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4. If g = a 1 t 1 2+ ... + a4k42 is isotropic, then so also is f. If g is anisotropic then, since F is of type ( B ) ,it is universal and represents - U S . This proves the first part of the proposition. We already know that Q p is a Hilbert field and we have already shown, after the proof of Corollaly VI.17, that Qp is not an ordered field. Hence Qp is a Hilbert field of type (B). Proposition 10 shows that two non-singular quadratic forms in n variables, with coefficients from a Hilbert field of type (A), are equivalent over F if and only if they have the same positive index. We consider next the equivalence of quadratic forms with coefficients from a Hilbert field of type (B). We will show that they are classified by their determinant and their Hasse invariant. If a non-singular quadsatic form f, with coefficients from a Hilbei-t field F , is equivalent to a diagonal form a1512+ ... + a,52, then its Hasse invariant is defined to be the product of Hilbert symbols ~ l ; ( f= )
nl< j 2 and either the sum of the first and third terms is nonzero or the sum of the second and third terms is nonzero. Hence we may suppose without loss of generality that a12(u1,u1)+ ~ 2 ~ ( ~ 2# ,0.~ 2 )
If we put v1 = alul
+ a2u2, v2 = u1 + bu2, vj = uj
for 3 I j I n,
where b = - al(ul,ul)/a2(u2,u2), then % = {vl,...,vn} is an orthogonal basis and u l ' = v1 + a3v3 + ... + a,vp.
T h u s p ( a 1 ) 2. Since the Hilbert symbol is symmetric, the product JJlgj,ksn(aj,ak)F is independent of the ordering of al,...,a,. It follows from Lemma 32 that we may restrict attention to the case where a1t12 + a2522is equivalent to b1t12 + b2t22and
365
2. The Hilbert symbol
But this follows from the multiplicativity of the Hilbert symbol and the fact that ala2 and blb2 are in the same square class. Proposition 33 shows that the Hasse invariant is well-defined. PROPOSITION 34 Two non-singular quadratic forms in n variables, with coefficients from
a Hilbertfield F of type ( B ) , are equivalent over F if and only if their determinants are in the same square class and they have the same Hasse invariant. Proof Only the sufficiency of the conditions needs to be proved. Since this is trivial for n = 1, we suppose first that n = 2. It is enough to show that if
where (a,adjF = (b,bQF,then f is equivalent to g. The hypothesis implies (- d , ~= )(- ~d,b)F and hence (- d,ab)F = 1. Thus El2 + dt22 represents ab and f represents b. Since det f and det g are in the same square class, it follows thatf is equivalent to g. Suppose next that n 2 3 and the result holds for all smaller values of n. Let f ( t l , ...,tn) and g ( q l ,...,qn) be non-singular quadratic forms with det f = det g = d and sF(f)= sF(g). By Proposition 3 1, the quadratic form
is isotropic and hence, by Proposition 7, there exists some al
E
FXwhich is represented by
both f and g. Thus
f - alt12 +.P?g - air l 2 + g*, where = a2k22 + ... + antn2, g* = b2qZ2+ ... + b,qn2.
Evidently detf* and det g* are in the same square class and sF(f)= csF(rC),s&) = cSF(g*), where
c = ( ~ ~ , a ~ . -=a (al,al)F ,)~ (al,QF = ( ~ ~ , b ~ . . .=b c'. ,)~ Hence s F F )= sF(g*). It follows from the induction hypothesis t h a t p - g*, and so f
- g.
366
VII. The arithmetic of padratic f o r m
3 The Hasse-Minkowski theorem Let a,b,c be nonzero squasefree integers which are relatively prime in paiss. It was proved by Legendse (1785) that the equation
has a nontrivial solution in integers x,y,zif and only if a,b,c are not all of the same sign and the congruences u2=-bcmodu, v2=-cumodb, w2=-abmodc are all soluble. It was first completely proved by Gauss (1801) that evely positive integer which is not of the form 4l1(8k+ 7) can be represented as a sum of three squares. Legendre had given a proof, based on the assumption that if a and n7 are relatively prime positive integers, then the arithmetic progression a, u
+ nz, a + 2nz, ...
contains infinitely inany primes. Although his proof of this assumption was faulty, his intuition that it had a role to play in the arithmetic theory of quadratic forms was inspired. The assumption was first proved by Dirichlet (1837) and will be referred to here as 'Dirichlet's theorem on primes in an arithmetic progression'. 111the present chapter Dirichlet's theorem will simply be assumed, but it will be proved (in a quantitative form) in Chapter X. It was shown by Meyer (1884), although the published proof was incomplete, that a quadsatic form in five or more variables with integer coefficients is isotropic if it is neither positive definite nor negative definite. The preceding results are all special cases of the Husse-Minkowski theorem, which is the subject of this section. Let Q denote the field of rational numbers. By Ostrowski's theorem (Proposition VI.4), the coinpletions Q,of Q with respect to an arbitray absolute value I , 1 are the field Q, = R of real numbers and the fields Qp of p-adic numbers, where p is an arbitrary prime. The Hasse-Minkowski theorem has the following statement:
A rzon-singular quadratic form fTcl,...,c,) vt~itlzcoefficierzts from a11d only if it is isotropic ill every conlpletion of Q.
Q is isotropic
in Q
if
This concise statement contains, and to some extent conceals, a remarkable amount of information. (Its equivalence to Legendre's theorem when n = 3 may be established by
3. The Hasse-Minkowski theorem
367
elementary arguments.) The theorem was first stated and proved by Hasse (1923). Minkowski (1890) had derived necessary and sufficient conditions for the equivalence over Q of two nonsingular quadratic forms with rational coefficients by using known results on quadratic forms with integer coefficients. The role of p-adic numbers was taken by congruences modulo prime powers. Hasse drew attention to the simplifications obtained by studying from the outset quadratic forms over the field Q, rather than the ring H,and soon afterwards (1924) he showed that the theorem continues to hold if the rational field 69 is replaced by an arbitrary algebraic number field (with its corresponding completions). The condition in the statement of the theorem is obviously necessary and it is only its sufficiency which requires proof. Before embarking on this we establish one more property of the Hilbert symbol for the field 69 of rational numbers.
PROPOSITION35 For any a,b E Q X ,the number of conzpletions Q , for which (a,b), = - 1 (where v denotes either
or an arbitrary prime p) is finite and even.
Proof By Proposition 23, it is sufficient to establish the result when a and b are square-free integers such that ab is also square-free. Then (a,b), = 1 for any odd prime r which does not divide ab, by Proposition 25. We wish to show that n,(a,b), = 1. Since the Hilbert symbol is multiplicative, it is sufficient to establish this in the following special cases: for a = - 1 and b = - 1,2,p; for a = 2 and b = p ; for a = p and b = q, where p and q are distinct odd primes. But it follows from Propositions 24, 25 and 27 that
Hence the proposition holds if and only if
Thus it is actually equivalent to the law of quadratic reciprocity and its two 'supplements'. We are now ready to prove the Hasse-Minkowski theorem:
,...,cn)
THEOREM36 A non-singular quadratic form f ( t l with rational coefficients is isotropic in Q if and only if it is isotropic in every completion Q,.
368
VII. The arithmetic of quadraticforms
Proof We may assume that the quadratic form is diagonal:
where ak E Q X (k = 1,...,n). Moreover, by replacing kk by rkck, we may assume that each coefficient ak is a square-free integer. The proof will be broken into three parts, according as n = 2, n = 3 or n 2 4. The proofs for n = 2 and n = 3 are quite independent. The more difficult proof for n 2 4 uses induction on
n and Dirichlet's theorem on primes in an arithmetic progression. (i) n = 2: We show first that if a E QX is a squase in QVx for all v, then a is already a square in QX. Since a is a square in QmX,we have a > 0. Let a = nppap be the factorization of a into powers of distinct primes, where apE Zand ap# 0 for at most finitely many pi-imes p. Since [alp=P-"P and a is a square in Qp, % must be even. But if al, = 2P, then a = b2, where b=
nppPp.
Suppose now that f = a1C12+ a2tz2is isotropic in Q, for all v. Then u : = - ala2 is a square in Q, for all v and hence, by what we have just proved, a is a square in Q. But if a = b2, then ala22+ a2b2 = 0 and thus f is isotropic in Q. (ii) n = 3: By replacing f by - a3fand theorem for
t3by a3k3,we see that it is sufficient to prove the
f = at2 + bq2 - 52,
where a and b are nonzero square-free integers. The quadsatic form f is isotropic in Q, if and only if (a,b), = 1. If a = 1 o r b = 1, then f is certainly isotropic in Q. Since j'is not isotropic in Q, if a = b = - 1, this proves the result if lab1 = 1. We will assume that the result does not hold for some pair a,b and derive a contradiction. Choose a pair a,b for which the result does not hold and for which lab1 has its minimum value. Then a # 1, b z 1 and lab1 2 2. Without loss of generality we may assume la1 5 lbl, and then lbl 2 2. We are going to show that there exists an integer c such that c2 a mod b. Since b is a product of distinct primes, it is enough to show that the congruence x2 z a mod p is soluble for
+
each grime p which divides b (by Corollary 11.38). Since this is obvious if a = 0 or 1 mod p, we may assume that p is odd and a not divisible by p. Then, since f is isotsopic in Qp, ( ~ , b =) ~1. Hence a is a squase mod y by Proposition 25. Consequently there exist integers c,d such that a = c2 - bd. Moreover, by adding to c a suitable multiple of b we may assume that Icl I 1b1/2. Then
3. The Hasse-Minkowski theorem
and d z0, since a is square-free and a z 1. We have
bd(aS2 + bq2 - 6 2 )
=
ax2 + dY2 - 22,
where
X = cc + 6, Y = bq, Z = a t
+ cc.
Moreover the linear transformation c,q,< + X,Y,Z is invertible in any field of zero characteristic, since c2 - a # 0. Hence, since f is isotropic in Q , for all v , so also is g = a t 2 + dq2 - (2. Since f is not isotropic in Q , by hypothesis, neither is g. But this contradicts the original choice off, since ladl < labl. It may be noted that for n = 3 it need only be assumed that f is isotropic in Q p for all primes p. For the preceding proof used the fact that f is isotropic in Q , only to exclude from consideration the quadratic form - 5 2 - q2 - (2 and this quadratic form is anisotropic also in
Q2, by Proposition 27. In fact for n = 3 it need only be assumed that f is isotropic in Q, for all v with at most one exception since, by Proposition 35, the number of exceptions must be even. (iii) n 2 4: We have
f = a1t12+ ... + ankn2, where a l ,...,a, are square-free integers. We write f = g - h, where
Let S be the finite set consisting of rn and all primes p which divide 2al...a,. By Proposition 7 , for each v E S there exists c, E Q,X which is represented in Q, by both g and h. We will show that we can take c, to be the same nonzero integer c for every v E S. Let v = p be a prime in S. By multiplying by a square in Q p X we may assume that cp =pEpcpt, where ~p = 0 or 1 and lcpllp= 1. If p is odd and if bp is an integer such that IcP - bP IP - 1 and the result holds for all smaller values of n. Choose some c E Q X which is represented by f in Q. Then f' certainly represents c in Q, and hence g represents c in Q,,, since g is equivalent to f over Q,. Since this holds for all v, it follows from Corollary 38 that g represents c in Q. Thus, by the remark after the proof of Proposition 2, f is equivalent over Q to a quadratic form c t l 2 + g*(52,...,5,). form cC12 +p(52,...,5,) and g is equivalent over Q to a q~~adratic Since f is equivalent to g over Q,, it follows from Witt's cancellation theorem t11at~(~~,...,4,> is equivalent to g*(52,...,5,1) over Q , . Since this holds for every v, it follows from the induction hypothesis t h a t p is equivalent to g* over Q,and so f is equivalent to g over Q.
COROLLARY 40 Two non-singular quadratic forms f and g in n variables with rational coeflicients are equivalent over the rational field Q i f and only if (i) (det,fl/(det g) is a square in QX, (ii) indf f = ind' g, (iii) sp(R = sJg) for every prime y .
Pmof This follows at once from Proposition 39, on account of Propositions 10 and 34. The strong Hasse principle (Theorem 36) says that a quadratic form is isotropic over the global field Q if (and only if) it is isotropic over all its local completions Q,. The weak Hasse
principle (Proposition 39) says that two quabatic forms are equivalent over Q if (and only if) they are equivalent over all Q,. These local-global pi.inciples have proved remarkably fruitful.
372
VII. The arithmetic of quadratic forms
They organize the subject, they can be extended to other situations and, even when they fail, they are still a useful guide. We describe some results which illustrate these remarks. As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the strong Hasse principle continues to hold when the rational field is replaced by any algebraic number field. Waterhouse (1976) has established the weak Hasse principle for pairs of quadratic forms: if over every completion Q, there is a change of variables taking both fito gl andf2 to g2, then there is also such a change of variables over Q. For quadratic forms over the field F = K(t) of rational functions in one variable with coefficients from a field K, the weak Hasse principle always holds, and the strong Hasse principle holds for K = R, but not for all fields K. The strong Hasse principle also fails for polynomial forms over Q of degree > 2. For example, Selmer (1951) has shown that the cubic equation 3x3 + 4y3 + 5z3 = 0 has no nontrivial solutions in Q, although it has nontrivial solutions in every completion Q,. However, Gusic' (1995) has proved the weak Hasse principle for non-singular ternary cubic forms. Finally, we draw attention to a remarkable local-global principle of Rumely (1986) for algebraic integer solutions of arbitrary systems of polynomial equations
with rational coefficients. We now give some applications of the results which have been established.
PROPOSITION 41 A positive integer can be represented as the sum of the squares of three integers if and only if it is not of the form 4nb, where n 2 0 and b = 7 mod 8. Proof The necessity of the condition is easily established. Since the square of any integer is congruent to 0,l or 4 mod 8, the sum of three squares cannot be congruent to 7 . For the same reason, if there exist integers x,y,z such that x2 + y2 + z2 = 4nb, where n 2 1 and b is odd, then x,y,z must all be even and thus ( ~ 1 2+) (~~ 1 2+) (~~ 1 2=) 4n-1b. ~ By repeating the argument n times, we see that there is no such representation if b = 7 mod 8. We show next that any positive integer which satisfies this necessary condition is the sum of three squares of rational numbers. We need only show that any positive integer a f 7 mod 8, which is not divisible by 4, is represented in Q by the quadratic form
For every odd prime y , f is isotropic in
QY,
by Corollary 26, and hence any integer is
represented in Q p by f, by Proposition 5. By Corollary 38, it only remains to show that f represents a in Q2. It is easily seen that if a such that
1,3 or 5 mod 8, then there exist integers x1,x2,x3E {0,1,2} x,2
+ x22 + x32 =
a mod 8.
Hence a-1(x12 + x22 + x32) is a square in Q2X and f represents a in Q2. Again, if a 2 or 6 mod 8, then a 2,6,10 or 14 mod 24 and it is easily seen that there exist integers x1,x2,x3E {0,1,2,3} such that
Hence a-1(x12+ x22 + x32) is a square in Q2x and f represents a in Q2. To complete the proof of the proposition we now show, by an elegant argument due to Aubry (1912),that iff represents c in Q then it also represents c in Z. Let (x,y)
=
( f ( ~+ Y ) -f(-x)
-fb)112
be the sy~nmetricbilinear fol-m associated withf, so that f(x) = (x,x),and assume there exists a point x E Q3 such that ( x j ) = c E Z. If x P Z3, we can choose z E Z3 SO that each coordinate of z differs in absolute value by at most 112 from the coil-esponding coordinate of x. Hence if we put y = x - z , then y # 0 and 0 < (y,y) I 314. If x' = x - Xy, where 3L = 2(x,y)/(Y,y),then x' y =x
-
E
Q3 and (x1,x?= (x,x) = c. Substituting
z, we obtain
If nz > 0 is the least common denominator of the coordinates of x. so that rnx E Z3, it follows that nz(y,y)xl = {(z,z)- c)}nis+ 2{nzc - (nzx,z)}zE Z3. But nz(y,y) = nz{(.x,x)- 2(x,z) + (z,z)} = nzc - 2(nzx-,z)+ nz(z,z) E Z. Thus if m' > 0 is the least common denominator of the coordinates of x', then rn' divides rn(y,y). Hence nz' I (3/4)m. If x' E Z3; we can repeat the argument with x replaced by x'. After performing the process finitely many times we must obtain a point x* E Z 3 such that (x*J*) = C . 01
VII. The arithmetic of quadratic forms
As another application of the preceding results we now prove
PROPOSITION42 Let n,a,b be integers with 11 and a positive. Then thew exists art n x n nonsingular rational matrk A such that
AtA
=
al,,
+ bJ,,
where J , is the n x n matrix with all entries 1, if and only i f a
(i) for n odd: a
(3)
+ bn > 0 and
+ bn is a square and the quadratic form a52 + (- l)(rN2nq2 - t;2
is isotropic in Q; (ii) for n even: a(a of two squares. Proof
+ bn) is a square and either 12 E 0 mod 4, or I! --= 2 mod 4 and a is a sum
Since det(AtA) = (det A)2 and det(a1,
+ b.T,,) = an-'(a + bn), by Lemma V.15, it is
necessary that a + bn be a nonzero square if n is odd and that a(a + bn) be a nonzero square if n is even. In either event, a
+ bn > 0.
If we put
then D: = BcB and E: = BtJB are diagonal matrices: D = diag [dl ,...,d,-l,n],
where dJ. = ju
+ 1) for 1 I j < n.
E = diag [0,...,0,n2],
Hence, if C = D-IB'AB, then CtDC = BtA'AB.
Thus the rational matrix A satisfies (3) if and only if the rational matrix C satisfies CtDC = aD + bE, and consequently if and only if the diagonal quadratic forms
3. The Hasse-Minkowski tlzeovem
ase equivalent over Q. We now apply Corollary 40. Since (det g)/(detfl = an-](a + bn), the condition that det gldet f be a square in QXreproduces the conditions already obtained that a + bn or a(a + bn) be a nonzero square. Evidently also ind'f = ind' g = n. The relation sP(g)= spV) takes the form nl< jadjIp IIl 0 there exist zl,...,zn E Z such that If(zl,...,2,) - a1 < E . (It is not difficult to show that this is not always true for 11 = 2.) Raghunathan (1980) made a general conjecture about Lie groups, which he obseived would imply Oppenheim's co~ljecture. Oppenheim's conjecture was then proved in this way by Margulis (1987), using deep results from the theory of Lie groups and ergodic theoiy. The full conjectiu-e of Raghunathan has now also been proved by Ratner (1991).
5 Further remarks Lam [I81 gives a good introduction to the arithmetic theory of quadsatic spaces. The Hasse-Minkowski theorem is also proved in Sene [29]. Additional infolmation is contained in the books of Cassels [4], Kitaoka [16],Milnor and Husetnoller [20], O'Meara [22] and Scharlau r281.
VII. The uritlrnzetic of qurrilrclticforms
Quadratic spaces were introduced (under the name 'metric spaces') by Witt 1321. This noteworthy paper also made several other contributions: Witt's cancellation theorem, the Witt ring, Witt's chain equivalence theorem and the Hasse invariant in its most general form (as described below). Quadratic spaces are treated not only in books on the asithmetic of quadratic forms, but also in works of a purely algebraic nature, such as Artin [I], Dieudonni [8] and Jacobson [15]. An important property of the Witt ring was established by Merkur'ev (1981). In one formulation it says that every element of order 2 in the Bmuel- group of a field F is represented by the Clifford algebra of some quadratic foim over F. For a clear account, see Lewis [19]. OLEdiscussion of Hilbert fields is based on Frohlich [9]. It may be shown that any locally compact non-aschiinedean valued field is a Hilbert field. Frohlich gives other examples, but lightly remarks that the notion of Hilbest field clarifies the structure of the theory, even if one is interested only in the p-adic case. (The name 'Hilbert field' is also given to fields for which Hilbert's in-educibility theorem is valid.) In the study of quadratic folms over an arbitruy field F, the Hilbert symbol (a,D I F) is a generalized quaternion algebra (more stsictly, an equivalence class of such algebras) and the Hasse invasiant is a tensor product of Hilbest symbols. See, for example, Lam [18]. Hasse's original proof of the Hasse-Minkowski theorem is reproduced in Hasse [13]. In principle it is the same as that given here, using a reduction argument due to Lagrange for n = 3 and Disichlet's theorem on primes in an aithmetic progression for 11 2 4. The book of Cassels contains a proof of Theorem 36 which does not use Dirichlet's theorem, but it uses intricate results on genera of quadratic forins and is not so 'clean'. However, Conway [6] has given an elementary approach to the eqlrivale~iceof quadratic forms over Q 2 (Proposition 39 and Corollary 40). The book of O'Meara gives a proof of the Hasse-Minkowski theorem over any algebraic number field which avoids Dirichlet's theorem and is 'cleaner' than ours, but it uses deep results from classfielci tlzeo~y.For the latter, see Cassels and Frolilich [5], Garbanati [lo] and Neukirch [2I]. To deter~nineif a rational quadratic form f(cl,,..,cn) = C ajk<Jk is isotropic by means of Theorem 36 one has to show that it is isotropic in infinitely many completions. Nevertheless, the problem is a finite one. Clearly one may assume that the coefficients aJkare
y,k=l
integers and, if the equation f(xl, ..,%)
=0
has a nontrivial solution in rational numbers, then it
also has a nontrivial solution in integers. But Cassels has shown by elementasy arguments that if f(xl, ...,xw)= 0 for some xJ E Z,not all zero, then the .u,may be chosen so that
5 . Further remarks
r,k=l
where H = C lajkl. See Lemma 8.1 of 141. Williams [31] gives a sharper result for the ternary quadratic form
where a,b,c are integers with greatest common divisor d > 0. If g(x,y,z) = 0 for some integers
x,y,z,not all zero, then these integers may be chosen so that
The necessity of the Bruck-RyserXhowla conditions for the existence of syrnrnebic block designs may also be established in a more elementary way, without also proving their sufficiency for rational equivalence. See, for example, Beth et al. [2]. For the non-existence of a projective plane of order 10, see C. Lam [17]. For various manifestations of the local-global principle, see Waterhouse 1301, Hsia 1141, Gusic' [12] and Green et al. [ l l ] . The work of Pfister instigated a flood of papers on the algebraic theory of quadratic fosms. The books of Lam and Scharlau give an account of these developments. For Hilbert's 17th problem, see also Pfister [23],[24] and Rajwade [25]. Although a positive integer which is a sum of n rational squares is also a sum of n squares of integers, the same does not hold for higher powers. For example,
m" +n4, since 94 > 5906, 2.74 < 5906 and 5906 - 84 = 1810 is not a fourth power. For the representation of a polynomial as a sum of squares of polynomials, see Rudin [27]. For Oppenheim's conjecture, see Dani and Margulis [7], Bore1 [3] and Ratner [26]. but there do not exist positive integers nz,n such that 5906
6
=
Selected References
[I] E. Artin, Geometric algebra, reprinted, Wiley, New York, 1988. 101iginal edition, 19571 [2] T. Beth, D. Jungnickel and H. Lenz, Design theory, 2nd ed., 2 vols., Cambridge University Press, 1999.
382
VII. The arithmetic of quadraticforms
[3] A. Borel, Values of indefinite quadratic forms at integral points and flows on spaces of lattices, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 32 (1995), 184-204. [4] J.W.S. Cassels, Rational quadratic forms, Academic Press, London, 1978. [5] J.W.S. Cassels and A. Frohlich (ed.), Algebraic number theory, Academic Press, London, 1967. [6] J.H. Conway, Invariants for quadratic forms, J. Number Theory 5 (1973), 390-404. [7] S.G. Dani and G.A. Margulis, Values of quadratic forms at integral points: an elementary approach, Enseign. Math. 36 (1990), 143-174. [8] J. Dieudonnk, La ge'ome'trie des groupes classiques, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1963. [9] A. Frohlich, Quadratic forms '& la' local theory, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 63 (1967), 579586. [lo] D. Garbanati, Class field theory summarized, Rocky Mountain J. Math. 11 (1981), 195225. [ I l l B. Green, F. Pop and P. Roquette, On Rumely's local-global principle, Jahresber. Deutsch. Math.-Verein. 97 (1995), 43-74. 1121 I. Gusic', Weak Hasse principle for cubic forms, Glas. Mat. Ser. 111 30 (1995), 17-24. [13] H. Hasse, Mathematische Abhandlungen (ed. H.W. Leopoldt and P. Roquette), Band I, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1975. [14] J.S. Hsia, On the Hasse principle for quadratic forms, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 39 (1973), 468-470. [15] N. Jacobson, Basic Algebra I, 2nd ed., Freeman, New York, 1985. [I61 Y. Kitaoka, Arithmetic of quadratic forms, Cambridge University Press, 1993. [17] C.W.H. Lam, The search for a finite projective plane of order 10, Amer. Math. Monthly 98 (1991), 305-318. [18] T.Y. Lam, The algebraic theory of quadratic forms, revised 2nd printing, Benjamin, Reading, Mass., 1980.
6 . Selected references
383
[19] D.W. Lewis, The Merkuryev-Suslin theorem, Irish Math. Soc. Newsletter 11 (1984), 29-37. [20] J. Milnor and D. Husemoller, Symmetric bilinear forms, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973. [21] J. Neukirch, Class field theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986. ] O.T. O'Meara, Introduction to quadratic forms, corrected reprint, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999. [Original edition, 19631 ] A. Pfister, Hilbert's seventeenth problem and related problems on definite forms,
Mathematical developments arising from Hilbert problems (ed. F.E. Browder), pp. 483-489, Proc. Symp. Pure Math. 28, Part 2, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, Rhode Island, 1976. [24] A. Pfister, Quadratic forms with applications to algebraic geometry and topology, Cambridge University Press, 1995. [25] A.R. Rajwade, Squares, Cambridge University Press, 1993. [26] M. Ratner, Interactions between ergodic theory, Lie groups, and number theory, Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians: Zurich 1994, pp. 157182, Birkhauser, Basel, 1995. [27] W. Rudin, Sums of squares of polynomials, Amer. Math. Monthly 107 (2000), 813-821. [28] W. Scharlau, Quadratic and Hermitian forms, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985. [29] J.-P. Serre, A course in arithmetic, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1973. 1301 W.C. Waterhouse, Pairs of quadratic forms, Invent. Math. 37 (1976), 157-164. [31] K.S. Williams, On the size of a solution of Legendre's equation, Utilitas Math. 34 (1988), 65-72. [32] E. Witt, Theorie der quadratischen Formen in beliebigen Korpern, J. Reine Angew. Math. 176 (1937), 31-44.
VIII
The geometry of numbers
It was shown by Hermite (1850) that if
f (x) = xfAx is a positive definite quadratic form in n real variables, then there exists a vector x with integer. coordinates, not all zero, such that f(x) I c,(det where c, is a positive constant depending only on 11. Minkowski (1891) found a new and more geometric proof of Hermite's result, which gave a much smaller value for the constant c,. Soon afterwards (1893) he noticed that his proof was valid not only for an n-dimensional ellipsoid f(x) I const., but for any convex body which was symmetric about the origin. This led him to a large body of results, to which he gave the somewhat paradoxical name 'geometry of numbers'. It seems fair to say that Minkowski was the first to realize the importance of convexity for mathematics, and it was in his lattice point theorem that he first encountered it.
1 Minkowski's lattice point theorem A set C c Rn is said to be convex if xlr% E C implies Ox1 + (1 - 8)x2 E C for 0 < 0 < 1. Geometrically, this means that whenever two points belong to the set the whole line segment joining them is also contained in the set. The indicatol-fitriction or 'characteristic function' of a set S c Rn is defined by ~ ( x =) 1 or 0 according as x E S or x e S. If the indicator function is Lebesgue integrable, then the set S is said to have volume
k(s) =
IR
n
x(X)
.
The indicator function of a convex set C is actually Riemann integrable. It is easily seen that if a convex set C is not contained in a hyperplane of R", then its interior int C (see 54 of
386
VIII. The geometry of numbers
-
Chapter I) is not empty. It follows that h(C) = 0 if and only if C is contained in a hyperplane, and 0 < h(C) < if and only if C is bounded and is not contained in a hyperplane.
A set S c Rn is said to be symmetric (with respect to the origin) if x E S implies - x E S. Evidently any (nonempty) symmetric convex set contains the origin. A point x = (cl, ...,c,) E R" whose coordinates cl, ...& are all integers will be called a lattice yoint. Thus the set of all lattice points in Rn is Zn. These definitions are the ingredients for Minkowski's lattice yoint tlzeorenz:
THEOREM1 Let C be a symmetric convex set in Rn. If h(C) > 2", or if C is compact and h(C) = 2,, then C contains a nonzero yoint ofZn. The proof of Theorem 1 will be deferred to $3. Here we illustrate the utility of the result by giving several applications, all of which go back to Minkowski himself. PROPOSITION 2 I f A is an nxn positive definite real symmetric matrix, then tlzere exists
a nonzero point x E Zn such that xtAx I c,(det A)lJy~, where c, = (4/n){(n/2)! }2In. Proof For any p > 0 the ellipsoid xrAx I p is a compact symmetric convex set. By putting A = TtT, for some nonsingular matrix T, it may be seen that the volume of this set is K,pnI2(det A)-lJ2, where
K,
is the volume of the n-dimensional unit ball. It follows from
A)-1/" Theorem 1 that the ellipsoid contains a nonzero lattice point if ~,p"/~(det
But, as
) ! , x! = T(x + 1). This gives the value c, we will see in $4 of Chapter IX, K , = ~ ~ / ~ / ( n / 2where for p.
-
It follows from Stirling's formula (Chapter IX, 54) that c, 211/7ce for n + -. Hermite had proved Proposition 2 with c, = (4/3)(+1)/2. Hermite's value is smaller than Minkowski's for n I 8, but much larger for large n. As a second application of Theorem 1 we prove Minkowski's linem-forms theorem: th -t 1. Then tlzere exists a PROPOSITION 3 Let A be an nxn real nzatrix ~ ~ i determinant nonzero point x E Zn such that Ax = y = (qk) satisfies
Proof For any positive integer m, let C,, be the set of all x E Rn such that Ax E D,,, where
1 . Minkowski's lattice point theorem
387
Then C , is a symmetric convex set, since A is linear and D, is symmetric and convex. Moreover h(Cm)= 2n(l + llm), since h(Dm)= 2n(l + l l m ) and A is volume-preserving. Therefore, by Theorem 1, C, contains a lattice point x, z 0. Since C, c C1 for all m > 1 and the number of lattice points in C1 is finite, there exist only finitely many distinct points x,. Thus there exists a lattice point x # 0 which belongs to C, for infinitely many m. Evidently x has the required properties. The continued fraction algorithm enables one to find rational approximations to irrational numbers. The subject of Diophantine approximation is concerned with the more general problem of solving inequalities in integers. From Proposition 3 we can immediately obtain a result in this area due to Dirichlet (1842): PROPOSITION 4 Let A = (ajk)be an nxm real matrix and let t > 1 be real. Then there
exist integers ql ,...,q,,pl ,...,p,, with 0 < max (lql1 ,...,lqml) < tnlm,such that
1C
ajkqk-pjl I llt (1 I j I n).
Proof Since the matrix
has determinant 1, it follows from Proposition 3 that there exists a nonzero vector
such that
lqkl < tnlm (k = 1 ,...,m ) , I C ? = l a j ~ k - p j l I llt
G = 1 ,...,n).
Since q = 0 would imply lpjl < 1 for all j and hence p = 0, which contradicts x
+ 0, we must
have maxk lqkl > 0.
COROLLARY 5 Let A
=
(ajk)be an nxm real matrix such that Az e Z n for any nonzero
vector z E Zm. Then there exist infinitely many (m+n)-tuples q l ,...,q,,pl,...g, with greatest common divisor 1 and with arbitrarily large values of
of integers
VIII. The geometry of numbers
388
Proof Let ql ,...,q,gl ,...,p, be integers satisfying the conclusions of Proposition 4 for some t > 1. Evidently we may assume that q l ,...,q,,pl,...,pn have no common divisor greater than 1. For given q l ,...,q,, let 6j be the distance of C ctjkqkfrom the nearest integer and put 6 = max 8j (1 Ij In). By hypothesis 0 < 6 < 1 , and by construction
Choosing some t' > 218, we find a new set of integers qll,...,qml,pl',...,pn' satisfying the same requirements with t replaced by t', and hence with 8' I llt' < 612. Proceeding in this way, we for which 6(") + 0 obtain a sequence of (rn + n)-tuples of integers ql("),...,q,(v),pl(v),...,p,(V) and hence + since we cannot have q ( ~=)q for infinitely many v.
I q(")I
00,
The hypothesis of the corollary is certainly satisfied if l , a j l ,...,aj, are linearly independent over the field Q of rational numbers for some j E { 1,...,n ) . Minkowski also used his lattice point theorem to give the first proof that the discriminant of any algebraic number field, other than Q, has absolute value greater than 1. The proof is given in most books on algebraic number theory.
2 Lattices In the previous section we defined the set of lattice points to be Zn. However, this definition is tied to a particular coordinate system in Rn. It is useful to consider lattices from a more intrinsic point of view. The key property is 'discreteness'. With vector addition as the group operation, Rn is an abelian group. A subgroup A is said to be discrete if there exists a ball with centre 0 which contains no other point of A. (More generally, a subgroup H of a topological group G is said to be discrete if there exists an open set
U c G such that H n U = { e ) ,where e is the identity element of G.) If A is a discrete subgroup of W, then any bounded subset of Rn contains at most finitely many points of A since, if there were infinitely many, they would have an accumulation point and their differences would accumulate at 0. In particular, A is a closed subset of Rn. PROPOSITION 6 Zfxl, ...jm are linearly independent vectors in Rn, then the set
is a discrete subgroup of Rn.
2. Lattices
389
Proof It is clear that A is a subgroup of Rn, since x,y E A implies x - y E A. If A is not discrete, then there exist y(V)E A with Iy(l)I> ly(*)l > ... and Iy(v)I -+ 0 as v + w. Let V be the vector subspace of Rn with basis XI,...J, and for any vector
This defines a norm on V. We have
k I m). Since any two norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are where c k ( V ) E Z (1 I k I m). Since C k ( ~ is ) an equivalent (Lemma VI.7), it follows that C k ( ~ )--+ 0 as v --+ (1 I integer, this is only possible if y(V)= 0 for all large V, which is a contradiction. The converse of Proposition 6 is also valid. In fact we will prove a sharper result: PROPOSITION 7 If A is a discrete subgroup of Rn, then there exist linearly independent
vectors XI,...J, in Rn such that
Furthermore, if yl, ...,y, is any maxinml set of linearly independent vectors in A, we cart choose xl ,...,x,, so that
where denotes the vector subspace generated by the set Y Proof Lee S1 denote the set of all al > 0 such that alyl E A and let p1be the infimum of all al E S1. We are going to show that y1 E S1. If this is not the case there exist a l ( ~ E ) S1 with al(l)> a1(2) > ... and al(v) + yl as v --+ m. Since the ball 1x1 5 (1 + pI)Iyll contains only finitely many points of A, this is a contradiction. Any al E S1 can be written in the foim al = ppl + 9, where p is a positive integer and 0 I 8 < y I. Since 9 > 0 would imply 9 E S1, contrary to the definition of y I , we must have 9 = 0. Hence if we put xl = plyl, then
VIII. The geometry of numbers
Assume that, for some positive integer k (1 Ik < m), we have found vectors XI,..& E A such that
el ck
A n = { c l x l + ... + ckxk: ,...,
E
Z).
We will prove the proposition by showing that this assumption continues to hold when k is replaced by k + 1. Any x E A n < ~ ~ , . . . , y ~has + ~ the > form
where al,...,ak+lE R. Let Sk+l denote the set of all ak+1> 0 which arise in such representations and let pk+l be the infimum of all ak+lE Sk+l. We will show that pk+1 E Sk+1. If pk+l 4 Sk+l, there exist ak+l(V) E Sk+l with a k + l (> l )ak+1(2) > .,. and ak+l(v) 4 pk+l as v + m. Then A contains a point
where
aj(v)E R (1 I j 5 k). In fact, by subtracting an integral linear combination of xl,...~k
we may assume that 0 I a j ( v )< 1 ( 1 5 j
< k).
Since only finitely many points of A are
contained in the ball 1x1 5 Ixll + ... + lxkl + (l+pk+l)lyk+ll,this is a contradiction. Hence pk+l > 0 and A contains a vector
As for S1, it may be seen that Sk+l consists of all positive integer multiples of pk+l. Hence any
x
E
A n < Y ~ , . . . , Y ~ +has ~ > the form
we must actually have cl,...,ck E Z. By being more specific in the proof of Proposition 7 it may be shown that there is a unique choice of x l , ...,xm such that
Y1 = P l G l Y2 = P21Xl
+ P22X2
2. Lattices
where p 'J E
Z,pll > 0, and 0 I plJ m d(A), or if S is compact and h(S) = m d(A), then there exist m
points
X~,...,X,+~
of S such that the diferences xj -xk (1 I j,k I m
+ 1 distinct
+ 1) all lie in A.
Proof Let bl,...,b, be a basis for A and let P be the half-open parallelotope consisting of all points x = O1bl + ... + O,bn, where 0 1 Oi < 1 (i = 1,...,n). Then L(P) = d(A) and
Suppose first that h(S) > m d(A). If we put
then Tz c P, L(Tz) = h(Sz) and VS) =
CZ,, US,).
Hence CzGAh(Tz)= h(S) > m d(A) = m h(P). Since Tz c P for every z, it follows that some pointy E P is contained in at least m + 1 sets Tz. On fact this must hold for all y in a subset of P of positive measure.) Thus there exist m + 1 distinct points zl,..., z,+~ of A and points x l,...J,+~ of S such that y = xj - zj (j = 1,..,m+l). Then X~,...J,+~ are distinct and
Suppose next that S is compact and L(S) = m d(A). Let {q,) be a decreasing sequence of positive numbers such that E, + 0 as v + m, and let Sv denote the set of all points of Rn distant at most E, from S. Then Sv is compact, h(Sv) > L(S) and
By what we have already proved, there exist m
+ 1 distinct points X~(~),...J,+~(~) of Sv such
that xj(V)- x ~ ( E~ )A for all j,k. Since Sv c S1 and S1 is compact, by restricting attention to a
394
VIII. The geometry of nnmbers
subsequence we may assume that xj(V) -+ xJ as v + 0' = 1,...,m+l). Then xj E S and - x ~ (+ ~ xj) - xk. Since xj(") - x ~ (E~A,) this is only possible if xj - xk = x,@) x ~ (for ~) x.(V) J -
all large v. Hence xl ,...J,,,~ are dstinct. Siege1 (1935) has given an analytic formula which underlies Proposition 9 and enables it to be generalized. Although we will make no use of it, this formula will now be established. For notational simplicity we restrict attention to the (self-dual) lattice A = Zn.
PROPOSITION10 If y: IWn + @ is a bourlded nieasurable function which vartishes outside some conryact set, then
Proof Since y, vanishes outside a compact set, there exists a finite set T c Z n such that y,(x + z ) = 0 for all x E R'Gf z E Zn\ T. Thus the sum defining $(x) has only finitely many nonzero terms and also is a bounded ineasurable function which vanishes outside some compact set. If we wsite
x = ...>5,,>> -. = < r l > . . . 7 i n > , then the sum defining $(x) is ullaltered by the substitution Cj in each of the variables
+ Cj + 1 and hence $ has period
cj 0'= 1,...,n). Let lldenote the fundamental parallelotope
Since the functions e2E'wrx (w
E
Z") are an orthogonal basis for L2(II), Parseval's equality
(Chapter I, 5 10) holds:
In l$(x)12 dx
=
ZwEZtz IcM,l2,
where C , =
In $ (x)e-2xiwr.~dx.
But c,. =
since e2"&
1
I,
1 for any integer k. Hence
,chi, y ( x
+ z)e-2"'~"
rlx
3. Proof of the lattice point theorem, and some generalizations
Substituting these expressions in Passeval's equality, we obtain the result. Suppose, in particular, that y~ takes only real nonnegative values. Then so also does $ and
On the other hand, omitting all terms with w # 0 we obtain
C wEzn16. w(x)e-2'"'x dx
IZ
2 ( j,,, ~ ( xdx)2. j
Hence, by Proposition 10, sup_
R,,
B(x) 2
~ ( xdx. )
For example, let S c_ Rn be a measurable set with h(S) > nz. Then there exists a bounded measurable set S'
c S with h(S'j > nz.
and we conclude that there exists y
E
If we take y~to be the indicator function of S', then
Rn such that
Since the only possible values of the su~nmandson the left are 0 and 1, it follows that there exist nz + 1 distinct points zl,...,z,,,~ E Zn = A such that y + z , ,...,y + z,, E S. The proof of Proposition 9 can now be completed in the same way as before. Let {K,} be a family of subsets of Rn, where each K, is the closure of a nonempty open set G,, i.e. K, is the intersection of all closed sets containing G,. The family {K,} is said to be a yackirlg of Rn if a # a' implies G , n G u t = 0 and is said to be a covering of Rn if
Rn = U,KW It is said to be a tiling of [W" if it is both a packing and a covering. For example, if Il is a fundamental parallelotope of a lattice A, then the family {II + a: a E A ) is a tiling of Rn. More generally, if G is a nonempty open subset of Rn with closure K, we may ask whether the family { K + a: a E A} of all A-translates of K is either a packing or a covering of Rn. Some necessary conditions may be derived with the aid of Proposition 9:
VIII. The geometry of numbers
PROPOSITION 11 Let K be the closure of a bounded nonempty open set G c Rn and let A be a lattice in Rn. If the A-translates of K are a covering of [Wn then h(K) 2 d(A), with strict inequality if they are not also a packing. If the A-translates of K are a packing of Rn then h(K) 5 d(A), with strict inequality if they are not also a covering. Proof Suppose first that the A-translates of K cover Rn.Then every point of a fundamental parallelotope II of A has the form x - a, where x E K and a E A. Hence
Suppose, in addition, that the A-translates of K are not a packing of distinct points x l j 2 in the interior G of K such that a = x l -x2
E
Rn. Then there exist
A. Let
We can choose E > 0 SO small that the balls BE+ xl and BE+ x2 are disjoint and contained in G. Then G' = G \ (BE+ xl) is a bounded nonempty open set with closure K' = K \ (int BE+ xl). Since BE+xl = B E + x 2 + a G K 1 + a , the A-translates of K' contain K and therefore also cover Rn.Hence, by what we have already proved, h(K') 2 d(A). Since h(K) > h(K'), it follows that h(K) > d(A). Suppose now that the A-translates of K are a packing of Rn.Then A does not contain the difference of two distinct points in the interior G of K, since G + a and G + b are disjoint if a,b are distinct points of A. It follows from Proposition 9 that
Suppose, in addition, that the A-translates of K do not cover Rn.Thus there exists a point
y E Rnwhich is not in any A-translate of K. We will show that we can choose E > 0 so small that y is not in any A-translate of K +BE. If this is not the case then, for any positive integer v, there exists a, E A such that
3. Proof of the lattice point theorem, and some generalizations
397
Evidently the sequence a, is bounded and hence there exists a E A such that a, = a for infinitely many v. But then y E K + a, which is contrary to hypothesis. We may in addition assume E chosen so small that 1x1 > 2~ for every nonzero x E A. Then the set S = G u (BE+ y) has the property that A does not contain the difference of any two distinct points of S. Hence, by Proposition 9, h(S) 5 d(A). Since
it follows that A(K) < d(A). 0 We next apply Proposition 9 to convex sets. Minkowski's lattice point theorem (Theorem 1) is the special case m = 1 (and A = kn) of the following generalization, due to van der Corput (1936):
PROPOSITION12 Let C be a symmetric convex subset of Rn, A a lattice in Rn with determinant d(A), and m a positive integer.
If h(C) > 2"m d(A), or if C is compact and h(C) distinct nonzero points
+ yl,...,+ y,
= 2nm d(A), then there exist 2m
of A such that
yj E C (1 l j l m ) , yj-yk E C ( l I j , k I m ) . Proof The set S = {x/2: x E C} has measure h(S) = X(C)/2n. Hence, by Proposition 9, there exist m + 1 distinct points X ~ , . . . J ~E+C~such that (xj -xk)/2 E A for all j,k. The vectors of Rn may be totally ordered by writing x > x' if the first nonzero coordinate of x - x' is positive. We assume the points X ~ , . . . , X E~ C+numbered ~ so that X1
Put yj
=
> X2 > ... > X m + l .
(xj - ~ , + ~ ) / 2 (j= 1,..., m).
Then, by construction, yj E A (j = 1,..., m). Moreover yj E C, since xl ,...,x,+~E C and C is symmetric, and similarly yj - yk = (xj - x&/2 E C. Finally, since
The conclusion of Proposition 12 need no longer hold if C is not compact and h(C) = 2"m d(A). For example, take A = k n and let C be the symmetric convex set
VIII. The geometry of numbers
Then d(A) = 1 and A(C) = 2%. However, the only nonzero points of A in C are the 2(m - 1) points (If: k,O ,...,0) (1 I k 4 m - 1). To provide a broader view of the geometry of numbers we now mention without proof some further results. A different generalization of Minkowski's lattice point theorem was already proved by Minkowski himself. Let A be a lattice in [W" and let K be a compact symmetric convex subset of [Wn with nonelnpty interior. Then pK contains no nonzero point of A for small p > 0 and contains rz linearly independent points of A for large p > 0. Let pi be the infimum of all p > 0 such that pK contains at least i linearly independent points of A (i = 1,...,1%). The successive nzininza pi= p,(K,A) evidently satisfy the inequalities
Minkowski's lattice point theorem says that
Minkowski's theorenz on successive nzirzin~astsengthens this to
The lower bound is quite easy to prove, but the upper bound is deeper-lying - notwithstanding simplifications of Minkowski's original proof. If A = Zn, then equality holds in the lower bound for the c~.oss-polytopeK = {(~l,...,kl,) E R": Cy=llkil I 1 } and in the upper bound for the cube K = {(cl,...,tn) E Rn: I 1 for all i]. If K is a compact symmetric convex subset of [W" with nonempty interior, its critical
Iti/
cleternzinant A(K) is defined to be the infimum of the determinant d(A) for all lattices A with no nonzero point in the interior of K. A lattice A for which d(A) = A(K) is called a critical lattice for K. It will be shown in $6 that a critical lattice always exists. It follows from Proposition 12 that A(K) 2 2-nA(K). A conjectured sharpening of Minkowski's theorem on successive minima, which has been proved by Minkowski (1896) himself for n = 2 and for n-dimensional ellipsoids, and by Woods (1956) for n = 3, claims that
The successive minima of a convex body are connected with those of its dual body. If K is a compact symmeuic convex subset of R" with nonempty interior, then its h a 1
K* = {y E Rn: ytx I 1 for all x E K )
3. Proof of the lattice point theorem, and some generalizations
has the same properties, and K is the dual of K*. Mahler (1939) showed that the successive minima of the dual body K* with respect to the dual lattice A* are related to the successive minima of K with respect to A by the inequalities
and hence, by applying Minkowski's theorem on successive minima also to K* and A*, he obtained inequalities in the opposite direction: pi(K,A)p,-i+l(K*,A*) I 4n/h(K)h(K*) (i = 1,...,n). By further proving that X(K)X(K*) 2 4n(n!)-2, he deduced that pi(K,A)pn-i+l(K*,A*) 5 (n!l2 (i = 1,..., n). Dramatic improvements of these bounds have recently been obtained. Banaszczyk (1996), using techniques from harmonic analysis, has shown that there is a numerical constant C > 0 such that, for all n 2 1 and all i E { 1,...,n),
He had shown already (1993) that if K = B1 is the n-dimensional closed unit ball, which is selfdual, then for all n 2 1 and all i E { 1,...,n),
This result is close to being best possible, since there exists a numerical constant C' > 0 and self-dual lattices An c Rn such that
Two other applications of Minkowski's theorem on successive minima will be mentioned here. The first is a sharp form, due to Bombieri and Vaaler (1983), of 'Siegel's lemma'. In his investigations on transcendental numbers Siege1 (1929) used Dirichlet's pigeonhole principle to prove that if A = (aj& is an mxn matrix of integers, where m in, such that I p for all j,k, then the system of homogeneous linear equations
has a solution x = (Ck) in integers, not all 0, such that
I 1 + (np)ml("-m) for all k. Bombieri
and Vaaler show that, if A has rank m and if g > 0 is the greatest common divisor of all mxm
400
VIII. The geometry of numbers
subdeterminants of A , then there are n - m linearly independent integral solutions xj = (cjk) = 1,...,n - m ) such that
n;~;IIxj1 5 [det (AA~)]112 ig ,
I JII
where x-. = maxk Itjk/. The second application, due to Gillet and SoulC (1991), may be regarded as an arithmetic analogue of the Riemann-Roch theorem for function fields. Again let K be a compact symmetric convex subset of Rn with nonempty interior and let pi denote the infimum of all
p > 0 such that pK contains at least i linearly independent points of Zn (i = 1,...,1 2 ) . If M ( K ) is the number of points of Zn in K, and if h is the maximum number of linearly independent points of Zn in the interior of K, then Gillet and SoulC show that k1... p,,JM(K) is bounded above and below by positive constants, which depend on n but not on K. A number of results in this section have dealt with compact symmetric convex sets with nonelnpty interior. Since such sets may appear rather special, it should be pointed out that they arise very naturally in connection with normed vector spaces. The vector space Rn is said to be normed if with each x E Rn there is associated a real number 1x1 with the properties (i) 1x1 2 0, with equality if and only if x = 0 , (ii) Ix + y ( l lx(+ lyl f o r a l l x , y ~Rn, (iii) 10x1 = la1 1x1 for all x E Rn and all a E R. Let K denote the set of all x E Rn such that 1x1 5 1. Then K is bounded, since all norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are equivalent. In fact K is compact, since it follows from (ii) that K is closed. Moreover K is convex and symmetric, by (ii) and (iii). Furthermore, by (i) and (iii), x/Ix-1 E K for each nonzero x E Rn. Hence the interior of K is nonempty and is actually the set of all x E Rn such that 1x1 < 1. Conversely, let K be a compact symmetric convex subset of Rn with nonempty interior. Then the origin is an interior point of K and for each nonzero x E Rn there is a unique p > 0 such that px is on the boundary of K. If we put 1x1 = p-1, and 101= 0, then (i) obviously holds. Furthermore, since I-xl = 1x1, it is easily seen that (iii) holds. Finally, if y E Rn and lyl = 0-1, then px,oy
E
po(p
K and hence, since K is convex,
+ o)-l(x + y)
= o(p
+ 0)-lpx + p(p + 0)-lay
Hence Ix
+rl 5
(P + o)/po = 1x1 + Irl.
E
K.
3. Proof of the lattice point theorem, and some generalizations
Thus Rn is a normed vector space and K the set of all x E Rn such that 1x1 I 1.
4
Voronoi cells Throughout this section we suppose Rn equipped with the Euclidean metric:
where lbll = (xtx)lD. We call lk/l2= xtx the square-norm of x and we denote the scalar product ytz by 6 , ~ ) . Fix some point xo E Rn. For any point x # xo, the set of all points which are equidistant from xo and x is the hyperplane H, which passes through the midpoint of the segment joining xo and x and is orthogonal to this segment. Analytically, H, is the set of ally E Rn such that
The set of all points which are closer to xo than to x is the open half-space G, consisting of all points y E Rn such that 2(x - x o , ~ ) < llx1I2 - llxol12. The closed half-space G, = H, u G, is the set of all points at least as close to xo as to x. Let X be a subset of R n containing more than one point which is discrete, i.e. for each y E Rn there exists an open set containing y which contains at most one point of X. It follows that each bounded subset of Rn contains only finitely many points of X since, if there were infinitely many, they would have an accumulation point. Hence for each y E Rn there exists an xo E X whose distance from y is minimal: d(xo,y) I d(x,y) for every x E X.
(1)
For each xo E X we define its Voronoi cell V(xo) to be the set of ally E Rn for which (1) holds. Voronoi cells are also called 'Dirichlet domains', since they were used by Dirichlet (1850) in R2 before Voronoi (1908) used them in Rn. If we choose r > 0 so that the open ball
402
VIII. The geometry of numbers
contains no point of X except xo, then P,,2(xo) E V(xo). Thus xo is an interior point of V(xo). Since
ex= {y we have V(xo) c
E
Rn: d(xg,y) 5 d(x,y)},
and actually wo) =
nx~X,xn cX.
It follows at once from (2) that V(xo) is closed and convex. Hence V(xo) is the closure of its nonempty interior. According to the definitions of $3, the Voronoi cells form a tiling of [Wn, since
int V(x) n int V(x3 = 0 if x,x' E X and x # x'.
A subset A of a convex set C is said to be a face of C if A is convex and, for any c,cl E C, (c,cl) nA # 0 implies c,c' E A. The tiling by Voronoi cells has the additional property that V(x) n V(xl) is a face of both V(x) and V(xl) if x,xf E X and x # x'. We will prove this by showing that if y1,y2 are distinct points of V(x) and if z E (Y1,y2)n V(x'), then yl E V(x'). Since z E V(X) n V(X'), we have d(x,z) = d(x',z). Thus z lies on the hyperplane H which passes through the midpoint of the segment joining x and x' and is orthogonal to this segment. If yl g V(x'), then d(x,yl) < d(xl,yl). Thus yl lies in the open half-space G associated with the hyperplane H which contains x. But then y2 lies in the open half-space G' which contains x', i.e. d(x1,y2)< d(x,y2), which contradicts y2 E V(x). We now assume that the set X is not only discrete, but also relatively dense, i.e.
(v
there exists R > 0 such that, for each y E Rn, there is some x E X with d(x,y) < R.
It follows at once that V(xo) c PR(xO).Thus V(xo) is bounded and, since it is closed, even compact. The ball P2R(~O) contains only finitely many points XI,...jofX m apart from xo. We are going to show that v(x,) = By (2) we need only show that if y
n2, Gxi.
(3)
n cxi, then y exfor every x
X. Assume that d(xo,y) 2 R and choose z on the segment joining xo and y so that d(xo,z) = R. For some x E X we have d(x,z) < R and hence 0 < d(xo,x) < 2R. Consequently x = xi for some i E { 1, ...,m}. Since d(xi,z) < R = d(xo,z), we have z E But this is a contradiction, since xo,y E Gi and z is on the segment joining them. then We conclude that d(xo,y) < R. If x E X and x # xo,xl,..,x, E
E
cxi.
E
4. Voronoi cells
Consequently y E for every n E X. It follows from (3) that V(xo) is a polyhedron. Since V(xo) is bounded and has a nonempty inteiior, it is actually an n-dinzensional polytope. The faces of a polytope are an impostant past of its structure. An (n - 1)-dimensional face of an n-dimensional polytope is said to be a facet and a 0-dimensional face is said to be a
vertex. We now apply to V(xo) some properties colnrnon to all polytopes. In the representation (3) it may be possible to omit some closed half-spaces without affecting the validity of the representation. By omitting as many half-spaces as possible we obtain an in.edundant representution, which by suitable choice of notation we may take to be
for some 1 I m. The intersections V(xo) n HXi (1 I i 51) are then the distinct facets of V(xo). Any noneinpty proper face of V(xo) is contained in a facet and is the intersection of those facets which contain it. Fustheimore, any nonempty face of V(xo)is the convex hull of those vertices of V(xo) which it contains. It follows that for each xi (1 I i I 1) there is a vertex vi of V(xo) such that
For d(xo,v) I d(x,,v) for every vertex v of V(xo). Assume that d(xo,v) < d(x,,v) for every vertex v of V(xo). Then the open half-space G,, contains all vertices v and hence also their convex hull V(xo). But this is a contradiction, since V(xo) nH,, is a facet of V(xo). To illustrate these results take X = 8"and xo = 0 . Then the Voronoi cell V(0) is the cube consisting of all points y = (ql, ...,q,) E iWn with lqrl 5 112 (i = 1,...,n). It has the minimal number 2n of facets. For a lattice A we can In fact any lattice A in Rn is discrete and has the property
(u.
restrict attelltion to the Voroiioi cell V(A): = V(O), since an asbitrary Voronoi cell is obtained from it by a translation: V(xo) = V ( 0 ) + xo. The Voronoi cell of a lattice has additional properties. Since x E A implies - x E A, y E V(A) implies - y E V(A). Also, if x, is a lattice vector determining a facet of V(A) and if y E V(A) n HA{,then llyll = I!y -x,l/. Since x E A implies x, - x E A, it follows that y E V(A) n H,, implies x,- y E V(A) n H I I . Thus the Vororloi cell V(A) and all its facets are ceiitrosymmeti~ic.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
In addition, any orthogonal transformation of Rn which maps onto itself the lattice A also maps onto itself the Voronoi cell V(A). Furthermore the Voronoi cell V ( A )has volume d(A), by Proposition 11, since the lattice translates of V ( A )form a tiling of RrJ. We define a facet vector or 'relevant vector' of a lattice A to be a vector xi E A such that V ( A ) A H X i is a facet of the Voronoi cell V ( A ) . If V ( A ) is contained in the closed ball BR = { X E Rn: llxll I R } , then every facet vector xi satisfies IkiI I 2 R . For, if y E V(A) n Hxi then, by Schwarz's inequality (Chapter I, $4),
The facet vectors were characterized by Voronoi (1908) in the following way:
PROPOSITION13 A nonzero vector x E A is a facet vector of the lattice A c R" if and only if every vector x' E x + 2A, except f x, satisfies lk'll > Ilxll. Proof Suppose first that llxll < Ilx'll for all x' # f x such that (x' - x)/2 E A. If z x' = 22 - x, then (x' - x)/2 E A. Hence if z # 0,x then
E
A and
i.e. x/2 E G,, Since IGi/211 = Ib -x/211, it follows that x/2 E V ( A )and x is a facet vector. Suppose next that there exists x'
#
also z = (x' + x)/2 E A and z,w # 0. If y
t- x such that w = ( x l - x ) / 2 E A and /lx'II I 1bll. Then E
Gzn c-,, then
Hence, by the parallelogram law (Chapter I, §lo),
That is, y
E
G,. Thus Gxis not needed to define V(A)and x is not a facet vector.
Any lattice A contains a nonzero vector with minimal square-norm. Such a vector will be called a nzinimal vector. Its square-norm will be called the minimum of A and will be denoted by m ( 4 .
PROPOSITION 14 If A c Rn is a lattice ~ ~ inzinimunf th m(A), then any nonzero vector in A with square-norm < 2m(A) is a facet vector. In particular, any nzininzal vector is a facet vector.
405
4. Vorolloi cells
< 27. If x is not a facet Proof Put r = nz(A) and let x be a nonzero vector in A with vector, there exists y z f x with O, - x ) / 2 E A such that llyll I Ilxll. Since (4, x)/2 E A,
/ITfy1I2 2 41..
+
Thus 41 I
Ibll" Ib1l2k 2(x,y)
< 4r k 2(x,y),
which is impossible.
PROPOSITION 15 F o r ally lattice A c Rfl, the rwnber of facets of its Val-onoi cell V(A) is a t most 2(2n - 1). Proof
Let x l , ...,x, be a basis for A. Then any vector x
E
A has a unique representation
n = x' + x", where x' E 2A and X" =
alxl+ ... + a,x,,
with a j E {0,1) for j = 1,...,n. Thus the number of cosets of 2A in A is 2n. But, by Proposition 13, each coset contains at most one pair fy of facet vectors. Since 2A itself does not contain any facet vectors, the total number of facet vectors is at most 2(2"- 1). tl There exist lattices A c Rn for which the upper bound of Proposition 15 is attained, e.g. the lattice A = {Tz: z E Z'L} with T = I + PJ, where J is the nxn matrix every element of which is 1 and p = ((1 + n)1/2 - l]/n.
PROPOSITION 16 Every vector of a lattice A c RJ1is an integral linear conzbination of facet vectol-s. Proof Let bl,...,bnLbe the facet vectors of A and put
Evidently A' is a subgroup of R" and actually a discrete subgroup, since A' G A. If A' were contained in a hyperplane of Rn any point on the line through the origin orthogonal to this hypesplane would belong to the Voronoi cell V of A, which is impossible because V is bounded. Hence A' contains rz lineasly independent vectors. Thus A' is a sublattice of A. It follows that the Voronoi cell V of A is co~ltainedin the Voronoi cell V' of A'. But if y E V',then
and hence y E V. Thus V' = V. Hence the A'-translates of V and the A-translates of V are both tilings of iW". Since A' c A, this is possible only if A' = A.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
Since every integral linear combination of facet vectors is in the lattice, Proposition 16 implies
COROLLARY 17 Distinct lattices in Rn have distinct Voronoi cells. Proposition 16 does not say that the lattice has a basis of facet vectors. It is known that every lattice in Rn has a basis of facet vectors if n I 6, but if n > 6 this is still an open question. It is known also that every lattice in Rn has a basis of minimal vectors when n I 4 but, when n > 4, there are lattices with no such basis. In fact a lattice may have no basis of minimal vectors, even though every lattice vector is an integral linear combination of minimal vectors. Lattices and their Voronoi cells have long been used in crystallography. An n-dimensional crystal may be defined mathematically to be a subset of Rn of the form F + A = { x + y : x ~F , ~ A}, E where F is a finite set and A a lattice. Crystals may be studied by means of their symmetry groups. An isometry of R n is an invertible affine transformation which leaves unaltered the Euclidean distance between any two points. For example, any orthogonal transformation is an isometry and so is a translation by an arbitrary vector v. Any isometry is the composite of a translation and an orthogonal transformation. The symmetry group of a set X c Rn is the group of all isometries of [Wn which map X to itself. We define an n-dimensional crystallographic group to be a group G of isometries of Rn such that the vectors corresponding to translations in G form an n-dimensional lattice. It is not difficult to show that a subset of Rn is an n-dimensional crystal if and only if it is discrete and its symmetry group is an n-dimensional crystallographic group. It was shown by Bieberbach (1911) that a group G of isometries of R n is a crystallographic group if and only if it is discrete and has a compact fundamental domain D, i.e. the sets {g(D): g E G } form a tiling of Rn. He could then show that the translations in a crystallographic group form a torsion-free abelian normal subgroup of finite index. He showed later (1912) that two crystallographic groups G1,G2are isomorphic if and only if there exists an invertible affine transformation A such that G2 = A-lGIA. With the aid of results of Minkowski and Jordan it follows that, for a given dimension n, there are only finitely many non-isomorphic crystallographic groups. These results provided a positive answer to the first part of the 18th Paris problem of Hilbert (1900). The structure of physical crystals is analysed by means of the corresponding 3-dimensional crystallographic groups. A stronger concept than isomorphism is useful for such applications.
4. Voronoi cells
407
Two crystallographic groups G1,G2may be said to be properly isomorphic if there exists an orientation-preserving invertible affine transformation A such that G2 = A-lGIA. An isomorphism class of crystallographic groups either coincides with a proper isomorphism class or splits into two distinct proper isomorphism classes. Fedorov (1891) showed that there are 17 isomorphism classes of 2-dimensional crystallographic groups, none of which splits. Collating earlier work of Sohncke (1879), Schoenflies (1889) and himself, Fedorov (1892) also showed that there are 219 isomorphism classes of 3-dimensional crystallographic groups, 11 of which split. More recently, Brown et al. (1978) have shown that there are 4783 isomorphism classes of 4-dimensional crystallographic groups, 112 of which split.
5 Densest packings The result of Hermite, mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, can be formulated in terms of lattices instead of quadratic forms. For any real non-singular matrix T, the matrix
is a real positive definite symmetric matrix. Conversely, by a principal axes transformation or otherwise, it may be seen that any real positive definite symmetric matrix A may be represented in this way. Let A be the lattice A = {y = Tx E Rn: x
E
Zn}
and put y(A) = m(A)/d(A)2'fl, where d(A) is the determinant and m(A) the minimum of A. Evidently y(pA) = y(A) for any p > 0. Hermite's result that there exists a positive constant c,, depending only on n, such that 0 < x'Ax Ic,(det A)'/" for some x E
Z n may be restated in the form
Hermite's constant yn is defined to be the least positive constant c, such that this inequality holds for all A c Rn. It may be shown that yflflis a rational number for each n. It follows from Proposition 2
-
that lim,+,y,/n
12/ne. Minkowski (1905) showed also that
VIII. The geometry of t~limbei.s
y,ln = 1 1 2 ~ ~The . significance of Hermite's constant derives from its connection with lattice packings of balls, as we now explain. Let A be a lattice in Rn and K a subset of Rn which is the closure of a nonempty open set G. We say that A gives a lattice packing for K if the family of vanslates K + x ( x E A ) is a packing of Rn, i.e. if for any two distinct points x,y E A the interiors G + x and G + y are disjoint. This is the same as saying that A does not contain the difference of any two distinct points of the interior of K, since g + x = g' + y if and only if g' - g = x - y. If K is a compact symmetric convex set with nonempty interior G, it is the same as saying that the interior of the set 2K contains no nonzero point of A , since in this case g,g' E G implies (g' - g)/2 E G and and it is possible that actually limr1,,
2g=g-(-g). The density of the lattice packing, i s . the fraction of the total space which is occupied by translates of K, is readily shown to be X(K)ld(A). Hence the maximum density of any lattice packing for K is 6(K) = k(K)/A(2K) = 2-'%(K)/A(K), where A(K) is the critical determinant of K, as defined in $3. The use of the word 'maximum' is justified, since it will be shown in $6 that the infimum involved in the definition of critical determinant is attained. We are interested in the special case of a closed ball: K = B p = {x E Rn: ibll I p } . By what we have said, A gives a lattice packing for B p if and only if the interior of B2,, contains no nonzero point of A, i.e. if and only if m(A)lI22 2p. Hence
6 ( B p ) = sup { h ( ~ ~ ) / d (nz(A)lI2 A): = 2p} = K,P"
sup {d(A)-l:nz(A)lI2 = 2 p } ,
where K,, = ~ ~ / ~ / ( n again / 2 ) ! denotes the volume of the unit ball in Rfl. By homogeneity it follows that 6,: = 8 ( B p )= 2 - " ~SLIP* ~ y(A),I2, where the supremum is now over all lattices A G RrL,i.e. in terms of Heimite's constant y,,
Thus y,, like 6,, measures the densest lattice packing of balls. A lattice A G RyLfor which
y(A) = y, i.e. a critical lattice for a ball, will be called simply a derlsest lattice.
409
5. Densest yackillgs
The densest lattice in Rn is known for each n I8, and is uniquely determined apart from isometrics and scalas multiples. In fact these densest lattices ase all examples of indecomposable root lattices. These tenns will now be defined. A lattice A is said to be deconlposable if there exist additive subgroups Al ,A2 of A, each containing a nonzero vector, such that ( x l j 2 ) = 0 for all xl E A1 and x2 E A2, and every vector in A is the sum of a vector in AI and a vector in A2. Since Al and A2 are necessarily discrete, they are lattices in the wide sense (is. they ase not full-dimensional). We say also that
A is the orthogonal sunz of the lattices Al and A2. The osthogonal sum of any finite number of lattices is defined similarly. A lattice is indecon~posaDleif it is not decomposable. The following result was fisst proved by Eichler (1952).
PROPOSITION 18 Any lattice A is a11 ol~hogollulsum of finitely many indeconlposable lattices, which are uniquely determined apart jifi.onz or.de/.. Proof (i) Define a vector x E A to be 'decomposable' if there exist nonzero xl& E A such that x = xl + x2 and ( x l j 2 ) = 0. We show first that eveiy nonzero x E A is a sum of finitely many indecomposable vectors. By definition, x is either indecomposable or is the sum of two nonzero orthogonal vectors in A. Both these vectors have square-norm less than the square-norm of x, and for each of them the same alternative presents itself. Continuing in this way, we must eventually asrive at indeco~nposablevectors, since there ase only finitely many vectors in A with square-norm less than that of x. (ii) If A is the orthogonal sum of finitely many lattices L, then, by the definition of an orthogonal sum, every indecomposable vector of A lies in one of the sublattices L,. Hence if two indecomposable vectors are not osthogonal, they lie in the same sublattice L,. (iii) Call two indecomposable vectors x,x' 'equivalent' if there exist indecomposable vectors
x = X ~ , X ~ , . . . , X=~X'- ~S ,LX I C~~ that (,I~,.Y,+~) # 0 for 0 < j < k. Clearly 'equivalence' is indeed an equivalence relation and thus the set of all indecomposable vectors is partitioned into equivalence classes %p Two vectors from different equivalence classes are orthogonal and, if A is an orthogonal sum of lattices L, as in (ii), then two vectors from the same equivalence class lie in the same sublattice L,,. (iv) Let Ap be the subgroup of A generated by the vectors in the equivalence class gp.Then, by (i), A is generated by the sublattices Ap. Since, by (iii), Al, is orthogonal to Ap, if p
#
p',
A is actually the orthogonal sum of the sublattices Ap. If A is an orthogonal sum of lattices L, as in (ii), then each Ap is contained in some L,. It follows that each Ap is indecomposable and that these indecomposable sublattices ase uniquely detellnined apast from order.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
Let A be a lattice in RN. If A c A*? i.e. if (x,y)E Z for all x,y E A, then A is said to be integral. If (x,x) is an even integer for every x E A, then A is said to be even. (It follows that an even lattice is also integral.) I f A is even and every vector in A is an integral linear combination of vectors in A with square-norm 2, then A is said to be a root lattice. Thus in a root lattice the minimal vectors have square-norm 2. It may be shown by a long, but elementary, argument that any root lattice has a basis of minimal vectors such that every minimal vector is an integral linear combination of the basis vectors with coefficients which are
all nonnegative or all nonpositive. Such a basis will be called a simple basis. The facet vectors of a root lattice are precisely the minimal vectors, and hence its Voronoi cell is the set of all y E Rn such that @,x)I 1 for every minimal vector x. Any root lattice is an orthogonal sum of indecomposable root lattices. It was shown by Witt (1941) that the indecomposable root lattices can be completely enumerated; they are all listed in Table 1. We give also their minimal vectors in terms of the canonical basis e l ,...,en of R". A, = { x = (50,51,..., E En+l: + t l + ... + Cfi = 0 } ( n 2 1);
tn)
Dn
E8 = E7 = Eb =
(el,...,Sn)
Zn: 6 , + ... + 6, even}
2 3); U D 8 f ,where D8t = (1/2,1/2, ...,112) + D8;
= {X =
E
(ti
(519...,68) E E8: 57 = - 5,); ' E Es: 5 6 = 5 7 = - 5 8 1 .
{X =
1~
(51,...9&3)
Table 1 : Indecon~posableroot lattices The lattice A, has n(n + 1 ) minimal vectors, namely the vectors f (ei - ek)(0 I j < k I n), By calculating the - e , form a simple basis. and the vectors eo - e l , e l - e2, ... , determinant of B'B, where B is the ( n + 1)xn matrix whose columns are the vectors of this simple basis, it may be seen that the determinant of the lattice A, is (n + 1)1/2. The lattice D, has 2n(n - 1) minimal vectors, namely the vectors f ej f ek ( 1 I j < k I n). The vectors el - e2, e2 - e3, ... , E , ~ - en, enPl+ en form a simple basis and hence the lattice
D, has determinant 2. The lattice E8 has 240 minimal vectors, namely the 112 vectors f ej f fell (1 I j < k I 8) and the 128 vectors ( f el f ... f e8)/2 with an even number of minus signs. The vectors
form a simple basis and hence the lattice has determinant 1.
5. Densest puckings
411
The lattice E7 has 126 minimal vectors, namely the 60 vectors Ifr ej rt ek ( 1 I j < k I 6), the vectors rt (e7 - e g )and the 64 vectors f ( 2f=l (rt ei) - e7 + e8)/2with an odd number of minus signs in the sum. The vectors vl,...,v7 form a simple basis and the lattice has determinant 42. The lattice E6 has 7 2 minimal vectors, namely the 40 vectors k ej ek ( 1 I j < k I 5 ) and the 32 vectors rt (C 5i=l (k ei) - e6 - e7 + eg)/2with an even number of minus signs in the sum. The vectors v l ,...,v6 form a simple basis and the lattice has determinant 43.
+
We now return to lattice packiilgs of balls. The densest lattices for n 2 8 are given in Table
2. These lattices were shown to be densest by Lagrange (1773) for n = 2, Gauss (1831) for n = 3 , Korkine and Zolotareff (1872,1877) for 11 = 4,5 and Blichfeldt (1925,1926,1934) for n = 6,7,8.
Table 2: Derisest lattices in Rn Although the densest lattice in
[Wn
is unknown for every rz > 8, there are plausible
candidates in some dimensions. In particular, a lattice discovered by Leech (1967) is believed to be densest in 24 dimensions. This lattice may be constructed in the following way. Let y be a prime such that y = 3 mod 4 and let Hn be the Hadamard matrix of order 11 = y + 1 constructed by Paley's method (see Chapter V, $2). The colu~llnsof the matrix
generate a lattice in R2n. For y
=3
we obtain the root lattice Eg and for y = 1 1 the Leech lattice
A 24. Leech's lattice may be characteiized as the unique even lattice A in R24with d ( A ) = 1 and n z ( A ) > 2. It was shown by Conway (1969) that, if G is the group of all orthogonal
tsansformations of R24 which map the Leech lattice A24 onto itself, then the factor group GI{? IZ4}is a finite simple group, and two more finite simple groups are easily obtained as
(stabilizer) subgroups. These are three of the 26 sporadic simple groups which were mentioned in $7 of Chapter V. Leech's lattice has 196560 minimal vectors of squase-norm 4. Thus the packing of unit balls associated with A24 is such that each ball touches 196560 other balls. It has been shown that 196560 is the maximal number of nonoverlapping unit balls in R24which can touch another unit ball and that, up to isometry, there is only one possible arrangement. Similarly, since E8 has 240 minimal vectors of square-norm 2, the packing of balls of radius 2-lI2 associated with E8 is such that each ball touches 240 other balls. It has been shown that 240 is the maximal number of nonoverlapping balls of fixed radius in R8 which can touch another ball of the same radius and that, up to isometry, there is only one possible arrangement. In general, one may ask what is the kissiilg nun~berof Rn, i.e. the maximal number of nonoverlapping unit balls in Rn which can touch another unit ball? The question, for n = 3, first arose in 1694 in a discussion between Newton, who claimed that the answer was 12, and Gregory, who said 13. It was first shown by Hoppe (1874) that Newton was right, but the assangeinent of the 12 balls in R3 is not unique up to isometsy. One possibility is to take the centres of the 12 balls to be the vertices of a regular icosahedron, the centre of which is the centre of the unit ball they touch. The kissing number of R1 is clearly 2. It is not difficult to show that the kissing number of R2 is 6 and that the centres of the six unit balls must be the vertices of a regular hexagon, the centre of which is the centre of the unit ball they touch. For n > 3 the kissing number of Rn is unknown, except for the two cases n = 8 and n = 24 already mentioned.
6 Mahler's compactness theorem It is useful to study not only individual lattices, but also the family 3 ,of all lattices in Rn. A sequence of lattices Ak E g,, will be said to converge to a lattice A E 2,, in symbols Ak + A, if there exist bases bkl,...,Dkn of Ak (k = 1,2,... ) and a basis bl ,...,b, of A such that
bkj -+bj as k
+
Evidently this implies that d(Ak) + d(A) as k
+
ti = 1,...,n). w.
Also, for any x E A there exist xk E Ak
such that
X,
+ x as k +
In fact if x
m.
=
albl + ... + anbrL, where ai E Z ( i = 1,...,n), we
can take xk = albkl + ... + anbkrL. It is not obvious from the definition that the limit of a sequence of lattices is uniquely deteimined, but this follows at once from the next result.
PROPOSITION 19 Let A be a lattice in Rn and let {A,} be a sequence of lattices in Rn such that A, -+ A as k -+ m. I f x k E A, and .rk + x as k
+ m, then n E
A.
Proof With the above notation,
x = a l b l + ... + a,b,, where
ai E R (i = 1,...,n), and similarly
where R a n d aki+ a j as k + (i = 1,...,n). The linear transformation T, of R" which maps bi to bkr(i = 1,...,n) can be wiitten in the form T, = I -A,, where Ak + 0 as k + m. It follows that
where also Ck + 0 as k + m. Hence
where qki+ 0 as k
+
M
(i
=
1,...,1 2 ) . But aki+ q k i E Z for every k. Letting k + w, we
obtain a;E Z. That is, x G A. It is natural to ask if the Voronoi cells of a convergent sequence of lattices also converge in some sense. The required notion of convergence is in fact older than the notion of convergence of lattices and applies to asbitrasy compact subsets of Rn. The Hausdorfdistance h(K,K? between two compact subsets K,K' of Rn is defined to be the infimum of all p > 0 such that every point of K is distant at most p from some point of K' and every point of K' is distant at most p from some point of K. We will show that this defines a metric, the Hausdorffnzetric, on the space of all compact subsets of Rn.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
Evidently
0 I h(K,K') = h(K',K)
0, if x E K there exist x' E K' such that Ib - xlll< p + E and then x" E K" such that Ibr- x"ll < p' + E. Hence To simplify writing, put p = h(K,K1) and p' = h(K1,K"). For any
Similarly, if x"
E
K" there exists x
E
E
K for which the same inequality holds. But
E
can be
arbitrarily small. The definition of Hausdorff distance can also be expressed in the form h(K,K') = inf { p 2 0 : K c K ' + B p , K ' c K + B p } , where B p = {x E Rn: lbll Ip}. A sequence Kj of compact subsets of Rn converges to a compact subset K of R" if h(Kj,K) + 0 as j + .o. It was shown by Hausdorff (1927) that any uniformly bounded sequence of compact subsets of Rn has a convergent subsequence. In particular, any uniformly bounded sequence of compact convex subsets of Rn has a subsequence which converges to a compact convex set. This special case of Hausdorffs result, which is all that we will later require, had already been established by Blaschke (1916) and is known as Blaschke's selection principle. PROPOSITION 20 Let {Ak}be a sequence of lattices in Rn and let Vk be the Voronoi cell of Ak. If there exists a compact convex set V with nonempty interior such that V k + V in the Hausdorff metric as k + m, then V is the Voronoi cell of a lattice A and Ak + A as
k
+ =.
Proof Since every Voronoi cell Vkis symmetric, so also is the limit V. Since V has nonempty interior, it follows that the origin is itself an interior point of V. Thus there exists 6 > 0 such that the ball B8 = { x E Rn: lbli I 6 ) is contained in V . It follows that BS12c Vk for all large k. The quickest way to see this is to use Ra"dstromls cancellation law, which says that if A,B,C are nonempty compact convex subsets of Rn such that A + C c B + C, then A L B. In the present case we have
6. Mahler's compactness theorem
and hence BSt2c Vkfor k 2 kO. Since also Vkc V + Bgt2 for all large k, there exists R > 0 such that VkL BR for all k. The lattice Ak has at most 2(2n - 1) facet vectors, by Proposition 15. Hence, by restriction to a subsequence, we may assume that all Ak have the same number m of facet vectors. Let
xklr...,xkm be the facet vectors of Ak and choose the notation so that xkl,...,xkn are linearly independent. Since they all lie in the ball BZR,by restriction to a further subsequence we may assume that xkj + xj as k -+ .o ('j = 1,...,m). Evidently Ibj(( 2 6 ('j = 1,...,m) since, for k 2 ko, all nonzero x E Ak have lbll2 8. The set A of all integral linear combinations of xl,. . . j m is certainly an additive subgroup of Rn. Moreover A is discrete. For suppose y E A and lbl < 6. We have
y = a l x l + ... + amxm, where aj E
h ('j = I,...,m). If Y k = alXkl+
.a.
+ amXkmr
then yk + y as k -+ and hence lbkll < 8 for all large k. Since yk E Ak, it follows that yk = 0 for all large k and hence y = 0. Since the lattice Ak' with basis xkl,...& is a sublattice of Ak, we have
it follows that also Since d(Ak') = ldet (xkl,...jkn)l,
Thus the vectors xl,...A are linearly independent. Hence A is a lattice. Let bl ,...,b, be a basis of A. Then, by the definition of A,
where
(1 I i I n , 1 I j I m ) . Put
Then bki E Ak and bki + bi as k
+
(i = 1,...,n). Hence, for all large k , the vectors
bkl,...,bknare linearly independent. We are going to show that bkl,...,bknis a basis of Ak for all large k.
VIII. The geonzetly of nzin&w
Since bl ,...,b, is a basis of A, we have
where yji E
Z (1 I iI n, 1 I j I nz).
then ykj E Ak and ykj -+ xj as k -+
rn
Hence, if
0= 1,...,nz).
Thus, for all large k,
Since ykj -xkj E Ak, this implies that, for all large k, ykj = xkj 0 = 1 , ...,m). Thus every facet vector of Ak is an integral linear combination of bkl,...,bkrLand hence, by Proposition 16, every vector of A, is an integral linear combination of b k l ..., , bkn. Since bkl,.,.,bknare linearly independent, this shows that they are a basis of A,. Let W be the Voronoi cell of A. We wish to show that V = W. If v E V, then there exist vk E Vksuch that v, + v. Assume v P W. Then ilvll > llz - for some z E A, and so
vI I
where p > 0. There exist zk E Ak such that zk + z. Then, for all large k,
llvll > llz, - vll
+~
1 2
and hence, for all large k, llvkll
> llzk
-~kll.
But this conwadicts vk E Vk. This proves that V W. On the other hand, V has volume
It follows that every interior point of W is in V , and hence W = V. Corollay 17 now shows that the same lattice A would have been obtained if we had restricted attention to some other subsequence of { A k } . Let a l ,...,a , be any basis of A . We are going to show that, for the sequence { A k ) originally given, there exist ukiE Ak such that
aki -+ ai a s k
+ rn
(i = 1,...,n).
6 . Mahler's conzpact~~ess theorem
417
If this is not the case then, for some i E { 1,...,n } and some E > 0 , there exist infinitely many k such that
I/x- ail/> E for all x E Ak. From this subsequence we could as before pick a further subsequence Akv + A. Then evely y E A is the limit of a sequence yv E Ah. Taking y = ai, we obtain a contradiction. It only remains to show that akl,...,aknis a basis of Ak for all lasge k. Since
=
d(A) = k(V) = l i n ~ ~ , ~ h ( V ~ ) ,
for all large k we must have
o
< ldet (akl,...,akw)(< 2k(Vk).
But if a k l ,...,akn were not a basis of Ak for all large k, then for infinitely many k we would have Idet (akl,...,akn)l 2 2d(Ak) = 2h(Vk). Proposition 20 has the following counterpart:
PROPOSITION21 Let { A k }be a sequence ofluttices irt Rn and let Vk be the Voronoi cell of Ak. If there exists a lattice A such that Ak + A as k + =, and if V is the Voronoi cell of A, then Vk + V in the Hausdorf metric as k
+
m.
Proof By hypothesis, there exists a basis bl ,...,D, of A and a basis bkl,...,bkrLof each A k such that bkj+ bj as k + M 0'= I ,...,n). Choose R > 0 so that the fundamental parallelotope R } , Then, for all k 2 ko, the fundamental of A is contained in the ball BR = {X E Rn: Ibll l parallelotope of Ak is contained in the ball BZR. It follows that, for all k 2 ko, every point of Rn is distant at most 2R from some point of Ak and hence Vkc BZR. Consequently, by Blaschke's selection principle, the sequence { V k }has a subsequence {Vkv}which converges in the Hausdorff metric to a compact convex set W. Moreover,
Consequently, since W is convex, it has nonelnpty interior. It now follows from Proposition
20 that W = V. Thus any convergent subsequence of { V k }has the same limit V . If the whole sequence { V k }did not converge to V , there would exist p > 0 and a subsequence { V k v }such that h(Vkv,V)2 p for all v.
VIII. Tlru geonzeriy of numbers
By the Blaschke selection principle again, this subsequence would itself have a convergent subsequence. Since its limit must be V, this yields a contradiction. Suppose Ak E 2, and Ak + A as k + a. We will show that not only d(Ak) + d(A), but also m(Ak) -+nz(A) as k + M. Since evely x E A is the limit of a sequence xk E Ak, we must have limk+=nz(hk) < m(A). On the other hand, by Proposition 19, if xk E Ak and xk + x, then x E A. It follows that limk ,,nz(Ak) 2 nz(A). Suppose now that a subset 9 of 3, has the property that any infinite sequence Ak of lattices in 9has a convergent subsequence. Then there exist positive constants p,o such that nz(A) 2 p2, d(A)
0 such that the ball BR contains every Voronoi cell Vk. By Blaschke's selection principle, the sequence {Vk) has a subsequence {Vk,) which converges in the Hausdorff metric to a compact convex set V. Since Bp12c V, it follows from Proposition 20 that Ak, + A, where A is a lattice with Voronoi cell V. To illustrate the utility of Mahler's compactness theorem, we now show that, as stated in
$3, any compact symmehic convex set K with nonelnpty intelior has a critical lattice.
6. Mahler's cunzyrrct)less theorem
419
By the definition of the ciitical deteilninant A(K), there exists a sequence Ak of lattices with no nonzero points in the interior of K such that d(Ak)+ A(K) as k + m. Since K contains a ball B,, with radius p > 0 , we have m(Ak)2 p2 for all k. Hence, by Proposition 22, there is a subsequence Akv which converges to a lattice A as v + m. Since evely point of A is a limit of points of Ak,, no nonzero point of A lies in the interior of K. Furthermore,
and hence A is a ciitical lattice for K.
7 Further remarks The geometry of numbers is tseated more extensively in Cassels [ l l ] ,Erdos et al. [22]and Gruber and Lekkerkerker [27]. Minkowski's own account is available in 1421. Numerous references to the earlier literature are given in Keller 1341. Lagasias [36]gives an overview of lattice theory. For a simple proof that the indicator function of a convex set is Riemann integrable, see Szabo [57]. Diophantine approximation is studied in Cassels [12],Koksma [35] and Schmidt 1501. Minkowski's result that the discriminant of an algebraic number field other than QQ has absolute value greater than 1 is proved in Narkiewicz [44],for example. Minkowski's theorem on successive minima is proved in Bambah et al. [3]. For the results of Banaszczyk mentioned in $3, see [4] and [5]. Sharp forms of Siegel's lemma are proved not only in Bombieii and Vaaler [7], but also in Matveev 1401. The result of Gillet and Soul6 appeared in [25]. Some interesting results and conjectures concerning the product A(K)A(K*)are described 011 pp. 425-427 of Schneider [51]. An algorithm of Lovisz, which first appeared in Lenstra, Lenstra and Lovhsz [38], produces in finitely many steps a basis for a lattice A in Rn which is 'reduced'. Although the first vector of a reduced basis is in general not a minimal vector, it has squase-norm at most 2"'-1 ???(A).This suffices for many applications and the algorithm has been used to solve a number of apparently unrelated computational problems, such as factoring polynomials in Q [ t ] , integer linear programming and simultaneous Diophantine approximation. There is an account of the basis reduction algorithm in Schrijver [52]. The algosithmic geometry of numbers is surveyed in Kannan [33]. Mahler [39] has established an analogue of the geometsy of numbers for foimal Laurent series with coefficients from an arbitrary field F, the roles of Z,Q and R being taken by Fit],
F(t) and F((t)). In particulas, Eichler [19] has shown that the Riemann-Roc11 theorem for algebraic functions may be derived by geoinetsy of numbers arguments. There is also a generalization of Minkowski's lattice point theorem to locally compact groups, with Haar measwe taking the place of volume; see Chapter 2 (Lemma 1) of Weil [60]. Voronoi diagranu and their uses we surveyed in Aurenhammer [I]. Proofs of the basic properties of polytopes refessed to in 54 may be found in Brgndsted [9] and Coppel [15]. Planar tilings are studied in detail in Griinbauin and Shephasd [28]. Mathematical clystallography is treated in Schwaszenberger [53] and Engel [21]. For the physicist's point of view, see Burckhardt [lo], Janssen [32] and Birinan [6]. There is much theoretical infolmation, in addition to tables, in [31]. For Bieberbach's theorems, see Vince [59], Charlap [13] and Milnor [41]. Various equivalent fosms for the definitions of clystal and crystallogsaphic group ase given in Dolbilin et
al. [17]. It is shown in Charlap [13] that crystallographic groups may be abstractly characterized as groups containing a finitely generated maximal abelian torsion-free subgoup of finite index. (An abelian group is torsioiz-J.i.ee if only the identity element has finite order.) The fundamental group of a compact flat Riemannian manifold is a torsion-free crystallographic group and all torsion-free crystallographic groups may be obtained in this way. For these connections with differential geoinetsy, see Wolf [61] and Charlap [13]. In more than 4 dimensions the complete enumeration of all crystallographic groups is no longer practicable. However, algorithms for deciding if two crystallographic groups are equivalent in some sense have been developed by Opgenorth et al. [45]. An interesting subset of all crystallograpliic groups consists of those generated by reflections in hypesplanes, since Stiefel(1941f2) showed that they are in 1-1 correspondence with the compact simply-connected semi-siinple Lie groups. See the 'Note historique' in Bourbaki [8]. There has recently been considerable interest in tilings of Rn which, although not lattice tilings, consist of translates of finitely many n-dimensional polytopes. The first example, in R2, due to Penrose (1974), was explained more algebraically by de Bruijn (1981). A substantial generalization of de Bruijn's construction was given by Katz and Duneau (1986), who showed that many such 'quasiperiodic' tilings may be obtained by a method of cut and projection from ordinary lattices in a higher-dimensioilal space. The subject gained practical significance with the discovery by Shechtman et al. (1984) that the diffraction pattern of an alloy of aluminium and magnesium has icosahedral symmetry, which is impossible for a crystal. Many other 'quasicrystals' have since been found. The papers referred to are reproduced, with others, in Steinhardt and Ostlund [56]. The mathematical theory of quasicrystals is surveyed in Le et al. [37].
7. Furtiler remarks
42 1
Skubenko [54] has given an upper bound for Hermite's constant y,. Somewhat sharper bounds are known, but they have the same asymptotic behaviour and the proofs ase much more complicated. A lower bound for y, was obtained with a new method by Ball [2]. For the densest lattices in R n (11 I 8), see Ryshkov and Baranovskii [49]. The enumeration of all root lattices is cmied out in Ebeling 1181. (A more general problem is treated in Chap. 3 of Hu~nphreys[30] and in Chap. 6 of Bourbaki [8].) For the Voronoi cells of root lattices, see Chap. 21 of Conway and Sloane [14] and Moody and Patera [43]. For the Dynkin diagram associated with root lattices, see also Reiten [47]. Rajan and Shende [46] characterize root lattices as those lattices for which every facet vector is a minimal vector, but their definition of root lattice is not that adopted here. Their argument shows that if every facet vector of a lattice is a minimal vector then, after scaling to make the minimal vectors have square-norm 2, it is a root lattice in our sense. There is a fund of information about lattice packings of balls in Conway and Sloane [14]. See also Thompson 1581 for the Leech lattice and Coxeter [16] for the kissing number problem. We have restricted attention to lattice packings and, in particular, to lattice packings of balls. Lattice packings of other convex bodies are discussed in the books on geometry of iluinbers cited above. Non-lattice packings have also received much attention. The notion of density is not so intuitive in this case and it should be realized that the density is unaltered if finitely many sets are removed from the packing. Packings and coverings are discussed in the texts of Rogers [48] and Fejes T6th [23],[24]. For packings of balls, see also Zong [62]. Sloane [55] and Elkies 1201 provide introductions to the connections between lattice packings of balls and coding theory. The third part of Hilbest's 18th problem, which is suiveyed in Milnor [41], deals with the densest lattice or non-lattice packing of balls in Ru. It is known that, for 11 = 2, the densest lattice packing is also a densest packing. The original proof by Thue (1882/1910) was incomplete, but a complete proof was given by L. Fejes T6th (1940). The famous Kepler conjecture asserts that, also for rz = 3, the densest lattice packing is a densest packing. A computes-aided proof has recently been announced by Hales [29]. It is unknown if the same holds for any rz > 3. Propositions 20 and 21 are due to Groemer [26], and are of interest quite apart from the application to Mahler's compactness theorem. Other proofs of the latter ase given in Cassels [11] and Gruber and Lekkerkerker [27]. Blaschke's selection principle and RAdstrom's
cancellation law ase proved in [15] and [5 11, for example.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
8 Selected references F. Aurenhammer, Voronoi diagrams - a survey of a fundamental geometric data structure,
ACM Computing Surveys 23 (1991), 345-405. K. Ball, A lower bound for the optimal density of lattice packings, Internat. Math. Res.
Notices 1992, no. 10, 217-221. R.P. Bambah, A.C. Woods and H. Zassenhaus, Three proofs of Minkowski's second inequality in the geometry of numbers, J. Austral. Math. Soc. 5 (1965), 453-462.
W. Banaszczyk, New bounds in some transference theorems in the geometry of numbers, Math. Ann. 296 (1993), 625-635. W. Banaszczyk, Inequalities for convex bodies and polar reciprocal lattices in Rn. 11. Application of K-convexity, Discrete Comput. Geom. 16 (1996), 305-311.
J.L. Birman, Theory of crystal space groups and lattice dynamics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984. [Original edition in Handbuch der Physik, 19741 E. Bombieri and J. Vaaler, On Siegel's lemma, Invent. Math. 73 (1983), 11-32.
N. Bourbaki, Groupes et algPbres de Lie, Chapitres 4,5 et 6, Masson, Paris, 1981. A. Brondsted, An introduction to convex polytopes, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983. [lo] J.J. Burckhardt, Die Bewegungsgruppen der Kristallographie, 2nd ed., Birkhauser, Basel, 1966. [ l l ] J.W.S. Cassels, An introduction to the geometry of numbers, corrected reprint, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997. [Original edition, 19591 [12] J.W.S. Cassels, An introduction to Diophantine approximation, Cambridge University Press. 1957. [I31 L.S. Charlap, Bieberbach groups and flat manifolds, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986. [14] J.H. Conway and N.J.A. Sloane, Sphere packings, lattices and groups, 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999. [15] W.A. Coppel, Foundations of convex geometry, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
8. Selected references
[I61 H.S.M. Coxeter, An upper bound for the number of equal nonoverlapping spheres that can touch another of the same size, Convexity (ed. V. Klee), pp. 53-71, Proc. Symp. Pure Math. 7, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, Rhode Island, 1963. [17] N.P. Dolbilin, J.C. Lagarias and M. Senechal, Multiregular point systems, Discrete Comput. Geom. 20 (1998), 477-498. [18] W. Ebeling, Lattices and codes, Vieweg, Braunschweig, 1994. [19] M. Eichler, Ein Satz iiber Linearformen in Polynombereichen, Arch. Math. 10 (1959), 81-84. [20] N.D. Elkies, Lattices, linear codes, and invariants, Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 47 (2000), 1238-1245 and 1382-1391. [21] P. Engel, Geometric crystallography, Handbook of convex geometry (ed. P.M. Gruber and J.M. Wills), Volume B, pp. 989-1041, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1993. (The same volume contains several other useful survey articles relevant to this chapter.) [22] P. Erdos, P.M. Gruber and J. Hammer, Lattice points, Longman, Harlow, Essex, 1989. [23] L. Fejes T6th, Regular Figures, Pergamon, Oxford, 1964. [24] L. Fejes T6th, Lagerungen in der Ebene auf der Kugel und im Raum, 2nd ed., SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1972. [25] H. Gillet and C. Soul6, On the number of lattice points in convex symmetric bodies and their duals, Israel J. Math. 74 (1991), 347-357. [26] H. Groemer, Continuity properties of Voronoi domains, Monatsh. Math. 75 (197 I), 423-43 1. [27] P.M. Gruber and C.G. Lekkerkerker, Geometry of numbers, 2nd ed., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1987. [28] B. Griinbaum and G.C. Shephard, Tilings and patterns, Freeman, New York, 1987. [29] T.C. Hales, Cannonballs and honeycombs, Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 47 (2000), 440449.
424
VIII. The geometry of numbers
[30] J.E. Humphreys, Introduction to Lie algebras and representation theory, SpringerVerlag, New York, 1972. [31] International tables for crystallography, Vols. A-C, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1983-1993. [32] T. Janssen, Crystallographic groups, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1973. [33] R. Kannan, Algorithmic geometry of numbers, Annual review of computer science 2 (1987), 23 1-267. [34] 0.-H. Keller, Geometrie der Zahlen, Enzyklopadie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 1-2, 27, Teubner, Leipzig, 1954. [35] J.F. Koksma, Diophantische Approximationen, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1936. [Reprinted Chelsea, New York, 19501 [36] J.C. Lagarias, Point lattices, Handbook of Combinatorics (ed. R. Graham, M. Grotschel and L. LovBsz), Vol. I, pp. 919-966, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1995. [37] T.Q.T. Le, S.A. Piunikhin and V.A. Sadov, The geometry of quasicrystals, Russian Math. Surveys 48 (1993), no. 1, 37-100. [38] A.K. Lenstra, H.W. Lenstra and L. LovBsz, Factoring polynomials with rational coefficients, Math. Ann. 261 (1982), 515-534. [39] K. Mahler, An analogue to Minkowski's geometry of numbers in a field of series, Ann. of Math. 42 (1941), 488-522. [40] E.M. Matveev, On linear and multiplicative relations, Math. USSR-Sb. 78 (1994), 41 1425. [41] J. Milnor, Hilbert's Problem 18: On crystallographic groups, fundamental domains, and on sphere packing, Mathematical developments arising from Hilbert problems (ed. F.E. Browder), pp. 491-506, Proc. Symp. Pure Math. 28, Part 2, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, Rhode Island, 1976. 1421 H. Minkowski, Geometrie der Zahlen, Teubner, Leipzig, 1896. [Reprinted Chelsea, New York, 19.531 [43] R.V. Moody and J. Patera, Voronoi and Delaunay cells of root lattices: classification of their faces and facets by Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams, J. Phys. A 25 (1992), 5089-5134.
8. Selected references
425
[44] W. Narkiewicz, Elementary and analytic theory of algebraic numbers, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990. [45] J. Opgenorth, W. Plesken and T. Schulz, Crystallographic algorithms and tables, Acta Cryst. A 54 (1998), 517-531. [46] D.S. Rajan and A.M. Shende, A characterization of root lattices, Discrete Math. 161 (1996), 309-314. [47] I. Reiten, Dynkin diagrams and the representation theory of Lie algebras, Notices Amer. Math. SOC.44 (1997), 546-556. [48] C.A. Rogers, Packing and covering, Cambridge University Press, 1964. [49] S.S. Ryshkov and E.P. Baranovskii, Classical methods in the theory of lattice packings, Russian Math. Surveys 34 (1979), no. 4, 1-68. [50] W.M. Schmidt, Diophantine approximation, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 785, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1980. [5 11 R. Schneider, Convex bodies: the Brunn-Minkowski theory, Cambridge University Press, 1993. [52] A. Schrijver, Theory of linear and integer programming, corrected reprint, Wiley, Chichester, 1989. [53] R.L.E. Schwarzenberger, N-dimensional crystallography, Pitman, London, 1980. [54] B.F. Skubenko, A remark on an upper bound on the Hermite constant for the densest lattice packings of spheres, J. Soviet Math. 18 (1982), 960-961. [55] N.J.A. Sloane, The packing of spheres, Scientific American 250 (1984), 92-101. [56] P.J. Steinhardt and S. Ostlund (ed.), The physics of quasicrystals, World Scientific, Singapore, 1987. [57] L. Szabo, A simple proof for the Jordan measurability of convex sets, Elem. Math. 52 (1997), 84-86. [58] T.M. Thompson, From error-correcting codes through sphere packings to simple groups, Carus Mathematical Monograph No. 21, Mathematical Association of America, 1983.
VIII. The geometry of numbers
[59] A. Vince, Periodicity, quasiperiodicity and Bieberbach's theorem, Amer. Math. Monthly 104 (1997), 27-35. [60] A. Weil, Basic number theory, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973. 1611 J.A. Wolf, Spaces of constant curvature, 3rd ed., Publish or Perish, Boston, Mass., 1974. [62] C. Zong, Sphere packings, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999.
IX
The number of prime numbers 1 Finding the problem
It was already shown in Euclid's Elements (Book IX, Proposition 20) that there are infinitely many prime numbers. The proof is a model of simplicity: let p I ,...,pn be any finite set of primes and consider the integer N = pl...pn + 1. Then N > 1 and each prime divisor p of N is distinct from p l , ...,p,, since p = p j would imply that p divides N -pl.-.p, = 1. It is worth noting that the same argument applies if we take N =plal-.pnan+ 1, with any positive integers
a1,...,a,. Euler (1737) gave an analytic proof of Euclid's result, which provides also quantitative information about the distribution of primes: PROPOSITION 1 The series C llp, where p runs through all primes, is divergent.
Proof For any prime p we have
( 1 - 1lp)-1 = 1 + p-1 and hence
n P,,
(1 - llp)-l =
n ,,, (1 + p-I
+ p-2 + ... + p-2 + ... ) > C log log x -log S. 0 l/n2 is convergent, Proposition 1 says that 'there are more primes Since the series than squares'. Proposition 1 can be made more precise. It was shown by Mertens (1874) that
C ,,,,1/p
=
log log x + c + O(l/log x),
where c is a constant (c = 0.261497... ). Let ~ ( xdenote ) the number of primes 5 x:
It may be asked whether ~ ( x has ) some simple asymptotic behaviour as x + -. It is not obvious that this is a sensible question. The behaviour of n(x) for small values of x is quite irregular. Moreover the sequence of positive integers contains arbitrarily large blocks without primes; for example, none of the integers
is a prime. Indeed Euler (1751) expressed the view that "there reigns neither order nor rule" in the sequence of prime numbers. From an analysis of tables of primes Legendre (1798) was led to conjecture that, for large values of x, ~ ( xis) given approximately by the formula x/(A log x - B), where A,B are constants and log x again denotes the natural logarithm of x (i.e., to the base e). In 1808 he proposed the specific values A = 1, B = 1.08366. The first significant results on the asymptotic behaviour of n(x) were obtained by Chebyshev (1849). He proved that, for each positive integer n, lim,
,
(n(x)
-
jldtjlog t)lognx/x 6 0 6
=X+-
( ~ ( x )- j;dt/log t)lognx/x,
where lognx = (log x ) ~ .By repeatedly integrating by parts it may be seen that, for each positive integer n,
1 . Fillding the problem
where c, is a constant. Moreover, using the Lunduu order syrnbol defined under 'Notations',
Thus Chebyshev's result shows that A = B = 1 are the best possible values for a formula of Legendre's type and suggests that Li(x) = J',xdt/logt is a better approximation to x(x). If we interpret this approximation as an asymptotic formula, then it implies that n(x) log x /x -+ 1 as x
-+=, i.e., using mother Lu~tclauorder symbol,
The validity of the relation (1) is now known as the prime nurnDer tlzeorenz. If the n-th prime is denoted by p,, then the prime number theorem can also be stated in the form y, n log n:
-
PROPOSITION 2 x(,x)
- xllog x if urzd only ifp,, - n log 12.
Proof If n'x) log x/.x -+ 1, then log n(x)
+ log log x - log x
-+ 0
and hence log n(x)/log x Consequently
+ 1.
n(x) log x(x) /x = n(x) log x /x . log ~ ( x/log ) x -+ 1. Since x@,) = YZ, this shows that p, - n log rt. Conversely, suppose prjn log rt -+ 1. Since (n
+ 1)log (n + 1) /n log 12
it follows that y,+l/p,
= (1
+ ]In){ 1 + log (1+
+ 1. Fusthermore log p,
-
log 11 - log log I 1
and hence
log pJl0g n If p, I x < p n + ~then , n(.x)
= 11
and
-+
1.
+ 0,
l/rz)/log n}
+
1,
IX. The number of prime numbers
and similarly n 10gp,+~/pn + 1, it follows that also n(x) log x /x
+ 1.
Numerical evidence, both for the prime number theorem and for the fact that Li(x) is a better approximation than xllog x to n(x), is provided by Table 1. x
~ ( x
x /log x
Li(x)
n(x) log x /x 177. 1.16
n(x) /Li(x)
103
168
144.
lo4
1 229
1 085.
1245.
1.132
0.987
105
9 592
8 685.
9 629.
1.1043
0.9961
lo6
78 498
72 382.
78 627.
1.08449
0.99835
0.94
TABLE 1 In a second paper Chebyshev (1852) made some progress towards proving the prime number theorem by showing that a I lim, ,,n(x) log x /x I limx+~n(x)log x /x I 6a/5, where a = 0.92129. He used his results to give the first proof of Bertrand's postulate: for every real x > 1, there is a prime between x and 2x. New ideas were introduced by Riemann (1859), who linked the asymptotic behaviour of n(x) with the behaviour of the function
for complex values of s. By developing these ideas, and by showing especially that 0.
(2)
1 . Finding the problem
Better error bounds than de la VallCe Poussin's have since been obtained, but they still fall far short of what is believed to be true. Another approach to the prime number theorem was found by Wiener (1927-1933), as an application of his general theory of Tauberian theorems. A convenient form for this application was given by Ikehara (1931), and Bochner (1933) showed that in this case Wiener's general theory could be avoided. It came as a great surprise to the mathematical community when in 1949 Selberg, assisted by Erdos, found a new proof of the prime number theorem which uses only the simplest facts of real analysis. Though elementary in a technical sense, this proof was still quite complicated. As a result of several subsequent simplifications it can now be given quite a clear and simple form. Nevertheless the Wiener-Ikehara proof will be presented here on account of its greater versatility. The error bound (2) can be obtained by both the Wiener and Selberg approaches, in the latter case at the cost of considerable complication.
2
Chebyshev's functions In his second paper Chebyshev introduced two functions
) the most complicated definition, it is which have since played a major role. Although ~ ( xhas easier to treat analytically than either 8(x) or ~ ( x ) .As we will show, the asymptotic behaviour of O(x) is essentially the same as that of ~ ( x ) and , the asymptotic behaviour of ~ ( x may ) be deduced without difficulty from that of O(x). Evidently 8(x) = ~ ( x = ) 0 forx < 2 and 0 < O(x) I ~ ( x )forx 2 2.
LEMMA3 The asymptotic behaviozm of ~ ( x and ) O(x) are connected by (i) ~ ( x-) B(x) = O(x1/2 log2x); (ii) ~ ( x =) O(x) if and only if9(x) = O(x), and in this case ~ ( x -) O(x) = O(x1l2 log x).
Proof Since w(x) = C , log x / log 2 implies xllk < 2, we have
where rn = hog x / log 21. (As is now usual, we denote by Ly] the greatest integer I y.) But it is obvious from the definition of Q(x)that Q(x)= O(x log x). Hence
If Q(x) = O(x) the same argument yields ~ ( x-) Q(x)= 0(x1I2 log x) and thus ~ ( x =) O(x). It is trivial that ~ ( x=) O(x) implies Q(x)= O(x). The proof of Lemma 3 shows also that
LEMMA4 ~ ( x =) O(x) ifand only ifn(x) = O(x/log x), and then n(x) log x lx = yf(x)/x
+ O(l/log x).
Proof Although their use can easily be avoided, it is more suggestive to use Stieltjes integrals. Suppose first that ~ ( x=) O(x). For any x > 2 we have n(x) =
lPog t dQ(t)
and hence, on integrating by parts, k(x) = Q(x)/log x +
But
8(t)lt log2t dt
52" e(t)lt iog2t dt = o ( x / ~ o ~ ~ x ) ,
since Q(t) = O(t) and, as we saw in 5 1, Since
by Lemma 3, it follows that n(x) = yf(x)/log x + O(x/log2x). Suppose next that ~ ( x =) O(x/log x). For any x > 2 we have Q(x) = I,"_'logt dn(t) =
n(x) log x -
n(t)lt dt
=
O(x),
2. Chebyshev's functions
and hence also ~ ( x =) O(x), by Lemma 3. It follows at once from Lemma 4 that the prime number theorem, a(x)
- xllog x, is
-
equivalent to ~ ( x ) x. The method of argument used in Lemma 4 can be carried further. Put Subtracting from we obtain
Also, adding
I;(/:
da 1log a) dt I t = j;(ji dt 1t) du I log a =
I . (log x - log u) du 1log u
= log x J.dt/log t - x
to Q(x) = a(x) logx -
+2
n(t)lt dt
we obtain R(x) = Q(x) logx-
Q(t)/tdt -2.
It follows from (3)1-(3)2 that R(x) = O(x/logax) for some
a > 0 if and only if
Q(x) = 0(x/loga+lx). Consequently, by Lemma 3, ~(x= ) x + O(x/logax) for every a > 0 if and only
if a(x) = jidtllog t
+ O(x/log?x) for
every a > 0,
and a(x) then has the asymptotic expansion
the error in breaking off the series after any finite number of terms having the order of magnitude of the first term omitted. also that, for a given a such that 112 I a < 1, It follows from y(x) = x + O(x" logZx),
if and only if
IX. The nunzbei. of yrinze nzinzbers
~ ( x )= ItdtJlog t
+ O(xu log x).
) be put in the form The definition of ~ ( xcan W(X> =
C n<xA(lz),
where the von Mangoldt function A(n) is defined by A(n) = log p if n = p a for some prime p and some a > 0, = 0 otherwise.
For any positive integer n we have 1% n =
C dl,, A(d>l
since if n =plal...ps"s is the factorization of n into powers of distinct primes, then log n =
C
a; log p; .
3 Proof of the prime number theorem The Riemunn zetu-function is defined by
This infinite series had already been considered by Euler, Dirichlet and Chebyshev, but Riemann was the first to study it for complex values of s. As customary, we write s = o + it, where o and t ase real, and nPsis defined for complex values of s by s-,
=
e-~ log n
= na
(cos(t log n) - i sin(t log n)).
To show that the series (5) converges in the half-plane 0 > 1 we compare the sum with an integral. If M denotes again the greatest integer Ix,then on integrating by puts we obtain
Since
by letting N
+
we see that 1 and
3. Proof of the yrinze number theorem
But, since x - Ld is bounded, the integral on the right is unifoimly convergent in any half-plane o 2 15> 0. It follows that the definition of c(s) can be extended to the half-plane o > 0, so that it is holomoiphic there except for a simple pole with residue 1 at s = 1. The connection between the zeta-function and prime numbers is provided by Euler's product fornzula, which may be viewed as an analytic version of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: PROPOSITION 5 C(s) = primes p.
n p(1
-
p-S
)-I
for 0 > 1 , where the product is taken over all
=
1 + 19rs + 1-7-29 + .,. .
Proof For o > 0 we have (1 - p-"-1
Since each positive integer can be uniquely expressed as a product of powers of distinct primes, it follows that
n p5.X (1
-
P-"
1-I
=
x
n < ~ n-", ,
where N, is the set of all positive integers, including 1, whose prime factors are all 5 x. But N, contains all positive integers I x. Hence
and the sum on the right tends to zero as x + =. It follows at once from Propositioil 5 that ((s) convergent and each factor is nonzero.
PROPOSITION6
-
#
0 for o > 1, since the infinite product is
c'(s)/((s)= ~ z = ~ A ( r z ) /for r z s o > 1 , where A ( n ) is von MangoldtS
junction. Proof The series o ( s ) = C o 2 1 + E , where E > 0, since
A ( I ~ ) Iconverges ~-.~ absolutely and uniformly in any half-plane
0 I A(n) I log n
h, where h > 0. If there exists a constant A and a furlction G(s),which is continuous in the closed h a m l a n e 3 s 2 11,such that G(s) = F ( s ) - A h / ( s - h ) f o r % s > h , then $(x) - Aeh" for x
+ +m.
Proof For each X > 0 we have
For real s = p > h both terms on the right are nonnegative and the integral on the left has a finite limit as X + m. Hence e-PX$(X) is a bounded function of X for each p > h. It follows that if
PAS > h we can let X -+.o in the last displayed equation, obtaining F(s) = s jte-" Hence
{$(x) - $(O))dx for 3 s > h.
I X . l h e nrmzber ofprime tlimbers
where a @ ) = e-Iul{q(x)- $ ( 0 ) } . Thus we will prove the theorem if we prove the following statement:
Let a ( x ) be a norznegativefunctiorl for x 2 0 such that
where s = o + it, is defined for every o > 0 and the limit
exists uniformly on any firzite interval - T 5 t I T . If, for some h > 0, e h x a ( x )is a norzdecreasing fimction, then = A. lim,,,a(.x) In the proof of this statement we will use the fact that the Fourier transfoim A
k (u) =
I_,
eirrl
k(t) dt
of the function
k(t) = 1 - ltl for it1 I 1, = 0 for It/ 2 1, has the propesties
(u)2 0 for -
< u < m, C : = jrWi(u)du
0.
We now use the fact that eha(x) is a nondecreasing function. Choose any 6 E (0,l). If y = x + 6, where x 2 0 , then for Ivl 5 h6
440
IX. The niiniber of prime numbers
We can choose A = h(6) so large that the integral on the right exceeds ( 1 - 6)C. Then, letting x + we obtain AC 2 e-""(1 - 6)C lim,, a(x). M
Since this holds for arbitrarily small 6 > 0, it follows that
Thus there exists a positive constant M such that 0 I a ( x ) I M for allx 2 0. On the other hand, if y = x
-
6, where x 2 6, then for lvl I 16
We can choose h = h(6) so large that the second term on the right is less than 6C. Then, letting
x
+ = we obtain AC I
,,&l
a ( x ) + 6C.
Since this holds for arbitrarily small 6 > 0, it follows that
Combining this with the inequality of the previous paragraph, we conclude that lim,,, a ( x ) = A. Q Applying Theorem 9 to the special case mentioned before the statement of the theorem, we obtain yf(en) e". As we have already seen in 52, this is equivalent to the prime number
-
theorem.
4
The Riemann hypothesis
In his celebrated pager on the distribution of grime numbers Riemann (1859) proved only two results. He showed that the definition of 0,
Proof Put f(v) = c v 2 n y and let f
g(u) =
(11)
e-2TCiU" dv
be the Fowier transform of f(v). We are going to show that
This infinite series is unifolmly convergent for 0 I v I 1 , and so also is the series obtained by term by term differentiation. Hence F ( v ) is a continuously differentiable function. Consequently, since it is peliodic with period 1, it is the sum of its own Fouiier seiies:
F(V) = where
c,,, =
C ,=-, w
c,, e2TCin11i,
J; F ( v ) e-2nimv dv .
We can evaluate c, by term by term integration:
The argument up to this point is an instance of Poisson's sumr?zation formula. To evaluate g ( u ) in the case f(v) = e - ~ ~ nwe ) ' differentiate with respect to u and integrate by parts, obtaining e - v 2 n ~'Yep2niiLvdv gt(lc) = - 2Ki
442
lX. The number of prime numbers
The solution of this first order linear differential equation is
g(u)
Moreover where
g(0)
=
g(0)e-nu2%
=
(1 e-"
2
ny dv = (7cy)-l/*J,
e-'
J =
2
dv.
Thus we have proved that
Substituting v = 0 , y = 1, we obtain J = .n1I2. The theta function
6 ( x ) = C=,;-
e-n271x (x > 0 )
arises not only in the theory of elliptic functions, as we will see in Chapter XII, but also in problems of heat conduction and statistical mechanics. The transformation law
is very useful for computational purposes since, when x is small, the series for 6 ( x ) converges extremely slowly but the series for 6(1/x)converges extremely rapidly. Since the functional equation of Riemann's zeta function involves Euler's gamma function, we summarize here the main properties of the latter. Euler (1729) defined his function r ( z ) by
1/T(z) = lim,,,
z(z + 1)-(z + n)/n! nZ,
where nZ= exp(z log n) and the limit exists for every z E C.It follows from the definition that 1/T(z) is everywhere holomorphic and that its only zeros are simple zeros at the points z = 0 , -
1,- 2,... . Moreover r ( 1 ) = 1 and
r ( +~1 )
=
r(z).
Hence T(n + 1) = n! for any positive integer n. By putting T(z + 1) = z! the definition of the factorial function may be extended to any z E
C which is not a negative integer.
Wielandt
(1939)has characterized T(z)as the only solution of the functional equation
with F ( l ) = 1 which is holomorphic in the half-plane %z > 0 and bounded for 1 < %z < 2. It follows from the definition of T(z)and the product formula for the sine function that
4. The Rienzarm hypothesis
443
Many definite integrals may be evaluated in terms of the gamma function. By repeated integration by parts it may be seen that, if %z > 0 and lz E N, then
where tz-I = exp{(z - 1) log t } . Letting lz
+
m,
we obtain the integral representation
It follows that F(1/2) = TC'~', since
by the proof of Proposition 10. It was alseady shown by Euler (1730)that
the relation holding for a x > 0 and %y > 0. The unit ball in [Wn has volume K,: = .n"/2/(11/2)! and surface content IIK,,. Stirling's for.nzula, I I ! = (n/e)",/(2nn),follows at once from the integral representation
valid for any z
E
C which is not zero or a negative integer.
Euler's constant
may also be defined by y = - F'(1). We now retun1 to the lbemann zeta function.
PROPOSITION 11 The fumtion Z(s) = r s I 2 r ( s / 2 ) [ ( s )satisfies the functional equation
Proof From the representation (9) of the gainma function we obtain, for cr > 0 and n > 1, ;J
x ~ ~ 2 -e1-2"
Hence, if o > 1,
Z(s> = where
C
dx
Jr
= n-sI2
F(s/2)1z-S.
X ~ / 2 - 1e -n2m d~
I X . The )lumber of p r i m nzrn~bers
By Proposition 10, Hence
The integral on the right is convergent for all s and thus provides the analytic continuation of
Z(s) to the whole plane. Moreover the right side is unchanged if s is replaced by 1 - s. The function Z(s) in Proposition 11 is sometimes called the completed zeta function. In its prod~lctrepresentation Z(S) = K-s/* 13/21 ( 1 - p-S 1-1 it makes sense to regard x-~/*T(s/2)as an Euler factor at m, complementing the Euler factors ( 1 - P - ~ )-I at the primes p. It follows from Proposition 11 and the previously stated propei-ties of the gamma function that the definition of ( ( s ) may be extended to the whole complex plane, so that ( ( s )- l / ( s - 1 ) is everywhere holomorphic and L(s) = 0 if s = -2,d,-6,... . Since ( ( s ) # 0 for o 2 1 and ( ( 0 ) = - 112, the functional equation shows that these 'trivial' zeros of [(s) are its only zeros in the half-plane o 1 0 . Hence all 'nonkivial' zeros of ( ( s ) lie in the strip 0 < o < 1 and are symmetrically situated with respect to the line 0 = 112. The famous Rienzann hypothesis asserts that all zeros in this strip actually lie on the line o = 112. The zeros of ( ( s ) are also symmetric with respect to the real axis, since [(F) = Furthermore ( ( s ) has no real zeros in the strip 0 < o < 1, since (1 -2-la)((o) = ( 1 -2-9
+ (3-0-4-0) + ...
50.
>O for 0 < o < 1
It has been verified by van de Lune et al. (1986), with the aid of a supercomputer, that the
1.5X lo9 zeros of ( ( s ) in the rectangle 0 < o < 1, 0 < t < T, where T = 545439823.215, are all simple and lie on the line o = 112. The location of the zeros of ( ( s ) is intimately connected with the asymptotic behaviour of ~ ( x ) Let . a* denote the least upper bound of the real parts of all zeros of ((s). Then 112 I a* I 1, since it is known that ( ( s ) does have zeros in the strip 0 < o < 1, and the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to a* = 112. It was shown by von Koch (1901) that
4. The Riemann hypothesis
v(x)
=
x + O(xCL* log2x)
and hence n(x) = Li(x) + O ( e * logx). (Actually von Koch assumed a* = 112, but his argument can be extended without difficulty.) It should be noted that these estimates are of interest only if a * < 1. On the other hand if, for some a such that 0 < a < 1, n(x) = Li(x) + O(xa log x), then 0(x) = x
+ o(xa log2x).
By the remark after the proof of Lemma 3, it follows that
But for o > 1 we have -
and hence The integral on the right is uniformly convergent in the half-plane o 2 E + max (a,1/3), for any E > 0, and represents a holomorphic function. Consequently 112 < a * < max (a,1/3). It follows that a* I a and ~ ( x = ) x + O(xa log2x). Combining this with von Koch's result, we see that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to and to
~ ( x )= Li(x) + 0(x1l2 log x) y(x) = x
+ O(x112 1og2x).
Since it is still not known if a* < 1, the error terms here are substantially smaller than any that have actually been established. It has been shown by Cramdr (1922) that (log x)-1
(v(t)/t - 1)' dt
oo if the Riemann hypothesis holds, and is unbounded otherwise. has a finite limit as x Similarly, for each a < 1,
-
2
-
( ( t ) - t12 t-2adt
446
IX. The m n ~ b e of r prime r~untbers
is bounded but does not have a finite limit as x unbounded otherwise.
+
a
if the Rie~nannhypothesis holds, and is
For all values of x listed in Table 1 we have n ( x ) < Li(x), and at one time it was conjectured that this inequality holds for all s > 0. However, Littlewood (1914)disproved the conjecture by showing that there exists a constant c > 0 such that
for some sequence ,lc, +
and
for some sequence 5, + m. This is a quite remaskable result, since no actual value of x is known for which n ( x ) > Li(x). However, it is known that x ( x ) > Li(x) for some x between 1.398201 X 10316and 1.398244~10316. In this connection it may be noted that Rosser and Schoenfeld (1962) have shown that
~ ( x>)xllog x for all x 2 17. It had previously been shown by Rosser (1939) that p, > 12 log 12 for all 12 2 1. Not content with not being able to prove the Riemann hypothesis, Montgomery (1973)has assumed it and made a further conjecture. For given P > 0 , let NT(P)be the number of zeros 112 + iy, 112 + iy' of ( ( s ) with 0 < y' < y I T such that
Montgomery's cor~jectureis that, for each fixed P > 0,
NT(P) - (71211)log T j/ [ l
-
(sin nu /nu)2]du as T
+J
m.
Goldston (1988)has shown that this is equivalent to
J:~ { ~ (+x IT)
-
~ ( x -) x I T } ? x-'&
- ( P - 112) log2T /T
as T
i
-,
for each fixed P 2 1, where y ( x ) is Chebyshev's function.
~ pair In the language of physics Montgomery's conjecture says that 1 - (sin nu / ~ uis)the of the zeros of @). Dyson pointed out that this is also the pair conelation cor~elation~rlzction fimction of the normalized eigenvalues of a random NXN He~mitianmatrix in the limit N i -. A great deal more is known about this so-called Garrssiun unitary ensemble, which Wigner (1955)used to model the statistical properties of the spectra of complex nuclei. For example, if the eigenvalues are no~malizedso that the average difference between consecutive eigenvalues is
447
4. The Riemann hypothesis
-
1, then the probability that the difference between an eigenvalue and the least eigenvalue greater than it does not exceed p converges as N -+ to
where the density function p(u) can be explicitly specified. It has been further conjectured that the spacings of the normalized zeros of the zetafunction have the same distribution. To make this precise, let the zeros 112 + iy, of &) with y, > 0 be numbered so that y1 I y 2 I
... .
Since it is known that the number of y's in an interval [T, T + 11 is asymptotic to (log T)/2x as T -+ -, we put
Y,
=
(yn 1% yn)/2n
7
so that the average difference between consecutive 7, is 1. If 6, = yn+l the number of 6, I p with n I N , then the conjecture is that for each p > 0
y,,
and if v N ( p )is
This nearest neighbour conjecture and the Montgomery pair correlation conjecture have been extensively tested by Odlyzko (198719) with the aid of a supercomputer. There is good agreement between the conjectures and the numerical results.
5 Generalizations and analogues The prime number theorem may be generalized to any algebraic number field in the following way. Let K be an algebraic number field, i.e. a finite extension of the field Q of rational numbers. Let R be the ring of all algebraic integers in K, 9'the set of all non-zero ideals of R, and 9 the subset of prime ideals. For any A E 9,the quotient ring RIA is finite; its cardinality will be denoted by IAl and called the norm of A. It may be shown that the Dedekind zeta-jinctiorz
is defined for 3 s > 1 and that the product formula
IX. The number ofprime numbers
448
holds in this open half-plane. Furthermore the definition of CK(s)may be extended so that it is nonzero and holomorphic in the closed half-plane 3 s 2 1 , except for a simple pole at s = 1. By applying Ikehara's theorem we can then obtain the prime ideal theorem, which was first proved by Landau (1903):
- xhog x, where xK(x)denotes the number of prime ideals of R with norm I x. It was shown by Hecke (1917) that the definition of the Dedekind zeta-function CK(s)may also be extended so that it is holomorphic in the whole complex plane, except for the simple pole at s = 1 , and so that, for some constant A > 0 and non-negative integers rl,r2 (which can all be explicitly described in terms of the structure of the algebraic number field K),
zK(s) = Ar ( ~ / 2 ) " r ( s ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ( s ) satisfies the functional equation
Z,(S) = z K ( l - S ) . The extended Riemann hypothesis asserts that, for every algebraic number field K,
CK(s) # 0 for 3 s > 112. The numerical evidence for the extended Riemann hypothesis is favourable, although in the nature of things it cannot be tested as extensively as the ordinary Riemann hypothesis. The extended Riemann hypothesis implies error bounds for the prime ideal theorem of the same order as those which the ordinary Riemann hypothesis implies for the prime number theorem. However, it also has many other consequences. We mention only two. It has been shown by Bach (1990),making precise an earlier result of Ankeny (1952),that if the extended Riemann hypothesis holds then, for each prime p, there is a quadratic nonresidue a mod p with a < 2 log2p. Thus we do not have to search far in order to find a quadratic non-residue, or to disprove the extended Riemann hypothesis. It will be recalled from Chapter 11 that if p is a prime and a an integer not divisible by p, then ap-1 = 1 mod p. For each prime p there exists a primitive root, i.e. an integer a such that
ak
+ 1 mod p for 1 I k
1 the zeta-function of L can be defined by
where the sum is over all integral divisors of L, and then
where the product is over all prime divisors of L. This seems quite similar to the number field case, but the function field case is actually simpler. F.K. Schmidt (1931) deduced from the Riemann-Roch theorem that there exists a polynomial p(u) of even degree 2g, with integer coefficients and constant term 1, such that
and that the zeta-function satisfies the functional equation
The non-negative integer g is the genus of the field of algebraic functions. The analogue of the Riemann hypothesis, that all zeros of LL(s)lie on the line 3 s = 1/2, is equivalent to the statement that all zeros of the polynomial p(u) have absolute value q-lI2, or that the number N of prime divisors with norm q satisfies the inequality
This analogue has been proved by Weil (1948). A simpler proof has been given by Bombieri
(1974),using ideas of Stepanov (1969). The theory of function fields can also be given a geometric formulation. The prime divisors of a function field L with field of constants K can be regarded as the points of a nonsingular projective curve over K, and vice versa. Weil (1 949) conjectured far-reaching generalizations of the preceding results for curves over a finite field to algebraic varieties of higher dimension.
5. Generalizations and analogues
45 1
Let V be a nonsingular projective variety of dimension d, defined by homogeneous polynomials with coefficients in Z.For any prime p, let Vp be the (possibly singular) variety defined by reducing the coefficients mod p and consider the formal power series
where Nn@) denotes the number of points of Vp defined over the finite field Fpn. Weil conjectured that, if Vp is a nonsingular projective variety of dimension d over IFp, then (i)
Zp(T) is a rational function of T,
(ii) Zp(l/pdT) = +pdef2TeZp(n for some integer e, (iii) ZJT) has a factorization of the form
where P o ( n = 1 - T , P2d(T) = 1 -pdT and P j ( n (iv) P;(T) =
n ,b/=, -
E
Z [ q (0 < j < 2 4 ,
(1 - ajkT), where lajk[ =pJI2for 1 I k I bj, (0 < j < 2 4 .
The Weil conjectures have a topological significance, since the integer e in (ii) is the Euler characteristic of the original variety V, regarded as a complex manifold, and bj in (iv) is its j-th Betti number. Conjecture (i) was proved by Dwork (1960). The remaining conjectures were proved by Deligne (1974), using ideas of Grothendieck. The most difficult part is the proof that = pJ/2 (the Riemann hypothesis for varieties over finite fields). Deligne's proof is a major
achievement of 20th century mathematics, but unfortunately of a different order of difficulty than anything which will be proved here. An analogue for function fields of Artin's primitive root conjecture was already proved by Bilharz (1937), assuming the Riemann hypothesis for this case. Function fields have been used by Goppa (1981) to construct linear codes. Good codes are obtained when the number of prime &visors is large compared to the genus, and this can be guaranteed by means of the Riemann 'hypothesis'. Carlitz and Uchiyama (1957) used the Riemann hypothesis for function fields to obtain useful estimates for exponential sums in one variable, and Deligne (1977) showed that these estimates could be extended to exponential sums in several variables. Let Fp be the field of p elements, wherep is a prime, and let f E FP[u1,...,u,] be a polynomial in n variables of degree
452
IX. The number of prime numbers
d 2 1 with coefficients from F p which is not of the form g p - g
g
E
+ b,
where b
E [Fp
and
FP[u1, ...,u,]. (This condition is certainly satisfied if d a, then the product h(s) =f(s)g(s)may also be represented by an absolutely convergent Dirichlet series for 3 s > a: h(s) = where c = a
E
c(n)/ns,
* h, i.e. c(n) =
a(d)b(n/d) =
a(n/d)b(d).
This implies, in particular, that for 3 s > 1
denote respectively the number of positive divisors of n and the sum of the positive divisors of n. The relation for Euler's phi-function,
which was proved in Chapter 111, now yields for 3 s > 1
From the property by which we defined the Mobius function we obtain also, for 3 s > 1,
In view of this relation it is not surprising that the distribution of prime numbers is closely connected with the behaviour of the Mobius function. Put
Since lp(n)l S 1, it is obvious that IM(x)l < L,d for x > 0. The next result is not so obvious: PROPOSITION 12 M(x)/x
+0
as x 3 m.
Proof The function f(s): = ) li(x), Math. Comp. 69 (1999), 1285-1296. [9] E. Bombieri, Counting points on curves over finite fields (dtapr&sS.A. Stepanov), Se'minaire Bourbaki vol. 197213, Expos& 418-435, pp. 234-241, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 383 (1974), Springer-Verlag,Berlin. [lo] R.P. Brent, Irregularities in the distribution of primes and twin primes, Math. Comp. 29 (1975), 43-56. [ I l l C. Chevalley, Introduction to the theory of algebraic functions of one variable, Math. Surveys no. 6, Amer. Math. Soc., New York, 1951. [12] J. e i ~ e kOn , the proof of the prime number theorem, ?asopis PZst. Mat. 106 (1981), 395-40 1. [13] W.A. Coppel, J.B. Fourier-On the occasion of his two hundredth birthday, Amer. Math. Monthly 76 (1969), 468-483. [14] A. Cossidente, J.W.P. Hirschfeld, G. Korchm6ros and F. Torres, On plane maximal curves, Compositio Math. 121 (2000), 163-181. [15] H. Daboussi, Sur le thCor&medes nombres premiers, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris Se'r. 1298 (1984), 161-164.
9. Selected references
461
[16] M. Deuring, Lectures on the theory of algebraic functions of one variable, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 314 (1973), Springer-Verlag,Berlin. [17] H.G. Diamond, Changes of sign of ~ ( x-) li(x), Enseign. Math. 21 (1975), 1-14. [IS] H.G. Diamond, Elementary methods in the study of the distribution of prime numbers, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 7 (1982), 553-589. [19] A.L. Durin, R. Estrada and R.P. Kanwal, Extensions of the Poisson summation formula, J. Math. Anal. Appl. 218 (1998), 581-606. [20] H.M. Edwards, Riemann's zeta function, Academic Press, New York, 1974. [21] W. Ellison and F. Ellison, Prime numbers, Wiley, New York, 1985. [22] Encyclopedic dictionary of mathematics (ed. K. Ito), 2nd ed., Mathematical Society of Japan, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1987. [231 L.J. Goldstein, Density questions in algebraic number theory, Amer. Math. Monthly 78 (197 I), 342-35 1. [24] D.A. Goldston, On the pair correlation conjecture for zeros of the Riemann zeta-function, J. Reine Angew. Math. 385 (1988), 24-40. [25] I.J. Good and R.F. Churchhouse, The Riemann hypothesis and pseudorandom features of the Mobius sequence, Math. Comp. 22 (1968), 857-861. [26] V.D. Goppa, Codes on algebraic curves, Soviet Math. Dokl. 24 (1981), 170-172. [27] J. Hadamard, Selecta, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1935. [28] G.H. Hardy and J.E. Littlewood, Some problems of partitio numerorum 111, On the expression of a number as a sum of primes, Acta Math. 44 (1923), 1-70. [291 M. Kac, Statistical independence in probability, analysis and number theory, Carus Mathematical Monograph 12, Math. Assoc. of America, 1959. [30] A.A. Karatsuba and S.M. Voronin, The Riemarzn zeta-function, English transl. by N. Koblitz, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1992. [31] A. Katok and B. Hasselblatt, Introduction to the modern theory of dynamical systems, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.
462
IX. The number of prime numbers
[32] N. Katz, An overview of Deligne's proof of the Riemann hypothesis for varieties over finite fields, Mathematical developments arising from Hilbert problems, Proc. Sympos. Pure Math. 28, pp. 275-305, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, 1976. [33] E. Landau, Handbuch der Lehre von der Verteilung der Primzahlen (2 vols.), 2nd ed., Chelsea, New York, 1953. [34] R. Lasser, Introduction to Fourier series, M. Dekker, New York, 1996. [35] R.S. Lehman, On the difference n(x) - li(x), Acta Arith. 11 (1966), 397-410. [36] M. Lokve, Probability theory, 4th ed. in 2 vols., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. [37] J. van de Lune et al., On the zeros of the Riemann zeta function in the critical strip IV, Math. Conzp. 46 (1986), 667-681. [38] L. Mattner, Bernstein's theorem, inversion formula of Post and Widder, and the uniqueness theorem for Laplace transforms, Exposition. Math. 11 (1993), 137-140. [39] M.L. Mehta, Random matrices, 2nd ed., Academic Press, New York, 1991. [40] H.L. Montgomery, The pair correlation of zeros of the zeta function, Proc. Sympos. Pure Math. 24, pp. 181-193, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, 1973. [41] M. R. Murty, Artin's conjecture for primitive roots, Math. Intelligencer 10 (1988), no. 4, 59-67. [42] V.K. Murty, Ramanujan and Harish-Chandra, Math. Intelligencer 15 (1993), no.2, 3339. [43] W. Narkiewicz, Number theory, World Scientific, Singapore, 1983. [44] W. Narkiewicz, Elementary and analytic theory of algebraic numbers, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990. [45] A.M. Odlyzko, On the distribution of spacings between zeros of the zeta function, Math. Comp. 48 (1987), 273-308. [46] W. Pany and M. Pollicott, An analogue of the prime number theorem for closed orbits of Axiom A flows, Ann. of Math. 118 (1983), 573-591.
9. Selected references
463
[47] S.J. Patterson, An introduction to the theory of the Riemann zeta-function, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988. 1481 J. Pintz, On Legendre's prime number formula, Amer. Math. Monthly 87 (1980), 733735. [49] R. Remmert, Classical topics in complex function theory, English transl. by L. Kay, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1998. [50] J.B. Rosser and L. Schoenfeld, Approximate formulas for some functions of prime numbers, Illinois J. Math. 6 (1962), 64-94. [5 11 M. Rubinstein, A simple heuristic proof of Hardy and Littlewood's conjecture B, Amer. Math. Monthly 100 (1993), 456-460. [52] W. Rudin, Functional analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973. [53] R. Rumely, Numerical computations concerning the ERH, Math. Comp. 61 (1993), 415440. [54] H.M. Stark, The analytic theory of algebraic numbers, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 81 (1975), 961-972. [55] H. Stichtenoth, Algebraic function fields and codes, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993. 1561 P.L. Tchebychef, Oeuvres (2 vols.), reprinted Chelsea, New York, 1962. [57] E.C. Titchmarsh, The theory of the Riemann zeta-function, 2nd ed. revised by D.R. Heath-Brown, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986. [58] C.A. Tracy and H. Widom, Introduction to random matrices, Geometric and quantum aspects of integrable systems (ed. G.F. Helminck), pp. 103-130, Lecture Notes in Physics 424, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993. [59] M.A. Tsfasman and S.G. Vladut, Algebraic-geometric codes, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1991. [60] M.A. Tsfasman, S.G. Vladut and Th. Zink, Modular curves, Shimura curves, and Goppa codes, Math. Nachr. 109 (1982), 21-28. [61] A. Weil, Number of solutions of equations in finite fields, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (1949), 497-508.
464
IX. The number of prime numbers
[62] D.V. Widder, The Laplace transform, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1941. [63] D. Zagier, Newman's short proof of the prime number theorem, Amer. Math. Monthly 104 (1997), 705-708.
X
A character study 1 Primes in arithmetic progressions Let a and m be integers with 1 Ia < m. If a and m have a common divisor d > 1 , then no term after the first of the arithmetic progression
is a prime. Legendre (1788) conjectured, and later (1808) attempted a proof, that i f a and m are relatively prime, then the arithmetic progression (*) contains infinitely many primes. If a l ,...,ah are the positive integers less than m and relatively prime to m , and if nj(x) denotes the number of primes Ix in the arithmetic progression
then Legendre's conjecture can be stated in the form nj(x)-+ = as x
+
-
0 = 1,...,h).
Legendre (1830)subsequently conjectured, and again gave a faulty proof, that ?rj(x)hk(x) + 1 as x
+
..
for all j,k.
Since the total number n(x) of primes 5 x satisfies
where c is the number of different primes dividing m , Legendre's second conjecture is equivalent to ?rj(x)/.n(x)+ llh as x + 0' = 1,...,h).
..
Here h = cp(m)is the number of positive integers less than rn and relatively prime to m. If one assumes the truth of the prime number theorem, then the second conjecture is also equivalent to
X . A character study
The validity of the second conjecture in this form is known as the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions. Legendre's first conjecture was proved by Dirichlet (1837) in an outstanding paper which combined number theory, algebra and analysis. His algebraic innovation was the use of characters to isolate the primes belonging to a particular residue class mod m. Legendre's second conjecture, which implies the first, was proved by de la VallCe Poussin (1896), again using characters, at the same time that he proved the ordinary prime number theorem. Selberg (1949),(1950) has given proofs of both conjectures which avoid the use of complex analysis, but they are not very illuminating. The prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions will be proved here by an extension of the method used in the previous chapter to prove the ordinary prime number theorem. For any integer a, with 1 5 a < m and (a,m) = 1, let
Also, generalizing the definition of Chebyshev's functions in the previous chapter, put
Exactly as in the last chapter, we can show that the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions, x(x;m,a) is equivalent to
- x/cp(m)log x
y(x;m,a)
- x/cp(m)
as x + =,
as x + m.
It is in this form that the theorem will be proved.
2 Characters of finite abelian groups Let G be an abelian group with identity element e. A character of G is a function X: G + @ such that b ) all a,b E G, (i) ~ ( a b =) ~ ( a ) ~ (for (ii) ~ ( cz) 0 for some c E G.
467
2. Characters offir~itrcrbelian groups
Since ~ ( c=) ~(cu-~)x(a), by (i), it follows from (ii) that %(a)# 0 for every a E G. (Thus is a homomorphisnz of G into the multiplicative group @ X of nonzero complex numbers.) Moreover, since ~ ( a=) x(a)x(e), we must have ~ ( e=) 1. Since x(a)x(a-l) = ~ ( e )it, follows that ~ ( a - l = ) ~(a)-I.
x
The function XI:G -+ @ defined by xl(u) = 1 for every a E G is obviously a character of G, the tlivial chamctei. (also called the prilicipal character!). Moreover, for any character of G, the function X-l: G -+ C defined by x-l(a) = x(a)-l is also a character of G. Furthermore,
x
) x'(u)x"(u) if X' and X" are characters of G, then the function xk": G -+@ defined by ~ k " ( a = is a character of G. Since X1X =
x, x'x" = x"x:
x(xfx'? = ( x x ? ~ " ?
it follows that the set of all chwacters of G is itself an abelian group, the dual group of G, with the trivial character as identity element. Suppose now that the group G is finite, of order g say. Then %(a)is a g-th root of unity for evely a E G, since ag = e and hence
It follows that Ix(a)l = 1 and ~ - l ( a )=
X(a). Thus we will sometimes write
X instead of X-l.
PROPOSITION 1 The dual group 6 of a finite abeliall group G is a finite abelian group of the same order. Moreover., ifa E G and a # e, the11%(a)# 1for some E G .
x
Proof Let g denote the order of G. Suppose first that G is a cyclic group, generated by the , is a g-th element c. Then any chasacter of G is uniquely determined by the value ~ ( c )which root of unity. Conversely if oj= e2"iik' (0 Ij < g) is a g-th root of unity, then the functions
x
xO'): G -+ C defined by $)(ck) = of are distinct characters of G and x(l)(ck)# 1 for 1 Ik < g. It follows that the proposition is true when G is cyclic. The general case can be reduced to this by using the fact (see 94 of Chapter 111) that any finite abelian group is a direct product of cyclic gsoups. However, it can also be treated directly in the following way. We use induction on g and suppose that G is not cyclic. Let H be a maximal proper subgroup of G and let lz be the order of H. Let a E G \ H and let I. be the least positive integer such that b = ar E H. Since G is generated by H and a, and an E H if and only if r divides n, each x E G can be uniquely expressed in the form
where y E H and 0 -< k < I.. Hence g = rh.
X . A character study
x
If is any character of G, its restriction to H is a character y/ of H. Moreover , uniquely determined by y~ and the value ~ ( a )since
x is
Since ~ ( a ) = ' y ( b ) is a root of unity, o = ~ ( ais) a root of unity such that W = ~ ( b ) . Conversely, it is easily verified that, for each character y of H and for each of the r roots of unity o such that or= ~ ( b )the , function X : G + C defined by ~ ( a k y=) okyCy) is a character of G. Since H has exactly h characters by the induction hypothesis, it follows that G has exactly rh = g characters. It remains to show that if aky # e, then x(aky)# 1 for some X . But if = 1 for all o , then k = 0; hence y # e and ~ ( y=) + 1 for some u/, by the
vCy)
okvCy)
induction hypothesis.
PROPOSITION 2 Let G be afinite abelian group of order g and 0)
Ca,cx(a)
=
6 its dual group.
Then
g ifx 0 ifx+x1.
{
=x19
Since it is obvious that S = g if
x = x l , we assume x # X I .
Then ~ ( b#) 1 for some b E G.
Since ab runs through all elements of G at the same time as a,
Since ~ ( b#) 1, it follows that S = 0. Now put
T = L&x(a>. Evidently T = g if a = e since, by Proposition 1, 6 also has order g. Thus we now assume a # e. By Proposition 1 also, for some E 6 we have ~ ( a# )1. Since X ~ runs J through all
v
elements of
6 at the same time as X ,
Since ~ ( a# )1, it follows that T = 0.
2. Characters offnite abelian groups
469
Since the product of two characters is again a character, and since ij7 is the inverse of the chasacter yf, Proposition 2(i) can be stated in the apparently more general form
Similarly, since X(b) = ~ ( b - I ) ,Proposition 2(ii) can be stated in the form
The relations (i)' and (ii)' are known as the orthogonality relations, for the characters and elements respectively, of a finite abelian group.
3 Proof of the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions The finite abelian group in which we are interested is the multiplicative group Z(,X l
of
,l integers relatively prime to nz, where m m 1 will be fixed from now on. The group G, = Z(X has order cp(nz), where cp(m)denotes as usual the number of positive integers less than m and relatively piime to m.
A Dirichlet character mod nz is defined to be a function X: Z 3 C with the propelties (i)
x ( a b ) = x ( a ) x ( b ) f o r a l l a , b ~Z,
(ii) ~ ( a =) ~ ( b if) a = b mod n?, (iii) ~ ( a #) 0 if and only if (a,nz) = 1. Any character
x of G,, can be extended to a Dirichlet character mod m by putting %(a)= 0
if a E Z and (a,m) # 1. Conversely, on account of (ii), any Dirichlet character mod m uniquely determines a chasacter of G,,. To illustsate the definition, here are some examples of Dirichlet chasacters. In each case we set ~ ( a =) 0 if (am) # 1.
(I) nz = p is an odd prime and ~ ( a =) (alp) if pXa, where (alp) is the Legendre symbol; (11) rn = 4 and ~ ( a =) 1 or - 1 according as a r 1 or - 1 mod 4; (111) nz = 8 and %(a) = 1 or - 1 according as a = t 1 or t- 3 mod 8.
X. A character study
We now return to the general case. By the results of the previous section we have
and C,x(a> =
cp(m) if a n 1 mod m, 0 otherwise,
x
where runs through all Dirichlet characters mod m. Furthermore
and
~ ( m )if (a,m)= 1 and a b mod m, otherwise.
LEMMA 3 I f x
+ x1 is a Dirichlet character mod m then,for
IZ .=1x(n)I N
any positive integer N,
5 cp(m)/2.
Proof Any positive integer N can be written in the form N 1 I r I m. Since ~ ( a=)~ ( bif)a = b mod m, we have N
C n = ~~ ( n =) ( C =
But
C
+
2m C n=m+l
qC 2 1~ ( n+) C
~ ( n=)0, since x
#
N
xl.
+ ... +
= qm
+ r, where q 2 0 and
9m qm+r Z n=(q-l)m+l )X(n) + C n=qm+l~ ( n )
~(n).
Hence
C ,=I x(n)
=
C ;=I x(n> =
-
C :,+I x(n>.
Since Ix(n)l = 1 or 0 according as (n,nz) = 1 or (n,m) + 1, and since cp(m) is the number of positive integers n I m such that (n,m) = 1, the result follows. With each Dirichlet character X , there is associated a Dirichlet L-function
Since Ix(n)l I 1 for all n, the series is absolutely convergent for o: = 3 s > 1. We are going to show that if x # x l , then the series is also convergent for o > 0. (It does not converge if o 10, since then Ix(n)/n~I2 1 for infinitely many n.) Put
3. Proof of the prime number theoremfor arithmetic progressions
Then
Since H(x) is bounded, by Lemma 3, on letting x
+
-
we obtain
L(s,x) = s j ~ ( t ) t ~ - l for d t o > 0. Moreover the integral on the right is uniformly convergent in any half-plane o 2 6, where 6 > 0, and hence L(s,x) is a holomorphic function for o > 0. The following discussion of Dirichlet L-functions and the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions suns parallel to that of the Riemann c-function and the ordinary prime number theorem in the previous chapter. Consequently we will be more brief. PROPOSITION 4 L(s,x) = all primes p.
n p( 1
-
x ( p ) ~ - ~ )for -l
o > 1, where the product is taken over
Proof The property ~ ( a b=) x(a)x(b)for all a,b E N enables the proof of Euler's product formula for L(s) to be carried over to the present case. For o > 0 we have
where Nx is the set of all positive integers whose prime factors are all I x. Letting x
+ m, we
obtain the result. It follows at once that
n pr,
L(sx1) = 5(s>
( 1 -P")
and that, for any Dirichlet character x, L(s,x) # 0 for o > 1. PROPOSITION 5 - ~'(s,x)/L(s,x) =
x(n)A(n)/nsfor o > 1.
x(n)A(n)n+converges absolutely and uniformly in any halfProof The series w(s,x) = plane o 2 1 + &, where E > 0. Moreover, as in the proof of Proposition IX.6,
X . A character study
As in the proof of Proposition IX.6, we can also prove directly that L(S,X)# 0 for o > 1, and thus make the proof of the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions independent of Proposition 4. The following general result, due to Landau (1905), considerably simplifies the subsequent argument (and has other applications). PROPOSITION 6 Let $(x) be a nondecreasing function for x 2 0 such that the integral e-Sx d$ (x) f(s) = ( ; is convergent for
as > p.
(t)
Thus f is holomorphic in this half-plane.
the definition off
can be extended so that it is holomorphic on the real segment (a$], then the integral in (T) is convergent also for 3 s > a. Thus f is actually holomorphic, and holds, in this larger half-plane.
(v
Proof Since f is holomorphic at P, we can choose 6 > 0 so that f is holomorphic in the disc - (P + 6)1 < 26. Thus its Taylor series converges in this disc. But for 3 s > P the n-th derivative off is given by
IS
4(")(s) = (-I)"( Hence, for any o such that
;e-a xn d$(x).
p - 6 < o < p + 6,
Since the integrands are non-negative, we can interchange the orders of summation and integration, obtaining
Thus the integral in (t)converges for real s > P - 6. Let y be the greatest lower bound of all real s E (a$) for which the integral in ( t ) converges. Then the integral in ("f is also convergent for 3 s > y and defines there a holomorphic function. Since this holomorphic function coincides with f(s) for 3 s > P, it
3. Proof of the prime number tlreorenz for arithmetic progressions
473
follows that (-f) holds for a s > y. Moreover y = a, since if y > a we could replace the preceding argument and thus obtain a contradiction to the definition of y. 0
P by y in
The punch-line is the following proposition: PROPOSITION 7 L ( l
+ it,%)# 0 for
every real t and every
Proof Assume on the contrary that L(l also L ( l - ia,?)= 0. If we put
xz
+ i a , ~=) 0 for some real a and some x # xl.
f(s) = c2(s)L(s+ i a , ~ ) L (-s i a ,
Then
z),
then f is l~olomorphicand nonzero for o > 1. Furthemore f is holomorphic on the real segment [1/2,1],since the double pole of c2(s) at s = 1 is cancelled by the zeros of the other two factors. By logarithmic differentiation we obtain, for o > 1, -f
'(s)lf(s) =
=
-
2c'(s)/c(s)- L'(s
+ ia,x)/L(s + i a , ~-) L'(s - i a , X)/L(s - ia,X)
C yz2 c, 12-~,
where
c,
= { 2 + ~ ( n ) n - ' +X(n)niu}A(n) a = 2{ 1
+ %(~(n)n-ia)}A(n).
Since I ~ ( n )Il 1 and In-iUl = 1, it follows that c, 2 0 for all n 2 2. If we put
then g'(s) =f '(s)lf(s)for o > 1 and so the derivative of e-ds)f(s) is
Thus f(s) = C e g ( ~ )where , C is a constant. In fact C = 1 , since g ( o ) + 0 and f ( o )
+ 1 as
o + +-. Since g(s) is the sum of an absolutely convergent Dirichlet series with nonnegative coefficients, so also are the powers gk(s) (k = 2 3 ,...). Hence also ,f(s) = e g ( ~= ) 1 + g(s) + g"s)/2! where a, 2 0 for every
12.
+ ...
=
C
a, n-s for o > 1,
It follows from Proposition 6 that the series
2
u, r0must
actually converge with sum f(o) for o 2 112, We will show that this leads to a contradiction. Take n = y2, where y is a prime. Then, by the manner of its formation,
X . A character study
= 2 - ~ ( pZ(p) ) +{1
+ x(p)p-"
+Z(p)pia)2 2 1,
since Ix(p)l 4 1. Hence f(112) = Since
C
~ , / n l / 2~ C n=p an/n1I2 2
llp.
1/p diverges, this is a contradiction.
x
If # x1 then, by Proposition 7, g(s) - l / ( s - 1 ) and h(s) - l / ( s - 1) are holomorphic for 9 s 2 1. Since the coefficients of the Dirichlet series for g(s) and h(s) are nonnegative, it follows from Ikehara's theorem (Theorem IX.9) that
x x1
then g(s) - 2/(s - 1) and h(s) - l / ( s - 1 ) are holomorphic for On the other hand, if = a s 2 1, from which we obtain in the same way
C 0,
where the constants implied by the 0-symbols depend on a , but not on m or a. In the same manner as for the Riemann zeta-function [(s) it may be shown that the Dirichlet L-function L(s,x) satisfies a functional equation, provided is a primitive character.
x
x
(Here a Dirichlet character mod m is primitive if for each proper divisor cl of m there exists an integer a I 1 mod d with (a,m) = 1 and ~ ( az:) 1.) Explicitly, if is a primitive character mod m and if one puts
x
A(s,x) = (mln>sJ2N s + 6)/2)L(s,x), where 6 = 0 or 1 according as x(-1) = 1 or - 1, then where
It follows from the functional equation that le,l = 1. Indeed, by taking complex conjugates we obtain, for real s, A(1 -s,x) = E,A(s,%) and hence, on replacing s by 1 - s,
The extended Riemann hypothesis implies that no Dirichlet L-function L(s,x) has a zero in the half-plane 3 s > 112, since f(s) = ,L(s,x) is the Dedekind zeta-function of the algebraic number field K = Q(e2"ilm). Hence it may be shown that if the extended Riemann hypothesis
n
holds, then yf(x;m,a) = x/cp(m) and
+ O(x112 10g2x)
X . A character study
n(x;m,a) = Li(x)/cp(m)+ O(x1I2log x), where the constants implied by the 0-symbols are independent of m and a. Assuming the extended Riemann hypothesis, Bach and Sorenson (1996) have shown that, for any a,m with 1 Ia < m and (a,m) = 1, the least prime p
= a mod m satisfies p < 2(m log m)2.
Without any hypothesis, Linnik (1944)proved that there exists an absolute constant L such that the least prime in any arithmetic progression a, a + m , a + 2m,... , where 1 < a < m and (a,m) = 1, does not exceed mL if m is sufficiently large. Heath-Brown (1992) has shown that one can take any L > 1112.
4 Representations of arbitrary finite groups The problem of extending the character theory of finite abelian groups to arbitrary finite groups was proposed by Dedekind and solved by Frobenius (1896). Simplifications were afterwards found by Frobenius himself, Burnside and Schur (1905). We will follow Schur's treatment, which is distinguished by its simplicity. It turns out that for nonabelian groups the concept of 'representation' is more fundamental than that of 'character'. A representation of a group G is a mapping p of G into the set of all linear transformations of a finite-dimensional vector space V over the field @ of complex numbers which preserves products, i.e.
p(st) = p(s)p(t) for all s,t E G,
(1)
and maps the identity element of G into the identity transformation of V: p(e) = I . The dimension of the vector space V is called the degree of the representation (although 'dimension' would be more natural). It follows at once from ( 1 ) that
Thus, for every s E G, p(s) is an invertible linear transformation of V and p(s-l) = p(s)-l. (Hence a representation of G is a homomorphism of G into the group GL(V) of all invertible linear transformations of V.) Any group has a trivial representation of degree 1 in which every element of the group is mapped into the scalar 1. Also, with any group G of finite order g a representation of degree g may be defined in the following way. Let sl,...,s, be an enumeration of the elements of G and let el,...,eg be a basis
4. Representations of arbitrary finite groups
477
for a g-dimensional vector space V over C.We define a linear transformation A(sJ of V by its action on the basis elements: A(s;)e. = ek if sisj = sk. J Then, for all s,t E G, A ( r l ) A ( s )= I , A(st) = A(s)A(t). Thus the mapping p ~S ;: + A ( s J is a representation of G , known as the regular repmwntatiolz. By choosing a basis for the vector space we can reformulate the preceding definitions in terns of matsices. A representation of a group G is then a product-presewing map s
+ A(s) of
G into the group of all 11x11non-singulas matrices of complex numbers. The positive integer n is the degree of the representation. However, we must regard two matrix representations s -+ A(s) and s -+ B(s) as equivalent if one is obtained from the other simply by changing the basis of the vector space, i.e. if there exists a non-singulas matrix T such that T-lA(s)T = B(s) for every s E G. It is easily verified that if s
-+ A(s) is a matrix representation of degree n of a group G,
then s + A(s-l)' (the transpose of A(s-I)) is a representation of the same degree, the conti-agredient ~.epl.esentafio/z.Furthermore, s -+ det A(s) is a representation of degree 1. Again, if p: s -+ A(s) and o:s + B(s) are matrix representations of a group G, of degrees n~and 11 respectively, then the Kronecker product mapping
is also a representation of G, of degree nzn, since ( A( s ) Q B @))(A ( t ) Q ~ ( t ) =) s st) Q B (st). We will call this representation simply the ylmhrt of the representations p and o, and denote it by p 63 o. The basic problem of representation theory is to dete~mineall possible representations of a given group. As we will see, all representations may in fact be built up from certain 'irreducible' ones. Let p be a representation of a group G by lineas transformations of a vector space V. If a under G, i.e. if subspace U of V is i~zvar-ialzt p(s)U
cU
for every s E G,
478
X . A character study
then the restrictions to U of the given linear transformations provide a representation pu of G by linear transformations of the vector space U. If it happens that there exists another subspace W invariant under G such that V is the direct sum of U and W, i.e. V = U + W and U n W = {O), then the representation p is completely determined by the representations pu and pw and will be said simply to be their sum. A representation p of a group G by linear transformations of a vector space V is said to be irreducible if no nontrivial proper subspace of V is invariant under G, and reducible otherwise. Evidently any representation of degree 1 is irreducible. A matrix representation s + A@),of degree n, of a group G is reducible if it is equivalent to a representation in which all matrices have the block form
where P ( s ) is a square matrix of order m , 0 < m < n. Then s
+ P(s) and s -+ R ( s ) are
representations of G of degrees m and n - m respectively. The given representation is the sum of these representations if there exists a non-singular matrix T such that
T - ~ ~ ( s =) T
Rys))
for every s s G.
The following theorem of Maschke (1899) reduces the problem of finding all representations of afinite group to that of finding all irreducible representations. PROPOSITION 9 Every representation of a finite group is (equivalent to) a sum of
irreducible representations. Proof We give a constructive proof due to Schur. Lets + A(s), where
be a reducible representation of a group G of finite order g. Since the mapping s -+ A(s) preserves products, we have
The non-singular matrix
4. Representations of arbitrary finite groups
satisfies
if and only if
MR ( t ) = P(t)M + Q(t). Take Then, by (21,
and hence (3) holds. Thus the given reducible representation s + A(s) is the sum of two representations s + P(s) and s + R(s) of lower degree. The result follows by induction on the degree. Maschke's original proof of Proposition 9 depended on showing that every representation of a finite group is equivalent to a representation by unitary matrices. We briefly sketch the argument. Let p: s + A(s) be a representation of a finite group G by linear transformations of a finite-dimensional vector space V. We may suppose V equipped with a positive definite inner product (u,v). It is easily verified that
is also a positive definite inner product on V and that it is invariant under G, i.e.
(A(s)u,A ( s ) v ) ~= ( u , ~ for ) ~ every s E G. If U is a subspace of V which is invariant under G, and if U' is the subspace consisting of all vectors v E V such that ( u , ~=)0~for every u E U , then U' is also invariant under G and V is the direct sum of U and u'. Thus p is the sum of its restrictions to U and u '. The basic result for irreducible representations is Schur's lemma, which comes in two parts:
PROPOSITION 10 (i) Let s + A l ( s ) and s + Az(s) be irreducible representations of a group G by linear transformations of the vector spaces V 1 and V2. I f there exists a linear transformation T z 0 of V1 into V2 such that TAl(s) = A2(s)T for every s E G ,
480
X . A charmcter study
the11 the spaces V1 alld V2 have the same dinzension and T is invertible, so that the representations are equivalent. (ii) Lets -+ A(s) be an irreducible repizsentation of a group G by h e a r trunsformations of a vector space V. A lillear transfoinzatioil T of V has the property
ij'and ovdy
T = hI for some h E @.
Proof (i) The image of V1 under T is a subspace of V2 which is invariant under the second representation. Since T f 0 and the representation is ineducible, it must be the whole space: TV1 = V2. On the other hand, those vectors in V1 whose image under T is 0 foim a subspace of V1 which is invariant under the first representation. Since T # 0 and the representation is irreducible, it must contain only the zero vector. Hence distinct vectors of V1 have distinct images in V .under T. Thus T is a one-to-one mapping of V1 onto V2. (ii) By the fundamental theorem of algebra, there exists a complex number h such that det (W - 7')= 0. Hence T - W is not invei-tible. But if T has the propesty (4), so does T - hI. Therefore T - hI = 0, by (i) with A1 = A*. It is obvious that, conversely, (4) holds if T = W . 0
COROLLARY11 Every irreducible izpresentatiun of an abeliail gi.oup is of degree 1. Proof By Proposition 10 (ii) all elements of the group must be represented by scalar multiples of the identity tsansfoimation. But such a representation is isseducible only if its degree is 1.
5 Characters of arbitrary finite groups By definition, the ti-ace of an nxll matrix A = (a,j) is the sum of its main diagonal elements: WA
=
CT1 a,. 1=1 l l .
It is easily verified that, for any I I X I ~matrices A,B and any scalas X,we have
Let p: s -+ A(s) be a matrix representation of a group G. By the character of the representation p we mean the mapping X: G + C defined by
5. Characters of arbitraryfinite groups
Since tr (T-IAT) = tr ( A n - 1 ) = tr A, equivalent representations have the same character. The significance of characters stems from the converse, which will be proved below. Clearly the character of a representation p is a class$~nction,i.e.
x
st) = ~ ( t s )for all s,t E G. The degree FZ of the representation p is deteimined by its character X , since A(e) = I, and hence
~ ( e=)n. If the representation p is the sum of two representations p ' and p ", the cosresponding characters x,x',x" evidently satisfy ~ ( s =) ~ ' ( s+)~ " ( s for ) every s E G. On the other hand, if the representation p is the product of the representations p' and p ", then
~ ( s =) ~ ' ( s ) ~ " (for s ) every s E G. Thus the set of all chasacters of a group is closed under addition and multiplication, The character of an irreducible representation will be called simply an irreducil?le chai.ucter. Let G be a group and p a representation of G of degree n with character X . If s is an element of G of finite order nz, then by restriction p defines a representation of the cyclic group generated by s. By Proposition 9 and Corollary 11, this representation is equivalent to a sum of representations of degsee 1. Thus if S is the matrix representing s, there exists an invertible matrix T such that
T-'ST
= diag
[o,,...,on]
is a diagonal matrix. Moreover, since
T-lSkT
= diag
[elk ,...,o n k ] ,
ol,...,o, are all nz-th roots of unity. Thus
is a sum of n m-th roots of unity. Since the inverse of a root of unity o is its complex conjugate
-
o , it follows that x(s-1)
= ol-1 +
... + 0,-1
=
X(s>.
X . A character study
Now let G be a group of finite order g, and let p: s +A(s) and o: s +B(s) be irreducible matrix representations of G of degrees n and m respectively. For any nxm matrix C, form the
matrix
T = C s,G A(s)CB(s-l). Since ts runs through the elements of G at the same time as s,
A(t)T = TB(t) for every t E G. Therefore, by Schur's lemma, T = 0 if p is not equivalent to o and T = hl if p = o. In particular, take C to be any one of the mn matrices which have a single entry 1 and all other entries 0. Then if A = (aij), B = (PkJ,we get
where 6il = 1 or 0 according as i = 1 or i # 1 ('Kronecker delta'). Since for (aij)= (Pi) the left side is unchanged when i is interchanged with k and j with 1, we must have hjk = h6jk. To determine h set i = 1,j = k and sum with respect to k. Since the matrices representing s and s1 are inverse, we get g l = nh. Thus
If y,v run through an index set for the inequivalent irreducible representations of G, then the relations which have been obtained can be rewritten in the form s&
'
a i j ( ~ ) ( ~ ) a ~ l (=v ) ( ~ - l )
ify=v,j=k,i=l, otherwise.
The orthogonality relations (5) for the irreducible matrix elements have several corollaries: (i)
The functions aij(P): G + C are linearly independent.
For suppose there exist hi(P)E
C such that
C i,j,p Xij(F)aij(P)(s) = 0
for every s E G.
Multiplying by akl(v)(s-l) and summing over all s E G, we get (g/n,)h&') = 0. Hence every coefficient hlkOf)vanishes.
5. Characters of arbitraryfinite groups
(ii>
C s E C x,(s)xv(s-l)
=
g&.
This follows from (5) by setting i =j, k = I and summing over j,l. (iii) The irreducible characters
xF are linearly independent.
In fact (iii) follows from (6) in the same way that (i) follows from (5). The orthogonality relations (6) for the irreducible characters enable us to decompose a given representation p into irreducible representations. For if p = O mppF is a direct sum decomposition of p into irreducible components pp, where the coefficients mp are non-negative integers, and if p has character X ,then
Multiplying by xV(sr1)and summing over all s E G, we deduce from (6) that
Thus the multiplicities m, are uniquely determined by the character of the representation p. It follows that two representations are equivalent if and only if they have the same character. In the same way we find
Hence a representation p with character
is irreducible if and only if
The procedure for decomposing a representation into its irreducible components may be applied, in particular, to the regular representation. Evidently the gxg matrix representing an element s has all its main diagonal elements 0 if s # e and all its main diagonal elements 1 if s = e. Thus the character of the regular representation pR is given by
xR
Since ~ , ( e )= nv is the degree of the v-th irreducible representation, it follows from (7) that
m , = n,. Thus every irreducible representation is contained in the direct sum decomposition of the regular representation, and moreover each occurs as often as its degree. It follows that
CpnF2=g, C k n p ~ F ( s ) = O i f s z e .
(9)
X . A character study
Thus the total number of functions a$P) is C pnp2 = g. Therefore, since they are linearly independent, every function $: G + @ is a linear combination of functions a$P) occurring
in irreducible matrix representations. We show next that every class function $: G -+ C is a linear combination of irreducible QP, where characters xF By what we have just proved $ =
x
and h$K)
E
C. But $(st) = $(ts) and
Since the functions aij(P)are linearly independent, we must have
If we denote by T(k)the transpose of the ma& (hik(P)), we can rewrite this in the form
Therefore, by Schur's lemma, T(P)= hpInpand hence QP = hPxP. Thus $ =
x , hfiP.
Two elements u,v of a group G are said to be conjugate if v = s-lus for some s E G. It is easily verified that conjugacy is an equivalence relation. Consequently G is the union of pairwise disjoint subsets, called conjugacy classes, such that two elements belong to the same subset if and only if they are conjugate. The inverses of all elements in a conjugacy class again form a conjugacy class, the inverse class. In this terminology a function $: G + @ is a class function if and only if $(u) = $(v) whenever u and v belong to the same conjugacy class. Thus the number of linearly independent class functions is just the number of conjugacy classes in G. Since the characters &, form a basis for the class functions, it follows that the number of inequivalent irreducible
representations is equal to the number of conjugacy classes in the group. If a group of order g has r conjugacy classes then, by (9), g = n12 + ... + nr2. Since it is abelian if and only if every conjugacy class contains exactly one element, i.e. if and only if r = g, it follows that a finite group is abelian if and only if every irreducible representation
has degree 1. Let
...,%, be the conjugacy classes of the group G and let hk be the number of elements
in Yik (k = 1,...,r). Changing notation, we will now denote by
xik the common value of the
5. Chnracters of nrbitraryfirlite groups
485
character of all elements in the k-th conjugacy class in the i-th ii-seducible representation. Then, since ~ ( s - l =) X(s), the orthogonality relations (6) can be rewritten in the form
Thus the Ixr matrices A = (xi&,B = ( g - l h i 5 ) satisfy AB = I. Therefore also BA = I, i.e.
It may be noted that hk divides g since, for any sk E 'ek,g/hk is the order of the subgroup formed by all elements of G which commute with sk. We are going to show finally that the degree of any irreducible representation divides the order of the group. Any representation p: s + A($) of a finite group G may be extended by linearity to the set of all linear combinations of elements of G:
If p
=
pi is a11 ii~educiblerepresentation, it follows from Schur's lemma that pi(Ck) = hikIni.
Moreover, since
pi(Ck) = kk~ik? where hk again denotes the number of elements in (ek,we must have hik = hkxik/ni. Now let
by (10). If pR(C)is the matrix represelltirig C in the regular representation, it follows that there exists an invertible matrix T such that T-lpR(C)Tis a diagonal matrix, consisting of the matrices
(g/ni)*IHL, repeated ni times, for every i. 111 particular, (g/ni)*is a root of the characteristic
486
X . A character study
polynomial $(A) = det (hl,- pR(C))for every i. But pR(C)is a matrix with integer entries and hence the polynomial $(A) = hg + alhg-1 + ... + a, has integer coefficients a l ,...,ag. The following lemma, already proved in Proposition IT.16 but reproved for convenience of reference here, now implies that (g/r1J2is an integer and hence that n; divides g.
LEMMA 12 If $ ( h ) = h n + alhn-1 + ,., + an is a monic yoly1zon7iul with integer coeflicients a l ,...,a, and I . a rational number such that $(r) = 0, then r. is un integer.
Proof We can write r = b/c, where b and c ase relatively prime integers and c > 0. Then
and hence c divides bn. Since c and h have no common prime factor, this implies c = 1.
If we apply the preceding argument to Ck, rather than to C , we see that there exists an invertible matrix Tk such that Tk-lpR(Ck)Tkis a diagonal matrix, consisting of the matrices (hkxik/?Zi)In, repeated 12; times, for every i. Thus hkxLklniis a root of the characteristic polynomial $ k ( h ) = det (hZg - pR(Ck)). Since this is a monic polynomial with integer coefficients, it follows that hkxik/n,is arz algehuic integer.
6 Induced representations and examples k t H be a subgroup of finite index n of a group G, i.e. G is the dis-joint union of n left cosets of H:
G
=
slH LJ ... u snH.
Also, let there be given a representation o: t + A(t) of H by linear transformations of a vector space V. The representation 6: s defined in the following way:
+ A ( s ) of G i~zrlucedby the given representation o of H is
Take the vector space to be the direct sum of n subspaces V , , where V , consists of all formal products si .v (v E V ) with the rules of combination
where t and sj are detemined from s and si by requiring that t = sj-lssi E H. The degree of the induced representation of G is thus n times the degree of the original representation of H. With respect to a given basis of V let A(t) now denote the matrix representing t E H and put A(s) = 0 if s E G \ H. If one adopts corresponding bases for each of the subspaces V;,then the mabix A (s)representing s E G in the induced representation is the block matrix
Evidently each row and each column contains exactly one nonzero block. It should be noted also that a different choice of coset representatives sir= siti, where ti E H (i = 1,....n ) , yields an equivalent representation, since
... 0 ...... ... A(&)-
'-'
A(sl '-I ssl ') ... A(s1 ss, ') ...
...
...
'-'
...
.
~ ( s , ssl ') ... A(s, ,-I ss, ')
I.
Furthennore, changing the order of the cosets col~espondsto pelfosming the same permutation on the rows and columns of A (s),and thus also yields an equivalent representation. It follows that if y/ is the character of the original representation o of H, then the character
I$ of the induced representation 6 of G is given by
where we set ~ ( s= )0 if s e H. If H is of finite order h, this can be rewiitten in the form
since y ( t l s j - l s s i t ) = yr(si-lssi) if t E H. From any representation of a group G we can also obtain a representation of a subgroup H simply by restricting the given representation to H. We will say that the representation of H is
deduced from that of G. There is a remaskable reciprocity between induced and deduced representations, discovered by Frobenius (I 898):
PROPOSITION 13 Let p: s -+A(s) be an irreducible representatio~lof the finite group G and o: t + B(t) an il-I-educiblerepresentution of the subgroup H . Then the number of times that o occurs in the ~zpl'esentationof H deduced fr.onz the representation p of G is equal to
488
X . A charucter study
the nunzber of tinzes that p occurs in the ~.epi'esentatioltof G illduced by the representation o of H.
x
Proof Let denote the character of the representation p of G and v the character of the representation o of H. By (7),the number of times that p occurs in the complete reduction of the induced representation 6 is
If we put u-1s-lu = t, u-1 = v, then s-1 = v-ltv and (t,v) runs through all elements of GxG at the same time as (s,u). Therefore
which is the number of times that o occurs in the complete reduction of the resuiction of p to H. 0
COROLLARY14 Each in.educible i.epr.esentation of a finite group G is contained in a representation induced by some ii.reducible rep-esentation of a given subgroup H. A simple, but still significant, application of these results is to the case where the order of the subgroup H is half that of the whole group G. The subgroup H is then necessarily normal (as defined in Chapter I, $7) since, for any v E G\ H, the elements of G \ H form both a single left coset vH and a single right coset Hv. Hence if s + A(s) is a representation of H, then so also is s + A(v-'sv), its conjugate ~,epresentation. Since v2 E H, the conjugate of the conjugate is equivalent to the original representation. Evidently a representation is isseducible if and only if its conjugate representation is irreducible. On the other hand G has a nontrivial chasacter 3L of degsee 1, defined by
k ( s ) = 1 or - 1 according as s E H or s E H If
x is an isseducible chasacter of G, then the character xh of the product representation is also
isreducible, since
Evidently
x and x ~ Lhave the same degree.
If yi is the character of an ineducible representation of H, we will denote by character of its conjugate representation. Thus
viVthe
6. Induced representations and examples
The representation and its conjugate are equivalent if and only if yiv(s)= vi(s)for every s E H. Consider now the induced representation follows hom (12)that
qi of G.
Since H is a normal subgroup, it
q j ( s ) = qiV(s)= 0 i f s G\H, ~ q i ( ~ )= q i v ( ~ )= yi(s) + yiV(s) if s E H. Hence
q
=
qiry and
Consequently, by the orthogonality relations for H,
I f yi and vjV are inequivalent, the second term on the right vanishes and we obtain
Thus the induced representation q of G is irreducible, its degree being twice that of wi. On the other hand, if and yy are equivalent, then
vi
I f q = C mjXjis the decomposition of qi into irreducible characters xj of G, it follows from (8) that C mj2 = 2. This implies that \jl decomposes into two inequivalent irreducible We will show that in fact = xkh. characters of G, say qi= +
xk xI.
I f xk(s)= 0 for all s E H, then
and hence, by the same argument as that just used, the restriction of
xk to H decomposes into
two inequivalent irreducible characters of H. Since the restriction of
qi to H is 2 v i , this is a
contradiction. We conclude that xk(s)# 0 for some s +? H, i.e.
in the decomposition of
q i , and q i ( s )= 0 if s P
H,
xkX # xk. Since xk occurs once
Thus xkh also occurs once in the decomposition of
qi, and since xkh # xk we
must have
x k h = XP
In the relation
C
vi(1)2 = h, partition the sum into a sum over pairs of distinct conjugate
characters and a sum over self-conjugate characters:
Then for the corresponding characters of G we have
Since, by Corollary 14, each irreducible character of G appears in the sum on the left, it follows from (9) that each occurs exactly once. Thus we have proved
PROPOSITION15 Let thefinite group G have a subgroup H of half its order. Then each pair of distinct conjugate characters of H yields by induction a single irreducible character of G of twice the degree, whereas each self-conjugate character of H yields by induction two distinct irreducible characters of G of the same degree, which coincide on H and differ in sign on G\H. The irreducible characters of G thus obtained are all distinct, and every irreducible character of G is obtained in this way. We will now use Proposition 15 to determine the irreducible characters of several groups of mathematical and physical interest. Let Y, denote the symmetric group consisting of all permutations of the set {1,2,...,n } , d, the alternating group consisting of all even permutations, and Cn the cyclic group consisting of all cyclic permutations. Thus Y nhas order n!, dnhas order n!/2 and Cn has order n. The irreducible characters of the abelian group d 3= C3 are all of degree 1 and can be arranged as a table in the following way, where o = e2=jI3= (-1 + i,/3)/2.
u,
is a primitive cube root of unity, say
6. Iilduced represerttations and examples
The group Y 3 contains d 3as a subgroup of index 2. The elements of Y 3 form three conjugacy classes: containing only the identity element e, %2 containing the three elements (12),(13),(23)of order 2, and q3 containing the two elements (123),(132)of order 3. The irreducible character yfl of d 3is self-conjugate and yields two irreducible characters of Y 3of degree 1, the trivial character and the sign character = xlh. The irreducible characters W2,V3of d 3are conjugate and yield a single irreducible character of Y 3of degree 2. Thus we obtain the character table:
x2
x3
The elements of d 4form four conjugacy classes: %, containing only the identity element
e, %, containing the three elements tl = (12)(34),t2 = (13)(24),t3 = (14)(23)of order 2, g 3 containing four elements of order 3, namely c,ctl,ct2,ct3,where c = (123), and q4containing u %2 is a the remaining four elements of order 3, namely c2,c2tl,c2t2,c2t3.Moreover N = normal subgroup of order 4, H = {e,c,c2}is a cyclic subgroup of order 3, and d 4 =HN, H n N If
=
{e).
x is a character of degree 1 of H, then a character w of degree 1 of
is defined by
~ ( h n=)~ ( h for ) all h E H , n E N . Since H is isomorphic to d 3 , we obtain in this way three characters ~ ~ , ~of d ~ 4of , degree y f ~ 1. Since d4has order 12, and 12 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 9, the remaining irreducible chasacter yf4 of .d4 has degree 3. The character table of d4can be completed by means of the orthogonality relations (1 1) and has the following form, where again o = (-1
+ i,/3)/2.
X . A character study
The group Y4 contains d4as a subgroup of index 2 and v = (12) E Y4 \ d4. The elements of Y4 form five conjugacy classes: containing only the identity element e, %2 containing six transpositions ('k) ( 1 <j < k I 4 ) , %3 containing the three elements of order 2 in d4,(e4 containing eight elements of order 3, and (e5 containing six elements of order 4. The self-conjugate character of d4yields two characters of Y4 of degree 1 , the trivial character and the sign character x2 = xlh; the pair of conjugate characters yf2,v3of d4 yields an irreducible character of Y4 of degree 2; and the self-conjugate character of d4
v1
x1
x3
yields two irreducible characters corresponding to
v4
x4,xsof Y4 of degree 3.
The rows of the character table
x4,xsmust have the form 3 x z w y 3 -x z w -y
and from the orthogonality relations ( 1 1 ) we obtain z = -1, w = 0, x y = - 1 . orthogonality relations (10) we further obtain x character table is
+y
From the
= 0. Hence x2 = 1 and the complete
6. Induced representations and examples
493
The physical significance of these groups derives from the fact that .d4(resp. Y 4 )is isomorphic to the group of all rotations (resp. orthogonal transformations) of R3 which map a regular tetrahedron onto itself. Similarly .d3(resp. Y3) isisomosphic to the group of all plane rotations (resp. plane rotations and reflections) which map an equilateral triangle onto itself. An important property of induced representations was proved by R. Brauer (1953): each character of a finite group is a linear combination with integer coefficients (not necessarily nonnegative) of characters induced from chasacters of elementary subgroups. Here a group is said to be elementary if it is the direct product of a group whose order is a power of a psime and a cyclic group whose order is not divisible by that prime. It may be deduced without difficulty from Brauer's theorem that, if G is a finite group and nz the least common multiple of the orders of its elements, then (as had long been conjectured) any irreducible representation of G is equivalent to a representation in the field Q(e27[i1m). Green (1955) has shown that Brauer's theorem is actually best possible: if each character of a finite group G is a linear combination with integer coefficients of characters induced from characters of subgroups belonging to some family 9, then each elementary subgroup of G is contained in a conjugate of some subgroup in 9.
7 Applications Character theory has turned out to be an invaluable tool in the study of abstract groups. We illustrate this by two results of Burnside (1904) and Frobenius (1901). It is remarkable, first that these applications were found so soon after the development of chasacter theory and secondly that, one centmy later, there are still no proofs known which do not use character theory.
LEMMA16 If p: s + A(s) is a reyresentution of degree n of ufinite group G, then the character
x of p satisfies I~(s)lIn for any s E G.
Moreover, equality holds for sonze s if and only if A(s) = aIn,where (j, E @. Proof If s E G has order nz, there exists an invertible matrix T such that T-IA(s)T = diag [ol,...,a,], where ol,...,onare rn-th roots of unity. Hence ~ ( s )= al + ... + an and
o,,...,o, all lie on the same ray through the origin and hence only if they are all equal, since they lie on the unit circle. But then A(s) = coZn Moreover I~(s)l= 11 only if
The kernel of the representation p is the set Kp of all s E G for which p(s) = I,,. Evidently K,, is a normal subgroup of G. By Lemma 16, K p may be characterized as the set of all s E G such that ~ ( s=)n.
LEMMA17 Let p: s + A(s) be an irreducible representation of degree n of a,finite group G, with character X , and let % be a conjugary class of G containing h elme~zts.I f h and n are relatively prime then, for any s E %, either ~ ( s=)0 or A(s) = ol, for some w E C.
Proof Since h and n are relatively prime, there exist integers a,b such that ah + bn = 1. Then
Since hx(s)/n and ~ ( sare ) algebraic integers, it follows that x(s)/tz is an algebraic integer. We may assume that I~(s)l< n, since otherwise the result follows from Lemma 16. Suppose s has order nz, If (k,nz) = 1, then the conjugacy class containing s k l s o has cardinality h and thus x(sk)/nis an algebraic integer, by what we have already proved. Hence
where k runs through all positive integers less than m and relatively prime to m , is also an algebraic integer. But x(sk)=f(gk), where w is a primitive m-th root of unity and
for some non-negative integers r l ,...,r, less than m. Thus a is a symmetric function of the primitive roots Wk. Since the cyclotonzic poly~~onzial
has integer coefficients, it follows that a E Q. Consequently, by Lemma 12, a E Z. But la1 < 1, since I ~ ( s )< l n and l~(sk))l I n for every k. Hence a = 0, and thus ~ ( s k=) 0 for some k with (k,nz) = 1. If g(x) is the monic polynomial in Q[x]of least positive degree such that g(&) = 0, then any polynomial in Q[x]with O)li as a root must be divisible by g(x). Since we showed in Chapter 11, $5 that the cyclotornic polynomial @,(x) is irreducible over the field Q, it follows that g(x) = @,(x) and that a&) divides f(.x). Hence also ~ ( s=)f ( o ) = 0.
Before stating the next result we recall from Chapter I, $7 that a group is said to be simple if it contains more than one element and has no nontrivial proper normal subgroup.
PROPOSITION 18 I f a finite g~.oupG has a conjugacy class % of cardirzality pu, for some yrinze y aud positive integer a, then G is not u sinzple group. Proof If s
E
(e
then, by (9),
C, 11,x,(s)
= 0.
Assume the notation chosen so that is the character of the trivial representation. If ~ , ( s )= 0 for every p > 1 for which y does not divide IZ,, then the displayed equation has the form 1 + p< = 0, where is an algebraic integer. Since -1lp is not an integer, this contradicts Lemma 12. Consequently, by Lemma 17, for some v > 1 we must have A@')(s)= oInv, where o E C.The set k; of all elements of G wl~ichare represented by the identity transformation in the v-th il-seducible representation is a normal subgroup of G. Moreover K, f: { e ) , since Kv contains all elements u-1s-lus, and K,, # G, since v > 1. Thus G is not simple.
1 the asithmetic progression u + mk,a + 2mk,... contains a prime. It may be shown that any finite abelian group G is isonzorphic to its dual group G (although not in a canonical way) by expressing G as a direct product of cyclic groups; see, for example, W. & F. Ellison [ I S ] . In the final step of the proof of Proposition 7 we have followed Bateman [3]. Other proofs
x
that L(1,x) # 0 for every # xl, which do not use Proposition 6 , are given in Hasse 1211. The fuilctional equation for Dirichlet L-functions was first proved by Huswitz (1882). For proofs of some of the results stated at the end of 93, see Bach and Sorenson [ I ] ,Davenport [12],W . & F. Ellison [ I S ] and Prachar [40]. Funakura [ I S ] chasacterizes Dirichlet L-functions by means of their analytic propesties. The history of the theory of group representations and group characters is desciibed in Curtis [ l o ] . More complete expositions of the subject than ours are given by Serre [42], Feit [16],Huppert [27],and Curtis and Reiner [ l l ] . The proof given here that the degree of an isseducible representation divides the order of the group is not Frobenius' oiiginal proof. It first
514
X . A cha~acterstudy
appeared in a footnote of a paper by Schur (1904) on projective representations, where it is attributed to Frobenius. Zassenhaus [50] gives an interpretation in t e m s of Casinzir operators. A character-free proof of Corollasy 19 is given in Gagen [19]. P. Hall's theorem is proved in Feit [16], for example. Frobenius groups are studied further in Feit [16] and Huppert [27]. For physical and chemical applications of group representations, see Cosnwell [9], Janssen 1291, Meijer (361, Birman [4] and Wilson et al. 1481. Dym and McKean [14] give an outward-looking introduction to the classical theory of Fourier series and integrals. The formal definition of a topological group is due to Schreier (1926). The Haar integral is discussed by Nachbin [37]. General introductions to abstract harmonic analysis are given by Weil [46], Loomis [34] and Folland [17]. More detailed information on topological groups and their representations is contained in Pontryagin [39], Hewitt and Ross [23] and Gurarii [20]. A simple proof that the additive group QL,of all y-adic numbers is isomorphic to its dual group is given by Washington [45]. In the adelic approach to algebraic number theory this isomorphism lies behind the functional equation of the Riemann zeta function; see, for example, Lang [31]. For Hilbert's fifth problem, see Yang [49] and Hirschfeld [24]. The correspondence between Lie groups and Lie algebras was set up by Sophus Lie (1873-1893) in a purely local way, i.e. between neighbourhoods of the identity in the Lie group and of zero in the Lie algebra. Over half a century elapsed before the correspondence was made global by Cartan, Pontryagin and Chevalley. A basic propesty of solvable Lie algebras was established by Lie, but we owe to Killing (1888-1890) the remarkable classification of simple complex Lie algebras. Some gaps and inacc~u-aciesin Killing's pioneering work were filled and comcted in the thesis of Cartan (1894). The classification of simple real Lie algebras is due to Cartan (1914). The representation theory of semisimple Lie algebras and compact semisimple Lie groups is the creation of Cartan (1913) and Weyl (1925-7). The introduction of groups generated by reflections is due to Weyl. For the theosy of Lie groups, see Chevalley [7], Warner [44], Vasadarajan [43], Helgason 1221 and Barut and Raczka [2]. The last reference also has information 011 representations of noncompact Lie groups and applications to quantum theory. The purely algebraic theoty of Lie algebras is discussed by Jacobson 1281 and Humphreys 1251. Niederle [38] gives a sulliey of the applications of the exceptional Lie algebras and Lie superalgebras in particle physics. Groups generated by reflections are treated by Humphreys 1261, Bourbaki [5] and Kac [30], while Cohen [8] gives a u s e f ~ overview. ~l The character theory of locally compact abelian groups, whose roots lie in Dirichlet's theorem on primes in asithmetic progressions, has given something back to number theory in
the adelic approach to algebraic number fields; see the thesis of Tate, reproduced (pp. 305-347) in Cassels and Frohlich [6], Lang [31] and Weil [47]. For a broad historical perspective and future plans, see Mackey [35] and Langlands 1321.
Selected references
E. Bach and J. Sorenson, Explicit bounds for primes in residue classes, Math. Corny. 65 (1996), 1717-1735.
A.O. Banit and R. Raczka, Theory of g~.ozq?represe~ztationsand applications, 2nd ed., Polish Scientific Publishers, Warsaw, 1986. P.T. Bateman, A theorem of Ingham implying that Dirichlet's L-functions have no zeros with real part one, Enseign. Math. 43 (1997), 281-284.
J.L. Birman, T h e o q of crystal space groups ulzd luttice dynamics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984.
N. Bourbaki, Groupes et alg&brasde Lie: Chupitres 4,5 et 6, Masson, Paris, 1981. J.W.S. Cassels and A. Frohlich (ed.), Algebraic number theory, Academic Press, London, 1967. C. Chevalley, Theory of Lie groups I , Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1946. [Reprinted, 19991 A.M. Cohen, Coxeter groups and three related topics, Generators and relations in groups and ~eometries(ed. A. Baslotti et al.), pp. 235-278, Kluwes, Dordrecht, 1991.
J.F. Cornwell, Group theory in physics, 3 vols., Academic Press, London, 1984-1989. [lo] C.W. Curtis, Pioneers of represe~ltationtheory: Frobenius, Burlzside, Schur, arld Bmuer, American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I., 1999.
[ l l ] C.W. Cmtis and I. Reiner, Methods of representation theory, 2 vols., Wiley, New York, 1990. [12] H. Davenport, Multiplicative riumber t h e o ~ y3rd , ed. revised by H.L. Montgomery, Spsinger-Verlag, New York, 2000.
516
X . A character study
[13] L.E. Dickson, History of the theory of numbers, 3 vols., reprinted Chelsea, New York, 1966. [14] H. Dym and H.P. McKean, Fourier series and integrals, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1972. [15] W. Ellison and F. Ellison, Prime numbers, Wiley, New York, 1985. [16] W. Feit, Characters offnite groups, Benjamin, New York, 1967. [17] G.B. Folland, A course in abstract harmonic analysis, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995. [18] T. Funakura, On characterization of Dirichlet L-functions, Acta Arith. 76 (1996), 305315. [19] T.M. Gagen, Topics infinite groups, London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series 16, Cambridge University Press, 1976. [20] V.P. Gurarii, Group methods in commutative harmonic analysis, English transl. by D. and S. Dynin, Encyclopaedia of Mathematical Sciences 25, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998. [21] H. Hasse, Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1964. [22] S. Helgason, Dijjerential geometry, Lie groups and symmetric spaces, Academic Press, New York, 1978. [23] E. Hewitt and K.A. Ross, Abstract harmonic analysis, 2 vols., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1963ll97O. [Corrected reprint of Vol. I, 19791 [24] J. Hirschfeld, The nonstandard treatment of Hilbert's fifth problem, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 321 (1990), 379-400. [25] J.E. Humphreys, Introduction to Lie algebras and representation theory, SpringerVerlag, New York, 1972. [26] J.E. Humphreys, Reflection groups and Coxeter groups, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990. [27] B. Huppert, Character theory offinite groups, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1998.
10. Selected references
[28] N. Jacobson, Lie algebras, Interscience, New York, 1962. [29] T. Janssen, Crystallographic groups, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1973. [30] V.G. Kac, Infinite dimensional Lie Algebras, corrected reprint of 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. [31] S. Lang, Algebraic number theory, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994. 1321 R.P. Langlands, Representation theory: its rise and its role in number theory, Proceedings of the Gibbs symposium (ed. D.G. Caldi and G.D. Mostow), pp. 181-210, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, Rhode Island, 1990. [33] G . Lejeune-Dirichlet, Werke, reprinted in one volume, Chelsea, New York, 1969. [341 L.H. Loomis, An introduction to abstract harmonic analysis, Van Nostrand, New York, 1953.
[35] G.W. Mackey, Harmonic analysis as the exploitation of symmetry - a historical survey, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 3 (1980), 543-698. [Reprinted, with related articles, in G.W. Mackey, The scope and history of commutative and noncommutative harmonic analysis, American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I., 19921 [36] P.H. Meijer (ed.), Group theory and solid state physics: a selection of papers, Vol. 1, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1964. [37] L. Nachbin, The Haar integral, reprinted, Krieger, Huntington, New York, 1976. [38] J. Niederle, The unusual algebras and their applications in particle physics, Czechoslovak J. Phys. B 30 (1980), 1-22. [39] L.S. Pontryagin, Topological groups, English transl. of 2nd ed. by A. Brown, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1966. [Russian original, 19541 [40] K. Prachar, Primzahlverteilung, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1957. [41] N. Sedrakian and J. Steinig, A particular case of Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, Enseign. Math. 44 (1998), 3-7. [42] J.-P. Serre, Linear representations offnite groups, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1977.
518
X. A character study
[43] V.S. Varadarajan, Lie groups, Lie algebras and their representations, corrected reprint, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1984. [44] F.W. Warner, Foundations of differentiable manifolds and Lie groups, corrected reprint, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983. [451 L. Washington, On the self-duality of Qp, Amer. Math. Monthly 81 (1974), 369-371. [46] A. Weil, L'integration duns les groupes topologiques et ses applications, 2nd ed., Hermann, Paris, 1953. [47] A. Weil, Basic number theory, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973. [48] E.B. Wilson, J.C. Decius and P.C. Cross, Molecular vibrations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955. [49] C.T. Yang, Hilbert's fifth problem and related problems on transformation groups, Mathematical developments arising from Hilbert problems (ed. F.E. Browder), pp. 142-146, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., 1976. [50] H. Zassenhaus, An equation for the degrees of the absolutely irreducible representations of a group of finite order, Canad. J. Math. 2 (1950), 166-167.
XI
Uniform distribution and ergodic theory A trajectory of a system which is evolving with time may be said to be 'recurrent' if it keeps returning to any neighbourhood, however small, of its initial point, and 'dense' if it passes arbitrarily near to every point. It may be said to be 'unifoi-mly distributed' if the proportion of time it spends in any region tends asymptotically to the ratio of the volume of that region to the volume of the whole space. In the present chapter these notions will be made precise and some fundamental properties derived. The subject of dynamical systems has its roots in mechanics, but we will be particularly concellled with its applications in number theory.
1 Uniform distribution Before introducing our subject, we establish the following interesting result:
LEMMA0 Let J = [a,b] be a conipact interval and&: J -+ R a sequelzce of ~zondecreasing .fimctions. u f n ( t )-+ f(t) for eve1.y t E J as 12 then f,(t) -+f(t) uniformly on J. Proof
+
m,
where f: J
+ R is a continuous function,
Evidently f is also nondecreasing. Moreover, since J is compact, f is uniformly
continuous on J. Thus, for any E > 0, there is a subdivision a = to < tl < ... < t,,, = b such that
We can choose a positive integer y so that, for all n > p,
If t E J, then t E [tk-l,tk]for some k
E { 1,...,nz ).
Hence
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
~ h u jf,(t) s -f(t)l < 2E for eveiy t E J if n > p. For any real number 5, let LkJ denote again the greatest integer I 5 and let
denote the fractional part of 5. We are going to prove that, if 6 is ill-ational, then the sequence ({nc}) of the fractional parts of the multiples of is dense in the unit inteival I = [0,1], i.e. every point of I is a limit point of the sequence.
5
It is sufficient to show that the points z,, = e2nhc (12 = 1,2,... ) are dense on the unit circle. Since 5 is irrational, the points z, are all distinct and z?, # rfI 1. Consequently they have a limit point on the unit circle. Thus, for any given E > 0, there exist positive integers m,r such that
If we write z, = e2xie, where 0 < 0 < 1, then zk,.= c2nike(k = 1,2,... ). Define the positive ~ 1) < 0 < 1/N. Then the points z,.,z2,, ...,ZN,. follow one another in order integer N by 1 / ( + on the unit circle and evely point of the unit circle is distant less than E from one of these points. It may be asked if the sequence ((115)) is not only dense in I, but also spends 'the right amount of time' in each subinterval of I. To make the question precise we introduce the following definition:
A sequence (5,) of real numbers is said to be unifolnzly distributed mod 1 if, for all a,p withOIa 0, there exist step-functions f i f 2 such that
and Hence
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
< 2~ for all luge N, and similarly N-1 C
f((5,))
-
If f(t) dt
>
-
2s for all large N.
Thus ( I ) holds when the Riemann integrable function f is real-valued and also, by linearity, when it is complex-valued. 0
A converse of Theorem 1 has been proved by de Bruijn and Post (1968):if a function f : I + @ has the property that
(trL)
exists for every sequence which is uniformly distributed mod 1, then f is Riemam integrable. In the statement of the next result, and througlzout the rest of the chapter, we use the abbreviation e(t) = e""'t. In the proof of the next result we use the Weierstrass approximation theorem: any continuous function f: I + @ of period 1 is the uniform limit of a sequence
Vn) of trigonometric
polynomials. In fact, as Fejkr (1904) showed, one can take f,, to be the arithmetic mean (So + ... + S,-l)/n, where S , = S,,(x): =
Cr=_, el, e(lzx)
is the nz-th partial sum of the Fourier series for$ This yields the explicit formula fJx) =
11 Kn(x
-
t ) f ( t )dt,
where K,(u) = (sin2 nnu)/(n sin2 nu). THEOREM 2 A real sequence
(6,) is uilifornzly distributed mod
1 i f and only if, for every
integer h st 0, N-1
c
e(hc,)
+0
as N
+ -.
(2)
Proof If the sequence (5J is uniformly distributed mod 1 then, by taking f(t) = e(ht) in Theorem 1 we obtain (2) since, for evely integer h # 0,
523
I . Uniform distribution
Conversely, suppose (2) holds for every nonzero integer h. Then, by linearity, for any trigonometric polynomial
g(t) =
C
r=-m e(ht) bh
we have N-I
c
g({en}) + bo =
g(t) dt as N
+ =.
Iff is a continuous function of period 1 then, by the Weierstrass approximation theorem, for any E > 0 there exists a trigonometric polynomial g(t) such that [f(t)- g(t)l < E for every t E I. Hence
< 3~ for all large N. Thus (1) holds for every continuous functionf of period 1. Finally, if x,,p is the function defined in the proof of Theorem 1 then, for any E > 0, there exist continuous functionsf1f2 of period 1 such that
and
from which it follows similarly that
Thus the sequence (5,) is uniformly distributed mod 1.
Weyl's criterion, as Theorem 2 is usually called, immediately implies Bohl's result:
PROPOSITION3 I f 5 is irrational, the sequence (nc) is uniformly distributed mod 1. Proof For any nonzero integer h,
e(hc) + e(2hk) + ... + e(Nh6) = (e((N+l)hc)- e(hc))/(e(hc)- 1). Hence
IN-' c St',l e(hn6)l 4
2le(hc) - 11-I N-l,
524
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
and the result follows from Theorem 2. These results can be immediately extended to higher dimensions. A sequence (x,) of vectors in Rd is said to be uniformly distributed mod 1 if, for all vectors a = (al,...,ad)and b = (PI ,...,Pd) with 0 I ak < Pk I 1 (k = 1,...,d ) ,
where x , = (!,(I), ...,t,(d)) and (p,,,,(N) is the number of positive integers 12 I N such that ak I {5,(k)) < Pk for every k E { 1,...,d l . Let Idbe the set of all x = ( c ( l ),...,c(") such that 0 I N . Then it is easily verified that
Applying Schwasz's inequality (Chapter I, $4), we get
On the right side any term
/ 0, occurs only if nz < M and then it occurs exactly M -nz times. or Thus the right side is equal to
The lemma follows. 0
COROLLARY 5 If
(6,) is a real sequence such that,for
each positive integer m,
then Proof By taking in= e(5,) in Lemma 4 we obtain, for 1 I M I N ,
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
Keeping M fixed and letting N
+ =, we get
But M can be chosen as large as we please. An immediate consequence is van der Corput's diference theorem: PROPOSITION 6 The real sequence
positive integer m, the sequence (5n+m-
(5,)
cn)
is uniformly distributed mod 1 if, for each is uniformly distributed mod 1.
Proof If the sequences (5n+m- 5,) are uniformly distributed mod 1 then, by Theorem 2,
for all integers h +- 0, m > 0. Replacing 5, by he, in Corollary 5 we obtain, for all integers
h ;to, N-1
e(h6,)
+0
as N -+ =.
Hence, by Theorem 2 again, the sequence (5,) is uniformly distributed mod 1. The sequence (nc),with 5 irrational, shows that we cannot replace 'if' by 'if and only if' in the statement of Proposition 6. Weyl's result will now be derived from Proposition 6: PROPOSITION 7 I f
f(t) = artr + ar-ltr-l
+ ... + a.
is any polynomial with real coefficients ak such that ak is irrational for at least one k > 0, then the sequence (f(n))is uniformly distributed mod 1. Proof If r = 1, then the result holds by the same argument as in Proposition 3. We assume that r > 1, a, z 0 and the result holds for polynomials of degree less than r. For any positive integer m, srn(t> = f(t + m ) -fU is a polynomial of degree r - 1 with leading coefficient rma,. If a, is irrational, then rma, is also irrational and hence, by the induction hypothesis, the sequence (g,(n)) is uniformly
527
I . Utliforn~distribution
distributed mod 1. Consequently, by Proposition 6, the sequence (f(n))is also uniformly distributed mod 1. Suppose next that the leading coefficient a, is rational, and let a, ( 1 I s < r ) be the coefficient nearest to it which is il-sational. Then the coefficients of tr-l,...,P of the polynomial g,(t) are rational, but the coefficient of ts-1 is irrational. If s > 1 , it follows again from the induction hypothesis and Proposition 6 that the sequence (f(n))is uniforinly distributed mod 1. Suppose finally that s = 1 and put
I f q > 0 is a common denominator for the rational numbers and any nonnegative integers j,k,
a2,...,a,. then, for any integer h # 0
e(lzFuq + k ) ) = e(hF(k)) Write N = e q + k , where
e = LNIql and 0 5 k < q.
Since f(t) = F(t) + alt + ao,we obtain
The last term tends to zero as N I m, since the sum contains at most q terms, each of absolute value 1. By Theorem 2, each of the q inner sums in the first term also tends to zero as N I m, because the result holds for r = 1. Hence, by Theorem 2 again, the sequence (f(n))is uniformly distributed mod 1. An interesting extension of Psoposition 6 was derived by Korobov and Postnikov (1952):
distributed mod 1 then, for distributed nzod 1.
(En+,
5,) all integers (1 > 0 and r. 2 0, the sequence (Cqn+,.)
PROPOSITION 8 If, for every positive integer nz, the sequence
-
is uniformly is unifOrnzly
Proof W e may suppose q > 1, since the assertion follows at once from Proposition 6 if q = 1. By Theorem 2 it is enough to show that, for every integer m # 0,
Since q-I Zf,le(nk/q) = 1 if n = 0 mod q, = 0 i f n + O modq,
we can write
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
where we have put
qnW =
Cn+, + nklmq.
By hypothesis, for every positive integer h, the sequence
is uniformly distributed mod 1, by Proposition 6. is uniformly distributed mod 1. Hence qn(k) Thus, for each k
E { 1,...,q ) ,
and consequently also S
+ 0 as N +
m.
As an application of Proposition 8 we prove
PROPOSITION 9 Let A be a dxd matrix of integers, no eigenvalue of which is a root of unity. If, for some x E Rd, the sequence (Anx) is uniformly distributed mod 1 then, for any integers q > 0 and r 2 0, the sequence (Aqn+'x)is also uniformly distributed mod 1. Proof It follows from Theorem 2' that, for any nonzero vector m E Zd, the scalar sequence = m.Anx is uniformly distributed mod 1. For any positive integer h, the sequence
cn
has the same form as the sequence kn, since the hypotheses ensure that (Ah-1)" is a nonzero vector in Z d . Hence the sequence 5n+h- is uniformly distributed mod 1. Therefore, by Proposition 8, the sequence kg,+, = m.Aqn+rx is uniformly distributed mod 1, and thus the
cn
sequence Aqn+rxis uniformly distributed mod 1. It may be noted that the matrix A in Proposition 9 is necessarily nonsingular. For if det A = 0, there exists a nonzero vector z E Zd such that Atz = 0. Then, for any x E Rd and any positive integer n, e(z.Anx) = e((Af)nz.x)= 1. Thus N-l C e(z.Anx) = 1 and hence, by Theorem 2', the sequence Anx is not uniformly distributed mod 1. Further examples of uniformly distributed sequences are provided by the following result, which is due to FejQ (c. 1924):
529
I . Uniform distribution
(5,) be a sequence of real numbers such that qn:= tn+1 - tntends to zero monotonically as n + -. Then (5,) is uniformly distributed mod 1 ifnlqnl + as n + -.
-
PROPOSITION 10 Let
Proof By changing the signs of all 5, we may restrict attention to the case where the sequence (q,) is strictly decreasing. For any real numbers a$ we have
If we take a = h5n+1and /3 = hc,, where h is any nonzero integer, this yields
Taking n = 1,...,N and adding, we obtain
But the right side of this inequality tends to zero as N
5,
+ -,
since NqN +
and q,
+ 0.
0
-
By the mean value theorem, the hypotheses of Proposition 10 are certainly satisfied if =f(n), where f is a differentiable function such that f '(t)+ 0 monotonically as t + and
..
t[fl(t)l+ as t + -. Consequently the sequence (ana) is uniformly distributed mod 1 if a + 0 and 0 < a < 1, and the sequence (a(1og n)") is uniformly distributed mod 1 if a # 0 and a > 1. By using van der Corput's difference theorem and an inductive argument starting from Proposition 10, it may be further shown that the sequence (ana)is uniformly distributed mod 1 for any a ;r: 0 and any a > 0 which is not an integer. It has been shown by Kernperman (1973) that 'if' may be replaced by 'if and only if' in the statement of Proposition 10. Consequently the sequence (a(1og n)") is not uniformly distributed mod 1 if 0 < a I1.
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
The theory of uniform distribution has an application, and its origin, in astronomy. In his investigations on the secular perturbations of planetary orbits Lagrange (1782) was led to the problem of mean motion: if z(t) = where pk > 0 and
E
[W
C ?=I pk e ( q t + a d ,
(k = 1,...,n), does t1 arg z(t) have a finite limit as t + +m? It is
assumed that z(t) never vanishes and arg z(t) is then defined by continuity. (Zeros of z(t) can be admitted by writing z(t) = p(t)e($(t)), where p(t) and $(t) are continuous real-valued functions and p(t) is required to change sign at a zero of z(t) of odd multiplicity.) In the astronomical application arg z(t) measures the longitude of the perihelion of the planetary orbit. Lagrange showed that the limit
p = lim,,,,
t larg z(t)
does exist when n = 2 and also, for arbitrary n, when some pk exceeds the sum of all the others. The only planets which do not satisfy this second condition are Venus and Earth. Lagrange went on to say that, when neither of the two conditions was satisfied, the problem was "very difficult and perhaps impossible". There was no further progress until the work of Bohl (1909), who took n = 3 and considered the non-Lagrangian case when there exists a triangle with sidelengths p1,p2,p3. He showed that the limit p exists if 01,02,co3are linearly independent over the rational field Q and then p = h l w l
+ h2w2 + h3c03, where
n A 1 , n A 2 , ~ h are 3 the angles of the triangle with
sidelengths p1,p2,p3. In the course of the proof he stated and proved Proposition 3 (without formulating the general concept of uniform distribution). Using his earlier results on uniform distribution, Weyl (1938) showed that the limit p exists if o l , ...,con are linearly independent over the rational field Q and then
where hk 2 0 (k = 1,...,n) and C Ak = 1. The coefficients Ak depend only on the p's, not on the a ' s or o ' s , and there is even an explicit expression for A,,,, involving Bessel functions, which is derived from the theory of random walks. Finally, it was shown by Jessen and Tornehave (1945) that the limit p exists for arbitrary Wk E
R.
2 . Discrepancy
2 Discrepancy The star discrepancy of a finite set of points
g l , ...,tNin the unit interval I = [0,1] is
defined to be
DN* = DN*(clr...,cff)= S U p ~ < ~I g~ ~l (
N)/N
-
a[,
where q,(N) = qo,,(N) denotes the number of positive integers n I N such that 0 < 4, < a. Here we will omit the qualifier 'star', since we will not be concerned with any other type of discrepancy and the notation DN* should provide adequate warning. It was discovered only in 1972, by Niederreiter, that the preceding definition may be reformulated in the following simple way:
...,cNare real numbers such that 0 Iel I ... I cNI 1, then
PROPOSITION 11 I f e l ,
to
Proof Put = 0, 4N+1= 1. Since the distinct the unit interval I. we have
ck with 0 I k I N + 1 define a subdivision of
-
- maxk:5K xk + 6. Without loss of generality we restrict attention to the first case. By hypothesis, for each yi with 1 I i I k there exists an xji with 1 I ji I N such that lyi - xjil I 6 and such that the subscripts ji are distinct. Since yl 5 ... I yk, it follows that
But this is a contradiction, since there are at most k - 1 x's less than xk.
2. Discrepancy
We now show how the notion of discrepancy makes it possible to obtain estimates for the accuracy of various methods of numerical integration.
PROPOSITION 14 If the function f satisfies the 'Lipschitz conditiou'
then for any finite set
k l ,...,EN
E
I with discrepancy DN*,
Proof Without loss of generality we may assume k1 I ... I
tN.Writing
by Proposition 11. The result follows. 0 As Koksma (1942) first showed, Proposition 14 can be sharpened in the following way:
PROPOSITION 15 Ifthe function f has bounded variation on the unit interval I , with total ...,kN E I with discrepancy DN*, variation V , then for any finite set
tl,
proof Without loss of generality we may assume By integration and summation by parts we obtain
The result follows, since for 5, I t I
5n+1we have
t1I ... I tNand we put to= 0, 5N+1= 1.
X I . Uuiform clistribution and ergodic theory
As an application of Psoposition 15 we prove PROPOSITION 16 I f t 1 ,...,cN are points of the unit interval I with discrepancy DN* then,
fur any integer h # 0, 1N-l
C
e(h5,)I 5 4 / h l D ~ * .
where p 2 0 and a E I. Thus
p = N-I
zZ1e(h5, - a).
Adding this relation to its complex conjugate, we obtain
p =
N-1
zfjiZl cos 2x(h5,
-
a).
The result follows by applying Proposition 15 to the function f(t) = cos 27c(ht - a),which has bounded variation on I with total variation II [f '(t)I dt = 41h 1. 0 An inequality in the opposite direction to Proposition 16 was obtained by Erdos and Turan
(1948) who showed that, for any positive integer nz,
where the positive constant C is independent of nz,N and the 5's. Niederreites and Philipp
(1973) showed that one can take C = 4. Furthermore they generalized the result and simplified the proof. The connection between these results and the theory of uniform distribution is close at hand. Let (5,) be an arbitray sequence of real numbers and let 6~ denote the discrepancy of the fractional parts { k l } ,..., By the remark after the definition of unifosm distribution in 6 1, the sequence is unifornzly distributed nzud 1 if and only if& + 0 as N + =. It follows from Proposition 16 and the inequality of Erdos and Turan (in which m may be arbitrarily large) that 6~ + 0 as N + if and only if, for every integer h # 0,
(tn)
{tN}.
This provides a new proof of Theorem 2. Furtherinose, from bounds for the exponential sums we can obtain estimates for the rapidity with which 6N tends to zero. Propositions 14 and 15 show that in a formula for numerical integration the nodes
(5,)
should be chosen to have as small a discrepancy as possible. For a given finite number N of
535
2. Discrepancy
nodes Corollaly 12 shows how this can be achieved. In practice, however, one does not know in advance an appropriate choice of N, since universal error bounds may grossly overestimate the error in a specific case. Consequently it is also of interest to consider the problem of choosing an infinite sequence (5,) of nodes so that the discrepancy 6N of Slr...,SN tends to zero as rapidly as possible when N + w. There is a limit to what can be achieved in this way. W. Schmidt (1972), improving earlier results of van Aasdenne-Ehrenfest (1949) and Roth (1954),showed that there exists an absolute constant C > 0 such that
for every infinite sequence ( ~ J Kuipers . and Niedeneiter (1974) showed that a possible value for C was (132 log 2)-I = 0.010.. and Bejian (1979) sharpened this to (24 log 2)-I = 0.060..
.
Schmidt's result is best possible, apart from the value of the constant. Ostrowski (1922) had already shown that for the sequence ( { n a ) ) where , a E ( 0 , l )is isrational, one has
if in the continued fraction expansion
a
= [O;al,a,,... ] =
1 1 a1 +a2 + ...
the partial quotients ak are bounded. Dupain and S6s (1984) have shown that the minimum value of s*(a),for all such a , is (4 log (1 + .\/2))-' = 0.283 ... and the minimum is attained for a = 6 2 - 1 = [0;2,2,... 1. Schoessengeier (1984) has proved that, for any irrational a E (0,1), one has NEjN = O(log N ) if and only if the partial quotients uk satisfy C :=I ak = O(n). There are other low discrepancy sequences. Haber (1966) showed that, for a sequence constructed by van der Corput (1935),
(cn)
van der Corput's sequence is defined in the following way: if n - 1 = ~,,2"~+ ... + a121 + ao, where ak E { 0 , 1 ) ,then 5 , = ao2-l + a12-2 + ... + a,,2-"-1. In other words, the expression for in the base 2 is obtained from that for n - 1 by reflection in the 'decimal' point, a
tn
construction which is easily implemented on a computer. Various generalizations of this constluction have been given, and Faure (1981)defined in this way a sequence (5,) for which
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
Thus if C* is the least upper bound for all admissible values of C in Schmidt's result then, by what has been said, 0.060 ... 5 C* I 0.223 ... . It is natural to ask: what is the exact value of C*, and is there a sequence (5,) for which it is attained? The notion of discrepancy is easily extended to higher dimensions by defining the discrepancy of a finite set of vectors x l ,...& in the d-dimensional unit cube Id = Ix ... x I to be
DN*(x~,...JN)= SuPo 1 there is no simple reformulation of the definition analogous to Proposition 11, but many results do carry over. In particular, Proposition 15 was generalized and applied to the numerical evaluation of multiple integrals by Hlawka (1961162). Indeed this application has greater value in higher dimensions, where other methods perfom poorly. For the application one requires a set of vectors X I ..., , x~ E Id whose discrepancy DN*(xI,...&N) is small. A simple procedure for obtaining such a set, which is most useful when the integrand is smooth and has period 1 in each of its variables, is the method of 'good lattice points' introduced by Korobov (1959). Here, for a suitably chosen g E Zd, one takes
x, = {(n - l)g/N) (n = 1,...,N). A result of Niederreiter (1986) implies that, for every d 2 2 and every N 2 2, one can choose g so that
The van der Corput sequence has also been generalized to any finite number of dimensions by Halton (1960). He defined an infinite sequence (x,) of vectors in Rd for which
It is conjectured that for each d > 1 (as for d = 1) there exists an absolute constant Cd > 0 such that
E N + = NtjN /(log N)d 2 Cd for every infinite sequence (xJ of vectors in Rd. However, the best known result remains that of Roth (1954),in which the exponent d is replaced by d/2.
3. Birklioffs ergodic theorem
3 Birkhoff's ergodic theorem In statistical mechanics there is a procedure for calculating the physical properties of a system by simply averaging over all possible states of the system. To justify this procedure Boltzmann (1871) introduced what he later called the 'ergodic hypothesis'. In the formulation of Maxwell (1879) this says that "the system, if left to itself in its actual state of motion, will, sooner or later, pass through evely phase which is consistent with the equation of energy". The word ergodic, coined by Boltzmann (1884), was a composite of the Greek words for 'energy' and 'path'. It was recognized by PoincarC (1894) that it was too much to ask that a path pass through every state on the same energy surface as its initial state, and he suggested instead that it pass arbiaarily close to eveiy such state. Moreover, he observed that it would still be necessary to exclude certain exceptional initial states. A breakthrough came with the work of G.D. Birkhoff (1931), who showed that Lebesgue measure was the appropriate tool for treating the problem. He established a deep and general result which says that, apart from a set of initial states of measure zero, there is a definite limiting value for the proportion of time which a path spends in any given measurable subset B of an energy surface X. The proper formulation for the ergodic hypothesis was then that this limiting value should coincide with the ratio of the measure of B to that of X, i.e. that 'the paths through almost all initial states should be uniformly distributed over arbitrary measurable sets'. It was not difficult to deduce that this was the case if and only if 'any invariant measurable subset of X either had measure zero or had the same measure as X'. Birkhoff proved his theorem in the framework of classical mechanics and for flows with continuous time. We will prove his theorem in the abstract setting of probability spaces and for cascades with discrete time. The abstract formulation makes possible other applications, for which continuous time is not appropriate. Let 93 be a cs-algebra of subsets of a given set X, i.e. a nonempty family of subsets of X such that
(Bl) the complement of any set in 93 is again a set in 9, (B2) the union of any finite or countable collection of sets in 9is again a set in 93.
93 implies Be: = X \ B E 9 3 and X = B u Be. Hence also 0 = XCE 93. Furthermore, the intersection of any finite or countable collection of sets in 3 is again a set in 93, since n,B, = X \ (Ur1Bnc).Hence if A,B E 93,then It follows that X E 93, since B
E
538
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
and the synznzetric difference A A B : = ( B \ A ) u ( A \ B ) e 93. The family of all subsets of X is certainly a o-algebra. Furthermore, the intersection of any collection of o-algebras is again a o-algebra. It follows that, for any family d of subsets of X, there is a o-algebra o ( d ) which contains d and is contained in every o-algebra which contains d.We call o ( d ) the o-algebra of subsets of X generated by d. Suppose 92 is a o-algebra of subsets of X and a function p: 93 + R is defined such that
(Prl) y(B) 2 0 for every B E 93, m - 2 ) p m = 1, (Pr3) if (B,) is a sequence of pairwise disjoint sets in 9, then y(U@,) = En p(B,). Then p is said to be aprobubility measure and the triple (X,%,y) is said to be aprobability space. It is easily seen that the definition implies
(9 ~ ( 0 =) 0, (ii) p(BC) = I -p(B), (iii) y (A) I p(B) if A,B E 93 and A (iv) y(B,)
+ p(B) if (B,)
c B,
is a sequence of sets in 53 such that B1 2 B2 I> ... and B = n,B,.
If a property of points in a probability space (X,%,p) holds for all x and p(B) = 1, then the property is said to hold for (y-)alnzost all x everywhere (a.e.).
E
E
B, where B
E
93
X, or simply almost
A functionf: X + R is measurable if, for every a E R, the set {x E X: f(x) < a ) is in 93. Let$ X --+ [O,-) be measurable and for any partition 9 ' of X into finitely many pairwise dsjoint sets B1,...,B, E 93, put LpV)
=
C ;=,
fk
p(B,J7
wherefk = inf(f'(x): x E Bk}. We say that f is integmble if
The set of all measurable functionsf: X + R such that jLl is integrable is denoted by L(X,%,y).
A map T: X + X is said to be a measure-preserving transformation of the probability space (X,B,y) if, for every B E 93, the set T-IB = {x E X: Tx E B } is again in 93 and p(T-lB) = p ( B ) . This is equivalent to p(TB) = y(B) for every B E 93 if the measurepreserving transformation T is invertible, i.e. if T is bijective and TB E % for eveiy B E %.
3. Birkl~offs ergodic theorem
539
However, we do not wish to reshict attention to the invertible case. Several important examples of measure-preserving transformations of probability spaces will be given in the next section. Birkhofrs ergodic theorem, which is also known as the 'individual' or 'pointwise' ergodic theorem, has the following statement:
THEOREM17 Let T be a measure-preserving transformation of the probability space (X,% ,p). I f f
E
L(X,% ,p) then, for almost all x
E
X, the limit
exists alzdp(Tx) = j"(x). Moreover, fkE L(X,%,p) and fxf" d p Proof
Then
=
fxf dp.
It is sufficient to prove the theorem for nonnegative functions, since we can write
f
and f ase p-measurable functions since, for any sequence (g,),
Moreover
f (x) = f
(Tx), f (x) = f (Tx) for eveiy x E X, since
It is sufficient to show that
7d p 2 fxf For then, since f- I f ,it follows that
dp 2 fx
f~
C I
7(x) = -f (x) = p ( x )for p-almost all x E X
Fix some M > 0 and define the 'cut-off' function
and
T Mby
f M ( x ) = ~ n i n ( ~(,x)f}. Then f M is bounded and T M ( ~ x= )f M ( x )for every x E X. Fix also any definition of f (x),for each x E X there exists a positive integer n such that
E
> 0. By the
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
540
Thus if F, is the set of all x E X for which (*) holds and if En = U Fk, then E l c E2 c ... and X = Un21En. Since the sets E n are p-measurable, we can choose N so large that p(EN) > 1 - E/M. Put f(x) = f(x) ifx E EN, = max~(x),M}ifx P EN. Also, let z(x) be the least positive integer n 5 N for which (*) holds if x E EN, and let z(x) = 1 if x P EN. Since 7Mis T-invariant, (*) implies
To estimate the sum
C L-1 k=O f M(T'X) for any L > N, we partition it into blocks of the form
C z(JJ)-l k=O ~ M ( ~ ~ Y ) and a remainder block. More precisely, define inductively
and define h by nh(x) < L I nh+l(x). Then
Since nh(x) < L, we obtain by addition
gt'-' TM(Tkx) I C ~g)-' f (T~x)+ LE. On the other hand, since L I n h + l ( ~I) nh(x)+ N, we have
Since f 2 0, it follows that
C
TM(Tkx) I C L-1 k=O f (Tkx)+ LE + NM.
3. Birkhoffs ergodic theorem
Dividing by L and integrating over X, we obtain
since the measure-preserving nature of T implies that, for any g E L(X,93,p),
it follows that
Jx TMd p
I JX f d p
+ 2&+ NM/L.
Since L may be chosen arbitrarily large and then E arbitrarily small, we conclude that
Now letting M -+m, we obtain
Ix T d~
I Jxfd~.
The proof that Jxfdp 5
Jx
d~
is similar. Given E > 0, there exists for each x E X a positive integer 1.1 such that
If F, is the set of all x E X for which (**) holds and if En =
U
Fk, we can choose N so large
that Put
f (x)
= f(x) if x E EN, = 0 i f x e EN.
Let 2(x) be the least positive integer n for which (**) holds if x E EN, and ~ ( x = ) 1 otherwise. The proof now goes through in the same way as before. It should be noticed that the preceding proof simplifies if the function f is bounded. In Birkhoff's original formulation the function f was the indicator function XB of an arbitrary set B E 93. In this case the theorem says that, if v,(x) is the number of k < FZ for which Tkx E B, then limn,, v,(x)/M exists for almost all x sojourn time in any measurable set'.
E
X. That is, 'almost every point has an average
XI. Unifornz distribution and ergodic theory
A measure-preserving transformation T of the probability space (X,%,p) is said to be ergodic if, for every B E 9 with T-lB = B, either p(B) = 0 or p(B) = 1. Part (ii) of the next proposition says that this is the case if and only if 'time means and space means are equal'. PROPOSITION 18 Let T Be a measure-preserving transfomzation of the probability space (X,%,p). Then T is ergodic if and only if one of the following equivalent properties holds: (i) iff E L(X,%,p) satisfies f(Tx) = f(x) alrnost everywhere, then f is constant almost everywhere; (ii) iff
E
L(X,%,p) then, for aln~ostall x E X, it-I
(iii) ifA,B
E $52,
C
f(Tkx)
+
j'dp as 12
-+m;
then p(~-kAn B)
n-1
+
y(A)p(B) as 12
+m;
(iv) if C E $52 and p(C) > 0, then p(U,21T-nC) = 1; (v) ifA,B Proof
E
93 and p(A) > 0, p(B) > 0, then p(T+A n B) > 0 for- some n > 0.
Suppose first that T is ergodic and let f E L(X,%,p) satisfy f(Tx) =f(x) a.e. Put
f (x) = Then
_ , n-1 C ;I; f(Tkx).
7(TX) = 7(x)for every x E X and f (x) =f(x) a.e. A, = {n E X:
For any a
E [W,
let
f (x) < a } .
Then p(Aa) = 0 or 1, since T-lAa = A, and T is ergodic. Since p(A,) is a nondecreasing function of a and y(Aa) + 0 as a + - m, p(Aa) -+ 1 as a -+ + m, there exists P E R such that p(Aa) = 0 for a < p and p(A,) = 1 for a > p. It follows that p(Ap) = 0 and p(Bp) = 1, where Bp = {,YE X: T(x) 5 p}. Hence f(x) = p a.e. and (i) holds. Suppose now that (i) holds and let f E L(X,%,p). Then the function fa in the statement of Theorem 17 must be constant a.e. Moreover, if y is its constant value, we must have
y Thus (i) implies (ii).
= I x f d p = jxfdp.
3. Birkhoffs ergodic theorem
Suppose next that (ii) holds and let A,B E 93.Then, for almost all x E X,
Hence, for almost all x E X,
and so, by the dominated convergence theorem,
Thus (ii) implies (iii). Suppose now that (iii) holds and choose C E 93 with p(C) > 0. Put A = U,20T-nC and B = (U,,lT-nC)c. Then, for every k 2 1, T-I"A G U,,,T-nC and hence F(T-~An B) = 0. Thus n-I
C ; I Z ~P(T-~A n B) = p(A n B)/n
-+0
as 11
-+
m.
Since p(A) 2 p(C) > 0, it follows from (iii) that p(B) = 0. Thus (iii) implies (iv). Next choose A,B E 93 with p(A) > 0, p(B) > 0. If (iv) holds, then P(U,>~T-~A)= 1 and hence p(B) = p(B n Un,LT-nA) = p(Un,l(B n T-"A)). Since p(B) > 0, it follows that p(B n T+A) > 0 for some n > 0. Thus (iv) implies (v). Finally choose A E 93 with T-lA = A and put B = AC. Then, for every n 2 1, we have P(T-~A n B ) = p(A n B) = 0. If (v) holds, it follows that either p(A) = 0 or p(B) = 0. Hence (v) implies that T is ergodic.
4
Applications We now give some examples to illustrate the general concepts and results of the previous
section. (i) Suppose X = [Wcl/Zd is a &dimensional torus, 93 is the family of Bore1 subsets of X (i.e., the o-algebra of subsets generated by the family of open sets), and p = 3L is Lebesgue measure,
544
XI. Uniform distrYhution and ergodic theory
x&)
dx for any B E 9, where . - e ~is the indicator function of B. Every x E X is represented by a unique vector ( 0 there exists a set C E % such that
We may suppose that C is the union of finitely many special cylinder sets of order m. Since
4 . Applications
-
p([a'-,,...,a1,,])
p([a-,,, ...,a,]).
It follows that if 12 > 2n2, then
p(C n r n C ) = P ( C ) ~ . But
p(B \ (C n r N C ) ) I 21(B \ C ) , since
B \ (C n PC)
c (B \ C ) u (B \ 0-nC)
L (B \ C ) u r n ( B \ C ) ,
and similarly
p((C n o-C) \ B ) I 2p(C \ B). Hence
I~(B)
-p
( n ~ o - n ~ ) I 2 p(B \ (C n VC))
+p ( ( n ~ a - n ~\)B) < 2e.
Thus
0 I p(B) - p(B)2 = p(B) - p(C n r n C ) + p(C n a-nC)
Since
E
- p(B)2
is arbitrary, we conclude that p(B) = p(B)2. Hence p(B) = 0 or 1, and o is ergodic.
0 Similarly, if Y is the set of all infinite sequences y = (Y1,y2,y3,... ) with y;
E
A for every
i E N, then the one-sided Be~noullishift B+I,1,.,.,,,, i.e. the map z: Y -+ Y defined by zy = y', where y'i = yi+l for evely i E N, is a measure-preseiving transformation of the analogously constructed probability space (Y,%,p). It should be noted that, although TY = Y, T is not invertible. In the same way as for the two-sided shift, it may be shown that the one-sided Bernoulli shift B+ is always ergodic. (iv) An example of some historical interest is the 'continued fraction' or Gauss map. Let X = [0,1] be the unit interval and T: X -+ X the map defined (in the notation of $1) by
Thus T acts as the shift operator on the continued fraction expansion of 5:if
XI. Ungorrn distribution and ergodic theory
552
5 are
then T t = [O;a2,a3,... 1. (In the terminology of Chapter IV, the complete quotients of
llTn5.> It is not difficult to show that T is a measure-preserving transformation of the probability space (X,%,p), where 93 is the family of Bore1 subsets of X = [0,1] and p is the 'Gauss' measure defined by p(B) = (log 2)-lIe (1 + x)-l dx. 5n+1 =
It may further be shown that T is ergodic. Hence, by Birkhoff's ergodic theorem, iff is an integrable function on the interval X then, for almost all 5 E X,
Here it makes no difference if 'integrable' and 'almost all' refer to the invariant measure p or to Lebesgue measure, since 112 I (1 + x)-l I 1. Takingf to be the indicator function of the set ( 5 E X: a l = m}, we see that the asymptotic relative frequency of the positive integer m among the partial quotients al,az,... is almost always 1 m-'
(log 2)- j
(1 + x)-1 dx = (log 2)-1 log ((m + ~ ) ~ / ( m (+ m2)).
It follows, in particular, that almost all 5 E X have unbounded partial quotients. Again, by taking f(5) = log 5 it may be shown that, for almost all 5 E X,
where qn(5) is the denominator of the n-th convergent pdq, of
5.
This was first proved by
L6vy (1929). In a letter to Laplace, Gauss (1812) stated that, for each x E (0,1), the proportion of
-
5E X
for which Tn5 < x converges as n + to log (1 + x)/(log 2) and he asked if Laplace could provide an estimate for the rapidity of convergence. If one writes
-
where mn(x) is the Lebesgue measure of the set of all 5 E X such that Tn5 < x, then Gauss's statement is that rn(x) + 0 as n + and his question is, how fast? Gauss's statement was first proved by Kuz'rnin (1928), who also gave an estimate for the rapidity of convergence. If one regards Gauss's statement as a proposition in ergodic theory, then one needs to know that T is not only ergodic but even mixing, i.e. for all A,B E
9,
4. Applications
553
Kuz'min's estimate r,(x) = 0 ( ~ 4 ~ for) some q E (0,l) was improved by L6vy (1929) and Sziisz (1961) to rn(x) = O(qn) with q = 0.7 and q = 0.485 respectively. A substantial advance was made by Wirsing (1974). By means of an infinite-dimensional generalization of a theorem of Perron (1907) and Frobenius (1908) on positive matrices, he showed that
where y~ is a twice continuously differentiable function with ~ ( 0 =) ~ ( 1 =) 0, 0 < y < h and h = 0.303663.. . Wirsing's analysis has been extended by Babenko (1978) and Mayer (1990). (v) Suppose we are given a system of ordinary differential equations
where x E Rd andf: Rd + Rd is a continuously differentiable function. Then, for any x E Rd, such that cpo(x) = x. there is a unique solution cp,(x) of Suppose further that there exists an invariant region X c Rd. That is, X is the closure of a bounded connected open set and x E X implies cp,(x) E X. Then the map T,: X +X given by TG = cp,(x) is defined for every t E R and satisfies T,+$ = T,(T$). Suppose finally that div f = 0 for every x E Rd, where x = (xl, ...jd),f = (fi,...fd) and
(u
Then, by a theorem due to Liouville, the map T, sends an arbitrary region into a region of the same volume. (For the statement and proof of Liouville's theorem see, for example, V.I. Arnold, Mathematical methods of classical mechanics, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978.) It follows that if 9is the family of Bore1 subsets of X and y Lebesgue measure, normalized so that y(X) = 1, then T, is a measure-preserving transformation of the probability space (X,%,y). An important special case is the Hamiltonian system of ordinary differential equations = a ~ / a p(i~= i ,...,n), , dpi/dt = - a ~ l a q ~dqj/dt
where H(yl,...,p,,ql,...,q,) is a twice continuously differentiable real-valued function. The divergence does indeed vanish identically in this case, since
Furthermore, for any h E R, the energy surface X: H(p,q) = h is invariant, since
554
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
It is not difficult to show that if o is the volume element on X induced by the Euclidean metric 11 11 on R'", and if
VH
a~/a~j
= ( a ~ ~ a,..., ] ?a ~~ / a ~ ~ ~ ~,...,, a ~ / a q ~
is the gradient of H, then the maps T, preserve the measure p on X defined by
If X is compact, this measure can be nolmalized and we obtain a family of measure-preselving transformations T, (t E R) of the corresponding probability space. (vij Many problems arising in mechanics may be reduced by a change of variables to the geometric problem of geodesic flow. If M is a smooth Riemannian manifold then the set of all pairs (.x,v), where x E M and v is a unit vector in the tangent space to M at x, can be given the structure of a Riemannian manifold, the unit tuugerlt bundle TIM. Evidently TIM is a (2n-1)dimensional manifold if M is n-dimensional. There is a natural measure p on TIM such that d p = dv,do,, where dv, is the volume element at q of the Riemannian manifold M and o, is Lebesgue measure on the unit sphere Slkl in the tangent space to M at x. If M is compact, then the measure p can be normalized so that y(TIM) = 1.
xE
A geodesic on M is a curve y c M such that the length of evely curve in M joining a point y to any sufficiently close pointy E y is not less than the length of the arc of y which Qoins
x and y. Given any point (x,v) E TIM, there is a unique geodesic passing through x in the direction of v. The geodesic flow on TIM is the flow cp,: T I M + T I M defined by cp,(x,v) = (x,,~,),where x, is the point of M reached from x- after time t by travelling with unit speed along the geodesic determined by (x,v) and v, is the unit tangent vector to this geodesic at x,. If M is compact then, for every real t, cp, is defined and is a measure-preserving transformation of the con-esponding probability space (TIM,%,p). The geodesics on a compact %-dimensionalmanifold M whose cumature at each point is negative were profoundly studied by Hadamard (1898). It was first shown by E. Hopf (1939) that in this case cp, is ergodic for every t > 0. (We must exclude t = 0, since cpo is the identity map.) This result has been considerably generalized by Anosov (1967) and others. In particular, the geodesic flow on a compact n-dimensional Riemannian manifold is ergodic if at each point the curvature of eveiy 2-dimensional section is negative. Although the preceding examples look quite different, some of them are not 'really' different, i.e. apart from sets of measure zero. More precisely, if (Xl,%l,pl) and (X2,?A2,y2) are probability spaces with measure-presewing tra~lsformationsTI: X1 +X1 and T2: X2 +X2,
555
4. Applications
we say that T1 is isomorphic to T2 if there exist sets X1' E
X2' E %2 with pl(Xl') = 1,
p2(X2') = 1 and TIX1' G XIf,T2X2'L X2', and a bijective map cp of XI' onto X2' such that if and only if cp(B1) E $B2 and then pl(B1) = p2((p(B1)); (i) for any B1 c XI', B1 E (ii) cp(Tlx) = T2cp(x) for every x E XI'. For example, it is easily shown that the Bernoulli shift BPI,.,.,,,is isomorphic to the following transformation of the unit square, equipped with Lebesgue measure. Divide the square into r vertical strips of width p l , ...,p,; then contract the height of the i-th strip and expand its width so that it has height pi and width 1; finally combine these rectangles to form the unit square again by regarding them as horizontal strips of height p l , ...,p,. (For r = 2 and p l = p2 = 112, this transformation of the unit square is allegedly used by bakers when kneading dough.) It is easily shown also that isomorphism is an equivalence relation and that it preserves ergodicity. However, it is usually quite difficult to show that two measure-preserving transformations are indeed isomorphic. A period of rapid growth was initiated with the definition by Kolmogorov (1958), and its practical implementation by Sinai (1959), of a new numerical isomorphism invariant, the entropy of a measure-preserving transformation. For the formal definition of entropy we refer to the texts on ergodic theory cited at the end of the chapter. Here we merely state its value for some of the preceding examples. Any translation T, of the torus Rd/Zd has entropy zero, whereas the endomorphism RA of Rd/Zd has entropy
Z i: lkil>l log IbI? where h l ,...,hd are the eigenvalues of the matrix A and the summation is over those of them which lie outside the unit circle. The two-sided Bernoulli shift BPI,...,pr has entropy
and the entropy of the one-sided Bernoulli shift B+pl,...,pris given by the same formula. It since the first has entropy log 2 and the follows that B1,2,1,2 is not isomorphic to B113,1,3,113, second has entropy log 3. Ornstein (1970) established the remarkable result that two-sided Bernoulli shifts are completely classified by their entropy: and only if -
C 771 Pj log Pj
= -
C ;=I q k log q k .
is isomorphic to B41,,..,4s if
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
556
This is no longer true for one-sided Bernoulli shifts. Walters (1973) has shown that B+P1,,..,,, is isomorphic to B+ql,..,,qs if and only if r = s and ql ,...,q, is a permutation of pl ,...,p,. The Gauss map Tx = ( x - l ) has entropy .n2/6 log 2. Although it is mixing, it is not isomorphic to a Bernoulli shift. Katznelson (1971) showed that any ergodic automorphism of the torus R d / Z d is isomorphic to a two-sided Bernoulli shift, and Lind (1977)has extended this result to ergodic automoi-phisins of any compact abelian group. Ornstein and Weiss (1973) showed that, if cp, is the geodesic flow on a smooth (of class C3) compact two-dimensional Riemannian manifold whose curvature at each point is negative, then cp, is isomorphic to a two-sided Bernoulli shift for every t > 0. Although, as Hilbert showed, a compact surface of negative curvature cannot be imbedded in R3, the geodesic flow on a sulface of negative curvature can be realized as the motion of a particle constrained to move on a surface in R3 subject to centres of attraction and repulsion in the ambient space. The isomorphism with a Bernoulli shift shows that a detelministic mechanical system can generate a random process. Thus philosophical objections to 'Laplacian determinism' or to 'God playing kce' do not seem to have much point.
5 Recurrence It was shown by Poincark (1890) that the paths of a Hamiltonian system of differential equations almost always return to any neighbourhood, however small, of their initial points. PoincarC's proof was inevitably incomplete, since at the time measure theory did not exist. However, Carathkodoly (1919) showed that his asgument could be made rigorous with the aid of Lebesgue measuse:
PROPOSITION25 Let T: X --+ X be a nzeasure-preserving transformation of the probability space (X,%,p). The11 almost all poi~ztsof any B E $32 returrz to B infinitely often, i.e. for each x E B, apart porn a set of p-nzeasure zero, there exists an increasing E B (k = 1,2,... ), sequence (nk)o f positive integers such that TYLkx Furthermore, if p(B) > 0, then p(B n T-"B) > 0 for infinitely many n 2 1. Proof For any N 2 0 , put BN = UrLMT-nB. Then
is the set of all points s E X such that Tn%E B for infinitely many positive integers n. Since BN+l = T-lBN, we have ~ ( B N += ~l ()B N )and hence p(BN) = p(BO)for all N > 1. Since BN+lc BN, it follows that
p(A) = l i m ~ + p ( B ~ )= ~ ( B o ) .
and hence, since B
c Bo, p(B \ A ) = 0.
This groves the first statement of the proposition. If p(B n T-nB) = 0 for all n 2 m, then p(B nBN) = 0 for all N 2 nz and hence
p(B n A ) = limN+,&(B n BN) = 0. Consequently
I-@)
=
p(B \ A ) + p(B n A )
=
0,
which proves the second statement of the proposition. I7 Furstenberg (1977)extended Proposition 25 in the following way:
B
E
Let T be a measure-preserving transfomiation of the probability spacp (X,%,p). If 93 with p(B) > 0 and i f p 2 2, therl p(B n T-nB n ... n T - ( P - ~ ) ~>B0,for ) some n 2 1. Furstenberg's proof of his theorem made heavy use of ergodic theory and, in particulx, of
a new structure theory for measure-preserving transformations. From his theorem Furstenberg was able to deduce quite easily a result for which Szemeredi (1975) had given a complicated combinatorial proof:
Let S be a subset of the set N of positive integers which has positive upper density; i.e., for some a E (0,1), there exist ar,bitrarily long intervals I c N containing at least all1 elements of S. Then S contuins arithmetic prog~assionsof arbitrary finite length. Furstenberg's approach to this result is not really shorter than Szemeredi's, but it is much more systematic. In fact the following generalization of Furstenberg's theorem was given soon afterwards by Furstenberg and Katznelson (1978):
If T I ,...,Ti, are commuting measure-preserving transformations of the probability space ( X , % , p ) and if B E 93 with p ( B ) > 0, then p(B n T1-"B n ... n T!,-"B) z 0 for infinitely many n 2 1.
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
Furstenberg and Katznelson could then deduce quite easily a multi-dimensional extension of Szemeredi's theorem which is still beyond the reach of combinatorial methods. Szemeredi's theorem was itself a far-reaching generalization of a famous theorem of van der Waerden (1927):
If N = S1 u ... u S , is a partition of the set of all positive integers into finitely many subsets, then one of the subsets Sj contains arithmetic progressions of arbitrary finite length. Besides being more general, Szemeredi's result also shows how the subset Si may be chosen. Poincark's measure-theoretic recurrence theorem has a topological countei-past due to Birkhoff (1912): I f X is a compact metric space and T : X + X a continuous map, then there exists a point z E X and an increasing sequence (nk) of positive integers such that Tnkz + z a s k + m. Before Furstenberg and Katznelson proved their measure-theoretic theorem, Furstenberg and Weiss (1978) had already proved its topological counterpart: IfX is a compact metric space and T I ,...,T p conzmuting continuous maps of X into
itself, then there exists a point z E X and an increasing sequence (nk)of positive integers such that Tinkz-+ z as k + m (i = 1,...,p). From their theorem Furstenberg and Weiss were able to deduce quite easily both van der Waerden's theorem and a known multi-dimensional generalization of it, due to Griinwald. It would take too long to prove here Szemeredi's theorem by the method of Furstenberg and Katznelson, but we will prove van der Waerden's theorem by the method of Furstenberg and Weiss. The proof illustrates how results in one area of mathematics can find application in another area which is apparently unrelated.
PROPOSITION 26 Let (X,d) be a compact metric space and T:X + X a continuous map. Then,for any real E > 0 and any p E N, there exists some z E X and n E N such that
Proof (i) A subset A of X is said to be invariant under T if TA c A. The closure K of an invariant set A is again invariant since, by the continuity of T , T Z 2 m. Let 9 be the collection of all nonempty closed invasiant subsets of X. Cleasly 9is not empty, since X E 3".
559
5 . Recurrence
If we regard 9 as partially ordered by inclusion then, by Hausdo?jjfs maxinzality theorem, 3 contains a maximal totally ordered subcollection T. The intersection Z of all the subsets in T is both closed and invariant. It is also nonempty, since X is compact. Hence Z E T and, by construction, no nonempty proper closed subset of Z is invariant. By replacing X by its compact subset Z we may now assume that the only closed invariant subsets of X itself are X and 0. (ii) For any given z E X, the closure of the set (T~Z),,~is a nonempty closed invariant subset of X and therefore coincides with X. Thus for every E > 0 there exists n = /I(&)2 1 such that d(Tnz,z) < E. This proves the proposition for p = 1. We suppose now that p > 1 and the proposition holds with p replaced by p - 1. (iii) We show next that, for any E > 0, there exists a finite set K of positive integers such that, for all x,xt E X, d(Tkxl,x) < ~ 1 2for some k E K. If B is a nonempty open subset of X, then for every z E X there exists some 11 2 1 such that Tnz E B. Hence X = Un,IT-nB. Since X is compact and the sets T-?IB are open, there is a finite set K(B) of positive integers such that
x
=
u,,
),(,
T-kB.
Since X is compact again, there exist finitely many open balls BI,...,B,. with radius ~ / 4such that X = B1 u ... u B,.. If x , x ' ~X, then x E Bi for some i E {1,...,r } and x' E T-,BBi for some k
E
K(BJ. Thus we can take K = K(B1) u
... u K(B,).
(iv) We now show that, for any E > 0 and any x E X, there exists y
E
X and n 2 1 such that
In fact, since each Tk ( k E K) is uniformly continuous on X, we can choose p > 0 so that 2 all xl,x2 E X and all k E K. By the induction d(xl,xz) < p implies d(Tkx1,Tkx2)< ~ / for hypothesis, there exist x' E X and n 2 1 such that
But the invariant set TX is closed, since X is compact, and so TX = X. Hence TyLX= X and we can choose y' E X SO that Tny' = x'. Thus
XI.
560
Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
It follows that, for all k E K, d(Tn+ky',Tk~? < &/2, ... , d ( T ~ ~ + ~ y ' , T < ~&/2. x? For each x E X there is a k E K such that d(Tkx',x) < e/2. Thus if y = Tky', then d(Tny,x) < E, ... , d(TPny,x)< E. (v) Let cg > 0 and xo E X be given. By (iv) there exist xl
E
X and nl 2 1 such that
) d(Tn1xl,xo)< Eg, ... , d ( T P n l ~ l , ~ 1 such that
< Ek, ... , d(TPnk+l~k+lJk) < Ek, d(Tnk+lxk+1,xk) ~ )that ~ ( x , x ~ 0 was arbitrary.
5. Recurrence
56 1
It may be deduced from Proposition 26, by means of Baire's category theorem, that under the same hypotheses there exists a point z E X and an increasing sequence ( 1 1 ~ ) of positive integers such that T""z -+ z as k -+ (i = 1,...,p). However, as we now show, Proposition 26 already suffices to proves van der Waerden's theorem. The set X* of all infinite sequences x = (xl,xz,... ), where xi E {1,2,...,r - ) for every i 2 1, can be given the structure of a compact metric space by defining d(x,x) = 0 and d(x,y) = 2-k if x # y and k is the least positive integer such that xk # yk. The shift map
z:X:"
X*, defined
. X),~is continuous, since by z ( ( ~ ~,... , x))~= ( X ~ ,,...
With the partition N = S1 u ... u S, in the statement of van der Waerden's theorem we associate the infinite sequence x E X* defined by xi = j if i E Sj. Let X denote the closure of the set (T~X),,~.Then X is a closed subset of X;': which is invariant under z. By Proposition 26, there exists a point z E X and a positive integer n such that d(znz,z) < 112, d(z2nz,z) < 112, ... , d(Vnz,z) < 112; i.e. z l = z , + ~ = z2n+l = ... = z ~ ~ Since + ~ .z d(px,z) < 2-pa-1, i,e. x,,+~= zi for 1 I i l yn
E
X, there is a positive integer m such that
+ 1.
It follows that
Thus for every positive integer p there is a set Sjb) which contains an asitlimetic progression of length p. Since there ase only r possible values for j ( p ) , one of the sets SJ must contain arithmetic progressions of arbitrary finite length. A far-reaching generalization of van der Waerden's theorem has been given by Hales and Jewett (1963). Let A = { a l ,...,aq} be a finite set and let An be the set of all 11-tuples with elements from A . A set W = {wl,...,wq}c An of q n-tuples wk = (w lk,...,w," is said to be a combinatorial line if there exists a partition {l,,..,n } = I u J , I n d = 0 , such that w) = ak (k = 1,...,q) for i E I; wjl = ... = MY for j The Hales-Jewett theorem says that, for any positive integer
I-,
E
J
there exists a positive
integer N = N(q,r) such that, if AN is partitioned into r classes, then at least one of these classes contains a combinatorial line.
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
If one takes A = {O,l,...,q - l } and interprets An as the set of expansions to base q of all non-negative integers less than qn, then a combinatorial line is an arithmetic progression. On the other hand, if one takes A = F, to be a finite field with q elements and interprets An as the ndimensional vector space,;F[ then a combinatorial line is an affine line. The interesting feature of the Hales-Jewett theorem is that it is purely combinatoiial and does not involve any notion of addition.
6 Further remarks Uniform distribution and discrepancy are thoroughly discussed in Kuipers and Niederreiter [30]. For later results, see Drmota and Tichy [13]. Since these two books have extensive bibliographies, we will be sparing with references. However, it would be remiss not to recommend the great paper of Weyl [52], which remains as fresh as when it was written. Lemma 0 is often attributed to Polya (1920), but it was already proved by Buchanan and Hildebrandt [9]. FejCr's proof that continuous periodic functions can be uniformly approximated by trigonometric polynomials is given in Dym and McKean [15]. The theorem also follows directly from the the theorem of Weierstrass (1885) on the unifoim approximation of continuous functions by ordinary polynomials. A remarkable generalization of both results was given by Stone (1937); see Stone [49]. The 'Stone-Weierstrass theorem' is also proved in Rudin [44], for example. Chen [ l l ] gives a quantitative version of Kronecker's theorem of a different type from Proposition 3'. The converse of Proposition 10 is proved by Kemperman [27]. For the history of the problem of mean motion, and generalizations to almost periodic functions, see Jessen and Tornehave [24]. Methods for estimating exponential sums were developed in connection with the theory of uniform distribution, but then found other applications. See Chandsasekharan [lo] and Graham and Kolesnik [21]. For applications of discrepancy to numerical integration, see Niedesseiter [36],[37]. For the basic properties of functions of bounded variation and the definition of total variation see, for example, Riesz and Sz.-Nagy [421. Shasper versions of the original Erdos-Turan inequality are proved by Niedesseiter and Philipp [38] and in Montgomery [35]. The discrepancy of the sequence ( { n u } ) ,where a is an irrational number whose continued fraction expansion has bounded partial quotients (i.e., is
563
6. Further remarks
badly approxinzable), is discussed by Dupain and S6s [14]. The discrepancy of the sequence ( ( n a ) ) ,where a E Rd, has been deeply studied by Beck [3]. The work of Roth, Schmidt and others is treated in Beck and Chen [4]. For accounts of measure theory, see Billingsley [ 6 ] ,Halmos [22],L o h e 1321 and Saks 1461. More detailed treatments of ergodic theory are given in the books of Petersen 1391, Walters 1511 and Cornfeld et al. [12]. The prehistory of ergodic theory is described by the Ehrenfests 1161. However, they do not refer to the paper of PoincarC (1894), which is reproduced in [411. The proof of Birkhoffs ergodic theorem given here follows Katznelson and Weiss [26].
A different proof is given in the book of Walters. Many other ergodic theorems besides Birkhoff's are discussed in Krengel [29]. We mention only the subadditive ergodic theorem of Kingman (1968): if T is a measurepreserving trailsformation of the probability space (X,%,p)and if (g,) is a sequence of functions in L(X,%,p) such that inf, r1 jx g, dp > - and, for all m,n 2 1,
then
n-l
g,(x)
-+g*(x) a.e., where g*(T.y) = g*(x) a.e., g*
E
L(X,%,p) and
Birkhoff's ergodic theorem may be regasded as a special case by taking g,(x) =
C $=; f ( T 9 ) .
A simple proof of Kingman's theorem is given by Steele [48]. For applications of Kingman's theorem to percolation processes and products of random matrices, see Kingman 1281. The multiplicative ergodic theorem of Oseledets is delived from Kingman's theorem by Ruelle [45]. The book of Kuipers and Niedeueiter cited above has an extensive discussion of normal numbers. For normality with respect to a matrix, see also Brown and Moran [8]. Psoofs of Gauss's statement on the continued fraction map are contained in the books by Billingsley [7] and Rockett and Szusz 1431. For more recent work, see Wirsing 1531, Babenko
121 and Mayer 1331. For the deviation of ( l / n ) log q,(c) from its (a.e.) limiting value 7c2/(12 log 2 ) there are analogues of the central limit theorem and the law of the iterated logasithm; see Philipp and Stackelberg 1401. For higher-dimensional generalizations of Gauss's invariant measure, see Hardcastle and Khanin [23]. Applications of ergodic tl~eolyto classical mechanics are discussed in the books of Arnold and Avez [ I ] and Katok and Hasselblatt [25]. For connections between ergodic theory and the
'3x + 1 problem9,see Lagarias [31].
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
Ergodic theory has been used to generalize considerably some of the results on lattices in Chapter VIII. A lattice in a locally compact group G is a discrete subgroup r such that the Ginvariant measure of the quotient space G/T is finite. (In Chapter VIII, G = Rn and r = En.) Zimmer [54] gives a good introduction to the results which have been obtained in this area. An attractive account of the work of Furstenberg and his collaborators is given in Furstenberg [17]. See also Graham et al. [20] and the book of Petersen cited above. The discovery of van der Waerden's theorem is described in van der Waerden [50]. For a recent direct proof, see Mills [34]. The direct proofs reduce the theorem to an equivalent finite form: for any positive integer
p, there exists a positive integer N such that, whenever the set {1,2,...&I is partitioned into two subsets, at least one subset contains an arithmetic progression of length p. The original proofs provided an upper bound for the least possible value N(p) of N, but it was unreasonably large. Some progress towards obtaining reasonable upper bounds has recently been made by Shelah [47] and Gowers [19]. The Hales-Jewett theorem is proved, and then extensively generalized, in Bergelson and Leibman [5]. Furstenberg and Katznelson [18] prove a density version of the Hales-Jewett theorem, analogous to Szemeredi's density version of van der Waerden's theorem.
7 Selected references [I] V.I. Arnold and A. Avez, Ergodic problems of classical mechanics, Benjamin, New York, 1968. [2] K.I. Babenko, On a problem of Gauss, Soviet Math. Dokl. 19 (1978), 136-140. [3] J. Beck, Probabilistic diophantine approximation, I. Kronecker sequences, Ann. of Math. 140 (1994), 45 1-502. [4] J. Beck and W.W.L. Chen, Irregularities of distribution, Cambridge University Press, 1987. [5] V. Bergelson and A. Leibman, Set polynomials and polynomial extension of the HalesJewett theorem, Ann. of Math. 150 (1999), 33-75. [6] P. Billingsley, Probability and measure, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1995.
7. Selected references
565
[7] P. Billingsley, Ergodic theory and information, reprinted, Krieger, Huntington, N.Y., 1978. [8] G. Brown and W. Moran, Schmidt's conjecture on normality for commuting matrices, Invent. Math. 111 (1993), 449-463. [9] H.E. Buchanan and H.T. Hildebrandt, Note on the convergence of a sequence of functions of a certain type, Ann. of Math. 9 (1908), 123-126. [lo] K. Chandrasekharan, Exponential sums in the development of number theory, Proc. Steklov Inst. Math. 132 (1973), 3-24. [ l l ] Y.-G. Chen, The best quantitative Kronecker's theorem, J. London Math. Soc. (2) 61 (2000), 691-705. 1121 I.P. Cornfeld, S.V. Fomin and Ya. G. Sinai, Ergodic theory, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982. [13] M. Drmota and R.F. Tichy, Sequences, discrepancies and applications, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1651, Springer, Berlin, 1997. [14] I. Dupain and V.T. S6s, On the discrepancy of ( n u ) sequences, Topics in classical number theory (ed. G. Halisz), Vol. I, pp. 355-387, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1984. [15] H. Dym and H.P. McKean, Fourier series and integrals, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1972. [16] P. and T. Ehrenfest, The conceptual foundations of the statistical approach in mechanics, English translation by M.J. Moravcsik, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1959. [German original, 19121 [17] H. Furstenberg, Recurrence in ergodic theory and combinatorial number theory, Princeton University Press, 1981. [18] H. Furstenberg and Y. Katznelson, A density version of the Hales-Jewett theorem, J.
Analyse Math. 57 (1991), 64-1 19. [19] W.T. Gowers, A new proof of Szemeredi's theorem, Geom. Funct. Anal. 11 (2001), 465-588.
566
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
[20] R.L. Graham, B.L. Rothschild and J.H. Spencer, Ramsey theory, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1990. [21] S.W. Graham and G. Kolesnik, Van der Corput's method of exponential sums, London Math. Soc. Lecture Notes 126, Cambridge University Press, 1991. [22] P.R. Halmos, Measure theory, 2nd printing, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. [23] D.M. Hardcastle and K. Khanin, Continued fractions and the d-dimensional Gauss transformation, Comm. Math. Phys. 215 (2001), 487-515. [24] B. Jessen and H. Tornehave, Mean motion and zeros of almost periodic functions, Acta Math. 77 (1945), 137-279. [25] A. Katok and B. Hasselblatt, Introduction to the modern theory of dynamical systems, Cambridge University Press, 1995. [26] Y. Katznelson and B. Weiss, A simple proof of some ergodic theorems, Israel J. Math. 42 (1982), 291-296. [27] J.H.B. Kemperman, Distributions modulo 1 of slowly changing sequences, Nieuw Arch. Wisk. (3) 21 (1973), 138-163. [28] J.F.C. Kingman, Subadditive processes, Ecole d'Etd de Probabilitds de Saint-Flour V1975 (ed. A. Badrikian), pp. 167-223, Lecture Notes in Mathematics 539, SpringerVerlag, 1976. [29] U. Krengel, Ergodic theorems, de Gruyter, Berlin, 1985. [30] L. Kuipers and H. Niederreiter, Uniform distribution of sequences, Wiley, New York, 1974. [31] J.C. Lagarias, The 3x (1985), 3-23.
+
1 problem and its generalizations, Amer. Math. Monthly 92
[32] M. L o h e , Probability theory, 4th ed. in 2 vols., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. [33] D.H. Mayer, On the thermodynamic formalism for the Gauss map, Comm. Math. Phys. 130 (1990), 31 1-333. [34] G. Mills, A quintessential proof of van der Waerden's theorem on arithmetic progressions, Discrete Math. 47 (1983), 117-120.
7. Selected references
[35] H.L. Montgomery, Ten lectures on the intevace between analytic number theory and harmonic analysis, CBMS Regional Conference Series in Mathematics 84, American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I., 1994. [36] H. Niederreiter, Quasi-Monte Carlo methods and pseudo-random numbers, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 84 (1978), 957-1041. [37] H. Niederreiter, Random number generation and quasi-Monte Carlo methods, CBMSNSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics 63, SIAM, Philadelphia, 1992. [38] H. Niederreiter and W. Philipp, Berry-Esseen bounds and a theorem of Erdos and Turfin on uniform distribution mod 1, Duke Math. J. 40 (1973), 633-649. [39] K. Petersen, Ergodic theory, Cambridge University Press, 1983. [40] W. Philipp and O.P. Stackelberg, Zwei Grenzwertsatze fiir Kettenbriiche, Math. Ann. 181 (1969), 152-156. [41] H. PoincarC, Sur la thCorie cinCtique des gaz, Oeuvres, t. X, pp. 246-263, GauthierVillars, Paris, 1954. [42] F. Riesz and B. Sz.-Nagy, Functional analysis, English transl. by L.F. Boron, Ungar, New York, 1955. [43] A. Rockett and P. Szusz, Continued fractions, World Scientific, Singapore, 1992. [44] W. Rudin, Principles of mathematical analysis, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976. [45] D. Ruelle, Ergodic theory of differentiable dynamical systems, Inst. Hautes ~ t u d e sSci. Publ. Math. 50 (1979), 27-58. 1461 S. Saks, Theory of the integral, 2nd revised ed., English transl. by L.C. Young, reprinted, Dover, New York, 1964. [47] S. Shelah, Primitive recursion bounds for van der Waerden numbers, J. Amer. Math. Soc.
1 (1988), 683-697. [48] J.M. Steele, Kingman's subadditive ergodic theorem, Ann. Inst. H. Poincare' Sect. B 25 (1989), 93-98.
568
XI. Uniform distribution and ergodic theory
[49] M.H. Stone, A generalized Weierstrass approximation theorem, Studies in modern analysis (ed. R.C. Buck), pp. 30-87, Mathematical Association of America, 1962. [50] B.L. van der Waerden, How the proof of Baudet's conjecture was found, Studies in Pure Mathematics (ed. L. Mirsky), pp. 251-260, Academic Press, London, 1971. [51] P. Walters, An introduction to ergodic theory, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982. r Gleichverteilung von Zahlen mod Eins, Math. Ann. 77 (1916), 313[52] H. Weyl, ~ b e die 352. [Reprinted in Selecta Hermann Weyl, pp. 111-147, Birkhauser, Basel, 1956 and in Hermann Weyl, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (ed. K. Chandrasekharan), Band I, pp. 563-599, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 19681 [53] E. Wirsing, On the theorem of Gauss-Kusmin-Levy and a Frobenius type theorem for function spaces, Acta Arith. 24 (1974), 507-528. [54] R.J. Zimmer, Ergodic theory and semi-simple groups, Birkhauser, Boston, 1984.
XI1
Elliptic functions Our discussion of elliptic functions may be regarded as an essay in revisionism, since we do not use Liouville's theorem, Riemann surfaces or the Weierstrassian functions. We wish to show that the methods used by the founding fathers of the subject provide a natural and rigorous approach, which is very well suited for applications. The work is arranged so that the initial sections are mutually independent, although motivation for each section is provided by those which precede it. To some extent we have also separated the discussion for real and for complex pasameters, so that those interested only in the real case may skip the complex one.
1 Elliptic integrals After the development of the integral calc~~lus in the second half of the 17th centuly, it was natural to apply it to the detesmination of the asc length of an ellipse since, by Kepler's first law, the planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus. An ellipse is described in rectangular coordinates by an equation
where a and I? ase the semi-axes of the ellipse (a > b > 0). It is also given parametrically by x = a sin 0, y = b cos 9 (0 I 0 I 2x).
The m length s(O) from 0 = 0 to 0 = O is given by
570
XII. Elliptic fzinctions
If we put ' 0 form
= a2(1 - k2), where
k (0 < k < 1) is the eccem-icity of the ellipse, this takes the
s(O) = a j (1 - k2 sin28)1/2 do. If we further put z = sin 0 = x/a and restsict attention to the first quadrant, this assumes the algebraic form
z
a j [(I
-
k2z2)/(1 - 9 ) ] 112 dz.
Since the arc length of the whole quadsant is obtained by taking Z = 1, the arc length of the whole ellipse is 4a j [(I - kG2)/(1 - z2)]
dz.
Consider next Galilee's problem of the simple pendulum. If 8 is the angle of deflection from the downwasd vestical, the equation of motion of the pendulum is d%/dt'
+ (gll)sin 8
= 0,
where I is the length of the pendulum and g is the gravitational constant. This differential equation has the first integral (dO/dt)"
(2g/l)(cos 0 - a),
where a is a constant. In fact a < 1 for a real motion, and for oscillatory motion we must also have a > - 1. We can then put a = cos a (0 < a < n), where a is the maximum value of 9, and integrate again to obtain t = (1/2g)1/"
1(cos 8 - cos a)-I/2 dB
Putting k = sin a12 and h = sin 012, we can rewiite this in the form
The angle of deflection 8 attains its maximum value a when X = 1, and the motion is periodic with period
T = 4(l/g)'/2 j t, [(I
- Ic2x")l
-x2)]-1/2 dx.
Attempts to evaluate the integrals in both these problems in terms of algebraic and elementary transcendental functions proved fruitless. Thus the idea arose of treating them as fundamental entities in terns of which other integrals could be expressed.
57 1
I . Elliptic integrals
An example is the determination of the arc length of a lemniscate. This curve, which was studied by Jacob Bernoulli (1694),has the form of a figure of eight and is the locus of all points z E C such that 12z2- 1)= 1 or, in polar coordinates,
If - x/4 I O I 0, the arc length s(O) from 9 = - x/4 to 9 = O is given by
s(O)
1 [r2+ (dr/d9)2]1/2d9 = 1FnI4[r2+ ( 1 +)/r2I1l2d0 = 1 (1 - y4)-1/2 dr.
=
-
:
If we make the change of variables x = 42r/(l + r2)ll2,then dxldr = 42/(1 + r2)3l2and
s(0)
=
2-112
1
[(I
- x2/2)(1 - x2)]-1/2dx.
Another example is the determination of the surface area of an ellipsoid. Suppose the ellipsoid is described in rectangular coordinates by the equation
where a > b > c > 0. The total surface area is 8S, where S is the surface area of the part contained in the positive octant. In this octant we have
z = c[l - (x/a)2- Cy/b)2]1/2 and hence
1 + (az/ax)2
+ (az/ay)2 =
[ 1 - (ax/a)2- (py/b)2]/[1- (x/a)2 - ( ~ / b ) 2 ] ,
where
a = (a2 - c2)1/2/a,
P = (b2
-
c2)ll2/b.
Consequently
s
=
a b(l-(~la)~)~'~ [ l ( a ~ / a )(~p ~ / b ) [~l ] ~( x/ /~u ) ~ lolo -
-
-
-
If we make the change of variables
x
= ar cos
9, y
= br sin
9,
with Jacobian J = abr, we obtain
S = ab j :'2de
1
( 1 - 0r2)1/2 (1 - r2)-1/2 r dr,
dydx.
XII. Elliptic functions
where
o
= a2 cos2 8 + p2 sin2 8.
If we now put
( 1 - r2)/(1 - 039,
u2 =
then r2 = ( 1 - u2)/(1- ou2) and
r drldu =
- ( 1 - o)u/(l - ou2)2.
Hence
S = ab 1E 1 2 d 1 ~ ( 1 - o)(l - &)-2
du.
Inverting the order of integration and giving o its value, we obtain
It is readily verified that
Thus we obtain finally
By an elliptic integral one understands today any integral of the form
1 R(x,w) dx, where R(x,w) is a rational function of x and w, and where w2 = g(x) is a polynomial in x of degree 3 or 4 without repeated roots. The elliptic integral is said to be complete if it is a definite integral in which the limits of integration are distinct roots of g(x). The case of a quartic is easily reduced to that of a cubic. In the preceding examples we can simply put y = x2. Thus, for the lemniscate,
In general, suppose g(x) = (x - a)h(x),where h is a cubic. If
and we make the change of variables x = a + lly, then g(x) = g*(y)/y4,where
1. Elliptic integrals
where R*Cy,v) is a rational function of y and v, and v2 = g*Cy). Since any even power of w is a polynomial in x, the integrand can be written in the form R(x,w) = ( A + BW)/(C + Dw), where A,B,C,D are polynomials in x. Multiplying numerator and denominator by (C - Dw)w, we obtain R(x, W) = NIL
+ MILw,
where L,M,N are polynomials in x. By decomposing the rational function NIL into partial fractions its integral can be evaluated in terms of rational functions and (real or complex) logarithms. By similarly decomposing the rational function MIL into partial fractions, we are reduced to evaluating the integrals
where n
a=.
and y E The argument of the preceding paragraph is actually valid if w2 = g is any polynomial. E
Suppose now that g is a cubic without repeated roots, say g (x) = a ~ +3a1x2 + a2x + a3. By differentiation we obtain, for any integer m 2 0,
Since the numerator on the right is the polynomial
it follows on integration that
It follows by induction that, for each integer n > 1,
where pn(x) is a polynomial of degree n - 2 and cn,cn'are constants. Thus the evaluation of I, for n > 1 reduces to the evaluation of I. and I I . Consider now the integral J,(y). In the same way as before, for any integer m 2 1,
X U . Ellij~ticfunctions
= 1-2nzg
+ (x - y)g1)/2w(.x- y)m+l.
We can write g(x> =
170
+ h1(x- y ) + h2(x -
+ h3(x~
~ ) 2
)
3
and the numerator on the light of the previous equation is then
It follows on integration that 2(x - y)-mw = - 2 n z b d m + l ( ~+)( 1 -2nz)b1Jm(y) + (2 - 2m)b2J,+l(y) + (3 - 2m)b3Jr1-2(y),
I
where J-l(y) = (x - y) dx/w is a constant linear combination of I. and Zl. Since g does not have repeated roots, bl # 0 if bo = 0. It follows by induction that if g(y) = bo # 0 then, for any n > 1,
where q,(t) is a polynomial of degree n - 1 and CE,,dnl,dTL" are constants. On the other hand, if g(y) = 0 then g '(y)= bl
#
0 and, for any n 2 1,
where r,(t) is a polynomial of degree n and e,,e,'
are constants.
Thus the evaluation of an asbitrasy elliptic integal can be reduced to the evaluation of I, =
dx/w , I ,
=
I x d.x/w, Jl (y) =
(x - y)-1 dx/w,
where w 2 = g is a cubic without repeated roots, y E C and g(y) # 0. Following Legendse (1793),to whom this reduction is due, integrals of these types are called respectively elliptic integrals of theBrst, second and third kinds. The cubic g can itself be simplified. If a is a root of g then, by replacing x by x - a, we may assume that g(0) = 0. If P is now another root of g then, by replacing x by x/P, we may further assume that g(1) = 0. Thus the evaluation of an arbitrary elliptic integral may be reduced to one for which g has the foi-m gh(x): = 4x(1 -x-)(1
-
hu),
575
1 . Elliptic integrals
where h E C and h # 0,l. This normal form, which was used by Riemann (1858) in lectures, is obtained from the normal form of Legendre by the change of variables x = sin2 8. To draw attention to the difference, it is convenient to call it Riemann's normalform. The range of h can be further restricted by linear changes of variables. The transformation y = (1 - hx)/(l - h) replaces Riemann's normal form by one of the same type with h replaced by Uh = 1 - A. Similarly, the transformation y = 1 - hx replaces Riemann's normal form by one of the same type with h replaced by VA = 1/(1- h). The transformations U and V together generate a group 93 of order 6 (isomorphic to the symmetric group Ygof all permutations of three letters), since u2=V=(UV)2=I. The values of h corresponding to the elements I , V , P , U , W , W of % are h, lI(1 - h), (h - l)/h, 1 -A, A/(A - I), 111. The region 9 of the complex plane C defined by the inequalities
is a fundamental domain for the group %; i.e., no point of B is mapped to a different point of 9 by an element of % and each point of C is mapped to a point of 9 or its boundary 8% by some element of %. Consequently the sets {G(F): G E %} form a tiling of C;i.e., = UGE% G ( P u a%), G(F) n Gf(B)= 0 if G,G' E
23 and G # G'.
This is illustrated in Figure 1, where the set G(9) is represented simply by the group element G and, in particular, 9 is represented by I. It follows that in Riemann's normal form we may
Figure 1: Fundamental domain for h
XII. Elliptic functions
suppose h E % u 3%. The changes of variable in the preceding reduction to Riemann's normal form may be complex, even though the original integrand was real. It will now be shown that any real elliptic integral can be reduced by a real change of variables to one in Riemann's normal form, where 0 < h < 1 and the independent variable is restricted to the interval 0 Ix 5 1. If g is a cubic or quartic with only real roots, this can be achieved by a linear fractional transformation, mapping roots of g to roots of ga. Appropriate transformations are listed in Tables 1 and 2. It should be noted that h is always a cross-ratio of the four roots of g in Table 2, and that h is always a cross-ratio of the three roots of g and the point 'm' in Table 1. Suppose now that g is a real cubic or quartic with a pair of conjugate complex roots. Then we can write
g(x) = QlQ2
=
(a1x2+ 2blx + cl)(a2x2+ 2b2x + c2),
where the coefficients are real, alcl - b12> 0 and a2c2- b22# 0 , but a2 may be zero. Consider first the case where a2 # 0 and bl = b2al/a2. Then
Ql
= al(x + bl/a1)2+ blr, Q2 = a2(x + bl/a1)2+ b2',
where
b l l = (alcl - b12)/al, b2' = (a2c2- b22)/a2.
where the rational functions R1,R2are determined by the rational function R, and
Thus we are reduced to the case of a cubic with 3 distinct real roots. In the remaining cases there exist distinct real values sl,s2 of s such that the polynomial Q1+ sQ2 is proportional to a perfect square. For Ql + sQ2 is proportional to a perfect square if
We have D(0) = alcl - b12> 0. If a2 = 0, then b2 # 0 and D(+ m) = - m. On the other hand, if a2 # 0, then D(- al/a2)< 0 , since b1 # b2al/a2,and D(s) has the sign of a2cz - b22 for both large positive and large negative s. Thus the quadratic D(s) has distinct real roots sl,s2. Hence
where al
+ sja2 # 0 (j = 1,2) and
1. Elliptic integrals
g(x)
=
A(x- al)(x- a2)(x- a,), where al > a2 > a,; ajk= aj - ak ghCy) = 4y(l - y)(l - hy), where 0 < h < 1,y E (0,l) p = (a13)lf2/2, LO = a23/a13, 1 -LO = a12/a13.
A
h
Range
Transformation
-1
1 -Ao
x 5 a,
= a&,
-
Corresponding values
a3
x) -
1 0
.
Table 1: Reduction to Riemann's normal form, g a cubic with all roots real
A
h
Range
Transformation
+1
Lo
x I a4
= a24(x - al)la14(x- a21
Corresponding values
a4
1 ~ 2 4 ~ ~ 1 4
Table 2: Reduction to Riemann's normal form, g a quartic with all roots real
XII. Elliptic functions
If we put y = { ( x+ dl)/(x + d2)}2,then
where again the rational functions Rl,R2 are determined by the rational function R, and
Thus we are again reduced to the case of a cubic with 3 distinct real roots. The preceding argument may be applied also when g has only real roots, provided the factors Ql and Q2 are chosen so that their zeros do not interlace. Suppose (without loss of generality) that g = ga is in Riemann's normal form and take
el = ( 1 - x)(l - h),Q2 = 4 ~ . In this case we can write
Q1 = { ( 1 + . \ j ~ ) ~-(lldh)2 x - ( 1 - dh)2(x + 1/dh)2)dh/4, Q2 = - dh{(x- l/dh)2 - (x + l/dh)2). If we put
1 - 4dhy/(1 + dh12 = { ( x- l/dh)/(x + 1/dh)}2, we obtain
d ~ / g h ( x ) l=/ ~dy/1.1g~O)l/~, where
1.1 = 1
+ dh, p = 4dh/(l + dh)2.
The usefulness of this change of variables will be seen in the next section.
2 The arithmetic-geometric mean Let a and b be positive real numbers, with a > b, and let
2. The arithmetic-geometric mean
be respectively their arithmetic and geometric means. Then
and
Thus al,bl satisfy the same hypotheses as a,b and the procedure can be repeated. If we define sequences {a,},{b,} inductively by a,+l
a. = a , bo = b , = (a, + bn)/2, b,+l = (anbnY2
( n = O,l,... ),
then
0 < bo < b l < b2 < ... < a2 < al < ao. It follows that a, -+ h and b, + p as n + w, where h 2 p > 0. In fact h = p, as one sees by letting n + in the relation an+l = (a, + bn)/2. The convergence of the sequences {a,} and {b,} to their common limit is extremely rapid, since
(As an example, if a = d 2 and b = 1, calculation shows that a4 and b4 differ by only one unit in the 20th decimal place.) The common limit of the sequences {a,} and {b,} will be denoted by M(a,b). The definition can be extended to arbitrary positive real numbers a,b by putting
Following Gauss (1818), M(a,b) is known as the arithmetic-geometric mean of a and b. However, the preceding algorithm, which we will call the AGM algorithm, was first introduced by Lagrange (1784/5), who showed that it had a remarkable application to the numerical calculation of arbitrary elliptic integrals. The first tables of elliptic integrals, which made them as accessible as logarithms, were constructed in this way under the supervision of Legendre (1826). Today the algorithm can be used directly by electronic computers. By putting 1 - hx = t2/a2in Riemann's normal form, it may be seen that any real elliptic integral may be brought to the form
cp(t>[(a2- t2)(t2 - b2)]-1/2dt,
580
XII. Elliptic functions
where q ( t ) is a rational function of t2 with real coefficients, a > b > 0 and t E [b,a]. We will restrict attention here to the complete elliptic integral
J=
cp(t)[(a2- t2)(t2 - b2)]-1/2dt,
but at the cost of some complication the discussion may be extended to incomplete elliptic integrals (where the interval of integration is a proper subinterval of [b,a]). If we make the change of variables
t2 = a2 sin2 0
+ b2 cos2 0
(0 5 0 5 z / 2 ) ,
then
t dt/d9 = (a2 - b2) sin 0 cos 0 = [(a2- t2)(t2- b2)I1I2 and
J=
Itf2q((a2 sin2 0 + b2
C O S ~0)1/2) dOl(a2 sin2
0
+ b2 cos2 0)1/2.
Now put
tl = (1/2)(t+ ab/t) and, as before,
al = (a + b)/2, bl = (ab)ll2. Then
a12- t I 2= (a2- t2)(t2- b2)/4t2, t12- b12 = (t2 - ~ b ) ~ / 4 t ~ , dtl/dt = (t2 - ab)/2t2. As t increases from O to bl, tl decreases from al to bl, and as t further increases from bl to a,
t1 increases from bl back to al. Since
it follows from these observations that
In particular, if we take cp(t) = 1 and put
X(a,b): = we obtain
1;
[(a2- t2)(t2- b2)]-I/2dt,
2. The arithmetic-geometric mean
Hence, by repeating the process, X(a,b) = X(an,bn). But X(an,bn) =
1:l2
(an2 sin2 0
+ bn2 cos2 0)-ll2 d0
and bn I(an2 sin2 0
+ bn2 cos2 0)
I an.
Consequently, by letting n + we obtain
Now take q(t) = a2 - t2 and put
8(a,b>: =
[(a2 - t2)/(t2 - b2)]
dt.
In this case v(tl) = (a2 - b2)/2
+ 2(a12- tI2)
and hence 8(a,b) = (a2 - b2)X(a,b)/2 + 2S(al,bl). If we write en = 2n(an2- bn2) then, since YC(a,b) = 9%(an,bn),by repeating the process we obtain %(a,b)/X(a,b) = (eo + el
+ ... + enJ/2 + 2n8(an,bn)/YC(an,bn).
But 2n8(an,bn) = en j:l2
C O S ~0
(an2 sin2 8 + bn2 cos2 0)-lI2 do
and en + 0 (rapidly) as n + =, since en = 2n(an-l - bn-1)2/4 = e,-l(an-l - b n & I a n . Hence %(a,b)/YC(a,b) = (eo + el
+ e2 + ... )/2.
(2)
To avoid taking differences of nearly equal quantities, the constants en may be calculated by means of the recurrence relations en = e,-12/2n+2an2 (n = 1,2,... ). Next take q(t) = p[(p2 - a2)(p2 - b2)]lI2/(p2- t2),
582
XII. Elliptic functions
where either p > a or 0 < p < b, and put
In this case ~ 0 1 =) 41 f p1[(Pl2- al2NPl2 - b12)11/21(P12 - t12), where P I = (1/2)@+ q1 = (p12- al2)lI2= [(p2 - a2)(p2- b2)I1l2/2p,
and the + or - sign is taken according as p > a or 0 < p < b. Since pl > al in either event, without loss of generality we now assume that p > a. Then also pl < p and
Define the sequence {p,} inductively by
+ v 2 M(a,b) as n + -, since a, < pn 0 for which S'(t) = 0. Then S ' ( n = 0 , S(Tj = 1 and by letting t + T we obtain T = K(h).
This shows that S(u) maps the interval [O,K(h)]bijectively onto [0,1],and if
then S[u(5)]= 5. Thus, in the real domain, the elliptic integral of the first kind is inverted by the function S(u). Since h # 1, it follows that S(t) = S(t,h) has period 2K(h). Since h + 0 , it follows from (15) that S(t,h) also has period 2iK(1 - 1). Thus S(t,h) is a doubly-periodic function, with a real period and a pure imaginary period. We will show that all periods are given by
2mK(h) + 2niK(1- h ) (m,n E h). The periods of a nonconstant meromorphic functionf form a discrete additive subgroup of
C.Iff
has two periods whose ratio is not real then, by the simple case n = 2 of Proposition
VIII.7, it has periods ol,ozsuch that all periods are given by
m o l + n o 2 (m,n E h). In the present case we can take ol = 2K(h), o2= 2iK(1 - h) since, by construction, 2K(h) is the least positive period. Suppose next that h E R and either h > 1 or h < 0. Then, by (14) and (15), S(t,h) is again a doubly-periodic function with a real period and a pure imaginary period.
3. Elliptic functions
59 1
Suppose finally that A E C \ R. Without loss of generality, w e assume 4 A > 0. Then gh(z) does not vanish in the upper half-plane @. It follows that there exists a unique function ha(z), holomorphic for z E @ with %ha(z) > 0 for z near 0, such that
Moreover, we may extend the definition so that ha(z) is continuous and (22) continues to hold for z E @ u R. We can write S(t) = v ( t 2 ) , where
is holomorphic at the origin. By inversion of series, there exists a function
which is holomorphic at the origin, such that v [ $ ( z ) ]= z. For z E f j near 0, put
where the square root is chosen so that %u(z) > 0. Then S[u(z)]= z. Differentiating and then squaring, we obtain
S'[U(Z)]U'(Z) = 1, u ' ( z ) = ~ l/ga(z).
-
But u t ( z ) also has positive real part, since S 1 [ u ( z ) ] 2 u ( z ) for z uyz) = l/hh(z). Since u(z) + 0 as z + 0, we conclude that
+ 0.
Consequently
where the path of integration is (say) a straight line segment. However, the function on the right is holomorphic for all z E @. Consequently, if we define u(z) by (23) then, by analytic continuation, the relation S[u(z)]= z continues to hold for all z E fj. Letting z + 1, we now obtain S(h) = 1 for h = K(A), where
and the square root is chosen so that gh(x)l/2 is continuous and has positive real part for small
x > 0 and actually, as we will see in a moment, for 0 < x < 1. Hence S(t) has period 2K(A). Furthermore, by (15), S(t) also has period 2iK(1- A). For 0 < x < 1 we have
XII. Elliptic functions
If h = y + i v , where 0 < x < 1. Hence
v > 0 , then 1 - % x = y
+ i6, where y = 1 - y x
(1 - %x)1/2 =
and 6 = v x > 0 for
a + ip,
where
a
=
{ y + (72 + 62)1/2}1/2/.\/2,2aP = 6,
first for small x > 0 and then, by continuity, for 0 < x < 1. Thus a and
P
are positive for
0 < x < 1. Consequently %gh(x)1/2> 0 for 0 < x < 1 and K(h) = A
+ iB,
where A > 0 , B > 0. Similarly, for 0 < y < 1 we have
and1-(1-~)y=y'-i6~wherey'=1-(1-p)yand6'=vy>0forO 0. We will now show that the period ratio iK(l - h)/K(h)is not real by showing that the quotient K ( l - h)/K(h)has positive real part. Since this is equivalent to showing that
aa'- pp' > 0 for all x,y
(0,l). The inequality is certainly satisfied for all x,y near 0, since a + 1, P + 0 as x + 0 and a' + 1, fit + 0 as y + 0. Thus we need only show that we never have aa' = PP'. But it is sufficient to show that
E
with analogous expressions for 2a2, 2PQ. Hence, if aa' = PP', then by squaring we obtain
which reduces to
3. Elliptic functions
Squaring again, we obtain y26' 2 = y' 262. Since the previous equation shows that y and y' do not have the same sign, it follows that y6' + y'6 = 0. Substituting for y,6,y',6' their explicit expressions, this takes the form v(x + y - xy) = 0. Hence x(1 - y) + y = 0, which is impossible if 0 < y < 1 and x > 0. The relation S[u(z)] = z, where u(z) is defined by (23), shows that the elliptic integral of the first kind is inverted by the elliptic function S(u). We may use this to simplify other elliptic integrals. The change of variables x = S(u) replaces the integral
by
I R[S(u)] du.
Following Jacobi, we take
as the standard elliptic integral of the second kind, and
as the standard elliptic integral of the third kind. Many properties of these functions may be obtained by integration from corresponding properties of the function S(u). By way of example, we show that
Indeed it is evident that both sides vanish when u = 0, and it follows from (12) that they have the same derivative with respect to u. Integrating (26) with respect to u, we further obtain
Thus the function ll(u,a), which depends on two variables (as well as the parameter h) can be expressed in terms of functions of only one variable. Furthermore, we have the interchange property (due, in other notation, to Legendre)
If we take u = 2K = 2K(X), then S'(u) = 0 and hence n(a,u) = 0. Thus
594
XII. Elliptic functions
which shows that the complete elliptic integral of the third kind can be expressed in terms of complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds. In order to justify taking ll(u,a) as the standard elliptic integral of the third kind, we show finally that S(a) takes all complex values. Otherwise, if S(u) # c for all u E @, then c # 0 and
is holomorphic in the whole complex plane. Furthermore, it is doubly-periodic with two periods w1,a2 whose ratio is not real. Since it is bounded in the parallelogram with vertices 0,wl,w2,w1 + a 2 , it follows that it is bounded in @. Hence, by Liouville's theorem, f is a constant. Since S is not constant and c # 0, this is a contradiction.
4 Theta functions Theta functions arise not only in connection with elliptic functions (as we will see), but also in problems of heat conduction, statistical mechanics and number theory. Consider the bi-infinite series
where q,z E @ and z # 0. Both series on the right converge if Iql < 1, both diverge if Iql > 1, and at most one converges if 191 = 1. Thus we now assume Iql< 1.
A remarkable representation for the series on the left was given by Jacobi (1829), in $64 of his Fundamenta Nova, and is now generally known as Jacobi's triple product formula: PROPOSITION 2 I f Iql < 1 and z # 0, then
Proof Put fN(z) =
n:=l
(1 + q2n-1~)(l+ q2n-1~-1).
Then we can write N
fN(z) = c(J
+
N
(Z
+ Z-I) + ,., + C;
(zN f z - ~ ) ,
To determine the coefficients cf we use the functional relation
595
4. Theta functions
Multiplying both sides by qz N-1, q2n+ 1
But, since C
+ q2N and equating coefficients of zn+' we get, for n = 0,1,...,
Ct+
q 2 ~ + 2 n + c;+l 2
=
Ct+l + q m l c;,
(2n - 1 ) = @, it follows from the definition of fN(z) that
C;
= qm. Hence
I f /ql< 1 and z # 0 , then the infinite products
are all convergent. From the convergence of the last it follows that, for each fixed n,
Moreover, there exists a constant A > 0, depending on q but not on n or N, such that
I cf I
I ~141~'.
1 nr!l
For we can choose B > 0 so that ( 1 - q2k)12 B for all m, we can choose C > 0 so that (1 - q2k) l I C for a11 m, and we can then take A = C/B2. Since the series C q n2z n is absolutely convergent, it follows that we can proceed to the limit term by term in (31) to
1 nj12=1
obtain (30).
In the series C
qn2znwe now put
so that 141 < 1 corresponds to $z > 0, and we define the theta function
The function O(v;z) is holomorphic in v and z for all v E C and z E @ (the upper half-plane). Since initially we will be more interested in the dependence on v, with z just a parameter, we will often write O(v) in place of O(v;z). Furthermore, we will still use q as an abbreviation for eXi~.
Evidently O(V+ 1) = O(v) = O(- v). Moreover,
XII. Elliptic functions
It may be immediately verified that a2@/av2 = - 4794
aO/aq = 4ni ae/az,
which becomes the partial differential equation of heat conduction in one dimension on putting
z = 4nit. By Proposition 2, we have also the product representation
It follows that the points v = 112 + 212 + m
+ nz
(m,n E Z)
are simple zeros of O(v), and that these are the only zeros. One important property of the theta function is almost already known to us: PROPOSITION 3 For all v
E
G and z E @,
where the square root is chosen to have positive real part. Proof Suppose first that z = iy, where y > 0. We wish to show that
c :zrwe-n2n/y e 2 n ~ i v = y1/2 :zrw e-(v+n)2n~. But this was already proved in Proposition IX. 10. Thus (32) holds when z is pure imaginary. Since, with the stated choice of square root, both sides of (32) are holomorphic functions for v E G and z E @, the relation continues to hold throughout this extended domain, by analytic continuation. Following Hermite (1858), for any integers a$ we now put O,,,(v)
= @,,p(v;Q =
z::rm
(- 1)pn ,+z(n+~/2)2 e2niv(n+a/2).
(The factor (- 1)pn may be made less conspicuous by writing it as e@n.) Since
4. Theta functions
there are only four essentially distinct functions, namely
In fact, for all integers m,n,
Since the zeros of Q(v;z)are the points v = 112 + 212 + mz points
+ n, the zeros of 8,,p(v)
are the
v = (P+1)/2+( a + l ) z / 2 + m z + n ( m , n ~Z). The notation for theta functions is by no means standardized. Hermite's notation reflects the underlying symmetry, but for purposes of comparison we indicate its connection with the more commonly used notation in Whittaker and Watson [29]:
It follows from the definitions that QO0(v;z), QO1(v;z) and QlO(v;z) are even functions of v, whereas Q I 1 ( v ; zis) an odd function of v. Moreover eO0(v;z)and Qol(v;z)are periodic with period 1 in v, but QlO(v;z) and eI1(v;z)change sign when v is increased by 1. All four theta functions satisfy the same partial differential equation as B(v;z). From the product expansion of B(v;z)we obtain the product expansions
XII. Elliptic functions
where q = eXiTand In particular,
=2 ~ i q l l ~ Q ~ ~ . By differentiating with respect to v and then putting v = 0 , we obtain also 0111(0) But
Qo
= rI,"=l ( 1 - qn)(l + qn)
It is evident from their series definitions that, when q is replaced by - q, the functions and €Io1 are interchanged, whereas the functions q-l/4€ll0and qWllare unaltered. Hence
From Proposition 3 we obtain also the transformation formulas
Up to this point we have used Hermite's notation just to dress up old results in new clothes. The next result breaks fresh ground.
4. Theta functions
PROPOSITION 4 For all v,w E @ and z E
a,
Proof From the definition of €loo,
zj,k
= O ( ~eni~(i2+k2) e2zivj eOO(~;~)~O ;~)
e2niwk =
zj+k. even + z j + k odd .
In the first sum on the right we can write j + k = 2m, j - k = 2n. Then j = m + n, k = m - n and e 2 W m 2 + n 2 ) e2ni(v+w)m e2ni(v-w)n = ~ O O ( ~ + ~ ; 2 z ) ~ 0 0 ( v - w ; 2 z ) . Xj+k even =
I n t h e s e c o n d s u m w e c a n w r i t e j + k = 2 m + 1 , j - k = 2 n + 1. T h e n j = m + n + l , k = m - n and z j + k odd = z m , n E H
$7Ci~{ (m+l/2)2+(n+1/2)2)e 2 ~ i v ( m + n + ~e 2) ~ i w ( m - n ) =
0l o ( ~ + ~ ; 2 ~ ) O l o ( ~ - ~ ; 2 ~ ) .
Adding, we obtain the first relation of the proposition. We obtain the second relation from the first by replacing v by v + 212 and w by w + 212. The remaining relations are obtained from the first two by increasing v and/or w by 112. By taking w = v in Proposition 4, and adding or subtracting pairs of equations whose right sides differ only in one sign, we obtain the duplication formulas:
PROPOSITION5 For all v E C and z E
a,
XU. Elliptic functions
600
From Proposition 4 we can also derive the following additionformulas:
PROPOSITION 6 For all v,w E C and z E @,
where all theta functions have the same second argument z. Proof Consider the second relation. If we use the first and fourth relations of Proposition 4 to evaluate the products OOO(v)OOO(w) and OO1(v)OO1(w), we obtain
Similarly, if we use the second and sixth relations of Proposition 4 to evaluate the products 0 1 0 ( ~ ) 0 1 0and ( ~ )Oll(v)Oll(w),we obtain
Hence, in the second relation of the present proposition the right side is equal to
On the other hand, if we use the first and fourth relations of Proposition 4 to evaluate the we see that the left side is likewise equal to products 800(0)000(v+w)and OO1(0)OO1(v-w),
This proves the second relation of the proposition, and the others may be proved similarly.
COROLLARY 7 For all v E C and z E @,
Moreover, for all z E
a, Q0o4(O) =
@0,4(0)+ Q,o4(0).
4. Theta functions
601
Proof We obtain (39) and (40) from the first relation of Proposition 6 by taking w = 112 and w = (1 + 2)/2 respectively. We obtain (41) from (39) by taking v = 112.
If we regard (39) and (40) as a system of simultaneous linear equations for the unknowns 0012(v),0112(v),then the determinant of this system is OOo4(0)- OlO4(0)= OOl4(0)f 0. It follows that the square of any theta function may be expressed as a linear combination of the squares of any other two theta functions. By substituting for the theta functions their expansions as infinite products, the formula
(41) may be given the following remarkable form:
PROPOSITION 8 For all v E C and z E
a,
Proof By differentiating the second relation of Proposition 6 with respect to w and then putting w = 0, we obtain
since not only 011(0) = 0 but also OOo1(0)= OO1'(O)= 010'(0) = 0. Dividing by OOl2(v)and recalling the expression (36) for 011'(0),we obtain (42). Similarly, from the third and fourth relations of Proposition 6 we obtain (43) and (44).
In the same way, if we differentiate the first relation of Proposition 6 twice with respect to w and then put w = 0, we obtain
Hence, using (36) again, we obtain (45). We are now in a position to make the connection between theta functions and elliptic functions.
602
XII. Elliptic functions
5 Jacobian elliptic functions The behaviour of the theta functions when their argument is increased by 1 or z makes it clear that doubly-periodic functions may be constructed from their quotients. We put
where u = n Ooo2(0)v. The constant multiples are chosen so that, in addition to sn 0 = 0, we have cn 0 = dn 0 = 1. The independent variable is scaled so that, by (42)-(44), d (sn u)/du = cn u dn u, d (cn u)/du = d (dn u)/du =
- sn -h
u dn u,
(47)
sn u cn u,
where h = A(%):= ~ 1 0 4 ( o ; ~ ) / ~ 0 0 4 ( o ; ~ ) . It follows at once from the definitions that sn u is an odd function of u, whereas cn u and dn u are even functions of u. It follows from (41) that
1 - h(z) = oo14(0;T)/0004(0;~), and from (39)-(40) that cn2 u = 1 - sn2 u, dn2 u = 1 - h sn2 u. Evidently (47) implies d (sn2 u)/du = 2 sn u cn u dn u, d2 (sn2 u)/du2 = 2(cn2 u dn2 u - sn2 u dn2 u - h sn2 u cn2 u). If we write S(u) = S(u;z): = sn2 u and use (50), we can rewrite this in the form d2S/du2 = 2[(1- S)(1- hS) - S(l - hS) - hS(1- S)]
603
5. Jacobian elliptic functions
Since S(0) = S'(0) = 0, we conclude that S(u) coincides with the function denoted by the same symbol in 93. However, it should be noted that now k is not given, but is determined by z. Thus the question arises: can we choose
2E
@ (the upper half-plane) so that a(%)is any
prescribed complex number other than 0 or l ? For many applications it is sufficient to know that we can choose z E @ so that k(z) is any prescribed real number between 0 and 1. Since this case is much simpler, we will deal with it now and defer treatment of the general case until the next section. We have
where q = eniZ. If z = iy, where y > 0, then 0 < q < 1. Moreover, as y increases from 0 to w, q decreases from 1 to 0 and the infinite product increases from 0 to 1. Thus k(z) decreases continuously from 1 to 0 and, for each MI E (0,1), there is a unique pure imaginary z E fjsuch that h ( z ) = w. It should be mentioned that, also with our previous approach, S(u) could have been recognized as the squase of a meromosphic function by defining sn u , cn u , dn u to be the solution, for given k E C,of the system of differential equations (47) which satisfies the initial condition sn 0 = 0, cn 0 = dn 0 = 1. Elliptic functions were first defined by Abel (1 827) as the inverses of elliptic integrals. His definitions were modified by Jacobi (1829) to accord with Legendre's normal form for elliptic integrals, and the functions sn u , cn u , dl1 u are generally known as the Jacobiai7 elliptic functions. The actual notation is due to Gudermann (1838). The definition by means of theta functions was given later by Jacobi (1838) in lectures. Several properties of the Jacobian elliptic functions are easy consequences of the later definition. In the first place, all three are mesomorphic in the whole u-plane, since the theta functions ase everywhere holomosphic. Their poles we determined by the zeros of OO1(v)and are all simple. Similarly, the zeros of sn u, cn u and dn u are determined by the zeros of 011(v),810(v) and OO0(v)respectively and are all simple. If we put
then we have Poles of sn u, cn u, dn u: Zeros of sn u: cn u: dn u:
u
= 2nzK+ (2n
+ l)iK"(nz,n
E
Z).
(52)
XII. Elliptic functions
From the definitions (46) of the Jacobian elliptic functions and the behaviour of the theta functions when v is increased by 1 or z we further obtain
It follows that all three functions are doubly-periodic. In fact sn u has periods 4K and 2iK', cn u has periods 4K and 2K+ 2iKf, and dn u has periods 2K and 4iK'. In each case the ratio of the two periods is not real, since T E @. Since any period must equal a difference between two poles, it must have the form 2mK + 2niK' for some m,n E E. Since 4K and 2iK' are periods of sn u, but 2K is not, and since any integral linear combination of periods is again a period, it follows that the periods of sn u are precisely the integral linear combinations of 4K and 2iK'. Similarly the periods of cn u are the integral linear combinations of 4K and 2K + 2iK', and the periods of dn u are the integral linear combinations of 2K and 4iK'. It was shown in 93 that, if 0 < h < 1, then S(t,h) has least positive period 2K(h), where
But, as we have seen, there is a unique pure imaginary z E @ such that h = h(z), and 2K[h(z)] is then the least positive period of sn2 (u;z). Since the periods of sn2 (u;z) are 2mK + 2niK' (m,n E Z), and since K,K' are real and positive when z is pure imaginary, it follows that
The domain of validity of this relation may be extended by appealing to results which will be established in 56. In fact it holds, by analytic continuation, for all z in the region 9illustrated in Figure 3, since h(z) E @ for z E 9. From the definitions (46) of the Jacobian elliptic functions, the addition formulas for the theta functions (Proposition 6) and the expression (48) for h, we obtain addition formulas for the Jacobian functions: sn (ul + u2) = (sn ul cn u2 dn u2 + sn u2 cn ul dn ul)/(l - h sn2 ul sn2 u2), cn (ul + u2) = (cn ul cn u2 - sn ul sn u2 dn ul dn u2)/(1 - h sn2 ul sn2 u2), dn (ul
+ u2) = (dn ul dn u2 - h sn ul
sn u2 cn ul cn u2)/(1 - h sn2 u1 sn2 4 ) .
(55)
5. Jacobian elliptic functions
The addition formulas show that the evaluation of the Jacobian elliptic functions for arbitrary complex argument may be reduced to their evaluation for real and pure imaginary arguments. The usual addition formulas for the sine and cosine functions may be regarded as limiting cases of (55). For if z = iy and y + =, the product expansions (35) show that
Olo(v)
- 2eKiZl4cos xv,
O1 ( v ) - 2i e"iZ/4 sin nv,
and hence
h + 0, u -+ ZV, sn u + sin u, cn u -+ cos u, dn u -+ 1. The definitions (46) of the Jacobian elliptic functions and the transformation formulas (37)(38) for the theta functions imply also transformationformulas for the Jacobian functions:
PROPOSITION 9 For all u E C and z E $5,
where and Furthermore,
Proof With v = U / Z O ~ ~ ~ + ( O1 ); we ~ have, by (37), dn
(U;T
+ 1 ) = OOO(O;~)OO1(~;~)/OO1(O;~)OOO(~;z) = l/dn ( u ' ; ~ ) ,
where
ur = x O o o 2 ( 0 ; ~=) ~0 0 0 2 ( O ; ~ ) ~ / 0 0 1 2 (=Ou/(1 ; ~ ) - h(~))1/2. Similarly, from (37) and (48)-(49),we obtain
The other relations are established in the same way.
606
XII. Elliptic functions
PROPOSITION 10 For all u E
C and z E a,
sn (u; - 112) = - i sn (iu;z)/cn (iu;~), cn (u; - l/z) = llcn (iu;~), dn (u; - 112) = dn (iu;z)/cn (iu;~), Furthermore,
Proof With v = u/nOOo2(0;- 11%)we have, by (38), sn (u; - l/z) =
-
i 800(O;- l/z)Oll(v;- l/~)/8,~(0;-l / ~ ) 8 ~ ~ ( 112) v;-
= - 0,,(0;z)0,
l(zv;z)lool(O;z)olo(zv;~).
On the other hand, with v' = iu/~8002(0;z) we have sn (iu; z)/cn (iu;z)
= -i
OOO(O;~)Oll(v';~)/Ool(O;z)O1o(v~;z).
Since zv = v', by comparing these two relations we obtain the first assertion of the proposition. The next two assertions may be obtained in the same way. The final two assertions follow from (38), together with (48), (49) and (51). It follows from Proposition 10 that the evaluation of the Jacobian elliptic functions for pure imaginary argument and parameter z may be reduced to their evaluation for real argument and parameter - l/z. From the definition (46) of the Jacobian elliptic functions and the duplication formulas for the theta functions we can also obtain formulas for the Jacobian functions when the parameter 2 is doubled ('Landen's transformation'): PROPOSITION 11 For all u E
C and z E a,
sn (u"; 22) = [l + (1 - h(z))1/2] sn ( u ; ~cn ) (u;z)/dn (u;z), cn (u"; 22) = { I - [ l + (1 - h(z))112] sn2 (u;z)}/dn (KT), dn (u"; 22) = { l - [I - (1 - h(z))1/2] sn2 (u;z))/dn ( u ; ~ ) , where u" = [ l + (1 - h(z))lI2] u and (1 - h(z))ll2 = 0012(0;~)/0002(0;~). Furthermore, h(22) = P(z)/[l + (1 - h(2))1/2]4, K(2z) = [I + (1 - h ( ~ ) ) l / K(z)/2. ~]
5. Jacobian elliptic functions
Proof If u = .n8002(0;z)vand u" = ~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ( 0 ; then, 2 2 ) by 2 ~Proposition 5,
U"
= 28002(O;2~) U/ =
~~~~(O;T) [0,,2(0;z) + 0,,2(0;2)] u/eoo2(0;z).
Hence, by (49),
u"
=
[1 + (1 -h(z))1/2] U.
By Proposition 5 also,
On the other hand, sn
cn (u;z)/dn(u;z) = - i 8002(O;z)81o(~;z)01l(~;z)/8102(0;z)000(~;Z)e0l(~).
Since 2800(0;2z)810(0;2z)= Bl02(0;z),it follows that
Since 2800~(O;2~)/800~(O;z> = u"/u, this proves the first assertion of the proposition. The remaining assertions may be proved similarly. We show finally how the standard elliptic integrals of the second and third kinds, defined by (24)and (25),may be expressed in terms of theta functions. If we put
where u = ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ( then 0 ) vsince ,
we can rewrite (45)in the form
where a is independent of u and the prime on the left denotes differentiation with respect to u. Since O'(0) = 0,by integrating we obtain
E(u) = O1(u)/O(u)+ au. To determine
a we take u = K. Since 001'(1/2)= 800'(1) = OOof(O)= 0,we obtain a = E/K,
where
E = E(K) =
(1 - U(U)} du = .$j (1 - hX) &/gh(x)1/2
XII. Elliptic functions
608
is a complete elliptic integral of the second kind. Thus
E(u) = O'(u)/O(u)+ uE/K. Substituting this expression for E(u) in (27),we further obtain
ll(u,a)
=
u Of(a)/O(a)+ (112)log {O(u- a)/O(u + a ) } .
6 The modular function The function
I(%): = 0,04(O;~)/0004(o;z), which was introduced in 55, is known as the modular function. In this section we study its remarkable properties. (The term 'modular function', without the definite article, is also used in a more general sense, which we do not consider here.) The modular function is holomorphic in the upper half-plane @. Furthermore, we have PROPOSITION 12 For any z
E
@,
Proof The first two relations have already been established in Propositions 9 and 10. If, as in 51, we put U h = 1 -A, V h = l / ( l -A), and if we also put Tz = z
+ 1 , ST = - l / z , then they may be written in the form ~ ( T T=)UFrh(z), h(Sz) = U ~ ( Z ) .
It follows that
h(- l / ( z + 1)) = h(STz) = Uh(Tz)= U2VX(2)= I%(%)= 1/[1- h(z)]. Similarly,
h((z - l ) / z ) = h(TSz) = V h ( z )= [h(z)- l ] / h ( z ) , h(z/(z + 1)) = h(TSTz) = U V h ( z ) = llh(z). I7
6. The modular function
As we saw in Proposition IV.12, the transformations ST = - l / z and T z = z the modular group I-, consisting of all linear fractional transformations
z'
=
+ 1 generate
(az + b)/(cz + d),
where a,b,c,d E Z and ad - bc = 1. Consequently we can deduce the effect on h(z)of any modular transformation on z. However, Proposition 12 contains the only cases which we require. We will now study in some detail the behaviour of the modular function in the upper halfplane. We first observe that we need only consider the behaviour of h ( z ) in the right half of Q. For, from the definitions of the theta functions as infinite series,
where the bar denotes complex conjugation, and hence
h(- 7 ) = q i j . We next note that, by taking z = i in the relation h(- 117) = 1 - h(z), we obtain h(i) = 112. We have already seen in 55 that h(z)is real on the imaginary axis z = iy (y > O), and decreases from 1 to 0 as y increases from 0 to m. Since X(z + 1) = h(z)/[X(z)- I ] , it follows that X(z) is real also on the half-line z = 1 + iy O,> O ) , and increases from c-.
to 0 as y increases from 0 to
Moreover, X(l + i ) = - I . The linear fractional map z = (z'- I)/%' maps the half-line R z ' = 1 , 9 z 1> 0 onto the semi-
circle
lz - 1/21 = 112,412 > 0, and z'
=1
+ i is mapped to z = ( 1 + i)/2.
Since
it follows from what we have just proved that, as z traverses this semi-circle from 0 to 1 , h(z) is real and increases from 1 to c-. Moreover, X ( ( 1 + i)/2) = 2. If 3% = 112, then T = 1 - z and hence, by (59),
Thus w = h ( z ) maps the half-line % z = 112, 41z > 0 into the circle Iw - 11 = 1. Furthermore, the map is injective. For if h(zl)= h(z2),then h ( 2 z l ) = h(2z2), by Proposition 11, and the map is injective on the half-line Rz = 1 , 9 z > 0. I f z = 112 + iy, where y + +c-, then
XII. Elliptic functions
and hence In particular, h(z) E @ and h(z) + 0. Since h((1 + i)/2) = 2, it follows that w = h(z) maps the half-line z = 112 + iy O,> 112) bijectively onto the semi-circle Iw - 11 = 1,9w > 0. If
lzl
= 1,
9 %> 0 and z'
= z/(l
+ z),
then % z ' = 112, $7' > 0 and A(%') = l/h(z).
Consequently, by what we have just proved, w = A(%)maps the semi-circle bijectively onto the half-line %w = 1/2, 9w > 0.
lzl = 1, 9%> 0
The point eni13 = (1 + id3)/2 is in @ and lies on both the line 3% = 112 and the circle lzl = 1. Hence h(eni13) lies on both the semi-circle Iw - 11 = 1, 9 w > 0 and the line %w = 112, which implies that h(eni/3) =
e~i/3.
Again, since h(z - 1) = h(z)l[h(z) - 11, w = h(z) maps the semi-circle lz - 11 = 1, 9%> 0 bijectively onto the semi-circle Iwl = 1, 9w > 0.
In particular, we have the behaviour illustrated in Figure 2: w = h(z) maps the boundary of the (non-Euclidean) 'triangle' T with vertices A = 0, B = (1 + i)/2, C = bijectively onto the boundary of the 'triangle' T ' with vertices A' = 1, B' = 2, C' = We are going to deduce from this that the region inside T is mapped bijectively onto the region inside T'. The reasoning here does not depend on special properties of the function or the domain, but is quite general (the 'principle of the argument'). To emphasize this, we will temporarily denote the independent variable by z, instead of z.
z-plane
w-plane Figure 2: w = h(z) maps T onto T'
Choose any wo E @ which is either inside or outside the 'triangle' T', and let A denote the change in the argument of w - wo as w traverses T'in the direction A'B'C'.
Thus A = 2~ or 0
611
6. The modular function
according as wo is inside or outside 3'. But A is also the change in the argument of h(z)- wo as z traverses T in the direction ABC. Since h(z) is a nonconstant holomorphic function, the number of times that it assumes the value wo inside T is either zero or a positive integerp. Suppose the latter, and let z = e l , be the points inside T for which h(z) = wo. In the neighbourhood of we have, for some positive integer mj and some aoj # 0,
..&
cj
h(z) - w0
=
aoj(z- $)mi+ alj(z- c j ) m j + l
+ ...
and
hl(z) = mjaoj(z- (j)mrl + (mi + l)alj(z- c j ) m j Hence
hl(z)/[h(z)- wol
=
mj/@-
+ ... .
cj>+fj(z),
wherefJ(z) is holomorphic at cj. Consequently
is holomorphic at every point z inside T.Hence, by Cauchy's theorem,
But, since log X(z) = log Ih(z)l + i arg X(z),
Similarly, since
cj is inside T ,
Is h f ( z )dz/[X(z)- w0] = iA. Is dz/(z 6;) = 22ni. -
It follows that
A
=
22n CjV=, mj.
If wo is outside T', then A = 0 and we have a contradiction. Hence h(z) is never outside T' if z is inside T . If wo is inside T',then A = 2x. Hence h(z) assumes each value inside T ' at exactly one point z inside T , and at this point hl(z)# 0. Finally, if h(z) assumed a value wo on 3' at a point zo inside 9, then it would assume all values near wo in the neighbourhood of zO. In particular, it would assume values outside 3', which we have shown to be impossible. It follows that w = h(z) maps the region inside
T
bijectively onto the region inside T', and hl(z)z 0 for all z inside 3'. We must also have hr(z)# 0 for all z # 0 on T. Otherwise, if h(zo) = wo and hl(zo)= 0 for some zo E T n then, for some m > 1 and c # 0,
612
XII. Elliptic functions
But this implies that h(z) takes values outside T' for some z near zo inside Y.
z-plane
w-plane Figure 3: w = h(z) maps 9onto @
By putting together the preceding results we see that w = h(z)maps the domain
bijectively onto the upper half-plane @, with the subdomain k of 9mapped onto the subdomain
k' of @ (k = 1,...,6), as illustrated in Figure 3. Moreover, the boundary in @ of 9is mapped bijectively onto the real axis, with the points 0 and 1 omitted. the reflection of 9in the imaginary If we denote by 3 the closure of 9in @ and by 9* axis, then it follows from (59) that w = h(z)maps the region
bijectively onto the whole complex plane C,with the points 0 and 1 omitted. This answers the
question raised in $5. There remains the practical problem, for a given w E @, of determining z
E
@ such that
h(z)= w. If 0 < w < 1, we can calculate 'C by the AGM algorithm, using the formula (4), since
z
= iK(1 - w)/K(w). For complex w we can use an extension of the AGM algorithm, or
proceed in the following way. Since = (1 - h(~))1/4
eol(o;~)/eO0(o;~)
and
eoo(O;z)= 1 + 2 C ,"_T qn2, eo,(O;z) = 1 + 2 C. ;=? we have
(- l)n qn2,
6. The modular function
613
we have to solve for q the equation
Expanding the right side as a power series in q and investing the relationsl~ip,we obtain
To ensure rapid convergence we may suppose that, in Figure 3, w lies in the region 5' or on its boundary, since the general case may be reduced to this by a linear fractional transfolmation. It is not difficult to show that in this region 1 1 1takes its maximum value when w = enU3, and then t = (1 - e-ni/12)/(1 + e-=vl2) = i tan ~ 1 2 4 . Thus Ill I tan x/24 < 2/15 and lC/214 < 2x10-5. Since $z 2 4312 for z in the region 5, for the solution q we have 141 s e-7~\'3/2< 1/15. Having determined q, we may calculate K(z), sn u, ... from their representations by theta functions.
7 Further remarks Numerous references to the older literature on elliptic integrals and elliptic functions are given by Fricke 1121. The more impostant oliginal contlibutions ase readily available in Euler [lo], Lagrange [21], Legendse [22], Gauss [13], Abel [I] and Jacobi [16], which includes his lecture cousse of 1838. It was shown by Landen (1775) that the length of asc of a hyperbola could be expressed as the difference of the lengths of two elliptic ascs. The change of variables involved is equivalent to that used by Lagrange (178415) in his application of the AGM algorithm. However, Lagrange used the transformation in much greater generality, and it was his idea that elliptic
614
XU. Elliptic functions
integrals could be calculated numerically by iterating the transformation. The connection with the result of Landen was made explicit by Legendre (1786). By bringing together his own results and those of others the treatise of Legendre [22], and his earlier Exercices de calcul integral (1811/19), contributed substantially to the discoveries of Abel and Jacobi. The supplementary third volume of his treatise, published in 1828 when he was 76, contains the first account of their work in book form. The most important contribution of Abel (1827) was not the replacement of elliptic integrals by elliptic functions, but the study of the latter in the complex domain. In this way he established their double periodicity, determined their zeros and poles and (besides much else) showed that they could be represented as quotients of infinite products. The triple product formula of Jacobi (1829) identified these infinite products with infinite series, whose rapid convergence made them well suited for numerical computation. Infinite series of this type had in fact already appeared in the Thkorie analytique de la Chaleur of Fourier (1822), and Proposition 3 had essentially been proved by Poisson (1827). Remarkable generalizations of the Jacobi triple product formula to affine Lie algebras have recently been obtained by Macdonald [23] and Kac and Peterson [17]. For an introductory account, see Neher [24]. It is difficult to understand the glee with which some authors attribute to Gauss results on elliptic functions, since the world owes its knowledge of these results not to him, but to others. Gauss's work was undoubtedly independent and in most cases earlier, although not in the case of the arithmetic-geometric mean. The remark, in 5335 of his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801), that his results on the division of the circle into n equal parts applied also to the lemniscate, was one of the motivations for Abel, who carried out this extension. (For a modern account, see Rosen [25].) However, Gauss's claim in a letter to Schumacher of 30 May 1828, quoted in Krazer 1201, that Abel had anticipated about a third of his own research is quite unjustified, and not only because of his inability to bring his work to a form in which it could be presented to the world. It was proved by Liouville (1834) that elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds are always 'nonelementary'. For an introductory account of Liouville's theory, see Kasper [18]. The three kinds of elliptic integral may also be characterized function-theoretically. On the Riemann surface of the algebraic function w2 = g(z), where g is a cubic without repeated roots, the differential dz/w is everywhere holomorphic, the differential z dz/w is holomorphic except for a double pole at m with zero residue, and the differential [w(z) + w(a)] dz/2(z - a)w(z) is holomorphic except for two simple poles at a and = with residues 1 and - 1 respectively.
Many integrals which are not visibly elliptic may be reduced to elliptic integrals by a change of vasiables. A compilation is given by Byrd and Friedman [8], pp. 254-271. The asithmetic-geometsic mean may also be defined for pairs of complex numbers; a thorough discussion is given by Cox [9]. For the application of the AGM algorithm to integrals which are not shictly elliptic, see Bartky [4]. The differential equation (6) is a special case of the hypergeometric differential equation. In fact, if < 1, then by expanding ( 1 - hx)-'12, resp. (1 - hx)1I2, by the binomial theorem
1x1
and integrating term by tei-m, the complete elliptic integrals
may be identified with the hypergeomehic functions
Many transformation formulas for the complete elliptic integrals may be regarded as special cases of more general transfolmation formulas for the hypergeometlic function. ) positive real past is due to Falk [111. The proof in $3 that K(l - h ) / ~ ( hhas It follows from (12)-(13)by induction that S(nu) and S1(nu)/S'(u)ase rational functions of S(u) for every integer n. The elliptic f~~nction S(u) is said to admit complex multiplication if
S ( p ) is a rational function of S(u) for soine complex number 1 which is not an integer. It may be shown that S(u) admits complex multiplication if and only if h # 0,l and the pel-iod ratio iK(1 - h)/K(h)is a quadsatic issational, in the sense of Chapter IV. This condition is obviously satisfied if h = 112, the case of the lemniscate. A function f(u) is said to possess an algebraic addition theorem if there is a polynomial y(x,y,z), not identically zero and with coefficients independent of u,v, such that y(f(u
+ v)f(u)fiv))= 0
for all u,v.
It may be shown that a f ~ m t i o n f which , is ineroinoiphic in the whole complex plane, has an algebraic addition theorem if and only if it is either a rational function or, when the independent vasiable is scaled by a constant factor, a rational function of S(u,X) and its derivative S1(u,h)for soine h E C.This result (in different notation) is due to Weierstrass and is proved in Akhiezer [3], for example. A generalization of Weierstrass' theorem, due to Myrberg, is proved in Belavin and Drinfeld [6].
XII. Elliptic functions
The term 'elliptic function' is often used to denote any function which is meromorphic in the whole complex plane and has two periods whose ratio is not real. It may be shown that, if the independent variable is scaled by a constant factor, an elliptic function in this general sense is a rational function of S(u,k) and Sf(u,k)for some k # 0,l. The functions f(v) which are holomorphic in the whole complex plane functional equations
f(v + 1) =f(v), f(v
C and satisfy the
+ z ) = e-nni(2v+"f(v),
where n E N and z E @, form an n-dimensional complex vector space. It was shown by Hermite (1862)that this may be used to derive many relations between theta functions, such as Proposition 6. Proposition 11 can be extended to give transformation formulas for the Jacobian functions when the parameter z is multiplied by any positive integer n. See, for example, Tannery and Molk [27],vol. 11. The modular function was used by Picard (1879) to prove that a function f(z), which is holomorphic for all z E C and not a constant, assumes every complex value except perhaps one. The exponential function exp z, which does not assume the value 0 , illustrates that an exceptional value may exist. A careful proof of Picard's theorem is given in Ahlfors [2]. It was already observed by Lagrange (1813) that there is a correspondence between addition formulas for elliptic functions and the formulas of spherical trigonometry. This correspondence has been most intensively investigated by Study [26]. There is an n-dimensional generalization of theta functions, which has a useful application to the lattices studied in Chapter VIII. The theta function of an integral lattice A in [W" is defined by
eA(z) = CuEAq(u'u)= 1 +
Nmqm,
where q = eKizand N, is the number of vectors in A with square-norm m. If n = 1 and A = Z, then = 1 + 29 + 2q4 + 2q9 + ... = e ( 0 ; ~ ) .
eB(~)
It is easily seen that Oh(%) is a holomorphic function of
z in the half-plane 42 > 0.
It follows
from Poisson's summation formula that the theta function of the dual lattice A* is given by
eA*(z) =
d(A) ( i / ~ )BA(~ / 11%) ~ for 4z > 0.
7 . Further remarks
617
Many geometrical properties of a lattice are reflected in its theta function. However, a lattice is not uniquely determined by its theta function, since there are lattices in R4 (and in higher dimensions) which are not isometric but have the same theta function. For applications of elliptic functions and theta functions to classical mechanics, conformal mapping, geometry, theoretical chemistry, statistical mechanics and approximation theory, see Halphen [15] (vol. 2), Kober [19], Bos et al. [7], Glasser and Zucker [14], Baxter [5] and Todd [28]. Applications to number theory will be considered in the next chapter.
8 Selected references
N.H. Abel, Oeuvres compktes, Tome 1, 2nd ed. (ed. L. Sylow et S. Lie), Grondahl, Christiania, 1881. [Reprinted J. Gabay, Sceaux, 19921 L.V. Ahlfors, Complex analysis, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
N.I. Akhiezer, Elements of the theory of elliptic functions, American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I., 1990. [English transl. of 2nd Russian edition, 19701
W. Bartky, Numerical calculation of a generalized complete elliptic integral, Rev. Modern Phys. 10 (1938), 264-269. R.J. Baxter, Exactly solved models in statistical mechanics, Academic Press, London, 1982. [Reprinted, 19891 A.A. Belavin and V.G. Drinfeld, Triangle equations and simple Lie algebras, Soviet Sci. Rev. Sect. C : Math. Phys. 4 (1984), 93-165. [Reprinted, Harwood, Amsterdam, 19981 H.J.M. Bos, C. Kers, F. Oort and D.W. Raven, Poncelet's closure theorem, Exposition. Math. 5 (1987), 289-364.
P.F. Byrd and M.D. Friedman, Handbook of elliptic integrals for engineers and scientists, 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin, 1971. D.A. Cox, The arithmetic-geometric mean of Gauss, Enseign. Math. 30 (1984), 275330. [lo] L. Euler, Opera omnia, Ser. I, Vol. XX (ed. A. Krazer), Leipzig, 1912.
618
XII. Elliptic functions
[ l l ] M. Falk, Beweis eines Satzes aus der Theorie der elliptischen Functionen, Acta Math. 7 (1885/6), 197-200. [12] R. Fricke, Elliptische Funktionen, Encyklopadie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band 11, Teil2, pp. 177-348, Teubner, Leipzig, 1921. [13] C.F. Gauss, Werke, Band 111, Gottingen, 1866. [Reprinted G. Olms, Hildesheim, 19731 [14] M.L. Glasser and I.J. Zucker, Lattice sums, Theoretical chemistry: Advances and perspectives 5 (1980), 67-139. [15] G.H. Halphen, Traite' des fonctions elliptiques et de leurs applications, 3 vols., Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1886-1891. [16] C.G.J. Jacobi, Gesammelte Werke, Band I (ed. C.W. Borchardt), Berlin, 1881. [Reprinted Chelsea, New York, 19691 [I71 V.G. Kac and D.H. Peterson, Infinite-dimensional Lie algebras, theta functions and modular forms, Adv. in Math. 53 (1984), 125-264. [18] T. Kasper, Integration in finite terms: the Liouville theory, Math. Mag. 53 (1980), 195201. [19] H. Kober, Dictionary of conformal representations, Dover, New York, 1952. [20] A. Krazer, Zur Geschichte des Urnkehrproblems der Integral, Jahresber. Deutsch. Math.-Verein. 18 (1909), 44-75. [21] J.L. Lagrange, Oeuvres, t. 2 (ed. J.-A. Serret), Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1868. [Reprinted G. Olms, Hildesheim, 19731 [22] A.M. Legendre, Traite' des fonctions elliptiques et des inte'grales Eule'riennes, avec des tables pour en faciliter le calcul nume'rique, Paris, t.1 (1825), t.2 (1826), t.3 (1828). [Microform, Readex Microprint Corporation, New York, 19701 [23] I.G. Macdonald, Affine root systems and Dedekind's 11-function, Invent. Math. 15 (1972), 91-143. [24] E. Neher, Jacobis Tripelprodukt-Identitat und q-Identitaten in der Theorie affiner LieAlgebren, Jahresber. Deutsch. Math.-Verein. 87 (1985), 164-181. [25] M. Rosen, Abel's theorem on the lemniscate, Amer. Math. Monthly 88 (1981), 387-395.
8. Selected references
1261 E. Study, Spharische Trigonometrie, orthogonale Substitutionen und elliptische Funktionen, Leipzig, 1893. [27] J. Tannery and J. Molk, ~ l k m e n t sde la the'orie des fonctions elliptiques, 4 vols., Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1893-1902. [Reprinted Chelsea, New York, 19721 [28] J. Todd, Applications of transformation theory: a legacy from Zolotarev (1847-1878), Approxinzation theory and spline functions (ed. S.P. Singh et al.), pp. 207-245, Reidel, Dordrecht, 1984. [29] E.T. Whittaker and G.N. Watson, A course of modern analysis, 4th ed., Cambridge University Press, 1927. [Reprinted, 19961
XIII
Connections with number theory
1 Sums of squares In Proposition 11.40 we proved Lagrange's theorem that every positive integer can be represented as a sum of 4 squares. Jacobi (1829), at the end of his Fu~ldamerztaNova, gave a completely different proof of this theorem with the aid of theta functions. Moreover, his proof provided a formula for the number of different representations. Hunvitz (1 896), by developing further the arithmetic of quaternions which was used in Chapter 11, also derived this formula. Here we give Jacobi's asgument preference since, although it is less elementxy, it is more powerful.
PROPOSITION 1 The lzunzber. of ~.epresentationsof a positive integer nz as a sum of 4 squares of integem is equal to 8 tinzes the sum of those positive divisors of m which are not divisible by 4.
where r4(m)is the number of solutions in integers I Z..., ~ n4 , of the equation
We will prove the result by comparing this with another expression for Om4(0). We can write equation (43) of Chapter XI1 in the form
Differentiating with respect to v and then putting v = 0, we obtain
XIII. Connecfions with number theory
by (36) of Chapter XII. Since the theta functions are all solutions of the partial differential equation ~ ~ Y I ~= V-Z4 ~ aylaq, 2 ~ the last relation can be written in the form
On the other hand, the product expansions of the theta functions show that
Differentiating logasithmically, we obtain
where o(m) is the sum of all positive divisors of nz and o'(nz) is the sum of all positive divisors of m which are divisible by 4. Since the coefficients in a power series expansion are uniquely determined, it follows that i*4(nz) = 8{o(m) - ot(m)). Proposition 1 may also be restated in the form: the number of representations of nz as a sum of 4 squares is equal to 8 times the sum of the odd positive divisors of m if m is odd, and 24 times this sum if m is even. For example,
Since any positive integer has the odd positive divisor 1, Proposition 1 provides a new proof of Proposition 11.40. The number of representations of a positive integer as a sum of 2 squares may be treated in the same way, as Jacobi also showed (or, alternatively, by developing further the arithmetic of Gaussian integers):
623
I . Sums of squares
PROPOSITION 2 The number of representations of a positive integer m us a sum of 2 squares of integers is equal to 4 times the excess of the numbes of positive d i ~ h r of s nz of the form 4h + 1 over the number of positive divisors of the form 4h + 3.
where r2(m)is the number of solutions in integers 11~,11~ of the equation
To obtain another expression for OW2(0)we use again the relation
but this time we simply take v = 114. Since
and similarly O1 (114) = i Ol0(1/4),we obtain
By differentiating logarithmically the product expansion for OlO(v)and then putting = 114, we get
eIo1(1/4)/elo(i/4)=
-
x - 4"
c,,, q 2 ~ / (+i q 4 9 .
Similarly, by differentiating logasithmically the product expansion for OO1(v)and then putting
v = 114, we get ~ 0 1 ' ( ~ / 4 ) / O O 1 ( 1=/ 447c )
q2n-'l(1 + q4n-2).
Thus
o0l1(1/4)/e01(1/4)- 010Y1/4)/e10(1/4)=
" + 4"
En,, q q 1 + q2n)
and hence
Ooo2(0)= 1 + 4 C,,, qYl/(l+ q2"). Since
qrl/(l + 42") = qn(1 - C/2n)/(l- q49 = (q, - q3,) CkZO q.lkrl, it follows that
OOo2(O) = 1 + 4 C,,,
Ck2" 1 ~ ( 4 k + l )-n q ( 4 k + 3 ) r ~ )
XIII. Connections with number theory
624
where dl (m) and d3(m)are respectively the number of positive divisors of m congruent to 1 and 3 mod 4. Hence
r2(m> = 4{dl(m)- d3(m>}. From Proposition 2 we immediately obtain again that any prime p
= 1 mod 4 may be
represented as a sum of 2 squares and that the representation is essentially unique. Proposition II.39 may also be rederived. The number r,(m) of representations of a positive integer m as a sum of s squares has been expressed by explicit formulas for many other values of s besides 2 and 4. Systematic ways of attacking the problem are provided by the theory of modular forms and the circle method of Hardy, Ramanujan and Littlewood.
2 Partitions
A partition of a positive integer n is a set of positive integers with sum n. For example, {2,1,1) is a partition of 4. We denote the number of distinct partitions of n by p(n). For example, p(4) = 5, since all partitions of 4 are given by
It was shown by Euler (1748) that the sequence p(n) has a simple generating function: PROPOSITION 3 ~f 1x1 < 1, then
nm21
Proof If 1x1 < 1, then the infinite product (1 - xm) converges and its reciprocal has a convergent power series expansion. To determine the coefficients of this expansion note that, since (1 -xm)-l = 20
ck
the coefficient of xn (n 2 1 ) in the product in the form
xkm7
nm,l(1 - xm)-1 is the number of representations of n
n = lkl
+ 2k2 + ... ,
where the kj are non-negative integers. But this number is precisely p(n), since any partition is determined by the number of l's, 2's, ... that it contains.
625
2. Partitions
For many purposes the discussion of convergence is superfluous and Proposition 3 may be regarded simply as a relation between formal products and formal power series. Euler also obtained an interesting counterpart to Proposition 3, which we will derive from Jacobi's triple product formula. PROPOSITION 4 If 1x1 < 1 , then
Proof since
If we take q = ~ 3 1 2and z = - x1l2 in Proposition XII.2, we obtain at once the result,
IT,^^ (1 - ~3n)(1-~3n-1)(1-~3n-2) = nk21 (1 - ~ k ) .
Proposition 4 also has a combinatorial interpretation. The coefficient of xn (n 2 1 ) in the power series expansion of Ilk>, (1 - xk) is
where the sum is over all partitions of n into unequal parts and v is the number of parts in the partition. In other words, Sn
= P,*(~z)-po*(n),
where p,*(n), resp. p,*(n), is the number of partitions of the positive integer n into an even, resp. odd, number of unequal parts. On the other hand,
Thus Proposition 4 says that p,*(n) = p,*(n) unless n = m(3m
+ 1)/2 for some m E
N, in
which casep,*(n) -p,*(n) = (- l)m. From Propositions 3 and 4 we obtain
Multiplying out on the left side and equating to zero the coefficient of xn (n 2 I), we obtain the recurrence relation: p(n) = p(n-1) + p(n-2) -p(n-5) - p(n-7) + ... + (-1)m-1p(n-m(3m-1)/2) + (-1)~-lp(n-m(3m+l)/2)+ ... , where p(0) = 1 and p(k) = 0 for k < 0. This recurrence relation is quite an efficient way of calculating p(n). It was used by MacMahon (1918)to calculatep(n) for n 5 200. In the same way that we proved Proposition 3 we may show that, if 1x1 < 1, then
XIII. Connections with number theory
where pm(n)is the number of partitions of n into parts not exceeding m. From the vast number of formulas involving partitions and their generating functions we select only one more pair, the celebrated Rogers-Ramanujan identities. The proof of these identities will be based on the following preliminary result:
where (a)o= 1, (a), = (1 - a)(l - aq)...(1 - aqn-') i f n 2 1 , and (a), = ( 1 - a)(l - aq)(l - aq2),.. . Proof Consider the q-difference equation
A formal power series
za a g n satisfies this equation if and only if
Thus the only formal power series solution with a. = 1 is
Moreover, if 141 < 1, this power series converges for all x E
If Iq( < 1, the functions
c.
2. Partitions
Combining this with the previous relation, we obtain
But we have seen that this q-difference equation has a unique holomorphic solution f(x) such that f(0) = 1. Hence F(x) =f(x). The Rogers-Ramanujan identities may now be easily derived:
PROPOSITION 6 If lql < 1 , then
Proof Put P =
n&l( 1 - qk). By Proposition 5 and its proof we have
En>, p2/(i- q ) ( i - q2)...( 1 - qn) = ~
( 1 =) [ I
+
(- i)n{q45n+1)/2+ qn(5n-1)/2}]/~
and, since F(q) = G(1),
En,,
qn("+l)/(l- q ) ( l - q2)...(1 - qn) = F(q) = [ l +
(- l)n{qn(5n+3)/2 + qn(5n-3)/2}]/~.
On the other hand, by replacing q by q5l2and z by - q1/2, resp. - q3l2,in Jacobi's triple product formula (Proposition XII.2), we obtain
CnEZ(- l)n qn(5n+1)/2=
nm t l ( 1 - q 9 ( 1 - q5"-2)(1 - q5m-3)
= pm,,,
and
( 1 - q5m+1)(1- q5m+4)
XIII. Connections with number theory
Combining these relations with the previous ones, we obtain the result. The combinatorial interpretation of the Rogers-Ramanujan identities was pointed out by MacMahon (1916). The first identity says that the number of partitions of a positive integer n into parts congruent to f 1 mod 5 is equal to the number of partitions of n into parts that differ by at least 2. The second identity says that the number of partitions of a positive integer n into parts congruent to f 2 mod 5 is equal to the number of partitions of n into parts greater than 1 that differ by at least 2. A remarkable application of the Rogers-Ramanujan identities to the hard hexagon model of statistical mechanics was found by Baxter (1981). Many other models in statistical mechanics have been exactly solved with the aid of theta functions. A unifying principle is provided by the vast theory of infinite-dimensional Lie algebras which has been developed over the past 25 years. The numberp(n) of partitions of n increases rapidly with n. It was first shown by Hardy and Ramanujan (19 18) that p(n)
- end(2n/3)/4nd3
as n + -.
They further obtained an asymptotic series forp(n), which was modified by Rademacher (1937) into a convergent series, from which it is even possible to calculate p(n) exactly. A key role in the difficult proof is played by the behaviour under transformations of the modular group of Dedekind's eta function
rl(z) = q"12
Irk21
(1 - q2k),
where q = en" and z E @ (the upper half-plane). The paper of Hardy and Rarnanujan contained the first use of the 'circle method', which was subsequently applied by Hardy and Littlewood to a variety of problems in analytic number theory.
3 Cubic curves We define an affine plane curve over a field K to be a polynomial f(X,Y)in two indeterminates with coefficients from K, but we regard two polynomialsf(X,Y)andp(X,Y) as
629
3. Cubic curves
defining the same affine curve i f p = hf for some nonzero h E K. The degree of the curve is defined without ambiguity to be the degree of the polynomial$ If
f(X,Y) = a x + bY
+c
is a polynomial of degree 1, the curve is said to be an afine line. If
is a polynomial of degree 2, the curve is said to be an affine conic. Iff(X,Y) is a polynomial of degree 3, the curve is said to be an afJine cubic. It is the cubic case in which we will be most interested. Let (e be an affine plane curve over the field K, defined by the polynomial f(X,Y). We say that (x,y) E K2 is apoint or, more precisely, a K-point of the affine curve % if f(x,y) = 0. The K-point (x,y) is said to be non-singular if there exist a,b E K, not both zero, such that
where all unwritten terms have degree > 1. Since a,b are uniquely determined by f , we can define the tangent to the affine curve 93 at the non-singular point (x,y) to be the affine line
C(X,Y) = a x + bY
- (ax
+ by).
It is easily seen that these definitions do not depend on the choice of polynomial within an equivalence class {AJO # h E K ) . The study of the asymptotes of an affine plane curve leads one to consider also its 'points at infinity', the asymptotes being the tangents at these points. We will now make this precise. If the polynomial f(X,Y) has degree d , then
is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d such that
Furthermore, if %(X,Y,Z) is any homogeneous polynomial such that f(X,Y) = %(X,Y,l), then
%(X,Y,Z) = Zm F(X,Y,Z) for some non-negative integer m. We define a projective plane curve over a field K to be a homogeneous polynomial F(X,Y,Z) of degree d > 0 in three indeterminates with coefficients from K, but we regard two homogeneous polynomials F(X,Y,Z) and F*(X,Y,Z) as defining the same projective curve if
630
XIII. Connertions with nunzber theory
F" = hF for some nonzero h E K. The projective curve is said to be a projective line, conic or cubic if F has degree 1,2 or 3 respectively. If % is an affine plane curve, defined by a polynomial f(X,Y) of degree d > 0 , the projective plane cwve (e, defined by the homogeneous polynomial Zdf(X/Z,Y/Z)of the same degree, is called the projective conzpletio~lof %. Thus the projective completion of an affine line, conic or cubic is respectively a projective line, conic or cubic. Let (e be a projective plane curve over the field K, defined by the homogeneous polynomial F(X,Y,Z). We say that (x,y,z) E K3 is a point, or K-poirlt, of % if (x,y,z) # (0,0,0) and F(x,y,z) = 0, but we regard two triples (x,y,z)and (.x*,y*,z*) as defining the same K-point if X* = ki,y* = hy? z* = hz for some nonzero h E K. If (e is the projective completion of the affine plane curve %, then a point (x,y,z)of % with z # 0 corsesponds to a point (x/z,y/z)of %, and a point (x,y,O) of '% corresponds to a yoirzt at infinity of %. The K-point (x,y,z) of the projective plane curve defined by the homogeneous polynomial F(X,Y,Z) is said to be non-singular if there exist a,b,c E K, not all zero, such that
where all unwritten terms have degree > 1. Since a,b,c ase uniquely determined by F, we can define the tangent to the projective curve at the non-singular point (x,y,z) to be the prqjective line defined by a x + bY + cZ. It follows from Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions that
(x,y,z) is itself a point of the tangent. It is easily seen that if (e is the projective completion of an affine plane curve %, and if z # 0, then (x,y,z) is a non-singular point of % if and only if (x/z,y/z) is a non-singular point of %. Moreover, if the tangent to (e at (,u,y,z)is the projective line
then the tangent to % at (x/z,y/z) is the affine line defined by
Let % be an affine plane curve over the field K, defined by the polynomial j(X,Y), and let @,y)be a non-singular K-point of %. Then we can write
3. Cubic curves
63 1
where a,b are not both zero, f2(X,Y) is a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2, and all unwritten terms have degree > 2. The non-singular point (x,y) is said to be an inflection point or, more simply, apex of % if f2(X,Y) is divisible by aX + by. Similarly we can define a flex for a projective plane curve. Let (x,y,z) be a non-singular point of the projective plane curve over the field K, defined by the homogeneous polynomial F(X,Y,Z). Then we can write
where a,b,c are not all zero, F2(X,Y,Z) is a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2, and all unwritten terms have degree > 2. The non-singular point (x,y,z) is said to be a flex if
F2(X,Y,Z) is divisible by aX + bY + cZ. Two more definitions are required before we embark on our study of cubic curves. A projective curve over the field K , defined by the homogeneous polynomial F(X,Y,Z) of degree d > 0, is said to be reducible over K if
where F1 and F2 are homogeneous polynomials of degree less than d with coefficients from K. The K-points of the curve defined by F are then just the K-points of the curve defined by F 1 , together with the K-points of the curve defined by F2. A curve is said to be irreducible over K
if it is not reducible over K. Two projective curves over the field K , defined by the homogeneous polynomials F(X,Y,Z) and G(X',Yf,Z'),are said to be projectively equivalent if there exists an invertible linear transformation X = a l l X 1+ a12Y'+ a13Z1 Y = a2,X' + a22Y' + a23Zf Z = a3iX1+ a32Y1+ a33Z' with coefficients aijE K such that
It is clear that F and G necessarily have the same degree, and that projective equivalence is in fact an equivalence relation. Consider now the affine cubic curve 'G: defined by the polynomial
632
XIII. Connections with number theory
We assume that Ce has a non-singular K-point which is a flex. Without loss of generality, suppose that this is the origin. Then aoo= 0, alo and aol are not both zero, and
for some ale', aol' E K. By an invertible linear change of variables we may suppose that alo = 0, aol = 1. Then f has the form
If a. = 0, then f is divisible by Y and the conesponding projective curve is reducible. Thus we now assume a. # 0. In fact we may assume a. = 1, by replacingf by a constant multiple and of % is now defined by the homogeneous then scaling Y. The projective completion polynomial
YZ2 + alXYZ + a3Y2Z - X3
-
a2X2Y - a 4 X P - a6Y3.
If we interchange Y and Z, the flex becomes the unique point at infinity of the affine cubic curve defined by the polynomial
This can be further simplified by making mild restrictions on the field K. If K has characteristic # 2, i.e. if 1 + 1 # 0, then by replacing Y by (Y - alX - a3)/2we obtain the cubic curve defined by the polynomial
If K also has characteristic # 3, i.e. if 1 + 1 + 1 # 0, then by replacing X by (X - 3b2)/62and Y by 2Y/63, we obtain the cubic curve defined by the polynomial YZ - (X3 + UX + b). Thus we have proved PROPOSITION 7 I f a projective cubic curve over thefield K is irreducible and has a non-
singular K-point which is a flex, then it is projectively equivalent to the projective completion W = 7V(al,...,a6)of an affine curve of the form
If K has characteristic
completion %
=
2,3, then it is projectively equivalent to the projective of an affine curve of the form #
633
3. Cubic curves
It is easily seen that, conversely, for any choice of a l ,...,a6 E K the curve W , and in particular %a,b, is irreducible over K and that 0, the unique point at infinity, is a flex. For any u,r,s,t E K with u # 0, the invertible linear change of variables
replaces the curve W = W ( a l ..., , a,) by a curve W ' = W ' ( a l l ..., , a,') of the same form. The numbering of the coefficients reflects the fact that if r = s = t = 0 , then
In particular, for any nonzero u E K, the invertible linear change of variables
x = u 2 x 1 , Y=u3Y' replaces %a,b by %a:bl, where
a = u4a1, b = u6b'. By replacing X by x + X and Y by y + Y , we see that if a K-point (x,y) of %a,b is singular, then
3 x 2 + a = y = 0, which implies 4a3 + 27b2 = 0. Thus the curve %a,b has no singular points if 4a3 + 27b2 # 0. We will call d: = 4a3 + 27b2
the discriminant of the curve %a,b. It is not difficult to verify that if the cubic polynomial X3 + a x + b has roots el,e2,e3,then
If d = 0, a # 0, then the polynomial X3 + a x + b has the repeated root xo = - 3b/2a and P = (xo,O) is the unique singular point. If d = a
= 0,
then b = 0 and P = (0,O) is the unique
singular point. The different types of curve which arise when K = R is the field of real numbers are illustrated in Figure 1. The unique point at infinity 0 may be thought of as being at both ends of the y-axis. (In the case of a node, Figure 1 illustrates the situation for xo > 0. For xo < 0 the singular point is an isolated point of the curve.) Suppose now that K is any field of characteristic # 2,3 and that the curve %a,b has zero discriminant. Because of the geometrical interpretation when K = R, the unique singular point
XIII. Connections with number theory
Singular cases Y
Node: d
= 0, a #
0
Cusp: d
Non-singular cases Y
y 2 =x3+ M + b (a,b E R; d = 4 2 + 27b2)
Figure 1: Cubic curves over [W
=a =0
635
3. Cubic curves
is said to be a node if a # 0 and a cusp if a = 0. In the cusp case, if we put of the curve T = Y/X, then the cubic curve has the parametrization X = P , Y = P. In the node case, if we put T = Y/(X + 3b/2a), then it has the parametrization
Thus in both cases the cubic curve is in fact elementary. W e now restrict attention to non-singular cubic curves, i.e. curves which do not have a singular point. Two K-points of a projective cubic curve determine a projective line, which intersects the curve in a third K-point. This procedure for generating additional K-points was used implicitly by Diophantus and explicitly by Newton. There is also another procedure, which may be regarded as a limiting case: the tangent to a projective cubic curve at a K-point intersects the curve in another K-point. The combination of the two procedures is known as the 'chord and tangent' process. It will now be described analytically for the cubic curve %a,b.
If 0 is the unique point at infinity of the cubic curve %a,b and if P = (x,y) is any finite Kpoint, then the affine line determined by O and P is X - x and its other point of intersection with %a,b is P* = ( x , - y). Now let P 1 = (xl,yl) and P2 = (x2,y2)be any two finite K-points. If xl it x2, then the affine line determined by P I and P2 is Y-mX-c, where
m = Q2
-
Y ~ ) I (- xX I~) ,
c = ( ~ 1 x2~
2 ~ 1 ) / -(X~I 2) ,
and its third point of intersection with %a,b is P3 = (x3,y3),where
If x l = x2, but yl
z y2, then the affine line determined by P 1 and P2 is X - x l
and its other
point of intersection with %a,b is 0.Finally, if P1 = P2, it may be verified that the tangent to %a,b at P1 is the affine line
Y-mx-c, where
m
+ a)/2yl,
= (3x12
c
= (-x13
+ axl + 2b)/2yl,
and its other point of intersection with %a,b is the point P3 = (x3,y3),where x3 and y3 are given by the same formulas as before, but with the new values of m and c (and with x2 = xl).
XIII. Connections with number theovy
It is rather remarkable that the K-points of a non-singular projective cubic curve can be given the structure of an abelian group. That this is possible is suggested by the addition theorem for elliptic functions. Suppose that K = @ is the field of complex numbers and that the cubic curve is the projective completion %h of the affine curve
where
is Riemann's normal form and h # 0,l. If S(u) is the elliptic function defined in 53 of Chapter XII, then P(u) = (S(u),S1(u))is a point of Ceh for any u E @. If we define the sum of P(u) and P(v) to be the point P(u + v), then the set of all @-pointsof %h becomes an abelian group, with P(0) = (0,O) as identity element and with P(- u ) = (S(u),- S1(u))as the inverse of P(u). In order to carry this construction over to the cubic curve garband to other fields than @, we interpret it geometrically. It was shown in (10) of Chapter XI1 that
The points (xl,y l ) = (S(u),S'(u))and (x2,y2)= (S(v),S1(v))determine the affine line
Y-mx-c, where
m = [Sf(v)- St(u)]/[S(v) - S(u)], c = [Sf(u)S(v) - S1(v)S(u)]/[S(v) - S(u)]. The third point of intersection of this line with the cubic g k is the point (x3,y3),where
= l/XS(u + v).
On the other hand, the points (0,O) = (S(0),S1(O))and (x3*,y3*)= (S(u+v),S'(u+v))determine the affine line Y - ('y3*/x3*)X and its third point of intersection with Ceh is the point (x4,y4), where x4 = l/Xx3* = x3. Evidently y42 = y32, and it may be verified that actually y4 = y3. Thus (x3*,y3*) is the third point of intersection with of the line determined by the points
(0,O) and (x3,y3). The origin (0,O) may not be a point of the cubic curve but 0, the point at infinity, certainly is. Consequently, as illustrated in Figure 2, we now define the sum P I + P2 of two
3. Cubic curves
637
K-points P I , P 2 of %a,b to be the K-point P3*, where P3 is the third point of on the line determined by P1,P2 and P3* is the third point of on the line determined by 0 , P 3 . If P1 = P2, the line determined by PI,P2 is understood to mean the tangent to at P1.
Figure 2: Additio~l012 It is simply a matter of elementary algebra to deduce from the foimulas given earlier that, when addition is defined in this way, the set of all K-points of
becomes an abelian group,
with 0 as identity element and with - P = (x, - y) as the inverse of P = (,lc,y). Since - P = P if and only if y = 0, the elements of order 2 in this group are the points (xo,O), where xo is a root of the polynomial X3 + aX + b (if it has any roots in K). Throughout the preceding discussion of cubic curves we restricted attention to those with a flex. It will now be shown that in a sense this is no restriction. Let % be a projective cubic curve over the field K, defined by the homogeneous polynomial F1(X,Y,Z), and suppose that % has a non-singular K-point P. Without loss of generality we assume that P = (1,0,0) and that the tangent at P is the projective line 2. Then F 1 has no term in X3 or in X2Y:
Here e # 0, since P is non-singular, and we may suppose g we replace gX + aY by X, this assumes the form
#
0, since otherwise P is a flex. If
638
XIII. Conitectio~~s with ~zunzber.theory
with new values for the coefficients. If we now replace X + bZ by X, this assumes the form F,(X,Y,Z) = XY* + cYZ* + dZ3 + eX2Z + gXYZ + hXZ2, again with new values for the coefficients. The projective cubic curve 9 over the field K, defined by the homogeneous polynomial
has a flex at the point (0,0,1). Moreover,
This shows that any projective cubic curve ovel. the field K with u ~lon-sirzgulurK-point is birationally equivalent to one with a flex. Birational equivalence may be defined i n the following way. A rational trullsfomatiolz of the projective plane with points X = (X1X2X3)is a map X + Y = cp(X), where
and (PI&&
are homogeneous polynomials without common factor of the same degree m,
say. (In the corresponding affine plane the coordinates are transformed by m t i o r d functions.) The transformation is biratio~wlif there exists an inverse map Y + X = y(Y), where
and y 1 , y 2 , y 3 are homogeneous polynomials without common factor of the same degree n, say, such that
w q m 1 = N X ) x , (p[w(Y)I = O(Y) y for some scalar polynomials o(X),O(Y). Two irreducible projective plane curves % and 9over the field K, defined respectively by the homogeneous polynomials F(X) and G(Y) (not necessarily of the same degree), are birutio~zully equivalent if there exists a birational transformation Y = q(X) with inverse X = v(Y) such that G[q(X)] is divisible by F(X) and F[V(Y)] is divisible by G[(Y)]. It is clear that birational equivalence is indeed an equivalence relation, and that irreducible projective curves which are projectively equivalent are also birationally equivalent. Birational transformations are often used to simplify the singular points of a curve. Indeed the theorem on resolution of singularities says that any irreducible curve is birationally equivalent to a non-
3. Cubic curves
639
singular curve, although it may be a curve in a higher-dimensional space rather than in the plane. The algebraic geometry of curves may be regarded as the study of those properties which are invariant under birational equivalence. It was shown by Poincard (1901) that any non-singular curve of genus 1 defined over the field Q of rational numbers and with at least one rational point is birationally equivalent over Q to a cubic curve. Such a curve is now said to be an elliptic cuwe (for the somewhat inadequate reason that it may be parametrized by elliptic functions over the field of complex numbers.) However, for our purposes it is sufficient to define an elliptic curve to be a non-singular cubic curve of the form "Mr, over a field K of arbitrary characteristic, or of the form %a,b, over a field K of characteristic # 2,3.
4 Mordell's theorem We showed in the previous section that, for any field K of characteristic
#
2,3, the K-
points of the elliptic curve %a,b defined by the polynomial
where a,b E K and d: = 4a3 + 27b2 # 0, form an abelian group, E(K) say. We now restrict our attention to the case when K = Q is the field of rational numbers, and we write simply E: = E(Q). This section is devoted to the basic theorem of Mordell(1922), which says that the abelian group E is finitely generated. By replacing X by X/c2 and Y by Y/c3 for some nonzero c E Q, we may (and will) assume and write that a and b are both integers. Let P = (x,y) be any finite rational point of
x = p/q, where p and q are coprime integers. The height h(P) of P is uniquely defined by
We also set h(0) = 0, where 0 is the unique point at infinity of Evidently h(P) 2 0. Furthemore, h(- P ) = h(P), since P = (x,y) implies - P = (x, - y). Also, for any r > 0, there exist only finitely many elements P = (x,y) of E with h(P) I r, since
x determines y up to sign. PROPOSITION 8 There exists a constant C = C(a,b) > 0 such that l h ( 2 ~) 4 h ( ~ ) IIC for all P E E.
XIII. Connections with number theory
640
Proof By the formulas given in $3, if P = (x,y),then 2P = (xl,y'),where
Since y2 = x3 + ax + b, it follows that
x' = (x4 - 2 ~ x 2- 8bx + a2)/4(x3+ ax + b). If x = plq, where p and q are coprime integers, then x' = p'/ql, where
Evidently p' and q' are also integers, but they need not be coprime. However, since
where e,p",q" are integers andp",qHare coprime, we have
it follows that
h(2P) I 4h(P) + C' for some constant C' = C'(a,b)> 0. The Euclidean algorithm may be used to derive the polynomial identity
where once again d = 4a3 + 27b2. Substitutingplq forX, we obtain
Similarly, the Euclidean algorithm may be used to derive the polynomial identity
f(X)(l - 2aX2 - 8bX3 + ~2x4) + g(X)X(l + ax2 + bX3) = d, where
f(X) = 4a3 + 27b2 - a2bX + a(3a3 + 2 2 b 2 ) X b 3b(a3 + 8b2)X3, g(X) = a2b + a(5a3 + 32b2)X + 2b(13a3 + 96b2)X2 - 3a2(a3+ 8b2)X3. Substituting q/p for X, we obtain
4. Mordell's theorem
Since d # 0, it follows from these two relations that
But the two relations also show that the greatest common divisor e of p' and q' divides both 4dq7 and 4dp7, and hence also 4d, since p and q are coprime. Consequently
Combining this with the previous inequality, we obtain
4h(P) -5 h(2P) + C" for some constant C" = CU(a,b)> 0. This proves the result, with C = max(C',C1').
PROPOSITION 9 There exists a unique function h": E (i) h" - h is bounded, (ii) i ( 2 ~=)4 h" ( P )for every P
E
+ R such that
E.
Furthermore, it is given by the formula h (P) = limn,,
h(2nP)/4n.
Proof Suppose h" has the properties (i),(ii). Then, by (ii),4 n h " ( ~=) h " ( 2 n ~and ) hence, by ) h(2nP)is bounded. Dividing by 4n, we see that h ( 2 n ~ ) / 4+ n i ( ~ as n)+ =. (i), 4n h " ( ~ This proves uniqueness. To prove existence, choose C as in the statement of Proposition 8. Then, for any integers m,n with n > m > 0,
642
XIII. Connections with number theory
Thus the sequence (4-n h(2nP)] is a fundamental sequence and consequently convergent. If we denote its limit by h" (P), then clearly i(2P) = 4 h" (P). On the other hand, by taking nz = 0 and letting 11 -+ in the preceding inequality we obtain
Thus
h" has both the required properties.
The value L(P) is called the canonical height of the rational point P . The formula for 6(P) shows that, for all P E E, i ( - P) = L(P) 2 0. Moreover, by Proposition 9(i), for any r > 0 there exist only finitely many elements P of E with i (P) 2 I.. It will now be shown that the canonical height satisfies the paraflelogranz law:
PROPOSITION 10 For all PI,P2 E E,
Proof It is sufficient to show that there exists a constant C' > 0 such that, for all P1,P2 E E,
For it then follows from the formula in Proposition 9 that, for all P1,P2 E E,
But, replacing P I by PI + P2 and P2 by PI - P2, we also have
and hence, by Proposition 9(ii),
To prove (*) we may evidently assume that P , = (,xl,yl) and P2 = (x2,y2) are both finite. Moreover, by Proposition 8, we may assume that PI # P2. Then, by the formulas of 53,
where
4. Mordell's theorem
Hence Xg
+ x4
= 22[y22+ y12 - (x2- x1)(x22- x12)]/(x2- x1)2
and X 3 X 4 = CY22 - y12)2/(x2- x1I4 - 2(x1 + x2)CY12 + ~ 2 ~ ) l (x x1)2 2 4-
Since y t = x;
(x1 + ~
2 ) ~ .
+ axj + b (j= 1,2), these relations simplify to xg + x4 = 2[x1x2(x1+ x2) + a(xl + x2) + 2b]/(x2- x ~ ) ~
and
~ 3 x 4= NI(x2 where
Put x j =Pj/qj,where ('p9qj) = 1 ( 1 I j < 4). Then x3,x4 are the roots of the quadratic polynomial AX2+BX+C with integer coefficients
A = b2q1 - p1qd27 B = @1~2+aqlq2)0.'142+~241) + 2bq12q227 - 4bqiqdP142 + ~ 2 q 1 ) . C = 0 1 ~ -2 a9192)~ Consequently
Ap3p4 = C93947 0 3 9 4 + p4q3) = Bq394. By Proposition 11.16, q3 and q4 each divide A, and so their product divides A2. Hence, for some integer D # 0,
But it is easily seen that q3q4,p3p4 and p3q4 + p4q3 have no common prime divisor. It follows that A divides D. Hence, if we put pj =
then
max(hl,lqjl) (1 s j
41,
XIII. Connections with mrnber tlzeory
since if lq3/I [P31 and
b41I 1q41, for example, then
It follows that there exists a constant C" > 0 such that P3P4
5 C"~l~P2~1
which is equivalent to (*) with C' = log C". 0
COROLLARY11 For any P
E
E and any integer 11,
Proof Since 6 ( - P ) = 6 ( ~ )we , may assume n > 0. We may actually assume n > 2, since the result is trivial for n = 1 and it holds for n = 2 by Proposition 9. By Proposition 10 we have
from which the general case follows by induction. It follows from Corollary 11 that if an element P of the group E has finite order, then
L(P) = 0.
The converse is also true. In fact, by Proposition 10, the set of all P E E such that 6 ( ~=)0 is a subgroup of E, and this subgroup is finite since there are only finitely many points P such that h^ ( P ) < 1. We now deduce from Proposition 10 that a non-negative quadratic form can be constructed from the canonical height. If we put
(p,Q) = ~ ( P + Q ) -i ( p ) - ~ ( Q I , then evidently
L
(P,Q) = (Q,P), (P,P) = 2 ( P ) 2 0.
4. Mordell's theorem
It remains to show that (p,Q + R ) = (P,Q) + (P,R), and we do this by proving that
But, by the parallelogram law,
=2i(P+Q+R)+2i(~)
and ~(P+Q+R+P)i +(
~ - =RL )( P + Q + R + P ) + & P + Q - P - R ) =2 6 ( + ~ Q ) + 2 i ( +~ R ) .
Subtracting the second relation from the first, we obtain
Since, by the parallelogram law again,
this is equivalent to what we wished to prove.
PROPOSITION 12 The abelian group E is finitely generated i f , for some ir~tegerm > 1, the factor group E/mE is fi~zite.
Proof Let S be a set of representatives of the cosets of the subgroup nzE. Since S is finite, by hypothesis, we can choose C > 0 so that L(Q) 2 C for all Q E S. The set
contains S and is also finite. We will show that it generates E. Let E'be the subgroup of E generated by the elements of Sf. If E' # E, choose P E E \ E' so that
6 ( P )is minimal.
Then P = m P 1 + Q , for someP1 E EandQ1 E S.
XIII. Connections with number theory
Since
;(P
+ Ql)+ i ( P-
= 2 i ( ~+)2 i ( Q l ) ,
it follows that
i(mpl)
=
~(P-Q~ I )2 i ( ~+) 2 c
But P I P E', since P P E', and hence h^(pl)2 contradiction. Hence E' = E. 0
h ^ ( ~ ) . It follows that h " ( ~ )I
C , which is a
Proposition 12 shows that to complete the proof of Mordell's theorem it is enough to show that the factor group E / ~ Eis finite. We will prove this only for the case when E contains an element of order 2. A similar proof may be given for the general case, but it requires some knowledge of algebraic number theory. The assumption that E contains an element of order 2 means that there is a rational point
(xo,O), where xo is a root of the polynomial X3 + ax + b. Since a and b are taken to be integers, and the polynomial has highest coefficient 1, xo must also be an integer. By changing variable fromX to xo + X, we replace the cubic %a,b by a cubic CABdefined by a polynomial Y2 - (X3 + AX2 where A,B E
+ BX),
Z.The non-singularity condition d: = 4a3 + 27b2 # 0 becomes
but this is the only restriction on A,B. The chord joining two rational points of CABis given by the same formulas as for in $3, but the tangent to CA,B at the finite point P I = (xl,yl) is now the affine line
Y-mx-c, where
m = (3xI2+ 2Ax1 + ~ ) / 2 y l ,c = -x1(x12- ~ ) / 2 y I . The geometrical interpretation of the group law remains the same as before. We will now denote by E the group of all rational points of CA,B. Our change of variable has made the point
N = (0,O) an element of E of order 2. Let P = (x,y) be a rational point of CA,Bwith x # 0. We are going to show that, in a sense which will become clear, there are only finitely many rational square classes to which x can
4. Mordell's theorem
belong. Write x = m/n, y =p/q, where m,tl,y,q are integers with n,q > 0 and (rn,n) = @ , q ) = 1. Then p2n3
=
(m3 + Anz2n + Bmn2)q2,
which implies both q21n3 and n31q2. Thus n3 = q2. From n2Iq2 we obtain nlq. Hence q = en for some integer e, and it follows that n = e2, q = e3. Thus x = m/e2, y =p/e3, where e > 0 and (nz,e) = @,el = 1 Moreover, y 2 = nz(m* +Anze2 + Be4). This shows that each prime which divides m, but not m2 + Arne2 + B d , must occur to an even power in nt. On the other hand, each prime which divides both nz and m2 + Arne2 + Be4 must also divide B, since (m,e) = 1. Consequently we can write
where u E N , p l , ...,pk are the distinct primes dividing B and E {0,1} (1 I j I k). Hence there are at most 2k+' rational square classes to which x can belong. Suppose now that P1 = (xl,yl) and P2 = (x2,y2) are distinct rational points of CA,Bfor which xlx2 is a nonzero rational square, and let P3 = (x3,y3) be the third point of intersection with CA,Bof the line through P1 and P?. Then x I , x 2 ~ are 3 the three roots of a cubic equation (nzX + c)2 = X3 + AX2 + BX. From the constant tern we see that x1x2x3= c2. It follows that x3 is a nonzero rational square i f c # O . I f c = O , thenP3 = N a n d x l x 2 = B . Suppose next that P = (x,y) is any rational point of CABwith x f 0, and let 2P = ( x , - 7 ) . Then = ( T , 7 )is the other point of intersection with CA,Bof the tangent to CA,*at P. By the same argument as before, x2T = c2. Hence X is a nonzero rational square if c # 0. If c = 0, then 2P = N and x2 = B. To deduce that E/2E is finite from these observations we will use an arithmetic analogue of Landen's transformation. We saw in Chapter XI1 that, over the field 02 of complex numbers, the cubic curve Ceh defined by the polynomial Y2 - gh(X), where gA(X)= 4X(1 -X)(l - hX), admits the pasametrization X = S(u,h), Y = Sf(u,h).
648
XIII. Co~znectio~zs with nunzber theory
It follows from Proposition XII. 11 that the cubic curve %A,, where X' = X 2 / [ 1
+ (1 ? ~ ) l / ~ ] ~ , -
admits the parametrization
X' = [ I
+ ( 1 - X ) q x ( l -X)/(l - U ) ,
where again X = S(u,X), Y = Sf(u,h)and where ( 1 - 2X + U 2 ) / ( 1- U ) 2 is the derivative with respect to X of X ( l - X ) / ( l - 3X). Since also X' = S(uf,X'),where u' = [l + ( 1 - X)1/2]u,the map (X,Y) -+ (X1,Y')defines a hoino~no~phism of the group of complex points of (exinto the group of complex points of (ex,. We will simply state analogous results for the cubic cuive CA,Bover the field Q of rational numbers, since their verification is elementay. If (.x,y) is a rational point of CA,Bwith x # 0 and if x' = (x2 + Ax + B)/x, y' = y(x2 - B)/x2, then (x',y') is a rational point of CA',B',where
Moreover, if we define a map cp of the group E of all rational points of C A ,into ~ the group E' of all rational points of CA,,B,by putting
then cp is a homomorphism, i.e.
The range cp(E) may not be the whole of E'. I11 fact, since
the first coordinate of any finite point of cp(E) must be a rational square. Furthermore, if
N = (0,0) is a point of cp(E), the integer B' = A2 - 4B must be a square. We will show that these conditions completely cliasactesize cp(E). Evidently if A2 - 4B is a square, then the quadratic polynomial 9+AX + B has a rational root xo # 0 and q(xo,O) = N . Suppose now that (x',yf)is a rational point of CA,,B*and that x' = t2 is a nonzero rational square. We will show that if
4. Mordell's theorem
then (xjyj) E E and cp(xj,yj)= (xl,y')(j = 1,2). It is easily seen that (xj,yj)E E if and only if
But
= [(x' - A)2 - yQ/x1/4
Since
it follows that xlx2 = B. Hence (xl,yl) and (x2,y2)are both in E if t2 = xl condition is certainly satisfied by the definitions of xl and x2.
+ A + x2, and this
In addition to
xJ. + A + B / x j = t 2 = x ' ( j = 1,2), we have
y1(x12- B)/x12 = t(x12- x1x2)/x1 = t(xl - x2) = Y', and similarly y2(x22- B ) / x = ~ y'. ~ It follows that
Since cp is a homomorphism, the range q ( E ) is a subgroup of E'. We are going to show that this subgroup is of finite index in E'. By what we have already proved for E, there exists a finite (or empty) set P I ' = (xl ',yl 3, ... ,PSf= (xS',yst)of points of E' such that xi' is not a rational square (1 I i I s ) and such that, if P' = (x',y') is any other point of E' for which x' is not a rational square, then xlxj' is a nonzero rational square for a unique j E ( 1 ,...,s ) . Let P" = (x",yf') be the third point of intersection with CA,,B, of the line through P' and Pjt, so that
By what we have already proved, either x" is a nonzero rational square or P" = N and x'xj' = B' is a square. In either case, P" E cp(E). Furthermore, if 2Pj1= (T, -y), then either 3? is a nonzero rational square or 2Pj' = N and xjg = B'. In either case again, 2Pj1E cp(E). Since
650
XIZI. Connections with number theory
it follows that P' and Pjl are in the same coset of cp(E). Consequently PI',...,P,', together with 0,and also N if B' is not a square, form a complete set of representatives of the cosets of cp(E) in E'. The preceding discussion can be repeated with CA*,B~ in the place of CA,B. It yields a homomorphism cp' of the group E' of all rational points of CA,J*into the group E" of all rational points of CA,,$,,,where
A" = - 2A' = 4A, B" = AQ
- 48' =
8) But the simple transformation (X,Y) + ( ~ / 4 , ~ /replaces isomorphism of E" with E. Hence the composite map y~ = into E, and y~ 0 cp is a homomorphism of E into itself.
x
16B.
x
by CA,B and defines an 0 cp' is a homomorphism of E'
We now show that the homomorphism P + y~ 0 q ( P ) is just the doubling map P + 2P. Since this is obvious if P = 0 or N,we need only verify it for P = (x,y) with x # 0. For P" = cp' o cp(P) we have
x'' = ('y'/x')2= ly(1 - B/x2).x2/y212= (x2 - B ) ~ / Y ~ and
y" = yl(l - B'/xQ) = y ( 1 - ~ / x ~ )-[(A2 l -4B)x4/y4]
Hence for y~ 0 q ( P ) = P* = (x*,y*) we have
On the other hand, if the tangent to C A Bat P intersects CA,B again at ( T , y), then 2P = (a ,-L). The cubic equation (mx + c)2 = X3 + AX2 + BX has x as a double root and X as its third root. Hence I = (c/x)2. Using the formula for c given previously, we obtain
I = (x2 - ~ ) ~ / 4= yx*. ~ Furthermore, using the formula for m given previously,
4. Mordell's theorem
Substituting x" Ax2 + Bx for y2, we obtain 7 = - y*. Thus y~ 0 q(P) = 2P, as claimed. Since cp(E) has finite index in E', and likewise yf(E') has finite index in E, it follows that 2E = y~ 0 q(E) has finite index in E. (The proof shows that the index is at most 2"+13+2, where
a is the number of distinct prime divisors of B and /3 is the number of distinct prime divisors of 4B.) By the remarks after the proof of Proposition 12, Mordell's theorem has now been completely proved in the case where E contains an element of order 2.
A2
-
5 Further results and conjectures
Let %a,b be the elliptic curve defined by the polynomial
P - (X3 + a x + h), where u,b E Zand cl: = 4a3 + 27h2 # 0. By Mordell's theorem, the abelian group E = E,/,(Q) of all rational points of is finitely generated. It follows from the stsucture theorem for finitely generated abelian groups (Chapter 111, $4) that E is the direct sum of a finite abelian group E t and a 'free' abelian group Ef, which is the direct sum of r. 2 0 infinite cyclic subgroups. The non-negative integer I , is called the rank of the elliptic curve and Et its torsion group. The torsion group can, in principle, be deteimined by a finite amount of computation. A theorem of Nagell (1935) and Lutz (1937) says that if P = (x,y) is a point of E of finite order, then n and y are integers and either y = 0 or y* divides d. Thus there are only finitely many possibilities to check. A deep theorem of Mazur (1977) says that the torsion group must be one of the following: (i) a cyclic group of order n (1 I I I I 10 or n = 12), (ii) the direct sum of a cyclic group of order 2 and a cyclic group of order 2n (1 I 11 I 4). It was already known that each of these possibilities occurs. It is easy to check if the torsion group is of type (i) or type (ii), since in the latter case there are three elements of order 2, whereas in the former case there is at most one. Mazur's result shows that an element has 12. infinite order. if it does not have order I
XIII. Connections with number theory
It is conjectured that there exist elliptic curves over Q with arbitrarily large rank. (Examples are known of elliptic curves with rank 2 22.) At present no infallible algorithm is known for determining the rank of an elliptic curve, let alone a basis for the torsion-free group Ef. However, Manin (197 1) devised a conditional algorithm, based on the strong conjecture of Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer which will be mentioned later. This conjecture is still unproved, but is supported by much numerical evidence. An important way of obtaining arithmetic information about an elliptic curve is by reduction modulo a prime p. We regard the coefficients not as integers, but as integers mod p, and we look not for Q-points, but for Fp-points. Since the normal form %a,b was obtained by assuming that the field had characteristic # 2,3, we now adopt a more general normal form. Let W = W(al,...,a6) be the projective completion of the affine cubic curve defined by the polynomial Y2 + alXY + a3Y - (X3 + a2X2 + a4X + a6), where a j E Q (j= 1,2,3,4,6). It may be shown that W is non-singular if and only if the discriminant A
#
0, where
and
(We retain the name 'discriminant', although A = - 16d for W = %a,b.) The definition of addition on W has the same geometrical interpretation as on %a,b,although the corresponding algebraic formulas are different. They are written out in 37. For any u,r,s,t E Q with u f 0, the invertible linear change of variables
replaces W by a curve W' of the same form with discriminant A' = u-12A. By means of such a transformation we may assume that the coefficients aj are integers and that A, which is now an integer, has minimal absolute value. (It has been proved by Tate that we then have /A1 > 1.) The discussion which follows presupposes that W is chosen in this way so that, in particular, discriminant means 'minimal discriminant'. We say that such a W is a minimal model for the elliptic curve.
5. Further results and conjectures
653
For any prime p , let W p be the cubic curve defined over the finite field IFp by the polynomial
Y2-k k l x Y + k 3 Y - ( x 3 + & x 2 + where Lij
E aj
+ pZ.
&x + k 6 ) ,
If p X A the cubic curve Wp is non-singular, and thus an elliptic curve,
but if plA then W phas a unique singular point. The singular point (xo,yo)of Wp is a CUSP if, on replacing X and Y by xo + X and yo + Y, we obtain a polynomial of the form
where a,b,c E Fp and the unwritten terms are of degree > 2. Otherwise, the singular point is a node. For any prime p , let N p denote the number of IFp-points of Wp, including the point at infinity 0, and put
cP = p
+ 1 -Np.
It was conjectured by Artin (1924), and proved by Hasse (1934), that
Since 2p1I2is not an integer, this inequality says that the quadratic polynomial
has conjugate complex roots yp, Tp of absolute value p-'I2 or, if we put T = p+, that the zeros of 1 - cpp+ + pl-2s lie on the line 3 s = 112. Thus it is an analogue of the Riemann hypothesis on the zeros of [(s), but differs from it by having been proved. (As mentioned in $5 of Chapter IX,Hasse's result was considerably generalized by Weil(1948) and Deligne (1974).) The L-function of the original elliptic curve "Mr is defined by
The first product on the right side has only finitely many factors. The infinite second product is convergent for 3 s > 312, since
XIII. Connections with number theory
654
I
and Iypl = I Y p = p-lI2. Multiplying out the products, we obtain for %s > 3/2 an absolutely convergent Dirichlet series L(s) =
C,n+
with integer coefficients c,. (If n = p is prime, then c, is the previously defined cp.) The conductor N = N W ) of the elliptic curve W is defined by the singular reductions Wp of W:
N
=
np,*pf,,
where& = 1 if Wp has a node, whereasfp = 2 if p > 3 and W phas a cusp. We will not define if p E {2,3} and Wp has a cusp, but we mention that fp is then an integer 2 2 which can be calculated by an algorithm due to Tate (1975). (It may be shown that f2 I 8 andf3 I 5.) The elliptic curve W is said to be semi-stable if W phas a node for every p1A. Thus, for a semi-stable elliptic curve, the conductor N is precisely the product of the distinct primes dividing the discriminant A. (The semi-stable case is the only one in which the conductor is
fp
square-free.) Three important conjectures about elliptic curves, involving their L-functions and conductors, will now be described. It was conjectured by Hasse (1954) that the function
may be analytically continued to a function which is meromorphic in the whole complex plane and that 5(2 - s,W) is connected with L(s,W) by a functional equation similar to that satisfied by the Riemann zeta-function C(s). In terms of L-functions, Hasse's conjecture was given the following precise form by Weil(1967): HW-Conjecture: I f the elliptic curve W has L-function L(s) and conductor N, then L(s) may be analytically continued, so that the function
where r(s) denotes Euler's gammaTfunction,is holomorphic throughout the whole complex plane and satisfies the functional equation A(s) = f Nl-s A(2 - s). (In fact it is the functional equation which determines the precise definition of the conductor.)
5. Further results and conjectures
655
The second conjecture, due to Bisch and S~inne~ton-Dyer (1965),connects the L-function with the group of rational points: BSD-Coiljecture: The Lfunction L(s) of the elliptic curve W has a zero at s = 1 of order exactly equal to the rank r 2 0 of the group E = E(W,Q) of all rational points of W . This is sometimes called the 'weak' conjecture of Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer, since they also gave a 'suong' version, in which the nonzero constant C such that
L(s)
- C(s - 1)'
for s
+1
is expressed by other arithmetic invariants of W . The strong conjecture may be regarded as an analogue for elliptic curves of a known formula for the Dedekind zeta-function of an algebraic number field. An interesting reformulation of the stsong foim has been given by Bloc11 (1980). The statement of the third conjecture requises some preparation. For any positive integer
N, let Fo(N)denote the multiplicative group of all matrices
where a,b,c,d are integers such that ad - bc = 1 and c = 0 mod N. A function f ( z ) which is holomoi-phic for z E Sj (the upper half-plane) is said to be a modulal. folm of weight 2 for To(N)if, for every such A, f((az + b)/(cz + d ) ) = (cz + dj2f(z). An elliptic curve W , with L-function
and conductor N, is said to be modular if the function
which is certainly holomorphic in Sj,is a modular form of weight 2 for To(N). This actually implies that f is a 'cusp form' and satisfies a functional equation
It follows that the Mellin transjonn
656
XIII. Conrzectio~zswith ruimber theory
may be analytically continued for all s E
C and satisfies the functional equation
(Note the reversal of sign.) But -~ A(S) = ( 2 ~ ) r(s)L(s), since, by (9) of Chapter IX,
j~ e-2nfiy yS-1 dy
= (2n11)-~T(s).
Hence any modular elliptic curve satisfies the HW-conjecture. It was shown by Weil (1967) that, conversely, an elliptic curve is modular if not only its c,n-" has the properties required in the HW-conjecture but also, for L-function L(s) = sufficiently many Duichlet characters X,the 'twisted' L-functions
have analogous properties. The definition of modular elliptic curve can be given a more intuitive form: the elliptic curve %a,1, is modular if there exist non-constant functions X = f ( z ) , Y holo~norphicin the upper half-plane, which are invasiant under To(N), i s .
=
g(z) which are
and which pasametrize %a,b: g2(2) = f 3(z) + af(z)
+ b.
The significance of modular elliptic curves is that one can apply to them the extensive analytic theory of modular forms. For example, through the work of Kolyvagin (1990), together with results of Gross and Zagier (1986) and others, it is known that (as the BSDconjecture predicts) a modular elliptic curve has rank 0 if its L-function does not vanish at s = 1, and has rank 1 if its L-function has a simple zero at s = 1. The third conjectuse, stated rather roughly by Taniyama (1955) and more precisely by Weil (1967), is simply this: TW-Conjecture: Every elliptic curve over the field Q of rational numbers is modular-.
5. Further results and conjectures
657
The name of Shimura is often also attached to this conjecture, since he certainly contributed to its ultimate folmulation. Shimura (1971) further showed that any elliptic curve which admits complex multiplication is modular. A big step fonvard was made by Wiles (1995) who, with assistance from Taylor, showed that any semi-stable elliptic curve is modulas. A complete proof of the TW-conjecture, due to Diamond and others, has recently been announced by Darrnon (1999). Thus all the results which had previously been established for modular elliptic curves actually hold for all elliptic cusves over 6;9. It should be mentioned that there is also a 'Riemann hypothesis' for elliptic curves over Q, namely that all zeros of the L-function in the critical strip 1/2 < 3 s < 312 lie on the line %s = 1. Mordell's theorem was extended from elliptic cusves over 6;9 to abelian varieties over any algebraic number field by Weil (1928). Many other results in the asitlmetic of elliptic curves have been similasly extended. The topic is too vast to be considered here, but it should be said that our exposition for the prototype case is not always in the most appropriate fosm for such generalizations. In the same paper in which he proved his theorem, Mordell (1922) conjectured that if a non-singulas ineducible projective curve, defined by a homogeneous polynomial F(x,y,z) with rational coefficients, has infinitely many rational points, then it is birationally equivalent to a line, a conic or a cubic. Mordell's conjecture was first proved by Faltings (1983). Actually Falting's result was not restricted to plane algebraic curves, and on the way he proved two other important conjectures of Tate and Shafarevich. Falting's result implies that the Fermat equation xn + yn = zn has at most finitely many solutions in integers if n > 3. In the next section we will see that Wiles' result that semi-stable elliptic cusves are modular implies that there are no solutions in nonzero integers.
6 Some applications The arithmetic of elliptic cusves has an interesting application to the ancient problem of congruent numbers. A positive integer n is (confusingly) said to be congruent if it is the area of a right-angled tsiangle whose sides all have rational length, i.e. if there exist positive rational numbers u,v,w such that u2 + v2 = w2, uv = 2~1. For example, 6 is congruent, since it is the area of the right-angled triangle with sides of length 3,4,5. Similarly, 5 is congment, since it is the area of the right-angled tliangle with sides of length 3/2,20/3,41/6.
XIII. Connections with number theory
In the margin of his copy of Diophantus' Arithmetica Fermat (c. 1640) gave a complete proof that 1 is not congruent. The following is a paraphrase of his argument. Assume that 1 is congruent. Then there exist positive rational numbers u,v,w such that
Since an integer is a rational square only if it is an integral square, on clearing denominators it follows that there exist positive integers a,b,c,d such that
Choose such a quadruple a,b,c,d for which c is minimal. Then (a,b) = 1. Since d is even, exactly one of a,b is even and we may suppose it to be a. Then
for some positive integers g,h. Since b and c are both odd and (b,c) = 1,
Since it follows that
for some relatively prime positive integers cl,dl. Then
But
since (cI2,dl2)= 1 and b is odd. Hence
for some odd positive integers p,q. Thus = (q +p)/2,
b l = (q -p)/2
are positive integers and
a12+ b12 = (q2 +p2)/2 = c12,
6 . Some applications
Since cl 5 cI4 < C, this contradicts the minimality of c. It follows that the Fermat equation
has no solutions in nonzero integers x,y,z. For if a solution existed and if we put
we would have u2 + v2 = w2, uv = 2. It is easily seen that a positive integer 11 is congruent if and only if there exists a rational number x such that x, x + n and x - n are all rational squares. For suppose
and put Then
and
Conversely, if u,v,w are rational numbers such that uv = 2n and u2 + v2 = w2,then
Thus, if we put x = (w/2)*,then x,x + rz and .x - n are all rational squares. It may be noted that if x is a rational number such that x, x + 12 and n - n are all rational squares, then x # - n,O,n, since n > 0 and 2 is not a rational square. The problem of determining which positive integers are congruent was considered by Arab mathematicians of the 10th century AD, and later by Fibonacci (1225) in his Liber Quadratorunz. The connection with elliptic curves will now be revealed: PROPOSITION 13 A positive integer. 11 is congruent if and only if the cubic curve C,
defined by the polynonzial Y2
has a rational point P = (x,y) with y
#
-
(X3 - n2X)
0.
Proof Suppose first that n is congruent. Then there exists a rational number x such that x, x + n and x - i z are all rational squares. Hence their product
XIII. Coiiriectioris with number theory
is also a rational square. Since x # - rz,O,11,it follows that x3 - n2.x = y2, where y is a nonzero rational number. Suppose now that P = (x,y)is any rational point of the curve C , with y # 0. If we put
then u,v,w are positive rational numbers such that
It is readily verified that h = 112 in the Riemann nonnal form for C,. We show next that if x is an integei such that x,~ + n and x - n are all rational squares, then M is divisible by 4. We have x = 1-2, x + 11 = s2, x - n = t2 for some positive integers
r,s,t. Thus 212 = s'
- t2 =
(s - t)(s + t).
If n were odd, exactly one of s - t and s + t would be even, which is impossible. Hence 17 is even. Since n = s2 - r2 and any integral square is congruent to 0 or 1 mod 4, we cannot have
-
2 mod 4. Hence n = 0 mod 4. We now show that, for any positive integer 12, the torsion group of C, has order 4, consisting of the identity element 0, and the three elements (0,0), (rz,O),(- n,0) of order 2. Let P = (x,y) be any rational point of C, with y # 0. We wish to show that P is of infinite order. Assume on the contrary that P is of finite order. Then 2P = (x1,y?is also a rational point of finite order. The formula for the other point of intersection with C , of the tangent to C, at P shows that x' = [ ( x br ~ 9 / 2 y ] ~ . It follows that x' + n = [(x2- 112 + 2nx)/2yI2, x' - n = [(x2- n2 - 2nx)/2yI2.
n
Thus x ' j ' + 11 and x' - n ase all rational squases. Since 2P is of finite order, the theorem of Nagell and Lutz mentioned in 55 implies that x'is an integer. Consequently n is divisible by 4. But, by replacing X by 22aX and Y by 23aY for some integer a 2 1, we replace C, by C,, where v = 2-2an, and we may choose a so that v is an integer not divisible by 4. Since
(5,q) = (2-2ax,2-3ay) is a rational point of C,, of finite order with T] # 0 , this is a contradiction.
6. Some applications
66 1
If n is congruent, then so also is m2n for any positive integer m. Thus it is enough to determine which square-free positive integers are congruent. By what we have just proved and Proposition 13, a square-free positive integer n is congruent if and only if the elliptic curve C,, has positive rank. Since C, admits complex multiplication, a result of Coates and Wiles (1977) shows that if C , has positive rank, then its L-function vanishes at s = 1. (According to the BSD-conjecture, C, has positive rank if and only if its L-function vanishes at s = 1.) By means of the theory of modular forms, Tunnel1 (1983) has obtained a practical necessary and sufficient condition for the L-function L(s,C,) of C, to vanish at s = 1: if n is a square-free positive integer, then L(l,C,) = 0 if and only if A+(n)= A-(n), where A+(n),resp. A-(n), is the number of triples (x,y,z) E Z3 with z even, resp. z odd, such that
x2
+ 2y2 + 822 = n if n is odd,
or 2x2 + 2y2 + 1622 = n if n is even.
It is not difficult to show that A+(n)= AJn) when n = 5,6 or 7 mod 8, but there seems to be no such simple criterion in other cases. With the aid of a computer it has been verified that, for every n < 10000, n is congruent if and only if A+(n)= A-(n). The arithmetic of elliptic curves also has a useful application to the class number problem of Gauss. For any square-free integer d < 0 , let h ( 4 be the class number of the quadratic field
~ ( 4 4 As . mentioned in $8 of Chapter IV, it was conjectured by Gauss (1801),and proved by Heilbronn (1934),that h ( 4 + = as d + - =. However, the proof does not provide a method of determining an upper bound for the values of d for which the class number h ( 4 has a given value. As mentioned in Chapter 11, Stark (1967) showed that there are no other negative values of d for which h(d) = 1 besides the nine values already known to Gauss. Using methods developed by Baker (1966) for the theory of transcendental numbers, it was shown by Baker (1971) and Stark (1971) that there are exactly 18 negative values of d for which h ( 4 = 2. A simpler and more powerful method for attacking the problem was found by Goldfeld (1976). He obtained an effective lower bound for h ( 4 , provided that there exists an elliptic curve over Q whose L-function has a triple zero at s = 1. Gross and Zagier (1986) showed that such an elliptic curve does indeed exist. However, they needed to know that this elliptic curve was modular, and this required a considerable amount of computation. The proof of the TWconjecture makes any computation unnecessary. The most celebrated application of the arithmetic of elliptic curves has been the recent proof of Fermat's last theorem. In his copy of the translation by Bachet of Diophantus' Arithmetica Fermat also wrote "It is impossible to separate a cube into two cubes, or a fourth power into two fourth powers or, in general, any power higher than the second into two like powers. I have discovered a truly marvellous proof of this, which this margin is too narrow to contain."
XIII. Co~ttmtionswith nunzber theory
In other words, Fermat asserted that, if r i > 2, the equation
has no solutions in nonzero integers x,y,z. In 52 of Chapter 111 we pointed out that it was sufficient to prove his assertion when FI = 4 and when n = p is an odd prime, and we gave a proof there for n = 3.
A nice application to cubic curves of the case n = 3 was made by Kronecker (1859). If we make the change of vaiables
x
= 2a/(3b - I), y = (317
+ 1)/(317
-
I),
with inverse
a = x/O)- I), b = 0)+ 1)/30, - I), then
x3
+ y3 - 1
= 2(4a3 + 27172 + 1)/(3b - 1)3.
Since the equation x3 + y3 = 1 has no solution in nonzero rational numbers, the only solutions in rational numbers of the equation
4a3 + 27b2 = - 1 ase a = - 1, b = f 113. Consequently the only cubic culves and discriminant d = - 1 are Y2 - X3
with rational coefficients a,b
+ X f 113.
We return now to Fermat's assertion. I11 the present section we have already given
4. Suppose now that p 2 5 is prime and assume, contrary to Fermat's assertion, that the equation uP+bP+@=O
Fermat's own proof for
II
=
does have a solution in nonzero integers u,b,c. By removing any common factor we may assume that (a,b) = 1, and then also (a,c) = ( 1 7 , ~ )= 1. Since a,b,c cannot all be odd, we may assume that b is even. Then a and c are odd, and we may assume that a = - 1 mod 4. We now consider the projective cubic ciuve defined by the polynomial
Y2-X(X-A)(X where A = UP and B
= bP.
+ B),
By construction, (A,B) = 1 and
Moreover, if we put C = - ( A + B ) , then C variables
#
0 and (A,C) = (B,C) = 1. The linear change of
6. Some applications
replaces gAg by the elliptic curve WABdefined by
which has discriminant
A = (ABC)2/28. Our hypotheses ensure that the coefficients of WA,B are integers and that A is a nonzero integer. It may be shown that WABis actually a minimal model for gAB. Moreover, when we reduce is modulo any prime & which divides A, the singular point which arises is a node. Thus WA,B serni-stable and its conductor N is the product of the distinct primes dividing ABC. Fermat's last theorem will be proved, for any prime p 2 5, if we show that such an elliptic curve cannot exist if A,B,C are all p-th powers. If p is large, one reason for suspecting that such an elliptic curve cannot exist is that the discriminant is then very large compared with the conductor. Another reason, which does not depend on the size of p, was suggested by Frey (1986). Frey gave a heuristic argument that %A,B could not then be modular, which would contradict the TW-conjecture. Frey's intuition was made more precise by Serre (1987). Let G be the group of all automorphisms of the field of all algebraic numbers. With any modular form for To(N) one can associate a 2-dimensional representation of G over a finite field. Serre showed that Fermat's last theorem would follow from the TW-conjecture, together with a conjecture about lowering the level of such 'Galois representations' associated with modular forms. The latter conjecture was called Serre's &-conjecture,because it was a special case of a much more general conjecture which Serre made. Serre's &-conjecturewas proved by Ribet (1990), although the proof might be described as being of order &-I. Now, for the first time, the falsity of Fermat's last theorem would have a significant consequence: the falsity of the TW-conjecture. Since is semi-stable with the normalizations made above, to prove Fermat's last theorem it was actually enough to show that any semi-stable elliptic curve was modular. As stated in 55, this was accomplished by Wiles (1995) and Taylor and Wiles (1995). We will not attempt to describe the proof since, besides Fermat's classic excuse, it is beyond the scope of this work. Fermat's last theorem contributed greatly to the development of mathematics, but Fermat was perhaps lucky that his assertion turned out to be correct. After proving Fermat's assertion for n = 3, that the cube of a positive integer could not be the sum of two cubes of positive integers, Euler asserted that, also for any n 2 4, an n-th power of a positive integer could not be
664
XIII. Con~~ectiorzs with number theory
expressed as a sum of n - 1 n-th powers of positive integers. A counterexample to Euler's conjecture was first found, for n = 5, by Lander and Parkin (1966):
Elkies (1988) used the arithmetic of elliptic curves to find infinitely many counterexamples for 12 = 4, the simplest being
A prize has been offered by Beal (1997) for a proof or disproof of his conjecture that the equation + y"2 = z'2 has no solution in copritne positive integers x,y,z if l,nz,n are integers > 2. (The exponent 2 must be excluded since, for example, 25 + 72 = 34 and 27 + 173 = 712.) Will Beal's conjecture turn out to be like Fermat's or like Euler's?
7 Further remarks For sums of squares, see Grosswald [31], Rademacher [46], and Volume 11, Chapter IX of Dickson 6231. A recent contribution is Milne [42]. A general reference for the theory of partitions is Andrews [2]. Proposition 4 is often refel~edto as Eulefs pentagonal nunzhe~theorem, since the numbers m(3m - 1)/2 (m > 1) represent the number of dots needed to construct successively larger and larger pentagons. A direct proof of the combinatorial interpretation of Proposition 4 was given by Franklin (1881). It is reproduced in Andrews [2] and in van Lint and Wilson [411. The replacement of proofs using generating functions by purely combinatorial proofs has become quite an industry; see, for example, Bressoud and Zeilberger [ 131, [114]. Besides the q-difference equations used in the proof of Proposition 5, there are also qintegrals:
5; f(x) d$
: =
Z,220 f(uqn)(aqn - aqn+l).
The q-binomial coefliicients (mentioned in 32 of Chapter 11)
7 . Fuvtlrer remarks
where ( u ) = ~ 1 and (a), = (1 - a)(l
-
uq) ...( 1 - aq"-1)
(11
2 I),
have recurrence properties similar to those of ordinary binomial coefficients:
was already studied by Heine (1847). There is indeed a whole world of q-analysis, which may be regarded as having the same relation to classical analysis as quantum mecl~anicshas to classical mecl~anics.(The choice of the letter 'q' nearly a century before the advent of quantum mechanics showed remarkable foresight.) There are introductions to this world in Andrews et al. [4] and Vilenkin and Klimyk [58]. For Macdonald's coi~jecturesconcerning q-analogues of orthogonal polynomials, see Kisillov [36]. Although q-analysis always had its devotees, it remained outside the mainstream of mathematics until recently. Now it arises naturally in the study of qumztuni groups, which are not groups but q-deformations of the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra. The Rogers-Ramanujan identities were discovered independently by Rogers (1894), Ramanujan (191 3) and Schur (19 17). Their romantic history is retold in Andsews 121, which contains also generalizations. For the applications of the identities in statistical mechanics, see Baxter's article (pp. 69-84) in Andrews et 01. [3]. (The same volume contains other interesting articles on mathematical developments arising from Rarnan~jan'swork.) The Jacobi triple product formula was derived in Chapter XI1 as the limit of a formula for polynomials. Andrews 11I has given a similar derivation of the Rogers-Ramanujan identities. This approach has found applications and generalizations in conformal field theory, the two sides of the polynomial identity corsesponding to ferlnionic and bosonic bases for Fock space; see Berkovich and McCoy [9]. These connections go much further than the Rogers-Raman~ijan identities. There is now a vast interacting area which involves, besides the theory of partitions, solvable models of statistical mechanics, conformal field theory, integrable systems in classical and quantum Lie algebras, quantum groups, knot theory and operator mechanics, infinite-diinensio~~al algebras. For introductory accounts, see [45], [lo] and vaiious articles in [24] and [27]. More detailed treatments of particular aspects are given in Baxter [8], Faddeev and Taklitajan [26], Jantzen [33], Jones [34], Kac [35] and Korepin et al. [38].
XIII. Connections ~ ~ inumber t l ~ theory
For the Hardy-Ramanujan-Rademacher expansion for ~ ( I z ) see , Rademacher [46] and Andrews [2]. An interesting proof by means of probability theory for the first term of the expansion has been given by Biez-Duaste [5]. The definition of birational equivalence in $3 is adequate for our purposes, but has been superseded by a more general definition in the language of 'schemes', which is applicable to algebraic varieties of arbitrasy dimension without any given embedding in a projective space. For the evolution of the modein concept, see &~mAs [18]. The history of the discovery of the group law on a cubic curve is described by Schappacher [48]. Several good accounts of the arithmetic of elliptic curves are now available; e.g., Knapp
[37] and the trilogy [52],[50],[51]. Although the subject has been transformed in the past 25 years, the survey articles by Cassels [16], Tate [55] and Gelbart [281 are still of use. Tate gives ~l Cassels has many references to the older literature, and Gelbart explains a h e l p f ~ introduction, the connection with the Langlands program, for which see also Gelbart [29]. For reference, we give here the foimulas for addition on an elliptic curve in the so-called Weierstrass's nor~nalform. If P1 = (xl,yl) and P2 = (x2,y2)are points of the curve Y2 + alXY
+ a j Y - (X3 + a2X2 + a4X + a6),
then -
P1 = (xl,-yl
- a l x , - a3),
P I + P2 = P3* = (x3,-y3),
where
x3 = h ( h + a l ) - u2 - x l -x2, y3 = ( h + al)x3 + p + a3, and ?L
=
(y2-y1)I(x2 - x l ) , p
= b 1 ~ -2~ 2 ~ 1 ) / (-x1) ~ 2
if xl
f
x2;
with N = 2y, + alxl + a3. An algorithm for obtaining a minimal model of an elliptic curve is described in Laska [40]. Other algorithms connected with elliptic cusves are given in Cremona [21]. The original conjecture of Birch and Swinneston-Dyer was generalized by Tate [54] and Bloch [ll]. For a first introduction to the theory of modular forms see Serre [49], and for a second see Lang [39]. Hasse actually showed that, if % is an elliptic cuilie over any finite field
IF
containing q
elements, then the number Nq of Fq-points on % (including the point at infinity) satisfies the inequality
7. Further remarks
For an elementary proof, see Chahal [17]. Hasse's result is the special case, when the genus g = 1, of the Riemann hypothesis for function fields, which was mentioned in Chapter IX, $5. It follows from the result of Siege1 (1929), mentioned in $9 of Chapter IV, and even from the earlier work of Thue (19091, that an elliptic curve with integral coefficients has at most finitely many integral points. However, their method is not constructive. Baker [6], using the results on Linear forms in the logarithms of algebraic numbers which he developed for the theory of transcendental numbers, obtained an explicit upper bound for the magnitude of any integral point in terms of an upper bound for the absolute values of all coefficients. Sharper bounds have since been obtained, e.g. by Bugeaud [15]. (For modern proofs of Baker's theorem on the linear independence of logarithms of algebraic numbers, see Waldschmidt [59]. The history of Baker's method is described in Baker [7].) For information about the proof of Mordell's conjecture we refer to Bloc11 [12], Szpiro [53], and Cornell and Silverman 1191. The last includes an English translation of Faltings' original article. As mentioned in 09 of Chapter IV, Vojta (1991) has given a proof of the Mordell conjecture which is completely different from that of Faltings. There is an exposition of this proof, with simplifications due to Bombieri (1990), in Hindry and Silverman [32]. For congruent numbers, see Volume 11, Chapter XVI of Dickson [23], Tunnel1 [57], and Noda and Wada [43]. The sulvey articles of Goldfeld [30] and Oesterl6 [44] deal with Gauss's class number problem. References for easlier work on Feimat's last theorem were given in Chapter 111. Ribet [47] and Cornell et al. [20] provide some preparation for the original papers of Wiles [60] and Taylor and Wiles [56]. For the TW-conjecture, see also Darmon [22]. For Euler's conjecture, see Elkies [25].
8 Selected references [I] G.E. Andrews, A polynomial identity which implies the Rogers-Ramanujan identities, Scriyta Math. 28 (1970), 297-305. [2]
G.E. Andrews, The theory of partitions, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1976. [Paperback edition, Cambridge University Press, 19981
XIII. Connections with number theory
G.E. Andrews, R.A. Askey, B.C. Berndt, K.G. Ramanathan and R.A. Rankin (ed.), Ramanujan revisited, Academic Press, London, 1988.
G.E. Andrews, R. Askey and R. Roy, Special functions, Cambridge University Press, 1999. L. Baez-Duarte, Hardy-Ramanujan's asymptotic formula for partitions and the central limit theorem, Adv. in Math. 125 (1997), 114-120. A. Baker, The diophantine equation y2 = ax3 + bx* + cx + d, J. London Math. Soc. 43 (1968), 1-9. A. Baker, The theory of linear forms in logarithms, Transcendence theory: advances and applications (ed. A. Baker and D.W. Masser), pp. 1-27, Academic Press, London, 1977. R.J. Baxter, Exactly solved models in statistical mechanics, Academic Press, London, 1982. [Reprinted, 19891 A. Berkovich and B.M. McCoy, Rogers-Ramanujan identities: a century of progress from mathematics to physics, Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians: Berlin 1998, Vol. 111, pp. 163-172, Documenta Mathematica, Bielefeld, 1998. [lo] J.S. Birman, New points of view in knot theory, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 28 (1993), 253-287. [ l l ] S. Bloch, A note on height pairings, Tamagawa numbers, and the Birch and SwinnertonDyer conjecture, Invent. Math. 58 (1980), 65-76. [12] S. Bloch, The proof of the Mordell conjecture, Math. Intelligencer 6 (1984), no. 2, 4147. [13] D.M. Bressoud and D. Zeilberger, A short Rogers-Ramanujan bijection, Discrete Math. 38 (1982), 313-315. [14] D.M. Bressoud and D. Zeilberger, Bijecting Euler's partitions-recurrence, Amer. Math. Monthly 92 (1985), 54-55. [15] Y. Bugeaud, On the size of integer solutions of elliptic equations, Bull. Austral. Math. SOC.57 (1998), 199-206.
8. Selected references
669
[16] J.W.S. Cassels, Diophantine equations with special reference to elliptic curves, J. London Math. Soc. 41 (1966), 193-291. [17] J.S. Chahal, Manin's proof of the Hasse inequality revisited, Nieuw Arch. Wisk. (4) 13 (1995), 219-232. [l8] J. & m k , Birationale Transformationen (Ein historischer ~berblick),Period. Polytech. Mech. Engrg. 39 (1995), 9-24. [19] G. Cornell and J.H. Silverman (ed.), Arithmetic geometry, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986. [20] G. Cornell, J.H. Silverman and G. Stevens (ed.), Modular forms and Fermat's last theorem, Springer, New York, 1997. [21] J.E. Cremona, Algorithms for modular elliptic curves, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1997. [22] H. Darmon, A proof of the full Shimura-Taniyama-Weil conjecture is announced, Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 46 (1999), 1397-1401. [23]
L.E. Dickson, History of the theory of numbers, 3 vols., Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C., 1919-1923. [Reprinted Chelsea, New York, 19921
[24] L. Ehrenpreis and R.C. Gunning (ed.), Theta functions: Bowdoin 1987, Proc. Symp. Pure Math. 49, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., 1989. [25] N.D. Elkies, On A4
+ B4 + C4 = D4, Math. Comp. 51 (1988), 825-835.
[26] L.D. Faddeev and L.A. Takhtajan, Hanziltonian methods in soliton theory, SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1987. [27] A.S. Fokas and V.E. Zakharov (ed.), Important developments in soliton theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993. [28] S. Gelbart, Elliptic curves and automorphic representations, Adv. in Math. 21 (1976), 235-292. [29] S. Gelbart, An elementary introduction to the Langlands program, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 10 (1984), 177-219.
670
XIII. Connections with number theory
[30] D. Goldfeld, Gauss' class number problem for imaginary quadratic fields, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 13 (1985), 23-37. [31] E. Grosswald, Representations of integers as sums of squares, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1985. [32] M. Hindry and J.H. Silverman, Diophantine geometry, Springer, New York, 2000. [33] J.C. Jantzen, Lectures on quantum groups, American Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I.. 1996. [34] V.F.R. Jones, Subfactors and knots, CBMS Regional Conference Series in Mathematics 80, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., 1991. [35] V.G. Kac, Infinite-dimensional Lie algebras, 3rd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1990. [36] A.A. Kirillov, Jr., Lectures on affine Hecke algebras and Macdonald's conjectures, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 34 (1997), 251-292. [37] A.W. Knapp, Elliptic curves, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1992. [38] V.E. Korepin, N.M. Bogoliubov and A.G. Izergin, Quantum inverse scattering method and correlation functions, Cambridge University Press, 1993. [39] S. Lang, Introduction to modular forms, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, corr. reprint, 1995. [40] M. Laska, An algorithm for finding a minimal Weierstrass equation for an elliptic curve, Math. Comp. 38 (1982), 257-260. [41] J.H. van Lint and R.M. Wilson, A course in combinatorics, Cambridge University Press, 1992. [42] S.C. Milne, New infinite families of exact sums of squares formulas, Jacobi elliptic functions and Rarnanujan's tau function, Proc. Nut. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93 (1996), 1500415008. [43] K. Noda and H. Wada, All congruent numbers less than 10000, Proc. Japan Acad. Ser. A Math. Sci. 69 (1993), 175-178. 1441 J. OesterlC, Le problkme de Gauss sur le nombre de classes, Enseign. Math. 34 (1988), 43-67.
8. Selected references
[45] M. Okado, M. Jimbo and T. Miwa, Solvable lattice models in two dimensions and modular functions, Sugaku Exp. 2 (1989), 29-54. [46] H. Rademacher, Topics in analytic number theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973. [47] K.A. Ribet, Galois representations and modular forms, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 32 (1995), 375-402. [48] N. Schappacher, DCveloppement de la loi de groupe sur une cubique, Skminaire de The'orie des Nombres, Paris 1988-89 (ed. C. Goldstein), pp. 159-184, Birkhauser, Boston, 1990. [49] J.-P. Serre, A course in arithmetic, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1973. [50] J.H. Silverman, The arithmetic of elliptic curves, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986. [5 11 J.H. Silverman, Advanced topics in the arithmetic of elliptic curves, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994. [52] J.H. Silverman and J. Tate, Rational points on elliptic curves, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992. [53] L. Szpiro, La conjecture de Mordell [d1apr2sG. Faltings], Aste'risque 121-122 (1985), 83-103. [54] J.T. Tate, On the conjectures of Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer and a geometric analog, Skminaire Bourbaki: Vol. 194511966, Expose' no. 306, Benjamin, New York, 1966. [55] J.T. Tate, The arithmetic of elliptic curves, Invent. Math. 23 (1974), 179-206. [56] R.L. Taylor and A. Wiles, Ring theoretic properties of certain Hecke algebras, Ann. of Math. 141 (1995), 553-572. [57] J.B. Tunnell, A classical Diophantine problem and modular forms of weight 3/2, Invent. Math. 72 (1983), 323-334. [58] N. Ja. Vilenkin and A.V. Klimyk, Representation of Lie groups and special functions, 4 vols., Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1991-1995. [59] M. Waldschmidt, Diophantine approximation on linear algebraic groups, Springer, Berlin, 2000.
672
XIII. Connections with number theory
[60] A. Wiles, Modular elliptic curves and Fermat's last theorem, Ann. of Math. 141 (1995),
443-551.
Notations E , P , = , f , a , C , C
2
u, n, B\A, AC 3 A x B, An, aRb, R, 4 f: A -+ B , f(a), f ( A ) 4
-
37 L(I), L2(1) E
cpt(.%) lAl B,
38
39 40 41
i ~ ,g of, f 1 5 N, l ( ) 6 sn,(n), p&), a+b, a 4 8 < 9 , , 2, I 10 #(E) 12 - , + 13 0, - a , b - a , . 14 1, P 15 - P , P + P , P.P, a2 16 a < b 17 alb, ZX, - , Q 18 +;,apl 19 P , - P 20 9 , A < B 22 A + B , AB 23,24 R - 26 da, all2, bn, nda, alln 27 R, lim, a , - + / , n+c= 28 inf, sup, lim,? ,, limn,, 29 Lab], lal, d(a,b) 32 Ps(x), A, int A, IWn 33
sgn(a), d n , Ha GIH 67 an, 68 <S>, N,, G x G'
lal?lall?la127~2n?~(~>7~(~>,H,Hl?iflz 34
M,@)
IF2-, lim,,,~, an+a
36
=a
35
Dxcp 43 e 45,217 ef 45, 52 In x, log x 45
@ 46 i, Z 47 %z, 92, ( z / 48 cos z, sin z 53 n 54, 55,217,252,428, 585 W 56 n(A), t(A), A 57 i, j, k 59 V t , a , y > 60
Su2(~),S03(~),P3(~),SOq((W),S3,0 61 -
a , n ( a ) 62 e, ab, a-I 64 H K , Y , 65
70 9(X),A + B , AB na, a-l, RX 72
66
69 71
Notations
2
RIS
73 R O R ' , av, v + w Dn, % ( a , 0 75
74
% ' ( a , U l + U 2 , U I O U 2 , <S> dim V , [ E : F ] , el ,...,e, 77 Tv,TS 78 S + T, GL(V), Mn(F) 79 Mn(D) 80 82 IIvII 83 93 86 12, L2(1) *R 88
87
97
[a,Dl 98 a ~ O , a v b 99 ~
K[t] 102,112 K(t) 102, 306 "'C, 108,129
113
K [ t , t l ] 115 c(f) 117 R [ t17...7t,,] 118 @,(x) 119 f' 120 6(a) 121 ~ ( d d )0 , , 123 a = b mod nz, B(,,) 124
+,
NW794
139
h ( 4 , OW) 175 f*g 176 6(n), d, 177 i(n), j(n) 178 z(n), o(n) 179
100
Mn), f ( n > Mp 182
am, Ifl, R[tl, R[[tll
@,(x) 129, 130 f ( x ) 130 FPX 133
168
Ifl
1,...,a,), ~ ~ 2 [al,a2,...,a,]
qm)X, Fp, ( p b )
( a h ) , sgn (x,) 152 (alp> 156 G(m,n) 159 ~ ( d c l ) a', , N ( a ) 163 Od, O , %, 9 164 a , . . . , AB 169 A' 170
bla, b X a , x, ( a h )
(
76
127
180
y
183,443 F, 184 GL,(Z) 186 A OB 187,352 M1 n M2, M I Ak 197 la1 199 vYg> 201
+ M2
191
Notations
F X , Fx2, (u,v)
342
f - g , detV, u-', V11V2 343 ind V 347 ind' V, ind- V 348 T , 351 A O B 352 V = V', "Mr(F), ( ~ , b )355 ~ fcL, G,, Q ,, (ab),, (ah),, 356 .f& Ga,h 360 sFO,sPCf) 363 Q,,, I ,1 366 (a,b), 367 ( a , b I ~ ) 380
x(x), h(S) K,
385 386,408,443
llqll
387
389 d(A), II,int S, A*
392
B, 396 pi(K,A), A(K), K*
398
JxJ 400
C,
401
E7, E6
410
dbJ)? lkll, bJ), H,, G,, V(xo>, P,(xo) 401 V(A) 403 B,, m(A) 404 m ) , Yn 6(K),6,
407 408
e~,...,e,~, A,, Dr1, Eg, A,, 411
4
Notations
LSJ. Xa,p e(t)
(pa,&%
IS}, 1. ~ a , p ( N ) 520
521 522 Id, {x), m,x
524
DN* = D N * ( S ~ , . . . & ~v)c, ( ( N ) SN 534 D*(x..x) 3 537
536
A A B, o ( d ) , p(Bh (X,%,p) ax., jx f d p , L ( X , % , p ) , T-lB 3L 543
T , 544 RA 545 P1,...,Pr 548 [ a _ ,..., , a , ] 549 G' Bpl.....Pr~Ci:!,y;:k z3
B+Pl,...,pr* T
T I M 554 (X,d), A 558
531
551
550
538 538
Notations
g(x> 10 1 , gh(x) U, V
572 J , 573 574, 587 575,608
a,, bn, M(a,b) 579 ?C(a,b) 580, 581 %(a,b), en
581
%a,b,p), P,? q , 582 c, YC(a,c), cn 583 % ( a s > ,K ( V , E ( V
584 h ( ~ ) 641,642 (P,Q> 644 CA,D,D , E, N 646 E, El, Ef 651
A, b2, bqr b6, b8 652 % i f PNP, , cp, L ( s ) = L(s,O1V) 653 c,, N = N ( W ) ,fp, A ( s ) 654 I-, E ( W , Q ) , T o ( N ) 655 f(z>, g(z> 656 C, 659 A + ( ) A ) 661
662 WA.B 663 %A ,B
The Landau order symbols are defined in the following way: if I = [to,-) is a half-line and if J g : I + R are real-valued functions with g(tj > 0 for all t E I, we write
f = O(g) if there exists a constant C > 0 such that If(t)I/g(t)I C for all t E I; f = o(g) if f(t)/g(t) + 0 as t + -; f -g if f(t)/g(t) -+ 1 as t -+ w. The end o f a proof is denoted by
.
Axioms
Index abelian group 64,9 1,198,230,466,503,511,636-7 Lie algebra 5 11 absolute value 32,48-49, 245,305 addition 70 of integers 13-14 of natural numbers 7-8 of points of elliptic curve 636-637, 666 of rational numbers 18-19 addition theorem for elliptic functions 587, 604, 636 exponential function 44, 52-53, 89 theta functions 600 trigonometric functions 53, 605 adeles 5 1 4 , s15 affine
algebraic number theoly, texts 201 algebraic topology 88, 90, 45 1 algebraically closed field 89 almost all 538 evelywhere 538 periodic function 86, 92, 562 alternating group 66,266, 293,490-493 analysis real 32, 88 complex 55-56,89 quaternionic 89 analytic contin. 56,444,454,472,59 1,596,604 angle 55,242-243
anisotropic subspace 345, 348, 350, 354 approximation theorem for valuations 3 12 conic 629 archimedean absolute value 306, 309, 332 cubic 629 aschimedean property 26-27,3 1,88 line 629 arc length plane culve 628-631 in hyperbolic geometly 242 AGM algorithm 579-585, 589, 612-613,615 of ellipse 570 algebra, texts 90 of lemniscate 57 1 algebraic 248 argument of complex number 55 addition theorem 587,615 arithmetic function field 449-45 1,459 of elliptic curves, texts 666 integer 145, 163, 175 of quaternions 147, 621 number 20 1,248 progression 465,513, 557-8, 564 number field 175,201,447-448 arithmetical function 176-177, 20 1-202
8
Index
arithmetic-geomehic mean 579-585,589,612-5 Bernstein's theorem 458 Artin's Bel-trand's postulate 430 primitive root conjecture 145,448-449,451 Bessel's inequality 85-86 reciprocity law 20 1 best approximation associative 5, 70 in inner product space 85 algebra 79-80, 91 of real number 217,252 law 8,64, 97 beta integral 443 asymptote 629 Bkzout automorphism of domain 111-112, 118-119, 145, 193 group 68 identity 107-108, 127, 137, 141, 193 Hadamard matrix 293 Bieberbach's theorems 406, 420 quadratic field 163 bijection 5 ring 74 bijective map 5, 11- 12 torus 545 binary W,0 89,90 digit (bit) 298 automorphism group of linear code 297 code 297 operation 63,70 Hadamard matrix 293 quadratic f o m 238-241, 253 t-design 292 relation 4 badly approx. no. 221-2,226,252,535,562 Bake's category theorem 561 Baker's theorem 667 baker's transformation 555 balanced incomplete block design 288 Banach algebra 503 basis of lattice 391-392 module 188, 194, 202-203 vector space 77 Bateman-Horn conjecture 456-457,459 Beal's conjecture 664 Bernoulli number 176 Bernoulli shift, one-sided 551,555-556 Bernoulli shift, two-sided 550, 555-556
binomial coefficient 108, 110, 129 theorem 129, 135, 615 birational equivalence 251,638-639,657,666 transformation 25 1, 638 Birkhoff's ergodic theorem 539, 548, 552, 563 recu-sence theorem 558 Blaschke's selection princ. 414,417-418,421 Blichfeldt's theorem 393 block 288,292 Bohl's theorem 521, 523, 530 Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem 30,49 Boolean algebra 87 Boolean ring 7 1
Index
Bore1 subset 543, 545, 552, 553 bounded sequence 28-3 1 set 36 variation 533-534,562 bracket product 5 10 Brahmagupta's identity 228, 356 Brauer group 380 Brauer's theorem 493 Brouwer's fixed point theorem 88 Bruck-Ryser-Chowla theorem 291,376,38 1 Brun's theorem 455, 459 BSD conjecture 652,655,661, 666 Burnside's theorem 495 calendars 138,217-218 cancellation law 8, 88,97, 170-171 canonical height 642-646 Cantor's construction of seals 22, 31, 314 CarathCodory extension of measure 549 Cardano's formula 46, 88 cardinality 12 Carmichael number 135-136, 146 Cartesian product 4 cascade 537 Casimir operator 5 14 Catalan number 108 Cauchy-Schwarz inequality 34, 83 Cauchy sequence 30,36 Cauchy's theorem 55, 6 11 Cayley-Hamilton theorem 58 Cayley number 61 centralizer 69 central limit theorem 88,455,459, 563 centre 57,61,79-82
9
chain condition 105, 111-112, 115, 118, 172 chain rule 39-40 characteristic function 385,521 of ring 72-73, 129 character of abelian group 466,503 representation 480,506 chasacter theoiy, texts 513 Chebyshev's functions 43 1-434,436,466 Chevalley-Waming theorem 134,146 Chinese remainder th. 136-138,146,312,369 chord and tangent process 635 circle method 143,455, 624, 628 class field theory 146,380 function 481,484, 506 number 175,241,253-4, 661,667 classical mechanics 497,537,553, 563 classification of finite simple groups 1145,293, 301 simple Lie algebras 5 12, 5 14 Clebsch-Gordan formula 507 Clifford algebra 90, 380 closed ball 41,404,408 set 33, 51 closure 33, 237, 395, 558 codes 297-298,451 codeword 298 coding theory, texts 301,459 coefficients 76, 113 combinatorial line 56 1 common divisor 97 common multiple 98
commutative group 64, 70, 91, 127 law 8, 64, 97 ring 70, 88 compact abelian group 556 group 506,512 metric space 558 set 33,50, 333,334-335; 501 complement of set 3-4,71 complete elliptic integral 572, 580-585,594,615 metric space 36-38, 87,316 ordered field 27-28, 3 1 quotient 212, 214, 247, 552 completed zeta function 444 completion of metric space 37-38 valued field 316 complex analysis 55, 89 conjugate 47 integration 55, 89 multiplication 615, 657, 661 number 45-56, 80 composite mapping 5 composite number 103,144 composition of solutions 228,230-232 conductor of elliptic curve 654 conformal equivalence 253 congruence of integers 124-138 of symmetric matrices 343 subgroup 244 congruent 124
congruent numbers 657-661,667 conic 629, 630 conjugacy class 69, 146,484 conjugate character 488 complex number 47 element of quadratic field 163 group elements 69,484 ideal 170 octonion 62 quadratic irrational 223, 243-244 quaternion 57 representation 488 connected set 33,51 constant 449 coefficient 113 sequence 28,3 15 contains 2 continued fraction algorithm 209,212,246,252 expansion of Laurent series 246-247,254 expansion of real number 205)-213,215 map 551 continued fractions in higher dimensions 252 continued fractions, texts 252 continuous function (map) 32, 33-35,50, 75 continuously differentiable 40-43,76,78 contraction principle 38-39,41, 88, 332 contragedient representation 477 convergence in measure 35 of compact sets 414 of lattices 412-418 convergent of Lawent series 247 convergent of real number 212,216-219,552
Index
convergent sequence 28-3 1,35-39,314 convex set 385,400 convolution product 176,502 Conway's groups 4 11-412 coordinate 4,47, 55 coprime 99 coset 66-67,73-74, 125 representative 66, 90 right, left 66, 67 countably infinite 12 covering 395, 396,421 critical determinant 398,408,419 lattice 398,418-419 cross-polytope 398 cross-ratio 576 crystal 406,420 crystallographic group 406-407,420 crystallography 420 cube 398 cubic curve 629-639 polynomial 46, 88 cusp 634,635,653,654 form 655 cut 22-26 cyclic group 68,72,129,l33,135,293,490 cyclotomic field 175 polynomial 119-120, 129-130, 158,494 cylinder set, general 550 special 549 decimal expansion 21,125,535,548,585
decomposable lattice 409 Dedekind constsuction of reals 22-26, 87 eta function 628 zeta function 447-448, 458, 475, 655 Dedekind-Peano axioms 6,87 deduced representation 487 degree of affine curve 629 algebraic number 248 extension field 77 polynomial 113 representation 476,48 1 De Morgan's laws 4 dense 20-21,321,519 sequence 520,524 subset of metric space 36,315 densest lattice 408,411,421 packing 421 density of lattice packing 408 derivative 39-44,78 designs 288-293,296-298, 300-301 determinant 61, 21 1, 262-268, 299 of lattice 392,407, 418 of quadratic space 343 diagonal inatsix 263 diagonalization of quadratic form 278-9, 344 difference of sets 3 differentiablemap 39-44, 50, 88 differential fosm 299 dimension of vector space 77-78 Diophantine approximation 216,247,252,254,387,419 equation 185,227,251,255
12
Index
direct product of groups 61,69,137,467,497 division direct sum of algebra 63,90 rings 74, 137 algorithm 17-18, 105-106, 115 vector spaces 76 ring 72-82, 88, 145, 146 Dirichlet divisor 97; 449 character 469-470, 656 of zero 16, 72 domain 401 doubly-periodic function 590-593,604,616 L-function 470-47 1,473-475,513 dual product 176-179, 201-202,452-453 convex body 398-399 series 452-453,654 group 467, 504,513 Dirichlet's lattice 392,399, 616 class number formula 253 2-design 290 convergence criterion 164 duality theorem 504 Dirichlet's theorem on dynamical system 35,452, 459, 519 Diophantine approximation 387 Dynkin diagram 421 primes in a.p. 253, 366, 370, 466, 513 units in number fields 203 e 45,217 discrepancy 53 1-536,562 discrete absolute value 321-322 group 236,388 set 40 1 subgroup 388,564 discriminant of binary quadratic form 238-241 elliptic cuive 633, 652, 662, 663 lattice 392 quadratic irrational 222 disjoint sets 3 distance 22, 32-35 distributive lattice 99 law 9, 57,70, 99 divisibility tests 125 divisible 97, 102, 169
echelon form 189 eigenvalue 279,300,498 eigenvector 279 Eisenstein integer 164- 166 irreducibility criterion 119-120, 145 element 2 elementaly group 493 ellipse 276-277,569-570 ellipsoid, surface area of 57 1-572 elliptic curves 635-657,664,666,667 functions 585-593,602-607, 613-617 elliptic integral 572-578,613-6 15 of first kind 574, 581, 590-593, 614 of second kind 574,581,593-4,607-8,614 of third kind 574, 582, 593-4, 607-8, 614 empty set 2,71
Index
endomorphism of torus 545,555 energy surface 537, 553 entropy 555-556 equal 2 equivalence class 4 equivalence of absolute values 310 complex numbers 214-5,221-2,234,244 fundamental sequences 3 1,37 Hadamard matsices 293 ideals 175 matrices 197
Euler's parametrization of rotations 59-61 pentagonal number theorem 625, 664 phi-fn. 127,130,133,178-181,453,465,469 prime number theorem 427-428 product formula 435,444,471 theorem on homogeneous functions 630 even lattice 410,411 permutation 65-66, 152, 262, 266 eventually periodic 21, 323 continued fraction 224, 226
quadratic forms 343,371,380 exceptional simple Lie algebra 5 12, 5 14 representations 477,483 existence theorem for 0.d.e. 43-44, 88, 586 equivalence relation 4,13,3 1,66-67,124,214 exponential Erdos-Tman inequality 534,562 ergodic 537
function 44-45, 52-55 series 45, 52
hypothesis 537,542 measure-pres. transf. 542, 544-5, 550-2
sums 451-452,562 extended Riemann hypothesis 448,458,475
theorems 539,563 ergodic theory, texts 563 enor-conecting code 34,298,301 Euclidean algorithm 107,114,121,127,141,212,640 distance 34, 84,401 domain 121-123,139-140,145,164,197 metric 401 norm 268,273,401 prime number theorem 156,427 Euler's angles 509 conjecture 663-664,667
extension of absolute value 3 19, 330-1, 338 extension of field 52,77, 330-331,336,449 extesior algebra 299 extreme point 275
constant 183,443 criterion for quad. res. 131-132, 158, 183 formulas for cos z and sin z 53, 89
face 402,403 facet 403,405 vector 404-406 factor 97, 169 goup 67-69 factorial domain 105,118,144,175,177,202 factorization 144-145 Faltings' theorem 251, 657, 667 Fano plane 289,291 Fermat equation 165-166, 175, 659, 662 Felmat number 184-185,202
Fermat prime 184-185 free submodule 198 Fermat's Fresnel integral 161 last th. l65,175,20 1,657,659,66163,667 Frobenius little theorem 129-131, 135, 182 complement 497 Fibonacci numbers 111 conjecture 145 field 27, 47, 72-74, 127, 146 group 496-497,5 14 of fractions 102, 116-117 kernel 497 field theory, texts 91 reciprocity theorem 487 finite theorem on division rings 80-82 dimensional 77,79 Fuchsian group 253 field 127,146,271,337,349,450-1,652-4 function 5; 449 field extension 52,77, 330-331, 336,449 function fields 449-45 1, 459 group 65 and coding theory 451,459 set 12 functional equation of finitely generated 73,86,111,193,198,203,639 L-functions 475. 654 Fischer's inequality 279, 283 zeta functions 443,448, 450, 514 fixed point 38,41,43 fundamental theorems 38, 88 domain 236-238,392,406,575 flex 631,632-633,637-638 sequence 30-31, 36-39, 314, 319 flow 537,554,556 solution 230-233 f0lmal fundamental theorem of derivative 120, 130, 324 algebra 49-52, 80, 89, 115, 480 Laurent series 245,254,307,316,337,419 arithmetic 103-105, 144, 168 Furstenberg's theorems 557-560, 564 power series 113, 145, 321, 335 Furstenberg-Katznelson theorem 557 Fourier Furstenberg-Weiss theorem 558 integrals 504-505, 5 14 inversion formula 504 series 92, 160, 441, 505, 514, 522 Galois theory 9 1, 184 transform 438, 441, 504 gamma function 442-443, 458, 654, 656 fraction 18 Gauss class number problem 254,661,667 fractional part 520, 55 1 free invariant measure 552 action 253 map 551-553,556,563 sum 158, 159-162,200 product 236 Gaussian integer 139-140, 164, 168,622 subgroup 199,651
Index
Gaussian unitary ensemble 446-447 Gauss-Kuz'min theorem 552, 563 GCD domain 102, 104-105, 114, 116-118 gear ratios 218 Gelfand-Raikov theorem 503 general linear group 79,293,509 generalized character 496 trigonometric polynomial 86,530 upper half-plane 254 generated by 68,73,76,106,133,186,389,538 generating function 624, 664 generator matrix 297 of cyclic group 133 genus of algebraic curve 251,459, 639 field of algebraic functions 450,45 1 geodesic 242-244,254,452,459,554 flow 452,459, 554, 556 geometric representation of complex numbers 47, 55 series 40 geometry of numbers, texts 419 Golay code 297-298 golden ratio 209 Good-Churchl~ouseconjectures 455,459 good lattice point 536 graph 35 Grassmann algebra 299 greatest common divisor 97- 102, 104-108 common left divisor 192-193 common right divisor 141 lower bound 22,26,29
group 63-69, 127 generated by reflections 420, 5 13, 5 14 law on cubic curve 636-637,646,666 group theory, texts 90 Haar integral 501-502,5 14 measure 420,502, 546 Hadamard design 291 determinant problem 261,284-288,291,300 inequality 268-269 matrix 261, 269-272, 291-299, 376, 41 1 Hales-Jewett theorem 561-562, 564 Hall's theorem on solvable groups 496, 514 Hamiltonian system 553, 556 Hamming distance 34,297 Hardy-Ramanujan expansion 628,666 Hasse invariant 363,365, 380 principle, strong and weak 37 1-372, 38 1 Hasse-Minkowski theorem 366-370, 380 Hasse-Weil (HW) conjecture 654 Hausdorff distance 413-414 maximality theorem 559 metric 413-414,417-418 heat conduction equation 596 height of a point 639-642 Hensel's lemma 324-5, 327-9, 338 Hermite constant 407-408, 41 l , 4 2 1 normal form 202,391 highest coefficient 113 Hilbert field 359-365, 380
Hilbert space 87, 91-92, 502 Hilbert symbol 355-360, 367,380 Hilbert's problems, 5th 509-510,514 9th 200-201 10th 253 17th 379,381 18th 406,420,421 H-matrix 269-270,284,286 holomorphic function 56, 145, 436, 440, 588 homogeneous linear equations 79, 191 homomorphism of groups 60, 61,67-68,648 Lie algebras 511 Lie groups 5 11 rings 73-74, 116, 129 vector spaces 78 Homer's rule 115 Hunvitz integer 140-141, 147, 621 hyperbolic area 242-243 geometry 241-243,254 length 242 plane 349,350,354 hypercomplex number 89 hypergeometric function 615 hypeneal number 88 ideal 73-74, 106, 168 class group 175 in quadratic field 169-175,241 of Lie algebra 5 11 identity element 9, 14, 64-65, 70,75, 97 map 5
Ikehara's theorem 437-440,448,452,454,474 image 4 imaginary part 47 quadratic field 163 incidence matrix 288-291 included 2 indecomposable lattice 409-410 indefinite quadratic fosm 238 indeterminate 112 index of quadratic space 347, 348 subgroup 67, 69,486,491-492, 649 indicator function 385,419, 521, 541 individual ergodic theorem 539 induced representation 486-490, 493 induction 10 infimum 22,26 infinite order 69 inflection point 631 inhomogeneous Lorentz group 5 13 injection 5 injective map 5 , 11-12, 78 inner product space 82-87, 91,479, 502 integer 12-18,21 of quadratic field 163-164 integrable 538 in sense of Lebesgue 38, 87, 505 in sense of Riemann 385,419,521-522 integral divisor 449 domain 72, 102, 112-113 equations 86, 92,261 lattice 410,616 representation for r-function 443,656
Index
interior 33, 392, 395, 402 intersection of modules 191- 192 of sets 3-4, 71 of subspaces 76 interval 32, 34,75 invariant factor 197 mean 506 region 553 subgroup 67 subset 558 subspace 477 inverse 14, 19, 64, 72, 177 class 484 element 64-65,72,637, 666 function theorem 40-42, 88 map 5 inversion of elliptic integral 590,593 of order 65-66, 152-153 invertible element of ring 72 matrix of integers 186 measure-pres. transf. 538,554-555 involutory automorphism 48, 163 isrational number 26,209, 520,523 irrationality of d2 21, 116-117 imducible character 48 1,506 curve 631-633 element 104-105, 168 ideal 171 polynomial 115, 119, 129-130 representation 478-485,503,506
irredundant representation 403 isometric metric spaces 36-37 quadratic spaces 35 1 isometry 36, 87, 242, 351-353,406, 498 isomorphism 6, 17, 21, 28 of groups 68 of measure-preserving transformations 555 of sings 74 of vector spaces 79 isotsopic subspace 345 vector 345 Jacobi symbol 152-157, 162,200 Jacobian elliptic functions 602-607 Jacobi's imaginary transformation 44 l-442,596 triple product form. 594,614,625,627,665 join 3 Jordan-Holder theorem 144 Kepler conjecture 421 kernel of group homomorphism 6 1, 68 linear map 78 representation 494 ring homomo~phism 73-74 Kervaire-Milnor theorem 90 Kingman's ergodic theorem 563 kissing number 412,421 K-point, affine 629 projective 630,635 Kronecker approximation theorem 524, 562
18
Index
Kronecker delta 482 field extension theorem 52
Lebesgue measure 38,385,537,543-545,552 Leech lattice 41 1-412,421 Lefschetz fixed point theorem 88
on order of subgroup 67, 129, 133 Landau order symbols 225,429,s Landau's theorem 472 Landen's transformation 606, 613-4,647-8 Langlands program 20 1,666 Laplace transform 437,458,472 lattice 99, 144; 164, 391-392,409 in locally compact group 564 packing 408,421 packing of balls 408,411, 421
left B&zoutidentity 141 coprime matrices 193 coset 67 divisor 192 Legendre interchange property 593 normal form 575 polynomials 86 relation 584 symbol 156, 158, 173, 271,357 theorem on ternary quadratic forms 366-367 lemniscate 571, 585, 614, 615 less than 9
point 386, 391 translates 395-396 Laurent polynomial 115,251 series 56, 245, 307, 419, 436 law of iterated logarithm 455,459,563 Pythagoras 21, 84-85, 126 quad. rec. 151,156-9,162,175,20O-l,367 trichotomy 9-10, 15,25 least common multiple 98-102, 104 common right multiple 192 element 10 non-negative residue 124, 134 upper bound 22-23,26,29 least upper bound property (P4) 23,26, 31 Lebesgue measurable 38,87
L-function 470, 513,653-657, 661 Lie algebra 510-514 group 509-514 subalgebra 5 10 subgroup 51 1 limit 28, 35, 314 linear algebra, texts 91 linear code 297,45 1 combination 76 differential system 199 Diophantine equation 106, 185-6, 190-1 fractional transfn. 209,242,576,609,613 map 78 systems theoly 203 transformation 78 linearly dependent 76-77
product 270, 272,291, 298,477 Lagrange's theorem on four squares 140-142,253,621-622
Index
linearly independent 76-77 Linnik's theorem 476 Liouville's integration theory 6 14 theorem in complex analysis 89, 594 theorem in mechanics 553 Lipschitz condition 533 Littlewood's theorem 446,458 LLL-algorithm 419 L2-norm 84 local-global principle 37 l-372,381 locally compact 33 group 420, 501-505, 514-515, 564 topological space 501 valued field 334-337 locally Euclidean topological space 510 logarithm 45,428 lower bound 17,22,26 limit 29 triangular matrix 268 Lucas-Lehmer test 182-183,202 Mahler's compactness theorem 418,421 map 5 mapping 4-5 Markov spectrum 244-245,254 triple 244-245 marriage theorem 91 Maschke's theorem 478,499 Mathieu groups 293, 297,298 'matrix' 187, 193 matrix theory, texts 91, 300 maximal ideal 74, 171 , 315,320
maximal totally isotropic subspace 346 Mazur's theorem 65 1 mean motion 530,562 measurable function 35,538 measure-pres. transf. 538-543, 550-557 measure theory, texts 563 measure zero 35,554 meet 3 Mellin transform 655 Meray-Cantor construction of seals 22, 3 1 Merkur'ev's theorem 380 meromorphic fn. 56, 307, 588, 615-616 Mersenne prime 182-183,202 Mertens' theorem 428 method of successive approx. 38, 43,45 metric space 33-39, 84,297,313 Meyer's theorem 366, 370 minimal basis 200 model 652,663,666 vector 404,406 minimum of a lattice 404,406,407,418 Minkowski's theorem on discriminants 388,419 lattice points 386-388, 397,420 linear forms 386 successive minima 398-400, 41 9 minor 197 mixing transformation 552 Mobius function 180,453-455,459 inversion formula 180,202 modular elliptic curve 655-657, 66 1,667 form 301,624, 655-6, 661, 666
modular function 608-613, 616 group 235-238,609 transformation 234 module 186, 193, 194, 198,202-203 modulo nz 124 monic polynomial 113, 175,201, 307 monotonic sequence 29-31 Monster sporadic group 301 Montgomery's conjecture 446-447,458 Mordell conjecture 249,251,657,667 Mordell's theorem 203,639,646-651 multiple 97 multiplication 70 by a scalar 74 of integers 14-15 of natural numbers 8-9 of rational numbers 19 multiplicative function 178-179,202 group 72, 133, 146, 342 inverse 19 Nagell-Lutz theorem 65 1,660 natural logarithm 45,428 number 5-12, 17 nearest neighbour conjecture 447 negative definite quadratic space 347 index 348 integer 16 neighbourhood 39 Nevanlinna theo~y 249,254 Newton's method 324, 338
node 634,635, 653, 654 non-archimedean abs. value 306,308,318-322 non-associative 62-63,90 nondecreasing sequence 29-30 nondegenerate lattice 391 non-Euclidean geometry 241-243,254 line 241-242 triangle 243,610 nonincreasing sequence 29-30 non-negative linear functional 50 1 nonsingular cubic curve 635 linear transfolmation 78 matrix 265 point 629, 630 projective curve 450 projective variety 45 1 quadratic subspace 343 nolm of complex number 139 continuous function 34 element of quadratic field 123, 163 ideal 447 integral divisor 450 linear map 40 n-tuple 33-34 octonion 62-63 prime divisor 450 quaternion 57-61, 141 vector 83, 3 17,400 nolmal form for cubic curve 632-633, 637-638 frequencies 498 modes of oscillation 498
normal number 546,548,563 subgroup 67-68, 91,488,495 vector 546-548,563 norm-Euclidean domain 123 nosmed vector space 317, 335,400 n-th root of complex number 51,55,89 positive real number 27 n-tuple 4, 33, 75 nullity of linear map 79 nullspace of linear map 78 numbers 1, 87 number theory, texts 144 numerical integration 533,536,562
ordinay differential equations 43-4,88,586-8 orientation 263,407 Ornstein's theorem 555 orthogonal basis 86, 344, 394 orthogonal complement 343 group 509 matrix 60,277 set 85 sum 343,409 vectors 84-85, 343 orthogonality relations 469,482-483,485,506 orthonormal set 85-86 Oseledets ergodic theorem 563 Ostrowski's theorems 31 1, 332, 338, 366
octave 61 packing 395, 396,421 octonion 61-63, 90, 512 p-adic odd permutation 65-66, 152,262,266 absolute value 306 one (1) 6, 70 integer 321, 323, 335 one-to-one 5 number 22,316,321,323,336,356,366,505 correspondence 5 pair coi-relation conjecture 446,458 open Paley's construction 27 1-272, 297, 41 1 ball 33, 39, 401 parallelogram law 84, 9 1, 642, 645 set 33,50-51 parallelotope 268, 392 operations research 91 parametrization 59, 251-252,255, 635, 639 Oppenheim's conjecture 379,38 1 Pxseval's equality 86-87, 394-395 order in natural numbers 9 partial order of fractions 573 element 69, 132 order 99 group 65, 127 quotient 212, 221, 247, 552 Hadamasd matrix 269 partition of pole 56 positive integer 624-628 projective plane 289 set 4, 67 ordered field 27,30,47,88,91,326,347-8,361 partition theory, texts 664
Pascal triangle 110 path-connected set 5 1, 507, 511 Peano axioms 6,87 Pel1 equation 167, 228-234,252-253 for polynomials 248,254 pendulum, period of 570 PCpin's test 185
polynomial part 246 ring 102, 121 polytope 403, 420 Pontryagin-van Kampen theorem 504 positive index 348
percolation processes 563 integer 15-17 perfect number 181-183,202 measure 502 period of continued fraction 224-5,229-230 rational number 20-2 1 periodicity of real number 22, 26 continued fraction 224-225, 243,252 semi-definite matrix 274, 279 elliptic functions 590-593,604,616 positive definite exponential function 53-54 matrix 274, 279 permutation 65, 152,266 quadratic form 238 perpendicular 84 quadratic space 347 Per-ron-Frobenius theorem 553 rational function 379 Pfister's multiplicative forms 379 power series 45, 52-55 pi ( K ) 54-55,217, 252,428, 585 psi~nalitytesting 144-145 Picard's theorem 6 16 prime pigeonhole principle 12,65 divisor 449 Plancherel theorem 504 element 104-105, 168 Poincark ideal 171-174,447-448 model 241-242,254 ideal theorem 448,457,458 recurrence theorem 556 number 103-104 point 288, 292, 629, 630 prime no. th. 429-43 1,433-440,454,457-9 at infinity 630, 633 for arithmetic progressions 457,466,469-475 pointwise ergodic theorem 539 primitive Poisson summation 161,441,458,504,616 Dirichlet character 475 polar polynomial 117 coordinates 55,571 quadratic form 240 lattice 392 root 133-135, 145, 448-449 pole of order n 56 root of unity 129-130, 133 poles of elliptic functions 603 principal axes transformation 278,299-300 polynomial 112-121 ~rincioa1character 467
principal ideal 106, 169 properly isomorphic 407 domain 108,111-112,114,121,123,194-198 public-key cryptography 145 principle of the argument 610-611 probability measure 538 space 538 theory 35, 88,455,459, 666 problem, 3x + 1 563 problem of moments 255 product formula for theta functions 596-597 formula for valuations 3 12 measure 549 of ideals 169 of integers 14 of linear maps 79 of natural numbers 8 of rational numbers 19 of representations 477 of sets 4 projective completion 630,632 conic 630 cubic 630 equivalence 63 1, 632 line 630 plane 289,291, 376, 381 plane curve 629 space 61 proper divisor 104 subset 2 properly equivalent compIex numbers 214-215,234 quadratic forms 239
Puiseux expansion 5 1 Pure imaginary complex number 47 quaternion 58-59 Pythagoras' theorem (or law) 21, 84-85, 126 Pythagorean triple 126,252 q-binomial coefficient 110, 664-665 q-difference equation 626 q-hypergeometric series 665 q-integral 664 quadratic field 123, 145, 163-175, 201, 241, 253 form 238-241,342, 644 irrational 222-226,240,243-244, 248, 615 nature 151, 156 non-residue 131-2, 142, 151, 1556,448 polynomial 49,329 residue 131-132, 142, 151, 155-156, 326 space 342-355,380 quadratic spaces, texts 379-380 quantum group 665 quartic polynomial 88 quasic~ystal 420 quasiperiodic tiling 420 quaternion 56-62, 80-81, 89, 140-142, 621 quaternionic analysis 89 QuillenSuslin theorem 202-203 quotient 18,21, 105 group 67 ring 73-74, 125,447 space 243,244,253
Index
RAdstrom's cancellation law 414,421 Ramanujan's tau-function 452,459 random matrices 446-447,458,563 range of linear map 78 rank of elliptic curve 651-652,655 linear map 79 rational function 102, 247, 306, 449 number 18-21,212, 323 transfoimation 638 real analysis 32, 88 number 26-32 part 47 quadratic field 163 reciprocal lattice 392 reciprocity for Gauss sums 160 recunence for number of partitions 625 recursion theorem 6-7 reduced automorphism group 294 lattice basis 419 quadratic foim 240 quadratic issational 223-226 reducible c u v e 631 polynomial 329 representation 478 reducibility criterion 329 Reed-Muller code 298 refinement theorems 101, 144 reflection 61, 351-352 reflexive relation 4 regular prime 175-176
regular reprn. 476-477, 483, 503, 506 relatively dense set 402 prime 99,193 relevant vector 404 remainder 105 theorem 116 replacement law 124 representation of compact group 506 finite group 476-480, 506, 513 group 476,513, 514 locally compact group 503 representative of coset 66,90 residue field 322 representatives, distinct 91 represented by quadratic foim 344-346 residue 56, 435,453 class 124,466 field 320-322,449 resolution of singularities 638-639 restriction of map 5 Ribet's theorem 663 Riemann integrable 385,419, 521-522, 524 normal form 574-578, 586, 636 surface 253 zeta fn. 430,434-437,443-447,453-454,458 Riemann hypothesis 444-446,454-455,459 for algebraic varieties 450-451,459 for elliptic curves 653, 657,666-667 for function fields 450-45 1,459, 667 Riemannian manifold 452, 554, 556 Riemann-Lebesgue lemma 439
Index
Riemann-Roch theorem 400,420,450 Riesz representation theorem 502 Riesz-Fischer theorem 87 right coset 66-69 multiple 192 vector space 79 ring 70-74,79, 113, 124 ring theory, texts 91 Rogers-Ramanujan identities 626-628,665 root 116-117,255, 324 lattice 410-41 1,421
set of representatives 322, 337 shift map 550, 551, 561 Siegel's formula 394-395 lemma 399,419 modular group 254
theorem on Diophantine eqns. 25 1,255,667 sigma algebra 502,537-538 sign of a permutation 66, 152, 266 signed permutation matrix 282,286-287,293 simple associative algebra 80 Roth's theorem on alg. nos. 143,248-251,254 basis 410-411 ruler and compass constructions 184,202 group 67,293,301,495 Lie algebra 5 11-514 scalar 75 Lie group 90,293 schemes 666 pole 56, 435,436, 448,452, 453 Schmidt's orthog. process 85-86, 268 ring 73 Schmidt's simply-connected 6 1, 506 discrepancy theorem 535,563 covering space 61, 5 12 subspace theorem 249,254 Lie group 510,5 12 Schreier's refinement theorem 144 simultaneous diagonalization 279,280,498 Schur's lemma 479-480 singular matrix 265, 267 Schwarz's inequality 34, 83, 273, 436, 525 small self-dual lattice 392, 394, 399 divisor problems 255 semidirect product 496 oscillations 300, L semigroup 88 Smith normal form semi-simple sojourn time 541 Lie algebra 5 11 , 514 solvable Liegroup 512,514 by radicals 46, 91 semi-stable elliptic curve 654, 657,663 group 495,496 Sene's Lie algebra 514 conjecture 202-203 &-conjecture 663 set 2-5, 71
spanned by 76 special 61 linear group 235,267
special orthogonal group 61,508-509,512 unitary group 61,506-509,512 spectrometry 276,299 spherical trigonometry 616 sporadic simple group 293,301,412 square 16 class 342, 343, 646-647 design 290-291,300, 376 square-free element 105 integer 105, 163 polynomial 120-121, 130 square-norm 40 1,404 square root of complex number 45,49 positive real number 27,29 square 2-design 290-291, 300, 376 star discrepancy 53 1,536 Steiner system 292 step-function 521 Stieltjes integral 255,432,436-437,458 Stirling's formula 386, 443 Stone's representation theorem 7 1, 87 Stone-Weierstsass theorem 562 strictly proper part 246 strong Hasse principle 371-372 triangle inequality 35,38,306 shucture theorem for abelian groups 198-199,203 for modules 198-199 subadditive ergodic theorem 563 subgroup 65 subset 2,71
subspace 75-78 successive approximations 38,43 minima 398,419 successor 6 sum of linear maps 79 modules 191 natural numbers 8 points of elliptic curve 636-637, 666 representations 478 subspaces 76 sums of squares: 63, 90, 147,624, 664 two 125,139-140,232-3,253,287-8,622-4 three 125, 140, 372-373 four 59, 140-142,253, 621-622 for polynomials 377-379,38 1 for rational functions 379, 38 1 supplements to law of quad. rec. 156, 367 supremum 22,26 suiface area of ellipsoid 57 1-572 of negative curvature 452,459, 554, 556 surjection 5 surjective map 5, 11-12,78 Sylvester's law of inertia 348 symmetric difference 71, 538 group 65-66,266,490-493 matrix 278, 342-345, 352 relation 4 Riemannian space 254 set 386,400 symmetric 2-design 290 symmetry group 406,498
symmetry operation 498 symplectic matsix 254,509 systems of distinct representatives 91 Szemeredi's theorem 557-558 tangent space 510,554 to affine curve 629 to projective cuive 630 taxicab number 136 Taylor series 56,437,472 t-design 292-293,296-298 theta fn. 442,595-601,607-8,612-3,621-4 of lattice 616-617 tiling 238,392,395,402,404,406,420,575 topological entropy 452 field 314 group 501,509-510, 514 topology 33, 313 torsion group of elliptic curve 65 1, 660 subgroup 69, 199 submodule 198 torsion-free 406,420 torus, n-dimensional 509, 543-545 total order 9, 22,28 variation 533-534,562 totally isotropic subspace 345-347,350 totient function 128 trace of matrix 480 quaternion 57-58 transcendental element 449
transcendental number 20 1,661,667 transfoimation formulas for elliptic functions 588-589,605-606,616 for theta functions 441-442, 596, 598 wan sitive law 9 relation 4 translation 406 of torus 544,555 transpose of a matsix 265,267 triangle inequality 33, 306 triangular matrix 268 trichotomy law 9-10 higonometric functions 53-55, 89 polynomial 86, 522-523, 562 trivial absolute value 306, 3 19 character 467 representation 476 sing 71
TW conjecture 656-657, 66 1, 663,667 twin prime 455-457,459 twisted L-function 656 2-design 288-292,300 type (A) Hilbert field 361-363 type (B) Hilbert field 361-363,365 ultrametric inequality 306, 3 18, 324 uniformly distributed mod 1 520-530 uniform distribution, texts 562 uniforrnization theorem 253 union of sets 3-4,71 unique factorization domain 105 unit 72, 102, 127, 167-168, 177
unit circle 54-55 unit tangent bundle 554 unimy group 509,5 12 matrix 61,506 representation 479,503,506 symplectic group 509,512 universal quadratic form 345, 348 upper bound 22-23,26 density 557 half-plane 234,241-243,595,608,612 limit 29 triangular matrix 268 valuation ideal 320-322 ring 102, 320-322 valuation theory, texts 338 value 4 group 306-307,319,322 valued field 305-309 van der Corput's difference theorem 526, 529 sequence 535-536 van der Waerden's theorem 558, 561, 564 vector 75 space 74-82 vertex of polytope 403 volume 385 von Mangoldt function 434-435 Voronoi cell 401-406,410,421 of lattice 403-406,414-418,421 Voronoi diagram 420
Waling's problem 142-144, 147 weak Hasse principle 371-372 Wedderburn's theorem on finite division rings 146 simple algebras 80 Weierstrass approxn. theorem 86, 522, 562 weighing 273-276, 299 matrix 273,275,299 weight of a vector 297-298 Weil conjectures 450-452,459 Weyl's criterion 522-523 Wiener's Tauberian theorem 43 1,457-458 Wiles' theorem 657, 663, 667 Williamson type 272 Wilson's theorem 130-131 Witt cancellation theorem 352-353, 355, 371 chain equivalence theorem 363-364 equivalence 355 extension theorem 352-354 ring 355,379,380 zero 14,70 zeros of elliptic functions 603 zeta function 430,434-437,443-447,458 generalizations 452,459 of function field 450 of number field 447-448,458,475
