Performance of Home Textiles

Performance of home textiles iii Performance of home textiles Subrata Das WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD New De...

Author: Subrata Das

467 downloads 4149 Views 8MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Performance of home textiles

iii


Subrata Das

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD New Delhi

●

Cambridge

●

Oxford

Published by Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28, Ansari Road Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. © Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., 2010 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. The consent of Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. for such copying. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-93-80308-09-8 Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. EAN: 9789380308098 Woodhead Publishing Ltd. ISBN 10: 978-0-85709-007-2 Typeset by Sunshine Graphics, New Delhi Printed and bound by Replika Press, New Delhi

Contents

Foreword Preface

ix xi

1

Introduction

1

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Concept of home textiles Use of home textiles in hospitality sector Consumer’s expectation from home textiles Home textile market scenario Use of different fibres in home textiles Labelling of home textiles Test methods for home textiles Quality related issues in home textiles Need for eco-friendly home textiles References

1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 6

2

Key home textiles market

8

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11

Introduction Home textiles in India Home textiles in China Home textiles in Pakistan Home textiles in Bangladesh Home textiles in Hong Kong Home textiles in the United States Home textiles in the United Kingdom Home textiles in EU Home textiles in Japan Home textiles in Turkey References

8 9 11 13 13 14 14 15 16 17 19 21

3

Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

22

3.1 3.2

Introduction Application of conventional fibres in home textiles

22 23

vi

Contents

3.3 3.4 3.5

Application of new and sustainable fibres in home textiles Areas of application of home textiles Conclusion References

23 27 40 40

4

Performance specifications of different home textiles

42

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Importance of performance specification Performance requirements of the US market Performance requirements of Canada market Performance requirements of the UK market Special performance requirements in home textiles References

42 42 77 83 97 98

5

Labelling issues of home textiles

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

General labelling requirements for home textiles in the USA Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU Labelling of different home textile products for the US Labelling of different home textile products for Canada References

6

Flammability of home textiles

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Introduction 136 Flammability regulations for different home textiles 137 CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material 138 CATB 117 Section A Part 2 – Shredded resilient cellular material (e.g., shredded polyurethane foams) 139 CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags 140 CATB 117 Section B Part 1 – Non-man-made filling materials 140 CATB 117 Section B – Part 2 – Shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down 141 CATB 117 Section C – Man-made filling material 141 CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance 142 CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test 143 CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics 144 Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs 144 Flammability of blankets 149 Flammability requirements of towels 151 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test 152 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test 155 CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test 156

6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17

102 102 118 119 133 134

136

Contents

6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21

EN1021-1/2:1994 (Figure 6.4) BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating Flammability standards for curtains Conclusions References

7

Evaluation of home textiles

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Introduction Test methods for towels Test methods for rug Test method of pot holders and woven mitts Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles References

8

Finishes used in home textiles

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14

Introduction Thermal draperies Protection against unpleasant odour Temperature-regulated beddings Endure™ textile finish Antimicrobial finish Moisture management finish Flame-retardant finish Mite free mattresses Water and oil repellent and soil release finishes Towel finishing Moisture cross-linking (MXL) of bed linen Nanotechnology-based home textile enhancements Sensory perception technology References

9

Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles

9.1 9.2

Introduction Trade marks and labels used in environment-friendly home textiles Different eco-friendly standards in home textiles Importance of eco-labelling References

9.3 9.4

Index

vii 156 157 159 159 160

161 161 163 180 186 189 197

199 199 200 200 201 201 202 203 203 204 205 206 206 206 207 207

209 209 211 215 225 226 228

Foreword

Home Textile products play a very important role in any retail company, and good quality of home textile products attract consumers to retail. The subject matter of this book has been divided in to 9 chapters covering the various facets of home textile from concept of home textile, source of home textile products, key performance features and regulatory performance requirements of the USA, Canada, the UK, etc. We have seen several books on textile products, process and performance; however, this book is unique as it has outlined all important information, which factory owners, buying agents and buyers need on dayto-day basis. This book is very unique on its topic selection and reflects the practical working knowledge of the author in the performance of home textiles. This book is very informative and will be very useful for the Industry to understand quality related issues in home textile; how these can be avoided and how these issues should be addressed to right person at right time to avoid surprise at finishing stage. Author has also outlined important finishes which is very useful to understand in designing new products to meet regulatory and performance requirements of retailers of any country. Testing methods will help in analysing home textile products and help in understanding inherent characteristics of the products to accept and reject. This book will be very useful for home textile manufacturers, product development personals, technologists, textile chemists and educational cluster of textile/fashion. We are very thankful to author to write a book on this subject that will be very beneficial to home textile industry and help in business. Amrish Vishnoi Merchandise Quality Engineer Wal-mart Global Sourcing India Pvt Ltd, Bangalore, India

2reface

Home textile industry is an upcoming sector in consumer forum that takes care of essential requirements of living in a house comfortably. Performance of varieties of home textile items is viewed and valued by customers in terms of class, quality, reliability and consistency. A thorough and comprehensive interaction with different stakeholders of home textile industry reveal that this particular sector is in need of a digestive document that can be able to communicate majority of the requirements of product performance and quality in line with the value addition and to maintain the basic concept underlying in green consumerism. Thus, this book arose out of a need-based philosophy that caters to the requirement in providing the service as a technical resource to home textile sector wherein all essential elements of product development, industry standards, regulatory aspects, and evaluation systems are built into it. The book is aimed at industry professionals, domestic and international retailers, factory owners, buying institutions, and students intended to start their career in home textile sector. Thus, the emphasis of the book is how to achieve the commercial success of desired end product through the knowledge of the key markets producing various home textiles, scope of development through sustainable and eco-friendly fibres, various industry specific standards, evaluation systems and above all safety aspects and environmental regulations. It is important to mention that same home textile product can be evaluated against different benchmarks because specification and regulation vary depending upon the country of export. It is always desirable to refer to a latest version of document while applying any tests and regulations, which are difficult to cover in a book of this nature, and more so international standards, and regulations are continuously been updated, owing to the change in expectation of performance and for better consumer interest. Home textiles products have been diversified over the years in the niche market based on the expectations and need of consumer. Thus, the emphasis on the performance parameters and their evaluation systems can not be overlooked. Like all other sectors of technology, when we are moving forward positively through 21st century, the use of eco-friendly fibres for product development in home textiles is quite expected. High performance

NEE

2HAB=?A

and value addition are no longer treated, as attributes in the consumer world but become essential feature of finished home textiles. We often heard about the fire hazards in home textiles, which is a potential safety concern and must be regulated by standard flammability regulations and interestingly, that are not common for every product. It is also important that home textiles should be properly labelled. This is not only to meet the regulatory requirement but also guide the consumer for its proper care. Above all, the environmental aspect of home textiles has attracted attention in recent years and different eco-labels and standards are in place for its regulatory control. Although topics covered in this book are not uncommon in home textile industry in our general sense of term, I have included those in this book because very little has been available in published literature. I believe that the subject will be of sufficient interest to textile professionals to warrant its inclusion and so provide a wider circulation of information concerning this development in home textiles.

Date: 31st March 2010 Place: Bangalore

Dr. Subrata Das Scientist “D” Central Silk Technological Research Institute, Central Silk Board, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Introduction

1 Introduction

Abstract: Home textile is an important segment of technical textiles, which covers soft and hard sectors depending on the unique characteristic of the product. New design concept and innovation are the areas to be explored to impart functional features, which may sometimes been derived from apparel technology. The chapter begins with the discussion of worldwide market situation, the possibility of using different fibres, and the importance of labelling home textiles. The chapter then discusses the evaluation of the product for performance towards contractual requirement and some quality related issues thereof. Importance of eco label to safeguard the environment is also highlighted. Keywords: Technical textiles, home textiles, consumer, psychology, performance testing, eco-parameters.

.

Concept of home textiles

Home being the expression and reflection of who the owner is, needs to be furnished in a way that makes one feel comfortable, safe and delighted. In general, we spend the highest time of our life at home and has special social, emotional importance attached to it across all cultures. To understand the meaning of home textiles, it is necessary to understand the concept of ‘technical textiles’. The textiles that are not produced for decorative purposes, but with certain specific intentions are called technical textiles. Technical textiles have been grouped into twelve segments, viz. agrotech (for agricultural purposes), buildtech (for building purposes), clothtech (for clothing purposes), geotech (for civil engineering purposes), hometech (for home purposes), indutech (for industrial purposes), meditech (for medical purposes), packtech (for packaging purposes), protech (for protection purposes), sporttech (for sports purposes), oekotech (environment-friendly products), and smart or interactive category (for specialty purposes). Home textile is a rather important part of technical textiles which includes but not limited to carpets, rugs, floor coverings, curtains, cushion covers, napkins, towels and toweling fabric, bedspreads, furnishing fabric

1

2


and upholstery, table linen, bed linen, sheets and pillowcases, blankets, shower curtains, aprons as well as wallpapers. Basically In home textile, there are hard home sectors and soft home sectors. Hard home textiles include the heavy items such as rubber floor mats, coir mats, rugs, etc. Soft home textiles cover bath towel, kitchen towel, napkins, aprons, etc. Home textiles have emerged as one of the most dynamic product segments in textile industry. There have been significant developments in home textile over the past few years. The emerging of this market trend is due to the growing demand of comfort and functional performances by customers on fibre combinations, fabrics, designs, textures and colours. As a result, manufacturers are now adopting comparatively matured performance apparel technologies for use in home textile products (1).

1.2

Use of home textiles in hospitality sector

The trend for home textile market can also be observed in hospitality textile field (1). Undoubtedly, people, now-a-days, desire for better services and facilities in hotels, resorts, restaurants, bars, casinos, spas and sport arenas. It is foreseen that the number of these places of public entertainment will be significantly amplified in recent years. The fabrics used in furniture, bed coverings, mattresses, pillows, curtains, towels, wall covering and even the carpeting on the floor all have to meet demanding performance criteria as well as maintaining a good appearance. Performance requirements can include ease of maintenance and cleaning, flame retardancy and durability. The way the fabrics look can also set up a warm atmosphere to welcome guests and travellers. Although each public venue has different facilities and their own performance requirements, the strategies for maintaining a good look in the furnishings are more or less the same. The typical performance requirements for hospitality textile are abrasion resistance, lightfastness, washfastness, stain resistance, cleanability, flame resistance, odour control, antimicrobial function, and anti-mite property.

1.3

Consumers expectation from home textiles

A customer looks for harmony and balance visual impact of the home and each component thereof. One shall look at bed-sheet sets, comforters, rugs, cushions, wall hanging, lamp, wall paper that match well with wall color, furniture, flooring, etc. Fashion designers are expected to understand aesthetic sensibility of target customers and create new design concepts and ideas to satisfy the same. Color and design define aesthetics of a product for visual impact to create harmonious or co-ordinate look in home

Introduction

3

or part of home. Even manufacturers in this sector strive hard to cater to the market demand. Sometimes, even a consumer is not aware of the need. Home textile is under explored area and there is lot of scope for innovations. This can be achieved by understanding consumer psychology, and integrating technology and fashion in order to provide right solution to consumer. Some of the areas of innovations have also been taken from the apparel sector to match with the requirements of home textile consumers. For example, bed sheets are being made from coolmax and thermolite fabrics. Coolmax fabric incorporates a moisture management technology and has traditionally been used in active performance wear. Thermolite is a lightweight insulation material, which was originally designed for outdoor performance apparel.

1.4

Home textile market scenario

Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC as it is known as) are the best growth markets across all product categories; for e.g., in India, per capita consumption of home textiles is 3 meter per annum vis-à-vis 200+ meters per annum in matured markets. However, product package of matured market does not work in emerging markets (2). The WTO 2005 World Textile Market Report had shown that USA was the biggest importer of home textile products with a share of 34.3%, followed by Germany 11.6%, Japan 10.9%, UK 8.3%, France 6.5%, and Canada 4.2%. On the contrary, the biggest exporter of home textile products was China with the world market share of 33.4%, followed by Pakistan 12.1%, India 9.7%, Turkey 6.6%, Portugal 4.8%, and Mexico 4.5%. At the moment, it is strongly believed that China will remain the world leader in exports while it is uncertain that USA will be the biggest importer of home textile products due to its current financial crisis (3). The home furnishing industry offers a wide range of products. Style and colours alone are not adequate to attract consumers to the offered product range of a brand. Fashionable products are no longer sufficient to ensure business success. To appeal to today’s increasingly sophisticated consumers, products should have enhanced functional properties, should be eco-friendly and meet international regulatory and safety requirements.

1.5

Use of different fibres in home textiles

Home textiles when made out of natural fibres are always been preferred by the consumers. Of late, products made out of synthetics and blends have shown encouraging signs of being significant export items. New and sustainable fibres have recently been tried in home textiles which include

4


coir, jute, water lily fibre, silk, milk fibre, wood fibres, sea weed fibres, soybean fibre, bamboo fibre, and hemp. Though such fibres are environment friendly and welcomed by the eco-conscious consumers but commercial exploitation is still not encouraging.

1.6

Labelling of home textiles

Labelling of home textiles involves dimensional measurements, care instructions, country of origin, fibre content and manufacturer’s identification. It is a requirement that is needed to keep the consumer informed of their prospective and current purchases. This will protect consumers against misrepresentation in the labelling and advertising of textile fibre products and enable consumers to choose textiles on the basis of fibre content. Depending on the market of export, labelling of home textile products vary due to change in regulations of different countries. Sometimes, law tags and safety tags also become the part of labelling. This gives adequate additional information to the consumers’ prior to purchase to take necessary precautions.

1.7

Test methods for home textiles

The various tests include the ASTM (US), AATCC (US), BS (UK), DIN (Germany), NF (France), JIS (Japan), ISO EN (Europe) as well as comprehensive standard requirements from the home textile industries. The comprehensive range of tests conducted covers performance, safety and legal criteria for the products. Performance testing is required to establish conformity of fabrics, yarn, components and finished products to contractual requirements. Evaluation of home textiles is also mandatory to test colour fastness, care labelling recommendations, testing for specialty finishes, and chemical testing for restricted substances, and feather and down tests. Selection of the right protocol of testing for the home textile products is of paramount importance. For instance, confusion often arises while selecting proper test protocol for furniture throws (4). There are two choices, i.e. either furniture throws are to be tested under furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers category or blanket / throws category. Based on the end use, furniture throws should be tested under furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers category. The reason behind that a furniture throw functions more like a slip cover than a blanket. It is intended to be sat upon and protect the furniture rather than to provide warmth to the user. However, in case of a decorative throw, the protocol for blanket / throws category has to be used in testing. Similarly, debate often arises whether colour fastness to static wetting on bright colours bath towels are required or not. According to the opinion of experts, static wetting is

Introduction

5

intended for cold water bleeding. Beach towels are used to lay wet bodies with wet suits down onto or to wrap around wet swimsuits. This can cause slow colour migration that would not normally takes place with bath towels. That is why many renowned retailers in US do not require the colour fastness to static wetting on solid colours bath towels. Fires in the home are a common cause of injury, and so the flammability of home textiles, furniture and upholstery is checked for its resistance and ability to prevent the spread of fire. When household products burn, the fumes and smoke they produce are not only an irritant when inhaled but also some items such as cushions can be extremely toxic when burnt and can cause fatalities.

1.8

Quality related issues in home textiles

Quality problems in home textiles are generally similar to those for apparel. As for apparel, quality requirements for home textiles are based on their end use. Some of the common problems faced by buyers and exporters of home textiles are discussed here (5). Curtains and upholstery require high colour fastness to light due to the nature of their use. Colour fading due to light in such items is a common cause of concern. This needs to be kept in mind by every one in the manufacturing chain, especially the processor. Selection of proper dyestuffs and the right combination is essential to achieve high light fastness properties. Assistance from dyestuff manufacturers shall help the industry with selection of right dyestuffs to overcome this problem. In different occasions, if dyed and printed floor mats are placed outside a bathroom can stain the carpet on which they are placed. During such event, the colours can bleed through the floor mat onto the carpet mimicking the design on the merchandise. This may happen when the floor mat is having poor colour fastness to water, which causes the bleeding of colour. To overcome the colour fastness problem, it is essential for the buyer to add this test to the protocol of evaluation and necessary precautions are to be taken by the processor. The tests of colour fastness to washing and colour fastness to rubbing are the most common tests generally specified by buyers to determine the longevity of colorants in regular use by consumers. A sample of a pigment printed floor covering (durrie), which may pass all the QC tests of the buyer but can still be returned by the customer if it fades significantly during the first washing, is done as per the prescribed care label instructions. The test for colour fastness to washing is intended to determine if the specimen loses colour in the washing and if this colour stains other light coloured and white fabrics in the washing process itself. The test that is especially developed to assess the quality of a pigment print is the

6


test for colour fastness to wet scrubbing, which is regulated by the method ISO 105 C07 (6). Home textiles frequently come into contact with plastics, for example, the backing on placemats and bathmats, plastic drums in tumble dryers, etc. Substantial mark-off of colour may be observed on plastic tumble dryer drums after a pigment printed bed sheet is washed in, and this may cause to customer complaint. The test of assessment of migration of colour into PVC coatings could be used for this. Subsequently, suppliers can be asked to conform to the specification. Pigments, which are especially susceptible to migration, can be eliminated from use to solve the problem. Several pigments are not suitable for use in printing where the article is to be drycleaned and the dyestuff manufacturer should be consulted for this colour fastness information. Motif pigment printed curtains with a ‘dryclean only’ label, may cause complete removal of printed design after one drycleaning cycle, which is embarrassing to both the retailer and the mill. In such a case, the existing dryclean label has to be replaced with a suitable wash care label before shipment keeping dimensional stability to washing parameters well within control.

1.9

Need for eco-friendly home textiles

As with apparel, eco parameters are also applicable to home textiles bound for export. Since many of the home textiles that are being exported are processed in smaller units, these parameters needed to be understood in detail by the processors. Today, even strict eco parameters can be achieved by the industry. Eco certification proves that the products comply with the accepted standards to maintain our environment safe and non-polluted. Many certification labels exist for environmentally friendly textiles. A few of these include but not limited to Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS), Oeko-Tex standard 100, and the REACH (registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemical substances). In order to ensure proper protection to the environment and facilitating additional safety to the consumers, introduction of new harmful substances and tightening of existing performance requirements in different eco-standards are not at all uncommon in varieties of home textile products destined for different export market.

References 1. SGS Hong Kong – SCOOP (2007), Softlines, ‘The emerging trend for home textile market’, Hong Kong, 1–2. 2. MERCHANT RAJIV (2009), Home Textile Industry – An overview. Available from: http://www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed 12 November 2009].

Introduction 3.

SANGWATANAROJ USA (2008),

7

The World Market of Home Textiles. Available from: http://www.ttistextiledigest.com [Accessed 13 November’2009]. 4. DAS SUBRATA (2008), Technical notes from CTL, Hong Kong, Unpublished data. 5. NIMKAR M ULLHAS (2005), ‘Apparel and made-ups from India: quality strengths and weaknesses’, IIT Delhi, Conference and Seminar, 11–14. 6. ISO 105 C07 Textiles – Tests for colour fastness – Part C07: Colour fastness to wet scrubbing of pigment printed textiles.

8

Key home textiles market Performance of home textiles

2 Key home textiles market

Abstract: Outsourcing of different home textile products has become an important practice for the home textile retailers. Global retailers are looking at reducing their dependence on a single country for supply home textile products, which have been diversified over a period of time. The chapter begins with the discussion of the global market of different home textiles and the demand thereof. The chapter then deals with export and import status of different developed and developing countries with reference to the niche market of varieties of home textile segments. Keywords: Karur, Zhejiang, European Union, outsourcing, antidumping, import, export

.

Introduction

Home textile products utilised in the interiors of homes, hotels, offices, etc. play an important role in the comfort, protection and decoration purposes. As per the global consumption home textiles market was estimated at around US$105 billion in 2006 and was expected to grow at 15% per annum (1). According to survey by McKinsey, the global trade in home textile is projected to grow to the extent of US$23 billion in 2010. The USA with a market size of US$18 billion is the world’s single biggest market followed by the European Union at US$15 billion. While North America and Europe still take up the bulk of shipments, exports to emerging destinations such as Eastern Europe and the Middle East are gathering pace. Japan, Australia and New Zealand are also large consumers of home textiles. Major home textiles exporting countries are China, Pakistan, India and Turkey. Worldwide the demand growth in the home textiles sector is accounted for about 6 percent (2). Home textile capacities in the EU and the US are shrinking due to the lack of competitiveness. This downscaling, and the dismantling of quotas, is likely to create additional markets estimated at US$1.3 billion in towels and US$1.8 billion in bed linen for the rest of the world. With outsourcing now becoming the norm amongst global textile retailers, and the EU and US imposing export limits on China,

8


9

Indian home textile industry stands to benefit. Moreover, global retailers are looking at reducing their dependence on a single country for supply. It has been noticed that Indian companies’ have strong brand equity in the US home textile market. In fact, India is the largest supplier of terry towels (with 21% market share) and the third largest supplier of bed linens (with 19% market share) to the US. India’s thrust on value addition, which was earlier an attempt to differentiate itself from China, which focuses on volumes and lower prices, has stood in good stead. Indian home textile companies have strived to offer better value-added products, such as higher thread count bed linen, innovative varieties in terry towels and a wider product range in decorative bed sets. This approach has yielded them higher realisations and better profit margins compared to that of regional peers. However, of late, countries such as Pakistan, Turkey and Bangladesh are also giving India a tough fight in the lower value home textile segment (3).

2.2

Home textiles in India

The diverse structure of the Indian textile industry, coupled with its close linkage with its ancient culture and tradition, provides it with the unique capacity to produce with the help of latest technological inputs and design capability a wide variety of home textile products suitable to the varying consumer tastes and preferences both within the country and overseas. Home textiles segment in India is growing by leaps and bounds, with a lot of young people buying homes. In addition, they have surplus income to buy stylish, premium products in the market. The future is bright for this section and there is no doubt about it. Indian home textile export industry, in general, is not moving fast enough in terms of product and design leadership. Companies are still doing lot of design and product follow up after coming back from the market visits / trade fair and in the areas that by all the norms could have easily been dealt with much in advance. Despite this and some other ongoing difficulties, a significant fact emerges strongly in comparison with many other competing nations that India’s core strength in this sector could essentially be in design and product development. India has a strong traditional base in textiles that provides a unique vocabulary and resource that beautifully suits the consumer sensibility. In addition to that, India has tremendous flexibility and the capability to adapt to changing environments. The ability to produce and supply small quantities is not only limited to traditional handloom and handicrafts sector but it has now been demonstrated by mills and decentralised power looms as well. Product needs for home textiles is governed by economical, political, historical, cultural and seasonal factors. For instance, in India, home is very important place for social (joint family system) and family get-together

10


and emotionally very important to customer. In some cases, Indian customers spend more money on certain products than their counterpart in developed markets. The home textile industry is quite widespread in India. There are number of centres in India wherein the production of home textiles has been undertaken since decades. Karur in south India is especially known for the production of pillow covers, bedspreads as well as kitchen and table linen. In fact, the table mats from Karur are world famous. Karur mainly produces cotton home textiles. The home textile producers of Karur specialise in certain finishes, such as PVA, starch, stain repellent, water-repellent and silicon finish. Some producers have begun the use of organic cotton and the use of different fabrics such as polyester, silk and poly cotton. Panipat in the state of Haryana is a major producer of woollen home textile products. The ‘Panja’ durries produced in Panipat are famous all over the world. The easy availability of raw materials and economies of scale leading to low cost of production are the major factors which have led to the development of Panipat as a major production and export hub for home textiles. It has also developed as a sourcing hub for raw material for home textiles. Producers in Panipat have of late started experimenting with different fabrics such as polyester, silk and poly silk. Some producers have also started the use of natural fabrics such as bamboo and soya. Cannanore, located in South India, is another hub that is well known for the production of home textiles. Home textile producers in Cannanore are beginning to use fabrics such as cotton, viscose, silk and cotton. Producers here are also adding value with the help of embroidery, bead work and sequin work. Chennai, metropolitan city in India, has emerged as a major production and export hub for home textiles. Home textile producers in Chennai usually source raw materials from Karur, to which value addition is undertaken. These producers are able to deliver better quality products within a short period of time with the benefit of technology and the services of experts. Delhi, the capital of India, has emerged as one of the major production and export centres for home textiles. Being a metropolis, it has an efficient infrastructure and easy availability of skilled manpower. Most of the producers in Delhi source their raw material from Panipat, to which value addition is done. Mumbai, the large metropolis and the capital of Maharashtra, is also one of the major production and export centres for home textiles. Like Delhi and Chennai, producers in Mumbai also source raw material from places such as Karur, Salem, Erode and Bengalooru (previously Bangalore) and add value to it. Home textile producers from Mumbai are popular the world over for their unique and innovative products. On account of the high operating costs in Mumbai, several producers have established plants in surrounding areas like Vapi and Solapur. Those producers who have set up their plants in Mumbai have huge plants so as to get the benefits of


11

scale. The home textile producers in Mumbai have carved out a niche for themselves, particularly in case of bedspreads, pillow and cushion covers and bathroom textiles. Bengalooru, previously Bangalore, is the capital city of Karnataka has emerged as a manufacturing and export hub for home textiles, especially in silk. Bengalooru is largely engaged in the production of fabric, which is mainly done using power looms. This fabric is then sourced to other parts of India for value addition. On account of the high price of pure silk, producers in Bengalooru are now experimenting with fabrics such as artificial silk, wool / silk and cotton / silk among other fabrics. Mirzapur and Bhadohi are small cities located in Uttar Pradesh, which are major centres for the production of floor coverings and carpets. Jaipur city has also become an important centre for the production of home textiles, especially those using the traditional techniques of tie-and-dye, block printing and appliqué. A few producers in Jaipur have also started undertaking bead work to add more value to the product. (4). Looking to the requirements of the US and UK market of home textiles products, many Indian companies are diversifying or expanding in home textiles and there are enormous investments ensuing in this segment, a number of existed companies are spreading into home textiles. For Indian suppliers there is still need to understand the home textiles market trends with its various segments. There is a lack of understanding and lack of clear strategy for the Indian home textiles manufacturers as they are following. According to the textile experts of India, there is huge scope for home textiles exports from India, but only if they can produce the right products. Many companies are going for the basic home products like bed sheets and terry towels. Other product segments like upholstery, curtains, furnishings, etc, are ignored. Amid, this changing scenario in home textiles in India as well as international market, Indian home textiles manufacturer must have to draw proper segment / sub-segment wise strategy to succeed. In the domestic front, growth of retail chains has increased the demand for private labels and many organised industries are tapping this market potential along with own retail chains. Branding in home textiles market is a big exercise; however, all major companies associated in this trade in India are opening up chains of retail outlets in major cities (1).

2.3

Home textiles in China

China obtained a 70 percent market share for home furnishings products (2). The Chinese home textiles industry has witnessed considerable increment in recent years. The central manufacturing areas are Shandong, Zhejiang and Jiangsu. Shangdong, focused with the outstanding performance of Yantai, Qingdao and Wendeng. The removals of quotas on particular home textiles products in January 2005 made easier to accelerate

12


export growth even further. Segmental share of Chinese home textile products are bedding 53%, towels 24%, drapery 17%, and table linen 6%. The products of bedding, towels, table linen and drapery dominate home textiles exports of China. Bedding, the largest line, amounted to US$4.3 billion (estimate) in exports in 2007, accounting for 53% of the overall sales in 2007. This figure excludes quilted products (1). The second largest export category, towels, rose to US$2.1 billion, clocking a 20% growth rate. Drapery exports amounted to US$1.6 billion, increasing 40%. Table linen registered US$642 million worth of exports, growing moderately by 21%. Exports from China were projected to exceed US$9.5 billion by the end of 2008, increasing by a robust 15% over 2007. There are more than 3,000 home textiles merchants and producers in China, among of 80 percent have direct export right. Irrespective of the size, majority of the companies make bedding products, with most offering both quilts and bed linen and some focusing on one or the other. Suppliers that manufacture quilts can also produce bed linen, but those specialising in bed linen do not necessarily offer quilts. This is because quilt production requires specialised machines for cleaning, stuffing and quilting. Makers producing quilts usually also offer similar products such as pillows and cushions. Very few companies focus on drapery, and even fewer specialise in table linen. Most suppliers have one or both of these product categories as their secondary lines and bedding as their primary line. Makers offering towels usually specialise in the line, but some large companies offering multiple types of home textiles have separate factories dedicated to the product. The few small and medium size companies that offer towels as their secondary line usually subcontract production or dedicate a small portion of their factories to it. However, most of these makers might not be able to provide the expertise that towel specialists can offer. Restrictions on exports to the EU will not significantly affect China’s home textiles export industry, as the region reports for only 14 percent of total home textiles exports from China. Though, limits on shipments to the US, China’s top export market for home textiles, could sluggish the industry’s growth rate. In order to make a distinction themselves from other makers, many suppliers are thinking to improve their in-house R&D capability, with latest machineries. Besides a large turnover and exports in home textiles, China still does not stand with any famous home textiles brands in the global market. It is due to the lack of fine designers in the home textiles field; lower the aggressive approach of many domestic textile manufacturers especially compared with their overseas regions. But, still they are trying to increase their market share worldwide in the home textiles segment and manufacturers are attempting to set up close co-operative relationships with textile institutes to develop more capable and specialised designers and also Chinese domestic home textiles industry has been undergoing great changes.


13

According to experts in this field, they should make communication stronger and teamwork with textile institutes to build up talented designers. Otherwise, they will not be able to compete with overseas counterparts in the near future.

2.4

Home textiles in Pakistan

Pakistan gained the main advantage of quotas’ removal with a 5.39 times jump in US imports from the country in volume terms (2). US imports of cotton bed sheets increased in the first seven months of the post-quota period. A significant change in bed linen category has been observed with a raise of 29 percent in bed linen export. Pakistani manufacturers possess a 25 percent share of EU’s market. On bed linen, the European Union imposed anti-dumping duties of 13.1 percent imports from Pakistan for five-year period, effective from March 2005. Export of home textiles from Pakistan in the EU market accounts to as high as nearly 1.21 billion euros in 2005. The Pakistan’s most important home textiles segment, the bed linen, has gained good growth, as more companies are being attracted to this sector. There is opportunity for home textiles exports from Pakistan; many companies were expanding in basic products such as bed linen and terry towels. All existing manufacturers and exporters operating at full capacity and many cotton spinning companies were also moving into home textiles saw opportunities and further growth. Turkey is importing a lot of grey fabric from Pakistan, and then processed it and converting it into furnishings, etc and exporting them to Europe at high prices. JC Penny has a plan to double its home products imports from Pakistan in the coming years.

2.5

Home textiles in Bangladesh

Home textiles exporters of Bangladesh have been realising tough time in recent months with their exports to Europe, decreasing since the quota phased out from January 1, 2005. Statistics given by the European Union (EU), during January–September 2005 Bangladesh’s export of fabrics, towels and bedding decreased by 8.9 percent in volume and nearly 5 percent in value. Throughout the period, Bangladeshi exporters shipped 47.25 million kg of home textiles and fabric to 28 target places in Europe, earning 32.76 million euro. Market contribution of Bangladesh that supplies low cost textiles, covering bedding and towels to European places shrunk to 1.4 percent in 2005, in opposition to 1.5 percent in the previous year. Industry experts said European buyers were stepping up to China for sourcing such products, even though Bangladeshi exporters provide cheaper rates (1). Bangladesh remained in the category of supplier of

14


cheaper home textile products focusing mainly on low cost segment. Bangladeshi exporters have been confronting strong price competition from Pakistan and Indian bed sheets and more intensely from cheaper Chinese products.

2.6

Home textiles in Hong Kong

In 2003, the US was Hong Kong’s second largest supplier of furnishings, curtains, sun blinds, bedding, and carpets; exporting US$15 million worth of home furnishing products to Hong Kong. The most important categories of textiles that Hong Kong imported from the US in 2003 were as follows: carpets and other textile floor coverings (US$ 13 million); bed linens, table linens, kitchen linens (US$ 1.3 million); awnings, sun blind, tarpaulins (US$ 0.4 million); and curtains (US$ 0.3 million). China was the biggest supplier (75 percent) followed by the US (6 percent), the EU (5.5 percent), Thailand (2.5 percent), and Japan (2.2 percent). Bed linens, table linens, and kitchen linens were the main category imported textiles (50 percent or US$129 million) in Hong Kong in 2003. The other important categories of imported textiles were as follows: carpets and other textile floor coverings (US$ 66 million); other furnishing products (US$ 23 million); blankets (US$ 20 million); and curtains (US$ 14 million.) Hong Kong’s imports of textiles reduced 8 percent in 2003 compared with 2002 as both consumers and institutions (hotels and serviced-apartments) reduced their demand. There was a 20 percent reduction in textile imports from the EU in 2003. Imports of textiles from Japan rose 15 percent to US$ 5.8 million. This upsurge achieved mainly from curtains, which grew from US$ 66 thousand to US$ 257 thousand. Imports of textiles from Thailand increased 38 percent to US$ 6.4 million in 2004 (1).

2.7

Home textiles in the United States

The US market for home textiles is vast and its sheer size (estimated at about US$16.8 bn in 2007) indicates that enormous cultural variations drive the market demand for more style and design. Normally two trends are common in the home textile market: more value additions and environment-friendly items. Luxury home textiles are made of silk, satin, velvet, silk organza, suede and leather. Rich jewel, metallic or lustrous colour palettes add to their appeal. The natural fibres such as cotton, linen, hemp, flax with associate natural colour palettes use natural dyes. China and India dominate, as suppliers of beaded and embroidered items, particularly in the luxury fabrics like silk. The penetration of imports in the US clearly reflects the structural shift in global production to lower cost regions like India, China, Vietnam and Pakistan. China remains to be


15

top source country and the top 10 source countries accounted for 86% of the total known value of these imports (1). Northeast Asia accounts for nearly 47% of the total imports in 2006. Imports from Southern Asia have also risen, but to a lesser extent. The top import items are sheets, towels and blankets, accounting for 82% of the total home textiles imports of the US. The top 10 source countries of the US home textile imports in 2007 were China, Pakistan, India, Turkey, Brazil, Thailand, Malaysia, Egypt, Korea, and Bangladesh. Top 10 home textiles importers are Target Stores, Wal-Mart Stores, Springs Industries, Coaster Company of America, Standard Fiber, Sunham Home Fashions, Kohls Department Stores, PEM America, and Baltic Linen. China continued gaining share of the US import market for home textiles. In the first half of 2007, the US imports of cotton bed sheets from China surged 53.65% in volume terms according to preliminary data released by the US Department of Commerce. China’s share in the US import market increased from 26% to 34%, whereas Pakistan lost by 5%. Imports of cotton bed sheets from India rose by 33% and its share in the imports of US went slightly up to 11%. In piles towel category, imports from China increased by 16% in first half of 2007, while from Pakistan rose by 11%. In the market for wool blankets, India faced a sharp decrease as US imports increased from China. India’s share fell from 76% to 59%, while China’s share increased to 23% from 12%.

2.8

Home textiles in the United Kingdom

The home textiles market in the UK comprises major segments like bed linen, filled products, bath textiles and table linen. In 2006, these four segments were estimated to be worth US$1.3 billion, growing 2% over the previous year. The UK market has experienced lower growth in the past and indication for 2007 revealed growth of 3% (1). It is estimated that home textiles market in the UK will reach US$1.4 billion by 2010. It has been observed that home textile products are purchased by people when they are moving into a new home. There is always a direct impact of housing demand on home textiles. In the past few years, bed linen has dominated the market with 43% share in value terms, followed by filled products and bath textiles having market share of 29% and 23% and rest occupied by table linen. Bed linen segment is estimated to grow by 5% in value terms in 2007. Low-end product segment in the market has grown in volume over the years but bed linen has a significant place in fashion trends in the middle and upper market segments. Filled products are the second largest segment in the home textiles market and garden furniture market remains a key driver for filled products. The pillows market continues to grow steadily due to relatively short replacement cycle and it was expected to show a moderate growth in 2007. Bath textiles are

16


composed of towels, bath and pedestal mat sets. Towels clearly dominate this segment. This segment holds an important place in the US as well. There is an increased tendency for usage of quality fibres, e.g. modal and silk. Current market trend may lead to meager 1-3% annual value growth and the market is expected to be US$31O million by 2010. Table linen is the smallest segment in the home textiles and is dominated by contract sector, with botels and restaurants being the important end users. The market has seen sourcing products from India and China.

2.9

Home textiles in EU

The European household and furnishing textiles industry is in a state of continuous restructuring and modernisation due to consumer developments, technological advances, changes in production costs, growth in retailers' purchasing power and environmental issues. The European home textile sector is regarded as being technologically well advanced. Manufacturers in the EU focus on high value products with a high design content; they export on a global scale by supplying to the higher segments of the market and they source basic products in lower-cost countries. Their strategies have led to an increase in efficiency and broadening of assortment. Although the level of imports of textiles has always been high, more and more retailers are sourcing products overseas. Manufacturers are increasingly looking to move facilities to countries where production costs are lower. Faced with fierce competition from outside the EU, specialised household and furnishing manufacturers in the EU have taken numerous steps to increase sales and develop positions in the market's high valueadded segments. They will continue to pursue delocalisation andlor outsourcing strategies, whilst placing greater emphasis on their distribution and marketing functions (5). Some trends that influence the demand for household and furnishing textiles in the EU are as follows: • Continuing interest in more fashionable textiles, • Growing demand for natural fibres, • Increasing price consciousness, • More critical about design, • Green consumers on the increase, • Developments in technical household and furnishing textiles, and • Sustainability. (6) The value of EU production of household textiles decreased annually by 7.5% in the period 2003-2007 to an output of € 2.9 billion in 2007. Production of household textiles in the EU is dominated by Italy, accounting for 20% of total production output of household textiles in the EU. The


17

top four production countries - consisting of Italy, Portugal, Germany and France - accounted for more than 55% of total EU production. Most Western European countries saw a decrease in production or only a slight increase. This is mainly the result in the shift of demand and production, also due to Western European companies outsourcing to low-cost countries. The value of EU production of furnishing textiles annually increased by 5.9% in the period 2003-2007, to an output of € 3.5 billion in 2007. The production of furnishing textiles in the EU is dominated by the UK, accounting for almost 30% of total production output. The top four production countries - consisting of the UK, Slovenia, Italy and Spain accounted for more than 60% of total EU production. Most Central and Eastern European countries saw a larger increase in production output than Western European countries, caused by a growth in outsourcing by Western European companies to these countries (7). Most product groups show a decrease in production between 2003 and 2007 in household textiles category as shown in Table 2.1. It can also be seen from Table 2.2, that most product groups show a decrease in production between 2003-2007 with only curtains and other furnishing articles showing an increase in production in furnishing textile group. Table 2.1 EU production (in € million) of household textiles, by product group. 2003-2007

Product

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Blankets and travelling rugs Bed linen Table linen Bathroom and kitchen linen

488 2.119 435 901

454 1.949 423 838

416 1.853 420 758

422 1.697 370 782

350 1.539 341 653

Table 2.2 EU production (in € million) of furnishing textiles, by product group. 2003-2007 Product

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Curtains Bed spreads Other furnishing articles

1.615 178 1.003

1.673 139 905

1.875 130 1.301

1.682 124 1.261

2.010 131 1.382

2.10

Home textiles in Japan

The market for home textiles has been affected by overall weak personal consumption in Japan. As a result, demand for home textiles has been very weak. Reflecting growing interest in interiors among consumers, demand for home textile products with casual designs that can meet new consumer lifestyles remain very strong, either imported or domestic

18


products. Home textile imports was grown steadily in 2002 to 109.89 million dozen worth US$ 79.8 billion. The bulk of these imports, i.e. 84.9 per cent consist of towels, numbering 93.34 million worth US$ 3.9 billion (55.0 per cent of import total). Japanese towel makers and their subcontractor have been moving production to China and other Asian nations that offer lower production costs. Many imports from these countries are made with capital participation and technical assistance from Japan. The leading exporters of towels to Japan are China (71.5 per cent) and Vietnam (26.5 per cent), with virtually all imports coming from just these two countries. Low price imports from China skyrocketed in 1999 and 2000 and the competition dealt a serious blow to the Japanese towel industry (8). According to the Japan Towel Industry Association, import’s share of the towel market soared from 46.7 per cent to 64.0 per cent between 1996 and 2000. Earlier, most imported sheets, pillow covers and other types of bed linens were sold to hotels and other commercial users. Recently, many products for home use have been imported. The table linen market is split between luxury grade products from Western countries and low-priced products from elsewhere in Asia. Japanese made table linens fall in the middle in terms of sales patterns, with some apparent degree of differentiation from imports. The most commonly used type of toilet linen and kitchen linen is towels. Inexpensive imports from China, Vietnam and other Asian countries are often used as oshibori towels, the heated towels often given to restaurant customers for refreshment before dining. Japanese-made toilet and kitchen linens are mainly sold to ordinary consumers. Overall, imported home textiles mostly come from China and other Asian countries, and their main appeal lies not in their design or styling but rather in their price. In addition, some Japanese manufacturing wholesalers have been shifting production to Asian countries to take advantage of lower wage costs. In the process these companies have obtained capital holdings in offshore enterprises, provided technical guidance to business partners, and worked to cut production costs. Manufacturer wholesalers are companies that do not own their own production facilities but rather outsource production and handle the distribution and marketing functions themselves. Sheets and pillow covers from Asian countries are sold mainly to linen supply companies in Japan, while bath towels and oshibori towels are used as corporate gifts or by linen supply companies. Countries such as China and India, which are also major cotton producers, are especially well-positioned to export lowpriced merchandise to Japan. On the other hand, Germany, France and other European nations remain the leading suppliers of popular highfashion merchandise. In Japan the very term ‘home textiles’ is still somewhat unfamiliar. Towels and sheets are still more often purchased as gifts than for personal use. This is particularly the case with towels, where


19

traditional year-end and mid-summer gift giving accounts for about 90 per cent of all sales. Chronic recession has dramatically reduced corporate gift giving while imports selling for half the price have seen a wave of bankruptcies among small Japanese towel makers. Corporate membership in the Japan Towel Industry Association dropped from 925 firms in 1990 to just 457 in 2000. Japanese-made sheets, pillow covers and other types of bed linens, especially those without high fashion appeal, are distributed mainly to hotels, hospitals and other institutional users increasingly use imports. These products are mostly imported by general trading companies or specialty trading companies and sold directly to linenservice companies. Other types of imported covers are distributed from trading companies to manufacturer wholesalers (brand owners) or department stores. Japanese made table cloths, napkins and other types of table linens, which mainly consist of practical use items without high fashion appeal, are mostly distributed from manufacturer to fabric wholesaler and finally to department stores and mass merchandisers. Imports are usually handled by general trading companies or specialty trading companies before being distributed to manufacturer wholesalers, department stores, etc. Towels and other types of toilet linen and kitchen linen are sold through department stores and mass merchandisers, although specialty stores and bedding stores also account for a fairly large share of sales.

2.11

Home textiles in Turkey

The Turkish home textile industry as a sub-sector of the huge Turkish textile industry, which has a dominant role in the world, has experienced significant progress in the last decade and met the high standards of the EU (9). The power of Turkish home textile industry results from huge textile industry in Turkey. In recent years the production of home textiles has shown a steady increase due to the rise in both domestic and external demand for home textiles. Almost all kinds of home textiles are produced in Turkey. These may be listed by export value as follows: Table linens, towels, voiles, curtains, laces, blankets, cushions, pillows, quilts, eiderdowns. The Turkish home textile industry is well on the way to becoming one of the world leaders by its wide range of products and superior quality in home textile production, especially in the production of net curtains, embroidery, guipure, towels, and quilt covers. Turkey has the largest machine park for the production of both embroidery and guipuer in the world. In Europe, the largest factory producing quilt covers is in Turkey. The Turkish home textile industry has also acquired the latest technology with a high production capacity and a highly skilled labour pool. In addition, the industry has managed to reduce the cost of production below the world average while it

20


has increased its quality of products. So, with a huge production capacity, high quality and strong competitiveness, Turkey is among the top three suppliers of curtains and embroidery in Europe and among the top three suppliers of towels in the world. In Turkey, the towel sector has traditional roots and its towels are known as ‘Turkish Towels’ worldwide. Today, the Turkish towel sector has competitiveness in international markets in terms of jacquard and embroidery technologies. In addition, lace, which is commonly used in many textile applications, especially in home textiles, is originally a Turkish handicraft. It is an embroidery art reaching back to the mid-1500s and crowned by the labour of Turkish women. It is an outstanding handicraft with its traditional taste and motifs in different colours and lines, which are now reflected, in modern home decoration. Today, the Turkish home textile industry is aware of the trend in international markets towards the increasing demand for healthier and more environment-friendly products and tries to adapt itself to developments within legal and technical regulations. Many manufacturers in the sector managed to produce in the environmental management systems and in the quality management systems, e.g. ISO 9000 series. About 150 companies in the textile sector have ISO 9001 or 9002 certificates, 30 of which are in the home textile field. Additionally, some companies in the home textile sector have private eco labels. Turkish home textile producers are mainly located in Istanbul, Denizli, Bursa, Izmir, Gaziantep, Kayseri and Ushak. Denizli is the manufacturing centre of toweling sector not only in Turkey but also in the world. In Denizli, towels and bathrobes are manufactured from Aegean cotton, which is the finest cotton in the world. These towels and bathrobes are well-known throughout the world for their extraordinary softness, absorbency and warmth. Their extraordinary pile thickness and density gives towels and bathrobes these superior features. In addition, the more these towels and bathrobes are washed the softer and more absorbent they become, contrary to the ordinary products. That’s why Denizli alone has a major share of world’s cotton towel and bathrobe exports. About 90% of these products are exported to all over the world. ‘Turkish Towels and Bathrobes’, the ones especially from Denizli, are not used only at homes but also presented by 5 or 4 star hotels in all over the world as a quality service sign (10). Towel and bathrobe producers are there in Ushak. Bursa is one of the most important manufacturing centres in textile field in the world and it is mostly concentrated on the manufacture of curtains, curtaining and upholstery fabrics, decoration fabrics, bedding products, towels and bathrobes as well as other textiles. Many of the producers in these cities have integrated their production process from yarn and fabric production to product design, dyeing, finishing and sewing in order to obtain the best quality in any step of the production. Turkish home textile manufacturers are very conscious about fashion creation and design which enables them


21

to gain a special place in international markets. Creative and modern designs and unique motifs, all created by Turkish designers keep the pulse of world home decoration fashion and meet all tastes and preferences. Besides meeting domestic demand in Turkey, the Turkish home textile sector, with its high potential in the export market and its wide range of products and superior quality, is an important export earner for the country. The home textile sector with an export value of US$810 million and a 3% share in Turkey’s total exports in 1998 has been an important sub-sector for the Turkish economy. In 1998, the sector exported about 57% of production. With its high-grade products, the technology of production and quality of workmanship, Turkey has started to increase her share in the main markets, especially in the European market. Therefore, prominent world suppliers have started to cooperate with Turkish manufacturers in joint production in the home textile field. Now, Turkey’s main targets in the world home textile market are to exceed a share of 15% and to increase the existing number of Turkish brands. The European countries are the most important markets for Turkey’s home textile exports. A large quantity of home textiles is exported to Germany. The other main markets are the USA, the UK, France and the Netherlands. New markets such as Poland, Hungary, Romania, the Russian Federation and the other Commonwealth of Independent States are emerging.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

CHAKRABORTY KOUSHIK (2008), Home Textiles, Global vs Indian market. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. A N O N (2008), Home Textiles Market in Asia. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. ANON (2006), Textiles: Growth at ‘home’!. Available from: www.equitymaster.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. A N O N (2008), The Home Textile Industry in India. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 13 November 2009]. CBI Market Survey (2008), The Household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, General discussion household and furnishing textiles. Available from: www.cbi.eu,16-17 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. CBI Market Survey (2008), The Household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, Trends. Available from: www.cbi.eu, 13 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. CBI Market Survey (2008), The Household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU, Size of production. Available from: www.cbi.eu, 15–16 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. ANON (2005), ‘Japan: A major destination for home textiles’, Express Textiles, 6. ANON (2008), Home Textile Industry in Turkey. Available from: http:// www.turkeyhometextile.com/hometextileinturkey.htm [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Home Textiles in Turkey. Available from: http://www.igeme.gov.tr [Accessed on 14 November 2009]

22

Fibres and textiles fabrics used in home textiles Performance of home

3 Fibres and fabrics used in home textiles

Abstract: Home textile products have been diversified over a period of time. The fabrics used in home textiles control interior environment of home. Natural fibres, synthetic fibres and their blends have been successfully used to enhance the performance of fabrics for home textiles in a variety of combinations. The chapter begins with the discussion on the possibility of using different ecofriendly and sustainable fibres for home textiles. The chapter then deals with the areas application of different home textile items and fibres and fabrics used in them to derive better performance for their intended end use. Keywords: Sustainable, bio-degradable, natural fibres, synthetic fibres, mittens, coasters

!.

Introduction

Fabrics play an important role in controlling the interior environment of a home. The fabrics being the prime contributors provide the texture, colour, character and scale, and anything that is missing in the architecture. Fabric is the interior designer’s pharmacy, rich with cures for every complaint. Fabric protects interior colour from fading and furnishing from deterioration by sunlight. It protects from sun glare and lends protection from night blackness at evening and from too early sun in the morning. Fabrics lend privacy to any degree that is needed. It shields people from draughts or heat and reduces heat loss in winter. It can make summer room cooler and reduce an air conditioning load in the summer. Fabric increases liveability and work ability of a small place, reduce noise, make music and even speech richer and more resonant of all acoustic materials, and sound engineers find no material that is equal. Fabrics used for home textiles must have properties such as, good light fastness, good resistance to seam slippage, good resistance to pilling, good resistance to snagging, stain repellency, good fastness to sponging, flame retardency, and appearance retention.

22


!.

23

Application of conventional fibres in home textiles

Natural fibres, like cotton, wool, linen, etc., are dominant in the home textiles sector. In recent days, some of the man-made fibres are also used that include polyester, rayon, nylon, polypropylene, teflon, recron, acrylic, etc. Due to the qualities like strength, warmth, abrasion resistance and resistance to moths and mildew, polyester dominates the carpet and curtain segments. The share of cotton and man-made fibres in the total fibre consumed in production of home textiles account for around 38% and 37%, respectively (1). About 6% of home textiles are made of wool and animal hairs. Flax accounted for only 0.1% of all fibres consumed in producing home textiles. Information of around 20% of the fibre usage was unidentifiable as their general use was either not classified or remained unspecified in the fibre categories. Blends of natural and synthetic fibres have also attracted attention of home textile manufacturers to enhance the fabric performance.

!.!

Application of new and sustainable fibres in home textiles

Environmental threats like global warming and climate change are accelerating the cause and awareness of new eco-friendly fibres. Even though such fibres have not attained the commercial success despite its existence in the market for some time, they have contributed immensely to the concept of sustainability and unique ornamentation. The possibility of application of some environment-friendly fibres such as solar protection fibre, coir, jute, water lily fibre, silk, milk fibre, wood fibres, sea weed fibres, soybean fibre, bamboo fibre, and hemp in different home textile products is of interest to the consumers.

3.3.1

Use of solar protection fibre

The fibre is of botanic origin, made from the natural raw material wood and is, therefore, fully biodegradable. The fibre company Lenzing has developed the new fibre with solar protection on a TENCEL basis. The new fibre is effective due to permanent pigment integration. It provides home textile items a long-term protection from solar radiation. A sunscreen level of up to 110 SPF can be reached in this fibre (2). The fibre is the perfect eco-friendly alternative to polyester fibres and conventionally finished fabrics with solar protection.

24


3.3.2

Use of golden natural fibres (coir and jute)

Coir is a versatile natural fibre extracted from mesocarp tissue or husk of the coconut fruit. It is traditionally been used in doormats, mattresses and other upholstery products. Pads of curled down coir fibre, made by needlefelting are shaped and cut to fill mattresses. A major proportion of brown coir pads are sprayed with rubber latex, which bonds the fibres together to make rubberised coir, which is used as upholstery padding. Coir, being an organic product, is biodegradable and eco-friendly. This is a major factor for its popularity, when compared to its modern competitors like PVC and U foam and synthetic products used in the home textile industry. Jute is the cheapest and strongest amongst all natural fibres with many inherent properties like luster, high tensile strength, low extensibility, high breathability, moderate heat and fire resistance. It is biodegradable and eco-friendly and the expired fibres can be recycled more than once. Advantages of jute include good insulating and anti-static properties, as well as having low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture regain. Jute has been extensively used in the manufacture of carpet backing and mats. (3)

3.3.3

Use of water lily fibre

Studies undertaken by the Philippine R&D sector have shown that water lily fibres are favourable towards use in curtains, upholstery, table runners and table napkins (4). Not much work has been reported about characterisation of this natural fibre and its application has not been explored on commercial scale in home textiles. However, such fibre holds promise as a future eco-friendly fibre to be used in home textile products.

3.3.4

Use of silk

Mulberry filature silk is not the immediate choice for home textiles. Dupions and matka silks in mulberry variety are the chief preferences for furnishings. While matka is a hand spun variety produced from silk waste but using such yarn in both warp and weft a thicker variety of fabric is produced. Dupion is the silk yarn that is produced by the reeling of double cocoons. Although the yarn has many defects, they are made use in the construction of novelty fabrics (5). An array of non-mulberry silks is also left unexplored in home textile sector. Tasar and eri are the two major varieties of non-mulberry silks most suited for home furnishings. Tasar is a wild variety of silk and different types of yarn such as thigh reeled, machine reeled, tram, and organzine are produced out of this non-mulberry silk (6). However, the filament of the cocoons in eri silk is neither


25

continuing like mulberry silk nor it is even or uniform in nature. It is available in white and brick red colour.

3.3.5

Application of milk fibre

Milk fibre from cow’s milk has attracted attention in recent years. Milk is first dewatered and then skimmed. New bio-engineering technique is then applied to make a protein spinning fluid. This fluid is suitable for wet spinning process through which the final high grade textile fibre is made. Milk fibre regulates air quality when mixed with cotton or silk. It also provides comfort, durability and elegance making it perfect for home furnishings (7). Milk fibres are soft, brilliant, anti-bacterial, absorbent and humectant. The milk protein contains a natural lubricant that keeps the skin moisturised and smooth and the absorbing power of the fibre takes dampness away from the body, stabilising its temperature. The fibre has great potential for household and spa towels, bathrobes, bed linen and bedspreads.

3.3.6

Application of wood fibres

Wood fibres from cultivated timber are harvested according to ecological criteria and the yarn produced is not only extremely smooth but also wears well in hot or cool climates. It has the coziness of silk, the feel of cashmere and the freshness of linen. The fact that it absorbs water so readily and then releases the dampness into the air makes it useful as light, silken toweling.

3.3.7

Application of sea weed fibres

SeaCell is a sustainable technical fibre made from cellulose consisting of renewable raw materials like sea weed and releases vitamins and minerals to the skin, especially when in contact with wet skin. So, it is used as a wellness bathrobe with additional advantages. Besides, the fibre has an anti-bacterial effect (because of silver), ideal for bed, table/kitchen and bath linen.

3.3.8

Application of soybean fibre in home textiles

The new soybean protein fibre was invented recently and is soft, smooth and light. It has cashmere feel but is smoother. The moisture absorption of soybean fibre is similar to that of cotton, but its ventilation is superior. It also has a silky luster with perfect drape and elegance. The anti-ultraviolet property of soybean fibre is better than cotton, viscose and silk. The amino

26


acid in the fibre can activate the collagen protein in the skin and resist tickling and evaporation from the skin. It is ideal for use in beds and baths sector.

3.3.9

Application of bamboo fibre

Bamboo fibre is a regenerated cellulosic fibre produced from bamboo. Starchy pulp is produced from bamboo stems and leaves through a process of alkaline hydrolysis and multi-phase bleaching. Further chemical processes produce bamboo fibre. It is softer than cotton, with a texture similar to a blend of cashmere and silk (8). Because the cross-section of the fibre is filled with various micro-gaps and micro-holes, it has much better moisture absorption and ventilation. Moisture absorbency is twice than that of cotton with extraordinary soil release. A characteristic of bamboo fibre is such that it absorbs moisture due to micro-gaps and static electricity is hard to be generated. Bamboo fibre does not contain free electron and thus it is antistatic, so it fits very well next to the human skin but not clinging it. It flows lightly over the body. Bamboo fibre towel has excellent natural functions. It is both anti-bacterial and deodorising in nature. Bamboo can thrive naturally without the use of pesticides as it is seldom eaten by pests or infected by pathogen. Scientists have found that bamboo contains a unique anti-bacteria and bacteriostasis bio-agent named ‘bamboo kun’. This substance is maintained in the finished bamboo fabric as it is bound tightly to the bamboo cellulose molecule. Bacteria will propagate rapidly in cotton and other fibres obtained from wood pulp, forming bad smell and even cause early degradation of the fibre in some cases. But it is killed almost 75% after 24 hours in bamboo fibre. Product of bamboo fibre is eco-friendly and bio-degradable (9). Due to its anti-bacterial property, the bamboo fibre has wide prospects in the field of hygiene home textile items such as mattresses, sanitary towel and table napkins. It is also most preferred fibre for decorating products like curtain, television cover, sofa slipcover and also for bathroom products like towels and bathrobes used in spas and hotels, as well as among the household consumers.

3.3.10 Application of hemp fibre The hemp is a bast fibre obtained from the plant Cannabis Sativa. The fibre conducts heat, dyes well, resists mildew, blocks ultraviolet light and has inherent anti-bacterial properties. The fibre is coarse-like coir and mainly used for table and floor products. It has not become the choice of conventional manufacturers of home textiles. Hemp fibre can be used to produce home textile items like coasters, table mats, runners, floor mats and other furnishings.


27

3.3.11 Application of cork fibre The precious and versatile vegetable tissue known as cork is the outer bark of the cork oak tree. It is a unique biological material with superior qualities. Cork fibre is very light, yet impermeable to liquids and gases, elastic and compressible, an excellent insulator, fireproof, and resistant to abrasion. Above all, it is completely natural, renewable, and recyclable. Villani Leonello, Italy, is a pioneer company in using cork as a fabric. Cork fabric is made of laminated natural cork coupled on textile. This laminated cork may be coupled on viscose/polyester fabric for furnishing and upholstery applications. Some of the unique features of natural cork laminated products are innovative texture, eco-friendly, wear resistance, low degradation to acid attacks, almost immune to micro-organisms and shows a slow fire combustion process. Cork fibre is also used for wall covering by the use of a laminated natural cork coupled on nonwoven fabric (10).

3.4

Areas of application of home textiles

Home textiles includes following applications such as textiles for seating, window textiles, bed textiles, textiles for wall coverings, bathroom textiles, accessories, kitchen furnishings and table textiles.

3.4.1

Textile for seating

In upholstery fabrics for domestic applications, there is a recognised division of specification between fixed upholstery and loose covers. The term ‘fixed upholstery’ refers to any upholstery fabric that is stapled, tacked, glued or other frame and covers a reliant or hard substrate. Acrylic fibre velvets are used because of excellent brightness and appearance. An important fashion trend in fixed domestic upholstery fabrics has been that of heavily textured fabrics. Texture is usually achieved by the use of fancy boucle type yarn, which is used as weft across non-textured warp. Boucle yarn is a specialised type of yarn that is usually made of three plies. Among the three plies used to create boucle yarn, one thread is usually looser than the others. The looser thread within the boucle yarn causes the yarn to have a rough feeling and a bulky look. The fact that boucle yarn has one loose thread within it also makes it more likely to unravel than some other types of yarn. Therefore, care must be taken when working with boucle yarn in order to ensure a proper look and high quality of the final product. Since combining several plies of thread together creates boucle yarn, it is generally a colourful yarn. Often, two or more colours are mixed together in a unique pattern. Initially, boucle yarn of rayon and nylon was been used. Recently polypropylene is being popular.

28


Loose covers are used to protect costly upholstery from wear and tear. As quite often with trends, loose covers are now more popular than ever. Old furniture can often be transformed with quality fabrics upholstered or loose. The choices of the fabric are often essential to create a quality and stylish look. Whether it is a contemporary or traditional workplace or home, the choice of linen can bring a hint of class to both the traditional and contemporary interiors. Linen has this touch of quality for both the traditional and contemporary interiors; linen seems now the ideal choice for both (11). Plain or striped linen and cotton, linen–cotton union, and cotton–hemp union are also used in loose covers.

3.4.2

Window textiles

Sun filters – It is woven voiles made up for polyester and flax, and consists of curtains, nets and pelmets. The types of sheers curtains which have become popular include voiles, woven nets – air textured continuous filament PET, warp knitted nets, burn out and broches developed with core spun PET fibre and cotton yarn, raschel nets, monarch safety net made up from terylene yarns. Semi sheers – It is composed of coarser yarn, often textures or fancy yarns, woven construction, combination of leno and plain weave with weft wise or warp bands of solid areas or check. Reflective textiles – With a view to reduce solar gain, prevent sun glare, and maintain lower temperature in summer and higher in winter, verosol window treatments with PET fibre fabric with an aluminium film on one side can be used. Curtain fabrics and drapes – This is probably of the wide area of fabric development in home textiles. It includes solid colour plain weave materials in cotton, flax, wool, silk, acrylic, viscose, PET, etc., textured synthetics yarn, jacquard and dobby weaves including damask style, checks styles and bordered styles, pile, woven and knitted fabrics. Modacrylic fibre, viscose, PVC fabric self-lining curtains made from crushed acrylic foam coating is also used for flame-retardant curtain. Curtains and draperies are made from all types of fibres and fabric constructions; however, most curtains are made of synthetic fabrics. This is because cotton curtains require ironing after washing; they are heavy and thus inconvenient in handling. There is also a market for expensive fibres such as silks, but it is fairly limited because of pricing and handling restrictions. There is still a market for curtain fabrics for home sewing besides curtains sewn and fitted by professional curtain makers. The latter are often employed by home furnishing retailers or interior decorating firms. Blinds – A type of window textiles, which is opaque. There are two types of blinds; one, which allows transmission of some light and the other,


29

is made usually cotton fabric known as black out material, which gives 100% opacity. Various styles available are i.e. venetian, vertical, and roller blind. A roller blind is made up from glass fiber fabric. Vertical blind acts as an efficient light filter.

3.4.3

Bed textiles

Sheets and pillowcases – This is a major ‘soft goods’ category. Sheet print designs have seen much variation, including small and large floral patterns coordinating themes connecting sheet, pillowcase, and duvet cover with bordered designs, patch work inspired points, strong diagonals, geometrics, and candy stripes. A special design for children’s sheets has been one of the modern easy care sheets, e.g. ‘peanuts’, Disney cartoon sets etc. Materials normally used is 100% carded cotton, ring-spun yarn or openend yarn. Polyester/cotton is used to a much lesser degree than cotton, though its advantage is its shrink resistance and durable qualities. Other textile fabrics, such as silk, account for a minor percentage of the market. Yarn specifications are part of the contract. Cloth construction criteria include the weight, the yarn count and the type of weave. The specifications on sheet dimensions cover not only the selvedges but also the weight. Quilted textiles – PET fibre is mainly used; several alternative filling became available for this product. Blankets – Blankets are normally made of raised wool, acrylic fibre, and acrylic polyester fibre blends in solid colours. Cotton terry blankets are also in existence. Thermal blankets are produced from wool, acrylic, polyester and polyester acrylic blends. Point designs using large-scale single motif with borders are some of the aspects in blankets. Raschel knit, needle punched nonwovens (finished by napping) and flocked blankets are also available. Small blankets (also indicated as throws) with typical sizes of (50 × 60) inch or (130 × 160) cm are used for both decorative and functional purposes. Popular fleece blankets of these sizes are offered in non-printed, printed, and embroidered (12) category. Bedspreads – Bedspread is one of the most important items of interior furnishings. It includes styles such as plain styles, embroidered styles, lace styles, Chadwick, velour printed and Jacquard, chenille types, terry wear types, and jacquard and dobby wears. Normally, wool, cotton, acrylic, viscose and blends are used in bedspreads. Mattress covers – The traditional Jacquard patterns with viscose filament warp and spun weft of viscose or cotton are used. One of the most significant developments is the introduction of colourful, stylish and modern broad stripes. Bed skirts – With a view to hide the box spring of the bed, bed skirts are used. These are also called petticoats, dust ruffle and dusters. Tailored

30


and gathered or ruffled bed skirts are available for bed furnishings. Manufacturing of these two can be done either by panelled or platform way. Linen bed skirts because of the flow are very popular. Bed comforters – A comforter is a type of blanket. Comforters are intended to keep the user warm, especially during sleep, although they can also be used as mattress pads. Comforters are generally large and rectangular in shape, filled with natural or synthetic insulative material and encased in a shell/covering. Like quilts, comforters are generally used with a set of sheets. Comforter sizes correspond with bed sizes: twin, full, queen, king, and cal-king. Comforter sizes run slightly larger than actual bed sizes to allow for draping over the sides of the bed. Typical sizes in the United States for comforters are as follows: ● ● ●

Twin = 64 (width) × 87 (length) in. Queen / Full = 87 (width) × 87 (length) in. King = 101 (width) × 87 (length) in.

A comforter is sometimes covered with a duvet (comforter) cover for protection and prolonged use. Duvet is French for ‘Down’. Comforter covers are similar in principle to pillowcases, usually closed with zippers or buttons. In the United Kingdom, they are only known as special types of padding duvets. Comforters are typically packaged in a set that also includes a bed skirt, pillow shams, and sometimes pillows. Filling – Comforters are filled with layers of material such as polyester batting, down feathers, wool, or silk. Comforters also can be made out of fur, usually with a backing of satin or silk. The loft of the filling determines the weight as well as the level of insulation. The comforter is stitched or quilted to secure the filling and keep it evenly distributed. Shell / Covering – The outer shells of comforters are typically constructed using cotton, silk, or polyester fabrics or blends, of varying thread counts. Comforter shells vary in design and colour, often designed to coordinate with other bedding. Washing a comforter should not be done with a top loader; minimum capacity to wash a comforter is 3.7 m3. High thread comforters are very soft, luxurious and have higher quality. Filling in comforter is done by polyester and wool to provide warmth. Duvet – A duvet is a fluffy comforter that is slipped into a duvet cover. A duvet cover, also known as a comforter cover, normally have an opening at one end with button closures and is highly recommended to protect the comforter investment. The duvet covers are like a big pillow case that covers the duvet while it protects and holds it delicately so that it does not slip during one’s sleep. Duvet covers can be colour coordinated with the decoration of the bedroom and can serve as a bedspread, blanket and also as a top sheet. Buyers have a large variety of duvet covers to choose from that are the result of a careful choice between design and fabrics in line


31

with fashion dictates. Print or plain colours in cotton, satin, linen, jacquard, allow us to personalise the duvet in harmony with the home furnishings. The colour combinations and the patterns used to fabricate duvet covers almost fit any decoration, any style (13). Design and style is the component of duvet and but more importantly duvet covers. Plain colour, printed, satin, linen, silk, cotton duvet covers are available that can be chosen as per the decoration needs and pattern of bed and bedding furnishings. Bed throws – Bed throws are made for afternoon naps and sleepy trips. Lush bed throws are perfect as a beautiful decorative accent and a cozy wrap for the bed. Soft and luxurious, bed throws are specifically designed to provide exceptional warmth and comfort. Great ranges of bed throws are available in all the colours, for instant transformation of the bedroom. Apart from giving warmth to the bed, these are also used for the outdoor picnic, sporting event or vacation travel aid. Ultra-soft to the touch, bed throws are usually made of cotton, silks and other richer fabrics with decorative ornate designs and patterns. Intricate embroidery, patchwork and other ornamentation techniques are used to highlight the beauty of the products. Bed throws come in various colours, shapes, fabrics and sizes that can be custom made in different styles to fit different beds (14).

3.4.4

Wall covering textiles

Wall fabrics are fast taking over from paints. Also, wall paper plays an important role. Wall fabrics are available in various convenient widths to be used from room height to avoid seams. Jute was the original material choice for wall fabrics and although its use has declined in favour of various other materials, especially flax. Non-woven warp systems in a great variety of fibre and texture are also used. This fibre can be easily removed for cleaning and replacement (Velcro type band with self-adhesive backing). It is well-known that wall fabric suspended system absorbs sound. Absorption is the property of absorbing sound waves with in a material, which is achieved by mineral and glass wools. Tapestries – It involves the formation of repp weave where warp is completely hidden by the weft, which is firmly beaten by a heavy comb. Cotton is used as a warp, and worsted yarn is used as a weft. In wall covering textiles yarns are normally dyed with metal complex dye in hank dyeing machine. Mothproofed yarns are used in this combination. Wall decorators – A wall decoration throw or throw rug can give living area a great new look. The colour combinations and the patterns used in wall decoration throws almost fit any decoration, any style. Wool, cotton, polyester and chenille are the primary materials used to make wall decoration throws and throw rugs. The popularity of wool wall decoration throws is due to its inherent qualities. There are certain breeds of sheep,

32


like the merino, whose fleece is especially unique for its special luster and length of fibre. Wall hangings (embroidery) – Embroidery is sometimes used to mark the borders between the patterned areas of the ground clothe and most varied types of stitches are used to obtain decorative effect with the aid of the carded, dyed, non-spun woven fibres. Super imposing a web on a backing material can create a tapestry or wall hanging. Wall hanging (hand tufted) – It includes both hand-operated tufting needle and mechanical tufting gun. Wall hangings in batik and woven and knotted varieties are not very uncommon.

3.4.5

Bathroom textiles

Shower curtains – Shower curtains have to be of waterproof material. Plastic coated textiles (woven and nonwoven fabrics) are firmly established in this area. Plastics membranes have not become popular because of the propensity to splitting and tearing. Printed shower curtains were occasionally designed to co-ordinate with bathroom vinyl wall coverings and occasionally with towel designs, as well as tufted bathroom textiles. Terry toweling – Terry fabrics became an important sector of household textiles. The terry towel has become available in a wide variety of designs piece dyed fabrics, jacquard floral designs as well as prints and is sculpted as well as velvet or ‘shorn’ versions. Traditionally, cotton is a natural choice for terry towel production. With the change in lifestyle and demand of various functional aspects, towel manufacturers are in search for unique, innovative and different products. To fabricate such merchandise, other fibres have been preferred. New fibres include modal, bamboo, seaweed, lyocel, and now soybean, corn (15), tri-blend of bamboo, silk and cotton (16), and micro-fibre (17). Towels made of bamboo and cotton are 25% softer than towels made entirely of cotton after laundering. By adding soy fibres to cotton in its Soycot® towels, Welspun USA has improved the feel and absorbency. A combination of 10% porcelain fibre, 20% bamboo, and 70% low twist cotton are reported to provide a soft hand with the feel of cashmere (18). The most important innovation in yarn fabrication for towels has been the introduction of low twist yarns. These special yarns are spun with longer staple cotton fibres with a very low twist. MicroCotton® is the one of the best-known branded low twist yarns (17, 19). Another novel yarn fabrication is HygroCotton® which is a trademark spinning technology of Welspun USA. The spinning technology makes the towel absorbent by giving each cotton strand a hollow core that wicks moisture and if combined with long staple cotton, also gives the soft hand (20). Bath mats – Once stepped out of bath tub, slippery bathroom syndrome makes one uncomfortable. Thus, there is a need to place a right bath mat


33

in front of bath tub, sink and door with a view to prevent any danger of slipping. At the same time it will add comfort and elegance and also metamorphose of dull looking bathroom to the voguish one. Bath mat is selected after considering the colour and pattern theme of other bathroom furnishings that will include shower curtains, bath robes, bath towels, bath rugs, face towels and hand towels. The embroidered bath mats, printed mats and plain mats add elegance. Cotton has the super absorbent quality and at the same time looks good. Wherein jute mats are anti-slippery. In both varieties hand-made bath mats are available. This gives luxury and elegant look to the bathroom. Durability, washability and anti-slip quality are some of the important features of bath mat. Bamboo bath mats and the mats that have rubber at their base are the perfect examples of anti-slip bath mats (21). Bathrobe – A bathrobe is a robe typically worn after bathing in the privacy of one’s home where the wearer is typically otherwise nude to keep warm and/or preserve modesty at times when there is no immediate need to fully dress (22). It is a loose open-fronted gown closed with a fabric belt that is put on over nightwear on rising from bed, or, less commonly today, worn over some day clothes when partially dressed or undressed in the morning or evening (for example, over a man’s shirt and trousers without jacket and tie). Bathrobes are generally made of four different fabrics. Cotton – Due to the polarity of cellulose, cotton bathrobes absorb water easily and are frequently used by the beach, pool, or following a shower. Cotton bathrobes are especially suited to use in hot climates because cotton tends to absorb perspiration. Silk – Another common fabric used in bathrobes is silk. These kinds of bathrobes can be relatively expensive due to the cost of producing silk. Such bathrobes are very thin and lightweight. These bathrobes are not particularly suited to wet environments because they lack the surface area and polarity necessary to absorb water. Microfibre – Microfibre is an extremely fine synthetic fibre, typically made of polyester that can be woven into textiles to mimic natural fibre cloth. Modern microfibres are developed to maximise breathability and water absorption and can be thinner than the width of human hair. Much like silk, robes made out of microfibre are light in weight and very soft to touch. Wool – Wool is common in colder climates. Bathrobes are also categorised by their shape of weave. Flannel – Flannel is a soft woven fabric, made from loosely spun yarn, usually cotton or wool. Terry – Terry is a pile fabric, usually woven of cotton, with uncut loops on both sides, used for bath towels and robes. The longer and denser the loops are, more absorbent the bathrobes are:

34


Velour – Velour is a fabric with cut loops. Velour bathrobes are typically made with terry inside, as terrycloth absorbs water better than velour. Velour gives the bathrobe luxury, cosiness, and makes the garment softer to the touch. Waffle – Waffle fabric is loose and has a distinctive ‘grid like’ appearance. For most part, these bathrobes are designed for their light weight. ‘Pique’ is a type of waffle weave that can be applied to cotton, velour, silk, and other fabrics. Bath rugs – A bathroom rug is not only decorative, but also functional when stepping out of the shower or tub. Stepping out of a shower or tub with wet feet is not only dangerous and exposes us to the chances of slipping or falling, but eventually the water can damage the flooring in the bathroom. They are popular for a lot of reasons but the main one is safety – their original purpose was to stop people from slipping on a wet or damp floor after bathing or showering. The bath rug eliminates this fear because it gives the bather a stable and comfortable surface to dry them on. Bath rugs are especially useful in a busy house with kids where the shower is in use for hours at a time (23). Bath rugs are small, decorative soft flooring that are usually tufted or have pile knit constructions. Tufted fabric pile yarns are much less dense than in carpeting, but are much longer, usually ranging from 1 to 3 inch. Bathroom rugs serve many purposes, style and utility being the most prevalent. They provide a touch of softness for the feet and also add colour and texture to the bathroom, while giving it life. These are typically very plain rugs, and made of either cotton or chenille. This is due to the fact that these are less susceptible to damage from water than perhaps wool is (24). Cotton is a durable material, but these rugs can wear out over time if they are not dried out properly. More durable bathroom rugs are typically made out of rayon, acrylic or polypropylene.

3.4.6

Accessories

Carpets – The fitness of a carpet is judged by the number of knots per unit area in combination of the design, colours and quality of yarn. The firmness, thickness and appearance of the back of the carpet are important considerations. The type of fibre used to make a carpet determines its visual appearance, overall durability, feel, resistance to stains and the cost. Synthetic materials adaptable into a variety of styles and applications are the most popular fibres used in today’s carpets and also accounting for about 97% of all fibre used. Common fibres used in carpet (25) are as follows: Nylon – Nylon is an excellent choice for all levels of traffic and applications. It is extremely durable, stain and mildew resistant, static free,


35

and maintains its fibre height allowing it to withstand the weight of heavy furniture and people. Nylon accounts for approximately 90% of all residential carpeting. Polypropylene – A very strong fibre, which is resistant to moisture and mildew and is easy to clean and maintain while controlling the commercial market with an 80% share. It is an indoor and outdoor fibre and is the common fibre used for artificial turf. Polyester – Polyester fibre creates a very attractive carpet and is less expensive than nylon or wool. It is commonly used in soft loop or berber loop carpets. Polyester fibres have a lot of advantages, i.e. crush resistant, available in a vast array of dynamic colours and its resistance to fading. It is also easy to clean and is resistant to water-based stains. Acrylic – Acrylic fibre offers the appearance and feel of wool at a much lower cost and has the advantage over wool of being moisture and mildew resistant. Because of its wool-like attributes, it is used extensively in velvet and plush level loop carpets. Though acrylic fibre resists crushing, stains and will not fade from sunlight but is not suitable for high traffic areas, such as hallways, family rooms, and stairs. Hence, this fibre provides a perfect carpet in master and guest bedrooms. Wool – Wool carpets maintain their height and they are ultra soft with a feel that is incomparable. Wool fibres are usually used in cut pile and textured carpets. When it comes to luxury and performance, no other fibre compares to wool. They are very easy to clean and have an exceptionally long life. Wool carpets are also less resistant to moisture than synthetic fibre carpets. It is one of the most expensive of the natural fibres and much more than synthetic fibre carpets. Blends – The aforementioned fibre types are often combined in many variations to produce carpets that take the best qualities of each fibre type to produce a group of exceptional finished products. One can consider a wool/nylon blend to obtain the luxurious look and comfort of wool with the durability of nylon. Other common blends include acrylic/ polypropylene and nylon/polypropylene. Although less expensive, these blends are usually subject to staining. PET – Recycled plastics, primarily soda containers, are the basis for polyethylene terephthalate, or as it is more commonly known in the industry as PET. Fibres made from PET are not as plush or soft to the feel as other synthetic fibres but they are very durable, water and static resistant and offers extremely good value while maintaining a ‘green’ environment. Rugs – Face fibre of rug can be natural or synthetic. Synthetic fibres are used by far most often, in particular nylon, followed by olefin (polypropylene), propylene and acrylic. Main reason for it is in their generally good physical properties, combined with their lower cost and availability. Among natural face fibres used in area rug construction, wool

36


is the preferred choice, followed by sisal, jute, hemp, seagrass and bamboo. Main reason for the wool not being used more often is in its higher price. The rest of natural fibres have limitations related either to some of their physical properties or availability (26). Rug backing doesn’t need to meet high quality demands like fibres. Still, quality of its structure and materials, including the latex layer, determines how long a rug will stay flexible and functional with its shape, face fibre count and uniformity. Finally, rug pad of optimum material and thickness is needed to protect area rug from the consequences of its use, as well as from interactions with flooring and the microenvironment it is exposed to. Padding materials include felt, rubberised felt, foam rubber, sponge rubber and urethane, prime or bonded. Felt padding made 100% from hair has good wear resistance and resiliency. However, it sheds and may cause sensitivity/allergy problems, absorbs moisture and stretches out of shape. Its physical properties worsen if mixed with jute. On the other hand, felt pad coated with latex or rubber has better dimensional and floor stability, lower moisture absorption and allergenic potential. Mats – The floor coverings have evolved with a great deal of imagination and aesthetic sense. Mats are made of wheat or rice straw, weeds and fine sliced bamboo. The mats have a fine upper layer and a coarse bottom one, and are stitched at the edges.

3.4.7

Kitchen furnishings

Kitchen is one of the most important parts of a home. After all, it satisfies the basic need of human for food. However, kitchen is also the most risky area of any home due to the availability of tools like knife, scissors, etc., apart from fire in the form of gas stoves. Also, there are other electrical appliances, which are dangerous due to the constant use of water in kitchen. All these do not rule out the use of in kitchen. Clothes are present in kitchen in the form of aprons, napkins, mitten, dish clothes, etc. The only way to ensure safety along with functionality in a kitchen is to buy and use kitchen furnishings cautiously. It is, therefore, always advisable to use kitchen furnishings that are made of linen or cotton fabric. They are washable and durable apart from being lesser prone to fire (27). The abundance and properties of cotton makes it the most popular material used to manufacture these products. Of late, linen is becoming the new preferred fabric for most of these products, especially in the quality part of the market. The main worth of linen is its environmental production attribute, because it uses 5–20 times less energy and water than all other natural and synthetic material production. Silk is not especially used for fabric bases for kitchen products, because of its susceptibility to burn easily, and it is a lot more expensive than other fabrics. And although cotton is


37

still very popular and has a very steady demand, many buyers still prefer polyester fabrics; cotton blends with linen, organza, and poly-tissue have been deemed appropriate fabrics for kitchen furnishing. The customer’s preferences for the total designs of kitchen alter with the changing seasons or approaching festivals. Whereas red, blue, orange and pastels are ideal for summer, the darker colours such as black, brown, and grey are ideal for winters. White is rarely used as a complete colour scheme for kitchen accessories, because it becomes dirty and soiled easily, but instead, it is used as the base or is blended with various colours for interesting motifs. Mittens – They are known for their lightweight, warmth and breathability. Mittens are usually made of pure flax and cotton fabric that depicts the excellence of the craftsmen and at the same time ensures dayto-day unhurdled usage. Decorative mittens are also made up of fur and leather, wool, alpaca, and mohair or blends; these fibres come in a variety of colours. Mittens can be hand woven, hand painted, embroidered and also printed in machine patterns (28). Coasters – The purpose of it is to prevent table finishes from heat and cold damage from wares. Coasters can come in a multitude of designs: hand-woven, embroidered, hand-painted, and machine printed coasters. And they are also available in many varied shapes, such as square, triangular, rectangular, circular and oblong, which are very much in demand in the international market. Kitchen-wear aprons – Kitchen apron is a garment, usually fastened in the back and worn over all or part of the front of the body to protect clothing. Kitchen aprons are skilfully crafted out of linen, cotton, denim, polyester and other fabrics. Aprons for kitchen mostly have very large and decorative pockets and a waist band. Kitchen wear aprons are mostly flameretardants. Lots of variety in cotton apron designs and cotton kitchen apron pattern are available. Printed aprons, dotted, beautifully decorated with laces and ribbons are not difficult to find in the market. Kitchen towels – Kitchen towels of different sizes are available which are handy for drying dishes and just-washed hands. Kitchen towels should be easily washable, quickly drying, highly absorbent and durable. They are made up of fabrics such as cotton, linen, terrycloth, or microfibre. Placemats/Tablemats – Linen and cotton mats with decorative weaves or embellished with embroidery appliqué or laces with unique colour combinations attracts many buyers. Variations can be seen in the weave, texture, material and shapes of placemats. Jute, straw, flax or even plastic mats are seen with many exporters. Jute tablemats have a good market, being user friendly and buyers find the natural golden colour of jute quite attractive. Mats highlighted with coloured threads are quite popular. Straw mats are where craftsmen play with different thickness of straw to give different textural rhythms. Threads and straws of different colours are used

38


to beautify and add elegance to mats. They have a host of interesting patterns that include paisley, floral, geometric and abstract prints. Solid colours, patchwork and light embroideries in place mats are also visible at many export houses. Napkins – Linen and cotton are the preferred material for napkins, as they are durable and absorbent and can be boiled for the purpose of cleaning and ensuring hygiene. They can also accept great amounts of heat, e.g. ironing and bearing sunlight. Napkins can be embroidered, printed and painted to give a tailored look and a handicraft charm. Floral, animal and geometric designs are the common motifs, as the printing/painting is situated in various places on napkins to assist in different ways of folding, as to accentuate the pattern (29). Napkin rings – Traditional designs are used in many pleasing colours to make beautiful napkin rings with a less formal look. Designers keep experimenting with the many appearances of napkin rings, as to attract new customers to the market. The buyers’ desire more of cleaner lines and visually attracting styles in napkin rings with subtle elements of conventional Indian appeal. Napkin rings are used to embellish the style and presence of the napkin on the table, and the most commonly used materials for the manufacture of napkin rings are glass, ceramic, stone, wood, poly resin, brass, bone and aluminium (29).

3.4.8

Table textiles

Table cloths/covers – Several types of table cloths are available; out of which, linen table cloths are bit expensive than cotton or other types of fabric. Europe is famous for quality linen and linen products. Fine look and sheen makes it popular and it is not difficult to find luxury linen table cloths now-a-days. Woven printed types of linen cotton material, crocheted linen, jacquard type that includes damask and embroidered types are some of the popular items. Nonwoven table cloths, which include spun bonded nylon and spun laced polyester fibre, are also used commonly. If one wishes to use tablecloth for not more than one time then the disposable linen table cloths are available. These are also called paper linen table cloths. Although these look like linen but made up from a dense paper material that looks similar to linen. Along with this, Irish linen table cloth from Ireland is also very popular (30). Table covers are usually adorned with modest amounts of beadwork, hand/machine embroidery, and appliqué work. Linens take to embroidery well, which are more utilised for occasions, and the linens can both be easily dyed and does not fade out when washed. They are manufactured using contemporary and conventional designs, as hand-made table cloths are quite established among long time buyers.


39

Table runners – These are used in decorating the tables. These are normally run over the table to add to the look. However, in India table covers are more predominant than table runners. Table covers are mostly used to protect the furnisher from stain and for the attractive look of the dinning table. Table runner is the piece of fabric that is made according to the table shape. So it can be rectangular table runner, round table runner, square and oblong table runner. But there is no hard and fast rule of using table runner according to the shape of the table. On square table one can use the round or vice-versa. Different varieties of table runner patterns are available. Out of which, patchwork table runner, crochet table runner, embroidered table runner, jacquard table runner, printed table runner and knitted table runner are common in use. In a patchwork table runner pattern there is one long fabric having patches of designs and patterns that are made from other fabrics either having a different print or colour. Crochet is a technique of making a runner with the help of thread and crochet tool. Crochet can be done on the edges of any kind of table runner that gives very different look. Embroidered table runners are very popular. It can be both hand made and machine made. Hand-made table runners are more expensive than their counterpart. Knitted table runners are made from wool and printed ones will have prints on them. Now based on the way one wants to decorate table, patterns and designs are selected. Apart from these laces, beautiful ribbons and other embellishments on the table runner are available in the market to further beautify it. There are numerous fabrics from which table runner can be made. Table runners made from cotton, polyester, silk, bamboo, and linen are available. Vinyl, plastic and satinbased materials are also common. The organic consciousness has given an edge to cotton and other eco-friendly fabrics such as bamboo, linen and silk. Paper table runners are also getting popular as these can be used once and there is no need of cleaning and maintaining them. Quilted table runners can also change the whole room’s decor. So table runners are very important part of drawing & dining furnishings. Table mats – Woven printed, Jacquard types and embroidered styles are common items. Table skirting – Table skirting fabric must not be stiff and hard. It should have a proper flow to solve the decorative purpose. The cloth must be completely opaque to have more royal impact. The first choice of many consumers and manufacturers is the polyester fabric as it has that flow with great appeal and needs less care. For affluent look of the table, linen skirts and silk table skirting is also done but less expensive is satin or poly-satin. These are the best alternatives to the traditional rayon. In some of the weddings cotton table skirting is also used but these have less impact than the cloth that has shine in it. Thus, the fabrics that can be picked to make table skirts are linen, satin, cotton, polyester poplin, poly silk and

40


poly linen. In addition to this plastic table skirting is also used. Plastic table skirting is easy to maintain but has life less than cloth table skirting. Moreover, plastic table skirting does not look as good as cloth table skirting.

3.5

Conclusion

Consumers worldwide are becoming aware of natural fibres and slowly but steadily the trend is again shifting to better natural products. Product development with the new eco-friendly fibres can pave the way to stay ahead in the competition wherein the demand for organic and natural fibre products may even surpass that of conventional fibres. Having seen extensively about the use of home textiles, and the glamour they add to our living environment, the production of various patterns using different colours and creative ideas should cause through in this field. There is rapid improvement in the west, in the field of interior decoration and home textiles. Thus, the innovative ideas and quality finishing would help the growth of home textiles. Apart from wide use of textiles for clothing, home textiles are rapidly capturing the market. Indian home textiles find a rating amongst the top 5 in world according to a study conducted by the US department of commerce. The studied data reveals that Indian home textiles rank second to china in certain categories, which includes bags, table linens, napkins curtains, and rank third in products like cotton bed sheets, quilts.

References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

(2009), Home Furnishing Industry Overview, An Introduction. Available from: http://www.teonline.com/home-furnishings/industry-overview.html [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. ANON (2009), ‘New Solar Protection Fibre’, Home Fashion India, 9, 12. ANON (2009), ‘Coir and Jute, Under-explored golden natural fibers’, Home Fashion India, 9, 58–61. ANON (2009), ‘Water Lily Fibre for Home furnishing’, Home Fashion India, 8, 12. PRAMOD R . K ., ITAGI M . R ., and SIVAKUMAR M. (2007), ‘An alternative approach for dupion silk twisting’, Man-Made Textiles in India, 50, 337. DAS SUBRATA , and GHOSH ANINDYA , ‘An Investigation of Yarn Imperfections of Indian Tasar silk’, Journal of Natural Fibres, 5, 396–403. ANON (2009), ‘Fibre: Process and Application’, Home Fashion India, 8, 67, 76. D A S S U B R ATA (2007), ‘Properties of bamboo fibre’. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. DAS SUBRATA , ‘Application of bamboo fibre in apparel and towel sector’, Apparel Views, 8, 56–57. LEONELLO VILLANI (2009), ‘Cork as ecologic vegetable leather’, Home Fashion, Oct- Dec, 64–67. ANON (2009), Fabric For Loose Covers – Upholstered Fabrics Can Be Used For Loose Covers, Ada and Ina Natural Fabrics. Available from: http:// ANON


12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

22. 23.

24. 25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30.

41

www.linenfabrics.co.uk/Fabric-for-loose- covers.html [Accessed on 12 November 2009]. CBI Market Survey (2008), Product characteristics, The household and Furnishing Textiles Market in the EU. Available from: www.cbi.eu, 41 [Accessed on 14 November 2009]. ANON (2009), Duvet covers. Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/ duvet-covers.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2009), Bed Throws. Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/ bed-throws.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. SANFILIPPO M . (2005), ‘Surface interest key in bath towels’, Home Textiles Today, 26, 4–4. CORRAL C . B . (2005), ‘Product innovations drove strong bath market’, Home Textiles Today, 26, 10–10. LAZARO M. (2003), ‘Searhing for the Softest Towel’, Home Textiles Today, 24, 8–8. SANFILIPPO M (2005), ‘Speciality fibres, weaves and finishes rev up towels’, Home Textiles Today, 27, 1–23. LEIZENS L (2004), ‘Buying towels - A touchy situation’, The Weekly Newspaper for Home Furnishing Network, 78, 12. LEIZENS L (2005), ‘Market getting softer for towel suppliers’, The Weekly Newspaper for Home Furnishing Network, 79, 18. ANON (2008), Handy buying information on bath mats. Available from: http:// www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/handy-buying-information-bath-mats.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Bathrobe. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathrobe [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Bathroom rugs – For safety and style. Available from: http:// www.bathroomrugsandmore.com/bathroom-rugs [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Bathroom Rugs. Available from: http://www.hintsandthings.co.uk/ bathroom/bathroom-rugs.htm [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. PRUDEHOME BILL (2008), Understanding the different types of carpet fibers. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Rug and carpet fiber properties. Available from: http://www.rugcarpet-guide.com/carpet_materials.htm [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Tips for buying kitchen furnishings. Available from: http:// www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/buying-kitchen-furnishings.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Mittens. Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/mitt ens.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. DOSHI GAURAV , Demand for kitchen linen items. Available from: http:// EzineArticles.com [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Linen Table cloths: A True Decoration for a Party. Available from: http://www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/linen-tablecloths.html [Accessed on 15 November 2009].

42

Performance specifications of different home textiles Performance of home textiles

4 Performance specifications of different home textiles

Abstract: Home textile items are designed and developed depending on the areas of application. Each class of such product has its quality specification based on the unique and inherent characteristics. The chapter begins with the discussion about the minimum constructional requirements of fabrics used in home textiles along with its physical performance and colour fastness properties for export market of the USA and Canada. The chapter then discusses about the performance requirements for the UK market. Special product performance requirements of value-added, export-oriented home textiles for USA are also mentioned. Keywords: Quality, batting durability, skid resistance, loft, absorbency, stain resistance

".1

Importance of performance specification

Home textiles are recognised as the products, which make people comfortable at home, whether it is bedroom, bathroom or kitchen, by virtue of their unique characteristics. Expectations from furnishings for home decoration are enormous and creating privacy is always been regarded as an important feature. So, for all practical purposes, the performance requirements of various items used as home textiles is essential that provides indication of the quality of the product, desired for intended use. Any deviation from the benchmark established for a particular home textile product might either lead to rejection in export or result in customer dissatisfaction for the preferred application area. Performances requirement of home textiles products destined for export market to the USA, Canada, and the United Kingdom have been determined by the major buyers based on their experience on customer expectations and are described in this chapter.

".2

Performance requirements of the US market

Export-oriented home textiles for the US market are evaluated at preproduction and production stages. Pre-production is defined as a product

42

43


constructed in the same manner as production and out of production quality fabric. Pre-production items are evaluated and approved as early as possible in order to correct potential quality problems before starting production. Production is defined as products that are taken from actual production lots and such products are drawn after approximately 10% of production has been completed. Normally, home textile products of pre-production and production are pulled by experts of quality assurance departments and authorised by a seal or chop as a mark of verification. In case of product performance failure, pre-production and production products are allowed to re-test twice by reputed buyers (1) for the desired improvement in quality, if necessary. Apart for pre-production and production testing, many reputed buyers check certain home textile merchandise at the retail store itself and such type of testing is called in-store testing. Home textiles are evaluated to check whether the performance expected from the product is achieved or not. Such an evaluation is not possible to apply on the whole consignment but to depend upon true representative merchandise. However, there is no universal sampling method to evaluate a home textile product. It varies from one product to another depending upon the product characteristics. While it is always preferred more number of samples for achieving accuracy in quality evaluation, but due to economical reason buyers often opt for random sampling which may represent the entire commercial lot. A typical comprehensive home textile testing plan for effective evaluation of product performance is described below: Sampling plans Products

Pre-production-sample size

Production-sample size

Bath towel

5 of one color, 2 of every other color

5 of one color, 2 of every other color

Hand towel

2 of each color with a minimum of 6 submitted

2 of each color with a minimum of six submitted

Finger towel



Wash cloth



Kitchen towel / Bar mop



Dishcloth / Scrubber



Sheets (sold separately)

Flat/fitted 2 queen of each color Pillowcase 3 of each color

2 of each color, with each size represented (Contd.)

44

Performance of home textiles Sampling plans

Products

Pre-production-sample size

Production-sample size

Sheet sets

2 sets per color

2 sets per color with each size represented.

Comforters/Bedspreads (down alternative)

2 queen of one color, 2 samples of each of the remaining colors

2 of each color, with each size represented

Bed accessories

2 queen size pillow shams & dust ruffles in 1 color, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colors


Rugs

3 rugs of each color, with each size represented (may vary depending on size, due to flam specimen requirements)

3 rugs of each color, with each size represented (may vary depending on size, due to flam specimen requirements)

Blankets

2 queen size blankets of 1 color, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colors


Throws

2 of each color


Mattress pads

2 queen size

1 of each size

Decorative pillows

4 of one size/pattern/color, 3 of each remaining color/pattern

4 of one size/pattern/color, 3 of each remaining color/pattern

Bed pillows

2 of each size

3 of each size.

Down comforters

3 of 1 color and size, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colors

3 of each color, with all sizes represented

Kitchen products

4 of each color (this category includes oven mitts, pot holders, aprons, etc.)

4 of each color

Chair pads

2 per color, all colors/patterns

2 per color, all colors/patterns

Table tops (runners, placemats, etc)

3 of one size and color, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colors

3 per color, with all sizes represented

Draperies (canopies)

2 of one size, 1 yard of fabric or 2 samples in each of the remaining colors

2 of each color, with all sizes represented

45


Home textiles, which are manufactured for export to the US market, consist of diversified product range. Home textiles such as bath rugs / area rugs (scatter) / bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug), bedding – bedspreads / comforters / quilts / dust ruffles / duvet covers / pillows shams / crib bumper pads, bed pillows, blanket / throws, decorative pillows / floor pillows / bed rest, down products, furniture accessories – chair pads / slip covers, ironing board covers and pads, kitchen accessories – pot holders / oven mitts / aprons, mattress pads, sheets / pillow Cases / protective pillow covers, shower curtains, sleeping bags, table top – napkins / placemats / table runners / tablecloths, towels – bath / hand / washcloth / kitchen / hooded / beach, window treatments, are evaluated for fabric qualities / construction, physical performance, and colour fastness properties and discussed from Table 4.1 to 4.16. Zippers are also used in home textiles and performance specifications of zippers are tabulated in Table 4.17. Table 4.1 Bath rugs / area rugs (scatter) / bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug)

Test description

Test method

Performance requirements

Fabric defects

ASTM D3990 (2)

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, mis-stitches, etc.

Evenness of color

Visual

Uniform and even color within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz./sq yd) (g/sq m)

ASTM D3776 (3)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Thread count (woven)

ASTM D3775 (4)

As specified in product specification or previous testing (± 5%)

Construction / workmanship

Visual

Serging and binding should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed.

Fabric qualities / Construction

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum)

AATCC 135 (5)/ Commercial drycleaning

Woven reversible: 5.0 × 5.0 Single sided tufted: 3.0 × 3.0

Washing / drycleaning *shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings (Contd.)

46


Test description

Test method


Differential shrinkage

AATCC 135/Commercial drycleaning

All components that make up the product must be compatible.

Durability pile / Latex serging and binding

Visual after AATCC 135/Commercial drycleaning

No cuts in latex, no yarn showing through on back, binding or serging is intact without significant gaps.

General appearance


No holes, unraveled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion


No evidence of twisting.

Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 (6) (3 washings/dryings)

Minimum of class 3.0.

Skid resistance

CTL test method (7)

Co-efficient of friction 0.8 or greater.

Measurements

NIST handbook 130 (8)

Must conform to the labelled dimensions.

Fit properties Flammability rugs only)

Lid covers must fit labelled size. CFR Title 16, Part 1630 (9) CFR Title 16, Part 1631 (10)

As defined by standard As defined by standard

Colorfastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing

Spot cleaning AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering) AATCC 61 (11)(Accelerated) (fabric swatches)

Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 4.0 Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 3.0

Drycleaning

Commercial drycleaning

Shade change Class 4.0

Dry crocking

AATCC 8 (12)

Minimum of Class 4.0

Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Vinyl tile staining

AATCC 137 (13)

Class 4.0

Stain resistance (if claim is made)

AATCC 175 (14)

Minimum of grade 9.0

Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering) AATCC 172 (15)

Shade change Class 4.0 Shade change Class 4.0

Lightfastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 formerly 16E) (16)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Water (static wetting)

AATCC 107 (17)

Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 3.0

47

Performance specifications of different home textiles T=blA 4.2 Bedding bedspreads / comforters / quilts / dust ruffles / duvet covers / pillows shams / crib bumper pads

Test description

Test method


Fabric qualities / construction Fabric defects

ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual


Fabric weight (oz/sq yd) (g/sq m)

ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Batting

ASTM D3776


Thread count (Woven)

ASTM D3775


Thickness (vinyl only)

ASTM D 1777 (18)

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / workmanship

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage. Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed.


AATCC 135/ Commercial drycleaning

Woven 3.5 × 3.5 Flannel 5 × 5 Knit 5 × 5 Non-woven 3 × 3

Washing / drycleaning *shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings Differential shrinkage



Durability seam / hem


No open seam or broken stitches

Batting durability


No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness) (Contd.)

48


Test description

Test method


General appearance


No holes, unravelled seams, excessive pilling, etc.

Shape distortion



Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 (3 washings/dryings)


Loft

CTL test method (19)

±3/8 inch

Fit properties Tensile strength (lb)

Lid covers must fit labelled size. ASTM D5034 (20)

Woven

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Bursting strength for knits (in-lb)

ASTM D3786 (21)

Tear strength (lb)

ASTM D1424 (22)

Woven

20.0 Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061 (23)

see Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb)

ASTM D 1683 (24)

15.0

woven

(across seam)


Machine wash AATCC61-2A


(No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Hand wash AATCC61-1A

Staining Class 4.0

Dry cleaning



Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching

AATCC 135/150


chlorine

(Home laundering)

Non-chlorine

AATCC 172


Lightfastness

AATCC 16 (Option 3 formerly 16E)

Class 3.0 @20 AFU

49

Performance specifications of different home textiles Table 4.3 Bed pillows

Test description

Test method



ASTM D3990

No major defects, such as stains, holes, slub yarns, misstitches, etc.

Evenness of color

Visual

Uniform and even colour within a sample and between samples

Fabric weight (oz/ sq yd) (g/sq m)

ASTM D3776


Batting

ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in.) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Construction / Workmanship

Visual



Woven: 3.0 × 3.0

Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) Washing / drycleaning *shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings Differential shrinkage





No open seam or broken stitches.

Batting durability


No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness).

General appearance


No holes, unraveled seams, excessive pilling, etc. (Contd.)

50


Test description

Test method


Shape distortion



Pilling resistance



Tensile strength (lb)

ASTM D5034

Warp 35.0

woven Bursting strength for knits (lb)

Fill 25.0 ASTM D3786

4.55.9 oz / sq yd

> 6.0 oz / sq yd

20

35

Tear strength (lb) woven

ASTM D1424

Warp 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*see Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb)

ASTM D 1683

15.0

woven

(across seam)

Fill 1.5

Colorfastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Shade change Class 4.0

Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC612A

Dry cleaning

Commercial dry Cleaning


Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching

AATCC 135/150


chlorine

(Home laundering)

Non-chlorine

AATCC 172


Lightfastness


Class 3.0 @20 AFU


Staining Class 3.0

Table 4.4 Blanket / throws Test description

Test method


Fabric defects

ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual


Fabric qualities / construction

(Contd.)


51

Test description

Test method



ASTM D3776


Batting

ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



Visual


Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum): shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings Washing Dry cleaning Hand laundering

AATCC 135

Woven 3.0 × 3.0


Flannel 5.0 × 5.0

Standardization of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel

Knit 5.0 × 5.0

2007 AATCC Committee RA88


AATCC 135/Commercial drycleaning/hand laundering





Batting / stuffing durability



General appearance



Shape distortion



Pilling resistance


Minimum of grade 3.0.

52


Table 4.5 Decorative pillows / floor pillows / bed rest

Test description

Test method


Fabric defects

ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual



ASTM D3776


Unit weight (lb)

ASTM D3776


Batting

ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage.


Hems should be straight, uniform and consistent. Loose thread should be properly trimmed. Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) Washing / drycleaning

AATCC 135 / Commercial drycleaning

(shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings per labelled care instructions)

Woven 3.0 × 3.0 Flannel 5.0 × 5.0 Knit 5.0 × 5.0









No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness). (Contd.)


53

Test description

Test method


General appearance



Shape distortion



Pilling resistance




ASTM D5034

Floor pillows

20 in. or smaller

Warp 40.0

Warp 20.0

Fill 40.0

Fill 20.0

woven


ASTM D3786

Tear strength (lb) Woven

ASTM D1424

20 Floor pillows

20 inch or smaller

Warp 1.5

Warp 1.0

Fill 1.5

Fill 1.0

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*See Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb) woven

ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

20.0

Seam strength (lb) Floor pillows only


25.0

Knits

CTL test method (26) (Along seam)

57 lbs or 3050% elongation

Colorfastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Spot clean or Hand wash AATCC61-1A


Drycleaning

Commercial Drycleaning


Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Lightfastness


Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

54


Table 4.6 Down products

Test description

Test method


Fabric defects

ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual

Uniform and even color within a sample and between samples.


ASTM D3776

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%).


Total (lbs/doz)


Batting

ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



Visual


Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) Washing / drycleaning

AATCC 135 / Commercial drycleaning

(shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings per labelled care instructions)

Woven 3.5 × 3.5 Flannel 5.0 × 5.0 Knit 5.0 × 5.0









No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness) (Contd.)

55

Performance specifications of different home textiles Test description

Test method


General appearance



Shape distortion

AATCC 135/Commercial Drycleaning


Pilling resistance



Fit properties Tensile strength (lb)

Must fit labelled mattress size. ASTM D5034

woven

Warp 35.0 Fill 25.0


ASTM D3786

20


ASTM D1424

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*see Table 4.17



15.0

Knits

CTL test method (Along seam)

57 lbs. Or 30-50% elongation

Decoration


15 lbs items for children 3 years of age and under 10 lbs remaining items

Air permeability

IDFL method (28)

≥3.0 minimum or ≤10.0 maximum

Down content

IDFL method (29)

75% minimum

Specie cleanliness

IDFL method (30)

3.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 25.0

Warp 25.0

Fill 15.0

Fill 25.0 >6.0 oz/ sq yd


ASTM D3786

3.05.9 oz/ sq yd 15.0

20.0

Tear strength (lb)

ASTM D1424

< 3.0 oz/sq yd

> 3.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 1.0

Warp 1.5

Fill 1.0

Fill 1.5

woven

(Contd.)

62


Test description

Test method


Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

*see Table 4.17

Seam strength (lb)

ASTM D 1683

3.0 oz/sq yd

10.0

15.0


(Along seam) Heat resistance


6.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 25.0 Fill 15.0

Warp 35.0 Fill 25.0

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0

Warp 60.0 Fill 50.0


ASTM D3786


ASTM D1424

3.05.9 oz/sq yd

>6.0 oz/sq yd

20.0

35.0

1.52.9 oz/sq yd

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061



3.0 4.4 oz/sq yd

4.5 5.9 oz/sq yd

>6.0 oz/sq yd

Warp 2.0 Fill 2.0

Warp 3.5 Fill 3.0

Warp 4.5 Fill 4.0

*see Table 4.17 1.52.9 oz/sq yd

3.0 4.4 oz/sq yd

4.5 5.9 oz/sq yd

>6.0 oz/sq yd

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0 (Contd.)

70


Test description

Test method


Knits



Flammability

CFR Title 16, Part 1632

As defined by standard

Colorfastness properties (all requirements are minimum acceptance) Washing (No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)

Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A


Drycleaning



Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching Chlorine Non-chlorine

AATCC 135/150 (Home laundering) AATCC 172


Lightfastness


Shade change Class 4.0 Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Table 4.14 Table top napkins / placemats / table runners / tablecloths

Test description

Test method



ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual


Fabric weight (oz/ sq yd) (g/sq m)

ASTM D3776


Batting

ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in.) or as specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%) (Contd.)

71


Test method



Visual


Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) (Shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings per labelled care instructions) Washing AATCC 135 Drycleaning commercial drycleaning Hand laundering Standardization of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel 2007 AATCC Committee RA88

Woven synthetics 3.5 × 3.5 Woven cotton 7.0 × 7.0 Flannel 5.0 × 5.0 Knit 5.0 × 5.0


AATCC 135/Commercial dry cleaning/ Hand laundering





Batting durability


No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance



Shape distortion



Pilling resistance



Fit properties (aprons) Tensile strength (lb)

Must fit labelled size. ASTM D5034

Woven

Warp 30.0 Fill 25.0


ASTM D3786

20.0

Tear strength (lb)

ASTM D1424

Warp 1.0

woven Seam strength (lb) woven

Fill 1.0 ASTM D 1683 (across seam)

15.0 (Contd.)

72


Test description

Test method


Knits




Machine wash AATCC612A Hand wash AATCC61-1A


Drycleaning



Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching

AATCC 135/150


Chlorine

(Home laundering)

Non-chlorine

AATCC 172


Lightfastness


Class 3.0 @20 AFU

Table 4.15 Towels bath / hand / washcloth / kitchen / hooded / beach

Test description

Test method



ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual



ASTM D3776


Thread count (Woven)

ASTM D3775


Yarn size

ASTM D1059 (41)


Calculated from thread


Terry to base ratio

Count Loops per square inch

Calculated from thread count

As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%) (Contd.)

73


Test method

Total (lbs/doz)


Performance requirements As specified in product specification or previous testing (±5%)

Visual



AATCC 135 Towels 8 × 5

Washing (Shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings per labelled care instructions) Differential shrinkage

Loose novelty weave dish towels 15 × 12

CTL test method

The widest point in the width-wise direction cannot exceed the narrowest point in the width-wise direction by: Bath sheets / beach towels 1.5 in. Bath towels 1 in. Hand towel 0.75 in. Finger towel / Wash cloth 0.5 in.


Visual after


AATCC 135 General appearance Shape distortion

AATCC 135

Visual after


Visual after


AATCC 135 Pilling resistance

AATCC 135/150 (3 washings /dryings)


Lining


0.9% or less

Absorbency

ASTM D4772 (43)

50% bath towels 30% baby bath towels / Kitchen towels 50% beach towels > 10 oz /sq yd 30% beach towels < 10 oz /sq yd (Contd.)

74


Test description

Test method



ASTM D5034

Bath and beach

Kitchen

Hand and wash

Warp 40.0

Warp 30.0

Warp 30.0

woven

Fill 30.0

Tear strength (lb)

ASTM D1424

woven

Fill 30.0

Fill 25.0

Warp 1.5 Fill 1.5


Spot clean or

(No stain requirement if labelled as wash separately)



Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching

AATCC 135/150

Chlorine

(Home laundering)


Non-chlorine

AATCC 172

Water (Static wetting)

AATCC 107

Staining Class 3.0

Shade change Class 4.0 Shade change Grade 4.0 Staining

Applies to beach towels

Grade 3.0 Sea water

AATCC 106 (44)

Shade change Grade 4.0 Staining


Grade 3.0 Chlorinated water

CTL-12 (45)

Shade change Grade 4.0 Staining


Grade 3.0 Lightfastness


Class 3.0 @20 AFU

75

Performance specifications of different home textiles Table 4.16 Window treatments

Test description

Test method



ASTM D3990


Evenness of color

Visual



ASTM D3776



ASTM D3775



Visual


Physical performance Shrinkage performance (% maximum) (Shrinkage will be evaluated after 3 launderings per labelled care instructions) Washing AATCC 135 Drycleaning Commercial drycleaning

Woven 3.5 × 3.5 Flannel 5.0 × 5.0

Hand laundering Standardization of hand laundering for fabrics and apparel 2007 AATCC Committee RA88

Knit 5.0 × 5.0





AATCC 135/Commercial dry cleaning

No open seam or broken stitches



No disintegration or noticeable migration (lumpiness)

General appearance



Shape distortion

AATCC 135/Commercial Dry Cleaning


Pilling resistance



Tensile strength (lb) woven

ASTM D5034

Warp 40.0 Fill 30.0 (Contd.)

76


Test description

Test method



ASTM D3786

20.0


ASTM D1424

Length 1.5



Width 1.5 15.0


Machine wash AATCC61-2A Hand wash AATCC61-1A


Drycleaning



Dry crocking

AATCC 8


Wet crocking

AATCC 8


Bleaching

AATCC 135/150


Chlorine

(Home laundering)

Non-chlorine

AATCC 172

Lightfastness


Shade change Class 4.0 Grade 4.0 @ 40 AFU Polyester, Nylon or combination of both Grade 4.0 @ 20 AFU Cotton, rayon, wool, silk or blends of these fibres with polyester

Table 4.17 Zipper performance specifications (USA market)

Fastener class

12

Chain crosswise strength (lbs) Metal 75 Aluminium 55 Moulded plastic 30 Coil 75

34

57

89

10

120 65 55 85

120 85 85 140

140 85 110 175

175 95 130 200

20 20 20 13

25 25 25 25

30 30 35 40

30 30 45 45

Separating unit crosswise strength (lbs) Metal Aluminium Moulded plastic Coil

20 20 20 10

(Contd.)

77

Performance specifications of different home textiles Slider pull pull-off strength (lbs) Metal Aluminium Moulded plastic Coil

30 30 20 20

35 30 25 20

40 35 35 45

50 50 40 50

60 60 50 50

2.5 2.5 1.5 1.0

3.5 2.5 2.5 1.5

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0

15 15 15 15

17 17 17 17

20 20 20 20

30 30 30 30

35 35 30 30

15 15 15 15

15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20

25 25 25 25

30 30 30 30

Slider pull twist-off strength (lbs per sq in) Metal Aluminium Moulded plastic Coil Top stop strength (lbs.) Metal Aluminium Moulded plastic Coil Bottom stop strength (lbs.) Metal Aluminium Moulded plastic Coil

4.3

Performance requirements of Canada market

Prior to going into production, suppliers must arrange pre-production lots to be checked for conformity to the standard set by the buyer. Preproduction products must be evaluated far ahead of production as possible to enable quality problems to be corrected before production begins. Normally, representative products are submitted no later than 60 days before the shipping date. While evaluating production lot for testing, all sizes and colourways are taken into consideration. For example, if one produces a particular style in four sizes (twin, full, queen and king) and four colour ways or prints (flowers, stripes, paisley and solid), submission of one size in flowers, another size in stripes, another size in paisley and the final size in solid is required. These products must include all required labelling such as care instructions, fibre content, country of origin and size specifications. When any pre-production or production product fails testing, due to any technical reason of failure, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that required improvements are made and a retest product is evaluated for approval prior to shipment. The maximum number of two retests is allowed for pre-production and one for production lot, where the initial product fails testing. In addition to the pre-production and production testing, some of the well-renowned buyers insist upon in-store testing to protect the interest of consumers. In such cases, depending upon the

78


importance and priority, products are required to be evaluated with an interval of six months to one year. Any deviation or product failure at the in-store product evaluation stage goes against the credibility of the manufacturers who had supplied the product to the buyer. Performance requirements of various home textile products, which are to be exported for Canadian market, are indicated in Table 4.18. Zipper performance specifications are tabulated in Table 4.19. Table 4.18 Performance requirements of home textiles for Canada market

Test description

Test method


Fabric defects (For all home textile items)

ASTM D3990


Evenness of color (For all home textile items)

Visual


Fabric weight (oz/sq yd) (g/sq m) (For all home textile items)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #5.1 (46)

As specified in purchase order (±5%)

Batting (bedspread, comforters, mattress pads, quilted items)

Canadian care and textile labelling act and regulation

As specified in purchase order (± 5%)

Thread count (For all home textile items)

ASTM D3775 (woven) ASTM D3887 (knit)


Fabric qualities / Construction

Total (lbs/doz) (bath items)


Thickness (vinyl only) (shower curtains)

ASTM D 1777

6 gauge (0.006 in) or as specified in pur-chase order (± 5%)

Construction / Workmanship (for all home textile items)

Visual

Seams should be neat with no open seams or needle damage, hems should be straight, uniform and consistent, loose thread should be properly trimmed, etc.

Shrinkage performance Shrinkage will be evaluated after three wash and dry cycles for sheets, pillowcases, mattress pads, towels and washcloths. Home products under normal circumstances are not laundered on a regular basis (i.e. rugs, drapes, comforters, etc.) will be evaluated after one wash and dry cycle. (Contd.)

79


Test method


Washing (bedspreads, blankets, comforters, curtains, drapes, slipcovers, mattress pads, pillows, sheets, pillow covers, shower curtains)

CAN/CGSB4.2 #58 (47)

Woven Cotton 5 × 5 Flannel 5 × 5 Other 3 × 3 Knit Thermal 10 ×10 Cotton 7 × 7 Other 5 × 5 Non-woven 3 × 3 Length 9% (max.) Width 6% (max.) Length 15% (max.) Width 12% (max.)

Durability seam/hem/differential shrinkage (For all home textile items)

Visual after CAN/CGSB4.2 #58 or commercial dry cleaning

No open seams or broken stitches.

Batting durability (bedspreads, comforters, mattress pads, pillows, quilted items)



General appearance



Shape distortion (For all home textile items)



Pilling resistance



(sheets, pillow covers) Skid resistance (rugs)

CTL test method

Co-efficient of friction 0.8 or greater.

Measurements (For all home textile items)

NIST handbook 130


Bath & hand towels, washcloth, bath sheets, kitchen towels, dish cloth (terry and non-terry) Loose novelty weave/dishtowels and dishcloth (non-terry)

(For all home textile items)

Fit properties (sheets)

Must fit labelled mattress size/depth

Flammability (mattresses Only)

CGSB/CAN2-4.2 #27.7 M-77 (48)


Flammability (blankets, sheets, pillow cases, mattress covers)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #27.594 (49)


Flammability (rugs)

CAN 2-4.2-M77 (51)

Absorbency (bath towels)

ASTM-D1230-45° (50)

ASTM D4772


50%

(Contd.)

80


Test description

Test method



Hand washing

All items

Or

*Only items that include both light and dark colored sections (i.e. color-blocked products) Fabric swatches

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58 (Home laundering) CAN/CGSB-4.2 #19.1 (52) (Accelerated)

Drycleaning (Drycleanable items)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #29.1 (53)

Dry crocking

CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22 (54)

Shade change Class 4.0 Minimum of Class 4.0

All items (except as follows) Yarn dyed flannel.

Class 3.5

Pigment, printed flannel, velvet and dark color corduroy and all raised fibre surfaces. All dark denim colors, sulphur dyes Wet crocking

Shade change Class 4.0 (Pigment 3.5) Staining Class 4.0 * Shade change Class 4.0 (Pigment 3.5) Staining Class 3.0

Class 3.0

CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22

Minimum of

All items (except as follows)

Class 3.0

Yarn dyed flannel, pigment, leather, printed flannel, velvet & dark color corduroy and all raised fibre surfaces. All dark denim colors, sulphur dyes

Class 2.0

Water (static wetting) (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #20 (55)

Sea water (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB-21 (56)

Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 3.0 Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 3.0

Chlorinated water (beach towels)

CAN/CGSB-52.2 (57)

Vinyl tile staining (rugs)

AATCC 137

Bleaching

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58


Chlorine

(Home laundering)


(All items for care labelling)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #58

Shade change Class 4.0 Staining Class 3.0 Class 4.0

Non-chlorine (All items for care labelling) Lightfastness (drapes, curtains)

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #18.3 (58)

Class 4.0 After 40 hours (Contd.)

81


Test method


Strength properties Fabric strength

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #9.2 (59)

Warp/Filling lbs. min.

wovens

ASTM D3787 (60)

Heavy weight 60.0/50.0

6.0 oz/sq yd

Medium weight 40.0/30.0

4.55.9 oz/sq yd

Lightmedium weight 35.0/25.0

3.04.4 oz/sq yd 1.52.9 oz/sq yd

Light weight 25.0/15.0

Less than 1.5 oz/sq yd

Sheer weight 15.0/15.0

Cotton twills/Denim

Minimum 130 lbs.

stonewashed

Minimum 100 lbs.

Knits

Bursting strength

6.0 oz/sq yd

Heavymedium weight

4.55.9 oz/sq yd

35.0 lbs. Lightmedium weight 20.0 lbs.

Tear strength

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #12.1 (61)

Warp/Filling lbs. min.

wovens

12 lbs. minimum

Heavy weight 4.5/4.0

Items with fabric weight of

9 lbs. minimum

Medium weight 3.5/3.0

above 6.0 oz/sq yd

Lightmedium weight 2.5/2.0

4.55.9 oz/sq yd

Light weight 2.0/1.5

3.04.4 oz/sq yd

Sheer weight 1.0/1.0

1.52.9 oz./sq yd Less than 1.5oz/sq yd Cotton twills/Denim Stonewashed Seam strength

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.2 (62)

Fabric lbs. min.

wovens

(Across seam)

Heavy weight 25.0

(all woven items)

CTL test method

Medium weight 20.0

Knits

(Along seam)

Lightmedium weight 15.0

(all knit items)

Light weight 10.0 57 lbs. or 3050% elongation

Button (all items)

CTL test method

15 lbs.

Decoration (all items)

CTL test method

10 lbs. (Contd.)

82


Test description Yarn slippage (all woven items)

Test method


CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.1 (63)

Fabric wt. min. @ 0.25 in.

(Across seam)

Seam separation Heavy weight 25.0 Medium weight 20.0 Lightmedium weight 15.0 Light weight 10.0

Zipper strength

ASTM D2061

Refer Table 4.19

covers all items that include a zipper heavy/light duty definition is * heavy duty size 56 * light duty size 34 Table 4.19 Zipper performance specification sheet (Canada) Fastener class

12

34

57

89

10

80 50 40

100 60 50

120 80 80

140 100 100

15 15 15

20 20 20

25 25 25

30 30 30

20 20 20

25 25 25

25 25 25

25 25 25

Chain crosswise strength (lbs.) Brass / Nickel Aluminium Plastic

60 40 30

Separating unit crosswise strength (lbs.) Brass / Nickel Aluminium Plastic

15 15 15

Slider pull pull-off strength (lbs.) Brass / nickel Aluminium Plastic

20 20 20

Slider pull twist-off strength (lbs. per sq in.) Brass / Nickel Aluminium Plastic

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.5 1.5 1.5

4.0 4.0 4.0

4.0 4.0 4.0

7.5 7.5 7.5

15 15 15

15 15 15

20 20 20

20 20 20

20 20 20

15 15 15

20 20 20

20 20 20

20 20 20

Top stop strength (lbs.) Brass / Nickel Aluminium Plastic

Bottom stop strength (lbs.) Brass / Nickel Aluminium Plastic

15 15 15


"."

83

Performance requirements of the UK market

There is no official quality standard for household and furnishing textiles in the European Union. Despite EU harmonisation, which enables free trade between EU member states, individual markets have different requirements regarding quality, types of fabric, sizes and colours. Most importers (manufacturers, wholesalers, retail organisations etc.) work with certain minimum requirements. In this respect, they have formulated and stipulated minimum quality requirements, relating to both materials and make. In general, a distinction can be made between: ●

●

● ●

●

●

Characteristics of fabrics, which are detectable, by an experienced person, with or without the aid of instruments in general use. It is considered to be a fault if an irregularity is evident in the fabrics of the final product; Characteristics of fabrics, which can only be noted with the aid of suitable equipment. Each characteristic described comprises: definition, method of testing and minimum quality standards and, as far as it occurs: possible allowable tolerances compared with the values of the sample and eventual commercial implications. Methods of testing fabrics and/or ready-made products are mainly based on ISO standards and otherwise on European norms (EN) or national standards (DIN, NEN or BS, for Germany, the Netherlands and the UK, respectively), such as: Care labelling (ISO 3758); Dimensional stability aspects, such as washing/tumbling (ISO 3759, 5077 and 6330), dry cleaning (ISO 3175); Mechanical and physical properties such as tensile strength strip (ISO 5081), tensile strength grab (ISO 5082), tear strength (ISO 9290), abrasion resistance (EN 22313), crease tendency/recovery (ISO 9867), pilling tendency (BS 5811) and fibre penetration (SIS 650047); and Colour fastness to several aspects, such as washing, light and water (ISO 105).

Performance requirements of UK market for colour fastness, physical and regulatory parameters of home textile products such as curtains, drapes, curtain linings and voiles, sheets, pillow cases and duvet covers, blankets, throws and spreads, mattress protectors, duvets and pillows rugs and anti slip mats, bath mats, textile and plastic shower curtains, cushions and bean bags, towels, beach and sports towels, flannels & tea towels, oven gloves, table linen, napkins, place mats (fabric), lampshades – fabric, lampshades – plastic and paper backed/card/laminated, and aprons are depicted from Table 4.20 to 4.36.

84


Table 4.20 Curtains, drapes, curtain linings and voiles

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing (64)

All colours not white test 10°C above label temperature

Colour change 4: Staining 4

Drycleaning (65)

All colours +white

Colour change 4

Water (66)

All colours not white


Dry rub (67)


Staining 4

Wet rub (67)


Staining 3

Light (68)

All colours + white

Grade 56

Appearance after cleansing (69)

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white

No significant change

Motif/Print durability

All colours of motif/print

No significant change shade change 0.75

Phenolic yellowing

White and light cream

Grade 5

White cotton: 2A 60°C tumble dry flat finish woven brushed & flannelette

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing (70), (71)

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A 50°C tumble dry flat finish brushed and flannelette

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning (commercial dryclean)

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

all other fabrics 6A 40°C tumble dry

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Required only if dry clean on care label (commercial)

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Tear strength (72)

1000cN

Tensile strength (73)

160N

Seam slippage (74) Rigid (75) Stretch

Min of 80N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam Strength (woven) (76) Bursting strength (77, 78)

100N Knitted fabrics only

Popper/Stud attach. Fibre analysis (79)

300 kPa 90N

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts and bindings) + each colour of merchandise.

Required


85

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4-5 Table 4.21 Sheets, pillow cases and duvet covers

Test description

Notes

Colour fastness Washing

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings All colours not white Colour change 4; Staining 4 Test 10°C above label temperature All colours not white Colour Change 4; Staining 4 All colours not white Staining 4 All colours not white Staining 34 All colours + white 5 Whole article taken from bulk 34 min iron production; 4 non iron All colours + white Easy care and non iron only All colours of motif / print No significant change Shade change 34 Grade 4 White & light cream

Water Dry rub Wet rub Light Appearance after washing Motif / Print durability Phenolic yellowing Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Pilling (80) Abrasion Tear strength Tensile strength Seam slippage Seam strength (woven) Bursting strength Popper/stud/button attachment Fibre analysis

White cotton 2A 60°C Tumble dry Flat finish woven Brushed & flannelette Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A 50°C tumble dry Flat finish: Knitted, brushed and flannelette All other fabrics 6A 40°C tumble dry Report at 4000 revs Report at 5000 and 15000 rubs

Fitted sheets only Fitted sheets only Knitted fabrics Fitted sheets only

Requirement

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0% L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0% L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% 34 Shade change grade 4 at 5,000 rubs, prints 34; breakdown at 15,000. 1000cN 180N Min of 80N @ seam opening 6mm 120N 300 kPa 90N


Required

86


Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4-5 Table 4.22 Blankets

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts & bindings

Washing



Drycleaning

All colours +white

Colour change 4

Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 3-4

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after cleansing






Phenolic yellowing

Whitey& light cream

Grade 4

Dimensional stability to washing

Test at 10°C above temperature on care label. Tumble dry or not (as care label)

Woven L: +3.0% W: +3.0% Knits L: +5.0% W: +5.0%

Dimensional stability to dry cleaning

Dryclean only

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

3

Physical tests

Tensile strength

120N

Tear strength

1000cN

Burst strength

Knits only

Fibre analysis


300 kPa Required


87

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4-5 Table 4.23 Throws and spreads

Test description

Notes

Colour fastness


Requirement

Washing

All colours not white test at 10°C above label temperature


Drycleaning

Dryclean only

4

Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet Rub


Staining 34

Light

All colours + white

5

Appearance after washing /dry cleaning

Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss

No significant change Weight check before and after wash/dryclean % loss




Phenolic yellowing


Grade 4

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A, 50°C tumble dry Flat finish:

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Knitted, brushed & flannelette

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A, 40°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests: Dimensional stability to washing


Dryclean only

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

Tear strength

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0% 4 1000cN

Tensile strength

140N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

Fibre analysis


All throws * flammability

One of each colour + white

300 kPa Required

Must conform to the UK furniture and furnishing regulations

88


Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Notes: Wadding – No evidence of percolation of fibre through outer fabric after washing. * Bed throws/Spreads do not have to comply with the UK Furniture and Furnishing Regulations. Throws intended for use on chairs and sofas must comply. Table 4.24 Mattress protectors

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Phenolic yellowing


Grade 4


Woven 2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

flat finish woven: Knitted

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Tensile strength

180N

Tear strength

1000cN

Seam slippage

100N

Seam strength (woven)

120N

Bursting strength

Knitted only

Spray rating (81) Hydrostatic head (82, 83)

Fibre analysis

300 kPa 4

Test if labelled water resistant / waterproof

160 mb (160 cm) waterproof 100 mb (100 cm) water resistant

Test main, skirt, backing and filler separately

Required

Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims. Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims and statements must be supported by independent challenge testing in line with LACOTS guidelines in order that Tesco trading law department can approve the use of such claims.

89

Performance specifications of different home textiles Table 4.25 Duvets and pillows

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Appearance after washing

Whole article taken from bulk production


Tear strength

Fabric only

1000cN

Tensile strength

Fabric only

180N

Seam slippage

Fabric only

Min of 100N @ seam opening 6 mm

Seam strength

Fabric only

120N

Thermal efficiency

Required for duvets only, whole article

Tog rating required, tolerance 0 +3 to declared tog value

Flammability

Required for pillow filling only

Must comply with UK furniture and furnishing regulations

Cleanliness of fillings (84)

Synthetic fillings, only new fillings to be used Feather and down only

As standard

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type

Required

Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims. Anti-bacterial and anti-allergy claims and statements must be supported by independent challenge testing in line with LACOTS guidelines in order that Tesco trading law department can approve the use of such claims. Table 4.26 Rugs and anti slip mats

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness

Test all colours including trim fabrics, welts and bindings

Washing

All colours not white test at 10°C above label temperature


Drycleaning

Dryclean only


Water


Staining 4

Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


34

Light

All colours + white

4

Shampoo (85)


Colour change 4 Staining 4 (Contd.)

90


Test description

Notes

Requirement

Migration of colour to PVC coating (86)


Grade 4


Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss

No significant change Weight of product before and after washing % loss



Grade 4


Test at 10°C above temperature on care label

L: ±7.00% W: ±7.00%


Dryclean only

L: ±3.00% W: ±3.00%

Abrasion

Required if textile

Report at 5000 rubs, appearance at 15,000

Anti slip (87)

Test on vinyl, clay and wood surface

Report findings

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts & bindings) + each colour of merchandise.

Required

Physical tests

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.27 Bath mats Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Washing

All colours not white Test 10°C above label temperature


Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 34

Light

All colours + white

5

Migration of colour to PVC coating


4


Whole article taken from bulk production All colours + white Report weight loss Report dimensional stability


(Contd.)

91


Notes

Requirement




Phenolic yellowing

White & light cream

Grade 4

Test at 10°C above temperature on care label

L: ±7.00% W: ±7.00%

Physical tests: Dimensional stability to washing Absorbency (88) Fibre analysis

10 seconds maximum Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts & bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi fibre-strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.28 Textile and plastic shower curtains

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Washing

All colours not white, textile product only Test 10°C above label temperature


Water

All colours not white, textile product only


Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 3-4

Light

All colours + white, textile product only

5




Phenolic Yellowing

White & light cream

Grade 4


Textile product only 6A, 40°C tumble dry test 10°C above temp on care label. Tumble dry or not (as care label)

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

(Contd.)

92


Test description

Notes

Requirement

Water repellency

Spray rating, textile product only

4 before and after cleansing

Tear strength

Textile product only

1000cN

Tensile strength

Textile product only

120 N

Fibre analysis

Test one colour of each fabric type (including trim fabrics, welts & bindings) + each colour of merchandise

Only required if textile fibre

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.29 Cushions and bean bags

Test description

Notes

Requirement Covers

Colour fastness


Washing



Drycleaning

Dryclean only

Colour change 4

Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 34

Light

All colours + white

5


Whole article taken from bulk production


All colours + white Motif/Print durability



Phenolic yellowing


Grade 4


Test at 10°C above temperature on care label. Woven

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Knitted

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%


Dryclean only

L: ±3.0% W: ±3.0%

Physical tests

(Contd.)

93


Notes

Requirement

Pilling

Report at 4000 revs

34

Abrasion

15,000

Tear strength

1000cN

Tensile strength

180N

Seam slippage

Min of 100N @ seam opening 6mm

Seam strength

120N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

450kPa

Zips (89) Popper/Stud/ Button attach

90N

Fibre analysis


As per standard

Flammability

Test complete item

Must comply with UK furniture and furnishing regulations

Cleanliness of fillings

Synthetic fillings, only new fillings to be used

As standard

Feather and down only

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4-5 Notes: Wadding: No evidence of percolation of fibre through outer fabric after washing. Table 4.30 Towels, beach & sports towels, flannels & tea towels

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Washing



Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 34 (Contd.)

94


Test description

Notes

Requirement

Chlorinated water (90)

Beach / sports towels only. 20mg/l

Colour change 3

Light

All colours + white

5







Phenolic yellowing

White & light cream

Grade 4

Report main & border: 2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±6.0% W: ±6.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Absorbency

10 seconds maximum

Tensile strength

140 N

Fibre analysis


Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g. panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.31 Oven gloves

Test description

Notes

Colour fastness


Requirement

Washing



Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 34

Light

All colours + white

4







2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing Domestic oven gloves (91)

As per standard


95

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.32 Table linen, napkins, place mats (fabric)

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Washing



Water



Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 3

Light

All colours + white

5







Phenolic yellowing


Grade 4

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

L & W: ±3.0% to ±5.0% Dependant on product, discuss with technical manager

Tear strength

1000cN

Tensile strength

180N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

300 kPa

Fibre analysis


Table 4.33 Mats of natural grasses or natural non-textile material

Test description

Notes

Colour fastness


Requirement

Water

Only required if dyed


Dry rub


Staining 4

Wet rub


Staining 3

Light


4

Physical tests Fumigation

Certification

96


Independent report of appropriate crop management when farming natural grasses or non-textile materials required. Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims etc.): grade 4–5 Table 4.34 Lampshades fabric

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Light

All colours + white

56

Phenolic yellowing


Grade 4

Physical tests Tensile strength

140N

Seam slippage

Min of 80N @ seam opening 6mm

Seam strength

120N

Bursting strength

Knitted fabrics

450 kPa

Fibre analysis


Required

Table 4.35 Lampshades plastic and paper backed/card/laminated

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Light

All colours + white

56

Phenolic yellowing

White & light cream

Grade 4

Table 4.36 Aprons

Test description

Notes

Requirement

Colour fastness


Washing

All colours not white Test 10°C above label temperature


Water



Dry rub


Staining 4 (Contd.)

97


Notes

Wet rub


Requirement Staining 34

Light

All colours + white

4







White cotton: 2A, 60°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Coloured cotton and polyester/cotton 4A, 50°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

All other fabrics 6A, 40°C tumble dry

L: ±5.0% W: ±5.0%

Physical tests Dimensional stability to washing

Tensile strength

150N 90N

Popper/Stud attach Fibre analysis


Required

Colour fastness staining onto multi-fibre strip of products with contrast components (e.g., panels, prints, trims, etc.): grade 4–5

4.5

Special performance requirements in home textiles

Value addition in home textiles can be achieved by imparting properties like wrinkle resistance, stain repellency, stain resistance, stain release, anti-allergen, moisture wicking, water repellency, and water resistance. Special product performance claims (US) must be tested using the appropriate test methods. Test methods are to be decided in consultation with supplier and home technical team of a particular buyer. A list of some of the special product performance, test methods, and minimum requirement applicable for home textile products are mentioned below. Test description

Test method


AATCC 124 AATCC 88b (92)

Fabric smoothness grade 3.0 minimum (avg.) Seams grade 3.0 minimum (avg.) Tested after 3 home launderings

Wrinkle resistance Wrinkle resistance

(Contd.)

98


Test description

Test method


AATCC 118 (93)

Must repel #4 Oil tetradecane Original Grade 4 Must repel #3 Oil n-hexadecane After Wash Grade 3 Tested after 5 home launderings

AATCC 175

Minimum of: Grade 9.0

AATCC 130 (94)

Minimum of: Class 4.0 Tested after 5 home launderings

Capillary flow porometer

Pore size of 10 micron or smaller

CTL FW-106 (95)

Must wick 6.0 cm in 30 minutes Tested after 5 home launderings

AATCC 22

Minimum spray rating 80 original Minimum spray rating 70 after wash Tested after 3 home launderings

AATCC 35 (96)

No more than 1 gram penetration original No more than 1 gram penetration after wash Tested after 3 home launderings

Stain repellency Stain repellency Stain resistant

Stain resistance rugs Stain repellency Stain resistant Stain release Stain release Releases spills Stains easily wash out Anti-allergen Allergen blocker (Hypoallergenic not included) Moisture wicking Moisture wicking Wicks moisture away Water repellency Water repellent repels water Water resistance Water resistant

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Wal-Mart Stores (2008), Testing Program for Home Textiles, Departments 20, 21, 22, 26 (Textile Home line Products only), USA. ASTM D3990 Standard Terminology Relating to Fabric Defects. ASTM D3776 Standard Test Methods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric. ASTM D3775 Standard Test Method for Warp (End) and Filling (Pick) Count of Woven Fabrics. AATCC 135 Dimensional changes of fabrics after home laundering. AATCC 150 Dimensional changes of garments after home laundering.

Performance specifications of different home textiles 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

99

CTL ST 116 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Rubber Backed Carpet Skid Resistance Test. NIST handbook 130 Uniform Laws and Regulations. CFR Title 16, Part 1630 Standard for the Surface Flammability for Carpets and Rugs (FF 1-70). CFR Title 16, Part 1631 Standard for the Surface Flammability for Small Carpets and Rugs (FF 2-70). AATCC 61 Colorfastness to laundering: accelerated. AATCC 8 Colorfastness to crocking. AATCC 137 Rug Back Staining on Vinyl Tile. AATCC 175 Stain Resistance: Pile Floor Coverings. AATCC 172 Colorfastness to powdered non-chlorine bleach in home laundering. AATCC 16 (Option 3 – formerly 16E) Colorfastness to light. AATCC 107 Colorfastness to water. ASTM D 1777 Standard Test Method for Thickness of Textile Materials. CTL DC 103 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Pre-Wash and After-Wash Comforter Loft. ASTM D5034 Standard test method for breaking strength and elongation of textile fabrics (Grab Test). ASTM D3786 Standard test method for bursting strength of textile fabrics – Diaphragm bursting strength tester method. ASTM D1424 Standard test method for tearing strength of fabrics by falling pendulum (Elmendorf-type) apparatus. ASTM D2061 Standard test methods for strength tests for zippers. ASTM D 1683 Standard test method for failure in sewn seams of woven apparel fabrics. ASTM D4151 Standard Test Method for Flammability of Blankets. CTL Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories In House Test Method for Knit Tensile Strength. CTL Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories In house Test Method for Pull strength. IDFL method (air permeability) International Down and Feather Testing Laboratory News (1997), 10, 2. IDFL method (down content) Brief Explanation of Down & Feather Tests, IDFL (2008), 1–2. IDFL method (specie cleanliness) IDFL News (1997), 11, 1–3. IDFL method (turbidity) IDFL News (2002), 20, 1–3. IDFL method (Species type) Quality Assurance Guidelines, Finished Down & Feather Products, IDFL (2008), 2. CTL Softlines (2007) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Fill Weight. IDFL tumble dry method Fill power (Lorch instrument) IDFL News (1997), 10, 1–3. ASTM D434 Standard test method for resistance to slippage of yarns in woven fabrics using a standard seam. CTL HR 100 Softlines (2007) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Measurement of Heat Transfer of Potholders and Oven Mitts. CFR Title 16, Part 1632 Standard for the Flammability of Mattresses and Mattress Pads (FF 4-72).

100 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

Performance of home textiles ASTM D4970 Standard Test Method for Pilling Resistance and Other Related Surface Changes of Textile Fabrics: Martindale Tester. AATCC 124 Appearance of fabrics after repeated home laundering. AATCC 22 Water repellency: Spray test. ASTM D1059 Standard Test Method for Yarn Number Based on Short Length Specimens. CTL WW 104 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Towel Linting Test Method. ASTM D4772 (absorbency) Standard Test Method for Surface Water Absorption of Terry Fabrics (Water Flow). AATCC 106 Colorfastness to Water: Sea. CTL 12 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method of Colorfastness to chlorinated water. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #5.1 Textile Test Methods Unit Mass of Fabrics. CAN/CGSB4.2 #58 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness and Dimensional Change in Domestic Laundering of Textiles. CGSB/CAN 2-4.2 #27.7 - M-77 Textile Test Methods – Combustion Resistance of Mattresses – Cigarette Test. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #27.5-94 Textile Test Methods Flame Resistance – 45 Degree Angle Test - One Second Flame Impingement. ASTM-D1230-45° Standard test method for flammability of apparel textiles. CAN 2-4.2-M77 Textile Test methods. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #19.1 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Washing Accelerated Test Launder-O-meter. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #29.1 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Dry Cleaning Solvent. CAN/CGSB 4.2 #22 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Rubbing (Crocking). CAN/CGSB – 4.2 #20 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Water. CAN/CGSB-21 Textile Test Methods Colourfastness to Sea Water. CAN/CGSB-52.2 Textile Test Methods Textiles – Tests for Colourfastness – Part E03: Colourfastness to Chlorinated Water (Swimming-Pool Water)-ISO 105- E03:1994. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #18.3 Textile Test Methods – Textiles – Tests for Colourfastness – Part B02: Colourfastness to Artificial Light: Xenon Arc Fading Lamp Test. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #9.2 Breaking Strength and Elongation of Textile Fabrics (Grab Test). ASTM D3787 Standard Test Method for Bursting Strength of Textiles – Constant-Rate-of-Traverse (CRT) Ball Burst Test. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #12.1 Textile Test Methods – Tearing Strength – Single-Rip Method. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.2 Textile Test Methods Breaking Strength of Seams in Woven Fabrics. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #32.1 Textile Test Methods Resistance of Woven Fabrics to Seam Slippage. BS EN ISO 105 C06: 1997 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to domestic and commercial laundering. BS EN ISO 105 DO1: 1995 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to drycleaning. BS EN ISO 105 E01: 1996 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to water.

Performance specifications of different home textiles 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96.

101

BS EN ISO 105 X12: 2002 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to rubbing. BS EN ISO 105 BO2: 1999 Colour fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test. AATCC143-2001 Appearance of apparel and other textile end products after repeated home laundering. BS EN 25077: 1994 Textiles. Determination of dimensional change in washing and drying. BS EN 26330: 1994 Textiles. Domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing. BS EN ISO 13937-1: 2000 Textiles. Tear properties of fabrics. Determination of tear force using ballistic pendulum method (Elmendorf). BS EN ISO 13934-2: 1999 Textiles. Tensile properties of fabrics. Determination of maximum force using the grab method. BS EN ISO 13936-1: 2004 Textiles. Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in woven fabrics. Fixed seam opening method. BS EN ISO 13936-2: 2004 Textiles. Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in woven fabrics. Fixed load method. BS EN ISO 13935 –2: 1999 Textiles. Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles. Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the grab method. BS EN ISO 13938 –1: 1999 Textiles. Bursting properties of fabrics. Hydraulic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension. BS EN ISO 13938-2: 1999 Textiles. Bursting properties of fabrics. Pneumatic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension. BS 4407: 1988 (1985) Methods for quantitative analysis of fibre mixtures. BS EN ISO 12945-2: 2000 Textiles. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling. Modified Martindale method. BS EN 24920: 1992 Textiles. Determination of resistance to surface wetting (spray test) of fabrics. BS EN 20811: 1992 Textiles. Determination of resistance to water penetration. Hydrostatic pressure test. ISO 811:1981 Textile fabrics. Determination of resistance to water penetration. Hydrostatic pressure test. BS EN 12935: 2001 Feather and down. Hygiene and cleanliness requirements. BS 1006 UK-TB Colour Fastness to Shampooing of Textile Floor Coverings. BS EN ISO 105 X10: 1996 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Assessment of migration of textile colours into polyvinyl chloride coatings. SATRA In house TM144 Slip resistance testing. BS 4554:1970 Method of test for wettability of textile fabrics. BS 3084:1992 Specification for slide fasteners. BS EN ISO 105 EO3: 1997 Textiles. Tests for colour fastness. Colour fastness to chlorinated water. BS 6526: 1998 Domestic oven gloves. Requirements and test methods. AATCC 88b Smoothness of Seams in Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering. AATCC 118 Oil Repellency: Hydrocarbon Resistance Test. AATCC 130 Soil Release: Oily Stain Release Method. CTL FW 106 Softlines (2005) Consumer Testing Laboratories Test method for Vertical Wicking. AATCC 35 Water resistance: Rain test.

102

Labelling Performance of home textilesissues of home textiles

5 Labelling issues of home textiles

Abstract: Labelling of home textiles is an important aspect to provide required information to the distributors, buyers, and consumers about the product. However, labelling requirements do not apply until the products are ready for sale to the consumers. The chapter first discusses general labelling requirements for home textiles in the US and EU. Labelling of home textiles normally include the measurements, fibre content, care instructions, country of origin and manufacturer’s identification. Different law labels and flammability tags are also attached depending upon the product. The chapter then discusses about the labelling of different home textile products for the US and Canada market. Keywords: Labelling, law tag, flammability tag, IABFLO, ornamentation, FTC.

5.1

General labelling requirements for home textiles in the USA

All textile fibre products imported into the US shall be stamped, tagged, labelled, or otherwise marked with the following information as required by the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act, unless exempted from marking under section 12 of the Act. The product must be labelled to show the fibre content. The generic fibre names and percentages by weight of each constituent fibre must be listed in descending order of predominance (1) If the product is made from one fibre, one can use the word ‘All’ instead of ‘100%’; for example ‘100% Wool’ or ‘All Wool’. The disclosure requirement applies only to fibres contained in yarns, fabrics, clothing, and other household items. If part of the product is made from a non-fibrous material such as plastic, glass, wood, paint, metal or leather then that is not included that on label. There is no need to disclose the contents of zippers, buttons, beads, sequins, leather patches, painted designs, or any other parts that are not made from fibre, yarn or fabric. In general, only the fibres that comprise five percent or more of the fibre weight are included in the label. Fibres of less than five percent should be disclosed as ‘other fibre’ or ‘other fibres’, as the case may be, and not by their generic

102


103

name or fibre trademark (2). However, ornamentation is exempt from fibre content disclosure when it does not exceed five percent of the product’s fibre weight. ‘Ornamentation’ refers to ‘any fibres or yarns imparting a visibly discernible pattern or design to a yarn or fabric’(3). In such cases, the other fibre is disclosed in the product, without regard to the ornamentation, and includes the statement: ‘Exclusive of Ornamentation’. If the ornamentation exceeds five percent of the fibre weight, its fibre must be disclosed as a separate section. If the ornamentation, decorative trim, or decorative pattern or design exceeds (1) 15 percent of the surface area of the product, and (2) 5 percent of the fibre weight of the fabric, its fibre content has to be disclosed. If it is either (1) less than 15 percent of the surface area, or (2) less than 5 percent of the fibre weight, its content does not have to be disclosed, if the label says ‘exclusive of decoration’ or ‘exclusive of ornamentation’. If linings, interlinings, fillings, or paddings are used only for structural purposes, disclosure of their fibre is not required. However, voluntarily one can mention about their fibre content. If linings, interlinings, fillings, or paddings are incorporated for warmth (including metallic-coated textile linings or fillings that contain any amount of wool), then their fibre must be disclosed as a sectional disclosure. There is a three percent tolerance for fibre content claims on labels in case of blends (4). Deviations larger than three percent constitute mislabelling, unless the company can prove that it was the result of unavoidable variations in manufacturing, despite the exercise of due care. No tolerance is allowed if the label states that a product contains one fibre. Practical care instruction based on the nature of the home textile product is required in labelling. Some of such care instructions are listed from Table 5.1 to 5.13 (5) which has covered the products such as various types of curtains, cushions, chair pads, floor rugs, throws, blankets, quilts, pillows, pillow protectors, mattress protectors, magnetic ranges, various types of tablecloths, tea towels, kitchen accessories, bed linen, comforter/coverlets, different types of towels, shower curtains and bathmats. Table 5.1 Care instruction of various types of curtains Products

Care instruction

Indian product ● ● ● ●

Velveteen/Velvet All non-washable curtains

● ●

●

Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims

104

Performance of home textiles ● ●

Cotton Pigment print

Cotton other

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean ● ● ● ●

Coated curtains guaranteed Drycleanable by the supplier

● ●

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

●

● ● ●

Polyester/Cotton (unlined)

● ● ● ● ●

Sheers, lace

● ● ● ●

Lined curtains

● ● ● ●

Coated curtains: non-drycleanable

Do not iron Dryclean only

● ●

●

● ●

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Drycleanable Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims Warm hand wash Fully dissolve mild liquid detergent Do not leave soaking or rub Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm rinse well Do not wring Drip dry Hang curtain with fabric side down over line Avoid wet coated sides touching each other Do not use pegs on coating Warm iron on fabric side only Drycleanable Warm machine wash Do not bleach May be tumble dried warm Warm iron, if required Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Do not allow dust to accumulate Regular gentle vacuuming with appropriate attachment Before cleaning remove all hooks, rings and trims Warm hand wash Fully dissolve mild liquid detergent

Labelling issues of home textiles ● ● ● ● ● ●

● ● ● ●

Polyester (unlined)

●

● ● ● ●

105

Do not leave soaking or rub Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm rinse well Do not wring Drip dry Hang curtain with fabric side down over line Avoid wet sides touching each other Do not use pegs on coating Warm iron on fabric side only Do not dryclean Regularly vacuum with appropriate attachment Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable

Table 5.2 Care instruction of cushions and chair pads Products Removable covers with polyester/cotton, polyester

Care instruction ● ● ● ●

Removable covers with no

●

● ● ●

Removable covers silk/viscose/wool blends, trims other than sequins

● ● ● ● ● ●

Non-removable covers, chair pads

● ● ● ●

Indian product

● ● ● ●

Removable covers with sequins/embroidery (Decorative use label may be required)

● ● ● ● ●

Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Warm machine wash separately trim cotton Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Drycleanable Warm hand wash separately Warm hand wash separately Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Drycleanable Warm hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Cold hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm hand wash separately Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean

106


Inserts

● ● ●

Silk (no sequins) cushions with tassels/fringe PVC, leather

● ●

Dryclean only Cool iron on reverse if required

●

Wipe with a damp cloth Do not iron Do not dryclean

●

Spot clean only

● ●

Non-washable or drycleanable sequins / embroidery

Hand wash Squeeze gently Drip dry

Table 5.3 Care instruction of floor rugs Products

Care instruction

Jute rugs, sea grass mats

●

Decorative rugs all fibre

● ●

Extra label for dark colours

●

●

Extra label for decorative rugs

●

To remove loose dirt sweep or vacuum regularly Shake regularly to restore pile Vacuum regularly A heavy dye concentration is used to obtain a good depth of colour. These colours sometimes have a tendency to stain articles in direct contact. It is important that the rug/throw rug should not be placed directly on pale coloured carpet or furniture or where it will become wet. This is a decorative item and not suitable for heavy traffic areas.

Table 5.4 Care instruction of throws Products

Care instruction

Wool, cotton, acrylic, knitted throws

● ● ● ● ●

Polar fleece throws

●

● ● ● ●

Quilted, woven throws

●

Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Pull to shape while wet Warm iron if required Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried warm Warm iron if required Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately

Labelling issues of home textiles ● ● ●

All throws with fringes or tassels Faux fur throws

● ●

● ● ●

Wool, cotton, acrylic woven throws

● ● ● ●

Printed items

●

107

Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Dryclean only Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Decorative use or Handle with care label may be required

Table 5.5 Care instruction of blankets Products

Care instruction

Machine washable wool

●

● ● ● ● ● ●

Acrylic pile/fur ●

● ● ● ●

Cotton ●

● ● ● ● ●

Polyester coral fleece, polar fleece

●

● ● ● ● ● ●

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried warm Do not iron Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Pull to shape while wet Do not wring or soak Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Dry cleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Line dry in shade Do not wring or soak Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not iron Do not dryclean

108


Silk/cotton blend

●

● ● ● ● ●

Non-machine washable wool ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Polyurethane core nylon coating

●

● ● ●

W a r m h a nd o r m a c h i n e w a s h separately on wool cycle only Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Drycleanable Hand wash only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach May be tumble dried Drycleanable

Table 5.6 Care instruction of various types of quilts Products Polyester filled quilts, cotton or polyester cover

Care instruction ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Non-washable wool/wool blend quilts

●

Air regularly Dry clean only Do not iron Air before re-use

●

Dryclean only

● ● ●

Silk cover/silk fill/ polyester cover/silk fill quilt Washable wool fill quilts / cotton cover

Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Drycleanable

●

● ● ● ●

Warm hand or machine wash separately on wool cycle using an approved wool detergent Reduce spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Air before re-use

Labelling issues of home textiles Feather/Down quilts

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Cotton fill/Cotton cover Cotton velour

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Silicon coated/Dacron/Micro denier filled polyester quilts

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Bamboo cover

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

All seasons double layer wool quilts Cover: cotton Fill: wool

●

●

● ● ● ● ●

All seasons double layer polyester Cover: cotton Fill: polyester

●

● ● ●

109

W a r m h a nd o r m a c h i n e w a s h separately on wool cycle Fluff and air frequently Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Line dry in shade Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Rinse well Reduced spin Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduce spin Do not iron Drycleanable Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle using an approved wool detergent Reduce spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Air before re-use Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well

110

Performance of home textiles ● ● ● ● ●

All seasons double layer feather and down quilts

●

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Line dry in shade Dry thoroughly before re-use Reduced spin Do not iron Drycleanable Before wash separate layers and wash individually Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle Fluff and air frequently Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Line dry in shade Do not tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

All quilts and mattress protectors must have the following statement: “Commercial laundering recommended in care instructions on art and packaging”. Table 5.7 Care instruction of various types of pillows Products

Care instruction

Wool/wool blend pillows

● ● ●

Latex, polyurethane foam, memory foam, viscoelastic polyurethane, pillows with foam core

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Polyester fill, cotton, polypropylene, polyester/cotton cover

● ● ● ● ●

Feather/down pillows

●

● ● ● ● ●

Spot clean only Air regularly Do not dryclean Air before use (memory foam pillows) Spot clean with damp cloth Do not use detergent Lay flat to dry Ensure completely dry before re-use Dry out of direct sunlight Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not dryclean Warm hand wash Rinse well Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Drycleanable Air and fluff regularly


111

All pillows must have the following statement: “Ensure washing machine remains balanced when laundering”. Table 5.8 Care instruction of various types of pillow protectors Products

Care instruction

Polyester

● ● ● ●

Cotton

● ● ● ●

Polypropylene

● ● ● ● ●

Towelling/velour (for memory foam viscoelastic)

● ● ● ● ●

Micro-denier silicon coated dacron

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Dacron Allerban

● ● ● ● ● ●

Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash Rinse well May be tumble dried on low setting Do not bleach or iron Do not dryclean Warm machine wash Warm tumble dry Cool iron Do not bleach Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine or hand wash Rinse well Reduce spin Dry flat in shade Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not dryclean Machine washable up to 60°C Dry flat in shade May be warm tumble dried Do not bleach Do not iron Do not dryclean

Table 5.9 Care instruction of various types of mattress protectors/underlays Products Mattress protectors polyester cover/polyester fill

Care instruction ● ● ● ● ●

Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Rinse well Do not dryclean

112


Mattress protectors, Cotton cover/polyester fill, Cotton cover/cotton fill

●

● ● ●

● ● ●

Wool underblankets, strapped or fitted

●

● ● ● ● ● ●

Feather/Down underlays

●

● ● ● ● ● ●

Water-resistant Water proof-underlay

●

● ● ●

Mattress protector water proof vinyl top and sides

● ● ● ● ●

Foam underlays (egg shell)

● ● ● ●

Warm gentle machine wash or hand wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Rinse well Hot iron if required (for cotton cover/ cotton fill) Warm iron if required (for polyester cover/polyester fill) Do not dryclean Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle only separately Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Reduced spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle separately minimum 12 kg capacity machine Reduced spin Dry thoroughly before re-use Do not bleach or tumble dry Shake regularly Drycleanable Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Sponge clean with a damp cloth May be warm hand washed Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Do Do Do Do

not not not not

machine wash bleach, soak or wring iron dryclean

Table 5.10 Care instruction of various types of magnetic ranges Products

Care instruction

Magnetic wool blend pillow

● ● ● ●

Magnetic: quilted pillow cotton cover / polyester fill

● ●

Spot clean with a damp cloth Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm gentle hand or machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry

Labelling issues of home textiles ● ●

Magnetic pillow pad cotton cover/polyester fill

● ● ● ●

Magnetic underlay cotton cover/cotton fill/polyester fill

● ● ● ● ●

●

Magnetic quilt cotton cover/wool fill

●

● ● ●

Magnetic wool pile underlay

●

● ● ● ● ● ●

113

Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Line dry and air thoroughly Make sure completely dry before reuse Do not dryclean Spot clean with a damp cloth and dry immediately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron For general cleaning: drycleaning Warm hand or machine wash on wool cycle only Use an approved wool detergent Rinse well Reduced spin Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Drycleanable

Table 5.11 Care instruction of various types of tablecloths, tea towels and kitchen accessories Products Abaca placemats and coasters, PVC placemats and tablecloths, flannel backed PVC tablecloths


● ●

Polyester lace tablecloths

● ● ● ●

Tablecloths except lace, PVC and Indian product

●

● ● ●

Cotton excluding Indian product

●

● ● ●

If soiled, sponge immediately with a damp cloth Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Drycleanable Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean

114


Indian product cotton

●

● ● ● ●

Indian product fibre (other than cotton)

●

● ● ●

Linen, linen blend tea towel excluding Indian product

●

● ● ●

Linen table cloths, Ramie

● ● ● ●

Polyester/metallic thread in weave

●

● ● ●

Cold machine wash separately before use Do not bleach Do not tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean Cold hand wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean Cold hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Do not dryclean

Table 5.12 Care instruction of various types of bed linen and comforter/coverlets Products Quilt cover sets with appliqué/trim Embroidery jacquard weave


● ● ● ●

Polyester/cotton sheets, pillowcases, quilt covers no trims, valances

●

● ● ● ●

Cotton/polyester: sheets, pillowcases, quilt covers, valances

●

● ● ●

Plain/yarn dyed/quilted comforters/ coverlets/ bedspreads/ polyester fill/cotton fill

● ● ●

Warm gentle machine wash separately before use Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach May be tumble dried Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Hot iron if required Do not dryclean Cold delicate/wool machine wash Do not bleach or soak Line dry in shade

Labelling issues of home textiles ● ●

Quilt cover sets with metallic prints, threads, sequins and glitter

●

● ● ● ● ●

Printed quilted comforters/cover lets/bed spreads polyester fill, cotton fill

● ● ● ● ●

Polyester/cotton sheets, pillowcases with trim

●

● ● ●

Canopies

● ● ● ●

Accessories cushions embroidered/appliqué

● ● ● ●

Accessories Cushions sequins/metallic

●

● ● ●

Padded/quilted valances

●

● ● ●

Warm iron on reverse if required Drycleanable Cold gentle machine wash separately before use Wash inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Line dry inside out Warm iron inside out if required Do not dryclean Cold delicate/wool machine wash Do not soak or bleach Line dry in shade Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron if required Do not dryclean Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm hand wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Warm iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean Cold hand wash separately inside out Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron on reverse if required Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Cool iron if required Do not dryclean

Table 5.13 Care instruction of various types of towels, shower curtains and bath mats Products Shower curtains polyester, nylon


● ● ●

115

Warm gentle machine wash regularly Rinse well, drip dry Do not iron Do not dryclean

116


Shower curtains PVC

●

● ● ●

Towels, bath mats, face washers

●

● ●

●

● ● ●

Beach towels

●

● ● ●

· ●

Latex backed bath mats

●

· ●

· Cotton chenille bath mats

●

● ● ● ●

Wipe regularly with warm soapy water Rinse well, drip dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use max temp 40°C Wash dark colours separately Do not use oxidising/chlorine based bleaching agents Avoid excessive use of fabric softeners and detergents containing optical brighteners May be tumble dried warm Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm machine wash separately before use Wash immediately after use in pools Do not bleach May be tumble dried warm Do not iron Do not dryclean Warm gentle machine wash Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Cold gentle machine wash separately Do not bleach or tumble dry Do not iron Do not dryclean Shedding may occur during initial wash

The name of the manufacturer or the name or registered identification number issued by the Federal Trade Commission of one or more persons marketing or handling the textile fibre product is a mandatory requirement on the label. A word trademark, used as a house mark, registered in the United States Patent Office, may be on labels in lieu of the name otherwise required if the owner of such trademark furnishes a copy of the registration to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) prior to use. The name of the country of origin where processed or manufactured must appear on the label in English. Abbreviations (such as, the USA or Great Britain) and other spellings close to the English version (Italie for Italy, or Brasil for Brazil) can be used if they clearly and unmistakably identify the country. Use of the abbreviations ‘CAN’ and ‘MEX’, for ‘Canada’ and ‘Mexico’, are acceptable under FTC rules, but may not be under customs


117

requirements. If more than one country is named on the label, phrases or words describing the specific processing in each country are usually necessary to convey the required information to the consumer (6). Other points to be noted in labelling requirements are as follows: A label should show the identity of the commodity, name and place of business or the manufacturer packer or distributor, and net quantity of contents, which include weight in pounds, linear measure in yards or feet, and measure of area in square yards or square feet. The net quantity label should appear conspicuously and easily legible in distinct contrast with other matter on the package. Labels should be uniform in all other similar packages (7). The labelling requirements do not apply until the products are ready for sale to consumers. Items shipped or delivered in an intermediate stage of production, and not labelled with the required information, must include an invoice disclosing the fibre, country of origin, manufacturer or dealer identity, and the name and address of the person or company issuing the invoice (8). If the manufacturing or processing of the products is substantially complete, they are considered to be ready for sale to consumers. Even if small details have not been finished such as hemming, the products must be labelled. Among home textile items, products which are covered by the labelling requirements (9) include bedding – sheets, covers, blankets, comforters, pillows, pillowcases, quilts, bedspreads, pads (but not outer coverings for mattresses or box springs), curtains and casements, draperies, tablecloths, napkins, and doilies, floor coverings – rugs, carpets, mats, furniture slip covers and other furniture covers, afghans and throws, sleeping bags, towels, washcloths, dishcloths, Ironing board covers and pads. However, some of the home textiles are not covered by the labelling requirements (10). Such items are upholstery or mattress stuffing (unless it’s reused – then the label must say that it contains reused stuffing), outer coverings of upholstered furniture, mattresses, and box springs, backings of carpets or rugs and padding or cushions to be used under carpets, rugs, or other floor coverings (11). A label might be the smallest, least expensive component of a company’s product, but it can turn out to be critical to the success of that product. An incorrect label can result in suspension of sale or even recall.

5.1.1

Mechanics of writing law labels for home textile products

Content for law labels is directed by the appropriate federal or state regulation. The following information explains the mechanics of the law labels (12):

118 ●

●

●

● ●

●

●

●

●

● ●

●

●

●

● ● ● ●

●

5.2


The kinds, types, and percentage of filling materials used in upholstered furniture and bedding, concealed or not concealed, shall be stated on the law label. Percentages are to be computed on the basis of avoirdupois weight of the filling material and listed in order of largest to smallest. Labels shall be securely fastened and easy to see. Labels are not to be concealed or obstructed from view in any manner. Law labels are to be made of materials that are not easily torn. Labels of products made of all new materials are to be white with black letters. Labels for products containing used materials are to be red with black letters. At the top of the label the following statement must appear “Under penalty of law this tag not to be removed except by the consumer”. When all new material is used in the product, the heading “All new material” must be stated on the label. When used material is used in the product, the heading “Secondhand (Used) material” must be stated on the label. The registry number must be shown. The following guaranty statement must be shown “Certification is made by the manufacturer that the materials in this article are described in accordance with law”. The finished size of articles of bedding such as sleeping bags, mattresses, comforters, mattress pads, pads, box springs, pillows and similar articles must be shown. Width and length dimensions are to be expressed in inches. Decorative pillows are excluded from the size requirement. The net weight of filling materials of bedding such as sleeping bags, mattresses, box springs, pads and similar items must be stated in pounds and ounces. The minimum size of law labels is to be 2 × 3 in. Labels may be larger when the required type size and statements make it necessary. The minimum size of type shall be 1/8 in. in capital letters. All printing must be in English. Printing is to be on only one side of the label. Labels shall not contain any advertising or anything that detracts from the required statements. No mark, tag or sticker may cover the required statements.

Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU

Labelling has the main purpose to convey a message to distributors, buyers and consumers. Regarding the household and furnishing textiles labelling


119

may include information on fabric texture, sizing, ironing and washing. There are three kinds of EU labelling requirements (13): (a) Legislative labelling requirements Fibre content – the indication 100% or pure can be used within a margin of 2% of the weight of the final product. Other fibres with a weight of less than 10% of the weight of the final products can be mentioned. In that case all (eventual) other fibres have to be mentioned. The official language of the country has to be used on the labels. (b) Market labelling requirements Size – Note that size marking can differ between countries. Care labelling/washing instructions – An international care labelling programme is used in many countries including countries outside the EU. The programme makes use of five basic symbols related to the properties of colour fastness, dimensional stability, effect of retained chlorine (bleach), maximum safe ironing temperatures and certain other properties. (c) Voluntary labelling requirements These include origin marking, brand, name and other consumer information. In some countries country of origin marking is obligatory.

5.3

Labelling of different home textile products for the US

5.3.1

Bath rugs / area rugs (scatter) / bath sets (tank covers, lid covers, contour rug)

Labelling Measurements ● ●

Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130. Must conform to the labelled dimensions.

Care ●

Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136 (14).

120


Country of origin ● ● ●

●

CFR Title 16, Part 303 CFR Title 19, Part 134 (15), if imported. Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.

Fibre content ● ●

ASTM D629 (16), AATCC 20A (17), CFR Title 16, Part 303 Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.

Manufacturer’s identification ● ●

●

CFR Title 16, Part 303 Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.

5.3.2

Bedding Bedspreads / comforters / quilts / dust ruffles / duvet covers / pillows shams / crib bumper pads



Care Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136. Country of origin ● ● ●

●

CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303 CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.


121


ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303. Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


●


Bedding law tag (items with filling) ● ●

There are various State laws for bedding and upholstered furniture. Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

5.3.3

Blankets / Throws



Care ●

Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product following the guideline of ASTM D3136.


●

CFR Title 16, Part 303 CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.

Fibre content ●

ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303.

122 ●


Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


●


5.3.4

Decorative pillows / floor pillows / bed rest



Care ●



●



ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303. Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


CFR Title 16, Part 303 Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number.

Labelling issues of home textiles ●

● ● ●

123

Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling). Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) California TB117 (18) Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4, Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.5

Down products



Care ●



●

CFR Title 16, Part 303 CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.


ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 303 Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.

124



●

● ● ●

CFR Title 16, Part 303 Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information. Bedding law tag (items with filling) Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) ●

California TB117 Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4,

Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.6

Furniture accessories chair pads / slip covers



Care ●



●



125




●



Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. >Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

California flammability tag (Items with filling that can also be used as upholstered furniture) (N/A to Bed Rest) ●

California TB117 Items that are advertised, intended, or commonly used as upholstered furniture must meet the flammability requirements and be appropriately labelled in accordance with California Code of Regulations, Title 4, Division 3, Article 13 Flammability Regulations.

5.3.7

Ironing board covers and pads



Care ●


126



●





●


5.3.8

Kitchen accessories pot holders / oven mitts / aprons



Care ●



●



127




●


5.3.9

Mattress pads



Care ●



●




Manufacturer’s identification ●


128 ●


Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred for further information.


Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO) uniform law label.

5.3.10 Sheets / pillow cases / protective pillow covers Labelling Measurements ● ●


Care ●



●





●



129

Special claims Special claims (e.g. anti-stain, anti-soil, anti-microbial, anti-allergen) must be tested using the appropriate test methods. Test methods to be determined in consultation with supplier and home technical team.

5.3.11 Shower curtains Labelling Measurements ● ●


Care ●



●

CFR Title 16, Part 303. CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported. Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.




●


5.3.12 Sleeping bags Labelling Measurements ●

Guideline shall be taken from NIST Handbook 130.

130 ●



Care ●



●







Various State laws are there for bedding and upholstered furniture. Must be labelled according to International Association of Bedding & Furniture Law Officials (IABFLO).

5.3.13 Table top napkins / placemats / table runners / tablecloths Labelling Measurements ● ●



131

Care ●



●



ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303 Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


●


5.3.14 Towels bath / hand / washcloth / kitchen / hooded / beach Labelling Measurements ● ●


Care ●


Country of origin ●


132 ● ●

●


CFR Title 19, Part 134 if imported Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Textile Fibre Products Identification Act can be referred.


ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303 Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


●


5.3.15 Window treatments Labelling Measurements ● ●


Care ●



●


Fibre content ●

ASTM D629, AATCC 20A, CFR Title 16, Part 300, 301, 303

Labelling issues of home textiles ●

133

Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act 16 CFR 303 or Wool Act 16 CFR 300, as appropriate.


●

5.4


Labelling of different home textile products for Canada

Labelling Care ● ●

●

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #86.1 (19) Should include practical care instructions based on the nature of the product. Note – Bleaching instruction is to be determined by above referenced colorfastness tests. Applicable to all home textile items.

Country of origin ●

●

●

Must be labelled according to Canadian Care and Textile Labelling Act and Regulation. Must include a label identifying the country in which the product was processed or manufactured. Applicable to all home textile items.

Fibre content ● ● ●

CAN/CGSB-4.2 #14 to #14.8 (20) Must conform to the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. Applicable to all home textile items.

Manufacturer’s identification ●

● ●

Must include a label identifying the manufacturer’s name, registered trademark or registered identification number. Canadian Care and Textile Labeling Act and Regulation may be referred. Applicable to all textile items.

134


Bedding law tag (Items without filling) ●

●

Must be labelled according to Canadian Care and Textile Labeling Act and Regulation. Applicable to bedspreads, blankets, comforters, mattress pads.

Bedding law tag (Items with filling) ●

●

Must be labelled according to Canadian Upholstered and Stuffed Articles Act. Applicable to bedspreads, comforters, mattress pads, pillows, quilted Items.

References 1. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(1)-(2) and § 68b(a)(2)(A); 16 C.F.R. § 303.16(a)(1) and §300.3(a)(1) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition and Misbranded Wool Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; US Yarn Labelling Requirements Under The Textile And Wool Acts; Arrangement and disclosure of information on labels, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool Products Labelling Act of 1939. 2. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(2) and § 68b(a)(2)(A); 16 C.F.R. § 303.3 and § 300.3(a)(1) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition and Misbranded Wool Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Fibres present in amounts of less than 5 percent, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool Products Labelling Act of 1939. 3. 16 C.F.R. § 303.1(q) and § 300.1(c) Terms Defined, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act and The Wool products Labelling Act of 1939. 4. 15 U.S.C. § 70b(b)(2); 16 C.F.R. § 303.43) Misbranded and Falsely Advertised Textile Fibre Products, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Fibre content tolerances, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 5. Soft Home Wares Manual (2007), Chapter 14 – Care Instructions, Version 1, 14–22, Target, Australia. 6. Threading Your Way Through the Labeling Requirements Under the Textile and Wool Acts, Federal Trade Commission, 2009. 7. NDUNGO JANE (2008), Apparel, Garments, Home decoration textiles, Market Study Report, United States. 8. 15 U.S.C. § 70a(d)(5); 16 C.F.R.§303.31 Violations of Federal trade Commission Act, Textile Fibre Products Identification, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition; Invoice in


9. 10.

11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19. 20.

135

lieu of label, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 16 C.F.R. § 303.45(a)(1) Exclusions from the act, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. 15 U.S.C. § 70j(a) Exemptions, Textile Fibre Products Identification, Federal Trade Commission, Promotion of Export Trade and prevention of Unfair Methods of Competition. 16 C.F.R. § 303.1(m) Terms Defined, Rules and Regulations Under Textile Fibre Products Identification Act. Intertek Labtest (2006), Regulations for Home Textile Products, Apparel and Soft Home Furnishing Textile Products, Buyer’s Guide, 52-53. CBI Market Information Database (2008), European buyer requirements: packaging, size marking and labelling for home textiles. Available from: www.cbi.eu, 1–4 [Accessed on 17 November 2009]. ASTM D3136 Standard Terminology Relating to Care Labeling for Apparel, Textile, Home Furnishing, and Leather Products. CFR Title 19, Part 134 Country of Origin Marking. ASTM D629 Standard Test Methods for Quantitative Analysis of Textiles. AATCC 20A Fibre Analysis: Quantitative. Technical Bulletin 117 (2000), Requirements, Test Procedure, and Apparatus For Testing the Flame Retardance of Resilient Filling Materials Used in Upholstered Furniture, State of California, Department of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Home Furnishings and Thermal Insulation. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #86.1 Care Labelling of Textiles. CAN/CGSB-4.2 #14 to #14.8 Textile Test Methods Quantitative Analysis of Fibre Mixtures.

136

of home textiles Performance of home Flammability textiles

6 Flammability of home textiles

Abstract: Flammability testing is arguably one of the most important testing procedures within the textile industry because it has crucial safety implications in the event of a fire. Chapter begins with the discussion on importance of flammability test methods depending on the use for different applications. There is no single flammability standard, which can be applicable for all the different varieties of home textiles and can be adopted as the norm throughout the world. So, different flammability standards that are in force internationally reflect the different ways of approaching the whole flammability issue. The chapter then discusses about the application of various flammability test methods to different home textile merchandises. Keywords: Flammability, ignition, smouldering, char length, ticking, crib

6.1

Introduction

The home is where the majority of personal accidents take place. Although the look and feel of textiles in home decoration is important, their safety should be the primary consideration especially where the danger of fire is concerned. Fire in the home is a common cause of injury and death and so the flammability of home textiles, furniture and upholstery is checked for its resistance and its ability to prevent the spread of fire. Consumer beliefs about and attitudes toward various aspects of flammability in household textiles and regulations have been investigated (1). Generally, all flammability arises from a build up of heat and the transfer of this heat from one material to other adjacent materials. When textile products burn the fumes and smoke that they emit are not only irritating to breathe in, but as they are often extremely toxic, they are often the real cause of fatalities rather than the flames that accompany them. Flammability testing is arguably one of the most important testing procedures within the textile industry because it has crucial safety implications in the event of a fire. The major cause of fatalities in fire can be directly attributed to the accidental ignition of upholstery and textiles, so it is only sensible that proper flammability standards should be in place.

136


137

The fabric manufacturer can improve flammability performance at the design stage to ensure a safer interior environment. The flammability of textiles depends upon a range of different parameters including fibre content, product construction, size and intensity of the ignition source, and so on. Heavier the fabric and tighter the construction, it will burn slower than loose weave and light fabrics from the same material. Surface texture of the fabric also affects its flammability. Fabrics having long, loose, fluffy pile or brushed nap ignites more readily than fabrics with a hard and tight surface. In some cases, high, loose pile results in flames flashing across the fabric surface. Different materials react differently to the same situation. However, when flame retardant chemicals are applied to textile substrates, the combustion process gets inhibited or suppressed. Due to application of such chemicals, there is interference with combustion at various stages of the process, e.g., during heating, decomposition, ignition of flame spread. Mattresses, futons, mattress pads, bed pillows, comforters, quilts, bumper pads, carpets and rugs, upholstered furniture, bean bag chairs and cushion seats are all required by international laws to comply with specific flammability regulations. Other products such as blankets, draperies, table linens, should be tested on a voluntary basis to ensure safety against flammability. As per regulations in various countries, it is mandatory to label home textile products correctly and thus warn the consumer against the potential hazards from normal use or reasonably foreseeable misuse of the product. Flammability testing requires high-level instrumentation and expertise.

6.2

Flammability regulations for different home textiles

Unfortunately, there is no single flammability standard for upholstery or vertical surface fabrics, which have been adopted as the norm throughout the world, and the plethora of different standards in force internationally reflects the different ways of approaching the whole flammability issue. Some of the important flammability test standards and related legal regulations are as follows: CATB 117 Section A Part 1 – Resilient cellular material, CATB 117 Section A Part 2– Shredded Resilient cellular material, CATB 117 Section A Part 3 – Bean bags, CATB 117 Section B Part 1 Non-Man-Made Filling Materials, CATB 117 Section B - Part 2 Shredded and Loose Fill Materials/Feathers and Down, CATB 117 Section C – Man made filling material, CATB 117 Section D Part 1 – Cigarette resistance, CATB 117 Section D Part 2 – Smouldering screening test, CATB 117 Section E Part 1 – Upholstery fabrics, 16 CFR 1631– Small rugs (less than 24 sq ft), 16 CFR 1630 – Large rugs (over 24 sq ft or over 6 ft long),

138


Flammability of blankets – ASTM D 4151, flammability of towel CAN/ CGSB 4.2, No.27.5-94, 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test, 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test, CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test, EN1021-1/2:1994, BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating, and flammability standards for curtains such as BS 5438, ISO 6940/41, CAN/ CGSB 4.2 no.27.3 and 27.4, and AS 2755.

6.3

CATB 117 Section A Part 1 Resilient cellular material

Scope – This procedure is intended for use in determining the resistance of resilient cellular materials to flame and glow propagation and tendency to char. Requirement (1) The average char length of all specimens shall not exceed 6 in. (2) The maximum char length of any individual specimen shall not exceed 8 in. (3) The average after flame, including after flame of molten material or other fragments dropping from specimens, shall not exceed 5 seconds. (4) The maximum after flame of any individual specimen, including after flame of molten material or other fragments dropping from the specimen, shall not exceed 10 seconds. (5) The average afterglow, including afterglow of molten material or other fragments dropping from the specimen, shall not exceed 15 seconds. (6) Resilient cellular materials shall meet the above requirements both before and after aging for 24 hours in a forced air circulating oven at 220°F (104°C). (7) A minimum of 10 test specimens shall be tested; 5 specimens before aging and 5 specimens after aging. Procedure – All specimens shall be tested, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours, at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity. The specimen in its holder shall be suspended vertically in the cabinet in such a manner that the lower end of the specimen is 0.75 in. above the top of the burner. The burner flame shall be adjusted by means of a needle valve in the base of the burner to give a flame height of 1.5 in. with air supply to the burner permanently shut off. After inserting the specimen, the burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for 12 seconds. The cabinet door shall remain shut during testing.


139

Test results – The char length of each specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1 in. and the after flame time and afterglow time to the nearest 0.1 seconds. Maximum and average char length, afterglow and after flame, shall be determined for each resilient cellular material.

6.4

CATB 117 Section A Part 2 Shredded resilient cellular material (e.g., shredded polyurethane foams)

Shredded resilient cellular materials shall meet the following requirements. (1) The resilient cellular material used for shredding shall meet the requirements of Section A and D of the Technical Bulletin 117 prior to shredding, or a post-flame treated shredded foam may be used. (2) All resilient cellular material shall be encased in a fabric/ticking, and the requirements of the following test procedure shall be met. (3) A 13 × 13 inch. (finished size) pillow/cushion fabricated from the fabric/ticking and filled with flame retardant foam, shall be used for testing. (4) The packing density of the shredded foam shall approximate that of intended use. (5) The pillow/cushion shall not lose more than 5% in weight when subjected to a 1.5 in. flame from a bunsen burner for 12 seconds. (6) The burner shall be positioned 0.75 in. below the centre of the bottom lateral surface of the horizontally positioned pillow/cushion. (7) The pillow/cushion shall be supported in such a manner that a minimum 10 in. diameter circular portion of the lower fabric surface be directly exposed to the burner flame. (8) The pillow/cushion shall meet the test requirements both before and after aging for 24 hours at 220°F (104°C). (9) The test gas shall be Matheson Gas B or a flame test gas specified in Federal Test Method Standard 191, method 5903.2. This gas is formulated as a blend of four pure gas components to provide specific heat content. Blend composition includes 55% (±1%) hydrogen, 24% (±1%) methane, 18% (±1%) carbon monoxide, and 3% (±1%) ethane. All pillow/cushions shall be conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity. (10) The burner flame shall be adjusted by means of a needle valve in the base of the burner to give a flame height of 1.5 in. with air supply to the burner permanently shut off. (11) The fabric/ticking used to encase the shredded resilient cellular material shall meet the requirements of Technical Bulletin No. 117, Section A, Requirements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, when tested in accordance

140


with Federal Test Method Standard No. 191 Method 5903.2. The burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for both 3 seconds and 12 seconds. (12) A total of 20 fabric specimens shall be tested as follows:

6.5

Test flame (seconds)

Yarns vertical

Specimens

3 3 12 12

Warp Fill Warp Warp

5 5 5 5

CATB 117 Section A Part 3 Bean bags

Requirements – Weight loss shall not exceed 5% in any of five consecutive tests. Materials shall meet the above requirement after aging for 48 hours in an air circulating mechanical convection oven at 150 ± 5°F. Test procedure – All test material shall be aged for a minimum of 48 hours at 150 ± 5°F, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity before testing. A pre-weighed wire basket shall be filled to the 3 in. level with the aged material, and the weight of the test material determined. Place the test basket on a sheet of aluminium foil in a fume hood. The hood fan should remain off during the test. Hold a methenamine tablet with tongs and ignite with a match. Place the burning tablet gently on the top at the centre of the test material. Continue the test until all flames are completely extinguished. After cooling, re-weigh the basket and record percentage weight loss. Molten material, which remains in the basket or on the aluminium foil are not considered as weight loss.

6.6

CATB 117 Section B Part 1 Non-man-made filling materials

Non-man-made filling materials shall meet all the requirements under Section A of CATB 117 with the following modifications: Specimens shall not be mounted in a specimen holder, but shall be vertically suspended into the flame. The upper 0.5 in. of the specimen may be used for suspension. Specimens’ size shall be 12 × 3 in. and in the thickness in which the batting is to be used up to 1 in. If the filler is to be used in thickness of greater than one inch, specimens shall be cut to one inch thickness prior to testing. Non-man-made products shall not be aged for 24 hours at 220°F (104°C). The afterglow test requirement as stated in Section A, Part 1 is not applicable for non-man-made filling materials.


6.7

141

CATB 117 Section B Part 2 Shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down

Feathers and down may be used in articles of upholstered furniture provided that the following requirements are met: The feathers and down shall be encased in a flame retardant fabric/ ticking. The fabric/ticking shall meet the requirements of Technical Bulletin 117, Section A, Requirements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, when tested in accordance with Federal Test Method Standard No. 191 Method 5903.2. The burner flame shall be applied vertically at the middle of the lower edge of the specimens for both 3 seconds and 12 seconds. Specimen size shall be 12 × 2.75 in. Twenty specimens shall be tested as follows:

6.8

Test flame (seconds)

Yarns vertical

Specimens

3 3 12 12

Warp Fill Warp Warp

5 5 5 5

CATB 117 Section C Man-made filling material

Scope – This procedure is intended for use in determining the resistance of resilient man-made fibre filling materials to flame spread, when tested using a modified version of Commercial Standard 191-53. Requirements 1. The average flame spread of all specimens shall not be less than 10 seconds. 2. The minimum flame spread of any individual specimens shall not be less than 7 seconds. 3. Man-made fibre fillers shall meet these requirements when tested both with and without any attached woven or non-woven materials such as scrims, cheese cloth, etc. 4. Man-made fibre fillers shall meet these requirements when tested in both machine (or linear) and transverse directions. Test procedure – Test specimens shall be rectangles of fillers 6 × 3 in. and in the thickness in which the fillers are to be used. A minimum of 5 specimens shall be tested. All specimens shall be tested, and conditioned for a minimum of 24 hours, at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity.

142


The specimen in its holder shall be supported at an angle of 45°. The burner flame, adjusted to a length of 5/8 in., shall be applied to the specimen near the lower edge for 5 seconds. The time required for the flame to proceed up the batting a distance of 5 in. shall be recorded. The cabinet door shall remain shut during testing. Test results (1) The time of flame spread of individual specimens shall be noted. Average flame spread shall be determined. (2) If a specimen burn does not reach the specified end point, the selfextinguishing time shall be noted. Mixed fiber fillers (1) Fillers consisting of 60% or greater of non-manmade fibres (e.g., cottons, kapok, hair, etc.) must meet the requirements of Section B, Part I. (2) Fillers consisting of 60% or greater of man-made fibres must meet the requirements of Section C. (3) Fillers not classified above must meet the requirements of Section B, Part I and Section C.

6.9

CATB 117 Section D Part 1 Cigarette resistance

Requirements (1) All resilient filling materials other than cellular materials (such as foams), shall meet the requirements of this procedure. (2) The maximum char length of any specimen shall not exceed 2 inch in any direction from the cigarette. (3) Resilient cellular materials shall meet the requirements of Section D, Part 2. Test procedure (1) Specimens no less than 12 × 12 inch and in the thickness of intended use shall be tested. (2) Cigarettes, meeting the cigarette specification of DOC FF 4-72, shall be burned on the surface, at the centre of the specimen. (3) Specimens shall be tested with cigarettes both uncovered, and covered with one layer of sheeting material.


143

(4) Sheeting materials shall meet the sheet specifications of Section D, Part II, 2.2.4. (5) A minimum of 3 specimens both covered and uncovered shall be tested. (6) All test materials shall be conditioned for at least 24 hours prior to testing at 70 ± 5°F and less than 55% relative humidity. Test results – The char dimensions of each specimen shall be measured to the nearest 0.1 in.

6.10

CATB 117 Section D Part 2 Smouldering screening test

Procedure – Weigh foam test panels correct to the nearest 0.1 g. Assemble the foam test panels, standard fabric, cigarette and cover fabric as shown in Figure 6.1. Straight pins may be used to support the cover fabric. The cigarette shall be placed at the crevice created by the abutment of the vertical and horizontal panels, such that the cigarette contacts both horizontal and vertical panels, and shall be at equal distance from the edges of the test panels. Light the cigarette (but no more than 4 mm burn), attach cover sheeting material and cover cigarette. (Note: A finger shall be run along the length of the covered cigarette to ensure good cover fabric-to cigarette contact.) Continue test until all evidence of combustion has ceased for at least 5 minutes. If the test is inadvertently interrupted it must be repeated from the beginning. After all combustion has ceased remove cover fabric and remains of standard test fabric. Carefully remove foam test panels, clean all carbonaceous char from panels by scraping with a spatula and weigh the non-burned portions of the test panels to the nearest 0.1 g. Foam Upholstery Fabric Stable Fabric to Wood Frame

Sheet Covering Cigarette

Foam Test Frame

Upholstery Fabric

6.1 Test assembly of smouldering screening test.

144


Test measurements The following weight measurements of the foam test panels shall be made: (a) Pre-test weight = A (b) Post-test weight of non-smouldered foam = B Calculate the percent non-smouldered foam = 100 (B/A) Tests on each foam formulation shall be conducted in triplicate. Notes Conditioning. All test foams, standard fabric, cover sheeting and cigarettes shall be maintained at 70 ± 5°F (21.1 ± 2.8°C) and less than 55% relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to test. Standard fabric. The standard upholstery test fabric shall have the following specifications: fabric – pattern 8500; colour – beige; fibre content – 100% cotton velvet; weight/ linear yd – 14.5 oz (54 in.); back coating – none.

6.11

CATB 117 Section E Part 1 Upholstery fabrics

(1) Fabrics, which do not meet the Class 1 requirements of the US Department of Commerce Commercial Standard 191-53, shall not be used on articles of upholstered furniture. (2) Both surfaces of the fabric shall be tested to determine conformance with C.S. 191-53. (3) Specimens shall not be laundered or drycleaned prior to testing. (4) Test a minimum of 5 specimens with the warp yarns in the long direction of test and specimens with the fill yarns in the long direction of test.

6.12

Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs

16 CFR 1631 and 1630 are the regulatory standards of US Consumer Product Safety Commission. These standards reduce the risks of death, personal injury and property damage associated with fires that result from the ignition of carpets and rugs and provide a test to determine flammability of carpets and rugs when exposed to small ignition source.

6.12.1 16 CFR 1631 Small rugs (less than 24 sq ft) Scope and application (a) This Standard provides a test method to determine the surface


145

flammability of small carpets and rugs when exposed to a standard small source of ignition under carefully prescribed draft-protected conditions (2). It is applicable to all types of small carpets and rugs used as floor covering materials regardless of their method of fabrication or whether they are made of natural or synthetic fibres or films, or combinations of, or substitutes for these. (b) One of a kind small carpet or rug, such as an antique, an oriental or a hide, may be excluded from testing under this standard pursuant to conditions established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. General requirements (a) Summary of test method. This method involves the exposure of each of eight conditioned, replicate specimens of a small carpet or rug to a standard igniting source in a draft-protected environment and measurement of the proximity of the charred portion to the edge of the hole in the prescribed flattening frame. (b) Test criterion. A specimen passes the test if the charred portion does not extend to within 2.54 cm. (1.0 in.) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point. (c) Acceptance criterion. At least seven of the eight specimens shall meet the test criterion in order to conform to this standard. Test procedure (a) Apparatus (1) Test chamber. The test chamber shall consist of an open top hollow cube made of non-combustible material with inside dimensions (30.48 × 30.48 × 30.48 cm) i.e. (12 × 12 × 12 in.) and a minimum of 6.35 mm (1/4 in.) wall thickness. The flat bottom of the box shall be made of the same material as the sides and shall be easily removable. The sides shall be fastened together with screws or brackets and taped to prevent air leakage into the box during use. Cement asbestos board of 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) is a suitable material. Note – A minimum of two chambers and two extra bottoms is suggested for efficient operation. (2) Flattening frame. A steel plate, (22.86 × 22.86 cm), i.e. (9 × 9 in.), with 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) thickness and a 20.32 cm (8 in.) diameter hole in its centre is required to hold the specimen flat during the course of the test. It is recommended that one is to be provided for each test chamber. (3) Standard igniting source. A methenamine tablet, flat, with a nominal heat of combustion value of 7180 calories/gram, a mass of 150 ± 5

146

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9) (10)


mg and a nominal diameter of 6 mm. These tablets shall be stored in a desiccator over a desiccant for 24 hours prior to use. (Small quantities of absorbed water may cause the tablets to fracture when first ignited. If a major fracture occurs, any results from that test shall be ignored, and it shall be repeated.) Test specimens. Each test specimen shall be a (22.86 × 22.86 cm), i.e. (9 × 9 in.) section of the small carpet or rug to be tested. Eight specimens are required. Circulating air oven. A forced circulation drying oven capable of removing the moisture from the specimens when maintained at 105°C (221°F) for 2 hours (3) describes a satisfactory oven (1969 Book of ASTM Standards, part 24). Desiccating cabinet. An airtight and moisture tight cabinet capable of holding the floor covering specimens horizontally without contacting each other during the cooling period following drying, and containing silica gel desiccant. Gloves. Non-hygroscopic gloves (such as rubber or polyethylene) for handling the sample after drying and raising the pile on specimens prior to testing. Hood. A hood capable of being closed and having its draft turned off during each test and capable of rapidly removing the products of combustion following each test. The front or sides of the hood should be transparent to permit observation of the tests in progress. Mirror. A small mirror mounted above each test chamber at an angle to permit observation of the specimen from outside the hood. Vacuum cleaner. A vacuum cleaner is to remove all loose material from each specimen prior to conditioning. All surfaces of the vacuum cleaner contacting the specimen shall be flat and smooth.

(b) Sampling (1) Selection of samples (i) A sample can be selected which is of the material representative of the lot and large enough to permit cutting eight test specimens (22.86 × 22.86 cm), i.e. (9 × 9 in.) free from creases, fold marks, delaminations or other distortions. The representative sample of material may require the use of more than one small carpet or rug. The test specimens should contain the most flammable parts of the traffic surface at their centres. The most flammable area may be determined on the basis of experience or through pre-testing. (ii) If the carpet or rug has had a fire retardant treatment, or is made of fibres which have had a fire retardant treatment, the selected sample


147

or over-sized specimens thereof shall be washed, prior to cutting of test specimens after they have been washed and dried either 10 times in accordance with the standard (4) or such number of times by another washing and drying procedure which the Consumer Product Safety Commission has determined to be equivalent of standard. Alternatively, the selected sample or oversized specimens thereof may be washed, drycleaned, or shampooed 10 times, prior to cutting of test specimens, in such manner as the manufacturer or other interested party shall previously have established to the satisfaction of the Consumer Product Safety Commission is normally used for that type of carpet or rug in service. (2) Cutting Cut eight (22.86 ± 0.64 cm) i.e. (9 ± 0.25 in. sq) specimens of each small carpet or rug to be tested. (c) Conditioning (1) Clean each specimen with the vacuum cleaner until it is free of all loose ends left during the manufacturing process and from any material that may have been worked into the pile during handling. Care must be exercised to avoid ‘fuzzing’ of the pile yarn. (2) Place the specimens in a drying oven in a manner that will permit free circulation of the air at 105°C (221°F) around them for 2 hours. (d) Testing (1) Place the test chamber in the draft-protected environment (hood with draft off) with its bottom in place. Wearing gloves, remove a test specimen from the desiccator and brush its traffic surface with a gloved hand in such a manner as to raise its pile. Place the specimen on the centre of the floor of the test chamber, traffic surface up, exercising care that the specimen is horizontal and flat. Place the flattening frame on the specimen and position a methenamine tablet on one of its flat sides in the centre of the 20.32 cm (8 in.) hole. (2) Ignite the tablet by touching a lighted match or an equivalent igniting source carefully to its top. If more than 2 minutes elapse between the removal of the specimen from the desiccator and the ignition of the tablet, the conditioning must be repeated. (3) Continue each test until one of the following conditions occurs: (i) The last vestige of flame or glow disappears. (This is frequently accompanied by a final puff of smoke.)

148


(ii) The flaming or smouldering has approached within 2.54 cm (1.0 in.) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point. (4) When all combustion has ceased, ventilate the hood and measure the shortest distance between the edge of the hole in the flattening frame and the charred area. Record the distance measured for each specimen. (5) Remove the specimen from the chamber and remove any burn residue from the floor of the chamber. Before proceeding to the next test, the floor must be cooled to normal room temperature or replaced with one that is at normal room temperature. (e) Report The number of specimens of the eight tested in which the charred area does not extend to within 2.54 cm (1.0 in.) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame shall be reported. (f) Interpretation of results If the charred area does not extend to within 2.54 cm (1.0 in.) of the edge of the hole in the flattening frame at any point for at least seven of the eight specimens, the small carpet or rug meets the acceptance criterion. Labelling requirements (a) If a small carpet or rug does not meet the acceptance criterion, it shall, prior to its introduction into commerce, be permanently labelled, pursuant to rules and regulations established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission with the following statement: FLAMMABLE (FAILS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE STANDARD FF 2–70): SHOULD NOT BE USED NEAR SOURCES OF IGNITION. (b) If a small carpet or rug has had a fire retardant treatment or is made of fibres, which have had a fire retardant treatment, it shall be labelled with the letter ‘T’ pursuant to rules and regulations established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. (c) There is a separate labelling requirement exists for Canadian market which is regulated by the Canadian regulation of HPA (Hazardous Products Act) (5). According to this regulation, a carpet that has a surface area smaller than 24 sq ft or the linear dimension of the carpet is shorter than 6 ft for small indoor use, and it does not comply with the HPA flammability requirement, the following label should be stated clearly and prominently on the product. The information on the label should be clearly visible to the prospective purchaser.


149

‘Caution – Flammable – Do not use in locations exposed to open flame or sources of intense heat’.

6.12.2 16 CFR 1630 Large rugs (over 24 sq ft or over 6 ft long) (6) Scope and application (a) This Standard provides a test method to determine the surface flammability of carpets and rugs when exposed to a standard small source of ignition under carefully prescribed draft protected conditions. It is applicable to all types of carpets and rugs used as floor covering materials regardless of their method of fabrication or whether they are made of natural or synthetic fibres or films, or combinations of or substitutes for these. (b) One of a kind, carpet or rug, such as an antique, an oriental, or a hide, may be excluded from testing under this standard pursuant to conditions established by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). All other aspects are similar to the standard as described in 16 CFR 1631 except that the laundry requirement for large carpets and rugs that use alumina trihydrate, a fire retardant, in adhesives, foams and latexes in carpet backings or elsewhere in the backings is currently suspended.

6.13

Flammability of blankets

All fabrics made of natural or regenerated cellulose, as well as many made from other natural or synthetic fibres, are combustible. Some combustible fabrics when used for blankets are potentially dangerous to the user because of the ease of ignition, rapidity, and intensity of burning. This test method for the determination of the flammability of blankets is considered satisfactory for acceptance testing of commercial shipments of blankets since this test method has been used extensively in the trade for acceptance testing (7). This may be used to evaluate electric blanket fabric, but tests should be performed on the fabric itself without the resistance heating wires inserted. This test method should be used to measure and describe the properties of materials, products, or assemblies in response to heat and flame under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire risk of materials, products, or assemblies under actual fire conditions. However, results of this test may be used as elements of a fire risk assessment of blanket, which takes into, account all of the factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard of a particular end use.

150


Scope. This method provides a means to identify blanket fabrics, which ignite easily and propagate flame across the surface. This test method specifies the procedures described in the ‘Voluntary Blanket Flammability Standard’ which has been used by the blanket industry in the United States since 1972. Principle. Specimens cut from the blanket fabric are prepared by brushing, if they have a raised fibre surface and by drying. The dried specimen is held in a flammability tester for burning, charring or discoloration of monitor is noted. Two classes of flammability are described. A burn of sufficient intensity to discolour a paper monitor in specified contact with the surface of the test specimen indicates ignition of the blanket surface. Apparatus. Flammability tester, electronic counter, specimen holder and base, burner CP grade methane gas, paper monitor: conforming to federal specification, NNN-P-40b, type II, as lens paper. Sample preparation. Cut 5 specimens for face and back in size 70 x 70 mm. For raised surface fabric, brush once against the lay. Conditioning of samples. Dry the mounted specimens in oven at 105 ± 3°C for 30 min. Then, cool down the dried specimens inside desiccator for 30 min but not more than 60 min. Testing procedure (a) Flame length adjustment – Measure the flame length as 16 mm. (b) Burning – Place the prepared specimens in the tester as shown in Figure 6.2. Apply the igniting flame for (1 ± 0.05) second only and the arrangement is indicated in Figure 6.3.

6.2 Placement of the specimen in the tester.


151

6.3 Applying the igniting flame to the specimen.

Examination of the paper monitor Test classification Class 1: If none of ten paper monitors burn, char or become discoloured. Class 2: If one or more of ten paper monitors burn, char or become discoloured. There is no Class 3 rating in ASTM D 4151 test standard. In commercial acceptance testing, fabric classified as a class 1 material is considered suitable for use in blanket manufacturing.

6.14

Flammability requirements of towels

There is no requirement or regulation for flammability testing of towels for the US market. Therefore, world renowned retailers in US such as Wal-Mart, Target etc. do not verify towels for flammability. However, flammability requirements and regulations are different in Canada. General textiles require flammability testing in Canada. Towels that are made in whole or in part of textile fibres are considered general textiles product under item 4, part 1, and schedule 1 of the Hazardous Products Act / Regulation. As a result towels are required to be tested in accordance with the Canadian General Standard, CAN/CGSB 4.2, No. 27.5-94 Textile test Methods – Flame Resistance – 45 degree angle test, one second flame impingement as amended from time to time. According to the test method a towel is unacceptable if the time of the flame spread is 3.5 seconds or less where the towel does not have the raised surface or 4 seconds or less where the towel has a raised fibre surface and exhibit ignition or fusion of the base fibres.

152


6.15

16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test

Under this test regulation mattress means a ticking (the outermost layer of fabric or related material that encloses the core and upholstery materials of a mattress; a mattress ticking may consist of several layers of fabric or related materials quilted together) filled with a resilient material used alone or in combination with other products intended or promoted for sleeping upon. The main support system that may be present in a mattress, such as springs, foam, hair block, water bladder, air bladder, or resilient filling is called as core. This definition includes, but is not limited to, adult mattresses, youth mattresses, crib mattresses including portable crib mattresses, bunk bed mattresses, futons, water beds and air mattresses which contain upholstery material between the ticking and the mattress core, and any detachable mattresses used in any item of upholstered furniture such as convertible sofa bed mattresses, corner group mattresses, day bed mattresses, roll-a-way bed mattresses, high risers, and trundle bed mattresses. This definition excludes sleeping bags, pillows, mattress foundations, liquid and gaseous filled ticking such as water beds and air mattresses which do not contain upholstery material between the ticking and the mattress core, upholstered furniture which does not contain a detachable mattress such as chaise lounges, drop-arm love seats, pressback lounges, push-back sofas, sleep lounges, sofa beds (including jackknife sofa beds), sofa lounges (including glide-outs), studio couches and studio divans (including twin studio divans and studio beds), and juvenile product pads such as car bed pads, carriage pads, basket pads, infant carrier and lounge pads, dressing table pads, stroller pads, crib bumpers, and playpen pads. Mattress pad means a thin, flat mat or cushion, and/or ticking filled with resilient material for use on top of a mattress. This definition includes, but is not limited to, absorbent mattress pads, flat decubitus pads, and convoluted foam pads, which are totally enclosed in ticking. This definition excludes convoluted foam pads, which are not totally encased in ticking. Purpose (1) This standard prescribes requirements for testing of prototype designs of mattresses and mattress pads before the sale in commerce or the introduction in commerce of any mattress or mattress pad, which is subject to the standard. The standard prescribes a test to determine the ignition resistance of a mattress or a mattress pad when exposed to a lighted cigarette. (2) The standard sets forth a test that may be used to classify ticking materials for resistance to cigarette ignition.


153

(3) The standard sets forth a test that may be used to demonstrate that the substitution of tape edge materials will not reduce the ignition resistance of a mattress prototype or a mattress pad prototype. General requirements The method measures the ignition resistance of a mattress or mattress pad by exposing the surface to lighted cigarettes in a draft-protected environment. The surfaces to be tested include smooth, tape edge, and quilted or tufted locations, if they exist on the mattress or mattress pad surface. A two-sheet test is also conducted on similar surface locations. In the latter test, the burning cigarettes are placed between the sheets. When testing the mattress or mattress pad surface, individual cigarette test locations pass the test if the char length is not more than 2 inch (5.1 cm) in any direction from the nearest point of the cigarette. In the interest of safety, the test operator should discontinue the test and record a failure before reaching the 2 in. char length if an obvious ignition has occurred. Each manufacturer required to perform prototype testing by the standard shall construct or select enough units of each proposed mattress prototype or proposed mattress pad prototype to provide six surfaces for testing. If one or more of the cigarette test locations on any of the six surfaces fail to meet the test criterion, reject the mattress prototype or the mattress pad prototype. Rejected prototype mattresses or prototype mattress pads shall not be retested, offered for sale, sold, or promoted for use as a mattress or for use as a mattress pad except after reworking to improve the resistance to ignition by cigarettes, and subsequent retesting and acceptance of the mattress prototype or the mattress pad prototype (8). Mattress test procedure Mattress specimens shall be tested in a test room with atmospheric conditions of a temperature greater than 18°C (65°F) and a relative humidity less than 55 percent. If the test is not performed in the conditioning room, at least one lit cigarette shall be placed on the mattress surface within 10 minutes of removal from the conditioning room. The other side of the mattress shall be tested immediately after completion of the first side. (i) At least 18 cigarettes shall be burned on each mattress test surface, 9 in the bare mattress tests and 9 in the 2 sheet tests. If three or more mattress surface locations (smooth surface, tape edge, quilted, or tufted areas) exist in the particular mattress surface under test, three cigarettes shall be burned on each different surface location. If only two mattress surface locations exist in the particular mattress surface under test (tape edge and smooth surface), four cigarettes shall be

154


burned on the smooth surface and five cigarettes shall be burned on the tape edge. (ii) Light and place one cigarette at a time on the mattress surface. The cigarettes must be positioned no less than 6 in. apart on the mattress surface. Each cigarette used as an ignition source shall be well-lighted but not burned more than 4 mm (0.16 in.) when placed on the mattress. (Fire extinguishing equipment must be readily available at all times.) (iii) If a cigarette extinguishes before burning its full length on any mattress surface location, pops out of position when tested on a tuft, or rolls off a test location, the test must be repeated with a freshly lit cigarette on a different portion of the same type of location on the mattress surface until either: the number of cigarettes have burned their full lengths; the number of cigarettes have extinguished before burning their full lengths; or failure has occurred according test criterion. Mattress pad test procedure (a) Testing – All mattress pads shall be tested, in the condition in which they are intended to be sold, mattress test procedure, using the glass fibreboard substrate. (b) Flame resistant mattress pads – The following additional requirements shall be applicable to mattress pads that contain a chemical fire retardant. (i) These mattress pads shall be tested in accordance mattress test procedure after they have been washed and dried 10 times. (ii) Such laundering is not required of mattress pads, which are intended for one time use and/or are not intended to be laundered, as determined by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. (iii) Mattress pads which are not susceptible to being laundered and are labelled ‘dryclean only’ shall be drycleaned by a procedure which has previously been found acceptable by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Laundering procedure (i) Washing shall be performed in accordance with AATCC Test Method 124–1996, using wash temperature 60 ± 3°C, 140 ± 5°F, and the water level, agitator speed, washing time, spin speed and final spin cycle specified for ‘Normal/Cotton Sturdy’. (ii) Drying shall be performed in accordance with AATCC Test Method 124–1996 “Appearance of Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering,” Tumble Dry, using the exhaust temperature (66 ± 5°C, 150 ± 10°F)


155

and cool down time of 10 minutes specified in the ‘Durable Press’ conditions. A different number of wash and dry cycles using another procedure may be specified and used, if that procedure has previously been found to be equivalent by the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

6.16

16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test

This new federal standard is largely based on California’s Technical Bulletin (CATB) 603, and will apply to all mattresses manufactured, renovated, or imported to any state in the US. CATB 603 applied only to mattresses made in or imported to the state of California. 16 CFR 1633, which differs from the current federal cigarette resistance standard, addresses open flame resistance. The standard was developed with the intention of reducing the number of deaths and injuries resulting from mattress fires. According to the CPSC, this new standard is anticipated to save nearly 300 lives per year by reducing the flashover potential of a bedroom. Flashover is the point at which everything in a room is on fire as a result of elevated ceiling gas temperature and radiant heat generation. In order for a room to achieve flashover, there must be enough combustibles in the room for the ceiling to reach a temperature of approximately 1200°F in a typical room setting. This standard rests upon the theory of removing the largest source of fuel in the bedroom, in this case, the mattress and foundation, thus significantly reducing the number of catastrophic fires in that room by reducing the flashover potential. The test procedure for 16 CFR 1633 requires placing a NIST designed dual burner on the mattress impinging flames on the side and top of the mattress collectively for a total of 70 seconds, at which point the burner is withdrawn. The products of combustion from the mattress are then analysed for various parameters, including heat release rate and total heat released. Heat release rate (expressed in kilo Watts (kW)) is the rate at which energy is released from the mattress as a result of being involved in the combustion process. Total heat, measured at the 10-minute mark, is the amount of heat released, expressed in MJ. The performance criterion of the test requires that the specimen not exceed 200 kW at any point during the 30 minute test and cannot exceed 15 MJ within the first 10 minutes (9). The major difference between 16 CFR 1633 and CATB 603 is the total heat released requirement drops to 15 from 25 MJ. A very important aspect of this test is that it must be performed on each model produced, or ‘prototype’ in triplicate. Each of the three mattresses of a particular model must pass in order to achieve compliance. This standard also imposes a strong record keeping requirement. The intent is the ability to trace a mattress from a

156


particular residence back to the manufacturing facility, the date and time it was manufactured, and the particular materials used in construction. It is also a very important component of a successful quality program.

6.17

CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test

The term ‘bedclothes’’ can include a variety of products, such as sheets, blankets, mattress pads, pillows, comforters, and similar products that are used as covering on a bed. Products that contain fibrous or other materials are called ‘filled’ bedding. Because of their greater mass or fuel load, filled products are likely to contribute more significantly to a mattress fire than unfilled products, such as sheets and blankets. Mattresses generally are not used alone, but are covered by bedding or bedclothes, whose presence significantly affects the character of the fire. In most incidents a small open flame initially ignites the bedding, and these materials serve as a larger ignition source for the mattress. Thus, bedclothes contribute substantially to the complexity and magnitude of the mattress fire hazard. TB 604 is bed clothes open flame law. TB 604 test applies to filling material used in bed clothing items such as comforters, quilted duvet covers, quilted bed pads, bed spreads, bed pillows, bed rest cushions, mattress pads, quilted bed shams, quilted pillow cases, padded head board, foam topper pads (covered and bare). The tests do not apply to non-filled items such as blankets, sheets and pillowcases. TB 604 contains three sections, i.e. section 1: comforters and bedspreads, section 2: pillows and bed cushions, and section 3: mattress pads.

6.18

EN1021-1/2:1994 (Figure 6.4)

This standard is valid throughout the EU and examines a fabric’s reaction to a burning cigarette and butane flame (simulated match). It replaces a number of tests, including DIN 54342: 1/2 in Germany and BS 5852: 1990 in the UK. Test methods – A standard test rig is constructed from fabric and foam to form a simulated chair with the back at a right angle to the base. This enables the ignition source to be kept in permanent contact with both back and seat throughout the test. Water soak prior to testing is compulsory. EN1021: Part 1 – In Part 1 of the test a lighted cigarette is placed in the angle of the test rig and left to smoulder along its entire length. After 60 minutes no smouldering or flaming of the fabric should be observed.EN1021: Part 2 – Here a butane flame 35 mm in height is used to represent a burning match and is applied for 15 seconds, again in the angle between the test rig base and back. After the flame is removed, no burning of the fabric should occur after 2 minutes have elapsed.


157

Ignition Source Upholstery fabric

Foam 6.4 Test arrangement of EN 1021:1994.

6.19

BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating

Principle – Different ignition sources are applied to a constructed test rig to examine the burning behaviour of a test material. Test method – A test rig is constructed in order to simulate a chair with the fabric to be tested. This rig is subjected to different ignition sources. There are 8 types of ignition sources, each with different heat intensity. They are classified from 1 to 8, the intensity doubling compared to the preceding source. The most frequently used are ignition source 0, 1 and 5. Ignition source 0: smouldering cigarette (Figure 6.5) – A cigarette is put along the crevice of the test rig and allowed to burn over its entire length. The following test parameters are used.

6.5 BS 5852 Source 0: smouldering cigarette.

158


Length – ±68 mm; diameter – ±8 mm; mass – 1 g nominal; igniting not more than 8 mm and not less than 5 mm; smouldering rate – 12 ± 3 min / 50 mm. The material will pass if (1) there is not more than 50 mm damage; and (2) within 60 min: no flaming, smoke, heat and glowing. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes the test. Ignition source 1: flame (simulated match) (Figure 6.6) – A burner is lighted, held along the crevice of the test rig for 20 seconds and then removed. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes the test. In this test flame length of 35 mm (vertical) is used. The material will pass if: (a) flaming – maximum 2 min after removal of the burner; (b) smoke, heat and glowing – maximum 15 min after removal; and (c) maximum 100 mm damage.

6.6 BS 5852 Source 1: flame (simulated match).

Ignition source 5: wooden crib 5 (Figure 6.7) – A crib is composed of wooden planks, glued together. Lint is attached to the bottom. After adding propane-diol the crib is placed on the test rig and ignited with a match. If no flaming or progressive smouldering is observed on both cover and interior material, the test is recorded as no ignition and the material passes the test. Igniting wooden crib with 1.4 ml isopropyl alcohol pass if: (a) (b) (c) (d)

smoke, heat and glowing – maximum 60 min; flaming – maximum 10 min.; damage flaming – maximum 400 mm; damage smouldering – maximum 100 mm.


159

6.7 BS 5852 Source 5: wooden crib.

6.20

Flammability standards for curtains

Flammability of vertically oriented textile fabric and fabric assemblies subjected to small igniting flame are measured by following the procedure laid down in BS 5438 (10). Fabrics are subjected to a small igniting flame applied to the face bottom edge of vertically hung specimens. These tests are designed to find out: how easily the material catches light how far the flames spread and how quickly the flames spread. Measurement of flame spread properties of vertical oriented specimen can also be assessed by following test methods described in ISO 6940/41, CAN/CGSB 4.2 no. 27.3 and 27.4, and AS 2755. CAN/CGSB 4.2 no. 27.3-94/ISO 6941: 1984 (11) – This International Standard specifies a method for the measurement of flame spread properties of vertically oriented textile fabrics intended for apparel, curtains and draperies in the form of single or multi-component (coated, quilted, multilayered, sandwich construction and similar combinations) fabrics. The method should be used solely to assess the properties of materials or systems in response to heat flame under controlled laboratory conditions. The results may not apply to situations where there is restricted air supply or prolonged exposure to heat as in a conflagration. AS 2755.2-1985 (12): Part 2 of this standard describes a procedure in which the textile material is held vertically in a frame. A small flame is used to ignite the specimen and the time is measured for the flame to spread up the specimen past a number of trip threads, which record the time interval.

6.21

Conclusions

With several innovations in the existing fibres and invention of new fibres and fibre blends; rapidly changing lifestyle and consumer demands; today

160


the manufacturers need to be fully aware of the latest fire safety regulations, along with products and processes that will help them offer products which meet such norms. Adoption of latest technology always has the edge in delivering superior home textiles and furnishing products for niche consumers, but meeting the acceptable performance standards in terms of fire safety can not be ignored while offering high aesthetic value and economical prices to stay ahead of the competitors.

References 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

11.

12.

BROWN S A (1985), ‘Consumer attitudes to flammability in household textiles’, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 13, 373–382. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1631—Standard For The Surface Flammability Of Small Carpets And Rugs (FF 2–70), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed on 2 April, 2009]. ASTM D 2654–67T, Option 1 Methods of Test for Amount of Moisture in Textile Materials. AATCC Test Method 124–1996 Appearance of Fabrics after Repeated Home Laundering. Hazardous Products Act (2009), Regulations Amending Certain Regulations Made under the Hazardous Products Act (Miscellaneous Program). Available from: Canada Gazette, www.gazette.gc.ca [Accessed on 15 November 2009]. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1631—Standard For The Surface Flammability Of Carpets And Rugs (FF 1–70), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed on 2 April, 2009]. ASTM D 4151 – 92 (2001) Standard Test Method for Flammability of Blankets. Title 16: Commercial Practices, Part 1632—Standard for the Flammability of Mattresses and Mattress Pads (FF 4–72, Amended), Available from: e-CFR Data [Accessed 2 April, 2009]. SGS Consumer Testing Services (2006), Safe Guards, Softlines, 022/066. BS 5438:1989 Methods of test for flammability of textile fabrics when subjected to a small igniting flame applied to the face or bottom edge of vertically oriented specimens. CAN/CGSB 4.2 NO. 27.3-94/ISO 6941: 1984 – Textile Test Methods – Textile Fabrics – Burning Behaviour – Measurement of Flame Spread Properties of Vertically Oriented Specimens. AS 2755.2-1985 Textile fabrics – Burning behaviour – Measurement of flame spread properties of vertically oriented specimens.


161

7 Evaluation of home textiles

Abstract: It is well perceived that comfort and appearance play a critical role in material selection of apparel. However, functionality is the most important criterion for home textiles; aesthetics, beauty, colour, etc. are of secondary importance. Home textiles are evaluated to predict the performance at projected application area for which they are designed. The chapter begins with the importance of various test methods, which are specific to different home textiles items and customised as per the requirement of the international retailers. The chapter then discusses the details of applying such test methods to different home textile merchandises. Test methods applicable for special performance claims are also highlighted. Keywords: Quality, testing protocol, drycleaning, performance, safety.

7.1

Introduction

Shopping pattern for home textile products has been changed over a period of time. To maintain a share of this continually changing market, retailers need to understand what factors influence customers (1). While the prime factors consumers consider in purchasing home textiles remained unchanged over the past years, shoppers’ preferred retail channels, amounts spent, purchase drivers, and above all perceptions of quality have been shifted. Households today are replacing their items for different reasons such as more consumers are ready for a change, and fewer are replacing worn-out materials. Fading is still the top reason for replacing worn-out home textiles. However, significantly more consumers reported replacing sheets because of holes, frayed ends and stains. The top three factors shoppers consider in buying sheets, besides size and fit, have not changed over the years – softness, durability, and price remain the most important. But the factors gaining the most popularity are ‘bacteria resistant’ as valueadded product, and ‘100% cotton’ because it is softer and breathing better. Consumers are also becoming more aware of thread count in sheeting. The past few years have seen changes in the way consumers purchase towels, i.e. frequency of purchases, and factors influencing purchases.

161

162


However, fewer consumers bought new towels to replace worn-out ones, and more because they wanted a change. Consumers are gravitating toward towels with added benefits. Although the top three purchase factors remained absorbency, softness, and durability; the importance of bacteria resistance grew rapidly (1). Quality awareness on textiles in particular on home textiles among the consumers as well as retailers in the developed nations is quite high. This quality awareness is spreading to markets of developing countries. Realising the need to educate the manufacturers about the quality parameters for home textiles, and in order to bridge the information gap on home textiles, evaluation of quality of home textile is important. To present the quality parameters of home textiles in a concise fashion, quality evaluation is essential. Since the end usages and specifications vary from region to region, the quality parameters mentioned will serve only as a guideline for the industry to arrive at manufacturing as well as end use performance parameters. Depending on the application areas, home textiles are designed to perform for demanding application. Failure of a home textile during use may cause some embarrassment for the user. The consequences of failure of a home textile ear-marked for export can be devastating. For example, failure of a woven mitt/pot holder during kitchen use of handling hot items or abnormal shrinkage/excessive linting of towels may be frustrating. Materials with good durability and resistance to various effects give the home textiles the necessary strength and performance characteristics. It is well perceived that comfort and appearance play a critical role in material selection in apparel. However, functionality is the most important criteria for home textiles; aesthetics, beauty, colour, etc. are of secondary importance. Testing of home textiles also presents another challenge. Quite often, when in use, home textiles can not be changed or replaced easily. For example, the filling material stitched inside a woven mitt can not be replaced without complete rejection of the whole item. Many times it is impossible to simulate of actual user’s condition at the laboratory. Therefore, empirical methods are either difficult to achieve or not reliable. As a result of these, the quality engineer of an application involving home textiles quite often has to rely on laboratory test results. This increases the need for accuracy and reliability of the test results for home textiles. Sometimes popular textile test methods are not suitable for home textiles. Therefore, in certain cases, customised test methods and procedures have been developed by renowned retailers for evaluating home textiles based on their accumulated experience gathered over the years in dealing various performance related issues faced by the consumers. In addition to physical properties, the performance or quality of clothing textiles depend on other variables such as consumer perception and taste.


163

Therefore, evaluation and specification of clothing textiles is rather subjective and ambiguous. In comparison to that, performance and evaluation of home textiles are well-defined based on the planned end use.

7.2

Test methods for towels

A terry towel is described as a textile product which is made with a loop pile on one or both sides, generally covering the entire surface or forming stripes, checks or other patterns (with end hems or fringes and side hems or selvages (2)). Market requirements for terry towels include performance, fashion, style, colour, pattern, and hand (3). According to a survey of home furnishing news (1999), consumers take style, absorbency, price, softness, fibre type, quick drying, and brand name into consideration in bathroom towel purchases. According to this report, absorbency is the most important factor in consumers’ choices of bath towels, softness is the second, and the fibre type is the third most important factor. The towel’s brand name is of relative unimportance (4). According to the Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle Monitor TM Home Fabrics Study 2003, 91% of the female consumers polled said they prefer thicker towels, 94% said they like their towels as soft as possible. The two most important factors they cite when purchasing a bath towel are absorbency (82%) and softness (83%). However, consumer preferences about fibre type were not mentioned in this study. As towel retailers are in search for unique, innovative and differentiated towel products, a trend is seen to be moving toward a loftier, fuller towel with a soft hand produced either by using different fibre types, yarn fabrication or by finishing and still maintaining all necessary quality specifications (5). Among various quality evaluation system in towel, terry construction, differential shrinkage, super absorbency, towel linting, and water absorption are accepted as some of the priority areas, which have been described in this chapter.

7.2.1

Test Method for terry construction

This test method is designed to determine construction of a terry towel and its constituent yarns. Principle. A 2 × 2 in. die cut is made from the terry sample to be dissected. The constituent yarns, terry loop, terry base warp and terry base fill picks, are unravelled from the swatch, sorted and individually counted. These counts are used to determine terry warp count, base warp count, and base fill count. Ten (10) yarns of each type are then measured for

164


length and weighed to determine yarn size and terry loop to base ratio. Yarns are examined visually to determine number of plies and microscopically to determine spinning method. An unwashed terry sample when folded reveals the fabric base and rows of pile loops. A ruler of 1/100 increment is inserted and the height of the pile is measured (6). Terminology. Those are important to understand and are described here. (a) Terry – a fabric with yarns that stand vertically from a woven ground, the raised surface formed by the terry warp yarns. (b) Loop end – yarns raised above the surface of a terry fabric, forming the pile; these may be in loop form or may be sheared on one side to form a velour finish. (c) Base warp end – warp ends of a terry fabric lying flat in the plane of the fabric and not part of the pile. (d) Base fill pick – yarns of a terry fabric lying flat in the plane of the fabric and running at right angles to the direction of the terry loops. (e) Die cut – a sample cut using a press and shaped blade or die. (f) Single ply yarn – a yarn having only one strand. (g) Multiple ply yarn – a yarn composed of two or more strands of yarn twisted together. (h) Ring spun – a method of yarn spinning in which fibres are twisted to impart strength and cohesion to the yarn. (i) Open end spun – a method of yarn spinning in which wrapper yarns are used to impart strength and cohesion to the fibres. (j) Dobby band – patterned, non-looped, decorative band near end or ends of towel. (k) Yarn number in cotton count – a description of yarn size as length per unit mass. The yarn number is the number of 840-yard skeins that would comprise a pound of yarn. (l) Pile height – the measurement of pile loops in 1/100, of unwashed terry. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. One should wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory, testing equipment. All safety precautions are to be followed when handling dies and using die cutter. Sharp objects used for unravelling samples are to be kept in safe container or cover point when not in use to avoid accidental puncture wounds.


165

Apparatus. Die cutter and 2 × 2 in. die, seam ripper or sharp dissection needle for unravelling, pick glass (optional), microscope, digital scale capable of reading to 0.0001 g, permanent marking pen or laundry marker, petri dishes or other small containers for holding yarns, ruler marked in 1/100 increment. Test specimen. Cut each specimen 2 × 2 in., using die cutter. Handle samples with care to avoid loss of ends after cutting. Cut specimen from a representative sample of the unwashed towel, avoiding the dobby band, selvedges and hem areas. Procedure. Pile height – fold a terry sample so the base fabric is visible. This is shown in Figure 7.1. Insert a 100th incremental measure ruler between the pile rows, until it rests on the base fabric as indicated in Figure 7.2. Measure the height of the pile loops against the ruler as per Figure 7.3.

7.1 Terry sample.

7.2 Position of the ruler.

166


7.3 Measurement of the height of the pile loops.

Dissection. Beginning with near the centre of the sample, use the seam ripper or dissection needle to pull rows of loop yarns from the sample. All loop ends removed are to be placed in a petri dish or other small container. When approximately 0.25 in. of loops has been removed, use a pen or laundry marker to draw a line in the direction of the loop pull (down the middle of the bare strip). This is the warp direction of the towel. Continue pulling loops from both sides of the towel until all have been removed. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled ‘loop ends’. Take care that none are lost. If the fabric has been sheared on one side, only half of the loop ends will be recoverable. Discard the ‘fuzz’ from the sheared side. Unravel the base ends parallel to the line drawn on the cloth. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled ‘base warp ends’. Take care that no ends are lost. Unravel the base fill picks that are at right angles to the line drawn on the cloth. Set these aside in a petri dish or other small container labelled ‘base fill picks’. Take care that no ends are lost. Thread counting procedure. Count all loop ends removed from the terry sample. Record the count and return ends to the petri dish for further use. If the fabric was sheared on one side, only half the loop ends can be recovered. In this case, double the actual count to reflect the ends lost in shearing. Count all base warp ends removed from terry sample. Record the count and return ends to the petri dish for further use. Count all base fill picks removed from the terry sample. Record the count and return picks to the petri dish for further use. Yarn measurement. Select 10 yarns of average appearance and length from the petri dish labelled ‘loop ends’. Check all ends selected to determine if the yarns are single ply or multiple ply. If the loop ends contain both single and multiple ply yarns, then 10 ends of each type must be


167

measured and weighed as separate groups. Measure each end to the nearest 1/100 in. Record that length and sum the lengths of the 10 samples. After all ends have been measured, weigh the 10 ends in one mass. Record that value. Repeat the process above for all base warp ends. Repeat the process above for all base fill picks. Yarn spinning description. Microscopically examine three samples from each yarn group to determine if the yarns are open end or ring spun. Record this determination for each yarn group. Determination of spinning process may be made by comparing microscopic appearance to the photographs shown in Figures 7.4(a) and (b) for ring spun and open end yarn, respectively.

7.4(a) Type of yarn (ring spun).

7.4(b) Type of yarn (open end).

Calculation (i) Terry loop ends per inch, base warp ends and base filling picks per inch =

counted yarns 2

168


(ii) Terry loops per square inch = Terry loop ends per inch × base fill picks per inch 3

Length of 10 terry loop ends (iii) Terry to base ratio =

Length of 10 base warp ends

(iv) Yarn number for the loop, warp and fill yarns =

Length of 10 yarns × 0.015 × number of plies Weight of 10 yarns If there are two types of loop yarn ends as illustrated in Figure 7.5(a) (single ply) and 7.5(b) (two ply), calculate and record each type separately.

7.5(a) Type of loop yarn ends (single ply).

7.5(b) Type of loop yarn ends (two ply).

Report. Include determinations for yarn spinning descriptions. Report calculations for base and loop warp ends per inch, base picks per inch, terry loops per square inch, terry to base ratio and yarn number and ply as cotton count. Include pile height in 100ths.


7.2.2

169

Test Method for differential shrinkage in towels and wash cloths

Purpose and scope. This test method determines the evenness of shrinkage across the width of a towel or wash cloth after repeated home launderings. A towel or wash cloth is measured after being subjected to repeated home laundering procedures, according to labelled care instructions and colorfastness to washing, comparing centre portions of specimen, hem, cuff, dobby border and 2 in. above dobby border (7). Principle. A change in width measurements of a sample, resulting from procedures typical of home laundering practices, taken after 5 home launderings; calculation of results will determine the uneven shrinkage along the width of the specimen. Terminology used in test method. (a) Sample – a terry constructed towel or wash cloth. (b) Laundering – a process intended to remove soils and/or stains from textile materials by treatment (washing) with an aqueous detergent solution and normally including rinsing, extraction and drying. (c) Differential shrinkage – the uneven shrinkage in towels and wash cloths, after repeated launderings. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer ’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory, testing equipment. The standard detergent may cause irritation. Care should be taken to prevent exposure to skin and eyes. Apparatus and materials. Permanent marking pen, tape or ruler marked in increments of 16ths of an inch or smaller, conditioning/drying racks with pull out screens or perforated shelves, automatic washing machine, automatic tumble dryer, tide detergent, scale with at least 5 kg (10 lb.) capacity, ballast of (920 × 920 mm) or (26 × 36 in.) hemmed pieces of bleached cotton sheeting (wash load ballast type 2) or 50/50 polyester/ cotton, bleached, mercerized, plain weave (wash load ballast type 3). Test specimen. Select clean, original towel or wash cloth. Different positions are described in Figure 7.6. Test multiple specimens to increase precision. Label to maintain specimen identity.

170

Performance of home textiles Label Cuff

A10

Towel width Centre

Hem

Towel length

Dobby border

2 inch above dobby border

7.6 Different positions of towel.

Procedure. Laundering – prepare to launder specimens, adding ballast, to complete a 4 lb load. Wash and dry specimens 5 times according to labelled care instructions. Conditioning. Condition thoroughly dry samples for 4 hours according to ASTM D1776 – Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing Textiles. After conditioning, place each test specimen, without tension, on a flat, smooth, horizontal surface. The wrinkles in most fabrics flatten sufficiently under pressure of a measuring instrument, at the time of measurement, not to cause measurement error. Measurement. Measure the length of the specimen by finding the centre of the sample and mark using a permanent marking pen. Determine specimen width. Measure the width of the towel or wash cloth at centre mark and record finding. Measure the width of the specimen (both ends) approximately 2 in. above dobby border. Measure the width of the specimen on the narrowest portion of the dobby border (both ends) and record. Measure the width of the specimen at the hem (both ends) and record measurement. Measure the width of the towel at the cuff (both ends,) halfway between hem and border, and record measurement. Compare width measurements from centre, cuff and 2 in. above dobby border. Step 1 – Select the wider of the measurements stated above. Example: Centre width – 30 in. Cuff width 1 – 29.5 in.

Select widest of the areas


171

Cuff width 2 – 28 in. Width 2” above dobby border 1 – 29.75 in. Width 2” above dobby border 2 – 29.75 in. Compare width measurements of the two dobby borders and two end hems. Step 2 – Select the narrowest of the 4 measurements. In the example below, this would be Dobby 1 at 28.5 in. Example: Dobby border 1 – 28.5 in.

(Select the narrowest of the 4 measurements.)

Dobby border 2 – 28.75 in. End hem 1 – 29.25 in. End hem 2 – 29.75 in. Calculation – Subtract the narrowest measurement in Step 2 from the widest measurement in Step 1. This is the differential shrinkage. In the example given, the narrowest measurement is dobby border 1 at 28.5 in. The widest measurement is the centre width of 30.0 in. This towel would have a differential shrinkage of 1.5 in. Example 30.00 – 28.50 in. = 1.5 in. (Differential shrinkage) Centre width Cuff width 1 Cuff width 2 2 in. above dobby border 1 2 in. above dobby border 2 Dobby border Dobby border End Hem End Hem

1 2 1 2

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

in. in. inch in. in.

Widest measurement

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

in. in. in. in.

Narrowest measurement

Widest measurement – Narrowest measurement = Differential shrinkage Examples of towels with poor and good differential shrinkage are shown in Figure 7.7(a) and (b), respectively.

172


7.7(a) Example of differential shrinkage (poor).

7.7(b) Example of differential shrinkage (good).

Report. Report for each sample tested. Washing procedure, temperature, load size and amount of detergent. Drying procedure. Temperature, load size, cycle type, i.e., normal, permanent press or delicate. Number of completed washing and drying cycles. Differential shrinkage, in inch.

7.2.3

Surface water absorption in towel (Adapted from ASTM D 4772-97)

Scope. This test method determines the ability of a terry fabric to rapidly absorb and retain liquid water from surfaces such as human skin, dishes and furniture. Summary of test method. A terry fabric product with hems or with both hems and selvages (such as a bath towel) or a terry fabric without hems or without both hems and selvages (such as terry fabric cut from a roll) is


173

prepared for testing by pre-conditioning and conditioning. Specimens are placed one at a time in an embroidery hoop and then the hoop/specimen assembly is placed at an angle on the base of the apparatus. After water flows down the surface of each specimen, the amount of water retained by each specimen is measured. Such a set up is shown in Figure 7.8. Four specimens are tested, one on each end of the face and back of the fabric. The four observations are averaged to determine the surface water absorption of the fabric.

7.8 Set up of apparatus for surface water absorption.

Terminology used in the test (a) Absorption – a process in which one material (the absorbent) takes in or absorbs another (the absorbate) as the absorption of moisture by fibres. (b) Pile – in pile fabric, the raised loops or tufts (cut loops) that form all or part of the surface. (c) Surface water absorption – by a fabric, the process of removing liquid water from a surface such as human skin, dishes or furniture. (d) Terry fabric – a material with a woven warp pile or on both sides and which is used for such products as toweling, beachwear and bathrobes. Apparatus and materials Water flow tester – This tester is not commercially available, but it is not difficult or expensive to build. There are many acceptable ways to build

174


the tester. However, the following indicates the critical factors, which must be incorporated into the design of the tester as indicated in Figure 7.9. The hoop/specimen assembly must be at 1.1 rad (63 degree) to the table top. The 50 ml graduate mounted on the apparatus must be parallel to the table top. The pour spout on this graduate must be 3.0 ± 0.2 cm down from where the adjustment screw bracket joints the outer hoop and 0.6 ± 0.4 cm away from the hoop/specimen assembly. The funnel, valve, fittings, tubing, and graduate mounted on the apparatus must not restrict the flow of water. The time between the opening of the valve and the time the water has exited the graduate (except for a few drops) must be less than 8.0 seconds. The hoop/specimen assembly must be mounted on the base in a manner to direct all water not absorbed by the specimen toward the pan.

7.9 Water flow tester.

Test specimen. The preparation of the laboratory specimen uses five cycles of washing and drying according to label care instructions. This pre-conditions the laboratory specimen, raises the pile so it is not matted down, and removes some chemicals. This procedure uses the equipment and supplies described in AATCC Test Method 135, which covers dimensional changes of fabrics after home laundering. Procedure. Place the apparatus on a flat surface where spilled water will not cause a problem. With no laboratory specimen on the base, prewet the graduate attached to the apparatus by using the following procedure. While the valve is in a closed position, pour 50 ± 1 ml of distilled or deionised water at 21 ± 1°C (70 + 2°F) in the graduate which is not attached to the apparatus and then pour this water into the funnel as shown in Figure 7.10. Open the valve and allow the water to run through the


175

7.10 Position of the apparatus.

apparatus and into the pan. Thoroughly dry the base, the hoop, and the pan before starting the actual test. Place the hoop on the laboratory specimen so that no more than 1.0 cm of the specimen extends past the bottom of the hoop. Mount the hoop/specimen assembly on the base. Excess specimen must be allowed to drape over the sides and the back of the base as indicated in Figure 7.11. Position the hoop/specimen assembly so that the bottom of the pour spout is 0.6 ± 0.4 cm away from the specimen, 3.0 ± 0.2 cm down from where the adjustment screw bracket joins the outer hoop, and centred between the sides of the hoop as shown in Figure 7.12. Push the pan against the base so all the water will go into the pan. While the valve is in a closed position, pour 50 ± 1 ml of distilled or deionised water at 21 ± 1°C (70 ± 2°F) into the graduate not attached to the apparatus and then pour this water into the funnel as depicted in Figure 7.13. Open the valve and allow the water to run down the surface of the specimen held in the hoop (the time between the opening of the valve and the time the water exited the graduate must be less than 8.0 seconds). Allow 25 ± 5 seconds to elapse between the time the water stops coming out of the graduate attached to the apparatus and the removal of the pan. Do not tap on or tilt the graduate attached to the apparatus to try to get all the drops of water out. Pour the runoff water, which is now in the pan, into the 50ml graduate not attached to the apparatus and record the number of millilitres of runoff water to the nearest 1.0 ml. Subtract the number of millilitres of runoff water from 50 and record this value as the observation. Discard the water now in the graduate not attached to the apparatus. Do not reuse this water. Remove the laboratory specimen from the hoop. Do not allow the tested wet area of the laboratory specimen to contact untested dry areas. Thoroughly dry the hoop, the base, and the pan. If any water

176


has missed the pan and is now on the surface below the apparatus, this observation is not valid and the procedure will have to be repeated on a dry area of the laboratory specimen or a new laboratory specimen. Repeat the above procedures three more times for a total of four tests per towel (8).

7.11 Placement of hoop on the specimen.

7.12 Position of the apparatus.

Test site selection. Select opposite corners on one side of towel and opposite (dry) corners on back side of towel as shown in Figure 7.14. Exclude borders in testing. Specimens such as bar towels, kitchen towels and baby towels, which are not large enough to provide the above four test sites, must be submitted in ample amounts for testing. Note – Wash cloths are exempt from absorbency testing.


177

7.13 Measurement of deionised water.

1

3

2

4

7.14 Test site selection.

Evaluation Calculation – To represent the percentage rate per test, subtract the amount of water recaptured from the original amount used (50 ml). Divide that difference by the original amount and multiply by 100. This shows the percentage of absorbency. Calculate the percentage on the 3 remaining tests. To figure the average rate of absorbency, add the percent for each test and divide by 4. This step is then repeated for each colour included in the report. Absorbency requirements. ● ● ● ●

50% bath towels 30% baby bath towels / kitchen towels and bar towels 50 % beach towels > 10 oz/sq yd 30% beach towels = 10 oz/sq yd

Report. Record evaluation findings.

178


7.2.4

Super absorbency in towel (9)

Scope. This test method determines the ability of a towel, claiming to have super absorbency capabilities, to rapidly absorb and retain liquid water from surfaces. Summary of test method. A super absorbent towel is prepared for testing without pre-conditioning or conditioning. Specimens are then weighed. After being immersed in distilled water for a specified period of time, the specimens are removed from the water and for a specified period, allowed to drip from the surface of each specimen. Specimens are then weighed and the amount of water retained by each specimen is measured. The results are calculated as multiple of initial weight and reported as percentage of absorbency. Terminology (a) Absorption – a process in which one material (the absorbent) takes in or absorbs another (the absorbate) as the absorption of moisture by fibres. (b) Surface water absorption – by a fabric, the process of removing liquid water from surfaces such as automobiles. (c) Super absorbent towel – a towel purported to have a higher degree of absorbency than commonly expected. Apparatus and materials. Distilled water, petri dish, or 250 ml beaker, timer, balance scale, 2 × 2 in. die, or scissors. Test specimen. Cut specimens 2 × 2 in. using dies or by hand, using scissors. Precise dimensions are not necessary for this test method. This test method does not require pre-conditioning or conditioning. Procedure. Label each specimen. Weigh dry, non-conditioned specimen on a balance scale; record result as ‘original weight’. Fill petri dish with enough distilled water to submerge 2 × 2 in. specimen. This test method also allows for the use of a 250 ml beaker. Pour 150 ± 25 ml distilled water into the beaker. Set timer for 2 minutes. Immerse specimen in distilled water for 120 ± 15 seconds. Remove specimen from water and by holding one corner, allows the specimen to drip for 20 ± 5 seconds. Immediately weigh wet specimen; record result as ‘saturated weight’. Evaluation Calculation – To figure the amount of absorbency, calculate test result as follows. Example – Original weight = 0.75 g Saturated weight = 3.00 g Towel absorbency = (3.0/0.75) × 100 = 400% Requirements. Test results must reach product claim ±5%.


179

Report. Report the number of tests conducted. Report the findings as percentage of absorbency.

7.2.5

Towel linting

Purpose and scope. This test method is designed to measure the amount of dryer lint generated by three uncut bath/beach towels of the same style during the first 5 laundry cycles. Examples of towels and lint generated out of it are shown in Figures 7.15 (a) and (b), respectively. The towels laundered for this test method may also be used for evaluation of shrinkage and pilling and used to perform absorbency testing (10).

7.15(a) Examples of towels

7.15(b) Example of lint

Principle. Three uncut bath/beach/beach towels of the same style are weighed and laundered through 5 cycles of wash and dry according to labelled care instructions. Before each drying cycle, the lint filter of the dryer is cleaned. After each drying cycle all lint generated by the towels is collected and put into a labelled, re-sealable plastic bag. The lint from each cycle is weighed and this weight is totalled and calculated as a percentage of the original load weight. Terminology (a) Laundering – of textile materials, a process intended to remove soils and / or stains by treatment (washing) with an aqueous detergent solution and normally including subsequent rinsing, extracting and drying. (b) Lint – fibre material released from an item during the drying process Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use

180


safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Detergents may cause irritation. Care should be taken to prevent exposure to skin and eyes. Apparatus. Re-sealable plastic bags, digital scale capable of weighing to the nearest 0.0001 g, automatic washer, automatic tumble dryer. Test specimen. Three bath/beach towels of the style are to be tested. These towels must not be cut. They may be marked for shrinkage testing, if desired. Weighing. Weigh the three towels to the nearest 0.01 lbs. and record weight. Laundering procedure. If weight of the towels is 3 pounds or less, washes on ‘small load’ setting. If the weight of the three towels is above 3 pounds, wash on ‘large load’ setting. Fill washer to the load setting determined above with water at the temperature designated on the care label. Verify water temperature with a thermometer or a water temperature controller. Add 1/8 cup of Tide powder detergent (without bleach). Set dial for a 14 minutes washing cycle. The rinse cycle temperature should always be cold. Start the wash cycle to agitate detergent. Add test specimen(s) to the washer. At the end of the final spin cycle, place the entire load of test specimens into the dryer. Clean dryer lint filter prior to starting the drying cycle. Dry the load for 30 minutes or until completely dry, using the temperature designated on the care label. Specimens should not be left damp. Remove specimens from the dryer on completion of the cycle. Collect lint from dryer lint filter. Place lint into one (1) re-sealable plastic bag and mark at addition of each linting. Repeat steps until the load has been washed and dried through five laundry cycles, collecting and labelling the lint from each cycle. Evaluation. Weigh, record and total the lint from all laundry cycles. Calculate the linting result as a % of the total initial weight of the three towels. (Weight of lint/weight of 3 towels) × 100 = % linting.

7.3

Test methods for rug

To maintain industrial repute, the quality of the rugs is to be maintained at the highest level. A complete stage wise separation and the graduation of a product from one stage to another is done in production division. For this, the operations of various departments, viz. hand weaving, stitching, tuft work, bleaching and dyeing, antique washing and other


181

related activities are monitored carefully. The raw material used, viz. cotton, wool, hemp, coir and other fibres are procured from reputed suppliers and manufacturers to maintain quality that conforms to the buyer’s specifications. Some of the important features of rugs are derived from exquisite contemporary styling, floral and geometric designs, pastels, neutral and monochromatic colours and smoothness in texture. Woven rugs have one thing in common a warp and a weft (the backing), the warp is the strings that run the length of the rug and the weft is the stings that run across the width of the rug holding the rug together while providing an anchorage for the pile or rug surface. Hand tufting is by far the quickest method of producing a rug by hand and is commonly used for modern and contemporary styles including many popular shaggy rugs. The method doesn’t use a conventional warp and weft, instead a hand held gun that shoots yarn into the primary backing of the rug to create various designs and textures. Once the design is complete the rug will have secondary jute backing attached by adhesive. Finally the rug will then be hand carved to give an added dimension. Hand knotted rugs are the most time taking method of manufacture and therefore the most expensive. They are normally produced from wool, silk and have a cotton warp and weft. The fibres are hand dyed with vegetable dyes and the designs and styles are normally indigenous to the region where they were produced. Hand knotted rugs are made in Middle East and Asia. Many variations on hand knotted rugs are produced in textures such as shaggy pile rugs. Shaggy leather rugs have long and short stands of leather hooked into the cotton warp and weft. Viscose (art silk) shaggy rugs are also often produced as knotted rug to give the rug better tuft anchorage (11). Nearly, all of materials used for rug are in their face-fibre and backing. It is usually the face fibre material that gets most of attention and consideration. This is because the rug fibre forming its face is most exposed, both visually and physically. Hence it is the main determinant of appearance quality and retention. However, quality of backing materials, including the latex layer – if present – directly influences how long and well a rug will serve. The same goes for area rug padding – not an inherent part of a rug, but definitely a highly recommended one. Finally, rug pad of optimum material and thickness is needed to protect area rug from the consequences of its use, as well as from interactions with flooring and the micro-environment it is exposed to. Padding materials include felt, rubberized felt, foam rubber, sponge rubber and urethane, prime or bonded (12). Appropriate rug pad acts as a shock absorber (cushion) and will significantly prolong its life. It also adds softness, and improves thermal and acoustical insulation (13).

182


7.3.1

Rug back staining on vinyl tile

Purpose and scope. This test method determines the degree of colour transferred from the back or face of coloured rugs to vinyl tile. The wet testing in this method is a means of acceleration and has been found to correlate with both dry and wet in service use (14). Principle. A rug specimen is wet out and placed between two pieces of tile and subjected to a weighted load for 24 hours at room temperature. Colour transferred to the tile is assessed by comparison with the AATCC chromatic transference scale. Terminology (a) Colorant staining – the unintended pickup of colorant by a substrate due to (1) exposure to a coloured or contaminated liquid medium, or (2) direct contact with dyed or pigmented material, from which colorant transfers by sublimation or mechanical action (as in crocking). (b) Rug – a textile floor covering of limited area, which is complete in it and is intended for use as a partial covering of a floor or another floor covering. (c) Rug back – (1) that part of a rug normally in contact with the floor; (2) the underside of a rug as opposed to the use surface. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory testing equipment. Apparatus and materials. Two (76 × 76 mm) or (3 × 3 in.) vinyl tiles, solid white and smooth surfaced, a 2.0 lb. weight (0.91 kg), distilled water, AATCC blotter paper, AATCC chromatic transference scale, AATCC standard reference detergent #171 (dilution: 3.0–4.5 g/l). Test specimen. Cut one (51 × 51 mm) (2 × 2 in.) specimen from a representative sample of the rug. Additional test specimens must be cut for rugs with multiple colours or fibres, so that all colours or fibres are represented. Additional test specimens must be cut for rugs with bindings or yarns along the edges.


183

Procedure. Pre-wash the tile using distilled water and diluted AATCC detergent #171. Dry with towelling. Weigh dry specimen on balance scale and record weight. Completely wet out test specimen with distilled water. Squeeze excess water from specimen using the AATCC blotter paper. Weigh damp specimen, such that a pickup of 40–60% is obtained. Use the following formula to determine percent moisture content. Percent moisture change = [(Wet weight – Dry weight) / Dry weight] × 100 If necessary, repeat above steps, until the correct moisture content is obtained. Place the damp rug specimen back side down on the face side of one of the tiles. Cover the test specimen with a second tile face side down. Place a 2.0 lb. weight on top of the sandwiched test assembly. Make sure the weight is distributed evenly. Allow test assembly to remain fixed for a minimum of 20 hours and not to exceed 24 hours at room temperature. Do not permit movement of rug specimen. Remove weight, top tile and rug specimen. Allow tiles to condition face up at room temperature for 30 minutes. Tiles that exhibit no colour transfer may be washed immediately without waiting for 30 minutes. Wash tiles with diluted AATCC detergent 171 and distilled water. Dry with towel. Evaluation. Evaluate the degree of colour transferred from the rug backing or face fibre onto the face of the vinyl tile by means of AATCC 9 step chromatic transference scale. Where fringe or binding tape is a factor, colour transference to the vinyl tile can also be evaluated from the tile that was face down on the top of the assembly. Evaluate the colour transfer at the most severe area on the tile(s). Rate the amount of staining on vinyl tile(s), based on the numerical grades determined by comparison with the numbered rows on the chromatic transference scale. Staining No staining Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal Staining equal

to to to to to to to to

row row row row row row row row

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1

Grading 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1

Report. Report the numerical grade for each specimen evaluated. Report the numerical grade for colour transference of fringe and/or binding tape,

184


if applicable. Report whether colour transference was determined from the face, back, binding or fringe.

7.3.2

Rubber backed carpet skid resistance

Scope. This test method covers the determination of rubber backed carpet skid resistance, measured as coefficient of friction by pulling specimen across a specified surface. The complete assembly of rubber backed carpet skid resistance test is shown in Figure 7.16. Canvas bag weight Modified vise

Rubber backed carpet 12 × 12 inch no wax floor tile

Hand pull gauge

7.16 Complete assembly of rubber backed carpet skid resistance test.

Summary of test method. A hand held pull gauge is used to measure the peak coefficient of friction while slowly pulling a weight loaded, rubber backed, carpet specimen across a tile test surface. Significance and use of resistance to skid. This test method is used to determine skid resistance, which measures the resistance of the rubber backed carpet specimen, to stress applied through slowly pulling, under various weighted conditions, across a specified tile surface. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Wear safety glasses in all laboratory areas. Apparatus. Hand pull gauge, vise grip, modified vise grip [modification – (A) Weld washer (approximately 1.0 inch diameter,) face down, to teeth of vise grip jaws. Finish surfaces until smooth, so that specimens will not be snagged. (B) Weld washer (approximately 5/8 in. diameter,) vertically,


185

to end of adjusting screw on handle], one 12 × 12 in. no-wax textured floor tile, five, 5 lb. canvas bag weights. Test specimen. The test specimen shall consist of one, 4 × 6 in. die cut specimen. Procedure. Place a 4 in. end of the specimen into the opening of the modified vise grip as shown in Figure 7.17. Check to see the two circular jaws are completely over the specimen. Squeeze handles until vise grips are securely locked into place. Place specimen/vise grip on no wax floor tile with rubber backing on tile and pile facing up. Position one, 5 lb. canvas bag weight, over the carpet specimen. The long side of the weight must be perpendicular to the specimen/vise grip assembly. Distribute weight evenly. Using the hook end of the hand pull gauge, attach gauge to handle of vise grip. With complete assembly begin testing. Set gauge dial to zero. Push ‘on’ to engage instrument. Begin slowly pulling complete assembly across no wax floor tile. Gauge dial will indicate peak force, for an example, 5.00 lb. Record peak force on skid resistance work sheet. Complete testing to include weights of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 lb. load. To increase weight load in 5 lb. increments, layer canvass bag weights. Alternate bag direction in stacking, so that the first 5 lb. weight is perpendicular to assembly, the next 5 lb. weight is parallel (total of 10 lb.) Continue alternating direction of bags for each additional 5 lb. weight and test at each addition (15)’

7.17 Specimen with modified vise grip

Calculation. Record peak force on skid resistance work sheet. Divide peak force by lb load. Result will be the coefficient of friction as expressed by the formula below: Peak force/ lb load = Coefficient of friction; 5 / 5 = 1.00 Total the column of individual results. To get the average, total is to be divided by the number of tests completed, i.e. 5. The result will be the average coefficient of friction.

186


Evaluation. Evaluate specimen’s average coefficient of friction against stated requirements. Report. Include worksheet data, calculations and evaluation. Skid resistance work sheet sample Lab report number_____________________ Peak force Load Result __________ ÷ 5 lbs. = ________ __________ ÷ 10 lbs. = ________ __________ ÷ 15 lbs. = ________ __________ ÷ 20 lbs. = ________ __________ ÷ 25 lbs. = ________ Total ______÷ 5

7.4

= ________ Average coefficient of friction

Test method of pot holders and woven mitts

A pot holder is a small fabric pad, which is used to handle hot cooking utensils. The pot holders or the pads made of fabrics for handling hot cooking utensils should be heat and moisture resistant. Cotton potholders are widely in use because these pot holders are highly durable and can withstand multiple washes and ironing at the highest temperatures. The colours also stay sharp and they are capable of rapidly absorbing and yielding moisture while providing plenty of insulation that helps in heat resistance. An oven mitt is an insulated mitten usually worn in the kitchen to protect the wearer’s hand from hot objects like ovens, stoves, cookware, etc. It consists of heat insulation surrounded by cotton fabric, usually consisting of decorative patterns. Newer oven mitts are often made from silicone instead of fabric, which makes them resistant to water and stains (16). The new fabric gloves are made of Kevlar and Nomex. Thick and insulated mittens that are made of linen or cotton fabrics are good at resisting heat. However, one should not go for very thick mittens as they can hamper easy operation. It is always preferred to buy mittens that are made of flameresistant fabrics (17). Mittens are a sort of gloves that covers the hand, encasing the thumb separately and the four fingers together. Mittens are crafted out of fabrics that help them to act as insulators so that they can be used to grasp and move kitchen items, which are too hot to touch with the bare hands. These also help make a decorative statement for kitchens and are functional for a variety of purposes. Mittens are perfect gift for sporting events, Valentine’s Day, anniversaries, newlyweds, engagements and more (18).


7.4.1

187

Measurement of heat transfer of pot holders and oven mitts

Purpose and scope. This test method is applicable to pot holders and oven mitts. It measures the temperature of a sample (on the hand surface) when heat is applied at a prescribed temperature and for a specific amount of time using a hot iron skillet. The test method can be used to predict the protection a potholder or oven mitt provides the user when removing hot items from an oven or stovetop as shown in Figure 7.18. This test method is not applicable to towels and other items not primarily designed to protect a user while handling hot cookware.

7.18 Application of pot holders and oven mitt.

Principle. A test specimen, backed by a heat-resistant fabric blanket, is placed beneath a 425ºF (218ºC) iron skillet for 10 seconds. A thermolabel strip is attached to the underside of the specimen and is used to determine the temperature reached at the end of the 10 seconds period. Terminology (a) Thermolabel – a multi-temperature label formulated to react within a few seconds when the rated temperature is reached. As each section of the label reaches the rated temperature, that section responds with a sharply defined colour change from white to black leaving the printed temperature clearly visible. (b) Hand surface – the side of the heat protective item most likely to be in contact with the user’s hand.

188


(c) Heat surface – the side of the heat protective item most likely to be in contact with the hot object to be handled. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Good laboratory practices should be followed. Protective gloves, mitts or pads should be used to protect hands from the heated skillet. Manufacturer’s safety recommendations should be followed when operating laboratory testing equipment. Apparatus and materials. Oven capable of reaching at least 425°F (218°C), thermolabel 8-Temperature sensitive labels capable of temperature measurement increments of 100°F (38°C), 105°F (41°C), 110°F (43°C), 120°F (49°C), 130°F (54°C), 140°F (60°C), 150°F (66°C), and 160°F (71°C), thermocouple with a digital display, capable of reaching 1000°F (538°C) and displaying temperatures to the nearest 0.1°F, nomex fire blanket, cylindrical, flat bottomed, steel weight having a diameter of 2.75 ± 0.1 in. and weighing 454.0 ± 5.0 g (1.0 ± 0.1 lb.), stopwatch, cast iron skillet with inside diameter of approximately 10 in. and weighing 4.9 ± 0.2 lb. Test specimen. Cut three, 3 × 3 in. test specimens, one each from three samples, cut specimens from the middle portion of samples, cut specimen from the side of the sample that is intended to be between the user’s hand and the hot object, specimens intended to be heat protective from either side are to be tested on both sides, specimens intended to be used as either a left hand or right hand glove are to be tested on both surfaces, cut edge of specimen so that both sides will fold open, allowing access to centre areas of both heat protective sides, using a permanent marking pen label each specimen. Procedure. Affix one thermolabel strip to the specimen side most likely, in normal use, to contact wearer’s hand. This would be on the inside of a mitt or both insides of a right/left mitt. Centre the tip of thermocouple wire on the inside bottom of cast iron skillet. Centre steel weight on top of thermocouple wire tip. Check to ensure contact is made with iron skillet, thermocouple wire and steel weight. Place skillet in an oven at 425 ± 1.0ºF (218ºC). Fold nomex blanket, forming four layers of material. Place folded blanket on a flat, level, unheated surface near oven. Monitor thermocouple temperature until it reaches 425 ± 1ºF (218ºC). Adjust oven temperature if needed, to attain stated temperature at thermocouple. Place test specimen, thermolabel face down and heat surface face up, on blanket. Remove skillet heated to 425 ± 1ºF (218ºC) from oven and place it directly on specimen.


189

Using a stopwatch to determine elapsed time, allow specimen to remain in contact with skillet for 10 seconds. Remove skillet from specimen. Return skillet to oven. Turn specimen over so that the thermolabel faces up. Set tested specimen aside. Allow skillet to reach stated temperature prior to testing any remaining specimens. Repeat previous steps for any remaining specimens (19). Evaluation

Note the number of highest blackened square on each strip. Record findings on worksheet. Record the findings for both sides of double sided pot holders or oven mitts. Record both findings for oven mitts that can be right or left handed. Calculate the average for the 3 tested specimens. For the illustration at the right the temperature was heated up to the150°F mark (represented by the dark sections on the thermolabel). For averaging purposes, calculate the average based on the starting temperature of the range. For this example, use 150ºF. If the colour on the next higher temperature range has started to change colour, then use the higher temperature for that reading. A result must be lower than 130ºF (54ºC) to be considered a ‘passing’ sample.

8-temp Thermolabel 100°F (38°C) 105°F (41°C)

110°F (43°C) 120°F (49°C)

130°F (54°C) 140°F (60°C) 150°F (66°C)

160°F (71°C)

Report. Record the highest blackened square for each strip. Record the side tested for double sided or right/left products. Report the average for the three tested specimens. Report a pass or fail for each potholder or oven mitt.

7.5

Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles

Apart from the evaluation procedures described in previous sub sections, there are other test methods, which are, used in the home textile industry, e.g. comforter loft, oil repellency, soil release, vertical wicking, print/motif durability and phenolic yellowing. Out of these, tests for oil repellency, soil release, and vertical wicking are normally applied for special product performance claims. Print/motif durability and phenolic yellowing test are applied for home textile products related with the UK market.

190


7.5.1

Comforter loft property

A comforter is a type of blanket intended to keep the user warm, especially during sleep, although they can also be used as mattress pads. Comforters are generally large and rectangular in shape, filled with natural or synthetic insulative material and encased in a shell/covering. Like quilts, comforters are generally used with a set of sheets. Comforter sizes correspond with bed sizes: twin, full, queen, king, and cal-king. Comforter sizes run slightly larger than actual bed sizes to allow for draping over the sides of the bed. Typical sizes in the United States for comforters are as follows: ● ● ●

Twin = 64 (width) × 87 (length) in. Queen / Full = 87 (width) × 87 (length) in. King = 101 (width) × 90 (length) in.

Comforters are filled with layers of material such as polyester batting, down feathers, wool, or silk. Comforters also can be made out of fur, usually with a backing of satin or silk. The loft of the filling determines the weight as well as the level of insulation. The comforter is stitched or quilted to secure the filling and keep it evenly distributed. Purpose and scope of test. This test method is designed to measure the loft of a comforter in pre-wash and after-wash conditions. Principle. A comforter is taken from its packaging, shaken, laid flat on a hard surface and allowed to condition for a minimum of 15 minutes. A rigid, lightweight item such as a wooden yardstick or a piece of foam-core board is set on top of the comforter so at least 28 in. is on top of the comforter and at least 1.5 in. overlaps the edge of the comforter. Using a metal ruler, the technician measures the distance from the tabletop to the bottom of the rigid item at the edge of the comforter. This measurement is performed on the comforter’s edge at the mid-point between two corners. The point of measure is clearly marked. This procedure is then repeated on the remaining three sides of the comforter. The four measurements are averaged and reported as pre-wash loft. The comforter is laundered according to labelled care instructions and measuring process is repeated at the same points previously marked. The averaged measurement, taken after washing, is reported as after wash loft (20). Terminology Comforter – a bed covering consisting of 2 outer fabric layers, with a layer of insulation between them. Safety precautions. These safety precautions are for information purposes only. The precautions are ancillary to the testing procedures and are not intended to be all-inclusive. It is the user’s responsibility to use


191

safe and proper techniques in handling materials in this test method. Manufacturers must be consulted for specific details such as material safety data sheets and other manufacturer’s recommendations. All OSHA standards and rules must also be consulted and followed. Follow good bending and lifting practices when handling bulky objects. Apparatus. Metal ruler with markings of 1/32 inch, flat, lightweight rigid object. Suitable items include rigid wooden yardsticks or pieces of foam core board measuring at least 30 in. in length. Test specimen. Pre-wash measurement – remove comforter from packaging. Shake comforter and lay flat in single layer on tabletop. The edge of the comforter being measured must be no closer than 3 in. from the edge of the table. Remaining edges may hang over tabletop if size requires. Allow comforter to condition for a minimum of 15 minutes. Test specimen. Post-wash measurement – remove comforter from dryer. If comforter is to be stored for a period of time after washing and before measuring, loosely fold; do not compress. Repeat steps as above. Loft measurement procedure. Loft measurement is determined by placing the rigid, lightweight object onto the comforter surface so that approximately 28 in. is on the comforter and the remainder protrudes over the edge. Measure, to the nearest 1/32 in., the distance from the bottom of the lightweight rigid object to the top of the table. Mark the spot on the comforter from which the measurement was taken. Record this measurement. The comforter is measured at the mid-point between two corners, using the method described above. This arrangement is shown in Figure 7.19. The measuring process is repeated on remaining sides; resulting in a total of four measurements. These four measurements are recorded and averaged. The average is reported as comforter loft. Wash measurement steps are repeated after the comforter has been laundered. Measurements are to be taken at the same mid-points marked as above. This average is reported as after-wash comforter loft.

7.5.2

Oil repellency hydrocarbon resistance test

Sometimes special product performance claims for home textiles are secured through value addition by applying functional finishes such as oil repellency and soil release finishes. Scope. This is a procedure for the determination of the resistance of a fabric to wetting by oily and aqueous-based liquid. The procedures specified in AATCC 118 – 2007 should be followed. Procedure. A few clarifications of the test method are given here. Although the test method is designed for unwashed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on

192


7.19 Measuring comforter loft at center edge, between two corners.

fabric finishes. Lay the specimen flat on a blotting paper. Use two layers of fabric if the sample is thin. While wearing clean laboratory gloves, brush the sample to lay down the pile, if necessary. For each oil, place five, approximately, 0.05 ml drops along the fill (width) direction of the sample. They should be about 1.5 in. apart. Make sure that the dropper does not touch the fabric. Observe the drops for 30 ± 2 seconds from a 45 degree angle. The drops of oil solution are rated. The sample passes when three or more drops are clear and well-rounded. The sample fails when three or more drops show complete wetting (21). Grading. A - Pass – Clear well-rounded drop B - Borderline pass – Round drop with partial darkening C - Fail – Wicking apparent and/or complete wetting D - Fail – Complete wetting The grade should be measured on two separate specimens. If the two grades agree, report the value. If they do not agree then a third sample should be tested. If the third sample is the same as either of the other two, report that grade. If the third grade differs from the others, report the median of all three samples.

7.5.3

Soil release oil stain release method

Scope. This method is for the determination of a fabric’s ability to release oily stains during home laundering. The procedure specified in AATCC 130-2000 should be followed. Procedure. A few clarifications of the test method are given here. Although the test method is designed for un-washed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on


193

fabric finishes. Place the original and five-time wash specimens on separate AATCC white textile blotting papers. Be sure that the work area used is a smooth and horizontal surface. Using the medicine dropper, place 5 drops (approx 0.2 ml) of Mazola corn oil in the approximate centre of each specimen. Place a 3 × 3 in. square of glassine paper over the stained area. Place a 2.5 in. diameter, 0.5 ± 0.1 lb stainless steel weigh on the glassine paper directly over the stained area. Allow the weight sit undisturbed for 60 ± 5 seconds. Remove the weight and discard the glassine paper. Do not allow stained test specimens to contact each other in a manner allowing transfer of stains. Wash within 20 ± 5 minutes after staining. Wash and dry the specimens in one laundry cycle. Remove specimens from the dryer immediately and lay flat to prevent formation of wrinkles or creases, which can affect the rating. To evaluate staining, mount the stain release replica on the mounting board in the lighting and evaluation area of the conditioning room. Place the specimen flat and face side up in the centre of the non-glare black topped table with one edge of the table touching the mounting board. Rotate the fabric to be viewed from the direction producing the lowest rating. At least two raters should independently compare the residual stain on the test specimen with the stains on the stain release replica and rate each test specimen to the nearest 0.5 grade (22).

7.5.4

Vertical wicking

Scope. This test method is for the determination of how much water the cut edge of a fabric will wick up in a specified amount of time. The procedures specified in AATCC technical supplement 017 should be followed. Procedure. A few clarification of the test procedure is given here. Although the test method is designed for unwashed samples, five times washed samples are also tested to determine the effect of washing has on fabric finishes. Wash the specimens five times using the provided care instructions or ones suitable for the fabric type and construction. Follow the procedures as specified in AATCC 135 Dimensional changes of fabric after home laundering. Cut one 1 × 10 in. specimen in the length direction from the sample. Condition the samples for 4 hours following the procedures specified in ASTM 1776 Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing Textiles. Perform testing in a conditioned environment. Mark each specimen 0.5 cm up from the bottom of the length with a permanent marking pen. Line the 0.5 cm mark up with the end of the holder then attach the top of the specimen to the holder with tape. Fasten a safety pin to the specimen just under the line to prevent the specimen from moving during testing. Clamp the holder and specimen on to the stand. Place a petri dish under the holder. Leave the specimen outside of the dish. Prepare

194


a gallon jug of distilled water with 10 drops of food colouring as needed for testing. Fill the petri dish with enough of the tinted distilled water to reach the 0.5 cm mark on the specimen (approximately 100 ml). Lower the specimen into the petri dish. The water should not go above the mark on the specimen. Set a timer for 30 minutes and start it as soon as the specimen goes into the water. After 30 minutes, read and record the wicking distance (how high the water travelled up the specimen). Discard the tinted water used to perform the test. Do not re-use the water (23). Report. Report the wicking the distance in centimetres for the 30-minute period.

7.5.5

Motif/print durability

Scope. This method of test is used to assess the durability to washing of applied motifs and print. It may also be used to assess the durability of washing of products and components. Principle. The print attached to the fabric base is subjected to a 15-minute wash in a twin tub washing machine or Roaches Durawash. Reagents / equipment. Reagents, water, persil biological washing powder. If persil is not available, an alternative automatic biological detergent may be used. This must be stated on the report. Equipments. Twin tub washing machine, polyester make weights, domestic tumble dryer – 4kg load, non-rusting drying trays, pan balance capable of weighing up to 2 kg, chemical balance accurate to +0.0 / g, scissors, calibrated timer. Sample preparation. This test does not require that the samples be preconditioned in a standard atmosphere. Method/procedure. Examine test sample and cut from the test sample, where necessary, any small areas that are representative of all the colours present. These will be used as reference samples for comparison with the washed sample. Fill the machine with water to the full mark (approximately 40 litres). The temperature used must relate to the wash-care label. Products and components labelled. 50°C Wash at 60°C 40°C Wash at 50°C Hand wash Wash at 40°C Weigh test sample and make load up to 1 kg with the addition of polyester makeweights. Weigh 30 g of detergent and add to the water. Run the machine for approximately 1 minute to dissolve the washing powder. Add any makeweights to the machine. Add the test specimen and run the machine at the required temperature for 15 minutes. Remove the test sample(s) and any makeweights. Examine any coated accessories such as


195

buttons and enamelled metal zips, etc. (this is because the coatings will still be in a softened state). Rinse the test sample(s) and makeweights separately, twice in the spinner using cold water. Tumble dry all samples as per care label, unless given alternative instructions. The load should be made up to 1 kg adding makeweights if required. The tumble dryer should be tumbled until dry in accordance with HLCC / BS (Home Laundering Consultative Council / British Standard) guidelines (24). Calculation/assessment. Assess the effect of washing by comparison with the examination made prior to washing. Report. Report the appearance, noting position in the test sample where applicable. Where there is no noticeable change in the appearance of the test sample state ‘No significant change’ on the report. When there are some minor changes in the appearance state ‘borderline/slight change’ and give details. When there are changes in the appearance, which are not considered satisfactory, state ‘Significant change’ and give specific details. Where a sample has been identified as ‘Borderline/Slight change’ or where ‘Significant change’ has occurred, the sample must be submitted to the relevant technical manager for examination. Notes. Motifs must not be ironed. In some instances where appearance is being reported, it may be necessary to iron and press the test sample. Where this occurs this must be clearly identified and reported. Guidelines for the assessment of appearance after print / motif durability The following is not intended to be an exhaustive list, but rather should be used as a guide only. Items to note may include the following: 1. Differential shrinkage between components, i.e. dropped or tight linings, seam pucker, distortion of components. 2. Seam breakdown, i.e. inadequate seams, partial or non-inclusion, faulty thread or stitching, fabric slippage, fraying from seam turnings, stitching damage, etc. 3. Puckering and roping of seams. 4. Detachment of interlinings / fused components that may have delaminated, quantified as: ● No delamination ● Negligible delamination ● Fairly distinct delamination ● Complete delamination. 5. Change in handle or appearance 6. Effect on accessories such as buttons, zips, etc. 7. Wet edge abrasion 8. Excessive creasing

196


9. Spiralling 10. Cross-staining of interlining 11. Optical Brightening Agents (OBAs), which occur on certain substrates as a result of the whitening agents presence in washing powders. A fluorescent suppressor should be placed over the washed specimen to assess any pick up of the whitening agent. 12. Fraying of ribbons / trims 13. Percolation of wadding 14. Detachment of trims 15. Distortion of shape 16. Matting of fabric surface 17. Brushing of fabric surface 18. Pilling of fabric surface 19. Breakdown of fabric surface 20. Loss of elasticity (stretch and recovery) of ribbing 21. Localised wear 22. Colour fastness – shade change, cross-staining between components. Apply standard values as relevant performance test standard. 23. Loss of print – apply print durability standards as required.

7.5.6

Phenolic yellowing

Scope. This method is used for assessing the potential to yellowing of textiles due to contamination from packaging, car exhaust fumes, heating, etc. It is applicable for white or pastel coloured home textiles to transit or storage yellowing. The test is specific to phenolic yellowing, which is the discolouration of textiles caused by the action of oxides of nitrogen on yellowable phenols. Reagents/equipment Reagents – not applicable. Equipment – courtaulds phenolic yellowing kit consisting of test papers, control fabric, glass plates 100 × 40 × 3 mm, B.H.T. free polythene film, perspirometer, oven set 50 ± 3°C, cellotape, and grey scales BS 1006: 1990 AO3 (staining). Sample preparation. Cut test samples approximately 100 × 30 mm in size. Method/procedure. Fold the 100 × 75 mm pre-cut test paper in half along its longest axis. Insert the test sample between the folded test paper. Place this sandwich between two of the glass plates. Repeat earlier steps for the number of samples that are to be tested. Fold a further pre-cut test paper along its longest axis. Insert a control fabric between the folded test


197

paper. Place this sandwich between two of the glass plates. A standard test package should ideally contain 5 test samples and one control sample. Each being separated from its neighbour by a glass plate such that 7 glass plates are used in total. If less than five fabric samples are available from test, the number of glass plates should still be made up to 7. If more than 5 samples are being tested, a second package should be prepared. Wrap the package in at least 3 layers of the B.H.T. free polythene film and seal with cellotape. Place the package on perspirometer. Place the two plates on top. Onto these, place the weight and secure the plates by locking screws. Remove weight. It is important that there are no gaps left in the polythene film, which will give the outside atmosphere access to the samples under test. Place the perspirometer on its side in an oven set at 50 ± 3°C for 16 hours, preferably overnight. Remove from the oven after this period of time and allow the whole assembly to cool. Unwrap the test package (25). Calculation/assessment. Grade the colour change (intensity of yellow) against the original for each individual test sample using the grey scale. Note. This test is valid only if the control fabric has turned yellow. Grading must be completed as soon as the samples have cooled as the colour may fade under certain conditions.

References 1. Cotton Incorporated (2006), ‘Consumers Seek Quality in Home Textiles’, Supply Chain Insights, 1, 1–2. 2. ASTM D 123, 2003 Standard Terminology Relating to Textiles. 3. YILMAZ N D, POWELL N, and DURUR G (2005), ‘The technology of terry towel production’, JTATM, 4, 4. 4. ANON (1999), ‘HFN shopping textiles – A consumer report’, Home Furnishing News, 73, 9. 5. LEIZENS L (2005), ‘Market getting softer for towel suppliers’, The Weekly Newspaper for Home Furnishing Network, 79, 18. 6. CTL FC 102 (2005) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Terry Construction. 7. CTL DC 107 (2006) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Differential Shrinkage in Towels and Wash Cloths. 8. CTL FW 101 (2005) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Surface Water Absorption. 9. CTL FW 103 (2005) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Surface Water Absorption. Super Absorbency – Towels. 10. CTL WW 104 (2005) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Towel Linting Test Method. 11. R U G Z O N E (2009), Methods of Rug Production. Available from: http:// www.rugzone.co.uk/shop/ [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. 12. RUG and Carpet Buying Guide (2009), Rug and carpet fiber properties. Available from: http://www.rug-carpet-guide.com/carpet_materials.htm [Accessed on 19 November 2009].

198


13. Rug and Carpet Buying Guide (2009), Rug and carpet pads. Available from: http://www.rug-carpet-guide.com/carpet_pads.htm [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. 14. CTL CF 108 (2006), Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Rug Back Staining on Vinyl Tile. 15. CTL ST 116 (2005), Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Rubber Backed Carpet Skid Resistance. 16. Department of Energy (DOE) OSH Technical Reference, Chapter 5 - Personal Protective Equipment, Appendix C. - Glove Selection Material. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oven_glove [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. 17. ANON (2009), Tips for buying kitchen furnishings (2009). Available from: http:/ /www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/buying-kitchen-furnishings.html [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. 18. ANON (2009), Mittens, Textile Furnishings Marketplace. Available from: http:/ /www.textilefurnishings.com/mittens.html [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. 19. CTL HR 100 (2007) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Measurement of Heat Transfer of Potholders and Woven Mitts. 20. CTL DC 103 (2005) Softlines, Consumer Testing Laboratories Test Method for Pre-Wash and After-Wash Comforter Loft. 21. AATCC 118: 2007 Oil Repellency: Hydrocarbon Resistance Test. 22. AATCC 130:2000 Soil Release: Oil Stain Release Method. 23. AATCC Technical Supplement 017 Vertical Wicking. 24. Tesco Home Textile Performance Standard (2006), Part 3, Appendix C, Motif/ print Durability Test Method. 25. Tesco Home Textile Performance Standard (2006), Part 3, Appendix D, Phenolic Yellowing of Textiles Test Method.


199

8 Finishes used in home textiles

Abstract: Home textiles products are essential for daily use at home. Awareness of consumer in different form of home textiles has grown over the years. Demand for value-added home textile products are on the rise. Various well-designed home textile items have attracted attention due to their improved functionality. The chapter discusses different types of value-added finishes, which have been produced through extensive research and development effort by chemical and textile companies. Recent developments of nanotechnology-based finishes are also highlighted. Keywords: Drapers, triple fresh, smartcel clima, climarelle, endure technology, purista treatment, flurochemical

8.1

Introduction

High performance and value-added finishes are no longer considered as attributes of home textile products but have become a must for daily use. Consumers today have become more discerning in terms of added value. They demand home textile items that smell nice, stay fresh, feel comfortable, keep clean and easy to care for, and keep on looking great. The demand for such textiles has increased due to lifestyle shifts, increased awareness, and research and demand creation by chemical and textile companies. Functionality has become a new force of competition in the home textile market as a wide range of value-added properties that could be achieved through spinning and finishing processes. Performance apparel technologies such as moisture management technology, popularly used in the active wear segment, are increasingly integrated into the production of bed sheets and other home textile products. Home textiles, made from various finished and functionally improved materials, such as anti-microbial fabrics, antimite textiles, stain protective treatments, flame retardant materials, and fragrance encapsulating technologies, have gained a thumb-up from end consumers (1).

199

200


8.2

Thermal draperies

Thermal draperies keep a home cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter by regulating heat, and saving energy costs of users. These tightly woven uncoated fabrics provide a reasonable level of light and heat insulation due to the fabric structure without blocking completely the natural light from the outside. Coated fabrics usually have an opaque rubber backing applied to the rear of an uncoated fabric for improved light absorption. Liquefied rubber polymer is typically applied in a single coat and subsequently fused dry by means of a heated roller. Such fabrics are also referred as dim-out as they absorb approximately 50–70% of direct light ray falling on them. Direct light can be entirely blocked from an interior setting with block-out fabrics. With repeated coating up to three coats, these fabrics offer improved light absorption. Maximum light absorption and heat insulation in a curtain is achieved through the combination of an uncoated fabric at the front for hand feel and appearance, and a coated fabric at the rear for insulative qualities. Serving as functional window coverings, this coated fabric is also known as a lining, as it often does not attach a particular colour or pattern (2).

8.3

Protection against unpleasant odour

Cigarette odours at home or in a hotel, as well as kitchen smells are no longer a problem with the next generation fabrics, which are finished with special properties in order to get rid of unpleasant odours (2). Formaldehyde-based odour can be found across living and working environments in wooden furniture, glues, insulation materials, laminate flooring and carpets. Formaldehyde is considered to be harmful at 0.05 ppm, and can cause headaches, sickness, eye irritations, and even provoke respiratory diseases. The main culprit in case of kitchen fumes, pet smells and cigarette smoke is ammonia. Special finishes use a catalytic process to transform pollutants including nicotine, formaldehyde and other odours into harmless, natural substances. Equipped with the ‘triple fresh’ catalyst, Drapilux’s intelligent fabrics break down pollutants and significantly reduce nasty odours in a way similar to a catalytic converter in a car. Another company, American Textile Company has recently introduced Aller-Ease, a protective bedding line of mattress and pillow protectors with DuPont Hybrid Membrane Technology (HMT) (3), offering protection from pollen, dust mites, mold and fungal spores, dog and cat dander. The fabrics maintain comfortable, soft and breathable for use by allergy and asthma sufferers. Mattress and pillow protectors, being certified allergen barriers, should be able to block out allergens at the 10-micron level. Aller-


201

Ease fabric filters 95% of all common household allergens at the onemicron level with a fabric pore size that is approximately 1/50 the width of a human hair. It also gives a good level of hand feel and comfort. Made of a combination of a 100% cotton twill top, a filtration middle layer, and a protective back fabric, this fabric effectively fends off allergen particles, while the top layer gives breathability and comfort of cotton.

8.4

Temperature-regulated beddings

With the advent of new phase change materials in the home textile market it is possible to control body climate through mattresses and beddings (2). Smartfiber’s Smartcel Clima is a functional, biodegradable fibre made from cellulose using a modified Alceru production process developed by the Thuringian Institute for Textile and Plastics Research (TITK) in Rudolstadt, Germany. Paraffin is embedded in the crystalline and tear-resistant functional fibre of Smartcel Clima through spinning. The fibre absorbs excess body heat (up to 60 joules per gram of fibre) and, when required, dispenses the heat to provide temperature regulation in a micro-climatic condition. The temperature of heat absorption (or dissipation) is adjusted through the choice of paraffin. ADVANSA, Europe’s leading manufacturer of polyester fibre and filament recently launched Climarelle, a thermo-regulated bedding concept. Climarelle is a high-tech brand bringing thermoregulation to the complete range of bedding products such as duvets, pillows and mattress ticking. The phase change material microcapsules integrated within the Climarelle become fluid with a cooling effect when temperature is higher than ideal. When body temperature falls again, the microcapsules change phase from liquid to solid, releasing heat energy to the body and helping it to keep it warm despite lower temperatures. Thus, thermo-regulating microcapsules store warmth actively and release it only when necessary, providing a balanced sleeping temperature all night long (4).

8.5

Endure textile finish

This is a unique textile finish developed by Cotton Incorporated to prolong the life and look of cotton products for the home (5). Traditional wrinklefree or easy-care sheeting and bedding products have a finish that significantly weakens fabric strength and makes it susceptible to colour loss and tearing. Endure technology counteracts this normal occurrence and actually make home textile fabrics stronger and resistant to abrasion. This special finish application helps cotton fabric resist the normal wear and tear from abrasion. Through everyday use and home laundering, cotton fibres can become abraded and rise to the surface of fabric, making it

202


seem faded. By increasing resistance to abrasion, this finish helps products maintain their original colour longer. Treated fabrics offer an improved level of wrinkle resistance, translating to smoother-looking sheets straight out of the dryer and also registers wrinkle resistance that is superior to traditional easy-care or wrinkle-free products currently on the market. Endure technology controls shrinkage and allows sheets and bedding to maintain their original shape and size over time. Sheets will continue to fit a bed even after multiple home laundering cycles. It is reported that all the above mentioned benefits can be achieved by the application of Endure™ textile finish without affecting the familiar softness and comfort of cotton against the skin.

8.6

Antimicrobial finish

Micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi, dust mites, etc., can cause unpleasant odours, stains and allergies. Some of the commonly faced challenges in home textiles due to microbial are explained here. Sheets and pillowcases – In spite of frequently washed, there is every possibility to develop musty perspiration odours between washes; especially in hot and humid environment. Mattress pads, pillows, duvets and mattresses – Microbial odours are associated with these products as a result of the degradation of perspiration, dead skin, and organic matter. They are often potential residence for bacteria, fungi, and dust mites. Since being washed less frequently, they house thriving colonies of fungi and dust mites. Carpets – They are not cleaned often and can hold large amounts of dirt, food products and skin cells and become ideal breeding ground for bacteria, fungi and dust mites. Kitchen towels, dishwashing cloths, sponges and wipes – These products gain bacterial odour from the moist environment of kitchen. Towels – Being used in moist environments, are ideal for bacterial growth. Quaternary ammonium compounds and their water-soluble halides, e.g., Benzalkonium chloride are used extensively for cotton and viscose materials. Ultra-Fresh products (6) developed by Resil, India, in collaboration with Thomson Research Associates, Canada, as antimicrobials are designed to combat the problems due to microbial on a variety of home textiles. Purista ‘Fresh Finish’ is an exciting new treatment designed to keep fabrics cleaner and fresher for longer treatments to protect clothing and other textiles from odour-causing bacteria, providing a long lasting ‘fresh finish’ (7). Specialty chemical maker Arch Chemicals Inc., one of the most comprehensive manufacturers of anti-microbials in the world, is


203

capitalizing on its success in the United Kingdom and Southeast Asia by launching into the US apparel and home textiles market. Purista treatment is based on polyhexamethylenebiguanide hydrochloride (PHMB). Drawing on rigorous product safety and chemistry data, the US EPA recently accepted a registration amendment to include the use of Purista treatments on home textiles. Since first launching its freshness-enhancing finish in the UK, Purista is now used by worldrenowned retailers on home textile items such as towels and bed linen. There is an effort to build the brand in the UK and across Europe, working with retailers such as GEORGE, a clothing brand of Wal-Mart, the UK fashion retailer NEXT, Moss Bros and Tesco. In many cases, these textile products feature a Purista label that consumers have come to associate with cleanliness, purity and freshness. The Purista treatment is very costefficient and offers consumers and home textile suppliers real and useful performance advantages.

8.7

Moisture management finish

The moisture management benefits of Cotton Incorporated’s WICKING WINDOWS technology take advantage of cotton’s inherent comfort, breathability and ability to wick moisture away from the skin. Sheets treated with repel technology wick moisture away from the body to the other side of the sheet. There it spreads for rapid evaporation to enhance a good night’s sleep (8). ARRISTAN HPC (9), a polyester copolymerisate, is applied for the hydrophilic finishing of home textiles made of synthetic fibres such as polyester and polyamide. It helps to transport moisture away from the body. This can be applied in the exhaust procedure as well as padding procedure. In the exhaust procedure, a typical recommended recipe and process details are as follows: 2–5% ARRISTAN HPC, liquor ratio: 1:10, pH: 5–6 with acetic acid, treatment time: 20–30 min, temperature: 60–70°C, and drying: 120–130°C.

8.8

Flame-retardant finish

Lack of fire safety is a significant cause of property damage and loss of human lives. With pressing demand in recent times from retailers and consumers, fire resistance, especially in home textiles, is witnessing vigorous development of new technologies, products and materials. In terms of flammability, amongst natural fibres, silk has least resistance to flames, which is further, worsened by the dyes and other additives. Cotton and linen too have high burning rate. Wool is comparatively flame retardant. If ignited, it usually has a low burning rate and may self-extinguish. Most

204


synthetic fibres, such as polyester, nylon or acrylic resist ignition. However, once ignited, the fabrics melt. When natural and synthetic fibres are blended, the hazard may increase because the combination of high rate of burning and fibre melting usually results in serious fires. In some cases, the hazard may be greater than that of either fibre individually. Curtains, draperies and other home textile articles made out of natural, synthetics and their blends can have their burning rates reduced through flameretardant chemicals additives, giving people more time to escape. Sometimes synthetic fibres are designed and manufactured to possess flame-retardant properties (10). Resil Chemicals Private Limited, India, has collaborated with CTF, Belgium, a company that specialises in the development and production of flame retardants, to provide a range of finishes for the home textile industry. Among such flame retardants, Addiflam RSP 31, Addiflam RWP 50, Addiflam PES W 80, Addiflam uni LF 6, Addiflam BOF 4, Addiflam sl BAZ 4, and Addiflam FR PUM 1 holds promise (11). On the safety aspects, Clariant’s ‘Flame retardant finish’ (12) such as Pekoflam PES.CN liquid (durable flame retardant finishing for polyester fibres), Pekoflam DPN.CN liquid (organic phosphorus based durable flame retardant finishing of textiles made from natural and regenerated cellulosic fibres), Pekoflam HSD liquid (semi permanent flame retardant finish for cotton and cotton rich textiles), Pekoflam ABW liquid (dryclean stable flame retardant finish for cellulosic and synthetic fibres), Pekoflam OP liquid (organic phosphorus compound for a fogging free flame retardant finish intended for classical and technical textile applications) also protects upholstery and bed sheets against possible fire hazards.

8.9

Mite free mattresses

It is well known that bed coverings, pillows and blankets can be washed with high temperatures in the washing machine. But, in case of mattresses, the only way to control dust mite populations and their allergenic excretions is to use tight closing resulting in moderately breathable mattress covers or the use of chemical substances. To overcome the problem, a novel mattress for allergy sufferers has been developed by a team of the Institute for Hygiene and Biotechnology at the Hohenstein Institute in Boennigheim in conjunction with mattress manufacturers Diamona and Meta Tex. The key feature of this product is the creation of hygrothermal living conditions within the mattress, which ensure that mites do not even take up residence. These small arachnids, which depend on moisture from the ambient air for survival, are very sensitive to dry and warm environments. It has been found that heating the mattress to 50°C for one hour once or twice a week is sufficient to prevent the setting of mites. In the developed


205

product, extremely thin and elastic textile heating pads are integrated into the mattress layers at defined distances. This ensures that the desired temperature can be maintained over the entire mattress cross-section (13). DuPont Textiles & Interiors (DTI) introduced a new Teflon fabric protector with dust mite control for use in bedding and upholstery.

8.10

Water and oil repellent and soil release finishes

Water and oil repellence has been a much desired property in home textiles, which are in constant contact with greasy and moist surfaces. Research has proven that fluorocarbons have shown the unique property to provide home textile fabrics a low surface energy films with both high oil and water repellency properties to resist penetration of oil- and water-based stains (polar and non-polar liquids). Resil (14) offers this unique modified fluorocarbon polymer to impart these very properties to fabrics and make them durable, comfortable and easy to maintain. ‘Resiguard’ is such type of product effective at low cure temperature, and is solvent free and nonflammable. It is completely eco-friendly, and does not release the toxic chemical such as furan. Home textiles treated with this chemical are durable to washing and drycleaning. Some of the commercial ‘repellent products’ prevent the home textile substrate from wetting and soiling by repelling the soil substances and the adhesion of dry soil. Fluorochemical hybrid finishes, also called ‘dual effect’, which contain hydrophilic groups, have also been developed and improved successfully over the years to impart both stain repellency and stain release properties. However, silicone treatments protect home textiles against water-based soils and watery liquids only. Soil release finish keeps dirt from binding to the home textile substrate and allows it to more easily removed through vacuuming, laundering or other cleaning methods. Soil release finishes tend to come in either fluorochemical or silicone type varieties. For textile used in decorative and carpet, Clariant’s spills and stain repellent finishes and soil release features effectively keep the textile products clean and in good shape for longer, minimizing the need for costly cleaning or even replacement (15). With Ciba specialty chemicals, DuPont Textiles & Interiors (DTI) has elevated ease care benefit of Teflon. With this new treatment, the stain repellency provides investor barriers, causing liquids to bead up and rolls off the fabric while release technology prevents the fibre from holding stains and soils so they can be easily washed off. This treatment has no impact on touch, handle and breathablility. And more important it is ecofriendly.

206


8.11

Towel finishing

With super softening, ultra hydrophilic, antibacterial, scented or antiallergenic finishing, the towel industry with new technologies has generated a wider appeal among consumers (16). The chemicals for finishing can be added at the last stage of production, as in the conventional technique, or can be bonded to the fibre before spinning, as in the novel technique which renders the function to last longer and not to wash away until an extended number of wash cycles (17).

8.12

Moisture cross-linking (MXL) of bed linen

A new technology allows bed sheets to come out of the dryer looking crisply pressed, but feeling super soft. It is called MXL – Moist Cross Linking (18) and it is the highest level of easy-care one can buy. Cotton/ viscose/linen and its blend with polyester is finished by application of low curing synthetic modified DMDHEU-based resin. The process steps are as follows: Step 1 : Resin application / MXL cross linking with resin and catalyst Step 2 : Dwelling at 110°C for 3 min, 30–35 vol% steam, 5–7% residual moisture Step 3 : Washing off / Neutralisation Step 4 : Top finish and final treatment such as calendaring, sanforising, etc. By such a process one can produce bed sheets that resist wrinkles for up to 50 washings, and sheets will dry faster, feel soft and look newer for longer duration.

8.13

Nanotechnology-based home textile enhancements

Nano-Tex is headquartered in Emeryville, California, with operations across the United States, Asia and Europe. Nano-Tex is the first company to bring nanotechnology to the textile industry. Nano-Tex utilises nanotechnology to: (1) design molecules with specific performance attributes; (2) engineer the molecules to assemble on the surface of textile fibres with extreme precision, and (3) ensure that they permanently attach to the fibres through patented binding technology. This patented binding technology, exclusive to Nano-Tex treatments, allows Nano-Tex to offer the most sophisticated nanotechnology-based enhancements to the apparel and commercial interiors markets, had moved into the home textiles market beginning with wrinkle-free performance sheets made with Nano-Tex’s


207

Coolest Comfort fabric to JCPenney stores nationwide (19). The 100% cotton, 350-thread count sateen sheet sets is the product under the JCPenney Studio brand. Nano-Tex’s enhanced textiles are ideally suited for the home because they give consumers the opportunity to decorate their homes the way they want, without compromising beauty, comfort or design. JCPenney’s wrinkle-free performance sheets made with Nano-Tex Coolest Comfort fabric provide breakthrough moisture wicking properties that draw moisture away from the skin to help balance body temperature. Transparent to the eye and indistinguishable to the touch, Nano-Tex’s enhanced fabrics, such as JCPenney’s sheet sets made with Nano-Tex’s Coolest Comfort fabric, offer consumers-added performance features to enhance comfort without sacrificing beauty. Additional Nano-Tex treatments include ‘Resists Spills’, a spill and stain resistant fabric enhancement; ‘Resists Static’, a permanent anti-static fabric enhancement; and ‘Repels & Releases’, a stain resistant and stain release fabric enhancement.

8.14

Sensory perception technology

Home textiles could repel insects, release fragrances and perform other wonderful functions. Sensory perception technology adds distinct properties to fabrics, to enhance their performance. This leading edge technology captures fragrance, essences and other effects in microcapsules that are affixed on fabrics. These microcapsules are miniature containers with a protective polymer coating or melamine shell that guards the contents from evaporation, oxidation and contamination while stored. When the fabrics are used, some of these capsules break open, releasing the contents. So, home textiles can compete with room fresheners and insect repellents when sensory perception technology is applied (20).

References 1. SGS Hong Kong – SCOOP (2007), Softlines, ‘The emerging trend for home textile market’, Hong Kong, 1–2. 2. GUPTA SANJAY (2008), ‘New trends in home textile markets’, Journal for Asia on Textile and Apparel, June issue. Available from: http://www.adsaleata.com/ Publicity/ePub/lang-eng/asid-72/article-2772/Article.aspx. 3. FARINA ANTHONY (2008), ‘Dupont Increases Market-Facing Innovations for Global Marketplace’, News Releases, Available from: http://vocuspr.vocus.com/ VocusPR30/Newsroom/Query.aspx?SiteName=DupontNew&Entity=PRAsset &SF_PRAsset_PRAssetID_EQ=109170&XSL=PressRelease&Cache=False [Accessed on 1 December 2009]. 4. ANON (2009), ‘Thermo Regulated Bedding Concept’, Home Fashion India, 8, 10. 5. Cotton Incorporated (2009), EndureTM. Available from: http://www.cottoninc. com/endure [Accessed on 15 November 2009].

208


6. Resil Chemicals Private Limited (2008), Antimicrobials: fighting harmful germs, The Resil promise: changing the performance of home textiles, Resilutions, 2. 7. Arch Chemical Incorporated (2005), Purista’s ‘Freshness Enhancing Finish’ Meets Success In US Markets, Available from: http://www.chemicalonline.com/ article.mvc/Puristas-Freshness-Enhancing-Finish-Meets-Suc0001?VNETCOOKIE=NO [Accessed on 1 December 2009]. 8. Cotton Incorporated (2006), Performance cotton fashioned for home. Available from: http://www.cottoninc.com/lsmarticles/?articleID=469 [Accessed on 1 December 2009]. 9. CHT (India) Private Limited (2010), Preliminary Leaflet, ARRISTAN HPC, 1–2. 10. ANON (2009), ‘Flame Retardant Fabrics, What does the future hold?’ Home Fashion India, 3, 74–75. 11. Resil Chemicals Private Limited (2008), Flame retardants: a touch of fire-safety, The Resil promise: changing the performance of home textiles, Resilutions, 3. 12. Clariant in India (2009), Textile, Leather and Paper Chemicals, Technical Textiles. Available from: http://www.clariantindia.com /__c12570a 80037d3db.nsf/vwWebPagesByID/8FD3B0E067F7A1C7C1256FDD00194D07 [Accessed on 2 December 2009]. 13. ANON (2009), ‘Mite-free mattress for allergy sufferers’, Home Fashion India, 3, 80–81. 14. Resil Chemicals Private Limited (2008), Water and oil repellent: keeping stains at bay, The Resil promise: changing the performance of home textiles, Resilutions, 4. 15. Media Release Clariant (China) Ltd (2008), Clariant to bring protection, comfort and care to visitors at Intertextile Shanghai Home Textiles. 16. CORRAL C B (2005), ‘Product innovations drove strong bath market’, Home Textiles Today, 26, 10. 17. ANON (2004), ‘Antimicrobial fibre for hygienic toweling’, Technical Textile International, 13, 5. 18. ANON (2005), ‘Monforts Introduces New MXL Process’, Asian Textile Business. Available from: http://www.allbusiness.com/asia/979236-1.html [Accessed on 2 December 2009]. 19. EMERYVILLE, CALIF (2006), Nano-Tex Expands into Home Textiles. Available from: http://www.nano-tex.com/news&media/jcpenney.pdf [Accessed on 2 December 2009]. 20. Resil Chemicals Private Limited (2008), Sensory Perception TechnologyTM: for perceptive textiles, The Resil promise: changing the performance of home textiles, Resilutions, 4.


209

9 Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles

Abstract: The awareness of a consumer on environmentally benign products is on the rise. That is why eco-caring fibres, environmentally responsive chemicals and eco-friendly processes have been highly welcomed by all the stakeholders associated with the home textile segment. The chapter begins with the discussion of different trademarks and eco-friendly labels and standards associated with home textile products. The chapter then deals with the permitted levels associated with different substances used in processes involved in home textiles. Restricted substances, which are to be evaluated for different substrates used in home textiles, are also been mentioned. The importance of eco-labelling of home textile products has finally been discussed. Keywords: Eco-friendly, environment, carcinogenic, GOTS, REACH, GUT, CLEAN FASHION

9.1

Introduction

With the growing awareness of consumers, the concept of eco-friendliness has become a trend in home textile industry, which is considered as the most environmentally harmful industry at present. The textile segment has started showing the growth in the area of eco-friendly home textiles, as the population of the consumers is increasing each year. Very prominent home textile brands like Wal-Mart, Bed Bath & Beyond, Target, Ralph Lauren, Nike, Patagonia, Tesco, Marks and Spencer and others have also entered into green segment of home textiles. The future of home textile industry now greatly depends upon the environmentfriendly fibres, eco-friendly dyes and chemicals as nowadays consumers along with design also look for the home textiles which satisfy green consumerism. The term eco-friendly or environment friendly or nature friendly in the home textile industry refers to the no use of pesticides, chemicals and fertilisers while growing the fibre plants and also no use of harmful chemicals while processing the fibres into fabrics for home textile products. Maintenance, storage and recycling techniques are also important in this segment. Normally in the growing process many

209

210


fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides are used. Like for producing cotton, about 25% of the whole insecticides are utilised, which is a daunting number in itself. Apart from this, machine picking of cotton needs growth regulators, harvest aid chemicals and herbicides. Cotton also pollutes the air while spinning. In spinning small cotton fibres float in the air, which are harmful if inhaled. To strengthen the cotton, the process of sizing is done in which many harmful chemicals like pentachlorophenol are used with starch. This specific chemical has harmful effects on human skin. Again in dyeing with azo dyes, which liberate carcinogenic amines, many hazardous effects have been noticed. While making eco-friendly fabrics for home textiles, these harmful chemicals are not used, and also to grow environment-friendly cotton no harsh chemical at any stage is used. This makes environment-friendly cotton fabric, which is then extensively used for making home textile related items. To further enhance the concept of eco-friendly textiles, these home textiles products of bed and bedding furnishings, bathroom furnishings, etc, are kept unbleached and un-dyed. Eco-friendly fabrics are harmless and normally available at reasonable cost while comparing to their synthetic counterparts. In the most commonly used fibres in eco-friendly home textiles are cotton, bamboo, hemp, silk, wool, jute, and coir fibres. To make eco-friendly home textiles of cotton, the cotton seeds are untreated with no use of GMO/BT. Soil and water are conserve by using manure instead of fertilisers and doing crop rotation. Furthermore weeds are also removed by hand instead of harmful herbicides. Weeds are also controlled by using machines, which again are harmless. Pest control in eco-friendly fabrics is done with the help of natural predators and for harvesting natural defoliation instead of toxic chemicals is done. By following these processes, eco-friendly cotton is produced that is safe to the environment and human. Organic textile industry has enormous scope as the consumer is now becoming health and environment conscious. India is the largest producer of organic cotton, and such home textiles are natural and environment friendly. Similarly, Europe is the largest grower of quality hemp, and home textiles based on this fibre is well accepted as eco-friendly in nature. So with all these it can be said that eco friendly is on trend in home textile industry (1) to create pollution free environment. Organic textiles such as organic cotton are being used in a wide variety of products such as shower curtains, table cloths and table runners, bedding, and more. Eco-friendly and organic products can even come from surprising sources. Some companies are beginning to process recycled bottles into polyester yarn. This organic yarn is then used to make table linens and other products. Something as simple as using silk made without killing the silkworms (called ‘Eri’ or ‘Ahimsa’) is enough to make buyers choose these silk products over others (2).


211

To dye the non-organic and organic home textiles, many heavy and noxious chemicals are used. But now there are many eco-friendly dyes that have replaced these harmful chemicals. Eco-friendly dyes include dyes made from vegetables and low impact dyes with no toxics. Going with the idea of eco friendly is on trend in home textiles, the German legislation had announced an ordinance that states ‘No articles of dresses (textiles, shoes, leather) and bed linen can be put in trade, if they have been coloured with azo dyes that can release one of the twenty named amines’. In the later stage, another two additional amines were also included. The demand for environment-friendly chemicals has altered the whole scenario of textile industry. Home textile manufacturers and suppliers demand for these ecofriendly chemicals to make the organic home textiles. The demand for environment-friendly chemicals has increased to 2.8% and expected to reach at $19 billion by 2012. India and China are the biggest consumers of these textile chemicals for application in home textiles of different varieties.

9.2

Trade marks and labels used in environmentfriendly home textiles

With the increase in eco-friendly fabrics, there has been seen rise in the various trademarks for these environmentally friendly home textiles. Consumers are getting aware of such labels and check these before buying their products like bed spreads, bed sheets, organic kitchen towels and other bathroom furnishings or other home textile products. The increase in the number of labels shows the growth in the consciousness towards green home textile concept. EU eco-labels These eco-labels are valid in 15 countries. The EU eco-label award scheme is the eco label of the EU (European Union, i.e. Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovakia). The flower logo is also accepted and present in those countries, which are signatories to the EEA (European Economic Area, i.e. Iceland, Lichtenstein, and Norway) agreement. The label sets criteria for each product on the basis of a ‘cradle-to-grave’ assessment of the environmental impact of the product group. This means that the complete life cycle of a product is analysed, starting with the extraction of the raw materials, progressing through the production, distribution and use phases and ending with disposal after use. The label

212


is awarded only to those products with the lowest environmental impact in a product range. Specific criteria for household and furnishing textiles are given in decision 2002/371/EC under the interior textiles category, which establishes ecological criteria of the EU, eco-label for textile products. The criteria consider the life cycle of textile products, to select and set criteria for the major environmental impact of textile production. The ecolabel criteria aim to promote reduction of water pollution related to the key processes throughout the textile manufacturing chain, including fibre production, spinning, weaving, knitting, bleaching, dyeing and finishing. The criteria are set at levels that promote the labelling of textile products, which have a lower environmental impact (3). (I) Textile fibres criteria Fibre specific criteria are set for acrylic, cotton and other natural cellulosic seed fibres, elastane, flax and other bast fibres, greasy wool and other keratin fibres, man-made cellulose fibres, polyamide, polyester and polypropylene. Fibres for which no specific criteria are set other than mineral fibres, glass fibres, metal fibres, carbon fibres and other inorganic fibres are also allowed. The criteria in general establish limits or ban the use of certain chemicals in the production process of textile materials. However, the criteria do not need to be met if the fibre contributes to less than 5% of the total weight of the textile fibres in the product. Nevertheless at least 85% by weight of all fibres in the product must be either in compliance with the corresponding fibre specific criteria or of recycled origin. Textile fibres criteria refer to: (1) Acrylic – residual acrylonitrile content in raw fibres and emissions to air of acrylonitrile. (2) Cotton and other natural cellulosic seed fibres – residual content of certain pesticides. This requirement does not have to be met if the 50% of the cotton content is organically grown cotton or transitional cotton. (3) Elastane – oganotin compounds and emissions to air of aromatic diisocyanates during polymerisation and spinning. (4) Flax and other bast fibres (including hemp, jute and ramie) – these fibres shall not be obtained by water retting unless the water from the water retting is treated accordingly. (5) Greasy wool and other keratin fibres (including wool from sheep, camel, alpaca, goat) – certain limitations on pesticides. (6) Man-made cellulose fibres (including viscose, lyocell, acetate, cupro, triacetate) – the level of AOX (absorbable organo-halogens) in the fibre.


213

(7) Polyamide – the emissions to air of N2O during monomer production. (8) Polyester – the amount of antimony in the polyester fibres and the emissions of VOCs during polymerisation of polyester. (9) Polypropylene – lead-based pigments. (II) Processes and chemicals criteria ●

● ● ● ●

●

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Limitation of the use of substances harmful for the aquatic environment and health. Processing additives, detergents shall be biodegradable. No chloro-phenols, cerium compounds, halogenated carriers. Limits on heavy metals and formaldehyde. Certain auxiliary chemicals, detergents, fabric softeners and complexing agents should not be used. Limit on the AOX emissions in bleaching effluent, dyes, pigments and finishes. No use of chrome mordant dyes. Limits on heavy metal impurities. No use of azo dyes that cleave to toxic agents. Limits on potentially sensitising dyes. No use of carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic agents. Limit on VOCs in printing pastes. Limit on formaldehyde in the final fabric. Limit on COD content in waste water from wet-processing sites. No use of flame retardants. Shrink resistant finishes – halogenated shrink resistant substances shall not be applied to wool fibres.

Buyer requirements Eco-label criteria can be used in order to review the environmental and occupational health and safety of the chemicals. In the EU eco-label criteria, the R- and S-sentences are listed that indicate what substances are hazardous and should be avoided, if possible. R- and S-sentences provide information on the risks of chemicals and safety measures. Such information is provided on Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). (III) Fitness for use criteria Fitness for use criteria can apply to the dyed yarn, the final fibre or the final product. Although quality of products is not really an environmental aspect, it is always included in EU eco-labels. The reason is that as long as the quality is sufficient, the life span of a product will be longer. This

214


is, of course, also desirable from an environmental point of view. The criteria evaluate the following product qualities: ●

●

Dimensional changes during washing and drying (this does not apply to fibres, yarns and products labelled ‘drycleaning only’ as well as for furniture fabrics that are not removable and washable.) Colour fastness to perspiration (acid, alkaline), washing, wet and dry rubbing and light. Colour fastness to light is explicitly applicable to the household and furnishing textile group: fabrics intended for furniture, curtains or drapes.

(IV) Information appearing on the eco-label The eco-label shall contain the following text: ● ● ●

Reduced water pollution Hazardous substances restricted Whole production chain covered

MUT – Any green home textile that is made from environmentally sound protection methods (VVUT) will have MUT trademark. While manufacturing of these environment-friendly textiles acceptance to certain pre-specified rules is required. GUT – GUT stands for Gemeinschaft Umweltfreundlicher Teppichboden and an eco-friendly trademark for the carpet companies in Europe. Gemeinschaft Umweltfreundlicher Teppichboden is an association for environment-friendly carpets with an objective of maximising textile floorcoverings and their protection cycle. GuW – It is a seal of eco-friendly. Furnishing Fabric Association gives their seal under Gu. CLEAN FASHION – Clean Fashion, which is an eco-friendly label, was developed by private companies that are related to home textiles. GREEN COTTON – The Danish textile manufacturer Novotex was founded on the ideological belief that it must be possible to make more sustainable textiles. Recognising that the environmental impact of textiles lies in the supply chain, from chemical fertilisers and insecticides to various chemical treatments used in refining, spinning, dying and weaving, Novotex has been instrumental in mapping this impact and in aiding its suppliers to employ more sustainable methods. The company has worked out a ‘logbook’ for textiles to chart the chemicals used in the production process. The logbook is now used by a number of Danish textile manufacturers. Novotex is recognised internationally in both textile and environmental management circles as an innovator and a leader in sustainable textiles. Novotex developed the concept of ‘Green Cotton’, with strict requirements for all phases of production. It is a label based on


215

an internal evaluation system that considers social, ecological and toxicological values. The concept can be licensed to other companies who produce organic and so-called ‘sustainably’ produced products. Unfortunately Novotex for a while did not invest as much time and energy in producing designer collections or marketing its products as it used in working out the supplier management principles, so ‘Green Cotton’ products were often difficult to find except at specialty shops. To remedy this, Novotex and other players in the Danish textile market worked with the Danish Ministry of the Environment to produce a wide spectrum of sustainable textiles which were marketed broadly in the spring of 2002 (4). ECO MARK – To increase consumer awareness, the Government of India launched the eco-labelling scheme known as ‘Ecomark’ in 1991 for easy identification of environment-friendly products. Any product, which is made, used or disposed of in a way that significantly reduces the harm it would otherwise cause the environment, could be considered as environment-friendly product. The ‘Ecomark’ label is awarded to consumer goods, which meet the specified environmental criteria and the quality requirements of Indian Standards. Any product with the Ecomark will be the right environmental choice (5). A product is examined under this scheme in terms of the following main environmental impacts: ●

●

●

●

that they have substantially less potential for pollution than other comparable products in production, usage and disposal; that they are recycled, recyclable, made from recycled products or bio-degradable, where comparable products are not; that they make significant contribution to saving non-renewable resources including non-renewable energy sources and natural resources compared with comparable products; that the product must contribute to a reduction of the adverse primary criteria which has the highest environmental impact associated with the use of the product, and which will be specifically set for each of the product categories (6).

MST (Markenzeichen Schadstoffgeprufter Textile) – This is a product label, which is to be used for products that are made in Germany and referring only properties of textiles.

9.3

Different eco-friendly standards in home textiles

OEKO-TEX Standard 100: This standard has different product classes such as class I, II, III and IV. Out of such classes, product class III and IV have significance in home textile sector and is shown in Table 9.1. The product Class III includes textiles that are not in direct contact with skin, and

216


product Class IV is for decoration material. Decoration materials in the context of this standard are all articles including initial products and accessories which are used for decoration such as table clothes, wall coverings, furnishing fabrics and curtains, upholstery fabrics, and floor coverings. Oeko Tex association, Zurich, based on a joint resolution adopted by its 14 member institutes, has revised and expanded the applicable test criteria, limits and by laws of the product certification process as per Oeko Tex standard 100 effective from 1 January 2010. The Oeko Tex test criteria and limits will go into effect on 1 April 2010 following a 3-month transition period (7). Table 9.1 Oeko Tex standard 100 for product class III and IV Parameter

Product class III

pH value Formaldehyde (Law 112) (mg/kg)

4.09.0 300

Product class IV 4.0 .0 300

Extractable heavy metals (mg/kg) Antimony Arsenic Lead Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper Nickel Mercury

30 1.0 1.0 0.1 2.0 4.0 50 4.0 0.02

1.0 1.0 0.1 2.0 4.0 50 4.0 0.02

Heavy metals in digested sample (mg/kg) Lead Cadmium Pesticides (mg/kg) Total (incl. PCP / TeCP) Chlorinated phenols(mg/kg) Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Tetrachlorophenol (TeCP, total)

90 100

90 100

1.0

1.0

0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5

0.1

0.1

1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

Phthalates (%) DEHP, BBP, DBP, DIBP (total) Organic tin Compounds (mg/kg) TBT TPhT DBT DOT Other chemical residues Orthophenylphenol (OPP) (mg/kg) PFOS (ìg/m2) PFOA (mg/kg) Chlorinated benzenes and toluenes (total) (mg/kg)

100 1.0 0.25 1.0

100 1.0 1.0 1.0

(Contd.)

Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles Parameter

Product class III

217

Product class IV

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (mg/kg) Benzo[a]pyren Total

1.0 10.0

1.0 10.0

Emission of volatiles (mg/m3) Formaldehyde [50-00-0] Toluol [108-88-3] Styrol [100-42-5] Vinylcyclohexen [100-40-3] 4-Phenylcyclohexen [4994-16-5] Butadien [106-99-0] Vinylchlorid [75-01-4] Aromatic hydrocarbons Organic volatiles Determination of odours SNV 195 651 (modified)

0.1 0.1 0.005 0.002 0.03 0.002 0.002 0.3 0.5 3.0

0.1 0.1 0.005 0.002 0.03 0.002 0.002 0.3 0.5 3.0

Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) – In this standard the production, processing, manufacturing, packaging, labelling, exportation, importation and distribution of natural fibres are considered. Once all the parameters are met the product is given the GOTS standard. The aim of these standards is to define requirements to ensure organic status of textiles, from harvesting of the raw materials, through environmentally and socially responsible manufacturing up to labelling in order to provide a credible assurance to the end consumer (8). Prohibited substances and restricted inputs in all production stages are shown in Table 9.2. Any final product labelled according to these standards should comply with the chemical quality parameters as indicated in Table 9.3. Information on any (potential) non-compliance(s) must be indicated by the licensee of the final product in the product declaration. Table 9.2 Prohibited substances and restricted inputs in all production stages

Substance group

Criteria

Permanent AOX in primary effluent

Restricted AOX may not constitute more than 1% per weight of any input

Aromatic solvents

Prohibited

(Chloro-) Phenols (as TCP, PCP)

Prohibited

Complexing agents and active detergents

Prohibited are:

Formaldehyde and other short-chain aldehydes

APEO; EDTA, DTPA and similar persistent complexing agents; LAS, α-MES

Prohibited (Contd.)

218


Substance group

Criteria

Genetically modified organisms (GMO's) and their derivates (including enzymes derived from genetically modified microorganisms)

Prohibited

Fungicides and Biocides

Prohibited

Halogenated solvents

Prohibited

Heavy metals

Prohibited, inputs must be heavy metal free as defined by ETAD Prohibited are metal complex dyes General exception for Iron Specific exception for copper: up to 5% in blue, green and turquoise dyestuffs The exception for the use of copper will be reviewed in two years from date of adoption.

Fluorocarbons

Prohibited

Quaternary ammonium compounds

Prohibited, except for auxiliaries used for fixing purposes in the dyeing process, provided they meet all other GOTS criteria. This exception will be reviewed in two years from date of adoption.

Other explicit prohibited substances

Any substances, that are prohibited with a recognised internationally or a nationally valid legal character.

Table 9.3 Requirement of chemical quality parameters in GOTS

Parameter

Test method

Criteria

Chlorophenols (PCP, TeCP)

VDI 4301-3,

< 0.01 mg/kg

o-Phenylphenole

Extraction, DFG/S19, GC/MS

< 1.0 mg/kg

Amines (amine-releasing azo dyes (MAK Group III 1,2,3)

EN 14362-1

< 30 mg/kg

AOX

Extraction with boiling water, adsorption on charcoal, AOXAnalyzer, ISO 9562

< 0.5 mg/kg

Disperse dyes (classified as allergenic or carcinogenic)

DIN 54231

< 30 mg/kg

Formaldehyde

Japanese Law 112,

< 16 mg/kg

ISO 14184-1 Glyoxal and other short-chain aldehydes

Extraction, HMBT, Photometry UV/VIS

< 20 mg/kg (Contd.)

Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles Parameter

Test method

pH for wools

ISO 1413

4.5 9.0

pH for other textiles

ISO 1413

4.5 8.0

Total pesticides

§ 64 LFGB L 00.0034

Criteria

Cellulose fibres, silk

< 0.1 mg/kg

Shorn wool, conventional

< 1.0 mg/kg

Shorn wool, cert. org

< 0.5 mg/kg

Heavy metals

219

Elution DIN 54020 DIN 38406-H22/ICP-MS

Antimony (Sb)

< 0.2 mg/kg

Arsenic (As)

< 0.2 mg/kg

Lead (Pb)

< 1.0 mg/kg (outerwear) < 0.2 mg/kg (others)

Cadmium (Cd)

< 0.1 mg/kg

Chromium (Cr)


Chromium VI (Cr-VI)

< 0.5 mg/kg

Cobalt (Co)


Copper (Cu)

< 50 mg/kg (outerwear) < 25 mg/kg (others)

Nickel (Ni)


Mercury (Hg)

< 0.02 mg/kg

Selenium (Se)

< 0.2 mg/kg

Organotin compounds (individually)

Extraction, E-DIN 38407-13 quantification with GC/MS

TBT, DBT < 0.05 mg/kg MBT < 0.1 mg/kg

REACH – This is a new European Community Regulation on chemicals and their safe use (EC 1907/2006). It deals with the registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of Chemical substances. The new law entered into force on 1 June 2007 (9). The aim of REACH is to improve the protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. At the same time, innovative capability and competitiveness of the EU

220


chemicals industry should be enhanced. The benefits of the REACH system are expected to come gradually, as more and more substances are phased into REACH. The REACH regulation gives greater responsibility to industry to manage the risks from chemicals and to provide safety information on the substances. Manufacturers and importers are required to gather information on the properties of their chemical substances, which will allow their safe handling, and to register the information in a central database run by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) in Helsinki. The Agency acts as the central point in the REACH system: it will manage the databases necessary to operate the system, co-ordinate the in-depth evaluation of suspicious chemicals and run a public database in which consumers and professionals can find hazard information. ECHA manages the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction processes for chemical substances to ensure consistency across the countries in which REACH applies. The Regulation also calls for the progressive substitution of the most dangerous chemicals when suitable alternatives have been identified. One of the main reasons for developing and adopting the REACH Regulation was that a large number of substances have been manufactured and placed on the market in Europe for many years, sometimes in very high amounts, and yet there is insufficient information on the hazards that they pose to human health and the environment. There is a need to fill these information gaps to ensure that industry is able to assess hazards and risks of the substances, and to identify and implement the risk management measures to protect humans and the environment (10). European Chemicals Agency had included 15 chemical substances in the candidate list of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) in October 2008 (11) and is shown in Table 9.4. After inviting interested parties to consult on a further 15 SVHCs in September 2009, the member states of the EU and ECHA agreed to add another 15 substances to the ECHA candidate list. With this decision, the ECHA candidate list is now expanded to contain 30 substances in total. Those substances are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic in nature; some even belongs to potential carcinogen and mutagen category. Companies manufacturing or importing these substances need to check their potential obligations that result from the listing. With immediate effect, consumers are now able to request information relating to the use of any SVHC within finished products above 0.1%. All EU-based retailers/brand owners have a legal obligation to respond to any consumer requests within 45 days. To ensure that retailer is able to comply with the 45-day rule, one must have full visibility of any SVHCs used within finished products.


221

Table 9.4 Substances of very high concern (Year 2008)

Substance name

CAS number

Possible uses

Anthracene

120-12-7

Found in creosote and is a source of dyestuff

4,4'- Diaminodiphenylmethane

101-77-9

Used to produce polyurethane, as a curing agent in epoxy resin and may be found in some azo dyes

Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)

84-74-2

Plasticiser for PVC, also used in adhesives, printing inks, cosmetics, paints and film/paper coatings

Cobalt dichloride

7546-79-9

Moisture indicator in silica gel

Diarsenic pentaoxide

1303-28-2

Used in some wood preservatives, agrochemicals, dyes and glass

Diarsenic trioxide

1327-53-3

Weed killer and wood preservative

Sodium dichromate, dihydrate

7789-12-0

Used as a mordant for acid dyes, leather tanning, preparation of ceramic glazes, and as corrosion inhibitors in paint

5-tert-butyl-2,4,6-trinitro-mxylene (musk xylene)

81-15-2

Fragrance used in household and beauty products

Bis (2-ethyl(hexyl)phthalate) (DEHP)

117-81-7

Plasticiser for PVC and printing films

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD)

25637-99-4 3194-55-6

Used as a flame retardant for expanded polystyrene (EPS) and high impact polystyrene (HIPS), and also in textiles (particularly upholstery)

Alkanes, C10-13, chloro (Short Chain Chlorinated Paraffins)

85535-84-8

Used as a flame retardant and plasticiser in some rubbers, plastics (particularly PVC), textiles and adhesives/sealants

Bis(tributyltin)oxide

56-35-9

Used as an algaecide in marine paints

Lead hydrogen arsenate

7784-40-9

Used in pesticides and insecticides

Triethyl arsenate

15606-95-8

Used as an intermediate in semiconductor manufacturing

Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)

85-68-7

Plasticiser for PVC and printing films

The list as shown in Table 9.5 contains the 14 substances (12), which have been added to ECHA’s candidate list, including examples of where these substances might be found in finished products. Acrylamide (EC No 201-173-7 and CAS No 79-06-1) was also identified as a substance of very high concern by ECHA’s Member State Committee. However, pursuant to an order of the President of the General Court of the European Union, the inclusion of acrylamide in the candidate list of substances for

222


eventual inclusion in Annex XIV of REACH is suspended until the President of the General Court has made its order terminating the proceedings for interim relief in Case T-1/10 R. The list of possible uses is not exhaustive, and additional uses for each substance may exist. In line with the Table 9.4 and 9.5, completion of a spreadsheet by providing confirmation that products are free of all SVHCs, or by entering the details of any SVHCs used in finished products, is essential. From 2011 EU and EEA producers or importers of articles have to notify ECHA if their article contains a substance on the candidate list. This obligation applies if the substance is present in those articles in quantities totalling over one tonne per producer or importer per year and if the substance is present in those articles above a concentration of 0.1% (w/ w). However, A notification is not required when (i) the producer or importer of an article can exclude exposure of humans and the environment during the use and disposal of the article. In such cases, the producer or importer shall however supply appropriate instructions to the recipient of the article, and (ii) the substance has already been registered for that use. Table 9.5 Substances of very high concern (Year 2010)

S. Substance name no.

EC number CAS number

Potential uses

1. Anthracene oil

292-602-7

90640-80-5

2. Anthracene oil, anthracene paste, distn. lights

295-278-5

91995-17-4

3. Anthracene oil, anthracene paste,

295-275-9

91995-15-2

These Anthracene oils consist of PAH. They are mainly used as interme-diates to produce pure Anthracene that is used to produce dyes. The substances are also used in the manufacture of other substances such as

4. Anthracene oil, anthracene-low

292-604-8

90640-82-7

5. Anthracene oil, anthracene paste

292-603-2

90640-81-6

6. Pitch, coal tar, high temperature

266-028-2

65996-93-2

anthracene fraction

carbon black. They may also be used as reducing agents in blast furnaces, as components in bunker fuel, for impregnating, sealing and corrosion protection. Pitch, coal tar, high temp. is mainly used in the production of electrodes for industrial applications. Smaller volumes are dedicated to specific uses such as heavy duty corrosion protection, special purpose paving, manufacture of other substances and the Production of clay targets. (Contd.)

Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles S. Substance name no. 7. Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres are fibres covered by index number 650-017-00-8 in Annex VI, part 3, table 3.2 of Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008, and fulfil the two following conditions:

223


Potential uses

Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres are a special category of synthetic vitreous fibres, commonly known as man-made vitreous fibres. May be used in electrical and domestic appliances, like glass ceramic hobs, electric ovens and grills, microwaves, gas-fired apparatus. Also in fire protection windows and doors, motor construction.

(a) Al2O3 and SiO2 are present within the following concentration ranges: Al2O3: 43.5 47 % w/w, and SiO2: 49.5 53.5 % w/w,

or Al2O3: 45.5 50.5 % w/w, and SiO2: 48.5 54 % w/w,

(b) Fibres have a length weighted geometric mean diameter less two standard geometric errors of 6 or less micrometers (ìm). 8. Zirconia Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres Zirconia Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres are fibres covered by index number 650-017-00-8 in Annex VI, part 3, table 3.2 of Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008, and fulfil the two follo-wing conditions:

Zirconia Aluminosilicate Refractory Ceramic Fibres are a special category of synthetic vitreous fibres, commonly known as man-made vitreous fibres. May be used in electrical and domestic appliances, like glass ceramic hobs, electric ovens and grills, microwaves, gas-fired apparatus. Also in fire protection windows and doors, motor construction.

(Contd.)

224


S. Substance name no.


Potential uses

9. 2,4-Dinitrotoluene

204-450-0

121-14-2

2,4-dinitrotoluene is used in the production of toluene diisocyanate, which is used for the manufacture of flexible polyurethane foams. The substance is also used as gelatinizing/plasticizing agent for the manufacture of explosives. They may also be used as intermediate for azo dyes.

10. Diisobutyl phthalate

201-553-2

84-69-5

Diisobutyl phthalate is used as plasticiser for nitrocellulose, cellulose ether, polyacrylate and polyacetate dispersions, and as a gelling aid in combination with other plasticisers, which are widely used for plastics, lacquers, adhesives, explosive material and nail polish.

11. Lead chromate

231-846-0

7758-97-6

Lead chromate is used for manufacturing pigments and dyes, and as a pigment or coating agent in industrial and maritime paint products or varnishes. Further potential uses may be associated with the formulation of detergents and bleaches, photosensitive materials, the manufacture of pyrotechnic powder or the embalming / restoring of art products.

(a) Al2O3, SiO2 and ZrO2 are present within the following concentration ranges: Al2O3: 35 36 % w/w, and SiO2: 47.5 50 % w/w, and ZrO2: 15 17 % w/w, (b) Fibres have a length weighted geometric mean diameter less two standard geometric errors of 6 or less micrometers (ìm).

(Contd.)

Eco-friendly aspect in home textiles S. Substance name no.


225

Potential uses

12. Lead chromate moly- 235-759-9 bdate sulphate red (C.I. Pigment Red 104)

235-759-9 12656-85-8

Lead chromate molybdate sulphate red (C.I. Pigment Red 104) is used as a colouring, painting and coating agent in sectors such as the rubber, plastic and paints, coatings and varnishes industries. Applications comprise the production of agricultural equipment, vehicles and aircraft as well as road and airstrip painting.

13. Lead sulfochromate yellow (C.I. Pigment Yellow 34)

215-693-7

1344-37-2

Lead sulfochromate yellow (C.I. Pigment Yellow 34) is used as a colouring, painting and coating agent in sectors such as the rubber, plastic and paints, coatings and varnishes industries. Applications comprise the production of agricultural equipment, vehicles and aircraft as well as road and airstrip painting. The substance is further used for camouflage or ammunition marking in the defence area.

14. Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate

204-118-5

115-96-8

Tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate is mainly used as an additive plasticiser and viscosity regulator with flame-retarding properties for acrylic resins, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride and other polymers. Other fields of application are adhesives, coatings, flame resistant paints and varnishes. The main industrial branches to use TCEP are the furniture, the textile and the building industry.

9.4

Importance of eco-labelling

Eco label generally represents a holistic verdict, giving an overall evaluation of a product’s environmental quality. Environmental labels operate as informative and voluntary market instruments and in some cases regulatory in nature for the country of export. Eco-labelling can achieve several goals:

226 ● ●

●

●


improving sales or image of a labelled product; stimulating consumer awareness about environmental impact of products; directing manufactures for the environmental impact of their products; and ultimately improving the quality of the environment and encouraging the sustainable management of resources.

However, the overall goal of eco-labelling is to encourage the demand for and supply of those products that cause less stress on the environment, thereby stimulating the potential for market driven continuous environmental improvement (13). In order to interface home textile products to human ecology, a growing concern for the consumer, a means of measuring a wide set of parameters related to harmful substances that could be found in home textiles, was required. It is true that regulatory actions by pollution control agencies alone can not restore the environment to its pure and ideal state. Different stakeholders associated with home textiles have to take the lead in prompting clean and eco-friendly technologies and environmentally safe disposal of used products through preventive and proactive approaches.

References 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

(2008), Eco Friendly is on Trend in Home Textiles. Available from: http:/ /www.textilefurnishings.com/articles/eco-friendly-trend-home-textiles.html [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. ANON (2008), The Certifiable Eco-Trend That Deserves Some Cuddling. Available from: http://www.fgmarket.com/Home-Textiles [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. CBI Market Information Database (2007), EU environmental label: Eco-label for (Home) Textiles. Available from: www.cbi.eu [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. ANON (2008), Sustainable Industry. Available from: http://www.byelverton.net/ sustainable_business/sustainable.xml [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (1991), Eco-mark Scheme. Available from: http:// www.cpcb.nic.in/oldwebsite/Eco-mark%20Scheme/default_Eco-mark.html [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (1991), Criteria or Eco-mark. Available from: http:// www. c p c b . n i c . i n / o l d w e b s i t e / E c o - m a r k % 2 0 S c h e m e / CRITERIA%20OF%20ECOMARK.html [Accessed on 18 November 2009]. Oeko-Tex Standard 100 (2010), General and special conditions, International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile Ecology, OEKOTEX, Zurich, Edition 01, 20–22. International Working Group on Global Organic Textile Standard (2008), Global ANON


9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

227

Organic Textile Standard, Version 2.0. Available from: http://www.globalstandard.org [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. ANON (2009), REACH, What is REACH? Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. ANON (2009), REACH, The new EU Chemicals legislation. Available from: http:/ /ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/pdf/reach_me_flyer_en.pdf [Accessed on 19 November 2009]. Press release (2008), HELSINKI , ECHA/PR/08/38-REV, Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern brings new duties for companies, ECHA. Available from: http://echa.europa.eu [Accessed on 20 December 2009]. Press release (2010), HELSINKI , ECHA/PR/10/01, REACH Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern for Authorisation Grows, ECHA. Available from: http://echa.europa.eu [Accessed on 20 January 2010]. P GANESAN , S HARIHARAN , G KRISHNA PRASAD and C DINESH (2008), Eco labelling. Available from: www.fibre2fashion.com [Accessed on 19 November 2009].

Index

AATCC chromatic transference scale, 182, 183 Abrasion resistance, 2 Absorbency requirements, 177 Absorption, 173, 178 Accessories, 34 ADVANSA, 201 Agrotech, 1 Alceru, 201 Aller-Ease, 200 Antimicrobial finish, 202 Antimicrobial function, 2 Anti-mite property, 2 AOX, 212, 213 Application of bamboo fibre, 26 of conventional fibres in home textiles, 23 of cork fibre, 27 of hemp fibre, 26 of milk fibre, 25 of new and sustainable fibres in home textiles, 23 of sea weed fibres, 25 of soybean fibres in home textiles, 25 of wood fibres, 25 Areas of application of home textiles, 27 ARRISTAN HPC, 203 AS 2755.2-1985, 159 ASTM D 3136, 119-132 Avoirdupois weight, 118 B.H.T. free polythene film, 196, 197 Bath mats, 32 Bath rugs, 34 Bathrobe, 33 Bathroom textiles, 32

228

Bed comforters, 30 Bed skirts, 29 Bed textiles, 29 Bed throws, 31, Bedding law tag, 121, 125, 128, 130, 134 Bedspreads, 29 Benzalkonium chloride, 202 Blankets, 29 Blinds, 28 BRIC, 3 BS 5852 Ignitability of upholstered seating, 157 BT, 210 Buildtech, 1 CA TB 604 bed clothing flammability test, 156 California flammability tag, 123, 124, 125 CAN/CGSB 4.2 No. 27.3-94, 159 CAN/CGSB 4.2, No. 27.5-94, 151 CAN/CGSB-4.2 #14 to #14.8, 133 CAN/CGSB-4.2 #86.1, 133 Canadian regulation of HPA, 148 Carcinogenic amines, 210 Care instructions of blankets, 107 of cushions and chair pads, 103 of floor rugs, 106 of throws, 106 of various types of curtains, 103 of various types of bed linen and comforter/coverlets, 114 of various types of magnetic ranges, 112 of various types of mattress protectors, 111 of various types of mattress underlays, 111

Index of various types of pillow protectors, 110 of various types of pillows, 110 of various types of quilts, 108 of various types of tablecloths,tea towels and kitchen accessories, 113 of various types of towels, shower curtains and bath mats, 115 Carpets, 34 CATB 117 Section A Part 1 Resilient cellular material, 138 CATB 117 Section A Part 2 Shredded resilient cellular material, 139 CATB 117 Section A Part 3 Bean bags, 140 CATB 117 Section B Part 1 non-man-made filling materials, 140 CATB 117 Section B Part 2 shredded and loose fill materials/feathers and down, 141 CATB 117 Section C Man-made filling material, 141 CATB 117 Section D Part 1 Cigarette resistance, 142 CATB 117 Section D Part 2 Smouldering screening test, 143 CATB 117 Section E Part 1 Upholstery fabrics, 144 CFR Title 16, Part 303, 120-132 CFR Title 19, Part 134, 120-132 CLEAN FASHION, 214 Cleanability, 2 Climarelle, 201 Clothtech, 1 Coasters, 37 COD, 213 Coefficient of friction, 184, 185 Comforter loft property, 190 Comforter, 190 Concept of hometextiles, 1 Consumer’s expectation from home textiles, 2 Coolmax fabric, 3 Courtaulds phenolic yellowing kit, 196 Covering, 30 Curtain fabrics and drapes, 28 Die cut, 164

229

Different eco-friendly standards in home textiles, 215 Differential shrinkage, 169 Dissection, 166 Dobby band, 164 Drapilux’s intelligent fabrics, 200 DuPont Textiles & Interiors, 205 Duvet, 30 ECHA, 220 ECO MARK, 215 EN1021-1/2:1994, 156 Endure™ textile finish, 201 EU eco-labels, 211 EU labelling requirements 119 Exclusive of decoration, 103 Exclusive of ornamentation, 103 Federal trade commission, 116 FF 2-70, 148 Filling, 30 Fitness for use criteria, 213 Flame resistance, 2 Flame-retardant finish, 203 Flammability of blankets, 149 Flammability of textiles, 137 Flammability regulations for different home textiles, 137 Flammability requirements of towels, 151 Flammability standards for curtains, 159 Flammability testing, 136 Fresh Finish, 202 General labelling requirements for home textiles in the USA, 102 Geotech, 1 Glassine paper, 193 GMO, 210 GOTS, 217, 218 GREEN COTTON, 214 GUT, 214 GuW, 214 Hard home textiles, 2 Home Laundering Consultative Council, 195 Home textile market scenario, 3

230


Home textile testing plan, 43 Home textiles in Bangladesh, 13 Home textiles in China, 11 Home textiles in EU, 16 Home textiles in Hong Kong, 14 Home textiles in India, 9 Home textiles in Japan, 17 Home textiles in Pakistan, 13 Home textiles in the United States, 14 Home textiles in Turkey, 19 Home textiles in United Kingdom, 15 Hometech, 1 Hybrid Membrane Technology, 200 Hygrothermal living conditions, 204 IABFLO, 121, 125, 128, 130 Ignition source 0, 157 Ignition source 1, 158 Ignition source 5, 158 Importance of eco-labelling, 225 Indutech, 1 Information appearing on the eco-label, 214 ISO 6941: 1984, 159 Kitchen furnishings, 36 Kitchen towels, 37 Kitchen-wear aprons, 37 Labelling of different home textile products for Canada, 133 home textile products for the US, 119 Labelling of home textiles, 4 Labelling requirements for home textiles in EU, 118 Legislative labelling requirements, 119 Lightfastness, 2 Lint, 179 Loft measurement procedure, 191 Loft, 190, 191 Market labelling requirements, 119 Mats, 36 Matting of fabric surface, 196 Mattress covers, 29 Mattress pad test procedure, 154 Mattress test procedure, 153

Mazola corn oil, 193 Measurement of heat transfer of pot holders and oven mitts, 187 Mechanics of writing law labels for home textile products, 117 Meditech, 1 Microcapsules, 207 Miscellaneous test methods of home textiles, 189 Mislabelling, 103 Mite free mattresses, 204 Mittens, 37 Moisture cross-linking (MXL) of bed linen, 206 Moisture management finish, 203 Motif/print durability, 194 MST, 215 MUT, 214 Nanotechnology based home textile enhancements, 206 Nano-Tex, 206 Napkin rings, 38 Napkins, 38 Need for eco-friendly home textiles, 6 NIST handbook 130, 119-132 Odour control, 2 Oekotech, 1 OEKO-TEX Standard 100, 215, 216 Oil repellency – hydrocarbon resistance test, 191 Open end spun, 164 Organic cotton, 210 Organic yarn, 210 Ornamentation, 103 Other fibre, 102 Packtech, 1 Paper monitor, 151 Pentachlorophenol, 210 Percolation of wadding, 196 Performance requirements of UK market, 83 Performance requirements of Canada market, 77 of the US market, 42 Phenolic yellowing, 196 Pile height, 164, 165

Index Placemats, 37 Polyhexamethylenebiguanide Hydrochloride, 203 Processes and chemicals criteria, 213 Protech, 1 Purista treatment, 203 Quality related issues in home textiles, 5 Quaternary ammonium compounds, 202 Quilted textiles, 29 REACH, 219, 220 Reflective textiles, 28 Resiguard, 205 Ring spun, 164 Roaches Durawash, 194 Rubber backed carpet skid resistance, 184 Rug back staining on vinyl tile, 182 Rug back, 182 Rug, 182 Rugs, 35 Sectional disclosure, 103 Semi sheers, 28 Sensory perception technology, 207 Sheets and pillow cases, 29 Shell, 30 Shower curtains, 32 Smartcel Clima, 201 Soft home textiles, 2 Soil release – oil stain release method, 192 Some important regulatory tests for carpets and rugs, 144 Special performance requirements in home textiles, 97 Spiralling, 196 Sporttech, 1 Stain resistance, 2 Sun filters, 28 Super absorbency in towel, 178 Surface water absorption in towel, 172 Survey by McKinsey, 8 SVHC, 220 Table cloths, 38 Table covers, 38 Table mats, 39 Table runners, 39 Table skirting, 39

231

Table textiles, 38 Tablemats, 37 Tapestries, 31 Technical textiles, 1 Teflon fabric protector, 205 Temperature-regulated beddings, 201 Terry toweling, 32 Test Method for differential shrinkage in towels and wash cloths, 169 Test Method for terry construction, 163 of pot holders and woven mitts, 186 Test methods for home textiles, 4 Test methods for rug, 180 Test methods for towels, 163 Textile fibre products identification act, 102 Textile fibres criteria, 212 Textile for seating, 27 Thermal draperies, 200 Thermolabel, 187, 188, 189 Thermolite, 3 Towel finishing, 205 Towel linting, 179 Trade marks and labels used in environment friendly home textiles, 211 Triple fresh catalyst, 200 Twin tub washing machine, 194 Ultra-Fresh products, 202 Use of different fibres in home textiles, 3 Use of golden natural fibres (coir and jute), 24 Use of home textiles in hospitality sector, 2 Use of silk, Use of solar protection fibre, 23 Use of water lily fibre, 24 Vertical wicking, 193 VOC, 213 Voluntary labelling requirements, 119 Wall covering textiles, 31 Wall decorators, 31 Wall hangings embroidery, 32 Wall hangings hand tufted, 32

232


Washfastness, 2 Water and oil repellent and soil release Finishes, 205 Water flow tester, 173 WICKING WINDOWS technology, 203 Window textiles, 28 WTO 2005, 3

16 CFR 1630 – Large rugs, 149 16 CFR 1631– Small rugs, 144 16 CFR 1632 mattress and mattress pad test, 152 16 CFR 1633 mattress flammability test, 155

Performance of Home Textiles

Performance of Home Textiles (Woodhead Publishing India)

Chemical Testing of Textiles

Chemical Finishing of Textiles

Chemical Testing of Textiles

Chemical Finishing of Textiles

Surface Modification of Textiles

Physical Testing of Textiles

Physical Testing of Textiles

Chemical Testing of Textiles

Handbook of technical textiles

Digital Printing of Textiles

Environmental Impact of Textiles

Handbook of Technical Textiles

Chemical Finishing of Textiles

Environmental Impact of Textiles

Chemical Finishing of Textiles

Functional Textiles for Improved Performance, Protection and Health (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Military Textiles

High performance fibres (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Digital Printing of Textiles (Woodhead Publishing in Textiles)

Biomechanical Engineering of Textiles and Clothing (Woodhead Publishing in Textiles)

Physical Testing of Textiles (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Military Textiles

Digital Printing of Textiles (Woodhead Publishing in Textiles)

Recycling in Textiles (Woodhead Publishing in Textiles)

Handbook of Medical Textiles (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Chemical Finishing of Textiles (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Handbook of Technical Textiles (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Surface Modification of Textiles (Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles)

Intelligent Textiles and Clothing

Performance of Home Textiles