Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture

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Academic Press Rapid Manuscript Reproduction

Proceedings of the Conference on Paleopathology and Socioeconomic Change at the Origins of Agriculture Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the Hudson Symposium Fund of the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh Held April 2 5-May 1, 1982, at the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh, New York

thology

Edited

by

Mark Nathan Cohen Depafiment of Anthropology State Ufi~versityof New Y o r ~ College a t Plattsburgb Plattsburgb, New York

George J. Armelagos Departwe~tof A~thropology University of Massachusetts

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (Hnrcourt Brace Jovnnov~ch,Publrshers)

Orlando San Diego New York London Toronto Montreal Sydney Tokyo

COPYRIGHT @ 1984, BY ACADEMIC PRESS,INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER.

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

Orlando, Florida 32887

United Kingdom Edition published by

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.

24/28 Oval Road, London NWl

7DX

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main e n t r y under t i t l e : Paleopathology a t t h e o r i g i n s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and index. 1. Paleopathology--Congresses. 2. Agriculture-I. Cohen, Mark Nathan. Origin--Congresses. 11. Armelagos, George J. R134e8eP34 1984 616.07'0901 83-17235 ISBN 0-12-179080-0 ( a l k . paper)

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

84858687

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

at the Origins of Agriculture

1~ mewtory of ' I A. cock bur^ and A. T Sandiso~, who were pioneers i~ paleopathology, and Marty Baumhoff, an archaeologist who first proposed the use of skeletal patkologies (Harris lines) as a direct test of the relative wterit of various prehistoric eco~omicstrategies.

Contents

Contributors xv Preface xix

^1

An Introduction to the Symposium

Mark Nathan Cohen Text 1 References

8

^2 Indications of Stress from Bone and Teeth

Alan

".

h-1 -

H

Goodman, Debra L. Martin, GeorgeJ. Armelagos, and George Clark

Introduction 13 16 General and Cumulative Stress Indicators 22 Indicators of General and Episodic Stress Indicators of Specific Disease Stress 29 Conclusion: Pattern, Process, and Multiple Indicators of Stress ' References 39 1^

3

-4

Health as a Crucial Factor in the Changes from Hunting to Developed Farming i n the Eastern Mediterranean

J. Lawrence Angel

16,., .

Introduction 51 Indicators of Health 52 The Region 52 58 Sequences of Culture and Health Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Times Neolithic Times 61 Bronze Age 63

vii

,.

-

t . :~

58

...

CONTENTS

Vlll

Early Iron Age 64 Health and Culture: Early Bronze Age to Classical Times 65 Summary of Hunting to Farming Shifts References 69 Â

67

4 Socioeconomic Change and Patterns of Pathology and Variation in the Mesolithic and Neolithic of Western Europe: Some Suggestions

Christopher Meiklejohn, Catherine Schentag, Alexandra Venema, and Patrick Key Introduction 75 Cultural Units and Economic Trends Data Base and Analysis 79 91 Conclusion Appendix. Neolithic Materials in the Study References 97 /'

93

5 Archaeological and Skeletal Evidence for Dietary Change during the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene i n the Levant

Patricia Smith, Ofer Bar-Yosef, and Andrew Sillen Introduction 101 104 Archaeological Evidence for Dietary Change Skeletal Evidence for Change in Diet and Health Status Discussion 127 References 130

'

6 Skeletal Pathology from the Paleolithic through the Metal Ages in Iran and Iraq

-

Ted A. Rathbun Introduction 137 Mortuary Practices 138 Demography 139 Growth and Development 143 Nutritional Deficiencies 149 Dental Pathology 149 Chemical Analysis 153 Infection 155 Trauma 155 Osteoarthritis 156 Nonpatterned Pathology 157 Temporal Trends 157 Conclusions and Research Recommendations References 161

110

CONTENTS

^ 7 Growth, Nutrition, and Pathology in Changing Pale~demo~raphic Settings in South Asia Kenneth A. R. Kennedy 169

The Archaeological and Skeletal Record Paleodemography 173 Growth and Development 173 Nutrition 181 Conclusions 183 References 185

8 The Effects of Socioeconomic Change in Prehistoric Africa: Sudanese Nubia as a Case Study Debra L Martin, GeorgeJ Armehgos, Alan H. Goodman, and Dennis P Van Gerven Introduction 193 Culture History 194 Population Growth 20 1 Morphological Changes Related to the Development and Intensification of Agriculture 202 Intensification of Agriculture and Changes in the Pattern of Disease Mortality 209 Summary 210 References 212

v 9

The Lower Illinois River Region. A Prehistoric Context for the Study of Ancient Diet and Health Jane E. Buikstra Climatic and Environmental Reconstruction 217 Regional Prehistory and the Archaeological Record Subsistence 224 Genetic and Demographic Factors 227 References 230

219

10 \>

Subsistence and Health in the Lower Illinois Valley- Osteological Evidence Delia Collins Cook Skeletal Growth and Development Pathology 256 Paleodemography 260 Discussion 26 1 References 262

237

,.

CONTENTS

11 Health Changes at Dickson Mounds, Illinois (A. D. 950-1300

Alan H. Goodman, John Lallo, George J. Armelagos, and Jerome C. Rose Introduction and Background Indicators of Stress 277 Discussion and Conclusions References 30 1

27 1 297

12 Skeletal Evidence for Prehistoric Subsistence Adaptation in the Central Ohio River Valley

Claire Mowd Cassidy Overview of Archaeological Cultures, Food, and Diet Skeletal Pathology 324 Discussion and Speculation: Diet and Adaptation in 334 the Central Ohio River Valley References 338

13 Prehistoric Health in the Ohio River Valley

Anthony J. Perzigian, Patricia A. Tench, and Donna J. Braun Introduction: The Archaeological Background Growth and Development 349 Paleopathology and Paleodemography 355 36 1 Conclusions References 362

14 Health and Disease in Prehistoric Georgia: T h e Transition to Agriculture

d a r k Spencer Larsen Introduction 367 Materials 368 Georgia Coastal Paleopathology Discussion 379 Comparisons with Other Studies Conclusions 387 References 388

368 385

347

307

CONTENTS

15 Paleopathology and the Origins of Maize Agriculture i n the Lower Mississippi Valley and Caddoan Culture Areas

Jerome C. Rose, Barbara A. Burnett, Michael S. Nassaney, and Mark W Blaeuer Introduction 393 Archaeology 395 Paleopathology and Agriculture Conclusions 415 References 419

406

16 Agriculture, Marginal Environments, and Nutritional Stress in the Prehistoric Southwest

Ann M. Palkovich Background: The American Southwest Conclusion 436 References 437

425

17 Central California: Prehistoric Subsistence Changes and Health

David N . Dickel, Peter D. Schuk, and Henry M . McHenry Introduction 439 Paleopathology 443 Paleodemography 450 References 456

18 Prehistoric Subsistence and Health Status of Coastal Peoples from the Panamanian Isthmus of Lower Central America

Lynette Norr Introduction 463 464 Geographic Setting and Subsistence Resources Broad Cultural Units 466 467 Prehistoric Subsistence, Settlement, and Population Growth 472 Chemical Analyses of Bone for Dietary Reconstruction 474 Skeletal Remains, Pathologies, and Stress Indicators Discussion 480 Â¥^Summarand Conclusions 484 References 485

CONTENTS

xii

19 Prehistoric Human Biology of EcuadorPossible Temporal Trends and Cultural Correlations

D. H. Ubelaker Introduction 49 1 Cultural History 492 Relevant Data from Human Skeletal Biology Discussion 509 References 511

495

20 P a l e ~ p a t h o l o ~iny Peruvian and Chilean Populations

Marvin J,. Allison 515 The Evidence of Bones and Teeth 520 The Evidence of Soft Tissue Social Stratification and Health 525 References 527

21 The Challenges and Rewards of Sedentism. The Preceramic Village of Paloma, Peru

Robert A. Benfer Introduction 531 Ecological Background 53 1 Excavations 532 Population Continuity 533 Subsistence 533 534 Paleodemography at Paloma Dental Wear-Results 538 Dental Asymmetry 539 Sexual Dimorphism 539 Stature 54 1 Harris Lines 542 Osteitis and Periostitis 543 Histomorphometrics 543 544 Trace Element Analysis of Bone 546 Trace Element Analysis of Hair Summary 547 Conclusions: Demography, Diet, and Paleopathology Appendix 55 1 References 554

-^

CONTENTS

22 Population, Health, and t h e Evolution of Subsistence: Conclusions from t h e Conference

Anna Curtenius Roosevelt Introduction 559 Boserup's Population Pressure Theory 559 Population Pressure and the Rise of Agriculture 560 Alternative Theories 56 1 Population Growth and Sedentism 563 Archaeological Economy 564 Subsistence Change 566 Paleopathology and Population Pressure 569 Methodology 570 History of Mortality and Physiological Stress 572 Changes in Activity and Labor Productivity 574 Summary 575 Paleopathology and Anthropology for the Future 578 References 58 1 4 23 Paleopathology at t h e Origins of Agriculture: Editors' Summation

Mark Nathan Cohen and Georgel. Armelagos Introduction 585 Major Trends in Data on Health 586 The Relative Health of Hunter-Gatherers and Fanners The Population Pressure Model 594 Approaches to Other Problems of Anthropological Interest References 599

593 597

Contributors

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin.

Marvin J Allison (515) Institute de Antropologia, Universidad de Tarapacd, Arica, Chile J Lawrence Angel (5 1) Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 George J Armelagos (13 193, 271 585) Department of Anthropology University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Ofer Bar-Yosef 101 Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, Mt. Scopus Campus Jerusalem, Israel Robert A. Benfer (531 , Department of Anthropology, University of MissouriColumbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211 Mark W Blaeuer (393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Donna J ~ r a u n ' (347), Department of Anthropology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 Jane E. Buikstra (215) Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60201 Barbara A. Burnett (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Claire Monod Cassidy (307), Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742 George Clark 13), Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01003 Mark Nathan Cohen (1, 585), Department of Anthropology, State University of New York College at Plaftsburgh, Plattsburgh, New York 12901 Della Collins Cook (235), Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405 Present address: Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl-

xvi

CONTRIBUTORS

David N Dickel 439), Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Alan H. Goodman2 (13 193, 271) Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Kenneth A. R. Kennedy 169), Ecology and Systematics Division of Biological Sciences Department of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 Patrick Key (75) The KEY Company, Inc Williston, North Dakota 58802-2690 John Lallo (27 1 , Department of Anthropology, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio 44115 Clark Spencer Larsen (367) Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115 Debra L. Martin 13, 193) School of Natural Science Hampshire College Amherst Massachusetts 01002 Henry M. McHenry 439) Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Christopher Meiklejohn (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada Michael S Nassaney (393) Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts 01003 Lynette Norr 463) Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801 Ann M. Palkovich 425) Anthropology Program, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030 Anthony J Perzigian (347) Departments of Anthroplogy and Anatomy, University of Cincinnati Cincinnati Ohio 45221 Ted A. Rathbun 137) Department of Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208 Anna Curtenius Roosevelt (559) Museum of the American Indian, New York, New York 10032 Jerome C. Rose (27 1 393), Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville Arkansas 72701 Catherine Schentag (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada Peter D. Schulz3 (439) Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis California 95616 Andrew Sillen 101), National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 'Present address: Department of Orthodontics, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmngton, Connecticut 06032. 'Present address: Resource Protection Division, California Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento, California 95811

CONTRIBUTORS

xvii

Patricia Smith (101 Department of Anatomy, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine Jerusalem, Israel Patricia A. ~ e n c h(347) ~ Department of Anthropology University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 D H. Ubelaker 491 Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D C 20560 Dennis P Van Gerven 193) Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder Colorado 80309 Alexandra Venema (75) Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg Winnipeg Manitoba R3B 2E9 Canada

Present address: Department of Anthropology Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana 47405

Preface

This volume contains revised papers from a 1982 Wenner-Gren-sponsored symposium utilizing data from human skeletal analysis and paleopathology to measure the impact on human health of the Neolithic Revolution and antecedent changes in prehistoric hunter-gatherer food economies. The symposium developed out of our perception that many widely debated theories about the origins of agriculture had testable but untested implications concerning human health and nutrition and our belief that recent advances in techniques of skeletal analysis, and the recent explosive increase in data available in this field, permitted valid tests of many of these propositions. We asked specialists to prepare syntheses of archaeological and skeletal data comparing the health of prehistoric human populations before, during, and after the Neolithic Revolution in different parts of the world. Because we were interested in generalizations about processes of cultural evolution and their impact on human life, rather than merely in local archaeological sequences per se, the conference and this volume were arranged in a format of 'controlled comparison in which regional sequences are prepared and presented in a manner parallel to one another as much as posible to facilitate comparative analysis. This format was designed to facilitate identification of health trends common to the various world regions or to recognizable subsets of these regions. This volume is the first such synthesis of paleopathological data from around the world focusing on changing patterns of health among human populations rather than the diagnosis of particular pathologies or the interpretation of the history of specific diseases. It also represents the first attempt to apply these data to the testing of theories of culture change other than at the local level In the studies presented, a number of common patterns emerge with sufficient clarity to provide striking answers to severa1210ng-debatedquestions concerning the impact of this one major technological revolution on human health. The conclusions that we have drawn are discussed in our own final chapter while an independent analysis is offered by Anna Roosevelt. The individual regional chapters that make up the bulk of the volume, and which cover essentially all regions of the world for which reasonably good data could be obtained, provide an up-to-date synthesis of existing data on changes in human health associated with the transition. They also xix C

q

PREFACE

provide a data set from which other investigators can test their own theories or evaluate our conclusions independently and state-of-the-art examples of the application of recently developed techniques in skeletal analysis and paleopathology The language of these applications has been standardized insofar as possible to facilitate easy comprehension and comparison. An introductory chapter by Goodman et al. provides a nontechnical summation of the techniques utilized and the pathologies commonly discussed. Chapter bibliographies direct the reader to more technical descriptions of research techniques as well as more complete presentations of regional data. The book is designed primarily as a reference and sourcebook for scholars and students in the fields of economic and ecological prehistory skeletal analysis, and paleopathology However, the book addresses issues concerning the impact of progress and civilization that have been of broad scholarly and popular interest at least since the writings of Hobbes Rousseau, and Francis Bacon. Moreover, because it is necessary that the data from skeletal analysis be comprehensible to nonspecialists if those data are to be used to test theories of culture change, and because it is necessary for individual archaeological sequences to be comprehended easily by prehistorians working in different regions we have put a great deal of editorial effort into making each contribution readily comprehensible by a reader with only a modest background and with a general interest in the issues discussed. As such, the book should be of value and interest not only to professionals and students in immediately related fields but also to a range of laymen, students and professionals interested in a host of related fields. history and medical history subsistence economics, culture change, nutrition, epidemiology the philosophy of science, and the history of technology The conference on which the book is based was held at the Valcour Conference Center of the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh and was sponsored jointly by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the Hudson Symposium Fund of SUNY College at Plattsburgh. We wish to thank Dean Charles Warren and Acting Dean Houng Liu, Mr Robert Moll, Ms Bette Brohel, Mrs. Katie Covey and Mrs. Jamesena Moore as well as the faculty and students of the Department of Anthropology SUNY College at Plattsburgh, for their assistance in running the conference.

New Haven.

CHAPTER 2 INDICATIONS OF STRESS FROM BONE AND TEETH 1

Alan H . Goodman

Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst

Debra L. Martin School o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e Hampshire C o l l e g e

George J . Armelagos George Clark Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts-Amherst

INTRODUCTION:

MODELING DISEASE I N PREHISTORIC POPULATION

The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o review c u r r e n t u s e s of s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l evidence2 i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a t t e r n s of h e a l t h i n p r e h i s t o r i c human p o p u l a t i o n s . T h i s b r i e f overview may be s u p p l e mented by r e f e r e n c e t o a v a r i e t y of r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s . For more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e d i a g n o s i s o f d i s e a s e i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t volumes by O r t n e r and P u t s c h a r (1981) and Steinbock (1976). I n f o r m a t i o n on n u t r i t i o n a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can b e o b t a i n e d from B u i k s t r a and Cook (1980) , Huss-Ashmore e t a l . (1982) , Wing and Brown (1980) , and Mielke and G i l b e r t (1984)

.

1

Present address: Department o f Orthodontics, Un-iversitg of Connecticut HeaZth Center, Farminqton, Connecticut 06032. "See A l l i s o n e t a t . (Chapter 20 t h i s volume) for s o f t t i s s u e analysis. PXLEOPITHOLOGI Vr THE ORIGINS HF AHQll"1 1 T I Rt-

13

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41, r ,-51\ cot 7?n-,duzt1repari.ng k h e b l e s r ~ l i t h i cp r o v e n i e n c e c a t a l o g (Newell e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) , we were f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t n o s t u d y Of p a t l ~ o l o g yhad o c c u r r e d when n o s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t was made. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e n , it i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h i s i s a b i a s i n g f a c t o r . I t i s e q u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r whether f u r t h e r p a t h o l o g y e x i s t s on some s a m p l e s f o r which p a t b l o g y i s r e p r t e d . F o r example, we s u s p e c t some u n d e r r e p o r t i n g o r n o n r e p r t i n g o f whole c l a s s e s o f p a t b l o g y a n d / o r trauma. Thus we do n o t c l a i m u n i v e r s a l c o v e r a g e of p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e s e r i e s u n d e r m n s i d e r a tion. The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o t h e r e p r t h g o f p a t h o l o g y a d t r a u m a must a l s o be broaclled. The f o c u s o f this s t u d y i s on denwgraphy and a n t h r o p o l o g y , w i t h p o p u l a t i o n a s t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t o f s t u d y . T h i s is a c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e between a n t h r o p l o g i c d and c l i n i c a l medical approaches t o d i s e a s e process. iiowever, much o f t h e d a t a r e p r t e d here a r e c l e a r l y presented w i t h i n t h e c l h i c a l paradigm. Pathology is well described but i s n o t placed i n t o t h e context of t h e s a m p l e . I t i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r c a s e s o f p a t h o l o g y i n a p a r t i c u l a r s e r i e s a r e o r a r e n o t from a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , and i t may n o t be p s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e q u e n c y of a pathology. F i n a l l y , i t must b e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e sample i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h c p o p u l a t i o n from which i t i s drawn. We d o n o t have s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l o f tb.e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e t o test t h e problem a d e q u a t e l y . However, o n e o f u s e h a s t e s t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r b i a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c s ~ m p l e( S c h e n t a g 1 9 8 2 ) . M u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d on t h e sample u s i n g s e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN ET AL.

80

TABLE 4 . 1 .

Dzstributzon of S i t e s by Country Countqj

Sites MesoUthio Neolithic

Nomy Sweden Denmark Federal Republ zc of Germany German Democmtzc Republzc Great Brztazn The Netherlands Luxembourg Be lgiwn Switzerland France Italy Spain Portugal

variables. Primary r e s u l t s a r e a s follows. The more complete a specimen, t h e g r e a t e r i t s chance of being reported as p a t h o l o g i c a l . S t a t e of preservation was found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t when polynomial regression was performed. Thus completeness of t h e skeleton has a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o reporting of pathology, whereas t h e e f f e c t of preservation is c u r v i l i n e a r . The l a t t e r finding suggests t h a t while reporting of pathology i s g r e a t e r f o r a r e l a t i v e l y complete specimen, there appear t o be systematic occurrences of reported pathology i n r e l a t i v e l y fragmentary m a t e r i a l s . Results r e l a t e d t o age of t h e specimen, l o c a t i o n , context, and d a t e of publication were l e s s c l e a r . It can be concluded, however, t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t biasing e f f e c t s a r e involved i n the reporting of both frequency and d i s t r i b u t i o n of pathology i n t h e Mesolithic sample. W e would a l s o point out t h a t c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of data considered elsewhere in t h i s volume have not been reported f o r European s e r i e s of the time frame under consideration, including Harris l i n e s and t r a c e element a n a l y s i s f o r such bone c o n s t i t u e n t s a s strontium. In Mesolithic samples, measurement of t h e l a t t e r i s complicated by the ubiquitous presence of marine resources (T. D . P r i c e , personal communication, 1982) .

4

THE MESOL1THIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE C r a n i a l Pathology

T h e r e a r c o n l y t h r e e c l a s s e s o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y from t h e M e s o l i t h i c sample. None a p p e a r t o b e o f major i m p o r t a n c e , a n d n o m e a n i n g f u l f r e q u e n c y d a t a can be g e n e r a t e d . Only o n e c a s e o f a r t h r i t i s is r e p o r t e d ; s l i g h t a r t h r i t i s o f t h e mandibular condyles (Melby, Denmark). The i n d i v i d u a l a l s o h a s p o s t c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s . C r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n a s i n g l e c a s e (Mannlefelsen, France), an o c c i p i t a l depression apparently not t h e r e s u l t o f a fracture . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , c r a n i a l a r t h r i t i s a p p e a r s t o b e o f t h e same o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be h i g h e r , though a p p a r e n t l y o f a b r o a d r a n g e o f e t i o l o g i e s , making q u a n t i f i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . Four F r e n c h s i t e s (Fontenay-le-Marmion, L ' Homme-Mort, L a r i s Goguet, and Vigneau) r e p o r t a r t h r i t i s . T h e s e a r e p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o temperomandibular a r t h r i t i s ( f i v e c a s e s i n two s i t e s [if = c a . 1 2 6 1 , g l e n o i d c a v i t y a r t h r i t i s ( o n e c a s e ) , and o c c i p i t a l c o n d y l e a r t h r i t i s ( t h r e e c a s e s i n o n e s i t e [A' = 1 7 1 ) . No s i t e r e p o r t s more t h a n o n e t y p e o f a r t h r i t i s . S i n c e N r e p r e s e n t s t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e s a m p l e s , n o t t h e number o f c a s e s w i t h t h e a r e a i n t a c t f o r i n s p e c t i o n , frequency d a t a cannot be c a l c u l a t e d . We c a n n o t comment a t t h i s t i m e o n w h e t h e r a r t h r i t i s is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e age o f a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e samples. Evidence f o r g c n e r a l i z c d c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g i n f e c t i o n , suggests considerably higher l e v e l s i n the Neolithic than i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . However, t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e p o r t i n g hampers g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Data i n t h i s c a t e g o r y were r e c o r d e d from 1 7 s i t e s l i s t e d w i t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : tumef a c t i o n ( o n e c a s e ) , o s t e o p h y t o s e s ( o n e ) , b e n i g n osteoma ( o n e ) , o s t e o m y e l i t i s ( o n e ) , bony e x o s t o s e s ( t h r e e ) , e r o d e d bone s u r f a c e s a n d / o r t h i n n i n g r a r e f a c t i o n ( s i x ) , c i r c u l a r l e s i o n s ( t w o ) , hematoma ( t w o ) , m a n d i b u l a r c y s t ( o n e ) , and g e n e r a l bony d e p r e s s i o n s ( t h r e e ) . These c a t e g o r i e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . M a t e r i a l s o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t e t i o l o g y a p p e a r t o be p r e s e n t . T h i s i s , however, a c a t e g o r y t h a t a p p e a r s t o b e more f r e q u e n t i n l a t e r s a m p l e s . I t can b e t e n t a t i v e l y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f g e n e r a l i z e d i n f e c t i o n can be e x p e c t e d i n more s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f g r e a t e r d e n s i t y , which have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r a c t i n g a s r e s e r v o i r s o f infection. The f i n a l c a t e g o r y o f c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y n o t e d i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c , o s t e o p o r o s i s , i s r e p o r t e d i n o n l y 2 c a s e s o f 46 s i t e s with c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e d (Cuzoul d e Gramat, F r a n c e , a n d F a l k e n s t e i n h o h l e , BRD). Such a l o w f r e q u e n c y s u g g e s t s t h a t d i e t a r y i n s u f f i c i e n c y i s r a r e . The same c o n c l u s i o n a l s o e x t e n d s to t h e ~ e o l i t h i c ,w i t h o n l y one r e p o r t e d c a s e ( H a s t i & r c s , N = c a . S O ) . T h i s t r a i t shows no clear trend. Similarl.y, c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i s n o t a major f a c t o r i n e i t h e r p e r i o d . T h e r e a r e n o r e p o r t e d c a s e s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c , and o n l y f o u r c a s e s from o n e s i t e i n t h e N e o l i t h i c ( L a r i s Goguet, N = 6 0 ) . Hengen (1971) a l s o makes n o m e n t i o n o f e a r l y c a s e s . C r i b r a

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o r b i t a l i a , l i k e osteoporosis, provides no evidence f o r a s h i f t i n g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c . Major d i e t a r y s t r a i n , t h e s u g g e s t e d e t i o l o g y f o r t h o s e t r a i t s i n o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s , c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d f o r e i t h e r p e r i o d . PostcraniaJ. P a t h o l o g y P o s t c r a n i a l pathology i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c p e r i o d s u g g e s t s t h e primacy o f bony changes r e s u l t i n g from heavy u s e and c o n c o m i t a n t d e g e n e r a t i o n , p r i m a r i l y n o t e d a s o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s and a r t h r i t i s . Possibly r e l a t e d a r e cases o f scoliosis-kyphosis. T h e r e a r e o n l y two o t h e r r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g i e s , o n e o n l y r e p o r t e d from a s i n g l e s i t e . P e r i o s t o t i c h y p e r t r o p h y i s r e p o r t e d from T e v i e c 5 and w i t h a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y . T h e r e i s no e q u i v a l e n t from t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e . More g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d i s t h e c a t e g o r y o f i n f e c t i o n . These i n c l u d e r e p o r t s o f u l n a r o s t e i t i s (Trou V i o l e t A ) , i n f l a m m a t o r y r e a c t i o n s o f t h e l o w e r l i m b s (Cuzoul d e Gramat a n d B o n i f a c i o ) , and a bone a b s c e s s o f t h e r i g h t u l n a (HBedic S ) , a l l from F r a n c e , p l u s a d r a i n i n g s o r e i n t h e humerus (AgerBd I , Sweden). P o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n is a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e , b u t i n low amounts. T h e r e i s a p o s s i b l e i n f e c t i o n i n a d e l t o i d t u b e r o s i t y ( S w i f t e r b a n t S2), g e n e r a l i z e d s w e l l i n g and p e r i o s t o t i c r e a c t i o n o n a t i b i a (Foiitenay-lo-Mannion) , and bone r a r e f a c t i o n o f a s c a p u l a ( A b r i Pendimoun). Bony e x o s t o s e s a r e r e p o r t e d from Barnes-Chaudes, G r o t t e d e Route and L a r i s Goguet. A t G r o t t e de Route t h i s may b e secondary t o trauma. T h e r e a r e a l s o g e n e r a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f "pronounced e x c a v a t i o n " o f a f i b u l a ( G r o t t e d e R o u t e ) , and o f bony d e p r e s s i o n s and e x p o s u r e o f spongy t i s s u e ( L a r i s Goguet) t h a t may f i t h e r e . I t can b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t p o s t c r a n i a l i n f e c t i o n was a problem i n both t i m e p e r i o d s . No c l e a r t r e n d s a r e v i s i b l e in t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a . A r t h r i t i s and r e l a t e d f e a t u r e s are r e p o r t e d from 1 3 o f 4 6 M e s o l i t h i c sites w i t h r e p o r t e d p a t h o l o g y s t u d i e s ( 2 8 . 3 0 ) . I n 3 s i t e s w i t h m u l t i p l e i n d i v i d u a l s , f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e 13% i n 2 c a s e s (Bjrfqebakken, Denmark--3 o f 23, Teviec--3 o f 23) and 21% i n t h e t h i r d (Hoedic--3 o f 1 4 ) . The s p i n a l column a n d p e l v i c r e g i o n show h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c i e s (11 o f 2 1 i n d i v i d u a l s = 5 2 % ) , b r o k e n down i n t o : c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a e ( 4 ) , t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e ( 2 1 , lumbar v e r t e b r a e ( 3 1 , sacrum a n d p e l v i s ( 3 ) , n o n s p e c i f i c ( 4 ) . To t h e s e f i g u r e s c a n b e added o s t e o c h o n d r o s i s o f t h e t h o r a c i c and lumbar v e r t e b r a e from B o n i f a c i o , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t i n T e v i e c 3 and 6, and lumbar d e v i a t i o n i n Loschbour, Luxembourg. I n t h e l i m b s , 9 of 21 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 3 % ) showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e s h o u l d e r g i r d l e and/or u p p e r l i m b and 6 o f 2 1 ( 2 9 % ) showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e lower l i m b , p r i m a r i l y t h e f o o t . T h e s e f i g u r e s s u g g e s t t h a t s t r e s s i s g r e a t e r i n t h e v e r t e b r a l column and u p p e r l i m b t h a n i n t h e lower l i m b d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c . When t h e N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s i s examined, t h e r e i s a n immediate i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s i s l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n in t h e

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M e s o l i t h i c . Only t h r e e sites r e p o r t d e g e n e r a t i v e c h a n g e s . Hyperos t o s i s i s r e p o r t e d from 1 ' A b r i pendimoun ( N = 1) ( a t l a s and lumbar r e g i o n ) . Fontenay-le-Marmion (N = 6 6 ) h a s r e p o r t e d o s t e o p h y t e s , enlargement o f a r t i c u l a r f a c e t s , c a r t i l a g e d e s t r u c t i o n , p a t t e r n s o f f u s i o n , and g e n e r a l a l t e r a t i o n . L a r i s Goguet (/I = c a . 6 0 ) h a s r e p o r t e d a r t h r o s e s and g e n e r a l d e f o r m a t i o n , and t h e o n l y r e p o r t i n g Of f r e q u c n c i e s w i t h 36-40% o f t h o r a c i c v e r t e b r a e a f f e c t e d (N = 73-81), 31% o f l u m b a r v e r t e b r a e I - I V (N = 70) and 711 o f lumbar v e r t e b r a V ( N = 3 4 ) . However, though f e w e r N e o l i t h i c s i t e s have r e p o r t e d e v i d e n c e o f v e r t e b r a l a r t h r i t i s , s i t e s s u c h a s L a r i s Goguet have h i g h e r w i t h i n - s e r i e s f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n t h o s e s e e n i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c . Whether t h i s r e p r e s e n t s i n c o n s i s t e n t r e p o r t i n g f o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s p a t t e r n s between s i t e s , o r b o t h , i s u n c l e a r . The d a t a from Fontenay-le-Mannion d o , however, p o i n t t o i n t e r s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s . E i g h t s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t e d a r t h r i t i s o f t h e l i m b s or g i r d l e s . A t S w i f t e r b a n t S2, a r t h r i t i s was q u i t e l i m i t e d , r e s t r i c t e d t o two c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e f o o t and one c a s e i n t h e s a c r o i l i a c joint. T h i s sample c l e a r l y was n o t p r o n e to a r t h r i t i c c h a n g e s . The 7 o t h e r s i t e s ( a l l F r e n c h ) have 21 c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s o f t h e u p p e r l i m b and g i r d l e ( 3 6 t o t a l c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s ) , 1 5 c a s e s o f a r t h r i t i s of t h e l o w e r l i m b and g i r d l e , and 2 c a s e s of a r t h r i t i s of t h e r i b s . Within-site frequencies cannot be calculated. Of t h e 36 i n d i v i d u a l s r e p o r t e d w i t h a r t h r i t i s , 58% showed a r t h r i t i s o f t h e u p p e r limbs, 4 2 0 showed a r t h r i t i s oE t h e lower limbs. These f i g u r e s a r e n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e noted f o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o l i n k p o s t c r a n i a l and vertebral cases of a r t h r i t i s . The a b o v e f i g u r e s p r o v i d e a p r i m f a c i e c a s e f o r s l i g h t l y h i g h e r o v e r a l l i n c i d e n c e s o f a r t h r i t i s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c a s comp a r e d t o t h e N e o l i t h i c . T h i s c a n be d e r i v e d b o t h from s l i g h t l y h i g h e r involvement r a t e s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r e p o r t e d a r t h r i t i s , and ( s i n c e t h e t o t a l number o f c a s e s f o r t h e ~ e o l i t h i c i s l o w e r t h a n would be e x p e c t e d ) from e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e s i z e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h e a r t h r i t i s d a t a s u p p o r t a model o f h e a v i e r b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s i n the Mesolithic than i n t h e Neolithic. F i n a l l y , two s u g g e s t e d c a s e s from t h e N e o l i t h i c a r e o f t y p e s n o t recorded i n t h e Mesolithic. A possible case o f P a g e t ' s d i s e a s e i s n o t e d a t Fontenay-le-Marmion, a n d a c a s e o f advanced o s t e o m y e l i t i s a t L a r i s G o g u e t . The l a t t e r may r e f l e c t p o p u l a t i o n s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o d i s e a s e r e s e r v o i r s , a s noted i n t h e section on c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y . S i x c a s e s o f h i p s u b l u x a t i o n and o n e c a s e o f k n e e s u b l u x a t i o n a t F o n t e n a y - l e - ~ a n n i o n may be f u r t h e r m a r k e r s f o r d i f f e r e n t b i o m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s p a t t e r n s i n t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e Neolithic.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET AL.

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TABLE 4.2.

Reporting of Caries - i n MesoZithzc Samples -

Site

-

-

--

- - -

Number Number o f t e e t h of c a r i e s

-

Number o f individuals

Number o f individuals w i t h caries

Bac kas kog Stora Bjers Stora Mosse Berpnsdal N g e bakken Brovst KorsfSr Nor Me Zby Mullerup Nivaagaard Sfiager Svaerdborg 1921 Swaerdborg 1943 Tybri.nd v i g Vedbaek ViZZingbaek @st Durrenbeq FalkensteinhDhle Cnoc Coig Cough's Cave Loschbour Birsmat t e n Bonifacio Cutoz Cuzoul de Gramat HQedic Mannlefelsen Ras t e 2 Teviec Trou V i o l e t Vatte d i Zambana Co l m b r e s t4o'Lta do Sebastiiio

Dental Pathology D e n t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s been a p p r o a c h e d more s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h a n any o t h e r p a t h o l o g y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . However, even h e r e t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s of r e p o r t i n g .

TABLE 4 . 3 .

Reporting o f Caries i n Neolithic Smples

Site

,

h b e r of teeth

Number o f caries (%)

Number of individua 2s

Number with caries (%)

Be lgzum Hastiares strspy France Bves-Chaudes Bec des Deux Eaux Dolmen de l a Roche Do h e n de l a Roche Dolmen des Bretons Eteauvil l e Wand. ) Eteauvilie (Max. ~ o n t e n al~e - ~ a m i o r f t L ' H m e Mort Laris Cog e t Mate Z h s g Rouffignac Terrevazne 11 Vigneau Portugal Bugelheira en Ahoncia CarvaM ca. 198' '^Â¥Totat e e t h are reported as are numbers of individuals with caries. Numbers of -individuals with t e e t h are not reported. b ~ c t u a lcounts are not presented, although percentages are. CTotaZ where mmbers are reported. d ~ i g u r ei n cases where r m data are presented. When percentage figures only are averaged, the figure i s 6 . 3 % .

4 THE MESOLITHIC A N D NEOLITHIC OK WESTERN EUROPE

:

1 \(Â¥,

P.

85

The b e s t r e p o r t e d d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i s c a r i e s . M e s o l i t h i c d a t a a r e r e p o r t e d f o r 33 sites ( T a b l e 4 . 2 ) , 7 ( 2 1 . 2 % ) w i t h r e p o r t e d c a r i e s . I n t e r m s o f numbers o f i n d i v i d u a l s , 11 o f 74 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 1 4 . 9 % ) have c a r i e s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g Moita do S e b a s t i S o , f o r which n o f i g u r e s by i n d i v i d u a l a r e a v a i l a b l e ) . When i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h a r e c o n s i d e r e d , 33 o f 1780 permanent t e e t h a r e c a r i o u s ( 1 . 9 % ) . NO c a r i e s were r e p o r t e d i n M e s o l i t h i c d e c i d u o u s t e e t h . Of 3 3 r e p o r t e d c a r i o u s t e e t h , 22 c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d by p o s i t i o n . No c a r i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t is s e e n i n e i t h e r t h e i n c i s o r s o r t h e c a n i n e s , a n d t h e r e i s o n l y o n e c a s e o f p r e m o l a r c a r i e s . The f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i e s o f t h e m o l a r s i n c r e a s e a s o n e p r o c e e d s from M l t o M 3 . W e do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s any s i g n i f i c a n c e t o f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r e n c e s between u p p e r and l o w e r d e n t i t i o n s . An o p e n a r e a f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r c e n t a g e o f t e e t h c a r i o u s and p e r c e n t a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i o u s t e e t h . Some i n d i v i d u a l s have more c a r i e s t h a n e x p e c t e d from f r e q u e n c y d a t a a l o n e . Of 11 i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s , 1 h a s 5 c a r i e s ( B i r s m a t t e n ) , 2 h a v e 3 c a r i e s e a c h (Hocdic 1 , T e v i e c 11, and 4 h a v e 2 c a r i e s e a c h (HSedic 7 , 9; T e v i e c 4 , 1 3 ) . I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t c a r i e s i s e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h t h e s a m p l e . S i m i l a r l y , Befgebakken shows c l e a r u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . Using t h e i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e s from T a b l e 4 . 2 (removing Wgebakken from c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) , we would e x p e c t 1 8 . 3 1 o f any sample t o show c a r i o u s t e e t h . F o r Wgebakken t h i s would b e 2 . 5 (N = 1 4 ) . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , we would e x p e c t 2 . 3 % of teeth to be carious. F o r Bfigebakken this would be 8.2 t e e t h (N = 357) . From the N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s some c o m p a r i s o n s c a n be made ( T a b l e 4 . 3 ) . S i x t e e n s i t e s h a v e r e p o r t c d c a r i e s . No s i t e s a r e r e p o r t e d a s showing no c a r i e s , a c o n d i t i o n n o t e d i n 2 6 o f 3 3 ( 7 8 . 8 % ) Mesol i t h i c s i t e s . While t h e l a t t e r f i g u r e s i n p a r t r e f l e c t s m a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a m p l e s , t h i s c l e a r l y i s n o t t h e o n l y f a c t o r . T h e r e is n o s y s t e m a t i c r e p o r t i n g o f f i g u r e s f o r numbers o f N e o l i t h i c i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a r i e s . S i x t y - n i n e o f 1654 i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h a r e c a r i o u s ( 4 . 2 % ) , o v e r t w i c e t h e M e s o l i t h i c number. The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two s a m p l e s i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t (x2 = 1 5 . 9 8 w i t h 1 df, p < . 0 0 5 ) . C a r i e s o f d e c i d u o u s t e e t h i s a l s o r e p o r t e d i n o n e sample (Rouf f i g n a c ) . C a r i e s l o c a t i o n is n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d . I t d o e s a p p e a r , however, t h a t p r e m o l a r and m o l a r c a r i e s p r e d o m i n a t e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l c a s e s a t S t r e p y , Baumes-Chaudes, Dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , a n d 1 ' H o m e - M o r t . A t ~ontenay-le-Marmion involvement o f M l i s r e p o r t e d a s m o s t f r e q u e n t , w h i l e a t ~ a t ~ l l e s premolars and molars a r e primarily a f f e c t e d . D e n t a l wear may b e a major f a c t o r i n c a r i e s d e v e l o p m e n t . Heavy wear impedes c a r i e s development by s c o u r i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , t h e r e b y impeding t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e AS a c l e a r example, s a m p l e s from W g e b a k k e n , pathologic process. w i t h no r e p o r t c d c a r i e s , show c o n s i d e r a b l e d e n t a l wear. Similarly, wear i s r e p o r t e d a s heavy i n s e v e r a l N e o l i t h i c s e r i e s . F u l l a n o f f f r e n c e s i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y must a w a i t a s t u d y o f t h e c o v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s . D e s p i t e t h i s , d e n t a l

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WLS 1bRN EUROPE

i c a r i e s r a t e s s u g g e s t marked d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d s . O t h e r M e s o l i t h i c d e n t a l v a r i a b l e s a r e s u g g e s t i v e o f heavy s t r e s s . There is c o n s i d e r a b l e a l v e o l a r degeneration, r e p o r t e d a s a l v e o l a r a b s c e s s i n g , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n , g e n e r a l a l v e o l a r bone l o s s , and anternortern l o s s o f t e e t h . Though t h e s e a r e n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d , t h e y a r e p r e s e n t i n h i g h amounts where s t u d i e d . A l v e o l a r b o n e l o s s , bone i n f e c t i o n , and p e r i a p i c a l abscessing a r e noted i n various combinations i n e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l s e a c h from Hoedic and T e v i e c i n t h e b e s t i n d i v i d u a l s t u d y o f t h i s r e g i o n . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s i s the l o s s o f 1 4 e l e m e n t s i n 4 i n d i v i d u a l s from T e v i e c . I n t h e N e o l i t h i c sample antemortem t o o t h l o s s i s n o t e d in n i n e c a s e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t f r e q u e n c y d a t a . Dental abscesses a r e noted i n four s i t e s , p e r i a p i c a l i n f e c t i o n s i n f o u r c a s e s . R e l a t e d a r e r e p o r t s from s e v e r a l s i t e s o f a l v e o l a r r e s o r p t i o n o r a t r o p h y , and r e f e r e n c e t o " p y o r r h e a , " " p e r i o d o n t i t i s , " and " g i n g i v i t i s . " One b a s i c anomaly o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a s t r e s s m a r k e r , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , i s e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e p o r t e d . It i s n o t e d o n l y a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f Melby and i n i n d i v i d u a l I o f t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e S22 a t S w i f t e r b a n t . I t i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h i s r e p r e s e n t s e f f e c t i v e absence o f t h i s marker i n e a r l i e r European s a m p l e s o r s y s t e m a t i c n o n r e p o r t i n g .

, !.

'f,

8,'

I

Trauma may r e f l e c t b o t h s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f a p o p u l a t i o n a n d demographic s t r e s s . For t h e M e s o l i t h i c t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are p r e s e n t e d by Constandse-Westennann and Newell ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Of i n t e r e s t was t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e t h e r c l e a r c a s e s o f t r a u m a r e f l e c t i n g c o n f l i c t a s opposed t o a c c i d e n t would i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c . The l o g i c b e h i n d t h i s s u g g e s t i o n l i e s i n t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t l a t e r M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s showed i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y and c o m p l e x i t y . I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t w i t h i n s u c h a continuum, a g g r e s s i o n i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h d e n s i t y . F o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c , trauma was a p p o r t i o n e d d i f f e r e n t l y between male and f e m a l e s a m p l e s , s u g g e s t i v e o f d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f l a b o r . Trauma a l s o i n c r e a s e d i n o l d e r i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h n o r e p o r t e d t r a u m a i n i n d i v i d u a l s l e s s t h a n 1 5 y e a r s o f a g e (N = 9) and w i t h a l l i n d i v i d u a l s o v e r 5 5 y e a r s o f a g e showing trauma (N = 3 ) . F i n a l l y , i n c i d e n c e o f t r a u m a was t e s t e d a g a i n s t c h r o n o l o g i c a l age o f t h e s p e c i m e n s . The r e s u l t s w e r e n o n s i g n i f i c a n t . A p a r t from f i v e c l e a r c a s e s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e i n v o l v i n g embedded p r o j e c t i l e s ( a l l m a l e ) , Constandse-Westemann and Newel1

"wel hypoplasia i s reported by B r o t h 2 2 (1963) i n a cornbined European and North African MesoZzthic series ( t o t a l N = 4 2 ) . However, without further partitioning o f the series i n t o i t s cmponent parts, the European frequencies cannot be computed.


88

c o n c l u d e t h a t r e p o r t e d trauma i n M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e s p r i m a r i l y r e p r e s e n t s a c c i d e n t a l i n j u r y r a t h e r t h a n group c o n f l i c t . Trauma a p p e a r s t o b e l e s s f r e q u e n t in t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e . Cases a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (seven s i t e s , t h r e e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ) . Only two i n v o l v e embedded p r o j e c t i l e s (Cai'res, T e r r e v a i n e 11). I t may t e n t a t i v e l y b e a r g u e d t h a t a r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l a c c i d e n t a l trauma r e f l e c t s a more s e d e n t a r y e x i s t e n c e . T h e r e i s a l s o no evidence f o r i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t . Dimorphism Dimorphism from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c h a s been d i s c u s s e d most s p e c i f i c a l l y by F r a y e r (1978, 1980, 1 9 8 1 ) . Using d e n t a l , c r a n i a l , and body s i z e d a t a h e a r g u e s f o r a d e c r e a s e i n dimorphism f o r t h i s p e r i o d . He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e r e l a t e s t o progressive q r a c i l i z a t i o n in t h e male sample, r e l a t e d to a d e c r e a s e i n r o b u s t i c i t y r e q u i r e d f o r M e s o l i t h i c a s o p p o s e d t o Upper P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t i n g a c t i v i t y , and t o i n c r e a s e d s h a r i n g o f economic c h o r e s a s one p r o c e e d s t o w a r d s t h e N e o l i t h i c ( F r a y e r 1 9 8 0 ) . He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s a s e l e c t i o n f o r r e d u c e d m e t a b o l i c demands ( F r a y e r 1 9 8 1 ) . Though F r a y e r (1981) r e j e c t s a n u t r i t i o n a l model f o r t h e change, i t m u s t remain a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e model. D e n t a l d i m e n s i o n s from o u r M e s o l i t h i c s a m p l e , which d i f f e r s from F r a y e r ' s sample, show t h e same d e c r e a s e i n dimorphism sugg e s t e d by P r a y e r (1978) ( B l a c h f o r d 1 9 8 2 ) . R e s u l t s f o r i n d i v i d u a l t e e t h d o , however, d i f f e r s l i g h t l y . F u l l r e s u l t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d e l s e w h e r e . We have n o t y e t a n a l y z e d o u r c r a n i o m e t r i c sample f o r c o n g r u i t y w i t h P r a y e r ' s r e s u l t s . When we compare o u r s t a t u r e d a t a w i t h t h o s e o f F r a y e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) , we f i n d t h e same o v e r a l l t r e n d s b u t t h e s c a l e i s r e d u c e d . When dimorphism i s c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y from s t a t u r e , t h e t r e n d is l e s s c l e a r t h a n i n d i c a t e d by F r a y e r . He i n d i c a t e s a change from 1 1 . 3 % i n t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o 7 .l% in t h e M e s o l i t h i c ( T a b l e 4 . 4 ) , a d e c r e a s e o f 37.2%. Our d a t a i n d i c a t e a change from o n l y 8 . 7 t o 7 . 8 % , a d e c r e a s e o f o n l y 1 0 . 3 % . F u r t h e r more, i n o u r r e s u l t s t h e r e i s a s u c c e e d i n g i n c r e a s e t o a dimorphism o f 8 . 6 1 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , back t o t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c figures . Stature Analysis o f s t a t u r e r e s t s on a s t r o n g e r base than does a n a l y s i s o f dimorphism. A c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a b a s e on s t a t u r e , however, i s d e r i v e d from s e v e r a l m e t h o d o l o g i e s o f v a r y i n g a c c u r a c y and comparability. Ail i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s o f s t a t u r a l t r e n d s (Key 1980) s u g g e s t e d a model o f s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e M e s o l i t h i c , followed by s t a t u r e i n c r e a s e from t h e N e o l i t h i c onward. Somewhat s i m i l a r r e s u l t s a r e s u g g e s t e d by F r a y e r (1980) i n t a b u l a r f o r m a t w i t h s m a l l sample s i z e s .

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

TABLE 4 . 4 .

Stature Estimations Prayer

-

Early Upper Paleolithic Male Female Late Upper Pateolz thi-c Male Fema l e Mesolithic Male Female Neoli-thzc Male Female Resulting DVnorp71zsm Early Upper Paleolithic Late Upper Pa'ieolithic Meso Zithic Neo Zithic

Current authors

-X

X

N

174.2 161.3

10

174.4 156.7

10 4

170.419 156.7 10

164.8 153.9

26

167.7 155.6

46 36

167.3 154.1

102 88

8.0% 11.3% 7.1%

N

ii

IS

8.7% 7.8% 8.6%

We h a v e expanded t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Key i n o r d e r t o h a v e f i r m e r f i g u r e s . Whereas Key used raw l i m b l e n g t h s i n h i s a n a l y s i s , we have u s e d s t a t u r e e s t i m a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e method o f T r o t t e r and G l e s e r ( 1 9 5 2 ) . T h i s p e r m i t s u s t o compare a l l i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom a n y l o n g bone l e n g t h s a r e r e p o r t e d a n d t o compare i n d i v i d u a l s with r e p o r t e d l o n g bone l e n g t h s t o i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom o n l y Trotter-Gleser s t a t u r e s a r e reported in t h e l i t e r a t u r e . (We r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o s a m p l e s f o r which e i t h e r raw l i m b l e n g t h s o r Trotter-Gleser estimates a r e reported. ) I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a b i l i t y i n r e l a t i v e l o n g bone l e n g t h s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , we a v e r a g e d t h e v a r i o u s s t a t u r e e s t i m a t i o n s i n t h o s e c a s e s where we had s e v e r a l b o n e s or bone combinat i o n s . We t h e n used r e g r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t u r e s a g a i n s t e s t i m a t e d a b s o l u t e a g e s f o r e a c h s i t e , u s i n g l i n e a r and q u a d r a t i c a p p r o a c h e s . F o r 1i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was a g e . F o r q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n o u r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was s t a t u r e ; o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , d a t e and d a t e 2 ( T a b l e 4 . 5 ) . The r e s u l t s a t t h i s s t a g e a r e c l e a r e r f o r t h e l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n than f o r t h e quadratic r e g r e s s i o n : t h e r e l a t i o n appears t o be l i n e a r . The o v e r a l l l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p = .05 l e v e l f o r combined male-female, m a l e , and f e m a l e s a m p l e s , i n d i c a t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e s t a t u r e from t h e


90

TABLE 4 . 5 .

S t a t u r a I Changea

\ Stature

Linear regression

Quadratic regression

C u l t u r a l period

Sex

ti

Upper P a l e o l i t h i c MesolithicNeolithic

M-F M F

301 167 134

161.93 167.76 154.69

p > .0012~ p > .0049~ p > .0471b p > . I 3 5 2 p > . 0 0 9 6 ~ p > .0347Â

UpperPaleoZithicMesolithic

M F

65 46

168.49 155.80

p > .I331 p>.1131

M-F M F

272 148 124

161.54 167.41 154.42

p > .0500b p > .I296 p > .9629 p > .9271 p > . 0 3 7 7 ~ p > .I136

Upper PaleoZzthzc

M F

19 10

170.43 156.73

p > .9l45 p > .018@

p > .8148 p > .0058~

Meso lit h i c

M 4 6 F 56

167.68 165.55

p > .8263 p>.2102

p > .a736 p>.3897

102 88

167.29 154.11

p>.6391 p > .3167

p>.0636~ p > .5701

MesoZÂ¥i,tkic Neolithic!

Neolithic

M

F

p > .3190 p>.2591

" ~ u et o space l i m i t a t i o n s we have p r e s e n t e d o n l y tests of s z g n i f i c a n c e . Full r e g r e s s i o n t a b l e s uill b e p u b l i s h e d w i t h our expanded a n a l y s i s . bsignifzcant. Â¡Th q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t b u t the q u a d r a t i c term f i . e . , [date] ) i s n o t . d ~ h equadratic: t e r n i s s i g n i f i c a n t ( i . e . , [ d a t e ] , p > . 0 2 1 8 ) .

Upper P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic. The trend appears t o be more strongly manifest i n the female sample than in t h e male sample. However, none of t h e subsarnples show a s i g n i f i c a n t decrease from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e Mesolithic. There is a s i g n i f i c a n t decrease from the Mesolithic t o t h e Neolithic i n t h e o v e r a l l and female samples. The female subsample i s defining the trend. Within individual time periods t h e only s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t i s t h e decrease i n female s t a t u r e during t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c . For t h e Neolithic we suspect a manifest c u r v i l i n e a r p a t t e r n , a trend toward decreasing s t a t u r e from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o the Neolithic b e i n g replaced by increasing s t a t u r e within t h e Neolithic. This can be t e s t e d only by adding t o our sample f o r Neolithic and post-Neolithic time periods. A t t h i s point we conclude t h a t there i s s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t u r e d e c l i n e from the Upper P a l e o l i t h i c through t h e Neolithic, with p o s s i b l e reversal from t h a t point onwards, i n agreement with ~ r a ~ (1980) e r and Key (1980).

4 THE MESOLITHIC

A N D NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

TABLE 4.6. Analysts o f Variance for the Region E f f e c t - Inland-Coastal Dichotomy

AN OVA^ f o r regzon e f f e c t

Sex

Reg ion

N

Male-Female

Coastal-inland Coastal Inland

11 1 81 27

p > .I167

163.23 162.55 165.36

Ma le

Coastal-inland Coastal I?$and

65 48 17

p > .3549

168.48 168.11 169.55

Female

Coastal-inland Coastal

46 36 10

p

155.81 155.13 158.24

In land

> .0603

Mean

aAIVOVA, anaZysis of variance.

A t t h i s t i m e , we c a n n o t i d e n t i f y t h e p o i n t a t which t h e change i n

d i r e c t i o n of t h e trend occurs. We a l s o examined o u r M e s o l i t h i c sample KUL a c o a s t a l - i n l a n d dichotomy, b a s e d o n s u g g e s t i o n s made t h a t t h e r e m i g h t b e s t a t u r a l s t u n t i n g i n s a m p l e s w i t h h i g h u s a g e o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s due t o t r a c e e l e m e n t i m b a l a n c e ( T a b l e 4 . 6 ) . Though t h e r e s u l t s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l i n l a n d s a m p l e s were t a l l e r f o r a g e t h a n c o a s t a l s a m p l e s i n a l l g r o u p s . F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d i n which percentage of marine r e s o u r c e s i s included a s a v a r i a b l e .

CONCLUSION

. .

-

T h i s survey attempts t o provide a base f o r f u r t h e r examination o f t r e n d s i n p a l e o p a t h o l o g y i n w e s t e r n and w e s t - c e n t r a l Europe d u r i n g t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c . The d a t a b a s e f o r t h e M e s o l i t h i c i s f u l l y i n c l u s i v e , t h e problem o f sample p r o v e n i e n c e being t h e s u b j e c t of i n t e n s i v e study. For t h e N e o l i t h i c t h e sample b a s e i s , a t b e s t , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , d e r i v e d from a p u b l i s h e d sample e m p h a s i z i n g r e c e n t work and l a r g e r sample s i z e s . I n g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e number o f o b v i o u s t r e n d s from t h e Mesol i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c i s low. F o r most c h a r a c t e r s t h e r e a r e no c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two b r o a d g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n , where t h e r e a r e p o t e n t i a l t r e n d s , t h e r e may be s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e interpretations.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLUOHN Â£ AL. F o r c r a n i a l and p o s t c r a n i a l p a t h o l o g y much t h a t is r e p o r t e d is i d i o s y n c r a t i c , o f low f r e q u e n c y , and w i t h o u t c l e a r i n t e r p r e t i v e mode f o r t h e s i t e and/or p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n . I n most c a s e s the n a t u r e of t h e d a t a does n o t permit r e c o g n i t i o n o f t r e n d s over time. With r e f e r e n c e t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and c o n c o m i t a n t e v i d e n c e o f s t r e s s , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f b o t h c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s is v e r y low i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l samples. Differences i n a r t h r i t i s p a t t e r n s probably r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e economic b a s e r a t h e r t h a n i n d i c a t e s t r e s s o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e change. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t e d i n c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y between t h e M e s o l i t h i c and t h e N e o l i t h i c , n o t a new f i n d i n g i n i t s e l f . T h i s i s , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b o t h d e n t a l wear and c o n d i t i o n of t h e a l v e o l a r p r o c e s s e s . However, o u r d a t a b a s e o n t h e l a t t e r two a r e a s is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n . I n a l l t h r e e c a s e s we may b e l o o k i n g a t e i t h e r i t e m s r e s u l t i n g from economic change o r i t e m s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e c a u s e o f t h e change. Tauber (1981) i n d i c a t e s a m a j o r d i e t a r y s h i f t a t t h e M e s o l i t h i c - N e o l i t h i c boundary u s i n g 13c c o n t e n t . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , t h e d a t a on g r o u p trauma a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i r e c t l y between trauma r e l a t e d t o economic a c t i v i t y and trauma r e s u l t i n g from v i o l e n c e i n a p o p u l a t i o n s u b j e c t t o dens i t y s t r e s s . Though w e m i g h t p r e d i c t i n c r e a s e d v i o l e n c e from dens i t y d a t a , we a r e u n a b l e t o c o n f i r m i t . Our most s u q g e s t i v e e v i d e n c e r e l a t e s t o s t a t u r a l c h a n q e . S t a t u r e d e c r e a s e s from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t h r o u g h t h e Mesol i t h i c . I n c r e a s e i s s u g g e s t e d o n c e t h e N e o l i t h i c i s underway. One mode o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would v i e w t h e d e c l i n e a s r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s , a l l e v i a t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f o o d p r o d u c i n g . However, t h i s view i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n t t r e n d s i n m a l e s and f e m a l e s . Thus we h a v e models b a s e d e i t h e r o n dietary s t r e s s o r , per Prayer, on a l t e r a t i o n s i n a c t i v i t y pattern. The l i m i t s o f o u r d a t a sample n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e r e s u l t s reported h e r e do appear t o confirm p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d p a t t e r n s o f s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y f o r t h e r e g i o n (Dastugue 1979; Dastugue and d e Lumley 1 9 7 6 a , b ) and t o c o n f i r m t h e r e s u l t s of more s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d i e s such a s t h o s e o f t e e t h by B r a b a n t (1965, 1 9 6 8 , 1969) . Thus we f e e l t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e c u r r e n t work i n Europe displayed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . We c a u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e u s e o f t h e s e d a t a e i t h e r t o s u p p o r t o r t o deny p a r t i c u l a r models o f c a u s e and e f f e c t o f t h e socioeconomic c h a n g e s from t h e l a t e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c t o t h e N e o l i t h i c . Though we a r e c o n f i d e n t o f o u r c o v e r a g e o f t h e Mesol i t h i c , sample s i z e i s a l i m i t a t i o n a t p r e s e n t . F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c it i s c l e a r t h a t s a m p l e s e x i s t t h a t c a n p r o v i d e c r i t i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e q u e s t i o n s a s k e d in t h i s volume. However, few a r e p u b l i s h e d i n a manner p e r m i t t i n g a n s w e r s t o demographic, a s opposed t o c l i n i c a l , questions.

-

4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

APPENDIX

.

93

Neolzthzc Materials i n t h e Study

Country/Site Netherlands Mo Lenaarsgraa f Swif terbant ,521

Swifterbant 522

Bezgznm Avennes HastzSre Obourg e t Str6py Porte-A't-ve Sp-iennes France Abri Pendimoun ArgenieuzZ Barbonne-Fayo l Baumes-Cfiaudeo Bea-des-Dew-Eaw Caxires Conf tans-Sawte-Honorine Dolmen de l a Roche Dolmen des Bretons Dolmen de V i l l a i n e Z 'E l a n g - l a - V a e Eteauvz l l e Feignem

Number o f zndivzduals

References Knzp (1974) Meikle john and Cons tandse Westermann (1978); Constandse-Uestermann and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and Cons tandseWeetemann (1978); Constandse- Westermartn and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and ConstandseWestermann (1978); Coiwtandse- Westermann and Meiklejohn (1979) Meiklejohn and ConstandseW e e t e m n n (1978); Constandse-Westemam and MezkZejdIin (1979) Meiklejohn and Constandse Westennann ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; Constandse- Westermann and Me-iklejohn (1979) Janssens (1960); Verdin ( 1959) Rzquet ( 1963a) Riquet (1963b) Rzquet (1963b) Riquet (1963b) de Lumley (1962) k r r o q u e and R-iquet (1966) h r r o q u e and Rzquet (1966) T o u r e r n e (1062) Rzquet and Cordier (1957) Charles (1959) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Rzquet and Coradier (1958) Fust6 (1952) Rzquet ( 1 9 7 2 ~ ) h r r c q u e and Riquet (1966) N o d e t a l . (1965) Larroque and Riquet (1966); Patte (1976)

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ETAL.

94

Appendix (continued) Country/Site France continued Fontenay- le-Mamzon

Grotte de l a Route L ' H o r n-Mort Lapis Coguet Harly- le-Roz Mateltea Meudm Nogent-les -Vierges Pas-Estret Rouf f ignac Rouvignoux Tanco'LgnS Terrevaine ( 2 s i t e s ) VaurSal Vernou VicheZ-ManZeuzZ Vigneau Portugal Buga lhezra en Almonda Carvalhal de Aljubarrota Casa de Mourn Casal Pardo Cascazs (Pogo Velho) Fontainhas Logares Monte Pedrogo Vwioso Zarnbujal

Number of individua 2s

References Dastugue e t a l . (1973); Tome and Dastugue (1976); Brabant and Lecacheux (1973) A d and Rzquet (1956) Toureitte (1962) Patte (1971) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Brabant e t a t . (1961) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Larroque and Riquet (1966) Ampouknge (19531 Sahly e t a l . (1962) Charles (1970) Patte (1953) Charles (1952) L m o q u e and Rzquet (1966) Riquet and Cordier (1953) Larroque and Rzquat (1966) Riquet and Cordier (1958) Riquet Riquet Riquet Riquet Riquet Rzquet Rzquet Riquet RLquet

(1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b) (1972b)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ampoulanqe, A . 1953 S6pulture n 6 o l i t h i q u e dans un gisement du p a l 6 o l i t h i q u e s u p 6 r i e u r . Bulletin de l a Socri6t6 PrShistori-que Franoaise SO: 613-624. Arnal, J . , and R . Riquet 1956 La Grotte de l a Route, Saint-Martin-de-Londres ( 1 'Herault) . Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 PrShistorique Frangaise 53:64-79. Brabant, H . , and B . Lecacheux 1973 Etude de l a denture d e s r e s t e s hmnaines d'Sqe N e o l i t h i q u e trouv6s dans l e tumulus de l a Hoquette & Fontenay-leMannion (Normandie) . Bulletin du Groupement Internationaz pour la Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e en S t m a t o l o g i e 1 6 ~ 1 3 1 - 1 6 2 .

4 THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC Of-' WESTERN EUROPE

Appendix (Continued) B r a b a n t , H . , A. S a h l y , a n d M. Bouyssou 1 9 6 1 Etude d e s d e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e l a s t a t i o n a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e d e s M a t e l l e s ( d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e 1' t l e r a u l t , F r a n c e ) .

Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche Scientifzque en Stmatologze 4:382-448.

Charles, R. P. 1952 Les S 6 p u l t u r e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d e T e r r e v a i n e p r & s d e l a C i o t a t (B. du Rh. ) . Cahzers Ligures 1 :29-61. 1959 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s r e s t e s humaines du Dclmen d e s C a d r e s , commune de L a i s s a c (Aveyron) . Bulletin de la S o d t 6 Pr6historzque Fran~azse56:118-120. 1970 Les S u j e t s n e o l i t h i q u e s d e l a g r o t t e I du Ravin d e Rouvignoux. Cahzere Ligures 19:119-148. Constandse-Westennann, T. S . , and C . M e i k l e j o h n 1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Hezininm 19:237-266. Dastuque, J . , S. T o r r e , and L. Buchet 1 9 7 3 N e o l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme tumulus d e Fontenay-le-Karrnion (etude anthropologique) . LrAnthropologze 77:579-619. d e Lumley, M. A . 1962 ~ g s i o n so s s e u s e s d e l'honunc d e C a s t e l l a r ( A . M . ) .

Bulletin du Musde drAnthmpologie PpShzstorique de Monaco 9 : 191-205. F u s t 6 , M. 1952 Les o s s e m e n t s humaines du dolmen d e s B r e t o n s , Marne.

Bulletins e t Mmoires de l a Socz6t6 d 'Anthropologze de Paris Ser. 1 0 3:118-155.

J a n s s e n s , P. 1 9 6 0 Le s q u e l e t t e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d l A v e n n e s : S a p e r f o r a t i o n s t e r n a l e . Bulletin de la SoCl6t6 Royale Beige d1Anthfop020ffi.e e t de Prbhistoire 71 :43-46. Knip, A . S. 1974 L a t e N e o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n f i n d s from M o l e n a a r s q r a a f (Z. H . ) . A d e c t a Praehistor'iaa Leidensia 7 : 379-396. L a r r o q u e , J . M. , and R . R i q u e t 1966 Documents a n t h r o p o l o q i q u e s i n S d i t s s u r l a c i v i l i z a t i o n d e l a S e i n e - O i s e - ~ a r n e . Bulletins e t MSmotves de la Soci6t6 d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 11 9 : 29-43. M e i k l c j o h n , C . , and T. S . Constandse-Wcstcnnann 1978 The human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t , E a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . Palaeohzstoria 20:39-89. Nouel, A., M . Dauvois, G . B a i l l o u d , R . R i q u e t , T. P o u l a i n - J o s i e n , N . P l a n c h a i s , and P . lioremans 1 9 6 5 L ' o s s u a i r e n e o l i t h i q u c d l E t e a u v i l l e , Commune d e Lutz-enDunois ( E u r e - e t - ~ o i r ). Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 Prehzstorique Fraryaise 62: 576-648.

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN ET ML.

Appendix (Continued) P a t t e , E. 1953 S e p u l t u r e n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e Tancoign6 ( M a i n e - e t - L o i r e ) . M i a 11:273-282. 1 9 7 1 L e s r e s t e s humaines d e l a g r o t t e S 6 p u l c r a l e du L a r i s Goquet 3 Feigneux ( O i s e ) . Bulletins e t M6moires de 'la Societe d 'Anthropologie de Paris Ser 12 7: 381-452. 1976 0s p a t h o l o g i q u e o u anormaux d e l a g r o t t e d e F e i g n e u x ( O i s e ) . L'Ant'hropoZogie 80: 655-668. Riquet, R. 1963a L e s N 6 o l i t h i q u e s d l H a s t i & r e . m e t i n de l a SoczetS Royale Beige dlAnthropoZogie e t de Prehistoire 73: 57-116. 1963b Q u e l q u e s c r S n e s N b l i t h i q u e s B e l g e s . m e t i n de 'La

SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire 73 : 117-137. Le s i t e a r c h 6 o l o g i q u e d u Dolmen d e V i l l a i n e 3 S u b l a i n e s ( I n d r e - e t - L a i r e ) . Gallia Prehistoire 1 5 :93-110. 1972b A n t h r o p o l o g i e d e q u e l q u e s N e o l i t h i q u e s P o r t u g a i s . Homo 23:154-187. R i q u e t , R. , a n d G . C o r d i e r 1 9 5 3 Une S e p u l t u r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e & Vernou ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) . Bulletin de la Soci6t6 PrShistorique Franpise 50:518-527. 1957 L ' o s s u a i r e N 6 o l i t h i q u e d u Bec-des-Deux-Eaux, Commune d e Ports ( I n d r c - e t - L o i r c ) . L'AnthropoZogie 61:2B-44. 1 9 5 8 L ' o s s u a i r e d u Vigneau e t l e Dolmen d e l a Roche, commune d e Manthelan ( I n d r e - e t - L o i r e ) . L 'Anthropologze 6 2 :1-29. S a h l y , A . , H . B r a b a n t , a n d M. Bouyssou 1962 O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l e s d e n t s e t les m a x i l l a i r e s d u M s o l i t h i q u e e t d e 1'Age du f e r , trouv6s dans l a g r o t t e d e R o u f f i q n a c , d 6 p a r t e m e n t d e l a Dordogne, F r a n c e . Bulletin du Groupement International pour l a Recherche Sczentzfique en Stomatologie 5:252-285. T o r r e , S . , and J . Dastuque 1976 N b l i t h i q u e s d e Basse-Normandie. Le deuxifeme t u m u l u s d e Fontenay-le-Mannion ( P a t h o l o q i e ) . L rAnthcopologze 8 0 : 625-653. T o u r e i l l e , M. 1962 L e s s q u e l e t t e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e . s d e s Baumes-Chaudes e t d e 1 ' Homrne-Mort . L 'Anthropologie 66: 44-68. V e r d i n , G. 1959 Le n 6 o l i t h i q u e d e l a V a l l 6 e d e l a M6haigne (Hesbaye E t u d e Morphologique e t a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e d e s Li&goise). m e t i n de 'id o s s e m e n t s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s d'Avennes. 1972a

SociSte Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de Prehistoire 70: 46-54.

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The a u t h o r s acknowledge t h e numerous c o l l e a g u e s who h a v e graciously permitted collection of Mesolithic data within t h e i r c o n t r o l . Funds f o r v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r a t i o n have been r e c e i v e d by t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r from t h e Canada C o u n c i l , S o c i a l S c i e n c e and H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f Canada, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. The s e n i o r a u t h o r t h a n k s D r . T. S . Constandse-Westermann, U n i v e r s i t y o f U t r e c h t , and D r . Raymond R . N e w e l l , U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningcn, f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e and i n a n a l y s i s o f i t s p r o v e n i e n c e . The M e s o l i t h i c d a t a b a s e used i s t h e r e s u l t o f c o o p e r a t i v e work between 1976 and 1981.

REFERENCES

. 8

I

J

Anunennan, A . L . , and L. L. C a v a l l i - S f o r z a 1 9 7 3 A p o p u l a t i o n model f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f e a r l y f a r m i n g i n Europe. I n The explanation o f culture change: Models i n prehistory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p . 343-357. Duckworth, London. B i n f o r d , L. R . 1973 Interassemblage v a r i a b i l i t y - - t h e Nousterian and t h e " f u n c t i o n a l " a r g u m e n t . I n The explanation of c u b e change: ttodels in prehi-etory, e d i t e d b y C . Renfrew, p p . 227-254. Duckworth, London. Blachford , L. 1982 D e n t a l t r e n d s i n P a l a e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c E u r o p e . U n p u b l i s h e d ins. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. B o u v i l l e , C . , T. S . Constandse-Westennann, a n d R. R . Newell 1 9 8 3 L ~ sr e s t e s humains M i s s o l i t h i q u e s d e 1 ' A b r i C o r n i l l e , I s t r e s (B. d e R.). Bulletzns e t MSrnoires de l a SoczSt6 d'Anthropologze de Paris S e r . 1 3 , v o l . 1 0 , p p . 89-110. B r a b a n t , ti.

1965

de l a RScherche S c i e n t i f i q u e en Stamatobgie I?~tep~zatÂ¥Lona

!'

1968

1969 L

Observations s u r l ' e v o l u t i o n d e l a denture temporaire huniaine e n ~ u r o p eo c c i d c n t a l e . Bulletin du Groupement 8:235-302. La d e n t u r e humaine 5 1 ' 6 p o q u e N e o l i t h i q u e .

Bulletin de l a Soci6t6 Royale Beige dlAnthropologie e t de PrShzstoire 7 9 : 105-141. Observations s u r l e s d e n t s d e s populations megalithiques d 'Europe o c c i d e n t a l e BuZZe tin du Groupement International de l a Recherche Scientzfzque en Stcmatologze 22 :429-460.

.

98

CHRISTOPHER MEIKLEJOHN Â£ AL.

Brothwell, D . R. 1963 The macroscopic d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y o f some e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n s . I n Dental anthropology, e d i t e d by D . R . B r o t h w e l l , p p . 271-288. Macrnillan, New York. Burch, E . S . , J r . 1972 The c a r i b o u / w i l d r e i n d e e r a s a human r e s o u r c e . American Antiquity 37:339-368. Campbell, J . B . , J r . 1977 The Upper Palaeozzthic o f Britain: A 6 b d y o f man and nature zn the l a t e zce age. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s ( C l a r e n d o n ) , London and New York . C a r n e i r o , R . L . , and D . F. H i l s e 1966 On d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o b a b l e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c . American Anthropologist 68:177-181. Constandse-Westennann, T . S . , a n d C. M e i k l e j o h n 1979 The human r e m a i n s from S w i f t e r b a n t . Helinium 19:237-266. Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , a n d R. R . Newell 1984 M e s o l i t h i c trauma: Demographical and c h r o n o l o g i c a l t r e n d s i n Western E u r o p e . Proceedings of the 4th European PaZaeopathoZogy Conference, Middelburg/Antwerpen , 1 9 8 2 , i n press. Constandse-Westermann, T . S . , C . M e i k l e j o h n , a n d R . R. Newel1 1984 A r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e M e s o l i t h i c s k e l e t o n from R a s l - e l , Commune d e P e i l l o n , Alpes - M a r i t i m e s , F r a n c e . BuZletin du Musee dlAnthropoZogie PrShistopique du Monaco 26: 75-89. Dastugue, J . 1979 P a t h o l o q i e d e s M 6 s o l i t h i q u e s d e F r a n c e . LIAnthropologze 83:602-625. Dastugue, J . , and M . A . d e Lumley 19766 Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 1 1 i s t o r i q u e s du P a l 6 o l i t h i q u e e t du M 6 s o l i t h i q u e . I n La prShistoire f r a n e s e (Vol. I ) , e d i t e d by 13. d e Lumley, p p . 612-622. Centre Nationale Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . 1976b Les m a l a d i e s d e s h o m e s p r 6 h i s t o r i q u e s . I n La pr6histoire franyaise (Vol. 11) , e d i t e d by J . G u i l a n e , p p . 153-164. C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . d e Lumley, H . ( e d i t o r ) 1976 La prbhi-stoire franfazae (Vol. I ) . C e n t r e N a t i o n a l s Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e , P a r i s . F r a y e r , D. W. 1978 The e v o l u t i o n o f t h e d e n t i t i o n i n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c Europe. University of Kansas P u b Z i c a t h i n Anthropology No. 1 0 . 1960 S e x u a l dimorphism and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n t h e Late P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene o f Europe. ~ o u r n a lof Human Evolution 9:399-415. 1 9 8 1 Body s i z e , weapon u s e a n d n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n i n t h e European Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c . ~ m e r i c a n Anthropologist 83:57-73.

4

THE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC OF WESTERN EUROPE

Gramsch , B. ( e d i t o r ) 1981 Mesolithikum i n Europa .

Ver'SffentZichungen dm Museums fUr Ur-und Fruhgeschichte Potsdam NO. 14-15.

Guilane, J . 1979 The e a r l i e s t N e o l i t h i c in t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n : A new a p p r a i s a l . Antiquity 53 : 22-30. Henqen, 0. P . 1 9 7 1 C r i b r a o r b i t a l i a : P a t h o g e n e s i s and p r o b a b l e e t i o l o g y . Homo 2 2 ~ 5 7 - 7 6 . Key, P . 1980 E v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s i n f e m o r a l s e x u a l dimorphism from t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o t h e l a t e Middle Ages i n E u r o p e . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 52:244. Kozlowski, S . K . ( e d i t o r ) 1973 The Mesolithic i n Europe. Warsaw U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw. L a r s s o n , L. 1980 S t e n a l d e r s j a g a r n a s b o p l a t s o c h g r a v a r v i d Skateholm. Limhamniana 1980:13-39. ~ r 8 n 1981 En 7 , 0 0 0 - Â ¤ r i S y d k u s t b o p l a t s . N y t t om 9-lt Skateholm. L~hcOTff~iana 1981 :17-46. 1982 S k a t e h o l m s p r o j e k t e t . Nys g r a v a r och e t t n y t t q r a v f a l t ~ r s n~ ~ q a r s t e n 8 l d e r n Limhamnima . 1962 :11-41. L a r s s o n , L . , C. M e i k l e j o h n , and R. R . Newel1 1 9 8 1 Human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from t h e M e s o l i t h i c s i t e o f AgerBd I : 1IC , S c a n i a , S o u t h e r n Sweden. t'ornvtinnen 76 : 161-168. L a v i l l e , H . , J . P . Rigaud, a n d J . S a c k e t t 1 9 8 0 Rock shelters of t h e Perigord. Academic P r e s s , New York. Lewthwaite, J. 1 9 8 1 Ambiguous f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s : A s u r v e y o f r e c e n t work on t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c o f t h e West M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Journal of t-lediterranean Archaeology and Anthropology 1:292-307. Meiklejohn, C. 1977 G e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d demo s t r u c t u r e : C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Athapaskan/Algonkian continuum. i n Problems i n t h e prehistory of the North American Suba r c t i c : The Athapaskan question, e d i t e d b y J. H e h e r , F. J . Kense, and J . Van Dyke, p p . 106-110. U n i v e r s i t y of Calgary, Calgary. 1 9 7 8 E c o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and g r o w t h i n L a t e G l a c i a l a n d E a r l y P o s t g l a c i a l N o r t h w e s t e r n Europe. I n

The Early PostgZacial settlement of Northern Europe, e d i t e d by P. M e l l a r s , p p . 6 5 - 7 9 . Duckworth, London. M e i k l e j o h n , C . , a n d T . S. Constandse-Westennann 1 9 7 8 The human s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l from S w i f t o r b a n t , E a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . I . I n v e n t o r y and demography. Pa h e o h i s t o r i a 20 : 39-89. M e l l a r s , P. ( e d i t o r ) 1978 The Early Postglaazal settlement of Northern Europe. Duckworth, London.

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Milisauskas , S . 1978 European prehistory. Academic P r e s s , New York. Newell, R . R. 1973 The p o s t g l a c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e Northwest European p l a i n . I n The Mesolithic i n Europe, e d i t e d by S . K. Kozlowski, p p . 399-440. Warsaw U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Warsaw. Newell, R. R. , and S H . Anderson 1982 The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c bone t o o l s . Unpublished M.S. o n f i l e , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningen, Groningen, t h e Netherlands. Newell, R . R . , T. S. Constandse-Westemann, a n d C. M e i k l c j o h n 1979 The s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s o f M e s o l i t h i c man i n Western Europe: An e v a l u a t i v e c a t a l o g u e . Journal of Human EvoZution 8 : 1-228. Newell, R. R . , A . L . van G i j n , D. Kielman, a n d W. van d e r Sanden 1982 An e n q u i r y i n t o t h e e t h n i c r e s o l u t i o n o f M e s o l i t h i c r e g i o n a l groups: A s t u d y o f t h e i r d e c o r a t i v e ornaments i n s p a c e and t i m e . Unpublished M.S. on f i l e , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Groningcn, Groningen, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . Rozoy, 3. G . 1978 Les derniera chaeseure: L'EpipaZkolzthiq~een France e t en Belgique. S o c i 6 t 6 Arch6ologique Chanipenolse, Charleville-Mezisrcs. S c h e n t a g , C. 1982 The b i a s i n h e r e n t i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f p a t h o l o g y o n s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s : A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Unpublished M.S. o n f i l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Winnipeg. S l o b o d k i n , L. B . , and H . L. S a n d e r s 1968 On t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e d i c t a b i l i t y t o s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y . Brookhaven Symposia i n Biology 2 2 : 62-95. S p i e s s , A. 1979 Reindeer and caribou hunters: A n archaeological study. Academic P r e s s , New York. Tauber, H. 1981 1 3 e~v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y h a b i t s o f p r e h i s t o r i c man i n Denmark. Nature (Landon) 292: 332-333. T r o t t e r , M . , and G . C . G l e s e r 1952 E s t i m a t i o n o f s t a t u r e from l o n g b o n e s o f American w h i t e s and Negroes. American J o u d of Physical Anthropology 1 0 : 463-514. Wobst, H. M. 1976 L o c a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n P a l e o l i t h i c s o c i e t y . Journal of Human Evolution 5:49-58.

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CHAPTER 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE DURING THE LATE PLEISTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE I N THE LEVANT

P a t r i c i a 3mith Department o f Anatomy Hebrew University-Hadassah School o f D e n t a l Medicine

Ofer Bar-Yosef I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , M t . Scopus Canpus

N a t i o n a l Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Srnithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n

INTRODUCTION

I n t h e Levant t h e p e r i o d between t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c , d a t i n g from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 , 0 0 0 B.C., i s g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " ~ p i p a l e o l i t h i c . " ~s e v e r a l overviews of t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c and N e o l i t h i c sequence i n t h e Levant h a v e been p u b l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s (Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 S l a , b , 1978; Cauvin 1978; Redman 1 9 7 8 ) . These r e v i e w s n e c e s s a r i l y have emphasized a q e o q r a p h i c a l approach t o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ~ u e s t i o n s , s i n c e t h e r e g i o n encompassed by t h e term "Levant" i s s o e c o l o g i c a l l y d i v e r s e ( F i g . 5 . 1 ) . F o r example, i n t h i s s m a l l a r e a of t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , one can d e f i n e a t l e a s t t h r e e t o p o g r a p h i c b e l t s ( t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , t h e e a s t e r n mountains and c e n t r a l h i g h l a n d s , a n d t h e r i f t v a l l e y ) as w e l l a s three major v e g e t a -

he term "Mesolithic" -uas abandoned .?or t k e Near East 1 5 years ago; most archaeologists p r e f e r t o Zir-it i t s use t o northwestern Europe during t h e e a r l y HoZocene (Koslouski 1 9 7 3 ) .

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL.

FIGURE 5 . 1 . Map of Southern Levant indicating rnay'or geographic subdiuisioiis.

5

THE LATE PLElSTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

ALILEE C A R M E L

BASED

HIGHLANDS

and

IE COASTAL P L A I N

THE B E Q A A 3""

JORDAN VALLEY

GEOMETRIC K E B A R A N

LATE L E V A N T I N E AURIGNACIAN and LATE BLADElBLADELET INDUSTRlE'i

FIGURE 5.2. ArchaeoZogicaZ sequence ir. rridor geoyaphioal regions o f t h e southern Levant ( t a k e n fro- Bar-Ycsef 2 9 8 0 ) . t i o n a l r e g i o n s (the M e d i t e r r a n e a n F o r e s t b e l t , Irano-Turanian s t e p p e , and Saharo-Sindian d e s e r t ) . R e g i o n a l s t u d i e s of s m a l l a r e a s w i t h i n the Levant nevertheless have been s u c c e s s f u l , and a s 14c dates have become available, t h e

Ill4


s e q u e n c e f o r each subzone h a s been compared t o t h a t o f i t s n e i g h b o r s ( s e e Bar-Yosef 1 9 8 1 a , b f o r a p p e n d i c e s o f 1 4 d~a t e s ) . T h i s regional approach has enabled u s t o b u i l d archaeological sequences ( F i g u r e 5 . 2 ) and t o f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g s e a s o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , long-range d i f f u s i o n s , p a t t e r n s o f exchange, e t c . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , we w i l l summarize t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t and d i e t a r y change o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c arid N e o l i t h i c i n t h e r e g i o n . I t s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are of u n e q u a l q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y . F o r example, t h e p a l e o b o t a n i c a l f i n d s a r e s c a r c e and sometimes o f d o u b t f u l n a t u r e , w h i l e t h e f a u n a l c o l l e c t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y abundant b u t i n many c a s e s have been s t u d i e d o n l y p a r t i a l l y ( i . e . , mammals a l o n e ) . Even t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains p e r s e ( s t r u c t u r a l r e l i c t s , s t o n e t o o l s , e t c . ) have n o t a l w a y s been a d e q u a t e l y p u b l i s h e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e l a s t decade h a s s e e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e number o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r s t u d y i s on t h e i n c r e a s e . Also, t h e d a t a a r e complementary i n n a t u r e , b e i n g d e r i v e d from d i s p a r a t e s o u r c e s . F o r example, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amount o f meat v e r s u s v e g e t a b l e f o o d s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a r c h a e o l o q i c a l s e q u e n c e a l o n e . However, t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d does p r o v i d e a good i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c f o o d s l i k e l y t o have been u t i l i z e d . The s k e l e t a l e v i dence complements t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n by p r o v i d i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e evidence f o r c l a s s e s of foods e x p l o i t e d (e.q., strontium a n a l y s e s ) and n u t r i t i o n ( e . g . , d e n t a l , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l d a t a ) . An i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h s h o u l d t h e n p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y complete p i c t u r e of s o c i a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , and d i e t a r y change. We o f f e r t h i s c h a p t e r a s an i n t e r i m r e p o r t i n t h i s ongoing c o o p e r a t i v e e f fort.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR DIETARY CHANGE

D i r e c t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change can b e der i v e d from t h r e e s o u r c e s : (1) s h i f t s i n t h e v e g e t a l d i e t a s exh i b i t e d i n t h e p l a n t and s e e d remains: ( 2 ) s h i f t s i n t h e f a u n a l s p e c t r a a s compiled from bone c o l l e c t i o n s of h u n t e d and/or d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s ; and ( 3 ) changes i n t o o l s u s e d f o r f o o d c o l l e c t i o n , s t o r a g e , p r e p a r a t i o n , e t c . P o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y can a l s o be a d d r e s s e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e number and s i z e of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sites. The a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on each o f t h e s e p o i n t s f o r t h e Levant i s o u t l i n e d below.

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENE/EARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

105

S i t e S i z e a s an E x p r e s s i o n f o r P o p u l a t i o n I n c r e a s e / D e c r e a s e S i t e s i z e d u r i n g t h e Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran ( c i r c a 17.000-10.500 B.C. ranged from 2 5 t o 400 m 2 (and i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p r e c e d i n g Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d ) . I t s h i f t e d i n t o l a r g e r u n i t s (up t o 3000 m2 a s a c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e ) i n t h e N a t u f i a n (10,500-8500 B.C.) w i t h e v i d e n c e f o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e A considerable mains (rounded s t r u c t u r e s , t e r r a c e w a l l s , e t c . ) i n c r e a s e t o o k p l a c e i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A p e r i o d , when t h e l a r q e s t s i t e s were 2-4 h a . i n a r e a ( N e t i v Hagdud, G i l g a l I , J e r i c h o ) . The maximal s i z e m a i n t a i n e d i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e "PreP o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B" p e r i o d ( u n t i l 6000 B . C . ) b u t dropped l a t e r i n t h e southern Levant. I n t h e n o r t h e r n Levant ( n o r t h e r n S y r i a and s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a ) , t h e s i z e i n c r e a s e t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e s e v e n t h millennium B.C. (up t o 12 h a . ) m a i n t a i n e d i t s s t e a d y growth. P o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e s d e r i v e d from s i t e s i z e were r e c e n t l y g i v e n d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n (Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) . However, i n view of t h e They f r a g m e n t a r y d a t a , we p r e f e r even more c a u t i o u s e s t i m a t e s . a r e a s follows: ( 1 ) Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran: 5-15 p e r i o n s / s i t e l o r p e r h a p s one t o t h r e e n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s ) ; ( 2 ) an i n c r e a s e t o 30-50 p e r s o n s / s i t e d u r i n g t h e N a t u f i a n ; and ( 3 ) ano t h e r i n c r e a s e ( c a . 8500-8000 B . C . ) t o 300-2000 p e r s o n s / s i t e (Bar-Yosef 1981a; Hassan 1 9 8 1 ) .

.

Functional Aspects of t h e L i t h i c I n d u s t r i e s The main t e c h n o l o g i c a l chanqes o v e r t h e c o u r s e of t i m e were i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of b l a n k s . While t h e e a r l i e r complexes were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b l a d e l e t m a n u f a c t u r e ( f o r s h a p i n g m i c r o l i t h s ) , a small i n c r e a s e i n blades i s noted i n t h e Natufian and a higher one i n t h e Khiamian (when m i c r o l i t h i c t o o l s d e c r e a s e d t o a b o u t 25% o f t h e t o t a l a s s e m b l a g e ) . Around 8000 B . C . b l a d e p r o d u c t i o n i s dominant ( a l o n q w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f numerous a x e s - a d z e s , flake tools, etc.). B l a d e s were shaped i n t o arrowheads, s i c k l e b l a d e s , saw b l a d e s , e t c . S i c k l e b l a d e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by t h e c l e a r l u s t e r on one o r two edges and t h e y became a c o n s t a n t component of e a c h assemblage (up t o 7% of t h e t o t a l " t o o l s " ) from Ext h e N a t u f i a n onwards ( u n t i l t h e I r o n Age, i . e , 600 B . C . ) p e r i m e n t a l work a s w e l l as microwear a n a l y s i s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t the c o n t e n t i o n of Garrod and N e u v i l l e was p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t and t h e s p e c i f i c sheen r e s u l t e d from c u t t i n g c e r e a l s (Anderson 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , o n e may s t i l l i n f e r from t h e s e d a t a t h a t t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e o f c e r e a l s a s a s t a p l e food was commenced by t h e N a t u f i a n s even though t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h i s r e s o u r c e was utilized earlier. Grinding s t o n e s occur archacoloqically a t l e a s t since t h e e a r l y m i l l e n n i a of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c i n t h e L e v a n t . Pounding s t o n e s a r e known a l r e a d y from Kebaran a n d Geometric Kebaran s i t e s (Figure 5.2). T h e i r p u r p o s e i s u n c l e a r ; t h e y c o u l d have been u s e d

.

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PATRICIA SMITH CT AL.

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f o r p r o c e s s i n g a c o r n s and w i l d c e r e a l g r a i n s ( p r o b a b l y a f t e r r o a s t i n g ) , a s w e l l a s f o r pounding o c h r e . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f pounding c e r e a l s seems t o f i t t h e model t h a t i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e c a r e m o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a s p r e a d a p t a t i o n p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n . I n d e e d , t h e N a t u f i a n b a s e camps p r o v i d e l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s o f pounding t o o l s and s i c k l e b l a d e s a s mentioned e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n ( s e e Bar-Yosef i 9 8 1 a ) . A d i s c e r n i b l e s h i f t occurred with t h e Pre-Pottery Neolithic A when t h e number of cup h o l e s a n d g r i n d i n g t o o l s ( q u e r n s and handstones) increased considerably. T h i s phenomenon c o r r e l a t e s w e l l w i t h t h e c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r d o m e s t i c a t e d wheat and b a r l e y (Cauvin 1978; Hopf 1 9 6 9 ) . From c i r c a 7500 B.C. t h e g r i n d i n g s t o n e s became a l m o s t t h e s o l e t y p e o f p r o c e s s i n g d e v i c e and t h i s was maint a i n e d through t h e following millennia i n t h e Levant. The d i f f u s i o n of g r i n d i n g s t o n e s i n t o t h e d e s e r t i c r e g i o n t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h millennium o r s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r (by a few c e n t u r i e s ) . I f t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e r e i s a s h o r t l a p s e of t i m e (sever?.." hundred y e a r s ) b e f o r e t h e g r o u p s who e x p l o i t e d t h e s e m i a r i d z o n e s a d o p t t h e new t o o l s . I t i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e y grew t h e c e r e a l s o r o b t a i n e d them from t h e f a r m e r s o f t h e The p a l e o c l i m a t i c e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o a w e t t e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. p e r i o d ( t h e s e v e n t h millennium B . C . ) , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c u l t i v a t i n g b a r l e y during a seasonal migratory p a t t e r n ( l i k e t h a t of Bedouin g r o u p s ) s h o u l d n o t be r u l e d o u t .

The B o t a n i c a l Remains The s c a r c i t y o f p a l e o b o t a n i c a l remains i s p a r t l y , b u t n o t s o l e l y , due t o t h e u s e o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e past. The main r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f p l a n t remains a r e t h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e d e p o s i t s and t h e s e a s o n a l c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s t y p i c a l o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n zone. The a n n u a l w e t t i n g and d r y i n g o f t h e c l a y e y terra rossa s o i l s and o f t h e loamy c l a y harnra s o i l s ( i n t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n ) d e s t r o y e d most o f t h e o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e s i t e s under d i s c u s s i o n . Moreover, t h e summer c r a c k i n g of t h e s e s o i l s e n a b l e d minute specimens t o p e n e t r a t e e a r l i e r l a y e r s . A s a r e s u l t , even t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h a r c o a l samples f o r d a t i n g i s l i m i t e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f a i r l y good The s i t u a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of bones compensates f o r t h i s . s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s is t h e r e v e - t s e ; char-coal i s w e l l p r e s e r v e d but The b e t t e r p r e s e r v a t i o n of p l a n t t h e bones have m o s t l y decayed. remains o c c u r r e d i n s i l t i c d e p o s i t s on t h e margin of t h e d e s e r t s a s i n J e r i c h o and S a l i b i y a I X ( i n t h e Lower J o r d a n V a l l e y ) . The s c a n t a v a i l a b l e g r a i n s from t h e s o u t h e r n Levant ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e a n a l y z e d i n u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ) i n d i c a t e t h a t Emmer wheat, and p o s s i b l y a form o f d o m e s t i c a t e d b a r l e y c a n be found from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A (8300-7500 B .C . ) onwards (Hopf 1969) Except f o r a r a r e o c c u r r e n c e of Tr'Lt'Leton d'Le0ccm i n Kebaran l a y e r s a t Nahal Oren (Noy e t a l . 1 9 7 3 ) , i s o l a t e d g r a i n s i n d i c a t e

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5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

107

t h e u s e o f w i l d c e r e a l s u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and even l a t e r . C u l t i v a t i o n o f wheat a n d w i l d b a r l e y was r e c e n t l y confirmed f o r e a r l y e i g h t millennium s i t e s i n t h e Damascus Basin (Van Z e i s t and Bakker-Heeres 1 9 7 9 ) . S i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s a r e known a l r e a d y from J e r i c h c , T e l l Mureybit, and Abu H u r e i r a i n t h e E u p h r a t e s v a l l e y and t h e l a t e r s i t e o f Beidha (Helbaek 1966; Hopf 1969; Moore 1978; Van Z e i s t 1 9 7 0 ) . C o l l e c t i o n o f w i l d f r u i t s and n u t s (almonds, p i s t a c h i o ) continued i n the following millennia. The g a t h e r i n g of w i l d p u l s e s s l o w l y gave way d u r i n g t h e e i g h t h millennium t o t h e i r s y s t e m a t i c c u l t i v a t i o n (Van Z e i s t and Bakker-Heeres 1979; Zohary and Hopf 1 9 7 3 ) . One may t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f w i l d c e r e a l s , p u l s e s , f r u i t s , and n u t s s h i f t e d in t h e same o r d e r i n t o s y s t e m a t i c c u l t i v a t i o n , which l e d t h r o u g h i t s ongoing a n n u a l p r o c e d u r e s t o t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s s p e c i e s . Farming o f g r a i n s and s e e d s p r e c e d e d t h e g a r d e n i n g o f f r u i t t r e e s by a b o u t three millennia. T h i s f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e i s n o t r e a l l y amenable t o t h e t e s t i n g of any h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f v e g e t a b l e and meat f o o d s t u f f s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s under d i s c u s s i o n within each of t h e various archaeological e n t i t i e s . For t h i s r e a s o n we have u n d e r t a k e n a comprehensive program of s t r o n t i u m a n a l y s e s o f f a u n a l a n d human b o n e s , d i s c u s s e d below.

S h i f t s i n t h e Faunal Spectra Keeping i n mind t h e p r e l i m i n a r y n a t u r e of some o f t h e r e p o r t s , we h a v e summarized t h e f a u n a l d a t a p u b l i s h e d by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i The h i s t o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s g a t o r s i n F i g u r e 5.3. of bone c o u n t s (and n o t t h e minimum number o f i n d i v i d u a l s ) . The o v e r a l l p a t t e r n e x h i b i t s a c l e a r s h i f t from a v a i l a b l e game t o dominance o f c a p r o v i n e s d u r i n q t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B ( c a . (The p r e s e n c e of i b e x i n s i t e s s u c h a s Rosh 7500-6000 B . C . ) . Horesha and Abu Salem i n t h e Neqev H i g h l a n d s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l o c a l environment and n o t an e a r l y d o m e s t i c a t i o n . The s c a r c i t y o f Capra i n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s h o u l d b e n o t e d . ) From comparison o f t h e changes i n t h e f a u n a l s p e c t r a w i t h t h e s h i f t s i n v e g e t a l r e s o u r c e s , one may c o n c l u d e t h a t animal domest i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d c e r e a l c u l t i v a t i o n by s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s .

S i t e L o c a t i o n s , S i t e C o n t e n t s , and P a t t e r n s o f E x p l o i t a t i o n F i g u r e 5 . 4 i s a t e n t a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e major economic a c t i v i t i e s a n d i n t e r r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n of a n n u a l movement o r mere e x p e d i t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , supplemented w i t h rough e s t i m a t e s o f s i t e s i z e (Bar-Yosef, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . T h e prime a r e a i n which t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o c u l t i v a t i o n and herding domesticated animals o r i g i n a l l y t o o k p l a c e i s t h e "Pistachio-Quercetum zone"

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(de Contenson and Van Liere 1 9 6 4 ) . I n t e r m s of. v e g e t a t i o n a l zones a t t h e end of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e and e a r l y Holocene, i t i n c l u d e s t h e Mediterranean and I r a n o - T u r a n i a n r e g i o n s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e J o r d a n V a l l e y , s t r e t c h i n g i n t o i n l a n d S y r i a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s Valley. I n t h e m a r g i n a l , s e m i a r i d , and a r i d a r e a s ( w e t t e r d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h millennium B.C.), l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n s e n a b l e d t h e emergence o f p a s t o r a l s o c i e t i e s .

FIGURE 5 . 3 . Summary o f unguzate fauna; s ; z s t v a fwr, rna.j.0~ s i t e s i n t h e m c h a e d o q i c a 2 sequence o f tkc sa^'^herr. Levant ( t a k e n from Bar-Yosef 1980).

110

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL SKELETAL EVIDENCE FOR CHANGE I N DIET AND HEALTH STATUS

Specimens A v a i l a b l e f o r Study The p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e N a t u f i a n i s p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o n l y two f a i r l y complete s k e l e t o n s , b o t h f e m a l e , from Ein Gev. One, from Ein Gev I , i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1 3 , 7 5 0 B.P.; t h e o t h e r from Nahal Ein Gev, i s d a t e d t o c i r c a 1700 B.P. (Arensburg 1977; Arensburg and Bar-Yosef 1 9 7 3 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s , m a i n l y t e e t h a n d j a w s , from t h e A u r i g n a c i a n d e p o s i t s a t E l Wad and Kebara, a s w e l l a s one i n t a c t humerus from Kebara (McCown and K e i t h 19391. T h e r e a r e no p r e c i s e d a t e s f o r t h e s e specimens, which McCown and K e i t h c o n s i d e r e d i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e N a t u f i a n r e m a i n s a t t h e s i t e , a l t h o u g h Henry and S e r v e l l o (1974) have proposed an approximate d a t e o f 1 3 , 0 0 0 B.C.E. The N a t u f i a n i s much b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o v e r 200 s k e l e t a l remains from d i f f e r e n t s i t e s . Most o f t h e s e a r e i n t h e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l r e g i o n s o f I s r a e l : Shukbah (Garrod 1 9 4 2 b ) , E l Wad (Garrod a n d Bate 1 9 3 7 ) , Kebara ( T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e 1 9 3 2 ) , Nahal Oren (Nay e t a l . 1973; S t e k e l i s a n d Y i z r a e l i 19631, Eynan ( P e r r o t 1966; V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) , Hayonim (Bar-Yosef and Goren 19731, and R a k e f e t . I n most c a s e s t h e N a t u f i a n b u r i a l s were dug i n t o t h e l i v i n g f l o o r s o f e a r l i e r l e v e l s o f o c c u p a t i o n . A t E l Wad, specimens have been r e s o r t e d and r e l a b e l e d s e v e r a l t i m e s , a n d it i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f most of t h e specimens d e s c r i b e d i n Garrod and B a t e (19371. A t Eynan, t h e b e s t - p r e s e r v e d s k e l e t o n s a r e those? from t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e , a l t h o u g h t e e t h and jaws from a l l p h a s e s a r e w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d ( V a l l a 1 9 8 1 ) . A t Hayonim, most of t h e b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n p h a s e Bar-Yosef and Gore" 1 9 7 3 ) . A t Nahal Oren, most o f t h e b u r i a l s d a t e t o the Late Natufian. A t Erq e l Ahmar a n d Kebara, most b u r i a l s d a t e t o t h e E a r l y N a t u f i a n ( N e u v i l l e 1951; T u r v i l l e - P e t r i e 1932). F o r t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d i s less c o m p l e t e . At J e r i c h o , the l a r g e s t s i t e excavated, with both Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B r e m a i n s , t h e r e is a s y e t no f i n a l rep o r t a v a i l a b l e . Most of t h e p u b l i s h e d d a t a a r e drawn from f i e l d n o t e s (Kurth and R 6 h r e r - E r t l 1 9 8 1 ) . Most of t h e o t h e r s i t e s have y i e l d e d much smaller s a m p l e s , m a i n l y from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B levels. These i n c l u d e Beisamoun and Abu Ghosh ( L e c h e v a l l i e r 1 9 7 8 ) , Sheikh A l i (Ferembach 19741, Abu Madi, Wadi T b e i k , and Ugrat e l Mahed from s o u t h e r n S i n a i [Bar-Yosef 1980; Herschkowitz, 1 9 8 2 ) .

P h y s i c a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d M i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y Trends E a r l y R m sapier.s ir, t h e L e v a n t , r e p r e s e n t e d by s k e l e t a l remains from Skhul and Q a f z e h , were t a l l and qracile i n comparison w i t h N e a n d e r t a l s from Europe. The specimens a v a i l a b l e , e x c e p t f o r Skhul 5 , a r e d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e and prominent f a c e s a n d

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t e e t h (McCown and K e i t h 1939; Smith, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) ; Vandermeersch 1 9 8 1 ) . The b e s t - p r e s e r v e d of t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c remains, which a r e from E i n Gev, a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e s e e a r l y specimens by more t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . They d i f f e r from them i n s t a t u r e , c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology, and t o o t h s i z e , a n d b e a r a c l o s e resemblance t o t h e l a t e r N a t u f i a n s i n t h e s e f e a t u r e s (Arensburq a n d Bar-Yosef 1973; Arensburq 1977; Smith 1 9 7 7 ) . The more f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s from E l Wad and Kebara d e s c r i b e d by McCown and K e i t h (1939) a l s o r e s e m b l e t h e N a t u f i a n s . Although t h e r e a r e few specimens from t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , i t seems t h a t by t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h i s p e r i o d , t h o s e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y p i c a l o f t h e N a t u f i a n s were a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e r e g i o n . The p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e N a t u f i a n s have been d e s c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l (Arensburg 1973; Ear-Yosef e t a l . 1971-1972; C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre 1974; Ferembach 1959, 1961, 1977; K e i t h 1931, 1934; McCown 1939; Smith 1970, 1979; S o l i v e r e s 1976; V a l l o i s 1 9 3 6 ) . The N a t u f i a n s were o f s h o r t t o medium s t a t u r e , w i t h m a l e s a v e r a g i n g 1 6 5 cm a n d f e m a l e s 152 cm i n h e i g h t ( T a b l e 5.1). T h e i r s k u l l s were a l s o d o l i c o c e p h a l i c , w i t h l a r g e c r a n i a l c a p a c i t y ; b r o a d , s h o r t f a c e s ; prominent zygoma; a n d a tendency t o a l v e o l a r prognathism (Table 5 . 2 ) . The m a n d i b l e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low, b r o a d rami w i t h s h o r t body l e n g t h and d e e p symphyses (Table 5 . 3 ) . The t e e t h a r e narrow m e s i o d i s t a l l y b u t broad buccol i n g u a l l y , w i t h l a r g e l i n q u a l t u b e r c l e s on t h e m e x i l l a r y i n c i s o r s and c a n i n e s a n d l a r g e C a r a b e l l i c u s p s on t h e m a x i l l a r y f i r s t molars. The p r e m o l a r s a n d t h i r d m o l a r s i n b o t h jaws a r e e s p e c i a l l y s m a l l and a g e n e s i s o f t h i r d m o l a r s i s f r e q u e n t (Smith 1970, 1973). While a l l t h o s e who have s t u d i e d t h e N a t u f i a n s a g r e e t h e i r e s s e n t i a l homogeneity, Ferembach (1961, 19771, S o l i v e r e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) , and C r o g n i e r and Dupouy-Madre (1974) found some s t a t i s t i c a l l y si9n i f i c ~ l n td i f f e r e n c e s between samples from Eynan and Nahal Oren i n head form, f a c i a l b r e a d t h , and m a n d i b u l a r and p o s t c r a n i a l r o b u s t icity. The Nahal Oren specimens t e n d t o have s h o r t e r , r o u n d e r c r a n i a , w i t h reduced b i a y q o m a t i c and ramal w i d t h . Samples from t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s f a l l between t h e s e e x t r e m e s , w i t h Eynan among t h e most r o b u s t and Nahal Oren t h e most g r a c i l e . 'When t h e s e two samples a r e compared w i t h t h o s e found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s , Nahal o r e n a p p e a r s t o be t h e most d i v e r g e n t ( t a b l e s 5 . 2 and 5.3), and r e s e m b l e s t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c samples. For example, ramus width i n males a t Nahal o r e n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r t h a n a t any Eynan, a s Ferembach (1977) p o i n t e d o u t , other s i t e ( p < .05). d i v e r g e s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n toward extreme r o b u s t i c i t y , and i n t h i s f e a t u r e i s matched o n l y by a f e w specimens from o t h e r Natufian s i t e s . I t h a s been p o s t u l a t e d t h a t d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n r o b u s t i c i t y between specimens from Nahal Oren and Eynan (Ferembach 1 9 7 7 ) . However, t h e s p e c i mens from Eynan d e s c r i b e d by Ferembach (1961) a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e a r l i e s t p h a s e o f t h e N a t u f i a n ( V a l l a 19811, whereas t h o s e from N a h a l Oren b e l o n g t o t h e t e r m i n a l N a t u f l c m . The i r o r p h o i o c i c a i

PATRICIA SMITH E T A L

112

TABLE 5 . 1

S t a t u r e and Dimorphism i n D i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s a Male

Period

So.

X

Fema l e No.

X

TotalDimorphism range %

b

Mausterian Skhul, Qafzeh Natufian ( t o t a l , El bad Skukbah (43Je Eunan Nahal Oren Hayonim Neolithic Jerioho p ~ n . 4 ~ Jer-ichc P P N B ~ Abu ~ o s h f Beisamwvf South ~ i n a i f Chalcolithic Jericho Bybtos Bronze Age JebeZ Q a n q i i r Sasa Jen'e'hn Hellenistie Jericho Arab DOP

A Z Z d a t a based on f e w l e n g t h , e x c e p t u h e r e s t a t e d o t h e r w i s e .

maze ^ p e r c e n t a g e dimorphism c a l c u l a t e d a s -,Ã‘Ã‘

x 100.

'Based o n e s t i m a t e s from K e i t h (19341. d P r e - ~ o t t e ' n ^ Pdeolithic A. ePre-Potteq, N e o l i t h i c B. f ~ a l c u l a t e d frcm Long b o n e s o t h e r t h a n femur. d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e two s i t e s , t h e n , may a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d t o r e f l e c t a c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e r a t h e r t h a n a r e g i o n a l one. The i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a t u s o f t h e o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s a l s o conp a t i b l e w i t h t h e i r c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y mixed composition of samples


113

from b o t h e a r l y and l a t e p h a s e s o f t h e N a t u f i a n . Unfortunately, t h e sample s i z e i s t o o s m a l l t o p e r m i t p r o p e r t e s t i n g f o r morp h o l o g i c a l change o v e r t i m e a t Eynan. However, a s t r o n t i u m calcium s t u d y ( s e e below) a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s i s f e a s i b l e , and may be used t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t of d i e - t a w change o v e r t h i s period. I n t h e N e o l i t h i c , t h e few P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A specimens t h a t have been d e s c r i b e d from J e r i c h n r e s e m b l e t h e Naha1 Oren Natufians. The P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B samples show t h a t a c l e a r d i v i s i o n e x i s t s between n o r t h e r n andcen.t-r.al groups,_.w-hJ-ch_,wexe o u-. p , which continued a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , and t h e ' s o u t h e r n S i n a i g r~~-t o depend on h u n t i n g a n d g ~ t h e ' r t n ~ - T hs o e u t h e r n S i n a i spe&iehs show a c l o s e resemblance- t o t h i ~ a t u f i a n si n s t a t u r e , ' c f a n i S l l e n g t h , b i z y g o m a t i c w i d t h , and m a n w u l a r s i z e . The main d i f f e r ence between'qhem i s found i n c r a n i a l b r e a d t h , which i s excepS i na i sample. t i o n a l l y narrow i n t h e .--fcl-ier~ .~ I n t h e more n o r t h e r l y s i t e s , a marked i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e i s found i n a l l P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B s a m p l e s . A t Jericho, the i n c r e a s e i n male s t a t u r e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and" P r e P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h a mean i n c r e a s e i n h e i g h t o f 4 cm. Female s t a t u r e showed no s i q n i f ' i c a n t i n c r e a s e o v e r tfie same p e r i o d o f t i m e , w i t h mean s t a t u r e o f 157 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c A and 158 cm f o r P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B . . As T a b l e 5 . 1 shows, t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e between N a t u f i a n a.~ n d P r e - P o t...t e r.y -. N..e o l i. ~t h. i c A p o p u l a t i o n s ; moreover, t h e i n c r e a s e G a J l e - . . s t a t u r e found i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y -~ -.. . N e o l i t h i c B was n o t k i n t a i n e d i n l a t e r periodC r a n i a l m o g ' h ~ l o g y , b u t n o t fc5'Eth a l s o shows s i g n i f i c a n t chanqes from t h e---N a t u f i a n t o .l-bsÃ‘Nee.Lijih.ip I n t h e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l N a l i t h l c g r o u p s , t h e c r a n i a a r e s b r t e r and t h e b y I keeping with t h e longer f a c e s , t h e -these-&--the N ~ t u f 1 a n - s . w ~ -i t h i n c ~ ~ s e d maximum l e n g t h and' c o r p u s 1e n g t h a s as. ramus re.~~height-.but duced r a m u s w i d t h . T h e s e ~ e o l i t h i cp o p u l a t i o n s , t h e n , resemble t h e Nahal Oren ~ a t u f i a n s . I n t h e s o u t h e r n S i n a i N e o l i t h i c sample, n e i t h e r s t a t u r e n o r c r a n i o f a c i a l morpholoqy d e p a r t s from t h e N a t u f i a n norm t o t h e e x t e n t found i n t h e n o r t h e r n s i t e s . T h i s may be r e l a t e d t o t h e dichotomy i n l i f e - s t y l e s s u g g e s t e d by t h e archaeological findings. The complex of changes found i n t h e c r a n i o f a c i a l complex o f p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g more- - g l o b u T a r - ~ - s k u i 'Iw i i t h longer,' nirro-wec:face's and m a n d i b l e s , i s m a i n t a i n e d "by l a t e r p o p u l a ' t i 6 h s i n t h i s r e g i o n . The o n l y s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t change i s a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l r e d u c t i o n i n t o o t h s i z e between P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and Bronze Age populations. S i m i l a r changes have been d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n p o p u l a t i o n s a d o p t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e ( C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven 1 9 7 3 ) . They have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s m a i n t a i n i n g l a r g e t e e t h and powerful m a s t i c a A s T a b l e s 5 . 3 and t o r y a c t i v i t y i n t a l l , large-muscled h u n t e r s . 5 . 4 (A a n d B ) i n d i c a t e , t h e sequence o f changes i n I s r a e l and ~

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NATUFIAN

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FIGURE 5 . 5 .

e

HELLENISTIC Jer,cho

100

0

Frequency distribution of different age groups based o n skeletal remains.

100

PATRICIA SMITH E T A L .

118

TABLE 5.4A

Mesiodistat Measurements o f T e e t h i n D i f f e r e n t

Periods Epipateotithic Tooth

No.

X

SD

Neolithic X

No.

Bronze

SD

No.

X

SD

Maxi Via 7 12 10

8 8 10 9 6

8.7 6.6 7.8 7.3 7.3 10.6 10.0 9.1

Mandible 3 11 10

7 9 16 13 9

5.3 6.0 7.0 7.1 7.1 11.2 10.9 10.7

Jordan a p p e a r s t o c o n s i s t o f r e d u c e d r o b u s t i c i t y f o l l o w e d by dental reduction. These f i n d i n g s a r e n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f C a r l s o n a n d Van Gerven.!

Paleodemography The Upper P a l e o l i t h i c E i n Gev f e m a l e s were found a s p r i m a r y b u r i a l s b e n e a t h l i v i n g f l o o r s . A t E l Wad and Kebara, t h e Aurignacian remains were f r a g m e n t a r y and p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t d i s t u r b e d s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s . Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e y p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n paleodemography b u t do i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t are repeated i n t h e Natufian. A t t h e N a t u f i a n and N e o l i t h i c s i t e s , b o t h p r i m a r y and secondary s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e b u r i a l s were found. This p a t t e r n i s r e p e a t e d i n l a t e r p e r i o d s . The d i s s o c i a t i o n o f b o n e s i n s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s compounds t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n and i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p o o r r e c o v e r y o f i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e of e i t h e r poor p r e s e r v a t i o n o r t h e i r d i s p o s a l elsewhere.


TABLE 5.4B

119

Buecotingual Measurements o f T e e t h i n Different

Periods Natufian Tooth

No.

X

NeoZitkic SD

X

No.

Bronze SD

Ho.

X

SD

Mandible 5 12 13 10 14 16 12 9

6.2 6.4 8.2

8.2 8.3 10.8

10.6 10.3

0.2 0.2 0.9 0.4 1.3 0.3 0.3 0.1

T h i s l a s t p o i n t can b e d e i n o n s t r a t e d by examining t h e d e v i a t i o n s from m o r t a l i t y p r o f i l e s o f p o p u l a t i o n s f o r which r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e ( G r i n b l a t 1982). M o r t a l i t y i s normally h i g h e s t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r of l i f e , f a l l s s l i g h t l y i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , and is l o w e s t i n l a t e c h i l d h o o d and a d o l e s c e n c e . I n p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h low l i f e e x p e c t a n c y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n f a n t d e a t h s may e x c e e d 4 0 % . T h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f young a d u l t d e a t h s w i t h o n l y a few i n d i v i d u a l s s u r v i v i n g t o middle o r o l d a g e . I n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h a lower f r e q u e n c y o f i n f a n t d e a t h s and a h i g h e r r a t i o o f o l d e r t o younger i n d i v i d uals. F i g u r e 5.5 g i v e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of age a t d e a t h f o r N a t u f i a n and l a t e r groups. I n c l u d e d a r e t h r e e s a m p l e s from s i t e s where p r i m a r y b u r i a l was p r a c t i c e d a n d r e c o v e r y was qood. Hell e n i s t i c J e r i c h o r e p r e s e n t s a p o p u l a t i o n i n r e l a t i v e l y good h e a l t h w i t h qood l i f e e x p e c t a n c y ( H a c h l i l i e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) . B y z a n t i n e Meiron i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a p o p u l a t i o n w i t h p o o r e r l i f e expect a n c y (Smith e t a l . 1981) a n d t h e e a r l y Arab p o p u l a t i o n from Dor r e p r e s e n t s a g r o u p i n p o o r h e a l t h w i t h low l i f e e x p e c t a n c y (Smith and Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) . I n e a c h group t h e r e i s an i n v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p e r c e n t a g e of i n f a n t d e a t h s a n d t h a t of older adults.


120

However, t h e N a t u f i a n s i t e s show no such p a t t e r n i n g . A t Shukbah and a t E l Wad, K e i t h r e p o r t e d 38 and 26% s u b a d u l t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A t Nahal Oren 1 4 % , a t Eynan 27%, and a t Hayonim 59% of t h o s e found were i d e n t i f i e d a s s u b a d u l t s . However, v e r y few of t h e N a t u f i a n a d u l t s were found i n t h e o l d e r a d u l t c a t e g o r y . S i m i l a r d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e e x p e c t e d p a t t e r n a r e found i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s and in s e c o n d a r y b u r i a l s i t e s from l a t e r periods. The i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t some o t h e r means must b e a d o p t e d t o estimate longevity i n these populations. A n a l y s i s o f t h e r a t i o o f young t o o l d a d u l t s can p r o v i d e t h i s information. Using t h i s a p p r o a c h , it seems t h a t l o n g e v i t y i n c r e a s e d i n t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d and showed a second b u t temporary i n c r e a s e in t h e l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d . Arensburg (1973) e s t i m a t e d an a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n of 30 y e a r s f o r t h e Epip a l e o l i t h i c , i n c r e a s i n g t o 34 i n t h e N e o l i t h i c , 39 i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman p e r i o d s , and d r o p p i n g s l i g h t l y t h e r e a f t e r t o 32 y e a r s i n e a r l y Arabs. Female l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o v e r t h e same p e r i o d s a v e r a g e d some 4 y e a r s l e s s i n each g r o u p .

S k e l e t a l Pathology S k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y h a s n o t y e t been a n a l y z e d i n d e t a i l f o r e i t h e r the Epipaleolithic o r the Neolithic. At l e a s t f o u r a d u l t s from Nahal Oren and t h r e e from Eynan have m i l d c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g . Cranial thickness i n a l l Natufian s k u l l s is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f l a t e r g r o u p s ( A n i 1 9 8 3 ) , b u t t h i s may represent genetic r a t h e r than pathological v a r i a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s of t h e i r l o n g bones i s a l s o g r e a t e r than t h a t of l a t e r populations. T h e r e i s no mention o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a i n a n a l y s e s of N e o l i t h i c specimens, b u t t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e d i p l o e i n two c r a n i a from J e r i c h o was r e p o r t e d by Kurth a n d R6brer-Ertl (1981). I n a l l subsequent p e r i o d s t h e incidence of c r i b r a and p a r i e t a l p i t t i n g i s h i g h , w i t h some 40% o f a d u l t s and 60% o f c h i l d r e n a f f e c t e d ( T a b l e 5 . 5 ) . S i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n seems t o have a f f e c t e d males and f e m a l e s s i m i l a r l y (Nathan a n d Haas 1966; Smith a n d Berkowitz, i n p r e p a r a t i o n ) , t h e c o n d i t i o n h e r e may b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o d i e t . The t h i c k n e s s of c o r t i c a l bone i n t h e humerus o f Middle P a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n and more r e c e n t g r o u p s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n According t o Bloom and Laws measured by Smith e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 a , b ) ( l 9 7 O ) , a v a l u e of 7.0 o r l e s s f o r combined c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s (CCT) o f humerus i s d i a g n o s t i c of o s t e o p o r o s i s . T h i s c o n d i t i o n was d i a g n o s e d i n o n e f e m a l e from ~l Wad, i n 20-30% of Bronze Age and Roman samples, and i n 53% of f e m a l e s from t h e e a r l y Arab s i t e o f Dor. With CCT v a l u e s c o r r e c t e d f o r a g e and s i z e , CCT i n t h e N a t u f i a n s a n d Middle P a l e o l i t h i c specimens i s s i m i l a r a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r than i n l a t e r populations (Table 5 . 6 ) . This may r e f l e c t f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n u s e o f t h e arms a s w e l l a s b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n t h e e a r l i e r populations.

.


TABLE 5.5

C r i b m Orbitaliaa Children

Group Natufian Chalao l i t h-ia M. Bronze Roman-Byzantine Early Arab

121

Number examined

Adults

Frequency (%)

2 4 5

50 100 100

21

62

33

84

1mber examined

Frequenq (%)

~Cm2.ymiZd categoq--porosities--present i n Natufians. I n a t i o t h e r groups t h e c o n d i t i o n v a r i e s from mild t o very severe, a f t e ~t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n employed i n Nat'hm and Baas (1966).

While no N e o l i t h i c b o n e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y , some d e s c r i p t i o n s o f bone p a t h o l o g y have been p r o v i d e d by Kurth and R 6 h r e r - E r t l ( 1 9 8 1 ) . They found t h a t l o n g bones of 2 8 i n d i v i d u a l s showed s i g n s o f c o r t i c a l h y p e r t r o p h y , which was t e n t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o calcium deficiency. They a l s o d e s c r i b e d one twoy e a r - o l d i n f a n t w i t h bony d e f o r m i t i e s p o s s i b l y due t o h e r e d i t a r y v i t a m i n D - r e s i s t a n t r i c k e t s . The C h a l c o l i t h i c r e m a i n s a r e t o o s c a n t t o p r o v i d e much i n f o r m a t i o n . However, j u v e n i l e s k e l e t o n s from Ghassul show e x c e p t i o n a l l y t h i n c o r t i c a l bone f o r s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o l e n g t h and a n a v e r a g e of s i x growth a r r e s t l i n e s i n the t i b i a . A l l have enamel h y p o p l a s i a and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a . Few s i g n s of trauma o r f r a c t u r e have been r e p o r t e d , w i t h o n l y t h r e e c a s e s d e s c r i b e d f o r N e o l i t h i c J e r i c h o i n t h e abovementioned report. However, few c a s e s o f trauma o r d e f o r m i t i e s have been r e p o r t e d from any s i t e i n t h i s r e g i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r i o d . There i s , t h e r e f o r e , l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t i n j u r y d u r i n g hunting o r a s a r e s u l t of i n t e r - o r intragroup aggression.

Dental Pathology I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y , a d i s t i n c t i o n must b e made between enamel h y p o p l a s i a and o t h e r p a t h o l o g i c a l l e s i o n s . Enamel h y p o p l a s i a r e f l e c t s d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e s d u r i n g tooth formation, and so r e l a t e s t o s p e c i f i c e v e n t s i n p r e n a t a l l i f e and e a r l y i n f a n c y , when t o o t h crown development t a k e s p l a c e . A t t r i t i o n , c a r i e s , and p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e a r e , i n c o n t r a s t , c u m u l a t i v e d i s e a s e s t h a t r e f l e c t in. a d u l t s t h e s u m of past dietary habits.

TABLE 5 . 6

Measurements i n t k Humerus of Females ( L e f t Side OnZy)

so. Pa%eo%itkie Natufian M . Bronze Roman Arab

1 IS 10 19 14

CCP -

x

10.0 10.0 8.810.5-6.0 7.7 10.1-4.1 8.0 9.7-5.7 7.3 10.1-4.3

'^'Combined e m t i c a t t h i c k n e s s .

CCT/Lenqtk

No. 1 4 8 11 11

Maximum L e q t k

-

x

3.4 3.2 2.4 2.7 2.4

So.

3.4 3.4-2.8 3.2-1.4 3.3-2.0 3.2-1.6

1 6 8 11 11

-

x

330 282 306 287 301

--

288-277 321-293 302-265 332-281

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT TABLE 5 . 7

GroupU

123

Disti 6

years

Frequenc3 (%) Aged >20 HypoTooth G a r s p l a s i a Caries loss

Natufian E l Wad Kebara Shukbah Eynan Nahal Grfin. Hay onim Neolithic Jericho PPNB Abu Ghosh Chalcolithic Azor Arad Beersheba Bronze Age Jebel Qa ' a k i i r Sasa Jer-icho Roman Jerusalem and. Ein Gedi a ~ l y p o p l a s i ac a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent t e e t h w i t h hypoptasia ( i . e . , aged s i x o r more). Caries and t o o t h l o s s c a l c u l a t e d a s percentage o f a d u l t s ( i . e . , aged 20 or more) u i t h e i t h e r c o n d i t i o n . Nmbers i n parentheses r e f l e c t frequencies derived from small samples.

Enamel Hypoplasia I n t h e N a t u f i a n s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found i n l e s s t h a n 1% o f p r i m a r y t e e t h , b u t i n 20-30% o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h permanent t e e t h from a l l s i t e s e x c e p t Nahal Oxen. A t Nahal Oren, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was h i g h e r , w i t h 5 4 % a f f e c t e d (Table 5 . 7 ) . Hypoplasia was most commonly found on t h e c e r v i c a l t h i r d t o h a l f o f c a n i n e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e t o o t h

I24


formed between t h e a g e s o f t h r e e and f o u r y e a r s ( S c o t t and Symons 1 9 8 0 ) . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a was found a t t h e North A f r i c a n E p i p a l e o l i t h i c s i t e of T a f o r a l t , b u t i n h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s ( P o i t r a t - T a r g o l a 1 9 6 2 ) . I t presumably r e p r e s e n t s d i e t a r y d i s t u r b a n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h weaning. I t h a s r e c e n t l y been suyq e s t e d t h a t it i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e p i s o d e s o f lowered l e v e l s o f serum c a l c i u m v a l u e s o f t h e o r d e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t e t a n y ; t h a t i s , 8.0 my ( N i k i f o r u k and P r a s e r 1 9 8 1 ) . A s T a b l e 5 . 7 shows, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a a t t h e N a t u f i a n s i t e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n Middle P a l e o l i t h i c huminids. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i s s l i g h t l y m u r e p r e v a l e n t i n t h e N e o l i t h i c s a m p l e s , and i n c r e a s e s a g a i n i n l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s . At t h e s e l a t e r s i t e s , h y p o p l a s i a i s found w i t h some r e g u l a r i t y i n I t i s a l s o found on t h e f i r s t permanent m o l a r s and primary t e e t h . i n c i s o r s , which d e v e l o p a t an e a r l i e r a g e t h a n t h e c a n i n e s . This s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n were weaned a t an e a r l i e r age i n l a t e r p e r i o d s , a f i n d i n g c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e presumably d e c r e a s e d i n t e r v a l between c h i l d b i r t h s . A method f o r examining t h e p a t t e r n of d i e t a r y s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n and weaning on t h e b a s i s o f s t r o n t i u m - c a l c i u m r a t i o s i n j u v e n i l e b o n e s h a s r e c e n t l y been d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r t h e Arab p o p u l a t i o n a t Dor. I n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a mean a g e of 2 . 5 y e a r s f o r weaning was e s t i m a t e d ( S i l l e n and Smith 1 9 8 4 ) . We hope t o a p p l y t h i s method t o t h e N a t u f i a n and P r e - P o t t e q N e o l i t h i c sample t o examine f u r t h e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between weaning a g e and economic change i n t h e Levantine archaeological sequence. The h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s p r e sumably r e f l e c t s a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d h o o d d i s t u r b a n c e s i n I t may a l s o mean t h a t a s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e was t h e l a t e r groups. a f f e c t e d i n t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s b u t t h a t fewer s u r v i v e d s u c h episodes. However, t h e c o n d i t i o n h a s been found i n e x t r e m e l y h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n A u s t r a l i a n p r e - c o n t a c t h u n t e r s and g a t h e r e r s . I n d i f f e r e n t samples r a n q i n q from 6000 B.P. t o 1800 A.D., t h e i n c i d e n c e o f h y p o p l a s i a v a r i e d between 70 and 8 0 % . I t a f f e c t e d mainly canines, as i n t h e Natufians. T h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h reduced l i f e e x p e c t a n c y .

I

k

'

Other Dental Evidence I n t e r - s i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n age of i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t o some ext e n t r e f l e c t e d i n f r e q u e n c y o f antemortem t o o t h l o s s . T h i s i s most pronounced a t E l Wad (where two c o m p l e t e l y d e n t u r e l e s s i n d i v i d u a l s were f o - ~ n d ) f, o l l o w e d by Eynan, Nahal Oren, Hayonim, and Kebara i n d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f f r e q u e n c y (Table 5 . 8 ) . Mean A t t r i t i o n was most s e v e r e a t E l Wad values f o r a t t r i t i o n vary. and Eynan, and l e a s t s e v e r e a t Kebara and Hayonim. These d i f f e r e n c e s were m a i n t a i n e d u s i n g a g e - c o r r e c t e d s c o r e s (Smith 1 9 7 0 ) . Given t h e homogeneity o f t o o t h s i z e , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s can b e c o n s i d e r e d e v i d e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a b r a s i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e foods i n g e s t e d .

I

1,

I


125

TABLE 5.8 Frequency Distribution of Dental Disease i n Natufian Adultsa

Site

Number of teeth

Percentage caries

E l Wad Kfkra Hayonim Eynan Nahd Oren

601 306 70 327 264

2.8

0.3 (0.51 3.7 7.6

Percentage mztemortm loss 15.0 0.9 2.8 2.7 2.6

"Â¥!Takefrom Smith ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

F u r t h e r grounds f o r assuming d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r a t e o f a t t r i t i o n a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between l e v e l s o f a t t r i t i o n i n f i r s t a n d s e c o n d permanent m l a r s . Since eruption times of t h e s e two t e e t h d i f f e r by 6 y e a r s , d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t r i t i o n v a l u e s between t h e s e two t e e t h r e f l e c t t h i s 6 y e a r p e r i o d . When pronounced, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e s e v e r e a t t r i t i o n r a t e s . I n a comparison o f a t t r i t i o n s c o r e s i n f i r s t and s e c o n d m o l a r s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r r a t e s o f a t t r i t i o n were d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r Kebara a s compared t o E l Wad, Eynan, and Nahal Oren (Smith 1970, 1 9 7 2 ) . C a r i o u s l e s i o n s were found i n l e s s t h a n 1 . 5 % of t e e t h from Hayonim and Kebara and i n 2 - 3 % o f t e e t h from E l Wad and Eynan, b u t i n 6.8% of t e e t h from Nahal Oren. Periodontal d i s e a s e , measured by t h e e x t e n t o f a l v e o l a r r e c e s s i o n , was a l s o more pronounced a t Nahal Oren ( T a b l e 5 . 3 ) . Nahal Oren, t h e n , shows e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s u s u a l l y found i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a s t i c k y c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t ( p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e and c a r i e s ) a s well a s a higher incidence of hypoplasia than t h a t found a t o t h e r N a t u f i a n s i t e s . T h i s e v i d e n c e f o r d i e t a r y change a g r e e s w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d changes i n c r a n i o f a c i a l morphology d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g y . D e n t a l d i s e a s e p a t t e r n s a t t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e s resemble t h o s e found a t Nahal Oren, w i t h s l i g h t l y more c a r i e s , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , antemortem t o o t h l o s s , and h y p o p l a s i a t h a n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e Natufians i n general. Dental h e a l t h s t a t u s a t t h i s t i m e , however, i s s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of Here p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n food p r e p a later agriculturalists. r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e - h - t - r o d u c t i o n o f p o t t e r y , a s w e l l as d i f f e r e n c e s i n food s e l e c t i o n , may b e r e s p o n s i b l e . The main d i f f e r e n c e s found a r e i n t h e i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f h y p o p l a s i a , p e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e , a n d antemortem t o o t h loss i n t h e l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s .

I26

PATRICIA SMITH ET AL Strontium-Calcium

Ratios

Research i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h e m i s t r y o f s t r o n t i u m a n d calcium h a s d e l i v e r e d an u n a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t : a method f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t e amounts o f meat and v e g e t a b l e foods i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in s k e l e t o n s . S i n c e v e g e t a b l e f o o d s cont a i n h i g h e r .strontium-calcium (Sr/Ca) r a t i o s t h a n do meat f o o d s , d i e t s h e a v i l y depend--table foods r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. I n c o n t r a s t , d i e t s h e a v i l y dependent Deon meat f o o d s result i n r e l a t i v e l y low Sr/Ca r a t i o s i n bone. t a i l e d background i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s been p r e s e n t e d e l s e w h e r e ( S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) . A t l e a s t two Sr/Ca s t u d i e s h a v e been d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e Levantine sequence. Schoeninger (1981, 1982) e x p l i c i t l y s e t o u t t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Near E a s t was p r i m a r i l y an economic o r a s u b s i s t e n c e change. She examined t h e L e v a n t i n e sequence r e p r e s e n t e d by specimens from l e v e l s G-B ( M o u s t e r i a n - N a t u f i a n ) a t E l Wad, and a s i m i l a r sequence a t Kebara. On t h e b a s i s of comparisons o f human specimens t o h e r b i v o r e specimens, s h e concluded t h a t " w i t h i n t h e Levant t h e n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s a t Kebara B and ~l.'w&&~.--(~-etufien~s) were i n c l u d i n g l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of . p l a n t m a t e r i a l i n t h e i r " d i e t s " . , (_Schoeninger 1981, p . 8 7 ) . T h i s co"c1usion' w a ' s - i n d e p a d e n t l y ' e s t a b l i s h e d by d a t a w e h a v e g a t h e r e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t Hayonim Cave ( S i l l e n 1 9 8 1 a , b ) . I n o u r s t u d y , it was found t h a t N a t u f i a n human Sr/Ca l e v e l s f e l l midway between t h e Sr/Ca l e v e l s . of N a t u f i a n c a r n i v o r e s and t h o s e ~. o .f h e r b i v o r e s , "I'efle'cTi"'" nq a c l e a r l y omniva;?us dietary pattern. .A more c o n t r 6 M s i a l concl-us-ir e a c h e d by S c h o e n i n g e r d e r i v e s from h e r comparison o f t h e N a t u f i a n r e s u l t s t o t h o s e from Kebara C ( K e b a r a n ) . Based on a comparison of human t o h e r b i v o r e bone, s h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e Natuf i a n " r e p r e s e n t s ( a n ) i n c r e a s e d u s e i n p l a n t m a t e r i a l when compared w i t h t h e e a r l i e r human p o p u l a t i o n of Kebara C ( S c h o e n i n g e r 1981, p . 8 7 ) . I n t u r n , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s used t o s u p p o r t t h e "broad-spectrum" h y p o t h e s i s o f F l a n n e r y t h a t t h e major s u b s i s t e n c e change i n t h e r e g i o n o c c u r r e d w e l l b e f o r e t h e development o f c u l t i v a t i o n , a n d t h a t c u l t i v a t i o n developed as a means t r - ~ e r p e t u a t e.?a*.. s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n . However, i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p r e - ~ a t u f i a nE p i p a l e o l i t h i c d i e t s w i t h Sr/Ca a n a l y s e s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p a u c i t y o f s k e l e t a l s a m p l e s from t h i s p e r i o d , and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h e m i c a l change d u r i n g i n t e r m e n t . F o r example, no d i f f e r e n c e i n Sr/Ca r a t i o s hetween h e r b i v o r e and c a r n i v o r e f a u n a is d e t e c t a b l e f o r t h e Kebaran a t E i n Gev ( A . S i l l e n , u n p u b l i s h e d ) . Also, t h e c h a r r e d nSTture of t h e human sample from Kebara C (Kebaran) r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether i t i s comparable t o u n c h a r r e d bone from l a t e r p e r i o d s . Strontium-calcium a n a l y s e s can n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g d i e t a r y change b e f o r e a n d / o r c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h t h e b e q i n n i n g of food p r o d u c t i o n i f r e a s o n a b l e sample s i z e s , approp r i a t e s i t e s , a n d f a u n a l and o t h e r c o n t r o l s ' a r e employed. To t h i s ~

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127

end, i n 1980, we d e s i g n e d a n i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f t h e r e l e v a n t f a u n a l and human m a t e r i a l from some 1 0 s i t e s , i n c l u d i n g Nahal Oren, Hayonim Cave and T e r r a c e , Eynan, Kebara, E l Wad and Mureybet, J e r i c h o , Abu Gosh, and Beisamoun. The s t u d y , which i s s t i l l underway, i n c o r p o r a t e s w e l l o v e r 500 s p e c i m e n s , i n c l u d i n g c a r n i v o r e s , h e r b i v o r e s , a n d humans of known a g e and sex:F o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r , we have conducted a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d from t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B of J e r i c h o , a n d h a v e compared t h e s e d a t a t o d a t a a l r e a d y pub-l i s h e d f o r t h e N a t u f i a n a t Hayonim Cave. I t s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.9 r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r i m f i n d i n g and s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n a s a c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t o f t h e s t u d y . I n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B it i s c l e a r t h a t human d i e t s have s h i f t e d t o a g r e a t e r dependence o n meat p r o d u c t s a s compared t o t h e Natufian. T h i s phenomenon i s e a s i l y s e e n when t h e d a t a f o r humans" a r e compared t o t h e m i d p o i n t between t h e a v e r a g e Sr/Ca A t Hayonim, t h e a v e r a g e values of h e r b i v o r e s and c a r n i v o r e s . Sr/Ca v a l u e f o r t h e humans i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e m i d p o i n t f o r f a u n a a t t h a t s i t e . However, a t J e r i c h o ( P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B), t h e mean human v a l u e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower t h a n t h e corresponding f a u n a l midpoint. I t is o f i n t e r e s t t h a t t h i s f i n d i n g c o i n c i d e s w i t h b o t h t h e f a u n a l e v i d e n c e f o r dependence o n a n i m a l husbandry i n t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B and t h e s k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d .

DISCUSSION

From t h e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e v e r i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g o n Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e L e v a n t . The d i f f e r e n c e s found i n s t a t u r e and g e n e r a l s k e l e t a l morphology between p i d d l e P a l e o l i t h i c and Upper P a l e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a r e , however, sm-ff-i-ciently'TZFge t o i n d i c a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f humans w i t h t h e i r environment. Synchronous changes o c c u r i n Europe a t t h i s t i m e ( P r a y e r l98O), b u t n o t i n N o r t h ' A f r i c a IFerembach 19621 o r t h e N i l e V a l l e y ( - m d e r s o n 1968; Greene and Annelagos 1972; Smith 1979). I n these instances, E p i p a l e o l i t h i c populations maintained l a r g e s t a t u r e , r o b u s t i c i t y , and l a r g e t - t h , s i z e . S i n c e t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t l a r g e - s c a l e p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e m e n t i n any r e g i o n a t t h i s t i m e , t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l changes o b s e r v e d may b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s long-term m i c r o e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s . An a s s o c i a t i o n between s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n and c h a n g e s ' i n h u n t i n g s t r a t e g i e s h a s been proposed f o r E u r o p e..a n - U p p e r - P a l e o l i t h i c popul a t i o n s (Brace 1973; P r a y e r 1 9 8 0 ) . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s have suggested" t h a t improved t e c h n o l o g y ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e u s e o f m i s s i l e p o i n t s ) , a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d emphasis on h u n t i n g s m a l l e r , ' l e s s dangerous mammals, r e m v e d e a r l i e r s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s t h a t had

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128

TABLE 5 . 9 Sv/Ca Values fran t h e Haijonim Natuf-ian and t i e r i c h ? r e - P o t t e q Neotithic E0

SmpZe

N

Sr/Ca

SO

Hayonim Natufian B Carnivores ( F e l t s sp. o n l y ) Herbiuores (GaseZla sp. only) Midpoint between herbivores and carnivores Humans A l l adult humans Mates Females Jer'icho ?re-Pottery NeoZith'ic B C&vores ( F e l t s sp. only) Herbivores (Gazel Ia sp. o n l y ) Midpoint between herbivores and-carnivores Humans Ati adult humans Males Females aHayon'im Natufian h a n s are i n d i s t k j u i s - h a b l e from t h e m i d point between herbivore and carnivore fauna. On t}ie other hand, Jer'icho ?re-Pottery fleolithic B humans are s h i f t e d considerably i n the direction of carnivores.

m a i n t a i n e d t h e l a r g e s i z e and marked dimorphism o f e a r l i e r human populations. I n t h e Levant t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h i s view. Few changes in p a t t e r n s o f a n i m a l e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e e v i d e n t b e f o r e t h e P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B; moreover, dimorphism i n s t a t u r e shows no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e Middle P a l e o l i t h i c u n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s . Many mammalian s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s human p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e .Levant a n d Northern Europe d o , however, show a r e d u c t i o n i n s i z e towards t h e end o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , w i t h p r e d a t o r s e s p e c i a l l y ' a f f e c t e d (Davis 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . There a r e , however, few p r e c e d e n t s f o r r e l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d chances i n human s t a t u r e t o s i z e change i n carnivores. E t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a common r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s i n hunter-gatherer s o c i e t i e s i s population r e s t r i c t i o n . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s f o r t h e Levant i n d i c a t e t h a t by t h e end o f t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h i s r e g i o n had, i n f a c t , c o n s i d e r a b l y increased i n s i z e as shown by t h e i n c r e a s e i n number, s i z e , and d e n s i t y o f s e t t l e m e n t s ~ . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t , i f anyFhing, a more p o s i t i v e b a l a n c e h a d been a c h i e v e d , p r e . sumably due t o a l t e r e d modes o f p r o d u c t i o n .

5

THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT

129

The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s d i s c u s s e d , i n t h i s c h a p t e r , a s w e l l as s t u d i e s o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y and s k e l e t a l s t r o n t i u m , d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t by t h e N a t u f i a n t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r s i t e d i v e r s i t y i n resource u t i l i z a t i o n , - w i t h intensive c e r e a l consumption a t some- .s. i~.,.. t. e s ( S i l l e p l 9 8 4 ) . T h e e a r l y claii^fcii. d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s i n t h e N a t u f i a n (Garrod and B a t e 1937) h a s now been v i n d i c a t e d ( D a v i s and V a l l a 1 9 7 8 ) , a l t h o u g h no o t h e r domest i c a t e d p l a n t s o r a n i m a l s h a v e been d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the Natufian. E t h n o g r a p h i c r e p o r t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t many h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s o c i e t i e s have d o m e s t i c a t e d d o g s w i t h o u t o t h e r domesticates. T h e r e f o r e , t h e N a t u f i a n d o g s c a n n o t be t a k e n ' a s e v i d e n c e "Fr t h e d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f h e r d a n i m a l s . The w e l l - b u i l t s t r u c t u r e s from t h e N a t u f i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h s t o r a g e p i t s , i n d i c a t e a t l e a s t some d e g r e e o f p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e ment a s w e l l a s t h e u s e ' o f s t o r e d f o o d s . A t Hayonim, t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e of t h e same s i t e by members of t h e s a m e l i n e a g e i s f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d by t h e p r e s e n c e i n s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s of b u r i a l s of i n d i v i d u a l s with congenital absence o f t h i r d molars i n f a r h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n a L oLher N d t u f i a n s i t e s (Smith 1 9 7 3 ) . The g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d s i z e of s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e N e o l i t h i c i s i n d i c a t i v e of improved r e l i a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s . The a s s o c i a t i o n of P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c B c u l t u r e w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e may r e f l e c t s e c u l a r t r e n d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h improved food s u p p l i e s : t h e Sr/Ca d a t a c o l l e c t e d from J e r i c h o s o f a r i n d i c a t e a proport i o n a l i n c r e a s e o f meat: a n d / o r d a i r y p r o t e i n i n d i e t s . The sudden abandonment of P r e - P o t t e r y ' ~ & l i t h i b B s i t e s s u g g e s t s , howe v e r , t h a t t h i s p e r i o d o f p l e n t y was s h o r t l i v e d . T h i s h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o various f a c t o r s including increasing"competition f o r d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r i d i f i c a t i o n , and mounting population pressure. ~ i v e nt h e p r e s e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l r e c o r d , we cann o t s t a t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e changes f o r l o n g e v i t y , b u t t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e do d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e N a t u f i a n and pre-pottei'y N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s i n t h i s r e g i o n . we may t h u s c o n c l u d e t h a t , a t l e a s t i n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e i n i t i a l s t e p s i n p l a n t and a n i m a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n were n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l stress o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g h e a l t h s t a t u s . R a t h e r , h e a l t h s t a t u s ' i n t h e E p i p a l e o l i t h i c N a t u f i a n s was comparable t o t h a t of Middle P a l e o l i t h i c h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and p r o b a b l y was superior t o t h a t of ~ o i t h American h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s of t h e same period. G o o d ' h e a l t h s t a t u s was m a i n t a i n e d i n p r e - p o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d it i s o n l y i n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d s , when i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and husbandry w e r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , t h a t h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s d e c l i n e d markedly. T h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n and s y s t e m i c h e a l t h seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o c K r o n i c d i s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n t o p e r i o d i c b o u t s _ ? f f o o d s h o r t a g e s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of developmental l e s i o n s i n t h e t e e ' t h ' m d b o n e s and t h e p o o r - c o n d i t i o n o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s examined. I f , t h e n , we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r ~

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PATRICIA SMITH ET AL

130

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and permanent s e t t l e m e n t s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of endemic d i s e a s e , it i s o n l y i n these l a t e r periods t h a t t h e i r presence is manifest i n s k e l e t a l pathology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

D i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f this r e s e a r c h were s u p p o r t e d by a number o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e I s r a e l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , t h e Wenner-Gren Foundation f o r A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h , t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , and t h e Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n . Human s k e l e t o n s from J e r i c h o were sampled from t h e K u r t h c o l l e c t i o n a t t h e Z o o l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s a m l u n q (Munich). We t h a n k Denise Ferembach ( M a i t r e d e Recherche, CNRS), Monique L e c h e v a l l i e r ( U n i v e r s i t e de P a r i s VI) , Olav R s h r e r - E r t l ( Z m l o y i s c h e S t a a t s s m l u n q , Munich), G o t t f r i e d K u r t h ( C a r o l i n a Wi 1heImina T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , J u l i e t Clutton-Erock ( B r i t i s h Museum [ ~ a t u r a l~ i s t o r y )] , Baruch Arensburq ( U n i v e r s i t y o f T e l A v i v ) , and Aviv Eytan ( I s r a e l Department of A n t i q u i t i e s ) f o r p r o v i d i n g access t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e i r c a r e . We would f u r t h e r l i k e t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s f o r the v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t took p l a c e during t h e course; o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

REFERENCES

Acreche, M. 1982 Cranial

v a r i a t i o n between EBIV and MBII: A discpiminant a r l d ~ s i s , M.Sc. t h e s i s , Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , J e r u s a l e m .

Anderson, J. E. 1968 L a t e P a l e o l i t h i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from Nubia. In Prehistory in N-ubia (Vol 11), e d i t e d b y F . Wendorf, S.K.U. P r e s s , D a l l a s . -CD. 996-1017. Anderson, P. C. 1980 A t e s t i m o n y o f p r e h i s t o r i c t a s k s : D i a g n o s t i c r e s i d u e s and World Archaeology 12:181-194. s t o n e t o o l working e d q e s . Ani, S. 1983 The r e l a t i o n o f cranial thickness t o s i z e and shape o f the skuIZ: A radiographic study. DMD t h e s i s , Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Arensburq, H. 1973 The people in the land o f I s r a e l from the pi-~aleolithic t o present t h s s . P ~ . D . t h e s i s , T e l Aviv U n i v e r s i t y , Israel.

-

.


I31

New Upper P a l e o l i t h i c remains from I s r a e l . I n Eretz(Vol. X I I I ) , e d i t e d by B. Arensburg and 0 . BarYosef, p p . 208-215. I s r a e l Exploration Society, Jerusalem. Arensburq, B . , and 0 . Bar-Yosef 1973 Human remains from Ein Gev I , J o r d a n V a l l e y , I s r a e l . Paleoorient 1 :2201-2206. Arensburq, B . , P. Smith, and R. Yaker 1978 The human r e m a i n s from Abou Gosh. I n Abou Gosh and Memoires e t t r a v a u x Beisamoun, e d i t e d by M. L e c h e v a l l i e r . du c e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s de J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 , pp. 95-105. Bar-Yosef, 0. 1978 The L e v a n t i n e E p i - P a l e o l i t h i c a s t h e background f o r t h e "Neolithic Revolution." P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t c o n f e r e n c e on The O r i g i n s of A g r i c u l t u r e and Technology: E a s t o r West Asia? [ p r o c e e d i n g s volume o f t h e same t i t l e , e d i t e d by P. Mortensen a n d P. S o r e n s e n , i n p r e s s , 1984.1 I n p r e s s . 1980 P r e h i s t o r y o f t h e L e v a n t . Annual Review of Anthropology 9:lOl-133. 1981a The " P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c " p e r i o d i n t h e S o u t h e r n Levant. I n Prehistoire du Levant, ColZoques Internationaux, e d i t e d by J. Cauvin and P. S a n l a v i l l e , p p . 555-569. E d i t i o n s , CNRS, P a r i s . 1981b The E p i - P a l e o l i t h i c complexes i n t h e S o u t h e r n L e v a n t . I n Prehistoire du Levant, Colloques I n t e w a t i o n a u x , e d i t e d by J . Cauvin and P . S a n l a v i l l e . E d i t i o n s CNRS, P a r i s . In . p r e. paration. The P r e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l . Bar-Yosef and N . Goren Pateorient 1 :49-68. 1973 N a t u f i a n r e m a i n s from Hayonim Cave. Bar-Yosef, 0., B. Arensburg and P. Smith 1971-1972 Alqunas Notas Acerca d e l a c u l t u r a N a t u f i e n c e . An~purias 3 3 : 1-42. Bloom, R. A . , and J . W. Laws 1970 Humeral c o r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s a s an i n d e x o f o s t e o p o r o s i s i n B r i t i s h Journal of Radioloa-'~43:522-527. women. Brace, C. L. 1973 Sexual dimorphism i n human e v o l u t i o n . Yearbook o f Physical Anthropoloqy 1 6 : 31-49. C a r l s o n , D. S., and D. P. Van Gerven 1973 M a s t i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n and p o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e e v o l u t i o n i n Nub i a . American Journal o f Physical A'r.t'hro~oloq^46:495-506. Cauvin, J . 1978 L e s p r e m i e r s v i l l a g e s de S y r i e - P a l e s t i n e d e l x e au V I I e i l l e n a i r e a v a n t J . C. C o l l e c t i o n s de l a Maison de 1 ' 0 r i e n t Ancien No. 4 . Chamla, M. C. 1980 The s e t t l e m e n t o f non-Saharan A l g e r i a from t h e E p i p a l e o I n The physical anth~opologyo f l i t h i c t o modern t i m e s . European populations, e d i t e d by I . Schwidetsky, B. C h i a r e l l i and 0. Necrasov, pp. 257-270. Mouton, The Hague. 1977

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Clutton-Brock, J. 1979 The mammalian r e m a i n s from J e r i c h o T e l l . Proceedings o f t h e P r e h i s t o r i c So&e% 45:135-157. C r o q n i e r , E., and M. Dupouy-Madre 1974 Les N a t o u f i e n s du Nahal Oren. Paleorient 2:1C/3-121. Davis, 5 . J. 1977 S i z e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e f o x , Vulpes v u l p e s i n t h e P a l a l a r c t i c t o d a y and i n I s r a e l d u r i n g t h e l a t e Q u a t e r n a r y . Journal o f Zoology 1 8 2 : 343-351. 1978 Etude d e l a f a u n e . I n Abou Gosh e t Beisamoun, e d i t e d by M. L e c h e v a l l i e r . Memoires e t t r a v a u x du c e n t r e d e r e c h e r c h e s p r e h i s t o r i q u e s d e J e r u s a l e m , No. 2 , p p . 195-197. 1981 The e f f e c t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e change and d o m e s t i c a t i o n on t h e body s i z e of L a t e P l e i s t o c e n e t o Holocene m a m m a l s o f I s r a e l . faleobiologg 7:101-114. D a v i s , S. J., and F. V a l l a 1978 Evidence of d o m e s t i c a t i o n of t h e dog 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ago i n t h e N a t u f i a n of I s r a e l . Nature (London) 276:608-610. de Contenson, H . , and W. J. Van L i e r e 1964 Sondages a T e l l Ramad en 1963, r a p p o r t p r e l i m i n a i r e . A n d e s Archeologiques de S y r i e 1 4 :log-124. Ferembach, D . 1958 Note p r e l i m i n a i r e s u r l e s o s s e m e n t s humaines d e c o u v e r t e s a S a f a d i I s r a e l . L a b o r a t o r i e d m A n t h r o p o l o q i eP h y s i q u e d e l ' e c o l e des hauts Etudes. P a r i s . Physique de l ' e c o l e des hauts Etudes. Paris. 1959 Note s u r un c r a n e b r a c h y c e p h a l e e t deux mandibules du I s r a e l Exploration Journal 9:65Mesolithique d ' I s r a e l . 73. 1961 S q u e l e t t e s du N a t o u f i e n d V I s r a e l , e t u d e a n t h r o p o l o g i q u e . L 'Anthropologie 65:46-66. 1962 La n e c r o p o l e E p i p a l e o l i t h i q u e de T a f o r a l t (Maroc O r i e n t a l ) . Rabat, CNRS. 1974 Note s u r l e e a u e l e t t e d ' e n f a n t n e o l i t h i c d e Sheikh Aly ( I s r a e l ) . T e k u f a t Ha-even 12:47-49. 1977 Les N a t o u f i e n s de P a l e s t i n e . I n Eretz-Yisraez (Vol. X I I I ) , e d i t e d by B . Arensburq and 0 . Bar-Yosef. I s r a e l Exploration Society, Jerusalem. 1978 Les N a t o u f i e n s e t l'homme d e Combe C a p e l l e . B u l l e t i n e t Memoire de l a SociStd Anthropoloqique~ de Paris 5:131136. Ferembach, D . , and M. L e c h a v a l l i e r . 1973 Decouverte d e s c r a n e s surmodeles d a n s u n e h a b i t a t i o n du V I I i e n n e m i l l e n a i r e a Beisamoun, I s r a e l . Paleorient 1 : 223-230. F i e l d , H. 1952 The F a i y m , S i n a i , Sudan, Kenya E . Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridqe. F r a y e r , D. W . 1980 Sexual dimorphism and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i n t h e L a t e Journal of Human P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene of Europe. Evolution 9 : 399-415.

5 THE LATE PLEISTOCENEIEARLY HOLOCENE IN THE LEVANT Garrod, D. A . E . 1942a E x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e c a v e s o f Wadi el-Muqhara,

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B u l l e t i n o f t h e American School o f P r e h i s t o r i c Research 7:5-11. E x c a v a t i o n s a t t h e cave of Shukbah, P a l e s t i n e , 1928. Proceedings o f t h e P r e h i s t o r i c S o c i e t y N.S. 8:l-20. 1957 The N a t u f i a n c u l t u r e : The l i f e and economy o f a Mesol i t h i c p e o p l e i n t h e Near E a s t . Proceedings o f t h e B r i t i s h Academy 43:211-227. Garrod, D . A . E . , and D. M. A. Bate 1937 The Stone Aae o f Mount C a m e l : Excavations a t t h e Wadi el-Muqhara " ( ~ o l . 1 ) . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( C l a r e n d o n ), London and New York. Greene, D. L . , and G . J . Armelagos 1972 The Wadi H a l f a M e s o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n . Department of 1942b

Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts Amherst Research Report NO. 11. G r i n b l a t , J. 1982 Aging in t h e world: Demographic d e t e r m i n a n t s , p a s t t r e n d s and l o n g t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e s t o 2075. World Health S t a t i s t i c s 35:124-132. H a c h l i l i , R . , B. Arensburg, and A. K i l l e b r e w 1981 The J e w i s h n e c r o p o l i s a t J e r i c h o . Current Anthropology 22: 701-702. Hassan, F. 1981 Demographic a r c h a e o l o g y . Academic P r e s s , New York. Helbaek, H . 1966 P r e - P o t t e r y N e o l i t h i c f a r m i n g a t Beidha. P a l e s t i n e Exp l o r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y 98:61-66. Henry, D. O., and A . F. S e r v e l l o 1974 Compendium of C14 d e t e r m i n a t i o n s d e r i v e d from Near E a s t e r n p r e h i s t o r i c d e p o s i t s . P a k o r i e n t 2:19-44. Hershkowitz, I . 1982 The N e o l i t h i c p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e South S i n a i and i t s r e l a An a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t i o n t o o t h e r Mediterranean groups: study. M.Sc. t h e s i s , Tel-Aviv U n i v e r s i t y , I s r a e l . Hoof, - . M. I n The domes1969 P l a n t remains and e a r l y f a r m i n g i n J e r i c h o . t i c a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f @ants and animals, e d i t e d by Duckworth, P. J. Ucko and G . W. Dimbleby, pp. 355-359. London. Hughes, D. R. I n rier

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ANN M.PALKOVICH considered i n d i c a t i v e o f i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia See d i s c u s s i o n by Goodman e t a 1 , Chapter 11 t h i s volume; Von Endt and O r t n e r A high i n c i d e n c e o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t e d f o r 1982) both Basketmaker and Pueblo (Tables 16 1 and 16 2 ) b u t temporal d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n c i d e n c e between t h e two p e r i o d s were n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( E l N a j j a r e t a 1 1976:482) In s i x s k e l e t a l s e r i e s , s u b a d u l t s (0-10 y e a r s of age a t d e a t h ) c o n s i s t e n t l y showed a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s than a d u l t s (Table 16 2 ) A s t r i k i n g environmental e f f e c t was n o t e d i n t h e c o n t r a s t between ArCanyon Bottom groups and Sage P l a i n s groups- ( T a b l e 16 3 ) c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence shows t h a t Canyon Bottom groups were h e a v i l y maize dependent w h i l e Sage P l a i n s groups had a v a r i e d d i e t t h a t El included beans and squash a s w e l l a s w i l d food r e s o u r c e s N a j j a r and h i s a s s o c i a t e s a t t r i b u t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r a t e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e two groups t o t h e i r o n - d e f i c i e n t d i e t s o f maize-dependent Canyon Bottom p o p u l a t i o n s Other s k e l e t a l measures o f d i e t a r y problems ( s t a t u r e and d e n t a l d i s e a s e ) d i d n o t evidence s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between Basketmaker and Pueblo groups ( E l N a j j a r 1974) Brief a n a l y s e s o f t h e s k e l e t a l remains from Pueblo Bonito and Aroyo Hondo a r e o f f e r e d below t o p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r assessment o f t h e n a t u r e and success o f t h e l a t e r a g r a r i a n phase o f t h e Anasazi economy

J

Pueblo Bonito

The development of c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g systems a s a d a p t i v e r e sponses t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and environmental s h i f t s i s a common theme i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of Pueblo groups J o r d e (1977) s u g g e s t s , f o r example, t h a t food s t o r a g e , i r r i g a t i o n , and s e t t l e ment aggregation a l o n g permanent d r a i n a g e s were c u l t u r a l means o f b u f f e r i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e Chaco Canyon re'gion of New Mexico He n o t e s t h a t such mechanisms, w h i l e a p p a r e n t l y e f f e c t i v e i n damping t h e e f f e c t s o f short-term ( y e a r - t o - y e a r ) d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n , y i e l d e d o n l y a stopgap a d a p t i v e Expenditures of t i m e and energy i n t o such measures apresponse p a r e n t l y rendered t h e system even more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e e f f e c t s Dependence on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f long-term f l u c t u a t i o n s achieved through i r r i g a t i o n and s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s d u r i n g good y e a r s e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o a c o l l a p s e of t h e system and d i s a g g r e g a t i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n once r a i n f a l l diminished Thus, l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s , food s t o r a g e , and i r r i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s worked i n Chaco Canyon on a year-to-year b a s i s a s l o n g a s major changes i n r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s However, w i t h t h e o n s e t o f t h e G r e a t Drought d a t i n g d i d n o t occur 1276 t o 1299, v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e major Pueblo s i t e s i n t h e from A.D Long-term below average p r e c i p i t a t i o n canyon were abandoned ' proved t o be ari unmanageable s t r e s s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s t h a t had been adopted I The success o f s o c i a l s t a t u s a s a c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanism Four " b u r i a l among t h e Chacoan Pueblo can b e examined s k e l e t a l l y rooms" i n Pueblo Bonito have y i e l d e d t h e l a r g e s t known s i n g l e

I

16 THE PREHISTORIC SOUTHWEST

TABLE 1 6 4

Pueblo Bonito Composite L i f e Table, Smoothed a

Age

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dx

lx

^x

Lx

Tx

0 ex

cemetery s e r i e s of interments from t h e canyon Architectural, s t r a t i g r a p h i c , and ceramic analyses by N Aikens (personal com- &;munication) suggest t h e s e rooms were purposefully converted i n t o mortuary f a c i l i t i e s , bodies being l a i d on t h e hardpacked f l o o r and d i r t being brought i n t o cover t h e corpses Some i n t r u s i o n on e a r l i e r interments by l a t e r ones i s suggested by t h e numerous disturbed s k e l e t o n s noted a t t h e time of excavation I t i s bel i e v e d t h a t t h e majority o f s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l was r e t a i n e d from these excavations by Judd (1964), b u t some q u e s t i o n s remain about the completeness of t h e c o l l e c t i o n . Ninety-five i n d i v i d u a l s a r e represented i n t h e f o u r Pueblo Bonito b u r i a l rooms This s k e l e t a l s e r i e s does n o t r e f l e c t a t y p i c a l age d i s t r i b u t i o n (Table 1 6 4) There i s a c l e a r p a u c i t y of i n f a n t s ; only 20% of the i n d i v i d u a l s recovered were 10 y e a r s of age o r younger a t death Despite t h e g e n e r a l l y good t o e x c e l l e n t preservation of t h e observed s k e l e t a l remains, i n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n a r e underrepresented from a demographic standpoint (whether a s a There r e s u l t of excavation and recovery b i a s o r mortuary b i a s ) i s a l s o a notable d i s p a r i t y i n t h e sex distribution--females a r e twice a s f r e q u e n t i n t h e sample a s males (42 t o 22, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) Based on t h e i r assessment cf both b i o l o g i c a l and mortuary e v i dence, Aikens and Schelberg (1984) suggested t h a t t h e s k e l e t a l r e mains represented i n t h e s e f o u r rooms r e p r e s e n t one of two s e p a r a t e ( s o c i a l ) "lineages" noted among t h e Pueblo Bonito remains Another c l u s t e r of b u r i a l rooms was excavated by Pepper (1909) Detailed d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e s k e l e t a l remains a r e lacking, but i t i s c l e a r from Pepper's d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i s b u r i a l c l u s t e r and from t h e a n a l y s i s by Aikens and Schelberg t h a t both Pepper's and Judd's "cemeteries" probably represented high-ranking l i n e a g e s i n

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.

ANN M. PALKOVICH a s t r a t i f i e d Chacoan s o c i e t y P e p p e r ' s c l u s t e r evidences a w e a l t h of grave goods b e f i t t i n g a high-ranking l i n e a g e ; J u d d ' s c l u s t e r , though a f f o r d e d a complex o f rooms a s a b u r i a l f a c i l i t y (and t h e r e f o r e having r e c e i v e d a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t n o t found in o t h e r i n s t a n c e s ) , has fewer grave goods and t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t s a lower r a n k i n g l i n e a g e D i f f e r e n t i a l treatment within t h e l i n e a g e s i s a l s o e v i d e n t by t h e unequal d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods among i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n each room c l u s t e r The s p e c i a l s t a t u s accorded t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a t d e a t h may have been a f a c t o r producing t h e skewed observed age p r o f i l e n o t e d e a r l i e r I f t h e s e were indeed ranking l i n e a g e s , and t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t h e r e f o r e had favored o r s p e c i a l s t a t u s , it seems l i k e l y t h a t they would have enjoyed p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s t o food r e s o u r c e s We would t h e r e f o r e expect fewer c a s e s of d i e t a r y s t r e s s o r l e s s s e v e r e s k e l e t a l involvement f o r t h e s e r i e s from t h e s e c l u s t e r s t h a n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of o t h e r p r e h i s t o r i c Pueblo groups From a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s (Palkovich 19841, it i s immediatel y apparent t h a t a t l e a s t t h e g e n e r a l age p r o f i l e comparisons argue t o t h e c o n t r a r y The Pueblo Bonito s e r i e s i s demographically s i m i l a r t o t h o s e p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g nearby in s m a l l e r pueblos Even more p e r s u a s i v e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y i s n o t e d among t h e observed p a t t e r n o f g r o s s s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s Among t h e 20 j u v e n i l e s 0-10 y e a r s o f a g e a t d e a t h i n J u d d ' s c l u s t e r , 5 c a s e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s , 4 c a s e s o f c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and 4 c a s e s of endocranial l e s i o n s a r e evident I n a l l , 1 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (50%-)> a r e a f f e c t e d , a high i n c i d e n c e r a t e of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s Several s t u d i e s s u g g e s t i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l d i e t a r y inadequacies, n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , and s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c t i o u s i n s u l t s a s t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s o f t h e pathology p a t t e r n e x h i b i t e d i n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s ( E l - N a j j a r 1977; E l - N a j j a r e t a 1 1975 1976) T h i s study s u g g e s t s t h a t high s t a t u s may n o t have been enough t o b u f f e r t h e marked b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f d i e t a r y i n a d e q u a c i e s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e p r e h i s t o r i c group i n t e r r e d i n t h e Pueblo Bonito room c l u s t e r Apparently n e i t h e r s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s n o r t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s were s u f f i c i e n t b u f f e r a g a i n s t d i e t a r y inadequacies i n Chaco Canyon

Arroyo Hondo I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e Great Drought d i d n o t uniformly a f f e c t a l l a r e a s of t h e American Southwest Several dendroclimatic a n a l y s e s ( E u l e r e t a 1 1979; Rose e t a 1 1981) show t h a t s e v e r a l r e g i o n s , t h e Northern Rio Grande among them, d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e s e v e r e s h o r t a g e s of r a i n f a l l c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h o s e evidenced a t Chaco Canyon A long h i s t o r y o f p o p u l a t i o n s h i f t s i n r e s p o n s e t o changes i n local precipitation patterns i s reflected i n the regional s e t t l e ment -p a t t e r n f o r t h e Northern Rio Grande r e q i o n Dickson (1975, 1979) noted t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o s e t t l e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e v\ Northern Rio Grande began around (A D 600) During t h e p e r i o d

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from A.D 600-900, s e t t l e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d i n primary zones of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n where year-round w a t e r s u p p l i e s a r e a v a i l able Indigenous p o p u l a t i o n growth r e f l e c t e d i n t h e number and s i z e of s i t e s a l s o occurred during t h i s p e r i o d By A D 900-1100 ( t h e Developmental p e r i o d ) , a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e s had s p r e a d i n t o secondary and t e r t i a r y zones o f p r o d u c t i o n dependent on d r y farming techniques; t h e p o p u l a t i o n doubled approximately every 50 y e a r s a t t h i s time The C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d of o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Northern Rio Grande, which began around A D 1200, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by drought condit i o n s and a g g r e g a t i o n of t h e i n t o large s i t e s located i n primary and some secondary zones of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h t e r t i a r y zones being abandoned a l t o g e t h e r There was a l s o an accompanying s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s A s in the case o f t h e Chaco r e g i o n , t h i s s h i f t in s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g y l e d t o o n l y short-term s t a b i l i t y The downt u r n i n t h e long-term p r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e i n t h e 1420s l e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e abandonment of l a r g e a g r i c u l t u r a l communities i n t h e Northern Rio Grande a r e a . A s a major f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e Northern Rio Grande, Arroyo Hondo p r o v i d e s a second c a s e s t u d y i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among marginal environmental c o n d i t i o n s , subs i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s , and n u t r i t i o n a l adequacy Arroyo Hondo, a C o a l i t i o n p e r i o d Pueblo oc?.upation, i s l o c a t e d on t h e s l o p i n g piedmont immediately west o f t h e f o o t h i l l s o f t h e EnvironSanqre d e C r i s t o Mountains i n n o r t h c e n t r a l New Mexico mental d i v e r s i t y e x h i b i t e d a t t h e 2150-m e l e v a t i o n o f t h i s a r e a and t h e s i t e ' s p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n gave i t s i n h a b i t a n t s ready a c c e s s t o t h e p l a n t and animal r e s o u r c e s o f s e v e r a l major ecozones w i t h i n t h e immediate a r e a The s i t e c o v e r s approximately 3 2 ha and i s composed of o v e r 1000 rooms arranged i n 24 roomblocks around One hundred twenty b u r i a l s recovered i n 5 s e a s o n s 9 plaza acres (if e x c a v a t i o n s , span t h e e n t i r e 125-year o c c u p a t i o n of t h e s i t e A d e t a i l e d d e n d r o c l i m a t i c a n a l y s i s (Rose e t a 1 1981) r e v e a l s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n between major b u i l d i n g phases a t t h e The Pueblo was e s t a b l i s h e d i n Pueblo and ( r a i n f a l l c o n d i t i o n s A.D 1300, a t t h e o n s e t of a p e r i o d of i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i a t i o n For t h e f i r s t 35 y e a r s of o c c u p a t i o n , l o c a l r a i n f a l l remained above average The a g r i c u l t u r a l base of corn, beans, and squash was l i k e l y h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e , and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s show t h a t l o c a l wild f l o r a such a s l e a f y p l a n t s , s e e d s , and n u t s s e a s o n a l l y supplemented t h e d i e t (Wetterstrom 1976) Animal p r o t e i n was d e r i v e d from domesticated t u r k e y and over 50 s p e c i e s of l o c a l l y A r c h i t e c t u r a l a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t maximum a v a i l a b l e w i l d game s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached about A D 1300 A s h i f t i n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a t t e r n about A D 1335 r e s u l t e d i n a highly variable r a i n f a l l Severe d r o u g h t s , followed by b r i e f p e r i o d s o f i n c r e a s e d r a i n f a l l , o c c u r r e d e v e r y few y e a r s Under c o n d i t i o n s o f such environmental i n s t a b i l i t y , a g r i c u l t u r a l product i o n was u n p r e d i c t a b l e During t h e same p e r i o d , a p r e c i p i t o u s

ANN M. PALKOVICH d e c l i n e in t h e r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n a t Arroyo Hondo began, and by 1345 t h e Pueblo was v i r t u a l l y abandoned A s m a l l e r r e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e s i t e began i n t h e e a r l y 1370s, which c o i n c i d e s with a temporary r e t u r n t o high l o c a l p r e c i p i t a tion Maximum r e s e t t l e m e n t s i z e was reached i n t h e e a r l y 1400s during a 10-year p e r i o d of c o n t i n u e d above-average p r e c i p i t a t i o n A f t e r 1410, a second r a p i d d e c l i n e i n t h e s i t e ' s p o p u l a t i o n began A t t h i s same t i m e , a drop in r a i n f a l l o c c u r r e d By t h e time t h e s i t e was f i n a l l y abandoned i n 1425, t h e Santa Fe a r e a e n t e r e d t h e ' most s e v e r e l o c a l drought c o n d i t i o n s documented i n t h e t r e e - r i n g record An e t h n o b o t a n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Arroyo Hondo s u b s i s t e n c e using s t a n d a r d WHO p r o t e i n and c a l o r i e requirements of c h i l d r e n s u g g e s t s t h a t a young c h i l d ' s d i e t was l i k e l y b a r e l y adequate duri n g y e a r s of average p r e c i p i t a t i o n (Wetterstrom 1976) Unstable c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n f l u c t u a t i n g annual a g r i c u l t u r a l production s u g g e s t an u n c e r t a i n d i e t and, t h u s , c h r o n i c n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy throughout t h e o c c u p a t i o n of Arroyo Hondo C l i n i c a l and s u b c l i n i c a l c a s e s o f p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e m a l n u t r i t i o n , s y n e r g i s t i c i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , reduced growth r a t e s , g e n e r a l d i s r u p t i o n of growth p a t t e r n s , and d e a t h s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy a r e suggested by Wetterstrom a s c o n d i t i o n s l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d by t h e Arroyo Hondo c h i l d r e n , w i t h a heightened morbidity and m o r t a l i t y r e s p o n s e d u r i n g dry y e a r s Analysis o f t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase of occupation a t Arroyo Hondo s u p p o r t s t h e s u g g e s t i o n of c h r o n i c A group of b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e s u l t i n g from an i n a d e q u a t e d i e t four s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s , c l a s s i f i e d a s o s t e o l y t i c bone r e s p o n s e s , s t a n d s o u t i n i t s high i n c i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e 0-1 and 1-4 9-year age classes Forty-nine of t h e 108 i n d i v i d u a l s (45%) f a l l w i t h i n t h e s e t w o age c l a s s e s i n t h e Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l s e r i e s Observed i n c i dence of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s c o n s e r v a t i v e s i n c e n o t a l l s k e l e t a l p a r t s were recovered f o r each i n d i v i d u a l , t h u s r e n d e r i n g a n incqmp l e t e assessment of p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v o l ement f o r t h e s e r i e s The p a t h o l o g i e s i n c l u d e 10 c a s e s o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and e i g h t cases of endocranial l e s i o n s Both p a t h o l o g i e s o c c u r r e d exc l u s i v e l y i n c h i l d r e n under t h e age of f i v e F i v e c a s e s of c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a appear i n t h i s age c l a s s The f o u r t h pathology i n t h i s group, g e n e r a l i z e d p o r o s i t y , c o n s i s t e d of s m a l l , c l u s t e r e d p o i n t s of c o r t i c a l bone d e s t r u c t i o n ( u s u a l l y noted a t t h e ends of Ten c a s e s o f p o r o s i t y diaphyses) i n t h e p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n were noted i n t h e 0-1-year age c l a s s and two c a s e s i n t h e 1-4 9year age c l a s s Twenty-three o f t h e 49 i n d i v i d u a l s ( 4 7 % )under t h e age of f i v e e x h i b i t e d one o r more o f t h e s e p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s (Palkovich 1980:166-167) Other Pueblo o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e Northern Rio Grande contemporaneous w i t h Arroyo Hondo a l s o evidence t h e s e Hooten noted 2 8 c a s e s of p o r o t i c hyperoskeletal pathologies s t o s i s i n s u b a d u l t s and young a d u l t s a t Pecos, f o r example (Hooten 1930 A composite l i f e t a b l e (Table 16 5 ) c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e major phase o f o c c u p a t i o n a t Arroyo

7

TABLE 16 5 Arroyo Hondo Composite Life Table, Smootheda

Age class (Â¥ ears

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ANN M.PALKOVICH

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Hondo e x h i b i t e d a m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n w i t h a high i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e , which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important given t h e number o f c a s e s of o s t e o l y t i c s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n t h e youngest age c l a s s e s I t can be suggested t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n , a c t i n g s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e high l e v e l o f m o r t a l i t y among i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n a t Arroyo Hondo Apparently, a s h i f t t o i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and p o p u l a t i o n a g g r e g a t i o n i n l a r g e v i l l a g e s l o c a t e d i n primary zones o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n were i n s u f f i c i e n t ' b u f f e r s a g a i n s t t h e v a g a r i e s of r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s a s e x h i b i t e d a t Arroyo Hondo What were marginal p r o t e i n - c a l o r i e d i e t s i n average y e a r s were v i r t u a l l y s t a r v a t i o n d i e t s i n drought y e a r s , which h e i g h t e n e d t h e morbiditym o r t a l i t y s t r e s s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and l e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e abandonment of t h e v i l l a g e Thus, b u f f e r i n g mechanisms o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s and a g r i c u l t u r a l s t r a t e g i e s could n o t s o f t e n t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact o f poor d i e t s on t h e Arroyo Hondo p o p u l a t i o n

CONCLUSION

The a s s o c i a t i o n of d i e t a r y s h i f t s w i t h t h e o r i g i n s of a g r i c u l t u r e should n o t l e a d u s simply t o assume t h a t n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy was experienced f o r t h e f i r s t time a s a s e r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s f o r human groups d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c For t h e American Southwest, subsistence--whether based on food c o l l e c t i o n o r food production--was s u b j e c t t o c o i n c i d e n t short-term and long-term environmental i n s t a b i l i t i e s , t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t s o f which were u n p r e d i c t a b l e r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s and u n r e l i a b l e r e s o u r c e productivity The' N e o l i t h i c Revolution, i n t h i s c a s e , i s n o t a m a t t e r of a change from a h e a l t h y d i e t t o an unhealthy o n e , o r a change from a d i v e r s i f i e d , c o l l e c t e d f e a s t t o a l i m i t e d , produced famine Paleoenviromnental and e t h n o b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i e t s of p r e h i s t o r i c Anasazi p o p u l a t i o n s were always marginal--and w i t h t h e advent of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e b i o l o g i c a l impact went from $9. bad t o worse Basketmaker communities were s u b j e c t t o t h e same ?' - --v a g a r i e s i n c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a s were Pueblo groups; t h u s , Once Y s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a r e to be expected m o b i l i t y t o e x p l o i t new a r e a s f o r food r e s o u r c e s a s a b u f f e r i n g mechanism was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e , heightened s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o food s h o r t a g e over t h e l o n g run r e s u l t e d However, w i t h d i e t s i n h e r e n t l y n u t r i t i o n a l l y marginci.1, s k e l e t a l p a t t e r n s of endemic r a t h e r t h a n e p i s o d i c s t r e s s were more l i k e l y t o be e x h i b i t e d While l e s s e f f e c t i v e c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g mechanisms may have heightened t h e b i o l o g i c a l response t o marginal d i e t s i n t h e l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l groups, o v e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s o f endemic n u t r i t i o n a l inadequacy f o r b o t h Basketmaker and Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n s may have r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s than a r e found i n many o t h e r human groups

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I


REFERENCES

Aikens, Nancy, and John Schelberg The Kiva, i n 1984 Human b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n Chaco Canyon press Dickson, Bruce 1975 S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s t a b i l i t y and change i n t h e middle n o r t h e r n Rio Grande Region, New Mexico: A t e s t o f some hypotheses American A n t i q u i t y 40: 159-171 1979 P r e h i s t o r i c pueblo s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s : The Arroyo Hondo , New Mexico s u r v e y Arroyo Hondo Archaeolog&al S e r i e s Vol 2 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud 1974 People o f Canyon de CheZly: A s t u d y o f t h e i r biology ana Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, culture Arizona S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y 1977 Maize, m a l a r i a and t h e anemias i n t h e pre-Columbian New Yearbook o f Physical. Anthropology, 1976 20: 329World 337 JEl-Najjar, Mahmoud, B L o z o f f , and D Ryan 1975 The paleo-epidemiology o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e American Southwest: R a d i o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r American Journal o f Roentgen0 20% , Radium Therapy ations and N u e l e m Medicine 25 :918-924 E l - N a j j a r , Mahmoud, D. Ryan, C T u r n e r , and B. Lozoff 1976 The e t i o l o g y o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s among t h e p r e h i s t o r i c and h i s t o r i c Anasazi I n d i a n s o f t h e southwestern United States American Journal o f Physical Antlvopology 44:477\ 488 E u l e r , Robert, George Gumerman, Thor Karlstrom, J e f f r e y Dean, and Richard Hevly 1979 The Colorado p l a t e a u s : C u l t u r a l dynamics and p a l e o e n v i r o n ment. Science 205:1089-1101 Glassow, Michael 1972 Changes i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n s o f Southwestern Basketmakers: I n C o n t e m p o r q archaeology, A systems p e r s p e c t i v e e d i t e d by Mark Leone, pp 289-302 Southern I l l i n o i s Univ e r s i t y P r e s s , Carbondale Hooton, E a r n e s t 1930 The Indians o f Peeos Pueblo Yale U n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , New Haven Irwin-Williams , Cynthia, and Vance Haynes 1970 C l i m a t i c change and e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n dynamics i n t h e Quaternary Research 1 :59-71 southwestern United S t a t e s J o r d e , L. B 1977 P r e c i p i t a t i o n c y c l e s and c u l t u r a l b u f f e r i n g i n t h e p r e I n 'For theory b u i l d i n g i n m e h u e o l o g y , h i s t o r i c Southwest e d i t e d by Lewis Bin f o r d , pp 385-396 Academic P r e s s , New York

.

ANN M. PALKOVICH Judd , N e i l 1964 The a r c h i t e c t u r e of Pueblo Bonito h i t h s o n i a n Miscellaneous Collections Vol 147, No. 1 Kidder, Alfred 1958 Pecos, New Mexico: A r c h a e o l o g i c a l n o t e s Robert S Peabody Foundatwn for Archaeology Paper NO 5 Lipe, William 1978 The Southwest. I n Ancient native Americans, e d i t e d by J e s s e J e n n i n g s , pp 327-401 Freeman, San F r a n c i s c o Martin, Paul S , and Fred Plog Doubl eday/Natural H i s t o r y 1973 The Archaeology o f Arizona P r e s s , Garden C i t y , New York. Palkovich, Ann M.

:I

I

.=

1980

Pueblo p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i e t y : The Arroyo Hondo s k e l e t a l and mortuary remains Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeolog'ioal, Series - -S Vol 3 School o f American Research P r e s s , S a n t e Fe 1984 Disease and m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s i n t h e b u r i a l s rooms o f 7 ' m e Kiva, i n Pueblo Bonito : P r e l i m i n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s - press Pepper, George 5' z , - -. 1909 The e x p l o r a t i o n of a b u r i a l room i n Pueblo B o n i t o , New %i-r':--^ Mexico i n Putnam Anniversary Volume: Anthropological .4lEssays, pp 196-252 S t e c h e r t , New York Ãˆ -.,'TÂ¥.,(' - JL-+..- Plog, Fred % '1.a 5,. . T-:-,# 1974 The study of prehistoric change Academic P r e s s , New IYork. = =Rose, Martin, J e f f r e y Dean, and William Robinson 1981 The p a s t c l i m a t e o f Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico r e c o n s t r u c t e d Arroyo 'Hondo Archaeo'logical, Series Vol from t r e e r i n g s * , t-% 4 School o f American Research P r e s s , Santa Fe , , Von Endt, David, and Donald O r t n e r T'" 7' , -: 1982 Amino a c i d a n a l y s i s o f bone from a p o s s i b l e c a s e o f p r e h i s t o r i c i r o n d e f i c i e n c y anemia from t h e American SouthAmerican ~ o u r n a lof Physical Anthropology 5 9 : 377west 385 Wetterstrom, Wilma 1976 The e f f e c t s of n u t r i t i o n on population s i z e a t Pueblo Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department Arroyo Hondo, New Mexico o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan -1:.

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CHAPTER 17 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE CHANGES AND HEALTH

David N . D i a k e l Peter D. Schulz H e w M . MeHenry Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis

INTRODUCTION

Although l i v i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s have i n common an e x i s t e n c e i n s p a r s e and s c a t t e r e d environments p o o r l y s u i t e d f o r f a r m i n g , i n some a r e a s of t h e world d e n s e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n s o n c e e x i s t e d i n h a b i t a t s where farming c o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d , and w i t h i n r a n g e of p o t e n t i a l d i f f u s i o n of d o m e s t i c p l a n t s p e c i e s . C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a i s one such r e g i o n . The major d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h a t o f many a r e a s o f North America i s t h a t most o f C a l i f o r n i a r e t a i n e d an A r c h a i c subsistence pattern. Nevertheless, c e n t r a l California populations were a t l e a s t s e m i s e d e n t a r y and d e n s e , and showed c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and o t h e r developments on i l e v e l o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t i e s (Meighan 1 9 5 9 ) . C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y shows a t r e n d toward s p e c i a l i z e d a d a p t a t i o n s t o l o c a l environments, and l a t e r c u l t u r e s may demons t r a t e increased efficiency of resource exploitation, especially if e f f i c i e n c y i s measured i n p r o d u c t i o n p e r u n i t s p a c e and p e r u n i t t i m e a s w e l l a s i n s e a s o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food i n t a k e . I t h a s been a r g u e d t h a t l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c economies were v i r t u a l l y p r o t o a g r i c u l t u r a l i n many i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n what h a s been termed natural resource management (Bean and Blackburn 1976; Bean and Lawton 1973; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1980; Z i e g l e r 1 9 6 8 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f i r e may have been u s e d t o m a i n t a i n s u b c l i m a t i c v e g a t a t i o n communities, t o c o n t r o l i n s e c t i n f e s t a t i o n of a c o r n s , and t o m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of

p r e s e n t address: Resource P r o t e c t i o n Di'vision. Departnient o f Parks and' Recreation, Sacramento. C a l i f o r n i a 95811. PALEOFATHOLOGY AT TXE OECGlNS

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t h e environment; and it i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e was i n a d v e r t e n t o r p u r p o s e f u l hnma-i a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f l o c a l abundance o f f a v o r e d m e d i c i n a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , and condiment p l a n t s . The s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e and u t i l i z e d by c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s c o v e r e d a v e r y broad spectrum i n a manner t y p i c a l o f Archaic c u l t u r e s , and a l l major e c o l o q i c a l communities were p r o d u c t i v e s o u r c e s o f h a r v e s t e d food. Throughout most of t h e a r e a t h e s i n g l e most p r o d u c t i v e food s o u r c e was t h e a c o r n c r o p , followed by f i s h , e s p e c i a l l y salmon (Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . While s u b s i s t e n c e economies i n t h i s r e g i o n u t i l i z e d a broad spectrum o f r e s o u r c e s , t h e y i n c r e a s i n g l y emphas i z e d a few major s t a p l e s t h a t s h a r e d t h e a t t r i b u t e s of abundance, s e a s o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r y , a n d c a p a b i l i t y o f s t o r a g e . During t h e w i n t e r months, when h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g were d i f f i c u l t a n d f r e s h v e g e t a l f o o d s u n a v a i l a b l e , consumption o f s t o r e d a c o r n p r o d u c t s may have exceeded t h a t o f a l l o t h e r f o o d s . Thus it i s h a r d l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o c a t e g o r i z e n a t i v e economies o f t h i s a r e a a s balanophagous ( a c o r n e a t i n g ) , o r , i n view of t h e d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them, t o c o n s i d e r t h i s a d a p t a t i o n a s p a r a l l e l i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n o t h e r a r e a s . Mast o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r d e a l w i t h popul a t i o n s l o c a t e d i n t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y of C a l i f o r n i a , e s p e c i a l l y t h e lower Sacramento a n d n o r t h e r n m o s t San J o a q u i n v a l l e y s . Our c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h i s a r e a was l a r g e l y due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of a d e q u a t e samples s p a n n i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e temporal r a n g e . R e p o r t s o f p a t h o l o g i e s r e l a t e d t o h e a l t h from o u t s i d e this r e g i o n a r e r a r e , o f t e n p o o r l y q u a n t i f i e d , and b a s e d on f r a q m e n t a r y r e m a i n s , a n d t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e on i n d i v i d u a l examples r a t h e r t h a n on meaningful p o p u l a t i o n comparisons ( s e e Hoffman a n d Brunker 1 9 7 6 ) . Furthermore, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t a l l C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e economies and c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e s a r e d i f f i c u l t . T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l of microenvironmental d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d s u h s e q u e n t c u l t u r a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and t h e p r e h i s t o r y of p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e m e n t and movement i s complex and u n c l e a r . I f f o r no o t h e r reason than t h e h i s t o r i c accident of t h e C e n t r a l Valley being t h e f o c u s of most s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s of p r e h i s t o r i c h e a l t h , w e h a v e c o n f i n e d o u r main d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s r e g i o n . The p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r a l sequence f o r much of c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a was worked o u t i n t h e 1930s ( B e a r d s l e y 1 9 4 8 , 1954; H e i z e r and Fenenqa 1939; L i l l a r d e t a l . 1 9 3 9 ) . Three s e q u e n t i a l complexes ( o r h o r i z o n s , o r p e r i o d s ) were r e c o g n i z e d , g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n a t e d E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e , w i t h t h e L a t e complex s u b d i v i d e d i n t o p r e h i s t o r i c Phase 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 . The term ^i.nhiZZer pattern i s used t o r e c o g n i z e and d i s t i n g u i s h a l o c a l E a r l y complex s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y . F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 summarizes r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e complexes ( s e e Schulz l 9 8 1 : 5 8 ) . D e t a i l s o f t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y c u l t u r a l s e q u e n c e a r e a v a i l a b l e from numerous s o u r c e s . For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r it i s n o t e d t h a t t h e r e i s an a p p a r e n t t r e n d toward i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y ,

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CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH

441

Late

Early

^ 1 100 years 6.P

FIGURE 1 7 . 1 . Temporal distr-ibution o f c e n t r a l CaZ'i.fomi.a cultural complexes ( d a t a from SchuZs 1 9 8 1 ) . s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and some changes i n t e c h n o l o g y ( i . e . , changes i n r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of s t o n e s t o o l s , i n t r o d u c t i o n of s m a l l p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ) . Only i n Phase 2 of t h e L a t e complex do European manufactured goods a p p e a r . S p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d w i t h c u l t u r a l change i n i n t e r i o r C a l i f o r n i a have c e n t e r e d on two ma-jor a n d n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e themes. One theme s u g g e s t s p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e p l a c e ment, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from E a r l y t o Middle complexes. The g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n g u a g e f a m i l i e s i n n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a h a s l o n g been i n t e r p r e t e d t o i n d i c a t e p a s t p o p u l a t i o n replacement i n t h e Central Valley. The t i m i n g i s u n c l e a r , b u t i t i s s u g g e s t i v e t h a t t h e r e is a seemingly d r a m a t i c c u l t u r a l s h i f t between t h e E a r l y and Middle complexes, a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s e d e v i dence o f w a r f a r e i n t h e Middle complex ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 19801. S k e l e t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a n d a g a i n s t p a r t i a l p o p u l a t i o n r e placement a t t h e Early/Middle t r a n s i t i o n h a s a p p e a r e d (McHenry 1969; Newman 1957; Suchey 1 9 7 5 ) , b u t t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h i s p o i n t beyond n o t i n g t h a t f u r t h e r work would b e u s e f u l , a s no c l e a r c o n s e n s u s h a s emerged. The second theme i s t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y E a r l y Versus Middle) r e f l e c t s h i f t s i n s u b s i s t e n c e economies. A s i n i t i a l l y f o r m u l a t e d ( H e i z e r 1 9 4 9 ) , t h e theme p o s t u l a t e d a n E a r l y emphasis on h u n t i n g r e l a t i v e t o f i s h and v e g e t a l f o o d s , w h i l e Middle p e o p l e adopted ( o r b r o u g h t w i t h them) a c o r n p r o c e s s i n g , l e a d i n g t o a L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n a c o r n and a s e c o n d a r y r e l i a n c e on f i s h ( e s p e c i a l l y s a l m o n ) , w i t h L a t e h u n t i n g b e i n g l e a s t import a n t t o c a l o r i c i n t a k e (Figure 17.2). Lack o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e E a r l y complex h a s been a major p a r t of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme, and was s u p p o r t e d b o t h by a l o g i c t h a t e x p e c t e d t h e L a t e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t o have a r i s e n from a more g e n e r a l i z e d s u b s i s t e n c e b a s e , and by a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence. M o r t a r s and p e s t l e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y f o r a c o r n p r o c e s s i n g , and t h e i r a p p a r e n t r a r i t y i n E a r l y components seems r e a l . Although E a r l y complex m o r t a r s a n d p e s t l e s a r e known, t h e

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Windmiller t r a d i t i o n is d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a low r a t i o of m i l l i n g t o o l s of any s o r t t o f l a k e d s t o n e b i f a c e s . Furthermore, f i v e of t h e seven Windmiller components s t u d i e d have y i e l d e d no m o r t a r s o r p e s t l e s (Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . The e a r l i e s t d i r e c t e v i d e n c e of a c o r n u s e i n t h e l o w e r C e n t r a l V a l l e y d a t e s t o t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i t i o n (Schulz a n d Johnson 1 9 8 0 ) . S e v e r a l r e f i n e m e n t s o f t h e g e n e r a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme have o c c u r r e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . When t h e Early-Middle-Late sequence was i n i t i a l l y p r o p o s e d , E a r l y s i t e s o t h e r t h a n lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y Windmiller components were e i t h e r unknown o r o n l y t e n t a t i v e l y recognized. S i n c e t h e n , a n a l y s i s of components contemporary w i t h t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n h a s y i e l d e d e v i d e n c e o f E a r l y acorn p r o c e s s i n g i n the San F r a n c i s c o Bay r e g i o n (Gerow and F o r c e 1 9 6 8 ) , and i n t h e North C o a s t Range n o r t h and west o f t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 1979; F r e d r i c k s o n 1 9 7 4 ) . Thus t h e s c e n a r i o i s b e s t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y , a s it depends on a c e n t r a l assumption t h a t E a r l y complex was p r e acorn. Reasons f o r t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n ' s weak o r none x i s t e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f a c o r n have remained p r o b l e m a t i c . Lack of a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o q y d o e s n o t seem v a l i d i n l i g h t of t h e p r e s e n c e of a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s and a c t i v e t r a d e w i t h p o s s i b l e C u l t u r a l c o n s e r v a t i s m may have been acorn processing regions, a f a c t o r i n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a p r e - a c o r n economy, b u t i s d i f f i c u l t to a s s e s s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y . S c h u l z (1981) h a s s u g g e s t e d an e c o l o g i c a l c a u s e f o r t h e l a c k o f a c o r n u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . On t h e b a s i s o f p a l e o e c o l o g i c a l d a t a , he concluded t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y was e x p e r i e n c i n g a s e r i e s of d r y e p i s o d e s t h a t extended in t i m e

17 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA: PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE AND HEALTH

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t h r o u g h t h e E a r l y complex t o j u s t b e f o r e t h e Middle complex t r a n s i t i o n . Schulz f e l t t h a t e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e d e c o l o g i c a l r e s t r a i n t s on t h e r a n g e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e oak woodland i n t h e i n t e r i o r This, i n t u r n , v a l l e y (and w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s 1 i n h i b i t e d a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r p o s s i b l y even u t i l i z a t i o n . While t h e v a l i d i t y and c a u s e o f a n a c o r n l e s s Windmiller econoiny h a s been a r g u e d f r e q u e n t l y , few s t u d i e s h a v e a d d r e s s e d t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e c o i n , which i s why t h e a c o r n was l a t e r a d o p t e d . The work o f Baumhoff (1963) and o t h e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a c o r n and salmon emphasis d e v e l o p e d a s a means of d e c r e a s i n g s e a s o n a l s h o r t a g e s of f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a t e w i n t e r b e f o r e s p r i n g salmon r u n s and p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p l a n t f o o d s . T h e E a r l y s u b s i s t e n c e economy was viewed a s m a i n t a i n i n g o n l y a m a r g i n a l Sedentism, p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a b o food s u r p l u s . r a t i o n f o l l o w e d an i n i t i a l s h i f t toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s by e x p l o i t a t i o n of e a s i l y s t o r e d and p r o d u c t i v e f o o d s . While t h i s d o e s n o t e x p l a i n why t h e E a r l y complex would e n d u r e a pre-acorn regime f o r s o l o n g , i t does p r o v i d e a m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e change and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t e v e n t u a l l y o c c u r r e d . A t l e a s t t w o t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s a r o s e from t h e f o r e g o i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . One i s termed h e r e t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s , a l t h o u g h i t i s a c t u a l l y t h e i d e a t h a t E a r l y complex s u h s u s t e n c e emphasized meat r e s o u r c e s o v e r v e g e t a l f o o d . The o t h e r i s termed a s e a s o w i l s t r e s s h y p a t h e s i s , which s u g g e s t s t h a t E a r l y complex p e o p l e were more s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l m o r b i d i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y t h a n l a t e r p e o p l e s , presumably due t o p e r i o d s o f w i n t e r h a r d s h i p i n food procurement. The two h y p o t h e s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d e p e n d e n t , a s i n i t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s u b s i s t e n c e theme invoked a h u n t i n g economy a s a cause of s e a s o n a l s t r e s s . The t r a d i t i o n a l view o f C a l i f o r n i a p r e h i s t o r y emphasizing E a r l y complex h u n t i n g a d a p t a t i o n s was f o r m u l a t e d i n an e r a when h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s ' l i f e - s t y l e s were s e e n a s p r e c a r i o u s and s u b j e c t t o s e a s o n a l h a r d s h i p . The t r e n d toward a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was viewed a s a p r o g r e s s i v e move s i m i l a r t o a d o p t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e e l s e w h e r e , and d i r e c t e d toward s t a b i l i z a t i o n of food a v a i l a b i l i t y . ~ l t h o u g ht h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t and b i o l o g i c a l h e a l t h was l o n g p o s t u l a t e d , p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a were not e x t e n s i v e l y p u r s u e d , and were i n i t i a l l y t r e a t e d a s secondary d a t a r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y --ised f o r hypothesis t e s t i n g .

.

One r e a s o n may b e t h a t , w h i l e s p e c t a c u l a r and i n t e r e s t i n g p a t h o l o g i e s h a v e been n o t e d (Bennet 1972; Brooks and Hohenthal 1963; Hoffman 1 9 7 6 a , h , c ) g e n e r a l h e a l t h may have been good (Cook 1955; H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 19801. The a u t h o r s of t h i s c h a p t e r have i n d e p e n d e n t l y n o t e d a g e n e r a l p a u c i t y o f g r o s s l e s i o n s , and

444

DAVID N DICKEL ET /u.,

D i c k e l and P. Schulz ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) have i n d e p e n d e n t l y found t h a t c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a and c r a n i a l p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s a r e s o r a r e t h a t meaningful comparisons a c r o s s a g e , s e x , and t e m p o r a l s a m p l e s were n o t p o s s i b l e . Brues ( l 9 6 6 : 1 0 8 ) , i n a s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o p a t h o l o g i e s i n two s e r i e s o f C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t o n s (Roney 1 9 6 6 ) , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y were " s o h e a l t h y it i s somewhat d i s c o u r a g i n g t o work w i t h them." Gerow (Gerow and F o r c e 1968) a l s o n o t e s a l a c k of p a t h o l o g y i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s k e l e t a l samples. However, some l i n e s of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a v e proved i n f o r m a t i v e . D.

Harris Lines McHenry p u b l i s h e d t h e r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p e r i o d i c s t r e s s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a b a s e d on t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a f a i r l y c o m n s k e l e t a l marker o f s t r e s s , H a r r i s l i n e s (McHenry 1 9 6 8 ) . The t y p e s o f s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h H a r r i s l i n e f o r m a t i o n a r e e c l e c t i c , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e major a s s o c i a t i o n h a s been w i t h H a r r i s l i n e s and i l l n e s s o r m a l n u t r i t i o n ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e McHenry a n d Schulz 1978; Schulz 1 9 8 1 ) . A b a s i c assumption, b a s e d i n p a r t on t h e combined s t u d i e s o f D r e i z e n e t a l . (1956, 1 9 6 4 ) and G r e u l i c h and P y l e ( 1 9 5 9 ) , i s t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s a r e p o o r i n d i c a t o r s o f c h r o n i c s t r e s s b u t good i n d i c a t o r s of s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y . I n McHenry ' s (1968) s t u d y H a r r i s l i n e s d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t more r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e d l e s s p e r i o d i c s t r e s s t h a n t h e o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e s t r o n g e s t r e d u c t i o n b e i n g from E a r l y t o Middle complexes ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 3 ) . These r e s u l t s were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s o f g r e a t e r E a r l y complex s e a s o n a l f o o d s h o r t a g e s , t h e l a t e r d e c r e a s e b e i n g a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e u s e of s t o r e d a c o r n and salmon. Schulz (1970, 1981) broadened t h e e v i d e n c e of h i g h e r s e a s o n a l m o r b i d i t y i n t h e E a r l y complex by l o o k i n g a t t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of Windmiller ( E a r l y complex) e x t e n d e d b u r i a l s f o r e v i d e n c e of s e a s o n a l e l e v a t i o n of m o r t a l i t y . Windmiller b u r i a l s have l o n g been n o t e d t o b e c o n s i s t e n t l y o r i e n t e d westward, and S c h u l z ' s s t u d y found t h a t 80% o f t h e b u r i a l s f o r which d a t a were a v a i l a b l e occurred i n t h e winter half of t h e year (Figure 1 7 . 4 ) . This supp o r t s a h y p o t h e s i s o f Windmiller l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g s e a s o n a l h a r d s h i p ; presumably, i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y was due e i t h e r t o d i r e c t s t a r v a t i o n o r , more l i k e l y , t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f poor n u t r i t i o n and poor h e a l t h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , comparisons w i t h Middle and L a t e complexes a r e u n a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h i s method a s t h e i r b u r i a l s a r e commonly f l e x e d ( i f n o t c r e m a t e d ) , and randomly oriented.


445

u LATE ?=5.03

I

EARLY

K=11.32

Average number o f H a w i s t i n e s per femur i n FIGURE 1 7 . 3 . Early, Middle, and Late populations -in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a from MeHenry 1 9 6 8 1 .

1 50

m

- 40

.-0 L

-1

m +

0

30

L

a m

g

z

20

10

0

ZooÂ 220'

Winter

Solstice (223O-Oec 2 2 )

240-

260'

t Equjnox

(252.5"-March 21 and Sept 23)

280'

300-

320"

340'

Lsurnrner Solstice (282"-June 2 2 )

O r i e n t a t i o n i n Magnetic Degrees

FIGURE 1 7 . 4 . O r i e n t a t i o n of b u r i a l s from E a r l y Compzex (Windm-iller) i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a ( d a t a from Schitlz 1 9 7 0 ) . L i n e a r Enamel H y p o p l a s i a McHenry and Schulz ( 1 9 7 6 ) ' i n i t i a t e d an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l i n e a r enamel h y p o p l a s i a (LEH) b e c a u s e it was e x p e c t e d t o provide s u p p o r t of t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s from a s o u r c e of p a l e o -

DAVID N. DICKEL ET AL.

FIGURE 1 7 . 5 . The frequency of h y p o p t a s i u in t h e Early ( E l , Middle (M), and Late {Phase 1 [L:] and P h a s e 2 [ L ~J ] p o p u l a t i o n s ( r e d r a w from ScfwT.2 1 $ 8 1 : 1 2 2 , F i g u r e I S ) . p a t h o l o g i c a l information b i o l o g i c a l l y independent of Harris l i n e s . As with Harris l i n e s , both i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s and m a l n u t r i t i o n have been i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e development of LEH ( f o r r e v i e w s s e e McHenry and S c h u l z 1976, 1978; S c h u l z 19811, and LEH s h o u l d r e c o r d periodic stress. The p o p u l a t i o n s samples f o r LEH were t h e same a s i n McHenry's (1968) s t u d y o f H a r r i s l i n e s , b u t t h e s u b j e c t s were d i f f e r e n t and t h e t o t a l sample s i z e l a r g e r . The f r e q u e n c y of h y p o p l a s t i c l i n e s d i f f e r s among E a r l y , Middle, and L a t e p o p u l a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 5 ) . I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t w h i l e t h e d e c l i n e in f r e q u e n c y o f LEH from E a r l y t o Middle i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s , t h e L a t e i n c r e a s e i s n o t . The L a t e complex s p a n s t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s , and i n t r o d u c e d d i s e a s e s c o u l d b e a f f e c t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d r i s e i n L a t e LEH i n c i d e n c e . When t h e L a t e sample was d i v i d e d i n t o p r e h i s t o r i c P h a s e 1 and p r o t o h i s t o r i c Phase 2 , t h e former group d i d show a l o w e r i n c i d e n c e . However, t h e P h a s e 1 f r e q u e n c y i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e Middle complex, and LEH d a t a f a i l e d t o support t h e seasonal s t r e s s hypothesis.

A s s o c i a t i o n of H a r r i s L i n e s and L i n e a r Enamel Hypoplasia Of c o n c e r n was t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of H a r r i s l i n e e v i dence by what was e x p e c t e d t o be c o r r o b o r a t i n g e v i d e n c e , a n d a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s was i n i t i a t e d . Femora a v a i l a b l e f o r 156 s u b j e c t s u s e d i n t h e LEH s t u d y were s c o r e d f o r H a r r i s l i n e s . The new H a r r i s l i n e d a t a i n d i c a t e d two t h i n g s v e r y c l e a r l y . The t r e n d s e e n by McHenry f o r


447

a c o n s i s t e n t decrease i n H a r r i s l i n e frequency through archaeolog i c a l t i m e was s u b s t a n t i a t e d by s a m p l e s n o t u s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d y . Second, t e s t s o f c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f LEH and H a r r i s l i n e s i n s p e c i f i c a g e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e t o t a l l y n o n s i g n i f i c a n t (McHenry and Schulz, 1976). S e v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e t r a i t s w i t h mixed r e s u l t s ( s e e Hunt and Hatch 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d t h e y may c a r r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y nonredundant i n f o r m a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y t h e recovery phase necessary f o r H a r r i s l i n e formation (but n o t f o r LEH) emphasizes t h a t t h e e t i o l o g i e s of t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s a r e only p a r t i a l l y overlapping. I t is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n v a l i d a t e d by t h e r e s u l t s of t h e LEH s t u d y , t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r b e i n g whether it i s p o s s i b l e t o d e c i d e i f H a r r i s l i n e s o r LEH make a b e t t e r i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s : the interaction of d i s e a s e and n u t r i t i o n may make i m p o s s i b l e a g e n e r a l " r u l e of thumb" a b o u t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t h e development of e i t h e r . The d i s t i n c t i o n may l i e i n t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d a c u t e s t r e s s f o l l o w e d by r e c o v e r y , and LEH r e c o r d s c h r o n i c s t r e s s , a s s u g g e s t e d by Hluinberg and K e r l e y ( 1 9 6 6 ) . However, it i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , even i f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e r i s k y . Chronic o r s h o r t - t e r m famine and n u t r i t i o n a l imbalance seem v i r t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t in c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a a t t i m e of c o n t a c t ( s e e H e i z e r and E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e L a t e p h a s e s show t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e s of LEH. This suq q e s t s t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s s t u d y a r e a LEH is n o t e s .. p e c i a l l y due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , b u t p r o b a b l y r e c o r d s i n c r e a s i n q-e p. i s o d e s of d i s e a s e and p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and s e d e n t i s m . Disease and p a r a s i t i s m would have become i n c r e a s i n g l y endemic r i s k s a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y and d i s e a s e b a s been n o t e d e l s e w h e r e ( B r o t h w e l l 1969; Cohen 1980; L a l l o e t a l . 1978; Larson 1981; Scrimshaw e t a l . 1 9 6 8 ) . H a r r i s l i n e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a p o p u l a t i o n s may be good markers of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . Ruff (1975) found t h a t an E a r l y San F r a n c i s c o Hay sample showed a b o u t t h e same r a t e of H a r r i s l i n e i n c i d e n c e a s a L a t e sample. Presumably, E a r l y bay p o p u l a t i o n s were u t i l i z i n g a c o r n c r o p s (Gerow 1 9 7 4 a , b ; Gerow and Force 1 9 6 8 ) , a n d t h u s were s u b j e c t t o l e s s s e a s o n a l n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s I f Harris t h a n contemporary i n t e r i o r v a l l e y Windmiller p e o p l e . l i n e s c a r r y n u t r i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y u n b l u r r e d by d i s e a s e s t r e s s , and i f LEH r e c o r d s an i n c r e a s e i n c h r o n i c d i s e a s e , t h e n t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s is s t i l l v i a b l e , b u t w i t h t h e r e f i n e m e n t t h a t it seems p r o b a b l e t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t toward r e l i a b l e food s o u r c e s was accompanied by a change i n t h e n a t u r e and s o u r c e o f b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n a g e n e r a l abatement of a l l s t r e s s .

448

DAVID N.DICKEL ET AL. Stature

Adult s t a t u r e i s p o s s i b l y an i n d i c a t o r o f t o t a l h e a l t h , a l though g e n e t i c and o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1 9 8 0 : 4 4 9 ) . Average a d u l t f e m o r a l l e n g t h d i d d e c r e a s e s l i g h t l y from E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s , b u t t h e r e was no a p p r e c i a b l e change from Middle t o L a t e . A l l comparisons a c r o s s complexes ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t c o n t r o l f o r g e n d e r ) r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n mean femoral l e n g t h s . (Sexual dimorphism o f f e m o r a l l e n g t h s a l s o showed no s i g n i f i c a n t changes t h r o u g h t i m e . ) Thus t h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s may h a v e remained a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t h r o u g h t i m e d e s p i t e changes i n t h e t y p e of s t r e s s experienced.

Caries By t h e e a r l y 1970s t h e r e seemed t o b e t a c i t agreement t h a t B e a r d s l e y ' s (1948) and H e i z e r ' s (1949) model o f s u b s i s t e n c e i n t h e E a r l y complex was o v e r s t a t e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , summaries of C a l i f o r n i a a r c h a e o l o g y emphasized t h e r e l a t i v e importance o f E a r l y h u n t i n g , and W i l l e y (1966: 369) p r o v i d e s a n example o f a common "bottom l i n e " : S l a b m e t a t e s and bowl m o r t a r s have been found i n t h e [ ~ a r l y complex w i n d m i l l e r ] s i t e s , b u t t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f l a r g e , stemmed, c h i p p e d p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s ; bone f i s h hooks and g o r g e s : and bone t r i d e n t f i s h s p e a r s imply t h a t game and f i s h from t h e r i v e r were more i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d i e t t h a n s e e d s and n u t s . Schulz (1981) d i r e c t l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l v e g e t a l c o n t e n t of t h e d i e t of E a r l y p e o p l e r e l a t i v e t o Middle and L a t e by examining t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c a r i e s i n each complex. Because of t h e importance of c a r b o h y d r a t e s a s a c a r i o g e n i c a g e n t , he assuiried t h a t t h e c a r i e s e x p e r i e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be an e x c e l l e n t i n d i c a t o r o f t h e r e l a t i v e c a r b o h y d r a t e c o n t e n t of t h e i r d i e t s . Schulz was n o t t h e f i r s t t o s t u d y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a d e n t a l pathologies. Leigh (1928) r e c o r d e d c a r i e s f r e q u e n c y , b u t k e p t no t e m p o r a l c o n t r o l of h i s s a m p l e s . On t h e b a s i s o f l i m i t e d sampling, o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s n o t i c e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f c a r i e s i n t h e L a t e complex, b u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s was n o t r e c o g n i z e d (Kennedy 1960; Mewman 1 9 5 7 ) . A l l t h e s e s t u d i e s s u f f e r e d from s h o r t c o m i n g s i n c l u d i n q s m a l l sample s i z e s , p o o r l y d e f i n e d age of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s , and n o cont r o l f o r t h e e f f e c t s of postmortem t o o t h l o s s . Schulz (1981) t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s by s t u d y i n g d e n t a l p a t h o l o g y i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y , u s i n g a v e r y l a r g e sample (904 i n d i v i d u a l s ) d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r r e l a t i v e age c l a s s e s , s t r a t i f i e d by s e x and by c u l t u r a l complex. The most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Schulz's r e s u l t s f o r t e s t i n g t h e


I

II

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IV

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FIGURE 1 7 . 6 . Mean carious t e e t h (CTI scores by age group f o r males and females of Early, Middle, and Late c u l t u r a l complexes. 0 , E a d y males; 0 , E a e females; 0 , Middle mates; , Middle females; A , Late males; A , Late females. Scored f i e l d excludes M3 (redrawn f r m Schulz 1 9 8 1 : 1 4 1 , Figure 1 7 ) . h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a r i o u s t e e t h show l i t t l e tendency t o i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e ( F i g u r e 17.6). I n s e r i e s o f t e s t s of d i f f e r e n c e s between v a l u e s f o r mean c a r i o u s t e e t h i n each complex ( w i t h i n r e l a t i v e a g e and sex c l a s s e s ) , o n l y o n e comparison approached a r a t h e r r e l a x e d 90% c o n f i d e n c e level. These comparisons f a i l e d t o show t h e i n c r e a s e s t h a t would be e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t from a d i e t a r y s h i f t from p r i mary r e l i a n c e on meat t o a p r i m a r y r e l i a n c e on p l a n t f o o d s h i g h i n c a r b o h y d r a t e s . I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of e x p l o i t a t i o n o f and

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s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w i t h a few s t a p l e c a r b o h y d r a t e s i s more l i k e l y t o mark t h e Early-Middle-Late t r a n s i t i o n s t h a n is a s h i f t t o c a r h o h y d r a t e s p e r s e . While t h e E a r l y complex Windmiller t r a d i t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y p r e - a c o r n , o t h e r c a r b o h y d r a t e s may have been u t i l i z e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same e x t e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h e c l a s s i c h u n t i n g h y p o t h e s i s may b e i n v a l i d .

PALEODEMOGRAPHY

The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s w a s i n i t i a l l y developed around an assumption o f E a r l y r e l i a n c e on h u n t i n g , b u t i t d o e s n o t depend on t h i s assumption t o remain v i a b l e . The h y p o t h e s i s i s t e n t a t i v e l y s u p p o r t e d on t h e b a s i s of (1) a p o s s i b l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d e a t h s i n w i n t e r i n t h e E a r l y complex, and ( 2 ) H a r r i s l i n e data, especially i f Harris l i n e s record periodic n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . However, t h e LEH d a t a may i n d i c a t e t h a t a s n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s went i n t o a long-term d e c l i n e , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n s t o r a b l e food r e s o u r c e s w a s n o t accompanied by a uniform i n c r e a s e in good h e a l t h b u t p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t e d a t r a d e - o f f of p e r i o d i c a c u t e s t r e s s f o r c h r o n i c s t r e s s . The premise t h a t s u b s i s t e n c e chancre was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a move toward t o t a l i m provement in h e a l t h i s u n d e r s c o r e d b y p a l e o d e n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s . ProDonents of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme s u g- g - ested a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h t i m e . T h i s was c o n s i d e r e d a l o g i c a l development, a s t h e dense p o p u l a t i o n s known to have e x i s t e d i n p r o t o h i s t o r i c t i m e s must have i n c r e a s e d from s m a l l e r , e a r l i e r populations. I d e a s about causes of t h e population i n c r e a s e were t i e d i n t o t h e h u n t i n g a s w e l l a s t h e s e a s o n a l s t r e s s it w a s assumed t h a t s m a l l e r p o p u l a t i o n s were mainhypothesis: t a i n e d due t o p o p u l a t i o n m o b i l i t y a n d l i m i t e d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f a subsistence s t r a t e g y d i r e c t e d a t k-selected species; eventually, a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s t a b i l i z e d s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n of food and allowed populations t o i n c r e a s e . P o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e lower C e n t r a l V a l l e y were q u i t e d e n s e a t contact. E s t i m a t e s v a r y from 2 . 0 8 ( H e i z e r a n d E l s a s s e r 1 9 8 0 1 , t o 3.36 (Cook 1976) 4 . 4 p e r s o n s / h 2 (Baumhoff 1 9 6 3 ) . Slaymaker (1982) has i n d i c a t e d t h a t e v e n Baumhoff's f i g u r e may b e a low e s timate. The e x a c t t i m i n g and s c a l e of p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s remain an i s s u e , a l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s i s t h a t i t was most marked i n E a r l y t o Middle t i m e s . Most o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s p o s t u l a t e d i n c r e a s e c o n s i s t s of t h e number o f s i t e components known from e a c h complex, a n d t h e t r e n d from a r e s t r i c t e d number of E a r l y s i t e components to a l a r g e number l a t e r a p p e a r s t o have demog r a p h i c a s w e l l a s taphonomic i m p l i c a t i o n s . S c h u l z (1981) summarized t h e e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l r e covery o f remains ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 7 ) . When t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f s i t e components r e c o v e r e d a r e weighed a g a i n s t t h e t e m p r a l d u r a t i o n


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FIGURE 17.7. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h e r Central Valley s i t e s f o r Early ( E l , Middle Mi, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ? ] and Phase 2 [ L Z ] ) c u l t u r a l complexes. Number o f k n o m components from each complex i s p l o t t e d against i t s duration (redpawn from Sohulz 1981: 182, Figure 2 4 ) . o f complexes, a c o n t i n u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s i t e s i s app a r e n t and may r e p r e s p n t a long-term i n c r e a s e i n t h e ni-onber of s e t t l e m e n t s as w e l l a s d i f f e r e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n of o l d e r s i t e s . I n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t i n p a r t f o r s e t t l e m e n t s i z e , Schulz p l o t t e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u r i a l s a g a i n s t the d u r a t i o n o f comp l e x e s . ~ ~ a he i nfound an i n c r e a s e w i t h t i m e , a l t h o u g h in cont r a s t t o t h e t r e n d i n s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e is a v i s i b l e slowing down of t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e i n t h e Middle to L a t e p e r i o d s ( F i g u r e 1 7 . 8 ) . Schulz a l s o found a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e nunb e r o f r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s from younger v e r s u s o l d e r s i t e s d e s p i t e a p r o b a b l e b i a s toward d a t i n g m a t e r i a l t h o u g h t t o b e E a r l y .

DAVID N.DICKEL E T A L

FIGURE 17.8. Chronological d i s t r i b u t i o n of Z m e ~Central from Early (El, Middle (Ml, and Late (Phase 1 [ L ~ and ] Phase 2 [ L Z ] cuZturaZ compZaes. l^ianber o f indi-v'iduazs i n each complex i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t i t s d u r a t i o n (redraw, from SchuZs 1981:183, Figure 25). Although t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c a u s e and e f f e c t i s u n c l e a r , a c o r n a d a p t a t i o n presumably p l a y e d a prominent r o l e i n the i n c r e a s e of p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s . I n t h e North C o a s t Range, balanophagous p o p u l a t i o n s contemporary w i t h the Windmiller t r a d i t i o n seem r e l a t i v e l y d e n s e (Baumhoff and O r l i n s 19791, a l t h o u g h e v i d e n c e from t h e balanophagous E a r l y San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a i s more ambiguous (Ruff 1 9 7 5 ) . I n t h e w e s t e r n S i e r r a Nevada f o o t h i l l s f e w s i t e s o c c u r b e f o r e Middle t i m e s , a l t h o u g h balanophagous L a t e p o p u l a t i o n s were q u i t e l a r g e (Johnson 1967; M o r a t t o 1972; Moratto e t a l . 1978). D e s p i t e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t L a t e r e l a t i v e t o Middle p o p u l a t i o n growth ( E l s a s s e r 1978; Gould 1964) t h e e v i d e n c e b a s e d on r e c o v e r y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e major jump i s a t t h e Early-Middle t r a n s i t i o n , with slower i n c r e a s e s t h e r e a f t e r . I n the s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t theme i t i s assumed t h a t d e c r e a s e d m o r b i d i t y , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , and i n c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y were a s i n g l e package r e l a t e d t o s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n .


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However, a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a s u g g e s t s t h a t l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d a s a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n c r e a s e d . Brahender (1965) compared s k e l e t a l samples from t h e t h r e e complexes f o r r e l a t i v e a g e b a s e d on d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . She found t h a t t h e Early populations c l e a r l y exhibited g r e a t e r longevity. T h i s was s u r p r i s i n g , a s i n c r e a s e d s u b s i s t e n c e r e l i a b i l i t y i s o f t e n assumed t o b e r e f l e c t e d i n g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y ( s e e Hassan 1973; Nemeskeri 1 9 7 0 ) . Problems w i t h B r a b e n d e r ' s s t u d y i n c l u d e s m a l l sample s i z e . Most i m p o r t a n t l y , however, t h e E a r l y sample i s from t h e i n t e r i o r v a l l e y (Windmiller) s i t e s , while t h e undifferent i a t e d Middle a n d L a t e sample i s from t h e San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a . Thus t h e l a t t e r sample d o e s n o t r e f l e c t t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y a c o r n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; it i s drawn from p o p u l a t i o n w i t h a heavy r e l i a n c e on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a comparison r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e lower Sacramento V a l l e y was u n d e r t a k e n by Schulz i n a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t s t u d i e d o v e r 900 i n d i v i d u a l s ( f o r e x a c t methodology s e e Schulz 1981:981 0 0 ) . The h i g h e s t mean d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n r a t e s (and presumably g r e a t e r a g e ) a r e found among b o t h s e x e s i n t h e E a r l y sample a n d among f e m a l e s i n t h e Middle sample. The l o w e s t r a t e o f a t t r i t i o n i s found 'among m a l e s i n t h e L a t e sample, and c o n t r a s t s between t h i s and a l l o t h e r g r o u p s were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y g r e a t e r wear (and g r e a t e r a g e ) o f t h e E a r l y complex s a m p l e s supp o r t s B r a b e n d e r ' s (1965) f i n d i n g s , and l o n g e v i t y may have d e c r e a s e d through archaeological time d e s p i t e increasing resource s t a b i l i t y . Schulz s u g g e s t e d t h a t c r e m a t i o n p r a c t i c e s may b i a s t h e s e r e s u l t s . The o b s e r v e d number o f L a t e males shows a s i g n i f i c a n t d r o p from t h e e x p e c t e d number, whereas t h e ma1e:female r a t i o s f o r t h e E a r l y and Middle p e r i o d s a r e n e a r l y e q u a l . The p r a c t i c e of cremat i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t i m e , a n d t h e e f f o r t of c r a t i o n may have been s p e n t mainly on h i g h - s t a t u s i n d i v i d u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y o l d e r males. Thus t h e a p p e a r a n c e of g r e a t e r l o n g e v i t y o f E a r l y samples may he p a r t l y a n a r t i f a c t o f an i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i o n o f o l d e r m a l e s from t h e L a t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . O t h e r demographic work i n t h e l o w e r Sacramento V a l l e y , however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s t r u l y were p r o g r e s s i v e l y younger at death. Doran (1980) s t u d i e d s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e s drawm from a sample o f 1254 i n d i v i d u a l s from a l l t h r e e c u l t u r a l complexes. d or an's l i f e t a b l e s were b a s e d o n d a t a f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s combined, which p r o v i d e d a l a r g e r sample s i z e b u t l i m i t s t e s t i n g o f some o f h i s c o n c l u d i n g h y p o t h e s e s . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h what m i g h t h e e x p e c t e d w i t h a l a t e r s h i f t toward a c o r n s u b s i s t e n c e , Doran found o v e r a l l s u b a d u l t m o r t a l i t y was g e n e r a l l y l e s s f o r Middle and L a t e samples t h a n f o r E a r l y , a l t h o u g h m o r t a l i t y f o r a g e s 0-2 y e a r s a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t i m e (Dorar. 1 9 8 0 : 9 4 ) . A marked t u r n a r o u n d a t a g e f o u r toward l e s s e r m o r t a l i t y i n t h e l a t e r complexes was s e e n and was a t t r i b u t e d t o g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y of f o o d procurement and d e c r e a s i n g weaning ( I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n c t e t h a t McHenry and Schulz (1978) stress. found p e a k s a t age f o u r f o r i n c i d e n c e of h y p o p l a s t i c d e f e c t s and

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DAVID

N.DICKEL ETAL.

H a r r i s l i n e s i n a l l t h r e e complexes.) Doran r e l a t e d t h e g r e a t e r Middle and L a t e m o r t a l i t y a t a g e s 0-2 y e a r s t o t r e n d s s e e n i n the adult mortality p r o f i l e . A s i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , Doran found t h a t a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p a t n e a r l y a l l a d u l t a g e s was h i g h e s t f o r t h e E a r l y sample. s u r v i v o r s h i p p r o g r e s s i v e l y worsened w i t h t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 20-45-year a g e b r a c k e t , which i n c l u d e s t h e p r i m e r e p r o d u c t i v e years. Doran u t i l i z e d a s t a t i o n a r y p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n t o incorp r a t e s u b a d u l t and a d u l t l i f e t a b l e d a t a i n t o a s i n g l e s o u r c e of information. He s t a t e d t h a t "growing p o p u l a t i o n s a r e younger p o p u l a t i o n s , " and t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e p o p u l a t i o n "growth was o c c u r r i n g , and t h e r a t e o f growth was l o w e s t i n t h e E a r l y Horizon, i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t h e Middle Horizon, a n d h i g h e s t i n t h e L a t e If t h i s interpretation i s correct, Horizon" (Doran 198O:IO9-llO). t h e n t h e r e is no c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n the e v i d e n c e o f d e c r e a s e d l o n g e v i t y c o i n c i d e n t w i t h i n c r e a s e d r a t e of p o p u l a t i o n growth. Doran h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h r o u g h t i m e (and presumably r e l a t e d t o i n c r e a s i n g l y balanophagous e c o n o m i e s ) , b i r t h s p a c i n g d e c r e a s e d a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew, and t h e r e was i n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y o f young a d u l t females r e l a t e d t o increased exposure t o t h e r i s k s o f c h i l d birth. Unfortunately, t h e pooling o f sexes in h i s published l i f e t a b l e s p r e c l u d e s a d i r e c t examination o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . Since Schulz (1981) d o e s n o t r e p o r t u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of younger a d u l t f e m a l e s , t h e m a t e r n a l d e a t h h y p o t h e s i s r e m a i n s an open q u e s t i o n . Doran a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t -the h e a v i e r m o r t a l i t y i n l a t e r complexes f o r unwearied c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-2 y e a r s i s r e l a t e d t o m a t e r n a l d e a t h , a s t h i s age group would b e t h e most a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d . The paleodemographic i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e C e n t r a l V a l l e y i n d i c a t e s t h a t o v e r a l l subadult s u r v i v o r s h i p increased through time w h i l e a d u l t s u r v i v o r s h i p d e c r e a s e d , a l t h o u g h c r e m a t i o n may o v e r emphasize t h e l a t t e r t r e n d . A l l t h r e e complexes had a p o s i t i v e and a c c e l e r a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n growth r a t e . These p a l e o d e m g r a p h i c changes co-occurred w i t h (1) a major s h i f t from more g e n e r a l i z e d c a r b o h y d r a t e d i e t s o u r c e s to emphasis o n a few p r o d u c t i v e s t a p l e f o o d s t h a t c o u l d b e s t o r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , and ( 2 ) major It changes i n t h e t y p e of m o r b i d i t y e x p e r i e n c e d by p o p u l a t i o n s . i s t e m p t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e n a t u r e of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s e trends. Both a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and e v i d e n c e o f d e n t a l p a t h o l o g i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r e n d i n t h e Early-Middle-Late comp l e x sequence i n t h e p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e r i o r v a l l e y was toward a r e f i n e m e n t o f an e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n of p l a n t and a n i m a l s p e c i e s , r a t h e r t h a n a s h i f t from meat toward v e g e t a l foods By t h e t i m e of Western c o n t a c t and c u l t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n , t h i s t r e n d had c u l m i n a t e d i n an i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o n a r e s t r i c t e d number of s t a p l e f o o d s ( e s p e c i a l l y a c o r n and s a l m o n ) , and i n s e d e n t i s m , i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , and c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n comparable t o t h a t o f e a r l y food-producing c u l t u r e s u t i l i z i n g domesticated s t a p l e s .

17 CENTRAL CALIFORNlA: PREHISTORIC SUBSlSTENCE AND HEALTH

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The i m p e t u s f o r t h i s s h i f t i s n o t c l e a r , b u t s e v e r a l f a c t o r s may have been i n v o l v e d . One i s c l i m a t i c s h i f t from a r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d s e r i e s of d r y p e r i o d s t h a t seems more t h a n c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e E a r l y Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . A g e n e r a l s c e n a r i o can be v i s u a l i z e d : a c o r n became more p r o d u c t i v e and r e l i a b l e enough t o w a r r a n t i n c r e a s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n , and i n c r e a s e d s e d e n t i s m , p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e , and a c o r n harvesti-ng became l o c k e d i n t o a p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k system. The i n i t i a l s t e p i n t o t h e feedback system may have been i n c r e a s e d s e d e n t i s m r e l a t e d t o h a r v e s t i n g , p r o c e s s i n g , and e s p e c i a l l y s t o r a g e of a c o r n s . Sedent a r y l i f e may b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e by l e a d i n g t o a d e c r e a s e i n b i r t h s p a c i n g (Bray 1976; C a v a l l i S f o r z a 1973; Fowler 1971; Lee 1 9 7 2 ) . Another model e x p l a i n i n g s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t i n v o l v e s p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s ( s e e Cohen 1 9 7 7 ) . Doran (1980) s u g g e s t e d t h a t a l l t h r e e complexes had a p o s i t i v e growth r a t e a n d t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s may have i n c r e a s e d " j u s t b e c a u s e " t h a t i s what p o p u l a t i o n s t e n d t o d o (Cohen 1977, 1 9 8 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t the t e r m i n a l E a r l y p e r i o d was marked by m i g r a t i o n s i n t o c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Thus, a s c e n a r i o a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r " b o t t l e t h e o r y " (Hayden 1981:521! is p o s s i b l e ; e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e d a s r e g i o n a l expans i o n became p r o g r e s s i v e l y c o m p e t i t i v e , and l e d t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p o s s i b l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e and l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e s t h a t were h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e and d e n s e l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n a r e s t r i c t e d a r e a . The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n c r e a s e d , a g a i n p e r h a p s due t o t h e " l o c k i n g i n " t o a feedback system i n v o l v i n g s e d e n t i s m . A t h i r d s c e n a r i o t h a t can b e c o n s i d e r e d f o l l o w s Hayden's (1981) r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model. The s e a s o n a l s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a can b e viewed a s a s p e c i a l c a s e of Hayden's more g e n e r a l i z e d model. The r e s o u r c e s t r e s s model s u g g e s t s t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h which t h e y e x p e r i e n c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s . D e v i a t i o n s from t h i s equilibrium r e s u l t i n refinement o f e x i s t i n g s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s w i t h i n l i m i t s o f t e c h n o l o g y , and e v e n t u a l l y i n s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t s d i r e c t e d toward i n c r e a s i n g r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y (Hayden 1981:520!. p o p u l a t i o n s a r e s e e n a s t r y i n g to m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e between t h e c o s t s of morbidity-mortality r e l a t e d t o p e r i o d i c resource s t r e s s , and t h e c o s t of m a i n t a i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l s . The b e n e f i t s o f r e t a i n i n g t h i s balance include s u s t a i n i n g b i o l o g i c a l f i t n e s s with minimum r e p r o d u c t i v e waste (Hayden 1 9 8 1 : 5 2 2 ) . A s r e s o u r c e s t r e s s decreases, population control relaxes; as population increases, r e s o u r c e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s , and c u l t u r e s a g a i n s t r i v e e i t h e r t o s t a b i l i z e resource r e l i a b i l i t y o r t o i n c r e a s e population c o n t r o l u n t i l a c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e b a l a n c e of c o s t s i s a c h i e v e d . T h i s b a l a n c e i s more o r l e s s p r e c a r i o u s a s p o p u l a t i o n s s t r i v e t o r e d u c e one o r t h e o t h e r c o s t . What t h e s k e l e t a l d a t a s u g g e s t may be somewhat d i f f e r e n t from a p r e d i c t i o n o f r o u g h l y e q u a l amounts o f r e s o u r c e s t r e s s w i t h i n populations u t i l i z i n g d i f f e r e n t subsistence s t r a t e g i e s . Harris lines indicate t h a t periodic nutritional s t r e s s related t o

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r e s o u r c e r e l i a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e d through t i m e d e s p i t e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e . LEH shows a long-term i n c r e a s e from t h e E a r l y t o t h e L a t e complex, and t o t a l s t r e s s ( n u t r i t i o n , d i s e a s e , e t c . ) , n o t j u s t r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , may be i n v o l v e d i-n t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m . H a r r i s l i n e s and LEH may p r o v i d e complementary i n d i c a t i o n s of approximately equal t o t a l b i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s through t i m e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e t y p e s of s t r e s s changed t h r o u g h t i m e , and a b a l a n c e o f t h e c o s t s o f m o r b i d i t y m o r t a l i t y and p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l may n o t b e r e l a t e d t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a l o n e . The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t a c u t e s t r e s s d e c r e a s e d w h i l e c h r o n i c s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d , and analogous s h i f t s t o h o r t i c u l t u r e may have had much t h e same e f f e c t (Cohen 1981; Lewin 1981) The t y p e s o f m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y c u l t u r a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s m a n i p u l a b l e by changing s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s may b e a f a c t o r i n subsistence s h i f t s . While p e r i o d i c s u r g e s i n a d u l t m o r t a l i t y may b e p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g l e s s e n e d by improved r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n , o t h e r forms o f m o r t a l i t y may h e c o n s i d e r e d beyond t h e c o n t r o l of s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g i e s . An i n c r e a s e i n m a t e r n a l o r g e n e r a l mort a l i t y r e l a t e d t o t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f d e c r e a s e d b i r t h s p a c i n g , p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y , d i s e a s e , and s u b s i s t e n c e s t r a t e g y may n o t be " r e c o g n i z e d " a s a c o s t o f r e s o u r c e s t a b i l i z a tion. I n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a it c a n b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t f a c t o r s of p o p u l a t i o n growth, s e a s o n a l r e s o u r c e s t r e s s , and c l i m a t i c change a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s u b s i s t e n c e s h i f t l e a d i n g t o acorn u t i l i z a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . P o p u l a t i o n growth and r e s o u r c e s t r e s s may have produced a p r e s s u r e f o r change i n a manner s i m i l a r t o Hayden's proposed " c o s t o f s t r e s s - c o s t of p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l " e q u i l i b r i u m , and c l i m a t i c change may h a v e p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e d u c e r e s o u r c e s t r e s s t h r o u g h e l a b o r a t i o n of an e x i s t i n g h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g s t r a t e g y w i t h o u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of h o r t i c u l t u r e .

.

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U n i u e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b t i c a t i o n i n American Archaeology and Ethnotogy 4 3 ( 3 ) : 303-326. 1976

The c o n f l i c t between t h e C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n and White c i v i l i z a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y . Doran, G . 1980 Paleodemography o f t h e P l a i n s Miwok e t h n o Z i n g u i s t i c a r e a , C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. D r e i z e n , S . , C. C u r r i e , E. G i l l e y , and T. S p i e s 1956 O b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between n u t r i t i v e f a i l u r e , s k e l e t a l m a t u r a t i o n r a t e , and r a d i o p a q u e t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e r a d i u s i n c h i l d r e n . American

J o u r n a l o f Roentgenotoig'y, R a d i o t o g i e a t Therapy, and Nualeor Medicine 7 6 :482-487. D r e i z e n , S., C. S p i r a k i s , a n d R. S t o n e 1964 The i n f l u e n c e o f age and n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s on bone s c a r f o r m a t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e growing r a d i u s . American, J o m n a l o f Physical- A n t h r o p o l o g y 22:295-306. E l s a s s e r , A. 1978 Development o f r e g i o n a l p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s . In Handbook o f N o r t h American I n d i a n s (Vol. 81, e d i t e d by Robert H e i z e r , pp. 37-57. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , Washington, D.C. Fowler, M. 1971 The o r i g i n of p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l M i s s i s s i p p i Valley: A hypothesis. I n Prehisto'rie A g r i c u l t u r e s , e d i t e d by S. S t r u e v e r , p p . 122-128. Nature H i s t o r y P r e s s , Garden C i t y , N e w York. Fredrickson, D. 1974 C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i n e a r l y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a : A view from t h e North C o a s t Ranges. Journo.2 o f CaZif0'mz.a Anthropo'logy 1:41-53. Gerow, E. 1974a Comments on F r e d r i c k s o n ' s c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y . J o u r n a l o f C a l i f o r n i a Archaeology 1 :239-246. 1974b C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and c o n v e r g e n t t r e n d s i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a . S a n L u i s Obispo C o u n Q Archaeoloq'ical S o c i e t y O c c a s i o n a l Paper 8 : 1-57. Gerow, B . , and R . Force 1968 An A n a l y s i s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y V i l l a g e Complex.. S t a n f o r d University Press, Palo Alto. Gould, R. 1964 E x p l o i t a t i v e economies and c u l t u r a l change i n c e n t r a l University o f California Arehaeologica~ California. S u r v e y R e p o r t 62:123-163. G r e u l i c h , W., a n d S. P y l e 1959 R a d i o g r a p h i c A t l a s o f S k e l e t a l Development o f t h e Hand end

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459

W r i s t . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Pa10 A l t o . n a s s a n , F. A. 1973 On mechanisms o f p p u l a t i o n growth d u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c . Current AnthropoZogy 1 4 ~ 5 3 5 - 5 4 2 . Hayden, B. 1381 Research and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: T e c h n o l o g i c a l Current AntkopoZogy t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . 22: 519-531. Heizer, R. 1939 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . I : he e a r l y horizoti. U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia AntkopoZogicaZ Reports No. 1 2 . H e i z e r , R., and A. E l s a s s e r 1980 The NaturaZ World of C a z i f o r n i a I n d i a s . u n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y and Las Anqeles. H e i z e r , R . , m d F . Fenenga 1939 A r c h a e o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . A m e r i c a A n t k o p o Z o g i s t 41:378-339. Hoffman, J. M . 1976a S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : C o m i n u t e d f r a c t u r e o f a humerus w i t h pseudo a r t h r o s i s f o r m a t i o n . Contributions o f t h e U n i u e ~ s i t yo f C a Z i f o m i a ArehaeoZcgy Research F a c i l i t y 30:25-39. 1976b

S t u d i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a paleopathology: Enlarged p a r i e t a l f o r m i n a . C o n t ~ b u t i o n so f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f CaZifornia ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30: 42-61, An a n c h o n d r o p l a s t i c 1 9 7 6 ~ s t u d i e s iP C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o p a t h o l o g y : dwarf from t h e A u q u s t i n e s i t e . Contributions o f t h e Uniu e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ArehaeoZogy Research F a c i l i t y 30:65105. Hoffman, J . M . , and L. Brunker 1976 S t u d i e s in C a l i f o r n i a P a l m p a t h o l o g y : C a l i f o r n i a p a l e o Conributions o f t h h~i u e r s i t y pathology hiblioqraphy. o f CaZifornia ArchaeoZogy Research FaciZity 30 :3-23. Hunt, E . , Jr., and J . W. Hatch 1981 The e s t i m a t i o n o f a g e o f d e a t h and a g e s o f f o r m a t i o n of t r a n s v e r s e l i n e s from measurements o f human l o n g b o n e s . American JournaZ o f Physical AnthropoZogy 5 4 ~ 4 6 1 - 4 6 9 . Johnson, J. 1367 The a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e Comanche r e s e r v o i r l o c a l i t y , Sacramento AnthropoZogicaZ S o c i e t y Papers California. 6:l-370. Kennedy, K. 1360 The d e n t i t i o n o f I n d i a n c r a n i a o f t h e e a r l y and l a t e A r c h a e o l o q i c a l h o r i z o n s i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Reports o f U n i u e r s i t y of CaZifornia ArchaeoZogicaZ Survey No. 50, 41-50, L a l l o , J . , G. Annelagos, and J. Fmse 1978 Paleoepidemiology of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i n Dicksan Mound p o p u l a t i o n s . MedicaZ CoZZege of V i r g i n i a !&mterZy 14:1723.

460

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L a r s o n , C. 1981 S k e l e t a l and d e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e s h i f t t o a g r i c u l t u r e on t h e Georgia' c o a s t . &Trent Anth?opoZogy 22:422423. Lee, R . 1972 P o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s e d e n t a r y l i f e I n PopuZation Grouth: A n t h o among t h e !Kmg Bushman. pozogieaz Impzioations, e d i t e d by B. Spooner, p p . 329342. M.I.T. P r e s s , Cambridge. Leigh, R . 1928 D e n t a l p a t h o l o w o f a b a r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i a . U n i u e r s i t y

o f CaZifornia PubZieations i n American ArehaeoZogy and Ethnograph 23: 399-440. Lewin, R . 1 9 8 1 D i s e a s e c l u e t o d a m o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Seienee 211:41. L i l l a r d , J., R. H e i z e r , and E . Fenenga 1939 An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Sacramento J r . CoZZege BuZZetin No. 2 . McHenry, H. 1968 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n l o n g b n e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s . American J o m a Z o f PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 2 9 : l 18. MS. 1969 M u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n c r a n i a . on f i l e , Department of A n t h r o p l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. McHenry, H., and P. Schulz 1976 The a s s o c i a t i o n hetween H a r r i s l i n e s and enamel h y p p l a s i a i n p r e h i s t o r i c C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s . A m e ~ c a nJournaZ o f PhysicaZ AnthropoZogy 4 4 : 507-512. 1978 H a r r i s l i n e s , enamel h y p o p l a s i a , a n d s u b s i s t e n c e change i n p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . &ZZena Fress PubZicat i o n s i n ArohaeoZqy, Ethnography, and K i s t o q 11 : 35-49. Meiqhan, C. 1959 C a l i f o r n i a c u l t u r e s and t h e c o n c e p t o f an a r c h a i c s t a g e . American A n t i q u i t y 24:289-318. M o r a t t o , M. 1972 A study o f p r e h i s t o q i n t h e southern Neuada foothiZZs, CaZifornia. Ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, Eugene. M o r a t t o , M . , T. King, and W. W o l f e n d e n 1978 Archaeology and C a l i f o r n i a c l i m a t e . JournaZ o f Cazifornia AnthropoZogy 5 ~ 1 4 7 - 1 6 2 . Nemeskeri, J. 1970 Die palaodemosraphoscher P r o b l e m d e s Hittle-Domu-Beckens i n d e r B r o n z e z e i t . Homo 21:80-85. Neman, R. 1957 A comparative a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s f r m t h e lower Sacramento V a l l e y . Uniuersity o f Caziforn i a AreheoZogicaZ Suruey Reports No. 39. Roney , J 1966 P a l e o e p i d e m i o l o g y : An example from C a l i f o r n i a . I n Hman

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P a Z e o p a t h o Z o ~ ,e d i t e d by S. J a r c h o , p p . 99-107.

461 yde

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Haven and Undo". R u f f , C. 1975 T r a n s v e r s e l i n e s i n t h e l o n g b o n e s o f two p r e h i s t o r i c San F r a n c i s c o Bay p o p u l a t i o n s . M s . on f i l e , Department of Anthropoloqy, S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , Pa10 A l t o . S c h u l z , P. 1970 S o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n and p a l e o d e m g r a p h y i n t h e c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a Windmiller t r a d i t i o n . Center for ArchaeoZogiea2 Reseurch a t Davis B ~ b Z i c a t i o n2:18S-198. 1 9 8 1 Osteoarchaeoloqy and subsistence change i n p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. S c h u l z , P . , and J. Johnson 1980 An e a r l y a c o r n c a c h e from c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . JoumaZ o f C a Z i f o m i a a d Great Basin Antkropozogy 2 ( 1 1 :127-128. Scrimshaw, N . , C . T a y l o r , a n d J. Gordon WorZd Health 1968 I n t e r a c t i o n s o f n u t r i t i o n and i n f e c t i o n . Grqaaization Monoqrwh . . S e r i e s No. 57. Slaymaker, C . h y . Ph.D. 1982 A mode2 for t h e studu o f Coast Mimk E t h o q.r a p -~ d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis. Suchey, J. 1975 BioZogicaZ d i s t a n c e s of p r e h i s t o r i c c e n t r a l C a 2 i f o m i a

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popuzations derived from non-metric t r a i t s o f t h e cranium. Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e . Willey, G. 1966 An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o American ArehaeoZogy ( v o l . 11. P r e n t i c e - M a l l . . E n ~ l e w o o dC l i f f s . Z i e q l e r , A. 1968 Q u a s i - a g r i c u l t u r e i n n o r t h c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a and i t s e f f e c t on a b r i g i n a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . D o e b e r AntkropoZogica2 S o c i e t y Papers 38:52-67. >

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WHISTORIC SUBSISTENCB AND HEALTH STATUS OF COASTAL PEOPLES FROM THE PANAMANIAN ISTHMUS OF LOWER CENTRAL AMERICA

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Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s a t Urbana-Champaign

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The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e and h e a l t h " a r from simple I t i s complicated by numerous f a c t o r s such e t t l e m e n t l o c a t i o n , -p o-p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , r e s o u r c e abundance nd s e a s o n a l a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e age s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , I n a d d i t i o n , c u l t u r a l i n p u t i n t h e form nd i t s s a n i t a r y h a b i t s f food t a b o o s , food p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , and l i m i t e d a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s can a l t e r d i e t a r y p a t t e r n s and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f nutrients t o a population D i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s p e c i f i c n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s and h e a l t h s t a t u s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o document i n any human population because t h e biochemical f u n c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s of most n u t r i e n t s a r e m u l t i p l e and complex Moreover, i n v e s t i g a t o r s studying archaeological populations a r e faced with t h e t a s k of reconstructing t h e subsistence base before e s t a b l i s h i n g any r e l a t i o n s h i p i t may have w i t h t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s o f t h e population The chemical a n a l y s i s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l human and , animal bone f o r e i t h e r m i n e r a l composition o r i s o t o p i c compos i-' t i o n p r o v i d e s a means o f d i e t a r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o r r o b o r a t e s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence based on f a u n a l , b o t a n i c a l and a r t i f a c t u a l remains Dietary reconstruction, i n conjunction with e s t i m a t e s o f h e a l t h s t a t u s based on s k e l e t a l remains, p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e d e g r e e t o which a p o p u l a t i o n i s e x p l o i t i n g and a d a p t i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y t o a p a r t i c u l a r environmental s e t t i n g

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PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN 0-12-179080 0

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The Panamanian Isthmus of lower C e n t r a l America has a cultu-S k e l e t a l remains r a l sequence d a t i n g from a t l e a s t 10,000 B C t h a t d a t e from p o s s i b l y a s e a r l y a s 5000 B C span t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n s u b s i s t e n c e from h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g w i l d r e s o u r c e s t o t h e dependence on seed a g r i c u l t u r e S e t t l e m e n t and s u b s i s t e n c e data new a v a i l a b l e a r e , f o r t h e most p a r t , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c e n t r a l P a c i f i c c o a s t a l p l a i n and p a r t s o f western Panama These a r e a s a r e r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and have s u p p o r t e d some A t t h e time of t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s o f lower C e n t r a l America o f European c o n t a c t , l a r g e n u c l e a t e d v i l l a g e s under t r i b a l F i r s t h a n d accoun a u t h o r i t y were w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s r e g i o n of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s by Europeans d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a i n o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains of t h e e a r l s Panamanian c u l t u r e s

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND SUBSISTENCE RESOURCES

Most o f t h e Isthmus o f Panama l i e s a t an e l e v a t i o n of l e s s than 500 m, b u t i t i s d i v i d e d by c e n t r a l mountain ranges averaging R a i n f a l l v a r i e s w i t h e l e v a t i o n an? 1000-2000 m above s e a l e v e l a i r currents--many p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y r e c e i v e 2000-2500 mm o f r a i n f a l l annually; some P a c i f i c c o a s t a l a r e a s r e c e i v e l e s s and some A t l a n t i c c o a s t a l a r e a s much more. The v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r i - most o f t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e and c o a s t a l p l a i n i s a deciduous 01 semideciduous f o r e s t , and e a s i l y converted i n t o savanna The KEppen c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f macroclimates f o r t h i s r e g i o n i s " t r o p i c a l wet and dry" ( A w ) , and p r o v i d e s a d i v e r s e p a t t e r n of moist and d r y subregions w i t h i n t h e rainshadow r e g i o n s o u t h of the divide The a r e a n o r t h of t h e Azuero p e n i n s u l a and around t h e Bay of P a r i t a i s predominantly a " t r o p i c a l d r y f o r e s t " (Myers 1969) I n c o n t r a s t , t h e Caribbean s l o p e s a r e covered w i t h conEvaporation t i n u o u s , nonseasonal " t r o p i c a l m o i s t f o r e s t " (Af) i n t h i s a r e a i s minimal due t o f r e q u e n t n i g h t t i m e r a i n f a l l s , (Bennett 1968; Holdridge and Budowski 1956; Myers 1969; P o r t e r 1973) Mammals t h a t can be found i n Panama today i n c l u d e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of p r i m a t e s , w i l d f e l i n e and c a n i n e mammals, w e a s e l s , procyoniddae (such a s coatimundi and racoon) hooved mammals ( t a p i r , d e e r , and p e c c a r i e s ) , e d e n t a t e s ( s l o t h , a n t e a t e r , and a r m a d i l l o ) , and a v a r i e t y o f r o d e n t s , m a r s u p i a l s , and b a t s The marine fauna of t h e (Bennett 1968; Levy and Chonq 1977) P a c i f i c c o a s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y abutidant, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e Gulf o f Panama and P a r i t a Bay due t o a s e a s o n a l upwelling t h a t b r i n g s about an i n c r e a s e i n phytoplankton production and s e a s o n a l influxes of s h e l l f i s h , crustaceans, schools of shallow water f i s h , and f l o c k s o f s e a b i r d s (Glynn 1972) T h i s , i n a d d i t i o n t o mud f l a t s , mangrove swamps, and lagoon e s t u a r y systems makes t h e To t h e west a l o n g t h e p a c i f i c f a r i t a Bay r e g i o n v e r y p r o d u c t i v e

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ing t h e Early C&mie a n n u a l meeting o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r American Archaeology Philadelphia Piperno, D R. and K H Clary 1982 Phytolyths and pollen f r m arehaeologieal s i t e s i n central P a m a . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e XLIVth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of h e r i c a n i s t s , Manchester England PortFr, D M 1973 The v e g e t a t i o n of Panama: A review I n vegetation and vegetational hi&ory of norbhern Lakin Amerieac e d i t e d by A. Graham, pp 167-201 E l s e v i e r , New Y o ~ k Ranere, A. J 1972 EarZy human a d a p t ~ t i o n seo flew World tropical forests Ph D d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis U n i v e r s i t y Microfilms, Ann Arbor M s on f i l e r 1979 Cerro Manqote, 1979: P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t . Department o f Anthropologyr Temple U n i v e r s i t y

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MARVIN J. ALLISON

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TABLE 20.1 Location

Number

General Information on Peruvian Mummies Studies Years B. P. (radiocarbon)

Economy

Comments

Huacho Peru

Fis hinggatherer

Preceramic with c o t t o n - g o d s agriculture for rau materials f?)

ChongosPisco Peru

Fishing agricu lture

A Paracas culture

Ica Peru

Farmers

Nazca culture group from d i f f e r e n t valley

Toquilla Ancash Peru

Fishermen

Chima-Casma culture. Small v i l l a g e on beach, questionable farming, 'but access t o agrZ-cultural products

Huayuri Peru

Farmers

Small agricultural

Ica Peru

Farmers

Large c i t y , Ica cu2t u r e , i n Santa Cruz Valley

Pisco Peru

Farmers

Inca c u l t u r e individuals from Pisco Valley

Pisco Peru

Farmers (miners)

Inca and l e a Cozon i a l individuals from Pisco Valley (Mwga H&)

group l i v i n g i n the Piseo Valley

community, Wari c u l t u r e , i n Santa Cruz Valley

infectious diseases rarely, i f ever, leave skeletal lesions. See A l l i s o n 1979; A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) . Since t h e skeleton i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n such i n d i v i d u a l s , it i s p o s s i b l e , u s i n g mummified remains, t o r e l a t e s o f t - t i s s u e f i n d i n g s t o s k e l e t a l f i n d i n g s t o e s t a b l i s h an e t i o l o g y f o r s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s t h a t o t h e r w i s e c o u l d n o t b e diagnosed ( A l l i s o n and G e r s z t e n 1 9 8 2 ) . Comparison of

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS

TABLE 20.2 Location

General Information on Chilean Mummies Studied

Number

Years B. P . (radiocarbon)

Economy

Comments

Faldas de Morro Ariea

Maritime incipient agriculture

Coastal northern Chi leÃ‘nomad

Azapa Arica

Marztime incipient agriculture

Probably r e l a t e d t o W a s de Morro people--nomads

Azapa A r i ea

Shepherds, agriculture

Alto Romirez people-nomads, highlanders

Azapa Ar i c a

Shepherds, agvieu lture

Cabuza people--villages ? Highlanders

Azapa Arica

Shepherds, agriculture

Classic Tiahuanaeo-v i l l a g e s ; highlanders spill-over population.

Azapa Arica

Farmers shepherds

Maitas culture-v i l l a g e s ; highlanders

Arica Chile

Huntersfishermenfarmers

Sun Miguel culture-sea-oriented v ilkges

Tarapaea Chile

Farmersgatherers

Ataeameno--vil lages-traders

s k e l e t a 1 and m m i f i ed remains o f i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h u s p r o v i d e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y good o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e impact of s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s on human h e a l t h .

THE EVIDENCE OF BONES AND TEETH

One n o n s p e c i f i c measure o f t h e h e a l t h of a p o p u l a t i o n i s mort a l i t y , w i t h m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e growth p h a s e p r o v i d i n g p e r h a p s t h e most s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of n u t r i t i o n . Table 2 0 . 3 l i s t s t h e

518

MARVIN J. ALLISON

TABLE 20.3 Childhood M o r t a l i t y (under Age 1 5 ) from S i x C u l t u r a l Groups

ChiIdhood mortality Culture

(%)

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Cabuza T i ahuanaco Huari-Ica Colonial Inca-Ica

28 50 48 49 49 45

childhood m o r t a l i t y (under 1 5 y e a r s o f age) f o r s i x s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l g r o u p s spanning r o u g h l y 2300 y e a r s . The e a r l i e s t p e o p l e of t h e Azapa c u l t u r e , w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y a marine economy, had a 2 8 % childhood m o r t a l i t y . A l l of t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c o l o n i a l group, had n e a r l y 50% m o r t a l i t y f o r c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age (Ashworth e t a l . 1976) The l a t t e r f i g u r e a p p e a r s t o be independent of c u l t u r e and of r e g i o n o f o r i g i n ( h i g h l a n d o r coast). Growth i s a l s o a n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r o f h e a l t h , o f which n u t r i t i o n may b e one i m p o r t a n t component. Table 20.4 shows average s t a t u r e i n cm f o r a d u l t s from t h e same c u l t u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 20.3. The C o l o n i a l p o p u l a t i o n of I n c a and I c a i n d i v i d u a l s i s t h e only one t o show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e from t h e o t h e r s i n t h e form of reduced s t a t u r e . T h a t such a r e d u c t i o n i n s t a t u r e might b e of n u t r i t i o n a l o r i g i n was e v i d e n t a t t h e time of e x c a v a t i o n , s i n c e a l l g r a v e s were poor i n f o o d s t u f f s , c l o t h e s were worn and p a t c h e d , and numerous women were b u r i e d w i t h newborn c h i l d r e n ( a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e i n d i c a t o r o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ) . The o t h e r c u l t u r e s showed no e v i d e n c e of a s h o r t a g e of food i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s and t h e i r s t a t u r e seems t o s u g g e s t r e l a t i v e 1 y good nutrition. H a r r i s l i n e s a r e a n o t h e r n o n s p e c i f i c measure of d i s e a s e t h a t may r e f l e c t a n u t r i t i o n a l e t i o l o g y ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 a , b , c ) . The d a t a i n T a b l e 20.5 s u g g e s t t h a t fewer i n d i v i d u a l s from c o a s t a l c u l t u r e s (where a g r i c u l t u r e may have been of secondary importance) had l i n e s . Furthermore, t h e c o a s t a l p e o p l e had fewer l i n e s p e r I t would p e r s o n t h a n p e o p l e from t h e h i g h l a n d o r i n l a n d c u l t u r e s . appear t h a t p e o p l e i n a c o a s t a l environment had a h e a l t h i e r c h i l d hood t h a n p e o p l e of h i g h l a n d o r i g i n . Poor n u t r i t i o n may b e one of t h e c a u s e s of H a r r i s 1i n e formation i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ; however, H a r r i s l i n e s do n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h i s sample, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t m a l n u t r i t i o n i s n o t t h e major c a u s e o f l i n e formation h e r e . p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was n o t common among c h i l d r e n even i n t h e C o l o n i a l group, where e v i d e n c e from g r a v e s s u g g e s t s a s h o r t a g e of

.


TABLE 20.4 Average S t a t u r e o f A d u l t s Based on Methods o f T r o t t e r and Gleser

Culture

Average stature (ern

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Cabuz a Tiahuanaeo Huari -IOU Colon-Lot Inea-Iea

166 166 166 169 163 156

food: o n l y 9% of t h e c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age d i s p l a y e d t h e symptoms. Among a pre-Columbian group of Wari-Ica c h i l d r e n from around t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e f i g u r e was 6 % . ( I n t h i s l a t t e r c a s e t h e r e was an abundance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n t h e g r a v e s . ) I n n o r t h e r n C h i l e , p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s was uncommon i n a l l o f t h e c u l t u r e s s t u d i e d . While o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n , it o c c u r s i n fewer o f c h i l d r e n under 1 5 y e a r s of age i n a l l samples. than 1% A review o f d a t a on o r a l p a t h o l o g y s u g g e s t s a number o f p a t t e r n s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t food p r e p a r a t i o n and o r a l hygiene a s w e l l a s n u t r i t i o n . Elzay e t a l . (1977) and Sawyer e t a l . (1978a,b) r e v i e w i n d i v i d u a l s from c u l t u r e s e x t e n d i n g from 2600 B.P. t o t h e C o l o n i a l p e r i o d . They found a r e d u c t i o n i n jaw s i z e i n l a t e r cultures, a pattern often attributed to a s o f t d i e t requiring l i t t l e mechanical f o r c e t o m a s t i c a t e food. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p a t t e r n i s complicated by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of gene flow i n t r o d u c e d by t h e I n c a i n v a s i o n s s i n c e t h e mandibular body b u t n o t t h e ramus was reduced (Sawyer e t a l . 1 9 7 8 a , b ) . The I n c a and C o l o n i a l p e r i o d I n d i a n s have t h e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e o f m i s s i n g t e e t h (antemortem), a f i n d i n g t h a t p a r a l l e l s t h e p a t t e r n of i n c i d e n c e of d e n t a l c a r i e s . Groups w i t h h i g h c a r i e s r a t e s a l s o d i s p l a y e d h i g h r a t e s o f c a l c u l u s involvement. O s t e i t i s o c c u r r e d i n a l l p o p u l a t i o n s b u t was most f r e q u e n t i n t h e Nazca and I n c a groups. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s seems t o b e r e l a t e d t o an i n c r e a s e i n "urban" l i v i n g s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s , who presumably l i v e d i n small s o c i a l u n i t s , had l e s s enamel h y p o p l a s i a t h a n t h e l a t e r p e o p l e . T h i s may b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y d i e t a s c e r t a i n l y was t h e c a s e among t h e c o l o n i a l populations. A summary o f t h e s e n o n s p e c i f i c i n d i c a t o r s i n bones and t e e t h r e v e a l s t h a t w i t h a more complete a g r i c u l t u r a l economy, childhood m o r t a l i t y increased (although a s discussed l a t e r , t h i s i s probably e x p l a i n a b l e on t h e b a s i s of v i l l a g e l i f e and environment r a t h e r t h a n d i e t ) . S t a t u r e a l t e r a t i o n a s a r e s p o n s e t o poor n u t r i t i o n i s seen o n l y i n t h e c a s e of one c o l o n i a l group. H a r r i s l i n e s r e v e a l a p a t t e r n r e l a t e d t o geographic l o c a t i o n , which may b e r e l a t e d i n

MARVIN J. ALLISON

520

TABLE 20.5 The Frequency o f Harris Lines i n Mummies from S i x Coastal and Seven Inland C u l t u r e s Negative Cemetery

Culture

No.

No.

Huac ho Playa M i l l e r P h y a Millev Playa M i l l e r HuayuriHua yur'i-

Preceramic San Miguel San Migue-4 T-idhuanaco Wari Ica

21 6

16 4

8 19 12

8 10 7

85

59

Coastal t o t a l s Azapa Azapa Pica Azapa Azapa Azapa San Juan

Azapa A l t o Ramirez Atacameno Cabuza T-iahuanaco San Miguez Maaas Chiri Baya

Inland t o t a l s

.

-

%

76 67 74 100 53 58

69.4

Positive No. %

5

24 33 26

2 5 0 9

47

5

42

26

Lines/ positive

30.6

23 8 16 14 14 8 60

143

turn t o d i e t (although a d i e t a r y e t i o l o g y i s questionable s i n c e c o a s t a l c u l t u r e s spanning 2000-3000 y e a r s show s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f H a r r i s l i n e s ) . The low l e v e l o f p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s would a l s o tend t o argue a g a i n s t d i e t a s a major f a c t o r i n t h e pathology. I n o r a l pathology a r e d u c t i o n i n mandible s i z e b u t n o t i n t h e s i z e o f t h e mandibular ramus s u g g e s t s a p a t t e r n of g e n e t i c r a t h e r t h a n d i e t a r y change. Enamel h y p o p l a s i a increased with urbanization. Tooth l o s s and i n c i d e n c e of c a r i e s appeared t o be r e l a t e d more t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f o o d s t u f f s t h a n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of foods.

THE EVIDENCE OF SOFT TISSUE

The g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s based on p a t h o l o g i c d a t a f o r bones and t e e t h can b e expanded by r e f e r e n c e t o s o f t - t i s s u e s t u d i e s . W e have d i s c u s s e d t h e childhood m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s and t h e f a c t t h a t among e a r l y s e a mammal h u n t e r s - f i s h e r m e n - g a t h e r e r s , t h i s m o r t a l i t y r a t e was o n l y a b o u t h a l f t h a t s e e n i n l a t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l populations. I n b o t h g r o u p s , however, t h e major cause


521

TABLE 20.6 Acute Respiratory Disease i n Adults and Children of S i x Cultures

Culture

Origin

Asapa A l t o Rami-rez Cabusa Tiahuanaeo Hu& Inca-Ica

Coastal Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain Mountain

Incidence f%) o f acute respiratory disease Children Adults

of d e a t h was a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e ( s t r i k i n g b o t h s e x e s e q u a l l y ) . From T a b l e 20.6 i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e i n t h e form o f pneumonia was a major c a u s e of d e a t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s from b o t h c o a s t a l and mountain c u l t u r e s and i n d e e d was t h e major c a u s e of d e a t h among a l l p e o p l e from a l l time p e r i o d s independent of d i e t , involvement, o r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t would be no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t f o r t h e p a s t 8000 y e a r s most Americans have d i e d o f t h e same c a u s e s , a c u t e and c h r o n i c respiratory diseases. Even today i n modern L a t i n America t h e major c a u s e s o f d e a t h a r e pneumonia and t u b e r c u l o s i s . T a b l e 20.7 g i v e s t h e pathology of a c u t e pulmonary d i s e a s e seen i n 51 p r e Columbian mummies of i n d i v i d u a l s who d i e d o f pneumonia. Nearly 70% of t h e mummies showed b i l a t e r a l pneumonia t h a t could be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d g r o s s l y a s bronchopneumonia o r l o b a r pneumonia Microscopic examination of t h e pneumonia seen i n t h e l u n g showed t h a t most c a s e s produced an abundant e x u d a t e c o n t a i n i n g remains of inflammatory c e l l s and b a c t e r i a (Group I V ) o r an e x u d a t e w i t h i n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s and no b a c t e r i a (Group 111); l e s s t h a n 7% had only edema f l u i d (Group I ) and l e s s t h a n 10% had edema p l u s bact e r i a (Group 11). The g r o s s d i a g n o s i s o f pneumonia i s b a s e d on finding t h e lungs i n f l a t e d a t t h e time of autopsy. This s i g n i f i e s t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f d e a t h t h e y were f i l l e d w i t h f l u i d t h a t e v a p o r a t e d i n t i m e , a l l o w i n g t h e l u n g t o d r y i n t h e expanded p o s i t i o n . The l u n g s of a normal i n d i v i d u a l who d i d n o t d i e o f pulmonary d i s e a s e a r e completely d e f l a t e d and a b o u t t h e t h i c k n e s s of a p l a y i n g c a r d . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e pneumonia a r e a r e a s o f c o l l a p s e d lung ( a t e l e c t a s i s ) a s w e l l a s a r e a s o f hemorrhage and emphysema ( l o c a l t r a p p i n g of a i r i n b l e b s due t o d i l a t a t i o n of pulmonary a i r v e s i c l e s ) , a l l c o m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e pneumonic p r o c e s s . A n t h r a c o s i s was i n c l u d e d i n t h e d a t a g i v e n i n t h i s t a b l e , and i t s low f r e q u e n c y i n d i c a t e d t h a t cooking was p r o b a b l y done o u t of d o o r s r a t h e r than i n a house where t h e smoke w i t h i t s carbon p a r t i c l e s would be i n h a l e d . T h i s i s l o g i c a l s i n c e t h e c l i m a t e a l l a l o n g t h e c o a s t and c o a s t a l v a l l e y s i n t h e a r e a s t u d i e d i s m i l d and f a v o r s o u t d o o r l i v i n g . The 4 4 % frequency of p l e u r a l a d h e s i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t n e a r l y h a l f o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s had had a t l e a s t one p r e v i o u s

MARVIN J. ALLISON

522

TABLE 20.7

I n c i d e n c e o f P a t h o l o g i c F i n d i n g s i n 51 Mummies

uifh A c u t e Pulmonary D i s e a s e

Pathologic finding Pneumonia Gross examination R i g h t lung L e f t lung Bilateral M i c r o s c o p i c exam'ination Group I Group I I Group I I I Group IV Pleural exudate Atelectasis Hemorrhage Emphysema An t h r a e o s i s Abscess Granulomas ( t u b e r c u l a r ? ) Pleural adhesions

I n c i d e n c e f %)

13.0 17.4 69.6 6.8 9.1 22.7 61.4 14.8 9.3 13.0 41 - 0 5.6 3.7 3.7 44.4

b o u t of pneumonia, b u t a b o u t h a l f of them d i e d o f t h e i r f i r s t a t t a c k . The p r e s e n c e o f a l u n g a b s c e s s i n n e a r l y 4% o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a c h r o n i c l o c a l f o c u s of i n f e c t i o n . The granulomas n o t e d a r e i n c i d e n t a l f i n d i n g s of a n o t h e r d i s e a s e , p r o b a b l y t u b e r c u l o s i s , c a s e s of which have been found i n n e a r l y a l l o f t h e c u l t u r e s under s t u d y h e r e . Extrapulmonary c o m p l i c a t i o n s s e e n , i n t h e o r d e r o f frequency i n t h e s e mummies, were p l e u r i s y , l i v e r d i s e a s e , k i d n e y d i s e a s e , p e r i c a r d i t i s , and e n d o c a r d i t i s . Modern l a b o r a t o r y technology makes it p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e s p e c i f i c e t i o l o g i c a g e n t of many o f t h e s e pneumonias (Dalton e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ) . I n one c a s e of bronchopneumonia, numerous s t r e p t o c o c c i were s e e n i n t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e lung; s e r o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s r e A Wari man v e a l e d t h i s t o be a L a n c e f i e l d group A S t r e p t o c o c c u s . who d i e d o f C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e , Verruga p h a s e , had a bronchopneumonia due t o B a r t o n e l k b a c i l l i f o r m i s i d e n t i f i e d by e l e c t r o n microscopy (Martinez e t a l . 1975) on t h e b a s i s o f s i z e and f l a g e l l u m w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s s o c i a t e d pathology ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1974b) An I n c a woman w i t h an e x t e n s i v e s k i n i n f e c t i o n d i e d o f a bronchopneumonia and b o t h l e s i o n s were shown t o have a y e a s t , ( T h i s i n d i v i d u a l may have been from t h e c o l o n i a l Candid0 s p . p e r i o d s i n c e i t s age a c c o r d i n g t o carbon d a t i n g o v e r l a p p e d t h e Such a d i s e a s e today c o u l d b e a s s o time of t h e Spanish conquest. c i a t e d with diabetes o r possibly a n u t r i t i o n a l deficiency, but n e i t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y can b e proven i n h e r c a s e . ) A t l e a s t two c a s e s of bronchopneumonia were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o s s i b l e s a l m o n e l l o s i s

.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS group D i n f e c t i o n . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r group o f s a l m o n e l l a e i n c l u d e s t h e a g e n t of t y p h o i d f e v e r ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1982b; Sawicki e t a l . 1976). The e x i s t e n c e o f c h r o n i c r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e , mainly i n t h e form of t u b e r c u l o s i s throughout most of pre-columbian America, i s now w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . A l l i s o n e t a l . (1973) r e p o r t e d t h e f i r s t c a s e of pre-Columbian t u b e r c u l o s i s w i t h a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t i n g and a 1% d a t e o f a b o u t A.D. 700. The d i s e a s e was d i s c o v e r e d i n an 8-year-old Huari c h i l d who d i e d a f t e r a l o n g - s t a n d i n g i l l n e s s t h a t produced, a s i d e from t h e pulmonary d i s e a s e , l i v e r and kidney t u b e r c u l o s i s , t u b e r c u l o u s p e r i c a r d i t i s , and a p s o a s a b s c e s s w i t h P o t t ' s d i s e a s e i n t h e lumbar v e r t e b r a e . T h i s c a s e had a c i d - f a s t b a c i l l i i n many d i f f e r e n t o r g a n s and t h e t e r m i n a l e v e n t was a miliary tuberculosis. S i n c e t h e n more t h a n a dozen such c a s e s have been recorded w i t h numerous d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h i s d i s e a s e i n bone and s o f t t i s s u e ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 8 1 b ) . The d i s e a s e a s n o t e d i n t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen i n t h e United S t a t e s Caucasian p o p u l a t i o n and i n no way resembles t h e r a p i d , g a l l o p i n g consumption commonly d e s c r i b e d i n t h e modern I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e p r e - a n t i b i o t i c e r a . (This r a p i d l y f u l m i n a t i n g pulmonary d i s e a s e i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a complete d i s r u p t i o n of t h e n a t i v e American's way of l i f e t h a t r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o many d i s e a s e s , among them t u b e r c u l o s i s . ) T h a t t h e pre-Columbian I n d i a n d i d n o t r e a c t s o d i f f e r e n t l y t o d i s e a s e t h a n t h e modern person i s seen i n a n o t h e r c h r o n i c pulmonary i n f e c t i o n , South American b l a s t o m y c o s i s (Paracoccidioidomycosis s e e A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 9 ) . T h i s g e n e r a l i z e d deep mycotic i n f e c t i o n i s caused by a fungus, Paraeoee'Ldio'ides 'bvasa<ens<s and i s o f low f r e q u e n c y , a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y seen i n t r o p i c a l o r s u b t r o p i c a l r u r a l a r e a s of South America. The p r e s e n t pre-Columbian c a s e was i n a 56-year-old woman who d i e d around A . D . 290 with pulmonary and r e n a l lesions. I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s was an imported d i s e a s e i n northern Chile acquired during a trading expedition t o a t r o p i c a l a r e a , s i n c e among t h e g r a v e goods were numerous examples o f t r o p i c a l b i r d f e a t h e r s . The age o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e n a t u r e of t h e l e s i o n s a r e a l l s i m i l a r t o t h o s e seen i n modem c a s e s o f t h i s d i s e a s e . Munizaga e t a l . (1975) r e p o r t e d on pneumoconiosis i n a group of mummies o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y miners from C h i l e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e frequency o f c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o u s pulmonary d i s e a s e i n t h i s group of miners was comparable t o t h a t s e e n i n a group o f modern s a n d b l a s t e r s who a l s o had pneumoconiosis ( B a i l e y e t a l . 1 9 7 4 ) . Thus, by a l l i n d i c a t i o n s t h e r e s p o n s e s of n a t i v e Americans from Peru o r C h i l e t o d i s e a s e a r e q u i t e comparable t o t h o s e of modem w h i t e Americans; and we must i n f e r t h a t d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s e s t a b l i s h e d norm may be due t o a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e n a t i v e s o c i e t i e s with changes i n t h e economy and n u t r i t i o n a l b a s e . I f we c o n s i d e r t h a t r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e i s t h e major c a u s e of d e a t h i n c h i l d r e n of a l l c u l t u r e s , it should be r e l a t i v e l y easy t o measure t h e r e l a t i v e m o r t a l i t y of d i f f e r e n t a g e g r o u p s , comparing t h i s t o t h e m o r b i d i t y a s o b t a i n e d from H a r r i s l i n e s . T a b l e 2 0 . 8 p r e s e n t s such d a t a f o r a group of i n d i v i d u a l s belonging t o t h e

524

MARVIN J . ALLISON

TABLE 20.8 Maitas-Chiribaya Population S'howinq T o t a l M o r t a l i t y and Morbidity

(A) Age o f

eh-ildren a t death (years)

total population

Harris lines

(B)

Number o f dead eh; Zdren

(A + B = C) Morbidity

(^)

Percentage Mortality

Maitas-Chiribaya c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n Chile. I t i s obvious t h a t c h i l d r e n from b i r t h t o 1 y e a r of age have a low r e s i s t a n c e and t h a t 70% of t h o s e who become ill w i l l d i e , while l e s s than 1%of c h i l d r e n aged 8-12 w i l l d i e . Because among most p r i m i t i v e peoples t h e c h i l d r e n a r e l i m i t e d t o m o t h e r ' s milk a t t h i s e a r l y a g e , it i s probably s a n i t a t i o n r a t h e r than n u t r i t i o n t h a t causes t h i s mortality. This problem of poor s a n i t a t i o n a s a major cause of d i s e a s e i s f u r t h e r emphasized when we n o t e t h e change from a nomadic o r camp e x i s t e n c e t o t h e sedentary l i f e o f a v i l l a g e with f u l l a g r i c u l t u r e . Table 20.9 shows t h e e f f e c t s of a sedentary l i f e on t h e incidence of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s . This t a b l e i l l u s t r a t e s c l e a r l y one problem t h a t a r o s e with a sedentary l i f e i n which contamination of food and water probably occurred due t o concentrat i o n o f population. Such population concentration p o s s i b l y r e s u l t e d i n t h e a b i l i t y t o f e e d more people, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i r r i g a t i o n was developed, b u t it r e s u l t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of new d i s e a s e s and a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n h e a l t h . In the c u r r e n t a n a l y s i s , g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l problems were measured b y a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e volume of f e c e s i n t h e l a r g e bowel o r changes in i t s c h a r a c t e r (blood) o r consistency. The i n c r e a s e d frequency of g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e a a v a l i d o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t t h e a c t u a l e t i o l o g y of t h e i n f e c t i o u s agents i s not e a s i l y established. The only p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of an agent concerns two cases of salmonella group D , one of which r e s u l t e d i n a g e n e r a l i z e d i n f e c t i o n ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i e d of a p e r i t o n i t i s with e x t e n s i v e hemorrhage i n t o t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t . I t i s probable t h a t o t h e r salmonellae were a l s o respons i b l e f o r o t h e r c a s e s o f g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e s i n c e even today t h i s i s one of t h e most common i n f e c t i o n s of t h e bowel i n modern man.


TABLE 20.9 Incidence of Gastrointestinal Disease i n Indiui(A~alsfrom Four Cultural Groups o f Northern Chile

Culture

Incidence of gastrointestina l disease (%)

Asapa Alto Ramirez Cabuza Maitas-C'hiribaya

7 2 25 18

Fouant, A l l i s o n , and Gerszten (1982) completed a p r e l i m i n a r y survey o f i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s of C h i l e a n and Peruvian mummies. Although t h e o c c a s i o n a l whipworm, pinworm, and hookworm were found, t h e y were n o t common enough t o produce a s e r i o u s h e a l t h problem. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e environment, which does n o t a l l o w f o r t h e completion o f t h e n a t u r a l c y c l e o f most p a r a s i t e s . The s i n g l e c a s e of hookworm i s o f i n t e r e s t ( A l l i s o n e t a l . 1 9 7 4 ~ )i n t h a t t h e f i n d i n g of Ancy'Lostoma has r e c e n t l y been confirmed i n pre-Columbian f e c a l m a t e r i a l from B r a z i l by Gongalves de Araujo (1980). Thus, it seems c e r t a i n t h a t a n c y l o s t o m i a s i s was a n a t i v e American d i s e a s e and t h a t t h e o t h e r hookworm Neeator was a l a t e r import i n t o t h e Americas, a s s u g g e s t e d by Soper ( 1 9 2 7 ) .

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND HEALTH

The a d v e n t of a g r i c u l t u r e p r o b a b l y was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e event u a l l y f o r some t y p e o f c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . D i r e c t e v i d e n c e from s t u d i e s o f t h e Maitas-Chiribaya c u l t u r e o f n o r t h e r n C h i l e r e v e a l t h a t a t l e a s t i n one c a s e , t h i s was t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e h e a l t h o f t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n b u t t o t h e b e n e f i t of t h e r u l i n g p r i e s t c l a s s . Table 20.10 p r e s e n t s d a t a on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e from a M a i t a s h a b i t a t i o n a l s i t e w i t h what a p p e a r s t o be a temple d a t e d around 1000 B.P. A s can b e s e e n from t h i s t a b l e , t h e shamans were a p r i v i l e g e d group t h a t had about t h e same l i f e span a s o t h e r m a l e s , b u t were t a l l e r and had fewer bone l e s i o n s . The women a r e t r u l y a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l group from t h e commoner males s i n c e w i t h t h e advent of a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e has been a s e p a r a t i o n of d u t i e s i n (This was Andean s o c i e t y , w i t h women on a lower l e v e l t h a n men. n o t t r u e i n t h e e a r l y f i s h i n g and s e a mammal h u n t i n g s o c i e t i e s o f n o r t h e r n C h i l e , i n which women were b u r i e d w i t h harpoons, f i s h hooks, and l i n e s and used e l a b o r a t e s t r i n g t u r b a n s t h a t sometimes had s i l v e r o r copper ornaments, s u g g e s t i n g a s e x u a l l y e g a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y . ) I n t h e Maitas cemetery were numerous l a r g e b a s k e t s

TABLE 20.10

Data on Three SocialZy S t r a t i f i e d Adult Groups from a Maitas-Chiribaya Cemetery

Number

Age

Incidence of fractures

Incidence of osteoarthritie

Incidence of osteitis

f%)

Cervica 2

Lumbar

(%)

Bone lesions per person

165

0

18

18

9

0.4

Height (ern)

(%)

Shamans

12

Commoner males

20

31

162

35

25

30

20

1.3

Commoner females

49

38

159

16

29

39

18

2.1

30

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS c a l l e d "capachos" t h a t were s u p p o r t e d by a tumpline t o t h e f o r e head; t h i s was probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a l o s t e o a r t h r i t i s noted i n younger a d u l t s i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . The g r a v e s y i e l d e d abundant meat, f i s h , and a wide v a r i e t y of v e g e t a b l e s , s u g g e s t i n g n u t r i t i o n was a d e q u a t e . The shamans were s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r males on t h e b a s i s of t h e u s e of e a r o r naments, l o i n c l o t h s , and s p e c i a l t y p e of h a t , and g o l d h a i r c l i p s . I n s u m , t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t farming w i t h subsequent s t o r a g e o f p r o d u c t s improved t h e g e n e r a l h e a l t h of Andean populations. Rather, the impression is given t h a t sedentary v i l l a g e l i f e was d e t r i m e n t a l t o h e a l t h due t o crowding and s u b s e q u e n t s a n i t a t i o n problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v i l l a g e l i v i n g . S i m i l a r l y , s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y o n l y prov i d e d an improvement i n h e a l t h f o r t h e m i n o r i t y e l i t e p r i e s t group. Moreover, c o l o n i a l i s m seems t o have had a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on t h e h e a l t h o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e o p l e . I t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f pre-Columbian t i m e s , t h e l a s t of which was t h e I n c a , were a b l e t o s t o r e and d i s t r i b u t e a g r i c u l t u r a l products t o provide a l e s s than optimal d i e t t o a l a r g e p o t e n t i a l l a b o r f o r c e , b u t a t t h e expense of i t s h e a l t h .

REFERENCES

A l l i s o n , M. J. 1979 Paleopathology i n Peru. Natural H i s t o w , Feb. I s s u e :74-82. A l l i s o n , M. J., and G e r s z t e n , E . 1982 P a l e o p a t m o m i n South American mummies, application of Medical C o l l e g e o f modern techniques ( t h i r d e d . ) V i r g i n i a , Richmond. A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a 1973 Documentation of a c a s e of t u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian America. American Revieu of Respiratory Diseases 107: 985-991. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , R. F. G i f f l e r , and D. Mendoza 1974a A s p i r a t i o n pneumonia due t o teeth--A r e p o r t of two Southern Medical Journal c a s e s , 950 A . D . and 1973 A.D. 67:479-483. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A. P e z z i a , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. Mendoza 1974b A c a s e of C a r r i o n ' s d i s e a s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h human s a c r i f i c e f o r t h e Huari c u l t u r e o f s o u t h e r n Peru. AmeY'Loan Journal of Physical Anthropology 41 :295-300. A l l i s o n , M. J . , A . P e z z i a , L. Hasegawa, and E . Gerszten 1974c A c a s e of hookworm i n f e s t a t i o n i n a Pre-Colunbian Arneri can. American Journal of Physical Ant'hropology 41 :103-105.

.

528

MARVIN J. ALLISON

A l l i s o n , M e J . , E . G e r s z t e n , H. J . Shadomy, J . Munizaga, and M. Gonzales 1 9 7 9 P a r a c o c c i d i o d o m y c o s i s i n a mummy. B u l l e t i n of t h e New York Academy of Medicine 55:670-683. A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , J . Munizaga, C . S a n t o r o , and D. Mendoza 1981b T u b e r c u l o s i s i n Pre-Columbian Andean p o p u l p t i o n s . In Pre'historie T u b e r c d o s i s i n the Americas e d i t e d by J a n e B u i k s t r a , pp. 49-61. N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y Archaeoloq i c a l Program, E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s . A l l i s o n , M. J . , E. G e r s z t e n , and M . Fouant 1982b P a l e o p a t h o l o q y , t o d a y ' s l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t e s y e s t e r d a y ' s d i s e a s e s . Diagnostic Medicine, S e p t . / O c t . I s s u e : 2 8 - 4 8 Ashworth, J. T . , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 The p u b i c s c a r s of p a r t u t i t i o n and g e s t a t i o n i n a g r o u p of Pre-columbian and c o l o f i a l P e r u v i a n m u m m i e s . American Journal of P h y s i c d Anthropology 45:85-89. B a i l e y , W. C . , M. Brown, H. A. Buecher, H. W e i l l , H . I c h i n o s e , and M. Z i s k i n d 1974 S i l i c o m y c o b a c t e r i a l d i s e a s e i n s a n d b l a s t e r s . American Review of Respiratory Diseases 110: 115. D a l t o n , H. P . , M . J. A l l i s o n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 The documen t a t i o n o f communicable d i s e a s e s i n P e r u v i a n m u m m i e s . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 2 : 4348. E l z a y , R. P . , M. J. A l l i s o n , a n d A. P e z z i a 1977 A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o n t h e d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f f i v e Pre-columbian P e r u v i a n c u l t u r e s . Amerkan Journal of Physical Anthropology 46: 135-139. Goncalves d e A r a u j o , A. J. 1980 C o n t r i b u c a o ao e s t u d o d e h e l m i n t o s e n c o n t r a d o s em m a t e r i a l a r q u e o l o g i c o no B r a s i l - T e s e d e Mestrado. Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Rio d e J a n e i r o . Lumbreras, L. G. 1974 Los origenes de civilizae'ion en e l Peru. M i l l a B a t r e s , Lima. M a r t i n e z , A . J . , D. F u l t s , M. J. A l l i s o n , E. G e r s z t e n , and D. C. Stanley 1975 E l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c s t u d y o f t i s s u e s from Pre-Columbian Americans. Proceedings Electron Microscopy Society o f America 33rd Amiw 2 Meeting Las Vegas , p p . 55-60. Munizaga, J . , M. J. A l l i s o n , and E. G e r s z t e n 1975 Pneumoconiosis i n m i n e r s from a 1 6 t h c e n t u r y m i n i n g comB u l l e t i n of t h e New York Academy of Medicine 51: munity. 1281-1293. S a n t o r o , C. 1980 E s t r a t i g r a f i a y s e c u e n c i a c u l t u r a l f u n e r a r i a f a s e s : Azapa, A l t o Ramirez y Tiwanaku ( A r i c a , C h i l e ) . C?l.un.gco'a 6:24-45.

20 PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PERUVIAN AND CHILEAN POPULATIONS S a w i c k i , V. A * , M. J. A l l i s o n , H. P. D a l t o n , and A. P e z z i a 1976 P r e s e n c e o f s a l m o n e l l a a n t i g e n s i n f e c e s from a P e r u v i a n mummy. B u l l e t i n of the flew York Academy of Medicine 5 2 : 805-813. Sawyer, D. R . , M. J . A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , D. G. Page, and A. P e z z i a 1978a M a x i l l a r y and m a n d i b u l a r jaw s i z e i n Pre-Columbian P e r u . Medical College of Virginia Quarterly 1 4 ( 2 ) :101-108. Sawyer, D. R . , M. J. A l l i s o n , R. P. E l z a y , and A. P e z z i a A 1978b The d e n t a l h e a l t h s t a t u s o f Pre-Columbian P e r u v i a n s : study o f d e n t a l c a r i e s , missing t e e t h , a t t r i t i o n , o s t e i t i s and c a l c u l u s a n d bone l o s s . Medical College o f Virginia Quarterly 14 :1981-1988. S o p e r , F. L. 1927 The r e p o r t of a n e a r l y p u r e Aney~ostomaduodenale i n f e s t a t i o n i n South American I n d i a n s and a d i s c u s s i o n of i t s e t h n o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . American Journal of Hvqene 7 : 174-184.

CHAPTER 21 THE CHALLENGES AND REWARDS OF SEDENTISM: THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

Robert A. Ben* Department of Anthropology U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia

INTRODUCTION

The Paloma p r o j e c t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a n a l y s i s of a d a p t a t i o n t o s e d e n t i s m and food p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e v e r y l a r g e preceramic ( A r c h a i c ) s i t e of Paloma, C h i l c a V a l l e y , Peru. The s i t e a f f o r d s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e evidence concerning t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e P e r u v i a n c o a s t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d between 8000 and 4500 B.P. when sedentism and food p r o d u c t i o n were e v o l v i n g . The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e c o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r t h e r e g i o n a r e r e p o r t e d e l s e w h e r e and w i l l be summarized h e r e o n l y b r i e f l y ( s e e Benfer 1984a,b; Engel 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s demographic d a t a and p r e l i m i n a r y d a t a from p i l o t s t u d i e s on many d i f f e r e n t s k e l e t a l i n d i c a t o r s t h a t , i n combination, y i e l d a compelling p i c t u r e of s u c c e s s f u l a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e c h a l l e n g e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s of sedentism.

ECOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

I t i s commonly assumed t h a t e a r l y Peruvian c o a s t a l d w e l l e r s emigrated from t h e Andean h i g h l a n d s (MacNeish e t a l . 1975; Willey 1 9 7 1 ) . Upon r e a c h i n g t h e c o a s t , they found an extreme d e s e r t whose a r i d i t y was c h a l l e n g e d o n l y by about 50 s t r e a m s , many of which were n o t p e r e n n i a l , and by t h e heavy w i n t e r fog o r garua. I n t h e s e a a d j a c e n t t o t h e d e s e r t t h e y encountered one of t h e r i c h e s t biomass PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

Copynghl '0 1984 by Academy Pres'i, 1nc All nghis of repn>dui.tion in iiny form reserved ISBN 0.12-179080.0

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

533

by b o t h r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e s and f l u o r i n e a n a l y s e s ( s e e Appendix and T a b l e 21.241).

POPULATION CONTINUITY

A breeding The s i t e of Paloma i s a p l a c e , n o t a p o p u l a t i o n . population is t h e proper u n i t of a n a l y s i s (Bennett 1969), but it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o know w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h e l i m i t s o f a b r e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n from human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s . The 2000 y e a r s o f occup a t i o n a t Paloma from which most s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s were o b t a i n e d i s l o n g enough t o a l l o w c o n s i d e r a b l e p o p u l a t i o n movement. R e c e n t l y , C. T u r n e r ( p e r s o n a l communication) h a s found t h a t b i o l o q i c a l d i s t a n c e s between b u r i a l s from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s (#400-600) and t h e l a t e r l e v e l s , a s judged by d e n t a l t r a i t s , i s v e r y l a r g e , p e r h a p s t o o l a r g e t o b e e x p l a i n e d by i n s f i u change. Analysis of t h e c r a n i a l d i s c r e t e t r a i t s , s t a n d a r d anthropometric measurements, and C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e d a t a ( B e n f e r 1 9 7 6 ) i s s t i l l pending. The p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f g e n e t i c d r i f t due t o i s o l a t i o n remain t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . However, Page (1974) found e v i d e n c e o f dec r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n c r a n i a l measurements i n c o a s t a l P e r u v i a n s k e l e t o n s d u r i n g t h e t i m e p e r i o d o f Paloma, s u p p o r t i n g E r i c k s e n ' s (1962) h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c o a s t a l v i l l a g e s e x p e r i e n c e d b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n t h a t b r o k e down w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . T u r n e r ' s d a t a may b e d e t e c t i n g t h i s breakdown i n i s o l a t i o n , s i n c e t h e e a r l i e r , s m a l l e r samples show d e c r e a s e d v a r i a n c e i n many of t h e 23 d e n t a l t r a i t s s t u d i e d . Unequal sample s i z e s confound t h i s interpretation. S t a t u r e i s predicted t o decrease with inbreeding ( F a l c o n e r 1960) and contemporary human p o p u l a t i o n s s u p p o r t t h i s p r e d i c t i o n ( s e e S c h r e i d e r 1 9 6 7 ) . An i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e d o e s t a k e p l a c e a t Paloma, a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n , " S t a t u r e . "

SUBSISTENCE

The e a r l i e r l e v e l s ( l e v e l 400 and below) i n d i c a t e mixed h u n t i n g and c o l l e c t i n q i n t h e tornas, n e a r b y r i v e r v a l l e y s , and w e s t e r n Andean f l a n k s , w i t h e x p l o i t a t i o n o f m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s i m p o r t a n t . The m i d d l e o c c u p a t i o n ( l e v e l 300, t h e t h i c k e s t d e p o s i t s ) show an i n c r e a s e i n p l a n t remains, including p o s s i b l e c u l t i v a t i o n o r management of s u c h p l a n t s a s t h e t u b e r o u s b e g o n i a (Begonia g e r a n i i f o l i a ) , t h e b o t t l e g o u r d ( L a g e n a r i a s e r a r i a ) , and o t h e r imported p l a n t s such a s lima beans (Phaseotus t u n a t u s ) , squash ( C u a u r b i t a c e a e spp. ) , and p o s s i b l y o t h e r s (Weir and D e r i n q 1984) By l e v e l 200, a t h i n b u t w i d e s p r e a d o c c u p a t i o n , a g r e a t e r emphasis on m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s , and e v i d e n c e o f d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e t0rnU.s a r e

.

TABLE 21.1

Sex, Age, and Stratigraphic Leve l s for 201 Paloma Burials

(4600-5200 B.P. Age (years)

M

Fetus 0- 1 1- 4 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55+ Individua 2s for whom age i s approximate Baby (0-5) Child (6-14) Adult (15+)

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 5 1 2 1 1 1 1

0 0 1

16

F

?

)

(5200-5500 B. P.)

M

F

?

(5500-7000 B. P. )

M

F

?

Unassigned

M

F

?

Totals by sex

M

F

?

Totals byage

21

THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

A g e In Years

A g e In Y e a r s

FIGURE 21.1.

L i f e expectancy a t Paloma.

( a ) Total sample

( N = 168 males and females for whom accurate age estimates are

available; includes 44 individuals looking precise stratigraphic placement). ( b ) Sample divided by stratigraphic l e v e l ; smoothed 10-year age i n t e r v a l s . 2, l e v e l Z O O only ( N = 35); 3, l e v e l 300 only f N = 61); 4 , l e v e l 400 and 500 ( N = 4 8 ) . Sedentism and t r a n s i t i o n a l foods must have e a s e d year period. t h i s d i f f i c u l t t r a n s i t i o n from n u r s i n g t o a d u l t d i e t . The r e s u l t would have been t o i n c r e a s e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e a s more c h i l d r e n s u r v i v e d c h i l d h o o d , f o r c i n g some response i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . 5. Delaying m a r r i a g e i s a s i m p l e response t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e . D i f f e r e n t i a l m o r t a l i t y d a t a may show such a r e s p o n s e . An unexpected f i n d i n g , p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t i n g marriage p r a c t i c e , i s r e v e r s a l of t h e u s u a l p a t t e r n i n which female m o r t a l i t y peaks i n t h e 20s and male m o r t a l i t y more commonly p e a k s i n t h e 3 0 s . The Paloma p a t t e r n i s t h e r e v e r s e , with 1 9 males and 11 females dying i n t h e i r 2 0 s , w h i l e 11 m a l e s and 1 8 females d i e d i n t h e i r 30s I have n o t p r e v i o u s l y ( c h i - s q u a r e = 3.8, p = .05, w i t h 1 d f )

.

21


539

Jansen 1982), t h e s e d a t a suggest an i n c r e a s i n g dependency on marine r e s o u r c e s , i n compliance w i t h P a t t e r s o n ' s (1971) model. Other i n d i c a t o r s of d e n t a l s t r e s s , such a s l i n e a r enamel hypop l a s i a , abscessing, t o o t h s i z e , and p a t h o l o g i e s a r e not y e t s t u d i e d , although d a t a have been gathered by Edwards.

DENTAL ASYMMETRY

On t h e b a s i s of an assumed adequate and v a r i e d d i e t and a l a c k of s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s , we p r e d i c t e d l e s s d e n t a l asymmetry a t Paloma than i n e a r l i e r o r l a t e r p o p u l a t i o n s (Benfer e t a l . , 1975). Gehlert (1979) r e p o r t e d on a p i l o t study o f t e e t h from Paloma (N = 20) compared with a l a r g e r Inca sample from t h e S i e r r a (N = 7 9 ) . She found 10 o u t of t h e 12 t e e t h a v a i l a b l e f o r comparison were more asymmetrical a t Paloma ( p < . 0 2 ) . Antiinez de Mayolo (1981) r e p o r t s t h a t Inca h e a l t h was q u i t e good o v e r a l l . In c o n t r a s t , f o r 8 o f 1 2 a v a i l a b l e t e e t h (excluding c a n i n e s and t h e t h i r d m o l a r ) , Palomans showed l e s s asymmetry than Indian I conclude from G e h l e r t ' s work t h a t t h e Paloma p o p u l a t i o n s Knoll. underwent more s t r e s s t h a n Incans but l e s s than t h e Indian Knoll foragers.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

We p r e d i c t e d t h a t sexual dimorphism should l e s s e n over time (Benfer e t a l . 1975) a s a consequence of l e s s e n i n g sexual d i v i s i o n I t would be expected t o i n of l a b o r (Brace and Mahler 1971) c r e a s e i f i n b r e e d i n g were reduced.

.

Results Diameter of

Ferncral Head

The average diameter of t h e head of t h e femur was examined by s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l and sex. There i s no change i n observed sexual dimorphism (males a r e about 1.1 times l a r g e r than females i n each time p e r i o d ) . F a c t o r s t h a t might have a f f e c t e d sexual d i morphism, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e head of t h e femur, e i t h e r were absent o r canceled each o t h e r . S e l e c t i o n does not seem t o have been s t r o n q f o r t h i s measurement. There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e femoral diameter and t h e age a t d e a t h f o r males, and a very weak i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r females (r = -.32, p < . l , N = 3 3 ) . However, i f r e a l , t h i s

21 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA. PERU

Bony Response t o Musculature F i g u r e 21.2 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s f o r specimens coded on a f o u r - p i n t s c a l e i n d i c a t i n g bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e (Brock, p e r s o n a l communication). A s can b e c l e a r l y s e e n , s e x u a l dimorphism declines noticeably. These r e s u l t s s u b s t a n t i a t e t r e n d s n o t i c e d by Page (1974) and S c o t t ( 1 9 7 4 ) . I t i s p l a u s i b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Paloma w e r e f o r a g e r s w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t r o l e s f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s ; a s t h e number o f s p e c i e s and t h e numb e r o f n i c h e s e x p l o i t e d i n c r e a s e d , r o l e d i v i s i o n l e s s e n e d . The o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t m a l e s d e c r e a s e d i n muscle mass due t o d i e t a r y s t r e s s e s t h a t a f f e c t m a l e s more s e v e r e l y t h a n b e t t e r - b u f f e r e d f e m a l e s , i s c o n t r a d i c t e d by o t h e r d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e t h a t s u g g e s t s t e a d i l y improving d i e t and g e n e r a l h e a l t h . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e d a t a p a r t l y c o n t r a d i c t my e a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s and t h o s e o f Brock ( B e n f e r 19811, t h a t t h e b o n e s o f t h e e a r l i e r i n h a b i t a n t s were t h e most r u g o s e - - t h i s i s t r u e f o r t h e males o n l y . With r e s p e c t t o s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , o n e c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h e amount o f swimming. Sharon Brock h a s n o t i c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d amounts of r e a c t i o n a r e a s o n m a l e femora ( p o s s i b l y d u e t o swimming [L. F u r b e e , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ] ) , a s well a s frequent a u d i t o r y osteomas, r e s t r i c t e d e n t i r e l y t o males (Benfer 1 9 8 1 ) . I n sum, s k e l e t a l s i z e i n d i c a t o r s s u c h a s s t a t u r e and d i a m e t e r o f t h e head o f t h e femur do n o t s u p p o r t c h a n g e s i n s e x u a l d i m r p h i s m , a l t h o u g h o v e r a l o n g e r t i m e p e r i o d , Page o b s e r v e d s u c h changes. S c o t t found v e r y d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n s e x u a l dimorphism i n h e r a n a l y s i s o f a m a s t i c a t o r y f a c t o r . Here, muscle mass o f t h e p o s t c r a n i a l s k e l e t o n s u p p o r t s S c o t t ' s f i n d i n g s ~ s e x u a ldimorphism was d e c r e a s i n g between 8000 and 4500 y e a r s ago.

STATURE

Theory p r e d i c t s t h a t s t a t u r e w i l l d e c r e a s e i n mean s i z e and v a r i a n c e , w i t h i n l i n e s ( F a l c o n e r 1 9 6 0 ) , which we s u g g e s t e d m i g h t o c c u r ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1975) i f E r i c k s e n ' s (1962) h y p o t h e s i s w e r e c o r r e c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e a breakdown o f c o a s t a l v i l l a g e b r e e d i n g i s o l a t i o n a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . We a l s o p r e d i c t e d s t a t u r e i n t h e t a l l r a n g e due t o a c c e s s t o m a r i n e p r o t e i n . It f o l l o w s t h a t i f a d a p t a t i o n was t a k i n g p l a c e , s t a t u r e a l s o s h o u l d have i n c r e a s e d a s a measure of h e a l t h ( s e e Nickens 1 9 7 6 ) .

Results T a b l e 21.3 p r e s e n t s t h e mean s t a t u r e and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r o n l y specimens w i t h c o m p l e t e l e n g t h s o f t i b i a o r femora, a s e s t i m a t e d by t h e s t a t u r e f o r m u l a s o f Genoves a s programmed i n


OSTEITIS AND PERIOSTITIS

P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e common a t Paloma, i n d i c a t i n g h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s of i n f e c t i o n s . T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s by s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l , where o s t e i t i s v a r i e s between 1 0 and 1 6 % and p e r i o s t i t i s between 22 and 25%.

HISTOMORPHOMETRICS

J a c k s o n h a s s t u d i e d t h e h i s t o r n o r p h o m e t r i c s o f a s m a l l sample o f 22 r i b specimens ( J a c k s o n 1 9 8 1 ) . Comparative s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g t h e s e d a t a have a l s o been completed ( S t o u t 1 9 8 3 ) . Histomorphom e t r i c s o f a sample o f femora and t i b i a e a t Paloma a r e i n p r o g r e s s i n Stout's laboratory. Jackson found t h a t none o f t h e f i v e poss i b l y o s t e o p e n i c s p e c i m e n s , judged by g r o s s a p p e a r a n c e , i n c l u d e d i n h e r sample p r o d u c e d subnormal r a t e s o f bone t u r n o v e r compared t o o t h e r Palomans e x c e p t f o r o n e i n d i v i d u a l , a 55-year-old w i t h a below-average t u r n o v e r r a t e . J a c k s o n a l s o p o i n t e d t o a h i g h e r r a t e o f bone t u r n o v e r i n specimens from t h e e a r l i e r l e v e l s (400 and 500) t h a n t h e l a t e r l e v e l s (200 and 300) , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h d e c a d e s . These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (t = .53) f o r t h e samples. S t o u t (1983) n o t e s t h a t Paloma r e s e m b l e s t h e Ray and Gibson (Middle Woodland) p o p u l a t i o n s more t h a n t h e Ledders L a t e Woodland s a m p l e .


545

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a d j a c e n t s o i l sample and bone sample. Adult f e m a l e s a r e l o w e r i n t h e l e v e l s o f b o t h z i n c (Zn/Ca x 1 0 0 ; t = 3.11 w i t h 1 0 df, p < . 0 2 ) and s t r o n t i u m ( n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y ) t h a n a r e a d u l t m a l e s . Lambert e t a l . (1979) r e p o r t e d no d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e e l e m e n t s by s e x f o r t h e Gibson Middle Woodland s i t e , b u t s i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e L e d d e r s L a t e Woodland s i t e , T h e s e a u t h o r s a r g u e t h a t i n c r e a s e d consumption o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s i n t h e L a t e Woodland may have been measured i n d i e t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s . S i n c e Paloma i s a s e d e n t a r y v i l l a g e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e of i n c r e a s e d c a r b o h y d r a t e a v a i l a b i l i t y o v e r e a r l i e r h u n t e r - c o l l e c t o r s , p e r h a p s t h e same p a t t e r n i s present. When t h e l a r g e sample o f 35 femora can be added, d i f f e r e n c e s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i l l be e v a l u a t e d w i t h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i n mind. I had r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r t h a t s t r o n t i u m was l e s s v a r i a b l e among f e m a l e s t h a n m a l e s ( B e n f e r 1 9 8 1 ) - - f o r Sr/Ca x 100 r a t i o s , t h e v a r i a n c e o f m a l e s ( . 2 3 8 ) i s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f f e m a l e s ( . 0 1 9 ) (F = 23.53, p < .05 w i t h 6 and 4 df). The v a r i a n c e i n Zn/Ca x 100 i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l i n m a l e s (. 1 4 ) and f e m a l e s ( - 1 3 ) . These samples a r e q u i t e s m a l l , and s i n c e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e n o t r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s ( f o r a n o t h e r c o a s t a l example s e e Edward 1 9 8 4 ) , t h e y must a w a i t c o n f i r m a t i o n w i t h l a r g e r s a m p l e s . I t would n o t seem t h a t f e m a l e bone, i f more p o r o u s , h a s merely changed toward t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l v a l u e s . T h i s d i d n o t happen w i t h t h e s e specimens when compared w i t h a d j a c e n t s o i l s t r o n t i u m v a l u e s . In any c a s e , f e m a l e s t e n d t o h a v e l o w e r v a l u e s t h a n m a l e s . The r e duced d i v i s i o n of l a b o r a r g u e d f o r on o t h e r grounds m i g h t s u g g e s t i n c r e a s e d s i m i l a r i t y o f d i e t f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s . The p r e s e n t sample i s t o o s m a l l t o t e s t t h i s c o n j e c t u r e . F i g u r e 21.3 p r e s e n t s a p l o t o f z i n c v e r s u s s t r o n t i u m a f t e r a d j u s t m e n t f o r c a l c i u m . The v a l u e s p r e s e n t e d a r e t h e r e s i d u a l s a f t e r l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n w i t h c a l c i u m ; a s i m i l a r p l o t c a n be obt a i n e d u s i n g t h e r a t i o o f c a l c i u m t o t h e two e l e m e n t s , b u t t h e p i c t u r e i s l e s s c l e a r . Calcium and z i n c show a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (P = . 6 4 , p < . 0 1 ) b u t n o t c a l c i u m and s t r o n t i u m (P = .34, p > . 0 5 ) . R a t i o s s h o u l d n o t be u s e d t o a d j u s t v a l u e s u n l e s s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e variances, a r e s i m i l a r , s i n c e simple r a t i o s w i l l n o t i n g e n e r a l remove a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e numerator and denominator ( s e e A t c h l e y e t a l . 1 9 7 6 ) . From F i g u r e 2 1 . 3 it i s a p p a r e n t t h a t male and f e m a l e a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d , s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o s s i b l e u t i l i t y of t h i s method i n demographic s t u d i e s . The e l e v a t e d v a l u e s f o r i n f a n t s c o u l d b e due t o t h e i r lower p r o t e i n i n t a k e on a d i e t o f m o t h e r ' s m i l k , t h e l e s s e r r e s i s t a n c e of t h e i r r e m a i n s t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r b o t h . Edward (1981) found no s u c h c l u s t e r i n g by s e x . However, t h e male a d u l t s do show c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l s o f z i n c , p e r h a p s a s a r e s u l t o f g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o l a n d mammals, s u c h a s c a m e l i d s and d e e r . The s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s may b e l e s s i n f o r m a t i v e d u e t o e l e v a t i o n i n l e v e l s d u e t o s h e l l f i s h e a t i n g ( S c h o e n i n q e r and P e e b l e s 1981; a l s o s e e n S i l l e n and Kavanaqh 1 9 8 2 ) . However, an i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i s t h a t while age a t d e a t h of a d u l t s i s n o t c o r r e l a t e d

21


547

Zinc v a l u e s were low t o normal. Elevated v a l u e s can i n d i c a t e k w a s h i o r k o r . Chromium approached d i a b e t i c v a l u e s f o r two s p e c i mens, o n e o f which was a 1 7 - y e a r - o l d , s u g g e s t i n g a h i g h carbohyd r a t e d i e t ( s e e Wing and Brown 1 9 7 9 : 3 1 ) . Copper was found t o change i n o u r s i n g l e modern c o n t r o l sample d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f extreme d i e t a r y change. Changes were a l s o d e t e c t e d among p r o x i m a l , m i d d l e , and d i s t a l segments o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l specimens. Copper does n o t v a r y a s a s i m p l e f u n c t i o n of d i s t a n c e t o s c a l p , t h a t i s , t o e x p o s u r e t o c o n t a m i n a n t s , i n most Children maintained too modern examples where d i e t i s unchanged. long o n mother's milk have e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f copper i n h a i r . Copper l e v e l s i n h a i r may a l s o v a r y w i t h anemia. One o t h e r r e s u l t s h o u l d b e mentioned: s t r o n t i u m i n h a i r was found t o be o f a b o u t t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s i n bone, t e n d i n g t o c o n f i r m t h e l a c k o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f bone specimens. The v e r y s m a l l s a m p l e s a n a l y z e d s o f a r s u g g e s t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s t r o n g s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n d i e t t h a t conform t o t h e a r c h a e o b o t a n i c a l a n a l y s i s o f f o o d s p r e s e n t i n i n t e s t i n e s and c o p r o l i t e s . F u r t h e r work w i t h a much l a r g e r s a m p l e , i n p r o g r e s s , w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e it i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e h a i r w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a s a b i o p s y m a t e r i a l ( B e n f e r e t a l . 1978) .

SUMMARY

The r e s u l t s a r e summarized a s f o l l o w s : 1. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were o b s e r v e d i n a g e c a t e g o r y d i s t r i b u t i o n s among s t r a t i g r a p h i c l e v e l s w i t h l a t e r l e v e l s e x h i b i t i n g l o w e r m o r t a l i t y of b o t h t h e young and t h e o l d a d u l t s . 2 . Microwear s t u d i e s of d e n t a l wear (Moore-Jansen 1982) s u p p o r t a protoagricultural diet. 3. Macrowear s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e r a t e o f wear was i n c r e a s i n g . 4 . With r e s p e c t t o d e n t a l asymmetry, Paloma i s more asymmetric a l t h a n a n I n c a s e r i e s , b u t less a s y m m e t r i c a l t h a n I n d i a n Knoll foragers. 5. No s i z e c h a n g e s were found i n s e x u a l dimorphism, i n e i t h e r s t a t u r e o r t h e maximum d i a m e t e r o f t h e head o f t h e femur. However, bony r e s p o n s e t o m u s c u l a t u r e showed a r e g u l a r change toward d i m i n i s h e d s e x u a l dimorphism o v e r time. 6 . Specimens from t h e t h r e e major s t r a t i g r a p h i c d i v i s i o n s i n creased regularly i n s t a t u r e . 7 . T i b i a 1 l e n g t h was found t o c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w i t h t h e number o f H a r r i s l i n e s o b s e r v e d ; H a r r i s l i n e s may have d e c r e a s e d i n frequency o v e r time. 8. P e r i o s t i t i s and o s t e i t i s a r e f r e q u e n t and do n o t change i n frequency over time. 9 . H i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s of r i b s d i d n o t c o n f i r m c a s e s o f what appear t o be osteoporosis.


.

1983a; Benfer e t a l . 1983) The adjustments of Paloma were not s t u d i e d b e f o r e and a f t e r a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e usual design adopted of n e c e s s i t y . R a t h e r , t h e s e adjustments were observed during t h e c e n t u r i e s p l a n t s (and p o s s i b l y animals) were shaped f o r domestic a t i o n i n t h i s h a b i t a t . Adjustments were s t r o n g enough t o be d e t e c t e d by paleodemography and s k e l e t a l and d e n t a l i n d i c a t o r s of h e a l t h and d i e t . What was t h e i r n a t u r e ? Presumably, adjustment t o sedentism, whether dependent on a c t u a l c u l t i g e n s o r n o t , i s n o t q u i c k l y accomplished. The advantages o f sedentism, such a s food s t o r a g e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , reduced s t r e s s on i n f a n t s from t r a v e l , and i n t i m a t e knowledge of l o c a l r e s o u r c e s , a r e o f f s e t somewhat by i n c r e a s e d p a r a s i t e loads from f e c a l contaminat i o n and probably by i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s . ~ l t h o u g h warfare and competition f o r b e t t e r s e t t i n g s might be p r e d i c t e d t o o c c u r , t h e r e i s no evidence of such v i o l e n c e a t Paloma. If sedentism i s complete, and t h e o p t i o n of migration becomes unavaila b l e , o c c a s i o n a l p e r i o d s o f r e s o u r c e f a i l u r e become extremely stressful. The d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e argue f o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e e a r l y i n h a b i t a n t s were more s t r e s s e d than t h e l a t e r ones. I t i s reasonable t o assume t h a t t h e f i r s t i n h a b i t a n t s r e t a i n e d g r e a t e r m o b i l i t y , so t h a t t h e y may have s u f f e r e d a t times from t h e s t r e s s e s of m o b i l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e s t r e s s e s of sedentism. Living i n t h e nearby C h i l c a Valley i n t h e summer when it h a s water ( e i t h e r running o r i n shallow w e l l s ) and i n t h e fog o a s i s of Paloma i n t h e winter (when it blooms and g e n e r a t e s water and p l a n t s ) would be p o s s i b l e f o r a f a i r l y l a r g e group i n t h i s a r i d s t r e t c h of t h e c o a s t . Radiometric d a t e s from t h e Chilca I v a l l e y s i t e (Engel 1966), l e s s than 9 km away, completely o v e r l a p those of Paloma. Mortuary p r a c t i c e s a r e n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l (Q. F. M. V i a l l e j o s A . , p e r s o n a l communication). D e t a i l e d comparative s t u d i e s a r e required t o t e s t t h i s proposition. The degradation of t h e lamas, which i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y a s monitored by twig diameter and reduction of s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s o f bushes used f o r firewood (Weir and Dering 1 9 8 4 ) , may have pushed t h e Palomans toward more i n t e n s i v e use of marine r e s o u r c e s a t t h e beach 3.5 krn from Paloma, a s w e l l a s more i n t e n s i v e management of water f o r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Chilca Valley. Such a p i c t u r e of why Paloma and o t h e r a l l u v i a l fan fog o a s i s s i t e s were abandoned i n f a v o r of r i v e r i n e s i t e s does n o t e x p l a i n t h e s t e a d i l y improving h e a l t h of t h e people. Could h e a l t h have improved a t t h e same time t h a t people were forced t o i n t e n s i f y t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n of both marine and c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t resources? The answer could be yes i f t h e s e methods r e s u l t e d i n s u r p l u s e s o f i n t e n s i v e l y e x p l o i t e d s p e c i e s t h a t could be s t o r e d a g a i n s t t h e o c c a s i o n a l f a i l u r e s of t h e fog o r t h e r i v e r , o r a g a i n s t changes i n t h e marine s p e c i e s a v a i l a b i l i t y , a l l of which a r e p r e d i c t a b l e consequences of t h e c y c l i c a l f a i l u r e of t h e Peruvian C u r r e n t , o r upwelling. The Paloma c a s e i l l u m i n a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e t o skeletal, s t u d i e s of a d a p t a t i o n t o sedentism and food production.

2 1 THE PRECERAMIC VILLAGE OF PALOMA, PERU

55 1

s t u d e n t s i n p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y - - e s p e c i a l l y Sharon Brock, S a r a h J a c k s o n , and D a n i e l S. Edwards. Without t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s e and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , t h e p r o j e c t would n o t have a c h i e v e d i t s g o a l s . The work o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s i s mentioned i n t h i s p a p e r - - b u t t h e i r c r e d i t d e s e r v e s more s p a c e t h a n i s a v a i l a b l e h e r e . T h i s m a n u s c r i p t h a s been improved by h e l p f u l comments from Glen Weir, Louanna F u r b e e , James A. Gavan, and Mark Cohen. J. G e h l e r t , Barbara M.

APPENDIX

Space d o e s n o t p e r m i t a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . T a b l e 21.Al p r e s e n t s a l l t h e r a d i o m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s i t e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e e x c e p t i o n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r a preceramic s i t e . L a t e r r e o c c u p a t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o o n e s m a l l a r e a . No a n i m a l s , o t h e r t h a n i n s e c t s , had d i s t u r b e d t h e s i t e . No r e c e n t p o t h u n t e r s had b o t h e r e d a p r e c e r a m i c s i t e . However, l i v i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t a t i o n s , s t o r a g e p i t s , b u r i a l s , and t h e growth o f middens n a t u r a l l y d i s t u r b e d t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y somewhat. See E n g e l (1980) f o r a r e v i e w o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y a s it was known up t o 1976. Curr e n t l y t h e P e r u v i a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t , B e r n a r d i n o Oj eda ( s e e Oj e d a , l 9 8 2 ) , and t h e 1976 f i e l d s e a s o n d i r e c t o r , John W. G r e e r , and I , a r e working toward p r o d u c i n g a f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y b a s e d o n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1976, 1979, and 1 9 8 2 .

REFERENCES

A l l i s o n , M. J . , a n d E. G e r s z t e n 1982 Paleopathology i n South American Mummies: Application of Modem Techniques. V i r g i n i a Commonwealth U n i v e r s i t y , Richmond. A l l i s o n , M. J . , D. Mendoza, and A. P e z z i a 1974 A r a d i o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h t o c h i l d h o o d i l l n e s s i n P r e Columbian i n h a b i t a n t s o f s o u t h e r n P e r u . American J o u d of Physical Anthropology 40:409-415. Angel, J . L. Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n P r e s s , 1971 The People of Lerna. Washington, D.C. ~ n t f i n e zd e Mayolo R., S a n t i a g o E. Banco C e n t r a l d e Reserva 1981 La N u t r i c k en e l Antigua Peru. d e l P e r u , Lima. A t c h l e y , W. R . , C. T. G a s k i n g s , and D. Andersor 1976 S t a t i s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f r a t i o s . I . E r r o i r i c a l r e s u l s Systematic Zoology 25 :l37-148.

10. 11.

IS. 13. 14. 15. LA LA

16.

17. 18. 19.

N85 El20 HI36 UNIT I N105 E65 HI 01 UNIT I

N80 El15 HI3 UNIT I N100 El15 H29 T I 2 UNIT I N90 E40 Quebrada t e s t trench N90 E45 T l GIZA t e s t N50 El15 H22 UNIT I

N95 El15 TI1 HI1 Unit I N105 El15 HI03 F252 UNIT I W120 E65

Compositae

UGa 4117

UMC

Burned cane

UGa 4121

UMC

Tilandsia

UGa 4211

UMC

Vegetable

Ny-242

CIZA

Burnt t w i g s

UGa 4204

UMC

Human f e c e s

1-31 26

CIZA

Charcoa l

Bim-516

CIZA

Cordage

Ny-243

CIZA

Wood

UGa 3892

UMC

Charcoal

UGa 4212

UMC

5535 Â

95

'#300 was assigned by P . Dering, who i n h i s f i e l d , n o t e s wrote t h a t he used dering d e v i c e , t h a t h i s l e v e l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y correspond t o t h o s e i n UNIT necessary t o reexamine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y squares. Accordingly, I asked B . Oy'eda w i t h o u t i n f o m i n g him of t h e radiocarbon d e t e r r n i m t I o n . His p r o f i l e shows t h e which I concur, and which Dering a l s o considered.

#400 Oy'eda-#300; Benfer--#230; probably #300, b u t s tundard error high

Standard e r r o r t o o high

Submitted i n c o r r e c t l g as #300; #400 i n Fig. 16 i n E n q e I (1980)

Submitted a s #700 Standard e r r o r i s t o o large l e v e l s merely as an orI . I n 1982, it was t o recheck t h i s square, house a s l e v e l #230, w i t h


1981

Comment on r e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: T e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s i t i o n s among H u n t e r - G a t h e r e r s , by B r i a n Hayden. Current Anthropology 22: 532. D e r i n g , P . , and G. H. Weir 1979 A n a l y s i s o f p l a n t r e m a i n s from t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e o f P a l o m , Peru. I n R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundat i o n , p p . A67-A76. Edward, J. 1984 Analysis b y neutron a c t i v a t i o n of human bone from the

H e l l e n i s t i c cemetery i n Asine, Greece. Archaeology 1 1 ~ 3 7 - 4 6 .

Jowndl of Field

Edwards, D. S. 1984 D e n t a l a t t r i t i o n and s u b s i s t e n c e o f t h e P r e c e r a m i c s i t e of Paloma, P e r u . Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Engel, Frederic-Andre 1966 Geografia Human Prehistories y Agricultura Precolombina de Quebrada de Chitea. U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l d e A g r a r i a , Lima, P e r u . 1980 Paloma: V i l l a g e 613. I n Prehistoric Andean Ecology, e d i t e d by F r e d e r i c - A n d r e E n g e l , p p . 103-135. Humanities P r e s s , New York. E r i c k s e n , M. F. 1962 Undefonned Pre-Columbian c r a n i a from t h e N o r t h S i e r r a o f P e r u . American Journal of Physical Anthropology 20:209222. F a l c o n e r , D. S. 1960 Introduction t o Quantitative Genetics. Ronald P r e s s , New York. G e h l e r t , S. J. 1978 H a r r i s l i n e s o f Paloman t i b i a . I n Report t o t h e National S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp . A185-A189. 1979 Dental asymmetry i n tuo Peruvian archaeolog'ical samples. Unpublished M.A. p a p e r , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. G r a f , V. B. Unpub1978 Trace element l e v e l s i n human 'hair a t c h i l d b i r t h . l i s h e d M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Human N u t r i t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Hayden, B. Technological 1981 R e s e a r c h and development i n t h e S t o n e Age: t r a n s i t i o n s among h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . Current Anthropology 22: 519-531. J a c k s o n , B. 1981 Histomorphometric a n a l y s i s o f r i b s from t h r e e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l populations. Unpublished M.A. t h e s i s , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. Lambert, J. G . , C. B. Zpuznar, and J. E . B u i k s t r a 1979 Chemical a n a l y s e s o f e x c a v a t e d human bone from Middle and L a t e Woodland s i t e s . Arehaeometry 21 :115-129.

21


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t i o n , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Santa Barbara. Raymond, J . S. 1981 The m a r i t i m e f o u n d a t i o n s o f Andean c i v i l i z a t i o n : A r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e . American Antiquity 46:806-821. R e i t z , E. J . 1983 V e r t e b r a t e Fauna from Paloma, P e r u , 12B-VII-613. Manus c r i p t o f t h e Paloma P r o j e c t , Department o f Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, M i s s o u r i . 1984 Informe p r e l i m i n a r i o s o b r e La Paloma. Appendix i n E l Proyecto P a l o m d e l a Universidad d e Missouri y E l Centro Zonas Aridas, i n d e I n v e s t i q a c i o n e s d e Zonas A r i d a s . press. Rostworowski d e Diez Canseco, M. 1981 Recursos naturales renovables y pesca, s i g l o s X V I y X V I I . I n s t i t u t e d e E s t u d i o s P e r u a n o s , Lima, P e r u . S c h o e n i n q e r , M. J . , and C. S. P e e b l e s 1981 E f f e c t of m o l l u s c e a t i n g on human bone s t r o n t i u m l e v e l s . Journal of Archaeological Science 8 :391 -397. S c h r e i d e r , E. 1967 Body-height and i n b r e e d i n g i n F r a n c e . Amer'kan J o u d of Physical Anthropology 26: 1-4. S c o t t , E. C . 1974 Dental v a r i a t i o n i n Precolmbian coastal Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i , Columbia. 1979 P r i n c i p a l a x i s a n a l y s i s o f d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n . American Journal o f Physical Anthropology 51 :203-212. S i l l e n , A., and M . Kavanagh A review. Yearbook 1982 S t r o n t i u m and p a l e o d i e t a r y r e s e a r c h : of Physical Anthropology 25 :67-90. s t o u t , S. 1983 The c o m p a r a t i v e c o r t i c a l bone h i s t o m o r p h o m e t r i c s o f s e v e r a l ANTHROPOS, i n p r e s s . a n c i e n t human p o p u l a t i o n s . T o r r e s , G. , J. , and C. Lopez Ocafia 1981 P r o d u c t i v i d a d p r i m a r i a e n l a s lomas d e l a C o s t a C e n t r a l Boletin de Lima 14:2-11. d e l Peru. U b e l a c k e r , D. A. 1981 Human s k e l e t a l r e m a i n s from s i t e CGSE-80, a P r e c e r a m i c s i t e o f S t a . E l n a P e n i n s u l a , c o a s t a l Ecuador. Journal o f Washington Academy of Science 7 0 : 3-24. Vehik, S . C. 1978 C l i m a t e , p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and t h e c e n t r a l ~ e r u v i a n Lomas between 8 , 0 0 0 and 2,500 B.P. Appendix i n Report t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A112-A136. Weaver, D. S. 1980 Sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i l i a o f a known s e x and a g e sample o f f e t a l and i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s . American Journal of Physical Anthropoloqv 52 :191-195.

ROBERT A. BENFER Weir, G. H . 1978 P r e l i m i n a r y f o s s i l p o l l e n and m a c r o f o s s i l a n a l y s e s o f c o p r o l i t e s and s e d i m e n t s from t h e La Paloma V i l l a g e s i t e (12b-VII-613) a r e a , C h i l c a V a l l e y D r a i n a g e , P e r u . In R e p o r t t o t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , pp. A138-A182. Weir, G . H . , and J . P. D e r i n g 1984 The Lomas of Paloma: Human-environment r e l a t i o n s i n a c e n t r a l P e r u v i a n f o g oasis--Archaeobotany and p a l y n o l o g y . I n Andean Arehaeologg, e d i t e d by R. Matos M . University o f California Monographs i n Archaeology, i n p r e s s . W i l l e y , G . R. 1971 An Introduction t o ~rnericanArchaeology (Vol. 11). P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y . Wilson, D. J. 1 9 8 1 Of maize and men: A c r i t i q u e o f t h e m a r i t i m e h y p o t h e s i s o f s t a t e o r i g i n s on t h e c o a s t o f P e r u . American Anthropologist 8 3 : 93-120. Wing, E . S . , and A. B. Brown 1979 ~ a l e o n u t r i t i o n : Methods and t h e o q i n prehistoric foodways. Academic P r e s s , New York.

CHAPTER 2 2 POPULATION, HEALTH, AND THE EVOLUTION OF SUBSISTENCE: CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CONFERENCE

Anna C u r t e n h s Roosevelt Museum o f t h e American I n d i a n New York, New York

INTRODUCTION

The e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f human ecology h a s become a s u b j e c t o f broad t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t H i s t o r i a n s , economists, demoqr a p h e r s , b i o l o g i s t s , and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have s p e c u l a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of changes i n e a r l y human p o p u l a t i o n , s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e has been l i t t l e d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e w i t h which t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r theories I n t h e l a s t few decades, however t e c h n i q u e s t o c o l l e c t and a n a l y z e r e l e v a n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a have improved Studies o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, and human o s t e o l o q y have begun t o c r e a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f r e l e v a n t data I n o r d e r t o b r i n g some o f t h i s new evidence t o g e t h e r and review i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , Mark Cohen and George Armelaqos o r g a n i z e d a Wenner-Gren-funded conference i n P l a t t s b u r g h , A t t h a t conference, physical anthroNew York, i n March of 1982 p o l o g i s t s s p e c i a l i z i n g i n d i f f e r e n t world r e g i o n s summarized t h e i r sequences T h e i r f i n d i n g s , which a r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s book, a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e o r i e s o f c u l t u r a l e c o l o g i c a l evolution

BOSERUP S POPULATION PRESSURE THEORY

One o f t h e major t h e o r i e s about t h e c a u s e s and consequences of The b e s t economic change i s t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y known e a r l y s t a t e m e n t of t h i s t h e o r y i s E s t e r Boserup s s h o r t book

The CondIfkions of AgrÂ¥i.euztura Growth. PALEOPATHOLOGY AT THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

559

The Economics of Agrarian Copyright 0 1984 by Academic Press, Inc All nghts of reproduction m any form reserved ISBN 0-12-1790800

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT

Change under Population Pressure, p u b l i s h e d i n 1965 Boserup a t t r i b u t e s t h e development of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e impetus given by p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s According t o t h e t h e o r y , a growing p o p u l a t i o n p u t s p r e s s u r e on i t s food s o u r c e s and, i n r e s p o n s e , p e o p l e s t e p up l a b o r i n p u t s t o produce m r e food p e r u n i t o f l a n d The i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e l a n d use i s supposed t o l e a d t o a d r o p i n l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y due t o dec l i n i n g s o i l f e r t i l i t y , which i n t u r n l e a d s t o t h e u s e of methods such a s plowing and f e r t i l i z a t i o n t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y Boserup argues t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n would n o t have o c c u r r e d without t h e s t i m u l u s o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , because o f its greater labor costs She reasoned t h a t s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s would f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l e a s t e f f o r t and choose l e s s extens i v e s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i t h h i g h e r l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y Boserup d i d n o t e x p l a i n why some p o p u l a t i o n s might grow and o t h e r s might n o t , b u t d e n i e d t h a t environmental d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l were r e s p o n s i b l e

POPULATION PRESSURE AND THE RISE OF AGRICULTURE

Mark Cohen has a p p l i e d Boserup's p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y t o human p r e h i s t o r y in t h e book The Food C r i s i s i n Prehistory: Overpopulationand the Origins of Agriculture (1977) Cohen and o t h e r s c h o l a r s , such a s Marvin H a r r i s ( 1 9 7 7 ) , b e l i e v e t h a t human p o p u l a t i o n growth i s a more g e n e r a l phenomenon t h a n supposed by Boserup and t h a t i t has o c c u r r e d f r e q u e n t l y throughout human h i s tory According t o t h i s v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , c u l t u r a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v e toward h i g h e r and h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n o r d e r t o accommodate r e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n growth. Cohen p o i n t s o u t t h a t by l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e s , growing p o p u l a t i o n s o f Homo s@ens h a s s p r e a d o v e r much o f t h e e a r t h and could have begun t o p u t p r e s s u r e on l o c a l food r e s o u r c e s Cohen b e l i e v e s t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e u s e and human s e l e c t i o n of r e s o u r c e s t o i n c r e a s e food s u p p l i e s l e d t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e e a r l y Holocene According t o Cohen, t h e e a r l i e s t s u b s i s t e n c e economies of modern humans would have been focused on abundant game s p e c i e s t h a t a f f o r d e d p a l a t a b l e , e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e foods i n convenient packages He f e e l s t h a t a s p o p u l a t i o n s grew and p u t p r e s s u r e on food r e s o u r c e s , p e o p l e would have expanded t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e t o i n c l u d e l e s s favored "foods o f g r e a t e r abundance, such a s p l a n t p r o d u c t s , i n v e r t e b r a t e s , and a q u a t i c f a u n a s , a p r o c e s s t h a t h a s been c a l l e d " t h e Broad-Spectrum r e v o l u t i o n " (Flannery 1969, 1973) E c o l o g i c a l l o g i c s u g g e s t s t h a t h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y subs i s t e n c e systems w i l l emphasize s p e c i e s w i t h "r" r e p r o d u c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , which a r e h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e in c a l o r i e s p e r h e c t a r e , and c o n c u r r e n t l y w i l l deemphasize "K" s e l e c t e d food s o u r c e s which,

22 CONCLUSIONS a l t h o u g h more balanced n u t r i t i o n a l l y , a r e lo-wer i n p r o d u c t i v i t y per hectare P l a n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e i n g low i n t h e t r o p h i c pyramid, would have f u r n i s h e d s u p p o r t f o r l a r g e r numbers o f p e o p l e than game and would have been more s t o r a b l e i n most c l i m a t e s than flesh. Cohen e n v i s i o n s t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e a s t h e r e s u l t of i n t e n s i f i e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e more p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s , some o f which changed g e n e t i c a l l y i n t h e p r o c e s s , a s Flannery (1969, 1973) has p o i n t e d o u t , e l i c i t i n g f u r t h e r s e l e c t i o n by humans f o r g r e a t e r ca-loric v a l u e , s t o r a b i l i t y , and p r o d u c t i v i t y T h i s p r o c e s s of p o s i t i v e feedback i s supposed t o h a v e l e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e a s s u b s i s t e n c e systems came t o r e l y more and more on t h e p l a n t s with t h e g r e a t e s t c a p a b i l i t y f o r i n t e n s i v e harvesting Systems t h a t f o c u s on a few p r o d u c t i v e , h i g h l y c a l o r i c p l a n t s p e c i e s , a l t h o u g h a b l e t o s u p p o r t more p e o p l e p e r h e c t a r e , a r e i n h e r e n t l y l e s s s t a b l e and l e s s f a v o r a b l e n u t r i t i o n a l l y than more b r o a d l y based o n e s and would b e more s u b j e c t t o p e r i o d i c f a i l u r e s Cohen a r g u e s t h a t such systems would n o t have developed i n t h e absence of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e He p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s t h e o r y p r e d i c t s n o t o n l y a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i s t o r y of s u b s i s t e n c e economy but also a p a r t i c u l a r history of health. Early hunter-gatherers would b e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l n o u r i s h e d and f r e e of d i s e a s e The b u i l d u p of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e among l a t e r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s would have l e d t o a phase o f p o o r e r n u t r i t i o n and g r e a t e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o disease The t h e o r y a l s o p r e d i c t s , a l t h o u g h Cohen d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y s a y s o , t h a t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y and n u t r i t i o n a l p o v e r t y of i n t e n s i v e , f o c a l s u b s i s t e n c e systems would c r e a t e a p a t t e r n o f c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n and s e v e r e p e r i o d i c famines d u r i n g l a t e r p r e h i s t o r i c times

ALTERNATIVE THEORIES

The l o g i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y h a s been c h a l l e n g e d by a v a r i e d group of competing t h e o r i e s , which have c o n t r a s t i n g p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d (Asch e t a 1 1972; Bin f o r d 1968; Bronson 1975; Ear l e and C h r i s t e n s o n 1980; Flannery 1969, 1973; Ford 1977; Hassan 1975, 1978, 1981; Hayden 1981; It i s argued t h a t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e could n o t Jochim 1976) have been an i m p o r t a n t c a u s a l f a c t o r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f s u b s i s t e n c e because i t h a s been a b s e n t f o r much o f p r e h i s t o r y , due e i t h e r t o l i m i t a t i o n s o n growth through h i g h i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y and low a d u l t l i f e expectancy, o r t o t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t r o l of p o p u l a t i o n growth Many s c h o l a r s s e e p o p u l a t i o n growth a s a phenomenon r e s t r i c t e d t o r e c e n t t i m e s , caused mainly by h e a l t h improvements brought by t h e industrial revolution They argue t h a t , i n t h e absence of populat i o n p r e s s u r e , a d a p t i v e e v o l u t i o n a r y change i n human s u b s i s t e n c e i s l i k e l y t o minimize e f f o r t and maximize s u b s i s t e n c e q u a l i t y and reliability

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT By t h i s argument, s u c c e s s f u l c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n i s expected t o produce s m a l l - s c a l e , e q u i l i b r i u m s u b s i s t e n c e systems t h a t a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s t a b l e , c o s t e f f e c t i v e , and f a v o r a b l e t o human health Contrary e v o l u t i o n a r y developments, such a s t h e r i s e and expansion of a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e growth o f p o p u l a t i o n , a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o d i s e q u i l i b r i a caused by environmental f l u c t u a t i o n s o r I t i s assumed t h a t human populachanges i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t i o n s i z e w i l l remain i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y u n l e s s d i s t u r b e d by f a c t o r s i n t h e environment S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s e x p l a i n t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e e a r l y Holocene a s t h e consequence of a p e r i o d o f unusual environmental change Binford, followed by Flannery, has t h e o r i z e d t h a t f a v o r a b l e environmental changes o c c u r r i n g a t t h e end o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e allowed i n c r e a s i n g s e d e n t i s m o f s e t t l e m e n t i n a r e a s of r i c h , c o n c e n t r a t e d r e s o u r c e s Sedentary s e t t l e m e n t i s supposed t o have l e d t o a h i g h e r b i r t h r a t e by making it e a s i e r f o r women t o s t a y home t o c a r e f o r c l o s e l y - s p a c e d c h i l d r e n The r e s u l t i n g p o p u l a t i o n growth p u t p r e s s u r e on s u b s i s t e n c e r e s o u r c e s i n neighboring marginal a r e a s , i n s p i r i n g t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e and t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e Others h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t u n f a v o r a b l e environmental changes made s u b s i s t e n c e u n s t a b l e , and t h e y i n t e r p r e t t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e a s an a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y They s u g g e s t t h a t s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o f s u b s i s t e n c e ( e q , Ford 1977) e l i t e s came i n t o being b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e r management needs o f a g r i c u l t u r a l economies These t h e o r i e s might u s e f u l l y b e grouped under t h e c a t e g o r y o f " e q u i l i b r i u m " t h e o r i e s f o r t h e y s t r e s s human s u b s i s t e n c e systems a s equilibrium-seeking systems C u l t u r a l change i s o f t e n viewed a s o c c u r r i n g t o " r e g u l a t e " t h e human ecosystem, an approach t h a t Flannery, an e a r l y e n t h u s i a s t , has i r r e v e r e n t l y c a l l e d t h e "Serutan" h y p o t h e s i s The approach seems d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y from two s o u r c e s : t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t ethnology and e q u i l i b r i u m - o r i e n t e d systems t h e o r y Cohen (1977) h a s summarized some o f t h e problems of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s , which o v e r e s G mate p o s t - P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t e change and i g n o r e t h e widespread evidence f o r h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n growth These t h e o r i e s a l s o tend t o a t t r i b u t e i n e x p l i c a b l e goal-seeking behavior t o s y s tems a s wholes, and t h e y t e n d t o view c o n t r o l by e l i t e s a s benign, even n e c e s s a r y " r e g u l a t i o n " f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e whole populat i o n , d e s p i t e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y In addition, despite t h e i r r e j e c t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n a s a prime c a u s a l f a c t o r , t h e equil i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s o f t e n b u i l d p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t o t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n s w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y a c c o u n t i n g f o r i t s p r e s e n c e and effects These t h e o r i e s have somewhat d i f f e r e n t p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d t h a n Cohen's, and it i s c l e a r t h a t t o evaluate the empirical v a l i d i t y of t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s we need l o n g i t u d i n a l d a t a a b o u t p r e h i s t o r i c and e a r l y h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth, s u b s i s t e n c e , and h e a l t h To p r o v i d e such d a t a , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n this c o n f e r e n c e were asked t o summarize t h e r e l e v a n t evidence from t h e i r r e g i o n s o f s t u d y The

22 CONCLUSIONS

563

r e g i o n s covered i n t h i s review a r e t h e West Coast, Southwest, Midwest, and S o u t h e a s t o f t h e United S t a t e s , lower C e n t r a l America, Northwestern South America, Western Europe, t h e E a s t e r n Mediterranean, E a s t A s i a , and South Asia. Because o f t h e import a n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and growth in t h e o r e t i c a l arguments, t h e o r g a n i z e r s chose p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o summarize t h e r e g i o n a l d a t a and asked them t o p r e s e n t i n d e t a i l t h e o s t e o l o g i c a l evidence f o r demographic p a t t e r n s and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , an expected c o r r e l a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e

POPULATION GROWTH AND SEDENTISM

I n most o f t h e r e g i o n s reviewed, r e g a r d l e s s o f whether a g r i c u l t u r e was e v e r developed, p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o o c c u r throughout t h e sequence, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t occupations This growth m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n -period-by-period i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s i z e s and numbers o f known a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s Although and i n t h e numbers o f o s t e o l o g i c a l remains recorded. t h e r e i s always a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t growth i s an a r t i f a c t of a g r e a t e r d e s t r u c t i o n r a t e f o r e a r l i e r remains, t h e magnitude of t h e growth and i t s widespread occu-rrence seem una r g u a b l e evidence f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e , worldwide t r e n d of p o p u l a t i o n expansion. Knowledge a b o u t changes in t h e numbers and s i z e s o f s i t e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s i s t h e by-product of decades o f g e n e r a l a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r o d u c t o f systemat i c s i t e s u r v e y s , and t h e numbers o f known s i t e s i n a r e g i o n seems to r e f l e c t maze c l o s e l y t h e amount of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work t h a t h a s been done i n a r e g i o n t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e number o f s i t e s occupied i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s Thus, i n o r d e r t o g e t comparative informat ion about changing p o p u l a t i o n s i z e from r e g i o n t o r e g i o n , it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t planned s i t e s u r v e y s Until t h a t i s done, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y whether o r n o t t h e r e were p e r i o d s o f simultaneous r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n growth throughout t h e world a t c e r t a i n t i m e s , such a s d u r i n g t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e I n a few r e g i o n s , such a s t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e United S t a t e s , d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e o c c u r r e d l a t e i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , a p p a r e n t l y due t o environmental changes t h a t d e c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f r e s o u r c e s f o r human s u b s i s t e n c e And i n one r e g i o n , P e r u , r e s o u r c e overuse and exogenous environmental .change seem t o have reduced t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o r humans over t i m e i n some biomes, s u c h a s t h e f o g meadows Such c a s e s , however a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of growth, a f i n d i n g t h a t s u p p o r t s t h e view o f p a s t human demography e s poused by Cohen and H a r r i s The re dictions o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m view, which i n c l u d e l o n g p e r i o d s o f s t a t i c p o p u l a t i o n s i z e , a r e (Discussion o f t h e demographic p r o c e s s e s t h a t n o t supported caused t h e growth whether d e c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t y i n c r e a s e d

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT f e r t i l i t y , o r a combination of b o t h , w i l l b e found i n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l o s t e o l o g i c a l evidence, where t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h e a l t h and a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s i s summarized Contrary t o e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s l t h e r e seems t o b e no d e t e r m i n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o p u l a t i o n growth and sedentism, f o r p o p u l a t i o n growth o c c u r s throughout t h e sequence whether o r n o t t h e r e was s e d e n t a r y s e t t l e m e n t l and t h e r a t e of growth d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c and M e s o l i t h i c l a s b e s t a s can b e determinedl seems independent of permanence o f s e t t l e m e n t , which v a r i e s g r e a t l y from one r e g i o n t o a n o t h e r

ARCHmOLGICAL ECONOMY

I n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n subs i s t e n c e change, we need t o know i n d e t a i l how s u b s i s t e n c e a c t u a l l y changed i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s The p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e opposing t h e o r i e s i n t h e changes t h a t it e n v i s i o n s i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s p e c i e s and consumption of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s U n f o r t u n a t e l y , period-by-period recons t r u c t i o n of t h e development of p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e economies And y e t t h i s h a s been t h e rnost d i f f i c u l t p a r t of t h i s review e x e r c i s e i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n it y i e l d s about t h e c a u s e s o f s u b s i s t e n c e changel a s Cohen h a s p o i r t e d o u t The problem i s t h a t , f o r most o f t h e r e g i o n s under s t u d y , t h e r e has been no s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o r s t u d y o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remainsl the e s p e c i a l l y a t s i t e s d a t i n g e i t h e r end o f the sequence: P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e l a t e ~ e o l i t h i c l The r i c h l y documented s e quences o f t h e Midwest and Southwest i n t h e Uniked S t a t e s , C e n t r a l Mexicol Panama, P e r u l and West Asia a r e r a r e e x c e p t i o n s The s m a l l a m u n t o f food remains t h a t have been r e c o v e r e d elsewhere were f o r t h e rnost p a r t c o l l e c t e d f o r t u i t o u s 1y d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n s aimed mainly a t recovery o f a r t i f a c t s l and t h e s e chance f i n d s do n o t f u r n i s h a v e r y good i d e a of t h e s p e c t r m of s p e c i e s used f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , n o t t o speak of t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n which d i f f e r e n t foods were e a t e n Thus, f o r many o f t h e s e r e g i o n s a t p r e s e n t t h e r e is l i t t l e r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r i n f e r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t ence p a t t e r n s because a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have not p u r p o s e f u l l y c o l l e c t e d food remains I n s y s t e m a t i c sampling f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, it i s important t o c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s e s of m a t e r i a l If

'FOP most v r i t e r 8 , th terms P a l e o l i t h i c , M e s o l i t h i c , and Neol i t h i c have come t o have a nonchronoZogicaZ, s t a g e - l i k e meaning i n terms of s u b s i s t e n c e , as folZows: Pa l e o Z i t h i c - - e a r l y , extensive hunting-gathering, M e s o l i t h i c - - l a t e , i n t e n s i v e hunting-gathering subsistenee and i n c i p i e n t agricuZture; and NeoZithic--effective aqricul t u r e

22 CONCLUSIONS o n l y l a r g e p i e c e s o f animal bone a r e c o l l e c t e d , such a s t h o s e t h a t can be recognized d u r i n g t r o w e l i n g o r s h o v e l i n g , a s i s t h e common method, t h e n t h e consumption o f l a r g e animals w i l l be A t t h e same time p l a n t consumption w i l l g r e a t l y overestimated be g r o s s l y underestimated s i n c e carbonized p l a n t remains a r e a l most i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t and c o l l e c t by t r o w e l i n g and s h o v e l i n g alone I n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t s m a l l r l i g h t remains such a s s e e d s , small bones, and f i s h s c a l e s , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e s o i l f l o t a t i o n o r d r y f i n e - s c r e e n i n g o f s t a n d a r d s o i l measures s o t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y by weight of t h e d i f f e r e n t food remains may be compared Larger remains a r e t h e most e a s i l y r e c o v e r e d in t h e absence of s c r e e n i n g and f l o t a t i o n , b u t t h e s e remains o f t e n a r e n o t t h e p r e dominant f o o d s i n t h e d i e t Payne (1972arb) h a s shown through f l o t a t i o n and s c r e e n i n g experiments t h a t t h e s m a l l e r , m r e d i f f i c u l t t o r e t r i e v e remains o f t e n make up t h e b u l k o f t h e food remains, and p r o p e r sampling changes d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e e s t i m a t e of t h e importance of d i f f e r e n t foods i n t h e d i e t Other experjments s u p p o r t t h i s conclusion (Ford 1979; S t r u e v e r 1968) Even where Â £ m remains have been a s s i d u o u s l y c o l l e c t e d , t h e r e s t i l l may be no s e c u r e b a s i s from which t o i n f e r t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n i n t h e d i e t , because food remains o f t e n a r e n o t p r e s e r v e d i n t h e ground i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r abundance i n t h e d i e t Most f m d is d e s t r o y e d by being e a t e n and d i g e s t e d ; what remains i s o f t e n a poor r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f what was e a t e n , a s B u i k s t r a p o i n t s o u t (Chapter 9 t h i s volume) I n a d d i t i o n I some a r c h a e o l o g i c a l foods (such a s r o o t c r o p s and d e l i c a t e f i s h hones) do n o t p r e s e r v e r e a d i l y , w h i l e o t h e r s (such a s n u t s , seed c r o p s r and l a r g e p i e c e s of animal bone) do, s o i t can be d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o compare d i e t a r y importance on t h e b a s i s o f t h e food remains a l o n e To determine l e v e l s o f consumptionI o t h e r methods a r e necess a r y # such a s s t u d i e s o f bone c h e m i s t r y and o f d e n t a l c a r i e s r c a l c u l u s I and a b r a s i o n I n c i d e n c e of gum and t o o t h d i s e a s e a n e damage i s o f t e n r e l a t e d t o d i e t c o n t e n t and t e x t u r e and may be used t o r e c o n s t r u c t a n c i e n t d i e t s Much h a s been done t o t r a c e l e v e l s o f c a r b o h y d r a t e consumption through study o f c a l c u l u s and c a r i e s I which a r e c l i n i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e consumption o f s t i c k y r c a r b o h y d r a t e - r i c h f o o d , b u t t h e r e have been few s t u d i e s t h a t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n microscopic t o o t h wear (Rose e t a 1 , Chapter 1 5 t h i s volume, i s an e x c e p t i o n ) Chemistry has t h e pot e n t i a l t o r e v e a l l e v e l s of food consumption d u r i n g p r e h i s t o r y through a n a l y s i s o f t h e element composition of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l human bone T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because some elements and t h e i r i s o t o p e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e body i n a d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i o n t o t h e amounts i n food By c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amounts o f r e r t a i n elements i n a n c i e n t human bone and comparing t h e r e s u l t s w i t h t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, o n e can sometimes d e t e r m i n e what foods were e a t e n i n what q u a n t i t i e s ( Â £ a0 b r i e f summary of t h i s f i e l d s e e Wing and Brown 1979) T h i s p r o c e d u r e works w i t h s t a b l e carbon i s o t o p e s , which v a r y i n d i e t and t h u s i n human bone c o l l a g e n (and p o s s i b l y i n bone m i n e r a l a l s o ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amounts o f d i e t a m carbon d e r i v e d

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT from d i f f e r e n t p l a n t groups I n many r e g i o n s , l a n d food and s e a food a l s o c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y i n carbon i s o t o p e r a t i o s Tauber (19811, f o r example, found a s h i f t from h i g h t o low 13c/12c r a t i o s i n a n c i e n t Danish s k e l e t o n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e average Mesol i t h i c d i e t among c o a s t a l i n h a b i t a n t s was h e a v i l y dependent on seafood, which has a h i g h r a t i o , whereas t h e N e o l i t h i c d i e t depended mainly on t e r r e s t r i a l f o o d l which has a low r a t i o This conclusion would n o t have been p o s s i b l e through s t u d y o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l food remains, which d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e changes A s a n o t h e r examplel t h e New World food crop maize c o n t r a s t s i n ~ ~ / c I Z Cr a t i o w i t h most o t h e r a b o r i g i n a l f o o d s l making it p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h i s important c e r e a l through t h e chemical a n a l y s i s of a n c i e n t human b n e s (Bender e t a 1 1981; van d e r Merwe and Vogel 1978; van d e r Merwe e t a 1 1981) Some elements o c c u r i n c o n t r a s t i n g q u a n t i t i e s i n p l a n t v e r s u s animal food A u s e f u l element i n t h i s r e g a r d i s s t r o n t i u m , which i s f a r more abundant i n p l a n t s than i n l a n d a n i mals, making it p o s s i b l e t o e s t i m a t e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s of p l a n t and animal food i n a p e r s o n ' s d i e t from chemical a n a l y s i s of t h e s k e l e t o n and a s s o c i a t e d animal bones (Brown 1973; Smith e t a 1 Chapter 5 , t h i s volume) Such s t u d i e s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , which p r e d i c t s changing p r o p o r t i o n s o f animal and p l a n t food i n human d i e t s through time The f i e l d s of archaeobotany, archaeozoology, d e n t a l pathology, and b n e chemistry a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n a r chaeology due t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l importance of q u e s t i o n s about Money t o c a r r y o u t q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e d i e t change r e l e v a n t t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s can b e b u i l t i n t o g r a n t p r o p s a l s l and many l a b r a t o r i e s w i l l c a r r y o u t chemical a n a l y s e s f r e e of charge I n t h e f u t u r e t h e s e m e t h d s can f i l l many of t h e gaps and uncert a i n t i e s i n e x i s t i n g knowledge about t h e h i s t o r y o f human subsistence

SUBSISTENCE CHANGE

Despite t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of p r e s e n t evidence t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s m v e y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e conference t e n d t o show t h a t , a s Cohen p r e d i c t e d l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s a much b r o a d e r phenomenon than t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e , o c c u r r i n g among mobile a s w e l l a s s e d e n t a r y p e o p l e , i n b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l subs i s t e n c e systems and i n e g a l i t a r i a n , ranked, and s t a t e s o c i e t i e s . Most r e g i o n s seem t o e x p e r i e n c e p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e e x p l o i t a t i o n throughout p r e h i s t o r y During t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e l s u b s i s t e n c e seems focused on r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e foods o f high n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e l such a s l a r g e herd animals and m i g r a t o r y f i s h . Some p l a n t foods seem t o have been e a t e n , b u t they appear n o t t o have been q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t

22 CONCLUSIONS i n the diet S t o r a g e o f foods a p p e a r s e a r l y i n many sequences, even d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c , a p p a r e n t l y t o save s e a s o n a l s u r p l u s e s f o r consumption d u r i n g s e a s o n s o f low p r o d u c t i v i t y A s hunting and g a t h e r i n g economies evolve d u r i n g t h e Mesol i t h i c f s u b s i s t e n c e i s expanded by e x p l o i t a t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f s p e c i e s and by i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e more abundant and p r o d u c t i v e p l a n t s p e c i e s The i n c l u s i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f p l a n t food i n p r e h i s t o r i c d i e t s seems t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h i n c r e a s e d u s e of food p r o c e s s i n g t o o l s , a p p a r e n t 1 A s Cohen s u g g e s t s , t o improve t h e i r t a s t e and d i g e s t i b i l i t y t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s - t h r o u g h t h e on a few s t a r c h y p l a n t s of h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y T h i s p r o c e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s even i n r e g i o n s where n a t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e never developed I n C a l i f o r n i a , f o r example a s h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s grew, s u b s i s t e n c e changed from an e a r l y p a t t e r n of r e l i a n c e on game and v a r i e d p l a n t r e s o u r c e s t o o n e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g emphasis on c o l l e c t i o n of a few s p e c i e s o f s t a r c h y s e e d s and n u t s I n t h e Near E a s t , c e r e a l s became t h e d i e t a r y s t a p l e even b e f o r e they were d o m e s t i c a t e d , and t h i s may prove t o have been t r u e i n o t h e r r e g i o n s w i t h abundant s t a n d s o f w i l d s e e d s I n most 2 e g i o n s r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p l a n t g a t h e r i n g l e d t o t h e development o f c effective agriculture i n the Neolithic Most e a r l y N e o l i t h i c economies seem t o have been mixed economies based mainly on a g r i c u l t u r e b u t supplemented w i t h f a d from hunting and g a t h e r i n g Late N e o l i t h i c i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t y p i c a l l y focused on a few p r o d u c t i v e c e r e a l and legume c r o p s , and, i n some a r e a s r on s t a r c root crops T h i s widespread p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e seems t o have produced changes i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , whether through e x p l o i t a t i o n of wild o r domestic s p e c i e s , b u t a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r economic growth and i s h i s t o r i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a much g r e a t e r magnit u d e of p o p u l a t i o n growth t h a n most h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g economies What seems t o have happened i n many r e g i o n s i s t h a t i n t e n s i v e u s e o f wild p l a n t s produced changes i n t h e g e n e t i c and p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p l a n t s These changes i n t u r n e l i c i t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e p l a n t s u n t i l some s p e c i e s became i r r e v o c a b l y a l t e r e d from t h e w i l d s t a t e Whether o r n o t t h happened i n a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n seems t o depend p a r t l y on t h e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t (Cohen 1977) and p a r t l y on t h e environmental capac i t y t o support i n t e n s i v e land use I n many r e g i o n s s e e d s were important i n t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t and t h e i n t e n s i v e u s e of s e e d s f r e q u e n t l y l e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e , probably due i n p a r t ko t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e ~ ~ i s t i cosf t h e v a r i o u s s p e c i e s The more s u c c e s s f u l c r o p s s p r e a d r a p i d l y from r e g i o n to r e g i o n , b u t t h e r e a l s o i s evidence t h a t some s p e c i e s were independently domestic a t e d i n more t h a n one r e g i o n Cohen's t h e s i s i s a l s o supported by evidence of c h m g e i n d i e t c o n t e n t a s can be judged from bone c h e m i s t r y s t u d i e s and knowledge o f t h e n u t r i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e changing s p e c t r m of A s he p r e d i c t s , e v o l u t i o n a r y change s p e c i e s used i n s u b s i s t e n c e

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e has moved i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o o d s , n o t toward f o o d s of h i g h e r - q u a l i t y nutrition o r greater r e l i a b i l i t y Early nonagricul t u r a l d i e t s appear t o have been high i n m i n e r a l s ? p r o t e i n ? v i t a m i n s , and t r a c e n u t r i e n t s , b u t r e l a t i v e l y low i n s t a r c h I n t h e development toward a g r i c u l t u r e t h e r e is a growing emphasis on s t a r c h y , h i g h l y c a l o r i c food o f h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a b i l i t y changes t h a t a r e n o t f a v o r a b l e t o n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y b u t t h a t would have a c t e d t o i n c r e a s e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y ? a s C ~ h e n ' st h e o r y s u g g e s t s Comparing developments i n p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e w i t h t h o s e i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e ? we s e e t h a t t h e two a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o r r e l a t e d i n time A s p o p u l a t i o n s have grown? s u b s i s t e n c e has i n c r e a s e d i n carrying capacity The t w o p r o c e s s e s seem t o t r a c k one a n o t h e r The r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth seems t o be determined by t e m p r a r y technoenvironmental l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e r a t e of economic i n t e n s i f ication. For example g r o w t h i s slow when based on e x p l o i t a t i o n of w i l d s p e c i e s b u t speeds up a s domesticated s p e c i e s a r e A p o s s i b l e mutually c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s developed o r d i f f u s e d f u r t h e r suggested by t h e tendency o f economic d e i n t e f i s i f i c a t i o n t o f o l l o w d r a s t i c d r o p s i n p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and d e n s i t y l a s i f t h e l e v e l of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n were r e s p n s i v e t o t h e l e v e l o f population This c o r r e l a t i o n does n o t e s t a b l i s h c a u s a l i t y by i t s e l f , b u t it conforms t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e theory The sequence appears t o r e f u t e t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b s i s t e n c e o c c u r r e d o n l y where sedentism f o s t e r e d p p u l a t i o n growthl f o r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s proceeded whether p o p u l a t i o n s were s e d e n t a r y o r n o t And c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e who suppose t h a t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s o n l y a r e s p n s e t o t h e development o f s t r a t i f i e d s o c i a l systems, i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c l e a r l y o c c u r s i n many d i v e r s e s o c i a l c o n t e x t s I t i s a more g e n e r a l phenomenon t h a n any p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n l occurr i n g i n some r e g i o n s l o n g b e f o r e chiefdoms and s t a t e s developed T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t changes i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d i d n o t i n t e r a c t with t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n process I t w i l l be c l e a r fron t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n t h a t , under s t a t e s l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n was c a r r i d o u t w i t h l e s s r e g a r d f o r human h e a l t h t h a n it was i n popul a t i o n s independent o f e l i t e c o n t r o l The p r o c e s s of p o p u l a t i o n growth and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y a l s o had e f f e c t s o n t h e t r a j e c t o r y of s o c i o p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n l f o r i t was o n l y i n r e g i o n s with t h e e c o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y t o s u p p o r t massive p p u l a t i o n growth through a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e development of b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a t e s o c c u r r e d l a l t h o u g h chiefdoms came i n t o b e i n g i n s e v e r a l r e g i o n s where t h e r e was no indigenous system of a g r i culture

22

CONCLUSIONS PALEOPATHOLOGY AND POPULATION PRESSURE

Given t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e seem t o have i n t e r a c t e d b a s i c a l l y i n concordance w i t h Cohen's v e r s i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y , it i s c r u c i a l t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n c i d e n c e of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h i s t i m e Without t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , we cannot t e l l whether p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n s p i r e d t h e economic changes o r t h e economic changes merely p e r m i t t e d p o p u l a t i o n growth and a r o s e independently o f p o p u l a t i o n pressure U n t i l now, it has been a problem t o d e t e c t t h e e x i s t e n c e of population pressure i n archaeological populations Archaeologists have commonly i n f e r r e d p r e s s u r e i n d i r e c t l y , from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence o f p o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h e form o f i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s i z e s and numbers o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s T h i s approach i s i n v a l i d , however, because it i g n o r e s t h e problem o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o p u l a t i o n growth t o expansion i n economy Although p o p u l a t i o n growth may p u t p r e s s u r e on a s u b s i s t e n c e system, economic growth may f r e e a p o p u l a t i o n from p r e s s u r e and a l l o w u n f e t t e r e d populat i o n growth f o r a t i m e The s i m p l e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t growth has o c c u r r e d does n o t i d e n t i f y which p r o c e s s h a s gone on I n other words, changes i n t h e s i z e of a p o p u l a t i o n may o r may n o t r e f l e c t p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , s i n c e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d as an unfavorable imbalance between a p o p u l a t i o n and i t s means o f s u p p o r t , and s o f a r knowledge of t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p r e h i s t o r i c s u b s i s t e n c e systems and t h e s i z e o f p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e t o t e l l u s whether a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n supported by a given economy i n a given r e g i o n would o r would n o t have p u t p r e s s u r e on resources Cohen recognized t h a t d i r e c t evidence of p r e h i s t o r i c populat i o n p r e s s u r e e x i s t s i n t h e d a t a of p h y s i c a l anthropology, a l t h o u g h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y have n o t used it This d i r e c t evidence i s t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l and demographic d a t a embodied i n a n c i e n t human s k e l e t o n s from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s throughout t h e world By r e c o r d i n g p a s t s u r v i v a l r a t e s and o s t e o l o g i c a l r e sponses t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , t h e s e s k e l e t o n s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o provide primary evidence o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , an expected r e s u l t of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Although i t i s o f t e n not p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e c a u s e s of bone p a t h o l o g i e s , comparative, population-level study of c e r t a i n kinds of pathologies nevertheless may r e v e a l t h e frequency and d e g r e e of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a s a g e n e r a l phenomenon Even w i t h o u t knowing e x a c t c a u s e s , it is p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e a h i s t o r y o f s t r e s s f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a given r e g i o n , and t h u s t o l e a r n how changes i n h e a l t h c o r r e l a t e w i t h changes i n p o p u l a t i o n , economy, and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n The p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s have d i f f e r Cohen's t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t ent predictions i n t h i s regard p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should be r e c u r r e n t and p e r s i s t e n t , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r l y severe s t r e s s possibly occurring during i n c i p i e n t agriculture I n contrast, t h e equilibrium theory p r e d i c t s t h a t

i

I

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s should occur o n l y r a r e l y and t h a t c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n should i n c r e a s i n g l y b u f f e r p e o p l e from s t r e s s In a d d i t i o n , t h e demographic e f f e c t s o f t h e change t o s e d e n t a r y settlement a r e interpreted d i f f e r e n t l y i n the d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s , s o t h a t most e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s e x p e c t a d e c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y a t t h i s t i m e , whereas t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e proponents expect an i n c r e a s e Study o f t h e p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l d a t a can shed l i g h t on t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p of human h e a l t h and economic development, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , can y i e l d e v o l u t i o n a r y socioeconomic i n f o r m a t i o n about h e a l t h d i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n

Among t h e p a t h o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l f o r r e c o r d i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : H a r r i s l i n e s , t o o t h enamel hypop l a s i a s , s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n , c o r t i c a l bone l o s s , p o r o t i c hyperostos i s / c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and bone l e s i o n s caused by t h e i n f e c t i o u s Each t y p e of p a t h o l o g y y i e l d s d i s e a s e s ( B u i k s t r a and Cook 1981) a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t kind of i n f o r m a t i o n . Studied together r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t i o n , t h e y t e l l more through t h e complementat i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n , a s Angel p o i n t s o u t (Chapter 3 t h i s volume) A major problem, however, i s t h a t o f d e t e r m i n i n g whether p a t h o l o gies a r e related t o nutritional s t r e s s o r other disease s t r e s s ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 1 0 t h i s volume - N u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e a r e i n t e g r a l l y and s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d w i t h one a n o t h e r , and, w h i l e m a l n u t r i t i o n can lower an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o d i s e a s e , so a l s o can d i s e a s e cause m a l n u t r i t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g t h e body's need f o r c e r t a i n n u t r i e n t s Thus, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t p a t h o l o g i e s might a r i s e i n a s k e l e t o n i n response t o a p a r t i c u l a r d i s e a s e and n o t because of any d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e diet However, s i n c e malnourished people a r e more s u b j e c t t o d i s e a s e t h a n well-nourished people, t h e p a t h o l o g i e s s t i l l a r e useI t is f u l i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e d e g r e e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s commonplace i n community h e a l t h s t u d i e s t o i n f e r n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s from g e n e r a l h e a l t h s t a t u s , and t h e u s e of p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s i s a p a r a l l e l usage Because t h e growth r a t e of t h e young is considered a u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s o f a l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n , some of t h e most u s e f u l p a l e o p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s o f s t r e s s a r e t h o s e t h a t r e c o r d a suspension of growth d u r i n g t h e development of f e t u s e s , i n f a n t s , and c h i l d r e n Stress in adults is less d e t e c t a b l e due t o t h e l e s s e n e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f t h e a d u l t body t o both s t r e s s and bone remodeling Commonly s t u d i e d i n d i c a t o r s of suspended growth i n c l u d e enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , H a r r i s l i n e s , and s t a t u r e reduction Hypoplasias, which a r e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a r t o o t h enamel d e f e c t s , a r e u s e f u l d i a g n o s t i c a l l y because t h e y mark e p i sodes t h a t can be d a t e d q u i t e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e development of t h e

22 CONCLUSIONS

57 1

individual They a l s o c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h m o r t a l i t y p a t t e r n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t cause h y p o p l a s i a s a r e o f t e n l i f e threatening Although h y p o p l a s i a s do n o t i n themselves r e v e a l whether a s t r e s s stemmed from d i s e a s e o r from d i e t a r y s t r e s s , t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l i n t h e f u t u r e f o r t r a c e element analys i s o f t h e enamel t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e h y p o p l a s i a s c o r r e l a t e w i t h n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s ( G i l b e r t 1975) With t h e s e , a s w i t h o t h e r s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r s , it has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o t i e s t r e s s e p i s o d e s down s e c u r e l y i n a temporal s e n s e , b u t perhaps t h i s w i l l be p o s s i b l e i n t h e f u t u r e I t i s thought t h a t h y p o p l a s i a s r e c o r d c h r o n i c s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g on an annual b a s i s o r more f r e q u e n t l y H a r r i s l i n e s , which r e c o r d a suspension of growth followed by catch-up growth a t t h e epiphyses o f long bones d u r i n g childhood, have g i v e n problems i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Unlike enamel h y p o p l a s i a s , t h e i n c i d e n c e of H a r r i s l i n e s does n o t c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h h i g h e r mortality r a t e s P r e v i o u s l y , s c h o l a r s have assumed t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h more H a r r i s l i n e s w e r e t h o s e i n p o o r e r h e a l t h , b u t t h e l i n e s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y appear i n t h e bones of t h e p e o p l e most s u b j e c t t o s t r e s s The l i n e s ' formation seems t o r e c o r d a good p e r i o d o f recovery from a s t r e s s , something t h a t may n o t b e f a l l a person who i s p o o r l y f e d o r s i c k Thus, it may b e t h a t t h e h e a l t h i e r people i n a s t r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n a r e more s u b j e c t t o Another problem w i t h H a r r i s l i n e s than t h e less h e a l t h y p e o p l e H a r r i s l i n e s i s t h a t t h e y can be e f f a c e d by remodeling, u n l i k e hypoplasias The absence o f H a r r i s l i n e s , t h e n , does n o t t e l l whether o r n o t a person was s u b j e c t t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s b u t t h e i r presence does mark t h e o c c u r r e n c e of some kind of p h y s i o l o It i s thought g i c a l s t r e s s i n a person who recovered w e l l t h a t H a r r i s l i n e s r e c o r d e p i s o d i c s t r e s s , such a s famines o r epidemics Chronic p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s d u r i n g childhood growth c a u s e s s t a t u r e r e d u c t i o n o r s t u n t i n g ( S t i n i 1975) In addition, the s t u n t i n g o f growth due t o n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s i s known t o a f f e c t t h e shape of t h e head and p e l v i s because p o r t i o n s of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s do n o t expand a s they would w i t h normal growth (R. A Benfer, p e r s o n a l communication; Angel, Chapter 3 t h i s volume) F o r s e c u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f such s t r e s s - r e l a t e d changes i n a r e g i o n a l sequence, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o employ b i o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e s t u d i e s t o c o n t r o l f o r p o p u l a t i o n replacement by m i g r a t i o n , f o r gene flow could mimic t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l changes ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 t h i s volume) Our understanding o f changes i n s t a t u r e throughout preh i s t o r y i s a s y e t u n c l e a r due t o t h e l a c k o f knowledge i n most r e g i o n s about p a t t e r n s of gene flow Severe p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s can a l s o produce l o s s o f c o r t i c a l bone i n long bones, b o t h among c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s and s t u d y o f t h i n s e c t i o n s by age and s e x can i l l u m i n a t e t h e p a t t e r n i n g of s t r e s s i n a p r e h i s t o r i c population This pathology, however, has n o t been s t u d i e d much a r c h a e o l o q i c a l l y , and it can be caused by changes i n a p e r s o n ' s a c t i v i t y l e v e l s a s w e l l a s i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . Armelaqos and Martin (Martin and Annelagos 1979) have

ANNA CURTENIUS ROOSEVELT shown how v a l u a b l e t h i s s t r e s s i n d i c a t o r can b e , and it should b e a useful area f o r f u t u r e study Two u s e f u l p a t h o l o g i e s reviewed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s conf e r e n c e a r e p o r o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , which mark heightened p r o d u c t i o n of r e d blood c e l l s in t h e f a c t of c h r o n i c i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia These p a t h o l o g i e s a r e n o t a b l e i n d i c a t o r s o f n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , because h i g h c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l d i e t s a r e o f t e n low i n i r o n I f one can c o n t r o l f o r i n c i d e n c e of g e n e t i c a l l y - o r p a r a s i t i c a l l y - c a u s e d anemias, t h e frequency o f por o t i c h y p e r o s t o s i s and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a can b e i n t e r p r e t e d q u i t e s e c u r e l y , a s evidence o f t h e d e g r e e 'of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9 t h i s volume; Cook, Chapter 10 this volume) Occurrence of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e i s recorded by t h e i n c i d e n c e o f both s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l i z e d bone l e s i o n s The frequency o f t h e s e p a t h o l o g i e s i s expected t o i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e r i s e o f sedent a r y s e t t l e m e n t and w i t h i n c r e a s e d n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , which would synergistically increase t h e infectious disease r a t e A f i n a l potential indicator of population pressure i s the o v e r a l l m o r t a l i t y r a t e , which presumably w i l l show i n c r e a s e d r a t e s d u r i n g times of s e v e r e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e Mortality r a t e s a r e determined by q u a n t i t a t i v e study of d i f f e r e n t age and s e x c l a s s e s I t i s complicated by t h e of human s k e l e t o n s w i t h i n c e m e t e r i e s problem of a s c e r t a i n i n g whether a group of a n c i e n t s k e l e t o n s f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t t h e l i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n from which t h e y came Diff e r e n t i a l d i s p o s a l and p r e s e r v a t i o n of s k e l e t o n s o f c e r t a i n a g e s , such a s i n f a n t s o r people of v e r y h i g h s t a t u s , and d i f f i c u l t i e s of s e x i n g i n f a n t s k e l e t o n s o r aging t h o s e o f o l d p e o p l e , may skew the reconstructed proportions Nevertheless, determining mortalit y r a t e s from s k e l e t o n s i s a r o u t i n e method with which t o o b t a i n a b a s i c i d e a o f r a t e s of s u r v i v a l i n a n c i e n t p o p u l a t i o n s

HISTORY OF MORTALITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS

Although t h e r e i s a r e l a t i v e l a c k of evidence f o r t h e Paleol i t h i c s t a g e , enough s k e l e t o n s have been s t u d i e d t h a t it seems c l e a r t h a t s e a s o n a l and p e r i o d i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s r e g u l a r l y a f f e c t e d most p r e h i s t o r i c h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s , a s evidenced by t h e p r e s e n c e o f enamel h y p o p l a s i a s and H a r r i s l i n e s What a l s o seems c l e a r i s t h a t s e v e r e and c h r o n i c s t r e s s , w i t h high frequency o f h y p o p l a s i a s , i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e l e s i o n s , p a t h o l o g i e s r e l a t e d t o i r o n - d e f i c i e n c y anemia, and h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e s , i s n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e e a r l y p o p u l a t i o n s There i s no e v i dence o f f r e q u e n t , s e v e r e m a l n u t r i t i o n , and s o t h e d i e t must have been adequate i n c a l o r i e s and o t h e r n u t r i e n t s most o f t h e time During t h e M e s o l i t h i c , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f s t a r c h i n t h e d i e t r o s e , t o judge from t h e i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e . o f c e r t a i n d e n t a l d i s e a s e s , A t t h i s time, d i e t s b u t n o t enough t o c r e a t e an impoverished d i e t seem t o have been made up o f a r a t h e r l a r g e number of f o o d s , so

,

22

CONCLUSIONS

t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of one food source would not be c a t a s t r o p h i c There i s a p o s s i b l e s l i g h t tendency f o r P a l e o l i t h i c people t o be h e a l t h i e r and t a l l e r than Mesolithic people, b u t t h e r e i s no app a r e n t t r e n d toward increasing p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s during t h e Mesolithic Thus, it seems t h a t both hunter-gatherers and i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s r e g u l a r l y underwent population p r e s s u r e , but only t o a moderate degree During t h e periods when e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e f i r s t comes i n t o use t h e r e seems t o be a temporary upturn i n h e a l t h and s u r v i v a l r a t e s i n a few regions: Europe, North America, and t h e Eastern Mediterranean A t t h i s s t a g e , wild foods a r e s t i l l consumed p e r i o d i c a l l y and a v a r i e t y of p l a n t s a r e c u l t i v a t e d , suggesting t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of adequate amounts of d i f f e r e n t n u t r i e n t s Based on t h e i n c r e a s i n g frequency of t o o t h d i s e a s e r e l a t e d t o high carbohydrate consumption, it seems t h a t c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s probably increased t h e s t o r a b l e c a l o r i e supply, removing f o r a I time any seasonal o r p e r i o d i c problems i n food supply I n most regions, however, t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e seems not t o have had t h i s e f f e c t , and t h e r e seems t o have been a s l i g h t i n crease in physiological s t r e s s . S t r e s s , however, does not seem t o have become common and widespread u n t i l a f t e r t h e development of high degrees of sedentism, At population d e n s i t y , and r e l i a n c e on i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e t h i s s t a g e i n a l l regions t h e incidence of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s g r e a t l y , and average m o r t a l i t y r a t e s i n c r e a s e appreci/ ably Most of t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l populations have high frequenc i e s of p o r o t i c hyperostosis and c r i b r a o r b i t a l i a , and t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e number and s e v e r i t y of enamel hypop l a s i a s and pathologies a s s o c i a t e d with i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e S t a t u r e i n many populations appears t o have been considerably lower than would be expected i f genetically-determined height maxima had been reached, which suggests t h a t t h e growth a r r e s t s Accompanying documented by p a t h o l o g i e s were causing s t u n t i n g t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s of poor h e a l t h and nourishment, t h e r e is a univ e r s a l drop i n t h e occurrence of H a r r i s l i n e s , suggesting a poor Incidence of carbohydrater a t e of f u l l recovery from t h e s t r e s s r e l a t e d t o o t h d i s e a s e i n c r e a s e s , apparently because s u b s i s t e n c e by t h i s time i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a heavy emphasis on a few s t a r c h y food crops Populations seem t o have grown beyond t h e p o i n t a t which wild food resources could be a meaningful d i e t a r y supplement, and even domestic animal r e s o u r c e s were commonly reserved f o r farm labor and t r a n s p o r t r a t h e r than f o r d i e t supplementation I t seems t h a t a l a r g e proportion of most sedentary p r e h i s t o r i c populations under i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e underwent chronic and l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , e s p e c i a l l y during inThe causes of t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s a r e fancy and childhood l i k e l y t o have been t h e poverty of t h e s t a p l e crops i n most n u t r i e n t s except c a l o r i e s , p e r i o d i c famines caused by t h e i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l system, and chronic lack of food due t o both population growth and economic expropriation by e l i t e s The i n c r e a s e s i n i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e probably r e f l e c t both a poorer

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I

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d i e t and i n c r e a s e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t i n crowded s e t t l e m e n t s , and i t i s , i n t u r n , l i k e l y t o have a g g r e v a t e d n u t r i t i o n a l problems Thus, it seems t h a t Cohen i s c o r r e c t i n supposing t h a t popul a t i o n p r e s s u r e was p r e s e n t through most of p r e h i s t o r y e x c e p t p o s s i b l y during t h e beginning o f e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e i n a few regions A 1 though p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s common i n p r e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s and t h u s does p r e c e d e t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e , it i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e a t t h i s t i m e , c o n t r a r y t o Cohen's e x p e c t a t i o n s The o r i g i n of a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e n , cannot a c c u r a t e l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f u n u s u a l l y h i g h l e v e l s o f p r e s s u r e a t t h e time Severe p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o c c u r s o n l y a f t e r t h e development of h i g h l y i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , when popul a t i o n s a r e dense and s e d e n t a r y , and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is stratified I t seems s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth speeds up a t t h e v e r y time t h a t h e a l t h and m o r t a l i t y worsen I n o r d e r f o r growth t o occur i n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e would have had t o be a subs t a n t i a l simultaneous i n c r e a s e i n n a t a l i t y In part, t h i s pattern c o n t r a d i c t s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i s t s who hold t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e and sedentism b r i n g a n improvement i n h e a l t h On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i n d i r e c t evidence f o r an i n c r e a s e i n n a t a l i t y , probably through c l o s e r c h i l d s p a c i n g , i s consonant w i t h both groups o f t h e o r i e s To b e t t e r understand t h e c a u s a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s , we need t o know more about t h e e t i o l o g y of t h e various physiological s t r e s s e s t h a t these p r e h i s t o r i c I t seems t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f popup o p u l a t i o n s were e x p e r i e n c i n g l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s d i f f e r e n t a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and p l a c e s , a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of economic and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l development, and i n d i f f e r e n t demographic s i t u a t i o n s In addition, the rates, t y p e s , s e v e r i t y , and c a u s e s of p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e s v a r y among t h e d i f f e r e n t age, sex, and s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n , and f u r t h e r work i s r e q u i r e d t o e l u c i d a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t produce t h e s e p a t t e r n s

CHANGES I N ACTIVITY AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY

An important assumption i n most t h e o r i e s - i s t h a t l a b o r produc-

t i v i t y d e c l i n e s w i t h i n t e n s i v e food p r o d u c t i o n . An i n t e r e s t i n g by-product o f t h i s review o f paleopathology i s e v i d e n c e f o r a marked change i n human a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o T h i s p a t t e r n o f change shows up i n many sequences, agriculture i n c l u d i n g t h e Midwest and S o u t h e a s t i n t h e United S t a t e s , Western Europe, t h e E a s t e r n Mediterranean, t h e Near E a s t , E a s t A s i a , and South Asia During t h e P a l e o l i t h i c and t h e M e s o l i t h i c , both bones and t e e t h seem t o have r e c e i v e d much g r e a t e r u s e t h a n i n l a t e r t i m e s , and t h e r e s u l t was e x t e n s i v e t o o t h wear and t h e development o f l a r a e . ruaaed bonv s t r u c t u r e s and c o n s i d e r a b l e o s t e o a r t h r i t i s

22 CONCLUSIONS I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e M e s o l i t h i c t o N e o l i t h i c i n t h e s e r e g i o n s t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e drop i n s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y , o s t e o a r t h r i t i s , and d e n t a l a t t r i t i o n I t seems t h a t t h e development of s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e eased mechanical s t r e s s on t h e body and t e e t h , t o judge from t h e s e changes, which seem t o have been achieved both through e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e t i c change and through physi o l o g i c a l processes taking p l a c e during t h e l i v e s o f individuals S i g n i f i c a n t l y , it seems t o b e a r e s p o n s e t o much l e s s e n e d p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e Cohen (Chapters 1 and 23 t h i s volume) i n t e r p r e t s -these changes mainly a s evidence o f s t u n t i n g due t o n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s i n a c o n t e x t o f i n c r e a s e d popul a t i o n p r e s s u r e , b u t , a s Larsen (Chapter 1 4 t h i s volume), p o i n t s o u t , many of t h e p h y s i c a l changes r e l a t e t o a r e d u c t i o n i n muscular activity (Both t h e h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g l i f e w a y and t h e h a b i t u a l act i o n s o f p l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n and food p r e p a r a t i o n p u t s t r a i n s on t h e human s k e l e t a l frame , however, and o s t e o a r t h r i t i s continued to occ u r i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , though a t a lower r a t e ) Change i n bone remodeling - p a t t e r n s a s an i n d i c a t o r of changing a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s seems a f r u i t f u l a r e a t o look i n t o i n t h e f u t u r e , b o t h f o r a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e c a u s e s and consequences o f t h e r i s e of a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ( B u i k s t r a , Chapter 9, and Larsen, Chapter 1 4 , t h i s volume) To improve o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s t r e s s t o bone remodeling, w e may need t o p u r s u e f u r t h e r l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f bone remodeling under known s t r e s s e s , t o improve our understanding of t h e mechanical and p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t cause t h e bone p a t h o l o g i e s The p a l e o p a t h o l o q i c a l evidence f o r d e c r e a s e d mechanical stress s u g g e s t s t h a t one of t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e might have brought i s an improvement i n t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t r a t i o of subsistence labor A s s u b s i s t e n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y p e r h e c t a r e was going up, t h e l a n d e x p l o i t e d f o r s u b s i s t e n c e became more c o n c e n t r a t e d s p a t i a l l y , and s o t h e r e was a d r o p i n l a b o r c o s t s p e r u n i t gained T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n t r a r y t o most r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c i a n s ' e x p e c t a tions Only Bronson (1975) seems t o have p r e d i c t e d i t

SUMMARY

The d a t a g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r and summarized i n t h i s conference g i v e a p i c t u r e of widespread, r e c u r r i n g p r e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n growth, based on i n c r e a s e s through t i m e i n s i z e s and numbers o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s and i n numbers of human s k e l e t a l remains Concurrent w i t h t h i s growth, t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e t r e n d i n most r e g i o n s toward s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s e d production During t h e Upper P a l e o l i t h i c s t a g e , s u b s i s t e n c e seems t o have been based predominantly on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a r g e r game s p e c i e s o f h i g h n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e and e a s y a v a i l a b i l i t y , such a s

i

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576

1


herd animals o r anadromous f i s h . During t h e Mesolithic s t a g e , however, s u b s i s t e n c e was p r o g r e s s i v e l y a l t e r e d t o include more foods such a s p l a n t s , which a r e abundant and s t o r a b l e b u t of r e l a t i v e l y low d i g e s t i b i l i t y and p a l a t a b i l i t y The c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s u b s i s t e n c e l a b o r during both p e r i o d s seems t o have been low, f o r t h e bodies of most i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t s i g n s of extensive remodeling and wear under mechanical s t r e s s , and t h e r e a l s o seems t o have been s e l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e on t h e genome f o r t h e maintenance of l a r g e and r o b u s t bones and t e e t h . During both p e r i o d s , a l s o , s u b s i s t e n c e a d a p t a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y i n e f f e c t i v e a t preventing p e r i o d s o f want, f o r most populations seem t o have r e g u l a r l y experienced periods of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s , t o judge from t h e presence of s k e l e t a l p a t h o l o g i e s of t h e type t h a t record episodes of physiological s t r e s s Nonetheless, throughout t h e long period before e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e r e i s no e v i dence f o r chronic o r severe n u t r i t i o n a l o r d i s e a s e s t r e s s During t h i s p e r i o d , sedentism i s r a r e o r absent, and y e t populat i o n s grew during almost every period of occupation By t h e end of t h e Mesolithic, i n t h e e a r l y Holocene, t h e process of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n had produced d i e t s i n c r e a s i n g l y focused on a few highly productive p l a n t food sources t h a t were r e l a t i v e l y s t a r c h y and low i n p r o t e i n , minerals, and vitamins This p a t t e r n i s i n f e r r e d from changes i n t h e archaeological food remains, a r t i f a c t s , p a t t e r n s of t o o t h d i s e a s e , and bone chemistry By e a r l y Neolithic times e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l crops had been developed o r borrowed i n most r e g i o n s , and t h e s e provided a g r e a t l y increased p o t e n t i a l f o r economic and demographic expansion and sedentary s e t t l e m e n t l a t e r i n t h e s t a g e I n a few r e g i o n s , t h e rapid economic expansion of t h e e a r l y N e o l i t h i c produced an upturn i n h e a l t h contemporary with a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n population growth This seems t o be one of t h e few i n s t a n c e s when population p r e s s u r e may have been absent--due, apparently, t o t h e r a p i d expansion i n subsistence permitted by t h e i n c e p t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r e I n c o n t r a s t , during t h e l a t e r N e o l i t h i c , when systems of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e had developed and dense, sedentary s e t t l e m e n t was t h e r u l e , t h e r e was a widespread, marked i n c r e a s e i n r a t e s of physiological s t r e s s and m o r t a l i t y , apparently due both t o lessened d i e t q u a l i t y , adequacy, and s t a b i l i t y , and t o increased r a t e s of i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e This change i s evident i n t h e paleodemographic p a t t e r n s and t h e high frequencies of paleopathological i n d i c a t o r s of chronic s t r e s s Since population growth continued unabated; it seems t h a t t h e r e must have been a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n b i r t h r a t e s t o balance t h e increased m o r t a l i t y Despite t h e adv e r s e long-term e f , f e c t s of N e o l i t h i c d e v e l o p e n t s on h e a l t h and n u t r i t i o n , t h e period brought a c l e a r i n c r e a s e i n t h e l a b o r e f f i c i e n c y of s u b s i s t e n c e Throughout most of t h e world, t h e r i s e of e f f i c i e n t , sedentary a g r i c u l t u r e c o r r e l a t e s with a s u b s t a n t i a l drop i n d e n t a l and s k e l e t a l r o b u s t i c i t y and wear t h a t i s due, apparently, t o a decrease i n t h e amount of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y needed f o r subsistence

22 CONCLUSIONS

577

I t i s c l e a r t h a t none o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a r e completely confirmed o r f a l s i f i e d by t h e s e p a t t e r n s o f p r e h i s t o r i c data Cohen's v e r s i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e t h e o r y comes o f f b e t t e r t h a n most, i n t h a t p o p u l a t i o n growth, p r e s s u r e , and economic growth o c c u r c o n t i n u o u s l y throughout most sequences The cons i d e r a b l e i n t r i n s i c p o t e n t i a l o f human p o p u l a t i o n s f o r growth i s evidenced by t h e s u b s t a n t i a l growth t h a t took p l a c e even among mobile h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s and by t h e r a p i d growth o f p o p u l a t i o n even i n t h e f a c e of t h e heightened m o r t a l i t y r a t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s Cohen' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e causa l r o l e o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o g r e s s i o n of s u b s i s t e n c e systems toward g r e a t e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , r a t h e r than toward improved n u t r i t i o n o r economic s t a b i l i t y The e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r i e s f a r e l e s s w e l l Contrary t o t h e s e ' t h e o r i e s ' e x p e c t a t i o n of human a d a p t a t i o n , human s u b s i s t e n c e becomes l e s s s t a b l e and lower i n n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y a s a d a p t a t i o n proceeds, and t h e r e i s a p r e v a l e n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n growth and n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s t h a t t h e t h e o r i e s do n o t p r o v i d e f o r I n cont r a s t t o such t h e o r i e s , e a r l y h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s d i d n o t c o n t r o l t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s w e l l below c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , f o r t h e p a t h o l o g i e s of t h e i r b o d i e s show r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e of n u t r i t i o n a l s t r e s s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i r methods of p o p u l a t i o n management were s u f f i c i e n t t o keep them from c h r o n i c s t a r v a t i o n f o r which t h e r e is a b s o l u t e l y no evidence i n p r e a q r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g Cohen's, p o s i t a p e r i o d of g r e a t e r population pressure occurring j u s t a s i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e begins, b u t it seems c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was no p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d p o p u l a t i o n pressure a t t h a t juncture A g r i c u l t u r e probably developed a t t h i s time n o t because p r e s s u r e was any more s e v e r e t h a n b e f o r e b u t because p r e v i o u s p o p u l a t i o n growth and s u b s i s t e n c e change had f o s t e r e d a number o f s p e c i e s t h a t were a b l e -to respond t o i n c r e a s e d l a b o r i n p u t s w i t h i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t s , a t t r a c t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y heavy r e l i a n c e on them f o r food in t h e f a c e o f c o n t i n u e d p o p u l a t i o n p r e s sure Another t e n e t common t o most t h e o r i e s about t h e r i s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e was t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e had g r e a t e r l a b o r c o s t s than hunti n g and g a t h e r i n g From t h e evidence of pathology, it seems t h a t l a b o r c o s t s d i d n o t i n c r e a s e b u t d e c r e a s e d w i t h t h e implementation of e f f e c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s f i n d i n g adds a second impetus t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e : t h e p r i n c i p l e of l e a s t e f f o r t To some d e g r e e most t e n e t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s can b e accommodated by s p e c i f y i n g d i f f e r e n t environmental, demographic, and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s f o r them ( t h i s approach i s e x p l a i n e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Roosevelt 1980) Thus, a l t h o u g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e might be a c c e p t e d a s a major f o r c e f o r s u b s i s t e n c e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n human p r e h i s t o r y , t h e r e w i l l be t i m e s and p l a c e s where t h e r e w i l l be e i t h e r no p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r no p o t e n t i a l f o r intensification So, i n t h e absence o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e , a f t e r an epidemic o r when p o p u l a t i o n s e n t e r an unpopulated r e g i o n , humans would a c t a s t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y p r e d i c t s , t o minimize e f f o r t and t o maximize n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y I n such a -t = = ':.: '-0 '.Â¥,-...-r'% -;;"$y,.-^;

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