Phytogenics in Animal Nutrition Natural Concepts to Optimize Gut Health and Performance
i
Phytogenics in Animal Nutrition Natural Concepts to Optimize Gut Health and Performance
Edited by T Steiner
Nottingham University Press Manor Farm, Main Street, Thrumpton Nottingham, NG11 0AX, United Kingdom www.nup.com First published 2009 © Erber AG, Austria All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Phytogenics in Animal Nutrition Natural Concepts to Optimize Gut Health and Performance Steiner, T. ISBN: 978-1-904761-71-6
Disclaimer Every reasonable effort has been made to ensure that the material in this book is true, correct, complete and appropriate at the time of writing. Nevertheless the publishers, the editors and the authors do not accept responsibility for any omission or error, or for any injury, damage, loss or financial consequences arising from the use of the book.
Typeset by Nottingham University Press, Nottingham Printed and bound by Martins the Printers, Berwick upon Tweed
Table of contents
Preface
1
Essential Oils: Biochemistry, Production and Utilisation
Á. Máthé
2
Phytogenic Feed Additives to Young Piglets and Poultry: Mechanisms and Application
3
W. Windisch, E. Rohrer and K. Schedle
T.J. Applegate
Influence of Phytogenics on the Immunity of Livestock and Poultry
4
Phytobased Products for the Control of Intestinal Diseases in Chickens in the Post Antibiotic Era
I. Giannenas and I. Kyriazakis
Enhancing Feed Intake by the Sow during Lactation using Biomin® P.E.P.
5 6
vii 1
19
39
61
87
J.C. Laurenz, J.A. Miller, J. Rounsavall, N.C. Burdick and F. Neher
Phytogenic Compounds in Broiler Nutrition
97
K.C. Mountzouris, V. Paraskevas and K. Fegeros
7 8
Essential Oils as Feed Additives in Ruminant Nutrition
P. Encarnação
9
Application and Benefits of Phytogenics in Egg Production
T. Steiner
Conclusion
167
Index
169
111
C. Benchaar, A.N. Hristov and H. Greathead
The Potential of Phytogenic Compounds in Aquaculture
147
157
Preface
Driven by the European ban of antibiotic growth promoters in 2006, phytogenic feed additives have been gaining considerable attention in livestock feeding in the last few years. More and more commercial products are available on the market and it is expected that the use of these additives will increase even more in the future. The term “phytogenics”, also referred to as botanicals or phytobiotics, describes plant-derived compounds incorporated in animal feed to improve productivity of livestock through amelioration of feed properties and promotion of the animal’s production performance. Phytogenics include a broad range of plant materials, most of which have a long history in human nutrition, where they have been used as flavours, food preservatives and medicines since ancient times. These plant materials usually contain a cocktail of numerous different active principles (e.g. eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol or thymol), which all play together to determine a specific flavour or scent. Indeed, phytogenics are commonly known for their flavouring properties, thus having impact on the palatability of diets. On the other hand, phytogenics exert a range of distinct biological activities, therefore having the potential to positively affect gut health and increase performance. The in vitro antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant and other activities of phytogenic compounds are well described and backed up by numerous scientific reports. In the meanwhile, an increasing number of studies addressing the gastrointestinal effects of phytogenics under in vivo conditions, i.e. in animal feeding experiments, are available. The intestinal microflora, gut morphology, gastric emptying, activity of endogenous digestive secretions and, finally, performance parameters are considered to be influenced by dietary phytogenics. A systematic assessment of the potential efficacies of phytogenics has been difficult due to the fact that the majority of in vivo trials were carried out using commercial phytogenic additives, which, in most cases, were blends of several plant extracts, hence representing a mixture of different active ingredients. Only a minor portion of trials used single phytogenic compounds such as pure carvacrol or thymol or a chemically defined essential oil. Based on the studies reported to date, it is the aim of this compendium to summarize the most recent knowledge about the application and benefits of phytogenics in different animal species. In Chapter 1, Ákos Máthé presents a brief overview about definitions and the chemistry of aromatic plants, their extracts and active principles. He highlights the different biological activities as reported in in vitro experiments. Wilhelm Windisch and his co-authors summarise the potential modes of action of phytogenic feed supplements and their effects on animal performance (Chapter 2), while specific attention is paid to the potential impact of phytogenics on immune parameters by Todd Applegate (Chapter 3). In Chapter 4, Ilias Giannenas and Ilias Kyriazakis describe the role of phytogenics in the prevention of intestinal diseases in poultry, such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis. The beneficial effect of
viii Preface phytogenics on feed intake and lactation performance of sows is presented by Jamie Laurenz and his co-authors by the example of a feeding trial conducted at Texas A&M University (Chapter 5). In Chapter 6, Kostas Mountzouris and colleagues provide a review of the latest literature pertaining to the benefits of phytogenics specifically in broiler nutrition. Recently, as presented by Chaouki Benchaar and co-authors, the potential to manipulate the ruminal microflora with phytogenics has attracted growing interest. Up-to-date knowledge about this application is summarised in Chapter 7. Due to the increasing importance of aquaculture and the shift from animal protein to plant protein-based diets in feeding programs for fish and shrimp, it is anticipated that phytogenics will also gain increasing attention in aquatic species, as Pedro Encarnação reports in Chapter 8. Finally, this work is completed by the editor by highlighting the application and benefits of phytogenics in the feeding of laying hens (Chapter 9). This compendium represents a review of existing knowledge, as well as a basis for future research and development for scientists and the feed industry in order to develop efficacious phytogenic preparations for animal nutrition.
Tobias Steiner, PhD Editor
A. Máthé 1
1 ESSENTIAL OILS – BIOCHEMISTRY, PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION Ákos Máthé Department of Botany, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science, University of West Hungary, 9200 Mosonmagyaróvár, Vár 2, Hungary, e-mail:
[email protected] Introduction Essential oils are concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing the volatile aroma compounds of plants. They are also known as volatile or ethereal oils, since they are volatile in steam. They differ in both chemical and physical properties from the so called fixed oils. The essential oils are not simple compounds, but a mixture of various compounds (mainly terpenes and terpene derivatives) (Baer and Demirci, 2007). Consequently, the term “essential oil” corresponds only to the practical technological feature of these compound mixtures, i.e. it generally denotes active principles that become volatile at room temperature and evaporate without residues. Essential oils do not or only poorly dissolve in water and are generally distilled with water steam. Herbs and spices, or plants used in perfumery (cosmetic industry), or even as phytogenic feed additives are chosen mainly because they produce small quantities of characteristic flavours (taste and odour), when added to food or animal feed. To date, it is common knowledge that the chemicals responsible for these distinctive tastes and smells are mainly essential oils.
Occurrence of essential oils in the plant kingdom In the plant kingdom 24 Families are reported to contain more than one, and further 40 Families only one essential oil producing genera (Protzen and Hose, 1993). It is, however, a commonly accepted fact, that practically speaking, nearly all plants might contain certain quantities of essential oils, even if only in minute quantities. Major essential oil containing plant families (in alphabetical order) are: Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apiaceae, Araceae, Aristolochiaceae, Asteraceae, Burseraceae, Calycanthaceae, Cannabinaceae, Asteraceae, Geraniaceae, Gramineae, Hyperaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Leguminosae, Magnoliaceae, Myrtaceae, Myoporaceae, Orchidaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, Santalaceale, Saururaceae, Solanaceae, Zingiberaceae.
1
2 Essential oils - biochemistry, production and utilisation
Biochemical nature of essential oils Essential oils are versatile and are made up of several chemical constituents with the basic building elements being primarily carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The aromatic constituents of essential oils are built from hydrocarbon chains (carbon and hydrogen atoms). The basic precursor of many essential oils is a five-carbon molecule called isoprene. Most essential oils are synthesized from isoprene, the building block of terpenoids. The main groups of constituents found in essential oils include: a) alcohols, b) aldehydes, c) esters, d) ethers, e) ketones, f) phenols, g) terpenes. Each of these compounds can be broken down into numerous smaller components (units), e.g. the terpenes into mono-, di- and sesquiterpenes, etc. There are several hundred naturally occurring monoterpenes. These are known to constitute the most common odor-bearing components of essential oils. Essential oils can differ not only in their chemical structures but also in the biosynthetic pathways in which these are synthesized. In a general context, the characteristic main components of essential oils are: •
Monoterpenes: C10 compounds that are mostly synthesized from geranyl pyrophosphate, the ubiquitous C10 intermediate of the isoprenoid pathway (Croteau, 1997). They are colorless, steam distillable, water insoluble liquids with a characteristic aroma, with boiling points ranging from 140 to180°C. These compounds are formed by the head-to-tail, head-to-head or tail-to-tail condensation of two isoprene residues and exhibit every possible mode of ring closure, various degrees of insaturation and substitution of different functional groups. In all, 450 monoterpenes have been discovered (Sticher, 1977) and these can be classified as derivatives of 15 common types of basic and 15 less common types of basic monoterpenes (Devon and Scott, 1972). Based on their chemical structures, monoterpenoids are classified into the following groups: (a) normal monoterpenes, (b) cyclopentanoid monoterpenes and (c) tropolones.
•
Sesquiterpenes: These are C15 compounds with either open chains (e.g. farnesole) or aromatic compounds (e.g. chamazulene). More than 1200 sesquiterpenes are known today. Their structures are based on 30 main skeletal structures (approximately 700 compounds) and 70 less common skeletal structures (approximately 500 compounds) (Daniel, 2008). Sesquiterpenes are steam distillable volatile oils contributing to their flavour. Main groups of sesquiterpenes are: (a) acyclic, (b) monocyclinc and (c) bicyclic
•
Other compounds of non-terpene character (e.g. terpene interemedieries, phenylpropane derivatives, etc.)
The aromatic-ring structure of essential oils is much more complex than that of the simpler, linear carbon-hydrogen structure of fatty oils. Unlike fatty oils, the essential oils
A. Máthé 3
also contain sulfur and nitrogen atoms. In terms of biological activity and effects, each individual chemical constituent has its own characteristic properties. This means that the essential oils (i.e. the mixtures of several chemical components) are of a complex character with several rather diverse effects. Different molecules in the same essential oil can exert different effects, e.g. the azulene in German Chamomile has powerful anti-inflammatory compounds, whereas its bisabolol component has sedative and mood-balancing properties. Other compounds in German Chamomile perform still different functions, such as enhancing the regeneration of tissues. Phenols are, generally, responsible for the antibacterial activity. Carvacrol has anti-inflammatory activity and limonines are antiviral. Based on its chemical composition, a single plant species can have several different chemotypes, i.e. a plant, such as sage grown in the same area, might produce essential oil with a different chemical setup than the sage grown in another location (Máthé et al., 1993). Table 1 shows a survey of the various essential oils species in view of their important chemical constituents, according to Trease and Evans (2002). Table 1. The chemical composition of volatile oils (Trease and Evans, 2002)
Name
Botanical name
Terpenes or sesquiterpenes Turpentine Pinus spp. Juniper Juniperus communis Cade (Juniper Tar Oil) Juniperus oxycedrus Alcohols Coriander Coriandrum sativum Otto of rose Rosa spp. Geranium Pelargonium spp. Indian or Turkish Cymbopogon spp. geranium (Palmarosa) Sandalwood Santalum album Esters and alcohols Lavender Lavandula officinalis Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis Pumilio pine Pinus mugo var. Pumilio
Important constituents
Terpenes (pinenes, camphene) Terpenes (pinene, camphene); sesquiterpene (cadinene); alcohols Sesquiterpenes (cadinene); phenols (guaiacol, cresol) Linalol (65–80% alcohols); terpenes Geraniol, citronellol (70–75% alcohols); esters Geraniol; citronellol; esters Geraniol (85–90%) Santalols (sesquiterpene alcohols), esters, aldehydes Linalol; linalyl acetate (much); ethylentyl ketone Borneol and linalool (10–18%); bornyl acetate, etc. (2–5%); terpenes; cineole Bornyl acetate (about 10%); terpenes; sesquiterpenes
4 Essential oils - biochemistry, production and utilisation Table 1. Contd.
Name
Botanical name
Peppermint Mentha piperita Aldehydes Cinnamon bark Cinnamomum verum Presl. Cassia Cinnamomum cassia Lemon Lemon grass Cymbopogon spp. terpenes ‘Lemon-scented’ Eucalyptus citriodora eucalyptus Ketones Spearmint Mentha spicata and M. cardiaca Caraway Carum carvi Dill Anethum graveolens Sage Salvia officinalis cineole, etc. Wormwood Artemisia absinthium Phenols Cinnamon leaf Cinnamomum verum Presl. Clove Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr & L. M. Perry Thyme Thymus vulgaris Horsemint Monarda punctata Ajowan Trachyspermum ammi Ethers Anise and Star-anise Pimpinella anisum and Illicium verum Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Cajuput Melaleuca spp. Camphor Cinnamomum camphora
Important constituents Menthol (about 45%); menthyl acetate (4–9%) Cinnamaic aldehyde (60–75%); eugenol; terpenes Cinnamic aldehyde (80%) Citral (over 3.5%); limonene (about 90%) Citral and citronellal (75–85%); Citronellal (about 70%)
Carvone (55–70%); limonene, esters Carvone (60%); limonene, etc. Carvone (50%); limonene, etc. Thujone (about 50%); camphor; Thujone (up to 35%); thujyl alcohol; azulenes Eugenol (up to 80%) Eugenol (85–90%); acetyl eugenol, methylpentyl ketone, vanillin Thymol (20–30%) Thymol (about 60%) Thymol (4–55%)
Anethole (80–90%); ehavicol methyl ether, etc. Anethole (60%); fenchone (20%) Cineole (over 70%); terpenes, etc. Cineole (50–60%); terpenes, alcohols and esters After removal of the ketone camphor contains safrole; terpenes, etc.
A. Máthé 5 Table 1. Contd.
Name
Botanical name
Parsley Petroselinum sativum Indian dill Peucedanum soia Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Peroxides Chenopodium Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelmintica Nonterpenoid and derived from glycosides Mustard Brassica spp. Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens Bitter almond Prunus communis var. amara
Important constituents Apiole (dimethoxysafrole) Dill-apiole (dimethoxysafrole) Myristicin (methoxysafrole) up to 4%; terpenes (60–85%); alcohols, phenols Ascaridole (60–77%), an unsaturated terpene peroxide
Glucosinolates Methyl salicylate Benzaldehyde and HCN (from amygdalin)
Factors influencing the production of essential oils The plant Organ specific production of essential oils
The content and composition of essential oils depend also on the type of plant organ analysed. The list of essential oil containing organs with some characteristic species is given in Table 2. There is also experimental evidence that both composition and amount of essential oils accumulated in various organs of the same plant could be distinct and different, respectively (Figueiredeo, 1997). In the majority of cases, however, the different organs are of similar character. Secretory structures
In a characteristic of the plant family form, volatile oils are synthesized, accumulated (stored) and released by a variety of specialized secretory structures (Table 3). The most common are: • •
Cavities or ducts: These are clusters of cells just below the epidermis, e.g. skins of citrus fruit, or the leaves of eucalypts or ngaio; Glands or glandular hairs: Originating from epidermal cells, e.g. the glands on lavender florets, or the modified leaf hairs of mint, geranium, and oregano.
6 Essential oils - biochemistry, production and utilisation Table 2. Essential oils derived from various organs of plants
Bark Berries Flowers Leaves Peel Resin Root Rhizome Seeds Wood
Cassia, Cinnamon, Sassafras Allspice, Juniper Cannabis, Chamomile, Clary sage, Clove, Scented geranium, Hops, Hyssop, Jasmine, Lavender, Manuka, Marjoram, Orange, Rose, Ylang-ylang Basil, Bay leaf, Cinnamon, Common sage, Eucalyptus, Lemon grass, Melaleuca, Oregano, Patchouli, Peppermint, Pine, Rosemary, Spearmint, Tea tree, Thyme, Wintergreen Bergamot, Grapefruit, Lemon, Lime, Orange, Tangerine Frankincense, Myrrh Valerian Galangal, Ginger Almond, Anise, Celery, Cumin, Nutmeg oil, Camphor, Cedar, Rosewood, Sandalwood, Agarwood
Table 3. Different types of secretory structures occurring in some plant Families (Figueiredo, 1997; adapted from Fahn, 1988)
Secretory structures
Families
External secretory structures Trichomes Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rutaceae, Geraniaceae, Solanaceae and Cannabinaceae Osmophores Piperaceae, Orchidaceae and Araceae Internal secretory structures Idioblasts Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Piperaceae, Araceae, Aristolochiaceae, Calycanthaceae and Saururaceae Cavities Rutaceae, Myrtaceae, Myoporaceae, Hypericaceae and Leguminosae Duct Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Pinaceae, Myrtaceae, Hypricaceae, Leguminosae and Anacardiaceae
There is also evidence that in certain species (e.g. Leonotis leonutus, Plectranthus madagascariensis) different types of the same secretory structure exist, heterogeneously distributed over the plant body, secreting also different types of compounds (Ascensao et al., 1997). Phenophase dependent accumulation
The harvest of aromatic plants has always been related to the special phases of development of plants, i.e. to the phenophases. There are numerous examples, how the development of essential oil species can be related to the accumulation of their essential oil content. A
A. Máthé 7
list of species where the time of harvest affected the essential oil yield and composition of species is given by Figueiredo et al. (1997). Some of the well known characteristic species include: Artemisia judiaca, Chrysanthemum balsamita, Citrus bergamia, Cymbopogon spp., Dracocephalum moldavica, Eucalyptus spp., Matricaria recutita, Mentha × piperita, Origanum vulgare, Salvia spp., Satureja hortensis, Thymus spp. and Vanilla planifolia.
Ecological factors Essential oil production is highly influenced by the ecological factors and climatic conditions. The special literature abounds in examples on the influence of soil, nutrients, water, light and temperature on the production and quality of essential oils. Whereas there are several individual exceptions, it seems to be a general rule that an increase in light and temperature beneficially influences (increases) the essential oil production (Figueiredo et al., 2008). Water supply is also essential, although hydric stress has been reported to increase essential oil yield in several species (e.g. Anethum graveolens, Artemisia dracunculus, Satureja douglasii, Mentha × piperita and Ocimum basilicum. According to Simon et al. (1992), in O. basilicum, the increase in hydric stress was coupled with an increase and a change in the essential oil composition. The type and composition of the soil is also regarded as one of the determinant factors. In addition to nutrient supply, soil factors closely related with pH are also important for the growth and production of essential oil species (Figueiredo et al., 1997).
Plant cultivation and processing The origin of plant materials used for the production of essential oils is decisive for the quality of the oil obtained. Formerly plants were mainly collected from their wild populations and were extracted for oils of mostly local use. The demand of essential oil commerce and industries, however, cannot be met by these traditional methods, where also due to the regular and occasionally inexpert collection practices, the natural populations are frequently damaged. As a solution to the above problem, today’s intensive cropping industry, equipped with and using all of the modern agricultural technologies is already capable of securing high yields of high quality oil. As a consequence, essential oil species, like sage (Salvia officinalis) can be grown, even outside the area of their natural occurrence (Máthé et al., 1992). In addition to good agronomic features, improved crop performance producers get control over oil production and processing processes with the ultimate result of improved and stabilized quality and supply.
Isolation methods As the essential oils are contained by special secretory cells and/or tissues of plants, they have to be obtained (isolated) from their location of accumulation prior to utilization.
8 Essential oils - biochemistry, production and utilisation Depending upon the nature of the part (organ) in which they occur, they are obtained from plants in various ways, such as steam-distillation, solvent extraction, absorption, pressure and maceration. The various physical and chemical isolation methods are varied in their rate of efficiency and can also influence both the amount and the quality (including composition) of the essential oil obtained. The main isolation methods are the following: • •
•
Expression: mainly used with citrus fruits, where the essential oils are mechanically cold pressed out from the fruits. Distillation: The most frequently used method, steam distillation is mainly used to obtain essential oils from Labiatae, Apiaceae species, from eucalyptus and bitter orange leaf. Further methods of distillation include: hydro-distillation of flowers (e.g. rose, jasmine or bitter orange), hydrodiffusion (where low pressure steam
