very often includes indications of bow direction. Figure 3.18 shows the symbols that are used.
Figure 3.18 Down-bow and up-bow symbols as they appear in printed music. The down-bow mark is square: It looks a bit like the frog of the bow. The up-bow mark looks a bit like the pointed tip of the bow.
Does it matter whether you play any given note with an up-bow or a down-bow? Yes and no. An up-bow will sound almost exactly like a downbow, so really there should be little or no musical difference. Even so, it’s vital that you learn to manage your bow direction. With complex music, if your bow gets turned around and is traveling the opposite direction from how it usually travels in a given phrase, your arm is quite likely to stumble, causing you to play a wrong note, because the arm learned a different set of movements for that musical passage. So when you practice, you should always be aware of which notes are to be played down-bow and which are up-bow. There’s also a psychological element to be aware of. The down-bow stroke feels more solid and definite than the up-bow stroke. It’s easier and more natural to make a loud sound with a down-bow, starting near the frog, and a quieter sound with an up-bow, starting near the tip.
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Up or Down? The main reasons why students’ bows sometimes go the wrong way are: (a) they ignored the down-bow or up-bow mark at the beginning of a section; (b) they added a slur where there wasn’t one, or they didn’t notice a slur; or (c) they made a mistake and then started over again in the middle of a phrase with the bow going the wrong way. (Slurs are explained in detail later in this chapter.) Add extra bow marks to your music with pencil if you need to, so that you won’t make these mistakes. When practicing a passage starting in the middle, which you’ll often need to do in order to iron out mistakes, get in the habit of looking backward through the music to find the nearest bow direction symbol. Then figure out which direction your bow should be traveling when you play the first note in the area that you’re practicing. If you practice with your bow going the wrong way, you’ll learn the wrong arm movements.
A down-bow is a bit like putting your foot down, while an up-bow is a bit like lifting your foot in preparation for the next step. Because of this, a down-bow is generally preferred for a note that falls on the first beat of a measure. (It’s called the downbeat.) Conversely, if a musical phrase begins on the last beat of a measure (called the upbeat or pickup) before a downbeat in the next measure, you’ll find it most natural to play the pickup with an up-bow. If you get in the habit of doing this, you’ll find that learning new pieces of music is easier.
How to Use the Bow There are many exceptions to this rule. In advanced music it is often necessary to reverse the natural bow direction—for instance, starting a measure with an up-bow. There can be various reasons for doing this, both technical and musical; I won’t attempt to list them here. But unless there is a reason to reverse the bowing, you should bow in the natural way, with a down-bow on the downbeat at the beginning of a new phrase. After you’ve started playing a phrase, using a down-bow or up-bow as appropriate, you should continue sawing back and forth, alternating down-bows with up-bows, until there’s some reason to do otherwise. Sometimes the bowing mark printed above a note will simply be a reminder of which direction your bow should naturally be traveling if you haven’t unintentionally reversed direction when you weren’t supposed to. Other times, you’ll see a down-bow followed by another down-bow, or an up-bow followed by another up-bow. If two notes in a row are separate (not slurred or tied), yet both are marked with the same bow direction, you should play them so that they sound separate, not connected, but without reversing your bow direction. This situation can arise if you finish one musical phrase with a down-bow (because your bow is moving naturally), and the first note of the next phrase is marked down-bow. When this happens, you may need to retake the bow. In retaking the bow, you play the first down-bow note, lift the bow into the air, move it rapidly back to the frog, and then play the second down-bow note.
Chapter 3
There will be a moment of silence as you’re retaking the bow. In other situations, though, you’ll usually want each note to connect smoothly to the following note. At the moment when you switch from a down-bow to an upbow or vice versa, the bow should remain on the string (unless there’s an articulation mark, such as a staccato dot, as explained later in this chapter). Except when retaking, resist the temptation to lift the bow free of the string at the end of the stroke.
The Regions of the Bow As a cellist, you’ll need to be able to use the whole length of the bow to play long notes. However, shorter notes should generally be played with shorter strokes. I find that beginning students often have a “comfort zone”—an area of the bow where they prefer always to play. With some students, the comfort zone is near the frog. With others, it may be out past the middle of the bow. I always encourage students to practice scales with long, smooth strokes that use the whole bow, so that their arm can learn to make a good tone in any zone and to move freely from one zone to another whenever the music requires it. In cello method books, you’ll sometimes see abbreviations used to indicate the regions of the bow that should be used to practice an exercise. The region near the frog is called the lower half (L.H.) or below the middle (B.M.). The region near the tip is called the upper half (U.H.) or above the middle (A.M.). When an exercise calls for you to use the full length of the bow, you may see the abbreviation W.B. (whole bow).
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The Angles of the Bow When a ship is traveling through the water, the direction or angle of its hull in relation to its movement can be described using three terms: roll, pitch, and yaw. These are similar to the angles we’re concerned with in bowing. Without belaboring the analogy too much, let’s look at the angles that the bow can assume. When you’re in playing position, the stick should be rolled so that it’s somewhat nearer to your face than the hair, but not too much so. If you’re looking straight down at the bow from a position above the bridge, you should see the stick angling toward the player’s face at an angle of 35 to 40 degrees. If the stick has rolled away from the player so that it’s directly above the hair (with reference to the strings), or conversely, if the stick is tilted over so far toward the player’s face that it’s almost touching the strings, then the bow can’t be used effectively. The reason why the roll of the bow is important is because this angle allows you to make the best contrast between quiet notes and loud ones. When you increase your pressure on the bow, you’ll actually be bringing more hair in contact with the string. When you press lightly, only a few hairs will touch the strings, producing a quieter tone.
Figure 3.20 Bow angles can be described using the nautical terms roll, pitch, and yaw.
Below the middle (B.M.) or lower half (L.H.)
Above the middle (A.M.) or upper half (U.H.)
Whole bow (W.B.)
Figure 3.19 The regions of the bow.
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How to Use the Bow
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As the bow moves from left to right and back again, it should move straight, as if it’s on a track. If the tip or frog rises up or dips down as the bow travels across a given string, the hair is likely to brush the wrong string. This movement would be equivalent to a ship pitching up or down so that the bow and stern rock alternately toward the water. (Of course, this use of the term pitch has nothing whatsoever to do with musical pitch.) You’ll find that your arm needs to learn four distinct angles of travel—one for each string. In fact, there are three more in-between angles, in which you’re playing two strings at once. This technique is discussed in “Double Stops and Chords,” near the end of this chapter. Controlling the bow so that it doesn’t dip up or down as it moves left and right requires precise control of the shoulder, arm, wrist, and fingers. When a ship yaws, its bow (not to be confused with a cello bow—the words aren’t even pronounced alike) waggles from left to right. When a cello bow makes this type of undesirable angle motion, the tip or frog moves up toward a corner of the ceiling or down toward the floor as the bow travels left and right. This is not what we want; we want the bow to travel straight.
Mirror Practice It can be difficult to judge the angle of your bow while sitting behind the cello. If you have a full-length mirror in your house, please try practicing in front of the mirror and watch your bow. This will give you a much better insight into what your right arm is doing.
Figure 3.21 Faulty technique: The right arm pulled back so that the bow angles down at the tip.
The most common reason for yaw is that the student has locked the right elbow rather than letting the angle between the forearm and upper arm remain flexible. If the elbow is locked, during a down-bow stroke the frog will angle back toward the player’s side rather than traveling straight out, away from the player. An opposite problem can be seen when the player’s right wrist is being too flexible—the frog may move away from the player at the end of the down-bow. Wrist flexibility is good, but if it’s exaggerated, the player may hook the frog in at the end of an up-bow, causing the tip to yaw downward toward the floor.
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Moving from One String to Another While you’re bowing notes on a single string, your right arm has a fairly simple job: keeping the bow at the same angle from the beginning of the bow stroke to the end. When you need to cross from one string to another, the challenge becomes just a tiny bit more complex. Now your arm needs to learn just how far up or down to move in order to change strings cleanly. To learn this motion, you need to understand how far to move your arm. And the distance is not constant. If the bow is contacting the string near the frog, a very slight movement up or down (an inch or less) will take you to the next string. But if you’re bowing near the tip, the arm needs to rise or fall by more than six inches to move to the new string. At in-between positions in the middle of the bow, in-between amounts of lifting or dropping are needed.
Practice the exercise in Figure 3.22 with short bow-strokes at the frog, in the middle, and at the tip until you can make smooth transitions between strings. If you’re not sure how to read the notes, turn to Chapter 5, “Reading Music.” In more advanced music, you will sometimes need to “hop over” a string during this maneuver. You might need to move directly from the A string down to the G string, for instance, with no musical space in between the two notes. The way to do this is to stop the bow’s horizontal travel momentarily lifting or dropping it. If the bow isn’t moving as it touches the D string briefly, there will be little or no extra sound. The important word in that sentence is momentarily. If you have trouble with this technique, practice it with a longer silent gap between the notes and then shorten the gap gradually until you can keep up a steady rhythm with almost no break between the notes. Figure 3.23 provides an exercise to try.
Figure 3.22 Practice exercise for skipping a string. Play this exercise slowly and make sure your bow always alternates up-bow and down-bow strokes—don’t use two down-bows in a row, nor two up-bows in a row. With practice, you should be able to play just one string at a time, without brushing any other strings.
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How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Figure 3.23 Practice exercises for moving the bow from one string to another. All of the notes in this exercise are played using the cello’s open strings—the left hand is not needed. When you repeat the first two lines (you’ll see repeat bar lines throughout this example), your bow direction should be reversed the second time, to give you practice moving the bow in both directions. Similarly, if you start the last line with a down-bow and use a normal down-up-down-up bowing pattern, the third measure will begin with an up-bow. This is important because it will give you some practice in moving from one string to another with your bow going either up or down.
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Using the Right Arm and Shoulder Moving your arm from side to side is not something that usually requires a great deal of instruction or attention. If you’re managing the angle of the bow, your right arm will already be doing most of the right things. However, you can get in trouble if you habitually raise your elbow too high or hunch your shoulder.
Figure 3.25 Right arm relaxed while playing the A string.
It’s difficult to describe the angle that a relaxed right arm should have, because it depends on which string you’re playing. If you’re playing the C string, the bow arm can move downward fairly close to your thigh. If you’re playing the A string, however, the arm will be straight out, so that the hand is almost at shoulder height.
Bow Speed and Pressure
Figure 3.24 Right arm relaxed while playing the C string.
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The strings of a cello can produce a surprising variety of tones. Many of them are not anything you’ll want to hear! A string vibrates in complex ways. To produce a good tone, you’ll need to learn to control the vibrations. Doing this is, to some extent, a matter of intuition, but in order to develop your intuition, you’ll need to practice and listen to your tone. If you don’t hear the sounds you want coming from the cello—if it sounds breathy or scratchy—you’ll need to think about whether to adjust the bow speed or pressure. If it sounds silvery or muddy, see “The Sounding Point” earlier in this chapter. If it sounds squeaky, you may be brushing an extra string during the bow-stroke.
How to Use the Bow On the DVD: Moving the Bow, Part II
Chapter 3
If you want a lighter bow stroke, it’s easy: Just don’t do this.
If your arm hesitates, so that the speed drops, you’ll hear a darker color or a break in the tone. If the bow is moving too fast, it will “skate” across the string rather than dig in. When it skates, the sound will be light and breathy rather than full and rich. A light, breathy tone can be musically useful in some situations, but it’s not usually what we want. If you’re pressing too hard, so that the bow digs into the string while not moving fast enough, you can produce a horrible grinding noise.
Arm weight, however, is a separate factor. When the bow is near the frog, your arm weight will naturally press the bow more firmly into the string, producing a louder sound. When the bow is near the tip, arm weight will do you no good at all. On the contrary, arm weight will only drag the bow down so that it plays the wrong string! To play loudly when near the tip, the only solution is to rotate the forearm inward quite firmly, so that the index finger transfers the muscular tension into the stick.
Adjusting your bow speed is fairly simple, once you learn that you need to do it, though it does require practice. To learn how to maintain a constant, even speed from one end of the bow to the other, practice playing a scale in wholenotes, using the full length of the bow for each note.
As you work with these two methods of pressing the bow into the string (arm weight and inward rotation), you’ll find that in order to make a long bow-stroke, from frog to tip, with uniform pressure, you have to change the source of the pressure from moment to moment, depending on where you are on the bow.
Applying pressure is a more complex topic.
The best way to learn this is to practice it. Play long, smooth strokes at a loud volume, digging in. Then play long, smooth strokes at a very quiet volume, touching the hair to the string as lightly as you can. Don’t be surprised when your arm jerks and hesitates when you first try this. Producing a smooth tone at any loudness level from one end of the bow to the other takes a lot of practice and great control.
To press the bow more firmly into the string, the cellist rotates the right forearm inward slightly, toward the cello, as if you’re turning a doorknob to the left. This causes the right forefinger, which is resting on the stick, to press the stick downward. If you try this without moving the bow at all, just resting it on a string, you should see that as you rotate your arm inward and press with the forefinger, the stick actually gets a bit closer to the hair. To see this technique in action, please watch the DVD.
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Speed Variations Even in the simplest melodies in cello method books, you’ll encounter both long notes and short notes. If your bow always moves at the same speed, a long note can cause a problem. If the long note happens to be an up-bow and you’re already near the frog, you may find that you have an unappetizing choice: You can slow the bow down on the long note, producing a muffled or scratchy tone; you can end the long note too soon; or you can just go ahead and run into the frog!
Students quite often get into trouble on long notes because they start the long note with a rapid bow speed. If the note is four beats long, they may use three quarters of the bow during the first beat! As a result, the rest of the long note will sound anemic (if it sounds at all), because there isn’t enough bow left to do it justice. From the very beginning of a long note, you need to be conscious of your bow speed and go as slowly as necessary so that each beat in the long note will use the same amount of bow.
Playing Loudly and Softly Managing the bow so that you have enough bow hair for the long notes is what I call “bow economy.” As you become more adept at using the bow, you’ll need to start thinking about where you’re going to “spend” the available length of the bow. Some notes will need to be played with a faster bow (and less pressure) and some with a slower bow (and more pressure), so that the tone and volume of the notes stay consistent while you make momentary adjustments in where you are on the bow. If you know that you have a long up-bow at some point in the phrase, for instance, you’ll need to work your way out toward the tip of the bow during the earlier notes in the phrase. You would do this by using more bow (increasing the lateral speed of the bow) during the downbow notes. When you reach the long up-bow note, you would then play it with a slower bow speed.
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In the preceding section, I suggested playing loudly and also playing quietly. It’s time to talk about how to do this. Musicians use the term dynamics to talk about contrasts between loud and soft. Dynamics are one of the things that make music expressive. If you never use dynamics, your playing will tend to be monotonous and boring. There are several ways to make the cello sound louder. All of them involve using the bow in particular ways. The stick of your bow is somewhat flexible; it’s not entirely stiff. One way to play loudly is to rotate your right hand inward so that the side of your index finger presses down on the stick. This will cause the hair to press harder on the string, resulting in a louder sound. Conversely, if you don’t exert any pressure on the stick, the bow can glide across the string, producing a quieter sound.
How to Use the Bow Another way to get more volume is to tilt the bow slightly, so that the stick is a little farther from your face and more directly over the hair. This will ensure that all of the hair presses directly on the string, giving you the maximum volume. Conversely, if you want a quiet sound, you can tilt the bow so that the stick is closer to your face than the hair, so that only the edge of the hair touches the string, as shown in Figure 3.26. Pulling your right arm inward so that the bow is positioned over the end of the fingerboard rather than midway between the fingerboard and the bridge will produce a quieter, more muffled sound.
Chapter 3
This is called playing sul tasto (Italian for “over the fingerboard”). Normally you will play sul tasto only in combination with a light bow pressure; if you try to play sul tasto while also pressing down hard with the bow, you’ll produce a very bad sound. Finally, you can produce a bigger sound by moving the bow more quickly. If you use less bow (move more slowly), there will be less sound. But again, this technique has to be used in combination with other techniques. If you move the bow slowly while pressing down hard, you’ll need great control to avoid producing horrible scratchy noises.
Figure 3.26 Rolling the bow upward to use less hair for a quiet sound.
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A Bowing Checklist If you’re not happy with the sounds you’re producing with the bow, here are some things to check: v Scratchy sound. If the sound is scratchy, you need to move the bow faster or not press down quite so hard. v Tinny or silvery sound. If the sound is thin and metallic, your bow has drifted too close to the bridge. You need to pull in slightly with the index finger of your right hand so that the stick is moving straight across the strings, midway between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard. v Breathy sound. If the sound is breathy, you’re moving the bow too quickly or not digging in firmly enough. The breathy sound happens when the fundamental (the full length of the string) is not sounding, only the string’s higher overtones. v Squeaky sound. Squeaky sounds are often caused by the left hand, not the bow. If your left-hand fingers are not pressing firmly against the strings on the neck, you’ll hear squeaks. Squeaks can also happen when the bow is angled too far to the left or right, so that it brushes a higher or lower string. If you hear unpleasant squeaks while playing the A string, check whether your bow has wandered up over the end of the fingerboard. The A string should almost never be played over the fingerboard. v Muffled sound. If your bow drifts up over the end of the fingerboard on the D, G, or C string, the sound will be dull and muffled.
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How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
The Flexible Right Hand When you first start learning to use the bow, you’ll have plenty to think about with just getting it onto the right string, moving the right direction, and keeping it at a reasonable angle. But there’s more to bowing than that. To produce a good tone, especially when the bow is changing direction from down-bow to up-bow or vice versa, you’ll need to learn how to let your fingers flex on the stick. Your right wrist will also need to learn to flex somewhat.
On the DVD: Moving the Bow, Part II You may want to pause before going on to view the DVD that comes with this book. The flexible movements of the right hand while bowing are easier to understand by watching them than by reading about them. In a nutshell, during the down-bow stroke, the right hand tilts slightly to the right. During the up-bow stroke, the hand tilts slightly to the left. The angle of the fingers in relation to the stick actually changes by about 20 degrees. The change in wrist angle is perhaps less pronounced, but it’s visible.
Figure 3.27 The right hand pulling to the right during a down-bow stroke. 57
One way to think about this is that during a down-bow, the right hand is pulling the bow to the right. During an up-bow, it’s pushing the bow back to the left. But there’s more to it than that. If you watch a fine cellist closely, you may notice that the hand starts to change shape just slightly before the bow reverses direction. The hand shape anticipates the change in direction. Another way to explain this is to say that the arm has started to move back in the opposite direction (from a down-bow into an up-bow or vice versa), starting a new bow-stroke, while the fingers are still finishing the old bow-stroke. This allows the change in direction to be made in a smooth, good-sounding manner. But if the right hand is clamped stiffly on the bow and never changes shape, then the change from up-bow to down-bow or vice versa has to be
made with the entire arm. This results in a moment of harsh or jerky sound. You may want to think of the right hand and wrist as a shock absorber. If the shock absorber is stiff, you’ll feel every bump on the road, but if it’s springy, the ride will be smooth. The sound of the change in direction will be harsh or jerky for an important and basic reason: It’s easier to make small, precise movements with small muscles than with large muscles. The large muscles (such as those in your upper arm and back) are meant for heavy lifting. When you want to pick up a needle, you don’t use the large muscles while holding your fingers stiff— you use the tiny muscles that control the fingers, because you have more precise control over them. For the same reason, when changing bow direction you need to let your small muscles get involved. Don’t try to change bow direction by swinging from the shoulder. Let the wrist be flexible.
Figure 3.28 The right hand pushing to the left during an up-bow stroke. 58
How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Slurs When you first start playing the cello, you’ll reverse the bow direction for each new note, playing a down-bow for the first note, an up-bow for the second note, then another down-bow for the third note, and so on. This is natural. But in sheet music, you’ll quite often see two or more notes that have a curving line above or below the noteheads. A curving line tells you that you should perform a slur. In a slur, you play two or more notes while the bow continues in the same direction. If all of the notes are on the same string, then the left hand is entirely responsible for changing from one note to the next one. Sometimes you’ll press a finger down to start the new note; sometimes you’ll lift one or more fingers; and sometimes, in more advanced music, you may shift your whole left hand up or down the string to a new position (see “Shifting to Other Positions” in Chapter 4) while the bow keeps moving in the same direction.
If the notes in the slur are on different strings, the technique is a little more complicated. The bow will keep going in the same direction, as in any slur, but at the beginning of a new note, the right wrist and right arm will tilt up or down as needed, so that the bow-stroke glides smoothly from one string to the next. You may find at first that it’s tricky to slur from one string to another while also changing from one left-hand finger to another. To get your right arm comfortable with the technique, I suggest practicing slurs across open strings, as shown in Figure 3.30. As you slur from one string to the next, your right wrist should move slightly ahead of the arm, angling up or down in a vertical direction. The rest of the arm should follow the lead of the wrist. If the wrist is stiff, with the whole arm bobbing up and down from the shoulder joint, your slurs will sound awkward, and you’ll find it hard to play fast passages where you have to slur up and back down rapidly. The slurred notes may also be uneven rhythmically if the slur is originating from the shoulder, with a stiff wrist.
Figure 3.29 Slurs are shown in sheet music with curving lines above or below the notes. Some slurs connect only two notes, while others are longer. 59
Figure 3.30 A slur exercise for connecting open strings.
If you see dots or lines between the noteheads and the slur mark, as shown in Figure 3.31, the bow should pause or lift momentarily between notes, creating an articulation. In this case the notes should sound separate, but the bow should keep going the same direction. Except in fast, bouncy music, the bow won’t actually lift free of the string during an articulated slur; you’ll only reduce the downward pressure so as to create the sense of a musical “lift.”
In orchestral music you will sometimes see what appear to be impossibly long slurs. These are phrase marks, not slurs. They indicate that all of the notes under the curve should be connected as smoothly as possible, so that the listener hears a long, smooth phrase and doesn’t notice when you change bow direction. If you see a long phrase mark in an orchestral cello part, ask your section leader or the conductor how you should bow the phrase—that is, where you should switch from down-bow to up-bow and vice versa.
Figure 3.31 In an articulated slur, the bow keeps going the same direction, but there’s a bit of lift between the notes.
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Staccato When you see a dot above or below a notehead, the note is to be played staccato. A staccato note sounds shorter than written and is followed, in effect, by a short rest. A staccato quarter-note, for instance, would normally be played as if it were an eighth-note followed by an eighth-rest.
In either case, the staccato bow-stroke ends in the air, not touching the string. If you jerk the bow left or right in an up-bow or down-bow motion and then stop its travel while leaving it pressed into the string, you’ll produce a short, staccato note, but the sound will be dead and unpleasant. The string should be allowed to ring a bit at the end of a staccato note.
There are two ways to perform staccato notes with the bow. One is to drop the bow from above onto the string and then let it bounce away again (while also moving in the up-bow or down-bow direction, so that the hair will brush the string rather than just hitting the string and rebounding). This technique is called spiccato. The other method is to start with the bow pressed into the string and then launch it away from the string as it moves left or right.
The tricky part of staccato is getting the bow to land back on the string after the staccato note, ready to play the next note. The bow will tend to bounce when you do this, producing little noises. You may want to practice the technique of setting the bow down on a string in a smooth, steady manner, without making the slightest noise. This is easier at the frog than at the tip.
The difference between the two techniques is a bit like the difference between jumping up and down on a trampoline (starting and ending the jump in the air) and launching yourself into a jump from a standing start on solid ground. To see staccato playing, please watch the demonstration on the DVD.
Figure 3.32 Staccato notes, as written (a) and as played (b).
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Playing Pizzicato Some method books introduce pizzicato (plucked) playing before they introduce using the bow. This makes sense, because playing pizzicato is easier than bowing. If you’re having trouble learning a new piece, one thing to try is putting the bow down and playing the notes pizzicato. Pizzicato is often abbreviated pizz. in sheet music. When you’re to resume playing with the bow, you’ll see the word arco, or more rarely col arco, which means “with the bow.” Advanced players learn four or five different pizzicato techniques, but I won’t attempt to cover them all here.
Figure 3.33 Holding the bow for pizzicato. 62
If you’re playing a whole piece pizzicato (it may be marked sempre pizzicato), you can lay the bow on the music stand before starting to play. But if only one passage within a longer piece is pizzicato, you’ll need to hold the bow with your outer three fingers while plucking the string with your forefinger.
Catching a Few Z’s In Italian and German, the letter “z” is pronounced “ts,” so pizzicato is pronounced “pits-ih-cah-to.” Likewise, Mozart is pronounced “Moats-art,” not “Moze-art.”
How to Use the Bow While holding the bow firmly with the outer three fingers wrapped around the frog, place the thumb against the side of the fingerboard, as shown in Figure 3.34. The thumb will steady your hand, allowing you to pluck any string with your index finger. If the music calls for a pizzicato chord, you can strum three or four strings with the ball of your thumb by moving it rapidly from right to left across the fingerboard. Reversed strumming, from left to right with the index finger, is a jazz technique and is seldom needed in classical music.
Chapter 3
Very occasionally, you may need to play a note pizzicato with your left hand, because the right hand is busy bowing. This technique was popularized by Niccolò Paganini, a 19th century violin virtuoso who used it to dazzle his audiences by playing pizzicato and arco at the same time. Offhand, I know of only a couple of cello pieces outside of method books that require left-hand pizzicato, so it’s not something you need to devote much attention to.
Big Tone In pizzicato playing, you should play near the middle of the string, not down at the end of the fingerboard. This produces a warmer, fuller sound.
Figure 3.34 The right hand ready to play pizzicato. 63
Advanced Bowing Techniques To round out this chapter, let’s take a quick look at a few of the bowing techniques you’ll be mastering as you become a more accomplished cellist.
On the DVD: Advanced Bowing Techniques
Playing Double-Stops and Chords
Because the bridge arches, the bow can contact, at most, two strings at a time. Occasionally, you’ll see cello music that calls for you to play chords of three or even four notes, as shown in Figure 3.35.
In most cello music, you’ll be playing only one note at a time. In more advanced music, though, you may find passages where you need to play two notes at once. These pairs of notes are called double-stops, because the left hand is stopping (changing the length of) two strings at the same time.
To play a chord, you bow the lowest two notes of the chord as a double-stop and then rapidly change to the upper two notes. In the case of a three-note chord, this will mean that the middle note is played continuously, because it’s part of both double-stops.
The technique for bowing double-stops is easy to explain: Simply adjust the angle of your bow so that it touches both strings and then play an up-bow or down-bow stroke as usual. You may find that this takes a bit of practice, however. If your bow tends to bob up and down during a stroke, you can get away with slight changes in the angle while playing a single string, but when you’re playing two strings at once, the bow has to remain at an absolutely constant angle as it travels, so that both strings sound continuously. Also, a bit more pressure is needed to produce a good tone on two strings at once.
Figure 3.35 Chords on the cello, as notated (a) and as played (b).
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Playing double-stops and chords requires special attention to the fingers of the left hand as well. The technique is discussed near the end of Chapter 4.
How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Col Legno
Tremolo
The technique of playing col legno is unknown in Mozart and Beethoven, but it’s called for in some orchestral music written from the later 19th century onward. The term means “with the wood.” Most often, you’ll be expected to tap the string with the stick of your bow, using the wood as if it were a drumstick. The result is a percussive sound. Because the wood by itself doesn’t produce much tone, you may prefer to play col legno using the side of the bow, so that both the hair and the stick contact the string. A bit of lateral motion (as in spiccato bowing) will give you more tone.
Tremolo bowing is called for fairly often in orchestral music, but not very often in cello solos. To play a tremolo (literally, “trembling”), you move the bow rapidly back and forth with short up-bow and down-bow strokes. Tremolo is notated with three free-floating bars on the stem of the note, as shown in Figure 3.36. When the whole cello section and bass section are playing tremolo together, an ominous rumble is produced. The effect is used to add suspense. Higher tremolo in the violins, violas, and cellos, especially when it’s quiet, produces a shimmering sound.
I recommend not practicing col legno. You won’t need to do it often no matter how much you play in orchestras, it doesn’t sound good, and some people feel that it’s bad for the bow.
Figure 3.36 Tremolo notation. Play these notes with short back-and-forth bow strokes, moving as rapidly as possible.
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Bowing Exercises Mastering the use of the bow will require not only lots of practice, but suggestions from a private teacher who can watch what you’re doing and make suggestions. The exercises in this chapter are very basic and cover only a few of the simpler techniques you’ll need to learn.
Exercise 3.1 This exercise may seem almost too simple to bother with, but I hope you’ll spend some time practicing it. Each note should use the full length of the bow. That is, the down-bow strokes should begin within an inch or so of the frog and should continue outward to within an inch or so of the tip—and vice versa for the up-bow strokes.
Exercise 3.1
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As you’re playing the notes, you’ll want to pay attention to several different things. Is your bow traveling in a straight line and perpendicular (at a right angle) to the string? Does the bow make contact with the string at the same spot (halfway between the fingerboard and the bridge) from the beginning of the stroke to the end? Is the tone smooth and even all the way through each note? Does the bow touch only one string from the beginning of the note to the end, without brushing a higher or lower string? Are your right thumb and right shoulder relaxed?
How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Exercise 3.2
Exercise 3.3
When the bow switches from one string to another, you may be near the frog, near the tip, or anywhere in between. The amount that your right hand needs to rise or fall depends on where you are in the bow. In this exercise, you’re asked to transition from each string to the next while out at the tip of the bow. To do this, you’ll need to raise or lower your right hand (and your arm along with it) by as much as six inches.
In performing slurs, you’ll be joining two or more notes under the same bow. That is, the bow-stroke will continue in the same direction, while the left hand articulates the new note. This simple slurring exercise will get you started on this essential technique. Note that the slurs from C up to D (in measure 2) and from D back down to C (in measure 6) require that you make a smooth transition from one string to the next. This technique is explored further in Exercise 3.4.
This exercise is also a good reminder that some short notes need to be played out near the tip of the bow. You should avoid using too much bow on the eighth-notes here; they should be played above the middle.
Exercise 3.2
Exercise 3.3
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Exercise 3.4
Exercise 3.5
All of the slurs in this exercise are from one open string to another. In the first two measures, you’ll move up from the C string to the G string on a down-bow and back down from the G to the C on an up-bow. In measures 3 and 4, this pattern is reversed. You’ll move down from the G to the C on the down-bow and back up from the C to the G on the up-bow. Be sure to practice this exercise without accidentally reversing your bow direction. It’s important that you teach your arm to slur in either direction.
Using the whole bow, as in Exercise 3.1, play this exercise slowly. When playing the doublestops in measures 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12, strive for an evenly balanced tone. Both strings should be heard throughout. Obviously, when playing the single notes, you shouldn’t accidentally brush a second string. You may want to use your left hand while playing this exercise to mute the strings that aren’t sounding.
Exercise 3.4
Exercise 3.5
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How to Use the Bow
Chapter 3
Exercise 3.6
Exercise 3.7
Learning to play rapid rhythms is an important part of bowing. This exercise presents just one rhythm of dozens that you may need to play, but you’ll need to play it in two different ways— legato and staccato. In measures 1, 3, and 5, play on the string. The bow should remain seated firmly on the string throughout these measures. Measures 2, 4, and 6, however, are to be played with a bouncing bow. The bow should launch into the air slightly (half an inch or so) after each note. You may find that this technique is easier to manage if you play at a good tempo, not too slowly.
This is a “kangaroo hop” exercise. While playing the first two measures, you’ll need to launch your bow slightly into the air after each note, so that it doesn’t touch the G string but passes over it silently. Likewise, in measures 3 and 4, you’ll need to avoid touching the D string while hopping from the G string up to the A string. This technique is often used in advanced cello writing, but it’s worth practicing when you’re starting out, as it will help your arm learn to locate each string quickly and precisely.
It’s important to alternate down-bow and upbow strokes throughout this exercise. The word simile in measure 3 is Italian for “similarly.” It’s a reminder that you should continue the indicated bowing.
Exercise 3.6
Exercise 3.7
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Composer Luigi Boccherini (1743–1805) was also known as a cello virtuoso.
Fingering with the Left Hand
4
n playing the cello, you’ll play different notes by
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pressing the tips of the fingers of your left hand against a string. This technique is a bit like pressing the keys of a piano to play different notes, but the details are very different. In this chapter you’ll learn how to use your left hand on the cello. While it’s fairly easy to describe the use of the left hand, you’ll find that developing good habits takes practice. As you use the fingers of your left hand, you’ll be mastering three closely related techniques: v Using the correct finger on the correct string at the correct moment. v Making sure your fingers always land at the right spot on the string, so that the notes you play are in tune. v Using the muscles, joints, and tendons of your fingers, left hand, and left arm in a comfortable and efficient manner.
As you make progress in your cello studies, you’ll learn more complex left-hand techniques. You’ll learn to shift from one hand position to another, up and down the neck, and you’ll learn to add vibrato to the tone by rotating the left hand. In this chapter you’ll find a brief introduction to these advanced techniques. Before you tackle them, you’ll need to learn the basics, so that’s where we’ll start.
The Arched Shape of the Left Hand If you hold your left hand up in the air with all of your fingers gently curved and look directly at the side of the hand where your thumb is, you’ll see the shape of a capital letter C. This shape is the starting point for the shape that your hand will use in cello playing. Fortunately, it’s the shape that your hand will naturally fall into if you don’t distort the shape by tensing your muscles. When you’re playing the cello, you’ll be using your muscles, so the C shape will change slightly: The top knuckles (those closest to the back of the hand) will be straight, not curved. But the outer knuckles of the fingers should retain some of the curved shape of the letter C, and the thumb should retain a slight curvature, too. There are times when you’ll need to change this shape for musical reasons, but your hand should always return to the relaxed curve of the letter C when you don’t need it to do anything special.
Figure 4.1 The ideal shape for the left hand is a bit like a capital letter C.
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On the DVD: The Left Hand, Part I As a cellist, you’ll need to keep the fingernails of your left hand trimmed quite short. If your nails are too long, your fingers won’t be able to press against the strings at the proper angle, because the nails will get in the way. One of my teachers used to say, “Keep your fingernails trimmed clear back to the elbow!” She was kidding, but she was making a serious point. There should be little, if any, of the lightercolored rim of the nail extending beyond the quick. If your fingers are arched correctly, the outer two knuckles on each finger will have a positive (outward) angle. None of them will be squashed down flat or bending inward. This is important! When you touch the strings you’ll be using the tips of the fingers—not the extreme tip, but the fleshy pad very near the tip. On my fingers, the strings press into the fingertip about 5/16 of an inch from the edge of the nail.
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
One of the most common mistakes that beginners make is to press the strings with the flat part of the finger’s outermost segment—the part opposite the fingernail. If you do it this way, the outermost knuckle will be squashed flat. Beginners like to use the flat part of the finger because it’s more reliable: Your finger has more surface area there, so it’s easier to be certain that your finger won’t miss the string! But if you start playing this way, you’ll have to correct the bad habit later if you want to make any progress. There are at least two reasons why keeping your fingers arched is important. First, when your fingers are arched, your muscles, joints, and tendons can work efficiently. If you press down on the string with your outermost knuckle locked in a negative, squashed shape, the tendon that is pulling the finger inward (in order to press on the string) has to fight against the bones and ligaments of the knuckle, which are trying to go the other direction. Later on, when you want to play faster music, you’ll run into trouble, because your fingers will be trying to go in two directions at once.
Figure 4.2 The left hand on the neck (two views).
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Second, there are musical situations in which you’ll need to press a finger on one of the lower strings (that is, the strings on the right side of the neck as you sit behind the cello) while also allowing a higher string to produce sound. That is, two strings will be sounding at once— perhaps just for a moment, or perhaps for the length of several notes. In this situation, the higher string—for instance, the A string if your fingers are making notes on the D string—has to be free to vibrate. If your fingers are arched so that they’re not touching the A string at all, the A string will produce sound. But if your fingers are collapsed downward on the D string, the A string will produce ugly squeaking noises. This may be hard to visualize when you’re reading about it; the problem and the solution are shown on the DVD.
As you play the cello more, you’ll develop calluses on the tips of your fingers. This slight hardening of the flesh will make a more firm contact with the string, so your pitch will be more reliable. The soft part of the finger is not as reliable for producing good intonation.
The Guitar Player’s Deformity Cello students who have played the guitar sometimes try to use, on the cello, the left-hand shape with which they’re already familiar. This is a mistake, and it will cause you nothing but trouble. When you hold a guitar, the neck points to the left, away from your body. As you wrap your fingers around the neck, they will naturally point back toward your body, and your wrist will be tucked slightly inward, toward the neck of the instrument. (The violinist’s left-hand position is similar.) On a guitar, this is natural and comfortable, but the cello’s neck is vertical. If you transfer the guitar hand shape to the cello, your fingers will be pointing down the neck, more or less toward the floor, while your thumb, which is behind the neck, may be pointing up at the ceiling. I’m pretty sure it’s not possible to develop any facility while playing the cello this way. I certainly wouldn’t want to try it!
Figure 4.3 Collapsed knuckles will cause problems— don’t do this! 74
Fingering with the Left Hand When you play the cello, your two middle fingers should be perpendicular (at a 90-degree angle) to the strings, not angling either down toward the floor or up toward the ceiling. The outer two fingers will naturally be at a slight angle to the strings, not perpendicular, because the fingers will be spread apart, not bunched up, but the hand as a whole will be oriented to the neck at a 90-degree angle. This is sometimes referred to as a box shape, because the mass of the hand is squared off with respect to the neck.
Chapter 4
Your thumb should be on the underside of the neck, and it should be behind the gap between your index and middle fingers. The very tip of the thumb should be at about the middle of the back of the neck: The thumb should not be braced against the outside of the neck, nor should it be wrapped around the neck.
Figure 4.4 The guitar hand shape transferred to the cello—don’t do this! 75
The Left Arm, Wrist, and Elbow The left arm is normally in a relaxed position, angling back from the neck. But it’s a bad idea to press your upper arm tightly against your body. You might want to imagine that you’re holding a tennis ball in your left armpit. With the ball there, you can’t press your arm all the way down to your ribcage, but if you lift your elbow too far, the tennis ball will fall to the floor. This slight lift of the left arm away from the body will give you plenty of mobility, while not leading to fatigue.
The left wrist should be basically flat, neither humped up nor tucked under. To test this, try raising your bow across the front of your chest and lay the stick flat along the left arm, with the left arm and hand in playing position. The stick should be able to touch the back of the hand, the back of the wrist, and the forearm all the way up to the elbow. If the left elbow is raised while the wrist is collapsed and tucked under, your arm will look like a chicken wing (see Figure 4.5). Chickens can’t fly far with their wings, and you won’t be able to fly on the cello either, if you have a chicken-wing left arm. Conversely, the left wrist should not be humped up like a camel’s back, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.5 The chicken wing—don’t do this! Figure 4.6 Humped left wrist—don’t do this!
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Fingering with the Left Hand
The Left Hand Death Grip To produce a good sound from the cello, you’ll need to press somewhat firmly on the string with one or more fingers. Many beginners try to press firmly by squeezing the neck tightly, clenching their fingers and pressing in on the back of the neck with the thumb, as shown in Figure 4.7. This is a terrible mistake. The real energy needed to press the string comes from the weight of the entire left arm. It comes from relaxing the shoulder, so that gravity can do the work of pulling the arm downward. The fingers should only be tense enough to transfer the weight of the arm into the string. The thumb should be completely relaxed. When I see a student whose left thumb is curled inward (that is, its outermost knuckle is concave, so that the fleshy pad of the thumb presses tightly against the neck), I know the student is gripping the neck too hard.
Chapter 4
The left thumb should touch the center of the back of the neck in a very light way, with no pressure. As you begin shifting to other positions (as explained later in this chapter), the thumb will need to glide along the neck. If it’s clamped against the neck, you’ll have trouble shifting. When I see a student’s thumb pressed into the neck, I will sometimes ask the student to try playing without his or her thumb touching the neck at all. I don’t recommend this as a normal way of playing, but in a lesson it serves as a good demonstration. You can press the strings down very nicely using only arm weight, without using the muscles of your thumb at all. That’s what you should be doing.
Figure 4.8 The left thumb should be relaxed.
Figure 4.7 The left thumb pressing into the neck—don’t do this! 77
Numbering the Fingers Students who also play the piano sometimes get a little tangled up when they start on the cello, because the fingers are numbered differently. On the piano, your thumb is 1, and the fingers are numbered 1 through 5: The index finger is 2, the middle finger is 3, and so on. On the cello, however, the index finger is 1, the middle finger is 2, the ring finger is 3, and the little finger is 4. (We have a special symbol for the thumb, which is only used in advanced playing. See the section “Thumb Position” at the very end of this chapter.)
During your first few months as a cellist, the fingerings you use will be very straightforward and easy to understand. Each note in the music will be associated with one particular finger on one particular string. There will be no ambiguities and no options for different fingerings. This makes it easy to get started.
The choice of which finger to use to play which note is called fingering. Most cello music (though not all) is published with numbers above some of the notes to indicate good choices for fingering. Fingerings in sheet music are almost always added by an editor, not by the composer.
Figure 4.9 The numbers of the fingers.
Figure 4.10 Fingering numbers used in sheet music. The 0 indicates that the note is an open string and should be played with no left-hand fingers at all. 78
Fingering with the Left Hand As you progress, however, you’ll soon find that to play some musical passages, you’ll need to move your hand up or down the neck. This is called shifting. The techniques used in shifting to other hand positions are discussed briefly later in this chapter. Once you start shifting to other positions, you’ll quickly find that almost any note on the cello can be played with two or more different fingers. Your choice of which finger to use for a given note will depend on various musical and technical factors.
Chapter 4
Likewise, when you play a 3rd-finger note, fingers 1 and 2 should normally be lined up on the string behind the 3rd finger. They shouldn’t be floating in the air. And when you play a 4th-finger note, it’s especially important that your other fingers (or at the very least, the 3rd finger) should be pressed down on the string behind the 4th finger. The 4th finger is rather weak, so it needs a little help. Rather than use flying fingers, as seen in Figure 4.11, look back at Figure 4.2 to see how the lower-numbered fingers support the higher-numbered fingers.
The subject of shifting and hand positions is fairly complex. Ideally, you'll want to take lessons from a private cello teacher who can help you learn and master the details. There are two reasons to mention it here, at the very beginning of your cello journey. First, you may find yourself looking at advanced cello music and see fingering numbers that make no sense to you yet. Second, I wanted to assure you that you don’t need to worry about those complexities for a while.
The Other Fingers On the piano, the fingers are used independently. That is, when you play one note at a time on the piano, you press only one key at a time. This seems perfectly natural. But on the cello we have to do it a bit differently. When you play a note with your 1st finger, all of the other fingers should hover in the air, half an inch or so above the string. When you press the 2nd finger down, to play a different note, the 1st finger should not lift. It should stay pressed on the string, supporting the 2nd finger from behind.
Figure 4.11 Using only one finger at a time is very inefficient. Professional cellists sometimes do this, but it’s not recommended for beginners.
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If you watch professional cellists play, you’ll see that they don’t always do this. They will sometimes play a note with only one finger pressed on the string. They can get away with it because their hands are really strong. Until your hands are that strong, you should take it for granted that when a piece of cello music shows a 3 above a note, meaning “use the 3rd finger,” what it really means is 1-2-3, “use fingers 1, 2, and 3.”
Figure 4.12 Letting the little finger curl under is probably a bad idea; letting two fingers curl under may have benefits in letting your hand relax, but it will reduce your agility and make it harder to play in tune.
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For reasons having to do with the way the muscles and tendons of the hand work, if you press your 3rd finger down on the string, the 4th finger will try to “help” by curling inward, as shown in Figure 4.12. Since you don’t want it to touch a string (because that would produce a wrong note), the 4th finger will dip down along the left side of the fingerboard. If you’re playing a note with the 2nd finger, both the 3rd and 4th fingers may curl under. I was taught never to do this, but I’ve seen more than one extremely well-trained cellist do it, so I’ve had to rethink my advice to students.
Fingering with the Left Hand The argument in favor of letting your fingers curl under is that they can relax for a moment. But if you’re playing music that moves rapidly from one note to another, having to haul those fingers up from beside the fingerboard will take extra time, so it’s not efficient. Also, until you feel secure about how far apart your fingers should be spaced, the 3rd and 4th fingers have to reorient themselves quickly, so the notes they play may not be in tune.
Chapter 4
When your 3rd finger is playing a note, unless possibly it’s a long note to which you’re adding vibrato, the 4th finger should be hovering in the air, a half-inch or so above the string, as shown in Figure 4.13. If you’d like, you can pretend that someone has filled a party balloon with helium and tied it to your little finger using a string. The colored balloon will lift your little finger gently into the air, so that it can’t possibly dip down.
Figure 4.13 Letting the little finger float above the string when not in use is a good habit to develop.
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Playing in Tune But where exactly should you put your fingers? That’s an essential question, and one that’s difficult to explain in a book! But I’ll give it a try. The pitch (frequency) of a vibrating string depends on two main factors: its length and its tension. The tension of your strings is controlled by the pegs and fine tuners, and in normal music the tension never needs to be adjusted while you’re playing. Your fingers adjust the length of the string by pressing on it. When the string is shorter, it produces a higher pitch; when it’s longer, the pitch is lower. Guitars, banjos, and mandolins have frets. If the open strings are in tune, the other notes will be in tune. Just press a finger directly behind the fret, and the fret will take care of the messy details. The distance from the fret to the bridge has been precisely measured by the instrument builder. If you play the cello, violin, or viola, you don’t have the luxury of frets. Each time you press a finger against a string to make the string shorter, it’s entirely up to you to make sure that the finger is in exactly the right spot.
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If your finger is closer to the bridge than it ought to be, so that the portion of the string that is vibrating is a little shorter than it ought to be, then the note you’re playing will be sharp. If your finger is a little too far from the bridge, so that the vibrating portion of the string is too long, the note will be flat. (See the discussion of the terms sharp and flat in Chapter 2.) Even very small changes in finger position will affect the intonation (the in-tuneness of the note). Until you learn to listen very carefully to each note as you play it, your left hand can easily drift back toward the nut, causing every note you play (except the open strings) to be flat. Or your hand may migrate down the neck toward the bridge, causing all of your fingered notes to be sharp. I’ve noticed that this happens to some students when their left hand crosses from one string to another. Rather than going straight across (perpendicular to the strings), the hand will angle up or down in a diagonal motion. Individual notes can also be flat or sharp if the shape of your hand is distorted. It’s important that your fingers be evenly spaced, as shown in Figure 4.14. On a full-size cello in first position (the hand position you initially learn when you’re starting to play), the center of each finger should be about 1-1/4 inches from the center of the next finger. The hand has a natural tendency to “bunch” the 2nd (middle) and the 3rd (ring) fingers closer together, leaving wider gaps between 1 and 2 and between 3 and 4. If you do this, your 1st- and 4th-finger notes may be very nicely in tune, yet your 2nd- and 3rd-finger notes will be out of tune.
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
But you won’t have other musicians with you in your practice room. Playing along with instructional CDs can be very useful. You’ll find a variety of cello books in a good music store containing popular songs and CDs with recorded accompaniments. But until you’ve made some progress, playing along with a CD can be a struggle. (For one thing, the musicians on the CD won’t stop if you make a mistake.) As Louis Potter says in his marvelous book The Art of Cello Playing (Summy-Birchard, Inc., 1980), “From the beginning, the student must be ever alert and sensitive to correct pitch and rhythm, in which there can be no compromise.... An attitude of ‘almost right’ has no place in the realm of intonation and rhythm; these are arithmetical values and there are no ‘shades of gray.’”
Figure 4.14 Finger spacing in first position.
The best way to learn to hear small differences in pitch (and small differences are important!) is to play your cello in a group with other instruments, preferably including a fixed-pitch instrument, such as a piano. If two instruments are playing exactly the same pitch, the two sounds will almost fuse into a single, blended sound. If one instrument is slightly out of tune compared to the other, when they try to play the same note you’ll hear a harsh, discordant, jangly sound quality.
To make sure your hand is in the right place before you start playing, you can check the position of your 4th finger by comparing its sound to the sound of the next lower open string, as shown in Figure 4.15. This is such a useful technique that we’re going to look at it here, even though it uses concepts from Chapter 5, “Reading Music.” Any two notes form what musicians call an interval. And the octave is a special interval. When two notes are separated by the interval of an octave, they have the same letter-name, and they sound very similar, for reasons having to do with the physics of sound vibrations. If you play the 4th-finger note (in first position— the first hand position you learn) on the cello’s D string, you’ll be playing the note G. And this note is an octave above the open G string. In the same way, the 4th finger on the A string plays the note D, an octave above the open D string, and the 4th finger on the G string plays the note C, an octave above the open C string.
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Figure 4.15 Test your left-hand position by playing these octaves.
To test whether your hand is in the right place, simply put your 4th finger on one of the upper three strings, play the 4th-finger note, and compare it to the open string just below it (that is, to the right as you sit behind the cello). They should sound very much alike. If you hear a sour, out-of-tune sound, adjust your hand position up or down as needed until the two notes sound alike. This technique won’t help you get the spacing of the other fingers right, but it will give you an anchor—a point of reference that you can use. Putting your fingers in the right places on the fingerboard requires constant listening, but it’s also a matter of muscle memory. Muscle memory can be learned, but it can’t really be taught. Learning to throw a basketball so that it drops through the hoop is not too different: Lots of practice is required as your muscles learn exactly how much to contract and at what moment. Once you’ve learned to do it, explaining how you do it may not be easy, because muscle memory is mostly unconscious. A basketball coach might tell you to do something different with your elbows while shooting hoops, but the only way to learn to do it is to practice until your muscles learn to make the right motions automatically.
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Fingerboard Tape When first starting to study the violin, viola, or cello, many students like having tape applied to the fingerboard. The tape can guide your fingers, so that you’ll place them correctly on the strings. A special type of tape is used. It’s not very sticky, so the adhesive can be cleaned off of the fingerboard easily, just by rubbing it with your fingers. Fingerboard tape is shown in Figure 1.12, in Chapter 1. The problem with not-very-sticky adhesive is that the tape can also scoot gradually, over the course of a few weeks, due to the action of your fingers. The tape will no longer be a reliable guide. If you’re not sure of your ability to hear whether notes are in tune, it will be close to impossible for you to put the tape in the right places. If you want to use tape, you should have it applied by an accomplished string player, such as your private cello teacher, the music teacher at your school, or a salesperson at the store from which you’re renting the cello.
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
Vibrato If you watch an accomplished cellist play, you’ll soon notice that many notes, and especially the longer notes, are played not by holding the left hand perfectly still but with a rotating motion. This motion is called vibrato. (Like many other musical terms, this comes from Italian. It’s pronounced with a short “i,” as in “slick,” and an ah sound for the “a”.) Vibrato helps the cello produce a warmer, more singing sound.
On the DVD: The Left Hand, Part II During your first few months playing the cello, you’ll have plenty to think about without trying to learn vibrato. But once you’ve mastered the notes in first position and are starting to learn shifting (see “Shifting to Other Positions,” later in this chapter), it will also be time to learn vibrato, so we’ll cover the basics here. To produce vibrato, cellists rotate the forearm from the elbow. The motion is a little like turning a doorknob. Your arm can rotate easily, from the elbow down. After trying this motion in the air, place the 2nd finger of your left hand on the D string (on the note F) and rotate slowly and smoothly so that the fingertip rocks forward and back along the length of the string. Try bowing this note in long, smooth strokes while you rotate your arm. Don’t let your wrist bob up and down, and don’t try twisting with your fingers. Your fingers and wrist should remain in the same alignment throughout the motion.
Cello Vibrato is Different If you have a friend who is a violinist, please don’t try to learn vibrato by picking up tips from your friend. Violin vibrato is performed quite differently from cello vibrato. Violin vibrato is a motion of the wrist. Cello vibrato is a rotation of the forearm, coming from the elbow.
It’s important to remain relaxed while practicing vibrato. If your hand is tight, the sound will be nervous and jerky. It’s also useful to practice vibrato by making the rotations too slow and too wide. If you try to imitate the fast, intense vibrato that you sometimes hear professionals use before your arm has learned how to do it, the result will be nervous and unmusical. Vibrato with the 4th finger presents a special problem. This is because the 4th finger is so far from the axis of rotation of your forearm. You’ll find that it’s easy to rotate the forearm while the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd finger remains glued to one spot on the string, but with the 4th finger the rotation may be difficult. To learn 4th-finger vibrato, I suggest thinking of your arm as making a lateral motion. Imagine throwing a football with your left hand. When you throw a football, the arm pivots forward from the elbow while the hand retains its shape.
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One way to apply this motion to 4th-finger vibrato is to press the 4th finger on the string and then slide it smoothly up and down the string, more or less as if you were throwing a football at the floor very slowly. The sound should be vaguely like a siren, rising and falling in pitch. While continuing the motion, gradually make the arm’s travel shorter and faster, until the 4th finger is simply rocking on the string without sliding up and down. If your vibrato is jerky, weak, or tremulous (and don’t be surprised if it is at first), here’s a way to practice it. Set your metronome to 60 beats per minute (one beat per second).
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While fingering and bowing a sustained F-natural with your second finger on the D string, rotate your hand downward and back up exactly once for each click of the metronome. Try to make the rotation smooth, wide, and relaxed. When you’re happy with that motion, increase the speed to two rotations up and down for each click of the metronome. When you’re comfortable with two rotations per second, increase the speed to three rotations per second. If your hand tightens up, drop back to two rotations per second. Natural vibrato is somewhere between four and six rotations per second; that’s the goal you’re training for.
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
The Extended Hand Shape In normal playing, cellists use two quite distinct left-hand shapes. (There are four shapes in all. These shapes and the reasons for them are discussed in detail in Louis Potter’s book The Art of Cello Playing.) Earlier in this chapter, I introduced a basic, relaxed hand shape in which the fingers are equally spaced. When you use this hand shape, each pair of adjacent fingers produces the musical interval of a half-step. A half-step is also called a semitone. It’s the smallest interval used in our standard 12-notes-per-octave scale system. On the DVD: The Left Hand, Part II An interval that is two half-steps wide is called, obviously, a whole-step. A whole-step is the musical distance between two white keys on the piano when there is a black key between them. When your hand is in normal playing position, you’ll be able to play notes that are a whole-step apart using either fingers 1 and 3 or fingers 2 and 4. If you know a little music theory, you’ll know that the distance from the 1st finger to the 4th finger, which is three half-steps, is the interval of a minor third.
Figure 4.16 In the extended hand shape, the large gap between the 1st and 2nd fingers plays an interval of a whole-step.
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There are times when you need to stretch a little farther, so as to allow your hand to span the range of two whole-steps (a major third). To do this, you’ll need to use the extended hand shape. It’s also called an extension or extended position, though the word “position” means something different here than when the cellist shifts the whole hand up or down the neck, as discussed in the next section. In the extended hand shape, you stretch between the 1st and 2nd fingers, so that they span the interval of a whole-step, as shown in Figure 4.17. The thumb should remain behind the 2nd finger. You can think of extended position in two different ways. You can think of the 1st finger as extending backward (toward the nut), or you can think of the 1st finger as remaining stationary while the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th fingers extend forward (toward the bridge). This is because the extended hand shape is used in two musical situations—so that you can play the note a halfstep higher than the 4th finger, or so that you can play the note a half-step lower than the 1st finger. These two musical situations are shown in Figure 4.18. The hand shape is the same in each case, but the hand as a whole has to move to a different position on the neck depending on whether the music calls for a higher-than-usual or a lower-than-usual note.
Figure 4.17 The extended hand shape in playing position (two views).
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Chapter 4
Figure 4.18 The extended hand position is used when the hand needs to cover two whole-steps. The cellist may need to reach backward toward the nut to play notes that are a half-step above the open string, as on the first line here, or reach forward to play notes that are a half-step below the next higher open string, as on the second line. The extension is often marked in beginning method books using an X or an up- or down-pointing arrow, but in advanced music you’ll be expected to figure out which hand positions are extensions by reading the notes and the key signature to learn where the wholesteps are. Note that the backward extension is more often used when the key signature has flats, while the forward extension is more often used when the key signature has sharps.
These same notes can also be played with the normal (non-extended) hand shape by shifting the hand back to half-position (for the notes close to the nut) or up to lower second position (for the notes that lie beyond the 4th finger in first position). Even so, you should absolutely learn to find these notes using an extended hand shape. The extended hand shape is the only practical option for many, many musical passages that you’ll be playing on your cello.
Don’t Extend between 3 and 4 Except in very unusual musical circumstances, trying to reach a whole-step between the 3rd and 4th fingers is a mistake. Your little finger is too short and weak to do this. Always extend between 1 and 2.
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In student sheet music, the extended hand shape is often noted with an x. Some books use a downward-pointing arrow next to the 1 when giving finger numbers, or an upward-pointing arrow next to the 4. But the upward-pointing arrow doesn’t mean that you should extend the 4th finger away from the 3rd. When using extended position, it’s important to remember that fingers 2, 3, and 4 are still a half-step apart, exactly as before. Only the first finger has changed, by moving away from them. When you use the extended hand shape, your 1st finger will no longer be very arched. It will be straight and will point back at the corner of your jaw. If your 1st finger is still curved when you’re trying to play a passage that requires extended position, the notes will most likely be out of tune, and you’ll be putting unnecessary strain on your finger. Extended position requires a little more strength than a normal hand shape, which is one reason why it isn’t taught to beginners. You need to build up a little strength in your hand before trying it. If you’re not playing a musical passage that requires extended position, you should immediately relax your hand back to its normal shape to prevent fatigue and avoid straining your muscles and tendons.
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Younger students sometimes find that their hand is not large enough to reach two wholesteps between the 1st and 4th fingers. This is especially likely to be true if you’ve just switched to a larger size cello. In this situation, you should learn the extended hand shape and understand when it’s needed musically, but hop (shift the whole hand) slightly up or down as needed to play the notes in tune.
F-Sharp with Which Finger? On the D string in first position, you’ll learn to play the note F-sharp with your 3rd finger. When you use extended position to be able to reach up to G-sharp, you’ll find yourself playing F-sharp with the 2nd finger, not the 3rd. Which finger do you use to play F-sharp? It depends on whether you’re using extended position. The same is true of C-sharp on the A string, B on the G string, and E on the C string.
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
Shifting to Other Positions On the DVD: The Left Hand, Part II
As you become an intermediate and then an advanced cellist, you’ll learn to shift your hand up and down the fingerboard, from one position to another. Learning to shift reliably, so that your fingers land in exactly the right spots and play the notes in tune, requires practice.
Shifting introduces a whole new level of complexity into your cello technique. When you first start reading music and playing it on the cello, you can rely on the fact that a certain finger on a certain string will always produce the same note. First finger on the D string, for instance, will always produce an E. But once you begin your adventures in shifting, you’ll soon find that any finger can be called on to play almost any note.
Figure 4.19 The positions on the fingerboard.
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Most students don’t start to study shifting until their second year of lessons. In this book we’re not going to cover every detail of how to shift smoothly and produce a musical sound, but because you may want or need to start learning to shift, we’ll cover the basics. Why shift? There can be three different reasons, any or all of which may apply at any given moment in the music: v To play notes that are higher in pitch than you can reach if you don’t shift. v To play complex musical phrases more comfortably, by playing a whole series of notes in one position rather than sliding up and down on the neck. v To avoid the sound of an open string (and add vibrato) by playing the same note as the open string on a lower string using a finger.
As you shift, your whole hand should glide smoothly and quickly up or down the neck to the new position. It’s especially important not to let your thumb stay behind when you shift. If you shift up to a higher-numbered position (that is, your hand will be moving down toward the bridge), you may find that you’re moving your fingers but leaving your thumb behind. I call this “hitchhiker’s thumb,” because the thumb is left pointing up the neck toward the peg-box, as if you’re trying to hitch a ride. In general, the thumb should remain behind the second finger at all times.
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Figure 4.20 Hitchhiker’s thumb after a shift—don’t do this!
It’s usually best to slide your hand when shifting rather than to lift your fingers and put them down again. If you lift your fingers free of the string when shifting, two bad things can happen. First, if the bow is still producing a tone, there will be a hiccup in the tone when no fingers are pressed firmly onto the string. Second, if your fingers are flying through the air, they may land on the wrong string when they come down again. Sliding sounds better, and it’s safer, too. There are musical situations where lifting your fingers for a shift will be the right choice, but unless there’s a reason to lift, you should slide. Student music usually has fingering numbers that give you a clear indication of where you’re to shift to a new position. Even so, you may want to keep a pencil on your music stand and get in the habit of writing as many fingerings as you need on the music. Professional musicians write lots of fingerings on their music—there’s no need to avoid it. (Just make sure you use pencil, not pen!)
Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
If there’s only one note in a passage that can’t be played in first position, you may be tempted to shift up for that one note and then back down to first position. But it’s a bad idea to shift for only one note unless you have to: If you shift twice in quick succession, your shifts are likely to be less in tune. Learn to analyze the music to see whether you can shift and then remain in the new position for at least two or three notes. Figure 4.21 shows a poor fingering for a passage and a better one. When you’re ready to start learning other positions, I recommend learning fourth position before you tackle second and third position. Fourth position is easy to find—just rest your left hand lightly on the body of the cello, and you’re there. Also, it extends the range of the cello by giving you several new and useful notes.
Figure 4.22 The hand in fourth position can rest lightly on the cello.
Figure 4.21 A poor fingering for a passage and a better one. With the inferior fingering, the 4th finger has to scoot up and down again and again between D and E, so these notes will be less crisp and quite likely less well in tune. With the better fingering, the hand shifts to second position where shown and stays there.
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Figure 4.23 The upper octave of the G major scale using fourth position.
The Numbering of the Positions The numbering of the positions is a little odd, but it makes sense once you understand the logic behind it. The numbering is based on the letter-name of the note your 1st finger will play on the A string. If your 1st finger is on a B or a B-flat, you’re in first position. If your 1st finger is on a C or C-sharp, you’re in second position; if it’s on a D-flat, D, or D-sharp, you’re in third position; and so on. When the 1st finger is on C on the A string, we call that lower second position. When it’s on the C-sharp, that’s upper second position. Most of the positions have upper and lower versions, but first position and half-position don’t. If you know a little music theory, you may be wondering, “If my 1st finger is on a D-flat, isn’t that the same note as C-sharp? So is that second position or third position?” The answer is, it could be either. If the note is written on the staff as a C-sharp, you’ll find it easiest to think of it as upper second position, because you’ll probably be playing the notes C-sharp, D, and E on the A string (or possibly C-sharp, D-sharp, and E).
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But if the note appears on the staff as a D-flat, then most likely you’re playing an extended hand position with your 1st finger on D-flat, your 2nd finger a whole-step higher on E-flat, and your 4th finger on F. It’s easier to think of that as third position.
Half-Position Cellists also need to play in half-position. In half-position, the 1st finger is only a half-step from the nut, playing (on the A string) the note A-sharp or B-flat. If you’re reaching back for the B-flat using an extended hand shape, so that your 2nd finger is on C, then that would be considered first position with a backward extension. However, if your hand is in a normal shape, with half-steps between the fingers, your 1st finger will be on B-flat (or A-sharp), your 2nd finger on B, your 3rd finger on C, and your 4th finger on D-flat (or C-sharp). That’s half-position.
Fingering with the Left Hand When you’re first learning to play the notes a half-step from the nut, you’ll be playing them using a backward extension of the 1st finger. You’ll be in first position. Students sometimes automatically try to use an extended hand shape to play the notes closest to the nut, even when they’re in half-position. As a result, the hand shape is distorted, and the other notes are out of tune. It’s important to understand that half-position is not an extended hand shape.
Position and Finger Numbers in Sheet Music Some cello method books, such as the Suzuki series, introduce shifting to other positions by marking underneath the notes the position to which you need to shift. This system is not used in professional sheet music. Some professional editions are published with no fingering numbers at all, but in those that do include fingering, it’s usual to find a number above a note only to indicate the spot where you’re to shift to a new position. You won’t be told which position to shift to—you’ll only be told which finger to use. You’ll be expected to figure out what position that fingering implies and how to finger the other notes in that position.
Chapter 4
Because most music doesn’t give you a fingering number for every single note, it’s up to you to figure out which fingers to use for the other notes. If you aren’t sure which intervals on the staff are whole-steps and which are half-steps, you may use the wrong finger. Your playing will sound awkward and out of tune. The only way to know which finger to use is to understand the theory of whole-steps and half-steps. So get in the habit of analyzing musical passages so that you know where the whole-steps and halfsteps are. To do this, you’ll need to pay close attention to the key signature (the flats or sharps at the left end of the staff, by the bass clef). Beginning students sometimes use the wrong finger to play a note because they haven’t noticed that the key signature contains a B-flat or a C-sharp. You can’t always rely on your musical ear to tell you whether you’re playing the right note. Check the key signature before you start playing a piece.
In some cases you’ll also be told which string to play on. If you see a Roman numeral II below a note or passage, that means you’re to use the D string. A Roman numeral III indicates the G string, and a IV indicates the C string. Some publishers use different systems for suggesting which string to use. Some use the indication sul D to mean the D string, sul G to indicate the G string, and so on. You may also see 2a used to indicate the D string, 3a to indicate the G string, and so on. (Some student method books use Roman numerals to indicate the positions, not the strings. This is a point of possible confusion.)
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Advanced Techniques To round out this chapter, we’ll take a quick look at a few left-hand techniques that advanced cellists need to know.
Trills Sometimes, instead of playing notes in a normal, sustained manner, musicians like to decorate them a little. These decorations are called ornaments. There are several types of ornaments, such as sliding up to a note from below (which is called glissando or portamento). One especially important ornament, seen in a lot of classical music, is the trill. The trill is usually notated with the symbol “tr” above a note, as shown in Figure 4.24. A trill is played by holding the written note (with whichever finger is appropriate) and rapidly alternating it with the next note above it in the scale. The bow continues to play one normal-length note; the trill is executed with the fingers of the left hand.
Some trills are half-steps, and some are wholesteps. Unless the sheet music indicates otherwise, the trill should always alternate the written note with the next higher note in the scale, based on the current key signature. If you’re in the key of C, for instance, and are asked to trill the note C, you would rapidly alternate C and D—a whole-step. Depending on what position you’re in, this would be done using either the 1st finger for the C and the 3rd finger for the D, or the 2nd finger for the C and the 4th finger for the D. (Or you might be in extended position and play a whole-step trill using fingers 1 and 2.) However, still in the key of C, if you’re asked to trill the note E, the next higher scale step would be F, which is only a half-step above E, so you would play this trill using two adjacent fingers a half-step apart. Some trills end with a couple of notes at the end that go in the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 4.25. Coordinating the change in bow direction so that it happens immediately after those two little notes at the end can be a bit of a challenge. To learn it, practice slowly.
Figure 4.24 A trill as notated (a) and as played (b). The exact number of alternations between the two notes of the trill depends on the tempo. If the tempo is slow, you’ll have time to play more notes (c). Don’t worry about playing a precisely rhythmic division of five or seven notes to the quarter-note, as shown here. A trill is usually played somewhat loosely, and a long trill may speed up gradually.
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Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
Figure 4.25 A trill with following grace notes, as notated (a) and as played (b or c).
Playing trills in older styles, such as the music of Bach, is a bit more complex than what I’ve shown here. Explaining the details would take several pages. If you’re curious, you can search the Internet for discussions of Baroque performance practice.
Double-Stops In most cello music, you’ll play only one note at a time. But in intermediate and advanced music, you’ll sometimes need to play two notes at once. This technique is called playing double-stops, because the fingers stop (press down on) two strings at the same time. In fact, the term is a slight misnomer, because sometimes one or both strings will be played open, using no fingers at all. Even if you’re playing two open strings at once, it’s called a double-stop. The technique for bowing double-stops was discussed in Chapter 3.
The exception to the arched-fingers rule is when the double-stop contains two notes that form the interval of a perfect fifth. Since the cello’s strings are tuned to fifths, the usual way to play a double-stop of a fifth is to mash one of your fingers down flat, so that it presses down on both strings. You may need to do this with any finger. The problem, in this case, is that the higher string is being stopped not by the fingertip (which we hope will have a nice firm callus on it) but by the soft part of the finger between the tip and the first knuckle. If you simply press your finger across the two strings so that it’s at a right angle to the strings, the higher string may sound flat because it isn’t being firmly stopped by the flesh of the finger. You may need to adjust the finger to a slight angle, press down more firmly to get a solid, in-tune fifth, or scoot the finger slightly to the right, so that the string on the left is being stopped by the finger’s knucklebone.
Producing double-stops with the left hand is harder than playing single notes, for a couple of reasons. First, you have to learn to hear whether the two notes that you’re playing are in tune with one another. If the interval doesn’t sound right, one or both fingers may need to be adjusted slightly—and you need to be able to figure out which finger to move! Second, when playing double-stops it’s especially important that your fingers be arched, not squashed down flat, because the higher string may need to vibrate underneath a finger that is pressing on the lower string.
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Harmonics Normally, your fingers will press firmly on the strings. The exception is when you’re playing harmonics. Harmonics can be played only at a few special spots on the strings. To play a harmonic, you touch a string lightly at one of these spots, not pressing down, and then bow the string normally. A harmonic has a thin, clear sound.
Harmonics are notated two different ways in sheet music. The first method is to put a small circle above the notehead, as shown in Figure 4.27.
The spots where you can touch a string to produce a harmonic are exactly halfway between the bridge and the nut, or 1/3 of the way, or 1/4 or 1/5 of the way. (Higher-numbered fractions also work, but controlling the tone becomes quite difficult.) When you touch the string lightly to play a harmonic, the entire string is able to vibrate, because the vibrations can freely move up and down the string, traveling beneath your fingertip. If you touch the string halfway along its length, the harmonic will be exactly an octave higher than the pitch of the open string. If you touch the string 1/3 of the way along its length, you’ll hear a note an octave and a fifth higher than the open string. The physics and math of this would take a couple of pages to explain—please watch the DVD clip on tuning to learn a few more details.
Figure 4.26 Touching the A string at its halfway point to produce a harmonic (two views).
Figure 4.27 Harmonics are indicated in sheet music with a small circle above the note.
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Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
The other way is to write a note with a diamondshaped notehead instead of an oval notehead. The diamond notehead doesn’t tell you what pitch you’ll hear when you play the note—it tells you where to touch the string. This technique is found only in fairly advanced music, but it’s worth knowing about in case you happen to see a cello part with diamond noteheads.
Thumb Position During your first couple of years as a cellist, you’ll have your hands full (so to speak) learning to play the notes on the neck. But the fingerboard, you’ll notice, extends quite far down the front of the cello. There are more notes up there, including notes that are very high in pitch. The cello has the widest pitch range of any instrument in the orchestra (unless the orchestra includes a piano or an organ). It’s the only instrument in the orchestra that regularly plays music in three different clefs—bass, tenor, and treble. These clefs are explained in Chapter 5. Once you move out past the end of the neck and start playing notes on the portion of the fingerboard that lies in front of the body of the cello, the notes will be shown on the staff using tenor clef or treble clef, as explained in Chapter 5. In addition, you’ll need to use a different lefthand shape, which is shown in Figure 4.28. The left thumb is brought around so that it lies on the fingerboard. It can be pressed down so that its outer edge stops two strings at once. This makes possible a whole new range of fingering options, which are known collectively as thumb position. Thumb position technique is a fairly complex subject. Whole method books have been devoted to it, so we’re not going to try to cover the subject in Picture Yourself Playing Cello. To whet your appetite and give you an idea what you may be doing as you become a proficient cellist, here are a few facts about thumb position.
Figure 4.28 The left hand in thumb position (two views).
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When fingerings are given in sheet music, the thumb position symbol looks like a zero with a tail—or like a capital letter Q whose tail is dropping straight down instead of sticking out to the right. This symbol is shown in Figure 4.29.
In thumb position, there can be a whole-step or a half-step between any pair of adjacent fingers. There are four commonly used hand shapes in thumb position and many more that are used less often.
In thumb position, we no longer number the positions. Nobody talks about eighth position or ninth position. Everything up there is thumb position. But the thumb can be placed on any note. In some advanced music, the thumb position hand shape is even used in lower positions, to play passages that would be difficult to manage in second, third, or fourth position.
To play in thumb position, you’ll need to keep the nails of your 1st and 2nd fingers trimmed as short as possible. If your fingers are properly arched, the tips will press down on the strings almost vertically, and fingernails would get in the way. The 4th finger is not used much in thumb position, because it’s too short to reach the fingerboard easily. But in some musical situations that involve thumb position, you’ll need to move your hand far enough to the right to bring the 4th finger into playing position.
Figure 4.29 Thumb position indicated in sheet music; note the use of treble clef.
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Fingering with the Left Hand
Chapter 4
Fingering Exercises These simple exercises will help you strengthen your left hand while developing a relaxed, efficient hand shape. Pay close attention to the repeat marks. You should play each phrase several times before going on to the next phrase. Exercise 4.1 You can play this exercise starting on your very first day with the cello. It uses only the 1st and 3rd fingers of the left hand, along with notes on the open strings. Keep your fingers rounded and don’t press in against the back of the neck with your thumb. When playing 3rd-finger notes, keep the 1st and 2nd fingers on the string—don’t let them fly up. Most cello method books introduce the notes on the D and A strings before the notes on the G and C strings. This simplifies the learning process, but there’s something to be said for treating all four strings equally. In all of these exercises, I’ve included notes on the lower strings.
Exercise 4.1
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Exercise 4.2 This exercise is similar to Exercise 4.1, but it adds the 4th finger. When you play notes with the 4th finger, the 3rd finger should always be pressing the string, too—don’t make the 4th finger do all the hard work by itself! When you lift your 4th finger, don’t let it curl under. It should lift up from the string and hover.
Exercise 4.2
Exercise 4.3 When you first start playing the cello, most of the beginning method books that you use will introduce 3rd-finger notes before they introduce 2nd-finger notes. This is because it’s very natural for the cello to play in the key of D major, which has two sharps (F-sharp and C-sharp) in the key signature. These notes are played on the D and A strings using the 3rd finger. But the 2nd finger is just as important as the 3rd. In this exercise, you have a chance to alternate between your 3rd finger (in measure 2 of each phrase) and your 2nd finger (in measure 4). Learning when to use the 3rd finger and when to use the 2nd finger is an important skill to master when you’re first learning how to play music on the cello.
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Chapter 4
Exercise 4.3
Exercise 4.4 This exercise is very similar to Exercise 4.3, but now you’ll need to use the 4th finger as well.
Exercise 4.4
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Exercise 4.5 This exercise is important for learning the correct curved (arched) shape of the fingers of the left hand. While you’re fingering notes on one string (in measures 2 through 6 of each line), don’t lift your fingers in order to play the notes on the higher string. In measure 2, for instance, you should keep the 1st finger pressed against the D string throughout the measure, even while playing the upper notes with the open A string.
Exercise 4.5
Exercise 4.6 The 4th finger is our weakest finger. This exercise will help strengthen your 4th finger. Notice the fournote slurs. Because you’re slurring, you’ll be able to concentrate on the movements of the 4th finger. In measures 2, 4, and 6, the 4th finger has a different challenge: hopping across smoothly from one string to the next. The 4th finger needs to lift just a tiny bit to perform this action, but you should minimize the amount of lift. Coordinating the movement of the left hand with the movement of the bow is also a challenge. Listen closely to make sure you’re only hearing the notes written, and not any extra sounds produced by the bow on a string after the 4th finger has left the old string or before the 4th finger arrives on the new string.
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Chapter 4
Exercise 4.6
Exercise 4.7 In this exercise, you’ll work on lifting and dropping the fingers smoothly. When you’re using a highernumbered finger, all of the lower-numbered fingers should still be touching the string. You’ll need to keep a uniform hand shape while lifting and dropping the fingers; the hand should not change its angle, and the fingertips should not scoot on the strings. As in Exercise 4.6, the four-note slurs will make it easier to concentrate on the left-hand movements, because the left hand is solely responsible for changing from one note to the next.
Exercise 4.7
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Reading Music
5
ometimes musicians learn to play popular music
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on guitar entirely by ear and never learn to read sheet music. I have a friend who is quite an accomplished jazz pianist, and he has only the most basic understanding of how to read music. He plays by ear...but it has to be said, he has a very good ear. All cellists learn to read music. Even if you later go on to play improvised jazz on the cello, you’ll need to start by mastering the skill of reading the notes on the page. Fortunately, this is not difficult to do. You just need to learn a few basic concepts and then spend some time playing written music. In this chapter we’ll take a look at the fundamentals of reading music for the cello. The information in this chapter is somewhat abstract. You can read most of it without getting your cello out of its case. Nonetheless, it’s essential information. Think of this chapter as being mainly for reference. You can refer to it at any time if you find that you’re confused about what’s going on in a piece of sheet music. Whole books have been written on music theory, so you won’t find in this chapter every detail that you might need or want to know. The purpose of this chapter is simpler—to get you started reading and playing cello music by providing a good foundation in the basics.
The Musical Alphabet Unless you’re playing an instrument such as drums, every note you play produces a distinct pitch. Without getting too technical, we can say that the pitch of a note is the number of vibrations per second in the sound. When we talk about musical pitches, we use a simple alphabet containing only seven letters—A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Each letter stands for a different step in the musical scale. Because music contains a lot more than seven scale steps, we repeat the alphabet as needed: The note after G is another A, and so on. These letters correspond to the white keys on the piano. (Everything in our musical system is pretty much based on the piano.) As we move to the right on the piano keyboard, the notes get higher in pitch—that is, the vibrations in the sound are faster—and we move upward through the alphabet.
Figure 5.1 The piano keyboard, showing note names.
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As you can see, some of the white keys on the piano have black keys between them, while others don’t. In all, there are not seven notes in our musical scale; there are twelve. The five black keys each have two names. If we look at the black key between G and A, for example, we can call it either a G-sharp or an A-flat. It’s the same sound in either case. Sharp means the black key a half-step above the white key, while flat means the black key a half-step below the white key. (See the section “Sharps, Flats, and Naturals” later in this chapter for more on the concepts of flat and sharp.)
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The Staff and Bass Clef Most music is written on a set of five horizontal lines called the staff. (The plural of staff is staves.) Every note will either be on one of the lines of the staff or on one of the spaces between two lines. You will occasionally see other types of notation that don’t use a staff, but we’ll ignore them in this book. At the left end of every staff, you’ll see a symbol called the clef. This word is French for “key,” not in the sense of the key (scale) in which the music is written—we’ll get to that concept later in this chapter—but perhaps in the sense that a written code comes with a key that tells you what the letters in the code stand for. In music, the clef tells you which notes are found on which lines and spaces in the staff. Most cello music is written using the bass clef. In the bass clef, the lines of the staff are (from bottom to top) the notes G, B, D, F, and A, while the notes in the spaces are (again, from bottom to top) A, C, E, and G. If we build a complete scale, using both the lines and the spaces, we’ll have a complete musical alphabet on the lines and spaces of the bass clef: G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and back to A again.
There are two easy ways to remember which letter-names go with which lines and spaces. First, we can use mnemonics. The letters G-B-DF-A stand for “good boys do fine always.” The letters A-C-E-G stand for “all cows eat grass.” Yes, this is very silly, but it’s easy to remember. (Just don’t confuse it with the mnemonic for the lines in the treble clef—“every good boy does fine.”) Second, if you squint at the bass clef, you might imagine that it looks a tiny bit like a very oldfashioned, Gothic capital letter F. In fact, that’s exactly what it is. The bass clef is also known as the F clef. The two dots to the right of the curve are positioned above and below the fourth line, which is the note F. Once you’ve found the F, you can count up or down on the lines and spaces to figure out which letter-name belongs to any line or space.
Figure 5.2 The bass clef and the notes on the staff. 109
Ledger Lines The fact that the staff has only five lines is strictly a matter of convenience. It’s easy for the eye to see the positions of notes on a five-line staff. If even one more line were added, identifying the notes as quickly as we need to when playing complex music would be harder. However, most pieces of music use more than nine notes! Sometimes we need to play notes that are too high or too low to fit on the staff. When that happens, more lines are added temporarily.
Figure 5.3 Short lines called ledger lines are used to position notes above and below the staff. Cellists often need to play notes down to C (two lines below the staff) and up to G (three lines above the staff).
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These short lines are called ledger lines. If you like, you can imagine that they’re always there— they just remain discreetly invisible until we need them. To figure out the names of the notes that use ledger lines, simply continue up or down in the alphabet as needed. With cello music, it’s normal to see one or two ledger lines below the staff and as many as three ledger lines above the staff. Usually, if the music needs to use more than three ledger lines above the staff, the publisher will use a different clef (a tenor or treble clef) instead. For more on how this works, see the section on “Tenor and Treble Clef” at the end of this chapter.
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Sharps, Flats, and Naturals The musical alphabet has seven letters—but there are twelve notes in all. The in-between notes, those that don’t have their own letter names, correspond to the black keys on the piano. These notes are written using flats and sharps. To cancel a flat or a sharp in printed music, we use a symbol called a natural. A natural looks like a sharp with a few of its lines missing. These three symbols (flat, sharp, and natural) are called accidentals. This name reflects the idea that notes written with flats, sharps, or naturals are outside the scale. They’re “accidental” additions to the scale.
Figure 5.4 The signs for flat, sharp, and natural.
When a note is preceded by a sharp, its normal pitch is raised by a half-step. When it’s preceded by a flat, its normal pitch is lowered by a halfstep. For instance, the note F on the cello’s D string is played with the 2nd finger, but when it’s an F-sharp, we use the 3rd finger instead. The note B on the G string is played with the 3rd finger, but when it’s a B-flat, we use the 2nd finger instead. Figure 5.5 shows this.
A natural sign is used to cancel an earlier sharp or flat. A note is always a natural unless it’s altered by a sharp or flat. The sharp or flat may be in the same measure with the note, or it may be off at the left end of the staff, in a key signature. (See the section “Key Signatures” later in this chapter.)
Figure 5.5 When a note is sharp, you’ll use a highernumbered finger (or possibly move your hand up the fingerboard—and don’t forget, on the cello’s fingerboard, “up” means “toward the floor”). When it’s flat, you’ll use a lower-numbered finger (or move your hand back toward the nut).
To explain how accidentals are used in printed sheet music, we have to jump ahead a little. Printed music is almost always divided into chunks called bars or measures. (These two terms mean exactly the same thing.) For more on this subject, see the section “Time Signatures and Note Values” later in this chapter.
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The rule for accidentals is this: When an accidental appears in the music, it lasts until the end of the measure—until the next bar line is reached. Once the bar line is reached, the accidental is gone. If we need to cancel an accidental before the end of a bar, we use another accidental. If the music contains an F-sharp, for instance, but later in the same measure we need to notate an F that isn’t an F-sharp, we put a natural sign before the second F. The musical example in Figure 5.6 should make this clear.
The full story of accidentals is a little more complex than this. There are such things as double-sharps and double-flats. But you’ll seldom encounter them in student music.
Figure 5.6 The accidentals in parentheses are not required, they’re just reminders. The two F-sharps in the middle of bar 1 are already sharp because of the sharp sign before the first note, and the F-natural in bar 2 is already an F-natural because the bar line cancels the preceding sharp sign.
Learning Intervals Any two notes in the scale are related by an interval—the distance between them. The intervals have names. Learning about intervals is an essential part of becoming a musician. It’s important to learn to hear and identify intervals, whether the notes are played one after another or together. In addition, knowing about intervals will help you a great deal as you learn about cello fingering patterns.
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To figure out the basic type of interval in sheet music, count all of the lines and spaces between the two notes, including the line or space of both the upper and lower notes. If one note is on a line and the next note is in the space directly above or below that line, you would count to two, which tells you that the interval is called a second. If one note is on a line and the other note is on the line above or below it, or if one note is in a space and the other note is in the space above or below it, you would count to three (line-space-line or space-line-space), which tells you that the interval is a third. Figure 5.7 illustrates this idea.
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Figure 5.7 Here are some examples of intervals. To learn the name of an interval, count the lines and spaces, including the line or space of each note.
Another way to think about this is to count the letter-names. If one note is a B and the other an E, you can count B-C-D-E, which means the interval is a fourth. Of course, if we count from E up to B, we have to count E-F-G-A-B, which would be a fifth. So is the distance from E to B a fourth or a fifth? That depends on how they’re positioned on the staff. If you always start counting with the lower of the two notes, this won’t be confusing. If we start with B and move up to E, the interval is a fourth. But if the E is the lower note, the distance up to B is a fifth. This is an important point to understand: Every interval can be inverted. Figure 5.8 shows this. To invert an interval, move the lower note up by an octave. When we invert a fourth, we get a fifth, and vice versa. When we invert a sixth, we get a third, and so on.
Two intervals have special names. If the two notes are the same, they are said to form the interval of a unison. And if they have the same letter-name but one is eight steps above or below the other, they’re said to form the interval of an octave. The octave is larger than a seventh but smaller than a ninth, which is not surprising since “octava” comes from the Latin word for “eight.” Musicians seldom refer to intervals larger than a tenth using these simple terms, though jazz chord notation routinely refers to the intervals of the eleventh and thirteenth. Intervals larger than a tenth are usually referred to as “an octave and a fourth,” “an octave and a fifth,” and so on.
Figure 5.8 An interval is inverted by moving the lower note up an octave (or by moving the upper note down an octave).
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Major, Minor, Perfect, Augmented, Diminished Some intervals come in three different varieties, others in four varieties. (The term variety is not found in music theory books. I’m just using it here because it makes sense.) The rules for how this works are fairly simple and make sense once you understand what’s going on, but for now you may just want to memorize them. The largest interval of each type is called augmented (which just means “made larger”), while the smallest interval of each type is called diminished (that is, “made smaller”). The intervals of the fourth, fifth, and octave have only one type between their augmented and diminished forms—the perfect interval. So we can talk about a diminished fifth, a perfect fifth, or an augmented fifth. A diminished fifth is six half-steps wide, a perfect fifth is seven half-steps wide, and an augmented fifth is eight half-steps wide. They’re all fifths, but they sound different from one another. The fact that they’re all called fifths is a result of the letter names of the two notes, not a result of the number of half-steps in the interval. The other intervals (second, third, sixth, and seventh—also ninth and tenth) have two types between the augmented and diminished— major and minor. So we can talk about a diminished third, a minor third, a major third, or an augmented third. But it makes no sense to talk about a “perfect third” or a “minor fifth.” There are no such intervals.
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To figure out which type of third, fifth, or whatever we’re looking at, we have to count the number of half-steps. Until your cello technique has developed to the point where you can find all of the half-steps on each string, you may find it easier to locate intervals on a piano keyboard and count the half-steps by counting keys. Figure 5.9 shows the most common interval types and a few that are less common. The important thing about this figure is the number of steps in each interval, not the exact pitches shown. An interval of a major third, for instance, can begin with any note: It could be the notes C and E, the notes F-sharp and A-sharp, the notes E-flat and G, or whatever. From Figure 5.9, you can see that some intervals have different names even though they encompass the same number of half-steps. The augmented fourth and diminished fifth, for instance, both have six half-steps. If you’re listening, you won’t know whether you’re hearing a diminished fifth or an augmented fourth! The name of the interval (fifth or fourth) depends first on the letter-names of the notes, and only secondarily on the number of halfsteps.
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Figure 5.9 Some examples of commonly used intervals.
Knowing the intervals is important for cello fingering because it will help you see instantly which finger to use. For instance: v If the interval between two notes is a perfect fifth, you’ll be able to play the second note by moving straight across from one string to the next, using the same finger. This is because the cello’s strings are tuned in perfect fifths.
When you first start learning the cello, this information may seem abstract, but it’s actually incredibly useful and practical. You may want to refer back to this section after you’ve been playing for a few months.
v If the two notes are separated by a major or minor third, you’ll most often use your 1st finger for one of the notes and your 4th finger for the other, unless one of the notes is an open string. If one of the notes is an open string, you’ll most likely use your 2nd or 3rd finger for the other note when playing a note that’s a third higher or lower than the open string (unless you’ve shifted to a higher position on the neck). v If the interval is a sixth, you’ll move from the lower note to the higher note by going to the next higher string and then moving up by one or two half-steps. This interval has a diagonal shape on the fingerboard.
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Chords When three or more notes are grouped together, they’re called chords. There are many different types of chords. A full discussion of chords would require a hundred pages, if not more, so we’re not going to cover the subject here. If you’d like to know more about chords, you might want to buy a copy of my book Chords & Harmony (Backbeat Books, 2004; dist. by Hal Leonard). Your experience of cello music will be far richer when you understand the harmonic structures that give meaning to the notes you’re playing. The notes in a piece of cello music always relate, in one way or another, to chords.
The chords can be played by another instrument or group of instruments, while the cello plays only one note of the chord. Or the cello itself, since it usually plays only one note at a time, can play the notes of a chord one after another. When the notes in a chord are strung out in a line rather than being played together, the pattern is called an arpeggio. Figure 5.10 shows some common arpeggiated chord patterns that the cello can play.
Figure 5.10 Some arpeggiated chords as played on the cello. The names of the chords are shown: The G major chord contains the notes G, B, and D (in any order); the D major chord contains the notes D, F-sharp, and A (again, in any order); and the C major chord contains the notes C, E, and G. Chord symbol notation (letter-names above the staff) is not much used in classical music, but it’s very common in popular music. 116
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Key Signatures Sometimes a composer wants an accidental to apply not just in one measure, but also throughout a piece of music. In this situation, the music is printed with a key signature. A key signature is a pattern of sharps or flats that appears at the left end of every staff, next to the clef. The key signature tells us what key the piece of music is in, as explained in the next section.
Figure 5.11 The key signature appears at the left end of the staff and shows which notes are to be played as flats or sharps throughout the piece. In this figure, the key signature has four sharps. While the clef and key signature are placed at the beginning of every staff, the time signature appears only at the beginning of the piece (unless it changes during the piece).
When the music calls for a note that is outside of the key, an accidental must be printed in the music before the note. Naturals, which are accidentals, are quite often used to temporarily cancel one of the sharps or flats in the key signature. If the key signature of the piece has a flat on the note B, all of the B notes in the piece will be played as B-flats. But the composer or arranger can create a B-natural by inserting a natural sign before a B in some measure. A flat or sharp in the key signature applies to all of the notes of that type in the piece, no matter what octave they’re in (see Figure 5.12). For example, on the cello we can play two different E notes in first position, and there’s another E (on the A string) that you can play easily by shifting to second position. If a flat appears in the key signature on the space corresponding to E near the middle of the staff, then all of the E notes are played as E-flats, regardless of whether they’re on the space in the middle of the staff.
Figure 5.12 All three of these E notes are played as E-flats, because of the E-flat in the key signature. In the same way, all of the B notes and A notes in the piece would be played as B-flats and A-flats, because the key signature has flats on B, E, and A.
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Keys and Scales Our familiar musical scale, which is called the major scale, uses a fixed pattern of whole-steps and half-steps. The pattern is shown in Figure 5.13. We can build a major scale starting on any note, including the flats and sharps, so there are 12 major scales in all. The note on which the scale starts and ends is called the tonic, and we use the name of that note to refer to the scale. For instance, if we build a scale starting on the note D, we call it a D major scale, and D is the tonic. In cello music, you’ll almost always find that the last note of a piece is the tonic. (This is not necessarily true with other instruments in the orchestra, at least when those instruments are playing an orchestral part rather than a solo.) The tonic note is “home base.” No matter how far afield the music goes, it will almost always return to home base at the end.
No matter what note we start on when building our scale, we want to preserve the same relationship of whole-steps and half-steps. With all scales except C major, we need to do that using a pattern of either sharps or flats. The sharps or flats will normally be found in the key signature. Figure 5.14 shows a B-flat major scale, first using accidentals and then using a key signature. The two scales would be played identically—the only difference is how the flats are positioned on the staff. The pattern of whole-steps and half-steps in Figure 5.14 is the same as with the C major scale in Figure 5.13. To preserve that pattern, two of the notes in the scale (B and E) have to be flatted. Normally (though not always) this is done with a key signature, as this makes the music easier to read. Because the sharps or flats in the key signature are not printed next to each note, you’ll have to remember which notes should be flatted or sharped. This is often a challenge for beginning students.
Figure 5.13 The pattern of whole-steps and half-steps in a major scale. C major is shown, but the same pattern is used to build a major scale, no matter what note we start on.
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Figure 5.14 The B-flat major scale printed with accidentals (left) and again using a key signature (right); the two versions are identical, except for how they’re printed.
The pattern of sharps or flats in the key signature is different for every key. We can arrange the 12 major keys in a circle with C at the top, the keys that use sharps going down the right side (clockwise from C), and the keys that use flats going down the left side (counterclockwise). This extremely useful arrangement is called the Circle of Fifths. The Circle of Fifths is one of the most important concepts in music theory, for reasons that we don’t have space to explore fully in this book. If you’re curious about this, a good book on music theory will explain it to you.
Most of the music you’ll play as a beginning student uses no more than three sharps or flats—the keys from E-flat around the top of the Circle to A. When you start playing cello in a community orchestra, you’ll often see the other key signatures.
Figure 5.15 The Circle of Fifths. 119
Minor Keys Up to now we’ve been talking about major keys and major scales. There are many types of scales, but the most common type after major scales are the minor scales. There are three types of minor scales, and we don’t have space in this book to explain the details. To get started, you need to know only two things. First, every key signature is associated with both a major and a minor scale. The key signature with two flats, for instance, indicates that the music is in either B-flat major or G minor. There’s no way to tell which key it is by looking at the key signature, but you can usually tell by looking at the last note in the piece. A piece in G minor will quite likely end on the note G. Second, accidentals are used in exactly the same way whether you’re in a major key or a minor key. However, music written in minor keys does tend to have more accidentals, for reasons having to do with the way minor scales are built.
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Check the Key Signature If you look at the second part of Figure 5.14, you’ll see that there is no indication by the notes B and E that they are to be played as flats. That information (which is absolutely essential) is found only in the key signature, which is over at the left end of the staff (or, in this case, after the double bar line). Part of learning to read sheet music is learning to check the key signature and remember which notes are to be played as sharps or flats. If you forget to do this, you’re just about guaranteed to be playing wrong notes!
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Finding the Cello’s Notes on the Staff The first notes you learn, when you start playing the cello, are the open strings. These are easy to find on the staff. The A string is the top line, the D string is the middle line, and the G string is the bottom line. The C string is notated with two ledger lines below the staff. As you start using your fingers to play more notes, you’ll learn to identify the other notes on the staff. When your hand is in first position (which is “home base” for fingering, as explained in Chapter 4), you can play all of the notes shown in Figure 5.17. You need to remember that the note E-flat is the same as D-sharp. Likewise, B-flat is the same as A-sharp, and F-sharp is the same as G-flat. These notes are shown in the figure in the form in which you’ll most often see them in beginning sheet music, but the alternate spelling may appear in music that you’re playing.
Figure 5.16 The cello’s open strings on the staff.
Most cello method books don’t introduce all of these notes at once. They’re introduced a few at a time. Most cello books start off in the key of D major, because the D major scale is easy to play. Figure 5.18 shows a one-octave D major scale as you would play it on the cello.
Figure 5.17 All of the notes that can be played in first position on the cello.
Figure 5.18 The D major scale with cello fingering. 121
If you compare Figure 5.18 to Figure 5.17, you’ll see that we skipped a couple of fingers in playing the scale. Specifically, we skipped the 2nd finger, because the D major scale has a wholestep between the notes E and F-sharp and another whole-step between the notes B and C-sharp. The notes F-natural and C-natural are not used in this scale. When we play scales on the cello, it’s very normal to skip either the 2nd or the 3rd finger, depending on what scale we’re playing. Let’s look at one more scale before we move on. Figure 5.19 shows two octaves of a C major scale. (An octave is the distance from any note to the next higher or lower note that has the same letter-name.). This scale starts on the C string, two ledger lines below the staff, and goes up to the 2nd finger on the A string.
Figure 5.19 The C major scale (two octaves).
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Look closely at the fingering of the scale in Figure 5.19. You’ll see that we use the 3rd finger on the bottom two strings (the C and G strings) but the 2nd finger on the top two strings (the D and A). This pattern is repeated, in one way or another, in every major scale you play on the cello. We can play, at most, two strings with the same fingering. As we move up to the next string, one of the notes in the fingering pattern will move back toward the nut by a half-step. It isn’t always the 3rd finger being replaced by the 2nd finger. The pattern shows up in other ways, depending on what scale we play. But the pattern is always there: After two strings, at most, the fingering pattern of a scale will change. If you play the piano, this may seem surprising at first. On the piano, the fingering for a scale is exactly the same in every octave. But on the cello (and other stringed instruments), the fingering for scales is slightly more complicated.
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Note Rhythm Values Now that we’ve explored the notes on the staff, it’s time to talk about rhythm. Music is an art that moves through time. To organize music, we need a way to measure and mark time. In most music, this is done using beats. A beat is a simple, steady, repeating rhythm, like footsteps or the beating of your heart. To play music, you need to learn to feel an underlying steady beat, even when the notes you’re playing are faster or slower than the beat or start at a moment between one beat and the next. If music were organized only as an endless stream of beats, one after another, both listeners and musicians would quickly get lost. To make the structure of the music more clear, we group the beats together in measures. A measure is a group of beats. Usually, but not always, there are two or three or four beats in each measure. In most music, every measure in the piece of music has the same number of beats. (This is not always true, however. In more adventurous music, the number of beats may change between one measure and the next.) We separate measures from one another on the staff using bar lines. A bar line is simply a vertical line that runs from the top of the staff to the bottom. You’ve already seen bar lines in many of the examples in this chapter. Between each pair of bar lines is one measure. Measures are also called bars; the two words mean exactly the same thing. But nobody ever says “measure lines.” The vertical lines are always called bar lines.
Most commonly (but again, not always), the type of note that lasts for one beat is the quarternote. The quarter-note gets its name from the fact that in the most common rhythmic situation, as you’ll hear in thousands of pop songs on the radio, there are four beats in each measure. As a result, each quarter-note takes up 1/4 of the measure. A quarter-note has a solid body and a stem, a thin vertical line that extends up or down from it. You’ve already seen quarternotes many times in this book. For reference, glance back at Figure 5.19, which contains three measures of quarter-notes. At the very end of that figure is a half-note (which has a hollow notehead). As you can see, sometimes the stem of a quarternote points upward, and sometimes it points downward. This makes no musical difference at all. Music publishers have rules for which direction the stem should point, but you don’t need to worry about the rules, because the stem direction will never affect your playing. Notes don’t always last for exactly one beat. The music might call for shorter notes or longer ones. The names of the longer and shorter notes are based, again, on the idea of a fourbeat measure, even when the actual measures in a piece are some other length. Assuming the measure has four beats, we can divide it up in different ways. We can use a whole-note (which lasts for four beats—the whole measure), a halfnote (which lasts for two beats, or half of the measure, so that two half-notes fill the measure), four quarter-notes, eight eighth-notes, or even 16 sixteenth-notes.
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Each type of note has a distinctive appearance, which tells the musician how long the note should last. Whole-notes are hollow and have no stems. Half-notes are hollow, but they do have stems. All of the shorter notes are solid. Eighth-notes and other, shorter notes have one or more beams or flags attached to their stems. Each beam or flag that is added cuts the value of the note in half: Eighth-notes have one beam, sixteenth-notes have two, and so on. (Yes, there are such things as 32nd-notes and even 64thnotes. Occasionally you may even see a double whole-note, which looks like a whole-note with vertical lines on both sides. These rhythm values aren’t often used in beginning or intermediate student pieces, however.) For more on how to play rhythm values, see the section on “Counting” later in this chapter.
Figure 5.20 The basic rhythm values. 124
Quite often, two or more eighth-notes or sixteenth-notes are grouped together. The heavy lines that group them are called beams. The grouping has no effect on the lengths of the notes—it’s purely a convenience to make it easier for your eye to group the notes into beats. Normally, all of the notes connected by a beam fill up either one beat or two beats (or occasionally three beats). When a single eighth-note or sixteenth-note appears by itself, its beam curls up against the stem, and it’s called a flag. Figure 5.20 shows both beams and flags. Music alternates longer notes with shorter notes. A pattern of note values is called a rhythm. Even an unbroken line of quarter-notes is a rhythm, though not a very interesting one. More often, you’ll see music with mixed rhythms like those shown in Figure 5.21.
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Figure 5.21 A few examples of mixed rhythms. Notice the “hanging beams” in the groups in measure 4. Each group has the equivalent of four sixteenth-notes, but because the eighth-note is in the middle of each group, the sixteenth-notes’ beams don’t attach to anything.
No matter what type of rhythm is found, the notes still have to be grouped so as to fill up complete measures. If you count out the measures in Figure 5.21, you’ll find that each measure has exactly four quarter-notes (which is the same as 16 sixteenth-notes).
Repeated Single Notes Sometimes a composer wants the cello section to play the same eighth-note or sixteenth-note over and over. To make the music look nicer on the page, this type of passage may be written with a longer note value and one or two “floating beams.” If the longer note is a half-note or quarter-note, the floating beams will cross the stem. If the longer note is a whole-note, they’ll be floating in space above the notehead.
Clap Your Hands If you’re having trouble playing music that has a complicated rhythm, a good exercise is to try clapping or tapping the rhythm instead of playing the notes on the cello.
You will almost never see repeated notes with floating beams in cello solo music, but they appear often in orchestra music, so you’ll need to know about them. If you see three floating beams, however, you’re being asked to play a tremolo (see Chapter 3). It’s important not to confuse repeated eighths or sixteenths with a tremolo. The notation looks similar at first glance, but the sound is quite different.
Figure 5.22 Repeating notes written using “floating beams,” as notated (a) and as played (b). 125
Rests Sometimes music has gaps—spaces where your instrument should make no sound. These spaces are notated using rests. Rests have the same rhythm values as notes. The basic values of rests are shown in Figure 5.23. Each type of rest takes up exactly the same amount of time as the note with the same value: A quarter-rest, for instance, lasts the same amount of time as a quarter-note. You’ll notice that the whole-rest and the halfrest look a lot alike. There’s an easy way to remember which is which. Imagine that the rests are physically attached to the lines on the staff. A half-rest might only be half-attached, because it’s sitting comfortably on the line
Figure 5.23 The rhythm values of rests.
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below it. But the whole-rest has to be wholly attached to the line, because it’s hanging from the line above it. (If you studied caves in school, you’ll remember that this is very similar to the mnemonic that lets you remember the difference between stalactites and stalagmites.) In music published in France, the quarter-rest may look different; it may look like a backwards eighth-rest. When the music calls on you to rest for a number of measures, you may see a single rest with a number above it, indicating how many measures you’re to wait, as shown in Figure 5.24.
Reading Music
Figure 5.24 Two printing styles for multi-bar rests. Each of the narrow vertical blocks on the left counts as two measures of rest.
Chapter 5
Students sometimes have a tendency to skip over the rests (short ones as well as long ones) and get on with playing the next note, so that they end up skipping past a beat at the end of a measure. Or they may count the measure correctly but sustain the last note before the rest, so that there is no silence. It’s important to count the rests exactly the same way you count the measures where you’re playing. Please don’t ignore the rests!
Time Signatures At the left end of the first staff in a piece of music, just to the right of the key signature, is a pair of numbers called the time signature. These two numbers provide essential information about how the measures in the music are organized. The top number tells us how many beats there are in each measure. It’s usually 2, 3, 4, or 6, but in rare instances it might be 5, 7, 9, or some other number.
The bottom number tells us which type of note occupies one beat. Quite often this number is 4, which means “quarter-note.” Music in 4/4, 2/4, and 3/4 time is very common. But sometimes you’ll see an 8 or, more rarely, a 2 or a 16 as the bottom number. When the lower number is 8, the eighth-note is considered to occupy one complete beat. Music in 6/8 time is often seen, for instance. When the time signature is 6/8, there are six beats in every measure, and the eighth-note (rather than the quarter-note) counts as one beat.
Figure 5.25 Some common time signatures; the notes shown each count as one beat. The symbol C means the same thing as 4/4, and a C with a vertical line through it means the same thing as 2/2. 127
Every measure in a piece of music has to have the correct number of note values in it. We can’t arbitrarily write some measures with five quarter-notes and others with three or four quarter-notes. But it sometimes happens that a piece of music switches in the middle from one time signature to another. The verse of a song might be in 4/4 time, for instance, and the chorus in 3/4 time. In this case, the composer will put a new time signature in the first measure where the music changes, and this time signature will apply to all of the following bars (until there’s another time signature). Most of the music that you’ll play while studying the cello will be in the same time signature from beginning to end, so you’ll seldom need to worry about the challenges of playing in changing time signatures. There are two time signatures that look different. They both use a letter C in place of the pair of numbers. The C stands for “common time,” and it’s exactly the same as 4/4. If the C has a vertical line through it, musicians call it “cut time,” and it’s exactly the same as 2/2. In 2/2 time, there are two beats in each measure, and a halfnote counts as one beat. If you think about it, you’ll see that 4/4 and 2/2 time have exactly the same number of quarter-notes in each measure. In 2/2 time there are two half-notes per measure, and each half-note is the same as two quarter-notes. The only difference between 4/4 and 2/2 is how the beat is felt by the musicians—and, if there’s a conductor, how the conductor directs the orchestra. In 4/4 time, the conductor will usually beat four beats per measure. In 2/2 time, you’ll only see the conductor give two beats in each measure. Pieces in 2/2 (cut time) are usually faster than pieces in 4/4.
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Pickup Notes The first beat of each measure is called the downbeat. Sometimes a composer wants to start a piece of music not on the downbeat of the first measure, but one or two beats before that. In this situation, the first “measure” of the piece will be a partial measure containing only one beat—or perhaps half a beat, or a beat and a half, or some other rhythm value. This partial measure, whatever its length, is called a pickup or an upbeat (see Figure 5.26). When playing cello, you will most often want to play a pickup using an up-bow, so that you can play the note on the downbeat with a downbow. This is important, but some beginning students find it surprisingly hard to remember. (At least, I’m always surprised, because it seems so obvious to me.) On the other hand, if there are two eighth-notes in a pickup and they’re not slurred, you would play the pickup starting with a down-bow, because that will bring the bow back to the frog for a down-bow on the downbeat of the first measure.
Counting When you play music, it’s important to feel a steady beat. No matter whether you’re playing lots of short notes or only a few long notes, or you’re alternating between longer notes and shorter ones, the beat should march along at a steady pace. Pop musicians often tap one foot to help them feel the beat. It’s considered very poor form among classical musicians to tap your foot, but you should always have a firm sense of where the beat is, just as if you were tapping your foot.
Reading Music
Chapter 5
Figure 5.26 Three examples of pickup notes before downbeats. Unless there’s a musical reason to do otherwise, a pickup should always be bowed so that there is a down-bow on the following downbeat (the first note after the bar line). The three eighth-notes on the third line are slurred; for more on slurs, see Chapter 3.
In 4/4 time, you should always have a sense that you’re counting “1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-4” throughout the piece. The counts should be evenly spaced. In 3/4 time, you would count “1-2-3, 1-2-3, 1-2-3.” Again, the counts should be evenly spaced, with three beats in every measure.
Beginning students occasionally turn a piece in 3/4 into 4/4 without meaning to, by distorting the rhythm so that some of the quarter-notes are longer than others. They count “1...2-3, 1...2-3.” This is wrong.
Figure 5.27 Counting in 4/4 and 3/4 time. 129
When you need to count eighth-notes, because the music is slow or because you’re trying to learn a tricky rhythm, use the word “and” between beats. If you’re counting eighth-notes in 4/4, count “1-and-2-and-3-and-4-and” and so on. If a note falls on the “and,” we say it’s an offbeat note. When counting using “and,” make sure the main beats (1-2-3-4) are still evenly spaced.
Tempo Some music is slow-moving. Other pieces move at a comfortable walking pace or at a faster pace. The speed of the beats is called the tempo. Tempo is usually written as a number of beats per minute, which is abbreviated “bpm.” The number of beats per minute is also called the metronome marking (sometimes abbreviated “MM”), because a metronome can be set to click at various tempos. At the beginning of a piece of sheet music, the metronome marking is often displayed with a note value, an equals sign, and a number, as shown in Figure 5.29.
Counting Long Rests Orchestra musicians sometimes need to count rests that last for many bars. When you’re doing this, it’s far too easy to get lost, especially if the music you’re listening to is enjoyable. If you lose track of how many measures you’ve been resting, you’ll likely start playing in the wrong place, which will be embarrassing and will sound bad. When the music is in 4/4 time, orchestra musicians count long rests like this: 1-2-3-4, 2-2-3-4, 3-2-3-4, 4-2-3-4, 5-2-3-4, and so on.
Do you recognize the melody in Figure 5.29? It’s from the famous opera Carmen, by Georges Bizet. This figure uses two new ideas that we’ll look at later in this chapter—dotted note values and grace notes.
Figure 5.28 Counting eighth-notes with “and.”
Figure 5.29 The metronome marking shows a tempo of 100 beats per minute. 130
Reading Music The notation in the metronome marking in Figure 5.29 means that there are 100 quarternotes per minute, a medium speed. If you set your metronome to the number shown and listen to the click, you’ll know how fast the composer intended the piece to be played (or, if the composer didn’t provide a metronome mark, how fast the publisher recommends that it be played). While learning a piece, you may need to practice it at a slower tempo. Quite often, instead of (or in addition to) a metronome marking, the composer will use a word like allegro or andante to indicate the approximate tempo or the rhythmic feeling of the piece. These words are somewhat imprecise. But because you’ll often see them in sheet music, you need to know them. Here are the more common tempo markings and their meanings:
Chapter 5
Dots and Ties Not all rhythms fit neatly into the whole/half/ quarter/eighth/sixteenth pattern. If we need a note to last for the length of two quarter-notes, we can simply write a half-note. But what if we need one note to last for three quarter-notes? How would we write that? Two systems are in common use. The first system is to place a small dot just to the right of the note. This dot lengthens the note (stretches it out), adding exactly 50 percent more to its standard value. Because a normal half-note lasts for two quarter-notes, a dotted half-note lasts for 2 + 1 = 3 quarter-notes. Figure 5.30 presents the meanings of the most commonly seen dotted notes.
v Presto—very fast v Allegro assai—very fast v Vivace—lively (and therefore fast) v Allegro—fast v Moderato—moderately (not fast but not slow) v Andante—a walking pace (relaxed but not too slow)
Figure 5.30 Dotted note values.
v Adagio—slow v Largo—very slow v Lento—very slow
For a more complete glossary of Italian musical terms, see the end of this chapter.
If we need a note to last as long as three eighth-notes, we write it as a dotted quarternote. That’s easy. But what if we need it to last for five eighth-notes? Dotted note values won’t help with that. Instead, we have to use a tie.
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When two notes of the same pitch are joined by a curving line (the tie), in effect they’re only a single long note. In cello music, a tie looks exactly like a slur and is played the same way, by joining the two notes under a single bowstroke. (For more on slurs, see Chapter 3.) The only difference is that in a slur, we’re joining two notes with different pitches in the same bow-stroke, while with a tie the pitches are the same. The sound of a tie is slightly different, in that a listener should normally be unable to tell where one of the two tied notes ends and the other begins. The listener should hear one smooth, continuous sound. Ties have another important use: Sometimes the composer may want a single note to sustain across a bar line. There isn’t any way to make notes do that, because each measure has to have exactly the right total of note values in it.
We can’t just move the bar lines around arbitrarily to accommodate a note that’s unusually long. (In fact, some modern composers sometimes do exactly that, but it makes the music harder to read.) Figure 5.32 shows a tie that crosses a bar line. All of the notes in this passage, except the first note and the last one, are actually quarter-notes. The rhythm in Figure 5.32 is a bit tricky to play until you get the idea, but it’s fun. All of the notes except the first and last are played on the “and,” as explained in the section on “Counting” earlier in this chapter. That is, they’re on the off-beats rather than on the beat. This is an example of syncopation, a fancy word that means “playing where the beats aren’t.” To play syncopation, you need to feel the underlying rhythm of the beat while your hands are busy doing something completely different.
Figure 5.31 When two notes are tied (a), they’re played as if they were a single continuous note (b).
Figure 5.32 Quarter-note syncopation with a tie across a bar line.
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Reading Music
Triplets So far, this chapter has been about note rhythm values that divide neatly into halves. One whole-note divides into two half-notes, a halfnote divides into two quarter-notes, and so on. But sometimes we want to divide a rhythm value into three equal parts instead of two. We do this using triplets. Triplets are written with a little 3 above or below the group of notes, as shown in Figure 5.33. If you see triplet eighth-notes (by far the most common type of triplet), it’s important to understand that you have to cram all three notes into the time of a single quarter-note. Triplet eighth-notes look exactly like ordinary eighth-notes except for the little 3 above the group, but they gallop by more quickly. In a piece that has lots of triplets, publishers will sometimes omit the little 3 after the first few triplets. If you see a group of three eighthnotes in a measure, and the measure seems to have a total of too many eighth-notes in it, the group of three is a triplet.
Chapter 5
Other time divisions, such as five notes in the time of four (quintuplets), are occasionally seen. Musicians refer to all of these types of notation as tuplets.
Grace Notes Sometimes a composer wants a note to be played so quickly that it doesn’t really count as part of the total rhythm values in a measure. This type of note is written smaller than the other notes, and it’s called a grace note. Figure 5.34 shows some grace notes. On the cello, you’ll almost always slur the grace note into the main note rather than trying to change bow direction. Most often, the grace note(s) should be played slightly ahead of the beat, so that the main note lands squarely on the beat. The grace note has to “steal” a little time from the preceding beat.
Figure 5.33 Triplets divide a rhythm value into thirds; here, three triplet eighth-notes take up the same amount of time as one quarter-note. I’ve added slurs to the triplets to make the music in the example sound better, but triplets are not always slurred.
Figure 5.34 A single grace note is often written with a slash through the stem and flag. Multiple grace notes are more often written without slashes. Play these notes quickly! 133
Other Marks on the Page Printed music contains many other
Articulations
types of marks besides notes, accidentals, rests, and fingering numbers. In this section we’ll take a look at some of the marks that you’ll see. Students sometimes become quite good at playing the notes while blithely ignoring the other marks on the page—so as a reminder: It’s important to pay attention to every mark in the music. The marks are there for a reason.
Marks above or below noteheads tell you something about how to play the note. Perhaps the most common mark is a dot above or below the note. The dot tells you the note is to be played staccato. A staccato note is shorter than the written value. That is, you leave a little space after the note. The next note is not played any sooner. A staccato dot doesn’t change the rhythm of the measure. It just separates the staccato note from the following note. For an example, see Figure 3.32 in Chapter 3.
Down-bow and up-bow marks have already been discussed in Chapter 3, as have slurs. In the next few pages, we’ll look at some other marks you’ll need to know about.
Dynamics The cello can be played very quietly, fairly loudly, or anywhere in between. The term for the loudness or force with which you play is dynamics. Quite often you’ll see dynamic markings in sheet music. The terms for dynamic levels are Italian, but they’re used so often in sheet music that they’re usually abbreviated. Here are the main dynamic markings that you need to know: v pp (pianissimo)—very quiet
A mark that looks like an up-bow mark turned sideways is an accent. An accented note should be played slightly louder than the notes surrounding it. An accent is a relative dynamic, not an absolute dynamic. If the passage is marked pianissimo, for instance, an accented note would still be played piano or mezzo-piano, but if the passage is marked forte, an accented note would be played fortissimo. Strong accents are sometimes marked with the abbreviation sf or sfz below a note. (Beethoven was fond of these marks.) They stand for sforzando, which means “forcefully.”
v p (piano)—quiet v mp (mezzo-piano)—medium-quiet—louder than piano but not as loud as... v mf (mezzo-forte)—medium-loud—louder than mezzo-piano but not as loud as... v f (forte)—loud v ff (fortissimo)—very loud
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A short straight line above or below a note marks it tenuto. A tenuto mark means you should be sure to give the note its full length before moving on to the next note. Depending on the music, you might also want to make the tenuto note a little louder or add vibrato to it to emphasize it. That is, a tenuto mark is sometimes used to indicate a mild accent.
Reading Music
Chapter 5
Figure 5.35 The angle marks over notes are accents and show that those notes are to be played louder. The straight lines are tenuto marks and indicate that the note should be given its full length or possibly played a little louder or with extra vibrato. The expression mark sfz indicates a strong accent.
If the music is being played in a somewhat free rhythm (if it’s an unaccompanied cello solo, for instance), a tenuto mark might suggest that the note be drawn out just slightly before you go on to the next note, altering the rhythm, but not too much. This performance technique, lengthening a note slightly for emphasis, is called an agogic accent. It’s also called rubato.
Repeats
If you see only the end-repeat mark, you’re to repeat to the beginning of the piece. If the composer wants you to jump back to a point after the start of the piece, you’ll also see a begin-repeat mark, which looks the same except that the dots are to the right of the double bar line. Unless you see a performance direction such as 3x (play three times) near the repeat mark, a repeated section is always played twice. The 3x mark is usually seen only in the parts played by pit orchestras in musical shows.
Sometimes, the composer wants a section of a piece of music to be repeated. To save paper, a repeated section will often be written out only once. At the end of the section that’s to be repeated, you’ll see an end-repeat double bar line (see Figure 5.36). A repeat bar line is a double vertical line in which one of the lines is thicker than the other. Two dots are placed on the inside of the double bar line.
Figure 5.36 The repeat bar line at the end of this section means it’s to be played twice before going on.
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Figure 5.37 A repeat with first and second endings.
For musical reasons, it often happens that the last measure or two of a repeated section needs to be different the second time you play it. This can happen, for instance, if the last measure of the section needs to contain a pickup note, but the pickup note should be played only the first time (when you’re about to take the repeat) or only the second time (when you’re about to go on). This situation is so common that there’s an easy way to write it in sheet music. When you see square brackets above the staff near an end-repeat mark, and the numbers 1 and 2, as in Figure 5.37, the brackets show you the first and second endings of the repeated section. You play the first ending when you’re about to go back to the beginning of the repeated section, and the second ending when you’re going on after the repeat.
Skip It The music under the first-ending bracket should be played only once—before you repeat. When you play the repeated section the second time, skip the first ending and go directly to the second ending.
Sometimes the composer wants the cello section to repeat a single bar one or more times. This can be done using a sort of musical dittomark, which is a diagonal slash with dots around it. Figure 5.38 shows this mark.
In other words, the music under the first ending line is played only once—the first time through the repeated section. After repeating, skip the first ending and play the second ending.
Figure 5.38 Ditto marks tell you to repeat whatever was in the previous bar—as written (a) and as played (b).
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Reading Music
Tenor and Treble Clef In advanced cello music, you may be asked to play very high notes—above fourth position on the fingerboard. (For the names of the left-hand positions, see Chapter 4.) These notes could be written by stacking up lots of ledger lines, but they would be hard to read. For ease of reading, publishers generally write the cello’s higher notes using either the tenor clef or the treble clef. During your first two years as a cellist, you won’t need to worry about reading music that’s written in tenor or treble clef. I won’t go into detail on how to do that in this book, but these clefs are worth mentioning because you may encounter them in sheet music and wonder what they mean.
Chapter 5
The tenor clef is the interval of a perfect fifth higher than the bass clef. The easy way to find notes written in tenor clef is to move over to the next higher string. If a note would be a 2nd-finger F on the D string in bass clef, a note that appears on the same line of the staff will be 2nd-finger C on the A string if the music is written in tenor clef. By the way, the tenor clef looks exactly like the clef used by the viola, but it’s on a different line. The viola clef is called the alto clef. In each case, the pointed arrow-head in the center of the clef points at the note Middle C. Extremely high notes on the cello are written in treble clef. In treble clef, Middle C (2nd finger, first position on the A string) is written with one ledger line below the staff.
Figure 5.39 Bass, tenor, and treble clefs. The notes played are the same on all three lines—the first note on each line is the cello’s open A string. A small “cautionary” clef symbol is always inserted at the end of a line when the new line will be in a different clef.
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A Glossary of Musical Italian Two hundred years ago, Italy was a leading center of classical music. European musicians needed to learn enough Italian to be able to communicate with one another. Today Italy is no longer quite so important musically, but the Italian terms that were current in the days of Mozart and Beethoven (neither of whom was Italian, of course) are still widely used. Here’s a glossary of terms you’re likely to run into sooner or later on sheet music. In Italian, all of the vowels are pronounced, so “dolce” and “fine” are two-syllable words. The vowels e, i, and a are pronounced like English “ay,” “ee,” and “ah,” respectively, so “fine” is pronounced “fee-nay.” The vowel pair ae is pronounced like the English long i (as in “blind”). A c followed by an e or an i is pronounced like the English ch, so dolce is pronounced “dol-chay,” not “dolss.” And sc is pronounced like English sh, so crescendo is pronounced “kreh-shen-doh.”
accelerando—accelerating (speeding up)
crescendo—getting louder
adagio—slow
da capo—from the beginning of the piece; often abbreviated “D.C.”
agitato—agitated allargando—getting large (slowing down and also getting louder)
decrescendo—getting softer (same as diminuendo)
allegro—fast
del segno—to the sign; see segno (often abbreviated “D.S.”)
andante—a moderate, walking tempo
diminuendo—getting softer
arco—with the bow
dolce—sweetly
assai—very
espressivo—expressively
attaca—go straight on without pausing (literally, “attack”)
-etto—little (suffix, often seen in “allegretto”)
cantabile—in a singing manner
fine—the end of the piece (pronounced “feen-eh”)
coda—the last section of a piece (literally, “tail”)
forte—loud
col legno—with the wood of the bow rather than the hair (sometimes written col legno battuto, literally “beating with the wood”)
fortissimo—very loud
con—with (often seen in con sordino, “with mute”); also spelled col, depending on the first letter of the next word con fuoco—with fire
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giocoso—humorously (literally, “joking”— pronounced “joke-oh-so”) grave—slow and solemn (pronounced in two syllables: “grah-veh”) -issimo—as much as possible (suffix, often seen in pianissimo and fortissimo, also prestissimo)
Reading Music largo—very slow
Chapter 5
rubato—played somewhat freely with respect to the rhythm (literally “robbed”)
legato—smooth (literally, “linked”)
ma non tanto—but not too much
segno—a sign (often seen in the indication da capo al segno, meaning “go back to the beginning and then play until you reach the sign,” or del segno al fine, meaning “go back to the sign and then end where you see ‘fine’”)
ma non troppo—but not too much
sempre—always
meno—less
senza—without (most often seen in senza sordino, “without mute”)
lento—very slow maestoso—majestic
mezzo-forte—medium-loud mezzo-piano—medium-soft moderato—moderately (a tempo, slightly faster than andante) molto—much, very mosso—motion (usually seen in meno mosso and piu mosso, meaning “less motion” and “more motion”) octava—octave; usually abbreviated 8va, and meaning “play an octave higher than written” pesante—heavily (play as if you’re a peasant) pianissimo—very soft piano—soft piu—more pizzicato—plucked poco a poco—little by little
sforzando—forcefully, reinforced; often abbreviated sf, fz, or sfz simile—similarly (play the following notes with the same articulations and/or bowings as the preceding notes) sonata—a piece of two or more separate movements, written for one or more instruments (but always for a smaller group than an orchestra) sordino—mute sostenuto—sustained sotto voce—soft voice (play in a quiet and placid manner) spiccato—with a bouncing bow staccato—detached subito—suddenly sul ponticello—over (or near) the bridge
presto—very fast
sul tasto—over the fingerboard (French: sur la touche)
rallentando—slowing down gradually (often abbreviated rall.)
tenuto—sustained (given its full length)
ritard, ritardando—slowing down gradually (often abbreviated rit.)
tremolo, tremolando—a quick, repetitive back-and-forth motion of the bow (literally, “trembling”)
rondo—a form often used in the last movements of multi-movement pieces, in which three different sections alternate with one another
vivace—lively
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Music You Can Play
A
6
t the end of this chapter is a list of some
excellent books of beginning and intermediate cello music that you may want to buy. To get you off to a fast start, in this chapter you’ll find a few easy songs that you can play. Some of the songs use performance techniques discussed in this book. On the DVD, you’ll find complete performances of eight of these songs.
Tips for Practicing Practicing the cello alone, in a quiet room at home, is essential if you want to improve. Even very young beginners should practice for 15 minutes every day. Most students up through middle school should plan on practicing at least 30 minutes every day, and 45 minutes to an hour of daily practice is not too much for high-school students who are at all serious about music. For a talented highschool student who is considering a career as a musician, practicing 90 minutes or more per day would be all but essential. When you first start learning a new piece, you’ll probably want to play it through from beginning to end a number of times. During these play-throughs, there will be a number of hesitations and some fumbling around. This is normal. As you get better acquainted with the piece, though, you’ll want to break it down into short sections—perhaps as short as one or two measures at a time—and work on polishing them. You may find that large sections of the piece are easy for you and don’t need much work. But there may also be a few trouble spots. It’s important to notice the trouble spots and deal with them. If you always play the piece from start to finish and never devote any extra work to the trouble spots, you’ll probably find that every time you hit a certain spot, you fumble.
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What you need to understand is that your fingers don’t know you’re fumbling. Your fingers are happy to learn whatever movements you repeat over and over. If you always repeat the same fumble, that’s what your fingers will learn! If you always play the piece from start to finish, you’re quite likely to be drilling your fingers with bad habits. Unlearning these habits later will be difficult. So notice the trouble spots early on, and work on ironing them out so that you can play through the music at those spots in a smooth, natural way. It’s also important, when practicing, to notice the sound that is coming from your cello. Just getting the right finger on the right string and getting the bow moving in the proper direction is not enough! If you hear little squeaks or scraping noises, those are trouble spots that need extra attention. If the sound is thin or uncertain, again you need to work on it.
Music You Can Play Practice hard passages as slowly as you need to in order to play them cleanly. Then speed up the tempo very gradually. (A metronome is useful for this type of practice.) When you can play the hard passage, the next step is to back up and start one or two measures before the passage. This will help your fingers learn the transition into the difficult spot. When you begin learning pieces that require you to shift to other positions, part of your practice will be devoted not only to practicing the shifts themselves, but also to thinking about the best places to shift. How many notes can you group so as to play them all from a single hand position? It’s important to practice the cello every day, on a regular schedule. If you skip more than one day a week, you won’t make nearly as much progress. It’s no use to try to make up for a few skipped practice sessions by cramming in a whole lot of practice on the day before your lesson. The human brain needs to repeat an activity on a number of days (with periods of sleep in between) to absorb and master any skill. Divide your practice time into segments, devoting each segment to one type of practice. When you first sit down to practice, devote some time to scales, finger exercises, and perhaps bowing exercises. Next, spend some time with an etude. Finish your practice session by working on a solo piece or something else that is more substantial, such as a sonata movement.
Chapter 6
Your practice room should be quiet, with a minimum of distractions. Explain to your family that they should not interrupt you for trivial reasons while you’re practicing. If there’s too much background noise (from a TV in another room, for instance), you’ll need to negotiate with family members to work out a practice schedule that doesn’t overlap with others’ favorite TV shows. I find that it’s harder to practice immediately after a heavy meal, because most of my blood has gone south to attend to my stomach, leaving less circulation for my brain. This may be an issue that affects older musicians more than younger ones, but if you find that something like this is happening to you, you’ll need to work out a practice schedule that doesn’t require you to play right after meals. And of course playing when you’re tired isn’t much good either.
Etude = Study The word “etude” comes to us from French. For reasons best known to those who study the science of linguistics, the French language transforms the initial “s” in many words to an “e”. An etude, then, is a study. Most etudes are musically interesting pieces that focus on one particular instrumental technique—for instance, playing octaves. Many books of cello etudes have been published, and most cellists learn to play dozens of etudes while mastering the instrument.
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Bow Direction and Counting The first stage in learning a new piece is finding the notes. While doing this, you may want to completely ignore the bowing and the rhythm. That’s okay. But once you’ve located the notes, you’ll need to begin paying close attention both to bowing and counting. Some of my students are in the habit of ignoring the bowing indications. They slur notes that are not marked for slurs, ignore slurs that are marked, and never seem to notice the up-bow and down-bow marks. They just move the bow any old way—and in the process, they teach their arm to do the wrong bowings. Using the indicated bowings is vital. It does make a subtle musical difference that a strong note on the down-beat of a measure is played with a down-bow. The difference between slurred and unslurred notes can be easily heard, so again, doing the correct slurs makes a musical difference. If the bow is going the wrong direction, you may find yourself running out of bow at an inconvenient moment, which will cause the cello to produce a choked-off sound. Also, when you start playing in an orchestra, you’ll be expected to use the same bowings as everyone else in the cello section, so it’s important to learn the habit of paying attention to the marked bowings. (Watching out of the corner of your eye and copying what the person sitting next to you is doing is just being lazy.) Counting the rhythm values in a piece also requires careful attention. You can’t necessarily rely on your inner ear to guide you to the right rhythm in every case—you may need to use your brain to analyze the written music and count out the rhythm in every measure.
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Here are the counting mistakes that I sometimes see my students make: v Jumping ahead during a rest instead of waiting and counting the beats in the rest. v Jumping ahead when there’s a long note, such as a dotted half-note. This can happen because you’re running out of bow. When playing a long note, don’t use up 3/4 of the bow on the first 1/4 of the note! v Turning a dotted eighth-note followed by a sixteenth-note (a long-short rhythm pattern) into two even eighth-notes. v Speeding up during the easy part and/or slowing down during a hard part. v Playing a piece in a triple meter (3/4 or 6/8) as if it were written in a duple meter (2/4 or 4/4).
How to Learn the Music Eight of the music examples in this chapter music examples in this chapter are performed on the DVD, so you can easily listen to them and see exactly how they’re played. If you’re not sure how to read the notes, please study Chapter 5. Be sure to pay close attention to bowing indications (up-bow and down-bow marks and also slurs), key signatures (sharps or flats), and rhythm values (half-note, quarter- note, or eighth-note).
Music You Can Play
On the DVD
Chapter 6
“Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”
We’ll start with a piece that uses only quarter-notes (one beat) and half-notes (which last for two beats). All of the notes are on the D string or A string. The down-bow marks on the second and third lines are just reminders; if you do the bowing correctly, your bow will automatically be playing a down-bow when you get to those spots. Notice that the key signature has two sharps. This tells you that the notes F and C should be played as F-sharp and C-sharp wherever they occur in the piece. There are no C-sharps in “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” but there are several F-sharps, which are played with the 3rd finger on the D string. In this music you’ll find the left-hand finger number for each note that you need to play, but the number is given only the first time the note appears. If you’re not sure which finger to use for the notes on the second or third line, you’ll need to look back at the first line and find the note. Some beginning cello books give a finger number for every note throughout a piece, but I find that students sometimes get in the habit of “reading the numbers” rather than learning the musical meanings of the dots. I hope you’ll take the time to learn which lines and spaces are associated with which fingers, rather than relying on printed numbers.
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“She’ll Be Comin’ Round the Mountain” This old American favorite introduces one new idea—the quarter-rest. This rest is the same length as a quarter-note. As it happens, each of the quarter-rests in this piece is preceded by a down-bow note and followed by another down-bow note. During the rest, you’ll need to lift your bow and bring it back to the frog, ready for the next down-bow. The high D (4th finger on the A string) and the low G (open G string) are the only notes in this piece that are not also in “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.”
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Music You Can Play
On the DVD
Chapter 6
“Long, Long Ago”
This piece introduces two new rhythm values: the eighth-note and the whole-note. An eighth-note only lasts for half a beat, so we need two of them to make up an entire beat. The wholenote (at the very end) lasts for an entire measure (four beats) by itself, so you’ll need to conserve the bow, using it slowly enough to make the note last for four beats. Also new in this piece is the half-rest. The half-rest at the end of the second line lasts for two beats. During the rest, you’ll need to lift your bow and bring it back to the frog so you’ll be ready to play the first note on the third line with a down-bow. “Long, Long Ago” uses many of the same notes as “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” but adds a couple of new notes on the G string. The note F, on the D string, looks the same as the F-sharp in “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” but it’s played with the 2nd finger, because it’s an F-natural, not an F-sharp. It’s an F-natural because the key signature in “Long, Long Ago” has no flats or sharps. If you don’t notice the key signature, you won’t know whether the notes on the second line are F-naturals (2nd finger) or F-sharps (3rd finger). You should always check the key signature before starting to play a piece.
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“Joy to the World” This holiday favorite introduces two new ideas. The most important is the slur. As explained in Chapter 3, when two notes are connected by a curving line, they’re slurred; the bow continues in the same direction while playing the second note. In addition, the melody of “Joy to the World” includes some dotted quarter-notes. A dotted quarter-note lasts for as long as three eighth-notes, because the dot adds 50 percent to the note’s normal length. When we add a dotted quarter-note to the eighth-note that follows it, we have four eighth-notes, which equal two complete beats. Be careful not to turn this rhythm (dotted quarter followed by an eighth) into two even quarter-notes. The first phrase in “Joy to the World” is a descending D major scale. All of the notes in this piece are found within that scale.
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Music You Can Play
On the DVD
Chapter 6
“We Wish You a Merry Christmas”
The time signature of “We Wish You a Merry Christmas” is 3/4, which means there are three quarter-notes in each measure rather than four. Be sure you count “1-2-3” evenly in each measure. In addition, this piece starts with a pick-up, a note before the first complete measure. A single pick-up note is usually played with an up-bow, so that the first note of the first complete measure will be a downbow. The down-bow marks in the rest of the song are just reminders: If you’re bowing correctly, these notes will automatically be down-bows, as will the last note in the piece. Notice the key signature: Here we have only one sharp (on F), so we’re in the key of G. (For more on how key signatures relate to keys, see Chapter 5.) The note F-sharp, on the D string, is played with the 3rd finger, but the note C, on the A string, is played with the 2nd finger because it’s a C-natural. No matter what key the music is in, cello fingering will change depending on what string you’re playing.
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On the DVD
“Oh, Susanna”
Stephen Foster (1826–1864) was the most important songwriter in the United States in the 19th century. His hit tunes are not heard much on the radio, of course, but they’re used in many music method books, not just because they’re in the public domain—that is, free for anyone to use—but because they’re well-written, memorable melodies. “Swanee River” (also called “Old Folks at Home”) was his first hit; he later went on to write “Beautiful Dreamer,” “Camptown Races,” “Old Black Joe,” and many other classic songs. “Oh, Susanna” is another favorite by Stephen Foster. This cello arrangement introduces one or two new ideas. The first is trivial: Fingering numbers are sometimes written below the staff, rather than above, to make the page look neater. Their position makes no musical difference. Also, notice the pair of E’s on the third line. They’re connected by a slur, which means your bow should continue in the same direction. But because these should be heard musically as separate notes, not as one long E lasting for three beats, you’ll need to lift your bow momentarily between them, so that the final E in that measure is heard as a separate note. This performance technique, the articulated slur, is indicated by the lines (tenuto marks) above the notes.
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Music You Can Play
Chapter 6
“Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair” Here’s another well-known song by Stephen Foster. This piece uses more notes than any of the pieces earlier in this chapter. And one of the new notes is an accidental. If you look at the key signature, you’ll see a B-flat. This piece is in the key of F, and the F major scale uses the note B-flat rather than B-natural. However, Foster’s melody uses both B-flats and B-naturals in different measures. The commas near the ends of the first and third lines are breath-marks. If you were playing a wind instrument, this type of mark would tell you when to take a quick breath before starting the next phrase. String players don’t have to breathe between phrases, but breath-marks are sometimes used for a similar reason—to tell you that one phrase has ended and another is beginning. When you see a breath-mark, you should release the pressure on the bow a little early, creating a little gap between the notes. In this song, some of the pairs of eighth-notes are slurred, while other pairs are not slurred. It’s important not to confuse the beam between two eighth-notes (such as the low C and D in measure 2) with a slur (such as the slur between the G and A in measure 3). A beam connects two eighth-notes, but it’s not a slur.
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On the DVD
“Ode to Joy”
This well-known melody is from the last movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. It’s often seen in beginning method books because the notes and rhythms are easy to learn. However, I’ve added one slight wrinkle that is sometimes glossed over in method books. The rhythm at the end of the third line and the beginning of the fourth line is closer to what Beethoven actually wrote. In most method books this rhythm is simplified. To play this measure, you need to play the A on beat 3 (it will be a down-bow if you started with a downbow at the beginning of the piece and then bowed correctly) and then lift your bow very quickly and bring it back to the frog to play the F-sharp as another down-bow. The little comma between the two notes is a reminder that you need to lift your bow and bring it back to the frog—a technique called retaking the bow. This will naturally produce a small accent on the F-sharp, which is the musical effect Beethoven intended. The F-sharp is then tied into the F-sharp on the beginning of the fourth line. These two F-sharps, even though they’re on separate lines, should be played as if they’re a single half-note that happens to cross a bar line. (In this case, it also happens to cross from one staff to another.)
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Music You Can Play
On the DVD
Chapter 6
“Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”
This is one of my favorite melodies by Bach. It’s an easy cello piece—no odd rhythms or bowings. But it introduces one new concept: the 9/8 time signature. 9/8 is not seen as often as 6/8, but the idea is similar. This is a compound time signature, which means that the nine beats are grouped into three groups of three eighth-notes each. The beams on the eighth-notes in the music will help you remember this idea and feel the pulses in the music. Rather than trying to count to nine in every measure, you should feel three strong beats (each of which would be a dotted quarter-note) and count “one-and-ah, two-and-ah, three-and-ah” in each bar. To give you a chance to find out how well you’re progressing, I’ve given this example with no fingering numbers. By now, you should be able to find the open strings, and you should be able to move up or down a scale from the open strings. This piece is in the key of C (no sharps or flats), which means that the F’s in bar 1 and the C’s in bar 2 are both played with the 2nd finger. However, the B’s in bar 4 are played with the 3rd finger, not the 2nd.
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“Turkey in the Straw” This is a traditional American “fiddle tune.” It should be played as fast as you can manage. The quarter-notes on the fourth line have dots and also lines above them. These notes should be played in a separated manner, with a little space between them, but they shouldn’t be clipped too short.
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Music You Can Play
Chapter 6
“Home on the Range” This old-time favorite song introduces no new ideas. If you’ve been working your way through this chapter without skipping any of the music, you’ll already know how to play the articulated slur in measure 3 (as two separate C notes with a little lift of the bow between them). The chorus of the song begins on the high D in the middle of the third line. This note is unusual in that it’s an up-bow on a strong beat. The reason for this bowing is because we want to be at the frog for the long down-bow on the B near the end of the third line. Make sure you start the D out at the tip of the bow and dig in a little as you’re starting the note to produce a clean attack.
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“Blues in G” Here’s a quick example that might inspire you to try playing pop music on the cello. The blues has been a familiar music form for more than 75 years. There’s an enormous amount of variety in the blues, but certain ways of using scales and chords are widely known. This example gives you a rather varied bass line for a standard 12-bar blues in the key of G. You might find a part like this in a rock and roll song, for instance. What do I mean by “a 12-bar blues”? The blues most often uses chord progressions that repeat every 12 bars. The chords in this example are shown with chord symbols—G7, C7, and D7—and those chords are typical of a blues progression. (To learn more about these chords and others like them, you’ll need to buy a book on music theory, such as my book Chords & Harmony.) You don’t need to do anything different because of the printed chord symbols; just play the notes. However, if you’re playing with other musicians or want to improvise a solo, the chord symbols will give you important information. Although this piece is in the key of G, blues typically uses a lowered 7th step of the scale. So instead of F-sharps, which we would expect to see in a classical piece in the key of G, we have F-naturals. There’s no need to use a key signature to add an F-sharp, even though the piece is in G.
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This example can be played entirely in first position, without shifting up or down, but it uses more notes than you may have seen before. The note A-sharp, in particular, is the same note as B-flat, so they’re both played on the G string with the 2nd finger. This note is written as an A-sharp when the note after it is a B-natural, but it’s written as a B-flat when the next note is an A-natural. This makes it easier to read the notes because the page is less cluttered with accidentals. Likewise, in bar 5 you’ll see a D-sharp, which is the same note as E-flat. The word simile at the beginning of bar 3 is explained in Chapter 5. It’s Italian for “similarly.” It means, “keep playing with the same articulations as before.” Notice the staccato dots over or under the notes in the first two bars. The word simile tells you that you should visualize similar dots over the non-slurred notes in later measures. This example includes another new feature: dynamics. Notice the “mf” at the beginning. This is an abbreviation for mezzo-forte, which is Italian for “medium-loud.” In bar 4 there’s a crescendo mark to indicate that you’re to get louder. In bar 5 the dynamic level is forte (loud). Then in bar 6 there is a diminuendo mark, so you should get softer. As often happens in sheet music, you’re not given any specific indication of how quietly you should be playing at the end of the diminuendo, so you’ll need to use your own judgment.
Music You Can Play
Chapter 6
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On the DVD
“William Tell Overture”
Here’s a well-known piece that will provide you with some challenges. This arrangement can be played entirely in first position: No shifting is required. In two places, however, you’ll have to use the extended hand shape to play an F-sharp on the C string (in line 4) or a C-sharp on the G string (in line 5). The extended hand shape is explained in Chapter 4. The fingering is marked in these two spots, but in the rest of the piece it’s up to you to figure out which finger to use. (There are no tricks, however. All of the fingering is exactly what you’d expect.) To include all of the main sections of the melody in a compact space, I’ve used a number of repeats. Each of the repeats has a first ending and a second ending. To learn how to play first and second endings, consult Chapter 5. In addition, there’s a larger “repeat” structure. At the bottom of the music you’ll see the notation “D.S. al fine.” D.S. is an abbreviation for del segno, which means “to the sign.” If you look back at line 2, you’ll see a large squiggly mark that looks like a letter S. That’s the sign. When you reach the second ending at the bottom of the music, return to the sign and play the eight-measure phrase that follows it. When you reach the second ending of this phrase, you’ll see the word fine (Italian for “end”). That’s where you stop. The long slurs in the last section may require some practice, especially the second one, in which you have to slur from the G string up to the D string, then back down to the G, then up to the D again quite rapidly. The eighth-notes in this piece are not marked staccato, but even so, they should be played somewhat detached, not smoothly connected to one another. When this piece is played at a rapid tempo by an orchestra, the strings may play this rhythm using a bouncing “ricochet” bow, an advanced technique not discussed in this book. (If you’re curious, ask your teacher to demonstrate ricochet bowing.) If you purchase a recording of the “William Tell Overture,” you’ll find that it’s a longish piece for full orchestra. The portion I’ve used here is taken from the final section. The slow, romantic opening section, not shown here, was scored by Rossini for five solo cellos!
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Music You Can Play
Chapter 6
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“The Entertainer” This well-known melody was penned by Scott Joplin, one of the most successful composers of the ragtime era. The notes are not too difficult, but the rhythm and the bowing will definitely throw you a few curves. These rhythms are syncopated, which means that certain notes are played a sixteenth-note before you would expect them. The F at the end of measure 1, for instance, is tied into the F at the start of measure 2. These two F’s are really a single syncopated note. Like “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair,” “The Entertainer” is in the key of F but includes an accidental note, the B-natural in the second line. Be careful to play all of the F’s on the D string with the 2nd finger, not the 3rd finger.
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Music You Can Play
Chapter 6
Suggested Method Books There are many good introductory method books for learning the cello. With beginners, I generally use the three-volume String Builder series by Samuel Applebaum (published by Alfred Publishing under the Belwin imprint as the Belwin Course for Strings). For longer solos, starting at the very beginning and progressing through pieces that are more challenging, I use the first five volumes of the Suzuki Cello School series (again, published by Alfred). Though my publishers may not be happy about it, I’m also going to recommend Cello Playing for Music Lovers. Written and self-published by Vera Mattlin Jiji, this introductory book covers many of the same topics as Picture Yourself Playing Cello, but from a different perspective. You’ll find more music for beginners in Jiji’s book, a play-along CD, and practical advice on many subjects. Another fine resource, for players who are ready to move on from first position, is Position Pieces for Cello by Rick Mooney (Summy-Birchard, 1997; distributed by Alfred). This book has dozens of duets for student and teacher, nicely arranged so as to teach the positions in an orderly way. For learning scales and the geography of the fingerboard, I recommend Sequenced Scale Studies for Cello by Wendy Bissinger (Boshu Press, 2004).
If you’re serious about cello playing, I highly recommend The Art of Cello Playing by Louis Potter, Jr. (published by Summy-Birchard [1980] and distributed by Warner Bros.). This is an excellent all-around introduction to cello technique. While the discussions of technical matters are rather dry, they’re very authoritative, and Potter provides hundreds of carefully graded exercises, ranging from ultra-basic through very advanced. Francis Grant has developed a very good series of method books (published by LudwigMasters, www.masters-music.com). I use Intermediate Etudes in the Positions with many of my students. For more advanced students, I recommend the three-volume 170 Foundation Studies for Violoncello, a collection assembled by Alwin Schroeder that contains etudes by many different composers (published by Carl Fischer, 1970). The first 20 or so of the studies in the first volume are well suited to beginners, but after that the difficulty level ascends rapidly.
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Happily Ever After...
T
o round out your knowledge of the cello, in this final chapter we’ll take a look at a few topics that didn’t fit well in the other chapters.
What’s Next? After you finish reading Picture Yourself Playing Cello and applying the lessons you’ve learned here, where can you go to continue your adventure with cello playing? If you’re in school, you should of course consider whether to join the school orchestra. In this chapter you’ll find some tips on how to play with other musicians. Many cello students take private lessons from local teachers. This chapter has advice on how to find a good teacher.
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If your family is musical, you might want to form a “family ensemble.” This activity is a great way for parents and children to have fun together. If you attend a church, you may find opportunities to play worship music with other members of the congregation. Whatever musical activities you engage in, I hope you’ll find as much enjoyment as I do in playing the cello!
Happily Ever After...
Chapter 7
The Cello Literature Cellists are fortunate indeed that Johann Sebastian Bach wrote six multimovement suites for unaccompanied cello. These pieces are among the most important in the cello literature, and as you gain mastery of the cello, you’ll certainly want to learn them. You’ll be ready for the first suite when you’re comfortable playing in the positions up through fourth position. The first five suites generally don’t require you to go above fourth position, but some of the movements are fast and require considerable dexterity. The sixth suite uses the full range of the cello and is very difficult. Until the 20th century, almost no other composers wrote for unaccompanied cello, and the unaccompanied pieces written in the 20th century are, by and large, virtuoso works requiring absolute mastery of the instrument. The cello is most often played not alone, but as part of a small ensemble or a large group. There’s a wide variety of wonderful music for cello and piano. Boccherini, Offenbach, and other composers have written beautiful duets for two cellos. And of course the cello section is an important part of every orchestra. In some of the music for cello and piano, the piano plays an accompaniment part, and the spotlight throughout is on the cello. Composers such as Brahms, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn wrote exciting music for cello and piano—these pieces go by the generic term cello sonatas. The cello doesn’t always get the spotlight in sonatas, however. The editions of the Brahms and Beethoven sonatas in my collection describe the pieces as “for piano and violoncello,” not for cello and piano. Both of these composers were
pianists, so the cello often rests for several measures or plays an accompaniment figure while the piano has the melody. Nonetheless, these sonatas are in the front rank of literature for the cello, and accomplished cellists always learn them. The cello is used in hundreds of wonderful string quartets, as well as other types of chamber music (trios, quintets, and so on). The string quartets by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and other composers are among the most enjoyable music you can play on cello, and they’re highlights of the literature of classical music. You’ll usually be playing a supporting role in a quartet, as the first violin will quite often have the melody. And no discussion of the use of the cello in chamber music would be complete without a mention of Schubert’s marvelous Quintet in C Major for two violins, viola, and two cellos. This is one of the most sublime works ever written for cello. At the top of the cello literature are concertos for cello and orchestra. In effect, the entire orchestra plays an accompaniment part while the cello soloist takes the lead. In concertos by Haydn, Dvorak, Elgar, Saint-Saens, and other composers, the solo cello part is extremely difficult and demanding. As you begin to learn positions above fourth position, you’ll be ready to learn a few of the enjoyable student concertos by Goltermann, Breval, and others. If you’re looking for inspiration, you should consider buying CDs of all of these types of music—the Bach suites, cello sonatas, string quartets, the Schubert two-cello quintet, and cello concertos.
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Playing with Other Musicians Playing with other musicians requires several skills that go beyond simply knowing how to play the cello. First are the social skills. You’ll need to be responsible for showing up on time (at rehearsals and especially half an hour before concerts!) and having all of your equipment in good order. You’ll be responsible for learning your cello parts, which may require hours of practice in between rehearsals. Just as important, you’ll need to understand how to work smoothly in a group—perhaps a large one—where you aren’t the star of the show. The cello normally plays a supporting role in music: Now and then you may get to play a spotlighted part, but most of the time your job will be unobtrusively to help others look good. Once you’re at a rehearsal, you’ll need to know how to count. This is a little more complex than just being able to tell the difference between a half-note and a quarter-note. For an ensemble to be able to play at all, everyone has to know, at all times, both where the beat is and what measure they’re in. In an orchestra, the conductor’s baton will usually show you where the beat is. (No guarantees on this, however. I’ve played in community orchestras where the conductor’s beat was sometimes vague or inconsistent.) But cello parts in orchestral music quite routinely contain long passages of rests. You may need to count the rests for four bars, seven bars, or 23 bars and then start playing at exactly the right time.
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I usually count long rests unobtrusively on my fingers, holding the fingers down beside the cello where the audience can’t see me. This may seem amateurish—but it works! I’d rather look silly to the violist sitting next to me than look cool by counting measures in my head and then get lost and start playing too soon. Your musical ear is not always a reliable guide for when to enter after a rest. Listening to the other musicians is a crucial skill. You need to check constantly to make sure you’re playing in tune with them. If the music speeds up or slows down, you need to be aware of what’s happening and adjust your own playing to match. Listening to the other musicians is a separate skill from playing; until you learn this skill, you may find the other musical parts distracting. Playing duets with your cello teacher is a very good way to get comfortable with listening while you play. Above all, when you’re playing with others, you don’t get to say “oops” and try a hard passage again. You have to keep going, no matter what. In rehearsals with a small group, it’s okay to stop and say, “Sorry, I need to try that again,” but even in small-group rehearsals, it’s important not to let minor mistakes throw you off. Just keep going.
Happily Ever After...
Chapter 7
How to Find a Good Teacher In the Introduction of this book, I urged students to find a private cello teacher if at all possible. But how can you tell if the teacher is a good one? First, you should take lessons from an actual cellist if at all possible. In many communities you’ll find music teachers who teach a variety of instruments—all of the stringed instruments, for instance, or even a variety of winds and strings. These teachers perform a valuable public service, especially in smaller communities that couldn’t support a raft of teachers, each of whom plays only one instrument. And some of the skills that you’ll learn, such as counting rhythm values and playing in tune, are much the same no matter what instrument you’re learning (although I wouldn’t necessarily trust a piano teacher to know about playing in tune; pianists don’t have to worry about that). Nonetheless, the techniques of cello playing are quite different from the techniques used in playing the violin. A teacher who is primarily a violinist (or worse, a bassoonist) may not notice the student’s bad habits or may not know how to correct them. So studying with a cellist is best.
Ideally, you’d like to study with a teacher who not only teaches, but also is active as a cellist, playing concerts occasionally or regularly with one or more groups. If your teacher was a cello major at a conservatory, so much the better. (A conservatory is a special type of college where everyone studies music.) If the teacher didn’t study at a conservatory, you may want to ask who their cello teachers were. If he or she has never taken cello lessons from a cellist with good credentials, you may want to be a bit skeptical of his or her qualifications. If the teacher has never studied with a good teacher and has never played the cello actively in any ensembles, be very skeptical. The music stores in your area may have teaching studios where a variety of teachers give lessons on different instruments. If you can’t find a cello teacher, phone a few music stores and ask them who they would recommend. Shops that specialize in renting stringed instruments to students often have lists of local teachers, regardless of whether the teacher is associated with the shop.
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Once you start studying with a teacher, there are several questions you may want to ask yourself: v Does the teacher demonstrate how to play the cello? Many students learn best by seeing demonstrations, not just by being lectured. (However, some older cellists who have physical disabilities are still wonderful teachers, even though they can no longer play. If a teacher has good credentials and an active list of advanced students, this factor may be less important.) v Does the teacher answer all of your questions clearly and seem happy to help you learn? v Does the teacher assign music that’s fun and interesting to play and is at the right level of difficulty to give you some challenge without being so hard that you get discouraged? v Does the teacher give you positive feedback and compliments when you play well? v Does the teacher provide a clear explanation of teaching policies, such as payment options and rescheduling when you have to miss a lesson? v Are you improving? If you’re not improving, is it because you’re not practicing and not paying attention to your teacher’s suggestions—or is it because the teacher is not explaining techniques clearly and not assigning music that builds your skill level one step at a time?
Famous Cellists The cello may never be as important or popular a solo instrument as the piano or violin, but over the years hundreds of brilliant and passionate artists have worked to keep the cello near the forefront of classical music. Much more information about all of the artists listed here is available on the Internet, and biographies of some of them may be available from your local public library. In addition to the cellists profiled here, you may want to learn more about Janos Starker, Leonard Rose, David Popper, and Julius Klengel.
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Pablo Casals (1876–1973) Casals was the most important cellist of the first half of the 20th century. He played recitals at the White House for Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 and John F. Kennedy in 1961. He popularized the Bach Suites for unaccompanied cello and taught many master classes.
Pablo Casals.
Yo-Yo Ma (1955– ) Every cellist today should know the name Yo-Yo Ma. Ma is the superstar of the cello. He has recorded much of the important literature for the cello and received numerous Grammy awards. He appears as a soloist with major symphony orchestras and also collaborates with artists in other genres, such as popular music.
Yo-Yo Ma.
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Mstislav Rostropovich (1927–2007) Rostropovich grew up in Soviet Russia but left the Soviet Union in 1974. He conducted the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C., from 1977 through 1994, while also performing with other superstar classical musicians. Major cello pieces were written for him by some of the most important composers of the 20th century.
Mstislav Rostropovich.
Jacqueline du Pré (1945–1987) Though her name is French, du Pré was British. She was widely praised as one of the leading players of her generation, but her career was cut short by multiple sclerosis. She performed with the most prestigious orchestras in the world and recorded most of the important cello concertos. (A few videos of du Pré performing can be viewed on YouTube.)
Jacqueline du Pré
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Luigi Boccherini (1743–1805) A prominent Italian cellist and composer who lived at the time of Mozart, Boccherini is best known today for his Concerto in B-flat Major, which is usually heard in a version that was heavily edited by a later cellist named Friedrich Grützmacher. Boccherini also wrote cello sonatas and other chamber works that feature the cello.
Gregor Piatigorsky (1903–1976) After leaving Russia in the early 1920s, Piatigorsky was hired as principal cellist of the Berlin Philharmonic. During World War II he emigrated to the United States, where he became head of the cello department at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia. He remained active as a teacher for the rest of his life. Prokofiev and Hindemith wrote concertos for him, and he played chamber music with pianist Arthur Rubinstein and violinist Jascha Heifetz.
Luigi Boccherini.
Jacques Offenbach (1819–1880) Best known as a composer of operettas, Offenbach began his musical career as a cello virtuoso, performing with such notables as Franz Liszt and Felix Mendelssohn. His cello duets are excellent pieces for students to perform in recitals.
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Index Numbers 12-bar blues, 156–157 12-tone equal temperament, 28 170 Foundation Studies for Violoncello, 161
A above the middle (A.M.), 47 accelerando, 138 accents, 134 accidentals, 111–112 adagio, 131, 138 advanced techniques left hand double-stops, 97 glissando, 96 harmonics, 98–99 portamento, 96 thumb, 99–100 trilling, 96–97 moving the bow, 64–65 agitato, 138 airplanes, 31 allargando, 138 allegro, 131, 138 alphabet, 108 A.M. (above the middle), 47 andante, 131, 138 angles (moving the bow), 48–49 animals, 29 Applebaum, Samuel (String Builder), 161 applying rosin, 36 arched shape (left hand), 72–75 arco, 62, 138 arm, left, 76–77 arpeggios (chords), 116
Art of Cello Playing, The, 83, 87, 161 articulations, 134 assai, 131, 138 assessing teachers, 167–168 attaca, 138 augmented intervals, 114–115
B Bach, Johann Sebastian, 153 bad techniques. See troubleshooting bars (measures), 111–112, 123 bass bar overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33 bass clef, 109–110, 137 beams, 124–125 beats reading music, 123 tempo (time signatures), 130–131 beats per minute, 130 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 5 Ninth Symphony, 152 “Ode to Joy”, 152 below the middle (B.M.), 47 Bissinger, Wendy (Sequenced Scale Studies for Cello), 161 Bizet, Georges, 130 blues, 156–157 “Blues in G”, 156–157 B.M. (below the middle), 47 Boccherini, Luigi, 171 body of cello, 5–6 books 170 Foundation Studies for Violoncello, 161
Art of Cello Playing, The, 83, 87, 161 Cello Playing for Music Lovers, 45, 161 Chords & Harmony, 116, 156 Intermediate Etudes in the Positions, 161 literature, 165 Position Pieces for Cello, 161 Sequenced Scale Studies for Cello, 161 String Builder, 161 Suzuki Cello School, 161 bowing. See bow, moving the bow caring for chair, 29 floor, 29 loosening, 30, 35 rehairing, 33 setting down, 29 tightening, 30, 35 direction, 45–47, 144 ferrule, 36 frog, 6 hair overview, 6 rehairing bows, 33 handgrip, 6 holding bad techniques, 40–42 checklist, 38–39 DVD, 38–39 exercises, 39–40 left-handed, 36 loosening, 38 overview, 37–38 pencils, 39–40 relaxing, 38 troubleshooting, 40–42
bow (continued ) moving. See also playing above the middle, 47 across strings, 50–51 advanced techniques, 64–65 angles, 48–49 bad techniques, 46 below the middle, 47 checklist, 44, 56 chords, 64 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138 double-stops, 64 downbeat, 46 down-bow, 45–47, 144 DVD, 44–45, 53, 57–58, 64–65 dynamics, 54–55 economy, 54 exercises, 50–51, 59–60, 66–69 flexibility, 57–58 left-handed, 36 loosening, 52 loudness, 54–55 lower half, 47 mirrors, 49 overview, 43–44 pickup, 46 pitch, 48–49 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 pressure, 52–54 regions, 47 relaxing, 52 retaking, 47, 152 right arm, 52 right hand, 57–58 roll, 48–49 shoulder, 52 skipping strings, 50–51 slurs, 46, 59–60, 144 softness, 54–55 sounding point, 44–45 speed, 52–54 spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 sul tasto, 55, 139 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 troubleshooting, 46, 56, 144
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upbeat, 46 up-bow, 45–47, 144 upper half, 47 volume, 54–55 whole bow, 47 yaw, 48–49 overview, 6, 9, 35 rosin, applying, 36 screw, 6 slurs, 59 stick, 6 tip, 6 bpm (beats per minute), 130 bridge overview, 3–4, 9 repairing cellos, 32–33 buying cello. See choosing cello buzzing, 31–32
C C (left hand), 72 cantabile, 138 caring for bow chairs, 29 floor, 29 loosening, 30, 35 rehairing, 33 setting down, 29 tightening, 30, 35 caring for cello airplanes, 31 carrying, 31 cases, 31 chairs, 29 cleaning, 30–31 end pin, 29 floor, 29 humidity, 29 overview, 29 pets, 29 repairing bass bar, 33 bridge, 32–33 endpin, 31 overview, 31–32 pegs, 32 professional shops, 33
soundpost, 33 strings, 31–32 tailpiece, 31–32 setting down, 29 temperature, 29 Carmen, 130 carrying cello, 31 Casals, Pablo, 169 cases caring for, 31 overview, 9–11 cellists Boccherini, Luigi, 171 Casals, Pablo, 169 du Pré, Jacqueline, 170 Ma, Yo-Yo, 169 Offenbach, Jacques, 171 overview, 168 Piatigorsky, Gregor, 171 Romberg, Bernhard, 5 Rostropovich, Mstislav, 170 Servais, Adrien, 5 Cello Playing for Music Lovers, 45, 161 cello bass bar overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33 body, 5–6 bow. See bow bridge overview, 3–4, 9 repairing cellos, 32–33 buying. See choosing cello caring for airplanes, 31 carrying, 31 cases, 31 chairs, 29 cleaning, 30–31 end pin, 29 floor, 29 humidity, 29 overview, 29 pets, 29 setting down, 29 temperature, 29
Index cases caring for, 31 overview, 9–11 choosing bow, 9 bridge, 9 case, 9 condition, 7, 9 cost, 7 fingerboard, 9 Internet, 7 size, 8 strings, 9 end pin caring for cello, 29 end pin holder, 12 overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31 f-holes, 5 fingerboard fingerboard tape, 13, 84 overview, 3–5, 9 literature, 165 meaning, 2 neck, 3 parts overview, 2 pegs loosening, 27, 32 overview, 3 repairing cellos, 32 tightening, 27, 32 tuning, 27–28, 32 positioning, 21–22 pronunciation, 2 purfling, 5 renting. See choosing cello repairing bass bar, 33 bridge, 32–33 endpin, 31 overview, 31–32 pegs, 32 professional shops, 33 soundpost, 33 strings, 31–32 tailpiece, 31–32 scroll, 3 soundpost overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33
tailpiece overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31–32 tuning 12-tone equal temperament, 28 DVD, 25 electronic tuners, 25–26 fifths, 26 harmonics, 27 instruments, 23–24 intervals, 28 intonation, 28 irrational numbers, 28 notes, 23–24 overview, 23–24 pegs, 27–28, 32 pianos, 26 pitch, 24–25 chairs bow, 29 cello, 29 sitting, 20–22 checklists. See also troubleshooting holding the bow, 38–39 moving the bow, 44, 56 choosing cello bow, 9 bridge, 9 case, 9 condition, 7, 9 cost, 7 fingerboard, 9 Internet, 7 size, 8 strings, 9 chords arpeggios, 116 moving the bow, 64 reading music, 116 Chords & Harmony, 116, 156 church, 164 Circle of Fifths, 119 clapping, 125 cleaning cello, 30–31 clef, 109–110, 137 coda, 138 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138
common mistakes. See troubleshooting common time (time signatures), 128 composers Bach, Johann Sebastian, “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”, 153 Beethoven, Ludwig van Ninth Symphony, 152 “Ode to Joy”, 152 Bizet, Georges, 130 Foster, Stephen “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”, 151 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 Joplin, Scott,”Entertainer, The”, 160 Rossini, Gioachino, “William Tell Overture”, 158–159 compound time signatures, 153 con, 138 con fuoco, 138 concertos, 165 condition, cello, 7, 9 conductors, 166 cost, cellos, 7 counting rhythm values, 144 time signatures, 128–130 crescendo, 138, 156 cut time (time signatures), 128
D de capo, 138 decrescendo, 138 del segno, 138, 158 diminished intervals, 114–115 diminuendo, 138, 156 direction (bowing), 45–47, 144 dolce, 138 dots reading music, 134 time signatures, 131–132 double-stops left hand, 97 moving the bow, 64 downbeat moving the bow, 46 time signatures, 128
175
down-bow, 45–47, 144 du Pré, Jacqueline, 170 duets, playing, 165 DVD bow holding, 38–39 moving, 44–45, 53, 57–58, 64–65 left hand arched shape, 72, 74 extended shape, 87 harmonics, 98 shifting, 91 vibrato, 85 songs “Blues in G”, 156–157 “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”, 153 “Long, Long Ago”, 147 Ninth Symphony, 152 “Ode to Joy”, 152 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”, 145 “We Wish You a Merry Christmas”, 149 “William Tell Overture”, 158–159 tuning, 25 dynamics moving the bow, 54–55 reading music, 134 relative dynamics, 134
E economy (moving the bow), 54 elbow, left, 76 electronic tuners DVD, 25 overview, 11 tuning, 25–26 end pin caring for cello, 29 end pin holder, 12 overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31
176
end pin holder, 12 “Entertainer, The”, 160 equipment cases caring for, 31 overview, 9–11 chair bow, 29 cello, 29 sitting, 20–22 electronic tuners DVD, 25 overview, 11 tuning, 25–26 end pin holder, 12 fingerboard tape left hand, 84 overview, 13 humidifier, 15 metronome overview, 12 time signatures, 130–131 music stands, 11 mute, 14 rosin applying, 36 overview, 10 strings, 9 goggles, 16 moving the bow, 50–51 overview, 12–13 putting on, 16–17 removing, 16 repairing cellos, 31–32 replacing, 16–17 safety, 16 tightening, 17 wolf suppressor, 15 espressivo, 138 -etto, 138 etude, 143 exercises holding the bow, 39–40 left hand, 101–105 moving the bow, 50–51, 59–60, 66–69 extended shape (left hand), 87–90
F F clef (bass clef), 109–110, 137 family, playing, 164 ferrule, 36 f-holes, 5 fifths Circle of Fifths, 119 tuning, 26 finding teachers, 167–168 fine, 138, 158 fingerboard fingerboard tape left hand, 84 overview, 13 overview, 3–5, 9 fingerboard tape left hand, 84 overview, 13 fingering (left hand), 78–81, 91–95 exercises, 101–105 half position, 94–95 numbering of positions, 94–95 reading music, 78, 95 fingernails (left hand), 72 flags, 124–125 flats defined, 25 reading music, 111–112 flexibility (moving the bow), 57–58 floating beams, 125 floor, caring for cello, 29 flying, 31 forte, 134, 138, 156 fortissimo, 134, 138 Foster, Stephen “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”, 151 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 French sheet music, 126 French terminology bass clef, 109–110, 137 clef, 109–110, 137 etude, 143 tenor clef, 137 treble clef, 109, 137 frets, 82
Index frog, 6 F-sharp (left hand), 90 future, 164
G giocoso, 138 glissando, 96 Glossary, 138–139 goggles (strings), 16 grace notes (time signatures), 133 Grant, Francis (Intermediate Etudes in the Positions), 161 grave, 138 grip. See handgrip; holding the bow guitar player’s deformity, 74–75
H hair overview, 6 rehairing bows, 33 half position (shifting left hand), 94–95 handgrip, 6 hands left hand. See left hand right hand. See holding the bow; moving the bow right hand (moving the bow), 57–58 hanging beams, 125 harmonics DVD, 98 left hand, 98–99 reading music, 98–99 tuning, 27 holder (end pin), 12 holding the bow. See also moving the bow bad techniques, 40–42 checklist, 38–39 DVD, 38–39 exercises, 39–40 left-handed, 36 loosening, 38 overview, 37–38 pencils, 39–40 relaxing, 38 troubleshooting, 40–42
“Home on the Range”, 155 humidifier, 15 humidity caring for cello, 29 humidifier, 15
I in tune. See intonation instruments, tuning, 23–24 Intermediate Etudes in the Positions, 161 Internet, 7 intervals left hand, 83, 87 reading music augmented, 114–115 diminished, 114–115 inverting, 113 major, 114–115 minor, 114–115 octaves, 113 overview, 112–113 perfect, 114–115 seconds, 112 thirds, 112 unisons, 113 tuning, 28 intonation left hand, 82–84 tuning, 28 inverting intervals, 113 invisible groove (sounding point), 44–45 irrational numbers (tuning), 28 -issimo, 138 Italian terminology accelerando, 138 adagio, 131, 138 agitato, 138 allargando, 138 allegro, 131, 138 andante, 131, 138 arco, 62, 138 assai, 131, 138 attaca, 138 cantabile, 138 coda, 138 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138
con, 138 con fuoco, 138 crescendo, 138, 156 de capo, 138 decrescendo, 138 del segno, 138, 158 diminuendo, 138, 156 dolce, 138 espressivo, 138 -etto, 138 fine, 138, 158 forte, 134, 138, 156 fortissimo, 134, 138 giocoso, 138 glissando, 96 grave, 138 -issimo, 138 largo, 131, 138 legato, 69, 138 lento, 131, 138 ma non tanto, 138 ma non troppo, 139 maestoso, 138 meno, 139 mezzo-forte, 134, 139, 156 mezzo-piano, 134, 139 moderato, 131, 139 molto, 139 mosso, 139 octava, 139 pesante, 139 pianissimo, 134, 139 piano, 134, 139 piu, 139 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 poco a poco, 139 portamento, 96 presto, 131, 139 rallentando, 139 ritardando, 139 rondo, 139 rubato, 135, 139 segno, 139 sempre, 62, 139 senza, 139 sforzando, 134, 139 simile, 69, 139, 156 sonata, 139, 143, 165 sordino, 139 sostenuto, 139 sotto voce, 139
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Italian terminology (continued ) spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 subito, 139 sul ponticello, 139 sul tasto, 55, 139 tenuto, 134–135, 139, 150 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 vivace, 131, 139 z pronunciation, 62
J “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”, 151 “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”, 153 Jiji, Vera Mattlin, 45 Joplin, Scott, 160 “Joy to the World”, 148
K key signatures, 117, 119 keys Circle of Fifths, 119 key signatures, 117, 119 major scales, 118–119 minor scales, 120 scales, 118–120 tonics, 118
L largo, 131, 138 ledger lines, 110 left arm, 76–77 left elbow, 76 left hand advanced techniques double-stops, 97 glissando, 96 harmonics, 98–99 portamento, 96 thumb, 99–100 trilling, 96–97 arched shape, 72–75 arm, 76–77 bow, 36
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DVD arched shape, 72, 74 extended shape, 87 harmonics, 98 shifting, 91 vibrato, 85 elbow, 76 extended shape, 87–90 fingerboard tape, 84 fingering, 78–81, 91–95 exercises, 101–105 half position, 94–95 numbering of positions, 94–95 reading music, 78, 95 fingernails, 72 frets, 82 F-sharp, 90 guitar player’s deformity, 74–75 harmonics, 98–99 intervals, 83, 87 intonation, 82–84 letter C, 72 overview, 71 piano player comparison, 78–79 pitch, 82–84 posture, 77 shifting, 79, 91–95 thumb, 77, 92, 99–100 trilling, 96–97 vibrato, 85–86 violin player comparison, 85 whole steps, 87 wrist, 76 left wrist, 76 legato, 69, 138 lento, 131, 138 letter C (left hand), 72 L.H. (lower half), 47 listening playing, 166 troubleshooting, 142–144 literature, 165 170 Foundation Studies for Violoncello, 161 Art of Cello Playing, The, 83, 87, 161 Cello Playing for Music Lovers, 45, 161 Chords & Harmony, 116, 156
Intermediate Etudes in the Positions, 161 Position Pieces for Cello, 161 Sequenced Scale Studies for Cello, 161 String Builder, 161 Suzuki Cello School, 161 “Long, Long Ago”, 147 long rests (time signatures), 130 loosening. See also tightening bow caring for, 30, 35 holding, 38 moving, 52 pegs, 27, 32 loudness (moving the bow), 54–55 lower half (L.H.), 47
M ma non tanto, 138 ma non troppo, 139 Ma, Yo-Yo, 169 maestoso, 138 major intervals, 114–115 major scales (keys), 118–119 Mattlin Jiji, Vera (Cello Playing for Music Lovers), 161 meaning of “cello”, 2 measures (bars), 111–112, 123 meno, 139 metronome overview, 12 time signatures, 130–131 mezzo-forte, 134, 139, 156 mezzo-piano, 134, 139 minor intervals, 114–115 minor scales (keys), 120 mirrors (moving the bow), 49 mistakes. See troubleshooting mnemonics, 109 moderato, 131, 139 molto, 139 Mooney, Rick (Position Pieces for Cello), 161 mosso, 139
Index moving the bow. See also holding the bow; playing above the middle, 47 across strings, 50–51 advanced techniques, 64–65 angles, 48–49 bad techniques, 46 below the middle, 47 checklist, 44, 56 chords, 64 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138 double-stops, 64 downbeat, 46 down-bow, 45–47, 144 DVD, 44–45, 53, 57–58, 64–65 dynamics, 54–55 economy, 54 exercises, 50–51, 59–60, 66–69 flexibility, 57–58 left-handed, 36 loosening, 52 loudness, 54–55 lower half, 47 mirrors, 49 overview, 43–44 pickup, 46 pitch, 48–49 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 pressure, 52–54 regions, 47 relaxing, 52 retaking, 47, 152 right arm, 52 right hand, 57–58 roll, 48–49 shoulder, 52 skipping strings, 50–51 slurs, 46, 59–60, 144 softness, 54–55 sounding point, 44–45 speed, 52–54 spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 sul tasto, 55, 139 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 troubleshooting, 46, 56, 144 upbeat, 46 up-bow, 45–47, 144 upper half, 47
volume, 54–55 whole bow, 47 yaw, 48–49 music stands, 11 musical notation. See reading music musicians, playing with, 166 mute, 14
ties, 131–132 triplets, 133 tuplets, 133 upbeat, 128 tuning. See tuning numbers irrational numbers, tuning, 28 positions, left hand, 94–95
N
O
naturals, 111–112 neck, 3 next steps, playing, 164 Ninth Symphony, 152 notation. See notes; reading music notes chords arpeggios, 116 moving the bow, 64 reading music, 116 flats defined, 25 reading music, 111–112 intervals. See intervals pitch defined, 24 flat, 25 sharp, 25 reading music, 108 sharps defined, 25 reading music, 111–112 time signatures bpm, 130 common time, 128 compound time signatures, 153 counting, 128–130 cut time, 128 dots, 131–132 downbeat, 128 grace notes, 133 long rests, 130 metronome marking, 130–131 offbeat, 130 overview, 127–128 pickup notes, 128 quintuplets, 133 syncopation, 132 tempo, 130–131
octava, 139 octaves (intervals), 113 “Ode to Joy”, 152 offbeat (time signatures), 130 Offenbach, Jacques, 171 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 On the DVD. See DVD opera (Carmen), 130 orchestras, playing with, 166
P parts of the cello bass bar overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33 body, 5–6 bow. See bow bridge overview, 3–4, 9 repairing cellos, 32–33 end pin caring for cello, 29 end pin holder, 12 overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31 f-holes, 5 fingerboard fingerboard tape, 13, 84 overview, 3–5, 9 neck, 3 overview, 2 pegs loosening, 27, 32 overview, 3 repairing cellos, 32 tightening, 27, 32 tuning, 27–28, 32 purfling, 5
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parts of the cello (continued ) scroll, 3 soundpost overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33 tailpiece overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31–32 pegs loosening, 27, 32 overview, 3 repairing cellos, 32 tightening, 27, 32 tuning, 27–28, 32 pencils (holding the bow), 39–40 perfect intervals, 114–115 pesante, 139 pets, 29 pianissimo, 134, 139 piano left hand playing comparison, 78–79 reading music, 134, 139 tuning, 26 Piatigorsky, Gregor, 171 pickup (moving the bow), 46 pickup notes (time signatures), 128 pitch left hand, 82–84 moving the bow, 48–49 notes defined, 24 flat, 25 sharp, 25 reading music, 108 tuning, 24–25 piu, 139 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 planes, 31 playing bow. See bow church, 164 concertos, 165 conductors, 166 duets, 165 family, 164 future, 164
180
left hand. See left hand listening, 166 musicians, 166 next steps, 164 orchestras, 166 practicing, 142–144 quartets, 165 rehearsals, 166 rhythms,clapping, 125 right hand. See bow school, 164 sonatas, 139, 143, 165 songs “Blues in G”, 156–157 “Entertainer, The”, 160 “Home on the Range”, 155 “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”, 151 “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”, 153 “Joy to the World”, 148 “Long, Long Ago”, 147 Ninth Symphony, 152 “Ode to Joy”, 152 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 ragtime, 160 “She’ll be Comin’ Round the Mountain”, 146 “Turkey in the Straw”, 154 “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”, 145 “We Wish You a Merry Christmas”, 149 “William Tell Overture”, 158–159 suites, 165 poco a poco, 139 portamento, 96 Position Pieces for Cello, 161 positions cello, 21–22 numbering (left hand), 94–95 posture left hand, 77 sitting, 20–22 Potter, Jr., Louis (Art of Cello Playing, The), 83, 87, 161 practicing tips, 142–144 pressure (moving the bow), 52–54
presto, 131, 139 printed music. See reading music professional repair shops, 33 pronunciation cello, 2 Italian z, 62 purfling, 5 putting on strings, 16–17
Q-R quartets, playing, 165 quintuplets (time signatures), 133 ragtime, 160 rallentando, 139 reading music accents, 134 accidentals, 111–112 alphabet, 108 articulations, 134 bars, 111–112, 123 beams, 124–125 beats, 123 bow direction, 46 slurs, 59 chords, 116 compound time signatures, 153 dots, 134 down-bow, 46 dynamics, 134 flags, 124–125 flats, 111–112 French sheet music, 126 French terminology bass clef, 109–110, 137 clef, 109–110, 137 etude, 143 tenor clef, 137 treble clef, 109, 137 intervals augmented, 114–115 diminished, 114–115 inverting, 113 major, 114–115 minor, 114–115 octaves, 113 overview, 112–113
Index perfect, 114–115 seconds, 112 thirds, 112 unisons, 113 Italian terminology accelerando, 138 adagio, 131, 138 agitato, 138 allargando, 138 allegro, 131, 138 andante, 131, 138 arco, 62, 138 assai, 131, 138 attaca, 138 cantabile, 138 coda, 138 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138 con, 138 con fuoco, 138 crescendo, 138, 156 de capo, 138 decrescendo, 138 del segno, 138, 158 diminuendo, 138, 156 dolce, 138 espressivo, 138 -etto, 138 fine, 138, 158 forte, 134, 138, 156 fortissimo, 134, 138 giocoso, 138 glissando, 96 grave, 138 -issimo, 138 largo, 131, 138 legato, 69, 138 lento, 131, 138 ma non tanto, 138 ma non troppo, 139 maestoso, 138 meno, 139 mezzo-forte, 134, 139, 156 mezzo-piano, 134, 139 moderato, 131, 139 molto, 139 mosso, 139 octava, 139 pesante, 139 pianissimo, 134, 139 piano, 134, 139
piu, 139 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 poco a poco, 139 portamento, 96 presto, 131, 139 rallentando, 139 ritardando, 139 rondo, 139 rubato, 135, 139 segno, 139 sempre, 62, 139 senza, 139 sforzando, 134, 139 simile, 69, 139, 156 sonata, 139, 143, 165 sordino, 139 sostenuto, 139 sotto voce, 139 spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 subito, 139 sul ponticello, 139 sul tasto, 55, 139 tenuto, 134–135, 139, 150 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 vivace, 131, 139 z pronunciation, 62 keys Circle of Fifths, 119 key signatures, 117, 119 major scales, 118–119 minor scales, 120 scales, 118–120 tonics, 118 ledger lines, 110 left hand extended hand shape, 87–90 fingering, 78, 95 harmonics, 98–99 thumbs, 100 trilling, 96–97 mnemonics, 109 naturals, 111–112 notes, 108 overview, 107 piano, 134, 139 pitch, 108 relative dynamics, 134 repeats, 135–136 rests, 126–127
rhythm values, 123–125 rhythms, 124–125 sharps, 111–112 simile, 69, 139, 156 slurs, 59 staff, 109–110, 121–122 time signatures bpm, 130 common time, 128 counting, 128–130 cut time, 128 dots, 131–132 downbeat, 128 grace notes, 133 long rests, 130 metronome marking, 130–131 offbeat, 130 overview, 127–128 pickup notes, 128 quintuplets, 133 syncopation, 132 tempo, 130–131 ties, 131–132 triplets, 133 tuplets, 133 upbeat, 128 up-bow, 46 violoncello, 2 regions (moving the bow), 47 rehairing bows, 33 rehearsals, 166 relative dynamics, 134 relaxing holding the bow, 38 moving the bow, 52 removing strings, 16 renting cello. See choosing cello repairing cellos bass bar, 33 bridge, 32–33 endpin, 31 overview, 31–32 pegs, 32 professional shops, 33 soundpost, 33 strings, 31–32 tailpiece, 31–32 repeats, 135–136 replacing strings, 16–17 rests, 126–127, 130
181
retaking (moving the bow), 47, 152 rhythm values counting, 144 reading music, 123–125 rhythms clapping, 125 reading music, 124–125 rhythm values counting, 144 reading music, 123–125 syncopated, 160 right arm (moving the bow), 52 right hand. See holding the bow; moving the bow ritardando, 139 roll (moving the bow), 48–49 Romberg, Bernhard, 5 rondo, 139 rosin applying, 36 overview, 10 Rossini, Gioachino, 158–159 Rostropovich, Mstislav, 170 rubato, 135, 139
S safety (strings), 16 scales (keys), 118–120 school, 164 Schroeder, Alwin (170 Foundation Studies for Violoncello), 161 screw, 6 scroll, 3 seconds (intervals), 112 segno, 139 sempre, 62, 139 senza, 139 Sequenced Scale Studies for Cello, 161 Servais, Adrien, 5 setting down bow and cello, 29 sforzando, 134, 139 shapes (left hand) arched shape, 72–75 extended shape, 87–90
182
sharps defined, 25 reading music, 111–112 sheet music. See reading music “She’ll be Comin’ Round the Mountain”, 146 shifting left hand, 79, 91–95 DVD, 91 half position, 94–95 numbering of positions, 94–95 shoulder (moving the bow), 52 signatures key signatures, 117, 119 time signatures bpm, 130 common time, 128 compound time signatures, 153 counting, 128–130 cut time, 128 dots, 131–132 downbeat, 128 grace notes, 133 long rests, 130 metronome marking, 130–131 offbeat, 130 overview, 127–128 pickup notes, 128 quintuplets, 133 syncopation, 132 tempo, 130–131 ties, 131–132 triplets, 133 tuplets, 133 upbeat, 128 simile, 69, 139, 156 sitting, 20–22 size (cellos), 8 skipping strings (moving the bow), 50–51 slurs moving the bow, 46, 59–60, 144 reading music, 59 troubleshooting, 144 softness (moving the bow), 54–55 sonata, 139, 143, 165
songs, playing “Blues in G”, 156–157 “Entertainer, The”, 160 “Home on the Range”, 155 “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair”, 151 “Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring”, 153 “Joy to the World”, 148 “Long, Long Ago”, 147 Ninth Symphony, 152 “Ode to Joy”, 152 “Oh, Susanna”, 150 ragtime, 160 “She’ll be Comin’ Round the Mountain”, 146 “Turkey in the Straw”, 154 “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”, 145 “We Wish You a Merry Christmas”, 149 “William Tell Overture”, 158–159 sordino, 139 sostenuto, 139 sotto voce, 139 sounding point, 44–45 soundpost overview, 5–6 repairing cellos, 33 speed (moving the bow), 52–54 spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 staff, 109–110, 121–122 stands, 11 staves. See staff stick, 6 String Builder, 161 strings, 9 goggles, 16 moving the bow, 50–51 overview, 12–13 putting on, 16–17 removing, 16 repairing cellos, 31–32 replacing, 16–17 safety, 16 tightening, 17 subito, 139
Index suites, playing, 165 sul ponticello, 139 sul tasto, 55, 139 suppressor (wolf), 15 Suzuki Cello School, 161 syncopation rhythms, 160 time signatures, 132
T tailpiece overview, 4–5 repairing cellos, 31–32 tape (fingerboard tape) left hand, 84 overview, 13 teachers, 167–168 temperature, caring for cello, 29 tempo (time signatures), 130–131 tenor clef, 137 tenuto, 134–135, 139, 150 terminology French bass clef, 109–110, 137 clef, 109–110, 137 etude, 143 tenor clef, 137 treble clef, 109, 137 Italian accelerando, 138 adagio, 131, 138 agitato, 138 allargando, 138 allegro, 131, 138 andante, 131, 138 arco, 62, 138 assai, 131, 138 attaca, 138 cantabile, 138 coda, 138 col arco, 62 col legno, 65, 138 con, 138 con fuoco, 138 crescendo, 138, 156 de capo, 138 decrescendo, 138 del segno, 138, 158
diminuendo, 138, 156 dolce, 138 espressivo, 138 -etto, 138 fine, 138, 158 forte, 134, 138, 156 fortissimo, 134, 138 giocoso, 138 glissando, 96 grave, 138 -issimo, 138 largo, 131, 138 legato, 69, 138 lento, 131, 138 ma non tanto, 138 ma non troppo, 139 maestoso, 138 meno, 139 mezzo-forte, 134, 139, 156 mezzo-piano, 134, 139 moderato, 131, 139 molto, 139 mosso, 139 octava, 139 pesante, 139 pianissimo, 134, 139 piano, 134, 139 piu, 139 pizzicato, 62–63, 139 poco a poco, 139 portamento, 96 presto, 131, 139 rallentando, 139 ritardando, 139 rondo, 139 rubato, 135, 139 segno, 139 sempre, 62, 139 senza, 139 sforzando, 134, 139 simile, 69, 139, 156 sonata, 139, 143, 165 sordino, 139 sostenuto, 139 sotto voce, 139 spiccato, 61, 65, 139 staccato, 47, 61, 134, 139, 156, 158 subito, 139 sul ponticello, 139
sul tasto, 55, 139 tenuto, 134–135, 139, 150 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 vivace, 131, 139 z pronunciation, 62 thirds (intervals), 112 thumb (left hand), 77, 92 advanced techniques, 99–100 reading music, 100 ties (time signatures), 131–132 tightening. See also loosening bow, 30, 35 pegs, 27, 32 strings, 17 time signatures bpm, 130 common time, 128 compound time signatures, 153 counting, 128–130 cut time, 128 dots, 131–132 downbeat, 128 grace notes, 133 long rests, 130 metronome marking, 130–131 offbeat, 130 overview, 127–128 pickup notes, 128 quintuplets, 133 syncopation, 132 tempo, 130–131 ties, 131–132 triplets, 133 tuplets, 133 upbeat, 128 tip, 6 tips. See troubleshooting tonics (keys), 118 traveling, 31 treble clef, 109, 137 tremolo, 65, 125, 139 trilling, 96–97 triplets (time signatures), 133 troubleshooting buzzing, 31–32 checklists holding the bow, 38–39 moving the bow, 44, 56 counting rhythm values, 144
183
troubleshooting (continued ) holding the bow, 38–42 listening, 142–144 moving the bow, 44, 46, 56, 144 practicing tips, 142–144 slurs, 144 tuners DVD, 25 overview, 11 tuning, 25–26 tuning the cello 12-tone equal temperament, 28 DVD, 25 electronic tuners, 25–26 DVD, 25 overview, 11 tuning, 25–26 fifths, 26 harmonics, 27 instruments, 23–24 intervals, 28 intonation, 28 irrational numbers, 28 notes, 23–24 overview, 23–24 pegs, 27–28, 32 pianos, 26 pitch, 24–25 tuplets (time signatures), 133 “Turkey in the Straw”, 154 “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”, 145
184
U U.H. (upper half), 47 unisons (intervals), 113 upbeat moving the bow, 46 time signatures, 128 up-bow, 45–47, 144 upper half (U.H.), 47
V values, rhythm counting, 144 reading music, 123–125 vibrato, 85–86 violin player (left hand comparison), 85 violoncello, 2 vivace, 131, 139 volume (moving the bow), 54–55
W-Z W.B. (whole bow), 47 “We Wish You a Merry Christmas”, 149 whole bow (W.B.), 47 whole steps (left hand), 87 “William Tell Overture”, 158–159 wolf suppressor, 15 wrists, left, 76 yaw (moving the bow), 48–49 z pronunciation, 62
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