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James 8. Conant
ON UNDERSTANDING
I,SCIENCE A Famous Scientist Explains Science and its Role Today
JAMES B...
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James 8. Conant
ON UNDERSTANDING
I,SCIENCE A Famous Scientist Explains Science and its Role Today
JAMES B. CONANT This lucid explanation of the role of science in modern life is base d upon a series of lectures delivered at Yale Un iversity by Dr . James B. Conant, the twenty-third p resident of Harvard University. and one of the most em inent scientists and educators in America. During the war he was Chairman of the National Defense Research Committee, which was concerned, above all else, with the atom ic bomb.
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Science and Life
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It is important, says Dr. James B. Conant, former president of Harvard and. now American· Ambassa~ . dor to West Germany, and one of the great teache:t:s and scientists of our age, that all· of us, whether·We be business men, teachers, laWyers or housewives, understand and appreciate the role of sciencej~, modem life. Such broad understanding will help us achieve spiritual harmony with our environment, and exercise our duties as citizens iIi makiing political decisions which more and more are influenced by latest scientific discoveries.
In this readable and enlightening volume, Dr. Co-. nant presents a historical view of several great· . scientists, and how they solved their problems. He discusses the· famous Magdeburg hemispheres, Boyle's pump,Volta's electric battery and the work . of Lavoisier and Priestley. By citing these individual . casesin scientific history, he enables us to follow the .' scientific method at work with new understanding.... .'-'0, . "In these days, when every citizen is expected have opinions on the relations between govemm.ellt, education, and scientific research and developtnent" some appreciation of the past complexitieso£ the .telation of science to society should· be· part .of general education."
to
. "In his simple and thoughtful manner, he outlines a point of view which will make the goal and the methods of science have meaning for laymen and make the laboratory and the research· wQ1'ker as un- . derstandable in the stream of history as the banker or the mill-hand."-THE NEW YORK 'TIMES.
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Other MENTOR Books You Will Enjoy One Two Three • • • Infinity by George Gamow. Current facts and speculations of science presented by a leading physicist. (#MD97-50¢) Science and the Modern World by Alfred North Whitehead. The infiuence of three centuries of science on civilization. (#MD162-50¢) The Limitations of Science by J. W. N. Sullivan. The boundaries and potentialities of present-day science. in simple language. (#MD35-50¢) The Universe and Dr. Einstein by Lin~oln Barnett. An analysis of time~space-motion concepts and atomic structure. (# M71-3 5¢ )
-UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE AN
HI~TORICAL
APPROACH
;By JAMES B. CONANT
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With New Foreword by the Author
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•.~ A MENTOR BOOK Published b;r THE NEW AMERICAN LIBRARY
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COPYRIGHT,
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1947,. 1951, :SY YALE UNIVERSITY, PRESS
All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (except by reviewer" for the public press), without written permission from the publishers.
Published. as a MENTOR BOOK By Arrangement with Yale University Press
FIRST PRINTING, DECEMBER, 1951 SECOND PRINTING, JUNE, 1952 THIRD PRINTING, MARCH, 1953 FOURTH PRINTING, MARCH, 1955 FIFTH PRINTING, APRIL, 1956 SIXTH PRINTING, OCTOBER, 1957
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On Understanding Science is published in England by Oxford University Press.
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MENTOR BOOKS are published by The New American Library of World Literature, Inc. 501 Madison Avenue, New York 22. New York PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMBRICA
.Th~. Dwight Barrington Terry Foundation .l.eetuJ'e8on. Religion. in. the Light of Science and Philosophy ~·Tms volume is based upon the twenty-third series of lectures delivered at : .'. 'Yale University on the Foundation established by the late Dwight H.··T~ lit Bridgeport, Connecticut, through his gift of $100,000 as an endoWJl1elli ," ~d fof the delivery and subsequent publication of "Lectures on ReliJkht :in the Light of Science and Philosophy." C '. The deed of gift declares that "the object of this Foundation is Qot~: " '0 ":l!imnotion of scientific investigation and discovery, but rather the asSi~ . " iiQn' and interpretation of that which has been or shall be hereafter diiicDv~' "ma, and its application to human welfare, especially by the building-of "~lb6, truths of science and philosophy into the structure of a broadened,~ ,. :pdeil religion. The founder believes that such a religion win ~~,' : -,-'Stillllllate ~telligent eBort for the improvement of human conditions and • ' -,,' '~ctil~fadVanCement of the race in strength and excellence of chariu:tet.T("'~,' , ,. 'l!IId it is desired that lectures or a series of· lectures be given 'by menemi'.., . ' . ., in,their l'eSP!lCtive departments, on ethics, the history" cif civilizati!:nt' ·aitii ieligion, biblical research, all sciences and branches of knowledge whicll '~vean important bearing on the subject, all the great laws ofDa~, ~ly of evolution ••• also such interpretations of literature, and . . erology as are in accord with the spirit of this Foundation, to the en,d that the Christian spirit may be nurtured in the fullest light of the WD~ldlt ' bowledge and that mankind may be helped to attain its highest po~
:- -"f _ ~_·~fare. and happiness upon this earth • • • -. . _:~~ ~' 'l'h~ 'lectures shall be subject to no philosophical or religious teat.ii.nd net 0) ;.:~~ ~!I~e wJi6 is an earnest seeker after truth shall be excluded because hia~""f-
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'- :.s$!m radical or destructive of existing beliefs. The founder realius thaC_ ", h1let.u&m of ODe generatioD is often conservatism-in the-nen, and tbat-._-_ ,.
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, ,:,~ :..apostle of true liberty has suffered martyrdom at the :hands of the . 'dox. He therefore lays special emphasis on complete freedom oiutteraU~ .. ' __ . and would welcome expressions of conviction from sincere thinkers of iUf- . fering standpoints even when these may runcciunter to the generally .ac-, ' ,cepted views of the day. The founder stipulates only that the llUIIIlI.iters. of· . the fund shall be satisfied that the lecturers are well qualified for their - ~ and are in harmony with the cardinal principles of the Foundation, , whiCh are loyalty to the truth, lead where it will, and devotion to htuilan·, o
welfare."
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Foreword to the MENTOR Edition
Nothing has happened since the close of World War II to deC~ _ the importance of the layman's understanding the scientist.~Qutte ~ the contrary. There has been a mounting interest on the partott1t~ general public as to methods of the natural sciences. There hM ~en a growing concern on the part of both scientists and nOi)scientists as to the relation of government to scientific reseatcl:i ~ the degree to which pure and applied science should be subsidize4 by public funds. In the colleges of the United States varioUi! new"_ approaches have been tried to the old problem of providing some understanding of science for those who are majoring in non~~ tific fields. Such being the case, the presentation of one man's ~ answer to "What is Science?" written in 1946 may be of relevanCl:~ in the 1950's. This is a reprint of a volume which went to press less than@ year after the surrender of Japan. The discussion of the aton:li~ bomb presented in the preface clearly dates the book. Yet I haw decided to let it stand. The United Nations Cemmissian did fail tQ reach agreement on the internatilllnal contrel of atomic enet:gy:;' that the prospects are grim and we need patience and couragefCw ~ will be ready to deny. Emerson's doctrine of compensation seet$ to me even more applicable today than five years ago. In one respect the material which f9llows is (Jut of date. The,., cational recommendations can no longer be regarded as h)'lilQi. thetical. For I have to report that having taken my own mediCitte I find that it works tolerably well. For three years I participatedta the presentation of science to undergraduates at Harvard CQ1J,egg; by the case history method. Same of the necessary documents have~ been prepared and published. One of the four parallel Natur~ Sciences courses in the program of general education at Harvardis essentially the cGlurse I!Jlggested in this volume. FGlr Freshmen and Sophomores who are not planning to pursue a scientific course, the historical approach has been demonstrated to have value. ~ That it may in brief compass likewise have value for the gene.t'al reader is the hope of those who have arranged for this edition in, - , an attempt to give some notion of the tactics and strategy of eli:!perimentaI science. JAMES B. CONM " CatTihridge, Massac/wsetts June 17, 1951.
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Contents FOREWORD TO THE
Mentor
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, PREFACE,
EDITION,
vii
xi
xii
One THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF THE LAYMAN,
17
Two ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE 17TH CENTURY "TOUCHING THE SPRING OF THE AIR,"
41
Three ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE 18TH CENTURY CONCERNING ELECTRICITY AND COMBUSTION, 73
Four CERTAIN PRINCIPLES OF THE TACTICS AND STRATEGY OF SCIENCE, 102 NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES,
112
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IDustrations ;-
z. Diagram of simple lift or suction pump for raising water, 44 ~.
Reproduction of wood-cut of primitive water pump. From Agricola, 46
J. Torricelli's tube, 50
4. Von Guericke's Magdeburg hemispheres, 53 5. Boyle's pump, 56 6. Boyle's Law experiment, 61 7. Boyle's contrivance for ringing a bell in a vacuum, 65 8. One form of Volta's electric battery, 79 9. Mercury heated in air near boiling point absorbs oxygen, 86 zo. Oxide of mercury heated to a high temperature evolves oxygen~ 87
Preface ltut$er scientific advanCe because of the implications of - _tliieatonUc bomb is to my mind based on a misapprehen-' '\Slort of the nature of the universe. As I watched the secret, . tfJe:velopment of the atomic bomb through four years of --:W'a);~Ioften thought of the work being done at the same ijtne -under the auspices of the Medical Research Com.~ittee~ I knew of the then secret research on penicillin, "lift! DDT; on anti-malarial drugs, on the use of blood
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UNDElt-5TAND;lNG SCIENCIi: .
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plasma, and ~ealized how much these scientific adVaii~~_ ~e~nt for the future welfare of mankind. As I contrastci!J;:~' the development of the atomic bomb and the m~caf ~irivestigations, I often thought of Emerson's farilous~'f on the Law of Compensation. ' .. "," -In the early days of the work on atomic energ)' tlr¢~',~, was a possibility that the constants of nature wotilt;l ~- ..... ,such that atomic energy for power would be possible.tJ)i(d:. an, atomic explosive impossible. We all hoped this ~'4 - be the case, though the probabilities were slight. In.f~~t I often thought in that uncertain period that this wc:mfcif -' be too good to be true-the universe just isn't built m~ way. So it turned out in fact. Science and its app1ica#c:>.' have given us marvelous drugs and ways of health.tQ~;-_;-~ munications, transportation, luxuries of every sort; it ~' ':. , also given 'us the atomic bomb, the discovery ofwbi._c,~~; was in a sense in~vitable in a scientific age'::"'only the tittJ.l.~· irig was uncertain. And I believe history will recordlha,-i: _,_ the democracies were very fortunate in the timing: As -Emerson has written, Eyery excess dU;iS@S'_--:~ ~ ". defect; every defect an excess. . . . Every faculty whi'dt c ; • ",~, 'is a receiver of pleasure has an equal penalty put-orl;~,~:" ; -abuse. . . . With every influx of light comes new clangej... __ - -••. There is a crack in everything God has IIiad~i ,~,t.:\ would seem there is always this vindictive circums:taQ:{;:f:} stealing in at unawares . . . this back-stroke, this._~clr; -of the gun, certifying that the law is fatal; that ill riatti~~f nothing can be given, all things are sold." , -:. _ - If, following Emerson, we think of the poteIitial'p6Wei' of destruction of the atomic bomb as the price we pay-lvr- -~. health and comfort and aids to learning in this scientifi~ ._age, we can perhaps more coolly face the task of making.: - .." . the best of an inevitable bargain, however hard. Remerll~ _" bering that Emerson warned that "the doctrine· of com- - _- _ . pensation is not the doctrine of indifferency," we can-~ gin to walk boldly along the tightrope of the atomic age. It is with such thoughts in mind that I venturein"£ib,,~ following pages to discuss science as neither a benignt)x a malignant activity of man, but as a process of unvei-liUlf - ~ _:/~aily things, all of which have "cracks." Whether '.. ,
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xiv
PREFACE
have courage enough to face the most recent evidence of , this "fatal law" and intelligence enough to proceed with. the next stage in the development of civilization will in _part depend on education. This fact in itself would be· justification enough for all of us who spend our lives trying to explore new and better ways of "perpetuating learning to posterity." A few words of warning ;;tre perhaps in order to those. readers who as teachers may be interested in the point of view presented. No attempt has been made to present the _material in the form of a manual for instructors. I have had to content myself with general suggestions on the one hand, and a few incomplete illustrations on the other. I have presented neither a syllabus for a college course nor even the details of any single case history. Lack of time and ignorance I must plead as my twin excuses for the many shortcomings of this small book. But even if some. one much more learned In the history of science than I . were to devote his entire energies to the development .- of _a _course of the type I am suggesting, progress would be slow. The greatest hindrance to the widespread use of case histories in teaching science is the lack of suitable case material. Limitations in this regard would virtually require the instructor to choose his topics quite as much _ because of the availability of printed material as because of their intrinsic pedagogic value. I am hopeful that if a sufficient number of teachers be~ome interested in the approach suggested in the following pages, a cooperative enterprise might be launched Which would go far to overcome the difficulties now presented by the paucity of printed material availabl(! for, - student use. The professional students of the history of, i science and those engaged in the teaching of science as.' part of a general education (at the college level) might _well join forces. Together they might plan for the translation, editing, and publishing in suitable form of extractS from the history of science which would be of importance to the college teacher. It is no small undertaking, but one of the first importance. When it is remem-
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b~that two of the most signifiCant works hi t1i~-~: ' ,t;i~,) : -vani, and a host of others-it is evident how much -~ -~')i~ gaged in the collegiate teaching of general science~ , _--;,:'it·;;:~j The bibliographies given in the Appendix of the ~,}:;?li ',ent volume may prove helpful to any who might be mttt-~r;;~Y~j __c - ested in developing the case histories' I havesu~te4~j;;}~4\ -- ~They have been prepared by Mr. I. B. Cohen of H~i~ - I am deeply indebted to him not only for this aljsi5.~~-:_~~~ but for his collaboration in assembling the historical m.a-'(:·;;~:!i ,c: ".,-:; ~:,~=/:)i -' "- ',' ":,:; _,-:::-,,~
····~~~···~:·~·:'nN;IiEB:St~iy:DIN~.~~lE,~t!S; ..... ;'~;f:'1 __ · '. PlJJ:.reSocratic tradition, and to d~6se eady scholars; wh~ . ·~
\li.Htrecaptured the culture of Greece and Rome by pritn'" · 'itlireil:J,ethods of archaeology. In the first period of the ...... ;!: that the common phenomenon of combustion~,3;S; ~"'.':!! " mulated in terms of comparable clarity; it was Ilot'~n~~i'('Y~ much later still that the concept of heat as a "m6d'e~Q£',? : motion~' was accepted. Spontaneous generation g.fJ.i:ie~:>' " you will recall, was an open question as late as theI8~\~'s;;:i :Seventy-five years ago the Professor of Natural PhilosQ;P~Y' ',at Harvard told his classes that "people now actepJ;'4~ •.' . 'undulatory theory of light because aUthosewhof0ttn~~'¥< ;cit; .-' accepted. the corpuscular theory are dead." The irnplt~, . .•. . ,prophecy in this bit of skepticism turned out tOl)~:t~~tj';'G : 'far from the mark. Only within the lifetime o£tn.~'Y.\of:i> , us has it been possible to develop concepts whicl1'),~"'" , care of relatively simple facts concerning the emij~iQtt and absorption of radiant energy. Darwin convincedhitij,.. self and later the scientific world and later stilltheedl:f ' cated public of the correctness of the general -ii:lea,!tiJ:&,~i evolution because of a theory as to the mechaniitri~i'":: which evolution might have occurred. Today, the,b~il(:.'~ idea of the evolutionary development of higheI'p~tl" ci: and animals stands without question, but Darwin'sDi~"','"cC an,ism has been so greatly questioned as . to haye-:-beeit,}i' almost overthrown. And we are no nearer a solutioli':Cl)j\C~;i c.'
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,36 - ON UWDERS'l'ANtJING
S1::f.ENGE
- the problem of how life originated on thispla1iet. than we were in Darwin's day. The stumbling way in which even the ablest of the early scientists had to fight through thickets of erroneous observations, misleading generalizations, inadequate _ formulations, and unconscious prejudice is the story which it seems to me- needs telling. It is not told in courses in physics or chemistry or biology or any other of the natural sciences as far as I am aware. Take up a textbook of any of these subjects and see how very simple it all seems as far as method is concerned, and how very com- plicated the body of facts and principles soon becomes. Indeed, before you have got far in a freshman course you will find the harassed professor under pressure to be _up to date bringing in subjects which cannot be ade-quately analyzed by the class at hand. Having insufficient knowledge of other disciplines, and particularly mathematics, the students have to take on faith statements about scientific laws and the structure of matter which are almost as dogmatic as though they were handed down bya high priest. Let me hasten to add, I am not blaming the teachers of these subjects. I have done the same in my time, and as an author of textbooks I am sinning in the same way today. For there is no other method of presenting factual knowledge in these subjects in this _day of a vast interrelated and highly complicated fabric of physics, chemistry, and biology.
The Tactics and Strategy
of Science
Let me now be specific as to my proposal for the reform of the scientific education of the layman. What I propose
._ is the establishment of one or more courses at the college level on the Tactics and. Strategy of Science. The objective would be to give a greater degree of understanding of science by the close study of a relatively few historical examples of the development of science. I suggest courses at the college level, for I do not believe they could be introduced earlier in a student's education; but there is -no!reason why they could not become important parts of
SCIE.NTIFIC EDUCATIONSI
programs of adult education. Indeed, such courses might well prove particularly suitable for older groups of men _ and women. -The analogy with the teaching of strategy and tactics of war by examples from military history is obvious. And the success of that educational procedure is one reallOXl why I venture to be hopeful about this neW approach to _ understanding science. I also draw confidence from the _ knowledge of how the case method in law schools and a. somewhat similar method in the Harvard Business School have demonstrated the value of this type of pedagogic device. The course would not aim to teachscience-no.t even the basic principles or simplest facts-though as a, by-product considerable knowledge of certain sciences would be sure to follow. Of course, some elementary knowledge of physics w0uld be a prerequisite, but with the improvement in -the teaching of science in high schools which is sure to come, this should prove no serious obstacle. The case histories would almost all be chosen from the early days in the evolution of the modern discipline. Certain aspects of physics in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; chemistry in the eighteenth and nineteenth;. geology in the early nineteenth; certain phases of biology in the eighteenth; others in the nineteenth. The adva:n:. tages of this method of approach are twofold: first, relatively little factual knowledge is required either as regard$, the science in question or other sciences, and relatively little mathematics; second, in the early days one see!! in _ clearest light the necessary fumblings of even intellectual giants when they are also pioneers; one comes to understand what science is by seeing how difficult it is in fact to carry out glib scientific precepts. A few words may be in order as to the principles which would guide me in selecting case histories for my course in the Tactics and Strategy of Science; I sheuld wish to show the difficulties which attend each new push forward in the advance of science, and the import:ance of new techniques: how they arise, are improved, and often revolutionize a field of inquiry. I should hope. to
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and the developmental new conceptsan4;.
I..~W generalizations; in short, ·-how. new concep.ts evolve·
i
;t:bJl!~xperitnents,how 0-'·~~~~cleqtia.te and then is
one conceptual scheme for a time modified or displaced by another. !'.$hOuld want also to illustrate the interconnection be·'··'t'Yeen science and society about which so much has been ·:s~~dj.ntecent years by our Marxist friends. I should have y,~ little to say about the classification of facts, unless .'it-.were to use this phrase as a straw man. But I should . 'ltQpe that almost all examples chosen would show the ;b:l:!Zards which nature puts in the way of those who would ~;:pnine the facts impartially and classify them accur- . . -, ateIy; The "controlled experiment" and the planned or -c!)r,ttrolled observation would be in the forefront of every -discussion. The difference in methods between the o~ ;sehati.onal sciences of astronomy, geology, systematic •. b!'61ogy on the one hand, and the experimental sciences ·.~lphysics, chemistry, and experimental biology on the '"oilier should be emphasized; '. 'l'owhat extent a course in the Tactics and Strategy of . Science should take cognizance of the existence of probc_~s in metaphysics and epistemology would depend on .~~ outlook of the instructor and the maturity and inter~ -'cwof the student. Obviously the course in question would 'l}:ot:he one on the metaphysical foundations of modern . "'science; yet the teacher can hardly ignore ' The difference between invention and scientific disc()vety. - ' may in a few instances seem slight but a confusion'~ tween the history of the practical arts and the develop.ment of science is a fruitful source of misunderstanding about science. Therefore, one of the objectives of even a limited course would be to show by case histories the _. distinction between advances in mechanical contrivances or primitive chemical processes (such as metallurgy orsoap making) and advances in science. In so doing one would try to avoid any false snobbery about the supe:ri~' ority of one activity over the other. Indeed, the inter: connections which were frequent even three centuries
f~~~f~~1!~tt~c~>. )-:~, the biological sciences it is '~t ~.and agriculture on the one
not industry but comhand and medicine on t~ih~,~ther which are closely related to scientific progress. :;}~.the connection is a two-way street. The practical ;,,:;,,~,tS;.~t first run ahead ~f the science; only in very recent .2Er~a;r,shave scientific discoveries affected practice to a __~i~ter e~tent than practice has affected science. Return, -~ jJ1g'ior a moment to the physical sciences, one may recall ~i{tba.tthe late Professor L. J. Henderson was fond of re;."-fmatking that before 1850 the steam engine did more for ~':::,a~tlcc: than science did for the steam engine. There can ;' ~~no doubt, of course, that knowledge has been accumu~/;:~ed,- classified, and digested to.serve practical ends ever :£~ ·"ce. the dawn of civilization. Yet very little is to be ' ;i:,:: ~" ed about the Tactics and Strategy of Science by C~;'~dyitig the history of these advances. For they do not .~':J~a part of science. Similarly, it may be argued that ~i:fhe'progress which has been made in recent centuries in ::'i~ ,c~~nations in the art of government, in the treatment f-~llld.pioitablybe dr-awn frOt;D.JluxrtanpsycholoID':a§wd\· "
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as'" aniinal'experimentation might be debated.Witli~~~· __< . petijnents in vision and audition there should '.Ji~'~. -, ~ trouble but in such important fields of investigaf - " . , the learning process and methods of evaluating··. _ '_'," " ual' differences in personality, finding cases to illus~#-·.;~ '.the Tactics and Strategy of Science (accordingJQf~-w.~L~~;; -, standards) might prove very troublesome. And i£.a~)aJi.%i!,;;: instructor in the course in question (assuming it~&;.~¥er~~~;~ givenl) should push farther into sociology, anthrQl>~oI~:';) . and economics, the possible selections would beco~.. ,;:\; few indeed. This statement is in no sense a reHetti9'ti·~ti' ;co the importance of these subjects. For the purpos~m~~'':'i pounding the Tactics and Strategy of Scien~e;Jl1ft- ~e::~~i remind you, it is just as important to distinguish b~~-w~l'!:' " improvements in the practical affairs of life anda4:v~~.~s' ," in the science of human behavior (collectivearia~. 'i vidual) as it is to differentiate the evolution of tfuf- " ,- _, tical art of pumping water from the progress of Ii ,,' " _\) - Those who have confidence that we are on the thtesno~~ ".' ' of great advances in the social sciences would pr9ll,~j~;.. c - freely admit that few case histories corresponding] -connected this fact with another faCt which was -·_.:;genetally accepted even at that time, namely, that air had !7~:c~~ght~ If air had weight, why might it not exert pressure ..:~;iiJlolhe. surface of the water in a weIland thus force the . . water up the lift pump as the piston rises and produces .,:' .; ~uction? The height of 34 feet of water would thus rep·:i.'.-J~~entthe weight of water which this pressure of the air ~~:50illhe surface of the earth could maintain. Apparently , ;1 .r c1)~her 1iqui~, namely, fu~rtury, which is aboutI4tim~-Bt~:~'~~~ .-.
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.. heavy as water. If the idea they were developing wereti~~~rj recti the pressure of air which enveloped the earthwPlf~-} - hold up a column of mercury on about 1/14 as higJl':~!::;:k! that of water, namely, a little more than 2 feet t~' , " . column of this height was something that could be:: aged with ease. They took a glass tube about a ii: width in diameter and about 3 feet long, sealed itd . ..~;~! one end, filled it completely with mercury, and keepi~.~;~r!j:jl finger over the end inverted it in an open vessel o£'~l~'~~i~; cury. (See Fig. 3 ) - ... -"JC~§~ The expected happened, as it sometimes doesUi~~~,;~i; type of experimentation when men of ability plan il,~"~~~' advance. The mercury fell to a height of approxirilat~~ilfiiY~JC .30 inches above the level of the mercury in the opent:-~J7~~J'£; · or trough. The space above in the tube appearede¢pt:jt:~¥)!, For the first time the world had seen a vacuum, tO~liP~!'i-;¥ loosely; or, to express the result of the experimitlt- ~i;::T;~i more accurate terms, a vacuum had been created in. ll!~~:~}:; upper end of the tube because the pressure of the a:tmti.s,.,.:';i~·; phere could support a column of mercury only abou.it' . ,..,3;: inches long. Such a vacuum became known at oncei{ . --'-.-.~-,
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, prindpie of wide applicability in the growth of scleli~. A new technique, in this case a new instrument, is sud---.dewy. made available and experimentation takes- anew tum. The instructor here would obviously point out a -few other well-known examples: -the telescope exploited by Galileo after being invented in Holland; the microscope and, jumping to our own day, the cyclotron and the betatron. . - I need elaborate no further on either this point or the _way in which the development of a practical art, nam~ly, pumping water, reached a certain point and then influenced scientific development. The development of the art d,id not represent science, but it influenced the development of science. This aspect of the interconnection of science and society has been a favorite theme for certain writers in the last fifteen years. Again, the instructor might want to digress and trace one or two parallels, and . either then or at a later time with other case histories consider the extreme Marxist position as to the influence of .economic considerations on the course of scientific history, not failing, however, to show the other side of the medal. Boyle's new experiments supplemented in an elegant fashion the work of the Italian and French investigators _oil the Torricellian vacuum. For he showed that when a mercury barometer was so set up that the air above the lower mercury surface could be withdrawn, the column fell a:s would be predicted. On readmitting the air it rose _tf) the original height. _. If we compare the writings of the 1660'S with those of -. Galileo in 1638 on the same subject, we readily see that a new concept had evolved as a result of various wellplanned experiments. And this concept had been accepted - ~y the foremost investigators of the time. Thus the second --.point of my opening outline of this chapter, the evolution - Q1 new concept from experiment, is well illustrated by the history of pneumatics from 1638 to 1660. The new cOncept was that the earth was surrounded by a "sea of air" and that since air had weight, the pressure exerted by this s.ea was greatest at the bottom.. i.e., the surface of
THE SPitiNG OF THE At.
5S
the eartli; and as one ascended a mountain. it diminished~ The analogy with water pressure of the ecean was clear and often made. A vacuum could be created by withdraW'.ing the air by means of a pump from a closed container , or by taking advantage of the limited height of a column of liquid (water or mercury) held up by atmosphed¢ ..... pressure.
The Spring of the Air Closely associated with the idea of an atmosphere whllllJ . exerted a definite pressure which could be measured 1>, barometers was Boyle's concept of the elasticity. of alt•. This is so common an idea today that it is hard to imagine . what new facts were required to lead to the developriumt· of so simple a concept. To understand Boyle's menta! processes the reader should study the diagram of his.air pump (Figure 5) and read his own account of the opera,; tion of the engine which is given below. The signifi(:~ntt point is that the air in the receiver expands into the vacuum in the cylinder caused by the down stroke of the piston. It does so because air is an elastic medil,ltn or.a& Boyle put it, "there is a spring or elastical power in the air we live in"l No equivalent phenomenon occUrs hl pumping water. In modem times we say that air is a very compressibk' substance as compared with a liquid like water or mer~ cury. "The spring of the air" is an apt phrase, for Boyle felt this spring when his piston was pushed back by tb,eextemal air toward the end of the evacuation. The satn~ spring is felt on the down stroke of a bicycle pump tOday when the tire is almost completely inflated. Thus there evolved another concept from experimen,t•. namely, that air is an elastic medium. It is interesting that Boyle in putting forward this point of view and showing at length how it "explicated" his experiments, did, liot choose to decide between two possible explanations of . why air had a spring. "This notion may perhaps be somewhat further explained," wrote Boyle. "by conceiving the
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Fig. 5. Simplified (1Iagram of Boyle's air pump. ". The following descriptio~ of the working of the . pump is in Boyle's own words: "Upon the drawing down of the Bucker (the valve being shut> the Cylindrical space, deserted by the sucker, is left devoid of air; and therefore, upon the turning·of " "ihekey, the air contained in the receiver rusheth into the emptied cylinder••-•• Upon shutting the .... receiver by turning the key,if you open the valve, ". and force up the Bucker ••• you will drive out almost a whole cylinder full of air; but at the following exsuctions you will draw less and 1es8 of air out of the receiver into the cylinder beeause there will remain les8 and les8air in the receiver itself••••"
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.TBE S?RING OF'THE AiR
.
51
air _near the earth ·to be such a heap of little boClieSj ..,. lying one upon another, as may be .resembled to a :6.e~ of wool. . . • there is yet another way to explicate thespring of the air; namely, by supposing with that Di9&1!' ingenious gentleman, Monsieur Des Cartes, that theal!' ." is nothing but a congeries or heap of small and (for the·o, most part) of flexible particles, of several sizes, and of aD' kinds of figures, which are raised by heat (especially that of the sun) into that fluid and subtle ethereal bodytfutt surrounds the earth; and by the restless agitation of-t;h~ celestial matter, wherein those particles swim, -are S9 whirled round, that each corpuscle endeavours to b~. , off all others from coming within the little sphere req- " uisite to its motion about its own center; •.. accOl'~' '" to this doctrine it imports very little, whether th, ~ ticles of the air have the strq.cture requisite to Spiri~ . or be any other form (how irregular soever) sincethd,t-, elastical power is not made to depend upon their ~ape • ., structure, but upon the vehement agitation.•• :.-~ these two differing ways, . • . may the springs of the ait - . be explicated.•.• [Yet] am I not willing to dec~ peremptorily for either of them against the other. •• ~ . t shall decline meddling with a subject, which is mote: h~~' .' to be explicated than necessary to be so by him, 'W~il business it is not, in this letter, to assign the adeql1at~ cause of the spring of the air, but only to manifest,' ~t. the air hath a spring, and ·to relate some of its effects!!~; , . This quotation might serve as a useful text course I am proposing. Boyle clearly distinguishes b.... tween his concept of air as an elastic fluid and' ,tile' explanation of this elasticity in terms of pictures or'mod'~ els. This distinction is a useful one in studying the ..'taG---, tics and Strategy of Science." The explanations offered for the behavior of gases were at first little more thap, unbridled speculations, useful as pedagogic devices" (Q. Boyle used the analogy with lamb's wool to showcoftt.pressibility), but not a necessary part of a conceptual scheme. ' The reader may be reminded that the words theory and hypothesis are frequently employed to describe both cO:n~
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,'. ::~'~1''S~~''!,s¢flting clergyman and an official of the expiring Bourbon .";{tp-vernment. By reference to such facts, there can be left iii the student's mind no doubt that science is indeed a .~ "sgp.ar process. He will also be reminded that western ~', I's'o¢!ety in the development of its modern culture has at 'Fti-~es worked in mysterious ways its wonders to perform. .'- In these days when every citizen is expected to have ~0pinions on the relation between government, education, , ..ana scientific research and development, surely some t.; 'Ja:ppreciation of the past complexities of the relation 9f '·s~:rep.ce to society should be part of a general education. \And from what period of history can one learn more than . ':frO-Ill the century of genius-the seventeenth-which wa$ ,lllany ways the cradle of our present era. With such . ftJ;C}}ights in mind, a considerable portion of the case histories in the course I am proposing might well be from this period. In the next chapter, I shall consider a much "mOre sophisticated era-the late eighteenth century. A .:~l$'cussion of some early experiments in electricity and in 1;:liemistry will illustrate certain other principles which se.e-tnofimportance to the Tactics and Strategy of Science.
'm'
'. 3.Ulustrations from the
.', ~'.
Eighteenth Century Concerning Electricity and Combustion THOSE who have read the first two chapters areoj~tt: aware, this book is in no sense a presentation of~, history of science or of any branch of science. The:Q:~~ tive is to indicate how certain principles mightbe titJf~t: by illustrations drawn from the development of sci~n-~.t . In the last chapter a study of the seventeenth~centitry experiments with barometers, air pumps, and vacua inilS'trated certain principles. These were four in num.i\;j~t; . . (1) the influence of new techniques; (2) the evolU;ti~ of new concepts from experiment; (3) the difficuliieS',,~.•..•. ': :experimentation and the significance of the cont,t~~l'ld', 'experiment; (4) the development of science asano~~ ized social activity. . " - In this· chapter two case histories are presented llQtli' drawn from the end of the eighteenth century. Then£!if .. concerns the discovery of the electric battery, the W~lfla, concerns the chemical revolution which placed our ~Q;~\1'~~ -edge of combustion on a sound basis. Both can be -q$eit,:~~ttJ· . '" illustrate the four points just named, but each is partida.. : lady suitable for emphasizing certain other import~ principles which I shall introduce for the first time~1 connection with the discussion of the new material... ·
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The Role of the Accidental Discovery
The layman is frequently confused in regard to therdl~._·· of the accidental discovery on the one hand an4:th~ -
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" planned ~peiiment dtlfueother~ Thlsnparticulat'ly' ",true in connection with the development' of new tech,; niques and the evolution of new concepts from experi" , ment. 'The case history which I recommend for a study of these topics is the work of Galvani and Volta on the electric current. This case history illustrates the fact that - an accidental discovery may lead by a series of experim.ents (which must be well planned) to a new technique , or a new concept or both; it 'also shows that in the ": 'eJC.ploration of a new phenomenon the experiments may he well planned without any "working hypothesis" as to the nature of the phenomenon, but that shortly an explanation is sure to arise. A new conceptual scheme will be evolved. This may be on a grand scale and have wide applicability, or may be strictly limited to the phenomen.on in question. A test of the new concept or group of concepts in either instance will probably lead to new discoveries and the eventual establishment, modification, or overthrow of the conceptual scheme in question. Galvani's Discoveries The case history begins with certain observations made by Luigi Galvani, an Italian physician, a professor at Bologna, some time before 1786. This investigator noted the twitching of a frog's leg when the crural nerves were , ,touched by a metallic scalpel in the neighborhood of an electrostatic machine from which sparks were drawn. He followed up his observation. At this point in a course on the~ Tactics and Strategy of Science the instructor would , wax eloquent. He would remind the class that time and -'- time again throughout the history of science the conse_. 'luences of following up or not following up accidental - _discoveries have been very great. The analogy of a gen, -¢tal's taking advantage of an enemy's error or a lucky break, like the capture of the Remagen bridge, could hardly fail to enter the discussion. Pasteur once wrote that "chance favors only the prepared mind." This is excellently illustrated by the case history at hand. The Dutch naturalist. Swammerdam, had previously discov-
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,~~;~5:':~!ltare being evolved by a chemical reaction involving ;.',~ygen. This is called "combustion." If we burn enough ":~;it:erial in a closed space, the combustion stops because -'t!!I!le oxygen is used up. What burns? Some but not all of stllJ:students will say that in the cases mentioned it is a , ,:g:rotip of carbon compounds, and some will add that the ,", ','products of combustion are carbon dioxide, CO 2 , and 'S}~~er, H 2 0. Anyone who has an elementary knowledge :~:,.;~themical symbols usually loves to share the informa~",'"~,,,' tJ:.onl Suppose you heat molten tin in air at a high tem'~5~-~rature for a long time, and the bright metal becomes :"t"C:;~¥ered with a scum, obviously not a metal. What has -"'l~ppened? A combination with oxygen-an oxide is -~:.-;f:Q11l1ed-the bright boys and girls answer. Correct. Sup::,[f'flp.se we heat this nonmetallic substance, an oxide, with ", ",',' ,>carbon. What would happen? The carbon would combine / 'with the oxygen, giving an oxide of carbon and leaving 't4e metal. This is what happens in making iron from 11'.00 ore, the very bright boy tells you. "-"~ Allvery simple and plain. And you can set stude~ts.to I,.
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ELEC-TJUCIT'Y AND COMBUSTIO:~
83
)vorI{ high-school laboratories to prove it. Yet it is an historic fact that at the time of the American Revolution not one philosopher or experimentalist out of one hun. dredcould have given you an inkling of this expIanati"Off which we now designate as "correct." Instead, they would have talked learnedly of "phlogiston," a- name probably totally unfamiliar to all but the chemists who read~thiS book. Nearly a hundred years after Newton, andstUl .everyone was thoroughly bewildered by such a simple' matter as combustion I This fact needs to be brought home to all who would understand science and whota;1k of the "scientific method." . The chemical revolution was practically contempotu:Y, . ,. with the American Revolution and, of course,' just p:J1(i.. ceded the .French Revolution. Lavoisier,. the: man .w.hCiJ singlehanded but building on the work of others ~~. the revolution, lost his head at the hands of the Revot... tionary Tribune in 1794 (though he was by no meanshostile to the basic aims of the great social and political upheaval) . Whether or not he was betrayed by a scientific colleague (Fourcroy) who at least was an ardent llUPporter of the extreme party then in power, is an' itl" . triguing historical question; its study would be a 'byproduct. of this case history in which certain students would take great interest. Likewise, the fact that anoth~ prominent figure in the final controversy was Priestley~ a Unitarian clergyman, who was made an honorarycit~en by the French Assembly and then fled to America. in the very year of Lavoisier's execution to escape a reactionary English mob, adds zest to the story. There is no lac\.ol material to connect science with society in the lat~ eighteenth century, though the connection I think is, more dramatic than significant; at all events, for keeping up students' interest it can hardly be surpassed. The Classic Experiment on the Role of Oxygen in Combustion
The chemical revolution took place during the years
177g,-78. By the later date Lavoisier had made Qlear to'
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"-f'nteenth century were looking-to overthrow it or dis· Pfi:>:ve it. Rather, they were interested in reconciling one ,.~~~Qtlvenient set of facts with what seemed -from their {,!:,F-Qi'nt of view an otherwise admirable conceptual scheme. ;r~~w' they twisted and squirmed to accommodate the '(/\,inerely to outline a method of approach to an impotf~I!;~i ,~problem. No one can be a dogmatist about a cours~rW~¢ll(~0 :. ,~,fhas never yet been offered. I can only hope that a gro~;~f~j '. " '·,skillful teachers may in different colleges find some~~/~:. , ,;::~.. ;in'my proposal. It will be for those men and women"
:121
•.
·us~, A~P. A history o/mechanical inventions. New Yorkft.1}~9.," ·Pp.63-'64, 8 5 - 9 4 . '
..'
'''WESTCOTr, G. F. [Science 'Museum; South Kensington.] Han4boo~ of the collections illustrating pumping machinery. Part.I._His,,·. torical notes. Lond,on, 1932. Pp. 34-42, 81-82. Part 2. Des(:!'q;,1:iY¢ . catalogue. London, 1933. Pp. 28-29, 167-168. . . . See also Wolf, pp. 512 II.
3. The Achievement of GaliIeo, Torricelli, and Their FollowefJf . DUTr, G. S. "The elIect of the discovery of the barometer ,on. con" temporary thought," Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSQde~ of. Canada, XXXVIII (1944), 7-20.
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Dialogues concerning two new sciences. Ti~l:xs~ lated by Henry Crew and Alfonso De Salvio. New York,19i.{.Pp;. 1~ II. . -'" , The original edition is out of print, but a reprint was UIli(leJ~' . _ . 4939,reissued in 1946, by the Editorial Board of Northwestei~·_;V:l'lJ,... '~'i':';v~!=sity Studies, Evanston and Chicago, I l l i n o i s . ' GALILEI; GALn.EO.
',.LoRIA, GINO, and VASSURA, GIUSEPPE (editors). Opere de .Euangf1-··. . ··listaTorricelli. Faenza, 1919. 3 v o l s . · '. -',.. The description of the Torricellian experiment occurs in alett~· ,. ;~'~~ttenby TorriceIli to Michelangelo Ricci in Rome from Floiet:lF~'L ".~~ j~tJ~ iI, 1644. Ricci's reply is dated Rome, June 18, 1644t .at,td* ,:;-'l'9rricelli's answer to Ricci's comments is dated Florence, J'Ilft~!iS] .' '~,j;i.44. These letters are printed in the Opere; III, 186-188, '189;-~9€l~ ," . .1Jl!a---a()I. They do not mention the name of Viviani, whose ilantJ:l:. ili, ' , ;. Also in MOULTON, F. R .. and 5cHIFFERS, J. The autobiography of science. New York, 1945. Pp. 145-153'
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'·~.P.51. I follow Wolf, p. 93, who states: "A water-barometer was whether independently or (Experimenta Nova, etc., ,.;j,.'f):?~l.. ae found that it was possible, by means of an exhausted re_.~iv~,·to raise water by suction from the ground level to the third _',oci!(iJ"i:y:cifhis house, but not to the fourth story." Pascal had earlier .• :~~tPefore .1647) likewise constructed a water barometer. .' :'~tJcted by Otto von Guericke, but "\~:-;jmitation of Torricelli is uncertain
'~;_c:9{P. ,1;2. Magie, pp. 80-84, gives an extract (in translation) hom '",'$lGuericke's book first published in 1672 (the experiments were '... Jl~rmed much before this date, certainly before 1654). This extra.ct . ""'~~,:ex(!ell~nt for the use of students but is very brief.
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NOTES, CHAPTER TWO
131
••. The concept of molecule as used to explain physical and chemical phenomena appears to be in possession of all these marks." This was written in 1907 and shows the difficulty of applying these ai, teria: there are very few today who would agree that the con~pt . of the molecule was unverifiable. On the other hand the' concept' . of the ether as a medium for the transmission of electrical (an& light) waves would be so regarded. See note, Chapter 1. 16. P. 58. P. w. Bridgman, The Logic of Modern Physics (New York, 1927). Philipp Frank (loc. cit., p. 4) has written "The misinterpretation of scientific principles, as will be shown, can be avoideq if, in every statement found in books on physics or chemistry. one is careful to distinguish an experimentally testable assertion a@ut observable facts from a proposal to represent the facts in a certaiu way by word or diagram. If this distinction is sharply drawn, thet~ will no longer be any room for the interpretation of physics in favor of a spiritualistic or materialistic metaphysics." See also "Foundations of Physics" by the same author in International Encyclopedia Of Unified Science, Vol. I, NO.7 (Chicago,_ 1946).
17. P. 60. "Defence," Chapter V. An extract of this communication is given in Magie, p. 8{, as is also an extract from Mariotte~ . work on the same subject published in 1676. Mariotte's work Was independent of Boyle's and the relation between volume and pres~ sure of a gas is often called Mariotte's Law, or the Law of· Boyle and Mariotte, especially in Europe. These extracts are almost ideal for use in a course in the Tactics and Strategy of Science; indee'dj·.a; large portion of both of Boyle's books on the "spring of the ~,., would be suitable, though the exposition is by modern stand~ very long-winded and copious footnotes are required to maketh!} matters presented intelligible to the average student. ' 18. Pp. 64~. "Defence," Chapter V, the whole of which is well. worth reading.
19. P. 66. See Expt. XXI in Boyle's "Spririg of the Air"(Goll~cted. Works, London, 1772) "that the air hath a notable elasticalpowet' (whencesoever that proceeds) we have I suppose abundantly evinced: - But whether or no there be in water so much as a languid on~. seems hitherto to have been scarce considered, nor hath been yet, for aught I know, determined either way by any writer." 20. P. 6g. On the relation of Puritanism to the development of experimental science see "Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England" by R. K. Merton, Osiris, IV (1938),414"'"470;,
Ancients and Moderns, A Study of the Background of the "Battle.
of Books," by
R. F. Jones (St. Louis, 1935), and the writings on the history of science by Miss Dorothy Stimson (in particular Bulletin~ Institute of the History of Medicine, III [May 1935], 321). 21.
P. 70. An explanation of why Oxford rather than Cambridge
:~;~~~;:t~:O;',ii~'~E.~i~"t~N~JNct ~~g~" Was';tne ~-of$e new- experiltlefital ji~Qs~t for abrlc.£period' i
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,;),~ ~ti ~redby
the author in a papet on':The AdVaIicement Q~- •. Co~onwealth," "Proceedings of the ", HlStOf'lcal Society, LXVI (19411), pp. 3-81. " '.,
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CHAPTER THREE: BibliogTaphy
•• ,'i'heBackground and History of the Work of Galvani and, of
V-on.. '
~IO~, MARIO. L'elettrologia fino al Yolta. Naples, n.d. (preface II vols. ',~pter XVI is devoted to Galvani, chapter XVII to Volta •
.
. -:dated 1937).
.' ....~rlifcipien. Leipzig, 18g8. . ~ -0:0--- -
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"The detection and' estimation of e1~ , Charges in the eighteenth century," Annals of Science, I (193i;j.-
W.
CAMERON.
.
~loo.
...- W~ W. CAMERON. "Animal electricity before Galvani," Annal$;' OfScienee, II (1937), 84-113.
-
.FJn;'tbN, JOHN F .. and CUSHING,HAIlwv. "A bibliographical study ..~.: ..- - -1lf'tbe. GaIvani and the Aldini writings OD animal electri~ty:p~~ ~_: :~: ~ • ~,AnJlals of Science, I (1936), 113g-S168. cGAL'Y'.un~ LWGI. De viribw electricitatis :11Je~tarius. Bologna, 1791.
in motu musculari co#&- .. ~., :
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.iJtBLIOGRAPUi';clUPTER THllEE
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. TWSwork was published in 1791 "as o~e o£the'Opusclila' ipijrec , p:rO¢eedingsof the Bologna Academy, i.e., De Bononien$isCie~f.Uifl; , ., ·et 4rtiuminstituto atque academia;" '1791, VII,363-41S.It wasiS$:tte~::r separately in two printings in the same year. In the Fulton~C~shi~o" bibliography, one can find bibliographical descriptions. oitlie t)lao,y' Latin editions, the two German translations,and the extract tt~· ., ~ lated" into Italian. Short portions of this classic have been .~- :'~'. " . la:tedinto English and appear in Magie and Potamian-Wal$,,~~!J·' ... Jl;ngHsh qanslation and facsimile edition is at present being-prepu~,:" 'for publication by Helen Lewis Thomas and I. Bernard CI:~hejj;.~ . wiIli;>e published by the Burndy Library, New York City. . ' .
tsJ§.··.·.·.,
,SARTON, GEORGE. "The discovery of the electric cell (1800),~ , XV (1931), 124 ff. ' .• ', . Contains a facsimile reprint of Volta's paper with commentS.,' .'-
~~-;~
VOLTA, ALEsSANDRO. "On the electricity excited bythemel'e.c9n~~(: tact of conducting substances of different kinds,"PhilosophiCal" ... . Transactions, (IS00), pp. 403-431. '.' .... ,', ........ . 'This is Volta's classic memoir, in which he describes the coriSO:~!:r" .::!.~ "Ji(>nand operation of the battery. The original is in theformof:~. , ;let:~er to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society of Lon-ql:lll:An:exceilent translation of this important document has .~. $'a~ . .' :()¥,E:C. Watson and appears in the American Journal Qf PhySics,,: '",m'(I94!i), 397-406. . . . : .. ,~·i! '$h9rt extracts from both Galvani's and Volta's works appear; in' ,_~e. A.Source book in physics. New York. 1935· PP"~48~.· '> :' B.. Roentgen
~d
•.
the Discovery of X rays; N rays.
,:8'AJU(ER;~. GEORGE F .• translator and editor~ Rontgenrays,memi1ir,Sc' 'f;~ . by Rontgen, Stokes, and J. J. Thomson. New York, 1899;tj
GLAssER. OTTO. Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen and the early Iiiit1)#j '~jt of the
ro~ntgen
rays. Springfield. Ill., 1984.
',~
.
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Doctor Wood. New York, 1941. Pp. 2IDJ:--2'4Q' .describe. R. A. Wood's exposure of Blondlot's N' rays .. See. alSo Nature, LXX (1904).530. . ,
~ROOK,WILLIAM.
-4 The Background of the Phlogiston Theory. "-
..
- -
HOLM YARD. E. J. "Chemistry to the time of Dalton." London-..,. 1925~ Chapters in the History of science, III. "HoLMYARD. E.
J. Makers of cMmistry.
Oxford. 1931.
K.o:pp,H~ Gescbichte der Chemie. Braunschweig.1S43-4'7.
pririted,Leipzig. 1931.4 vots. LoWRY, T.M. Historical introduction to chemistry. 3d ed, Lo,ild[ollcZ: . {936•
" ",'"
" 134
ON UNnE.RSTA~DING SCIENCE
McKm, DOUGLAS. "The Hon. Robert Boyle's Essay of Effluviums," Science Progress, XXIX (1934), 253. ff. D. "Cherubin D'Orleans: a critic of Boyle," Science Progress, XXXI (1936), 55 ft.
'~cKm,
METZGER, HELENE. Les doctrines chimiques en France. Paris, 1923. METZGER, H. Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la doctrine chimique. _Paris, 1930. PARTINGTON, J. R. A short history of chemistry. London, 1939. ,PARTINGTON, J. R. and McKm, DOUGLAS. "Historical studies on the phlogiston theory. I. The levity of phlogiston," Annals of Science, II (1937), 361-404; "II. The negative weight of phlogis· ton," ibid., III (1938), 1-58. "III. Light and heat in combustion," ibid., III (1938), 337-371. "IV. Last phases of the theory," ibid., IV (1939), 113'149.
-VON MEYER, ERNST. A history of chemistry from earliest times to the present day. Translated by George McGowan. 3d ed. Lon· don, 1906. WHITE, J. H. The history of the phlogiston theory. London,1932.
5. The Work of Lavoisier and Priestley. AYKROYD, W. R. Three philosophers (LavOisier, Priestley, and Cavendish). London, 1935. BERTHELOT, M. La revolution chimique; Lavoisier. Paris, 1890. COCHRANE, J. A. Lavoisier. London, 1931. I
Lavoisier, d'apres sa correspondence, ses manuscrits, ses papiers de famille et d'autres documents int!dits. 2d" ed. Paris, 18g6.
GRIMAUX, EDOUARD.
HARTOG, SIR PHILIP J. "The newer views of Priestley and Lavoisier," Annals of Science, V (1941), 1-56. HARTOG, SIR PHlLlP. "Joseph Priestley and his place in the histoq of science," Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1931), pp. 1-36• HOLT, ANNE. A life of Joseph Priestley. London, 1931. With an introduction by F. W. Hirst. ' McKm, DOUGLAS. Antoine Lavoisier, the father Of modern chem·' istry. London, 1935.
The eighteenth century revolution in science-the first phase. London, 1929.
Mm.nRUM, ANDREW NORMAN.
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:~.':'Idsa:, .c. ;.; .when the sky was clear and fair, I thought that the origin oftI:tes~ .! . ~ toPtr.lCtions might be found in the changes which nevertheless were ~- ..• '. -'!:'Ping on in the atmospheric electricity.•.• Thus I observed .:it·:,;"'-. .... ~trerent .hours and indeed for days at .a time suitably arrangea';:C'""'; "1l~, but scarcely ever did a: motion of the muscles 0CCiir~:~>';' ~"'
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. Finally; tired of this useless waiting, I began to squeeze anel press _ the hooks which were fastened in the spinal cord against the iron grating, in order to see whether such an artifice might excite the contraction of the muscles and whether instead of its depending on , the condition of the atmosphere and its electricity any other change -.. -arid alteration might have an influence. I quite often observed contractions, but none which depended upon the different conditions of the atmosphere and its electricity. "As I had observed these contractions only in the open air ••• .. there seemed to be little lacking to my argument and I might have referred such contractions to the atmospheric electricity which enters the animal and accumulates there and suddenly leaves it when the ·hook is brought· in contact with the iron grating. So easy is it to deceive oneself in experimenting, and to think that we have seen _ and found that which we wish to see and find. (Italics mine.
J..B.q "But when I transferred the animal to a closed room, had laid it - - on an .iron plate, and begun to press the hook which was in the spinal cord against the plate, behold, the same contractions, the same motions! I repeated the experiment by using other metals at .. other places and on other hours and days; with the same result; only that the contractions were different when different metals were used, being more lively for some and more sluggish for the others." Reprinted by permission from A Source Book in Physics by W. F. Magie, copyrighted, 1935, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 4. P. 75. On the use of the word hypothesis, see note, Chapter 2. The phrase "working hypothesis" seems to me a useful one and sufficiently definite to avoid some of the difficulties often encountered ·with the words hypothesis and theory. A "working hypothesis"·1S. little more than the common-sense procedure used by all of us every day. Encountering certain facts, certain alternative explanations come to mind and we proceed to test them. Nowadays this is done by millions of people in connection with complex situationsJrivolving mechanics and electricity. The procedure of the electriciab (or the handy husband) determining which fuse is blown out is exactly the procedure of the experimental scientist during a large fraction of his profitable working hours. It is also a procedure ~hich must have been instructive for the cave man in certain situations or he would never have survived. There is a difference in degree amounting to one in kind between the use of the working - hypothesis and the construction of a new conceptual scheme (also often called an hypothesis at first). A conceptual scheme (such as the idea of the atmosphere as something exerting pressure on water causing it to rise) may be considered an hypothesis on a grand scale. If the hypothesis proves fruitful it may be given the name theory or be accepted as a "fact." I·have avoided the use of the word theory except where it has become an accepted part of the language of science as "kinetic theory of gases" and the "phlogiston theory." The
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~,P.IIo. WIlhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1.9118). P , - - ' '", -, ~bu;t'g at the time of his famous experiment; laterP _ ics ~t MUl),ich. The announcement of his discovery . '~:¥-:;~tiiapapei' entitled "Ueber eine neue Art von Strahlen" """ '~;';:'b.,i1rich'tttder Wiirzburger Physikalischen-Medizinischen G« ,__ " -:,)t ,(:~';H}~:ber, 1895. If this case history is used; the instru¢torilJ~:r~~~ ":":-~ cOnsider giving an account of the announcement of N ;ra-F';ani{.:, ';;:~,lc.!iubsequerit disproof of their existeilce. The false leadsiJi ~Ci..~{, ~ ,;i;;;'\"3l'Jrti!.te1y recorded or examined; but their study can lead'~~Uclh",;' :,[~t',1::tiOnabout the principles of the Tactics and ~~~~~~_\:~_,~
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'li~ce.There are, of course, plenty of bQrder-line cases, parti£~:}fIoceSs liecause. as he said, oxygen was taken away from it, not ..phlogi!!tonadded.) Now it so happened that when carbon monoxide w~discovered in'1776. thi!! substance became thoroughly confusect ..Mtilbydrogen; they were, both considered to be the same "inflam'-~ble air." Therefore. when Priestley said. in 1786 that Lavoisier i(iQ.1;!tiinot explain why "inflammable ,air" was obtained either fr~m'lClhij:ooal by heating in a vacuum with.a burning glass or by heating ''Steam ,with a metal. he, was right. For the two inflammable gases . w¢[e in fact totally differentl Yet see how nicely this error fitted
',' '
NOTES, CHAPTER THREE
·141;
,the book of those who were fighting a rear-guard action in defetlse of phlogiston. Charcoal was rich in phlogiston. they said.· SQ on· heating it in vacuo. phlogiston came off either by itself 01' united , with water (the explanation here seemed to vary). that is, ~ inflammable air was formed. And since this same air (flO it was,· thought) formed water when burned with "dephlogj,sticated. Qk:,uwhy water naturally could be phlogisticated still more wheh h~' with a metal. thereby forming the dephlogisticated metal or a CabG. ' It is remarkable how. when you once get hold of the wrong end of" even a scientific stick. you cannot let it go. Priestley's challenge to Lavoisier may be summarized as fellows: Charcoal plus heat yielded inflammable air. Metal plus 'steam. yielded inflammable air plus calx. If inflammable air was phl~" plus water since both charcoal and metal contained phlogistoft'~ _was as it should be (some water would be present in the charOOlJ.t too). If the two inflammable airs are the same (which no onetbim questioned) how could their formation be explained wiUJ,out 't,he; idea of phlogiston? In modem times the facts were actuallyul: follows: Charcoal heated yielded carbon monoXide (a small aJilOunt of oxygen was always present). iron and steam yielded· h~ plus iron oxide.
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11~ DEX.'i;/-~~~c I,'~A~MIA '. ' ," ,",' DEL'clMENTO ,''•
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