Parallel Lives Charting the History of Popular Prints of the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies

PARALLELLIVES Charting the History of Popular Prints of the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies

Kamalika Mukherjee

PARALLEL LIVES Charting the History of Popular Prints of the Bengal and Bornbay Presidencies

Kamalika Mukherjee

January 201 1

by Kamalika Mukherjee

Publication January, 2011

Published by Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta R-I, Baishnabghata-PatuliTownship Kolkata-700 094. 0 Kamalika Mukherjee

Design & Print Bit Blits DigitalWorkstation 1/4, Gandhi Colony, Kolkata - 700 040

For copies contact The Registrar Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta R-I, Baishnabghata-PatuliTownship Kolkata-700 094, India Phone: 91 33 2462 7252,2462 5794 / 5 Fax: 91 33 2462 6183 Website: www.cssscal.org

I

,

bxploration of popular visual culture

became the main depots of print production.

g to the Indian colonial period draws

These cross-regional markets of popular prints

trSon to a body of cheap standardtzed

introduced an array of standardized, marketable,

oduced pictures that formed an

pan-Indian iconographiesthatbecame hallmarks

t part of the visual regime. By the late

of the mass visual culture of the time. It is

Eh century, with the advent of new

important to highlight the regional variations of

techniques such as lithography,

such genre of popular pictures in order to have a

ithography and

holistic approach to the understanding of such an exciting visual field.

,ductions from

1 Some of the perceptive

ing presses

s the country, n t centres in

writings in this field have

I

I

~ m b a yin the

Christopher Pinney and Kajri Jain who have succeeded in

of India, which i the

come from scholars such as

unearthing the different

northern

histories and trajectories of

"*and then to

&e eastern

t h e corpus o f popular

h u l a r art

pictures and different

y, Pune and Calcutta were now

presses. In his book, Photos of the Gods: The

new kinds of mass-produced

Printed Image and Political Struggle in India,

-with its glossy colour and

Pinneyattempts to write not a'history'ofart buta

6 t o map the story of print-

history 'made' by art.This book, he says, isnrather

k

ih colonial India has to take

a study of how pictures were an integral element

llel history of mechanical

of history in the making"'. Here the authortries to

res from the 1870s. with

makethecaseforvisualcultureasoneofthe main

& own unique trend of

realms for the thinking out the contours of

j distinct styles, theme

politics and religion in modern India. Pinney

ldevelopment of new

elaborates on the visuals which began to emerge

I

-1lowed for a national

from the 1870s and existed both as a continuum

Figure1:Portrait of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Lithograph,c.1880, Calcutta Art Studio, Sanjeet Chowdhury

and images across

and disjunction from earlier image practices in

Coiiection,Visualarchive of Centre for Studies in Social

bBombay and Pune

India.

Sciences, Calcutta.

Regional histories: the Calcutta Apt

lithographic presses such as the Calcutta Art

Studio and the Poona Chitrashala

Studio on Bowbazaar Street in 1878 and the

Steam Press

Poona Chitrashala Steam Press in the same year.

The story of the proliferating world of popular pictures of late nineteenth century Calcutta

As one delves into the parallel histories of these

begins with the emergence of the genre of the

presses, what emerges i s the development of two

bazaarart of Kalighat paintingsand Battalawood

distinct public domains produced by the

engravings. However, with the city's changing

different political ambience and histories of the

printing technology and with the introduction of

twin cities.' As argued by Pinney, Calcutta, as a

new printing techniques like lithography,

colonial city with a distinct political and urban culture, witnessed the emergence of a noticeable, different kind of visual practice and iconographythat stood out from the devotional and political imageries produced by presses in Bombay and Pune. The popular art market of Calcuttawas from the late 1870s flooded with the hand-coloured lithographic prints produced by the Calcutta Art Studio. This lithographic press was founded by one of the first ex-students of the Calcutta School of Art, Annadaprasad Bagchi, along with four other art school products, namely Nabakumar Biswas, Krishnachandra Pal and Jogendranath M~khopadhyay.~ Not surprisingly, the art school background of these artists gave them an edge over other artisan-run presses as they were well-equipped with sophisticated techniques, and were able to adapt to the Western styles of representation and pictorial

Figure 2: Ponra~tof

chromolithography and oleography, this corpus

convention^.^ In an advertisementthat came out

of bazaar pictures now faced rapid extinction. By

in the Bengalee of 1879, the studio seems to have

the 1870s, the art market in Calcutta was invaded

undertakena wide range of worksuch asnPortrait

with new kinds of standardized mass produced

painting, landscape painting, oil painting,

pictures which ultimately drove the Kalighat and

water painting, all kinds of decoration and

Battala pictures out of the market. Perhaps the

lithographic works ...Hindoo Mythological and

defining moment in the history of print-making

Historical pictures and also Stage Scenes and

and presses of the Bengal and Bombay

proscenium^'!^ The majority of the Calcutta Art

Presidencies arrived with the setting up of

Studio prints drew directly from the artists'

Surendranath Banerjee,

Lithograph,c.l880,Calcutta A n Studio, Sanjeet Chowdhury Collection,V~suaiarch~veof Centre for Studies i n Soc~al Sciences, Calcutta.

kjllarity with European neoclassical and

Marchioness of Lansdowne. These lithographs

p c a l paintings. That the mytho-pictures

were produced around the year 1880. With i t s

k w c e d by the Calcutta Art Studio created a

softer tonal gradations and Western conventions

order within the popular art market is an

of life-study, these sepia-toned litho-prints carry

mblllshed fact. They proved to be the most

a strong resemblance to the photographic

ndiveand marketableproductsofthe studio

portrait.

Ijwere extremely popular among the new bgzali 'Bhadralok: Catering to the taste and b e n c e s of the new 'Bhadralok', the genre of bdlogical paintings now bore titles in three pages, namely, English, Bengali and Hindi.

A shift in focus from the Calcutta Art Studio to that of the Poona Chitrashala Steam Press provides us with a range of popular pictures

iconographies. A study of the images coming out i ~ g the h mytho-pictures did carry a sense of of the Poona Chitrashala Steam Press displays composition, loud colours and dumpy certain overlaps as well as marked distinction the improved techniques and a realistic

rrn style provided for a three-dimensional

from their Bengal counterpart. The Calcutta Art Studio images reflected the political aspirations

pand a touch of volume and perspectiveto of Moderate nationalist politics of Bengal and ,Moreover, a careful reading of the Calcutta came up with litho-prints of nationalist leaders wdio prints provides us with a clear picture - re process of 'Europeanization' and .L .* =gation' of the divinities in this popular

W e . o f prints - with all the naturalistic

~tef the photographic style, shading igwdations, where the Western

r i sf life-study and perspective were

-

~ S Ywas

the lithographic portraits of

13nd Bengali famous personalities fijr

ithe art studio. The lithographic Dred the softer tonal values and d~lusionismin such prints. Some of

fri"kesof life-study produced by the wereth that oft he author Bankim @@adhyay and the nationalist

m t h Banerjee (Figure I and

re also offered by the Calcutta We litho-prints of British :Albert (Figure 3) and the

1

comprising of both devotional and political Figure 3 :Portrait of H.R.H. prince AlbertVictor,

Lithograph, c.1880, Calcutta ,rt,udio,SanjeetChowdhury Collection,Visual archive of

ce,,,brsrudiesinSocial Sciences, Calcutta.

the guise of allegory, these politically charged images now became an issue of discomfort for the colonial government. However, the passing of the 1910 Press Act led to the complete relegation of a press like Chitrashala from the history of visual print capitalism in India.6The 1910 Press Act ensured the complete control and surveillance of the native press and visual images and introduced a new regime of political proscription of picture prints in the early decades ofthetwentieth century. There is little information we have in hand concerning the history of circulation of these prints, the possibleconsumers for these kinds of pictures and the pricefor which they were being sold. Some light is thrown in this regard from a stray catalogue (Figure 4) that advertised in detail the price of the prints produced by the Chitrashala Steam Press, the different kind of work undertaken by them and the various

Figure 4 :Catalogue of Poona Chitrashala Steam Press, Courtesy:Gautam Bhadra,

VisualarchiveofCentrefor Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta.

and local heroes such as Surendranath Banerjee

categories of pictures available for sale, ranging

and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. However,

from what they called the 'Congress Pictures;

as shown in the work of Pinney, it is in western

coloured lithographs and framed pictures. This

India that we first encounter an intense form of

catalogue came out as a Sunday supplement

political life of popular prints with the setting up

with an English newspaper in Calcutta, the

of the Chitrashala Steam Press in Poona byVishnu

Amrita Bazaar Patrika, in 1893.'The ornate cover

Krishna Chiplunkar (1878). Using sources such as

of the supplement spells.out that the "Chitra

Kanitkar's Marathi history, Pinney gathers some of

Shala" undertook various jobs at moderate

the most outstanding and politically charged

charges, some of which were, "Chromo-Litho

visuals produced by such a press. Drawing on

printing and Cheque Bills, Receipts, Bonds,

regional specificity, figures of historical heroes

Visiting cards, Invitation and Business cards,

such as Shivaji and Tipu Sultan were now being

Photographic cards, Plans and Maps..."' Going

churned out by the Poona press. Further, the

through the catalogue, one finds that a detailed

resurgenceof Indian nationalism - marked by the

price list of pictures that were meant for sale at

rise of extremist politics - paved the way for an

the press office has been provided. For instance,

0 ~ t p 0 ~ r i n0fg a range of mythological pictures

chromolithographsof the specific size of 27 x 36

that were allegorical in nature. Although under

were sold for Re. 1 and those of size 16x 20 for 4

specified number for each print is

:1

k title and price is also stated. For ?he picture titled 'Gajendra-Moksha' l b s the number 106 to it, measuring d priced at 4 annas for sale. This

I picture narrates the story of the

an elephant from the grasp of a "by Lord Vishnu. Most o f the bg'raphs for sale were mythological

bnal pictures. On the other hand, r@fthe size, the "Congress" pictures I bat 4 annas each and comprised of dngress nationalist leaders such as moji, Pherozshah Mehta... et al. eking is that discountswere offered $&were boughtfor Rs. 1Oand above I

pt from price details, we get to

3h..a press also undertook the

I sending pictures by post at a The very fact that such a detailed

ping published as a supplement @!ginCalcum,and theoffer ofthe

~ . k n through t post reflect in

Varma (1848-1906). Convincedof the commercial potential of 'popular' pictures, RaviVarma set up the Ravi Varma Picture Press at Girgaum in 1894 with some localGermancollaboration.Thetactile and illusionist potentials of Ravi Varma's

prints. One can deduce from

paintings now began to get transported into the glossy picture prints of the cheap oleographsand

e the region of Pune and for

chromolithographs. The arrival of such glossy oleographs now provided the major impetus for

dissemination of

the changing world of visual productions. His oleographs offered new thematic stereotypes and brought into play various mythic imper-

b of the nineteenth century,

sonations. His mythological personages

~bhlftsin the taste for new kinds

especially of the idealized woman - now came to

phy in the Bombay-Pune

stand for an improved lndian aesthetics, which

regional diversity and

drew its tenets from a classical lndian past. The

-

w trends of print-making

'realistic' female iconography in his paintings

-to the phenomenon of Ravi

acquired other significations (aesthetic, social,

Figure 5 :Gajendra-Moksha,

Chramolithograph,Chitrashala Steam Press, Poona, Sanjeet ChowdhuryCollection,Visual archive of Centre for Studies in s,ialsaences;calcutta,

the celestial figure of 'Rambha' draped in a zaribordered red sari, and adorned with traditional gold jewellery. While fleshing out her body in the new illusionisttechniques, the bright colours and the tactility of the print succeed in simulating the rustle of her silk sari and the glitter of the ornaments. This new order of mythic picture succeeded in making a celestial figure like 'Rambha' life-like, without detracting from her mythic identity. In a way, Ravi Varma's brand of pan-Indian imagery now provided the growing art-conscious middle class public with a new 'national' iconography. The story thereafter takes an interesting turn. We find that by the early part of the twentieth ' century, piracy became a potent threat for the

'

establishedpressesandall themore forthe iconic religious and mythic), which transformed them into feminine and national icons.

painter RaviVarma. Due to the rampant piracy of his pictures, the artist was forced to forfeit his

The colourful and varnished texture of these prints certainly enhanced the realist effects of such pictures, as we see in an outpouring of Ravi Varma's formulae of the idealized, sensuous women, cast in the mythological roles of 'Rambha: 'Damayantilor'Mohini'. Realism in such popular prints, with its new illusionist technique evoked a larger than life and idealized dimension in the represented figures and scenes that were being churned out in dozens from the newlyFigure6: Rambha, Oleograph, RaviVarma Press, KarlaLonavla, Sanjeet Chowdhury Collection,Visual archive of Centrefor Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta.

established press. This was particularly true for the archetypal celestial beauties and romantic heroines that were a favourite theme of the coloured oleographs and lithographs. We can

Figure7 :Mohini, Oleograph. RaviVaibhavF.A.L. Press,

take the instance of a coloured oleograph titled

Ghatkopar, Sanjeet Chowdhury Collection,Visual archive of Centrefor Studies in Social

'Rambha' (Figure 6) that had been produced by

Sciences, Calcutta.

the Ravi Varma press at Karla-Lonavla. It shows

'

I

signatorial style and individuality. The names of presses such as Ravi Uday, Ravi Vaibhav keep

Malavli-Lonavla. (Figure 7 & Figure 8). Almost identical in terms of iconography, the only possible difference between the two lies in the way the landscapehas been depicted. What is also needs to be seen is the way in which his new mass-marketed brand of sensual feminine imagery in myth, legend, and contemporary domestic life, set the dominant trend of popular representations of the alluring woman's image across a range of commercial products. As one delves into the available

~~~~r~aM~~~~~~a'~phc

repertoire of feminine visual imagery for a

~~;~~~~

product like the matchbox labels circulating in

~ ~ e f ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ' n s O c i

Calcutta in the early decades of the twentieth century, the Ravi Varma brand of pan-Indian imagery emerges again and again as a predominant marker of types, motifs and themes. If we take up the example of 'Temptress' (Figure 91, the name printed on the label symbolizes what the woman stood for. It shows the figure of a young woman enjoying a ride on

Figure 9 :Temptress, Matchbox Label,Soumen Paul Collectlon,Visualarchive of Centrefor Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta. '

The other aspect of the 'phenomenon' of Ravi Varma which has hardly received any scrutiny from scholars is the issue of circulation and appreciation of his paintings in elite Bengali journals like Prabasi, Sadhana, Bharati and their English equivalent, The Modern Review. In his writing on Ravi Varma, the editor of Modern Review, Ramananda Chattopadhyay, explains

that, "as far as we are aware it was a Bengali magazine named Sadhana which in the north first pointed out the merits of Ravi Varma's

picture^."'^ A survey of the periodicals and journals confirms the dissemination of Ravi Varma's paintings in the form of illustrations and journal plates. Among his well-known works that found their place in theperiodicals,were plates of 'Mohini' (Prabasi, Aswin/1309), 'Shakuntalar the swing. It is clear from the picturization and the message that the woman stands as an emblem

Patralekhan' (Prabasi, Poush/1308) or 'Madraja' (Sahitya,sravan/l321).It is importantto highlight

the nature of RaviVarma's intervention in Bengal for 'pleasure' and 'seduction: What is evident is through these art journals and illustrated that the image of the 'temptress' on this match box label is grafted from a near - identical Ravi Varma oleograph titled 'Mohini' which we have already discussed. A close examination of such matchbox labels reveal that these were made in countries such as Austria and Sweden. One can thus see how foreign companies drew on popular Figure 10: Arjun and

U~ashee,Oleograph printed in Germany, 1900, Bamapada Banerjee. Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co.. Sanjeet

Indian mythological themes to enter the local Indian market and how the saleability of such

Chowdhury Coliection,Visual

icons reflects the market taste prevalent in the

archive of Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta.

first half of the twentieth century in the city of Calcutta. We can certainly conclude that Ravi

Figure 11 :Abhimanyu's

Farewell to Uttara, Oleograph

Varma's oleographs paved the way for a new kind

pr~ntedIn Germany, Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents Roy Banerjee & Co., Sanjeet

of popular art, the kind which we can now see in

Chowdhury Collect~on,Vlsual

the film posters, hoardings and calendars of the

arch~veof Centrefor Stud~esIn Soclal Saences, Calcutta.

twentiethcentury.

shadow of Ravi Varma's fame. Let me first take up the case of Bamapada Banerjee (1851-1 932), who in the 1890s provided a huge body of oleographs on mythological themes for the popular art domain in Bengal. InTapati Guha-Thakurta's view, "the RaviVarmaexample had its closest parallel in Calcutta in the case of Bamapada Banerjee."" Born in the village of Satgachhia in the Burdwan district, Bamapada Banerjee's initial education began with a local school run by one Bhooban Chandra Bandyopadhyay. In a few years time, he was admitted to a 'training school' of John Drinkwater Bethune where he received some form of technical training. During his stint at the

Figure 12 :Santanu and Ganga,Oleograph printed in Germany, 1906, Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Sanjeet

training school, Bamapada's potential and talent

Chowdhury Collection,Visual archive of Centre for Studies In

in the arts was discovered by Sambhuchandra

Social Sciences, Calcutta.

Mukhopadhyay,a renowned writer in English and the editor of Rais and ~ a y e t .On ' ~ his insistence

Figure 13 :Santanu and Ganga, Matchbox Label,

and encouragement, Bamapada left the training

Soumen Paul Collection, Visual archive o f Centre for Studies in

school and joined the Government School of Art

Social Sciences, Calcutta.

under H.H. Locke. Subsequently we come to

Biswas was awarded the "Maharaja Jatindra

know that Bamapada as a student didn't take

Mohon Tagore" prizes.

much time in picking up the skills and nuances that the art school offered but he found the course inadequate as far as training in oil painting was concerned. He then opted out of the School and began to take lessons in oil painting from

The artist then decided to move out of the city of Calcutta and travelledto Allahabad in 1881.Itwas during this time that he produced a particular brand of mythological compositions in the

Pramathanath Mitra and later from a visiting

Western Academic style that were later sent to

German artist, Becker. Impressed with his

Germany t o be oleographed. Bamapada

student's talent in oil painting, Becker en-

Banerjee now travelled extensively, visiting

couraged Bamapada Banerjee to send one of his

different cities in Rajasthan, Punjab and the

oil paintings to the third annual Fine Arts

Northern provinces. He then engaged himself in

Exhibition held in 1879. The exhibition was open

painting large portraits in oil of the local chiefs,

to both professionals and amateurs and for the

government officers and that ofthe localwealthy

first time, an Indian won theviceroy's Gold medal

elites. But he returned to Calcutta in 1883 and

award, Pestonjee Bomanjee for his excellent

found himself gaining commissions for painting

portrait 'Head of a Gossain'." In the same event,

portraits of the likes of Maharaja Jatindra Mohan

Bamapada Banerjee along with Naba Kumar

Tagore, Sir Ramesh Chandra Mitra, Bankim

Figure 14: Draupadi Vastraharan, Chrornolithograph with sequin (printed in Germany), Chonker, Chonker Art Studio, Bombay, Sanjeet Chowdhury Collection,Visual archive of Centre for Studies in Social Sciences. Calcutta.

ra Chattopadhyay, Narendranath Sen and

the artist here succeeded in dramatization of the

.At this stage of his career, inspired by the

mythological stories through the effect of

logical paintings of Ravi Varma, the artist

theatrical expressions of the painted figures that

up with a vast array of mythological

seem to attain a larger than life status. Each of

'ngsdrawn from episodes of the Ramayana

these oleographs bears the signature ofthe artist

d

Ik

and was sold on the Calcutta art market by an agent, Roy Banerjee & Co., located in the Lower e help and encouragement provided by

Chitpur road of Calcutta.

ranath Mukhopadhyay, the founder of the iperiodical Basumati, Bamapada now sent

Unfortunately, the artist' genre of popular prints

tings to be oleographed in germ an^.'^ In

didn't achieve the same commercial success and

of his outstanding works 'Arjun and

popularity as that of Ravi Varma's pictures and

eS(Figure10) and 'Abhimanyu's Farewell

one is left to speculateab~utthe possibleR?aSOnS for it. Although, the issue of piracy and copyright never came up with his commercial enterprise, a

coloun succeeded in enhancing the

surprise does await us if we consider his

of the represented figures and certainly

oleographlSantanu and Ganga1[Figure12) which

ihe illusionisteffect of oil painting. Drawn

found it's way to the graphic design of the

different eoisodes of the Mahabharata.

matchbox label IFiaure 13).in the earlv half of the

Fig"relS:&pmath, Chromolithographwith sequin (pdntedinGermany),Chonker, Chonker Art Studio, Bombay. SanjeetChowdhury Collectton, Visual archive of Centre for studb,n~ociaiSciences, Calcutta.

twentieth century, which was made in Sweden.

pictures also drew heavily on theatrical gestures

Parallel to the unbounded circulation of Ravi

and proscenium stage props, and recreated the

Varma's iconography across the productions of

thrill and drama of stage performances, as for

various presses which all laid claims to his legacy,

instance in the picture titled 'Durbashar

this discovery of a certain spillage of Bamapada

Abhishaap' (Prabasi,Aswinll311). Here a raging

Banerjee's work opens up the possibility of a

Durbasha isseen cursing Sakuntala,the romantic

similar piracy of his works within the picture

heroinewhois lost in herthoughtsfor Dushyanta.

trade, albeit on afar more limited scale. What also

The very gestures and facial expression of

needs to be mentioned is that in comparison to

Durbasha draw theviewertothe unfolding ofthe

the vast circulation of Ravi Varma's paintings in

literary narrative. But lacking in the level of

Bengali periodicals, Bamapada Banerjee's

sophistication and finish, such a picture fails to

repertoireof mythological compositions seemed

match up with those of the Ravi Varma paintings

to have had a distinctly different circulation, less

and doesn't attain the dramatization of action

as journal plates, and more as enlarged high-

and episodes that was a hallmark of the Ravi

quality framing prints. Like Ravi Varma's

Varma brandof mythiccompositions.

Figure 16 :Milan, Oleograph

(printed in Germany), 1937, Vasudeo Pandya, Shree Vasudeo Picture Co., Bombay, Sanjeet Chowdhury Collection, Visual archive of Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta.

compositions, Bamapada Banerjee's mythological

er print-making careers and gali inflectionsand affect were to take a leap into the 1920s and 30% Itofind an individualartist or the name of a that came close to the phenomenon and Lnameof either Ravi Varma in Bombay or ada Banerjee inthe case of Bengal. We get

Printing Works in Poona, or the Bolton

of some repute during the post-Ravi and the names of only a few like R.G. and Vasudeo Pandya stand out among

romolithographsprinted in Germany ellished with sequins, brocade and

glitter in India. Chonker set up the Chonker Art Studio on Sandhurst Road, Bombay, from where chromolithographssuch as'DraupadiVastraharanl (Figure 14) and 'Gopinath' (Figure 15) were produced for mass consumption. Drawing from an episode in the Mahabharata, Chonker presents the highly dramatized scene from the story of the disrobing of Draupadi by Dushyashan. Embellished with sequins, glitter and brocade (zar13, the artist with remarkable finesse portrays the 'realistic' setting of a royal court and succeeds in capturing the sense of humiliation suffered by the mythic heroine with expressions of fear and angst being written on

Figure 17: Jagaddhatri, Chromolithograph, 1913, B,C, Law, Bharatvarsha, Visual archiveofCentreforStudiesin Social Sciences. Calcutta.

Figurel8:GaneshJanani. Chrornolithograph, 1915, B.C.

her face. The poise of individual figures, the

Law,Bharatvarsha,Visual archive of Centre for Studies in

dramatization of actions, and the grandeur of

socialSciences,Calcutta.

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:

3

.

2.

lbid., p.46.

3.

Kamal Sarkar, BharaterBhaskarOChitrashilpi, p.5.

4.

Kamalika Mukherjee,"Appropriating Realism: theTransformationof Popular Visual Iconography in Late-nineteenth

,

century Calcutta'; p.113. 5.

Tapati Guha-Thakurta, TheMakingofaNewlndianArt:Artists,aesthetcsandnationalismint?engal,c. 1850-1920, p.79.

6.

Christopher Pinney, Photos of the Gods: The PrintedImage and PoliticalStrugglein India. p.57. A detailed analysis of such genreof political iconographiescan befound in Pinney's book.

9.

.

.

Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Aesthetics of the Popular Print: Lithographs and Oleographs from Nineteenth and Twentieth Century India, p.21.

10. TheModernReview, February, 1907. 11. Tapati Guha-Thakurta,TheMakingofaNewlndianArt:Artists, aesthetic sand nationalism in Ben gal,^. 1850-7920, p.318.

13. Gyanendra Mohan Das,'Prabasi Bangalir Katha: Prabasi,Ashar 1314/1907; Prafulla Chandra Bandopadhyay & Nalini RanjanChattopadhyay,Jugantar, 1958. 14. Kamal Sarkar,'Precursors of Art Exhibitions:TheSundayStatesman,December22/1968. 15. KamalSarkar,BharaterBhaskarOChitrashilpi, p.135.

16. Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Aesthetics of the Popular Print: Lithographs and Oleographs from Nineteenth and Twentieth Century India, p.27. 17. Tapati Guha-Thakurta,TheMakingofaNewlndianArt:Artists, aestheticsandnationalisminBengal, c. 1850-1920, p.319. 18. ibid, p.322. 19. Tapan Ray Chaudhuri,'BangalNama:Desh,March/2006,p.53. 20. lbid., p.54. 21. With its deep roots invaishava devotionalismand the literary traditions of thepadavalis, the notion of 'bhava'had also becomean important 'secular'artistictropein early twentieth century Bengal. 22. Theverse/padaaccompanying 'Makhan-Churi'can be ascribed toGhanaram Das.Theothers in all probabilitieshave been taken from popular editions ofvaishnavaPadavali. I'm grateful to Rajarshi Ghose for helping me out with the references.

Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Making of a New 'Indian Art': Artists, Aesthetics and Nationalism in

Bengal: 1850-1920(Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress, 1992).

Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Aesthetics of the Popular Print: Lithographs and Oleographs from NineteenthandTwentiethCenturylndia(Kolkata:Birla Academy ofArt &Culture,2006).

Partha Mitter, Art and Nationalism in Colonial Bengal, c. 1850-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1994).

Christapher Pinney, Photos of the Gods: The Printedlmage and Political Struggle in India (India: Oxford UniversityPress, 2004).

Christopher Pinney, "How Indian Nationalism Made itself Irrefutable': in Beyond Appearances?

VisualPractices&IdeologiesinModern India (NewDelhi: Sage, 2003).

KamalSarkar, BharaterBhaskarOChitrashilpi(Calcutta:JogmayaProkashani, 1984). Tapan Ray Chaudhuri, BangalNama (Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Private Limited, 2007).

Reproductions of Popular Prints (Lithographs, Chromolithographs, Oleographs) in the collection of visual archive of Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta

I. R.P. Gupta collection "Jnanadasundari" "Kumadasundari"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Lakshmi"

K a n ~ r i p a r aArt Studio, Calcutta

"Golapsundari"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Gopiganer Bastraharan"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

'ilyotibhyantarin Rupam"

Kansaripara

"Yamapurir Papir Shasti"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

it Studio, Calcutta

"Rukmini Haran"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sushilasundari"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Madanvasma"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Pramadasundari"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Papir Parinam b a Yamapurite P w i r Shasti"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Radha-Krishna"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Ramaraja"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

Yashoda and Krishna

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Narake Paper Shasti"

lmperial Art Cottage, Calcutta

"Sitar Agnipariksha"

Imperial Art Cottage, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Gaur Nitai"

Imperial Art Cottage, Calcutta

Portrait o f Devendranath Tagore

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

Portrait o f Hemchandra Bandyopadhyay

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

Images o f six gods and goddesses

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

11. P.C. Kejriwal, Chitrakoot Art Gallery ( "Sanjher Belaye Ke TokeJal Ante Bolechhe"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Manadasundari"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Nalinisundari"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Lakshmi Narayan"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Satya Narayan"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Gouranger Grihatyag"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Radha-Goshto"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri NarayanerAnanta Shajya"

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Jagannath D e b

Kansaripara Art Studio, Calcutta

"Taraka Badh"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Parvati Shankar"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Naba Nari Kunjar"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Rai Raja"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

Meeting o f Debabrata and his Father, 1923

Bamapada Banerjee

"Kaikeyi & Manthara", 1906

Bamapada Banerjee

"Radha-Krishna"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

The Maharaja and the Maharani o f Mysore o n their wedding day, June 6,1900

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli- Lonavla

Shivaji & his Warriors, 1895

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Raas-Leela"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

Ill.Sanjeet Chowdhury collection Radha's Ordeal, 1903

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Santanu & Gangat{ 1906

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Abhimanyu's Farewell to Uttara"

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

Devjani rescued from the well

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Kaliya Daman"

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Arjun & Urvashee: 1900

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

Mandodaree repressing the wrath of Ravana

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee& Co., Calcutta

One of Sri Krishna's Miracles,l926

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Dandi-Urvashee"

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

"Debabratar Pitri Sandarsan", 1923

Bamapada Banerjee, Sole Agents: Roy Banerjee & Co., Calcutta

Portrait of Surendranath Banerjee

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

Portrait of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

Portrait of the Marchioness of Lansdowne

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

Portrait of H.R.H. Prince Albert Victor

Calcutta Art Studio, Calcutta

"Ganesh Janani", 1918

B.C. Law

"Bangshi Badan"

B.C. Law

"Sri Sri Gopal"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Jugal Roop"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Jamuna Bihar"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Radha-Krishna"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

"Sri Sri Radha Shyam"

Chorebagan Art Studio, Calcutta

Radha-Krishna on a swing

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Madhujamini"

Shital Bandyopadhyay,Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Bansari Lila"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Makhanchuri"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Malinibeshey"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Chatur Kanai"

Shital Bandyopadhyay,Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Bhatri Brata"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Atmanjali"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Reenmukti"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Kalindikule"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Bansari-Bilas"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Ratnabedi"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Jugal Madhuri"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Anjali"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

"Jugavatar"

Shital Bandyopadhyay, Sital-Manzil, Calcutta

Sakuntala writing a love letter

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press Picture Depot, Malavli-Lonavla

"Mohini"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Vaibhav F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Mohini"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Rambha"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Shankar"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Vaibhav F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Hamsa-Damayanti"

Ravi Varma, name of press missing

"Gangavataran"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Sri Ram Janaki"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Indrajit Vijay"

Ravi Varma, RaviVaibhav Press, Ghatkopar

"Drapaudir Vastraharan"

Ravi Varma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Ram-Sita"

Ravi Varma, RaviVaibhav F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Rama Rajyabhishek"

Ravi Varma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Kali"

Ravi Varma, RaviVaibhavF.A.L. Press,Ghatkopar

"Sri Ram Chandraji"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Usha Swayam"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Sri Balakrishna Lalaji"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Kamdhenu"

RaviVarma, Ravi Varma F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Yashoda-Krishna"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Hindu Surya Maharana Sri Pratap Singha"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Balaji"

RaviVarma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Jatayu Badh"

RaviVarma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Madri"

Ravi Varma, RaviVijaya Offset Press, Ghatkopar

"Madri"

Ravi Varma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

Figure of a goddess

Ravi Varma, RaviVarma Press, Karla-Lonavla

"Ganapati"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Laxmi"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Laxmi"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Picture Depot, Karla-Lonavla

"Laxmi"

RaviVarma, Ravi Uday Press, Ghatkopar

"Putana Pran Haran", 1914

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar

"Sri Krishna Agrapuja"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Pandav Sabha"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Varma Press, Malavli-Lonavla

"Ram-Jatayu Bhet"

Ravi Varma, Ravi Vaibhav F.A.L. Press,Ghatkopar

"Mahishasur Mardini"

B.B. Juvekar, Deccan PrintingWorks, Pune

Yhhatrapati Shivaji"

B.B. Juvekar, Bharat PrintingWorks, Pune

"Gopinath"

R.G. Chonker, Chonker Art Studio, Bombay

"Draupadir Vastraharan"

R.G. Chonker, Chonker Art Studio, Bombay

"Milan: 1937

Vasudeo H. Pandya, Shree Vasudeo Picture Co.,Bombay

"Bansi N a t h 1928

Vasudeo H. Pandya, Sole Agents: Rao Bahadur Anant Shivaji Desai, Bombay

Divine Swing

Vasudeo H. Pandya, Sri Vasudeo Picture Company, Bombay

Guru Govind Singh

B.G. Sharma, Sharma Picture Publication,Bombay

The Liberationof the Motherland

Anant Shivaji Desai, Bombay

"Sri Durga Devi"

Modern Picture Publishers of India, Anant Shivaji, Desai, Motibazaar, Bombay

"Tipu Sultan"

Poona Chitrashala Steam Press, Poona

"Shri Rama Panchayatari"

Poona Chitrashala Steam Press, Poona

"Kirat Bhil"

Poona Chitrashala Steam Press, Poona

"Gajendra Moksha"

Poona Chitrashala Steam Press, Poona

"Anjani Kumar"

The Bolton Works, Bombay

TWeiDescriptiun

ManufacturingCmpanytAgent

IV. Soumen Paul Matchbox Label collection "Mukti Sangram"

Bangiya Diyaslai Karyalay

"Swadeshi Bharat"

Dharamsi Company

"Mahatmar Bani"

Usha Match Company, Calcutta

"Sonar TarYSwadeshi Diyaslai

Bhagirathi Match Company, Calcutta

"Charka Rani"

Bhagirathi Match Factory, Calcutta

"Bandemataram"

Crown Match Factory, Calcutta

"Sand hya"

Birbhum Match Works, Sainthia

"Muharram"Swadeshi Diyaslai

Bhagirathi Match Factory, Calcutta

"Bir Ramani"

BEMSA

"MohunbaganVSafetyMatches

Usha Match Company, Calcutta

"Mother India" Matches

Calcutta Match Works

"Shivaji"

Calcutta Match Works

"Radha-KrishnanSafety Matches

Haydari Match Company

"Krishna-Balaram"

Haydari Match Company

"Kali"

The Esavi India Match Factory

"Dancing GiilnSafetyMatches

Calcutta Match Factory, Tollygunge

"Sri KrishnanSafetyMatches

WlMCO

"Hind MatausafetyMatches

WlMCO

Matches "The Head HorseWSafety

WlMCO

"Baijee"Safety Matches

WlMCO

"Sarojini Naidu"

A.E. Matcheswalla

"Kamala"

Pioneer Match Factory

"Sakunta1a"Safety Matches

Sole Importer: A.M. Essabhoy, Calcutta

"Santanu & Ganga"

(Made in Sweden)

"Arjun SubhadraNSafetyMatches

(Made in Sweden)

"Gauhar Jan"

(Made in Austria)

"Noorjehan"

(Made in Austria)

"Khorshed"

(Made in Austria)

"Hirajan"

(Made in Austria)

"Borkhajan"

(Made in Austria)

"Kadambari" Safety Matches

(Made in Sweden)

"Mohini"Safety Matches

(Made in Sweden)

"TemptressnSafetyMatches

(Made in Sweden)

"Tara DevinSafetyMatches

(Made in Sweden)

"Emperor of IndiaVSafetyMatches

(Made in Sweden)

"Empress of IndianSafetyMatches

(Made in Sweden)

CENTRE FOR STUDIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES, CALCUITA